,,pax ,,mundi4            ,,pax ,,mundi 
,a ,,concise ,,account ,,of ,,the       
,,progress ,,of    ,,the ,,movement     
,,for ,,peace    ,,by ,,means ,,of      
,,arbitration1 ,,neutralization1        
,,international ,,law ,,and             
,,disarmament      ,,by      ,k4,p4     
,,arnoldson      ,member of the ,second 
,chamber of the ,swedish ,riksdag       
,,authorized ,,english ,,edition        
,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,the   
,,bishop ,,of ,,durham                  
,illustration      ,london      ,,swan  
,,sonnenschein  ,,co4    ,,paternoster  
,,square    #ahib            ,,butler   
,,tanner1    ,,the ,,selwood ,,printing 
,,works1    ,,frome1 ,,and ,,london4    
,,contents4                             
,,page      ,,introduction              
#a      ,,arbitration                   
#h      ,,neutrality                    
#dj      ,,further ,,developments       
#hb      ,,the ,,prospects              
#ach      ,,appendix                    
#afe          ,,prefatory ,,note4       

,this little work1 written by one who   
has long been known as a  consistent and
 able advocate of the views herein      
maintained1 has been  translated by a   
lady who has already rendered great     
services to the  cause1 in the belief   
that it will be found useful by the     
increasing  number of those who are     
interested in the movement for the      
substitution  of ,law for ,war in       
international affairs4      ,j4,f4,g4   
,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,english     
,,edition4      ,it is natural that the 
advocates of international ,peace should
  sometimes grow discouraged and        
impatient through what they are tempted 
to consider the slow progress of their  
cause4 ,sudden outbursts of  popular    
feeling1 selfish plans for national     
aggrandisement1 unremoved  causes of    
antipathy between neighbours1 lead them 
to overlook the  general tendency of    
circumstances and opinions which1 when  
it is  regarded on a large scale1 is    
sufficient to justify their loftiest    

hopes4 ,it is this general tendency of  
thought and fact1 corresponding  to the 
maturer growth of peoples1 which brings 
to us the certain  assurance that the   
,angelic ,hymn which welcomed the ,birth
 of ,christ  advances1 slowly it may be 
as men count slowness1 but at least     
unmistakably1 towards fulfilment4 ,there
 are pauses and interruptions  in the   
movement2 but1 on the whole1 no one who 
patiently regards the  course of human  
history can doubt that we are drawing   
nearer from  generation to generation to
 a practical sense of that brotherhood  
and  that solidarity of men--both words 
are necessary--which find their         
foundation and their crown in the       
message of the ,gospel4    ,under this  
aspect the ,essay of ,mr4 ,arnoldson is 
of great value1 as  giving a calm and   
comprehensive view of the progress of   
the course of  ,peace during the last   
century1 and of the influences which are
 likely  to accelerate its progress in  
the near future4    ,mr4 ,arnoldson1    

who1 as a member of the ,swedish        
,parliament1 is a  practical statesman1 
indulges in no illusions4 ,the fulness  
with which  he dwells on the political  
problems of ,scandinavia shows that he  
is  not inclined to forget practical    
questions under the attraction of       
splendid theories4 ,he marks the chief  
dangers which threaten the peace  of    
,europe1 without the least sign of      
dissembling their gravity4 ,and  looking
 steadily upon them1 he remains bold in 
hope2 for confidence  in a great cause  
does not come from disregarding or      
disparaging the  difficulties by which  
it is beset1 but from the reasonable    
conviction  that there are forces at    
work which are adequate to overcome     
them4    ,we believe that it is so in   
the case of a policy of ,peace2 and the 
facts to which ,mr4 ,arnoldson directs  
attention amply justify the  belief4 ,it
 is of great significance that since    
#agid there have been at  least         
sixty-seven instances in which disputes 

of a menacing character  have been      
averted by arbitration2 and perhaps the 
unquestioning  acceptance by ,england of
 the ,genevan award will hereafter be   
reckoned  as one of her noblest services
 to the world4 ,it is no less important 
that since the principle of arbitration 
was solemnly recognised by  the         
,congress of ,paris in #ahef1 arbitral  
clauses have been introduced  into many 
treaties1 while the question of         
establishing a universal  system of     
international arbitration has been      
entertained and discussed               
sympathetically by many parliaments4    
,at the same time ,mr4 ,arnoldson justly
 insists on the steady increase of  the 
power of neutrals4 ,without accepting   
the possibility of a ,neutral  ,league1 
he points out how a necessary regard to 
the interests of  neutrals restrains the
 powers which are meditating war4 ,and  
,i cannot  but believe that he is right 
when he suggests that the problems of   
the  neutralization of ,scandinavia1 of 

,alsace and ,lorraine1 of the ,balkan   
,states1 of the ,bosphorus and          
,dardanelles1 demand the attention of   
all  who seek to hasten the coming      
peace4    ,it would be easy to overrate 
the direct value of these facts2 but    
their value as signs of the direction in
 which public opinion is  rapidly moving
 can hardly be overrated4 ,they are     
symptoms of a growing  recognition of   
the obligations of man to man1 and of   
people to people1  of our common human  
interests and of our universal          
interdependence4    ,i should not lay   
great stress on the deterrent power of  
the prospect of  the ruinous losses and 
desolations likely to follow from future
 wars4  ,a great principle might well   
demand from a nation great sacrifices2  
and the very strength of a policy of    
,peace lies in the postponement  of     
material interests to human duties4 ,but
 none the less the wide  expansion of   
commercial and social intercourse1 joint
 enterprises1 even  rivalries not always

 ungenerous1 exercise a salutary        
influence upon  the feeling of nation   
for nation1 and make what were once     
regarded as  natural animosities no     
longer possible4    ,under the action of
 these forces we are learning more and  
more to  endeavour to regard debated    
questions from the point of sight of    
our adversaries1 to take account of     
their reasonable aspirations1 to  make  
allowance for their difficulties1 even  
to consider how they can  best render   
their appropriate service to the race1  
while we strive no  less resolutely to  
keep or to secure the power of          
fulfilling our own4  ,we could not      
regard our enemies as our grandfathers  
regarded theirs4  ,already the          
conviction begins to make itself felt   
that the loss of one  people is the loss
 of all4    ,meanwhile the growth of    
popular power and popular responsibility
 brings  a wider and more collective    
judgment to bear upon national          
questions4  ,the masses of peoples have 

more in common than their leaders1 among
  whom individual character has fuller  
development4 ,the average opinion  of   
men1 when the facts are set forth1      
responds to pleas of fellowship  and    
righteousness1 and tends to become      
dominant4    ,such influences in favour 
of international ,peace spring out of   
steady  movements which1 as they        
continue1 will increase them4 ,the past 
does  not limit their power1 but simply 
reveals the line of their action4       
,above all1 they correspond with that   
view of our ,christian faith which  the 
,holy ,spirit is disclosing to us by    
means of the trials of our age4         
,through many sorrows and many          
disappointments we are learning that the
  fact of the ,incarnation assures to us
 the unity of men and classes and       
nations2 and a wider study of history1  
which is now possible1 shows  that the  
course of events makes for the          
establishment of that unity for  which  
we were created4    ,i cannot therefore 

but hope that the ,essay of ,mr4        
,arnoldson1 which  gives substantial    
evidence of the reality and growth of   
this movement  towards ,peace1 will     
confirm in courageous and patient labour
 for an  assured end all who join in the
 prayer that it may please ,god to give 
to all nations unity1 peace1 and        
concord4      ,b4,f4 ,,dunelm4          
,,auckland ,,castle1    ,october #adth1 
#ahia4          ,,pax ,,mundi4          
,,introduction4      ,it was the small  
beginning of a great matter when1 on    
,december #bbnd1  #afbj1 a hundred      
,puritans landed from the ship          
,mayflower upon the  rocky shore of the 
,new ,world1 having1 during the voyage1 
signed a  constitution to be observed by
 the colonists4    ,these pious pilgrims
 were guided by the conception of       
religious freedom  which should         
construct for them there a new kingdom4 
,they had1 say the  annalists of the    
colony1 crossed the world's sea and had 
reached their  goal2 but no friend came 

forth to meet them2 no house offered    
them  shelter4 ,and it was mid-winter4  
,those who know that distant clime1 know
  how bitter are the winters and how    
dangerous the storms which at that      
season ravage the coast4 ,it were bad   
enough in similar circumstances  to     
travel in a well-known region2 but how  
much worse when it is a  question of    
seeking to settle on an entirely unknown
 shore4    ,they saw around them only a 
bare1 cheerless country1 filled with    
wild  animals and inhabited by men of   
questionable disposition and in unknown 
numbers4 ,the country was frozen and    
overgrown with woods and thickets4  ,the
 whole aspect was wild2 and behind them 
lay the measureless ocean1  which       
severed them from the civilized world4  
,comfort and hope were to  be found only
 in turning their gaze heavenward4      
,that they did conquer that ungrateful  
land and open the way for the  boundless
 stream of immigration which for        
wellnigh three centuries has            

unceasingly poured in1 must find its    
explanation in the faith that  upheld   
their ways amid the dangers of the      
wilderness1 amid the hunger1  cold1 and 
all manner of disheartening things1 and 
gave them that power  which removed     
mountains and made the desert bloom4    
,these ,puritans1 strong in faith1 were 
the founders of the ,new ,world's       
greatness2 and their spirit spoke out to
 the ,old ,world in the greeting  with  
which the ,president of the ,united     
,states consecrated the first           
transatlantic telegraph cable in        
#ahff3--    ,glory be to ,god in the    
highest1 and on earth peace1 goodwill to
 men4    ,when this message came to us1 
the roar of cannon was but newly hushed1
  and the man of blood and iron had     
victoriously set his foot upon one  of  
,europe's great powers2 the same        
,austria which since then has1 by the   
,triple ,alliance1 united its warlike   
strength with ,germany4    ,but that    
message has not been an unheeded sound  

to all2 especially  to those whose      
warning voices the people never listen  
to before the  misfortune falls1 but who
 are always justified after it has      
struck4  ,yes6 perchance in the near    
future it may again appeal to their     
reason1  and find a hearing only when   
,europe has fallen into untold miseries 
after another war4    ,while menacing   
forebodings of this long expected war   
were spreading in  the summer of #ahhg  
through various parts of our continent1 
a little  company of courageous men1    
strong in faith1 like the pious pilgrims
 of  the ,mayflower1 gathered together  
for the voyage across the sea to  the   
,new ,world1 there to lay the foundation
 of a lasting work for peace4    ,their 
first object was to present to the      
,president of the ,united ,states  and  
to ,congress an address aiming at the   
establishment of a ,court of            
,arbitration1 qualified to deal with    
disputes which might arise between      
,great ,britain and the ,united ,states 

of ,north ,america4 ,in that address1   
signed by #bgj ,members of the ,british 
,parliament1 allusion was made to  the  
resolutions on peace which from time to 
time had been brought into  ,congress2  
and those who undersigned it declared   
themselves ready to  bring all their    
influence to bear in inducing the       
,government of ,great  ,britain to      
accept the proposition which should come
 from the ,congress4  ,amongst those who
 signed it were1 besides many           
distinguished ,members of  the ,house of
 ,commons1 several peers1 including some
 of the bishops4    ,the address was    
presented to ,president ,cleveland on   
,october #cast1 by  a deputation of     
twelve ,members of ,parliament1 whose   
spokesman1 ,mr4  ,andrew ,carnegie1 in  
his introductory speech1 said3 ,few     
events in the  world's history would    
rank with the making of such a treaty4  
,perhaps  only two in our own country's 
history could fitly be compared with    
it4 ,washington's administration        

established the republic2 ,lincoln's    
administration abolished human slavery4 
,we fondly hope1 sir1 that  it may be   
reserved for yours to conclude a treaty 
not only with the  government of the    
other great ,english-speaking nation1   
but with other  lands as well1 which    
shall henceforth and for ever secure to 
those  nations the blessings of mutual  
peace and goodwill4 ,the conclusion of  
such a treaty will have done much to    
remove from humanity its greatest       
stain--the killing of man by man4 ,and  
we venture to hope1 that if the  two    
great nations here represented set such 
an example1 other nations  may be       
induced to follow it1 and war be thus   
ultimately banished from  the face of   
the earth4    ,in the ,president's      
favourable answer he mentioned that no  
nation in its  moral and material       
development could show more victories in
 the domain  of peace than the          
,american2 and it appeared to him that  
the land which  had produced such proofs

 of the blessings of peace1 and         
therefore need  not fear being accused  
of weakness1 must be in a specially     
favourable  position to listen to a     
proposal like the present2 wherefore he 
received it with pleasure and           
satisfaction4    ,a week later1 ,nov4   
#hth1 the son-in-law of ,queen          
,victoria1 the ,marquis  of ,lorne1     
presided over a great meeting in        
,london1 at which many  eminent men were
 present4 ,the chairman emphatically    
remarked in his  speech1 that the       
settlement of international disputes by 
a ,court  of ,arbitration has the       
advantage that1 through the delay which 
is  necessary1 the first excitement has 
time to cool4 ,the meeting declared     
itself unanimously in favour of the     
proposed memorial4 ,thereupon  followed 
many similar expressions of opinion in  
,england1 whilst  simultaneously in     
twenty of the largest cities of ,north  
,america mass  meetings were held1 which
 with unanimous enthusiasm gave adhesion

  to the cause1 and petitions of the    
same character flowed in to the         
,president and ,congress from the       
various parts of the great republic4    
,encouraged by these preparatory        
movements amongst the two great         
,english-speaking peoples1 ,m4 ,frdric  
,passy1 with other ,members of  the     
,legislative ,assembly of ,france1      
placed himself at the head of a         
movement to petition the ,french        
,government1 requesting that it should  
conclude an ,arbitration ,treaty with   
the ,united ,states4    ,such a         
memorial1 bearing the signatures of #aab
 deputies and #af  senators1 was        
received with much interest by the      
,president4    ,on ,april #bast1 #ahhh1 
,passy and forty-four other deputies    
moved a  resolution in the ,chamber to  
the same effect2 and the idea has been  
carried forward in many ways since then1
 especially by a petition to  the       
,president of the ,united ,states from  
three ,international ,congresses  held  

in ,paris1 ,june #bcrd-#cjth1 #ahhi4    
,,arbitration4      ,should these       
efforts lead in the near future to the  
intended result1  ,international ,law   
would thereby have made an important    
progress4    ,it can no longer be denied
 that ,international ,law does actually 
exist2  but we undervalue its           
significance because we are impatient4  
,we do  not notice the advances it has  
made because they have been small2  but 
they have been numerous2 and slowly1    
step by step1 international             
jurisprudence has progressed4 ,this     
affects not only the awakening sense  of
 justice and acknowledged principles1   
but also their application1  which from 
the days of ,hugo ,grotius1 #bej years  
ago1 down to ,martens1  ,bluntschli1    
,calvo1 and other most distinguished    
jurists of our day1 has  been the       
subject of great scholarly activity1 by 
means of which the  various regulations 
of jurisprudence have little by little  
been pieced  together into a foundation 

and substance of universally accepted   
law4    ,what has been most generally   
done to gain the object in view has     
been the ,,insertion ,,of ,,arbitral    
,,clauses in treaties which were being  
concluded or had already been concluded 
in reference to other  questions4 ,in   
this direction ,,signor ,,mancini of    
,italy has been  especially active4 ,as 
during the time he was ,minister of     
,foreign  ,affairs he had the concluding
 of a great number of treaties between  
,italy and other countries1 he made use 
of the opportunity to insert  into      
almost all--in nineteen instances#a--;an
 arbitral clause4    ,we have examples  
of treaties with such clauses in the    
commercial  treaty between ,italy and   
,england1 #ahhc2 ,norway1 ,sweden1 and  
,spain1 by  a supplement in #ahhg2 also 
,england and ,greece1 #ahhf4 ,according 
to the  first two agreements1 all       
disputes about the right understanding  
of  the treaties shall be settled by    
arbitration1 as soon as it becomes      

apparent that it is vain to hope for a  
friendly arrangement4 ,in the           
,greco-,english treaty it is further    
stipulated that all disputes which      
directly or indirectly may arise in     
consequence of that treaty always       
shall1 if they cannot be amicably       
arranged1 be referred to a committee  of
 arbitration1 which shall be nominated  
by each party with a like  number of    
members2 also that if this committee    
cannot agree1 there  shall be appointed 
a tribunal of arbitration1 whose        
decision both  nations bind themselves  
to accept4    ,the idea of concluding   
distinct ,,treaties ,,of ,,arbitration1 
or of giving a  widely extended range to
 arbitral clauses1 so that they should  
affect  the whole relation of the       
contracting parties to one another1 is  
comparatively new4    ,so far as ,i     
know1 ,mr4 ,william ,jay was the first  
who in modern times  advocated this     
idea1 in a work which came out in ,new  
,york in #ahdb1 and  in which he        

proposed3 that in the next treaty       
between1 for example1 the  ,united      
,states and ,france1 it should be stated
 that in case any dispute  should arise 
between the two nations1 not only in    
respect of the  interpretation of that  
treaty1 but also in respect of any other
 subject  whatever1 the dispute should  
be settled by means of an arbitration by
  one or more friendly powers4    ,a    
similar proposition was presented to    
,lord ,clarendon in #ahec4 ,by  sending 
a deputation to the plenipotentiaries at
 the ,,congress ,,at  ,,paris in #ahef1 
the ,english ,peace ,society succeeded  
in inducing  them to introduce into1 one
 of the protocols a solemn recognition  
of the principle of ,arbitration4 ,in   
the name of their governments  they     
expressed the wish that the states      
between which any serious               
misunderstanding should arise1 should1  
as far as circumstances  permitted1     
submit the question to the arbitration  
of a friendly power  before resorting to

 arms4 ,this proposition1 which was     
unanimously  adopted1 was made by ,lord 
,clarendon1 the representative of       
,england1 and  supported by the         
emissaries of ,france1 ,prussia1 and    
,italy1--,walewsky1  ,manteufel1 and    
,cavour4    ,but the first movement in  
favour of independent ,treaties of      
,arbitration  came up in a petition in  
#ahdg1 from the ,english ,peace ,society
 to  ,parliament4    ,the next year this
 subject was discussed in the ,peace    
,congress at  ,brussels4    ,a few      
months later1 ,cobden brought forward in
 the ,house of ,commons  an address to  
the ,government1 with the request that  
the ,minister of  ,foreign ,affairs     
should be charged to invite foreign     
powers to enter  into treaties with this
 object4 ,the proposal was in the       
beginning  received with astonishment   
and scorn2 but called forth later an    
earnest  and important debate4    ,about
 six years later1 ,,henry ,,richard drew
 the attention of many  influential     

members of the ,american ,congress to   
the relations  which were felt to be    
favourable for trying to arrange a      
treaty of  arbitration between ,great   
,britain and the ,united ,states4       
,american  statesmen1 less bound by the 
old traditions of ,european diplomacy   
would1 it was thought1 be able with     
greater freedom to attempt such  a      
novelty4 ,the replies to this           
application were very favourable and    
encouraging1 and in various ways since  
then attempts have been made to  realize
 the idea4    ,,in ,,many ,,parliaments 
from time to time propositions in this  
direction  have been brought forward and
 approved4    ,on ,july #hth1 #ahgc1    
,henry ,richard brought before the      
,english ,parliament  a proposition     
requesting the ,government to invite    
negotiation  with foreign powers for    
creating a universal and                
well-established  international system  
of arbitration4 ,the then ,prime        
,minister1  ,gladstone1 expressed       

himself as favourable to1 the proposal1 
but  advised its being withdrawn4       
,richard1 nevertheless1 persisted that  
it  should be dealt with1 and obtained  
the remarkable result1 that it was      
carried with a majority of ten4    ,this
 example was followed by the ,,italian  
,,chamber ,,of ,,deputies1 ,nov4  #bdth 
of the same year2 and again on ,july    
#abth1 #ahij2b by the ,,states          
,,general ,,of ,,holland1 ,nov4 #bgth1  
#ahgd2 by the ,,belgian ,,chamber ,,of  
,,representatives1 ,dec4 #aith1 #ahge2  
and shortly after by the ,,senate of    
the ,united ,states of ,america1 and    
,,congress also1 ,june #agth1 #ahgd2 and
  ,april #dth1 #ahij4    ,the last-named
 resolution of ,congress had been       
accepted by the ,senate1  ,feb4 #aeth of
 the same year1 being recommended by the
 ,committee on  ,foreign ,affairs1 and  
runs thus3--     ,the ,president be1 and
 is hereby requested to invite from time
 to   time1 as fit occasions may arise1 
negotiations with any government   with 

which the ,united ,states has or may    
have diplomatic relations1   to the end 
that any difficulties or disputes       
arising between them1   which cannot be 
adjusted by diplomatic agency1 may be   
referred to   arbitration1 and be       
peaceably adjusted by such means4    ,on
 ,may #ith1 #ahij1 ,don ,arturo de      
,marcoartu moved in the ,,spanish       
,,senate  that the ,spanish ,government 
should enter into relations with other  
,european powers to bring about a       
permanent tribunal of arbitration in    
,europe4 ,in the first place1 the mover 
proposed that the states should  come to
 an agreement upon a general truce for  
five years4 ,in that  interval a        
congress of emissaries from all the     
,european ,governments and  ,parliaments
 should be called together4 ,the        
business of the congress  should be to  
work out a code of international law4   
,the proposition was  urged1 especially 
with regard to the necessity of finding 
a reasonable  solution of the great     

social question1 since all effort in    
that  direction appears to be hopeless  
so long as the savings of the nations   
are swallowed up by military            
expenditure4 ,the ,minister of ,foreign 
,affairs requested the ,senate to take  
the proposition into serious            
consideration1 and on ,june #adth the   
,senate resolved to authorize the       
,government to enter into negotiations  
with foreign powers for the  object     
indicated4    ,neither are the          
,scandinavian ,parliaments unaffected by
 this movement4    ,as far back as #ahfi
 the question of arbitration was mooted 
in the  ,,swedish ,,parliament by ,jonas
 ,jonassen4 ,in #ahgd he proposed in the
 second  chamber that ,parliament should
 submit to the ,king that it would      
behove  his majesty on all occasions    
that might present themselves to support
  the negotiations which foreign powers 
might open with ,sweden or with  each   
other with reference to the creation of 
a tribunal of arbitration  for the      

solving of international disputes4 ,the 
committee which dealt  with the         
proposition advised its acceptance4 ,the
 ,lower ,house passed  it1 ,march #bast1
 by seventy-one votes against           
sixty-four2 but the ,upper  ,house      
rejected it4    ,the miserable dealing  
of the ,parliament of #ahij with the    
question ,i  shall have occasion to     
refer to further on4    ,in the same    
year1 the question made surprising      
advance in ,,norway4 ,on  ,march #eth   
the ,storting voted on the motion of    
,ullmann and many others1  by           
eighty-nine votes against twenty-four1  
an address to the ,king1 which  begins  
thus3--     ,the ,storting hereby       
respectfully approaches your ,majesty1  
with the   request that your ,majesty   
will make use of the authority given by 
the   constitution in seeking to enter  
into agreements with foreign powers1    
for the settling by arbitration of      
disputes which may arise between        
,norway and those powers4    ,and       

concludes with these words3--     ,in   
the full assurance that what the        
,storting here requests will be an      
unqualified benefit to our people1 it is
 hereby submitted that your   ,majesty  
should take the necessary steps         
indicated4    ,a similar resolution was 
very near being voted by the ,,danish   
,,folketing  in #ahge4 ,the proposition 
as brought forward was1 ,may #acth1     
unanimously  recommended by the         
committee in charge1 but on account of  
the  dissolution of the ,house two days 
later1 could not be acted upon4         
,several years ago a petition was       
circulated in the various districts  of 
,denmark1 by which ,parliament was urged
 to co-operate as early  as possible in 
bringing about a permanent ,scandinavian
 treaty of  arbitration4    ,in such a  
treaty1 binding in the first instance   
for thirty years1  the petition affirms 
that the three northern kingdoms will   
have an  efficient moral support when   
there is occasion to withstand the      

efforts of the great powers to entice or
 to threaten any of them to  take part  
in war as allies on one side or the     
other4 ,such a treaty  will1 therefore1 
in great measure serve to preserve the  
neutrality of  the northern kingdoms1   
and thereby their lasting independence4 
,this petition was dealt with in the    
,folketing1 ,march #bgth1 #ahhh4 ,after 
a short discussion1 the following motion
 of ,f4 ,bajer was passed by  fifty     
votes against sixteen4     ,since the   
,folketing agrees with the wish         
expressed in the petition1   provided it
 is shared by the other ,states without 
whom it cannot be   carried out1 the    
,house passes on to the order of the    
day4    ,in his little paper3 ,on the   
,prevention of ,war by ,arbitration1 ,f4
  ,bajer writes3     ,it may certainly  
be granted1 that a little ,state like   
,denmark cannot   well work at the      
creation of a ,european tribunal of     
arbitration1   so far as that means     
setting itself at the head of a movement

 for   inviting the other ,european     
,states to a ,congress by which its     
creation   shall be adopted4     ,but a 
little ,state like ,denmark can always  
do something in the   direction of      
arbitration between ,states4 ,it can    
bring the matter a   practical step     
forward by applying first to the other  
small ,states1   especially to the      
neighbour ,states of ,sweden and        
,norway1 and proposing   to them that   
mutual disputes shall in future1 as far 
as possible1 be   settled by arbitration
 when other means have failed4 ,the     
relations   between the three northern  
kingdoms are indeed now so friendly that
 a   war between them can hardly be     
thought of for a moment4 ,but--as was   
said in confirmation of the resolution  
in the first northern ,peace   ,meeting1
 respecting a permanent arbitration     
treaty between the three                
kingdoms--they have carried on many     
bloody internecine wars1 which   have   
only benefited their powerful           

neighbours1 but have been in the        
highest degree injurious to themselves2 
and the possibility of war   between the
 three northern kingdoms is not excluded
 so long as they   are not              
simultaneously neutralized1 or in some  
other way engaged to   carry out a      
common foreign policy4 ,it is no longer 
ago than #ahgc   that the so-called     
pilots' war in ,oeresund caused much bad
 blood   among relatives on both sides  
of the sound4 ,that that was settled    
authoritatively by the mutual           
declaration of the #adth of ,august is  
due to circumstances on whose           
continuance for the future it is not    
possible to reckon4 ,had a strained     
relation at the same time obtained      
between one or more of the great powers 
within or without the ,baltic   ports1  
and had these endeavoured to sow discord
 between the coast   powers1 that they  
might fish in the troubled waters1 and  
feather   their own nests by getting    
these small states as their allies2 and 

if one power had got ,denmark1 but its  
enemy got ,sweden-,norway as an         
ally--a new northern fratricidal war    
would have broken out4 ,even if   such a
 future possibility cannot be entirely  
eradicated by a mutual   arbitration    
treaty amongst the northern nations1 a  
new guarantee for   peace would be      
secured4 7,bluntschli's expression47    
,for the small   northern kingdoms would
 by such a treaty acquire an excellent  
moral   support when it came to         
withstanding the attempt of the great   
powers   to entice or threaten them into
 taking part in wars as their allies4   
,such a participation is always a       
dangerous game1 because1 as history     
shows1 the small ,states lose rather    
than gain4 ,the small ,states are   used
 as counters for the great ones to play 
with4    ,at this point we may remark1  
that as far back as #ahdh1 the same year
  that the ,peace ,congress was held in 
,brussels1 ,feb4 #bnd1 a treaty 7the    
,guadaloupe-,hidalgo ,treaty7 was       

concluded between the ,united ,states of
  ,america and ,mexico1 containing a    
clause that a committee of arbitration  
shall settle1 not only such differences 
as may arise directly  concerning that  
treaty1 but also shall1 as the highest  
authority1  adjudicate as far as        
possible all disputes which may arise   
between the  high contracting ,states4#c
    ,,switzerland concluded1 ,july      
#bjth1 #ahfd1 a similar treaty with the 
,,hawaian ,,islands1 and on ,october    
#cjth with ,,san ,,salvador4#d    ,siam1
 whose monarch has given many proofs of 
sympathy for ,oskar ,,ii41  concluded a 
similar treaty1 ,may #ahth1 #ahfh1 with 
the ,,united ,,kingdoms1  and also with 
,,belgium1 ,aug4 #bith of the same      
year4#e ,the ,,central and  ,,south     
,,american ,,republics1 ,,honduras1 and 
,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,colombia 
did the same when on ,april #ajth1      
#ahhb1 they signed an arbitration       
treaty between themselves4#f    ,since  
that time this vigorous idea has grown  

into the ,,central ,,and ,,south        
,,american ,,arbitration ,,league1 and  
is now making good way towards being    
applied to the whole of ,america4       
,the question now is1 whether the       
,,value ,,of ,,peace ,,treaties1 in     
general  or in particular1 which are    
established between mutually distant    
small  ,states can be estimated as      
highly as the good intention of their   
creation1 which is habitually           
acknowledged to be good8 ,are they      
something to be depended upon8 ,will    
they be carried into effect8    ,that   
depends in the first place upon what is 
meant by peace treaties4    ,if         
reference is made to certain            
international settlements which the     
conquered1 with hatred in their hearts1 
bleeding1 upon their knees were         
,,forced to accept1 we may at once grant
 that they imply no security  for peace1
 but1 on the contrary1 are a fresh      
source of warlike  complications4       
,thus1 for example1 the conclusion of   

peace which ,france was ,,forced to     
sign at ,versailles1 ,feb4 #bfth1 #ahga1
 and by which ,alsace-,lorraine was     
torn from ,france1 became a volcano     
which now for nineteen years has  held  
the nations in suspense and unrest1 and 
still threatens to ruin  ,europe4       
,neither would it be advisable to set   
much store on such obligations as  the  
,western ,powers undertook in the       
agreement which goes by the name  of the
 ,,november ,,treaty1 to help us to     
defend the northern part of our         
peninsula against ,russia2 because a    
guaranteed neutrality implies in        
reality more danger than safety1 if the 
guarantee is not mutual2 that  is1 in   
this instance1 if our eastern neighbour 
is not included in the  guarantee2 which
 is so far from being the case that the 
treaty1 on the  contrary1 is a source of
 menace and distrust to him4#g    ,with 
respect to certain treaties of alliance1
 whose object is to  collect ,,the      
,,greatest ,,possible ,,number ,,of     

,,bayonets as a mutual security  against
 other powers1 who1 on their side1 seek 
to protect themselves  by uniting their 
forces1 nobody can see in them anything 
else than a  guarantee for an armed     
peace1 which1 by the necessity of its   
nature1  leads to war4    ,if1 on the   
contrary1 by peace treaties are meant   
such international  contracts as are    
,,not ,,written ,,in ,,blood2 such as   
relate to trade and  commerce1 industry1
 art1 science and so on1 it would be in 
vain to seek  for a single instance of  
the breach of contract1 either on the   
side of  the weaker or the stronger4    
,neither can any example in our time be 
pointed to of open violation of  the    
rights of a small country in its quality
 of an independent ,state1  as long as  
these rights have stood under the mutual
 guarantee of the  great powers4    ,as 
evidence to the contrary1 the ,london   
treaty of ,may #hth1 #ahec1 has  been   
adduced1 which was intended to secure   
,denmark's neutrality2 the  ,treaty of  

,paris1 ,april #adth1 #ahef1 respecting 
the ,black ,sea2 and the  fifth article 
of the ,peace of ,prague in #ahff4 ,but 
here the fault lies  in a               
misunderstanding4    ,what the ,treaty  
of ,london established was not the      
indivisibility of  ,denmark1 but of the 
,dano-,german monarchy4 ,the ,german    
territory was to  be fast linked to the 
,danish4 ,this was admitted1 as a       
principle1 by the  treaty to be fitting 
and right1 but the treaty contained no  
trace of  stipulations as to guarantee4 
,with respect to ,russia's breach of    
treaty of the stipulations as to  her   
banishment from the ,black ,sea as a    
military power1#h it must  be remembered
 that the representatives of the powers1
 and of ,russia  also1 on ,january      
#agth1 #ahga1 signed a protocol1 whereby
 it was  settled as an essential axiom  
in international law1 that no power can 
absolve itself from the obligations     
which are entered into by treaty        
without the consent of the contracting  

parties4 ,therefore ,russia  openly     
acknowledged that her declaration of not
 choosing to abide  by the injunctions  
stipulated for in the ,treaty of ,paris 
respecting  the ,black ,sea1 was        
precipitate1 and that1 consequently1 the
 treaty  was permanently in force until 
it was formally abrogated4 ,this took   
place in the new treaty of ,march #crd1 
of the same year4 ,besides1 here  comes 
in what was said above about the value  
of such treaties as are  concluded after
 brute force has determined the issue4  
,and this not only  was the case in the 
,black ,sea stipulations1 but also with 
respect to  the unfulfilled promises of 
article #e of the ,treaty of ,prague1   
whereby  the ,danish people was to be   
given the opportunity for a plebiscite  
in  determining upon their reunion with 
,denmark4 ,as to the peace treaties     
between the lesser ,states1 which       
certainly have important trade          
relations one with another1 but which1  
on account of their mutually  distant   

position1 cannot reasonably be expected 
to go to war with each  other1 it is    
true that one cannot in general         
attribute any special  importance to    
them4 ,nothing is gained by             
over-estimating their value4  ,but they 
deserve to be brought forward as        
enrichments of international  law and   
guide-posts for other ,states4 ,and that
 the small ,states need  not wait until 
the great ones are ready to unite       
appears just as much  in accordance with
 the nature of the case as with the     
interests of  their own well-being4     
,calvo1 undeniably the first authority  
in these matters1 emphasizes  as a      
significant fact1 that no single example
 can be pointed to in  which ,states1   
after their mutual disputes have been   
referred to the  consideration or       
judgment of arbitrators1 have sought to 
withdraw from  the operation of the     
decision4 ,and according to ,henry      
,richard and  other authorities1 by     
allowing international questions to be  

settled by  arbitration1 at least in    
sixty-seven instances1 disputes of a    
menacing  character have been averted4  
,i shall not here give a detailed       
account of all these instances1 but     
only with the greatest conciseness refer
 to some of them4    ,in #agid a contest
 between ,england and the ,united       
,states of ,america  respecting ,st4    
,croix river was settled by arbitration2
 in #ahjc  ,france was in the same way  
condemned to pay #ah million francs to  
the  ,united ,states of ,america for    
unlawful seizure of vessels2 in #ahah a 
threatening dispute between ,spain and  
the ,united ,states of ,america was     
settled by arbitration1 and a contention
 between these and ,england was         
arranged by the ,emperor of ,russia1 who
 was chosen as arbitrator1 etc4    ,the 
best known of such disputes was the     
so-called ,alabama question1  which     
threatened a desolating world-war4 ,this
 affair sprang out of the  ,north       
,american civil war #ahfa-fe4 ,the      

,southern ,states had privateers  built 
in ,england1 among which the ,alabama   
especially wrought great  mischief to   
the ,northerners4 ,the ,government of   
the ,union considered  that ,england had
 broken her neutrality in allowing the  
equipment of  the privateer1 and        
requested compensation4    ,a bitter    
feeling grew up and war appeared        
inevitable4 ,but on ,january  #bdth1    
#ahfi1 an agreement was happily entered 
into1 which1 with fresh  negotiations1  
led to the ,washington treaty1 ,may     
#hth1 #ahga4 ,in harmony  with this the 
dispute was referred for settlement to a
 ,court of  ,arbitration consisting of  
five members1 of which ,england and the 
,united  ,states each chose one1 and the
 neutral states of ,italy1 ,switzerland1
  and ,brazil1 likewise each chose one4 
,these five met on ,december #aeth1     
#ahga1 as a tribunal of arbitration1 at 
,geneva1 and delivered their  judgment  
on ,september #adth following 7four     
votes against ,england's  one71 that the

 ,english ,government had made a breach 
in its duty  as a neutral power with    
respect to some of the privateers under 
consideration1 and therefore ,england   
would have to pay an indemnity of       
#ae-a_/b million dollars to the ,united 
,states4#i    ,england bowed to the     
award and fulfilled her duty4    ,in the
 same way the powerful insular kingdom  
voluntarily submitted  to settlement in 
the weary contention regarding the      
possession of  ,delagoa ,bay and the    
surrounding region on the east coast of 
,africa4 ,the  dispute was entrusted for
 settlement1 in #ahgd1 to the ,president
 of the  ,french ,republic1 ,mac,mahon1 
and he decided in ,july1 #ahge1 in      
favour of  ,portugal4 ,that the new     
contention between these two ,states1   
which for  some time now has excited an 
inflammable spirit1 not only in         
,portugal1  but in other countries as   
well1 will be arranged in the same      
friendly  manner1 there is but little   
doubt4    ,the claim of ,portugal is    

much older than that of ,england4 ,its  
special  ground is the discovery of the 
coast which was made by ,portuguese     
mariners three hundred years ago4 ,the  
,portuguese urge1 that since  the coast 
is theirs1 they have a right to go as   
far inland as they  choose and place the
 country thus entered under their       
dominion4 ,they  say further1 that they 
have made a treaty with a native ruler  
over a  kingdom which stretches far     
inland1 and that ruined fortresses are  
still to be found which show that they  
once had this distant region  in        
possession4 ,to this assertion ,lord    
,salisbury answers1 that where  ruined  
fortresses are found they only testify  
to fallen dominion4 ,the  ,english      
,government could not recognise         
,portugal's construction of the         
contested question2 according to that   
construction the question would         
virtually turn upon the possession of   
,shireland and ,mashonaland 7the  inland
 country north and south of the         

,zambesi74 ,it denied ,portugal's  claim
 to this territory as so entirely       
groundless that it could not  enter into
 such a question2 but has on the other  
hand made a peremptory  claim1 arising  
from ,portugal's violence towards the   
natives who are  under ,england's       
protection1 for dishonour to the        
,english flag1 and for  other           
international offences1 etc4    ,the    
right of possession of the regions in   
question can no longer  be regarded as  
doubtful1 since ,portugal had set aside 
the general  international axiom1 that  
the claim for possession according to   
colonial usage can only be held valid   
when colonization is actually  carried  
out to the furtherance of civilization  
and public safety4  ,portugal's         
assertion that the signatories of the   
,congo ,act would be  the right         
adjudicators of the question was denied1
 upon the ground  that ,portugal had    
delayed to make her claim valid when    
,nyassaland was  declared to belong to  

the sphere of ,england's interests4 ,on 
,july #ast1  #ahhi1 the                 
,under-secretary1 ,sir ,james           
,fergusson1 in the ,lower ,house1       
explained that the ,portuguese          
,government had been informed that they 
would be held answerable for all loss   
which ,englishmen might suffer  by the  
annulling of the ,delagoa railway       
convention4 ,the same day ,lord         
,salisbury informed the ,upper ,house   
that the ,english ,government would     
send three war-ships to ,delagoa ,bay1  
to be ready in case of need4            
,portugal's conduct was1 in his opinion1
 unjustifiable4    ,then came the noble 
lord's ultimatum1 with the demand that  
,portugal  should recall all ,portuguese
 officers and troops from the territory 
which stands under the sovereignty of   
,england or lies within the sphere  of  
,england's interests1 and give an answer
 within twenty-four hours2  otherwise   
,england would be compelled to break off
 her relations with  ,portugal4 ,this   

threatening manner of procedure1 by     
which a weaker  nation was humbled by   
superior power1 roused bad blood in     
,portugal and  was sharply censured in  
many parts of ,europe2 yes1 even in     
,england1  and in ,parliament1 in the   
press1 and at many great public         
meetings4  ,at one of these meetings1   
composed of #gjj workmen delegates from 
various parts of ,england and #acj      
,members of ,parliament1 in quality  of 
vice-presidents1 it was unanimously     
resolved to protest against  ,lord      
,salisbury's conduct as at variance with
 the dignity of the  ,british nation2   
and to request that the dispute should  
be settled by  arbitration--so much the 
rather1 as the more certain one is of   
being  in the right1 the more           
confidently can one's cause be placed in
 the  hands of an impartial tribunal4   
,later on the ,english ,government1     
together with the ,north ,american      
virtually resolved on this expedient    
for solving1 the difficulties relating  

to ,delagoa ,bay4 ,portugal made        
difficulties and delays1 but at length  
declared herself willing to  enter into 
a proposal for arbitration4#aj ,all     
three ,states were now  united in asking
 the ,government of ,switzerland to     
choose three of her  most distinguished 
jurist officials as arbitration judges4 
,at the time when the first             
,anglo-,portuguese contest was settled  
by the  ,president of the ,french       
,republic there occurred a second       
example of  both importance and         
interest4 ,for many years there had been
 a menacing  boundary dispute between   
,italy and ,switzerland1 just a little  
seed of  quarrel1 such as formerly      
always broke out into bloody strife1    
since  according to the traditions of   
national honour not an inch of a patch  
of ground must be given up except at the
 sword's point4 ,but the two  kingdoms  
decided to commend the case to an       
arbitrator1 viz41 the ,united  ,states  
minister in ,rome1 ,p4 ,marsh1 who1     

after a careful study of the  claims of 
the contending parties1 declared        
judgment in favour of ,italy1  and so   
the contention was adjusted4    ,two    
,,dangerous ,,disputes1 which in        
#ahgd-ge and #ahhj threatened an        
outbreak of war between ,,china and     
,,japan1 but were happily solved by     
arbitration1 might be named1 but for    
fear of being prolix ,i dare not go     
more particularly into them1 instructive
 as they are4    ,the first arose as a  
result of a murder of some ,japanese on 
the island  of ,formosa1 and was settled
 by the ,english minister in ,pekin1 who
 was  chosen by both parties as         
arbitrator1 who decided that ,china     
should  give ,japan in redress a large  
sum of money1 which was done4#aa    ,the
 second of these disputes concerned the 
sovereignty of the ,liu  ,kiu ,islands1 
and was adjusted by a compromise brought
 about by  ex-president ,grant1 who in a
 conversation with the ,chinese         
,minister  uttered these memorable      

words3 ,an arbitration between two      
nations  will never satisfy both nations
 alike2 but it always satisfies the     
conscience of humanity4#ab    ,not to be
 tedious1 ,i pass over here many other  
remarkable instances in  which war and  
lesser misfortunes have been averted by 
arbitration2 and  will now name further 
only some of the latest date4    ,in    
#ahhg a lengthened dispute about        
boundaries between ,,chili and the      
,,argentine ,,republic was adjusted by  
arbitration1 through the mediation  of  
the ,united ,states ,ministers in the   
two countries4 ,after a complete  and   
precise fixing of the boundary line1 an 
agreement was added3 ,that  the ,straits
 of ,magellan shall for ever be         
neutralized2 free passage  shall be     
secured to ships of all nations1 and the
 erection of forts or  other military   
works on either of its shores shall be  
forbidden4    ,fresh in the memory is   
the passionate quarrel between ,,spain  
and ,,germany  about the ,,caroline     

,,islands4 ,that was submitted1 on      
,prince ,bismarck's  proposal1 to ,pope 
,leo ,,xiii4 for settlement1 and was    
adjusted by him4    ,most people now    
living remember the ,,afghanistan       
,,boundary question1  which was happily 
solved by the friendliness on both sides
 of the  ,,russian ,,and ,,english      
,governments4 ,the whole world followed 
for a while  that dispute with anxiety  
and disquietude4 ,the press unhappily1  
as  usual1 employed its influence in    
stirring up the national passions  in   
both countries4 ,but before it had gone 
too far1 fortunately the  feelings were 
quieted by the public being reminded    
that both ,england  and ,russia had     
taken part in the resolution of the     
,paris ,congress1  which declared that  
when any serious dispute arose between  
any of  the contracting powers1 it      
should be referred to the mediation of a
  friendly power4 ,upon this ground the 
,english ,government proposed to the    
,russian that the dispute should be     

referred to the ruler of a friendly     
,state1 to be adjusted in a manner      
consistent with the dignity of both     
lands4 ,this proposal was accepted1 but 
did not come into practice4 ,it  was not
 needed4 ,the ,afghanistan boundary     
commission itself carried out  its      
duties to a successful issue4    ,still 
later many smaller ,,international      
,,disputes have been solved by          
arbitration2 for instance3--    ,between
 ,,italy and ,,colombia in ,south       
,america1 respecting ,italian  subjects 
who had suffered loss through the last  
revolution in ,colombia1  in which      
,spain as arbitrator decided in favour  
of ,italy4    ,between ,,brazil and     
,,argentina respecting their boundaries1
 a dispute in  which both parties       
appealed for a settlement to the        
,president of the  ,united ,states of   
,america1 and which was adjusted by him4
    ,between the ,,united ,,states of   
,north ,america and ,,denmark1 in which 
the  latter was1 by the chosen          

arbitrator1 the ,english ,ambassador at 
,athens1  ,sir ,edward ,monson1 after   
long delay freed from the obligation to 
pay  compensation to the ,americans1    
because the ,danish authorities had     
fired  at an ,american ship which in    
#ahed was escaping out of the harbour of
  ,st4 ,thomas1 and which was suspected 
of carrying supplies to ,venezuela1  at 
that time in insurrection4    ,in       
conclusion it can be urged1--    ,that  
,,france and ,,holland agreed to have   
the boundary between their  possessions 
in ,guiana determined by arbitration4#ac
    ,that the international committee   
which met in ,washington to arrange the 
impending fishery question between      
,,great ,,britain1 ,,canada and the     
,,united  ,,states1 decided to recommend
 the creation of a permanent tribunal of
  arbitration for adjusting future      
disputes respecting these relations2    
also3    ,that the council of the ,swiss
 ,confederation1 at the combined request
 of  ,,portugal and of the ,,congo      

,,state ,government has undertaken to   
arbitrate  the possible disputes which  
may arise respecting the regulation of  
boundaries amongst their ,african       
territories4    ,besides these and other
 instances which ,i am acquainted with1 
many  others have certainly taken place1
 though attracting less attention4      
,the idea of arbitration goes peacefully
 and quietly forward1 and the  world    
therefore takes little notice of it4    
,it is quite otherwise with the crash of
 war1 whose external show of  greatness 
and glory1 and whose inward hatred and  
crime1 are desolating  the happiness of 
the nations and are accompanied by      
distress and gloom4    ,the one is a    
fearful hurricane which rends the       
mountains and breaks in  pieces the     
rocks4    ,the other is the still small 
voice1 mightier than the devastating    
storm1 since it speaks to us in the name
 of everlasting righteousness1  because 
it is the voice of ,god4    ,,footnotes3
    ,footnote #a3 ,mazzoleni1 in his    

,l',italia nel movimento per la ,pace1  
gives twenty instances4 ,see pp4 #eh1   
#ei4 ,,trans4    ,footnote #b3 ,on a    
motion by ,ruggiero ,bonghi1 supported  
by ,crispi in  a speech in which he said
 that the future depended upon a        
,european  tribunal of arbitration4     
,footnote #c3 ,see ,martens' ,nouveau   
recueil gnral1 xiv4 p4 #cb 7art  xxi471 
and ,calvo1 ,droit ,international1      
,,ii41  #adii4    ,footnote #d3         
,according to a ,manuscript by          
,president ,louis ,ruchonnet1  addressed
 to ,f4 ,bajer4    ,footnote #e3 ,see   
,svensk frfaltningssamling1 #ahfi1 ,no4 
#gd1 page #bf1  and ,lois ,beiges1      
#ahfi1 ,no4 #cf1  #bd4 ,in the          
,swedish-,siamese treaty1  art4 #be1 it 
is stated3 ,should any disagreement     
arise between the  contracting parties  
which cannot be arranged by friendly    
diplomatic  negotiation or              
correspondence1 the question shall be   
referred for  solution to a friendly    
neutral power1 mutually chosen1 whose   

decision  the contracting powers shall  
accept as final4 ,similar agreements are
  to be concluded between ,italy and    
,switzerland1 ,spain and ,uruguay1      
,spain  and ,hawaii1 and between ,france
 and ,ecuador4    ,footnote #f3 ,the    
,treaty is given word for word in the   
,herald of  ,peace1 ,july1 #ahhc4       
,footnote #g3 ,in this treaty1 which was
 concluded at ,stockholm1 ,nov4  #bast1 
#ahee1 the ,king of ,norway and ,sweden 
bound himself not to resign  to ,russia1
 or to barter with her1 or otherwise    
allow her to possess1  any portion of   
the territory of the united kingdoms1   
nor to grant to  ,russia right of       
pasture or fishery1 or any similar      
rights1 either on  the coast of ,norway 
or ,sweden4 ,any ,russian proposal which
 might be made  under this head must be 
made directly to ,france or ,england1   
who then  by sea and land must support  
us by their military power4 ,a glorious 
contrast to the declaration of          
neutrality1 ,dec4 #aeth1 #ahec6         

,footnote #h3 ,conquered ,russia had to 
bind herself1 at the conclusion of      
peace1 not to keep war ships in the     
,black ,sea1 not to have any haven  for 
war ships on her coasts4 ,stipulations  
which were perceived by all  thinking   
men at the time to be untenable in the  
long run4    ,footnote #i3 #c1aif1hgd   
were received by ,sec4 ,fish1 ,sept4    
#ith1 #ahgc4  ,see ,haydn's ,dictionary 
of ,dates4    ,footnote #aj3 ,the       
,arbitrator1 #ahij1 ,april4    ,footnote
 #aa3 ,the ,japanese ,government        
demanded redress1 which was at  first   
refused by ,china4 ,this led to a stormy
 correspondence1 which at  last became  
so bitter that both sides prepared for  
war4 ,the ,japanese  troops had already 
taken possession of ,formosa4 ,during   
this dangerous  juncture1 the ,british  
minister in ,pekin1 ,sir ,thomas ,wade1 
offered to  mediate as an arbiter4 ,the 
offer was accepted1 and led to an       
agreement  between the ,chinese         
,government and the ,japanese ambassador

 in ,pekin1  by which ,china was to pay 
,japan #ej1jjj taels1 and the ,japanese 
troops  were to evacuate ,formosa4 ,when
 ,lord ,derby1 who was at that time     
,foreign  ,secretary of ,great ,britain1
 received a telegram from ,sir ,thomas  
,wade  respecting this happy result1 he 
answered him3 ,it is a great pleasure   
to me to present to you the expression  
of the high esteem with which  her      
,majesty's ,government regards you for  
the service you have rendered  in thus  
peaceably adjusting a dispute which     
otherwise might have had  unhappy       
consequences1 especially to the two     
countries concerned1  but also for the  
interests of ,great ,britain and other  
parties to  treaties4 ,sir ,harry       
,parkes1 the ,english minister in       
,japan1 wrote to  ,lord ,derby1 that the
 ,mikado1 the ,emperor of that land1 had
 invited him  to an interview for the   
purpose of expressing his satisfaction  
at the  result1 and through him to      
present his warm thanks for his brave   

and  efficient service4 ,the ,japanese  
minister in ,london also called upon    
,lord ,derby and expressed the thanks of
 his ,government to ,mr4 ,wade4 ,he     
could assure me1 said ,lord ,derby1 when
 he repeated the words of his           
excellency1 that the service which has  
thus been rendered will remain  in      
grateful remembrance among his          
countrymen4    ,footnote #ab3 ,this     
dispute had assumed quite a serious and 
menacing  character when the            
ex-president ,grant1 on his journey     
round the world1  came to ,china4 ,when 
his arrival became known1 the ,chinese  
prince1 ,kung1  submitted to him that he
 should use his great influence in      
mediating  between the two countries4 ,a
 specially interesting conversation     
followed3 ,we have1 said ,prince ,kung1 
studied international law  as it is set 
forth by ,english and ,american authors1
 whose works are  translated into       
,chinese4 ,if any value is to be set    
upon principles  of international right1

 as set forth by the authors of your    
nation1  the doing away with the        
independence of the ,liu ,kiu ,islands  
is an  injustice4 ,grant reminded him   
that he was there only as a private     
individual1 but added1 ,it would be a   
true joy to me if my advice or  efforts 
could be the means of preserving peace1 
especially between  two nations for whom
 ,i cherish such interest as for ,china 
and ,japan4  ,immediately afterwards he 
returned to ,tokio1 the capital of      
,japan1  called upon the ,emperor and   
his ,minister1 and advocated a peaceable
  settlement of the dispute4 ,he wrote  
to ,prince ,kung the result of his      
mediation1 and produced a scheme for a  
,court of ,arbitration4    ,footnote    
#ac3 ,at the ,peace of ,utrecht1 #agac1 
it was decided that the  course of the  
river ,maronis was the boundary4 ,but   
that river divides  itself into two     
branches which embrace a large tract of 
land1 almost  a fifth part of ,french   
,guiana4 ,neither ,france nor ,holland  

had claimed  that land until gold beds  
were discovered there1 and it had to be 
decided which of the two arms of the    
river was to be considered as the       
,maronis1 and which as a tributary4     
,,neutrality4      ,side by side with   
the idea of arbitration1 another pacific
 idea1  already powerful1 is pressing   
forward1 and growing into an            
,international ,law1 namely1 the ,law of
 ,neutrality4    ,he is neutral1 who    
neither takes part for1 nor against1 in 
a dispute4  ,neutrality is the impartial
 position which is not associated with  
either party4 ,the ,state is called     
neutral which neither takes part in a   
war itself1 nor in time of war sides    
with any of the warring parties4    ,in 
ancient times neutrality was not        
understood as a national right4         
,neither the ,greek nor the ,latin      
language has any word to express  the   
idea4 ,in the days when ,roman policy   
was seeking to drag all the  nations of 
the earth into its net1 the ,romans saw 

in other peoples only  tributaries who  
had been subdued by their armies1       
subject nations who  had submitted to   
the ,roman yoke1 allies who were        
compelled to join in  their policy of   
conquest1 or lastly enemies1 who sooner 
or later would  have to bow before their
 victorious legions4 ,neutral ,states   
there were  none4    ,the centuries     
immediately following the dissolution of
 the ,western  ,roman ,empire were      
filled with constant strife4 ,this      
continued long  before the refining     
power which exists in the heart of      
,christianity  began to show itself in  
the foreign relations of ,states4       
,the foundations of modern ,europe were 
laid in war4    ,during the ,crusades   
the whole of our continent was under    
arms4 ,the  struggle against the infidel
 was not simply a contest between one   
,state and another1 it was also a       
contest between ,christian ,europe and  
,mohammedan ,asia4 ,to be neutral in    
such a struggle would1 according to  the

 judgment of the time1 have been        
equivalent to denying the faith4        
,within the ,european ,states1 feudalism
 exerted no less a hindrance to  the    
embodiment of the principle of          
neutrality4 ,it would have been  thought
 the gravest crime to loosen the bond of
 military service which  compelled      
vassals to support with arms the cause  
of their feudal lords4  ,it was only    
with the close of the age of feudalism1 
when ,europe began  to separate into    
three or four great monarchies1 that    
neutrality in  politics became a means  
of preserving the balance4    ,in later 
times increasing ,,communication and    
,,trade have above all  contributed to  
the development of neutral laws4        
,without the sanction  of these1 a naval
 war between two great nations would    
have made any  maritime trade all but   
impossible4 ,down to the close of the   
last  century1 however1 neutral rights  
were dependent either on national       
statutes or on special treaties         

concluded between one ,state and        
another4 ,the law only gained certain   
international importance towards  the   
close of the eighteenth century through 
the ,,neutral ,,alliances which  from   
time to time were contracted between    
,states4    ,in the period between #aghj
 and #ahef the subject gained an        
entrance by  degrees among all maritime 
nations except ,england1 who1           
independent  of it1 and always relying  
on her own strength1 continuously sought
 to  maintain unlimited domination at   
sea4    ,in #ahed-ef begins1 so far as  
neutrality is concerned1 a new era of   
international law4    ,from this time   
the opposition which ,england raised to 
the practical  application of neutrality
 in naval war may be regarded as having 
broken down4 ,on the #cjth of ,march1   
#ahed1 the ,french ,minister of ,foreign
  ,affairs1 ,drouyn de ,lhuys1 published
 a communication1 including1 amongst    
other things1 that the neutral flag     
during the then begun 7,crimean7  war1  

should be regarded as a protection for  
all neutral and hostile  private        
property1 except contraband of war4 ,the
 same day the ,english  ,government gave
 forth in the ,london ,gazette a similar
 declaration1  and on ,april #aith of   
the same year the ,russian ,government  
notified in  the ,official ,gazette of  
,st4 ,petersburg that ,russia would1    
during that  war1 act upon the same     
rules as the ,allied powers4    ,the    
provisions1 which thus the ,western     
powers on one side1 and  ,russia on the 
other1 believed themselves bound to     
observe towards  neutral states1 were at
 the ,peace of ,paris1 #ahef1 solemnly  
ratified  as ,international ,law in     
force for all time4 ,the principles     
which the  plenipotentiary signatories  
of the ,peace ,treaty of ,paris agreed  
upon in  a proclamation of ,april #afth1
 #ahef1 are as follows3--    #a4        
,privateering is and shall be abolished4
 #b4 ,the neutral flag shall  protect   
property belonging to the enemy1 with   

the exception of  contraband of war4 #c4
 ,neutral goods1 except contraband of   
war1 may  not be seized under the       
enemy's flag4 #d4 ,blockades in order to
 be  obligatory must be fully effectual2
 that is1 shall be maintained with a    
strength really sufficient to prevent   
approach to the enemy's coast4    ,the  
,governments which signed the treaty    
bound themselves also1 in this          
proclamation1 to communicate the        
resolutions to the ,states which were   
not called to take part in the ,paris   
,conference1 and to invite them to      
agree in these decisions4 ,all the      
,european ,states except ,spain1 and a  
number of powers outside ,europe1       
declared themselves ready to carry out  
in practice the entire resolutions of   
the proclamation4    ,many wars since   
then have shaken ,europe2 but under all 
these  misfortunes the warring ,states  
have not only conscientiously observed  
the principles laid down in #ahef1 but  
they have gone further1 in  certain     

points1 in applying them1 than they by  
it were bound to do4  ,thus the         
,austrian ,government issued an order1  
during the war with  ,france and        
,sardinia1 with respect to maritime     
national law1 in many  points far beyond
 what hostile or neutral powers had any 
ground for  requesting4 ,the ,imperial  
decree not only charged its military and
 civil  officers to follow strictly the 
injunctions of the proclamation1 but    
,sardinian and ,french vessels1 which   
lay moored in ,austrian waters1 were    
also to be permitted to load freight and
 proceed to foreign seas1 on  condition 
that they took on board no contraband of
 war or prohibited  goods of any        
description4 ,immediately on the        
outbreak of war1 the same  principles   
were adopted by ,france and ,sardinia4  
,these ,states1 however1  went a step   
further than ,austria1 inasmuch as they 
unreservedly  declared that they would  
not regard coal as a contraband of war4 
,during the ,dano-,german ,war1 in      

#ahfd1 and the war between ,austria and 
,prussia and ,italy1 in #ahff1 the      
international principles of maritime    
law received a similarly wide           
interpretation4    ,during the ,north   
,american ,civil ,war important         
questions came up1 which  more or less  
affected the principle of neutrality4   
,the question1 which  became one of the 
greatest importance1 arose in respect of
 the injury  which the commerce and     
navigation of the ,union suffered during
 the war  from various privateers which 
were built in ,england on the           
,southerners'  account4    ,the         
,,alabama ,,question took its name from 
the privateer which went out  from      
,liverpool and occasioned the greatest  
devastation while the  war lasted4      
,although the executive of the ,union at
 ,washington duly  directed the         
attention of the ,english ,government to
 the fact that  allowing the pirate to  
leave the ,english port would be        
equivalent to  a breach of the peace1   

yet the ,government took no measures to 
prevent  the vessel leaving4 ,the       
,american ,government1 who with reason  
regarded  this omission as a violation  
of the laws of neutrality1 claimed from 
,england full compensation for the      
property which had been destroyed  in   
the course of the civil war by the      
,southern privateer which came  from an 
,english port4 ,i have previously given 
more particularly the  constitution and 
functions of the ,court of ,arbitration 
appointed to  settle the threatening    
dispute which arose on this occasion4   
,the  arbitration award had to be       
adjudicated in accordance with the three
  following fundamental principles of   
international law3--    ,a neutral      
,government is bound3--    #a4 ,to guard
 assiduously against any vessel being   
armed or equipped  in its ports1 which  
there is reason to believe would be     
employed for  warlike purposes against a
 peaceful power1 and with equal         
assiduity to  prevent any vessel        

designed for privateering1 or other     
hostility1 from  leaving the domain of  
the neutral ,state3    #b4 ,not to allow
 any belligerent power to make use of   
its ports or  harbours as the basis of  
its operations1 or for strengthening or 
repairing its military strength1 or for 
enlisting3    #c4 ,to use every care    
within its ports and harbours and over  
all persons  within its domain1 to      
prevent any violation of the obligations
 named4    ,the contracting parties to  
this treaty agreed to hold themselves   
responsible for the future1 and to bring
 them before the notice of  other       
,maritime powers1 with the              
recommendation that they also should    
enter into them4    ,the historical     
facts here produced show that the mutual
 interest  nations have in the          
inviolability of the seas has           
effectually  contributed to the         
development of an accepted international
 law4    ,when the necessity of making  
the principles of neutrality binding at 

sea was once understood1 it was not long
 before the value of adopting  them on  
land became apparent4    ,in the        
documents1 for instance1 by which       
,belgium1 ,switzerland and  ,luxemburg  
are neutralized1 it is distinctly stated
 that the permanent  neutrality of these
 ,states is in full accord with the true
 interests of  ,european policy4        
,according to the actual modern law of  
nations1 there is a permanent           
neutrality guaranteed by international  
deeds of law and treaties1 and  one     
occasionally resting upon free          
decisions4#ad    ,as instances of       
permanent and guaranteed neutrality1 we 
have3 ,the  ,,neutralization ,,of       
,,switzerland4 ,ever since the unhappy  
,italian war in  the beginning of the   
sixteenth century1 the ,swiss           
,confederation has  endeavoured to      
assure to the country the security which
 neutrality  gives4    ,this neutrality 
was recognised and guaranteed by the    
great ,european  powers at the ,congress

 of ,vienna in #ahae 7art4 #hd and #ib71
 and later  was further solemnly        
confirmed by a special act of the powers
 at ,paris1  ,nov4 #bjth of the same    
year1 in which it was stated3    ,the   
powers declare 444 by a permanent act   
that the permanent  neutrality and      
inviolability of ,switzerland1 as well  
as its  independence of foreign         
influence1 accords with the true        
interests of  ,european policy4#ae      
,,the ,,neutralization ,,of ,,belgium4  
,in virtue of the ,treaty of ,london1   
,nov4  #aeth1 #ahca 7art4 vii471 further
 confirmed by the powers ,april #aith1  
#ahci1 a permanent neutrality was       
awarded to ,belgium4    ,this country1  
which for centuries had served as a     
battle-ground for  foreign powers1      
especially for ,france and ,germany1 was
 hereby secured  against such dangers1  
and at the same time the field for      
,european  warfare was materially       
narrowed4    ,article vii4 of the       
,london protocol runs thus3 ,belgium    

shall1 within  the boundaries           
established in art4 i4 and iv41 form an 
independent  ,state4 ,the kingdom is    
bound to observe the same neutrality    
towards all  ,states4#af    ,during the 
,franco-,german war #ahgj-a1 the        
neutralization of ,belgium was          
threatened with violation by ,france1   
and further guarantees were given  in   
new protocols arranged by ,england4     
,,the ,,neutralization ,,of ,,the       
,,archduchy ,,of ,,luxemburg resulted   
from the  ,london protocol of ,may      
#aath1 #ahfg4    ,as an evidence of the 
power and importance in our day of      
entering into  agreements of neutrality1
 the following may be adduced3--        
,during the ,franco-,german war1        
#ahgj-a1 the ,prussian ,government      
complained to the guaranteeing powers of
 conduct at variance with  neutrality on
 the part of ,luxemburg1 and threatened 
no longer to  respect the neutrality of 
the ,archduchy4 7,despatch of ,prince   
,bismarck1  ,dec4 #crd1 #ahgj47    ,in  

consequence of this1 ,count ,beust1 the 
,austrian chancellor1 in an  opinion    
given ,dec4 #bbnd of the same year1     
remarked1 that upon the  ground of the  
principle of ,european guarantee1 it    
belonged to the  powers who had signed  
the document of neutralization1 to      
inquire into  and to settle whether a   
violation had taken place on the part of
 the  neutral ,state1 and not to one of 
the belligerent powers4#ag    ,besides  
the ,states named1 a permanent          
neutrality has been secured to  the     
,,ionian ,,islands according to the     
treaties of ,london1 #ahfc-fd2 and  also
 to the ,,samoan ,,islands1 in virtue of
 the agreement between ,england1        
,germany1 and the ,united ,states of    
,north ,america1 whereby1 amongst  other
 things1 it was settled that in case of 
any difference of opinion  arising2 an  
appeal should be made to arbitration2   
and that a supreme  tribunal should be  
created with a supreme judge1 whom the  
,king of  ,sweden and ,norway has been  

empowered to name4           99       99
       99       99       99    ,one     
general advantage which neutralization  
affords is the  simplification with     
respect to foreign policy thereby       
obtained4    ,the attitude of a         
neutralized ,state can be reckoned on   
beforehand by  all parties4    ,in      
proportion to its military importance   
and position1 a neutral  country        
constitutes in many ways a security to  
all the powers4    ,it is in close      
connection with neutralization that in  
these days an  ever-growing need is     
becoming apparent to localize wars as   
much as  possible2 that is1 to confine  
them to those who begin them4    ,as a  
result of the extraordinarily rapid     
development of world-wide  trade and    
intercourse1 and the consequent         
community of interests1 a war  between  
two ,states necessarily occasions more  
or less derangement to  the rest4    ,in
 this increasing solidarity lies the    
surest guarantee that neutrality  will  

be respected4    ,we may already be     
justified in drawing the conclusion that
 the security  of neutral ,states will  
continually increase4           99      
99       99       99       99           
,supported upon these foundations of    
history and of international  law1 a    
discussion was raised on the            
neutralization of ,sweden1 in the       
,first ,chamber by ,major ,c4,a4        
,adelskld1 and by myself in the ,second1
  in the hope thereby not only to oppose
 the ,king's bill for the  extension of 
the war department1 but also especially 
to open the way  for a profitable       
solution of the tough1 old1 threadbare  
question of  ,defence4#ah    ,before    
this resolution was brought into the    
,riksdag1 ,i had read it to  seventy    
members of the ,riksdag1 who unanimously
 accepted it1 as did  also1 later on1 in
 the main1 a majority of the ,norwegian 
,storting4  #ai;,and as soon as the     
purport of the resolution became        
generally known  through the press1     

there came in from popular meetings all 
over ,sweden  numerous congratulatory   
addresses to ,major ,adelskld and       
myself4    ,but from its very           
commencement the proposition met with an
  unconquerable opposition from those in
 power4    ,with great unanimity efforts
 were made in this quarter to depreciate
  the value and the historical          
importance of the principle of          
neutrality4  ,all possible means were   
used with this object1 to touch the     
tenderest  fibres of the national       
feelings4 ,it would be a disgrace to us1
 it was  said1 to employ any other than 
military power in asserting our primeval
  freedom4 ,we should thereby break off 
from our glorious history1 and  draw a  
black line over its brilliant warlike   
reminiscences4 ,there were  certainly   
neutral countries to be found1 but their
 neutrality was not  the result of their
 own desire1 but proceeded from the     
great powers  themselves4 ,should we    
then1 they say further1 be the first    

people to  take such a step8 ,would it  
not be equivalent to begging peace of   
our  neighbour1 and declaring ourselves 
incapable before the whole world8  ,the 
sensible thing would be to further      
develop and strengthen our army4  ,the  
resolution was called a political       
demonstration of indigence2 a           
disgusting nihilist plot1 and so on4    
,one member of the ,riksdag proposed    
that it should be consigned to a        
committee charged with arranging for    
sending beasts abroad4 ,scoffs came     
thick as hail2 and when it became  known
 that the mover in the ,second ,chamber 
was its author1 the really  guilty one1 
he was branded as a universal           
traitor1--just as the year  before1 when
 he raised a peaceable question about   
extended liberty of  conscience4    ,in 
my defence of the resolution in the     
,riksdag1 ,i sought to anticipate  all  
objections to it which were worthy of   
notice4#bj    ,amongst these ,i give    
special attention to the following      

five3--     #a4 ,the powers will not    
enter into the neutralization of        
,sweden4     #b4 ,but if1 contrary to   
expectation1 they did1 the safety of the
   country would gain nothing by it4    
#c4 ,on the contrary1 our independence  
would be diminished by a   guaranteed   
neutrality4     #d4 ,without lessening  
our military burdens for defence4       
#e4 ,the proposition is untimely4       
,with regard to the first objection1    
viz41 that the powers would not  enter  
upon ,sweden's neutralization1 it       
appears to me that circumstances  of    
great weight imply the contrary4    ,we 
may be quite sure that the powers will  
first and foremost consult  their own   
interests4 ,scandinavia may be certainly
 regarded as specially  valuable as a   
base of military operations to any of   
the great ,baltic  and ,western ,states4
 ,but it would be quite a matter of     
consideration1  whether these powers    
would not gain more by the reciprocal   
security of  being all alike cut off    

from this base1 than by the doubtful    
advantage  of being possibly able to    
reckon upon ,scandinavia as an ally4    
,a neutralized ,scandinavia would be a  
,switzerland among the seas2 a          
breakwater in the way between ,england  
and ,france on the one side1  and       
,russia and ,germany on the other4 ,in  
case of a war between these  great      
powers it would now be of considerable  
moment for any of them to  get the      
powers along the coasts of the ,sound   
and the ,belts1 upon its  side4 ,and how
 difficult it would be for the latter to
 preserve their  neutrality during such 
a war1 must be evident to everybody4    
,so the interests are seen to be equally
 great on all sides4 ,it may  therefore 
be deemed prudent to establish1 in time1
 a permanent  neutrality of the powers  
along the coast4 ,here1 according to my 
view1  lies a great problem for the     
foreign secretaries of the united       
kingdoms  and ,denmark4    ,my reason   
for speaking here of neutralizing the   

whole of ,scandinavia  is1 that ,i am   
convinced that the brother-nations take 
entirely the same  view as the ,swedish4
 ,with respect to the general interests 
of ,european  peace1 the neutralization 
of ,scandinavia would be more important 
than  that of ,switzerland and ,belgium1
 because the interests of the great     
powers are greater and more equally     
balanced around the ,scandinavian       
,north than around those two small      
continental ,states4    ,we have old    
friends in the ,western powers2 we have 
gained a new friend  in united ,germany 
and by the neutralization of            
,scandinavia we shall  not only make    
friendship with ,russia1 but ,denmark   
will gain that of  ,germany1 perhaps    
causing the last-named power to fulfil  
its duty to  ,denmark with respect to   
,north ,sleswick1 seeing that it need no
 longer  fear that its small neighbour  
would ever be forced into an alliance   
with a powerful enemy of ,germany4      
,but it is not only the political       

interests of the powers which would be  
advanced by the neutralization of       
,scandinavia4    ,in the course of the  
last ten years world-wide traffic has   
made an  unheard-of growth and          
connecting links between nations have   
been formed  in many regions4 ,as an    
example of the effect of these we may   
mention  that even thirty years ago the 
normal freightage for corn was #ej-fj   
shillings sterling per ton1 from the    
,black ,sea to ,north ,europe2 but  the 
freightage from ,california and         
,australia to ,europe1 now1 hardly      
exceeds the half4 ,a ,european war would
 exercise a paralyzing effect  here4    
,every one who has any conception of the
 influence of the price of  corn on1 to 
speak broadly1 the whole civilization of
 modern times1 will  easily understand  
this4    ,before the century closes this
 development will have woven a net of   
common interest all over our continent1 
and necessarily called forth  such a    
sensitiveness in the corporate body of  

,europe1 that1 for  example1 an injury  
in the foot of ,italy may be said to    
cause pain right  up to ,norway4    ,the
 merchant fleet of ,norway1 alone1 is   
indeed the third in rank of all  the    
merchant fleets of the world4 ,as is    
well known1 the united kingdoms  take an
 advanced place in the carrying trade by
 sea4 ,according to what  was told me by
 a distinguished merchant1 the transport
 trade undertaken  by ,norwegian and    
,swedish ships between foreign countries
 is five times  greater than that       
between home and foreign lands4         
,consequently1 as the  keen competition 
between steam and sailing vessels       
increases1 the only  country which can  
dispense with the service of our sailing
 vessels  is ,england1 the great power  
upon which we may reckon always as an   
ally4 ,most of the remaining countries1 
on the other hand1 require our  merchant
 fleet4    ,since1 now1 we could not of 
course defend our merchant service in a 
war1 and other and greater nations may  

be jeopardized as much as we1 it  may be
 assumed that they would be willing1    
through the neutralization  of          
,scandinavia1 to secure its fleet       
against the eventualities of war4    ,if
 we add such interests as affect trade  
and credit1 civilization and  humanity1 
to the political interests1 it appears  
that we may plead on  grounds of strong 
probability that the great powers would 
be willing to  guarantee our neutrality4
    ,according to the second objection1 
the country would gain no security  from
 a guaranteed neutrality1 even if1      
contrary to expectation1 such  could be 
obtained4    ,perfect safety cannot be  
attained here on earth by any system4   
,this is as true for nations as for     
individuals but ,i believe that  a      
neutrality thus guaranteed would be a   
strong protection to our  national      
independence1 whilst in a not           
inconsiderable degree it would          
contribute to the preservation of peace1
 and gradually help to lessen  the      

military burdens of all lands2          
consequently1 and in the first  place1  
of our own4    ,treaties1 it is said1   
are broken as easily as they are made4  
,even if  it be true that this has      
occurred1 it does not necessarily follow
 that  it must continue to occur4 ,new  
factors may come in making it more      
difficult to break engagements that have
 been entered into4    ,experience shows
 that righteous laws have been          
transgressed1 but no  one would aver    
that they are therefore unnecessary4 ,as
 the moral power  of the law makes it   
possible to diminish the police force1  
so also  treaties of neutrality make it 
possible to diminish the military       
forces4    ,besides1 our opponents ought
 to bring forward evidence that the     
rights  of ,states at present           
neutralized have been violated4 ,that   
they have  been threatened is true1 and 
it would have been a wonder if this had 
not happened under the lawless condition
 which has obtained among  nations4     

,the idea of neutrality has1            
nevertheless1 as ,i have tried to show  
by  many examples1 little by little     
developed into a valid principle of     
justice2 and the growth continues4 ,the 
neutralization of ,scandinavia  would   
bring it a great step forward1 to the   
blessing both of ourselves  and of other
 nations4    ,according to objections #c
 and #d1 a guaranteed neutrality would  
diminish  our independence without      
contributing to lessen our burdens for  
defence4    ,the truth is1 that         
international law as at present         
constituted does  not permit another    
power to interfere under any pretext    
with the  internal concerns of a neutral
 state1 and therefore not with anything 
which affects its system of defence or  
its measures for preserving its         
neutrality4 ,with these the neutral     
,state1 and it only1 can deal4    ,as a 
proof of this being so1 ,luxemburg was  
neutralized in #ahfg upon  condition    
that the strong fortress bearing that   

name should be  demolished4 ,but this   
circumstance1 imperative for the general
 peace  of ,europe1 shows on the other  
hand that guaranteeing powers do not    
willingly impose upon a ,state any      
serious duty of fortifying itself in    
order to defend its rights4             
,nevertheless the powers found it       
needful  to make a supplementary clause 
to the protocol by which the congress   
concluded the neutrality of ,luxemburg1 
whereby it was emphasized1 as a  matter 
of course1 that the article respecting  
the destruction of the  fortress of     
,luxemburg did not imply any sort of    
limitation of the right  of the neutral 
,state to maintain1 or1 if it chose1 to 
improve its own  works of defence4      
,belgium did indeed construct the great 
fortresses  around ,antwerp long after  
the country was neutralized4    ,in     
reference to what one and another has   
said about the value of the  subject1   
nothing is needed beyond the fact that  
neutral rights have1  even in its       

present position1 been respected in all 
essentials4 ,that  a neutral power must 
abstain from mixing itself up with the  
policy  of other powers cannot imply a  
greater limitation of its right to      
self-regulation than that a guaranteeing
 power shall abstain from  attacking a  
neutralized ,state or from making       
military alliance with  it4 ,there is   
certainly a limitation for both parties1
 as far as  is necessary for adopting an
 intelligent union between ,states1--a  
limitation of physical force and of love
 of war4    ,the neutral ,state has not 
to submit to any guardianship beyond    
what  any man must do and does1 when he 
subjects his passions to the control  of
 a moral purpose4    ,seeing that a     
guaranteeing ,state has no right to     
interfere in our  internal concerns1 not
 even in anything we think good for our 
defence1  we shall always be free to    
keep up a military force1 large or      
small4  ,but a neutralized ,state is    
obliged to disarm the troops of other   

belligerent powers that may overstep its
 frontiers1 just as of course1  under   
the lawless condition which war is and  
which it entails1 it has1  according to 
its ability1 to protect its boundaries  
with arms4 ,but if  this duty cannot    
exempt ,switzerland and ,belgium from   
proportionately  large war burdens in   
time of peace1 this would not at all in 
the  same degree affect the             
neutralization of the ,scandinavian     
peninsula1  since there could never be a
 question of disarming troops which had 
overstepped its boundaries1 but only of 
preventing the war-ships of  a          
belligerent power from entering         
,norwegian or ,swedish seas1 a thing    
which1 under the protection of a        
guaranteed neutrality1 could not take   
place4    ,respecting the fifth         
objection1 which declares that the      
proposition  is untimely1 ,i do not     
hesitate to express my opinion that just
 now1  during the truce which prevails1 
is the time to bring it forward4 ,the   

need of a settled peace increases       
everywhere1 and it is therefore         
probable that a proposition to the great
 powers respecting a guaranteed         
neutrality for the united kingdoms would
 meet with general sympathy in  ,europe4
    ,on these and many other grounds ,i 
sought to maintain my proposition4      
,it was opposed by the ,minister of     
,foreign ,affairs1 ,baron ,hochschild1  
amongst others1 who declared that he    
could not possibly support it4 ,he      
informed us that the whole of his       
colleagues in the ,government took  the 
same view of the subject as himself4 ,he
 desired that the bill as  well as the  
contingent appointment of a committee   
should be thrown out  totally and       
entirely4    ,as the minister in this   
way has made the matter into a cabinet  
question1 there could not well1 under   
the present conditions1 be any  question
 of the adoption of the bill4    ,in    
spite of this1 however1 the request of  
the ,foreign ,minister was not  complied

 with1 seeing the ,second ,chamber      
adopted an amendment after  fifty-three 
members had voted for the acceptance of 
the original bill4    ,by the amendment 
which was adopted1 the ,chamber did not 
accept the  grounds of the committee's  
opinion--which the ,foreign ,secretary  
approved--but1 in the hope that the     
,government would spontaneously  carry  
out the chief object of the bill1       
accepted for the present the  report of 
the committee that no address be sent to
 the ,king on the  subject4    ,by      
reason of this result in the ,second    
,chamber no action was taken in  the    
,first on the matter4#ba    ,during the 
debate in the ,second ,chamber1 ,april  
#bh1 the ,foreign  ,secretary remarked  
that ,i must have overlooked the fact   
that the  ,european powers had1 ever    
since #ahad1 looked upon the two        
kingdoms of  the ,scandinavian peninsula
 as a political unity in questions      
relating  to peace and war2 why         
otherwise should ,i propose from the    

first that  the sister kingdom should   
have the opportunity of expressing      
itself on  a matter which concerned     
,norway equally with ,sweden4 ,this     
objection was  without foundation4      
,during the drawn debate1 ,march #c1 ,i 
had already taken occasion to  point out
 that it would not be seemly for one    
moving a resolution in  the ,swedish    
,riksdag to act as spokesman for ,norway
 at the same time  expressing my        
confidence that the ,storting would meet
 us in a friendly  manner1 if the       
,riksdag approved the bill with respect 
to ,sweden4#bb    ,that the             
neutralization ought to include not only
 ,norway1 but ,denmark  too1 seems to be
 obvious4    ,a highly esteemed jurist1 
,count ,l4 ,,kamarowsky1 professor of   
law at  the ,university of ,moscow1 puts
 it as a matter of great importance  in 
the interests of the world's peace that 
international seas  and coasts should be
 neutralized4#bc ,this particularly     
affects  ,denmark in connection with the

 other two ,scandinavian ,states4 ,such 
a neutralization1 he says1 will lead to 
a disarmament in the ,sound  and ,belts4
 ,these great traffic-ways would then be
 accessible for the  merchant and war   
vessels of all nations4 ,they must not  
be fortified1  but the freedom of       
navigation would be watched over by an  
international  committee4    ,at the    
,,conference at ,,berlin in #ahhe1 where
 fifteen ,states were  represented1 just
 principles were adopted for the        
navigation of the  ,congo and the       
,niger4 ,free navigation and commerce on
 these rivers was  secured to the flags 
of all nations4 ,the same principle was 
likewise  extended to their tributaries 
and lakes1 together with canals and     
railroads which might in the future be  
constructed to get past the  unnavigable
 portions of the ,congo and ,niger4 ,not
 even in time of war  may the freedom of
 communication and commerce be          
interrupted4 ,the  transport of         
contraband of war alone is forbidden4   

,an international  commission takes care
 that all these international agreements
 are kept  in force4 ,this authority1   
composed of delegates from each of the  
,states  which took part in the ,berlin 
,conference1 is independent of the local
  authorities in ,congo-land4    ,now1  
every free people has naturally an      
independent right to arrange  its own   
affairs as it chooses1 upon condition   
that it grants the same  right to every 
other ,state4    ,in consequence of this
 principle in international law1        
neutralization  is applied in very      
varied ways according to the very       
varying conditions  of those who have   
the benefit of it1 and altogether in    
harmony with  their wishes4 ,thus1 for  
example1 neutralization when it concerns
 a  territory1 consists not only in     
forbidding any warlike operation in  the
 domain thus rendered inviolate1 but    
involves a similar prohibition  with    
respect to any marching or              
countermarching of armies1 or smaller   

detachments1 even of single officers or 
soldiers4    ,a canal or a strait may be
 so neutralized1 on the other hand1 that
 all  warlike operations are forbidden  
in it1 but nevertheless it is open for  
passage through1 yet upon condition that
 no belligerent has a right1 in  passing
 through1 to land upon the shores of the
 neutralized region4    ,this is the    
kind of neutralization which appears    
applicable to the  ,scandinavian seas4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,one question which for a long time came
 up constantly at the congresses  of    
,peace ,societies1 was the              
,,neutralization of the ,,suez ,,canal1 
until it  became at last solved in      
practice4 ,after tedious negotiations1  
this  burning question was settled by an
 agreement between ,england and ,france 
in the treaty of ,october #bd1 #ahhg1   
which was later entered into by the     
other powers interested and that        
important channel of communication      
became at all times inviolate4#bd       

,upon the programme of the friends of   
peace questions have long been  mooted  
respecting the neutralization of        
,elsass-,lothringen1 and of  the ,balkan
 ,states1 together with that of the     
,danube1 ,bosphorus1  ,sea of ,marmora1 
,dardanelles1 and their ,european       
coasts2 whereupon  should follow the    
rendering inviolate of ,constantinople2 
as also  of the ,baltic1 and as a result
 of this1 the neutralization of the     
,scandinavian kingdoms4    ,in          
connection with the neutralization of   
the ,sound has arisen the still  newer  
question of the non-,german region north
 of the ,north ,sea ,canal1  now in     
course of construction1 between the     
mouth of the ,elbe and the  naval port  
of ,kiel4    ,by constituting           
,elsass-,lothringen into an independent 
neutral ,state1  a division would be    
made between ,france and ,germany1 and  
these great  powers would be separated  
by a huge wall of neutral ,states which 
would  also narrow in an essential      

degree the ,european battle-field4      
,the same result is hoped for from a    
confederacy of neutral ,states on  the  
,balkan1 with respect to the relations  
between ,russia and ,austria1  as well  
as with respect to the whole of ,europe4
    ,the ,sound is one of the most      
important arteries of the world's       
commerce4 ,about one hundred vessels of 
all nations pass daily through  this    
strait1 but only about ten 7on the      
average1 however1 certainly  larger     
ships7 pass through the ,suez ,canal1   
which in the interests of  the world's  
trade has become neutral4    ,it can be 
nothing but a gain to ,europe that the  
entrances both into the  ,baltic and the
 ,black ,sea should be rendered         
inviolate4    ,in an address upon the   
importance of the ,sound to the ,north1 
given  to the ,national ,economic       
,society1 ,mr4 ,bajer pointed out that  
so long  as the ,sound and its coasts   
were not rendered inviolate1 military   
devastations will be carried on in and  

around the strait by belligerent        
powers2 also that the facts that the    
,sound is not ,danish only1 but         
,swedish also1 and that ,sweden has a   
common foreign policy with  ,norway1    
make it probable that it may the sooner 
be understood to be  for the ,european  
interest that all three northern        
kingdoms should be  simultaneously      
neutralized1 and not one of them        
only4#be    ,in consequence of ,mr4     
,bajer's indefatigable zeal for the     
united  co-operation of the northern    
kingdoms in the cause of peace1 this    
idea  has gained many influential       
adherents in foreign countries also2 and
  on his proposition1 two international 
congresses1 ,geneva1 ,sept4 #afth1      
#ahhc1 and ,berne1 ,aug4 #fth1 #ahhd1   
unanimously accepted the following      
resolution1 which in its general meaning
 was adopted by the ,first  ,northern   
peace ,meeting at ,gotenberg1 ,aug4     
#aith1 #ahhe3--     ,considering that1--
     #a4 ,the geographical position of  

the three northern ,states1 is such1    
that they might1 with a larger military 
and commercial naval power   than they  
now possess1 hold the keys of the       
,baltic3     #b4 ,whilst the very       
weakness of these ,states probably      
removes all   danger of their using the 
advantages of this position against     
,europe1   the same weakness may one day
 expose them1 either by force or fraud1 
to be plundered by their powerful       
neighbours3     #c4 ,the inviolability  
of the three northern ,states1 and their
   independence of every foreign        
influence1 is in the true interest of   
all ,europe1 and their neutralization   
would tend to the general order4     #d4
 ,their independence1 which is indeed a 
common right of all nations1   can only 
be secured to the northern nations by   
their neutralization4     #e4 ,this     
neutralization ought to have for its    
object and legal effect3     ,firstly1  
,to place beyond all danger of war all  
those portions of land   and sea which  

belong to ,sweden1 ,denmark and ,norway4
     ,secondly1 ,to secure at all times1
 even during war1 to all merchant and   
war-ships1 whatever flag they carry1    
whether that of a belligerent or   not1 
full liberty to run into the ,baltic    
from the ,north ,sea1 or vice   vers1   
whether sailing singly or in fleets4    
,on these accounts the meeting          
declares1--     ,that ,denmark1 ,sweden 
and ,norway ought to be neutralized1 and
 that this   neutralization ought to    
include3--     #a4 ,with respect to the 
mainland and islands of ,norway1 ,sweden
 and   ,denmark1 that all parts of this 
territory shall be at all times         
entirely neutral4     #b4 ,with respect 
to the ,sound and the ,little ,belt1    
that in time of war1   ships belonging  
to any belligerent power shall be       
forbidden to show   themselves in these 
seas2 which1 on the other hand1 shall be
 always   open for merchant craft1 even 
those belonging to belligerent powers1  
as well as for war-ships belonging to   

neutrals4     #c4 ,with respect to the  
,great ,belt1 that this strait shall    
always be   open for merchant and       
war-ships of every flag1 including      
belligerents1   whether singly or in    
fleets2 but that these ships shall be   
entirely   forbidden to undertake any   
inimical action on the coasts of the    
above-named strait1 or in its seas1     
within a distance exceeding the         
maximum range of its artillery before   
sailing in or sailing out1 or   indeed  
any attack1 seizure1 privateering1      
blockade1 embargo1 etc41 or   any other 
warlike action whatever4     ,the       
meeting expressed its desire to see an  
international congress   arrange and    
conclude a treaty which should be open  
for all ,european   nations to enter    
into and sign1 which should establish on
 the   above-named basis1 under the     
guarantee of the signatory powers1 the  
neutrality of the northern ,states1     
together with the creation of a   really
 solid tribunal of arbitration1 which1  

as the highest court of   appeal1 should
 solve all difficulties that might arise
 with respect to   the said treaty4     
,that the neutralization of the ,suez   
,canal1 so long looked upon as  a pious 
wish1 may in the near future lead to the
 inviolability of  ,egypt1 will         
doubtless be suggested4 ,when this is   
accomplished1 the good  understanding   
between ,france and ,england will be    
further strengthened1  and a foundation 
thereby laid for an extended            
co-operation in the  service of the     
peace of the world1 in the young ,congo 
,state1 with  its twenty millions of    
inhabitants and a territory equal to    
half  ,europe2 a realm founded without  
costing a drop of blood1 from its  first
 commencement sanctioned and declared a 
neutral community by the  ,european     
powers unanimously1 which will some day 
be looked upon as one  of the fairest   
pages in the history of the human race4 
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #ad3 ,this and
 the following regulations are taken    

from  ,bluntschli's ,das moderne        
,vlkerrecht der civilizirten ,staatens1 
,nordlingen1 #ahgb4 ,some of the treaty 
provisions and questions are  grounded  
upon ,recueil des traits1 conventions1  
etc41 par ,ch4 de  ,martens and ,f de   
,cussy1 ,leipzig1 #ahdf1 and ,archives  
diplomatiques3    --,since practical    
abstaining from war is the natural      
assumption of  neutrality1 a neutral    
,state is bound not to assist any       
belligerent  power in warlike purposes4 
--,a neutral ,state may not supply a    
belligerent power with weapons or  other
 war material4    --,if private persons 
furnish belligerent powers with war     
material as  articles of commerce1 they 
assuredly run the risk of confiscation  
by  the contending parties of such      
articles1 as contraband of war2 but the 
neutral ,state is not to be regarded as 
having violated its neutrality  by      
tolerating trade in contraband of war4  
--,permission freely to purchase food   
even upon account of a belligerent      

power is not regarded as a serious      
concession towards that ,state1         
provided that the permission is general1
 applying alike to both parties4    --,a
 neutral ,state may not permit the      
war-ships of a belligerent power  to run
 into its ports or 7with any other      
object than to procure  provisions1     
water1 coal1 etc47 to traverse its      
sounds1 rivers and  canals4             
--,belligerent powers are bound fully to
 respect the right of peace  of the     
neutral ,states1 and to abstain from any
 invasion of their  territories4        
--,where a violation of neutral         
territory has taken place from ignorance
  of the boundary and not from evil     
intent1 the neutral ,state shall        
immediately claim redress1 compensation1
 and the adoption of measures  necessary
 to prevent a similar mistake in future4
    ,footnote #ae3 ,see in respect of   
this act1 ,recueil des traits1          
conventions1 etc41 ,ch4 de ,martens and 
,f4 de ,cussy1 ,part iii4 p4 #bdc       

,leipzig1 #ahdf4    ,footnote #af3 ,see 
,ch4 de ,martens and ,f4 de ,cussy1 in  
the above-named  collection1 ,part iv4  
p4 #ege4    ,footnote #ag3 ,respecting  
the correspondence on this question1 see
 the  remainder of ,archives            
diplomatiques1 #ahga-gb4    ,footnote   
#ah3 ,motion in the ,second ,chamber1   
,no4 #ig4    ,since the ,european       
,states have settled into their present 
grouping1 the  material preponderance of
 the great powers over the smaller      
countries  has more and more diminished 
the possibility of these defending their
  external liberty and independence by  
military power only4    ,there are      
,states whose whole male population     
cannot equal or barely  exceed the      
number1 which a great power can command 
for its fully  equipped army4    ,in    
olden time1 a small high-spirited people
 might with success fight  against a    
greater and more powerful neighbour4 ,in
 consequence of the  weak organization1 
the feeble spirit of cohesion and the   

slightly  developed art of war1 it was  
then possible4    ,now this condition is
 changed4 ,as a rule we find that the   
military  strength of a ,state is in    
direct proportion to its population and 
material wealth4    ,the consequence is 
that the smaller ,states have virtually 
ceased to  be belligerent powers4 ,such 
examples as ,germany's proceeding       
against  ,denmark in #ahfd1 and         
,england's against ,egypt in #ahhb1 or  
in general1  when the stronger ,state   
only needs to consider how large a      
portion of  its forces must be employed 
to accomplish its object1 are not to be 
considered as wars1 but as military     
executions4    ,as to our own country   
7,sweden71 it certainly has1 together   
with ,norway1  an advantage in its      
situation above other small powers4 ,but
 it concerns  us that we utilize this   
advantage with wisdom and at the right  
time4  ,this is not to be done by       
turning ,sweden into a military ,state1 
because  even if we did so to the       

greatest possible extent1 we should1 if 
left  to ourselves1 not even so be in a 
condition to defend ourselves against   
our powerful neighbours4    ,in         
proportion as a nation exhausts its     
resources by military  preparations1 its
 ability lessens to cope with an        
over-powering enemy4    ,in our day1 not
 only are great and well-disciplined    
hosts required for  carrying on war1 but
 great material riches are equally      
indispensable4  ,the relation between a 
nation of four or five millions1 and one
 of  forty or fifty millions1 is like   
that between the dwarfs and the giants4 
,it is easily understood that patriotic 
feelings may bewilder the  judgment1 and
 that our nation1 with its brilliant war
 memories1 can  only with difficulty    
perceive this simple truth1 and with    
reluctance  accommodate itself to the   
changed condition which modern times    
have  created4    ,let us1 however1     
realize that we are standing at the     
parting of the  ways2 that we have      

before us the alternative1 on the one   
hand1 of a  barren and ruinous          
militarism2 on the other1 the seeking of
 our defence  in a neutrality guaranteed
 by the united powers2 making it        
possible for  us to get our defence     
adjusted1 without any very great        
difficulty1 and  settled upon a footing 
so satisfactory4    ,the first-named    
alternative would1 in our naturally poor
 land1  excessively depress our natural 
vitality1 and in a great degree prevent 
our progress as a cultured people       
keeping pace with greater and  wealthier
 nations4 ,the second would put us into 
a position to confine  our military     
burdens within reasonable limits1 and to
 expend the powers  and resources of    
prosperity thus relieved1 in means of   
promoting  business1 trade1 science1 and
 well-being of all kinds4    ,the       
clear-sighted friend of his country1 who
 sees the population in  ever-swelling  
numbers leaving their homes for a       
foreign shore1 seeking  a new           

fatherland1 will surely not hesitate in 
his choice4    ,it will perhaps be said 
that such a choice does not now lie     
before us4  ,there are two opinions     
about that4 ,but in one thing we may all
 unite1  namely1 that a settled         
neutrality for ,sweden is a thing to be 
aimed at4  ,here almost every interest  
of the fatherland converges4    ,but if 
such a neutralization is considered by  
many not a sufficient  peace-protection 
under all circumstances1 yet no one with
 reason can  deny that it does form a   
security for our country against foreign
  powers4    ,accepting this conclusion 
as correct1 it follows that we should   
find  some practicable means of         
realizing it2 and if hindrances do meet 
us1  we shall1 on nearer inspection1    
find that they are not great1 but with  
hearty goodwill and perseverance may be 
overcome4    ,this is my conviction4    
,in drawing attention to the subjoined1 
,i would further bring to mind  that the
 seat of war in ,europe is limited in   

the proportion in which  the number of  
neutralized ,states grows1 a condition  
of things which may  little by little in
 an essential degree impede or prevent  
the outbreak  of war2 that the peculiar 
situation of ,sweden 7greatly superior1 
for  example1 to ,belgium or            
,switzerland7 must naturally facilitate 
its  neutralization2 that1 lastly1 the  
neutrality proposed does not stand  in  
the way of arranging our own defence1   
but that rather1 in case  ,parliament   
rejects his ,majesty's army bill1 adapts
 itself powerfully to  contribute to a  
right solution of the ,defence question2
 and so much  the more1 as all suspicion
 that that old vexed question aims      
perhaps  at something more and other    
than ,,defence of the country would     
thereby  disappear4    ,for this        
reason--and since we cannot expect that 
other powers should  take the first step
 and offer us what we do not ask for--,i
 respectfully  propose3--     ,that     
,parliament shall in writing express to 

the king its desire that   it might     
please his ,majesty to initiate1 amongst
 the states with which   ,sweden has    
diplomatic relations1 negotiations for  
bringing about a   permanent            
guaranteed#bf neutrality of ,sweden1 in 
harmony with the   principles of modern 
international law4      ,k4,p4          
,,arnoldson4     ,,stockholm1 ,february1
 #ahhc4    ,this motion was supported   
by--      ,s4,a4 ,,hedlund1    ,,will4  
,,farup1    ,j4 ,,andersson1 ,tenhuset1 
,j4,e4 ,,ericsson1 ,alberta1    ,,per   
,,persson1    ,f4,f4 ,,borg1    ,j4     
,,jonassen1 ,gullahs1    ,c4,j4         
,,sven',s1    ,a4 ,,th4 ,,waylen',s1    
,p4,m4 ,,larson1 ,,la1    ,p4,g4        
,,peterson1    ,,arvid ,,gumoelius1     
,j4 ,,jonassen1    ,,eric ,,olsson1     
,j4,a4 ,,ericsson1    ,,lars ,,nilsson1 
,c4,g4 ,,otterborg4      ,footnote #ai3 
,taken from the following communication3
    ,at a meeting1 ,march #cast1 #ahhc1 
of the ,association of members of the   
,storting1 a document was presented1    

being a motion in the ,second  ,chamber1
 ,no4 #ig1 respecting the               
,neutralization of ,sweden2 which       
document was sent to the president of   
the meeting by a ,swedish ,m4,p4    ,in 
consequence of this the following       
declaration and resolution was  voted   
unanimously3 ,recognising that the      
neutralization of a single  country is  
in the interest of universal peace2 that
 being secured  from foreign attack by  
stronger nations1 gives ability to use  
its  own resources and develop its      
institutions1 including its defence1    
according to its special requirements2  
that the condition and situation  of our
 country give equal opportunity for     
working for this object1  and facilities
 for its attainment2 and that the action
 taken in the  ,swedish ,rigsdag upon   
the question1 seriously calls our       
attention to it  on the ground of the   
constitutional relation between the     
kingdoms and  their union in war and in 
peace2 a committee is requested to take 

into  consideration1 how the question   
may be subjected to further attention4  
,a4 ,,quam1 ,secretary of the           
,association4    ,footnote #bj3         
,protocol of the ,second ,chamber1 ,no  
#cc1 ,april #bhth1 #ahhc4    ,footnote  
#ba3 ,see on the dealing with the       
question in ,parliament1                
,riksdagstrycket #ahhc4 ,motion in the  
,second ,chamber1 ,no4 #ig1 pp4 #a-h2   
,first ,chamber1 protocol ,no4 #cc1 pp4 
#c-d1 etc41 etc4    ,footnote #bb3 ,mr4 
,arnoldson's speech ran thus3--    ,the 
second speaker on the ,right propounded 
certain difficulties1  amongst others1  
one referring to ,sweden's union with   
,norway4 ,since  ,sweden and ,norway    
have the same foreign policy1 and the   
initiative  in this question comes from 
,sweden1 the ,union ,king ought         
certainly  to be able to act freely in  
the common interest of the two kingdoms4
  ,in any case1 it is probable1 as ,mr4 
,hedlund remarked1 that if the  ,riksdag
 takes the first step it will not be    

long before the ,storting  comes to meet
 us4 ,it was chiefly on the ground of   
courtesy that ,i did  not undertake to  
speak for ,norway too in the ,riksdag4  
,we know that  the ,norse--and it does  
them honour--are tenacious of their     
right of  deciding for themselves4 ,i do
 not think it would be seemly for the   
mover of such a resolution as this to   
make himself their spokesman  in the    
,swedish ,riksdag--not to mention the   
positive incorrectness  of the          
proceeding4 ,this is why ,i limited the 
matter to ,sweden in my  proposition4   
,footnote #bc3 ,revue de droit          
international et de ,legislation        
compare1 #ahhh1 #b4    ,footnote #bd3   
,the most important provisions of the   
treaty are the  following3--    ,article
 #a4 ,the ,suez ,canal shall always be  
free and open whether in time  of war or
 peace1 for both merchant and war-ships1
 whatever flag they  carry4 ,the        
treaty-powers therefore decide that the 
use of this canal  shall not be limited 

either in time of peace or war4 ,the    
canal can  never be blockaded4          
,article #d4 ,no fortifications which   
can be used for military operations     
against the ,suez ,canal1 may be erected
 at any point which would command  or   
menace it4 ,no points which command or  
menace its entrance or course  may be   
occupied in a military sense4           
,article #e provides that1 although the 
,suez ,canal shall be open in  war-time1
 no belligerent action shall take place 
in its vicinity or  in its harbours1 or 
within a distance from its area which   
shall be  determined by the             
international committee that watches    
over the canal4    ,article #f is a     
continuation of the foregoing and runs  
thus3 ,in time of  war none of the      
belligerent powers are permitted to     
land1 or to take on  board1 ammunition  
or other war material1 either in the    
canal or in its  harbours4    ,article  
#h4 ,the powers are not allowed to keep 
any warship in the waters  of the canal4

 ,but they may lay up war-ships in the  
harbours of ,port  ,said and ,suez to a 
number not exceeding two of any nation4 
,article #i4 ,the representatives in    
,egypt of the powers who signed the     
treaty shall be charged with seeing to  
its fulfilment4 ,in all cases  where    
free passage through the canal may be   
menaced1 they shall meet  upon the      
summons of the senior member to         
investigate the facts4 ,they  shall     
acquaint the ,khedive's ,government with
 the danger anticipated1  that it may   
take the measures needful to secure the 
safety and  unimpeded use of the canal4 
,they shall meet regularly once a year  
to ascertain that the treaty is properly
 observed4 ,they shall most  especially 
require the deposition of all works and 
dispersion of all  collections of troops
 which on any part of the area of the   
canal might  either design or cause a   
menace to the free passage or to the    
security  thereof4    ,article #aj      
treats of the obligations of the        

,egyptian ,government and  runs thus3-- 
,the ,egyptian ,government shall1 so far
 as its power by firman goes1 take  the 
measures necessary for enforcing the    
treaty4 ,in case the ,egyptian          
,government has not adequate means it   
shall apply to the ,sublime ,porte1     
which will then consult with the other  
signatories of the ,london  treaty of   
,march #ag1 and with them make provision
 in response to that  application4      
,article #ad sets forth3 ,beyond the    
duties expressed and stipulated for  in 
the paragraphs of this treaty1 the      
sovereign rights of his ,imperial       
,majesty the ,sultan are in no way      
curtailed1 nor are the privileges and   
rights of his ,highness the ,khedive as 
defined by the firman4    ,footnote #be3
 ,nationaloekonomisk ,tidsskrift1 xxii4 
pp4 #aci-aee4 ,see  also ,politiken1    
#ahij1 ,march #ca4 ,article ,oeresunds  
,fred1 signed1  ,defensor ,patri4       
,footnote #bf3 ,the word guaranteed was 
inserted in the motion contrary  to the 

opinion of the committee                
,,further ,,developments4      ,in other
 ways the ,european powers have shown   
that1 with a little  willingness to do  
so1 they can work together in the       
interests of peace4    ,we have an      
illustrative instance of this in the    
,,danube ,,commission1  which1 since    
#ahef1 has watched over the traffic in  
the ,delta of the  ,danube1 neutralized 
by the ,treaty of ,paris4    ,this      
commission1 which is composed of members
 from all the great powers  and ,turkey 
and ,roumania1 and was originally       
appointed only for a short  time1 has1  
in consideration of its great value as  
an international  institution1 been     
renewed from year to year1 and has had  
its power  gradually extended4 ,the     
commission possesses its own flag1 its  
customs  and pilotage1 its police1 its  
little fleet1 and so on4 ,it has for    
thirty years exercised an almost        
unlimited power over the mouths of the  
,danube1 has made laws1 raised a loan1  

carried out works1 and in many  other   
respects given evidence of the          
possibility of united co-operation      
amongst the powers under many changing  
and intricate international  relations4 
,in the so-called ,,european ,,concert  
is seen a commencement of an extended   
co-operation in a similar direction4    
,the war between ,servia and  ,bulgaria 
was confined within certain limits by   
the united will of the  powers1 and     
,greece was obliged to subdue her fierce
 military ardour4    ,again1 so far as  
concerns such coalitions as it is       
evident are not  formed for the whole of
 ,europe1 but are said to aim at        
securing peace  by accumulating forces1 
it could hardly be expected1 from their 
very  nature1 that they would fulfil the
 alleged design in themselves4  ,but1 on
 the other side1 it would be            
short-sighted to overlook their         
importance as a link in the gradually   
progressive development of the          
interests of various nations in the     

common concerns of ,europe4 ,one  token 
in this direction is the proposal which 
was brought forward  in the beginning of
 #ahhh by a number of deputies in the   
,austrian  ,parliament1 urging the      
,government1 after procuring the consent
 of  the ,hungarian ,government1 to     
initiate negotiations with ,germany for 
the purpose of getting a                
,,germano-,,austrian ,,alliance adopted 
by the  ,parliaments of both realms1 and
 constitutionally incorporated in the   
fundamental law of both ,states4 ,this  
proposal may have hardly any  practical 
result1 but it is worth notice as one of
 the small rays of  light which from    
time to time point the way to a common  
goal4    ,thither point too1 though     
indeed from afar1 those propositions for
  ,,disarmament which now and then crop 
up1 but which1 quite naturally1  fade   
away as quickly as they come1 so long as
 the principle of  arbitration does not 
prevail in ,europe4    ,europe's only   
salvation is a general disarmament1     

cries the  illustrious ,frenchman ,jules
 ,simon1 and yet louder the ,italian    
ex-minister1 ,bonghi4 ,the latter a     
distinguished ,conservative statesman1  
utters these powerful words in the      
,international ,review 7,rome74     ,the
 ideas of peace1 which ,i have just     
expressed and which are also            
entertained by the masses1 sound almost 
like a jest in the menaces of   war     
which we hear around us4 ,and they are  
ridiculous if the policy   which the    
,government follows is considered       
serious4 ,the great thing   is to be    
able to guess how long the ludicrous    
shall be regarded as   serious1 and the 
serious as ludicrous2 and how long a    
proceeding so   devoid of sound reason  
as that of the great ,european powers   
will be   counted as sense4 ,i1 for my  
part1 am persuaded that such a confusion
   as to the meaning of the words cannot
 endure continually1 and that the       
present condition of things1 whether    
people will or not1 must soon   cease4  

,but we ought not to wait until the     
change is brought about by   violence1  
nor indeed till it comes by violence    
from--below4 ,dynasties   must give heed
 to this1 and must hold me responsible  
for saying it--,i1   who am a royalist  
by conviction4    ,in the ,english      
,house of ,commons1 ,mr4 ,a4            
,illingworth1 ,may #cjth1 #ahhi1        
questioned the ,first ,lord of the      
,treasury1 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,smith1 ,whether 
the  ,government had recently made a    
proposal to the continental ,governments
  that they should agree upon a         
considerable and early reduction of     
armaments8 and with what result8 ,and if
 not1 whether ,her ,majesty's           
,government would without delay initiate
 such negotiations1 having for  their   
object to lessen the military burdens   
and the dangers which  menace the peace 
of ,europe4    ,in his answer the ,first
 ,lord of the ,treasury#bg said3 ,if any
  favourable opportunity manifested     
itself1 the ,government would have      

pleasure in using its influence in the  
direction indicated by the  honourable  
member4 ,but the questioner should bear 
in mind1 that an  interference in a     
question of this sort often does more   
harm than good  to the object he wishes 
to attain4 ,i can assure him that the   
,government  is as deeply impressed with
 this question as himself1 and it has   
often  expressed its view in the ,house1
 that the present armed condition of    
,europe is a great misfortune and a     
danger to the peace of the world4    ,in
 the ,german ,parliament1 also1 similar 
utterances may be heard2 in  the latest 
instance from one of the ,centre1       
,reichensperger1 who in the  military   
debate1 ,june #bhth1 #ahij1 expressed   
the wish that they could  set in motion 
a general disarmament4 ,the speaker had 
certainly spoken  in favour of the      
,government bill for adding #ah1jjj men 
to the peace  footing of the army4 ,but 
he wished alongside of that to say1 that
 as  the decision of the ,emperor in    

summoning a conference of working men   
from all parts of ,europe had been      
greeted with applause1 so would the     
civilized world1 with still greater     
applause greet the tidings that         
,william ,,ii4 had advocated a general  
disarmament4           99      99       
99       99       99    ,many entertain 
the belief that the first condition of  
such a  disarmament must be to absolve  
the rulers themselves from the dangerous
  power they possess in being able at   
their discretion to declare war1        
conclude peace1 and make alliances one  
with another for warlike aims4    ,in   
our country many propositions have been 
brought forward for limiting  this power
 especially with regard to the          
concluding of treaties without  so much 
as consulting the whole ,swedish        
,cabinet4    ,as is well known1 even in 
the time of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 the    
royal  power did not extend beyond the  
king having to consult the ,riksdag1 and
  to obtain its consent1 whether he were

 engaging in a war or entering  into an 
alliance with foreign powers4 ,the      
absolute monarchs seized  upon greater  
power1 and the law-makers of #ahji      
simply ratified this  dangerous         
extension of it4    ,now we are         
unceasingly told1 when the subject of   
defence is on1 about  sacrifices4 ,they 
declare to us that no sacrifice should  
be esteemed too  great4 ,the ,state has 
the right of enlisting soldiers by      
compulsion1  fathers1 husbands and sons1
 for the defence of the country2 and not
  only when it is really a question of  
defence1 but when it is a matter  of    
preparation for defence1 that is drill1 
even if this extend to years  of barrack
 life in time of peace4    ,these are   
the sacrifices demanded from the people4
    ,there are those who think1 would it
 not be much better if the people1  on  
their side1 demanded a little security  
that the country should not  be far too 
thoughtlessly plunged into war--war     
which can no longer be  carried on by   

paid volunteers1 but with members of    
families conscripted  by force1 by means
 of compulsory service8    ,such        
security could be effected by changing  
the formulas of government   #ab and    
#ac1 and the constitutional law  #bf1   
partly so that the  conclusion of       
treaties should require the confirmation
 of a united  meeting of the            
,swedo-,norse cabinet councils1 and     
partly also1  that certain treaties1    
namely such as include a greater        
political  intricacy1 should be         
subjected to the confirmation of the    
,riksdag  and the ,storting1 as has been
 the case with certain treaties of      
commerce--bagatelles in comparison with 
the entanglement of the  kingdoms in    
war4    ,it is simply an assertion1     
refuted by experience1 that the king    
cannot  make use of the law here treated
 of4    ,during the ,crimean war1       
according to a treaty1 we should have   
been  entangled in the war1 had not the 
,peace of ,paris intervened4 ,so also   

during the last ,dano-,german war1 when 
interference on our part1 as the  result
 of a treaty1 would have taken place1   
had not the death of ,king  ,frederic   
,,vii4 occurred4    ,the same thing     
would have happened during the last     
,franco-,german war1  if the battle of  
,wrth had not thrown out the reckoning1 
according to  a treaty which entailed   
our interference4 ,into all these       
treaties the  king could enter without  
giving the whole ,cabinet the           
opportunity of  expressing its opinion4 
,the danger of such a power begins to be
 increasingly felt1 especially  in      
,england4 ,in #ahhf1 ,henry ,richard    
raised in the ,house of ,commons  the   
question of abolishing the right of the 
sovereign to declare war  without the   
consent of ,parliament4 ,the proposition
 was certainly  rejected1 but with the  
large minority of #aji against #aae     
votes4 ,that  the proposition could     
gather round it such a minority may     
certainly  be regarded as a remarkable  

sign of the times4 ,in #ahhi1 ,w4,r4    
,cremer  made a similar motion in the   
,house4 ,he proposed that a             
parliamentary  committee should be      
chosen to examine and arrange foreign   
matters1  which were then to be laid    
before ,parliament4 ,this proposal fell 
through but progress was made1 and ,mr4 
,cremer still awaits a suitable         
occasion for renewing it4    ,a         
characteristic expedient is pointed out 
by the well-known ,belgian  professor of
 political economy1 de ,molinari1 in an 
article published in  the ,times4    ,he
 shows1 in the first place1 how         
solidarity among the civilized ,states  
of the world has lately increased in a  
marvellous degree1 for not long  ago the
 foreign trade of a civilized nation and
 the capital invested in  other ,states 
was of very small importance4 ,each     
country produced nearly  all the        
requisites for its own consumption1 and 
employed its capital  in its own        
undertakings4 ,in #afac1 the whole of   

,england's imports and  exports amounted
 to only five million pounds sterling4  
,a hundred years  later1 indeed1 the    
united foreign trade of the whole of    
,europe did not  amount to so much as   
the present foreign trade of little     
,belgium4  ,still more unimportant were 
the foreign loans4 ,holland was the only
  country whose capitalists lent to     
foreign ,governments1 and persons were  
hardly to be found who ventured to put  
their money into industrial             
undertakings in foreign lands1 or even  
beyond the provinces in which  they     
dwelt4 ,consequently at that time a     
neutral ,state suffered little  or no   
injury when two ,states were at war4 ,a 
quarrel between ,france and  ,spain or  
,germany then did no more harm to       
,english interests than a war  between  
,china and ,japan would do now4    ,at  
present it is quite otherwise4 ,trade   
and capital have in our day  become     
international4 ,while the foreign       
traffic of the civilized world  two     

hundred years ago did not exceed one    
hundred millions sterling1 it  runs up  
now to about five thousand millions2 and
 foreign loans have  augmented in the   
same degree4 ,in every country there is 
a constantly  increasing portion of the 
population dependent for its subsistence
 upon  relations with other peoples1    
either for the manufacture or           
exportation  of goods1 or for the       
importation of foreign necessaries4 ,in 
,france a  tenth part of the population 
is dependent in this way upon foreign   
countries1 a third in ,belgium1 and in  
,england probably not far from a  third4
    ,so long as there is peace1 this    
increasing community of interests is a  
source of well-being1 and advances      
civilization2 but if a war breaks  out1 
that which was a blessing is turned into
 a common ill4 ,for1 not  to mention the
 burden which preparations for defence  
impose upon the  neutral nations1 they  
suffer from the crisis which war causes 
in the  money market1 and from the      

cessation or curtailing of their trade  
with  the belligerent powers4    ,from  
these facts1 de ,molinari deduces a     
principle of justice--,,neutral         
,,states ,,have ,,the ,,right ,,to      
,,forbid ,a ,,war1 as it greatly injures
 their own  lawful interests4    ,if two
 duellists fight out their quarrel in a 
solitary place1 where  nobody can be    
injured by their balls or swords1 they  
may be allowed  without any great harm  
to exercise their right of killing4 ,but
 if they  set to work to shoot one      
another in a crowded street1 no one can 
blame  the police if they interfere1    
since their action exposes peacable     
passers-by to danger4 ,it is the same   
with war between ,states4 ,neutral      
,states would have small interest in    
hindering war1 if war did not do  them  
any particular harm2 and under those    
circumstances their right  to interfere 
might be disputed4 ,but when1 as is now 
the case1 war  cannot be carried on     
without menacing a great and constantly 

increasing  portion of the interests of 
neutrals1 yes1 even their existence1    
their  right to come in and maintain    
order is indisputable4    ,the worst is 
that1 after all1 the belligerent nation 
itself never  decides its own fate4     
,that is settled by a few politicians   
and military  men1 who have quite other 
interests than those of business4 ,it is
  often done by a single man2 and it may
 be said without exaggeration1  that the
 world's peace depends upon the pleasure
 of three or four men1  sovereigns or   
ministers1 who can any day1 at their    
discretion1 let  slip all the horrors of
 war4 ,they can thereby bring           
measureless misery  and ills upon the   
whole civilized world's peaceable       
industries1 not  excepting even those of
 neutral nations1 with whom they have   
nothing to  do4 ,the most absolute      
despots of the rude old times had no    
such power4    ,self-interests of purely
 political nature give the neutral      
,states1  especially the smaller ones1  

the right to do what they can to prevent
  war between other powers2 because it  
is an old experience that war  among the
 great powers readily spreads itself to 
the little ones4    ,de ,molinari states
 further that the neutral ,states may so
 much the more  easily ward off all this
 evil1 as they have not only the right1 
but  also the power1 if they would set  
themselves to do it4    ,thereupon he   
unfolds his proposition3--    ,with     
,england at the head1 and with ,holland1
 ,belgium1 ,switzerland  and ,denmark as
 members1 there might be formed a       
confederation1 ',,the  ,,neutral        
,,league1' for the purpose of attacking 
any of the other powers  who should     
begin a war1 and of helping the         
attacked4 ,the ,states named  have a    
united strength of #dfj1jjj men1 and can
 place on a war footing  #a1bjj1jjj4 ,to
 these may be added the fleets of       
,england1 ,holland  and ,denmark1 which 
together form the strongest naval power 
in the  world4#bh    ,suppose that a    

complication takes place between two    
great powers on the  continent of       
,europe--,germany1 ,france1 ,austria1 or
 ,russia--there can be  no doubt that if
 the ,league united its strength with   
the threatened  power1 that power would 
become thereby so superior to its       
opponent that  victory would be certain4
    ,for this reason a peaceable        
interference on the part of the ,league 
before the war broke out1 would make the
 most warlike amongst the  powers       
consider4    ,but the fact that no      
,state could stir up a war without      
meeting a  crushing superior force would
 lead to a constant and lasting state of
  peace1 and disarmament4    ,de        
,molinari thinks his plan would be      
advanced by forming an association  in  
the countries named1 which should work  
for an agreement between them  in the   
above-named direction4    ,the          
proposition will never of itself lead to
 any practical result4 ,but  it is at   
least useful in having pointed out the  

growing interest which  neutral powers  
have in maintaining peace unmolested4   
,this interest  shows itself already in 
general politics in the zealous pains   
with  which1 on the outbreak of war1 all
 powers not implicated unite to         
localize war1 that is1 to limit it to as
 few partisans1 and to as1  small an    
area1 as possible4 ,the peace interests 
of neutral ,states  become year by year 
more powerful factors in politics4      
,here we must bear in mind that more    
,states are continually passing over    
into the condition of unconsciously     
forming a neutral league4 ,they  are    
approaching the goal which they have    
long been striving after by  arms and by
 diplomacy4 ,they are1 to quote         
,bismarck1 satisfied and  do not strive 
for more4 ,such ,states are ,germany and
 ,italy1 which have  achieved their     
unity1 and ,hungary1 which has gained   
its freedom4    ,nevertheless all great 
causes of war are not thereby eradicated
 from  ,europe4    ,in the forenamed    

article by the ,russian jurist1         
,kamarowski1 light is  thrown upon this 
circumstance with scientific clearness4 
,he says respecting ,germany1 that this 
country has essentially realized  its   
national unity1 and thereby reached a   
justifiable object2 but  at the same    
time has been guilty of two serious     
violations of the  principles of        
international right4    ,it carried on  
the war against ,france with an         
inflexible and altogether  unnecessary  
severity1 and it tore from that ,state  
,elsass-,lothringen4    ,the attempt is 
certainly made to justify this by the   
fact that both  these provinces formerly
 belonged to ,germany1 and that it was  
an  absolute necessity for ,germany to  
acquire a military guarantee against  a 
fresh attack on the part of ,france4    
,kamarowski shows both these grounds to 
be untenable4 ,if nations  should       
continually look back to the past1 and  
strive to renew the old  conditions1    
they never could found a more durable or

 righteous state of  things in the      
present4    ,what ought to be decisive  
is1 that in these unhappy provinces the 
sympathy of the great part of the       
population is completely on the side  of
 ,france4    ,the possession of         
,strasburg and ,metz has not only failed
 to give  ,germany the anticipated      
security2 it has1 on the other hand1    
compelled  the ,germans to live since   
#ahga in perpetual unrest2 to keep on   
foot  an immense army1 and to expend    
their last resources in building        
fortresses4 ,besides1 this possession   
cripples ,german activity in  both      
internal and external political         
questions4 ,the situation of  ,france is
 equally unenviable2 constantly kept in 
suspense1 and with  the feeling of      
having been unjustly treated1 and       
longing for revenge4  ,is it possible1  
with this deadly hatred between two of  
,europe's most  civilized states1 to    
think of a lasting peace8    ,and what  
can the ,governments of these nations do

 with respect to this  evil1 unless they
 set themselves to eradicate it8        
,kamarowski proposes three different    
solutions of the question of            
,elsass-,lothringen4 ,a ,european       
congress might arrange the destiny of   
these provinces1 by dividing them1 for  
example1 so that ,elsass should  remain 
united to ,germany1 and ,lothringen to  
,france2 or by forming them  into two or
 more cantons united to ,switzerland2 or
 lastly1 by letting  them become an     
independent ,state with a self-chosen   
mode of government1  but with the sine  
qu non that they shall be neutralized1  
and placed  under the guarantee of      
combined ,europe4    ,it would be almost
 immaterial to ,europe which of these   
three expedients  were chosen2 therefore
 the choice might be left to the        
inhabitants of  ,elsass-,lothringen     
themselves2 and the opportunity might be
 given them  of expressing themselves by
 a plebiscite1 uncontrolled by any      
influence  from either the ,french or   

,german side4    ,this naturally affects
 ,danish ,south ,jutland in an equal    
degree1 which  ,germany wrenched from   
,denmark by a gross breach of           
international law4  ,that the writer    
does not adduce this instance may be    
simply because he  does not regard it as
 involving any danger of war4           
,kamarowski finds this to be much more  
pronounced with regard to the  ,,eastern
 ,,question4    ,this is more           
threatening than that of                
,elsass-,lothringen4 ,ever since  the   
close of the last century the ,turkish  
,empire has1 on account of  its internal
 condition1 been doomed to fall to      
pieces1 and its final  dissolution is   
only a question of time4 ,it is         
difficult to say what is  to be done    
with the remains4    ,the only          
reasonable and righteous settlement is  
to allow the ,christian  peoples who    
were in the past subjected by the       
,turks1 and who compose  the great      
majority of the population in ,european 

,turkey1 to form  independent ,states4  
,manifold causes have hitherto prevented
 the  organization of the political life
 of these nations1 shorn of political   
maturity in consequence of protracted   
thraldom1 mutual jealousy1  and         
influences of the great powers1 who     
under all manner of excuses  have played
 their own game at the cost of these    
people1 pretending  to protect them1    
while they sought to make them into     
their subjects4  ,russia has doubtless1 
even if unintentionally1 in the greatest
 degree  helped to set these nations    
free1 and to produce the present        
position  by which ,servia and ,roumania
 have been changed1 from being subject  
to ,turkey1 into independent ,states2   
and ,bulgaria1 instead of being a       
,turkish province1 has now a less       
subject position as regards ,turkey4    
,it is1 says the writer1 not altogether 
without reason that the  ,russians      
accuse their ,southern ,sclav brethren  
of ingratitude2 but  he admits that     

,russia ought partly to blame herself4  
,she has1 for  instance1 at times shown 
a decided inclination to force her forms
 of  thought and policy upon them1 and  
to get the whole of their inner         
national life placed under her          
authority4 ,this action of ,russia is   
blameworthy1 both because it violates   
the independence which belongs  of right
 to every ,state1 and because it is     
foolishly opposed to  ,russia's own     
well-known interests4 ,by such a policy 
she can only betray  her ,sclav mission1
 create more than one new ,poland for   
herself1 and  artificially shift her    
political power from north to south1    
thereby  weakening her national         
strength4    ,kamarowski further        
describes the selfish schemes of        
,england and ,austria  in the ,balkan   
peninsula4    ,these plans are even more
 distasteful to the ,christian          
population than  ,russia's1 because it  
stands in the closest relation to that  
country  both as to race and a common   

religion4 ,england and ,austria seek to 
entice this people by the prospect of   
freer institutions and greater  economic
 well-being but they can only drag them 
into their net at the  cost of their    
national and moral independence4 ,and   
the jealousy between  these powers1     
,russia on the one hand and ,austria and
 ,england on the  other1 each wanting to
 get the advantage1 or to possess itself
 of  the remains of the dying realm1 is 
a standing menace to the peace of       
,europe4 ,this danger would disappear if
 people could be satisfied to let  these
 nations belong to themselves4    ,now  
that ,austria has carried out the       
injunction laid upon her by the  ,berlin
 ,congress--for the present to undertake
 the management and  administration of  
,bosnia and ,herzegovina--she ought to  
withdraw from  these provinces1 whose   
population should be allowed to decide  
their own  fate by universal suffrage1  
whether this would result in the union  
of  ,bosnia with ,servia1 and of        

,herzegovina with ,montenegro1 or       
whether the  situation should be        
arranged in some other way4 ,all that   
,austria has  any ground for requiring  
is1 the free navigation of the ,danube  
and the  straits 7,bosphorus and        
,dardanelles71 and therewith her true   
interests  in this region would be      
abundantly satisfied4    ,the ,christian
 ,states which1 alongside of ,turkey1   
have spread over  the ,balkan peninsula1
 are ,greece1 ,roumania1 ,servia1       
,montenegro and  ,bulgaria4 ,the last   
named still stands in subjection to     
,turkey1 but has  the same right to full
 independence as the neighbour ,states4 
,it is  evidently their vocation to     
divide amongst themselves the remains of
  ,turkey in ,europe1 for their         
population in an overwhelming proportion
  consists of ,southern ,sclavs and     
,greeks4 ,but unhappily they seem to    
have little conception of this their    
task1 because they live in a  constant  
state of jealousy and bickering4 ,these 

,states are all only  just in the       
embryo4 ,they have not yet by a long way
 attained their  natural boundaries4 ,a 
large number of ,greeks and ,bulgarians 
are still  under the direct government  
of ,turkey4 ,it would be labour lost to 
attempt to guess how many small ,states 
will form themselves out of the  ruins  
of ,turkey1 or what political form they 
will take4 ,the author  remarks that it 
would be best for them to arrange       
themselves into one  or more            
confederations with self-government for 
each single ,state  composing this      
alliance4    ,europe1 in harmony with   
international justice1 should see to it3
 7#a7  that the peoples of the ,balkan  
peninsula should not become the prey  of
 any foreign power2 7#b7 that they      
should not be allowed to trespass  upon 
each other's domains2 7#c7 that their   
development should as far  as possible  
proceed in a peaceful and law-abiding   
way2 7#d7 that they  should divide the  
inheritance of ,turkey in a thoroughly  

just manner1 so  that the political     
boundaries should be marked out in      
harmony with the  wishes and interests  
of the inhabitants2 7#e7 that they      
themselves do  not invade the domains of
 other ,states1 and that they recognise 
all the  maxims of international        
justice4    ,a ,european congress1      
co-operating in such an arrangement of  
the  conditions of the ,balkan          
peninsula1 would contribute in no small 
degree to remove the causes of war in   
,europe1 and would do effective  work in
 the cause of freedom and civilization4 
,greece would acquire  all the islands  
of the ,archipelago1 together with      
,candia and ,cyprus4  ,macedonia would1 
according to the conditions of its      
nationalities1  be divided between      
,greece and ,bulgaria4 ,the natural     
boundary of the  latter would be the    
,danube on the one side and the         
,archipelago on the  other4             
,constantinople would remain the capital
 of a ,bulgarian kingdom1  or of a      

,southern ,sclav federation2 or again1 a
 free city with a small  independent    
territory4#bi ,the fortifications on    
both sides the  ,bosphorus and          
,dardanelles should be destroyed1 and   
both these straits  be thrown open to   
the navigation of all nations4    ,after
 being obliterated from the list of     
,european nations1 ,turkey would        
peacefully continue its existence in    
,asia4    ,but not even so are all the  
causes of war removed from our          
continent4  ,many are to be found in the
 ,,relations ,,between ,,russia ,,and   
,,england  especially two1 says         
,kamarowski4    ,one is the opposition  
between the dissimilar forms of         
government in  these countries4 ,england
 is the advocate of liberal social      
institutions  all over the continent1   
but ,russia poses as the mainstay of    
unlimited  sovereign power and of       
conservative principles4 ,yet doubtless 
,russia  will sooner or later1 with a   
firmness and consistency hitherto       

lacking1  strike into the path of       
political reform1 and then this contrast
 will  be assimilated4    ,the other    
consists in the opposing interests of   
the two powers upon  the ,eastern       
,question4 ,but if this question is     
solved as the author  proposes1 by the  
whole ,balkan peninsula being permitted 
to form itself  into independent ,states
 under the guarantee of united ,europe1 
this  cause of strife would also be     
removed4 ,russia need no longer threaten
  ,india4 ,russia's true well-being can 
never consist in spreading herself  over
 the deserts and wastes of ,asia1 or in 
the endless compulsory  subjection of   
hostile races under her4 ,she will      
doubtless in time  perceive this4       
,historical facts have already marked   
out the domain of both realms and  the  
boundaries of their influence4 ,the     
greater part of ,southern ,asia is  more
 or less subjected to ,england4 ,the    
whole of ,northern and ,central  ,asia  
belongs to ,russia4 ,russia and ,england

 have a common mission in  ,asia--to    
promote the ,christian civilization of  
the world2 and in this  direction each  
has her special call4    ,also in the   
relations between ,,russia ,,and        
,,germany are found indeed  inflammable 
materials2 but with wise action on both 
sides they may be  got rid of4          
,russia has1 more than any other power1 
promoted the unity and powerful         
position of ,germany4 ,except during the
 strife between the ,empress  ,elizabeth
 and ,frederic ,,ii41 constant friendly 
relations have obtained  between ,russia
 and ,prussia2 so1 under ,frederick     
,,ii4 and ,catherine ,,ii41  and during 
,prussia's struggle against ,napoleon   
,i4 while the friendship  between       
,alexander ,,ii4 and ,william ,i4 made  
possible the wars of #ahff and          
#ahgj-ga4 ,the ,house of ,hohenzollern1 
which has never been any friend of      
popular freedom1 felt drawn to ,russia  
upon the ground of its devotion  to     
conservative modes of thought and its   

absolutism4    ,but since ,prussia has  
realized her goal--that of being the    
leading  power in ,germany--the         
relations with ,russia have become more 
and more  strained4    ,one of the chief
 causes has been the disputes caused by 
economic  questions1 and that of the    
customs in particular4    ,in addition  
to this is the general misunderstanding 
fomented by the  press4 ,the political  
press1 says ,kamarowski1 ought to serve 
the cause  of peace to-day more than    
ever4 ,unhappily it by no means does4   
,with  few exceptions it helps to fan   
and feed national hatred1 and to stir   
up enmity between the ,european ,states4
 ,most of the principal organs  have a  
narrower horizon than this4 ,some of    
these papers and periodicals  are worked
 only as business undertakings1 to make 
the greatest  possible profit to the    
shareholders2 the best of them defend   
with  gross one-sidedness the interests 
of their own country2 seldom do they    
disclose any insight into great1 purely 

humanitarian interests4 ,the  political 
press is1 therefore1 for the most part a
 constant source of  reciprocal         
suspicion and hatred1 which hinders the 
,states of ,europe  from entering into  
the condition of peace they all inwardly
 so long  for4 ,dip at random into a    
heap of most of the great papers1 and   
you  will find the strangest ideas      
respecting international justice2 rank  
self-assertion in judgment1 and purely  
barbarous sentiments respecting         
subjugating and destroying so-called    
hereditary enemies4    ,lastly1 there is
 a cause of tension between ,russia and 
,germany in  their opposing attitude    
with regard to the ,sclav question2 and 
if a  satisfactory solution is not found
 for this question in a peaceable  way1 
a crowd of complications will arise1    
into which ,russia will  inevitably be  
drawn4    ,we have first the ,polish    
question4 ,in our day ,russia is        
entering1  through the power of         
circumstances1 more and more into her   

historic  vocation of giving freedom and
 unity to the ,sclavs4 ,but this        
undertaking stands in direct opposition 
to the policy which was  expressed in   
the partition of ,poland4    ,russia's  
future rle may be to favour a           
confederation of all the  ,sclav        
peoples4 ,her true mission cannot be to 
subdue or trample down any  ,sclav      
nationality1 but much rather to         
emancipate them all4 ,emancipate  from  
what8 ,from the yoke of ,turkey and of  
,germany4 ,so far as the former  is     
concerned1 a great part of the work has 
been already carried out4  ,with regard 
to the ,germans1 ,russia cannot think of
 the restoration of  the disputed and   
long obliterated boundaries of the      
,sclav races1 which  were lost in the   
struggle with the ,germans2 but she may 
assist the  organization of the bodies  
politic of the ,sclav races1 and        
co-operate  in revivifying those        
branches of the nation which are not    
altogether  dead4    ,the author        

desires1 therefore1 that ,poland should 
be restored by  ,russia's own act4 ,yet 
,poland must not demand her boundaries  
as they  were before #aggb 7that is1 the
 possession of ,lithuania74 ,once       
admitted  into a ,sclav confederation1  
she would cease to be a menace to any   
one1  but would serve as a bulwark      
between ,russia and ,germany4    ,the   
solution of the ,sclav question might1  
according to the author's  idea1 bring  
with it the dismemberment of the        
,austrian ,empire4 ,the  ,german part   
would go to ,germany1 and ,trieste and  
,south ,tyrol fall to  ,italy4          
,austria's ,sclav provinces would be    
acknowledged as independent1  and either
 unite themselves with the ,sclav       
federation on the ,balkan  peninsula1 or
 form a separate ,state4 ,the situation 
in ,bohemia would be  the most difficult
 to arrange1 since in part it is a      
,german-speaking  country2 but as a     
,sclav land1 it ought under no          
circumstances to be  entirely given over

 to the ,germans4 ,hungary also would   
obtain its  independence1 but must1 on  
its own part1 recognise the freedom of  
,croatia4 ,the inhabitants of the       
various portions of the ,austrian       
,empire  would themselves have to decide
 their fate1 and in the interests of    
all1 a ,european congress should be     
summoned1 to maintain the general       
peace1 and to prevent one nationality   
from subjecting or swallowing up        
another4    ,but while ,professor       
,kamarowski here and elsewhere in his   
treatise  speaks of congresses1 he does 
not mean thereby the meetings of        
diplomatists to which that name now     
applies4    ,congresses ought1 he says1 
to be actual international organs1 whose
  object is not to serve the fluctuating
 and conflicting interests of  policy1  
but the strict principles of justice4   
,they must be permanent  institutions1  
and being so1 help on international     
reforms1 such as  a gradual disarmament 
and a codification of international law2

 that  is1 a correct digest of the      
various regulations and principles of   
international law1 forming a common law 
for all civilized nations4    ,in the   
last named direction there is in the    
field already ,,the  ,,association ,,for
 ,,the ,,reform ,,and ,,codification    
,,of ,,international  ,,law1 founded at 
,brussels1 ,oct4 #ajth1 #ahgc1 and in an
 important  degree consisting of the    
most eminent jurists of the nations4    
,this  association1 which meets annually
 for the discussion of international    
law in various parts of ,europe1 deals  
also with the scholarly inquiry  into   
the continually growing material1       
springing from the many  international  
congresses1 which so often now1 with    
various objects1  meet first in one part
 then in another of the civilized world4
 ,as  examples of some of the most      
recent of these may be named3 ,the post 
and  telegraph conferences2 the         
conference on maritime law in           
,washington1  representing twenty-one   

separate ,states1 with the purpose of   
working  out a universal system of      
signals for preventing collisions2 the  
,african conference at ,brussels1 with  
representatives of most of the          
,european powers for considering the    
best way of civilizing ,africa1  getting
 rid of the slave trade1 and limiting   
the exportation of  alcohol2#cj the     
railway meeting at ,lugano1 for         
introducing a uniform  time table and   
scale of freight1 on all railways of the
 ,european  continent2 the ,madrid      
conference1 for international protection
 of  industrial property1 and above all 
the ,labour ,congress held at ,berlin   
by ,william ,,ii4's invitation4         
,whilst in this way the nations' own    
desire and the needs of the case  grow  
and branch into great common interests1 
the friends of peace  unceasingly set   
before themselves this distinct goal1   
,right before  might4    ,to paint the  
historic background of the activity of  
the friends of  peace would be almost   

synonymous with bringing forward all    
that is  uniting1 important and lasting 
in the history of the nations4 ,it would
  be a saga on the welfare of the human 
race through all time4 ,such a  task ,i 
do not undertake4 ,i give only a short  
indication of what1 in our  own time1   
organized peace-work is4    ,its        
activity was almost a result of the wars
 of ,napoleon1 which were  terminated by
 the ,peace of ,paris1 ,november1 #ahae4
 ,these wars had  deeply stirred the    
minds of many1 both in the old and new  
world1 and  directed their thoughts to  
the apathy of the ,christian ,churches  
in not  proclaiming1 with unmistakable  
emphasis1 that war is irreconcilable    
with the teaching of ,christ4    ,this  
view was represented in ,america by ,dr4
 ,w4 ,,ellery ,,channing1 and ,dr4      
,,noah ,,worcester1 who as early as     
#ahad stirred up the friends of peace   
to organize themselves into united work4
    ,a ,peace ,society was formed in    
,new ,york in ,august1 #ahae2 and in    

,november  of the same year the ,ohio   
,peace ,society4 ,the ,massachusetts    
,peace  ,association 7,boston7 started  
in ,january1 #ahaf1 and a similar       
society  was begun in ,rhode and ,maine 
in #ahag4 ,these1 with that of ,south   
,carolina1 united in #ahbh1 and formed  
the ,,american ,,peace ,,society1 an    
association which is still in active    
operation4 ,also in ,philadelphia an    
association was formed1 which was       
succeeded in #ahfh by the ,,universal   
,,peace ,,union4    ,in #ahad a zealous 
philanthropist1 ,mr4 ,william ,allen1 a 
member of  the ,society of ,friends1    
invited a number of persons to his house
 in  ,london to form a peace            
association4 ,they did not at once agree
  upon the best method1 and the proposal
 was deferred for a time4 ,but  after   
the conclusion of peace was signed in   
#ahaf1 ,mr4 ,allen1 with the  assistance
 of his friend ,mr4 ,joseph ,tregelles  
,price1 also a member  of the ,society  
of ,friends1 called his friends together

 again1 and  succeeded in bringing into 
existence the ,english peace            
association1  under the name of the     
,,peace ,,society4    ,the source from  
which the association sprang is to be   
found in the  ,society of ,friends      
7,quakers71 that sect which has always  
been a  faithful proclaimer of the peace
 principles of ,christianity4 ,but the  
founders were not all of this society4  
,some were members of the ,church  of   
,england and of other religious         
persuasions4    ,as the foundation of   
its effort1 the association advanced the
 great  principle that war is contrary  
to the spirit of ,christianity and to   
the  true interests of mankind4 ,it has 
always been open to persons of all      
persuasions4 ,one of its first          
stipulations was1 that the society shall
  consist of all ranks of society who   
will unite in forwarding peace  on earth
 and goodwill amongst men4 ,the         
association has always been             
international4 ,from its commencement it

 proclaimed its desire to bring  other  
nations as far as possible within the   
reach of its operations4  ,some of the  
first acts of the founders were to      
translate its most  important writings  
into ,french1 ,german1 ,spanish and     
,italian4    ,immediately after1 in     
#ahaf1 ,mr4 ,j4,t4 ,price1 the most     
zealous amongst  the founders1 undertook
 a journey to ,france to gain adhesion  
and  co-operation amongst ,christians   
and philanthropists in that country4    
,many hindrances lay in the way of      
forming an association in that  country 
which should have peace only for its    
object4 ,these difficulties  were       
overcome by founding a ,society of      
,christian ,morals 7,la ,socit  de      
morale ,chrtienne71 whose aim was to    
bring the teaching of  ,christianity to 
bear upon the social question4 ,this    
society continued  for more than a      
quarter of a century and numbered       
amongst its members  many illustrious   
,frenchmen4 ,its first president was the

 ,duke of  ,rochefoucauld-,liancourt2   
its vice-president was the ,marquis of  
the same  name1 the son of the above4   
,amongst the members were ,benjamin     
,constant1  the ,duke of ,broglie1 de   
,lamartine1 ,guizot1 ,carnot1 and       
,duchatel4 ,the  promotion of peace was 
one of the objects of the ,society4     
,a branch of it was formed in ,geneva1  
under the leadership of ,count  ,sellon1
 and the ,english parent society stood  
in close and lively  connection with    
both these associations4 ,it had for    
many years in its  service an active    
man1 ,stephen ,rigaud1 who travelled    
through ,france1  ,belgium1 ,germany and
 ,holland1 held meetings1 distributed   
tracts1 and  formed committees and      
associations in furtherance of peace4   
,between the years #ahdh and #ahea a    
still greater aggressive peace  movement
 was set on foot upon the ,european     
continent1 by means of  congresses held 
at ,brussels1 ,paris and ,frankfort1 and
 by the attendance  of many hundred     

delegates from all the countries of     
,europe4    ,this effort for peace was  
entered upon by the ,secretary1 ,mr4    
,henry  ,richard4 ,at least twenty times
 he visited the ,continent1 speaking    
for peace and arbitration in many1 if   
not most1 of the largest                
cities--,paris1 ,berlin1 ,vienna1       
,pesth1 ,dresden1 ,leipsic1 ,munich1    
,frankfort1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp1        
,bremen1 ,cologne1 the ,hague1          
,amsterdam1  ,genoa1 ,rome1 ,florence1  
,venice1 ,milan1 ,turin1 etc4    ,these 
efforts bore good fruit4 ,the friends of
 peace began to stir4  ,peace societies 
were formed1 devoted attachments were   
made1 and  personal intercourse created 
between the adherents of peace          
principles  in various lands4    ,this  
was especially the case in ,france1     
where la ,ligue ,internationale  de la  
,paix was founded by ,m4 ,frdric ,passy4
 ,in #ahgb the name of the  league was  
changed to the ,socit ,franaise des     
,amis de la ,paix4  ,this name it       

retained until its amalgamation with the
 ,comit de ,paris  de la ,fdration      
,internationale de l',arbitrage et de la
 ,paix1 founded  by ,mr4 ,hodgson ,pratt
 in #ahhc4 ,the new society1 formed of  
the union of  the two1 bears the name of
 the ,socit ,franaise de l',arbitrage   
entre  ,nations4    ,the ,ligue         
,internationale de la ,paix el de la    
,libert was founded  at ,geneva by ,m4  
,charles ,lemonnier as far back as      
#ahfg4 ,under the  powerful leadership  
of this aged captain of peace the league
 has1 by  its activity in promoting the 
idea of the ,united ,states of ,europe1 
constantly sought to work in a practical
 way for its object1--peace and         
freedom4    ,the same year1 too1 were   
founded the ,ligue du ,dsarmement and   
the  ,union de la ,paix1 at ,havre4     
,but the most remarkable occurrence in  
this domain was the spontaneous         
interchange of addresses and greetings  
between workmen in ,france and          
,germany1 which led to the formation1 in

 ,biebrich on the ,rhine1 of an         
,,association ,,of ,,german ,,and       
,,french ,,workingmen4    ,as a result  
of a visit from ,mr4 ,richard three     
years later1 there was  founded at the  
,hague1 ,sept4 #hth1 #ahgj1 ,,the       
,,dutch ,,peace ,,society1 by  ,mr4 ,van
 ,eck and others4 ,later in the same    
year ten similar associations  sprang up
 in the ,hague1 ,amsterdam1 ,zwolle1    
,groningen and other places4  ,one of   
these1 the ,women's ,peace ,society1 in 
,amsterdam1 under the  leadership of    
,miss ,bergendahl1 deserves to be named1
 on account of its  advanced character4 
,in #ahga this union took the name of   
the ,peace  ,society's ,national ,union 
for ,holland1 and in #ahgh of the ,peace
  ,league of the ,netherlands4 ,its     
present name is the ,universal ,peace   
,association for the ,netherlands       
7,algemeen ,nederlandsch ,vredesbond74  
,for seventeen years ,mr4 ,geo4         
,belinfante as the indefatigable        
secretary  of this ,union4 ,he died in  

#ahhh1 and was succeeded by ,m4,c4      
,bake1 of the  ,hague4    ,in #ahga the 
,,belgian ,,association was formed at   
,brussels1 and at the same  time a local
 association at ,verviers4 ,later on1   
,april #aeth1 #ahhi1 was  founded the   
,belgian branch of the ,international   
,arbitration and ,peace  ,association   
7,federation ,internationale de         
l',arbitrage et de la ,paix1  section   
,belge71 under the leadership of ,m4,e4 
de ,laveleye4    ,the ,,english ,,parent
 ,,society has1 in the course of        
three-quarters of a  century1 employed  
every means that can serve to advance a 
public cause4  ,by lectures and public  
meetings2 by the distribution of        
literature and  a diligent use of the   
press2 by appeals to the peoples2       
petitions to  the ,governments2         
resolutions in parliament2 by adapting  
themselves to  ,sunday and other        
schools1 by influencing the religious   
community1 the  clergy and teachers2 by 
combinations and interviews with peace  

friends  in all lands--by all           
practicable means it has sought to work 
towards  its goal4    ,first and        
foremost1 it has advocated arbitration  
as a substitute for  war1 laboured for  
the final establishment of an           
,international ,law1 and  a ,tribunal   
for the nations1 and for a gradual      
reduction of standing  armies2 at the   
same time it has never ceased to raise  
its voice  against the wars in which    
,england and other nations have engaged4
 ,at  a ,universal ,international ,peace
 ,congress1 held in ,london under the   
auspices of the society in #ahdc1 it was
 resolved to send an address  to the    
,governments of the civilized world1    
whereby they should be  earnestly       
conjured to consider the principle of   
arbitration1 and to  recognise it4 ,this
 address was sent to forty-five         
,governments4 ,by a  deputation to the  
powers at the ,paris ,congress in #ahef1
 this society  succeeded1 as before     
said1 in getting the principle of       

arbitration  recognised1 etc4    ,from  
the commencement1 the ,english and      
,american peace societies have  worked  
side by side with brotherly concord4    
,there are over forty peace  societies  
in ,america4 ,besides these already     
named--viz41 the ,american  ,peace      
,society1 and the ,universal ,peace     
,union--the following are most          
important3 ,the ,christian ,arbitration 
and ,peace ,society1 ,philadelphia2  the
 ,national ,arbitration ,league1        
,washington2 the ,american ,friends'    
,peace ,society1 for ,indiana and ,ohio1
 founded ,december #a1 #ahgc2 and  the  
,international ,code ,committee1 ,new   
,york1 of which ,david ,dudley  ,field  
is president4    ,on the #beth of ,july1
 #ahgj1 the ,english ,,workmen',s       
,,peace ,,association1 now  called the  
,,international ,,arbitration ,,league1 
was founded by members  of the ,reform  
,league1 a great union of workmen in    
,london4 ,two years  later this         
,arbitration ,league1 under ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4

 ,cremer's powerful  leadership1 had    
well-appointed local associations all   
over the country1  and nearly a hundred 
zealous leaders in various towns4 ,since
 then ,mr4  ,cremer has become a ,member
 of ,parliament1 and as such has had the
  opportunity of helping the peace cause
 in many ways2 for example1 as  a       
zealous participant in the deputation of
 twelve to the ,president of  the       
,united ,states1 which has been         
mentioned more particularly in the      
beginning of this work4    ,in ,april1  
#ahgd1 was formed the ,,women',s        
,,auxiliary ,,of ,,the ,,peace          
,,society4  ,this continued to work in  
connection with the ,english parent     
society  until #ahhb1 when a division   
took place4 ,part of the members        
gathered  themselves into an auxiliary1 
now called the ,,local ,,peace          
,,association  ,,auxiliary ,,of ,,the   
,,peace ,,society1 which has            
thirty-three sub-associations  in       
,england only4 ,the other part formed   

the ,,women',s ,,peace ,,and            
,,arbitration ,,association4#ca    ,at  
the same time great progress was made   
upon the ,continent4    ,in ,italy a    
,,league ,,of ,,peace ,,and             
,,brotherhood was founded as early as   
#ahgh1 by ,signor ,e4,t4 ,moneta4    ,a 
workmen's peace association was formed  
at ,paris in #ahgi1 by ,m4  ,desmoulins 
and others1 under the name of the ,socit
 des travailleurs  de la ,paix4    ,at  
the close of #ahhb1 ,the ,,danish       
,,peace ,,society1 or ,society for the  
,neutralization of ,denmark1 was founded
 in ,copenhagen1 with ,,fredrik         
,,bajer1 ,m4,p41 as chairman1 and       
twenty-five local associations in       
,denmark4#cb ,there is also at          
,copenhagen a ,women's ,progress        
,society1  which1 with ,mrs4 ,bajer as  
president1 placed the cause of peace    
prominently upon its programme4    ,at a
 meeting of members of the ,riksdag1 in 
the spring of #ahhc1  a ,,swedish       
,,peace ,,society was formed1 which has 

for its object to  co-operate with the  
,international ,arbitration and ,peace  
,association  of ,great ,britain and    
,ireland1 in working for the            
preservation of peace  among nations1   
and the establishment of an             
,international ,tribunal  of            
,arbitration1 under the mutual          
protection of the ,states1 to which     
disputes that may arise may be referred4
 ,the first chairman of the  society was
 ,s4,a4 ,,hedlund1 who has long laboured
 in ,sweden for the  spread of          
information as to the efforts of the    
friends of peace4    ,the same year a   
,,norwegian ,,peace ,,society was       
formed1 which1 however1  like the       
,swedish sister association1 has been   
apparently only  dead-alive of late4    
,this is the result1 certainly in great 
degree1 of the slender interest  taken  
by the cultivated classes1 who in       
general pose as either  indifferent or  
antagonistic to peace work2 indifferent1
 because1 in  ignorance of the subject1 

they look upon organized peace effort as
  fanciful and fruitless2 antagonistic1 
because they see in these efforts  a    
hindrance to getting the national       
defence strengthened by increased       
military forces4 ,as regards ,norway1   
there are1 however1 signs that a        
different view of things has lately     
begun to make itself felt4#cc    ,in    
,france the peace societies received    
strength in #ahhd1 through  the         
foundation by ,m4 ,,godin of the ,socit 
de ,paix et d' ,arbitrage               
,international du ,familistre de ,guise 
7,aisne71 ,godin's activity has         
embraced not less than forty-two        
departments in ,france4 ,besides these  
may be named the ,socit d',aide         
,fraternelle et d',etudes ,sociales1 the
  ,socit de ,paix par l',education at   
,paris1 the ,groupe des ,amis de la     
paix  ,clermont-,ferrand1 ,la ,fraternit
 ,universelle ,grammond1 ,canton  de    
,st4 ,galmier 7,loire71 and the         
,association des ,jeunes ,amis de la    

,paix1 ,nmes4    ,the ,,international   
,,arbitration ,,and ,,peace             
,,association for ,great ,britain  and  
,ireland was founded in #ahhj4cd ,this  
association1 with which the             
,scandinavian society should co-operate 
the most closely1 has a worthy  chairman
 in ,mr4 ,,hodgson ,,pratt1 a man whose 
devoted and untiring zeal  has made him 
a distinguished leader of the peace     
movement1 to which he  has dedicated the
 whole business of his life4    ,his    
sphere of action has also included the  
,continent1 and borne good  fruit4      
,amongst others he succeeded in         
instituting peace societies at          
,,darmstadt1 ,,stuttgart and            
,,frankfort2 a committee of the         
association at  ,,budapest2 and in      
,,rome1 the ,associazione per           
l',arbitrato e la ,pace tra  le         
,nazione1 with ,,ruggiero ,,bonghi as   
president2 and also in ,,milan1 the     
,unione ,lombarda per la ,pace e        
l',arbitrato ,internazionale4    ,in the

 course of the last three years1        
#ahhf-ij1 the idea of peace has  made   
great progress in ,italy4 ,the movement 
has not been confined to any  special   
class of society1 or to any particular  
political or religious  party1 but has  
spread alike amongst all4    ,in the    
autumn of #ahhh the central committee of
 the ,italian ,league  of ,peace and    
,liberty sent out a leaflet1 with a     
protest against any  war with ,france4  
,the central committee1 which numbers   
amongst its  members1 senators1         
deputies1 and many of ,garibaldi's      
former companions  in arms1 declares3   
,the league requires all ,italians1     
young and old1  women and men1          
philosophers1 tradesmen and working men1
 to unite all  their energies in the    
great work of peace2 that there may be  
an end of  armaments1 which are a       
positive ruin to all nations4    ,in the
 course of #ahhi several important peace
 congresses were held4  ,in ,milan1 such
 a congress met for the first time1     

,january #acth1  representing #bjj      
associations in ,france1 ,italy1 and    
,spain and for  the second time1 ,april 
#bhth1 when fifty-four ,italian         
societies were  represented4 ,eight days
 after the first ,milan meeting1 a      
similar one  took place in ,naples1     
attended by #c1jjj persons1 which       
expressed the  united views of five     
hundred associations4    ,lastly1 a     
congress was held in ,rome1 ,may #aj-ad1
 which represented  thirty-nine peace   
associations1 the ex-minister ,bonghi in
 the chair4  ,the meeting expressed the 
desire that governments would find means
 to  diminish the war burdens by        
international agreements similar to     
those  by which economic and scientific 
matters are already arranged1 as well   
as questions dealing with general       
sanitary concerns4 ,a committee1        
consisting of six senators and deputies1
 was afterwards chosen for  further work
 in the cause of peace4    ,a specially 
noteworthy feature in these ,italian    

peace congresses is the  deep repugnance
 to the ,triple ,alliance--which is     
regarded as a standing  menace of       
war1--and a strong craving for good     
relations with ,france4    ,the way to  
this lies through increased peaceful    
connection4 ,this was  especially       
manifest in the meeting at ,rome1 which 
had to prepare for  the participation of
 ,italians in the ,peace ,congress at   
,paris in the  summer of #ahhi4    ,the 
,congresses of #ahhi formed part of the 
great commemoration of the  ,revolution2
 that meeting of international          
fraternity which1 in the  words of      
,president ,carnot in his opening1      
speech1 shall hasten the  time when the 
resources of the nations1 and the labour
 of mankind1  shall be dedicated only to
 the works of peace4    ,one of these   
gatherings1 the ,universal ,peace       
,congress1 ,june #bc-bg1  which was     
composed of delegates from the peace    
societies of ,europe and  ,america1 had1
 amongst other vocations1 to express    

itself on certain  general principles   
for carrying forward the idea of        
arbitration4 ,it  specially maintained  
and emphasized that the principle of    
arbitration  ought to form a part of    
fundamental law in the constitution of  
every  ,state4#ce ,before the meeting   
closed1 it was decided that the next    
,universal ,congress should be held in  
,london in #ahij4    ,the other         
assembly1 an ,,interparliamentary       
,,conference 7,june #bi-cj71  composed  
exclusively of legislators from many    
lands1 was entitled to  express itself  
more definitely on the adoption of      
actual measures2  notably1 on the best  
means of bringing about arbitration     
treaties  between certain ,states and   
groups of ,states4    ,with this        
,interparliamentary ,conference1 this   
international  parliamentary meeting1 we
 come to the beginning of a new and     
exalted  organization1 forming almost a 
powerful prelude to co-operation between
  ,england1 ,america and ,france1 such  

as ,i spoke of in the commencement of   
this book4    ,after the emissaries of  
the #bgj members of the legislature had 
in the  autumn of #ahhg fulfilled their 
mission to ,america1 and had started an 
active movement there which has since   
spread over the whole ,american         
continent1 ,english and ,french         
representatives of the people met in    
,paris1 ,october #cast1 #ahhh1 and      
decided on behalf of many hundreds  of  
their absent associates that a meeting  
of members of as many  parliaments as   
possible should take place during the   
,universal  ,exposition in #ahhi4       
,this resolution was carried into       
effect4 ,on ,june #ajth about one       
hundred parliamentary representatives   
assembled in ,paris from ,belgium1      
,denmark1 ,england1 ,france1 ,hungary1  
,italy1 ,liberia1 the ,united ,states   
and ,spain4 ,nearly four hundred members
 of various parliaments had given  their
 adhesion to the design of the meeting4 
,jules ,simon opened the  proceedings4  

,many important resolutions were passed1
 with a view to  practically carrying   
into effect the principle of            
arbitration4 ,after  this it was        
arranged that a similar assembly should 
meet annually in  one or other of the   
capital cities of the countries in      
sympathy2 in  #ahij1 in ,london2 and    
lastly1 a committee of forty was chosen1
 composed1  according to resolution1 of 
six members of every nationality1 which 
should undertake the preparation of the 
next conference1 send out the           
invitations1 collect the necessary      
contributions1 and in the interim do    
all in their power to remove the        
misunderstandings which might possibly  
arise1 when it appealed1 as it would be 
needful to do1 to public  opinion4      
,pursuant to the invitation of this     
committee1 the second ,international    
,assembly of ,members of ,parliament met
 in ,london1 ,july #bb-bc1 #ahij4    ,in
 consequence of the second ,universal   
,peace ,congress1 the central  gathering

 of the peace societies1 being held only
 a short time  previously 7,july        
#ad-ai71 a large number of influential  
men attended  this international meeting
 of legislators2 but whilst amongst     
those who  took part in the first named 
conference1 the ,universal ,peace       
,congress1  were a fair number of       
,m4,p4s of various countries1 yet 7with 
few  exceptions7 all those who took part
 in the interparliamentary meeting  were
 members of one or other national       
legislative assembly4    ,the second    
,interparliamentary ,conference1 in     
,london1 #ahij1 had double  the         
attendance of the first1 in ,paris1     
members from ,austria1 ,belgium1        
,denmark1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1  
,holland1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 ,norway1    
,spain and ,sweden2 besides which1 more 
than a thousand representatives  of the 
people1 who were prevented attending1   
signified by letter their  adhesion4    
,amongst these were ,gladstone1         
,clemenceau1 the ,vice-president  of the

 ,german ,reichstag1 ,baumbach1 the     
,italian ,prime ,minister ,crispi1      
,andrassy1 and three ,french ,ministers4
 ,ninety-four ,italian senators  and    
deputies1 and thirty-one members of the 
,spanish ,cortes1 in their  respective  
addresses1 expressed their sympathy with
 the work of the  conference4 ,the      
ex-,lord ,chancellor1 ,lord ,herschell1 
acted as chairman4    ,the most         
important resolution of the meeting was1
 that all civilized  governments were   
urged to refer all disputes in which    
they might be  involved to arbitration  
for solution4    ,those present bound   
themselves to work to the best of their 
ability for  the object1 especially     
through the press and in the national   
assembly  of their own lands1 and thus  
gradually win public opinion over to the
  cause4    ,as a first step towards    
practically settling international      
disputes by  arbitration1 the conference
 urged that in all treaties affecting   
trade1  literature1 or other            

arrangements1 a special arbitral clause 
should be  inserted4    ,amongst other  
resolutions it was voted1 that a        
parliamentary committee  should be      
created in each country for mutual      
consultation on  international matters4 
,lastly1 a standing interparliamentary  
committee of thirty members  was chosen1
 to serve as a connecting link in the   
interval between the  conferences4      
,the third ,interparliamentary          
,conference will meet in ,rome in #ahia4
    ,in the fact that these conferences 
are composed of legislators chosen  by  
the people lies their peculiar          
significance4 ,they speak with power1   
because they are supported by millions  
of electors in various lands4  ,the     
weight of their utterances naturally    
increases in the proportion  in which   
the number of members grows4 ,as yet    
this parliament of the  peoples         
represents only a minority of the       
national assemblies2 but the  day may be
 coming when it will express the opinion

 of the majority1 and  that would be the
 triumph of right over might4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,in the effort to reach this goal there 
must be no settling into  stagnation4   
,the peace societies especially must    
work with all their  might to get       
friends of peace into parliament1 and   
subscribe to enable  them to take part  
in the interparliamentary meetings4 ,it 
would1 of  course1 be still better if   
the means for their attendance were     
supplied  by a public grant4    ,here   
the ,,norwegian ,,storting has set an   
example which will be to its  honour for
 all time2 for after about sixty members
 had joined the  interparliamentary     
union1 and chosen ,messrs4 ,ullmann1    
,horst and ,lund  as representatives to 
the conference in ,london1 #ahij2 and   
after the  ,arbitration resolution moved
 had been adopted by the ,storting      
7voted  ,july #bnd1 #ahij1 by eighty    
votes against twenty-nine71 a subsidy of
  #a1bjj kroner was granted for the     

travelling expenses of the three        
delegates to1 the ,london conference4   
,this is probably the first time in the 
life of the nations that a ,state  has  
granted money in support of a direct    
effort to make a breach in the  old     
system of ,cain4    ,there is less      
strain in ,america3 a similar inception 
seems to be at  hand4 ,long before the  
great rousing in #ahhg1 the present     
,united ,states  ,minister1 ,,james ,g4 
,,blaine1 was possessed with the idea of
 bringing  about a peace-treaty between 
all the independent ,states of ,north   
and  ,south ,america4 ,he stood at the  
head of the ,foreign ,department of the 
,union when ,general ,garfield was      
,president1 #ahha1 and already at that  
time entertained this grand idea4 ,he   
desired1 in order to realize it1  to    
invite all the ,american ,states1 by    
means of government emissaries1  to take
 part in an international congress at   
,washington4 ,in the interim  ,garfield 
died1 and when ,arthur became           

,president1 ,blaine ceased to be        
,minister of ,foreign ,affairs2 but as  
soon as1 upon ,harrison being chosen  to
 the presidency1 he became ,foreign     
,minister again1 he resumed the         
interrupted work4    ,in ,june1 #ahhh1  
the ,president confirmed a resolution   
adopted by  ,congress1 empowering him to
 invite all the ,american ,states to a  
conference composed of emissaries from  
their governments1 with the view  of    
establishing a ,tribunal of ,arbitration
 for settling differences that  may     
arise between them2 and for establishing
 by commercial treaties  more facile    
trade combinations1 adapted to the needs
 of the various  ,states1 and their     
productive and economic well-being4     
,the invitations were issued1 and met   
with approval by all the  independent   
,states throughout ,america4    ,the    
representatives of these ,states met at 
,washington1 ,oct4 #ast1  #ahhi1 in a   
deliberative assembly1 which was styled 
the ,,pan-,,american  ,,conference4 ,mr4

 ,blaine was voted to the chair1 and    
under his leading  the members of the   
congress decided to begin with a        
circular tour of  forty days through the
 whole of the ,states of the ,union4    
,its labours  were afterwards continued 
until ,april #ahth1 #ahij4    ,the      
results of the ,conference as regards   
the common interests of  trade and      
commerce1 etc41 will only be felt       
gradually1 since many  of these matters 
are of intricate character1 and in some 
instances  require entirely fresh       
international transactions4 ,but as     
regards  the chief thing--viz41 the     
establishment of a permanent tribunal of
  arbitration--the object was achieved4 
,congress almost unanimously#cf adopted 
the resolution of the report  of the    
committee respecting the election of    
such a supreme judicial  authority in   
case of any menacing international      
disagreement4    ,the members of the    
,conference were not authorized to      
conclude binding  treaties4 ,their task 

was confined to deliberating upon       
affairs which  might have a reciprocal  
interest in various countries1 and then 
laying  before their governments such   
resolutions as in the opinion of the    
,conference might best promote the      
well-being of all the ,states4          
,nevertheless the majority of the       
,states later bound themselves to the   
conclusions of the congress4 ,indeed1 a 
week before the assembly broke  up the  
respective members for ,brazil1         
,bolivia1 ,columbia1 ,equador1          
,guatemala1 ,hayti1 ,honduras1          
,nicaragua and ,salvador1 were empowered
 to  sign at ,washington the            
arbitration-treaty adopted by the       
,pan-,american  ,conference2 and the    
other governments have since in the same
 way  sanctioned it4#cg    ,when this   
document has been fully confirmed1 a    
quarter of the inhabited  world will be 
rendered inviolate1 and #abj millions of
 men set free from  the chronic frenzy  
of war4    ,if minor breaches of the    

peace possibly may not thereby be for   
ever  prevented1 yet certainly the      
irresponsible system of violence will   
become powerless against the force of   
civilization which is spreading  over   
the whole ,western hemisphere4          
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #bg3 ,as an   
adherent of the ,conservative party1 he 
has always  held to a strong armed      
force1 and hardly ever supported peace  
efforts4    ,footnote #bh3 ,that he does
 not take in the ,scandinavian          
peninsula1 must  be because he regards  
the position of the northern kingdoms as
 too  remote from the continental       
quarrels to be sensibly disturbed by    
them2  or because he has not a high     
opinion of the fitness of their military
  forces for attack1 which is here      
alluded to4    ,footnote #bi3 ,according
 to the proposal of an old diplomatist1 
the  ,sultan should be given a similar  
position in ,constantinople to that  of 
the ,pope1 now1 in ,rome4 ,thereby the  
,sultan would become innocuous  to      

,europe1 but continue to be the ,ruler  
of the ,faithful to ,asia4  7,la        
question d',orient devant l',europe     
democratique4 ,paris3 ,e4 ,dentu1       
libraire1 #ahhf74    ,footnote #cj3 ,in 
the ,united ,states ,congress1 ,mr4     
,blaine has introduced  a bill for      
calling an international conference in  
,washington1 in #ahia1  for making an   
alliance1 whose object is the           
suppression of slavery and  the         
prohibition of alcohol in uncivilized   
countries4 ,the conference is  further  
to discuss the creation of a tribunal of
 ,arbitration1 for the  solution of     
international questions1 and a general  
disarmament4    ,footnote #ca3 ,since   
amalgamated with the ,women's ,committee
 of the  ,international ,arbitration and
 ,peace ,association4    ,footnote #cb3 
,for the objects of this ,association   
see ,appendix4    ,footnote #cc3 ,on    
,august #hth1 #ahia1 at a meeting at    
,seljord1 a ,new  ,norwegian ,peace     
,association was formed1 and a          

provisional ,committee  appointed4      
,,trans4    ,footnote #cd3 ,for         
programme of the ,association see       
,appendix4    ,footnote #ce3 ,this      
principle is likely to be realized by   
the bill of  the constitution of the    
,brazilian ,republic1 sanctioned by the 
executive  of the new free ,state1 which
 proclaims that the ,government may not 
begin a war without having first        
appealed to arbitration4    ,footnote   
#cf3 ,the scruples entertained by       
,chili1 ,argentina and ,mexico  appear  
to have been dropped1 in the case at    
least of the two last  named4           
,footnote #cg3 ,for provisions of this  
,treaty see ,appendix4          ,,the   
,,prospects4      ,the events which ,i  
have here described will perhaps one day
 be regarded  as the transition into a  
new era4 ,but specially here1 in the    
,old ,world1  with its many unsettled   
accounts1 we cannot rely upon bright    
pictures  of the future4 ,we are        
convinced of nothing beyond the range of

 our own  knowledge and experience4     
,i have thought so myself1 and therefore
 ,i have endeavoured to keep to  facts  
which no one can deny4    ,it is a fact 
that ,,wars ,,continually ,,diminish in 
proportion as peoples  are brought      
nearer to one another by trade and      
commerce4 ,the old  warlike condition   
has ceased4 ,formerly not a year passed 
without war in  ,europe--in the ,middle 
,ages hardly a week4 ,after #ahae an    
international  peace reigned over most  
of the ,european ,states for forty      
years4 ,in the  ,scandinavian peninsula 
that peace is continuing still4 ,before 
that  time1 at least until #agba1       
,sweden was almost continually involved 
in  war4 ,we reckon two hundred and     
sixty years of war to the ,kalmar       
,union1  and the proneness to invade and
 defend the countries on the other side 
the ,baltic4    ,the old ,,causes ,,of  
,,war ,,are ,,being ,,removed4          
,certainly new ones arise as a  result  
of selfish patriotism1 breaking out in  

new acts of violence4 ,but  these       
outbreaks of barbarism become           
continually more rare4 ,unhappily1  they
 are so much the more horrible when they
 do occur1 but yet much  ,more          
transitory4 ,this is applicable to all  
the great wars in the last  half of the 
present century4 ,no thirty years' war  
is known now4    ,in consequence of the 
shorter flow of blood the wounds get    
time to  heal1 and the divided interests
 are allowed to grow together again4    
,the levers of civilization are again in
 motion2 commerce spreads over  land and
 sea by steam1 electricity1 and other   
motive powers4 ,the  victories of       
,alexander and ,napoleon are cast into  
the shade by the  triumphal procession  
of the tiny postage stamp around the    
world4 ,trade  and industry1 art and    
science1 efforts in the direction of    
universal  morality and enlightenment1  
all branch out and weave around the     
nations a boundless web of common       
interests1 which1 though at certain     

intervals violently torn asunder by     
brute force1 grows together again  with 
increased strength and in broader       
compass2 until one day1 under  the      
majesty of law1 it will form an         
irresistible civilizing power4    ,this 
is what in ,,reality ,,is ,,taking      
,,place4 ,men do not in general see it2 
and this1 because they busy themselves  
so much with warlike notions1  and      
trouble themselves so little about      
events of the character that ,i  have   
dwelt upon in the foregoing pages4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,the friends of peace ought to stimulate
 one another1 especially when  there is 
gloom over the great world1 and no one  
knows whence the  approaching calamity  
may spring4 ,once it was warded off from
 our land  by a wise measure of one of  
our kings4 ,i refer to ,oscar ,i41 when 
he  saved us from being embroiled in the
 chances of war1 by drawing up a        
,,declaration ,,of ,,neutrality in      
#ahed1 which was approved by the united 

powers1 and earned for him the homage   
and gratitude of the ,swedish  ,riksdag1
 in an address which lauded him as one  
of the wisest and  noblest of kings4#ch 
,but there is little security that the  
same expedient will always lead  to a   
like successful result1 if people wait  
till war is at the door  before setting 
to work4    ,in time of peace1 and      
during the specially good relations     
which obtain  between the two           
,english-speaking nations1 as well as   
between ,france  and ,america1 our      
fellow-workers on both sides the        
,atlantic are making  use of the        
favourable opportunity for trying to get
 this good relation  established by law4
    ,it may well be asked why we1 who   
are friendly with the whole world1      
should not be able to do the same1 not  
only with respect to ,siam1 but  also   
first and foremost with our near        
neighbours4    ,it was this thought     
which led to the ,arbitration resolution
 in #ahij1 in  the ,storting and in the 

,riksdag4    ,at the first meeting of   
the ,left 7,liberals7 of the ,storting1 
,feb4 #dth1  the subject was discussed  
and gained unanimous adhesion4          
,whereupon  followed the resolution in  
the ,storting on the #bast1 which was   
adopted  by a large majority1 ,march    
#eth1 after the ,minister of ,state     
7,stang7 had  delivered a long speech   
against the resolution in vain4         
,after this successful result1 a similar
 resolution for ,sweden was  brought    
into the ,first ,chamber by ,f4,t4      
,borg1 and in the ,second by ,j4        
,andersson4 ,the reports of the         
committees upon it ran diversely4 ,the  
committee of the ,first ,chamber        
opposed1 and that of the ,second        
,chamber  approved1 the resolution4 ,on 
,may #abth the question was thrown out  
in  both ,chambers4#ci    ,mr4 ,borg    
spoke with dignity for his resolution in
 a long speech4 ,this  was answered by  
the chairman of the committee1 with a   
reminder of the  perverse condition of  

the world and of the human race4 ,the   
resolution  contained a meaningless     
expression of opinion4 ,it was a real   
danger  for small nations to go to      
sleep1 hoping and believing in a lasting
  peace4 ,it was now just as in the     
olden times3 those who loved peace  and 
would preserve it must prepare for war4 
,the speaker had1 as  chairman of the   
committee1 expressed sympathy with the  
resolution1 but  he added1 one does not 
get far with paper and words2 and1      
according to  my opinion1 the honourable
 mover of the resolution will certainly 
show  more love for peace if he1 next   
year1 on coming back with this peace    
business1 will set about it with a      
proposition for some ironclads and      
artillery regiments or such like things1
 of more effectual service than  the    
platonic love which he has expressed2   
and ,i venture to predict that  both the
 committee and the ,chamber will support
 him more powerfully  than to-day4      
,after another distinguished genius had 

expressed himself in the same           
well-known fashion1 wherein proofs were 
conspicuous by their absence1  and the  
narrow circle of thought was filled with
 scorn and slighting  talk about pious  
notions1 etc41 the ,high ,chamber threw 
out the bill  by fifty-six votes against
 four4    ,in the ,second ,chamber the  
debate was opened by the ,foreign       
,minister  with a speech which clearly  
enough justifies the ,,memorial         
,,diplomatique where it points to the   
necessity of the study of the           
arbitration-system having a high place  
amongst the requirements made of  those 
who enter the path of diplomacy2--a     
thing that they have actually  begun    
seriously to set before themselves in   
,england4    ,in full accord with the   
evidence brought forward above1 the     
judicial  professor of the ,chamber     
declared in short that the ,chamber     
would  disgrace itself by adopting the  
resolution before it4    ,after the     
mover of the resolution and some who    

shared his views had  expressed their   
hope that the ,chamber would not fall   
back from the  position it took in #ahgd
 upon this question1 a speaker rose who 
requires to be met1 ,herr ,a4 ,hedin4   
,he began with the assertion that if a  
refusal of the report of the  committee 
would show that the ,chamber had now    
changed its opinion1  they had before   
them sufficient reason for this4 ,he    
wondered that a  resolution of such a   
nature as this had been brought forward1
 so soon  after the unpleasant          
experience which the country and people 
of ,sweden  lately had in a so-called   
decision by arbitration4 ,the ,chamber  
will  please to remember1 continued the 
speaker1 that the king1 with no         
authority from the ,riksdag1 agreed with
 ,spain to appeal to arbitration  upon  
the difficulties that had arisen on the 
right understanding of  the prolonged   
commercial treaty with ,spain4 ,also the
 ,chamber will  please to remember that 
this arbitration tribunal neither acted 

upon  the plan settled in the agreement1
 nor did it act in harmony with  the    
instructions of the treaty2 and what was
 worse1 the so-called1  or supposed1    
sentence which this one-man arbitration 
tribunal passed  did not concern the    
matter1 which according to the agreement
 was to  have been settled by           
arbitration1 but quite another1 which   
could not  reasonably be subjected to   
arbitration--though the matter was1 so  
far  as we were legally concerned1 made 
to appear as though ,sweden had         
received an injustice in the principal  
matter which should have been  tried by 
arbitration1 but which was not--a       
circumstance which1 with the  ,spanish  
authorities1 has greatly weakened the   
position in law due to  ,swedish        
citizens1 whose rights have been        
violated in so unprecedented a  manner  
by the mode of procedure in consequence 
of which arbitration was  appealed to4  
,all this had truth in it4 ,but does    
that prove anything against the         

usefulness of arbitration clauses in    
treaties of commerce8    ,the agreement 
referred to between the united kingdoms 
and ,spain1  ,january #hth1 #ahhg1      
establishes3--     ,a question which    
affects customs or the carrying out of  
commercial   treaties1 or relates to    
results of some special violation of the
   same1 shall1 when all attempts to    
come to an amicable agreement and   all 
friendly discussions have proved        
fruitless1 be referred to an            
arbitration tribunal1 whose decision    
shall be binding on both parties4       
,according to this it may be plainly    
seen1 that the well-known               
,swedo-,spanish ,,spirit-,,dispute1 to  
which ,mr4 ,hedin alluded1 ought to have
  been solved in its entirety by        
arbitration4 ,the ,spanish ,government1 
however1 maintained that this affected  
,spanish internal concerns1  since in   
fact the forced sale of                 
,karlstamms-,volagets brandy stores  in 
,spain took place as a result of a new  

spirit law1 to which the  arbitration   
clause in this case could not be        
applied4    ,this starting-point for the
 judgment of the whole dispute was      
accepted  by the ,swedish ,government2  
which also agreed to let an arbitrator  
settle whether the question of the      
spirit tax was independent of  the      
treaty or not4 ,both ,governments agreed
 to choose the ,portuguese  ex-,foreign 
,minister1 ,count de ,casal ,riberio1 as
 arbitrator1 and he  expressed himself  
in favour of the ,spanish construction4 
,and with this  the whole matter was    
settled4    ,no one can seriously think 
that the method of procedure on the     
,swedish  side1 which led to so         
distressing a violation of justice as   
that  referred to by ,herr ,hedin1 could
 prove anything against the principle   
of arbitration4 ,on the other hand1 it  
appears to betray the character  of the 
statesmanship of our then ,foreign      
,minister2 which indeed earned  for him 
a diamond-set snuffbox from the ,emperor

 ,william ,,ii41 but  otherwise1 the    
blame only of sensible people4    ,herr 
,hedin1 who has a weakness for strong   
expressions1 had the  opportunity of    
using some such in their right place4   
,unhappily1 this  cannot be said with   
truth of the closing words of his       
speech1 where he  remarks that the      
expressions of the ,foreign ,minister   
are so decisive  against the bill that  
they deal the report of the committee of
 the  ,second ,chamber a right deadly   
blow4    ,the committee had proposed    
that the king1 with the authority which 
#aa in the form of government accords   
him1 should seek to bring about  such   
agreements with foreign powers1 that    
future possible differences  between the
 powers named and ,sweden should be     
settled by arbitration4    ,the deadly  
blow must be the remark of the ,foreign 
,minister that  questions affecting the 
existence and independence of nations   
must be  excepted from decisions by     
arbitration4    ,this principle is known

 to be universally accepted1 and in no  
way  stands in antagonism to the report 
of the committee1 which of course  left 
the hands of the king as free as        
possible to promote the idea of         
arbitration according to circumstances4 
,however1 the report of the committee   
was thrown out by eighty-eight  votes   
against eighty-three4    ,herr ,hedin   
got his way4 ,he has always been the    
consistent opposer of  the active       
friends of peace2 and this time he has  
besides won the  gratitude even of our  
,government organ1 ,nya ,dagligt        
,allehanda1 which  calls his speech     
glittering2 meaning that upon this      
resolution there  was no need to waste  
many words1 and continues thus3--       
,the resolution is worthy of notice1    
because it shows the return of   the    
,chamber to a sounder perception of this
 question4 ,it seems at last   to       
recognise the extravagance of the       
expectation certain fanatics   entertain
 of bringing about a lasting peace by so

 apparently simple   a means as a       
tribunal of arbitration4 ,we have       
indeed1 as ,herr ,hedin   reminded us1  
now had experience ourselves of how     
unsatisfactory   this can be2 and it    
certainly appears that they must be     
lacking in   common sense who would     
question the justice of the ,foreign    
,minister's   reminder1 that arbitration
 cannot be appealed to when a nation's  
political freedom or independence is    
touched by the issue4    ,i may here beg
 leave to calm the ruffled feelings of  
the honourable  ,government organ by    
bringing to remembrance the lesson1     
otherwise  applicable also1 which our   
dismembered sister-land on the other    
side  of the ,sound offers us4    ,at   
the ,london ,conference in #ahfd1 the   
representative of ,england1 ,lord       
,russell1 referred to the decision      
arrived at by the ,paris ,congress  in  
#ahef1 that ,states which had any       
serious dispute should appeal to  the   
mediation of a friendly power before    

taking to arms4 ,in harmony  with this  
the ,british plenipotentiary proposed   
that the question1  whether the boundary
 line should be drawn between the lines 
of  ,aabenraa-,toender1 on the one side1
 or ,dannewerke-,sli on the other1      
should be decided by arbitration4       
,prussia and ,austria consented to      
accept the mediation of a neutral power2
 but ,denmark replied to the            
proposition with a distinct refusal4 ,in
 the same way ,denmark refused  the     
proposal made first by ,prussia1 and    
later by ,france1 that a means  of      
deciding the boundary should be sought  
in a plebiscite of the people  in       
,sleswick4    ,denmark trusted too much 
upon might and too little upon right4   
,otherwise ,sleswick had still been     
,danish4    ,if the axiom be correct1   
that disputes which affect the existence
  and independence of nations ought not 
to be submitted for solution  to        
arbitration1 it is of so much the       
greater moment to try to get            

international complications settled in  
this way1 because they may swell  up    
into questions of the kind first named2 
since in any case this means  could be  
adopted as a last resource in time of   
need4 ,history knows  of no example of  
the destruction of a free nation by the 
impartial  judgment of arbitration4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,now it may well appear honourable on   
the part of the free nations of  the    
,scandinavian peninsula that they should
 openly show to the whole  world that   
they are prepared 7in full harmony with 
,king ,oscar ,,ii4's  pacific           
expressions in the speech from the      
throne to the ,riksdag  and the         
,storting in #ahij71 for their own part1
 in all international  circumstances to 
substitute justice for brute force1 and 
this without  compromising and          
meaningless limitations4 ,in the        
,swedish arbitration  resolution1 as    
well as in the ,norse1 lies the road    
certainly to  efficiently carrying out  

the neutral policy so strongly          
emphasized in  the speech from the      
throne4 ,besides the public gain1 which 
a favourable  result in both ,chambers  
would have been1 a unanimous            
co-operation in  this cause would in a  
great degree have facilitated the       
solving of the  important ,,question    
,,of ,,the ,,union 7,,unionelle         
,,tvistemaal74    ,the last named       
consideration will indeed claim more    
attention as the  consequences of the   
divergent decisions of the ,storting and
 the ,riksdag  develop themselves4 ,that
 these consequences will be scattering1 
rather  than uniting1 the friends of    
peace in both lands must keep in view2  
and must look out1 in time1 for means to
 soothe them1 as long as they  continue4
           99       99       99       99
       99    ,that which lies nearest my
 heart has been to help1 with cheering  
words1 to strengthen the faith of my    
fellow-workers4 ,if these words  have   
succeeded also1 here and there1 in      

scattering doubts1 so much the  better4 
,little-faith is faint-hearted4 ,without
 confidence in a cause1  there is no    
action4 ,ignorance may be enlightened1  
superstition wiped  out2 intolerance may
 become tolerant1 and hate be changed   
into love2  ideas may be quickened1     
intelligence widened1 and men's hearts  
may be  ennobled2 but from pessimism    
which can see nothing but gloomy visions
  nothing is to be expected4 ,this      
offspring of materialism is one of  the 
most powerful opponents which the cause 
of international law and  justice has to
 encounter4 ,it is only self-deception  
to conceal the fact  that it still      
reigns in our ,christian community4     
,these gloomy-sighted people refer us to
 history1 which on every page  tells of 
crime and blood1 sorrow and tears4 ,we  
answer by pointing to  the development  
of civilization1 and show how all things
 slowly grow  and ripen1 whether in     
human life or in the world of nature4   
,human perfection does not provide for  

an individual being a law-abiding       
member of a human community1 and exclude
 a community from being a  law-abiding  
member of an alliance of ,states4 ,the  
abolition of war  therefore in no way   
pre-supposes universal righteousness1   
but only a  certain degree of moral     
cultivation4    ,but that this          
perfection is not attained to cannot be 
any rational  objection against striving
 after the perfect4 ,discontent with    
imperfection ought much rather to goad  
us on to work for what is better4       
,now1 war is not something imperfect    
only3 it is a summing up of all  human  
depravity--a condition which we might   
expect all enlightened men  and women   
would turn against with combined        
energies4 ,that this does not  take     
place is an evidence that the           
enlightenment is not so great among     
so-called cultivated people4    ,the    
dazzling external show of war conceals  
from many its inner reality4  ,this     
applies not only to the horrors of the  

battle-field and their  ghastly         
accompaniments4 ,fancy's wildest        
pictures of the infernal abyss  are     
nothing to the descriptions             
eye-witnesses give of this veritable    
hell4 ,tolsto's pen and ,veretschagin's 
pencil give us an idea of  it4#dj ,from 
this misery spring untold sufferings for
 thousands upon  thousands of innocent  
victims2 and1 besides1 it remains to be 
a flowing  source of fresh calamities4  
,the ,,armed ,,peace is a similar       
calamity1 which threatens ,european     
civilization with complete overthrow4   
,we have got so far in the general  race
 in the science of armaments that the   
yearly outlay in ,europe  for military  
purposes1 including the interest of     
national debts1  is reckoned as about   
twelve milliards of kroner1#da #fej     
millions  sterling1 which of course must
 imply a corresponding limitation of    
productive labour4    ,in time of peace 
the ,european armies are reckoned at    
four millions  of men4 ,in time of war  

this can grow to nineteen millions2 and 
in a  few years when1 as intended1 the  
new conscription law comes into full    
effect1 to something like thirty        
millions4#db    ,war1 the               
personification of all human depravity1 
desolates the  progressive work of      
culture1 and the armed peace which ruins
 the  nations prepares new wars and     
augments the misery4 ,ignorance1 war1   
and  poverty follow one another in an   
unvarying circle4    ,by the side of    
this wild race for armaments goes on a  
terrible struggle  for existence1 and   
discontent reigns in all lands4 ,this   
condition  of things1 which fills the   
world with unrest and fear1 must in the 
near future have an end4 ,it will either
 come in the form of a social           
revolution1 which will embrace the whole
 of our continent1 or it may  come by   
the introduction of an established      
condition of international  law4    ,it 
is the last named outcome that active   
friends of peace labour for4  ,they     

strive to enlighten the nations as to   
the means of removing and  preventing   
these calamities2 and they hope that the
 so-called educated  classes will cease 
to be inactive spectators of these      
efforts4 ,while  they do not feel called
 upon to oppose the nonsense of folly1  
they  listen respectfully to objections 
dictated by a sincere patriotism4 ,in   
that feeling we ought all to be able to 
join4 ,it depends upon the way  in which
 this is expressed whether we can work  
together or must go on  separate lines4 
,commonly1 we commend an action as      
virtuous when it does not oppose our    
interests1 but brand it as blameworthy  
when it in some way threatens  our      
position4    ,thus we read1 with glad   
appreciation1 the deeds of our own      
warriors2  but our admiration is changed
 into resentment when the exploits are  
achieved against ourselves by the heroes
 of other nations4 ,when one  says in   
,sweden1 ,i am not a ,russian1 indeed2  
they say in ,russia1 ,you  behave       

yourself like a ,swede4 ,it needs an    
independent third party to  give an     
impartial judgment4 ,right must be      
right4    ,if our so-called enemy is    
really in the right1 he does not become 
wrong because he is called our enemy2   
and if we conquer and kill  him1 we only
 thereby increase a hundredfold our     
terrible guilt4 ,it is  in the long run 
a loss to both sides4 ,here1 at any rate
 at least1 a  compromise is needed1 for 
it is seldom the fault of one when two  
quarrel4    ,but the endeavour to get a 
permanent arbitration tribunal          
established  cannot1 in any way1 be     
reasonably opposed to efforts for the   
welfare  of one's own country4 ,the very
 consciousness of the existence of such 
a tribunal would little by little1 as a 
matter of course1 bring about  the reign
 of law4 ,it would indeed be a          
marvellous perversion of ideas  which   
esteemed it dishonourable to feel bound1
 in case of disputes  with other        
countries1 to appeal to law and justice2

 inasmuch as this  very unwillingness to
 seek the path of justice must excite a 
serious  suspicion as to the cause you  
maintain4    ,to lay hold on the sword  
under the influence of passion is like  
taking  a knife when intoxicated2 and it
 is a crying absurdity to expect        
people1 who soberly know what they are  
doing1 to go to homicide with  a light  
heart4 ,that is to say1 that a good man 
in severe conflict  as to his duty1 may 
possibly be forced to do a bad action to
 escape  participation in a still worse4
 ,if he forbears to kill his brother1   
this last will murder his father4 ,when 
warriors are led out to battle1  the    
brilliant uniform ought to be laid      
aside1 and the troops clad in  sombre   
mourning1 which would better accord with
 the naked reality4  ,when they have    
slain many and come back in triumph1    
decorated with  honourable ,cain-badges1
 they are wont in their homes to point  
with  pride to their brothers who lie   
silent in their blood4 ,they earn a     

character for having done something     
great2 they are received with           
exultation and honourable distinctions1 
and praised as gods in popular  story4  
,but the whole spirit and conception is 
false ,,if ,christ's  teaching of love  
is true2 and we should long since have  
grown out of  this heathenish religion  
if there had not been incorporated with 
it  so much patriotism1 both true and   
false--the false wrapped in those  high 
sounding words and phrases of self-love 
and vanity which still  exercise so     
great a power over the easily excited   
spirit of the nations4    ,but if we set
 our thoughts free1 confined as they are
 by warm devotion  to our hereditary    
soil1 and now and then venture to look  
out over the  wide world1 we shall see  
points of contact in the progressive    
effort  of humanity2 and it is our      
highest honour to be able to take an    
active  part in this4 ,barriers are     
crumbling away one after the other4     
,they do  not go down with violence2    

they vanish as new ideas smooth the way 
for  a higher conception of human       
dignity4 ,inquiry dissipates prejudice1 
and  continually shows us new phases of 
the inner cohesion of the life of       
nations4    ,the inhabitants of ,europe1
 says ,,draper1 show a constantly       
increasing  disposition towards the     
complete levelling of their mutual      
dissimilarities4 ,climatic and          
meteorological differences are more and 
more dissolved by artificial means and  
new inventions2 and thence  arises a    
similarity1 not only in habits of life1 
but in physical  conformation4 ,such    
inventions soften the influences to     
which men are  subjected1 and bring them
 nearer to an average type4 ,with this  
greater  affinity one to the other in   
bodily form1 follows also a greater     
similarity in feeling1 habit and        
thought4    ,day by day1 too1 the       
economic fellowship of ,europe          
increases4  ,communications by ship1    
railroad1 post and telegraph are        

developed2 by  means of ,state loans1   
share and exchange connections1         
interests are  knit together4 ,therefore
 we see the ,bourse1 the barometer of   
economic  life1 fluctuate when serious  
rumours of war are afloat2 an evidence  
that common economic interests and war  
are at variance one with the  other4    
,i shall not venture further1 but simply
 indicate in closing that even  the     
differences in language will certainly  
go on being gradually  adjusted4    ,it 
is a remarkable fact1 says the          
above-named investigator1 that in       
nearly all ,indo-,germanic races1 family
 appellatives1 father1 mother1  sister1 
brother1 daughter1 are the same4 ,a     
similar agreement may be  observed in   
the names of a great number of everyday 
things1 such as  house1 door1 way2 but  
one finds that whilst these observations
 hold  good in respect to the           
designation of objects of a peaceful    
character1  many of the words which have
 a military signification are different 

in  the different languages4    ,here   
lies1 perhaps1 the germ of a future     
progressive growth which will  rise     
higher heavenward than the tower of     
,babel4    ,i believe1 for my part1 that
 the ,english language1 both on the     
ground  of its cosmopolitan character   
and of its great expansion1 is already  
on the path of transition into a        
universal common language4 ,according   
to ,mulhall1 it has spread since #ahja1 
#caj per cent41 whilst ,german has      
increased #gj1 and ,french #cf per cent4
 ,a hundred years ago1 ,gladstone  says1
 the ,english tongue was spoken by      
fifteen millions2 it is now  spoken by  
#aej millions2 and according to the     
computation of ,barham  ,zincke1 in     
another hundred it will be spoken by at 
least #a1jjj millions4    ,the          
computation is probably correct2 and    
then not only in ,america1  but in every
 part of our globe1 the remembrance will
 be treasured of  the little flock of   
,puritans who1 ere they landed from     

their frail  ,mayflower upon the        
desolate rocks of a strange coast1 drew 
up in that  undeveloped language the    
great social law for their future1 which
  begins with the words1 ,in the name of
 ,god be it enacted4    ,mankind will   
hold them in remembrance for their faith
 in a high ideal1  these persecuted1    
weary1 sick1 and hungry men4 ,for it was
 that faith  which upheld them under    
continued trials and sufferings1 and    
brought  them a victory guiltless of    
blood1 but fraught with blessing to     
coming  generations4    ,even if many of
 us do not believe in the way those     
,christian heroes  believed1 yet we may 
in this materialistic age have strong   
confidence  in the power of good1 and so
 pronounced1 that we shall gain         
something  for our cause4    ,in the    
life of ,society1 however1 as in        
external nature with all its  teeming   
variety1 we observe a subserviency to   
law1 which may be taken  as the surest  
pledge of the final triumph of the cause

 of peace4    ,for my part1 ,i see      
herein the ,divine government of the    
world4    ,and therefore my love for    
this idea can never be extinguished4    
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #ch3          
,transactions of the ,riksdag1          
#ahec-ahed1 ,no4 #d4    ,in the         
introduction to the address to the      
,riksdag the king observed1  that he    
had1 in providing for the welfare of the
 nation1 found himself  obliged to      
declare ,sweden neutral2 consequently he
 informed the ,riksdag  of the          
,declaration of ,neutrality1 respecting 
which the king said3--    ,the system   
which the king intends steadily to      
adhere to and employ is  a strict       
neutrality1 founded upon sincerity1     
impartiality1 and full  regard to the   
rights of all the powers4 ,this         
neutrality will entail  upon the        
government of his ,majesty of ,sweden   
and ,norway the following  duties1 and  
secure to it the following benefits3 #a4
 ,to hold himself  free from any        

participation in any contentions which  
directly or  indirectly may be          
advantageous to one and injurious to    
another of the  belligerent ,states4444 
,such are the general principles of the 
neutral position1 which his  ,majesty of
 ,sweden and ,norway designs to take in 
case war should break  out in ,europe4  
,his ,majesty feels persuaded that it   
will be accepted as  in accordance with 
international law1 and that the exact   
and impartial  observance of these      
principles will make it possible for his
 ,majesty  to continue to sustain those 
connections with friendly and allied    
powers which his ,majesty1 for his      
people's weal1 so greatly desires to    
preserve from every infringement4    ,to
 this communication1 satisfactory       
answers1 accepting the decision         
announced by his ,majesty1 arrived from 
the various ,governments in the         
following words3 444    ,his ,majesty   
has been pleased to announce to the     
assembled ,estates  of the ,realm the   

attainment of this result1 so           
satisfactory for the  undisturbed       
continuance of peaceful transactions and
 the uninterrupted  course of trade and 
navigation so much the more as on       
account of the  political relations of  
,sweden and ,norway with foreign powers1
 they may  be regarded as for the       
present amply secured4 ,his ,majesty    
gratefully  acknowledges that the       
patriotism and the reliance upon the    
paternal  designs of his ,majesty which 
the ,estates of the ,realm have         
manifested  on this occasion may be     
regarded as having in an important      
degree  contributed to the attainment of
 the desired object4 ,his ,majesty1 in  
expressing his sincere satisfaction1    
will continue to devote incessant  pains
 to all the measures which the          
maintenance of neutrality may  require  
in harmony with the principles laid down
 and promulgated by his  ,majesty4 ,with
 his ,majesty's royal favour and        
constant best wishes to  the ,estates of

 the ,realm4    ,the address of thanks  
from the ,riksdag to the king3--        
,after the ,declaration of ,neutrality  
made by your ,majesty on behalf  of the 
united kingdoms1 and in concert with the
 ,king of ,denmark1 had  been accepted  
by the ,european powers and also the    
,united ,states1  it pleased your       
,majesty to inform the ,estates of the  
,realm of this  result1 so satisfactory 
for the undisturbed continuance of our  
peaceful transactions1 and for the      
uninterrupted course of our trade  and  
navigation4 ,your ,majesty has at the   
same time been pleased also  to express 
your gracious appreciation of the       
patriotism and reliance  upon your      
paternal designs which the ,estates of  
the ,realm have on this  occasion       
manifested4    ,the representatives of  
the ,swedish people hold in grateful    
remembrance  these expressions of your  
,majesty's high satisfaction1 and beg   
respectfully to assure your ,majesty of 
their deep and warm gratitude4  ,the    

,fatherland is indebted to your         
,majesty's incessant and unremitting    
pains in securing the friendly relations
 of the united kingdoms  towards foreign
 powers during the contests in which a  
great part of  ,europe is at present    
embroiled4 ,the ,estates of the ,realm  
offer sincere  homage to the resolution 
and wise forethought with which your    
,majesty1  under these troublous        
conditions1 has safeguarded the         
interests1 the  independence and power  
of the united kingdoms4 ,with confidence
 between  the king and the people1 with 
mutual co-operation in working together 
to promote the true welfare of our      
beloved ,fatherland1 they will1 with    
the blessing of the ,highest1 be        
henceforth preserved4 ,the peace we     
enjoy is the dearer because it is the   
evidence of the fidelity with  which the
 best interests of the country are      
guarded by your ,majesty4  ,ready to    
follow her noble king in all            
vicissitudes1 the ,swedish nation       

implores the blessings of ,providence   
upon the vigilant fatherly love  whose  
untiring care for the people's welfare  
reaps its reward in this  answering     
love4    ,the ,estates of the ,realm1   
remain1 etc4    ,footnote #ci3          
,riksdagen protocol1 #ahij4 ,first      
,chamber1 ,no4 #cg2 ,second  ,chamber1  
,no4 #de4    ,footnote #dj3 ,when       
,wellington once1 as a victor1 went over
 the field of  battle1 he burst out with
 the cry1 ,there is nothing so          
disastrous as a  victory1 except a      
defeat4    ,footnote #da3 ,that is      
#ab1jjj1jjj1jjj2 sufficient to furnish  
the annual  pension of a minister of    
,state1 #b1jjj kroner1 for ,,every man  
and woman1  old man and suckling in the 
whole of ,norway4--,,ed4 of ,danish     
edition4    ,footnote #db3 ,five times  
as many able-bodied men as there are    
men1  women1 old men and children in the
 whole of ,norway4--,do4                
,,appendix4      ,note on page #abc4    
,the ,,association for the              

,,neutralization of ,,denmark4    ,the  
objects of this ,association are to work
 for3    #a4 ,securing for ,denmark a   
permanent neutrality recognised by      
,europe1  like that of ,belgium or      
,switzerland2    #b4 ,the concluding of 
,arbitration treaties between ,denmark  
and other  independent ,states1         
especially the two ,northern ,kingdoms2 
#c4 ,the solution by a pacific means of 
the ,north ,sleswick question in        
accordance with the principle of popular
 veto4      ,note on page #abe4         
,,international ,,arbitration and       
,,peace ,,association 7#dj and #da1     
,outer  ,temple1 ,london1 ,w4,c474      
,,objects4    ,among the objects of this
 ,association are the following3    #a4 
,to create1 educate1 and organize public
 opinion throughout ,europe in  favour  
of the substitution of ,,arbitration for
 ,,war4    #b4 ,to promote a better     
understanding and more friendly feeling 
between  the citizens of different      
nations4    #c4 ,to correct erroneous   

statements in the public press or in    
,parliaments on ,international          
questions4      ,,modes ,,of ,,action4  
#a4 ,to establish in the chief cities of
 ,europe ,committees or ,societies      
which shall correspond with each other  
on all matters likely to create         
disputes1 with the view of ascertaining 
the facts and of suggesting  just and   
practical modes of settlement4    #b4   
,where ,committees cannot at present be 
formed1 to obtain the services  of      
individuals acting in co-operation for  
the same purpose4    #c4 ,to form a     
medium of communication between men of  
different countries  by a ,journal      
devoted to these purposes1 and to       
promote ,international  fraternity and  
co-operation1 mutual appreciation and   
esteem4    #d4 ,to hold periodical      
conferences and congresses in all parts 
of ,europe4    #e4 ,to correspond and   
work with similar ,associations and     
committees in  ,america4      ,,what    
,,the ,,association ,,has ,,done4    ,it

 has held two ,international ,congresses
 on the ,european continent4  ,many     
visits have been paid to cities in      
,germany1 ,italy1 ,france1              
,switzerland1 ,belgium1 ,austria1 and   
,hungary1 for the above purpose4 ,in    
these countries1 including ,america1 the
 ,association has directly or           
indirectly corresponded with more than  
six hundred persons1 many of  whom are  
,members of ,parliament1 journalists1   
literary men1 professors1  merchants1   
and manufacturers4    ,corresponding    
,committees and ,societies have been    
founded by the  ,association in         
,germany1 ,hungary1 ,italy and ,france2 
and ,societies are  affiliated in       
,belgium1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1   
and ,california4      ,,what ,,it       
,,desires ,,to ,,do4    ,to complete the
 ,international ,federation of          
,peace-makers proposed by  the ,congress
 held at ,berne in #ahhc4    ,to promote
 the formation of ,societies belonging  
to this ,federation in  all parts of    

,europe4    ,to form ,branches of the   
,association in various parts of        
,england4    ,to publish a foreign      
edition of the monthly paper1 ,concord1 
in ,french  and ,german4      ,note on  
page #acg4    ,the following are the    
provisions of the ,treaty agreed to at  
the  ,,pan-,,american ,,conference4     
,article ,i4--,the republics of ,north1 
,central1 and ,south ,america hereby    
adopt arbitration as a principle of     
,american ,international ,law for the   
settlement of all differences1 disputes1
 or controversies that may  arise       
between them4    ,article               
,,ii4--,arbitration shall be obligatory 
in all controversies  concerning        
diplomatic and consular privileges1     
boundaries1 territories1  indemnities1  
the right of navigation1 and the        
validity1 construction1  and enforcement
 of treaties4    ,article               
,,iii4--,arbitration shall be equally   
obligatory in all cases  other than     
those mentioned in the foregoing        

article1 whatever may be  their origin1 
nature1 or occasion2 with the single    
exception mentioned  in the next        
following article4    ,article          
,,iv4--,the sole questions excepted from
 the provisions of the  preceding       
article are those which1 in the judgment
 of any one of the  nations involved in 
the controversy1 may imperil its        
independence4 ,in  which case1 for such 
nation1 arbitration shall be optional2  
but it  shall be obligatory upon the    
adversary power4    ,article ,v4--,all  
controversies or differences1 with the  
exception  stated in ,article ,,iv41    
whether pending or hereafter arising1   
shall  be submitted to arbitration1 even
 though they may have originated in     
occurrences ante-dating the present     
treaty4    ,article ,,vi4--,no question 
shall be revived by virtue of this      
treaty  concerning which a definite     
agreement shall already have been       
reached4  ,in such cases arbitration    
shall be resorted to only for the       

settlement  of questions concerning the 
validity1 interpretation1 or enforcement
 of  such agreements4    ,article       
,,vii4--,any ,government may serve in   
the capacity of arbitrator  which       
maintains friendly relations with the   
nation opposed to the  one selecting it4
 ,the office of arbitrator may also be  
entrusted to  tribunals of justice1 to  
scientific bodies1 to public officials1 
or to  private individuals1 whether     
citizens or not of the ,states selecting
  them4    ,article ,,viii4--,the court 
of arbitration may consist of one or    
more  persons4 ,if of one person1 he    
shall be selected jointly by the nations
  concerned4 ,if of several persons1    
their selection may be jointly  made by 
the nations concerned4 ,should no choice
 be made1 each nation  claiming a       
distinct interest in the question at    
issue shall have the  right to appoint  
one arbitrator on its own behalf4       
,article ,,ix4--,when the court shall   
consist of an even number of            

arbitrators1 the nations concerned shall
 appoint an umpire1 who shall  decide   
all questions upon which the arbitrators
 may disagree4 ,if the  nations         
interested fail to agree in the         
selection of an umpire1 such  umpire    
shall be selected by the arbitrators    
already appointed4    ,article ,x4--,the
 appointment of an umpire1 and his      
acceptance1 shall  take place before the
 arbitrators enter upon the hearing of  
the  question in dispute4    ,article   
,,xi4--,the umpire shall not act as a   
member of the court1 but his  duties and
 powers shall be limited to the decision
 of questions upon  which the           
arbitrators shall be unable to agree4   
,article ,,xii4--,should any arbitrator1
 or an umpire1 be prevented  from       
serving by reason of death1 resignation1
 or other cause1 such  arbitrator or    
umpire shall be replaced by a substitute
 to be selected  in the same manner in  
which the original arbitrator or umpire 
shall  have been chosen4    ,article    

,,xiii4--,the court shall hold its      
sessions at such place as the  parties  
in interest may agree upon1 and in case 
of disagreement or  failure to name a   
place the court itself may determine the
 location4    ,article ,,xiv4--,when the
 court shall consist of several         
arbitrators1 a  majority of the whole   
number may act notwithstanding the      
absence or  withdrawal of the minority4 
,in such case the majority shall        
continue  in the performance of their   
duties1 until they shall have reached a 
final determination of the questions    
submitted for their consideration4      
,article ,,xv4--,the decision of a      
majority of the whole number of         
arbitrators shall be final both on the  
main and incidental issues1  unless in  
the agreement to arbitrate it shall have
 been expressly  provided that unanimity
 is essential4    ,article ,,xvi4--,the 
general expenses of arbitration         
proceedings shall  be paid in equal     
proportions by the governments that are 

parties  thereto2 but expenses incurred 
by either party in the preparation and  
prosecution of its case shall be        
defrayed by it individually4    ,article
 ,,xvii4--,whenever disputes arise the  
nations involved shall  appoint courts  
of arbitration in accordance with the   
provisions of the  preceding articles4  
,only by the mutual and free consent of 
all of such  nations may those          
provisions be disregarded1 and courts of
 arbitration  appointed under different 
arrangements4    ,article               
,,xviii4--,this treaty shall remain in  
force for twenty years from  the date of
 the exchange of ratifications4 ,after  
the expiration of that  period1 it shall
 continue in operation until one of the 
contracting  parties shall have notified
 all the others of its desire to        
terminate  it4 ,in the event of such    
notice the treaty shall continue        
obligatory  upon the party giving it for
 at least one year thereafter1 but the  
withdrawal of one or more nations shall 

not invalidate the treaty with  respect 
to the other nations concerned4         
,article ,,xix4--,this treaty shall be  
ratified by all the nations  approving  
it1 according to their respective       
constitutional methods2  and the        
ratifications shall be exchanged in the 
city of ,washington on  or before the   
first day of ,may1 ,a4,d4 #ahia4 ,any   
other nation may accept  this treaty and
 become a party thereto1 by signing a   
copy thereof  and depositing the same   
with the ,government of the ,united     
,states2  whereupon the said ,government
 shall communicate this fact to the     
other  contracting parties4      ,butler
  ,tanner1 ,the ,selwood ,printing      
,works1 ,frome1 and ,london4