,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,a complex full-page chart1 #8,,tabular ,,geological ,,profile'1 appeared as p4 #c1 in mid-paragraph1 and has been moved slightly forward4 ,in general1 the position of illustrations have been adjusted slightly1 where necessary1 to avoid falling in mid-paragraph4 ,minor errors in punctuation and formatting have been silently corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,,the ,,subterranean ,,world4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,illustration3 ,,carboniferous ,,forest1 ,,carboniferous ,,period4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,subterranean ,,world4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,george ,,hartwig1 ,,author ,,of #8,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,living ,,wonders1' #8,,the ,,tropical ,,world1' #8,,the ,,polar ,,world1' ,,and #8,,the ,,harmonies ,,of ,,nature4' ,,with ,,three ,,maps ,,and ,,numerous ,,engravings ,,on ,,wood4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,scribner1 ,,welford1 ,,and ,,co4 #ahga4 ,,preface4 ------- ,nature displays her wonders not only in the starry heavens or in the boundless variety of animal and vegetable life on the surface of our earth4 ,in the dark regions underground she likewise shows us much that is remarkable or beautiful1 or carries on gigantic operations1 which are sometimes beneficent and sometimes disastrous to mankind4 ,there lie concealed the mysterious laboratories of fire1 which reveal to us their existence in earthquakes and volcanic explosions4 ,there1 in successive strata1 repose the remains of extinct animals and plants4 ,there many a wonderful cavern may be seen1 with its fantastic stalactites1 its rushing waters1 and its noble halls4 ,there have been deposited the rich stores of mineral wealth--the metals1 the coals1 the salt1 the sulphur1 c4--without whose aid man would never have been more than a savage4 ,the aim of the present work has been to describe the wonders of this hidden world in their various relations to man1 now raising him to wealth1 and now dooming him to destruction4 ,the author trusts that he may have succeeded in giving a sketch of the phenomena resulting from the action of subterranean forces1 which1 with his account of the wonders of the sea1 of the tropics1 and of the frozen regions1 may impart to the reader a fair idea of the history and present condition of the wonderful world in which we live4 ,,salon1 ,,near ,,ludwigsburg3 ,july #f1 #ahga4 ,,contents4 ------- ,,chapter ,i4 ,,geological ,,revolutions4 ,the ,eternal ,strife between ,water and ,fire--,strata of ,aqueous ,origin--,tabular ,view of their ,chronological ,succession--,enormous ,time required for their ,formation-- ,igneous ,action--,metamorphic ,rocks--,upheaval and ,depression---,fossils--,uninterrupted ,succession of ,organic ,life ,page #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,fossils4 ,general ,remarks--,eozoon ,canadense--,trilobites--,brachiopods-- ,pterichthys ,milleri--,oldest ,reptiles--,wonderful ,preservation of ,colour in ,petrified ,shells--,primval ,corals and ,sponges--,sea-lilies--,orthoceratites and ,ammonites---,belemnites--,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus-- ,pterodactyli--,iguanodon--,tertiary ,quadrupeds--,dinotherium-- ,colossochelys ,atlas--,megatherium--,mylodon--,glyptod on-- ,mammoth--,mastodon--,sivatherium ,giganteum--,fossil ,ripple- marks1 ,rain-drops1 and ,footprints--,harmony has reigned from the beginning #h ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,subterranean ,,heat4 ,zone of invariable ,temperature--,increasing ,temperature of the ,earth at a greater ,depth--,proofs found in ,mines and ,artesian ,wells1 in ,hot ,springs and ,volcanic ,eruptions-- ,the whole ,earth probably at one time a fluid mass #ca ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,subterranean ,,upheavals ,,and ,,depressions4 ,oscillations of the ,earth's ,surface taking place in the present day--,first ascertained in ,sweden--,examples of ,contemporaneous ,upheaval and ,depression in ,france and ,england--,probable ,causes of the ,phenomenon #cd ,,chapter ,v4 ,,subterranean ,,waters ,,and ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,subterranean ,distribution of the ,waters--,admirable ,provisions of ,nature--,hydrostatic ,laws regulating the ,flow of ,springs--,thermal ,springs--,intermittent ,springs--,the ,geysir--,bunsen's ,theory--,artesian ,wells--,le ,puits de ,grenelle--,deep ,borings--,various ,uses of ,artesian ,wells-- ,artesian ,wells in ,venice and in the ,desert of ,sahara #ci ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,volcanoes4 ,volcanic ,mountains--,extinct and active ,craters--,their ,size-- ,dangerous ,crater-explorations--,dr4 ,judd in the ,kilauea ,pit--,extinct ,craters--,their ,beauty--,the ,crater of ,mount ,vultur in ,apulia--,volcanoes still constantly forming-- ,jorullo and ,isalco--,submarine ,volcanoes--,sabrina and ,graham's ,island--,santorin--,number of ,volcanoes--,their ,distribution--,volcanoes in a constant state of eruption-- ,stromboli--,fumaroles--,the ,lava-lakes of ,kilauea--,volcanic ,paroxysms--,column of ,smoke and ,ashes--,detonations-- ,explosion of ,cones--,disastrous ,effects of ,showers of ,ashes and ,lapilli--,mud ,streams--,fish disgorged from ,volcanic ,caverns--,eruptions of ,lava--,parasitic ,cones-- ,phenomena attending the ,flow of a ,lava ,stream--,baron ,papalardo--,meeting of ,lava and ,water--,scori--,lava and ,ice-- ,vast ,dimensions of several ,lava ,streams--,scenes of ,desolation--,volcanoes considered as ,safety-valves-- ,probable ,causes of ,volcanoes #ec ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii4 ,state of ,vesuvius before the eruption in the year #gi ,a4,c4-- ,spartacus--,premonitory ,earthquakes--,letter of ,pliny the ,younger to ,tacitus1 relating the death of his uncle1 ,pliny the ,elder--,benevolence of the ,emperor ,titus-- ,herculaneum and ,pompeii buried under a muddy alluvium-- ,herculaneum first discovered in #agac #ha ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,gas ,,springs ,,and ,,mud ,,volcanoes4 ,carbonic-acid ,springs--,grotto del ,cane--,the ,valley of ,death in ,java--,exaggerated ,descriptions--,carburetted ,hydrogen ,springs--,the ,holy ,fires of ,baku--,description of the ,temple--,mud ,volcanoes--,the ,macaluba in ,sicily--,crimean ,mud ,volcanoes--,volcanic ,origin of ,mud ,volcanoes #hh ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,earthquakes4 ,extent of ,misery inflicted by great ,earthquakes--,earthquake ,regions--,earthquakes in ,england--,great ,number of ,earthquakes--,vertical and ,undulatory ,shocks--,warnings of ,earthquakes--,sounds attending ,earthquakes--,remarkable ,displacements of ,objects--,extent and ,force of ,seismic ,wave ,motion--,effects of ,earthquakes on the ,sea--,enormous ,waves on ,coasts--,oscillations of the ,ocean--,fissures1 ,landslips1 and shattering ,falls of ,rock caused by ,earthquakes--,causes of ,earthquakes--,probable ,depth of ,focus--,opinions of ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope--,impressions produced on ,man and ,animals by ,earthquakes #ig ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,great ,,earthquake ,,of ,,lisbon4 ,a dreadful ,all ,saints' ,day--,the ,victims of a ,minute--,report of an ,eye-witness--,conflagration--,banditti- -,pombal brings ,chaos into ,order--,intrigues of the ,jesuits--,damages caused by the ,earthquake in other places2 at ,cadiz2 in ,barbary-- ,widespread ,alarm--,remarks of ,goethe on the ,earthquake #aad ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,landslips4 ,igneous and ,aqueous ,causes of ,landslips--,fall of the ,diablerets in #agad and #agdi--;,escape of a ,peasant from his living ,tomb--,vitaliano ,donati on the ,fall of a ,mountain near ,sallenches--,the ,destruction of ,goldau in #ahjf-- ,wonderful ,preservation of a ,child--,burial of ,velleja and ,tauretunum1 of ,plrs and ,scilano--,landslip near ,axmouth in ,dorsetshire--,falling in of ,cavern-roofs--,dollinas and ,jamas in ,carniola and ,dalmatia--,bursting of ,bogs-- ,crateriform ,hollows in the ,eifel #aba ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,on ,,caves ,,in ,,general4 ,their various ,forms--,natural ,tunnels--,the ,ventanillas of ,gualgayoc--,eimeo--,torgatten--,hole in the ,mrtschenstock--,the ,trebich ,cave--,grotto of ,antiparos--,vast ,dimensions of the ,cave of ,adelsberg and of the ,mammoth ,cave--,discovery of ,baumann's ,cave--,limestone ,caves--,causes of their ,excavation--,stalactites and ,stalagmites--,their ,origin-- ,variety of ,forms--,marine ,caves--,shetland--,fingal's ,cave--,the ,azure ,cave--,cave under ,bonifacio--,grotta di ,nettuno1 near ,syracuse--,the ,bufador of ,papa ,luna--,volcanic ,caves--,the ,fossa della ,palomba--,caves of ,san ,miguel--,the ,surtshellir #acc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cave ,,rivers4 ,the ,fountain of ,vaucluse--,the ,fontaine-sans-fond--,the ,katabothra in ,morea--,subterranean ,rivers in ,carniola-- ,subterranean ,navigation of the ,poik in the ,cave of ,planina--#8,the ,stalactital ,paradise'--,the ,piuka ,jama #adi ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,subterranean ,,life4 ,subterranean ,vegetation--,fungi--,enormous ,fungus in a ,tunnel near ,doncaster--,artificial ,mushroom-beds near ,paris-- ,subterranean ,animals--,the ,guacharo--,wholesale ,slaughter-- ,insects in the ,cave of ,adelsberg--,the ,leptodirus and the ,blothrus--,the ,stalita tnaria--,the ,olm or ,proteus--,the ,lake of ,cirknitz--,the ,archduke ,ferdinand and ,charon--,the ,blind ,rat and the ,blind ,fish of the ,mammoth ,cave #aef ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,caves ,,as ,,places ,,of ,,refuge4 ,the ,cave of ,adullam--,mahomet in the ,cave of ,thaur--,the ,cave of ,longara--,the ,cave of ,egg--,the ,caves of ,rathlin--,the ,cave of ,yeermalik--,the ,caves of ,grenada--,aben ,aboo1 the ,morisco ,king--,the ,caves of ,gortyna and ,melidoni--,atrocities of ,french ,warfare in ,algeria--,the ,caves of the ,dahra--,the ,cave of ,shelas--,st4 ,arnaud #afi ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,hermit ,,caves--,,rock ,,temples--,,rock ,,churches4 ,st4 ,paul of ,thebes--,st4 ,anthony--,his visit to ,alexandria1 and death--,numerous ,cave ,hermits in the ,east--,st4 ,benedict in the ,cave of ,subiaco--,st4 ,cuthbert--,st4 ,beatus--,rock ,temples of ,kanara--,the ,wonders of ,ellora--,ipsamboul--,rock ,churches of ,lalibala in ,abyssinia--,the ,cave of ,trophonios--,the ,grotto of ,st4 ,rosolia near ,palermo--,the ,chapel of ,agios ,niketas in ,greece--,the ,chapel of ,oberstein on the ,nahe--,the repentant fratricide #agh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,ice ,,caves ,,and ,,wind-,,holes4 ,ice-caves of ,st4 ,georges and ,st4 ,livres--,beautiful ,ice- stalagmites in the ,cave of ,la ,baume--,the ,schafloch--,ice ,cataract in the ,upper ,glacire of ,st4 ,livres--,ice ,cavern of ,eisenerz--,the ,cave of ,yeermalik--,volcanic ,ice-caves-- olian ,caverns of ,terni--,causes of the low temperature of ,ice-caves #aib ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,rock ,,tombs ,,and ,,catacombs4 ,biban-el-,moluk1 the ,royal ,tombs of ,thebes--,the ,roman ,catacombs--,their ,extent--,their ,mode of ,excavation--,touching ,sepulchral ,inscriptions--,antony ,bosio1 the ,columbus of the ,catacombs--,the ,cavaliere di ,rossi--,the ,catacombs of ,naples and ,syracuse--,the ,catacombs of ,paris #bjb ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,caves ,,containing ,,remains ,,of ,,extinct ,,animals4 ,the ,cave ,hyena and the ,cave ,bear--,the ,cavern of ,kirkdale-- ,the ,moa ,caves in ,new ,zealand--,various ,species of ,moas-- ,their enormous size #bac ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,subterranean ,,relics ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,man4 ,the ,peat ,mosses of ,denmark--,shell-,mounds--,swiss ,lacustrine ,dwellings--,ancient ,mounds in the ,valley of the ,mississippi--,the ,caves in the ,valley of the ,meuse--,dr4 ,schmerling--,human ,skulls in the ,cave of ,engis-- ,explorations of ,sir ,charles ,lyell in the ,cave of ,engihoul--,caverns of ,brixham--,caves of ,gower--,the ,sepulchral ,grotto of ,aurignac--,flint ,implements discovered in the ,valley of the ,somme--,gray's ,inn ,lane an ancient ,hunting-,ground for ,mammoths #bba ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,troglodytes ,,or ,,cave-,,dwellers4 ,,cannibal ,,caves4 ,cave ,dwellings in the ,val d',ispica--,the ,sicanians--,cannibal ,caves in ,south ,africa--,the ,rock ,city of the ,themud-- ,legendary ,tale of its ,destruction #bcb ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,tunnels4 ,subterranean ,london--,the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel--,its ,length-- ,ingenious ,boring ,apparatus--,the ,grotto of the ,pausilippo-- ,the ,tomb of ,virgil #bcg ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,mines ,,in ,,general4 ,perils of the ,miner's ,life--,number of ,casualties in ,british and ,foreign ,coal ,mines--,life in a ,mine--,occurrence of ,ores--,extent and ,depth of ,metallic ,veins--,mines frequently discovered by ,chance--,the ,divining ,rod--,experimental ,borings--,stirring ,emotions during their ,progress--,sinking of ,shafts--,precautions against ,influx of ,water--,expense-- ,shaft ,accidents--,various ,methods of working ,mineral ,substances--,working in ,direct and ,reverse ,steps--,working by ,transverse ,attacks--,open ,quarry ,workings--,pillar and ,stall ,system--,long ,wall ,system--,dangerous ,extraction of ,pillars--,mining ,implements--,blasting--,heroes in ,humble ,life--,firing in the ,mine of ,rammelsberg--,transport of ,minerals ,underground--,modern ,improvements--,various ,modes of ,descent--,corfs--,wonderful ,preservation of a ,girl at ,fahlun--,the ,loop--,safety ,cage--,man ,machines--,timbering and ,walling of ,galleries--,drainage by ,adit ,levels--,remarkable ,adits--,the ,great ,cornish ,adit--,the ,georg ,stollen in the ,hartz--,the ,ernst ,august ,stollen--,steam ,pumps--,drowning of ,mines--,irruption of the ,sea into ,workington ,colliery-- ,hubert ,goffin--,irruption of the ,river ,garnock into a ,mine--,ventilation of ,mines--,upcast ,shafts--,fire ,damp-- ,dreadful ,explosions--,the ,safety ,lamp--,the ,choke ,damp-- ,conflagrations of ,mines--,the ,burning ,hill in ,staffordshire #bdd ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,gold4 ,the ,golden ,fleece--,golden ,statues in ancient ,temples--,a ,free-thinking ,soldier--,treasures of ancient ,monarchs-- ,first ,gold ,coins--,ophir--,spanish ,gold ,mines--,bohemian ,gold ,mines--,discovery of ,america--,siberian ,gold ,mines-- ,california--,marshall--,rush to the ,placers--,discovery of ,gold in ,australia--,the ,chinaman's ,hole--,new ,el ,dorados-- ,alluvial ,gold ,deposits in ,california and ,australia-- ,washing--,quartz-crushing #bhe ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,silver4 ,its ancient ,discovery--,its ,uses among the luxurious ,romans-- ,the ,mines of ,laurium--,silver ,mines of ,bohemia1 ,saxony1 and ,hungary--,colossal ,nuggets--,silver ,ores--,silver ,production of ,europe--,mexican ,silver ,mines--,the ,veta ,madre of ,guanaxuato--,the ,conde de la ,valenciana--,zacatecas and ,catorce--,adventures of a ,steam ,engine--,la ,bolsa de ,dios ,padre--,the ,conde de la ,regia--,ill-fated ,english ,companies-- ,indian ,carriers--,the ,dressing of ,silver ,ores--,amalgamating ,process--,enormous ,production of ,mexican ,mines--,potosi-- ,cerro de ,pasco--,gualgayoc--,the ,mine of ,salcedo--,hostility of the ,indians--,the ,monk's ,rosary--,chilian ,mines--,the ,comstock ,lode #big ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,copper4 ,its valuable ,qualities--,english ,copper ,mines--,their comparatively recent ,importance--,dreary ,aspect of the ,cornwall ,copper ,country--,botallack--,submarine ,copper ,mines--,a ,blind ,miner--,swansea--,smelting ,process--,the ,mines of ,fahlun--their ,ancient ,records--,alten ,fjord--,drontheim-- ,the ,mines of ,rraas--,the ,mines of ,mansfeldt--,lake ,superior--,mysterious ,discoveries--,burra ,burra--,remarkable ,instances of ,good ,fortune in ,copper ,mining #cae ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,tin4 ,tin known from the most remote antiquity--,phnician ,traders--,the ,cassiterides--,diodorus ,siculus--,his account of the ,cornish ,tin ,trade--,the ,age of ,bronze--,valuable ,qualities of ,tin--,tin ,countries--,cornish ,tin ,lodes--,tin ,streams--,wheal ,vor--,a ,subterranean ,blacksmith--,huel ,wherry1 a ,tin ,mine under the ,sea--,carclaze ,tin ,mine--,dressing of ,tin ,ores--,smelting--,the ,cornish ,miner #ccb ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,iron4 ,iron the most valuable of ,metals--,its wide ,diffusion over the ,earth--,meteoric ,iron--,iron very anciently known-- ,extension of its ,uses in ,modern ,times--,british ,iron ,production--,causes of its ,rise--,hot ,blast--,puddling--,coal ,smelting--,the ,cleveland ,district--,rapid ,rise of ,middlesborough--,british ,iron ,ores--,production of ,foreign ,countries--,the ,magnetic ,mountain in ,russia--,the ,eisenerz ,mountain in ,styria--,dannemora--,elba--,the ,united ,states--,the ,pilot ,knob--,the ,cerro del ,mercado #cde ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,lead4 ,its ,properties and extensive ,uses--,alston ,moor--,belgian ,lead ,mines--,galena in ,america--,extraction of ,silver from ,lead ,ores--,pattinson's ,process--,a great part of our wealth is due to the laboratory #cfd ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,mercury4 ,not considered as a true ,metal by the ,ancients--,its ,properties and ,uses--,almaden--,formerly worked by ,convicts-- ,diseases of the ,miners--,idria--,its ,discovery--,conflagration of the ,mine--,its ,produce--,huancavelica--,new ,almaden #cgj ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,new ,,metals4 ,zinc--,the ,ores1 but not the ,metal1 known to the ,ancients-- ,rapid increase of its ,production--,chief ,zinc-producing ,countries--,platinum--,antimony--,bismu th--,cobalt and ,nickel-- ,wolfram--,arsenic--,chrome--,manganese- -,cadmium--,titanium-- ,molybdenum--,aluminium--,aluminium ,bronze--,magnesium--,sodium-- ,palladium--,rhodium--,thallium #chj ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,coal4 ,the ,age of ,coal--,plants of the ,carboniferous ,age--,hugh ,miller's ,description of a ,coal ,forest--,vast ,time required for the ,formation of the ,coal-fields--,derangements and ,dislocations--,faults--,their ,disadvantages and ,advantages-- ,bituminous ,coals--,anthracites--,our ,black ,diamonds-- ,advantageous ,position of our ,coal-,mines--,the ,south ,welsh ,coal-field--,great ,central and ,manchester ,coal-fields--,the ,whitehaven ,basin and the ,dudley ,area--,newcastle and ,durham ,coal-fields--,costly ,winnings--,a ,ball in a ,coal-pit-- ,submarine ,coal ,mines--,newcastle--,view from ,tynemouth ,priory--,hewers--,cutting ,machines--,putters--,onsetters-- ,shifters--,trapper-boys--,george ,stephenson--,rise of ,coal ,production--,probable ,duration of our ,supply--,prussian ,coal ,mines--,belgian ,coal ,mines--,coal ,mines in various other countries--,maunch ,chunck #cij ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,bituminous ,,substances4 ,formation of ,petroleum--,enormous ,production of the ,pennsylvanian ,wells--,asphalte used by the ,ancients-- ,asphalte ,pavements--,the ,pitch ,lake of ,trinidad--,jet--,its ,manufacture in ,whitby #dbf ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,salt4 ,geological ,position of ,rock ,salt--,mines of ,northwich--,their immense ,excavations--,droitwich and ,stoke--,wieliczka-- ,berchtesgaden and ,reichenhall--,admirable ,machinery-- ,stassfurt--,processes employed in the ,manufacture of ,salt-- ,origin of ,rock-salt ,deposits #dca ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur ,mines of ,sicily--,conflagration of a ,sulphur ,mine-- ,the ,solfataras of ,krisuvick--,iwogasima in ,japan--,solfatara of ,puzzuoli--,crater of ,teneriffe--,alaghez--,bdshegy in ,transylvania--,sulphur from the ,throat of ,popocatepetl-- ,sulphurous ,springs--,pyrites--,mines of ,san ,domingo in ,portugal--,the ,baron of ,pommoro #dda ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,amber4 ,various ,modes of its ,collection on the ,prussian ,coast--,what is ,amber8--,the extinct ,amber ,tree--,insects of the ,miocene ,period inclosed in ,amber--,formidable ,spiders--,ancient and ,modern ,trade in ,amber #ddi ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,mineral ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,industrial ,,arts4 ,alum--,alum ,mines of ,tolfa--,borax--,the ,suffioni in the ,florentine ,lagoons--,china-clay--,how formed8--,its ,manufacture in ,cornwall--,plumbago--,emery--,tripolite #deh ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,celebrated ,,quarries4 ,carrara--,the ,pentelikon--,the ,parian ,quarries--,rosso antico and ,verde antico--,the ,porphyry of ,elfdal--,the ,gypsum of ,montmartre--,the ,alabaster of ,volterra--,the ,slate ,quarries of ,wales--#8,princesses' and #8,duchesses'--#8,ladies' and #8,fat ,ladies'--,st4 ,peter's ,mount near ,maestricht--,egyptian ,quarries--,haggar ,silsilis--,the ,latomi of ,syracuse--,a ,triumph of ,poetry #dfd ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,precious ,,stones4 ,diamonds--,diamond ,cutting--,rose ,diamonds--,brilliants--,the ,diamond ,district in ,brazil--,diamond ,lavras--,the great ,russian ,diamond--,the ,regent--,the ,koh-i-,noor--,its ,history-- ,the ,star of the ,south--,diamonds used for ,industrial ,purposes--,the ,oriental ,ruby and ,sapphire--,the ,spinel--,the ,chrysoberyl--,the ,emerald--,the ,beryl--,the ,zircon--,the ,topaz-- ,the ,oriental ,turquoise--,the ,garnet--,lapis ,lazuli--,the ,noble ,opal--,inferior ,precious ,stones--,the ,agate-,cutters of ,oberstein--,rock ,crystal--,the ,rock-crystal ,grotto of the ,galenstock #dgg ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,maps4 ,of the ,world1 showing the distribution of ,volcanoes and the ,districts visited by ,earthquakes to face page #fj ,of ,great ,britain1 showing the ,coal-fields and chief ,mining ,districts #djj ,of ,america1 showing the ,coal-fields and ,mineral ,districts #daj ,,woodcuts4 ,,page ,carboniferous ,forest engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face title ,tabular ,geological ,profile of ,strata with corresponding engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,fossils #c ,aqueous ,strata disturbed by ,igneous ,formations 0 0 #d ,ammonites ,henleyi 7,middle from ,haughton's #8,manual of ,lias7 ,geology' #i ,trilobite from ,kemp's #8,phasis of ,matter' #aa ,magnified ,eye of ,trilobite 0 0 #aa ,pterygotus acuminatus from ,haughton's #8,manual of 7,eurypterid7 ,geology' #ab ,spirifer princeps 7,brachiopod7 0 0 #ab ,pterichthys ,milleri1 restored 7,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland7 0 0 #ad ,ventriculites1 ,fossil ,sponge 7,chalk7 0 0 #af ,siphonia costata1 ,fossil ,sponge1 7,green ,sand1 0 0 ,warminster7 #af ,encrinus liliiformis 7,muschelkalk1 ,germany7 0 0 #ag ,pentacrinus briareus 0 0 #ag ,marsupites ornatus 7,chalk7 0 0 #ah ,turrilites tuberculatum 0 0 #ai ,restored ,belemnite 0 0 #ai ,ichthyosaurus communis 0 0 #bj ,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus 7,british ,museum--found in the from ,haughton's #8,manual of ,lias of ,street1 near ,geology' ,glastonbury7 #ba ,glyptodon clavipes 0 0 #be ,diagram illustrating action of engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,syphon #dd ,section of an ,intermittent ,spring 0 0 #de ,geysirs of ,iceland 0 0 #df ,porous ,strata1 ,artesian ,well sunk in the ,london ,basin 0 0 #di ,middle and ,valley ,lake ,craters1 from ,wood's #8,australia' to face ,mount ,gambier1 ,south page ,australia #ec ,extinct ,crater of ,haleakala from ,webb's #8,celestial ,objects' #eg ,eruption of ,vesuvius1 ,bay of engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face ,naples page #ha ,mud ,volcanoes of ,trinidad engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #id ,great ,earthquake at ,lisbon engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face page #aad ,axmouth ,landslip engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #abh ,stalactital ,cavern at ,aggtelek3 engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face the ,cave of ,borodla page #acc ,entrance to the ,cave of engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,adelsberg #acg ,stalactital ,cavern in ,australia from ,wood's #8,australia' #ada ,cave under ,bonifacio from ,forester's #8,corsica' #ade ,leptodirus ,hchenwartii engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #afc ,the ,proteus anguinus 0 0 #afe ,blind ,fish 7,amblyopsis spelus7 0 0 #afh ,indian ,rock-cut ,temple engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face page #agh ,rock ,temples of ,ajunta 7general engraved by ,g4 ,pearson view7 #ahb ,lower ,glacire of ,st4 ,livres from ,browne's #8,ice ,caves' #aic ,ice ,streams in the ,upper ,glacire of ,st4 ,livres 0 0 #aif ,entrance to the ,glacire of ,st4 ,georges 0 0 #bja ,gallery with ,tombs from ,northcote and ,brownlow's #8,roma ,sotterranea' #bjf ,cave in ,dream ,lead ,mine1 near engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,wirksworth1 ,derbyshire #baf ,boring ,machine in the ,tunnel1 taken from the #8,illustrated ,mont ,cenis ,london ,news' by permission #bch ,boring ,machine in the ,second ,working ,gallery1 ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel 0 0 #bci ,process of ,boring engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #bea ,section of a ,lead ,mine in from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,cardiganshire ,arts1 ,manufacture1 and ,mines'4 #beb ,part of a ,colliery laid out in four panels 0 0 #bee ,general ,view of ,mining engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,operations #beg ,tools used by ,miners in from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,cornwall ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines' #beh ,conveyance of ,minerals engraved by ,g4 ,pearson underground #bfb ,miners descending ,shaft in ,owen's ,safety ,cage 0 0 #bfe ,timbering of a ,mine from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines' #beh ,transverse ,sections of ,walled ,drain ,galleries 0 0 #bfi ,drainage of a ,mine by ,adit ,levels 0 0 #bfi ,safety ,lamp 0 0 #bhj ,gold-washing in ,australia engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #bib ,stamping ,mill from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines' #cjf ,grinding ,mill 0 0 #cjg ,the ,botallack ,mine1 ,cornwall engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #cag ,st4 ,michael's ,mount1 ,cornwall 0 0 #ccc ,blast ,furnace from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines' #ceb ,pecopteris adiantoides from ,haughton's #8,manual of ,geology' #cia ,sphenopteris affinis 0 0 #cia ,lepidodendron elegans 0 0 #cib ,asterophyllites comosa 0 0 #cib ,sigillaria oculata 0 0 #cib ,calamites nodosus 0 0 #cic ,coalbeds rendered available by from #8,our ,coal and ,our ,coal ,pits' elevation1 #cig ,section of ,coal-field south of from ,ure's #8,dictionary of ,malmesbury ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines' #cih ,coal-basin of ,clackmannanshire 0 0 #djc ,dudley ,coal-field from ,howitt's #8,visits to ,remarkable ,places' #djg ,shipping ,coal 0 0 #dab ,coal ,hewers at ,work engraved by ,g4 ,pearson #dae ,pitch ,lake of ,trinidad engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face page #dbi ,insects and ,vegetable engraved by ,g4 ,pearson ,substances inclosed in ,amber1 #deb ,penrhyn ,slate ,quarry1 ,north engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 to face ,wales page #dfi ,the following is a list of the full-page illustrations1 included in the foregoing list1 all of which1 except ,no4 #b1 are engraved by ,g4 ,pearson3-- #a4 ,carboniferous ,forest to face title #b4 ,middle and ,valley ,lake ,craters1 ,mount ,gambier1 ,south ,australia to face page #ec #c4 ,eruption of ,vesuvius1 ,bay of ,naples 0 #ha #d4 ,great ,earthquake at ,lisbon 0 #aad #e4 ,stalactital ,cavern at ,aggtelek2 the ,cave of ,borodla 0 #acc #f4 ,indian ,rock-cut ,temple3 ,porch of the ,chaitya ,cave ,temple1 ,ajunta 0 #agh #g4 ,pitch ,lake of ,trinidad 0 #dbi #h4 ,penrhyn ,slate ,quarry1 ,north ,wales 0 #dfi ,,chapter ,i4 ,,geological ,,revolutions4 ,the ,eternal ,strife between ,water and ,fire--,strata of ,aqueous ,origin-- ,tabular ,view of their ,chronological ,succession--,enormous ,time required for their ,formation--,igneous ,action--,metamorphic ,rocks--,upheaval and ,depression--,fossils--,uninterrupted ,succession of ,organic ,life4 ,geology teaches us that1 from times of the remoteness of which the human mind can form no conception1 the surface of the earth has been the scene of perpetual change1 resulting from the action and counter-action of two mighty agents--water and subterranean heat4 ,ever since the first separation between the dry land and the sea took place1 the breakers of a turbulent ocean1 the tides and currents1 the torrents and rivers1 the expansive power of ice1 which is able to split the hardest rock1 and the grinding force of the glacier1 have been constantly wearing away the coasts and the mountains1 and transporting the spoils of continents and islands from a higher to a lower level4 ,during our short historical period of three or four thousand years1 the waters1 in spite of their restless activity and the considerable local changes effected by their means1 have indeed produced no marked alteration in the great outlines of the sea and land2 but when we consider that their influence has extended over countless ages1 we can no longer wonder at the enormous thickness of the stratified rocks of aqueous origin which1 superposed one above the other in successive layers1 constitute by far the greater part of the earth-rind4 ,our knowledge of these sedimentary formations is indeed as yet but incomplete1 for large portions of the surface of the globe have never yet been scientifically explored2 but a careful examination and comparison of the various strata composing the rocky foundations of numerous countries1 have already enabled the geologist to classify them into the following chronological systems or groups1 arranged in an ascending series1 or beginning with the oldest4 #a4 ,laurentian1 named from its discovery northward of the ,river ,st4 ,lawrence in ,canada4 #b4 ,cambrian ,these three groups owe their name to their #c4 ,silurian occurrence in ,wales and ,devonshire1 #d4 ,devonian where they were first scientifically explored4 #e4 ,carboniferous4 ,in this group the most important coal-fields are found4 #f4 ,permian1 from the ,russian province of ,permia4 #g4 ,triassic4 #h4 ,lias4 #i4 ,oolite4 #aj4 ,cretaceous4 #aa4 ,tertiary3 subdivided into ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene4 #ab4 ,recent marine and lacustrine strata4 ,each of these systems consists again of numerous sections and alternate layers1 sometimes of marine1 sometimes of freshwater formation1 the mere naming of which would fill several pages4 ,when we reflect that the ,laurentian system alone has a thickness of #cj1jjj feet2 that many of the numerous subdivisions of the ,triassic or ,oolitic group are #fjj1 #hjj1 or even several thousand feet thick1 and that each of these enormous sedimentary formations owes its existence to the disintegration of pre-existing mountain masses--we can form at least a faint notion of the enormous time which the whole system required for its completion4 ,,tabular ,,geological ,,profile4 ,,strata ,,characteristics ,,fossil ,,remains ---------------------------------------- ,t #a4 ,,recent ,,deposits #a4 ,,recent ,,deposits ,e ------------------- ,r #b4 ,,pliocene ,i ,i ,t - ------------------- ,irish ,elk4 ,i #c4 ,,miocene ,l ,l ,a ------------------- ,r #d4 ,,eocene ,l ,l ,y ------------------- ------------------------ ,u ,u #b4 ,,pliocene4 ,mastodon4 #e4 ,,cretaceous ,s ,s ------------------------ -------------------- ,t ,t #c4 ,,miocene4 ,s ,r ,r 7#a7 ,cerithium4 ,e 7#b7 ,segnoia4 ,c ,a ,a ------------------------ ,o #d4 ,,eocene4 ,n - ,t ,t ,d 7#a7 ,nummulites4 ,a #f4 ,,oolitic ,i ,i 7#b7 ,natica4 ,r ------------------------ ,y ,o ,o #e4 ,,cretaceous4 ,n ,n 7#a7 ,inoceramus4 ------------------- 7#b7 ,turrilites4 #g4 ,,lias 7#c7 ,pecten4 7#d7 ,hamites4 ------------------- ------------------------ #h4 ,,triassic #f4 ,,oolitic4 7#a7 ,pholadomya4 ------------------- 7#b7 ,trigonia4 #i4 ,,permian 7#c7 ,mantellia4 7#d7 ,nerina4 ------------------- ------------------------ #g4 ,,lias4 7#a7 ,icthyosaurus4 7#b7 ,ammonites4 ------------------------ #aj4 ,,carboniferous #h4 ,,triassic4 7#a7 ,labyrinthodon4 7#b7 ,encrinus4 ------------------------ #i4 ,permian4 ------------------- 7#a7 ,bakewellia4 7#b7 ,productus4 ,i ,i 7#c7 ,paloniscus4 ------------------------ #aa4 ,,devonian ,l ,l #aj4 ,,carboniferous4 ,l ,l 7#a7 ,goniatites4 7#b7 ,lepidodendron4 ,l ,i 7#c7 ,calamites4 ------------------- ------------------------ ,p ,u ,u #aa4 ,,devonian4 ,r ,i ,s ,s ,pterichthys4 ,m - ------------------------ ,a #ab4 ,,silurian ,t ,t #ab4 ,,silurian4 ,r ,y ,r ,r 7#a7 ,strophomena4 7#b7 ,lingula4 ,a ,a 7#c7 ,pentamerus4 7#d7 ,calymene4 ------------------- ,t ,t ------------------------ #ac4 ,,cambrian4 ,i ,i #ac4 ,,cambrian ,oldhamia4 ,o ,o ------------------------ ------------------- #ad4 ,,laurentian4 #ad4 ,,laurentian ,n ,n ,eozoon4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,had the levelling power of water never met with an antagonistic force1 there can be no doubt that the last remains of the dry land1 supposing it could ever have risen above the ocean1 must long since have been swept into the sea4 ,but while water has been constantly tending to reduce the irregularities of the earth's surface to one dull level1 the expansive force of subterranean heat has been no less unceasingly active in restoring the unevenness of the external crust by the ejection or protrusion of new masses of stone 7porphyry1 trachyte1 basalt1 lava1 c471 and by the consequent disturbance1 in a variety of ways1 of the stratified rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,aqueous ,,strata ,,disturbed ,,by ,,igneous ,,formations4 ,b ,c ,d1 aqueous strata1 originally horizontal1 raised by protrusion of ,a1 granitic rock4 ,plutonic and volcanic eruptions and upheavings1 in their reaction against the levelling tendencies of water1 have in many places deranged1 broken1 fractured1 contorted1 or raised strata deposited in horizontal layers at the bottom of the sea1 or of large inland lakes4 ,sometimes a huge mass of crystalline rock1 glowing from the furnaces of the deep1 has1 by its irresistible expansion1 slowly forced its way through the superincumbent sedimentary formations1 which1 yielding to the pressure from below1 now form vast mountain slopes1 or vertical rock walls1 or have even been so totally inverted that strata of a more ancient formation now overlie those of more modern date1 and excite the wonder of the puzzled geologist4 ,sometimes1 also1 volcanic eruptions1 repeated through a long lapse of ages and constantly accumulating lavas and cinders1 have at length piled up large islands1 such as ,iceland or ,madeira1 which now raise their summits thousands of feet above the ocean4 ,but subterranean fire1 and its assistant1 steam1 have not only produced vast mechanical changes2 they have also been the frequent causes of great chymical metamorphoses in the rocks subjected to their action4 ,to the calcining1 decomposing1 and vapour-generating effects of heat1 we trace the origin of the marble of ,carrara1 of alabaster1 of gypsum1 and all those various species of stone which geologists include under the name of metamorphic rocks4 ,besides the more paroxysmal and violent revolutions resulting from the action of subterranean fire1 we find that the earth-rind has at all times been subject to slow oscillatory movements of upheaval and subsidence1 frequently alternating on the same spot with long periods of rest4 ,the greater part of the actual dry land has been deep sea1 and then again land and ocean many times in succession2 and doubtless the actual sea bottom would exhibit similar alternations were we able to explore it4 ,the same materials have repeatedly been exposed to all these changes--now raised or poured out by subterranean fires1 and then again swept away by the waters2 now changed from solid rock into sand and mud1 and then again converted1 by pressure or heat1 into solid rock4 ,thus the history of the earth-rind opens to us a vista into time no less grand and magnificent than the vista into space afforded by the contemplation of the starry heavens4 ,the oldest and the newest stratified rocks are composed of the same mineral substances2 for clay1 sandstone1 and limestone occur in the ,silurian and in the ,carboniferous formation2 in the ,cretaceous and ,triassic systems2 in the ,tertiary and in the ,alluvial deposits1 which have immediately preceded the present epoch4 ,where then1 it may be asked1 does the geologist find a chronological guide to lead him through the vast series of strata which1 in the course of countless ages1 have been deposited in the water8 ,how is he able to distinguish the boundaries of the various periods of creation8 ,where are the precise indications which enable him to decipher the enigmas which the endless feuds of fire and water have written in the annals of our globe8 ,the fossil remains of animals and plants wonderfully furnish the guidance which he needs4 ,the corals and shells1 the ferns and conifera1 the teeth and bones found in the various strata of the earth-rind are the landmarks which point out to him his way through the labyrinth of the primitive ages of our globe1 as the compass directs the mariner over the pathless sea4 ,every leading fossil has its fixed chronological character1 and thus the age of the formation in which it occurs may be ascertained1 and its place determined in the geological scale4 ,it would1 however1 be erroneous to suppose that each successive formation has been the seat of a totally distinct creation1 and that the organic remains found in one particular stratum are separated by an impassable barrier from those which characterise the preceding or following sedimentary deposits4 ,as on the surface of the earth or along the shores of the sea1 each land or each coast has not only its peculiar plants or animals1 but also harbours many of the organic forms of the neighbouring countries or conterminous shores2 as the tropical organisations gradually pass into those of the temperate zones1 and these again merge into those of the polar regions1 so also the stream of life has from the first flowed uninterruptedly1 in gradually changing forms1 through every following age4 ,new genera and species have arisen1 and others have disappeared1 some after a comparatively short duration1 others after having outlasted several formations2 but every extinct form has but made way for others1 and thus each period has not only witnessed the decay of many previously flourishing genera and species1 but has also marked a new creation4 ,no doubt the numerous local disturbances above mentioned have frequently broken the chain of created beings2 but a gradual progress from related to related forms1 a continuous development from lower to more highly organised species1 genera1 orders1 and classes1 has from the beginning been the general and constant law of organic life4 ,universal destructions of existing forms1 revolutions covering the whole surface of the earth with ruin1 have most assuredly never occurred in the annals of our globe4 ,nor must it be supposed that the whole scale of sedimentary formations is to be found superimposed in one spot2 for as in our times new strata are chiefly growing at the mouths of rivers1 or where submarine currents deposit at the bottom of the ocean the fine mud or sand which is conveyed into the sea by the disintegration of distant mountain chains1 so also from the beginning each stratum could only have been deposited in similar localities2 and while it was slowly increasing1 and not seldom acquiring colossal dimensions in some parts of the globe1 others remained comparatively but little altered1 until new oscillatory movements produced a change in their former position1 and opening new paths to the rolling waters1 here set bounds to the progress of one formation1 and there favoured the deposition of another4 ,a complete study of all the various transformations by fire or water which the surface of our earth has undergone would require an elaborate treatise of geology1 and lies far beyond the scope or the pretensions of a popular volume which is chiefly devoted to the description of caves and mines4 ,but ,i should be neglecting some of the most interesting features of the subterranean world1 were ,i to omit all mention of the fossils imbedded in its various strata2 of its internal heat2 of the upheavals and subsidences which have played so conspicuous a part in the history of the earth-rind1 and are still proceeding at the present day2 of the water percolating or flowing beneath the earth's crust1 and finally of the volcanoes and earthquakes1 which prove to us that the ancient subterranean fires1 far from being extinct1 are still as powerful as ever in remodelling its surface4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,fossils4 ,general ,remarks--,eozoon ,canadense--,trilobites--,brachiopods--, pterichthys ,milleri--,oldest ,reptiles--,wonderful ,preservation of ,colour in ,petrified ,shells--,primval ,corals and ,sponges--,sea-lilies--,orthoceratites and ,ammonites--,belemnites--,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus--,pterodactyli-- ,iguanodon--,tertiary ,quadrupeds--,dinotherium--,colossochely s ,atlas-- ,megatherium--,mylodon--,glyptodon--,mam moth--,mastodon--,sivatherium ,giganteum-- ,fossil ,ripple-marks1 ,rain-drops1 and ,footprints--,harmony has reigned from the beginning4 ,the fossil remains of plants and animals1 which have successively flourished1 and passed away since the first dawn of organic life1 occupy a prominent place among the wonders of the subterranean world4 ,a medal that has survived the ruin of empires is no doubt a venerable relic1 but it seems to have been struck but yesterday when compared with a shell or a leaf that has been buried millions of years ago in the drift of the primeval ocean1 and now serves the geologist as a waymark through the past epochs of the earth's history4 ,illustration3 ,,ammonites ,,henleyi 7,,middle ,,lias74 ,if we examine the condition in which the fossils have been preserved in the strata successively deposited on the surface of our globe1 we find that in general only parts of the original plant or animal have escaped destruction1 and in these fragments also the primitive substance has often been replaced by other materials1 so that only their form or their impression has triumphed over time4 ,while soft and delicate textures have either been utterly swept away1 or could only be preserved under the rarest circumstances 7as1 for instance1 the insects and flowers inclosed in amber71 a greater degree of hardness or solidity naturally gave a better chance of escaping destruction4 ,thus among plants the most frequent fossil-remains are furnished by stems1 roots1 branches1 fruit- stones1 leaves2 and1 among animals1 by corals1 shells1 calcareous crusts1 teeth1 scales1 and bones4 ,but the few memorials that have thus survived the lapse of ages enable us to form some idea of the multitudes that have entirely perished2 and the petrified shell of the ,ammonite1 or the jointed arms of the ,encrinite1 are proofs of the existence of the world of tiny beings which served them for their nourishment and have been utterly swept away4 ,if we consider that the number of all the known species of fossil plants hardly amounts to #c1jjj1 while the ,flora of the present day1 as far as it has been examined by systematical botanists1 numbers at least #bej1jjj species2 that the host of living insects is probably still more numerous1 although not much more than #a1ejj extinct species of this class are known to us2 and that1 finally1 the remains of all the extinct crustaceous fishes1 reptiles1 and warm-blooded animals are far outnumbered by the species actually living--we may form some idea of the vast multitudes that have left no trace behind1 and whose total loss will for ever confine within narrow limits our knowledge of the past phases of organic creation4 ,this loss appears still greater when we consider the enormous extent of time during which the fossils known to us have successively existed1 and that a part only of the comparatively small number of the orders1 genera1 and species to which they belong existed at one and the same epoch4 ,but as1 owing to the hard texture and mode of life which are so eminently favourable for the preservation of shells1 we have been enabled to collect about #aa1jjj fossil species1 a number not much inferior to that of the molluscs of the present day1 we may justly conclude that the more perishable forms of life1 of which1 consequently1 fewer vestiges have been preserved1 were comparatively as numerous1 and that ever since the first dawn of organic life our earth has borne an immense variety of plants and animals4 ,though comparatively but few species have been preserved1 yet sometimes the accumulation of fossil remains is truly astonishing4 ,in the carboniferous strata we not seldom find more than one hundred beds of coal interstratified with sandstones1 shales1 and limestones1 and extending for miles and miles in every direction4 ,how luxuriant must have been the growth of the forests that could produce masses such as these1 and what countless multitudes of herbivorous insects must have fed upon their foliage or afforded food to carnivorous hordes scarcely less numerous than themselves6 ,the remains of corals1 encrinites1 and shells often form the greater part of whole mountain ranges1 and1 what is still more remarkable1 mighty strata of limestone or flint are not seldom almost entirely composed of the aggregated remains of microscopical animals4 ,after these remarks on fossils in general1 ,i will now briefly point out some of the most striking of the species so preserved to us as they successively appeared upon the stage of life4 ,in the ,lower ,laurentian ,rocks1 the most ancient strata known1 only one fossil has hitherto been found4 ,the ,eozoon canadense1 as it has been called1 belonged to the ,rhizopods1 which occupy about the lowest grade in the scale of animal existence4 ,its massive skeletons1 composed of innumerable cells1 would seem to have extended themselves over submarine rocks1 their base upwards of twelve inches in width and their thickness from four to six inches4 ,such is the antiquity of the ,eozoon that the distance of time which separated it from the ,trilobites of the ,cambrian formation may be equal to the vast period which elapsed between these and the ,tertiary ages4 ,in other words1 it is beyond our imagination to conceive4 ,illustration3 ,,trilobite4 ,illustration3 ,,magnified ,,eye ,,of ,,trilobite4 ,in the next following ,cambrian formation we find1 besides some zoophytes and shells1 a number of ,trilobites1 which1 however1 appear to have been most abundant in the ,silurian seas1 where they probably swarmed as abundantly as the crabs and shrimps in the waters of the present age4 ,few fossils are more curious than these strange crustaceans1 which so widely differ from their modern relatives4 ,the jointed carapace is divided into three lobes1 the middle prominent one forming the axis of the body1 while the lateral ones were free appendages1 under which the soft membranaceous swimming feet were concealed4 ,large eyes1 resembling those of a dragon-fly1 projected from the odd crescent-shaped head1 and1 being composed of many hundred spherical facets1 commanded a wide view of the horizon4 ,provided with such complicated organs of vision1 the helpless animal could betimes perceive the approaching enemy1 or more easily espy its prey1 consisting1 most likely1 of the smaller marine annelides or molluscs4 ,from the structure of these remarkable eyes we may conclude that the waters of the old ,cambrian or ,silurian ,ocean were as limpid as those of the present seas1 and that the natural relations of light to the eye and of the eye to light cannot have greatly changed since that period4 ,many1 if not all1 of the ,trilobites were capable of rolling themselves up into a ball1 like wood-lice2 and accordingly it is found that in many of them the contour of the head and tail is so constructed that they fit accurately when rolled up4 ,most probably the ,trilobites either swam in an inverted position1 the belly upwards1 or crawled slowly along at the bottom of the shallow coast waters1 where they lived gregariously in vast numbers4 ,illustration3 ,,pterygotus ,,acuminatus 7,,eurypterid74 ,illustration3 ,,spirifer ,,princeps 7,,brachiopod74 ,contemporaneous with the ,trilobites were the ,eurypterids1 which vary from one foot to five or six feet in length4 ,one of the most striking characteristics of this remarkable order of crustaceans is the formidable pair of pincers with which they were armed4 ,as their whole structure shows them to have been active swimmers1 they must have made considerable havoc among the smaller fry of the ,devonian and ,silurian seas4 ,then also abounded in hundreds of species the ,brachiopods1 a class of molluscs now but feebly represented by a scanty remnant4 ,the greater part of the interior of the shell1 consisting of two unequal valves1 is occupied with branching arms1 furnished with cilia1 which cause a constant current to flow towards the mouth of the mollusc1 and thus provide for its nourishment4 ,the arms1 as in the family of the ,spiriferid1 are sometimes supported by calcareous skeletons1 arranged like loops or spirals4 ,some ,brachiopods are attached to stones1 like oysters2 in others the larger valve is perforated1 and a sinewy kind of foot1 passing through the aperture1 serves as a holdfast to the animal4 ,most of these helpless creatures did not survive the ,carboniferous period1 but the ,terebratul1 which still have their representatives in the modern seas1 existed even then1 so that their genealogical tree may justly boast of a very high antiquity4 ,the fishes1 of which the oldest known specimen has been found in the ,upper ,silurian group 7,lower ,ludlow71 become more frequent in the next following ,devonian epoch1 where they appear in a variety of wonderful forms1 widely different from those of the present day4 ,while in nearly all the existing fishes the scales are flexible1 and generally either of a more or less circular form 7cycloid71 as in the salmon1 herring1 roach1 c41 or provided with comb-like teeth1 projecting from the posterior margin 7ctenoid71 as in the sole or perch1 the fishes of the ,devonian1 ,permian1 and ,carboniferous periods were decked with hard bony scales1 either covered with a brilliant enamel1 as in our sturgeons 7ganoid71 and arranged in regular rows1 the posterior edges of each slightly overlapping the anterior ones of the next1 or irregular in their shape1 and separately imbedded in the skin 7placoid71 as in the sharks and rays of the present day4 ,with rare exceptions their skeleton was cartilaginous2 but the less perfect ossification of their bones was amply compensated by the solid texture of their enamelled coat of mail1 which afforded them a better protection against enemies and injuries from without than is possessed by any bony-skeletoned fish of our days4 ,they were1 in fact1 comparatively as well prepared for a hostile encounter as an ancient knight in armour1 or as one of our modern iron- plated war ships4 ,one of the most remarkable of these mail-clad ,ganoids was the ,pterichthys ,milleri of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland4 ,in most of our fishes the pectoral fins are but weakly developed2 here they constitute real arms1 moved by strong muscles1 and resembling the paddle of the turtle4 ,illustration3 ,,pterichthys ,,milleri--,,restored4 7,,old ,,red ,,sandstone ,,of ,,scotland47 ,besides the enormous masses of vegetable matter which distinguish the ,carboniferous period1 the stone beds of that formation likewise contain a vast number of animal remains4 ,from the reptiles and fishes down to the corals and sponges1 many new families1 genera1 and species crowd upon the scene1 while many of the previously flourishing races have either entirely disappeared1 or are evidently declining4 ,thus the ,trilobites1 formerly so numerous1 are reduced to a few species in the ,carboniferous period1 and vanish towards its close4 ,in #ahdg the oldest known reptiles were found in the coal field of ,saarbrck1 in the centre of spheroidal concretions of clay iron-stone1 which not only faithfully preserved the skulls1 teeth1 and the greater portions of the skeletons of these ancient lizards1 but even a large part of their skin1 consisting of long1 narrow1 wedge-shaped1 tile-like1 and horny scales1 arranged in rows4 ,what a lesson for human pride6 ,the pyramid of the ,pharaoh ,cheops1 reared by the labour of thousands of slaves1 has been unable to preserve his remains from spoliation even for the short space of a few thousand years1 and here a vile reptile has been safely imbedded in a sarcophagus of iron ore during the vast period of many geological formations4 ,still more recently 7#ahed7 other wonders have been brought to light in the clay iron-stone of ,saarbrck4 ,the wing of a grasshopper1 with all its nerves as distinctly marked as if the creature had been hopping about but yesterday1 some white ants or termites 7now confined to the warmer regions of the globe71 a beetle1 and several cockroaches1 give us some idea of the insects that lived at the time when our coal-beds were forming4 ,another highly interesting circumstance1 relating to the fossils of that distant period1 is that in several of them the patterns of their colouring have been preserved4 ,thus ,terebratula hastata often retains the marks of the original coloured stripes which ornamented the living shell4 ,in ,aviculopecten sublobatus dark stripes alternate with a light ground1 and wavy blotches are displayed in ,pleurotomaria carinata4 ,from these facts ,professor ,forbes inferred that the depth of the seas in which the ,mountain ,limestone was formed did not exceed fifty fathoms1 as in the existing seas the ,testacea1 which have shells and well-defined patterns1 rarely inhabit a greater depth4 ,the ,magnesian ,limestone or ,permian group is remarkable chiefly for the vast number of fishes that have been found in some of its members1 such as the marl slate of ,durham and the ,kupferschiefer1 or copper slate1 of ,thuringia4 ,from the curved form of their impressions1 as if they had been spasmodically contracted1 the fossil fish of the latter locality are supposed to have perished by a sudden death before they sank down into the mud in which they were entombed4 ,probably the copper which impregnates the stratum in which they occur is connected with this phenomenon4 ,mighty volcanic eruptions corrupted the water with poisonous metallic salts1 and destroyed in a short time whole legions of its finny inhabitants4 ,illustration3 ,,ventriculites--,,fossil ,,sponge 7,,chalk74 ,from the earliest ages the corals play a conspicuous part in fossil history2 and as in our days we find them encircling islands and fringing continents with huge ramparts of limestone1 so many an ancient reef1 now far inland1 and raised several thousand feet above the level of the sea1 bears witness to the vast terrestrial changes that have taken place since it was first piled up by the growth of countless zoophytes4 ,illustration3 ,,siphonia ,,costata--,,fossil ,,sponge 7,,green ,,sand1 ,,warminster74 ,with regard to the dimensions of the fossil corals we do not find that any of them exceeded in size their modern relatives2 but their construction was widely different4 ,the fossil sponges of the primitive seas are likewise very unlike those of the present day4 ,thus in all the ancient strata we find abundant spongid with a stony skeleton1 while all the modern sponges possess a horny frame4 ,the ,petrospongid1 or stone sponges1 which have long since disappeared1 are frequently shapeless masses2 but a large number are cup-shaped1 with a central tubular cavity1 lined1 as well as the outer surface1 with pores more or less regularly arranged4 ,illustration3 ,,encrinus ,,liliiformis4 7,muschelkalk1 ,germany47 ,illustration3 ,,pentacrinus ,,briareus4 ,the ,crinoids1 or ,sea-lilies1 now almost entirely extinct1 were extremely common in the primeval seas4 ,unlike our modern sea-stars1 to which they are allies1 they did not move about freely from place to place1 but were affixed1 like flowers1 to a slender flexible stalk1 composed of numerous calcareous joints connected together by a fleshy coat4 ,the ,carboniferous ,mountain ,limestone is loaded with their remains1 and the ,encrinus liliiformis is one of the leading fossils of the ,muschelkalk of the ,triassic group4 ,the ,pentacrinus briareus is of more modern date1 and occurs in tangled masses1 forming thin beds of considerable extent in the ,lower ,lias4 ,this beautiful ,crinoid1 with its innumerable tentacular arms1 appears to have been frequently attached to the drift wood of the ,liassic sea1 like the floating barnacles of the present day4 ,in the still more recent ,chalk group is found a remarkable form of star-fish1 the ,marsupites ornatus1 which resembles in all respects the ,crinoids1 except that it is not and never was provided with a stem4 ,it seems to have been rolled lazily to and fro1 by the influence of the waves1 at the bottom of the sea1 and to have been anchored in its place by the action of gravity alone4 ,illustration3 ,,marsupites ,,ornatus4 ,,chalk4 ,of all the changes that have taken place in organic life1 none perhaps are more remarkable than the transformations which the ,cephalopod molluscs have undergone during the various geological eras4 ,in the more ancient ,palozoic seas flourished the ,orthoceratites1 or straight- chambered shells1 resembling a nautilus uncoiled4 ,in the ,carboniferous ages the ,goniatites acquired their highest development4 ,these shells were spirally wound1 having the lobes of the chambers free from lateral denticulations or crenatures1 so as to form continuous and uninterrupted outlines4 ,both ,orthoceratites and ,goniatites disappear in the ,triassic times1 and are replaced by hosts of ,ammonites1 which successively flourished in more than #fjj species1 and are characterised by an external siphon and chambers of complicated1 often foliated1 pattern4 ,this foliated structure gives a remarkable character to the intersection of the chamber partitions with the shell1 and must have added greatly to the strength of the shell1 which was always delicate and often very beautiful4 ,the ,ammonites1 which made their first appearance towards the end of the ,triassic period1 abounded in the ,oolitic and ,cretaceous periods1 and were replaced by new forms before the ,tertiary beds were deposited4 ,among these we find the ,ancyloceras gigas1 which may be regarded as an ,ammonite partially unrolled1 and the ,turrilites tuberculatus1 which has the form and peculiar symmetry of a univalve shell4 ,illustration3 ,,turrilites ,,tuberculatus4 ,illustration3 ,,restored ,,belemnite4 ,in several of the older rocks1 especially the ,lias and ,oolite1 ,belemnites are frequently met with4 ,these singular dart- or arrow-shaped fossils were supposed by the ancients to be the thunderbolts of ,jove1 but are now known to be the petrified internal bones of a race of voracious cuttle-fishes1 whose importance in the ,oolitic or ,cretaceous ,seas may be judged of by the frequency of their remains and the #abj species that have been hitherto discovered4 ,belemnites two feet long have been found1 so that1 to judge by analogies1 the animals to which they belonged as cuttle-bones must have measured eighteen or twenty feet from end to end4 ,provided with prehensile hooks on their long arms1 and with a formidable parrot-like bill1 these huge creatures must have proved most dangerous antagonists1 even to the well-protected fishes that lived in the same seas4 ,but of all the denizens of the ,mesozoic ,ocean none were more powerful than the large marine or enaliosaurian reptiles1 which1 flourishing throughout the whole of the ,triassic period1 were lords of all they surveyed down to the end of the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,first among these monsters appears the gigantic ,ichthyosaurus1 which has been found no less than forty feet long--a creature half fish1 half lizard1 and combining1 in strange juxtaposition1 the snout of the porpoise1 the teeth of the crocodile1 and the paddles of the whale4 ,but the most remarkable of its features is the eye1 surpassing a man's head in size1 and wonderfully adapted for vision both far and near4 ,illustration3 ,,ichthyosaurus ,,communis4 ,illustration3 ,,plesiosaurus ,,dolichodeirus4 7,british ,museum--,found in the ,lias of ,street1 near ,glastonbury47 ,in the quarries of ,caen in ,normandy1 at ,lyme ,regis in ,dorsetshire1 and particularly at ,kloster ,banz in ,franconia1 where the largest known specimen has been discovered1 entire skeletons of the formidable ,ichthyosaurus have been exhumed from the ,liassic shale--memorials of the ages long since past1 when lands now far removed from the ocean still lay at the bottom of the sea1 and formed the domain of gigantic lizards4 ,the enormous jaw-bones of the ,ichthyosauri1 which in the full-grown animal could be opened seven feet wide1 were armed along their whole length with powerful conical teeth1 showing them to have been carnivorous1 and the half-digested remains of fishes and reptiles found within their skeletons indicate the precise nature of their food4 ,the size of the swallowed object proves also that the cavity of the stomach must have corresponded with the wide opening of the jaws4 ,thus powerfully equipped for offensive warfare2 excellent swimmers from their compressed cuneiform trunk1 their long broad paddles1 and their stout vertical tail-fin2 provided1 moreover1 with eyes capable of piercing the dim light of the ocean depths1 they must have been formidable indeed to the contemporaneous fishes4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus was admirably formed for cleaving the waves of an agitated sea2 but the ,plesiosaurus was equally well organised for pursuing its prey in shallow creeks and bays defended from heavy breakers4 ,its long swan-like neck no doubt enabled it to drag many a victim from its hiding-place4 ,while these huge lizards were the terror of the seas1 the ,pterodactyles1 a race of winged lizards1 armed with long jaws and sharp teeth1 hovered in the air4 ,with the exception of the greatly elongated fifth finger1 to which1 as well as to the whole length of the arm and body1 the membranous wing or organ of flight was attached1 the fingers of this strange animal were provided with sharp claws1 so that it was probably enabled1 like the bat1 to suspend itself from precipitous rock-walls4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that1 whereas the ,pterodactyles of the older ,lias beds did not exceed ten or twelve inches in length1 the later forms1 found fossil in the ,greensand and ,wealden beds of the ,lower ,cretaceous formation1 must have been at least #af feet long4 ,that these reptiles were not the only vertebrated animals capable of hovering in the air at the time when the huge ,ichthyosaurus was lord of the seas1 is proved by a bird about the size of a rook1 which was discovered in #ahfb1 in the lithographic slate of ,solenhofen in ,bavaria1 a stone-bed belonging to the period of the ,upper ,oolite4 ,the skeleton of this valuable specimen1 now in the ,british ,museum1 is almost entire1 with the exception of the head1 and retains even its feathers4 ,still older fossil mammalia have been found near ,stuttgard1 in the uppermost bed of the ,triassic deposits1 and in the ,lower ,oolite of ,oxfordshire4 ,these interesting remains1 which carry back the existence of the mammals to a very remote period1 belong to small marsupial1 or opossum-like1 animals4 ,the jaws1 which are the principal parts preserved1 are exceedingly minute1 and remarkable for the number and distribution of their teeth1 which prove them to have been either insectivorous or rodent4 ,the remains of the ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri occur chiefly in the ,liassic group1 but the more recent ,cretaceous 7,wealden7 formation is distinguished by the presence of still more enormous land saurians4 ,on their massive legs and unwieldy feet these monsters stood much higher than any reptile of our days1 and resembled in bulk and stature the elephants of the present world4 ,the carnivorous ,megalosaurus 7for its sharply serrated teeth indicate this mode of life7 appears to have preceded the gigantic ,iguanodon1 whose dentition denotes a vegetable food4 ,like the giant sloths of ,south ,america--the ,megatherium and the ,mylodon--the ,iguanodon was provided with a long prehensile tongue and fleshy lips to seize the leaves and branches on which it fed4 ,professor ,owen estimates its probable length at between fifty and sixty feet1 and to judge by the proportions of its extremities1 and particularly of its huge feet1 it must have exceeded the bulk of the elephant eightfold4 ,during the following ,upper ,cretaceous epoch flourished the ,mosasaurus1 a marine saurian1 first discovered in the quarries of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 near ,maestricht1#a and supposed to have been twenty-four feet in length4 ,but the supremacy of the reptiles was now drawing to its close1 and in the ,tertiary period we at length see the ,mammalia assume a prominent place on the scene of life4 ,the oldest of these tertiary quadrupeds differ so widely from those of the present day as to form distinct genera4 ,the ,palotheriums1 for instance1 of which there are seventeen species1 varying in dimensions from the size of a rhinoceros to that of a hog1 combine in their skeleton many of the characters of the tapir1 the rhinoceros1 and the horse1 while the ,anoplotheriums1 whose size varied from that of a hare to that of a dwarf ass1 resembled in some respects the rhinoceros and the horse1 and in others the hippopotamus1 the hog1 and the camel4 ,footnote #a3 ,chapter ,,xxxviii ,in the ,miocene epoch many of these more ancient quadrupeds no longer appear upon the scene1 while others still flourish in its upper period along with still existing genera1 and with forms long since extinct1 such as the ,dinotherium4 ,this huge animal is particularly remarkable for its two large and heavy tusks1 placed at the extremity of the lower jaw1 and curved downwards like those in the upper jaw of the walrus4 ,it was formerly supposed to be an herbivorous cretacean1 and to have used its anterior limbs principally in the act of digging for roots4 ,the remains on which these speculations were founded were the huge jaws and shoulder-blade discovered at ,epplesheim in ,hesse ,darmstadt2 but an immense pelvis of the animal1 measuring six feet in breadth and four and a quarter feet in height1 discovered by ,father ,sanno ,solaro1 in the department of the ,haute ,garonne1 proves that this supposed aquatic pachyderm was a gigantic marsupial1 and that the dependent trunks of the unwieldy animal1 instead of serving the purpose of anchoring it to the banks of rivers1 answered the more homely1 but equally important office1 of lifting the young into the maternal pouch4 #8,the remarkable history of the successive discovery of its bones1' says ,professor ,haughton1 #8and the change of views consequent thereupon1 should teach geologists modesty in the expression of their opinion4' ,during this period also flourished in ,india1 along with many other strange forms of life1 the ,colossochelys ,atlas1 a tortoise of the most gigantic proportions1 measuring1 probably1 nearly twenty feet on the curve of the carapace1 and dwarfing into insignificance the great ,indian tortoise of the present day4 ,the nearer we approach our own times1 the greater becomes the proportion of still existing genera and species2 and it is remarkable that as early as the ,pliocene epoch we find a geographical distribution of mammalian life analogous to that which now characterises the various regions of the earth4 ,thus the fossil monkeys of ,south ,america have the nostrils wide apart like all the existing simi of the new world1 and fossil monkeys with approximated nostrils1 the characteristic mark of all the old world quadrumana1 are exclusively found in ,asia and in ,europe1 where now a small species of monkey is confined to the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 but where1 in the ,upper ,miocene times1 large long-armed apes1 equalling man in stature1 lived in the oak forests of ,france4 ,thus also ,south ,america1 where alone sloths and armadilloes exist at the present day1 is the only part of the world where1 in the younger tertiary rocks1 the remains of analogous mammals--the ,megatherium1 the ,mylodon1 and the ,glyptodon--have been found4 ,the ,mylodon was a colossal sloth1 eleven feet long and with a corresponding girth4 ,when we consider the huge size of the pelvis and the massiveness of the limbs1 we must needs conclude that ,professor ,owen could not possibly have given the unwieldy animal a more appropriate surname than that of robustus4 ,the ,megatherium was of still larger size4 ,its length was as much as eighteen feet1 the breadth of its pelvis was six feet1 and the tail1 where it was attached to the body1 must have measured six feet in circumference4 ,the thigh bone was nearly three times as great as that of the largest known elephant1 the bones of the instep and those of the foot being also of corresponding size4 ,the general proportions both of the ,megatherium and ,mylodon resembled those of the elephant1 the body being relatively as large1 the legs shorter and thicker1 and the neck very little longer4 ,the ,megatherium may have had a short proboscis1 but the ,mylodon exhibits no mark of such contrivance4 ,it is evident1 from the bulk and construction of these huge animals1 that they did not1 like the sloths of the present day1 crawl along the under side of the boughs till they had reached a commodious feeding place1 but that1 firmly seated on the strong tripod of their two hind legs and powerful tail1 they uprooted trees or wrenched off branches with their fore limbs1 which were well adapted for grasping the trunk or larger branches of a tree4 ,the long and powerful claws were also1 no doubt1 useful in the preliminary process of scratching away the soil from the roots of the trees to be prostrated4 ,this task accomplished1 the long and curved fore claws would next be applied to the opposite sides of the loosened trunk4 #8,the tree being thus partly undermined and firmly grappled with1 the muscles of the trunk1 the pelvis1 and hind limbs1 animated by the nervous influence of the unusually large spinal cord1 would combine their forces with those of the anterior members in the efforts at prostration4 ,if now we picture to ourselves the massive frame of the ,megatherium1 convulsed with the mighty wrestling1 every vibrating fibre reacting upon its bony attachment with a force which the sharp and strong crests and apophyses loudly bespeak1 we may suppose that that tree must have been strong indeed which1 rocked to and fro1 to right and left1 in such an embrace1 could long withstand the efforts of its ponderous assailant4' ,illustration3 ,,glyptodon ,,clavipes4 ,the ,glyptodon1 a colossal armadillo of the size of an ox1 was covered with a thick heavy tessellated bony armour1 which1 when detached from the body1 resembled the section of a large cask4 ,this harness measured on its curve from head to tail at least six feet1 and four feet from side to side1 so that a ,laplander might have squatted comfortably under its roof4 ,in the superficial deposits of diluvial drift1 in ,germany and ,england1 in ,italy and ,spain1 in ,northern ,asia as well as in ,north ,america1 between the latitudes of #dj and #ge1 the bones of the large extinct ,pachyderms have been found1 and become more and more abundant as we approach the ice-bound regions within the ,arctic ,circle4 ,the ,siberian tundras1 and the islands in the ,polar ,sea beyond1 are1 above all1 so rich in the fossil remains of the ,mammoth1 or primitive elephant1 that its tusks form a not unimportant branch of commerce4 ,from the presence of so large an animal in treeless wilds1 where now only small rodents or their persecutors1 the ,arctic fox and snow owl1 find the means of subsistence1 it has been inferred that ,siberia must in those times have enjoyed a tropical climate2 but many weighty arguments have been arrayed against this opinion4 ,the musk-ox1 it is well known1 prefers the stinted herbage of the ,arctic regions1 while the allied buffalo can only thrive in a warm country1 and different species of bears are found in all zones2 so also the primitive elephant was formed for a temperate or cold climate4 ,instead of being naked1 like his living ,asiatic and ,african relations1 the ,mammoth was covered with a warm clothing1 well fitted to brave a low temperature1 a fact sufficiently proved by the carcass of one of these animals which was found1 in the year #ahjc1 imbedded in a mass of ice on the bank of the ,lena in latitude #gj4 ,its skin was covered first with black bristles1 thicker than horse-hair1 from twelve to sixteen inches in length1 secondly with hair of a reddish-brown colour1 about four inches long1 and thirdly with wool of the same colour as the hair1 about an inch in length4 ,the discoveries of ,middendorff on the banks of the ,taymur likewise show that in those times the climate of ,siberia was by no means tropical1 for in latitude #ge #ae he found the trunk of a larch imbedded with the bones of a ,mammoth in an alluvial stratum fifteen feet above the level of the sea4 ,fragments of pine leaves have likewise been extracted from cavities in the molar teeth of a fossil rhinoceros1 discovered on the banks of the ,wiljui1 in latitude #fd4 ,the numerous land and freshwater shells accompanying the ,mammoth in the highest latitudes are also1 almost without exception1 identical with those now existing in ,siberia4 ,the ,mastodon1 though not uncommon among the fossils of the old world1 is more abundantly found in ,north ,america4 ,the molar teeth of this huge animal1 whose grinding surfaces had their crowns studded with conical eminences1 more or less resembling the teats of a cow1 differed greatly from the flat-crowned grinders of the ,mammoth2 but both had twenty ribs like the living elephant1 and must have been similar in size and general appearance4 ,the body of the ,mastodon would seem to have been longer1 its limbs thicker and shorter1 and1 perhaps1 its form1 on the whole1 rather approaching that of the hippopotamus1 which it probably resembled also in some of its habits4 ,its mouth was broader than that of the elephant1 and although it was certainly provided with a long trunk1 it must have lived on soft succulent food1 and it seems to have rarely left the marshes and muddy ponds1 in which it would find ample food4 ,the most complete1 and probably the largest1 specimen of the ,mastodon ever found was exhumed in #ahde1 in the town of ,newbury1 ,new ,york1 the length of the skeleton being twenty-five feet1 and its height twelve feet4 ,from another specimen1 found in the same year1 in ,warren ,county1 ,new ,jersey1 the clay in the interior within the ribs1 just where the contents of the stomach might naturally have been looked for1 furnished some bushels of vegetable substance4 ,a microscopic examination proved this matter to consist of pieces of small twigs of a coniferous tree of the cypress family1 probably the young shoots of the white cedar 7,thuja occidentalis7 which is still a native of ,north ,america4 ,this interesting discovery likewise proves that the climate of ,north ,america was then1 like that of ,siberia1 not very different from that of the present day4 ,the most remarkable of the fossil ,ruminants are found among the deer tribe4 ,the largest of these is the ,sivatherium giganteum1 discovered in the ,tertiary beds of the sub-,himalayan hills4 ,it was a deer with four horns1 and1 to judge by the size of its bones1 must have exceeded the elephant in its dimensions4 ,near this huge #8antlered monarch of the waste' the extinct ,cervus megaceros1 found in the bogs and shallow marls of ,ireland1 appears as a mere dwarf1 in spite of its large branching palmate horns1 often weighing eighty pounds1 and a corresponding stature far exceeding that of our modern deer4 ,the colossal size of many of the extinct plants and animals might seem to favour the belief that organic life has degenerated from its former powers2 but a survey of existing creation soon proves the vital principle to be as strong and flourishing as ever4 ,no fossil tree has yet been found to equal the towering height of the huge ,sequoias and ,wellingtonias of ,california2 and though the ,horsetails and ,clubmosses of the ,carboniferous ages may well be called colossal when compared with their diminutive representatives of the present day1 yet their height by no means exceeded that of the tall bamboo of ,india4 ,no fossil bivalve is as large as the ,tridacna of the tropical seas2 and though our nautilus is a mere pigmy when compared with many of the ,ammonites1 our naked cuttlefishes are probably as bulky as those of any of the former geological formations4 ,the living crustaceans and fishes are not inferior to their predecessors in size1 and though the giant saurians of the past were much larger than our crocodiles1 yet they do not completely dwarf them by comparison4 ,the extinct ,dinornis#b far surpassed the ostrich in size1 but the ,mammoth and the ,mastodon find their equal in our elephant2 and though the sloths of the present day are mere pigmies when compared with the ,megatherium1 yet no extinct mammal attains the size of the ,greenland whale4 ,footnote #b3 ,chapter ,,xix4 ,the perfect preservation of so many fossil remains of animals and plants1 which enables us to trace the progress of organic life on earth from one vast epoch to another1 is surely wonderful enough2 but we must consider it as a still greater wonder that phenomena usually so evanescent as foot-prints1 ripple-marks1 and rain-prints should in some cases have been permanently engraved in stone1 and appear as distinct after millions of years as if their traces had been left but yesterday4 ,all these marks were at first printed on soft argillaceous mud1 on the sea-shore1 or on the borders of lakes and rivers1 which retained them as they became dry4 ,sand or clay having then been drifted into the mould by the wind1 or deposited in its cavity by the next tide1 a permanent cast was made1 indented in the lower stratum and standing out in relief on the upper one4 ,thus rain-drops on greenish slates of the ,coal period1 with several worm tracks1 such as usually accompany rain-marks on the recent mud of modern beaches1 have been discovered near ,sydney1 in ,cape ,breton4 ,as the drops resemble in their average size those which now fall from the clouds1 we may presume that the atmosphere of the ,carboniferous period corresponded in density with that now investing the globe1 and that different currents of air varied then as now in temperature1 so as1 by their mixture1 to give rise to the condensation of aqueous vapour4 ,in like manner it has been possible to detect the footprints of reptiles1 even in shales as old as the ,cambrian formation1 and to follow their trail as they walked or crawled along4 ,in the ,upper ,new ,red ,sandstone 7,lower ,trias71 near ,hildburghausen1 in ,saxony1 a strange unknown animal1 supposed to belong to the frog order1 has left foot-prints bearing a striking resemblance to the impressions made by a human hand2 and in the still older red sandstone of ,connecticut1 a gigantic bird has marked a foot four times larger than that of the ostrich4 ,it existed long before the ,ichthyosaurus was seen on earth1 and yet by a singular chance its traces1 printed on a foundation proverbially unstable1 have outlived the wreck of so many ages4 ,however brief and defective the foregoing review of the fossil world may have been1 it has still sufficed to point out the existence on our planet of so many habitable surfaces1 each distinct in time1 and peopled with its peculiar races of aquatic and terrestrial beings1 all admirably fitted for the new states of the globe as they arose1 or they would not have increased and multiplied and endured for indefinite periods4 #8,the proofs now accumulated1' says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 #8of the close analogy between extinct and recent species are such as to leave no doubt on the mind that the same harmony of parts and beauty of contrivance which we admire in the living creation has equally characterised the organic world at remote periods4 ,thus1 as we increase our knowledge of the inexhaustible variety displayed in living nature1 our admiration is multiplied by the reflection that it is only the last of a great series of pre-existing creations1 of which we cannot estimate the number or limit in times past4' ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,subterranean ,,heat4 ,zone of invariable ,temperature--,increasing ,temperature of the ,earth at a greater ,depth--,proofs found in ,mines and ,artesian ,wells1 in ,hot ,springs and ,volcanic ,eruptions--,the whole ,earth probably at one time a fluid mass4 ,born neither to soar into the air1 nor to inhabit the deep waters1 nor to pass his life in subterranean darkness1 man is unable to depart to any considerable distance from the earth's surface4 ,if he ascends in a balloon1 he soon reaches the limits where the rarefied atmosphere renders breathing impossible2 a few thousand feet limit his efforts to pierce the earth's crust2 and should he be cast out into the sea1 he is soon drowned4 ,but beyond the limits to which his body is confined1 his mind soars into space1 and plunging into the unknown interior of our globe1 seeks to unravel the mystery of its formation4 ,in the following pages ,i purpose briefly to point out the circumstances which guide him in his speculations1 and enable him to roam1 at least in spirit1 through the profound abysses of the subterranean world4 ,as we all know1 the temperature of the atmosphere soon communicates its changes to the surface of the earth2 and our meadows1 which when warmed by the rays of the sun are green and covered with flowers1 harden in winter into a lifeless plain4 ,but the influence of the sun's heat upon the soil is merely superficial1 so that in the temperate zones the annual fluctuations of the thermometer are no longer perceptible at a depth of from #fj to #hj feet4 ,thus1 in the cellars of the ,parisian observatory1 a thermometer1 placed many years ago #hf feet below the surface1 invariably indicates #aag ,celsius2 the summer above may be ever so intensely hot1 or the winter ever so cold1 the column of mercury never deviates a hair's breadth from the height it has once attained4 ,below these limits the warmth of the earth gradually increases--a fact placed beyond all doubt by the innumerable observations that have been made in mines1 and during the boring of ,artesian wells4 ,for wherever sinkings have been made1 a rising of the thermometer has always been found to take place as the auger penetrates to a greater depth below the surface4 ,thus1 to cite but a few examples1 the temperature of the ,artesian well of ,grenelle in ,paris1 which1 at a depth of #iag ,french feet1 amounted to #bbb ,c41 increased at the depth of #a1eee feet to #bfdc1 and the water1 which now gashes forth from the depth of #a1fhd feet1 constantly maintains the same lukewarm temperature of #bggj4 ,during the boring of the well of ,neusalzwerk1 in ,westphalia1 the temperature rose at the various depths of #ehj1 #a1bhe1 and #a1ice feet from #aig ,c4 to #bge and #cad1 until1 finally1 when the depth of #b1add feet was attained1 the saline spring issued forth with a constant temperature of #ccf4 ,as from the experience acquired in mines and ,artesian wells1 the temperature is found to increase by one degree for about every successive #hj or #ajj feet1 the internal warmth of the earth1 supposing it to increase in the same proportion towards the centre1 would1 at the depth of #aj1jjj feet1 be equal to that of boiling water1 and at that of #hj or #ajj miles sufficiently great to melt the hardest rock4 ,whether this steady increase really takes place is of course only matter of conjecture2 but the history of hot springs and volcanic eruptions shows us that everywhere a very high degree of heat exists at considerable depths below the surface4 ,most springs in the temperate zone1 without being warm in a remarkable degree1 still possess a higher temperature than the average warmth of the air in the locality where they gush forth1 while in the tropical zone they are frequently cooler--a proof that in both cases they issue from a depth independent of the fluctuating atmospherical influences of the surface4 ,while these cool or cold springs1 spread in immense numbers over the earth1 attest the existence everywhere of a subterranean source of heat1 the warm and hot springs remind us of its intensity at more considerable depths4 ,these thermal sources are confined to no climate1 for in the cold land of the ,tschuktschi1 where the soil must be perpetually frozen to a depth of several hundred feet1 boiling water is found to gush forth1 as well as in the tropical ,feejee ,islands4 ,the hot springs1 though of frequent occurrence in all parts of the world1 are not the only or principal vents of subterranean heat4 ,far greater quantities of caloric are constantly pouring forth from the numerous volcanoes and solfataras1 which are likewise distributed all over the surface of the globe4 ,the violent convulsions which attend every outflow of lava are proofs that these torrents of liquid stone must have been forced upwards from a far greater depth than the water of the hot springs4 ,the temperature necessary for their production likewise points to this fact1 for to melt stones a heat of at least #b1jjj;,c4 is required4 ,but volcanoes1 like hot springs1 are found in every zone2 beyond the ,arctic ,circle1 as well as in the most southern land attained by ,sir ,james ,ross in his memorable voyage4 ,they line the coasts of the ,pacific1 as well as those of the ,sea of ,kamtschatka4 ,they desolate ,iceland1 as they devoured ,pompeii and ,herculaneum2 and everywhere they pour forth the same masses of fluid stone2 so that the geologist is not able to distinguish the lavas of the ,andes chain from those of ,etna or ,vesuvius4 ,but phenomena so much alike in character1 common to all parts of the globe1 can hardly be dependent upon mere local circumstances1 and speak loudly in favour of the theory which supposes our earth to have been at one time a ball of liquid fire4 ,wandering through space during a course of unnumbered ages1 this huge mass of molten stones and metals gradually cooled1 and at length got covered with a solid crust1 below which the ancient furnaces are still burning1 and striving to burst their fetters4 ,well may we say with ,horace-- #8,incedimus per ignes ,suppositos cineri doloso4' ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,subterranean ,,upheavals ,,and ,,depressions4 ,oscillations of the ,earth's ,surface taking place in the present day-- ,first ascertained in ,sweden--,examples of ,contemporaneous ,upheaval and ,depression in ,france and ,england--,probable ,causes of the ,phenomenon4 ,while the sea and the atmospheric ocean are subject to perpetual fluctuations1 and the poet justly compares the uncertain tenure of human prosperity with the restless wave or the inconstant wind1 the solid earth is generally regarded as the emblem of stability4 ,but an examination of the various strata of aqueous origin which constitute by far the greater part of the actual dry land soon shows the fallacy of this opinion4 ,the fossils of marine origin which occur in so many of our oldest rocks1 now situated far above the level of the ocean1 must necessarily have been raised from the deep4 ,on the towering ,andes1 fifteen thousand feet above the tide-marks of the ,pacific1 the geologist finds sea-shells imbedded in the rock1 and high above the snow-line the chamois-hunter of the ,alps wonders at the sight of spirally-wound ,ammonites that once enjoyed life at the bottom of the ,liassic ,sea4 ,in strata of a more modern date1 we find1 on the banks of the river ,senegal1 far inland1 large deposits of the ,arca senilis1 a mollusc still living on the neighbouring coast4 ,on the borders of ,loch ,lomond1 twenty feet above the level of the sea1 shells of the edible cockle and sea-urchin repose in a layer of brown clay1 and the banks of the ,forth and of the ,clyde1 thirty feet higher than the storm tides1 inclose remains of common shells of the present period1 such as the oyster1 the mussel1 and the limpet4 ,along the shores of the ,mediterranean1 at ,monte ,video and at ,valparaiso1 in the isles of the ,pacific and at the ,cape1 in ,california and ,haiti1 we meet with similar instances of elevation1 which1 though geologically recent1 may yet be of a sufficiently ancient date to have preceded the appearance of man on earth4 ,but proofs are not wanting that the upheaving power which has wrought so many changes in the past is still actively employed in remodelling the surface of the earth4 ,this important geological fact was first ascertained on the coast of ,sweden1 where the peculiar configuration of the shore makes it easy to appreciate slight changes in the relative level of land and water4 ,for the continent is fringed with countless rocky islands1 called the #8skr1' within which boats and small vessels sail in smooth water even when the sea without is strongly agitated4 ,but the navigation is very intricate1 and the pilot must possess a perfect knowledge of the breadth and depth of every narrow channel1 and the position of innumerable sunken rocks4 ,on such a coast even a slight change of level could not fail to become known to the mariner1 and to attract the attention of the learned1 as soon as the book of nature began to be more accurately studied4 ,early in the last century the ,swedish naturalist ,celsius collected numerous observations1 all pointing to the fact of a slow elevation of the land4 ,rocks both on the shore of the ,baltic and the ,german ,ocean1 known to have been once sunken reefs1 were in his time above water2 small islands in the ,gulf of ,bothnia had been joined to the continent1 and old fishing grounds deserted1 as being too shallow or entirely dried up4 ,these changes of level1 which he estimated at about three feet in a century1 ,celsius attributed to a sinking of the waters of the ,baltic1 owing possibly to the channel1 by which it discharges its surplus waters into the ,atlantic1 having been gradually widened and deepened by the waves and currents4 ,but the lowering of level would in that case have been uniform and universal over that inland sea1 and the waters could not have sunk at ,torneo while they retained their former level at ,copenhagen1 ,wismar1 ,stralsund1 and other towns which are now as close to the water's edge as at the time of their foundation4 ,playfair 7#ahjb7 and ,leopold von ,buch 7#ahjg7 first attributed the change of level to the slow and insensible rising of the land1 and the subsequent investigations of ,sir ,charles ,lyell in #ahcd have placed the fact beyond a doubt4 ,the attention of geologists having once been directed to the partial upheaval of the ,scandinavian peninsula1 similar facts were soon pointed out in other countries4 ,at ,bourgneuf1 near ,la ,rochelle1 the remains of a ship wrecked on an oyster bank in the year #ageb1 now lie in a cultivated field1 fifteen feet above the level of the sea2 and1 within a period of twenty-five years the parish has gained at least #a1ejj acres1 a very acceptable gift of the subterranean plutonic power4 ,port ,bahaud1 where formerly the ,dutchmen used to take in cargoes of salt1 is now #i1jjj feet from the sea1 and the ,island of ,olonne is at present surrounded only by swamps and meadows4 ,these and similar phenomena1 such as the constant rise of the chalk cliffs at ,marennes1 cannot possibly be explained by recent driftings1 but evidently proceed from a slow upheaval of the coasts and the adjacent sea-bed4 ,on the opposite shores of the ,atlantic1 we find ,newfoundland undergoing a similar process of elevation2 for cliffs over which1 thirty or forty years ago1 schooners used to sail with perfect safety1 are now quite close to the surface2 and in the ,pacific the depth of the channel leading to the port of ,honolulu is gradually decreasing from the same cause4 ,while many coasts thus show signs of progressive elevation1 others afford no less striking proofs of subsidence1 frequently in close proximity to regions of upheaval4 ,thus on the south-west coast of ,england1 in ,cornwall1 ,devon1 and ,somerset1 submarine forests1 consisting of the species still flourishing in the neighbourhood1 are of such frequent occurrence that1 according to ,sir ,henry de la ,beche1 #8it is difficult not to find traces of them at the mouths of all the numerous valleys which open upon the sea4' ,sometimes they are covered with mud or sand1 and generally the roots are found in the situation where they originally grew1 while the trunks have been horizontally levelled4 ,at ,bann ,bridge1 specimens of ancient ,roman pottery have been discovered twelve feet below the level of the sea1 and the remains of an old ,roman road1 now submerged six feet deep1 prove that the subsidence of the land has been going on since the times of ,julius ,csar and ,agricola4 ,on the east coast the phenomenon is still more striking1 particularly in the ,wash1 that shallow bay between ,lincolnshire and ,norfolk on whose opposite shores a submarine forest extends1 the trunks and stubbles of which become apparent at ebb-tide4 ,on the coasts of ,normandy and ,brittany we likewise find traces of depression1 pointing to some future time when perhaps many a bluff headland1 now boldly fronting the ocean1 may have disappeared beneath the waves4 ,huts of the ,esquimaux and of the early ,danish colonists on the coast of ,greenland1 now submerged at high tide1 could not possibly have been originally constructed in so inconvenient a situation2 and at ,puynipet1 in the ,south ,sea1 habitations sunk beneath the water likewise prove a gradual subsidence of the land4 ,on many coasts and islands modern scientific explorers have hewn marks in the rock1 to enable future generations to judge of the changes which are slowly but surely altering the configuration of the land and tracing new boundaries to the ocean4 ,had our forefathers left us similar memorials1 we should know much more about the oscillatory movements of the earth-rind than we know now2 but1 unfortunately1 experimental natural philosophy is but of recent date1 and the marks chiselled out upon the ,swedish rocks in the years #agca and #ageb are the earliest records by which the chronological progress of elevation or subsidence can be distinctly ascertained4 ,this phenomenon1 which has played so important a part in the physical annals of our globe1 having once been accurately determined1 enables the geologist to explain many facts for which1 before it became known1 it was impossible to account4 ,we now need not wonder at seeing sea-shells imbedded in the highest mountains or buried hundreds of fathoms under the ground1 at alternating layers of marine and sweet-water deposits being frequently storied one above the other1 or at originally horizontal strata being now found at every possible angle of inclination4 ,the imperceptible slowness with which many of these vast changes are actually taking place warrants the inference that violent volcanic revolutions have no doubt been far less instrumental in moulding the earth-rind to its present form than the slow oscillatory movements of elevation and depression which from time immemorial have been constantly altering its surface4 ,the causes of these oscillatory movements are still very imperfectly known1 though a probable hypothesis attributes them to the expansion by increased temperature of extensive deep-seated masses of matter4 ,as the elevation of some tracts seems to coincide with the proportionate depression of others at a greater or less distance1 these alternating upheavals and subsidences may possibly be the result rather of the lateral shifting of the flow of heat from one mass of subterranean matter to a neighbouring mass than of its positive increase on the whole4 #8,such a lateral diversion of the outward flow of heat1' says ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope1 #8we may presume to be caused by the deposition over certain areas of thick newly-formed beds of any matter imperfectly conducting heat1 like sedimentary sands1 gravels1 clays1 shales1 or calcareous mud1 by which the outward transmission of heat being checked1 it must accumulate beneath1 while a portion of it will pass off laterally to augment the temperature of mineral matter in neighbouring areas2 just as the water of a spring1 if its usual issue is blocked up1 will accumulate in the fissures or pores of the rock containing it1 until it finds a vent on either side and at a higher level4 ,owing to this increase1 the resistance opposed by the overlying rocks in that quarter may be sooner or later overcome1 and their elevation brought about1 through the dilatation of the mineral matter beneath4' ,,chapter ,v4 ,,subterranean ,,waters ,,and ,,artesian ,,wells4 ,subterranean ,distribution of the ,waters--,admirable ,provisions of ,nature-- ,hydrostatic ,laws regulating the ,flow of ,springs--,thermal ,springs-- ,intermittent ,springs--,the ,geysir--,bunsen's ,theory--,artesian ,wells--,le ,puits de ,grenelle--,deep ,borings--,various ,uses of ,artesian ,wells--,artesian ,wells in ,venice and in the ,desert of ,sahara4 ,in every zone the evaporating power of the sun raises from the surface of the ocean vapours1 which hover in the air until1 condensed by cold1 they descend in rain upon the earth4 ,here part of them are soon restored to the sea by the swollen rivers2 another part is once more volatilised2 but by far the larger quantity finds its slow way into the bowels of the earth1 where it serves for the perennial supply of wells and springs4 ,the distribution of these subterranean waters1 and the simple laws which regulate their circulation1 afford us one of the most interesting glimpses into the physical economy of our globe4 ,we know that the greater part of the earth's surface is composed of stratified rocks1 or alternate beds of impermeable clay and porous limestone or sand1 which were originally deposited in horizontal layers1 but have since been more or less displaced and set on edge by upheaving forces4 ,wherever permeable beds of limestone or sand crop out on the surface of the land1 the residuary portions of rain-water which are not disposed of by floods or by evaporation1 must necessarily penetrate into the pores and fissures1 and descend lower and lower1 until they finally reach an impermeable stratum which forbids their further progress to a greater depth4 ,the granite1 gneiss1 porphyry1 lava1 and other unstratified and crystalline rocks of igneous origin1 which cover about a third part of the habitable globe1 are likewise intersected by innumerable fissures and interstices1 which1 in a similar manner1 collect and transmit rain- water4 ,thus the plutonic or volcanic forces which have gradually moulded the dry land into its present form have also provided it with the necessary filters1 drains1 reservoirs1 and conduits1 for the constant replenishment of springs1 brooks1 and rivers4 ,as every porous layer is more or less saturated with moisture1 the stratified rocks are frequently traversed at various depths by distinct sheets of water1 or rather1 in most cases1 by permanently drenched or waterlogged sheets of chalk or sand4 ,thus1 in a boring undertaken in search of coal at ,st4 ,nicolas d',aliermont1 near ,dieppe1 no less than seven very abundant aquiferous layers or beds of stone were met with from about #ge to #a1jjj feet below the surface4 ,in an ,artesian boring at ,paris1 five distinct sheets of water1 each of them capable of ascension1 were ascertained2 and similar perforations executed in the ,united ,states1 and other countries1 have in the same manner traversed successive stages of aqueous deposits4 ,thus there can be no doubt that vast quantities of water are everywhere accumulated in the porous strata of which a great part of the superficial earth-rind is composed1 the rapidity with which they circulate varying of course with the amount of hydrostatic pressure to which they are subjected1 and the more or less porous and permeable nature of the beds through which they percolate4 ,were the ground we stand on composed of transparent crystal1 and the subterranean water- courses tinged with some vivid colour1 we should then see the upper earth-crust traversed in every direction by aqueous veins1 and frequently as saturated with water as the internal parts of our body are with blood4 ,but ,nature not only perennially feeds our springs and brooks from the inexhaustible fountains of the deep2 it is also one of her infinitely wise provisions that the same water which1 if placed in casks or open tanks1 becomes putrid1 continues fresh so long as it remains in the cavities and interstices of the terrestrial strata4 ,while filtering through the earth1 it is generally cleansed of all the organic substances whose decay would inevitably taint its purity1 and comes forth salubrious and refreshing1 a source of health and enjoyment to the whole animal creation4 ,the extreme limits to which the waters descend into the earth of course escape our direct observation1 as the lowest point to which the subterranean regions have been probed is less than #b1jjj or #b1ejj feet below the level of the sea2 but as we know from the formation of many basins that the strata of which they are composed attain in many cases a thickness of from #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj feet1 there can hardly be a doubt that they are permeated by water to an equal depth4 ,as steam plays so great a part in volcanic phenomena1 the seat or effective cause of which must needs be sought for at an immense distance below the surface of the earth1 we have another proof of the vast depth to which the subterranean migrations of water are able to attain4 ,after this brief glimpse into the reservoirs of the deep1 we have to ascertain the power which raises their liquid contents and forces them to reappear upon the surface of the earth4 ,if we pour water into a tube1 bent in the form of the letter ,u1 it will rise to an equal level in both branches4 ,we will now suppose that the left branch of the tube opens at the top into a vast reservoir1 which is able to keep it constantly filled1 and that the right branch is cut off near the bottom1 so that only a small vertical piece remains4 ,the pressure of the water column in the left branch will in this case force the liquid to gush out of the orifice of the shortened right branch to the level which it occupied while the branch was still entire4 ,these two hydrostatic laws1 or rather these two modifications of the same law1 have been frequently put to practical uses1 as1 for instance1 in the communicating tubes which distribute the waters of an elevated source or reservoir to the various districts of a town1 or in the subterranean conduits which serve to create fountains1 such as those of ,versailles or the ,crystal ,palace4 ,when the ,romans intended to lead water from one hill to another1 they constructed1 at a vast expense1 magnificent aqueducts across the intermediate valley2 but the ,turks1 whom we look upon as ignorant barbarians1 obtain the same result in a much more economical manner1 and in this respect far surpass the ancients1 who1 had they been better acquainted with the first principles of hydrostatics1 would indeed have left us fewer specimens of their architectural skill1 but would at the same time have saved themselves a great deal of unnecessary expense4 ,down the slope of the hill from which the water is to be conducted1 the ,turks lay a tube of brick or metal1 which1 crossing the valley1 moulds itself to its different inflections1 and ultimately ascends the declivity of the hill on the opposite side1 where1 in virtue of the law above cited1 the water rises as high as on that from which it descended4 ,if we suppose the descending branch of the tube to be prolonged only as far as the level of the valley1 with a superficial orifice1 then the liquid will of course gush forth in a vertical column1 and form a jet d'eau1 or fountain1 its height being determined by the elevation of the sheet of water by which it is fed1 and the consequent degree of pressure which acts upon it4 ,this is the principle on which all artificial fountains are constructed4 ,the conduit1 for instance1 which feeds the grand fountain of the ,tuileries receives its water from a reservoir situated on the heights of ,chaillot4 ,whatever the form of the tube may be in which the liquid is contained1 the simple hydrostatic law which regulates its level remains unmodified4 ,let the tube be circular1 elliptic1 or square1 with a single orifice or with many--let it be open or choked with pebbles or permeable sand--in every case the water will invariably rise to the same height1 provided the tube be perfectly water-tight2 or else gush forth wherever it finds an opening below the highest level4 ,this hydrostatic principle so perfectly illustrates the origin of springs1 that it is almost superfluous to enter into any further details on the subject4 ,when we consider that porous or absorbent strata1 alternating with impermeable strata1 frequently crop out on the back or on the slope of hills or mountains1 and then1 having reached their base1 extend horizontally beneath the plain1 there can be no doubt that they are placed in the same hydrostatic conditions as ordinary water-conducting tubes1 and that wherever any fissure or opening occurs in the superincumbent impervious strata at any point below the highest level of the water1 springs must necessarily be formed4 ,as the same strata often extend over many hundreds of miles1 we cannot wonder that sources frequently issue from the centre of immense plains1 for the hydrostatic pressure which causes them to gush forth may have its seat at a very considerable distance4 ,as the waters by which the springs are fed have often vast subterranean journeys to perform1 their temperature is naturally independent of that of the seasons or of the changes of the atmosphere4 ,thus1 cold springs occur in a tropical climate1 when their subterranean channels descend from high mountains1 and boiling sources gush forth in the ,arctic regions when forced upwards from a considerable depth4 ,while the waters filter through the earth1 they also naturally dissolve a variety of substances1 and hence all springs are more or less impregnated with extraneous particles4 ,but many of them1 particularly such as are of a higher temperature1 contain either a larger quantity or so peculiar a combination of mineral substances as to acquire medicinal virtues of the highest order4 ,the geological phenomena which favour the production of thermal springs are extremely interesting1 and point to a deep-seated origin4 ,by far the greater number of these fountains arise near the scene of some great subterranean disturbance1 either connected with volcanic action1 or with the elevation of a chain of mountains1 or lastly by cliffs and fissures caused by disruption4 ,thus the thermal springs of ,matlock and ,bath accompany great natural fissures in the mountain limestone1 and the hot springs of ,wiesbaden and ,ems1 of ,carlsbad and ,toeplitz1 all lie contiguous to remarkable dislocations1 or to great lines of elevation1 or to the neighbourhood of a volcanic focus4 ,one of the most remarkable phenomena of thermal springs is the constant invariableness of their temperature and their mineral impregnation4 ,during the last fifty or sixty years1 ever since accurate thermometrical observations and chemical analyses have been made1 the most celebrated mineral sources of ,germany have been found to contain the same proportion of mineral substances4 ,this is truly astonishing when we consider that the latter are merely dissolved by the waters while passing through the bowels of the earth1 and that a considerable number of them are frequently found together in the same source4 ,another remarkable fact is1 that1 even in countries exposed to violent and frequent earthquakes1 so many subterranean watercourses have remained unaltered for #b1jjj years at least4 ,the sources of ,greece still flow apparently as in the times of ,hellenic antiquity4 ,the spring of ,erasinos1 two leagues south of ,argos1 on the declivity of the ,chaonian mountains1 is mentioned by ,herodotus4 ,at ,delphi the ,cassotis 7now ,wells of ,saint ,nicholas7 still flow under the ruins of the temple of ,apollo1 and the hot baths of ,aidepsos still exist in which ,sylla bathed during the ,mithridatic war4 ,many springs exhibit the singular phenomenon of an intermittence which is independent of the quantity of rain falling in the district1 or of the flux and reflux of the tide in a neighbouring river4 ,in many cases the simple and well-known hydrostatical law exemplified in the common siphon#c affords a very ready and sufficient explanation of the phenomenon4 ,footnote #c3 ,a siphon1 as is well known1 is a bent tube1 having one leg longer than the other4 ,when this tube is filled with any liquid1 and the shorter end is immersed in a vessel containing liquid of the same kind1 the weight of the column in the longer leg will cause the liquid to begin to run out1 and it will continue running till the vessel is emptied4 ,this arises from the pressure of air on the exposed surface of fluid1 forcing it up through the tube to prevent vacuum1 which would otherwise be formed at the highest point2 and the extreme limit of length at which the siphon will act is therefore determined by the height of a column of the fluid equal to the pressure of the atmosphere 7fifteen pounds on the square inch74 ,the limit in the case of water is something more than thirty feet4 ,illustration3 siphon ,in the annexed diagram the vessel a communicates1 by a tube c1 with the siphon tube b1 and it is manifest that when the water in a rises above the level of the top of b1 it will begin to flow over and escape1 as at d4 ,but as soon as this is the case the tube b begins to act as a siphon1 and draws off all the water in a1 so that if a constant supply is poured into a1 but at a rate slower than the rate of the discharge at d1 there will be an intermittent discharge1 the interval depending on the relation of the rate of filling to that of emptying4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,an ,,intermittent ,,spring4 ,the case of a subterranean cavity in a limestone rock1 slowly fed by drainage from the cracks and fissures of the rock above1 and communicating at a distant point with the surface by a bent or siphon tube1 is evidently strictly analogous4 ,illustration3 ,,geysirs ,,of ,,iceland4 ,iceland1 pre-eminently the land of volcanic wonders1 possesses in the ,great ,geysir the most remarkable intermittent fountain in the world4 #8,at the foot of the ,laugarfjall hill1 in a green plain1 through which several rivers meander like threads of silver1 and where chains of dark- coloured mountains1 overtopped here and there by distant snow-peaks1 form a grand but melancholy picture1 dense volumes of steam indicate from afar the site of a whole system of thermal springs congregated on a small piece of ground not exceeding twelve acres in extent4 ,in any other spot the smallest of these boiling fountains would arrest the traveller's attention1 but here his whole mind is absorbed by the ,great ,geysir4 ,in the course of countless ages1 this monarch of springs has formed out of the silica which it deposits a mound which rises to about thirty feet above the general surface of the plain1 and slopes on all sides1 to the distance of a hundred feet or thereabouts1 from the border of a large circular basin situated in its centre1 and measuring about fifty-six feet in the greatest diameter and fifty-two feet in the narrowest4 ,in the middle of this basin1 forming as it were a gigantic funnel1 there is a pipe or tube1 which at its opening in the basin is eighteen or sixteen feet in diameter1 but narrows considerably at a little distance from the mouth1 and then appears to be not more than ten or twelve feet in diameter4 ,it has been probed to a depth of seventy feet1 but it is more than probable that hidden channels ramify further into the bowels of the earth4 ,the sides of the tube are smoothly polished1 and so hard that it is not possible to strike off a piece of it with a hammer4 ,generally the whole basin is found filled up to the brim with sea-green water as pure as crystal1 and of a temperature of from #ahj to #aij4 ,astonished at the placid tranquillity of the pool1 the traveller can hardly believe that he is really standing on the brink of the far-famed ,geysir2 but suddenly a subterranean thunder is heard1 the ground trembles under his feet1 the water in the basin begins to simmer1 and large bubbles of steam rise from the tube and burst on reaching the surface1 throwing up small jets of spray to the height of several feet4 ,every instant he expects to witness the grand spectacle which has chiefly induced him to visit this northern land2 but soon the basin becomes tranquil as before1 and the dense vapours produced by the ebullition are wafted away by the breeze4 ,these smaller eruptions are regularly repeated every eighty or ninety minutes1 but frequently the traveller is obliged to wait a whole day or even longer before he sees the whole power of the ,geysir4 ,a detonation louder than usual precedes one of these grand eruptions2 the water in the basin is violently agitated2 the tube boils vehemently2 and suddenly a magnificent column of water1 clothed in vapour of a dazzling whiteness1 shoots up into the air with immense impetuosity1 to the height of eighty or ninety feet1 and1 radiating at its apex1 showers water and steam in every direction4 ,a second eruption and a third rapidly follow1 and after a few minutes the fairy spectacle has passed away like a fantastic vision4 ,the basin is now completely dried up1 and on looking down into the shaft1 the traveller is astonished to see the water about six feet from the rim1 and as tranquil as in an ordinary well4 ,after about thirty or forty minutes it again begins to rise1 and after a few hours reaches the brim of the basin4 ,soon the subterranean thunder1 the shaking of the ground1 the simmering above the tube begin again--a new gigantic explosion takes place1 to be followed by a new period of rest--and thus this wonderful play of nature goes on1 day after day1 year after year1 and century after century4 ,the mound of the ,geysir bears witness to its immense antiquity1 as its water contains but a minute portion of silica4'#d ,footnote #d3 #8,the ,polar ,world1' p4 #ed4 ,the explanation of these wonderful phenomena has exercised the ingenuity of many natural philosophers2 but ,professor ,bunsen's theory seems the most plausible4 ,having first ascertained1 by experiment1 that the water at the mouth of the tube has a temperature1 corresponding to the pressure of the atmosphere1 of about #bab ,f41 he found it much hotter at a certain depth below2 a thermometer1 suspended by a string in the pipe1 rising to #bff ,f41 or no less than #dh above the boiling point4 ,by letting down stones1 suspended by strings1 to various depths1 he next came to the conclusion that the tube itself is the main seat or focus of the mechanical power which forces the huge water column upwards4 ,for the stones which were sunk1 to greater distances from the surface were not cast up again when the next eruption of the ,geysir took place1 whereas those nearer the mouth of the tube were ejected to a considerable height by the ascending water-column4 ,other experiments also were made1 tending to demonstrate the singular fact that there is often scarcely any motion below when a violent rush of steam and water is taking place above4 ,it seems that when a lofty column of water possesses a temperature increasing with the depth1 any slight ebullition1 or disturbance of equilibrium1 in the upper portion may first force up water into the basin1 and then cause it to flow over the edge4 ,a lower portion1 thus suddenly relieved of part of its pressure1 expands1 and is converted into vapour more rapidly than the first1 owing to its greater heat4 ,this allows the next subjacent stratum1 which is much hotter1 to rise and flash into a gaseous form2 and this process goes on till the ebullition has descended from the middle to near the bottom of the funnel4#e ,footnote #e3 ,liebig's #8,annalen1' translated in #8,reports and ,memoirs of the ,cavendish ,society1' ,london1 #ahdh1 p4 #cea4 ,in many geological basins1 the deep subterranean waters are frequently inclosed over a surface of many square miles between impermeable beds of clay or hard rock1 which nowhere permit them to escape2 but if a hole be bored deep enough to reach a permeable bed1 it is evident that they will then gush forth more or less violently1 according to the degree of hydrostatic pressure which acts upon them4 ,this is the simple theory of the ,artesian ,wells1 so called from the ,french province of ,artois1 where1 as far back as the beginning of the twelfth century1 springs of water were artificially obtained by perforating the soil to a certain depth in places where no indication of springs existed at the surface4 ,the barbarous inhabitants of the ,sahara seem1 however1 to have long preceded the ,artesians in the art of sinking deep wells1 for ,olympiodorus1 a writer who flourished at ,alexandria about the middle of the sixth century1 mentions pits sunk in the oasis to the depth of #bjj or #cjj yards1 and pouring forth streams of water1 used for irrigation4 ,by the aid of geological science1 and of greater mechanical skill1 ,artesian borings#f are at present frequently undertaken in civilised countries1 wherever the nature of the ground promises success1 and the want of water is sufficiently great to warrant the attempt4 ,sometimes the water is reached at a moderate distance from the surface1 but not seldom it has been found necessary to bore to a depth of #bjj or #cjj fathoms4 ,often efforts1 even on this large scale1 have proved vain1 and the work has been abandoned in despair4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,chapter on ,mines in general1 for a short account of earth-boring operations4 ,one of the most remarkable instances on record of a successful sinking for water is that of the ,artesian well of ,grenelle1 one of the ,parisian suburbs4 ,illustration3 ,,porous ,,strata4 ,,artesian ,,well ,,sunk ,,in ,,the ,,london ,,basin4 ,the work was begun with an auger of about a foot in diameter1 and the borings showed successively the alluvial soil and subsoil1 and the tertiary sands1 gravels1 clays1 lignite1 c41 until the chalk was reached4 ,the work was then carried on regularly through the hard upper chalk down to the lower chalk with green grains1 the dimension of the auger being reduced at #ejj feet to a nine-inch1 and at #a1cjj feet to a six-inch aperture4 ,when the calculated depth of #a1ejj feet had been reached1 and as yet no result appeared1 the ,government began to be disheartened4 ,still1 upon the urgent representations of the celebrated ,arago1 the sinking was continued1 until at length1 at the depth of #a1hjj feet1 the auger1 after a violent shock which made the ground tremble1 suddenly turned without an effort4 #8,either the auger is broken1 or we have gained our end1' exclaimed the director of the work2 and a few moments after1 a large column of water gushed out of the orifice4 ,it took more than seven years to accomplish this grand work 7#ahcc-da71 which was retarded by numberless difficulties and accidents4 ,about half- a-million gallons of perfectly limpid water of a temperature of #hb ,fahr4 are daily supplied by the ,puits de ,grenelle1 and amply repay its cost 7#cfb1dcb fr4 #fe centimes #ad1ejjl474 ,the high temperature of ,artesian springs1 when rising from considerable depths1 has been turned to various practical uses4 ,thus1 near ,canstadt1 in ,wurtemberg1 several mills are kept in work1 during the severest cold of winter1 by means of the warm water of ,artesian wells which has been turned into the mill-ponds1 and at ,heilbronn several proprietors save the expense of fuel by leading ,artesian water in pipes through their green-houses4 ,in some localities the pure and constantly temperate ,artesian waters are made use of for the cultivation of cress4 ,the vigorous growth of this salutary herb in the beds of rivulets1 where natural springs gush forth1 gave the idea of this application1 which is so profitable that the cress nurseries of ,erfurt yield a produce of #ab1jjjl4 a year4 ,fish ponds have also been improved by such warm springs being passed through them4 ,among the localities benefited by the boring of ,artesian wells1 ,venice deserves to be particularly noticed4 ,formerly the ,city of the ,doges had no other supply of water but that which was conveyed by boats from the ,brenta1 or obtained from the rain collected in cisterns4 ,hence the joy of the inhabitants may be imagined1 when1 in #ahdf1 an ,artesian boring in the ,piazza ,san ,paolo began to disgorge its water at the rate of forty gallons per minute1 and when other undertakings of the same kind proved equally successful4 ,wherever a well gushes forth in the ,sahara1 it brings life into the wilderness2 the date-tree flourishes as far as its fertilising waters extend1 and the wandering ,arab changes into a sedentary cultivator of the soil4 ,thus the boring of ,artesian wells on the desert confines of ,south ,algeria has been the means of wonderful improvement1 and if the ,french have too often marked their dominion in ,africa by a barbarous oppression of the ,arabs1 they1 in this respect at least1 appear in the more amiable light of public benefactors4 ,a boring apparatus was first landed at ,philippeville in ,april #ahef1 and conveyed with immense difficulty to the ,oasis ,wad ,rir at ,tamerna4 ,the work was begun in ,may1 and on the #aith of ,june1 a spring1 to which the grateful inhabitants gave the name of the #8,well of ,peace1' gushed forth4 ,soon after another source was tapped at ,tamelhat1 in the ,oasis ,temacen1 and received the name of the #8,well of ,god's blessing4' ,the beneficent instrument of abundance was now conveyed to the ,oasis ,sidi ,rasched1 fifteen miles beyond ,tuggurt4 ,here the auger had scarcely reached a depth of #abj feet when a perfect stream gushed forth1 which1 according to the praiseworthy ,arab custom1 received the name of the #8,well of ,thanks4' ,the opening of this wonderful source gave rise to many touching scenes4 ,the ,arabs came in throngs to witness the joyful spectacle3 each of them poured some of the water over his head1 and the mothers bathed their children in the gushing flood4 ,an old scheik1 unable to conceal his emotion1 fell down upon his knees1 and shedding tears of joy1 fervently thanked ,god for having allowed him to witness such a day4 ,the next triumph was the boring of four wells in the desert of ,morran1 where previously no spring had existed4 ,in the full expectation of success1 everything had been prepared to turn this new source of wealth to immediate use1 and part of a nomadic tribe instantly settled on the spot1 and planted #a1bjj date-trees4 ,a dreary solitude was changed1 as if by magic1 into a scene of busy life4 ,these few examples suffice to show the vast services which ,artesian wells are destined at some future time to render to many of the arid regions of ,africa4 ,both in the ,sahara and in the basin-shaped deserts1 which extend1 under various names1 from the ,cape ,colony to the neighbourhood of ,lake ,ngami1 there are1 beyond all doubt1 numberless spots where water1 the fertilising element1 may be extracted from the bowels of the earth4 ,in the droughty plains of ,australia also a vast sphere of utility is reserved to the ,artesian wells4 ,here1 also1 they will subdue the desert1 unite one coast to another by creating stations in the wilderness1 and1 with every new source which they call to life1 promote both material progress and intellectual improvement4 ,illustration3 ,,middle ,,and ,,valley ,,lake ,,craters1 ,,mount ,,gambier1 ,,south ,,australia4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,volcanoes4 ,volcanic ,mountains--,extinct and ,active ,craters--,their ,size--,dangerous ,crater-explorations--,dr4 ,judd in the ,kilauea ,pit--,extinct ,craters--,their ,beauty--,the ,crater of ,mount ,vultur in ,apulia--,volcanoes still constantly forming--,jorullo and ,isalco--,submarine ,volcanoes--,sabrina and ,graham's ,island--,santorin--,number of ,volcanoes--,their ,distribution--,volcanoes in a constant state of eruption--,stromboli--,fumaroles--,the ,lava ,lakes in ,kilauea--,volcanic ,paroxysms--,column of ,smoke and ,ashes--,detonations-- ,explosion of ,cones--,disastrous ,effects of ,showers of ,ashes and ,lapilli-- ,mud ,streams--,fish disgorged from ,volcanic ,caverns--,eruption of ,lava-- ,parasitic ,cones--,phenomena attending the ,flow of a ,lava ,stream--,baron ,papalardo--,meeting of ,lava and ,water--,scori--,lava and ,ice--,vast ,dimensions of several ,lava ,streams--,scenes of ,desolation--,volcanoes considered as safety-valves--,probable ,causes of ,volcanoes4 ,volcanoes are vents which either have communicated1 or still communicate1 by one or several chimney-like canals or shafts1 with a focus of subterranean fire1 emitting1 or having once emitted1 heated matter in a solid1 semi-liquid1 or gaseous state4 ,the first eruption of a volcano necessarily leaves a mound of scori and lava1 while numerous eruptions at length raise mountains1 which are frequently of an amazing extent and height4 ,these mountains1 which are generally called volcanoes1 though in reality they are but an effect of volcanic action situated far beneath their base1 are called extinct when for many centuries they have exhibited no signs of combustion--active1 when1 either perpetually or from time to time1 eruptions or exhalations of lava1 scori1 or gases take place from their summits1 or from vents in their sides4 ,their shape is generally that of a more or less truncated cone2 but while some1 like ,cotopaxi or the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 rise with abrupt declivities in the shape of a sugar-loaf1 others1 like ,mauna ,loa in the island of ,hawaii1 gradually1 and almost imperceptibly1 ascend from a vast base embracing many miles in circuit4 ,their heights also vary greatly4 ,while some1 like ,madana in ,santa ,cruz1 or ,djebel ,teir on the coast of the ,red ,sea1 scarcely raise their summits a few hundred feet above the level of the ocean1 others1 like ,chuquibamba 7#ba1jjj feet71 or ,aconcagua 7#bb1dcd feet71 hold a conspicuous rank among mountains of the first class4 ,the summit of a volcano generally terminates in a central cavity or crater1 where the eruptive channel finds its vent4 ,craters are sometimes regularly funnel-shaped1 descending with slanting sides to the eruptive mouth1 but more commonly they are surrounded with high precipitous rock- walls1 while their bottom forms a plain1 which is frequently completely horizontal1 and sometimes of a considerable extent4 ,its surface is rough and uneven1 from the mounds of volcanic sand1 of scori1 or of hardened lava with which it is covered1 and generally exhibits a scene of dreadful desolation1 rendered still more impressive by the steam and smoke1 which1 as long as the volcano continues in an active state1 issue from its crevices4 ,within this plain1 the eruptive orifice or mouth of the volcano is almost universally surrounded by an elevation1 composed of ejected fragments of scori thrown from the vent4 ,such cones are forming constantly at ,vesuvius1 one being no sooner destroyed by any great eruption1 before another begins to take shape and is enlarged1 till often it reaches a height of several hundred feet4 ,thus the crater of an active volcano is the scene of perpetual change--of a continual construction and re-construction1 and the sands of the sea do not afford a more striking image of inconstancy4 ,the various craters are of very different dimensions4 ,while the chief crater of ,stromboli has a diameter of only fifty feet1 that of ,gunong ,tenger1 in ,java1 measures four miles from end to end2 and1 though the depth of a crater rarely exceeds #a1jjj or #a1ejj feet1 the spectator1 standing on the brink of the great crater of ,popocatepetl1 looks down into a gulf of #h1jjj feet4 ,from the colossal dimensions of the larger craters1 it may well be imagined that their aspect exhibits some of the sublimest though most gloomy scenery in nature--the picture of old ,chaos with all its horrors4 ,the volcano ,gunong ,tjerimai1 in ,java1 which rises to the height of #i1jjj feet1 is covered with a dense vegetation up to the crater's brink4 ,on emerging from the thicket1 the wanderer suddenly stands on the verge of an immense excavation encircled with naked rocks4 ,he is obliged to hold himself by the branches of trees1 or to stretch himself flat upon the ground1 so as to be able to look down into the yawning gulf4 ,the deep and inaccessible bottom of the crater loses itself in misty obscurity1 and glimmers indistinctly through the vapours which are there slowly and incessantly ascending from its mysterious depths4 ,all is desolate and silent1 save when a solitary falcon1 hovering over the vast chasm1 awakes with her discordant screech the echoes of the precipice4 ,through a telescope may be seen1 in various parts of the huge crater walls1 swarms of small swallows1 which have there built their nests1 flying backwards and forwards4 ,the eye can detect no other signs of life1 the ear distinguish no other sound4 ,humboldt describes the view down the crater of the ,rucu-,pichincha--a volcano which towers above the town of ,quito to a height of #ae1jjj feet-- as the grandest he ever beheld during all his long wanderings4 ,guided by an ,indian1 he ascended the mountain in #ahjb1 and after scaling1 with great difficulty and no small danger1 its steep and rocky sides1 he at length looked down upon the black and dismal abyss1 whence clouds of sulphurous vapour were rising as from the gates of hell4 ,the descent into the crater of an active volcano is at all times a difficult and hazardous enterprise1 both from the steepness of its encircling rock walls1 and the suffocating vapours rising from its bottom2 but it is rare indeed that a traveller has either the temerity or the good fortune to penetrate as far as the very mouth of the eruptive channel1 and to gain a glimpse of its mysterious horrors4 ,when ,m4 ,houel visited ,mount ,etna in #agfi1 he ventured to scale the cone of stones and ashes which had been thrown up in the centre of the crater1 where thirty years before there was only a prodigious chasm or gulf4 ,on ascending this mound1 which emitted smoke from every pore1 the adventurous traveller sunk about mid-leg at every step1 and was in constant terror of being swallowed up4 ,at last1 when the summit was reached1 the looseness of the soil obliged him to throw himself down flat upon the ground1 that so he might be in less danger of sinking1 while at the same time the sulphurous exhalations arising from the funnel-shaped cavity threatened suffocation1 and so irritated his lungs as to produce a very troublesome and incessant cough4 ,in this posture the traveller viewed the wide unfathomable gulf in the middle of the crater1 but could discover nothing except a cloud of smoke1 which issued from a number of small apertures scattered all around4 ,from time to time dreadful sounds issued from the bowels of the volcano1 as if the roar of artillery were rebellowed throughout all the hollows of the mountain4 ,they were no doubt occasioned by the explosions of pent-up gases striking against the sides of these immense caverns1 and multiplied by their echoes in an extraordinary manner4 ,after the first unavoidable impression of terror had been overcome1 nothing could be more sublime than these awful sounds1 which seemed like a warning of ,etna not to pry too deeply into his secrets4 ,dr4 ,judd1 an ,american naturalist1 who1 in #ahda1 descended into the crater of ,kilauea1 on ,mauna ,loa1 in ,hawaii1 well-nigh fell a victim to his curiosity4 ,at that time1 the smallest of the two lava pools which boil at the bottom of that extraordinary pit appeared almost inactive1 giving out only vapours1 with an occasional jet of lava at its centre4 ,dr4 ,judd1 considering the quiet favourable for dipping up some of the liquid with an iron ladle1 descended for the purpose to a narrow ledge bordering the pool4 ,while he was preparing to carry out his plans1 his attention was excited by a sudden sinking of its surface2 the next instant it began to rise1 and then followed an explosion1 throwing the lava higher than his head4 ,he had scarcely escaped from his dangerous situation1 the moment after1 by the aid of a native1 before the lava boiled up1 covered the place where he stood1 and1 flowing out over the northern side1 extended in a stream a mile wide to a distance of more than a mile and a half6 ,in extinct volcanoes1 the picture of desolation originally shown by their craters has not seldom been changed into one of charming loveliness4 ,tall forest trees cover the bottom of the ,tofua crater in ,upolu1 one of the ,samoan group2 and in the same island1 a circular lake of crystal purity1 belted with a girdle of the richest green1 has formed in the depth of the ,lanuto crater4 ,illustration3 ,,extinct ,,crater ,,of ,,haleakala4 ,the lakes of ,averno near ,naples1 and of ,bolsena1 ,bracciano1 and ,ronciglione1 likewise fill the hollows of extinct craters1 constituting scenes of surpassing beauty1 rendered still more impressive by the remembrance of the stormy past which preceded their present epoch of tranquillity and peace4 ,mr4 ,mallet describes1 with glowing colours1 the singular beauty of the forest scenery around the two extinct craters of ,mount ,vultur in ,apulia1 which time has converted into two deep circular lakes4 #8,i descend amongst aged trunks and overarching limbs1 and pass over masses of rounded lava-blocks and cemented lapilli4 ,all is quietude2 the soft breeze of a quiet winter's afternoon fans across the embosomed water1 from the early wheat-fields and the furrowed acres of the opposite steep slopes1 and brings the gentle ripple lapping amongst the roots of the old hazels at my feet4 #8,off before me1 and to my left1 crowning the slope1 are the grey ruins of some ancient church or castle1 and far above me to the right1 nestled against the lava crags1 behind and above it1 standing out white and clear1 ,i see the strong buttressed mass of the monastery of ,st4 ,michael4 ,how hard it is to realise that this noble and lovely scene1 full of every leafy beauty1 was once the innermost bowl of a volcano2 that every stone around me1 now glorious in colour with moss and lichen1 sedum and geranium1 was once a glowing mass1 vomited from out that fiery and undiscovered abyss1 which these placid waters now bury in their secret chambers4' ,the line of demarcation between active and extinct volcanoes is not easily drawn1 as eruptions have sometimes taken place after such long intervals of repose as to warrant the belief that the vents from which they issued had long since been completely obliterated4 ,thus1 though nearly six centuries have passed since the last eruption of ,epomeo in the island of ,ischia1 we are not entitled to suppose it extinct1 since nearly seventeen centuries elapsed between this last explosion and the one which preceded it4 ,since the beginning of the fourteenth century ,vesuvius also enjoyed a long rest of nearly three hundred years4 ,during this time the crater got covered with grass and shrubs1 oak and chestnut trees grew around it1 and some warm pools of water alone reminded the visitor of the former condition of the mountain1 when1 suddenly1 in ,december #afca1 it resumed its ancient activity1 and seven streams of lava at once burst forth from its subterranean furnaces4 ,while1 in many volcanic districts1 such as that of the ,eifel on the left bank of the ,rhine1 and of ,auvergne1 in ,central ,france1 the once active subterranean fires have long since been extinguished1 and no eruption of lava has been recorded during the whole period of the historic ages1 new volcanoes1 situated at a considerable distance from all previously active vents1 have arisen from the bowels of the earth1 almost within the memory of living man4 ,from the era of the discovery of the ,new ,world to the middle of the last century1 the country between the mountains ,toluca and ,colima1 in ,mexico1 had remained undisturbed1 and the space1 now the site of ,jorullo1 which is one hundred miles distant from each of the above-mentioned volcanoes1 was occupied by fertile fields of sugarcane and indigo1 and watered by two brooks4 ,in the month of ,june #agei1 hollow sounds of an alarming nature were heard1 and earthquakes succeeded each other for two months1 until1 at the end of ,september1 flames issued from the ground1 and fragments of burning rocks were thrown to prodigious heights4 ,six volcanic cones1 composed of scori and fragmentary lava1 were formed on the line of a chasm1 which ran in the direction of ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 ,the least of the cones was #cjj feet in height1 and ,jorullo1 the central volcano1 was elevated #a1fjj feet above the level of the plain4 ,the ground where now1 in ,central ,america1 ,isalco towers in proud eminence1 was formerly the seat of an estancia or cattle-estate4 ,towards the end of the year #agfi1 the inhabitants were frequently disturbed by subterranean rumblings and shocks1 which constantly increased in violence1 until on ,february #bc1 #aggj1 the earth opened1 and pouring out quantities of lava1 ashes1 and cinders gave birth to a new volcanic mountain4 ,besides those volcanic vents which are situated on the dry land1 there are others which1 hidden beneath the surface of the sea1 reveal their existence by subaqueous eruptions4 ,columns of fire and smoke are seen to rise from the discoloured and agitated waters1 and sometimes new islands are gradually piled up by the masses of scori and ashes ejected from the mouth of the submarine volcano4 ,in this manner the island of ,sabrina rose from the bottom of the sea1 near ,st4 ,michael's in the ,azores1 in the year #ahaa2 and still more recently1 in #ahca1 ,graham's ,island was formed in the ,mediterranean1 between the coast of ,sicily and that projecting part of the ,african coast where ancient ,carthage stood4 ,slight earthquake shocks preceded its appearance1 then a column of water like a water-spout1 #fj feet high and #hjj yards in circumference1 rose from the sea1 and soon afterwards dense volumes of steam1 which ascended to the height of #a1hjj feet4 ,then a small island1 a few feet high with a crater in its centre1 ejecting volcanic matter1 and immense columns of vapour1 emerged from the agitated waters1 and in a fortnight swelled to the ample proportions of a height of #bjj feet1 and a circumference of three miles4 ,but both ,sabrina and ,graham's ,island1 being built of loose scori1 were soon corroded by the waves1 and their last traces have long since disappeared under the surface of the ocean4 ,near ,pondicherry1 in ,india2 near ,iceland1 in the ,atlantic ,ocean2 half a degree to the south of the equator in the prolongation of a line drawn from ,st4 ,helena to ,ascension2 near ,juan ,fernandez1 c41 similar phenomena have occurred within the last hundred years1 but1 probably1 nowhere on a grander scale than in the ,aleutian ,archipelago1 where1 about thirty miles to the north of ,unalaska1 near the isle of ,umnack1 a new island1 now several thousand feet high and two or three miles in circumference1 was formed in #agif4 ,the whole bottom of the sea between this new creation of the volcanic powers and ,umnack has been raised by the eruptive throes which gave it birth2 and where ,cook freely sailed in #aggh1 numberless cliffs and reefs now obstruct the passage of the mariner4 ,the famous subaqueous volcano which1 in the year #ahf before the ,christian era1 began its series of historically recorded eruptions1 by raising the islet of ,hiera 7the #8,sacred'7 in the centre of the ,bay of ,santorin1 opened two new vents in #ahff4 ,amid a tremendous roar of steam and the shooting up of prodigious masses of rock and ashes1 two islets were formed1 which ultimately rose to the height of #fj and #bjj feet4 ,the eruption continued for many months1 to the delight and wonder of the numerous geologists who came from all sides to witness the extraordinary spectacle4 ,thus1 in many parts of the ocean1 we see the submarine volcanic fires laying the foundations of new islands and archipelagos1 which1 after repeated eruptions following each other in the course of ages1 will probably1 like ,iceland1 extend over a considerable space and become the seats of civilised man4 ,illustration3 ,map of the ,world ,showing the ,distribution of ,,volcanoes the ,districts visited by ,,earthquakes ,as a very considerable part of the globe has never yet been scientifically explored1 it is1 of course1 impossible to determine the exact number of the extinct and active volcanoes which are scattered over its surface4 ,werner gives a list of #aic volcanoes1 and ,humboldt mentions #djg1 of which #bbe are still in a state of activity4 ,the newest computation of ,dr4 ,fuchs1 of ,heidelberg1#g increases the number to a total of #fgb1 of which #bgj are active4 ,future geographical discoveries will1 no doubt1 make further additions to the list1 and show that at least through a thousand different vents the subterranean fires have1 at various periods of the earth's history1 piled up their cones of scori and lava4 ,footnote #g3 #8,die vulcanischen ,erscheinungen der ,erde4' ,liepzig1 #ahfe4 ,the volcanoes are very unequally distributed over the surface of the globe1 for1 while in some parts they are thickly clustered together in groups or rows1 we find in other parts vast areas of land without the least sign of volcanic action4 ,an almost uninterrupted range of volcanoes extends in a sinuous line from the ,gulf of ,bengal1 through the ,east ,indian ,archipelago1 the ,moluccas1 the ,philippines1 ,formosa1 ,japan1 and the ,kuriles1 to ,kamtschatka4 ,this desolate peninsula is particularly remarkable for the energy of its subterranean fires1 as ,ermann mentions no less than twenty-one active volcanoes1 ranged in two parallel lines throughout its whole length1 and separated from each other by a central range of mountains1 containing a large and unknown number of extinct craters4 ,in ,java1 where more than thirty volcanoes are more or less active1 the furnaces of the subterranean world are still more concentrated and dreadful4 ,the immense mountain-chains which run parallel to the western coasts of ,america are likewise crowned with numerous volcanic peaks4 ,chili alone has fourteen active volcanoes1 ,bolivia and ,peru three1 ,quito eleven4 ,in ,central ,america we find twenty-one volcanoes1 which are chiefly grouped near the ,lake of ,nicaragua1 and to the west of the town of ,guatemala4 ,the peninsula of ,aljaska1 and the chain of the ,aletes1 possess no less than thirty-six volcanos1 scattered over a line about #gjj miles long2 and thus we find the eastern1 western1 and northern boundaries of the ,pacific encircled with a girdle of volcanic vents1 while the subterranean fires have left the western shores of the ,atlantic comparatively undisturbed4 ,with the exception of ,iceland1 which is famous for the widely devastating eruptions of its burning mountains1 the volcanic energies of ,europe are at present limited to the submarine crater of ,santorin1 and to the small area of ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 and the ,lipari ,islands4 ,but1 situated in the centre of the ancient seats of civilisation1 and for so many centuries the object of the naturalist's researches1 of the traveller's curiosity1 and of the poet's song1 they surpass in renown all other volcanic regions in the world4 ,most other volcanoes vent their fury over lands either so wild or so remote that the history of their eruptions almost sounds like a legend from another planet2 but thousands of us have visited ,etna and ,vesuvius1 and the explosion of their rage menaces towns and countries which classical remembrances have almost invested with the interest of home4 ,some volcanoes are in a continual state of eruption4 ,isalco1 born1 as we have seen1 in #aggj1 has remained ever since so active as to deserve the name of the ,faro 7lighthouse7 of ,san ,salvador4 ,its explosions occur regularly1 at intervals of from ten to twenty minutes1 and throw up a dense smoke and clouds of ashes and stones4 ,these1 as they fall1 add to the height and bulk of the cone1 which is now about #b1ejj feet high4 ,for more than two thousand years1 the fires of ,stromboli have never been extinct1 nor has it ever failed to be a beacon to the mariner while sailing after nightfall through the ,tyrrhenian ,sea4 ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope1 who visited ,stromboli in #ahbj1 and looked down from the edge of the crater into the mouth of the volcano1 some #cjj feet beneath him1 found the phenomena precisely such as ,spallanzani described them in #aghh4 #8,two rude openings show themselves among the black chaotic rocks of scoriform lava which form the floor of the crater4 ,one1 is to appearance1 empty1 but from it there proceeds1 at intervals of a few minutes1 a rush of vapour1 with a roaring sound1 like that of a smelting furnace when the door is opened1 but infinitely louder4 ,it lasts about a minute4 ,within the other aperture1 which is perhaps twenty feet in diameter1 and but a few yards distant1 may be distinctly perceived a body of molten matter1 having a vivid glow even by day1 approaching to that of white heat1 which rises and falls at intervals of from ten to fifteen minutes4 ,each time that it reaches in its rise the lip of the orifice1 it opens at the centre1 like a great bubble bursting1 and discharges upwards an explosive volume of dense vapour1 with a shower of fragments of incandescent lava and ragged scori1 which rise to a height of several hundred feet above the lip of the crater4' ,the volcanoes of ,masaya1 near the lake of the same name in ,nicaragua2 of ,sioa1 in the ,moluccas2 and of ,tofua1 in the ,friendly ,islands1 are also1 like ,stromboli1 in a state of permanent eruption4 ,but far more commonly the volcanoes burst forth only from time to time in violent paroxysms1 separated from each other by longer phases of moderate activity1 during which their phenomena are confined to the exhalation of vapours and gases1 sometimes also to the ejection of scori or ashes2 to the oscillations of lava rising or subsiding in the shaft of the crater1 to the gentle outflow of small streams of lava from its eruptive cone1 and to slight commotions of its border4 ,a continual or periodical exhalation of steam and gases from the shaft of the crater or from chasms and fissures in its bottom1 is the commonest phenomenon shown by an active volcano while in a state of tranquillity4 ,aqueous vapours compose the chief part of these exhalations1 and along with other volatile substances1 such as sulphuretted hydrogen1 sulphurous acid1 muriatic acid1 and carbonic acid1 form the steam-jets or fumaroles1 which escape with a hissing or roaring noise from all the crevices and chasms of the crater1 and1 uniting as they ascend in a single vapour-cloud1 ultimately compose the lofty column of steam which forms so conspicuous a feature in the picturesque beauty of ,etna or ,vesuvius4 ,high on the summit of ,mauna ,loa1 where all vegetation has long since ceased1 the warm steam of the fumaroles gives rise to a splendid growth of ferns in crevices sheltered from the wind2 and on the island of ,pantellaria1 the shepherds1 by laying brushwood before the fumaroles1 condense the steam1 and thus procure a supply of water for their goats4 ,the gentle fluctuations of lava in a crater while in a state of moderate activity are nowhere exhibited on a grander scale than in the pit of ,kilauea on ,mauna ,loa4 ,the mountain rises so gradually as almost to resemble a plain1 and the crater appears like a vast gulf excavated in its flanks4 ,the traveller perceives his approach to it by a few small clouds of steam1 rising from fissures not far from his path4 ,while gazing for a second indication1 he stands unexpectedly upon the brink of the pit4 ,a vast amphitheatre seven miles and a half in circuit has opened to view4 ,beneath a gray rocky precipice of #fej feet1 a narrow plain of hardened lava extends1 like a vast gallery1 around the whole interior4 ,within this gallery1 below another similar precipice of #cdj feet1 lies the bottom1 a wide plain of bare rock more than two miles in length4 ,here all is black monotonous desolation1 excepting certain spots of a blood-red colour1 which appear to be in constant yet gentle agitation4 ,when ,professor ,dana visited ,kilauea 7,december #ahdj71 he was surprised at the stillness of the scene4 ,the incessant motion in the blood-red pools was like that of a cauldron in constant ebullition4 ,the lava in each boiled with such activity as to cause a rapid play of jets over its surface4 ,one pool1 the largest of the three then in action1 was afterwards ascertained by survey to measure #a1ejj feet in one diameter and #a1jjj in another2 and this whole area was boiling1 as seemed from above1 with nearly the mobility of water4 ,still all went on quietly4 ,not a whisper was heard from the fires below4 ,white vapours rose in fleecy wreaths from the pools and numerous fissures1 and above the large lake they collected into a broad canopy of clouds1 not unlike the snowy heaps or cumuli that lie near the horizon on a clear day1 though their fanciful shapes changed more rapidly4 ,on descending afterwards to the black ledge or gallery at the verge of the lower pit1 a half-smothered gurgling sound was all that could be heard from the pools of lava4 ,occasionally1 there was a report like that of musketry1 which died away1 and left the same murmuring sound1 the stifled mutterings of a boiling fluid4 ,such was the scene by day--awful1 melancholy1 dismal--but at night it assumed a character of indescribable sublimity4 ,the large cauldron1 in place of its bloody glare1 now glowed with intense brilliancy1 and the surface sparkled with shifting points of dazzling light1 occasioned by the jets in constant play4 ,the broad canopy of clouds above the pit1 which seemed to rest on a column of wreaths and curling heaps of lighted vapour1 and the amphitheatre of rocks around the lower depths1 were brightly illuminated from the boiling lavas1 while a lurid red tinged the distant parts of the inclosing walls and threw their cavernous recesses into deeper shades of darkness4 ,over this scene of restless fires and fiery vapours1 the heavens by contrast seemed unnaturally black1 with only here and there a star1 like a dim point of light4 ,a paroxysmal eruption is generally announced by the intensification of the phenomena above described4 ,slight earthquakes are felt in the neighbourhood of the volcano1 and follow each other in more rapid succession and with greater violence as the catastrophe draws near4 ,a deep noise like the rolling of thunder1 or like the roar of distant artillery1 is heard under the ground2 the white steam from the crater ascends in denser clouds1 which soon acquire a darker tinge2 and now the bottom of the crater suddenly bursts with a terrific crash1 and with the rapidity of lightning1 an immense column of black smoke shoots up into the air1 and1 expanding at its upper end into a broad horizontal canopy1 assumes a shape which has been compared with that of the ,italian pine1 the graceful tree of the ,south4 ,as the column of smoke spreads over the sky1 it obscures the light of the sun and changes day into night4 ,along with the smoke1 showers of glowing lava are cast high up into the air1 and1 rising like rockets1 either fall back into the crater or rattle down the declivity of the cone4 ,at night the scene assumes a character of matchless grandeur1 when the column of smoke--or1 more properly speaking1 of scori1 vapour1 and impalpable dust--is illuminated by the vivid light of the lava glowing in the crater beneath4 ,it then appears as an immense pillar of fire1 rising with steady majesty in the midst of the uproar of all the elements1 and ever and anon traversed by flashes of still greater brilliancy from the masses of liquid lava hurled forth by the volcano4 ,the detonations which accompany an eruption are sometimes heard as single crashes1 at others as a rolling thunder or as a continuous roaring4 ,they are frequently audible at an astonishing distance1 over areas of many thousand square miles1 and with such violence that they may be supposed to proceed from the immediate neighbourhood4 ,thus1 during the eruption of ,cosiguina in ,nicaragua1 which took place in the year #ahcd1 the detonations were heard as loud as a thunderstorm in the neighbourhood of ,kingston in ,jamaica1 and even at ,santa ,f de ,bogota1 which is a thousand miles distant from the volcano4 ,with the increase of steam generated during an eruption1 the quantity of ejected scori likewise increases in an astonishing manner1 so that the volcano's mouth resembles a constantly discharging mine of the most gigantic dimensions4 ,the stones and ashes projected during a volcanic eruption vary considerably in size1 from blocks twelve or fifteen feet in diameter to the finest dust4 ,both their immense quantity1 and the force with which they are hurled into the air1 show the utter insignificance of the strength displayed by the most formidable engines invented by man when compared with elementary power4 ,huge blocks are shot forth1 as from the cannon's mouth1 to a perpendicular elevation of #f1jjj feet1 and ,la ,condamine relates that in #aecc ,cotopaxi hurled stones of eight feet in diameter in an oblique direction to the distance of seven miles4 ,the lighter scori1 carried far away by the winds1 not seldom bury whole provinces under a deluge of sand and ashes2 and their disastrous effects1 spreading over an immense area1 are frequently greater than those of the lava-streams1 whose destructive power is necessarily confined to a narrower space4 ,to cite but a few examples1 the rain of sand and ashes which in #ahab menaced the ,island of ,st4 ,vincent with the fate of ,pompeii soon buried every trace of vegetation1 and the affrighted planters and negroes fled to the town4 ,but here also the black sand1 along with many larger stones1 fell rattling like hail upon the roofs of the houses1 while at the same time a tremendous subterranean thunder increased the horrors of the scene4 ,even ,barbadoes1 though eighty miles from ,st4 ,vincent's1 was covered with ashes4 ,a black cloud1 approaching from the sea1 brought with it such pitchy darkness that in the rooms it was impossible to distinguish the windows1 and a white pocket-handkerchief could not be seen at a distance of five inches4 ,the fall of ashes caused in ,april #ahae by the eruption of the ,temboro1 in ,sumbawa1 not only devastated the greater part of the island1 but extended in a westerly direction to ,java1 and to the north1 as far as ,celebes1 with such an intensity that it became perfectly dark at noon4 ,the roofs of houses at the distance of forty miles were broken in by the weight of the ashes that fell upon them4 ,to the west of ,sumatra the surface of the sea was covered two feet deep with a layer of floating pumice or scori1 through which ships with difficulty forced their way4 ,by the terrific eruption of ,cosiguina in the ,gulf of ,fonseca1 in ,central ,america1 in #ahce1 all the ground within a radius of twenty-five miles was loaded with scori and ashes to the depth of ten feet and upwards1 while the lightest and finest ash was carried by the winds to places more than #gjj miles distant4 ,eight leagues to the southward of the crater the ashes covered the ground to the depth of three yards and a half1 destroying the woods and dwellings4 ,thousands of cattle perished1 their bodies being in many instances one mass of scorched flesh4 ,deer and other wild animals sought the towns for protection2 birds and beasts were found suffocated in the ashes1 and the neighbouring streams were strewed with dead fish4 ,when we consider the amazing quantity of stones and ashes ejected in these and similar instances by volcanic power1 we cannot wonder that considerable mountains have frequently been piled up by one single eruption4 ,thus in the ,bay of ,bai near ,naples1 ,monte ,nuovo1 a hill #ddj feet high1 and with a base of more than a mile and a half in circumference1 formed1 in less than twelve hours1 on ,september #bi1 #aech2 and a few days gave birth to ,monte ,minardo1 near ,bronte1 on the slopes of ,etna1 which rises to the still more considerable height of #gjj feet4 ,it would be curious to calculate how many thousands of workmen1 and what length of time1 man would need to raise mounds like these1 produced by an almost instantaneous effort of nature4 ,in other cases the expansive power of the elastic vapours1 which cast up these prodigious masses from the bowels of the earth1 is such as to blow to pieces the volcanic cone through which it seeks its vent4 ,in ,quito there is an ancient tradition that ,capac ,urcu1 which means #8the chief1' was once the highest volcano near the equator1 being higher than ,chimborazo1 but at the beginning of the fifteenth century a prodigious eruption took place which broke it down4 ,the fragments of trachyte1 says ,mr4 ,boussingault1 which once formed the conical summit of this celebrated mountain1 are at this day spread over the plain4 ,on ,august #aa1 #aggb1 the ,pepandajan1 in ,java1 formerly one of the highest mountains of the island1 broke out in eruption2 the inhabitants of the country around prepared for flight1 but1 before they could escape1 the greater part of its summit was shivered to pieces and covered the neighbourhood with its ruins1 so that in the upper part of the ,gurat valley forty villages were completely buried4 ,during the dreadful eruption of #ahae1 the ,temboro1 in ,sumbawa1 is said to have lost at least one-third of its height from the explosion of its summit1 and similar instances are mentioned as having occurred among the volcanoes of ,japan4 ,in the year #afch a colossal cone called the ,peak1 in the ,isle of ,timor1 one of the ,moluccas1 was entirely destroyed by a paroxysmal explosion4 ,the whole mountain1 which was before this continually active1 and so high that its light was visible1 it is said1 three hundred miles off1 was blown up and replaced by a concavity now containing a lake4 ,again1 according to ,m4 ,moreau de ,jonnes1 in #agah1 on ,march #f-g1 at ,st4 ,vincent's1 one of the ,leeward ,isles1 the shock of a terrific earthquake was felt1 and clouds of ashes were driven into the air1 with violent detonations1 from a mountain situated at the eastern end of the island4 ,when the eruption had ceased1 it was found that the whole mountain had disappeared like the baseless fabric of a dream4 ,the disastrous effects of the showers of sand1 pumice1 and lapilli ejected by a volcanic eruption are increased by the transporting power of water4 ,the aqueous vapours which are evolved so copiously from volcanic craters during eruptions1 and often for a long time subsequently to the discharge of scori and lava1 are condensed as they ascend in the cold atmosphere surrounding the high volcanic peak2 and the clouds thus formed1 being in a state of high electrical tension1 give rise to terrific thunderstorms4 ,the lightning flashes in all directions from the black canopy overhanging the mountain1 the perpetually rolling thunder adds its loud voice to the dreadful roar of the labouring volcano1 while torrents of rain1 sweeping along the light dust and scori which they carry down with them from the air1 or meet with on their way1 produce currents of mud1 often more dreaded than streams of lava1 from the far greater velocity with which they move4 ,it not seldom happens that the eruptions of volcanoes rising above the limits of perpetual snow are preceded or accompanied by the rapid dissolution of the ice which clothes their summits or their sides1 owing to the high temperature imparted to the whole mass of the mountain by the vast conflict raging within4 ,thus in ,january #ahjc one single night sufficed to dissolve or sweep away the enormous bed of snow which in times of rest covers the steep cone of ,cotopaxi 7#ah1heh feet high71 so that on the following morning the dark mountain1 divested of its brilliant robe1 gave warning to the affrighted neighbourhood of the terrific scenes that were about to follow4 ,the volcanoes of ,iceland1 which mostly rise in the midst of vast fields of perpetual ice1 frequently exhibit this phenomenon4 ,on ,october #ag1 #ageh1 the eruptive labouring of ,ktlingia gave birth to three enormous torrents1 which carried along with them such masses of glacier fragments1 sand1 and stones as to cover a space fifty miles long and twenty-five miles broad4 ,blocks of ice as large as houses1 and partly bearing immense pieces of stone on their backs1 were hurried along by the floods2 and soon after the eruption took place with a terrific noise4 ,a very singular phenomenon sometimes occurs in the gigantic volcanoes of the ,andes4 ,by the infiltration of water into the crevices of the trachytic rock of which they are composed1 the caverns situated at their declivities or at their foot are gradually changed into subterranean lakes or ponds1 which frequently communicate by narrow apertures with the ,alpine brooks of the highlands of ,quito4 ,the fish from these brooks live and multiply in these subterranean reservoirs thus formed1 and when the earthquakes which precede every eruption of the ,andes chain shake the whole mass of the volcano1 the caverns suddenly open and discharge enormous quantities of water1 mud1 and small fish4 ,when in the night between the #aith and #bjth of ,june #afih1 the summit of ,carguairazo 7#ah1jjj feet high7 was blown up1 so that of the whole crater-rim but two enormous peaks remained1 the inundated fields were covered1 over a surface of nearly fifty square miles1 with fluid tuff and clay-mud enveloping thousands of dead fish4 ,seven years before1 the malignant fever which prevailed in the mountain-town of ,ibarra to the north of ,quito was attributed to the effluvia arising from the putrid fish ejected by the volcano of ,imbaburu4 ,amidst all these terrible phenomena--the dreadful noise1 the quaking of the earth1 the ejection of stones and ashes--which1 often continuing for weeks or months1 shake the deepest foundations of the volcano1 fiery streams of liquid lava gush forth sooner or later as from a vase that is boiling over4 ,their appearance generally indicates the crisis of the subterranean revolution1 for the rage of the elements1 which until then had been constantly increasing1 diminishes as soon as the torrent has found an outlet4 ,the lava rarely issues from the summit crater of the mountain2 much more frequently it flows from a lateral rent in the volcano's side1 which1 weakened and dislocated in its texture by repeated shocks1 at length gives way to the immense pressure of the lava column boiling within4 ,from the vast size of these eruptive rents1 we may form some idea of the gigantic power of the forces which give them birth4 ,thus during the great eruption of ,etna in #affi1 the south-east flank of the mountain was split open by an enormous rent twelve miles long1 at the bottom of which incandescent lava was seen4 ,the extreme length of the fissure which gave lateral issue to the lava of ,kilauea in #ahdj was twenty-five miles1 as could distinctly be traced through the disturbance of the surface rocks above2 and in the terrific eruption of ,skaptar ,jkul1 which devastated the west coast of ,iceland in #aghc1 lava gushed forth from several vents along a fissure of not less than #ajj miles in length4 ,in some cases the whole mass of the volcano has been cleft in two4 ,vesuvius was thus rent in ,october #ahbb by an enormous fissure broken across its cone in a direction ,n4,w4--,s4,e4 ,here and there along the line of such a rent1 cones of eruption are thrown up in succession at points where the gaseous matter obtains the freest access to the surface1 and has power to force up lava and scori4 ,few indeed1 if any1 of the greater volcanic mountains are unattended by such minor elevations1 clustering about its sides like the satellites of a planet4 ,professor ,dana found ,mauna ,loa covered with numerous parasitic cones1 and ,mr4 ,darwin counted several thousands on one of the ,gallapagos ,islands4 ,on the flanks of ,etna1 according to ,professor ,sartorius von ,waltershausen1 more than #gjj of them are to be seen1 almost all possessing craters1 and each marking the source of a current of lava4 ,though they appear but trifling irregularities when viewed from a distance as subordinate parts of so imposing and colossal a mountain1 many of them would nevertheless be deemed hills of considerable height in almost any other region4 ,the double hill near ,nicolosi1 called ,monte ,rossi1 formed in #affi1 is #dej feet high and two miles in circumference at its base2 and ,monte ,minardo1 near ,bronte1 on the east of the great volcano1 is upwards of #gjj feet in height4#h ,footnote #h3 ,see p4 #fg4 #8,on looking down from the lower borders of the desert region of ,etna1' says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 #8these minor volcanoes1 which are most abundant in the woody region1 present us with one of the most delightful and characteristic scenes in ,europe4 ,they afford every variety of height and size1 and are arranged in beautiful and picturesque groups4 ,however uniform they may appear when seen from the sea1 or the plains below1 nothing can be more diversified than their shape when we look from above into their craters1 one side of which1 as we have seen1 is generally broken down4 ,there are indeed1 few objects in nature more picturesque than a wooded volcanic crater4 ,the cones situated in the higher parts of the forest zone are chiefly clothed with lofty pines1 while those at a lower elevation are adorned with chestnuts1 oaks1 and beech-trees4' ,as the point where a lava-current finds a vent is often situated at a considerable distance below the surface of the liquid column in the internal chimney of the volcano1 the pressure from above not seldom causes the lava to spout forth in a jet1 until its level in the crater shaft has been reduced to that of the newly-formed orifice4 ,thus1 when ,vesuvius was rent by the dreadful paroxysmal eruption of #agid1 the lava was seen to shoot up in magnificent fountains as it issued from the openings along the fissure4 ,further on1 the lava flows down the mountain's side according to the same laws which regulate the movements of any other stream1 whether of water1 mud1 or ice3 more rapidly down an abrupt declivity1 slower where the slope is more gradual2 now accumulating in narrow ravines1 then spreading out in plains2 sometimes rushing in fiery cascades down precipices1 and1 where insurmountable obstacles oppose its progress1 not seldom breaking off into several branches1 each of which pursues its independent course4 ,at the point where it issues1 the lava flows in perfect solution1 but1 as its surface rapidly cools when exposed to the air1 it soon gets covered with scori1 which are dashed over each other in wild confusion1 by successive floods of liquid stone1 so as to resemble a stormy sea covered with ice-blocks4 ,but the liquefied stone not only hardens on its external surface2 it also becomes solid below1 where it touches the colder soil1 so that the fluid lava literally moves along in a crust of scori1 which lengthens in the same proportion as the stream advances4 ,the movements of the lava-current are of course considerably retarded by the formation of scori1 so that1 unless where a greater inclination of the soil gives it a new impulse1 it flows slower and slower4 ,thus the lava-stream which was ejected by ,etna during the great eruption of #affi1 performed the first thirteen ,italian miles of its course in twenty days1 or at the average rate of #afb feet per hour1 but required no less than twenty-three days for the last two miles4 ,while moving on1 its surface was in general a mass of solid rock2 and its mode of advancing1 as is usual with lava streams1 was by the occasional fissuring of the solid walls4 ,yet1 in spite of the tardiness of its progress1 the inhabitants of ,catania watched its advance with dismay1 and rushed into the churches to invoke the aid of the ,madonna and the ,saints4 ,one citizen only1 a certain ,baron ,papalardo1 relied more upon his own efforts than upon supernatural assistance1 and set out with a party of fifty men1 dressed in skins to protect them from the heat1 and armed with iron crows and hooks for the purpose of breaking open one of the solid walls of scori that flanked the liquid current1 so as to divert it from the menaced city4 ,a passage was thus opened for a rivulet of melted matter1 which flowed in the direction of ,paterno2 but the inhabitants of that town being alarmed for their safety1 took up arms against ,papalardo1 whose fifty workmen would hardly have been able to cope with the powers of nature4 ,thus1 slowly but irresistibly1 the lava advanced up to the walls of ,catania1 which1 being formed of huge ,cyclopean blocks1 and no less than sixty feet high1 at first stemmed the fiery stream4 ,but the glowing floods1 pressing against the rampart1 rose higher and higher1 and finally reaching its summit1 rushed over it in fiery cataracts1 and destroying part of the town1 at length disgorged themselves into the sea1 where they formed a not inconsiderable promontory4 ,a truly gigantic conflict might naturally be expected from the meeting of two such powerful and hostile bodies as fire and water4 ,this1 however1 is by no means the case1 for as soon as the lava enters the sea1 the rapid evaporation of the water that comes into immediate contact with it accelerates the cooling of the surface and thickens the hard external crust to such a degree that very soon all communication is cut off between the water and the fiery mass4 ,while the lava continues to advance from the land1 the crust of scori is prolonged in the same proportion1 and should it be rent here and there1 steam is at once developed with such violence as to prevent all further access of the water into the interior of the fissures4 ,thus1 ,breislak informs us that1 in #agid1 the eruption of a lava-stream into the ,bay of ,naples1 near ,torre del ,greco1 took place with the greatest tranquillity1 so that he himself was able to observe the advancing of the lava into the sea while seated in a boat immediately near it1 without being disturbed by explosions or any other violent phenomenon4 ,as the crust of scori is so bad a conductor of heat1 it occasions a very slow cooling and hardening in the interior of the lava-stream1 forming as it were a vessel in which the liquid fire can be retained and preserved for a long time4 ,when ,elie de ,beaumont visited the lava-stream of ,etna1 nearly two years after its eruption in #ahcb1 its interior was still so warm that he could not hold his finger in the hot steam issuing from its crevices4 ,it has also been proved1 on trustworthy evidence1 that after twenty-five and thirty years1 many lava-streams of ,etna still continued to emit heat and steam2 and after twenty-one years it was possible to light a cigar in the crevices of the lava that issued from ,jorullo in #agei4 ,another extremely curious effect of the scori being such bad conductors of heat is1 that masses of snow will remain unmelted1 though a lava- stream rolls over them4 ,thus1 in #aghg1 the lava of ,etna flowed over a large deposit of snow1 which1 however1 was by no means fully liquefied1 but remained for the greatest part entire1 and gradually changed into a granular and solid mass of ice4 ,this was traced in #ahbh1 by the geologist ,gemellaro1 for a distance of several hundred feet under the lava1 and most likely still reposes under it as in an ice-cellar4 ,the cliffs which form the vast crater-ring of the ,isle of ,deception1 in the extreme ,southern ,atlantic1 are likewise composed of alternate layers of ice and lava4 ,probably in both these cases the ice-beds had been covered before the lava flowed over them1 by a rain of scori and volcanic sand1 which is so well known among the shepherds in the higher regions of ,etna as a bad conductor of caloric1 that1 to obtain a supply of water for their herds during the summer1 they cover some snow a few inches deep with volcanic sand1 which entirely prevents the penetration of solar heat4 ,most of the recent lava-streams evolve from all their fissures and rents a quantity of vapour1 so as to be dotted with innumerable fumaroles1 and to exhibit1 as they flow along1 a smoking surface by day and a luminous one by night4 ,at first these fumaroles are so impetuous that they frequently puff up the lava-crust around their orifices into little cones or hillocks1 consisting of blocks of scori irregularly piled up over each other1 and from whose summit the vapours continue to ascend4 ,as the mass cools1 they are naturally lessened in numbers and in power2 but in #ahjc ,humboldt still saw fumaroles from twenty to thirty feet high1 rising from the small cones which covered by thousands the great lava-stream of ,jorullo of the year #agei4 ,the vast dimensions of single lava-streams give proof of the enormous powers which forced them out of the bowels of the earth4 ,the lava-stream of ,vesuvius which destroyed ,torre del ,greco in #agid1 is #ag1ejj ,french feet long1 and when it reached the town was more than #b1jjj feet wide and forty feet deep4 ,while this mighty mass of molten stone1 the volume of which has been reckoned at about #deg millions of cubic feet1 was descending towards the sea1 another stream1 whose mass is computed at about one-half of that of the former1 was flowing in the direction of ,mauro4 ,this single eruption has therefore furnished more than #fhe millions of cubic feet of lava1 equal to a cube of #hhb feet1 in which at least a dozen of the largest churches1 palaces1 and pyramids on earth might conveniently find room4 ,if to the solid lava we add the astonishing quantities of scori1 sand1 and ashes thrown out by this same eruption1 we may form some idea of the masses of matter which were in this one instance ejected from the interior of the earth4 ,the volume of the lava-stream which flowed from the volcano of the ,isle of ,bourbon in the year #aghg is estimated at #b1ebf millions of cubic feet2 but even this astonishing ejection of molten stone is surpassed by that which took place during the eruption of ,skaptar ,jkull#i in #aghc1 when the lava rolled on to a length of fifty miles1 and1 on reaching the plain1 expanded into broad lakes1 twelve and fifteen miles in diameter and a hundred feet deep4 ,footnote #i3 ,a detailed account of this eruption1 one of the most dreadful on record1 is given in #8,the ,polar ,world1' chap4 vi4 p4 #ha4 ,in the great eruption of ,mauna ,loa1 which commenced on the #cjth of ,may #ahdj1 the lava began to flow from a small pit-crater called ,avare1 about six miles from ,kilauea4 ,the light was seen at a distance1 but1 as there was no population in that direction1 it was supposed to proceed from a jungle on fire4 ,the next day another outbreak was perceived farther towards the coast1 and general alarm prevailed among the natives1 now aware of the impending catastrophe4 ,other openings followed1 and by ,monday the #ast of ,june the large flow had begun1 which formed a continuous stream to the sea1 which it reached on the #crd4 ,this flood issued from several fissures along its whole course1 instead of being an overflow of lava from a single opening2 it started from an elevation of #a1bdd feet1 as determined by ,captain ,wilkes1 at a point twenty-two miles distant from the first outbreak1 and twelve from the shore4 ,the scene of the flowing lava1 as we are told by those who saw it1 was indescribably magnificent4 ,as it rolled along it swept away forests in its course1 at times parting and inclosing islets of earth and shrubbery1 and at other times undermining and bearing along masses of rock and vegetation on its surface4 ,finally1 it plunged into the sea with loud detonations1 and for three weeks continued to disgorge itself with little abatement4 ,the light which it emitted converted night into day over all eastern ,hawaii4 ,it was distinctly visible for more than one hundred miles at sea1 and at the distance of forty miles fine print could be read at midnight4 ,as previous to the eruption1 the whole vast pit of ,kilauea had been filled to the brim with the lava1 which1 bursting through the flanks of the mountain1 thus found a vent towards the sea1 we have some means of estimating the volume of the ejected masses in the actual cubic contents of the emptied pit4 ,the area of the lower pit1 as determined by the surveys of the ,american ,exploring ,expedition1 is equal to #ch1ejj1jjj square feet4 ,multiplying this by #djj feet1 the depth of the pit after the eruption1 we have #ae1djj1jjj1jjj cubic feet for the solid contents of the space occupied by lava before the eruption1 and therefore the actual amount of the material which flowed from ,kilauea4 ,this is equivalent to a triangular range #hjj feet high1 two miles long1 and over a mile wide at base6 ,though generally symptoms of violent disturbance1 such as shakings of the earth and loud thundering noises1 precede the eruption of lava1 yet this is not always the case4 ,thus the craters of ,mount ,kea have frequently disgorged their masses of molten stone without such accompanying phenomena4 ,in #ahdc1 when the volcano poured out a flood of lava1 reaching for twenty-five miles down its side1 all took place so quietly that persons at the foot of the mountain were unaware of it1 except from the glare of light after the action had begun4 ,through its progress no sounds were heard below1 nor did it cause any perceptible vibrations1 except in the region of the outbreak1 and there none of much violence4 ,the lava sometimes cools down with a smooth1 solid1 undulating surface1 marked with rope-like lines and concentric folds1 such as are seen on any densely viscid liquid if drawn out as it hardens2 but much more frequently it appears as if shattered to a chaos of ruins4 ,the fragments vary from one to hundreds of cubic feet1 or from a half-bushel measure to a house of moderate size4 ,they are of all shapes1 often in angular blocks1 and sometimes in slabs1 and are horribly rough1 having deep recesses everywhere among them4 ,the traveller shudders as his path leads him over a lava-field1 thus bristling with myriads of spikes1 where the least false step would precipitate him into the deep cavities1 among the jagged surfaces and edges4 ,this scene of horrid confusion often extends for miles in every direction1 and1 viewed from its central part1 the whole horizon around is one wide waste of gray and black desolation1 beyond the power of words to describe4 ,the breaking up of a lava-field into chaotic masses evidently proceeds from a temporary cessation1 either complete or partial1 and a subsequent flow of a stream of lava4 ,the surface cools and hardens as soon as the stream slackens2 afterwards there is another heaving of the lava1 and an onward move1 owing to a succeeding ejection or the removing of an obstacle1 and the motion breaks up the hardened crust1 piling the masses together1 either in slabs or huge angular fragments1 according to the thickness to which the crust had cooled4 ,if the motion of a lava-stream be quite slow1 the cooling of the front of it may cause its cessation1 thus damming it up and holding it back1 till the pressure from gradual accumulation behind sweeps away the barrier4 ,it then flows on again1 carrying on its surface masses of the hardened crust--some1 it may be1 to sink and melt again1 but the larger portion to remain as a field of clinkers4 ,the breaking-up of the ice of some streams in spring gives some idea of the manner in which the hardened masses of a lava-field are piled up as it moves along2 but to form a just idea of the greatness of the effect1 the mind must bring before it a stream1 not of the scanty limits of most rivers1 but one1 not unfrequently1 of several miles in breadth3 besides1 in place of slabs of pure and clear ice1 there should be substituted shaggy heaps of black scori1 and a depth or thickness of many yards in place of a few inches4 ,where volcanic mud-streams have flooded the land1 or a rain of ashes and light scori has descended upon the soil1 its fertility may soon be restored under the influence of a sunny sky2 but as far as the lava reaches1 a stony wilderness often remains for ages1 particularly in the colder regions of the earth4 ,thus1 though many of the lava-fields of ,iceland have existed long before the first ,scandinavian colonists settled in the land1 their surface is generally as naked as when they first issued from the volcano2 and where signs of vegetation may be seen among their fragments1 the eye finds nothing to relieve the horrid monotony of the scene but spare patches of lichen and mosses1 or here and there some dwarf herb or shrub that hardly ventures to peep forth from the crevice in which it has found a shelter4 ,but in a milder climate1 such as that of ,italy1 and still more rapidly in the torrid zone1 the horrid nakedness of a lava-field undergoes a more rapid transformation1 provided a sufficient moisture favours the growth of plants4 ,the rains promote the decomposition of the lava1 and a rank vegetation succeeds1 which in its turn assists the work of decomposition1 and thus hastens the accumulation of soil4 ,ferns and grasses spring up in the nooks and crevices1 and finally the vine or the taro flourish luxuriantly1 for nothing can exceed the fertility of a disintegrated lava-field4 ,volcanoes have frequently been considered as safety-valves1 which1 by affording a vent to subterranean vapours1 preserve the neighbouring regions from the far more disastrous and wide-spreading effects of earthquakes2 and facts are not wanting which seem to justify this opinion4 ,after the soil had trembled for a long time throughout the whole of ,syria1 in the ,cyclades1 and in ,euba1 the shocks suddenly ceased when1 in the plains near ,chalcis1 a stream of #8glowing mud' 7lava from a crevice7 issued from the bowels of the earth4 ,strabo1 who relates this incident1 adds that #8since the craters of ,etna have been opened1 through which fire ascends1 the land on the sea-coast is less subject to earthquakes than at the time when all vents on the surface were stopped up4' ,before the earthquake which destroyed the town of ,riobamba1 the smoke of the volcano of ,pasto1 which is #bjj miles distant1 disappeared4 ,the ,neapolitans and ,sicilians consider the eruptions of ,vesuvius and ,etna1 or even a more lively activity of these volcanoes1 as a certain preservative against devastating earthquakes1 and we meet with the same belief among the inhabitants of ,quito and ,peru4 ,but in many cases this fancied security has proved to be delusive1 as very violent earthquakes have not seldom been found to accompany volcanic eruptions4 ,the great ,chilian earthquake of #ahce coincided with an eruption of ,antuco2 and the shocks which agitated all ,kamtschatka and the long chain of the ,kurilian ,islands1 in #agcg1 occurred simultaneously with an eruption of ,klutschewskaja ,skopa4 ,professor ,dana doubts whether action so deep-seated as that of the earthquake must be can often find relief in the narrow channels of a volcano miles in length4 ,he points out the example of ,mauna ,loa1 where lavas are frequently poured out from the summit crater1 at an elevation of more than #aj1jjj feet above ,kilauea1 so that the latter1 notwithstanding its extent1 the size of its great lakes of lava1 and the freedom of the incessant ebullition1 is not a safety-valve that can protect even its own immediate neighbourhood4 ,in his opinion volcanoes might more fitly be called indexes of danger4 ,they point out those portions of the globe which are most subject to earthquakes1 and are results of the same causes that render a country liable to such convulsions4 ,the phenomena attending an eruption can leave no doubt that below every active volcano a large subterranean cavity must exist in which melted lava accumulates4 ,the partisans of the theory which supposes the earth to consist of a central fluid mass with a solid shell resting upon it1 attribute the formation of volcanoes to rents or fissures in this crust through which the lava is cast forth2 but the local development of heat by chemical action1 or some other unknown cause1 is quite sufficient to account for the existence of fiery lakes imbedded in a solid mass1 and which1 though insignificant when compared with the surface of the globe1 may still be large enough to produce volcanic phenomena on the grandest scale4 ,the cause of the reaction of such a reservoir against the surface of the earth must in all probability be sought for in the expansive force of steam2 for when water1 penetrating through crevices or porous strata1 comes in contact with the heated subterranean mass1 it is evident that the steam thus generated must press upon the lava1 and1 when formed in sufficient quantity1 ultimately forces it up the duct of the volcano4 ,in other cases1 we may suppose a continuous column of lava mixed with liquid water raised to a red-hot1 or white-hot1 temperature under the influence of pressure4 ,a disturbance of equilibrium may first bring on an eruption near the surface1 by the expansion and conversion into gas of the entangled water1 so as to lessen pressure4 ,more and more steam would then be liberated1 bringing up with it jets of liquid rock1 and ultimately ejecting a continuous stream of lava4 ,its force being spent1 a period of rest succeeds1 until the conditions for a new outburst 7accumulation of steam and melted rock7 are obtained1 and another cycle of similar changes is renewed4 ,the important part which water plays in volcanic action is moreover sufficiently proved by the enormous quantity of steam which is poured forth during every eruption1 or is constantly escaping in the fumaroles of a crater4 ,the various gases 7carbonic1 muriatic1 sulphurous7 which are likewise exhaled by volcanoes may also have been rendered liquid by pressure at great depths1 and may assist the action of water in causing eruptive outbursts4 ,the great number of active volcanoes on sea-coasts and in islands likewise points to the agency of water in volcanic operations2 and in the few cases where eruptive cones are situated far inland1 their situation on the borders of a lake1 or their cavernous and porous structure1 accounts for the absorption of a quantity of atmospheric water1 sufficient for the production of volcanic phenomena4 ,illustration3 ,,eruption ,,of ,,vesuvius1 ,,bay ,,of ,,naples4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii4 ,state of ,vesuvius before the eruption in the year #gi ,a4,c4--,spartacus-- ,premonitory ,earthquakes--,letter of ,pliny the ,younger to ,tacitus1 relating the death of his ,uncle1 ,pliny the ,elder--,benevolence of the ,emperor ,titus--,herculaneum and ,pompeii buried under a muddy alluvium-- ,herculaneum first discovered in #agac4 ,of all the volcanic eruptions recorded in history there is none more celebrated than that which1 on the #bcrd of ,august1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 buried the towns of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii under a deluge of mud and ashes4 ,many other eruptions have no doubt been on a grander scale1 or may have spread ruin and desolation over a wider area1 but never has a volcano1 awakening from the slumber of a thousand years1 devastated a more smiling paradise than the fields of happy ,campania1 or buried more beautiful cities4 ,before that terrible catastrophe1 ,mount ,vesuvius1 now constantly smoking1 even in times of rest1 had1 ever since the first colonisation of ,south ,italy by the ,greeks1 exhibited no signs of volcanic activity4 ,even tradition knew of no previous disturbance4 ,no subterranean thunder1 or sulphurous steams1 or cast-up ashes1 gave token of the fires slumbering beneath its basis2 and the real nature of the apparently so peaceful mountain could only be conjectured from the similarity of its structure to other volcanoes1 or from the ancient lava-streams that furrowed its abrupt declivities4 ,at that time also its shape was very different from its present form1 for instead of two apices1 it exhibited1 from a distance1 the regular outlines of a sharply truncated cone4 ,plutarch relates that rough rock walls1 piled round its summit1 and overgrown with wild vines1 inclosed the waste of the crater4 ,when1 in #gc ,b4,c41 ,spartacus1 with seventy of his comrades1 broke the fetters of an insupportable slavery1 he found a secure retreat in this natural stronghold1 which could only be scaled by a single narrow and difficult path4 ,by degrees #aj1jjj fugitive slaves gathered round his standard1 and ,rome began to tremble for her safety4 ,the prtor ,clodius led an army against the rebels1 and surrounded the mountain2 but ,spartacus caused ropes to be made of the branches of wild vines1 by means of which he1 with the boldest of his followers1 was let down from the rocks1 where they were supposed to be totally inaccessible1 and1 falling unawares upon the prtor1 put his troops to flight and took his camp4 ,the declivities of the mountain1 thus become historically renowned1 were covered with the richest fields and vineyards1 and at its foot1 along the beautiful ,bay of ,naples1 lay the flourishing towns of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 the seats of luxury and refinement4 ,who could1 then1 have imagined that this charming scene was so soon to be disturbed in so terrible a manner1 and that the time was nigh when the ancient volcanic channels1 from which1 in unknown ages1 lava-streams and ashes had so frequently broken forth1 were once more to be re-opened8 ,the first sign which announced the awakening energies of the volcano was an earthquake1 which1 in #fc ,a4,d4 devastated the fertile regions of ,campania4 ,from that time to the crowning disaster of #gi1 slight tremors of the earth frequently occurred1 until1 finally1 the dreadful eruption took place which ,pliny the ,younger so vividly describes in his celebrated letter to ,tacitus4 #8,my uncle1' says the ,roman1 #8was at ,misenum1 where he commanded the fleet4 ,on the #bcrd of ,august1 about one o'clock in the afternoon1 my mother informed him that a cloud of an uncommon size and form was seen to arise4 ,he had sunned himself 7according to the custom of the ancient ,romans71 and taken his usual cold bath1 then dined1 and studied4 ,he asked for his sandals1 and ascended an eminence1 from which the wonderful phenomenon could be plainly seen4 ,the spot from whence the cloud ascended1 in a shape like that of an ,italian pine-tree1 could not be ascertained on account of the distance2 its arising from ,vesuvius only subsequently became known4 #8,in some parts it was white1 in others black and spotted1 from the ashes and stones which it carried along4 ,to my uncle1 being a learned man1 the phenomenon seemed important1 and worthy of a closer investigation4 ,he ordered a light ship to be got ready1 and left it to my option to accompany him4 ,i answered that ,i preferred studying1 and by chance he himself had given me something to write4 ,he was on the point of leaving the house when he received a letter from ,resina1 the inhabitants of which1 alarmed at the impending danger--the place lay at the foot of the mountain1 and escape was only possible by sea--begged him to help them in their great distress4 ,he now changed his plan1 and executed as a hero the undertaking to which he had been prompted as a natural philosopher4 #8,he ordered the galleys of war to set sail1 and embarked to bring help1 not only to ,resina1 but to many other places along the coast1 which1 on account of its loveliness1 was very densely peopled4 #8,he hastens to the spot from which others are taking flight1 and steers in a direct line towards the seat of danger1 so unconcerned as to dictate his observations upon all the events and changes of the catastrophe1 as they passed before his eyes4 #8,already ashes fell upon the ship1 hotter and thicker on approaching1 as also pumice and other stones blackened and burnt by fire4 ,suddenly a shallow bottom1 and the masses ejected by the eruption1 rendered the coast inaccessible4 ,he hesitated for a moment whether he should sail back again1 but1 soon resolved1 said to the steersman who advised him to do so1 8,fortune favours the bold2 steer towards the villa of ,pomponianus40 ,this friend resided at ,stabi1 on the opposite side of the bay1 where the danger1 although as yet at some distance1 was still within sight1 and menacing enough4 ,pomponianus had therefore caused his effects to be conveyed on board a ship1 intent on flight so soon as the contrary wind should have abated4 ,as soon as my uncle1 to whom it was very favourable1 has landed1 he embraces1 consoles1 encourages his terrified friend1 takes a bath to relieve his fears by his own confidence1 and dines after the bath with perfect composure1 or1 what is no less great1 with a serene countenance4 #8,meanwhile high columns of flame burst forth from ,vesuvius in various places1 their brilliancy being increased by the darkness of the night4 ,my uncle1 with the intention of relieving apprehension1 said that they proceeded from the villas which1 abandoned by their terrified proprietors and left a prey to the flames1 were now burning in solitude4 ,he then retired and slept soundly1 for his attendants before the door heard him fetch his breath1 which1 on account of his corpulence1 was deep and loud4 ,but now the court1 into which the room opened1 became filled to such a height with ashes and pumice that by a longer delay he would not have been able to leave it4 ,they awaken him1 he rises1 and greets ,pomponianus and the others who had watched4 ,they consult together1 whether to remain in the house or to flee into the open air1 for the ground trembled from the repeated and violent shocks of the earth1 and seemed to reel backwards and forwards4 ,on the other hand1 they feared in the open air the falling of the pumice-stones and cinders4 ,on comparing these two dangers1 flight was chosen2 and1 as a protection against the shower of stones1 they covered their heads with cushions4 ,everywhere else the day was already far advanced1 but the blackest night still reigned at ,stabi4 ,provided with torches1 they resolved to seek the shore1 in order to ascertain whether they could venture to embark1 but the sea was found to be too wild and boisterous4 #8,my uncle now lay down upon a carpet1 and asked for some cold water1 of which he repeatedly drank4 ,the flames and their sulphurous odour drove away his companions1 and forced him to rise4 ,leaning on two slaves1 he tried to move1 but immediately sank down again1 suffocated as ,i believe by the dense smoke1 and by the closing of his larynx1 which was by nature weak1 narrow1 and subject to frequent spasms4 ,on the third morning after his death1 the body was found without any marks of violence1 covered with the clothes he had worn1 and more like a person sleeping than a corpse4' ,thus perished1 in his fifty-sixth year1 one of the greatest naturalists and noblest characters of ancient ,rome1 the philosopher to whom we are indebted for the first general description of the world--a work which1 in spite of its numerous imperfections and errors1 is one of the most interesting monuments of classical literature4 ,when the rage of the volcanic powers had subsided1 the sun1 now no longer obscured by clouds of ashes1 shone upon a scene of utter desolation1 where nature1 embellished by art1 had1 but a few days before1 appeared in all her loveliness4 ,the mountain itself had changed its form1 and rose with new peaks to the skies2 a thick layer of stones and dust had settled with the curse of sterility on the fields2 thousands of homeless wretches wandered about disconsolate1 and three towns--,pompeii1 ,herculaneum1 ,stabi--had disappeared to be brought to light again in a wonderful manner after the lapse of many centuries4 ,this great catastrophe gave the ,emperor ,titus a fine opportunity for displaying the benevolence which entitled him to be called #8the delight of mankind4' ,he immediately hastened to the scene of destruction1 appointed guardians of consular rank to distribute among the needy survivors the property of those who had perished without heirs2 and encouraged the weak-hearted1 assisting them by liberal donations1 until a no less terrible misfortune recalled him to ,rome1 where a fire1 which laid almost half the town in ashes1 was followed by a plague1 which1 for some time1 daily swept away thousands4 ,it has often been asked how so many of the relics buried in ,herculaneum and ,pompeii could have been so perfectly preserved as to form a ,museum of the ,past for the admiration and instruction of future ages4 ,a stream of lava would undoubtedly have consumed everything on its fiery track1 but1 fortunately for posterity1 it was not a flood of molten stone1 but a current of mud which overwhelmed the devoted cities4 ,we learn from history that a heavy shower of sand1 pumice1 and lapilli was ejected by ,vesuvius for eight successive days and nights1 in the year #gi1 accompanied by violent rains1 and thus all these volcanic matters were converted into mud-streams1 which1 rushing down the sides of the mountain1 descended upon ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,this circumstance satisfactorily explains how the interior of the buildings1 with all the underground vaults and cellars1 was filled up1 and how all the objects they contained could be as perfectly moulded as in a plaster cast by the muddy alluvium1 which subsequently hardened into pumice tuff4 ,hence this wonderful preservation of paintings1 which1 shielded from the destructive influence of the atmosphere1 still retained their original freshness of colour when again brought to light by a late generation2 these rolls of papyrus which it has been found possible to decipher2 this perfect cast of a woman's form1 with a child in her arms6 ,no lava has flowed over ,pompeii since that city was buried1 but with ,herculaneum the case is different4 ,although the substance which fills the interior of the buildings in that doomed city must have been introduced in a state of mud like that found in similar situations in ,pompeii1 yet the superincumbent mass differs wholly in composition and thickness4 ,herculaneum was situated several miles nearer to the volcano1 and has1 therefore1 been always more liable to be covered1 not only by showers of ashes1 but by alluvium and streams of lava4 ,accordingly1 masses of both have accumulated on each other above the ancient site of the city1 to a depth of nowhere less than #gj1 and in many places of #aab feet2 while the depth of the bed of ashes under which ,pompeii lies buried seldom exceeds #ab or #ad feet above the houses1 and it is even said that the higher part of the amphitheatre always projected above the surface4 ,yet1 strange to say1 ,herculaneum1 though far more profoundly hidden1 was discovered before ,pompeii1 by the accidental circumstance that a well sunk in #agac came right down upon the theatre where the statues of ,hercules and ,cleopatra were found4 ,many others were afterwards dug out and sent to ,france by the ,prince of ,elbeuf1 who1 having married a ,neapolitan princess1 became proprietor of the field under which the theatre lies buried4 ,further excavations were1 however1 forbidden by ,government1 and only resumed in #agcf4 ,but the difficulty of removing the large masses of lava accumulated above the city1 and the circumstance of its partly lying under the modern towns of ,portici and ,resina have confined the exploration of ,herculaneum within narrow limits4 ,the large theatre alone is open for inspection1 and can be seen only by torchlight1 so that its dark galleries1 cut through the tuff1 are but seldom visited by strangers2 while no traveller leaves ,naples without having wandered through the ruins of ,pompeii1 for ,italy hardly affords a more interesting sight than that of these streets and forums1 these theatres and temples1 these houses and villas1 which require but the presence of their ancient inhabitants to complete the picture of a ,roman town1 such as it was eighteen hundred years ago4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,gas ,,springs ,,and ,,mud ,,volcanoes4 ,carbonic-acid ,springs--,grotto del ,cane--,the ,valley of ,death in ,java-- ,exaggerated ,descriptions--,carburetted ,hydrogen ,springs--,the ,holy ,fires of ,baku--,description of the ,temple--,mud ,volcanoes--,the ,macaluba in ,sicily--,crimean ,mud ,volcanoes--,volcanic ,origin of ,mud ,volcanoes4 ,the numerous gas springs which in many countries are evolved from an unknown depth1 afford us a convincing proof that the remarkable chemical transformations of which we find so many traces in the past history of our planet are still perpetually taking place in many of the mysterious crevices and hollows of the earth-rind4 ,in ,auvergne1 the ,vivarrais1 the ,eifel1 and along the whole basaltic range from the ,rhine to the ,riesengebirge in ,silesia1 carbonic acid gas is exhaled in incredible quantities from the vast laboratories of the subterranean world4 ,professor ,bischoff found that a single gas spring near ,burgbrohl daily produced #e1fej cubic feet of carbonic acid1 a quantity amounting in the course of a year to no less than #bfb1jjj pounds in weight2 and1 according to ,bromeis1 the great ,artesian spring at ,nauheim evolves every minute #ga cubic feet of carbonic acid1 equal to a weight of #e1jjj1jjj pounds annually4 ,if from these two instances we judge of the produce of the many carbonic acid gas springs of ,germany1 and if we farther extend our view to the rest of the world1 in many parts of which carbonic acid probably escapes in still greater quantities1 we can form some idea of the geological importance of these springs1 which also exercise no small influence upon the organic world4 ,for the incalculable masses of carbonic acid which are thus constantly pouring from subterranean vents into the atmospheric ocean are again absorbed by millions of plants4 ,they feed the forests and the fields2 and thus these chemical changes1 which are incessantly but imperceptibly modifying the earth-rind1 ultimately tend to the advantage of man4 ,as a light dipped in carbonic acid gas is immediately extinguished1 and every animal inhaling it is liable to instant suffocation1 these properties are sometimes made use of for cruel experiments1 for which1 among others1 the insignificant ,grotto del ,cane1 in the kingdom of ,naples--a cave or hole in the side of a mountain near the ,lake ,agnano--has become notorious4 ,some miserable dogs are thrust into the stratum of fixed air which covers the bottom of the hole1 and are alternately almost choked and resuscitated to satisfy the idle curiosity of tourists4 ,their violent efforts to escape1 when about to be plunged into the poisonous vapour1 prove the horrible cruelty of the practice4 ,the carbonic-acid springs in the glen of the ,brohl1 a small rivulet flowing into the ,rhine1 near ,andernach1 are turned to a better purpose1 for the manufacture of white lead4 ,the famous #8,valley of ,death1' or ,poison ,valley1 in the ,island of ,java1 is nothing more than a funnel-shaped hollow1 measuring about #ajj feet in diameter at the top1 and with a bare space in its centre fifteen feet broad and long1 which is frequently covered with a stratum of carbonic acid gas4 ,the sides of the hollow1 and even the bottom1 with the exception of the above-mentioned naked spot1 are everywhere clothed with shrubbery1 or even with forest trees4 ,the dead bodies of stags1 tigers1 wild boars1 and birds are said to have been frequently found in the hollow2 but ,dr4 ,junghuhn1 the author of a classical work on ,java1 saw in #ahch but one human corpse lying on its back in the centre of the bare spot4 ,it was still there in #ahdj1 and but slightly decomposed4 ,in #ahde it had been removed1 most likely by some compassionate wanderers desirous of giving it a decent burial1 for not the slightest trace of the skeleton remained4 ,during the years #ahch1 #ahdj1 and #ahde ,junghuhn visited the ,valley of ,death no less than thirteen times4 ,when he last saw it1 the bodies of six wild hogs were lying at the bottom1 all more or less in a state of putrefaction4 ,the crows that were feasting upon their remains proved that a descent might be effected without danger1 for1 on seeing them hopping about on the naked soil1 even the ,javanese entered the circle without hesitation4 ,not a single trace of carbonic acid was to be perceived1 not even when the bold naturalist stretched himself out upon the ground and drew his breath in the crevices and rents with which it is furrowed4 ,probably the gas never rises more than three feet above the level of the soil1 as at this height a luxuriant vegetation begins4 ,this simple description of an accurate observer forms a strange contrast to the gross exaggeration of other travellers1 whose accounts1 copied in many hand-books1 have puffed up a phenomenon hardly superior to that of the ,grotto del ,cane into something like an eighth wonder of the world4 ,loudon1 who in ,july #ahcj visited the ,pakamaran 7as the natives call the pit71 swells its dimensions to a vast crater about half a mile in circumference1 thickly strewn with skeletons of men1 tigers1 game1 and birds of all kinds2 and another recent traveller goes so far as to give it an extent of twenty miles4 ,next to carbonic acid1 but of far less general occurrence1 carburetted hydrogen1 which gives rise to the wonderful phenomenon of fiery springs1 is the gas most frequently evolved by volcanic spiracles4 ,near ,pietra ,mala1 between ,bologna and ,florence1 on a spot about twelve feet in diameter1 several flames rise from the earth1 the largest of which ascends to a height of five feet1 and is seen burning at night with a pale yellow flame1 while its minor satellites around are blue tipped with white4 ,no doubt many a terrible legend is attached to this infernal spectacle4 ,near ,barigazzo1 between ,modena and ,pistoja1 near the ruins of ,velleji1 and in many other parts of the volcanic region of the ,apennines1 similar flames gush out of the ground4 ,the neat little town of ,fredonia1 in the ,state of ,new ,york1 on the eastern shore of ,lake ,erie1 is lighted by natural springs of carburetted hydrogen1 which1 being led into a gasometer1 feed the seventy or eighty lamps of the town4 ,the thrifty and practical ,chinese1 who have preceded us in so many useful discoveries1 have for centuries made a like use of the many gaseous emanations in the provinces of ,yunnan1 ,szutschuan1 ,kuangsi1 and ,schansi1 by leading the inflammable air in pipes1 wherever they want it for lighting or cooking4 ,but there is no place in the world more remarkable for its burning springs than ,baku1 on the western coast of the ,caspian ,sea1 where the holy and eternal fires are worshipped by the pious ,parsees as the special symbol of the ,almighty4 ,like most of the cloisters and convents of the ,orient1 which are exposed to the incursions of plundering hordes1 ,aleschga1 the temple dedicated to the worship of fire1 is a fortified square inclosing a large courtyard1 and capable of being defended from the terraced roof4 ,the outer wall forms at the same time the back of the cells1 which front the yard4 ,over the entrance gate1 which is situated to the north1 rises a high bastion or tower1 serving as an additional defence1 from the summit1 of which the visitor enjoys after sunset the fantastic view of the flames which1 untarnished by smoke1 rise on all sides from rents and crevices in the neighbouring steppe1 and wave their bright summits to and fro like tongues of fire4 ,in the centre of the court stands a square tower supported by four columns1 and inclosing a basin-like excavation1 three or four feet in diameter1 into which the gas is conducted by a pipe from sources beyond the walls of the temple4 ,four chimneys at the four corners of the tower are fed in a similar manner4 ,from the centre of the tower rises a trident1 called ,thirsul4 ,the ,parsees relate that the ,devil once got possession of the earth1 and reigned with despotic fury4 ,but man in his distress prayed to the ,almighty1 and an angel came down and planted this identical trident in the earth as a token that the dominion of his ,satanic ,majesty had ceased4 ,round the court are twenty- two cells1 like those of a ,catholic convent4 ,they are very small1 and1 with the exception of a ragged rug1 wholly without furniture2 but each of them is provided with a gas pipe1 which can be opened or closed at pleasure1 and furnishes light and warmth to the inmate4 ,near the temple a well has been dug fifty feet deep1 in which the gas accumulates in larger quantities4 ,koch 7#8,wanderungen im ,oriente1' #ahdc-d7 tells us that he here enjoyed a sight more wonderful and surprising than any he had ever witnessed before4 ,a carpet was spread over the mouth of the well to prevent the gas from escaping4 ,after a few minutes1 a priest seized a bundle of brushwood1 in which a piece of burning paper had been stuck1 and flung it into the well1 after quickly removing the carpet4 ,the strangers had previously been warned to keep at some distance1 and the priest and his assistants likewise ran off as fast as they could4 ,about half a minute after the fire-brand had been cast into the pit1 a terrific explosion took place1 and a vast column of fire1 in the shape of an inverted cone 7from the gas spreading out as soon as it emerges from the pit71 ascended to the skies4 ,how long the fires of ,baku may have been burning is unknown1 but it is very probable that they did not exist before the ,christian era4 ,no ,greek or ,roman author mentions them1 and it is not before the tenth century that ,arab writers take notice of ,baku and its wonders4 ,when the ,sassanides restored the religion of ,zoroaster1 the attention of these fire-worshipping princes was naturally directed to a place where fire gushes pure and unbidden from the earth4 ,they raised a temple on the spot1 and thousands of pilgrims wandered to the holy fires of ,baku4 ,but when the fanatical ,arabs overthrew the ,persian ,empire1 times of persecution and distress began for the ,parsees2 and still later they were almost entirely extirpated by the hordes of ,tamerlane4 ,during the last centuries fire-worshipping was again introduced by the ,indians1 who1 after the ,sefides had ascended the ,persian throne1 gradually settled in the ,caspian provinces1 and whose number must have been considerable1 as travellers inform us that in the latter half of the seventeenth century #bjj rich ,indian merchants were residing in the town of ,schemachi4 ,but the anarchical times which followed the usurpation of ,nadir ,schah forced most of these ,indians to leave their adopted country1 and since then only solitary pilgrims have found their way to ,baku4 ,but the number even of these is constantly diminishing1 although the ,russians1 to whom the sanctuary now belongs1 allow them full freedom of access4 ,when ,koch was at ,baku1 he found there only five ,indians from ,mooltan1 whither the majority would gladly have returned1 had they but possessed the necessary means4 ,their squalid appearance and tattered raiment formed the strongest imaginable contrast to the splendour of the element they worshipped4 ,among them was a ,fakir1 who had made a vow constantly to remain in the same position absorbed in religious contemplation1 and who for sixteen years had never moved from the spot4 ,the burning springs gush out not only from the ground near the temple and in other parts of the peninsula of ,abscheron1 but even from the bottom of the neighbouring ,caspian ,sea2 and as ,sir ,charles ,lyell saw carburetted hydrogen rise in countless bubbles through the crystal waters above the falls of the ,niagara1 and shoot up in bright flames at the approach of a light1 so ,dr4 ,abich mentions a spot in the ,gulf of ,baku where the inflammable gas issues with such force1 and in so great a quantity1 from the bottom1 which is there three fathoms deep1 that a small boat is in danger of being overturned when coming too near it4 ,as gas springs most frequently occur in districts which have been the former seats of volcanic action1 and as similar exhalations often arise from still active craters1 they are supposed by many geologists to be the last remaining traces of an expiring volcanic energy4 ,bischoff considers the carbonic acid of the ,german gas springs to be developed by the decomposition of carbonate of lime by volcanic heat or heated water4 ,a phenomenon which is sometimes found connected with gas springs is that of the mud volcanoes1 which may be described as cones of a ductile1 unctuous clay1 formed by the continued evolution of a sulphurous and inflammable gas1 spurting up waves and lumps of liquid mud4 ,these remarkable cauldrons are found in many parts of the world1 in the ,island of ,milo1 in ,italy1 in ,iceland1 in ,india1 about #abj miles from the mouths of the ,indus1 on the coast of ,arracan1 in ,birmah1 in ,java1 ,columbia1 ,nicaragua1 and ,trinidad1 but probably nowhere on a grander scale than at either extremity of the chain of the ,caucasus1 towards the ,caspian on the east and the ,sea of ,azof on the west1 where in the peninsula of ,taman1 and on the opposite coast of the ,crimea1 near ,kertsch1 vast numbers of mud volcanoes are scattered1 some of them #bej feet high4 ,their operations have apparently been going on for countless ages1 and have covered a great extent of land with their products4 ,illustration3 ,,mud ,,volcanoes ,,of ,,trinidad4 ,the ,macaluba1 in ,sicily1 which owes its name to the ,arabs1 is the mud volcano most anciently known4 ,it is mentioned by ,plato in his #8,phdon1' and has been described by ,strabo4 ,it is situated five miles to the north of ,girgenti1 on a hill of a conical shape1 truncated at the top1 and #aej feet high4 ,the summit is a plain half a mile round1 and the whole surface is covered with thick mud4 ,the depth of the mud1 which is supposed to be immense1 is unknown4 ,there is not the slightest appearance of vegetation upon it4 ,in the rainy season the mud is much softened2 the surface is even1 and there is a general ebullition over it1 which is accompanied with a very sensible rumbling noise4 ,in the dry season the mud acquires greater consistency1 but its motion still goes on4 ,the plain assumes a form somewhat convex2 a number of little cones are thrown up1 which rarely rise to the height of two feet4 ,each of them has a crater1 where black mud is seen in constant agitation1 and incessantly emitting bubbles of air4 ,with these the mud insensibly rises1 and as soon as the crater is full of it1 it disgorges4 ,the residue sinks1 and the cone has a free crater1 until a new emission takes place4 ,such is the ordinary state of the ,macaluba2 but from time to time the hill becomes subject to alarming convulsions4 ,slight earthquake shocks are felt at the distance of two or three miles1 accompanied with internal noises resembling thunder4 ,these increase for several days1 and are followed at last by a prodigious spout of mud1 earth1 and stones1 which rises two or three hundred feet in the air4 ,similar paroxysmal explosions have been observed in the ,caucasian mud volcanoes4 ,in ,february #agid1 the ,obu1 in the peninsula of ,taman1 had an eruption accompanied with a dreadful noise1 and an earthquake which radiated from the cone1 and was felt as far as ,ekaterinodor1 at a distance of fifty-five leagues4 ,at the beginning of the eruption flames were seen1 which rose to a prodigious height1 and lasted about half an hour4 ,at the same time dense clouds of smoke escaped from the crater1 and mud and stones were cast up to the height of #c1jjj feet4 ,six streams of mud1 the largest of which was half a mile long1 flowed from the volcano1 and their volume is said to have been equal to twenty-two millions of cubic feet4 ,violent eruptive symptoms accompanied the formation of a new mud volcano in the vicinity of ,baku on the ,caspian4 ,on ,november #bg1 #ahbg1 flames blazed up to an extraordinary height for three hours1 and continued for twenty hours more to rise about three feet above a crater from which mud was ejected4 ,at another point in the same district1 where flames issued1 fragments of rock1 of large size1 were hurled up into the air and scattered around4 ,the phenomena exhibited by the ,macaluba and other mud cauldrons are certainly very distinct from those of true volcanoes1 since no scori or lava or heated matters of any kind are sent forth1 the mud being described as cold when emitted1 although the gas1 whose violent escape throws it up1 is sometimes ignited4 ,hence geologists commonly regard these phenomena as entirely distinct from the volcanic1 and ascribe their origin to chemical action going on at no great depth beneath the surface1 among the constituents of certain stratified matters2 while other scientific authorities declare them to be as much connected with internal igneous agency as any other eruptive phenomena4 ,their occurrence in districts not remote from the sites of vast volcanic disturbance1 and their occasional violent paroxysms1 certainly afford much support to this view1 and show that it is probably the same power1 in different degrees of energy1 which casts up the mud of the ,macaluba and pours forth the lava-streams of ,cotopaxi4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,earthquakes4 ,extent of ,misery inflicted by great ,earthquakes--,earthquake ,regions-- ,earthquakes in ,england--,great ,number of ,earthquakes--,vertical and undulatory ,shocks--,warnings of ,earthquakes--,sounds attending ,earthquakes--,remarkable ,displacements of ,objects--,extent and ,force of ,seismic ,wave ,motion--,effects of ,earthquakes on the ,sea--,enormous ,waves on ,coasts--,oscillations of the ,ocean--,fissures1 ,landslips1 and shattering ,falls of ,rock caused by ,earthquakes--,causes of ,earthquakes-- ,probable ,depth of ,focus--,opinions of ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope--,impressions produced on ,man and ,animals by ,earthquakes4 ,of all the destructive agencies of nature there is none to equal the earthquake4 ,the hurricane is comparatively weak in its fury2 the volcanic eruption generally confines its rage to the neighbourhood of the labouring mountain1 but a great earthquake may cover a whole land with ruins4 ,the terrible subterranean revolution which convulsed all ,asia ,minor and ,syria in the reign of ,tiberius1 destroyed twelve celebrated cities in a single night4 ,the sun1 which on setting had gilded their temples and palaces with his parting rays1 beheld them prostrate on the following morning4 ,in ,a4,d4 #aae ,antioch was the centre of a great commotion4 ,the city was full of soldiers under ,trajan2 heavy thunder1 excessive winds1 and subterranean noises were heard2 the earth shook1 the houses fell2 the cries of people buried in the ruins passed unheeded4 ,the ,emperor leaped from a window1 while mountains were broken and thrown down1 and rivers disappeared1 and were replaced by others in a new situation4 ,four centuries later 7,may #bj1 #ebf7 the same doomed city was totally subverted by an earthquake1 when it is reported that #bej1jjj persons perished4 ,similar catastrophes1 in which thousands and thousands of victims were suddenly destroyed1 have frequently occurred in ,peru and ,chili1 in the ,west ,indies and ,central ,america1 in the ,moluccas and ,java1 in the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean and the ,red ,sea2 but a bare mention of the loss of life conveys but a faint idea of the extent of misery inflicted by one of those great earthquakes which mark with an ominous shade many large tracts of the earth's surface4 ,we must picture to ourselves the slow lingering death which is the fate of many--some buried alive1 others burnt in the fire which almost invariably bursts out in a city where hundreds of dwellings have suddenly been laid prostrate--the numbers who escaped with loss of limbs or serious bodily injuries1 and the surviving multitude1 suddenly reduced to penury and want4 ,in the ,calabrian earthquake of #aghc1 it is supposed that about a fourth part of the inhabitants of ,polistena and of some other towns were buried alive1 and might have been saved had there been no want of hands2 but in so general a calamity1 where each was occupied with his own misfortunes or those of his family1 help could seldom be procured4 #8,it frequently happened1' says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 #8that persons in search of those most dear to them could hear their moans1 could recognise their voices1 were certain of the exact spot where they lay buried beneath their feet1 yet could afford them no succour4 ,the piled mass resisted all their strength1 and rendered their efforts of no avail4 ,at ,terranuova four ,augustin monks1 who had taken refuge in a vaulted sacristy1 the arch of which continued to support a vast pile of ruins1 made their cries heard for the space of four days4 ,one only of the brethren of the whole convent was saved1 and of what avail was his strength to remove the enormous weight of rubbish which had overwhelmed his companions8 ,he heard their voices die away gradually1 and when afterwards their four corpses were disinterred1 they were found clasped in each other's arms4' ,affecting narratives are preserved of mothers saved after the fifth1 sixth1 and even seventh day of their interment1 when their infants or children had perished with hunger4 ,in his work on the great ,neapolitan earthquake of #aheg1 ,mr4 ,mallet1 from innumerable narratives of personal peril and sad adventure1 selects the distressing case of a noble family of ,monte ,murro1 as affording a vivid picture of the terrors of an earthquake night4 ,don ,andrea del ,fino1 the owner of one of the few houses in the city which escaped total destruction1 was with his wife in bed1 his daughter sleeping in an adjacent chamber on the principal floor4 ,at the first shock his wife1 who was awake1 leaped from bed1 and immediately after1 a mass of the vaulting above came down1 and buried her sleeping husband4 ,at the same moment1 the vault above their daughter's room fell in upon her4 ,from the light and hollow construction of the vaults neither was at once killed4 ,the signora escaped by leaping from the front window1 she scarcely knew how4 ,for more than two hours she wandered1 unnoticed1 amongst the mass of terrified survivors in the streets1 before she could obtain aid from her own tenants and dependants1 to extricate her husband4 ,they got him out after more than eighteen hours' entombment--alive1 indeed1 but maimed and lame for life4 ,his daughter was dead4 ,as he lay longing despairingly for release from the rubbish1 which a second shock1 an hour after the first1 had so shaken and closed in around him that he could scarcely breathe1 he heard1 but a few feet off1 her agonising cries and groans grow fainter and fainter1 until at last they died away4 ,his wife1 to whose devotion his own life was owing1 had escaped unhurt4 ,unfortunately man too often vies with the brute forces of nature to increase the horrors of a great earthquake4 ,as the arm of the law is paralysed by the general panic1 thieves and ruffians are not slow to avail themselves of their opportunity4 ,thus in the ,calabrian catastrophe of #aghc1 nothing could be more atrocious than the conduct of the peasants1 who abandoned the farms and flocked in great numbers into the towns--not to rescue their countrymen from a lingering death1 but to plunder4 ,they dashed through the streets amid tottering walls and clouds of dust1 trampling beneath their feet the bodies of the wounded and half buried1 and often stripping them1 while yet living1 of their clothes4 ,from the vast ruin and misery they entail1 it is evident that where earthquakes are frequent1 there can never be perfect security of property even under the best government2 and as the fruits collected by the labour of many years may be lost in an instant1 the progress of civilisation and national wealth must necessarily be retarded4 #8,earthquakes alone1' says ,mr4 ,darwin1 #8are sufficient to destroy the prosperity of any country4 ,if beneath ,england the now inert subterranean forces should exert those powers which most assuredly in former geological ages they have exerted1 how completely would the entire condition of the land be changed6 ,what would become of the lofty houses1 thickly packed cities1 great manufactories1 the beautiful public and private edifices8 ,if the new period of disturbance were first to commence by some great earthquake in the dead of the night1 how terrific would be the carnage6 ,england would at once be bankrupt2 all papers1 records1 and accounts would from that moment be lost4 ,government1 being unable to collect the taxes1 and failing to maintain its authority1 the hand of violence and rapine would remain uncontrolled4 ,in every large town famine would go forth1 pestilence and death following in its train4' ,fortunately the experience of many ages shows that the regions subject to these terrible catastrophes are confined to a comparatively small part of the surface of the globe4 ,thus ,southern ,italy and ,sicily2 the tract embracing the ,canaries1 the ,azores1 ,portugal1 and ,morocco2 ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and the ,caucasus2 the ,arabian shore of the ,red ,sea2 the ,east ,indian ,archipelago2 the ,west ,indies1 ,nicaragua1 ,quito1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 are particularly liable to destructive shocks4 ,but beyond these limits slighter earthquakes are of far more common occurrence than is generally supposed1 and probably they leave no part of the world entirely undisturbed4 ,from the year #ahba to #ahcj no less than #aae earthquakes have been felt to the north of the ,alps1 and since the year #ajhi1 #bbe are cited in the annals of ,england4 ,some of these earthquakes seem to have but just stopped at the point when a slight increase of their force would have covered the land with ruins4 ,in #aegd1 on the #bfth of ,february1 between five and six in the evening1 an earthquake was felt at ,york1 ,worcester1 ,hereford1 ,gloucester1 and ,bristol4 ,norton ,chapel was filled with worshippers2 they were nearly all overthrown1 and fled in terror1 thinking that the dead were unearthed or that the chapel was falling4 ,six years later1 on the #fth of ,april1 at #f ,p4,m41 all ,england was thrown into consternation4 ,the great bell at ,westminster began to toll2 the students at the ,temple started up from table and rushed into the street1 knives in hand2 a part of the ,temple ,church fell1 and stones dropped from ,st4 ,paul's4 ,two stones fell in ,christ's ,church1 and crushed two persons4 ,in rushing out of the church many were lamed1 and there was a shower of chimneys in the streets4 ,at ,sandwich1 the occurrence was marked by the violence of the sea1 which made ships run foul of each other2 and at ,dover a part of the fortifications fell with the rock which supported it4 ,on the #fth ,october #ahfc1 a movement1 though gentle when compared to the preceding instances1 was felt from the ,english ,channel to the ,mersey1 and from ,hereford to ,leamington and ,oxford4 ,the ,malvern range was about the centre of the area1 as it has often been before4 ,even in alluvial ,holland1 six or eight slight earthquakes have been felt during the last century4 ,the industrious researches of ,kluge show that1 during the eight years from #ahej to #aheg1 no less than #d1fbj earthquakes--a great proportion of which 7#eji7 fell to the share of ,southern ,europe--have been noticed in both hemispheres2 and when we remember that a very considerable part of the globe is still either totally unknown or removed by the barbarous condition of its inhabitants from all intercourse with the scientific world1 and that1 consequently1 the above list must necessarily be incomplete1 it is very probable that not a day passes without some agitation of the surface of the earth in some place or other4 ,a violent earthquake almost always consists of several shocks following each other in rapid succession4 ,sometimes they are preceded by slighter vibrations2 at other times they suddenly convulse the land without any previous notice4 ,in most instances1 each shock lasts but a few seconds2 but this is enough to ruin the work of ages4 ,three violent commotions within five minutes destroyed the town of ,caraccas on ,march #bf1 #ahab2 and the earthquake which1 in #afib1 desolated ,jamaica lasted but three minutes4 ,on ,january #aa1 #ahci1 two shocks within thirty seconds covered ,martinique1 and the whole range of the ,lesser ,antilles1 with ruins4 ,but a violent earthquake1 though itself but of short duration1 is generally followed by a series of secondary shocks1 which are repeated at gradually widening intervals and with decreasing energy1 so that if these subsequent tremors be taken into account1 it may often be said to last for weeks1 or even months4 ,thus1 to cite but one instance1 the earthquake of ,october #ba1 #agff1 destroyed the whole town of ,cumana in a few minutes1 but during the following fourteen months the earth was in a constant vibratory motion1 and scarce an hour passed without a shock being felt4 ,in countries where earthquakes are comparatively rare 7for instance in the south of ,europe7 the belief is very general that oppressive heat1 stillness of the air1 and a misty horizon are always forerunners of the phenomenon4 ,but this popular opinion is not confirmed by the experience of trustworthy observers1 who have lived for years in countries such as ,cumana1 ,quito1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 where the ground trembles frequently and violently4 ,humboldt experienced earthquakes during every state of the weather1 serene and dry1 rainy and stormy4 ,brute animals1 being more sensitive than men of the slightest movement of the earth1 are said to evince extraordinary alarm1 and it has been often observed that even the dull hog shows symptoms of uneasiness previous to the shock4 ,during the great ,neapolitan earthquake of #aheg an unusual halo-like light was seen in the sky before1 and not long before1 the shock4 ,mr4 ,mallet was at first inclined to look upon this notion as a superstitious tale2 but1 finding it widely diffused in a country where communication is bad and news travels slowly1 no longer doubted that it was founded on fact4#aj ,conjectures would be useless as to its nature1 but future observation directed to the point may determine whether some sort of auroral light may emanate from the vast depths of rock formation under the enormous tensions and compressions that must precede the final crash and rupture2 or whether volcanic action1 going on in the unseen depths below1 may give rise to powerful disturbances of electric equilibrium1 and hence to the development of light2 just as from volcanic mountains in eruption lightnings continually flash from the huge volumes of steam and floating ashes above the crater4 ,humboldt is also of opinion that1 though in general the revolutions which take place below the surface of the earth are not announced beforehand by any meteorological process1 or a peculiar appearance of the sky1 it is not improbable that during violent shocks some change may occur in the condition of the atmosphere4 ,thus1 during the earthquake in the ,piedmontese valleys of ,pelis and ,clusson1 great alterations were observed in the electrical tension of the atmosphere without any appearance of a thunder-storm4 ,footnote #aj3 ,mallet1 #8,the ,great ,neapolitan ,earthquake of #aheg1' vol4 i4 p4 #cbc4 ,earthquakes are generally attended with sounds1 sometimes like the howling of a storm1 or the rumbling of subterranean thunder1 at others like the clashing of iron chains1 or as if a number of heavily laden waggons were rolling rapidly over the pavement1 or as if enormous masses of glass were suddenly shivered to pieces4 ,as solid bodies are excellent conductors of sound 7burnt clay1 for instance1 propagating it ten or twelve times more rapidly than the air71 the subterranean noise may be heard at a vast distance from the primary seat of the earthquake4 ,in ,caraccas1 in the grass-plains of ,calabozo1 and on the banks of the ,rio ,apure1 which falls into the ,orinoco1 a dreadful thunder-like sound was everywhere heard on ,april #cj1 #ahab1 without any simultaneous trembling of the earth1 at the time when1 at the distance of #aeh geographical miles1 the volcano of ,st4 ,vincent1 in the ,lesser ,antilles1 was pouring out of its crater a mighty lava-stream4 ,this was1 according to distance1 as if an eruption of ,vesuvius were heard in the north of ,france4 ,in the year #agdd1 during the great eruption of the volcano ,cotopaxi1 a subterranean noise like the firing of cannon was heard at ,honda on the ,magdalena river4 ,but the crater of ,cotopaxi is #ag1jjj feet higher than ,honda1 and both points1 situated at a distance of #aji geographical miles1 are moreover separated by the colossal mountain masses of ,quito1 ,pasto1 and ,popayan1 and by numberless ravines and deep valleys4 ,the sound was certainly transmitted1 not through the air1 but through the earth1 and must have proceeded from a very considerable depth4 ,but noise is not the necessary attendant of an earthquake1 for many instances are known in which the most violent shocks have been completely noiseless4 ,no subterranean sounds were heard during the terrific earthquake which destroyed ,riobamba on ,february #d1 #agig1 and the same circumstance is mentioned in the narratives of many of the ,chilian earthquakes4 ,the phenomenon of sound1 when unaccompanied by any perceptible vibration1 makes a peculiarly deep impression on the mind1 even of those who have long inhabited a country subject to frequent earthquakes4 ,they tremble at the idea of the catastrophe which may follow4 ,a remarkable instance of a long protracted noise without any trembling of the earth occurred in #aghd1 at the wealthy mining town of ,guanaxuato in ,mexico1 where the rolling of subterranean thunder1 with now and then a louder crash1 was heard for more than a month1 without the slightest shock1 either on the surface of the earth1 or in the neighbouring silver mines1 which are #a1ejj feet deep4 ,the noise was confined to a small space1 so that a few miles from the town it was no longer audible4 ,never before had this phenomenon been known to occur in the ,mexican highlands1 nor has it been repeated since4 ,earthquake shocks are either vertical or undulatory4 ,a vertical shock1 which is felt immediately above the seat or focus of the subterranean disturbance1 causes a movement up and down4 ,like an exploding mine1 it frequently jerks movable bodies high up into the air4 ,thus1 during the great earthquake of ,riobamba1 the bodies of many of the inhabitants were thrown upon the hill of ,la ,culla1 which rises to the height of several hundred feet at the other side of the ,lican torrent2 and during the earthquake of ,chili in #ahcg1 a large mast1 planted thirty feet deep in the ground at ,fort ,san ,carlos1 and propped with iron bars1 was thrown upwards1 so that a round hole remained behind4 ,although to the inhabitants of a shaken district the undulatory wave or vibration of an earthquake appears to radiate horizontally outwards from the spot on the surface where it is first felt1 the force does not really operate in a horizontal direction1 like a wave caused by a pebble on the surface of a pond2 for at every point1 except that immediately above the focus of the shock1 it comes up obliquely from below1 causing the ground to move forwards and then backwards in a1 more or less horizontal direction4 ,as a ship1 yielding to the oscillatory movements of the waves1 alternately inclines to one side or the other1 so1 during the more violent undulations of the soil1 the objects on its surface are momentarily moved from their vertical position1 and often considerably inclined towards the horizon4 ,thus during the great earthquake which convulsed the valley of the ,mississippi in #ahaa-ab1 ,mr4 ,bringier1 an engineer of ,new ,orleans1 who was on horseback near ,new ,madrid1 where some of the severest shocks were experienced1 saw the trees bend as the wave-motion of the earthquake passed under them1 and immediately afterwards recover their position4 ,the transit of the wave through the woods was marked by the crash of countless branches1 first heard on one side and then on the other4 ,it must have been awful to see the giants of the forest thus move to and fro like a corn-field agitated by the wind6 ,very remarkable displacements of objects are not seldom caused by earthquakes1 such as the rotation of the blocks of columns or the turning of statues on their pedestals4 ,at ,lima1 which1 owing to its repeated destructions by earthquakes1 is properly a city of ruins1 ,professor ,dana saw two obelisks with the upper stone on each displaced and turned round on its axis about fifteen degrees in a direction from north to east4 ,these rotations by earthquakes have been attributed by some authors to an actual rotatory movement in the earthquake vibration2 but it has lately been shown by ,mr4 ,mallet that this hypothesis is untenable and unnecessary1 as a simple vibration back and forth is all that is required to produce a rotatory motion in the stone of a column1 provided that stone be attached below more strongly on one side of the centre than on the opposite4 ,the wave-motion of an earthquake sometimes spreads over enormous spaces4 ,the shocks of the earthquake of ,new ,granada which took place in the night from the #afth to the #agth of ,june #ahbf1 were noticed over a surface of #gej1jjj square miles4 ,the earthquake of ,valdivia 7,february #bj1 #ahce7 was felt southwards on the distant island of ,chiloe to the north as far as ,copiapo1 in ,mendoza to the east of the ,andes1 and on the ,island of ,juan ,fernandez1 #cjj miles from the coast4 ,supposing these effects to have taken place at corresponding distances in ,europe1 all the land would have trembled from the ,north ,sea to the ,mediterranean1 and from ,ireland to the centre of ,france4 ,it is evident that the extent and force of the wave-motion of an earthquake must in a great measure depend upon the nature of the rocks through which it is transmitted4 ,it will vibrate more easily through solid homogeneous masses1 while in alluvial deposits1 or in a soil composed of sand and loose conglomerate1 its undulations will be propagated irregularly and its effects be far more destructive4 ,this is particularly the case where the alluvial deposits repose on a substratum of hard rock4 ,thus the devastations of the ,calabrian earthquake of #aghc were most apparent in the plain of ,oppido1 in those parts where the newer tertiary strata rest upon granite4 ,the earthquake wave generally follows the direction of mountain-chains1 and but rarely crosses them4 ,the great ,chilian earthquakes1 which often propagate their vibrations to distances of many hundred miles along the western foot of the ,andes1 remain unfelt on their eastern border2 while the earthquakes along the shores of ,venezuela1 ,caraccas1 and ,new ,granada rarely transmit their vibrations beyond the high mountain-chains which run parallel with the coast4 ,this is probably due to the numerous dislocations1 rents1 and caverns which are produced by the elevation of the mountain-chains1 and necessarily serve as barriers to the propagation of the earthquake wave4 ,severe earthquakes are not seldom accompanied by a violent agitation of the sea4 ,first1 at the instant of the shock1 the water swells high up on the beach with a gentle motion1 and then as quietly recedes2 secondly1 some time afterwards1 the whole body of the sea retires from the coast1 and then returns in waves of overwhelming force4 ,the first movement seems to be an immediate consequence of the earthquake affecting differently a fluid and a solid1 so that their respective levels are slightly deranged2 but the second is a far more important phenomenon4 #8,some authors1' says ,mr4 ,darwin1 #8have attempted to explain it by supposing that the sea retains its level1 while the land oscillates upwards2 but surely the water close to the land1 even on a rather steep coast1 would partake of the motion of the bottom2 moreover1 similar movements of the sea have occurred at islands far distant from the chief line of disturbance4 ,i suspect 7but the subject is a very obscure one7 that a wave1 however produced1 first draws the water from the shore on which it is advancing to break4 ,i have observed that this happens with the little waves from the paddles of a steamboat4 ,from the great wave not immediately following the earthquake1 but sometimes after the interval of even half-an-hour1 and from distant islands being affected similarly with the coasts near the focus of the disturbance1 it appears that the wave first rises in the offing1 and1 as this is of general occurrence1 the cause must be general4 ,i suspect we must look to the line where the less disturbed waters of the deep ocean join the water nearer the coast which has partaken of the movements of the land1 as the place where the great wave is first generated2 it would also appear that the wave is larger or smaller according to the extent of shoal water which has been agitated together with the bottom on which it rested4' ,the following examples sufficiently prove that no storm1 however violent1 is capable of raising such prodigious waves as an earthquake4 ,in the year #afib the town of ,kingston in ,jamaica was almost totally destroyed by a huge earthquake wave4 ,a frigate which lay in port was carried forwards over the houses and stranded in the middle of the town4 ,in his #8,principles of ,geology1' ,sir ,charles ,lyell relates that1 during the ,calabrian earthquake of #aghc the ,prince of ,scilla had persuaded a great part of his vassals to betake themselves to their fishing boats for safety1 and he himself had gone on board4 ,on the night of ,february #e1 when some of the people were sleeping in the boats1 and others on a level plain slightly elevated above the sea1 the earth rocked and large masses of rock were thrown down with a dreadful crash upon the plain4 ,immediately afterwards the sea1 rising more than twenty feet above the level of this low tract1 rolled foaming over it and swept away the multitude4 ,it then retreated1 but soon rushed back again with greater violence1 bringing back with it some of the bodies it had carried away4 ,at the same time every boat was sunk or dashed against the beach1 and some of them were swept far inland4 ,the aged prince was killed1 with #a1dcj of his people4 ,after the earthquake which devastated the town of ,lima on the #bhth of ,october #agdf1 the sea rose on the evening of the same day eighty feet above its usual level in the neighbouring ,bay of ,callao1 overwhelmed the town1 and destroyed nearly all the inhabitants4 ,of the twenty-three ships which were lying in the harbour at the time1 nineteen immediately sank1 while the four others were thrown upon the land at the distance of nearly a league4 ,shortly after the shock which desolated ,chili on the #bjth of ,february #ahce1 a great wave was seen from the distance of three or four miles1 approaching in the middle of the ,bay of ,talcahuano with a smooth outline1 but tearing up cottages and trees along the shore1 as it swept onwards with irresistible force4 ,at the head of the bay it broke in a fearful line of white breakers1 which rushed up to a height of twenty- three vertical feet above the highest spring tides4 ,their force must have been prodigious1 for at the ,fort a cannon with its carriage1 estimated at four tons in weight1 was moved fifteen feet inwards4 ,the whole coast was strewed over with timber and furniture1 as if a thousand ships had been wrecked4 ,as ,mr4 ,darwin walked along the shore1 he observed that numerous fragments of rock1 which1 from the marine productions adhering to them1 must recently have been lying in deep water1 had been cast up high on the beach4 ,one of these was six feet long1 three broad1 and two thick4 ,during the dreadful earthquake which in #ahfh raised the strip of land at the western foot of the ,andes from ,iburra in ,ecuador1 to ,iquique in ,peru1 #a1bjj miles in length1 the receding sea uncovered the bay at ,iquique to the depth of four fathoms1 and then1 returning in an immense wave1 a mass of dark blue water1 forty feet high1 rushed over the already ruined city1 and swept away every trace of what had been a town4 ,one spectator1 seeing the whole surface of the sea rise like a mountain1 ran for his life to the ,pampa4 ,the waves overtook him4 ,fighting with the dark water1 amidst wreck and ruin of every kind1 carried back into the bay1 and again thrown back to the ,pampa1 wounded and half-naked1 he crept for safety into a hole of the sand1 and waited sadly for the dawn4 ,at ,arica1 the ,british ,vice-,consul1 alarmed at the first shock1 rushed out of the house with his family1 and made for the high ground1 in just terror of the expected sea-wave4 ,through the ruined town1 amidst dead and dying1 half stifled with dust1 they reached rising ground1 and1 looking back1 saw a dreadful sequel--the sea rushed in and left not a vestige remaining of the lower part of ,arica4 ,six vessels were lost in the bay or tossed over rocks and houses2 an ,american gunboat was whirled away from her moorings1 and laid1 without a broken spar or tarnished flag1 high and dry on the sand-hills1 a quarter of a mile from the sea4 ,as might be expected from the movable nature of water1 the wave-motion of earthquakes is frequently propagated to surprising distances over the sea4 ,the ,chilian earthquake of #ahce produced oscillations of the ocean that made themselves felt on the ,sandwich ,islands at a distance of #e1jjj nautical miles4 ,on ,mauai1 the sea retreated #abj feet1 and then suddenly returned with a tremendous wave that swept away the trees and houses on the beach4 ,in ,hawaii1 a large congregation had assembled for divine service near ,byron's ,bay4 ,suddenly the water began to sink1 so that soon a great part of the harbour was laid dry4 ,the spectators hurried to the shore to admire the astonishing spectacle1 when a wave1 rising twenty feet above the usual tide-mark1 inundated the land1 destroyed sixty-six huts1 and drowned eleven of the islanders1 though the best swimmers in the world4 ,so far from its starting-point did the ,south ,american earthquake seek its victims4 ,fifteen hours and a half after the great earthquake of ,arica 7#ahfh7 the water-wave undulating over the vast ,pacific was felt at ,chatham ,islands1 a distance of #f1cjj miles1 and an hour later at ,new ,zealand4 ,the enormous powers which come into action during a great earthquake show themselves not only in the destruction of edifices and the wide- spread ruin so produced1 but in the changes which they effect in the configuration of the soil4 ,wherever masses of earth rest loosely upon a sloped surface of subjacent rock1 or where steep mountain crests overlie wet and unctuous beds of shale1 or where the rock itself is composed of coherent material1 or where river-banks are formed of precipitous masses of clays1 or where the corroding waters have undermined the ground1 the violent commotion caused by an earthquake cannot fail to produce landslips1 fissures1 and falls of rock4 ,in #aega1 on the #agth of ,february1 the ground opened all at once at the #8,wonder1' near ,putley1 not far from ,marcle in ,herefordshire2 and a large part of the sloping surface of the hill--twenty-six acres1 it is said--descended with the trees and sheep-folds1 and continued in motion from ,saturday to ,monday1 masses of ground being turned round through half a circle in their descent4 ,this was a great landslip1 said to have been occasioned by an earthquake4 ,earth-fissures were formerly supposed to be occasioned by a stretching of the ground1 occasioned by the wavy nature of the shocks2 but ,mr4 ,mallet has shown that no earthquake wave can possibly produce any such stretching1 and considers them as cases of small and incipient landslips caused by the shaking downwards of a loose mass4 ,his own observations left no doubt in his mind that the descriptions1 given by the ,neapolitan ,academy in their ,historical ,account of the ,earthquake of #aghc1 of the earth-fissures therein produced1 and designated constantly by the pompous term #8voragines1' are gross exaggerations1 and that the well- known ,jamaica earth-fissures1 that were said to have opened and closed with the wave1 and to have bitten people in two1 must be regarded as audacious fables4 #8,the vulgar mind1 filled from infancy with superstitious terrors as to 8the things under the earth10 is seized at once by the notion of these fissures of profound and fabulous depth with fire and vapour of smoke issuing from within their murky abysses2 but they should cease to belong to science4' ,enormous landslips are sometimes occasioned by earthquakes1 but their extent depends less upon the power and energy of the shock than upon the conditions of unstable equilibrium presented by great masses of loose material1 through the configuration of the country4 ,in consequence of landslips or dislodgements of large masses of rock1 alterations in the flow or distribution of the waters frequently take place4 ,thus1 brooks or rivers are not seldom dammed1 and temporary ponds or lakes created4 ,permanent elevations of the land have been observed after some earthquakes4 ,thus1 after the violent shocks of ,november #ai1 #ahbb1 a great part of the coast of ,chili was found to be raised several feet above its previous level1 and after the great earthquake which occurred in ,new ,zealand in the night of ,january #bc1 #ahee1 a large tract of land was found to be permanently upraised from one to nine feet4 ,before the shock there had been no room to pass between the sea and the base of a perpendicular cliff called ,muka-,muka1 except for a short time at low water1 and the herdsmen were obliged to wait for low tide in order to drive their cattle past the cliff4 ,but immediately after the upheaval1 a gently sloping raised beach1 more than #ajj feet wide1 was laid dry1 affording ample space at all states of the tide for the passage of man and beast4 ,these permanent elevations have often been attributed to the immediate agency of earthquakes2 but ,mr4 ,mallet proves this assumption to be a fallacy1 as the impulse of the earthquake wave even right above the focus is utterly incapable of raising the level of the land by a height much more than instrumentally appreciable1 and there is not the least evidence that any part of even this elevation is permanent4 ,that earthquakes occur along with1 and as part of1 a train of other circumstances which do produce permanent elevation occasionally1 and that earthquakes are probably always the signals that the forces producing elevation are operative1 is another matter1 with which that erroneous or loosely expressed view should not be confounded4 ,the causes of earthquakes are still hidden in obscurity1 and probably will ever remain so1 as these violent convulsions originate at depths far below the reach of human observation4 ,mr4 ,mallet came to the conclusion that the depth of the original ,calabrian shock in #aheg did not exceed seven or eight miles1 and deduces from all the facts known as to the movements of earthquakes1 that the subterranean points where the shocks originate perhaps never exceed thirty geographical miles1 so that1 even supposing the central nucleus of the earth to be fluid1 they cannot possibly be due to the reaction of the internal ocean of molten stone upon the solid shell with which it is enveloped1 but must have their seat within the latter4 ,the existence of reservoirs of fused matter at various depths in the solid earth-rind is quite sufficient to account for all seismic and volcanic phenomena2 for it is evident that whenever rain-water1 or the waters of the sea percolating through rocks1 gain access to these subterranean lakes of molten stone1 steam must be generated1 the pressure of which will in many cases rend and dislocate the incumbent masses4 #8,during such movements1' says ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 #8fissures may be formed and injected with gaseous or fluid matter1 which may sometimes fail to reach the surface1 while at other times it may be expelled through volcanic vents1 stufas1 and hot springs4 ,when the strain on the rocks has caused them to split1 or the roofs of pre-existing fissures or caverns have been made to fall in1 vibratory jars will be produced and propagated in all directions1 like waves of sound through the crust of the earth1 with varying velocity1 according to the violence of the original shock1 and the density or elasticity of the substance through which they pass4 ,they will travel1 for example1 faster through granite than through limestone1 and more rapidly through the latter than through wet clay1 but the rate will be uniform through the same homogeneous medium4' ,according to ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope1 the originating cause of the earthquake must be sought in the expansion of some deeply seated mass of mineral matter1 owing to augmentation of temperature or diminution of pressure4 ,by this expansive force1 the solid rocks above are suddenly rent asunder1 and whether below the sea or not1 their violent disruption produces a jarring vibration1 which is propagated on either side through their continuous masses in undulatory pulsations4 ,some geologists are of opinion that earthquakes are frequently the result of the subsiding1 sinking in1 or cracking of subterranean cavern roofs1 in consequence of the pressure of the superincumbent rocks4 ,small local earthquakes may be explained by this theory2 but terrible convulsions which shake a whole continent evidently proceed from a far more formidable cause1 and are more satisfactorily explained by the agency of subterranean heat and elastic vapours4 ,if1 even during an ordinary storm1 the black clouds1 the howling of the wind1 the flashes of lightning1 and the loud claps of thunder strike men and brutes with fear1 we may naturally expect to see terror carried to its highest pitch by so dreadful a phenomenon as an earthquake4 ,all creatures living or burrowing under the earth--rats1 mice1 moles1 snakes-- hastily creep forth from their subterranean abodes1 though many no doubt are gripped and suffocated by the suddenly moved soil before they can effect their escape2 the crocodile1 generally silent1 like our little lizards1 rushes out of the river and runs bellowing into the woods2 the hogs show symptoms of uneasiness2 the horses tremble2 the oxen huddle together2 and the fowls run about with discordant cries4 ,on man1 the phenomenon makes a peculiarly deep impression4 #8,a bad earthquake1' says ,mr4 ,darwin1 #8at once destroys our oldest associations4 ,the earth1 the very emblem of solidity1 has moved beneath our feet like a thin crust over a fluid4 ,one second of time has created in the mind a strange idea of insecurity1 which hours of reflection would not have produced4' ,we can no longer trust the soil on which we stand1 and feel ourselves completely at the mercy of some unknown destructive power1 which at any moment1 without forewarning1 can destroy our property or our lives4 ,but as first impressions are always the deepest1 so habit renders man callous even to the terrors of an ordinary earthquake4 ,in countries where slight shocks are of frequent occurrence1 almost every vestige of fear vanishes from the minds of the natives1 or of the strangers whom a long residence has familiarised with the phenomenon4 ,on the rainless coast of ,peru1 thunderstorms and hail are unknown4 ,the thunder of the storm is there replaced by the thunder which accompanies the earthquake4 ,but the frequent repetition of this subterranean tumult1 and the general belief that dangerous shocks occur only twice or thrice in the course of a century1 produce in ,lima so great an indifference towards slighter oscillations of the soil that they hardly attract more attention than a hail-storm in ,northern ,europe4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,great ,,earthquake ,,of ,,lisbon4 ,a dreadful ,all ,saints' ,day--,the ,victims of a ,minute--,report of an ,eye- witness--,conflagration--,banditti--,pom bal brings ,order into ,chaos-- ,intrigues of the ,jesuits--,damages caused by the ,earthquake in other ,places--at ,cadiz--in ,barbary--,widespread ,alarm--,remarks of ,goethe on the ,earthquake4 ,history exhibits few catastrophes more terrible than that which was caused by the great earthquake which1 on ,november #a1 #agee1 levelled the town of ,lisbon to the dust4 ,on other occasions1 such as that of a siege1 a famine1 or a plague1 calamity approaches by degrees1 giving its victims time to measure its growth1 and preparing them1 as it were1 to sustain an increasing weight of misery2 but here destruction fell upon the devoted city with the rapidity of a flash of lightning4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,earthquake ,,at ,,lisbon ,,in #agee4 ,a bright sun shone over ,lisbon on that fatal morning4 ,the weather was as mild and beautiful as on a fine summer's day in ,england1 when1 about forty minutes past nine1 in the morning1 an earthquake shock1 followed almost immediately by another and another1 brought down convents1 churches1 palaces1 and houses in one common ruin1 and1 at a very moderate computation1 occasioned the loss of thirty thousand lives4 #8,the shocking sight of the dead bodies1' says an eye-witness of the scene1 #8together with the shrieks and cries of those who were half buried in the ruins1 exceeds all description2 for the fear and consternation were so great that the most resolute person durst not stay a moment to remove a few stones off the friend he loved most1 though many might have been saved by so doing2 but nothing was thought of but self-preservation4 ,getting into open places1 and into the middle of streets1 was the most probable security4 ,such as were in the upper storeys of houses were1 in general1 more fortunate than those who attempted to escape by the doors2 for they were buried under the ruins with the greatest part of the foot- passengers2 such as were in equipages escaped best1 though their cattle and drivers suffered severely2 but those lost in houses and the streets are very unequal in number to those that were buried in the ruins of churches2 for as it was a day of great devotion1 and the time of celebrating mass1 all the churches in the city were vastly crowded2 and the number of churches here exceeds that of both ,london and ,westminster2 and as the steeples are built high1 they mostly fell with the roof of the church1 and the stones are so large that few escaped4'#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,philosophical ,transactions1 vol4 xlix4 part i4 p4 #djd4 ,many of those who were not crushed or disabled by the falling buildings fled to the ,tagus1 vainly hoping that they might find there the safety which they had lost on land4 ,for1 soon after the shock1 the sea also came rushing in like a torrent1 though against wind and tide1 and rising in an enormous wave1 overflowed its banks1 devouring all it met on its destructive path4 ,many large vessels sank at once2 others1 torn from their anchors1 disappeared in the vortex1 or1 striking against each other1 were shattered to pieces4 ,a fine new stone quay1 where about three thousand persons had assembled for safety1 slipped into the river1 and every one was lost2 nor did so much as a single body appear afterwards4 ,had the misery ended here1 it might in some degree have admitted of redress2 for1 though lives could not be restored1 yet a great part of the immense riches that were in the ruins might have been recovered2 but a new calamity soon put an end to such hopes1 for1 in about two hours after the shock1 fires broke out in three different parts of the city1 caused by the goods and the kitchen fires being all jumbled together4 ,about this time also1 a fresh gale suddenly springing up1 made the fire rage with such violence that1 at the end of three days1 the greatest part of the city was reduced to ashes4 ,what the earthquake had spared fell a prey to the fire1 and the flames consumed thousands of mutilated victims1 who1 incapable of flight1 lay half-buried in the ruins4 ,according to a popular report1 which1 true or not1 shows the hatred in which the ,holy ,office was held1 the ,inquisition was the first building that fell down1 and probably more than one inquisitor1 who1 in his life- time1 had sent scores of ,jews or heretics to the stake1 was now1 in his turn1 burnt alive4 ,as if the unshackled elements were not sufficient agents of destruction1 the prisons also cast forth their lawless denizens1 and a host of malefactors1 rejoicing in the public calamity which paralysed the arm of justice1 added rapine and murder to the miseries of the city4 ,more than #fj1jjj persons are supposed to have perished in ,lisbon from all these various causes4 ,the total loss of property was estimated at fifty millions of dollars1 an enormous sum for a small country1 and in times when money was far more valuable than at present4 ,a few shocks sufficed to destroy the treasures accumulated by the savings of many generations4 ,the royal family was at this time residing in the small palace of ,belem1 about a league out of town1 and thus escaped being buried among the ruins of the capital--a fortunate occurrence in the midst of so many misfortunes2 for the anarchy that must have ensued from the destruction of all authority would have filled the cup of misery to the brim4 ,as it was1 ,government seemed utterly incapable of contending with a disaster of such colossal proportions4 #8,what is to be done8' said the helpless king to his minister ,carvalho1 ,marquis of ,pombal1 who1 on entering the council-chamber1 found his sovereign vainly seeking for advice among his weeping and irresolute courtiers3 #8how can we alleviate the chastisement which ,divine justice has imposed upon us8' #8,sire6 by burying the dead and taking care of the living1' was the ready answer of the great statesman1 whose noble bearing and confident mien at once restored the king's courage4 ,from that moment ,jos bestowed a boundless confidence upon ,pombal4 ,without losing a single moment1 the minister1 invested with full powers1 threw himself into a carriage1 and hastened with all speed to the scene of destruction4 ,wherever his presence was most needed1 there was he sure to be found4 ,for several days and nights he never left his carriage1 whence1 incessantly active in his efforts to reduce chaos to order1 he issued no less than two hundred decrees1 all bearing the stamp of a master-mind4 ,troops from the provinces were summoned in all haste1 and concentrated round the capital1 which no one was allowed to leave without permission1 so that the robbers1 who had enriched themselves with the plunder of palaces and churches1 were unable to escape with their spoils4 ,in all his numerous ordinances ,carvalho neglected none of the details necessary for insuring their practical utility1 writing many of them on his knees with a pencil1 and sending them1 without loss of time1 to the various officers charged with their execution4 ,his wise regulations for ensuring a speedy supply and a regular distribution of provisions averted famine4 ,great fears were entertained of pestilential disorders1 in consequence of the putrid exhalations of so many corpses1 which it was impossible to bury4 ,to prevent this additional misfortune1 ,carvalho induced the ,patriarch to give orders that the bodies of the dead should be cast into the sea1 with only such religious ceremonies as circumstances permitted4 ,but the ,jesuits1 the mortal enemies of the enlightened minister1 did not lose this opportunity of intriguing against him1 and openly ascribed the catastrophe to the wrath of ,god against an impious ,government4 ,thus ,pombal had not only to cope with the disastrous effects of the earthquake1 but also with the venomous attacks of hypocritical bigots1 in spite of whose clamours he interdicted all public processions and devotional exercises that were calculated still further to inflame the excited minds of the populace4 ,though ,lisbon was the chief sufferer from the great earthquake of #agee1 the shocks which destroyed the capital of ,portugal proved disastrous in many other places1 and vibrated far and wide over a considerable portion of the globe4 ,st4 ,ubes was nearly swallowed up by the sudden rising of the sea4 ,at ,cadiz the shocks were so violent that the water in the cisterns washed backwards and forwards so as to make a great froth upon it4 ,no damage was done1 on account of the excessive strength of the buildings2 but1 about an hour after1 an immense wave1 at least #fj feet higher than common1 was seen approaching from the sea4 ,it broke against the west part of the town1 which is very rocky1 and where1 fortunately1 the cliffs abated a great deal of its force4 ,at last it burst upon the walls1 destroyed part of the fortifications1 and swept away huge pieces of cannon4 ,the strong causeway which connects the town with the ,island of ,leon1 was utterly destroyed1 and more than fifty people drowned that were on it at the time4 ,in ,seville a number of houses were thrown down1 and the bells were set a-ringing in ,malaga4 ,in ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,france1 in ,holland and in ,sweden1 in ,great ,britain and in ,ireland1 the lakes and rivers were violently agitated4 ,the water in ,loch ,lomond rose suddenly and violently against its banks1 so that a large stone lying at some distance from the shore1 in shallow water1 was moved from its place1 and carried to dry land1 leaving a deep furrow in the ground along which it had moved4 ,at ,kinsale1 in ,ireland1 a great body of water suddenly burst into the harbour1 and with such violence that it broke the cables of two vessels1 each moored with two anchors1 and of several boats which lay near the town4 ,the vessels were whirled round several times by an eddy formed in the water1 and then hurried back again with the same rapidity as before4 ,london was shaken1 the midland counties disturbed1 and one high cliff in ,yorkshire threw down its half-separated rocks4 ,at ,tplitz1 in ,bohemia1 between eleven and twelve o'clock1 the mineral waters increased so much in quantity that all the baths ran over4 ,about half an hour before1 the spring grew turbid and flowed muddy1 and1 having stopped entirely for nearly a minute1 broke forth again with prodigious violence1 driving before it a considerable quantity of reddish ochre4 ,after this1 it became clear1 and flowed as pure as before1 but supplying more water than usual1 and that hotter and more impregnated with its medicinal substances4 ,in ,barbary1 the earthquake was felt nearly as severely as in ,portugal4 ,great part of the city of ,algiers was destroyed2 at ,fez1 ,mequinez1 and ,morocco many houses were thrown down1 and numbers of persons were buried in the ruins4 ,at ,tangiers and ,sallee the waters rushed into the streets with great violence1 and when they retired they left behind them a great quantity of fish4 ,ships sailing on the distant ,atlantic received such violent concussions that it seemed as if they had struck upon a rock1 and even ,america was disturbed4 ,at the ,island of ,antigua the sea rose to such a height as had never been known before1 and at ,barbadoes a tremendous wave overflowed the wharfs and rushed into the streets4 ,the remote ,canadian lakes were seen to ebb and flow in an extraordinary manner1 and the ,red ,indian hunter felt the last expiring pulsations of the great terrestrial shock which a few hours before had overthrown the distant capital of ,portugal4 ,such were the extraordinary effects of this terrible earthquake1 which extended over a space of not less than four millions of square miles6 ,of the enormous sensation it produced over all ,europe1 as well as of the deep impression it made upon his own youthful mind1 ,goethe1 then about six years old1 has given us a masterly account in his autobiography 7#8,dichtung und ,wahrheit'74 #8,for the first time1' says the illustrious poet1 #8the boy's peace of mind was disturbed by an extraordinary event4 ,on ,november #a1 #agee1 the earthquake of ,lisbon took place1 and spread consternation over a world which had long been accustomed to tranquillity and peace4 ,a large and splendid capital1 the seat of wealth and commerce1 suddenly falls a prey to the most terrible disaster4 ,the earth shakes1 the sea rises1 ships are dashed against each other1 houses1 churches1 and towers fall in2 the king's palace is partly engulfed by the waves2 the bursting earth seems to vomit flames1 for smoke and fire appear everywhere among the ruins4 ,sixty thousand persons1 but a moment before in the enjoyment of a comfortable existence1 are swept away1 and they are the most fortunate who no longer feel or remember their misery4 ,the flames continue to rage1 along with a host of criminals whom the catastrophe has set at liberty4 ,the unfortunate survivors are exposed to robbery1 to murder1 to every act of violence2 and thus on all sides ,nature replaces law by the reign of unfettered anarchy4 ,swifter than the news could travel1 the effects of the earthquake had already spread over a wide extent of land2 in many places slighter commotions had been felt2 mineral springs had suddenly ceased to flow2 and all these circumstances increased the general alarm when the terrible details of the catastrophe became known4 ,the pious were now not sparing of moral reflexions1 the philosophers of consolations1 the clergy of admonitions4 ,thus the attention of the world was for some time concentrated upon this single topic1 and the public1 excited by the misfortunes of strangers1 began to feel an increasing anxiety for its personal safety1 as from all sides intelligence came pouring in of the widely-extended effects of the earthquake4 ,the demon of fear has indeed1 perhaps1 never spread terror so rapidly and so powerfully over the earth4 ,the boy who heard the subject frequently discussed was not a little perplexed4 ,god1 the ,creator and ,preserver of ,heaven and ,earth1 whom the first article of faith represented as supremely wise and merciful1 appeared by no means paternal while thus enveloping the just and the unjust in indiscriminate ruin4 ,it was in vain that his youthful mind endeavoured to shake off these impressions1 nor can this be wondered at1 as even the wise and the learned did not agree in their opinions on the subject4' ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,landslips4 ,igneous and ,aqueous ,causes of ,landslips--,fall of the ,diablerets in #agad and #agdi--;,escape of a ,peasant from his living ,tomb--,vitaliano ,donati on the ,fall of a ,mountain near ,sallenches--,the ,destruction of ,goldau in #ahjf--,wonderful ,preservation of a ,child--,burial of ,velleja and ,tauretunum1 of ,plrs and ,scilano--,landslip near ,axmouth in ,dorsetshire-- ,falling in of ,cavern-roofs--,dollinas and ,jamas in ,carniola and ,dalmatia--,bursting of ,bogs--,crateriform ,hollows in the ,eifel4 ,landslips1 or sudden subsidences and displacements of portions of land1 result both from igneous and aqueous causes4 ,wherever cavities have been formed beneath the surface of the earth1 whether in consequence of volcanic eruptions or by the erosive and dissolving action of subterranean waters1 the shock of an earthquake or the mere weight of the superincumbent mass may cause the roof to fall in1 or the superficial ground1 no longer sustained by its undermined foundations1 to slide away and sink to a lower level4 ,in mountainous regions it frequently occurs that the foundations of a rock1 undermined by filtering waters1 give way1 and that huge masses of stone and earth1 now no longer reposing on a solid basis1 are precipitated into the valley below4 ,more than once1 the slipping or falling in of a mountain has brought death and destruction upon the humble dwellings of the ,alpine peasants1 and added many a mournful page to their simple annals4 ,thus1 in the years #agad and #agdi1 large beds of stone were detached from the ,diablerets1 a mountain stock between the cantons of ,vaux and ,valais1 and burying the meadows of ,cheville and ,leytron under a mound of rubbish #cjj feet deep1 killed many herds and shepherds4 ,in the first of these catastrophes1 the life of a peasant was preserved in a wonderful manner4 ,an immense block came toppling down close to his chlet and covered it like a shield1 so as to preserve it from being crushed by the following dbris1 though piled up two hundred feet above it4 ,thus1 immured as it were in a living tomb1 the unfortunate man spent miserable weeks and months1 subsisting on the stores of cheese hoarded in his hut1 without light and air1 and in constant fear that the rocks above his head might give way and bury him under their ruins4 ,with all the energy of despair1 he endeavoured to find his way out of the mighty mound of rubbish1 and at length1 after incredible toil1 emerged into the open daylight4 ,more like a spectre than a human being1 pale and emaciated1 with torn clothes1 and covered with bruises1 he knocked at the door of his house#ab in the lower valley1 where his wife and children1 who had already long reckoned him among the dead1 were at first terrified at his ghost-like appearance1 and called in the village pastor to convince them of his identity1 before they ventured to rejoice at his return4 ,footnote #ab3 ,it is almost superfluous to mention that in the ,alps many of the peasants lead a migratory existence4 ,during the summer they ascend1 with their herds1 into the higher valleys1 where they remain1 separated from their families1 until the first night-frosts force them to return to their homes on a lower level4 ,on the road from ,sallenches to ,servoz1 in the ,valley of the ,arve1 well known to all the visitors of ,mont ,blanc1 may be seen the ruins of a high mountain which collapsed in the year #agea1 causing so dreadful a crash and raising such clouds of dust that the whole neighbourhood thought the world was at an end4 ,the black dust was taken for smoke2 flames had been seen darting about in the murky clouds1 and the report spread to ,turin that a new ,vesuvius had suddenly opened its subterranean furnaces among the highest of the ,alpine mountains4 ,the king1 alarmed or interested at the news1 immediately sent the famous geologist ,vitaliano ,donati to gather accurate information on the spot4 ,donati1 travelling night and day1 with all the eagerness of a zealous naturalist1 arrived while the appalling phenomenon was still in full activity4 #8,the peasants1' writes ,donati to a friend1 #8had all fled from the neighbourhood1 and did not venture to approach the crashing mountain within a distance of two ,italian miles4 ,the country around was covered with dust1 which closely resembled ashes1 and had been carried by the wind to a distance of five miles4 ,i examined the dust1 and found it to consist of pulverised marble4 ,i also attentively observed the smoke1 but could see no flames1 nor could ,i perceive a sulphurous smell2 the water also of the rivulets and sources showed no trace of sulphurous matter4 ,this convinced me at once that no volcanic eruption was taking place1 and penetrating into the cloud of dust which enveloped the mountain1 ,i advanced close to the scene of the commotion4 ,i there saw enormous rocks tumbling piecemeal into an abyss with a dreadful noise1 louder than the rolling of thunder or the roar of heavy artillery1 and distinctly saw that the smoke was nothing but the dust rising from their fall4 #8,further investigations also showed me the cause of the phenomenon1 for ,i found the mountain to consist of horizontal strata1 the lowest being composed of a loose stone of a slaty texture1 while the upper ones1 though of a more compact nature1 were rent with numerous crevices4 ,on the back of the mountain were three small lakes1 the water of which1 penetrating through the fissures of the strata1 had gradually loosened their foundations4 ,the snow1 which had fallen during the previous winter more abundantly than had ever been known within the memory of man1 hastened the progress of destruction1 and caused the fall of six hundred million cubic feet of stone1 which alone would have sufficed to form a great mountain4 ,six shepherds1 as many houses1 and a great number of cows and goats have been buried under the ruins4 #8,in my report to the king ,i have accurately described the causes and effects of the catastrophe1 and foretold its speedy termination--a prediction which has been fully verified by the event--and thus the new volcano has become extinct almost as soon as its formation was announced4' ,fortunately1 this grand convulsion of nature1 which spread consternation far and wide1 caused the death of but a few victims4 ,the landslip of the ,rufi or ,rossberg1 which1 on ,september #b1 #ahjf1 devastated the lovely ,vale of ,goldau1 and overwhelmed four villages1 with their rich pasture- grounds and gardens1 was far more disastrous4 ,the preceding years had been unusually wet1 the filtering waters had loosened the ,nagelfluh1 or coarse conglomerate of which the mountain is composed1 and the rains having latterly been almost continuous1 a great part of the mountain1 undermined by the subterranean action of the waters1 at length gave way and was hurled into the valley below4 ,early in the morning the shepherds who were tending their herds on the mountains perceived fresh crevices in the ground and on the rock walls4 ,in many parts the turf appeared as if turned up by a ploughshare1 and a cracking noise as if roots were violently snapped asunder was heard in the neighbouring forest4 ,from hour to hour1 the rents1 the cracking1 the rolling down of single stones increased1 until finally1 at about five in the afternoon1 a large chasm opened in the flanks of the mountain1 growing every instant deeper1 longer1 and broader4 ,then from the opposite ,righi the forest might be seen to wave to and fro like a storm- tossed sea1 and the whole flank of the mountain to slide down with a constantly increasing velocity1 until finally hundreds of millions of cubic feet of rock came sweeping down into the valley with a noise as if the foundations of the earth were giving way4 ,the friction or clash of the huge stones1 hurled against each other in their fall1 produced so intense a heat that flames were seen to flash forth from the avalanche1 and the moisture with which they were saturated1 being suddenly changed into steam1 caused explosions like those from the crater of a volcano4 ,dense clouds of dust veiled the scene of destruction1 and it was not before they slowly rolled away that the whole extent of the disaster became visible4 ,where1 but a few hours since1 four prosperous villages-- ,goldau1 ,busingen1 ,upper and ,lower ,rthen1 and ,lowerz--had been gilded by the sun1 and numerous herds had been grazing on the rich pastures along the borders of the lake of ,lowerz1 nothing was now to be seen but a desolate chaos of rocks1 beneath which #deg persons lay buried4 ,from this terrible disaster some wonderful escapes are recorded4 ,high on the slope of the ,rossberg1 lived ,blsi ,mettler1 with his young wife ,agatha4 ,when1 in the morning1 the first premonitory signs of the disaster appeared1 and the labouring mountain began to raise its warning voice1 the superstitious peasant1 fancying he heard the jubilee of demons1 hastened down to ,arth1 on the bank of the lake of ,zug1 and begged the parish priest1 with tears and lamentations1 to accompany him1 and exorcise the evil spirits with a copious sprinkling of holy water4 ,while he was still speaking1 the catastrophe took place1 and he now rushed back again to his hut1 where beyond all doubt his beloved wife and his only child1 which was but four weeks old1 had found a premature grave4 ,meanwhile ,agatha had spent several anxious hours4 ,she was preparing her humble evening meal when the thundering uproar and the shaking of the hut filled her with the terrors of death4 ,seizing the infant1 which lay awake in its cradle1 she crossed the threshold1 while the soil under her feet slid down into the valley4 ,escaping into the open air1 she looked back and saw her hut and a sea of huge stone blocks roll down into the vale below1 while the spot on which she stood remained unmoved4 ,in this situation she was found by ,blsi1 who1 though a poor and ruined man1 still thanked ,god for the wonderful preservation of his family4 ,about a thousand feet lower down the mountain lived ,blsi's brother ,bastian1 who1 when the mountain slipped1 was tending his herd on the opposite ,righi4 ,but his wife and her two little children were in his hut when it was buried beneath the stony avalanche4 ,after the terrible commotion had subsided1 the relations of ,frau ,mettler1 anxious to ascertain her fate1 hastened to the scene of desolation4 ,the hut had disappeared1 the green ,alpine meadow was covered with a heap of ruins1 but1 not far from the former site of the humble cottage1 the youngest child lay quietly sleeping4 ,at the peril of his life1 one of the infant's relations clambered over the ruins and rescued the little sleeper1 who1 unhurt amidst the falling rafters of the hut and the ruins of the crumbling mountain1 had been carried away with the bed on which he was reposing4 ,on my last visit to ,switzerland1 ,i was informed that ,sebastian ,meinhardt ,mettler1 the child thus wonderfully saved1 died in the year #ahfg1 at the age of sixty-one4 ,some of the victims who had been buried in the ruins of the villages were dug out and restored to daylight2 others1 less fortunate1 may have slowly perished1 immured in a living grave2 but by far the greater number were no doubt suddenly killed4 ,the total number of those who were saved1 either by the assistance of their friends1 or by a timely flight1 or by absence from their homes at the time of the disaster1 amounted to #bbj2 but more than double that number perished1 and probably there was not one among the survivors who had not to lament the loss of friends and kinsfolk4 ,this dreadful catastrophe also levied its tribute among the strangers whom the beauties of ,alpine scenery annually attract to ,switzerland4 ,a party of tourists had left ,arth in the afternoon with the intention of spending the night in ,schwyz4 ,part of the company had already entered the ill-fated village of ,goldau1 and the others were about to follow1 when suddenly the thundering roar of the sliding mountain caused them to stop4 ,looking up and seeing rocks1 forests1 huts1 all rushing down in horrible confusion1 they instinctively ran back for their lives4 ,the warning came not one instant too soon1 for close behind the spot where they stopped panting for breath1 the stones still fell like hail4 ,but their unfortunate companions1 the wife and daughter of ,baron ,diesbach1 ,colonel ,victor von ,steiger1 and some boys1 whose tutor had been slowly following them with the ,baron1 were buried beneath the ruins4 ,from the ,righi the traveller still looks down upon the avalanche of stones1 and the flank of the ,rossberg still plainly shows the spot where1 more than half a century ago1 the masses of rock now reposing in the valley detached themselves from the mountain4 ,but the beautifying hand of vegetation has already done much to adorn the scene of ruin4 ,green mosses have woven their soft carpet over the naked stones1 while grasses and flowers1 and in some places even shrubs and trees1 have sprung up between them4 ,the tears also which once were shed over the victims of the great catastrophe have long since been dried1 and its last witnesses have passed away to make room for a new generation1 who remember the mountain-slip which buried their fathers only as a legend of the past4 ,this terrible disaster1 however appalling through the far-spread desolation it entailed1 has yet been equalled or surpassed by others of a like nature4 ,in the fifth century1 the old ,roman town of ,velleja was buried under the ruins of the ,ravinazzo ,mountain1 and the bones and coins dug out of its ancient site prove that no time was left to the inhabitants for flight4 ,tauretunum was once a flourishing ,roman town1 situated on the south bank of the lake of ,geneva1 at the foot of the ,dent d',oche4 ,in #efc it was utterly destroyed by a disruption of the overhanging mountain4 ,the avalanche of stones which at that time was hurled down upon the devoted city is still visible as a promontory projecting far into the lake1 which is here at least #ejj feet deep4 ,the immense wave caused by the rocky mass as it plunged into the water inundated the opposite shore from ,morges to ,vevay1 and swept away every homestead that lay on its path4 ,in the night of ,september #d1 #afah1 the falling of the ,monte ,conto1 in the ,vale of ,chiavenna1 so completely buried the small town of ,plrs and the village of ,scilano1 that of their #b1dcj inhabitants but three remained alive1 and but one single house escaped the universal destruction4 ,at present1 magnificent chestnut-trees grow upon the mound of ruins and cast their shade over the graves of the long-forgotten victims4 ,three villages1 with their whole population1 were covered in the district of ,treviso when the ,piz mountain fell in #aggb2 and the enormous masses of rock which in #abdh detached themselves from ,mount ,grenier1 south of ,chambery in ,savoy1 buried five parishes1 including the town and church of ,saint ,andr1 the ruin occupying an extent of about nine square miles4 ,sometimes the same village has been repeatedly destroyed by mountain- slips4 ,thus excavations have shown that ,brienz1 a hamlet built on the borders of the lake of the same name1 on a mound of accumulated ruins1 has been twice overwhelmed by a deluge of stones and mud1 and twice reconstructed4 ,it would be useless to multiply examples of the undermining power of water4 ,i will merely add that it is impossible to wander through the valleys of ,switzerland without being struck by the sight of the sloping hillocks of rubbish piled up against the foot of every gigantic rock wall1 which in many cases can only be attributed to that cause4 ,some are entirely overgrown with large firs1 thus showing that the last stony avalanche took place at a remote period2 others are desolate heaps of rubbish1 which evidently prove that the work of destruction is constantly going on1 and that the highest peaks will ultimately be levelled with the plain4 ,over many a hamlet the sword of ,damocles is continually suspended in the shape of a precipitous rock-wall1 or of a forest-crowned mountain-brow4 ,for years the undermining waters are slowly and secretly at work1 and then suddenly the crisis takes place4 ,illustration3 ,,axmouth ,,landslip4 ,were the history of the ,andes or of the ,himalayas as familiar to us as that of the ,alps1 we should be able to relate many like instances of disastrous mountain-slips4 ,but the high places of the earth do not alone bear witness to the power of aqueous erosion1 for wherever the soil is undermined1 it may be precipitated to a lower level4 ,thus1 the phenomenon is by no means uncommon in ,england1 though rarely occurring on so large a scale as in the landslip which took place at ,axmouth in ,dorsetshire1 on ,december #bd1 #ahci4 #8,the tract of downs ranging there along the coast1' says ,sir ,charles ,lyell 7#8,principles of ,geology'71 #8is capped by chalk1 which rests on sandstone1 beneath which is more than #ajj feet of loose sand1 the whole of these masses reposing on retentive beds of clay shelving towards the sea4 ,numerous springs1 issuing from the loose sand1 have gradually removed portions of it1 and thus undermined the superstratum4 ,in #ahci1 an excessively wet season had saturated all the rocks with moisture1 so as to increase the weight of the incumbent mass1 from which the support had already been withdrawn by the action of springs4 ,thus1 the superstrata were precipitated into hollows prepared for them1 and the adjacent masses of partially undermined rock to which the motion was communicated1 were made to slide down1 on a slippery basis of watery sand1 towards the sea4 ,these causes gave rise to a convulsion1 which began on the morning of ,december #bd1 with a crashing noise2 and1 on the evening of the same day1 fissures were seen opening in the ground1 and the walls of tenements rending and sinking1 until a deep chasm or ravine was formed1 extending nearly three-quarters of a mile in length1 with a depth of from #ajj to #aej feet1 and a breadth exceeding #bdj feet4 ,at the bottom of this deep gulf lie fragments of the original surface1 thrown together in the wildest confusion4 ,in consequence of lateral movements1 the tract intervening between the new fissure and the sea1 including the ancient undercliff1 was fractured1 and the whole line of sea-cliff carried bodily forwards for many yards4 ,this motion of the sea-cliff produced a further effect1 which may rank among the most striking phenomena of this catastrophe4 ,the lateral pressure of the descending rocks urged the neighbouring strata1 extending beneath the shingle of the shore1 by their state of unnatural condensation1 to burst upwards in a line parallel to the coast1 so that an elevated ridge1 more than a mile in length and rising more than forty feet1 covered by a confused assemblage of broken strata and immense blocks of rock1 invested with seaweed and corallines1 and scattered over with shells and starfish1 and other productions of the deep1 forms an extended reef in front of the present range of cliffs4' ,landslips caused by the falling in of cavern roofs are nowhere more common than in the cretaceous strata1 which are more liable than others to be undermined by the action of running waters4 ,in the vast chalk- range extending from ,carinthia to the ,morea1 they occur of all sizes1 from a diameter of a few fathoms to one of many thousand feet1 and are not seldom of considerable depth4 ,they are generally funnel-shaped1 sometimes elongated2 and the bottom of the larger ones is generally covered with villages1 orchards1 vineyards1 or considerable tracts of arable land4 ,in ,dalmatia1 ,carinthia1 ,carniola1 and ,istria1 where the country consists chiefly of arid plateaux or mountain-chains1 exposed to the dry north-easterly winds1 the cultivation of the soil is almost exclusively confined to these depressions or dollinas1 which1 as a further protection against the cutting blasts1 are inclosed with walls of loose stones4 ,besides the funnel-shaped landslips or dollinas1 there are others with perpendicular sides like walls or shafts1 which are called jamas or mouths4 ,one of these 7near ,breschiak7 descends to a depth of #chd feet4 ,the hares seek a winter refuge in the dollinas1 and the jamas1 as the favourite resort of pigeons1 are also called pigeon-holes or golubinas4 ,many a pedestrian has lost his life by falling into a jama1 particularly in former times1 when fewer precautions were taken to protect the stranger against these treacherous precipices4 ,in the ,jura ,mountains there are also whole rows of cauldron-shaped depressions2 and in ,north ,jutland1 where the chalk formation is likewise very extensive1 a recent landslip suddenly emptied the ,norr ,lake1 which lost itself in subterranean channels4 ,effects very similar to those of an ordinary landslip are sometimes produced by the bursting of a bog4 ,on the western confines of ,england and ,scotland1 the ,solway ,moss occupies a flat area about seven miles in circumference4 ,its surface is covered with grass and rushes1 presenting a dry crust and a fair appearance2 but it shakes under the least pressure1 the bottom being unsound and semi-fluid4 ,the adventurous passenger therefore1 who sometimes1 in dry seasons1 traverses this treacherous waste1 must pick his way over the rushy tussocks as they appear before him1 for here the soil is firmest4 ,if his foot slip1 or if he venture to move in any other part1 it is possible he may sink never to rise again4 ,on ,december #af1 #aggb1 this quagmire1 having been filled1 like a great sponge1 with water1 during heavy rains1 swelled to an unusual height above the surrounding country1 and then burst4 ,the turfy covering seemed for a time to act like the skin of a bladder retaining the fluid within1 till it forced a passage for itself1 when a stream of black half- consolidated mud began at first to creep over the plain1 resembling in the slow rate of its progress an ordinary lava-current4 ,no lives were lost1 but the deluge totally overwhelmed some cottages1 and covered #djj acres with a mass of mud and vegetable matter1 which in the lowest parts of the submerged area was at least fifteen feet deep4 ,it may easily be imagined that in ,ireland1 the classic land of bogs1 such phenomena are not uncommon4 ,in the peat of ,donegal an ancient log- cabin was found1 in #ahcc1 at the depth of fourteen feet4 ,the cabin was filled with peat1 and was surrounded by other huts1 which were not examined4 ,trunks and roots of trees1 preserved in their natural position1 lay around these huts4 ,there can be little doubt that we have here one instance out of many in which villages have been overwhelmed by the bursting of a moss4 ,in many volcanic regions we find circular cauldron-shaped depressions in the earth's surface1 which might easily be mistaken for land-slips1 but which have in reality been formed by explosive discharges of confined vapours4 ,when vents or fissures are produced by a paroxysm of volcanic energy1 we can easily understand how in some cases the pent-up gases1 finding a sudden outlet through some weaker part of the surface1 must act like a powder mine1 and scattering the rocks that surrounded the orifice1 leave a deep hollow behind as a memento of their fury4 ,the depressions thus caused bear a great resemblance to real craters1 from which they are1 however1 distinguished by the absence of a cone of scori and from their never having ejected lava4 ,these curious crateriform hollows are very common in the ,eifel1 a volcanic region in ,rhenish ,prussia1 where1 probably owing to the clayey nature of the soil1 they have become reservoirs of water1 or ,maare1 as they are called by the natives4 ,most of them still have small lakes at their bottom1 while others have been drained for the sake of cultivation1 or by the spontaneous rupture or erosion of their banks4 ,some of them are of considerable dimensions1 such as that of ,meerfeld1 the diameter of which falls very little short of a mile2 or the ,pulvermaar of ,gillenfeld1 remarkable for the extreme regularity of its magnificent oval basin4 ,similar lakes or ,maare occur in ,auvergne1 in ,java1 in the ,canary ,islands1 in ,new ,zealand1 and in the volcanic districts of ,italy4 ,the beautiful lakes of ,albano and ,nemi1 which have been so often sung by ancient and modern poets1 belong to this class2 but ,fr4 ,hoffmann1 a celebrated ,german geologist1 ascribes the origin of the former to a landslip caused by the falling in of the roof of a vast subterranean cavern4 ,illustration3 ,,stalactite ,,cavern ,,at ,,aggtelek1 ,,hungary3 ,,the ,,cave ,,of ,,borodla4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,on ,,caves ,,in ,,general4 ,their various ,forms--,natural ,tunnels--,the ,ventanillas of ,gualgayoc--,eimeo-- ,torgatten--,hole in the ,mrtschenstock--,the ,trebich ,cave--,grotto of ,antiparos--,vast ,dimensions of the ,cave of ,adelsberg and of the ,mammoth ,cave--,discovery of ,baumann's ,cave--,limestone ,caves--,causes of their ,excavation--,stalactites and ,stalagmites--,their ,origin--,variety of ,forms-- ,marine ,caves--,shetland--,fingal's ,cave--,the ,azure ,cave--,cave under ,bonifacio--,grotta di ,nettuno1 near ,syracuse--,the ,bufador of ,papa ,luna-- ,volcanic ,caves--,the ,fossa della ,palomba--,caves of ,san ,miguel--,the ,surtshellir4 ,the natural excavations which abound in many mountain chains1 or on rocky shores washed by the stormy sea1 are extremely various in their forms4 ,many are mere rents or crevices in the disruptured rocks2 others wide vaults1 not seldom of hall or dome-like dimensions1 or long and narrow passages branching out in numerous ramifications4 ,not seldom the same cave alternately expands into spacious chambers1 and then again contracts into narrow tunnels or galleries4 ,the walls of many are smooth and nearly parallel2 the sides of others are irregular and rugged4 ,many have narrow entrances and swell at greater depths into majestic proportions2 while others open with wide portals1 and gradually diminish in size as they penetrate into the rock4 ,sometimes an excavation pierces a mountain from side to side like a natural tunnel1 so as to allow a passage to the light of day4 ,such1 among others1 are the numerous perforations or windows 7ventanillas7 in the serrated bastions of the rich silver mountain ,gualgayoc in the ,peruvian ,andes1 or the opening through one of the high peaks of the romantic island of ,eimeo which rises within sight of ,tahiti out of the dark blue ocean4 ,according to a popular tradition1 this hole owes its origin to ,oro1 the powerful god of war1 who1 having one day quarrelled with the minor god of ,eimeo1 hurled his mighty spear at him over the sea4 ,as even gods1 when losing their temper1 are apt to miss their aim1 the puny delinquent escaped unhurt1 while the dreadful lance flew like a thunderbolt through the mountain1 leaving the perforation as a lasting memorial of its passage4 ,in ,europe we likewise meet with several remarkable instances of such natural tunnels4 ,one of the most celebrated is the grotto of ,torgatten in ,norway1 which perforates a huge rock1 #djj feet above the level of the sea4 ,its proportions are truly colossal1 as it is no less than #ijj feet long by from #hj to #ajj feet broad2 and the arches of its vast portals measure respectively #bjj and #abj feet4 ,its floor is nearly horizontal1 and covered with fine sand2 its sides are smooth1 as if they had been chiselled by the hand of man4 ,the sea1 with its numberless cliffs and white-crested breakers1 appears through the immense gallery as through the tube of a gigantic telescope1 and in fine sunny weather affords a spectacle of incomparable beauty4 ,whoever has visited the romantic lake of ,wallenstdt1 in ,switzerland1 will have had his attention directed to a tunnel near the summit of the almost inaccessible ,mrtschenstock1 a favourite resort of the chamois4 ,it is visible from the lake near the hamlet of ,mhlehorn1 and1 though of considerable dimensions1 appears to the eye like a mere speck of snow on the huge grey rockwall1 which towers to a height of #g1eag feet4 ,from the #ast to the #crd of ,february1 at #b o'clock in the afternoon1 the inhabitants of ,mhlehorn see through this aperture the disk of the sun for the first time after a long winter4 ,in the structure of some caves a vertical direction predominates2 as1 for instance1 in the ,trebich ,cave1 three leagues from ,trieste1 which consists of several perpendicular shafts1 connected by narrow transversal passages1 and descending one after another1 until finally1 at a depth of more than a thousand feet1 the cavern terminates in a wide vaulted space spanning a subterranean river4 ,such1 also1 is the renowned ,grotto of ,antiparos1 into which the visitor is let down by a rope to a depth of about twenty fathoms4 ,after reaching a tolerably even platform1 he is obliged to descend another precipice1 and then to proceed over slippery rocks until he finally reaches the terminal vault4 ,in most caverns1 however1 the chief direction is horizontal1 either on several planes1 separated from each other by more or less steep passages1 or on a single level4 ,the dimensions of caves are as various as their forms4 ,many are small and of inconsiderable depth--mere holes worn in the rock2 while others are of a truly astonishing size1 and fatigue the wondering spectator as he wanders through their lofty halls or endless galleries4 ,the famous ,cave of ,adelsberg in ,carniola has been explored to a distance of #a1bdc fathoms from the chief entrance2 and in the ,mammoth ,cave in ,kentucky no less than #bbf avenues branch out to the right and left from the main gallery1 so as to form a network of subterranean passages and halls of various dimensions1 whose total length has been computed at about #afj miles6 ,as many caves are without any visible communication with the external world1 and the entrance of others is frequently narrow1 and concealed behind rocks in solitary ravines on wild hill slopes or steep sea shores1 far from the busy haunts of man1 we cannot wonder that chance has frequently been instrumental in their discovery4 ,sometimes a hunter pursuing a wild animal has been led to the hidden cave in which it sought a refuge1 or the workmen in a quarry have been suddenly surprised at meeting with a hollow in the rock1 which opened an unexpected passage into the bowels of the mountain4 ,the digging of wells1 of cellars1 of foundations1 the boring for mines or ,artesian wells1 has often revealed the existence of unknown subterranean chambers2 and so recently as #ahfh1 one of the finest known caverns1 which already attracts a number of delighted visitors1 was discovered in the neighbourhood of the thriving manufacturing town of ,iserlohn in ,westphalia1 on blasting a rock for the making of a railway4 ,we may thus infer that a vast number of caves must still be totally unknown2 many so situated that chance may one day lead to their discovery2 while others are hollowed out at such vast depths in the earth-rind as to be for ever inaccessible to man4 ,even of those caves which have been objects of curiosity for centuries1 many have still been by no means thoroughly explored4 ,in the year #ahdh an ,american gentleman persuaded the guides of ,baumann's ,cave in the ,harz ,mountains to accompany him on a voyage of discovery through parts of the cavern hitherto untrodden by man4 ,it was no easy task to clamber over slippery rocks and deep chasms yawning into black abysses2 but curiosity and the spirit of adventure kept leading them on from passage to passage and vault to vault1 when suddenly the lights began to burn more dimly2 and the glass of the guiding compass having been accidentally broken warned them to retrace their steps4 ,they had been wandering for twenty- four hours in the subterranean labyrinth1 and after so long an absence from the light of day1 joyfully hailed the green hill slope which decks that mysterious palace of the gnomes4 ,franz ,baumann1 the first discoverer of the cavern1 was less fortunate4 ,its tortuous windings confused the expert and intrepid miner1 who lost his way in the recesses of the cave4 ,while seeking in vain for an outlet1 his sparing light went out4 ,three days he groped about in darkness1 until at length1 worn out and exhausted1 he was led by a wonderful chance to the mouth of the cave4 ,before he died he had yet sufficient strength briefly to mention the wonders he had seen during his fatal expedition4 ,his descendants still enjoy the privilege of serving as guides to the visitors of the cave1 and never fail to relate the melancholy end of their ill-fated forefather4 ,grottoes and caves occur in every kind of rock1 in lavas1 basalt1 slate1 and granite1 as well as in limestone1 dolomite1 and gypsum2 for the volcanic powers are capable of rending the hardest stone1 and the foaming breakers of a turbulent ocean meet with no cliff that is able ultimately to resist their never-tiring assaults4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,cave ,,of ,,adelsberg4 ,but1 owing to their great fragility and to the solubility of limestone 7carbonate of lime7 in water containing carbonic acid1 calcareous rocks are more liable than any others to be shattered and undermined1 both by volcanic and aqueous causes4 ,its water readily absorbs carbonic acid gas4 ,every drop of rain that falls upon the ground necessarily contains some small portion of this gas1 which1 as we all know1 is constantly mixed with the atmosphere1 and thus becomes a solvent for chalk2 more particularly if the latter1 as1 for instance1 in the ,karst ,mountains of ,carniola1 contains some proto-carbonate of iron1 which1 changing into an oxide when in contact with water1 yields its carbonic acid to the percolating fluid1 and consequently increases its solvent powers4 ,hence every shower of rain that filters through the crevices of a limestone rock wears away some part of its mass2 and if we consider the vast number of years over which these operations have extended1 and add to their effects the transporting powers of the waters on their progress through the subterranean channels which they have excavated or enlarged1 we can easily comprehend how in the course of ages whole mountains may be hollowed out4 ,as the streams that flow on the surface of the earth are constantly altering their courses1 thus also the subterranean waters are ever active in excavating new channels in the bosom of the rock4 ,finding at length new outlets on a lower level1 they abandon their ancient beds1 and the explorer now wanders dry-footed where once a foaming river gushed along4 ,the ,cave of ,adelsberg is a remarkable example of the changes which the subterranean waters1 aided by time or by the disrupting power of earthquakes1 may thus bring about2 for the ,poik now flows beneath its galleries in the same north-easterly direction1 in a channel which is for the greatest part unknown and inexplorable1 so that the dry cave of the present day must evidently have been the old river- bed4 ,but nowhere can be found such perfect1 unequivocal1 and abundant proofs of the action of running water in corroding and excavating new passages in a soluble rock as in the huge ,mammoth ,cave4 ,the rough-hewn block in the quarry does not bear more distinct proof of the hammer and the chisel of the workman than these interminable galleries afford of its denuding and dissolving power4 ,at ,niagara we see a vast chasm evidently cut by water for seven miles1 and still in progress2 but we cannot see beneath the cataract the water-worn surface1 nor the rounded angles of the precipice2 while the frosts and rains of countless winters have reduced the walls of the chasm itself to a talus of crumbling and moss-grown rocks4 ,but in the ,mammoth ,cave we see a freshness and perfection of surface such as can be found only where the destructive agencies of meteoric causes are wholly absent4 ,here we have the dry beds of subterranean rivers exactly as they were left thousands of years ago by the streams which flowed through them when ,niagara was young4 ,no angle is less sharp1 no groove or excavation less perfect1 than it was originally left when the waters were suddenly drained off by cutting their way to some lower level4 ,the very sand and rounded pebbles1 which now pave the galleries and which anciently formed the bed of the stream1 have remained in many of the more distant galleries untrodden even by the foot of man4 #8,the rush of ideas was strange and overpowering1' says ,professor ,silliman1 #8as ,i stood in one of these before unvisited avenues1 in which the glow of a lamp had never before shone1 and considered the complex chain of phenomena which were before me4 ,there were the delicate silicious forms of cyathophylli and encrinites protruding from the softer limestone1 which had yielded to the dissolving power of the water2 these carried me back to that vast and desolate ocean in which they flourished1 and were entombed as the crystalline matrix was slowly cast around them1 mute chroniclers of a distant epoch4 ,then succeeded the long periods of the upper secondary1 and1 these past1 the slow but resistless force of the contracting sphere elevated and drained the rocky beds of the ancient ocean4 ,the action of the meteorological causes commenced1 and the dissolving power of fresh water1 following the almost invisible lines of structure in the rocks1 began to hollow out these winding paths slowly and yet surely4' ,what a lesson for the thoughtful spectator1 and how vast a prospect into the dark abysses of the past here unrolls itself before him6 ,after abandoning the vaults where they once collected and formed a running stream1 the waters1 filtering through the porous limestone1 begin to ornament them with lustrous petrifactions2 for whether below or above the surface of the earth1 ,nature ever loves to decorate her works4 ,the moisture1 charged with carbonate of lime1 evaporates or parts with its free carbonic acid in coming into contact with the air of the cave2 the carbonate1 now no longer held in solution1 precipitates and forms calcareous incrustations or excrescences1 which in course of time assume every variety of fantastic shape1 either hanging like icicles from the vault 7stalactites71 or rising in columns 7stalagmites7 from the floor of the cave where the dripping water deposited its spar4 ,sometimes stalactites and stalagmites join as they continue to grow in opposite directions1 and ultimately form pillars which appear to sustain the roof4 ,on considering the simple physical and chemical agencies which are at work in the formation of these beautiful productions--solution1 mechanical dripping1 evaporation1 and precipitation--a great similarity might naturally be expected in their forms2 but here also ,nature shows herself as a consummate artist1 and with the simplest means brings forth an astonishing variety of effects4 ,as among the leaves of a forest there are not two perfectly alike1 thus also every stalactite differs from another2 and the celebrated traveller ,kohl affirms that every stalactital cave has its peculiar style or character of decoration4 ,the causes to which stalactites owe their existence are indeed everywhere the same1 but the circumstances under which the drops fall and evaporate are so various that in each case some new shape is produced4 ,thus all the infinite diversity of forms which we admire in the corals and sponges of the seas1 is wonderfully repeated in the dark vaults of the subterranean world4 ,the variety and beauty of their colouring likewise contribute to adorn these formations4 ,they are generally white1 sometimes rivalling the purity of snow1 and translucent1 even when of considerable thickness1 but often also green1 brown1 yellow1 red1 orange--a variety of tints which produces the most pleasing effects1 and is chiefly owing to the metallic salts with which the water has been impregnated while filtering through the calcareous rock4 ,all these wonderful plays of ,nature1 in which form and colour contribute to delight the eye or to charm the fancy of the spectator1 are1 however1 still less interesting than the reflections suggested by the slow growth of stalactites in general1 and the enormous size which some of them attain4 ,illustration3 ,,stalactital ,,cavern ,,in ,,australia4 ,inscriptions seventy or eighty years old appear covered only with a thin translucent coat of sinter1 and in the ,cave of ,adelsberg names scratched in the walls more than six centuries ago are still perfectly legible4 ,how many ages must1 then1 have passed before such colossal stalagmites could have been formed as1 for instance1 in the ,australian cavern explored by ,mr4 ,woods1#ac or in the ,cave of ,corneale1 near ,trieste1 where we find one of these formations measuring fifty feet in circumference1 and another rising thirty-five feet above the ground1 with a trunk as massive as that of an old oak4 ,the ruins of ,thebes1 or the rock-temples of ,ipsamboul1 appear almost as works of the present day when compared with those amazing monuments of time4 ,but1 while meditating on their colossal dimensions1 the mind is necessarily carried still further back1 and wanders through the countless ages which the filtering waters1 collecting into subterranean streams1 required for hollowing out the vast cavities on whose floor those gigantic stalagmites were subsequently deposited4 ,an epoch of still older date presents itself when the limestone rocks1 now pierced with vast stalactital caverns1 were first slowly forming at the bottom of the primeval sea by the accumulation of countless exuvi of zoophytes1 star- fishes1 and foraminifera1 and after growing into strata many hundred feet thick1 were then forced upwards by plutonic powers1 and became portions of the dry land4 ,nor is this the end of the vast perspective1 for changes still more remote loom in the fathomless distance4 ,the mind grows giddy while thus plunging into the abyss of time1 and1 in spite of the ideas of sublimity awakened by such meditations1 feels a painful sense of its incapacity to conceive a plan of such infinite extent4 ,footnote #ac3 #8,the ,geology of ,south ,australia4' ,while on land the running or filtering waters restlessly pursue their work of excavation1 the tumultuous waves of the ocean impress on every rocky shore the seal of their tremendous power4 ,as1 day after day1 and year after year1 the billows strike against the cliffs that oppose their progress1 they undermine their foundations1 scoop out wide portals in their projecting headlands1 and hollow out deep caverns4 ,here also water appears as the beautifying element1 decorating inanimate nature with picturesque forms2 and the sea nowhere exhibits more romantic scenes than on the bold coasts against which her waves have been beating for many a millennium4 ,during the calm ebb tide seals are often seen sunning themselves at the entrance of the oceanic grottoes1 while cormorants stand before them as guardians of the dark galleries beyond2 the waves murmur in softer strains1 and the screeching sea-mew glides with his silvery pinions through the tranquil air2 but when the stormy flood batters against the coast1 the billows rush into the caverns1 scaring all animal life away1 and no voice is heard but that of the ocean4 ,our coasts abound in beauties such as these1 particularly on the wild shores of ,shetland or the stormy ,hebrides-- #8,where rise no groves and where no gardens blow1 ,where even the hardy heath scarce dares to grow2 ,but rocks on rocks1 in mist and storm arrayed1 ,stretch far to sea their giant colonnade4'--,,scott4 ,along the coast of the mainland of ,shetland and the neighbouring islets of ,bressay and ,noss1 cape follows upon cape1 consisting of bold cliffs hollowed into caverns1 or divided into pillars and arches of fantastic appearance1 by the constant action of the waves4 ,as the voyager passes the most northerly of these headlands1 and turns into the open sea1 the scenes become yet more sublime4 ,rocks1 upwards of three or four hundred feet in height1 present themselves in colossal succession1 sinking perpendicularly into the sea1 which is very deep1 even within a few fathoms of their base4 ,all these huge precipices abound with caves1 many of which run much farther into the rock than the boldest islander has ever ventured to penetrate4 ,one of these marine excavations1 called #8,the ,orkneyman's ,harbour1' is remarkable for the circumstance of an ,orkney vessel having once run in there to escape a ,french privateer4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 who visited this interesting spot1 found the entrance lofty enough to admit his six-oared boat without striking the mast1 but a sudden turn in the direction of the cave would have consigned him to utter darkness if he had gone in further4 ,the dropping of the sea fowl and cormorants into the water from the sides of the cavern1 when disturbed by his approach1 had something in it wild and terrible4 ,the shores of ,caithness and of ,sutherland1 and of many of the islets in the ,highland seas1 likewise exhibit many wonderful specimens of the fantastic architecture of the ocean2 but pre-eminent above all in grandeur and renown is ,fingal's ,cave4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 who twice visited this celebrated grotto 7in #ahaj and #ahad71 pronounced it above all description sublime4 #8,the stupendous columns and side-walls1 the depth and strength of the ocean with which the cavern is filled1 the variety of tints formed by stalactites dropping and petrifying between the pillars1 and resembling a sort of chasing of yellow or cream-coloured marble1 filling the interstices of the roof--the corresponding variety below1 where the ocean rolls over a red1 and in some places a violet-coloured rock1 the basis of the basaltic pillars--the dreadful noise of those august billows1 so well corresponding with the grandeur of the scene--are all circumstances elsewhere unparalleled4' ,in the ,azure ,cave of ,capri1 the ,mediterranean possesses a marine grotto rivalling ,fingal's ,cave in celebrity1 and no less wonderful in its peculiar style of beauty4 ,as the roof of its narrow entrance rises only a few feet above the level of the sea1 it is probable that no human eye had ever been delighted with its charms before #ahbf1 when it was accidentally discovered by two ,prussian artists who were swimming in the neighbourhood4 ,after passing the low portal the cave widens to grand proportions1 #abe feet long and #ade feet broad1 and except a small landing-place on a projecting rock at the further end1 its precipitous walls are on all sides bathed by the influx of the waters1 which1 in that sea1 are so clear that the smallest objects may be distinctly seen on the bottom of the deep basin1 the most beautiful bathing-place a mermaid might wish for4 ,all the light that enters the grotto must first penetrate the whole depth of the waters before it can be reflected into the cave1 and it thus acquires so blue a tinge1 from the large body of clear water through which it has passed1 that the walls of the cavern are illumined by a radiance of the purest azure4 ,had ,byron known of the existence of this magic cave1 ,childe ,harold would surely have devoted some of his most brilliant stanzas to its praise4 ,in many other parts of the ,mediterranean the limestone rocks that fringe its shores have been worn into magnificent caverns1 less singular1 indeed1 than the fairy grot of ,capri1 but still of rare and wonderful beauty4 ,such1 among others1 is the ,antro di ,nettuno1 in the island of ,sardinia1 about twelve miles from the small seaport of ,alghero4#ad ,footnote #ad3 #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' #crd edit4 p4 #di4 ,exceedingly picturesque caverns have also been worn by the chafing waters in the chalk cliffs under ,bonifacio1 in the island of ,corsica4 ,their entrances festooned with hanging boughs1 they penetrate far into the interior of the rocks1 and the water percolating through their vaulted roofs has formed stalactites of fantastic shapes4 ,the boat glides through the arched entrance1 and the glaring sunshine without is replaced by cool and grateful shade4 ,fishes are flitting in the clear water2 limpid streams oozing through the rocks form crystal basins with pebbly bottoms2 and the channels from the blue sea1 flowing over the chalk1 become cerulean4 ,poetic fancy has never pictured anything more enchanting than these lovely caves4 ,illustration3 ,,cave ,,under ,,bonifacio4 ,the rocky coast of ,sicily is likewise hollowed out with numerous marine grottoes1 which1 though rarely noticed by travellers1 may well be ranked amongst the greatest natural beauties of the island4 ,one of the most remarkable is the ,grotta di ,nettuno1 near ,syracuse1 which1 in calm weather1 admits a boat to a considerable distance4 ,its rugged vaults rise to a height of about twenty or thirty feet1 and are covered with stalactites wherever the water does not reach4 ,there is no landing- place1 and throughout the whole cave the water is as deep as in the open sea beyond4 ,nothing can be more charming than to look back from the dark recesses of the grotto upon the bright sunshine without1 and to listen to the soothing murmurs of the clear waves as they ripple against the rocky walls4 ,the atmosphere is so pure in this delicious climate that not a trace of fog or mist obscures even the remotest parts of the cave1 and the serene daylight falling through the entrance renders even its deepest shadows translucent4 ,here a lover of nature might linger for hours enjoying the most delicious coolness1 and watching the charming effects of light and shade in their ever-varying play4 ,on many rocky shores the ocean has worn out subterranean channels in the cliffs1 against which it has been beating for ages1 and then frequently emerges in water-spouts1 or fountains1 from the opposite end4 ,thus in the ,skerries1 one of the ,shetland ,islands1 a deep chasm or inlet1 which is open overhead1 is continued underground1 and then again opens to the sky in the middle of the island4 ,when the tide is high1 the waves rise up through this inland aperture1 with a noise like the blowing of a whale4 ,similar phenomena occur on the south side of the ,mauritius1#ae on the north coast of ,newfoundland1 near ,huatulco on the ,mexican coast of the ,pacific1 and near ,peniscola1 in ,spain1 where a cave1 through whose roof at storm tides the sea bursts with a terrific noise1 has received the name of the #8,bufador1 or the water-spout of ,pope ,luna1' the family name of ,benedict ,,xiii41 who1 having been deposed by the ,councils of ,pisa and ,constance1 retired to the small ,spanish town where he was born4 ,as the chief occupation of the holy father in exile was to vent a continuous torrent of curses and excommunications upon his numerous enemies1 it is probable that this circumstance caused his name to be given to the noisy but harmless ,bufador4 ,footnote #ae3 #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' #crd edit4 p4 #eb4 ,though water1 aided by time1 is probably the chief excavating power1 there can be no doubt that the action of subterranean fire has likewise produced1 and still produces1 many hollows in the hard crust of the earth4 ,wherever a volcano has been piled up to the skies1 the matter ejected from its vents must necessarily have left a void behind1 and given rise to corresponding cavities in the space beneath4 ,the shock of an earthquake must frequently rend asunder deep-seated rocks1 and the slow upheaval of considerable tracts of land can hardly be supposed to take place without the formation of hollows and crevices4 ,when the lavas poured forth during an eruption are in a liquid state1 they do not form on cooling a compact homogeneous mass1 but generally exhibit a porous1 spongy texture1 due to the bubbles of the vapour generated through1 or entangled in1 their mass4 ,these bubbles frequently unite in larger volumes1 which1 influenced by their elasticity and inferior specific gravity1 rise towards the surface of the lava as it flows on1 and1 when sufficiently powerful1 raise its crust in dome-like or conical protuberances1 which not seldom burst open at the summit1 or crack at the sides4 ,the hollows thus formed are often so large as to entitle them to the name of caves4 ,according to ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 the sudden conversion into steam of lakes or streams of water1 overwhelmed by a fiery current1 may perhaps explain the formation of many of the extensive underground passages or caverns which form a common feature in the structure of a volcano4 ,great volumes of vapour1 thus produced1 may force their way through liquid lava1 already coated over externally with a solid crust1 and may cause the sides of such passages1 as they harden1 to assume a very irregular outline4 ,the famous cave on ,etna1 called the ,fossa della ,palomba1 which opens near ,nicolosi1 not far from ,monte ,rossi1 has not improbably been thus formed4 ,after reaching the bottom of a hollow #fbe feet in circumference at its mouth1 and #gh feet deep1 the explorer enters another dark cavity1 and then others in succession1 sometimes descending precipices by means of ladders4 ,at length the vaults terminate in a great gallery ninety feet long1 and from fifteen to fifty feet broad1 beyond which there is still a passage never yet visited1 so that the whole extent of the ,fossa remains unknown4 ,the volcanic caves of ,punta ,delgada in the ,island of ,san ,miguel1 one of the ,azores1 are still more grand4 ,their entrance is through a narrow crevice1 which soon1 however1 expands into an enormous hall1 whose vault even the strongest torch-light is unable to illumine4 ,in one spot1 an opening in the floor shows that the lava1 which is here but a foot thick1 forms the roof of a second cave1 situated below the first1 into which even the boldest explorer has never ventured1 but the noise of stones cast into the abyss proves it to be of considerable size4 ,the first-mentioned cave leads into another1 the width of which is estimated by ,webster#af at #abj feet2 but the height he was unable to measure4 ,gradually this cave becomes narrower and lower1 until1 about #dej feet from the entrance1 it terminates in a low vault4 ,black lava stalactites everywhere hang down from the roof1 and the floor is so covered with sharp-sided blocks of the same volcanic material that walking among them becomes a task of the greatest difficulty4 ,footnote #af3 #8,description of the ,island of ,saint ,michael4' ,while a lava-stream is flowing along1 a slag-crust forms on its surface1 inclosing the internal fluid matter as in a canal4 ,but when the supply of fresh lava from the vent diminishes or entirely ceases1 the still liquid interior at the central part of the current continuing for some time to flow on1 often leaves behind hollow gutters1 arched over by a thin and brittle roof--so thin sometimes as to yield to the weight of a person stepping on them4 ,such vaulted roofs have pseudo-stalactitic projections left by the subsidence of the liquid1 and are coated with a glossy varnish4 ,sometimes1 very large caverns are thus formed beneath the surface of a lava-stream1 and even rival in their extent and windings the caves worn by water in limestone rocks4 ,the famous ,surtshellir1#ag situated near ,kalmanstunga in ,iceland1 is a remarkable instance of a vast lava excavation owing its origin to this cause4 ,it has very appropriately been named after ,surt1 the prince of darkness and fire1 of the ancient ,scandinavian mythology2 for this gloomy deity could not possibly have chosen a fitter residence than its vast and dismal halls1 once glowing with subterranean fires1 and now the seat of perpetual darkness4 ,footnote #ag3 #8,the ,polar ,world1' p4 #eh4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cave ,,rivers4 ,the ,fountain of ,vaucluse--,the ,fontaine-sans-fond--,the ,katabothra in ,morea-- ,subterranean ,rivers in ,carniola--,subterranean ,navigation of the ,poik in the ,cave of ,planina--#8,the ,stalactital ,paradise'--,the ,piuka ,jama4 ,wherever large bodies of water gush forth in a rapid stream from the bowels of the earth1 they must either have flowed through wide underground channels1 or they must come from extensive lake-like reservoirs1 for the mere drainage of a porous stratum is evidently incapable of accounting for their production4 ,thus the celebrated fountain of ,vaucluse1 near ,avignon1 which has the volume and power of a river at its very source1 is undoubtedly fed by a subterranean sheet of water of considerable extent4 ,even when least abundant1 it pours forth upwards of #ac1jjj cubic feet of water in a minute2 and after the country has been flooded with abundant rains1 this volume is increased fourfold4 ,the environs of the fountain are extremely picturesque1 and justify the praises which have been lavished upon it in the immortal strains of ,petrarch4 ,it fills a large oval basin1 vaulted by a spacious cave1 and its waters1 which1 when low1 escape through subterranean channels into the deep bed of the ,sorgue1 rise1 when high1 over the rock-wall at the mouth of the grotto1 and form a broad cataract1 rushing down with a dreadful noise4 ,near ,sable in ,anjou1 a source1 or rather a pit from eighteen to twenty- four feet in diameter1 well known in the country under the name of the ,bottomless ,fountain 7,fontaine-sans-fond7 sometimes overflows its brink1 and then casts forth a large quantity of fish1 so that it is evidently a mere aperture in the vault of a large subterranean pool4 ,in the department of the ,haute ,sane1 another pit1 called the ,frais ,puits1 presents a similar phenomenon4 ,after abundant rains1 the water gushing forth from its mouth inundates the neighbourhood1 and on its retiring1 pikes are not seldom found scattered over the surface of the flooded fields or meadows1 a sure proof that the ,puits must communicate with a large subterranean cavity4 ,nothing is more common in limestone districts than the engulfment of rivers1 which1 after holding a subterranean course of many miles1 escape again by some new outlet4 ,the ,guadiana loses itself in a flat country in the midst of an immense savannah1 and hence the ,spaniards1 when the magnificent bridges of ,london or ,paris are mentioned to them1 boastfully reply that they have one in ,estramadura on which more than a hundred thousand oxen graze at a time4 ,in the vast limestone formation which1 under various names1 extends through ,carinthia1 ,carniola1 ,istria1 ,dalmatia1 ,albania1 and ,greece1 the whole country is perforated like a sponge by an intricate system of subterranean water-courses4 ,in the more elevated districts of the ,morea there are many deep land-locked valleys or basins inclosed on all sides by mountains of cavernous limestone4 ,when the torrents are swollen by the rains1 they rush from the surrounding heights into these basins2 but1 instead of forming temporary lakes1 as would be the case in most other countries1 they are swallowed by chasms1 which are sometimes situated in the middle of the plain1 constituting the bottom of the closed basin1 but more commonly at the foot of the surrounding escarpment of limestone4 ,during the dry season1 which in ,greece alternates almost as distinctly as between the tropics with a period of rain1 these chasms are the favourite retreats of wild animals4 ,sometimes1 in the limestone formation1 the same stream repeatedly gushes forth from some cavernous recess1 and then again disappears4 ,the caves of ,adelsberg1 ,planina1 and ,upper ,laibach in ,carniola are traversed by the same river1 which1 losing its name every time it plunges into a new subterranean channel1 is called1 first1 the ,poik1 then the ,unz1 and finally the ,laibach4 ,in the same manner the ,temenitz1 an affluent of the ,save1 thrice disappears under the earth1 and thrice emerges as a new- born river with another name4 ,as far as these subterranean streams have been explored1 their course exhibits a wonderful variety of interesting underground scenery4 ,sometimes they form high cataracts1 leaping over rocks so picturesquely grouped that1 were they illumined by the sun1 and of more easy access1 they would be admired by numberless tourists2 and not seldom they expand into dark and melancholy lakes4 ,sometimes they with difficulty force a passage through a chaos of rocks1 and then again they flow gently in a deep and even channel1 so as to be navigable to a considerable distance4 ,generally1 not the least breath of air sweeps over their placid waters1 but sometimes their surface is rippled by the wind pouring in through some unseen chasm4 ,among the bold explorers who have launched forth their barques on unknown subterranean rivers1 the late ,adolph ,schmidl1 of ,vienna1 holds a conspicuous rank4 ,in a canoe specially constructed for the purpose he trusted himself to the dark streams of ,carniola1 which rewarded his adventurous zeal with many a scene of incomparable beauty1 where the water-spirits and the gnomes seemed to have rivalled each other in the work of decoration4 ,to give an idea of the difficulties and of the enjoyments of these subterranean explorations1 we will follow the intrepid naturalist on his voyages of discovery through the famous ,cave of ,planina1 through which flows the ,poik1 a river which is at all times deep enough to carry a boat4 ,the course of the navigation is stream- upwards1 and consequently much safer than would otherwise have been the case2 but in many places the rapidity of the current calls for great caution1 and considerable strength is needed to overcome its violence2 while at the same time great care must be taken to avoid striking against the rocks that lie hidden under the water4 ,as far as the end of a magnificent dome1 situated about #fjj feet from its entrance1 the cave can be traversed on foot2 but here the sullen stream1 completely filling its whole width1 compels the explorer to trust to his canoe4 ,when he has passed a portal about eight fathoms high and half as broad1 with proportions as symmetrical as if it had been sculptured by the hand of man1 the thundering roar of a distant cataract announces still grander scenes4 ,the portal widens1 and the astonished explorer suddenly emerges on a lake #bej feet long and #aej feet broad1 beyond which the cave is seen to divide into two arms1 giving passage to two streams1 whose confluent waters form the lake4 ,this broad sheet of water affords an imposing but melancholy sight4 ,the walls of the cave rise everywhere abruptly out of the water1 with the exception of one small landing-place opposite to the portal at the foot of a projecting rock or promontory4 ,here and there large masses of stalactite hang like petrified cascades from the rocks1 which are generally naked and black4 ,the vault is so high that the light of a few torches fails to pierce its gloom1 which is rendered still more impressive by the roar of the waterfall in the left branch of the cavern4 ,as far as the lake1 the cave is of comparatively easy access1 and has been repeatedly visited1 but the subterranean course of the two brooks beyond was first explored by ,dr4 ,schmidl4 ,in the left or western branch of the cave1 into which he penetrated to a distance of more than a mile1 his boat had to be unloaded no less than eleven times on account of the reefs that obstructed its passage1 while the explorers1 wading through the water1 dragged it over the shallows4 ,once even1 where the navigation was interrupted by large masses of rock1 under which the tumultuous waters disappear with a dreadful roar1 they were obliged to take the little shallop to pieces1 and to reconstruct it on the opposite side of the mound4 ,the navigable part of this western branch ends in a circular dome1 the floor of which is entirely filled with a lake #ahj feet long1 and from #dj to #de feet deep4 ,on the western bank of this lake1 a chasm opens at the top of a mound of rubbish1 the only place where it is possible to land4 ,a violent gust of wind descends from this chasm1 which1 sloping upwards1 soon narrows to a small crevice1 through which the current of air sets in4 ,to a lateral gallery1 opening beyond the mouth of the chasm1 ,dr4 ,schmidl gave the name of #8,the ,stalactital ,paradise1' on account of the uncommon beauty of the spar-crystals with which its walls were incrusted4 ,it was the first time that the foot of man had ever penetrated into this charming laboratory of nature2 no torch had ever soiled its brilliant decorations2 no profane hand had ever damaged its gem-like tapestry4 ,here whole groups of stalagmitic cones1 of all shapes and sizes1 some like tiny icicles1 others six feet high and as thick as a man's waist1 rose from the ground1 while further on the brown wall formed a dark background1 from which projected in bold relief the colossal statue of a sceptered king4 ,near the entrance stood a magnificent white figure1 which fancy might have supposed to be a cherub with a flaming sword1 menacing all those who should dare to injure the wonders which he guarded4 #88,the ,stalactical ,paradise0 remained intact1' says ,dr4 ,schmidl4#ah #8,i begged my companions not to strike off the smallest piece of spar as a memorial of our visit1 and they all joyfully consented4 ,our feet carefully avoided trampling down any of its delicate ornaments2 we left it with no other memorial than our admiration of its beauty4 ,the nymphs of the grot will no doubt have pardoned us for having intruded upon the sanctuary1 where for countless centuries they had reigned in undisturbed solitude and silence4' ,footnote #ah3 #8,die ,hhlenkunde des ,karstes4' ,wien1 #ahed4 ,the eastern branch of the cave1 through which the main stream flows1 is much larger than the branch above described2 it is also easily navigated1 as it contains but two reefs and a small number of cliffs4 ,on first ascending the stream1 the continually increasing roar of waters announces a considerable waterfall4 ,enormous masses of stone1 piled up by the falling in of the roof1 have blocked up and narrowed the bed of the river to fifteen feet1 and cause the stream to shoot down in a broad sheet ten feet high4 ,the cataract1 madly rushing over the jet-black rocks and casting up flakes of milk-white foam1 is very beautiful1 and1 when brightly illuminated1 must produce a truly magical effect4 ,beyond the cataract the river flows for a short space in an invisible channel1 as its waters are completely hidden under rocks4 ,it was no easy task to carry the planks of the dismembered boat over these rugged blocks of stone1 but after reconstructing it on the opposite side of the mound1 and overcoming the minor obstacles of a couple of reefs1 the river was found to flow in a deep channel between steep walls1 and a free navigation opened to a distance of at least a league and a half4 #8,no description1' said ,dr4 ,schmidl1 #8can do justice to the fascination of this subterranean voyage4 ,in some parts the roof is adorned with coral-shaped draperies of snow-white stalactites1 but generally the walls are mere black1 naked stone4 ,here and there sources gurgle down their sides1 and1 along with the melancholy trickling of single drops of water from the vault1 alone break the silence of the dark interminable cave4 ,the breathless attention we bestowed on the guidance of our boat and on the wonders that surrounded us sealed our lips1 and we glided silently along through the dark waters1 that now1 for the first time since they began to flow1 reflected the glare of a torch4' ,throughout the whole distance of #a1adj fathoms beyond the second reef1 there is but one landing-place2 everywhere else the walls rise precipitously from the water4 ,in some parts the roof descends so low that the explorers were obliged to lie down in the boat and to shove it along by holding to the projections of the vault1 which finally left but a few inches' space above the water1 and thus opposed an invincible obstacle to all further progress4 ,in another grotto--called the ,piuka ,jama--the ,poik again flows in the midst of the grandest subterranean scenery4 ,about a league to the north of ,adelsberg1 the wanderer1 after traversing a thicket of underwood1 suddenly finds himself on the brink of a yawning precipice1 from the bottom of which is heard distinctly the noise of a rushing stream4 ,the walls of the chasm are almost perpendicular1 except where a small ravine1 overgrown with shrubs1 leads to an enormous rock1 on which it is possible to stand1 and1 if perfectly free from giddiness1 to look down into the gulf below1 where the huge portal of a cave is seen to open4 ,from this rock1 which projects over the abyss1 the only descent is by means of a rope or a rope-ladder4 ,the bottom of the pit is covered with large blocks of stone irregularly piled up1 and here one first sees the river rushing through the cave from right to left4 ,the ,piuka ,jama may thus be compared to a window pierced through a vault overspanning a subterranean stream4 ,clambering down a heap of rubbish1 the explorer at length stands upon the floor of the cave1 and reaches the bank of the ,poik4 ,stream-upwards1 about #cjj fathoms from the aperture1 he meets with a rock gate1 through which the river rushes so violently that a boat can master the current only when the water is unusually low4 ,after crossing this broad portal1 the last faint traces of daylight glimmering from the distant aperture in the ,piuka entirely disappear1 and the scene suddenly changes4 ,the expanding cavern assumes the proportions of an imposing dome4 ,on its left side a mound has been formed by the falling in of the roof2 but every block of stone is completely covered with calcareous incrustations of the purest white4 ,from the floor to the centre of the vault millions upon millions of brilliant spars reflect the light3 every hollow in the walls is a cabinet of gems4 ,the background of the dome completes the beauty of the scene1 and exhibits one of the most imposing cavern decorations it is possible to imagine4 ,a monstrous pillar rises from its centre1 forming two colossal ogival portals4 ,the larger one is on the left1 and at its entrance a mighty stalagmite1 above twelve feet high1 seems to forbid intrusion4 ,the pillar itself and the vaults of both the portals are ornamented with the richest stalactital drapery4 ,when the river is swollen it rushes tumultuously through both the gates1 where now ,dr4 ,schmidl found but a scanty rill whispering and babbling among the stones4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,subterranean ,,life4 ,subterranean ,vegetation--,fungi--,enormous ,fungus in a ,tunnel near ,doncaster--,artificial ,mushroom-beds near ,paris--,subterranean ,animals--,the ,guacharo--,wholesale ,slaughter--,insects in the ,cave of ,adelsberg--,the ,leptodirus and the ,blothrus--,the ,stalita tnaria--,the ,olm or ,proteus--,the ,lake of ,cirknitz--,the ,archduke ,ferdinand and ,charon--,the ,blind ,rat and the ,blind ,fish of the ,mammoth ,cave4 ,of all the phenomena which attract the naturalist's attention1 as he wanders over the surface of the earth1 there is none which makes a deeper impression on his mind than the omnipresence of life4 ,on the snow-clad cone of ,chimborazo1 #ah1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 ,humboldt found butterflies and other winged insects1 while1 high over his head1 the condor was soaring in solitary majesty4 ,at the still greater elevation of #ah1dfj feet1 at the ,doonkiah ,pass in the ,himalaya ,mountains1 ,dr4 ,hooker plucked flowering plants1 and saw large flocks of wild geese winging their flight above ,kunchinjinga 7#bb1gej feet7 towards the unknown regions of ,central ,asia4 ,thus man meets with life as far as he is able to ascend1 or as far as his sight plunges into the atmospheric ocean4 ,besides the objects visible to his eye1 innumerable microscopical organisms pervade the realms of air4 ,according to ,ehrenberg's brilliant discovery1 the impalpably fine dust which1 wafted by the ,harmattan1 often falls on ships when hundreds of miles from the coast of ,africa1 consists of agglomerations of silica-coated diatoms1 individually so small as to be invisible to the naked eye2 and everywhere numberless minute germs of future life--eggs of insects and sporules of cryptogamic plants--well fitted by cilia and feathery crowns for an arial journey1 float up and down in the atmosphere2 while the waters of ocean are found1 in like manner1 filled with myriads of animated atoms4 ,but organic life not only occupies those parts of our globe which are accessible to solar light2 it also dives profoundly into the subterranean world1 wherever rain1 or the melted snow1 filtering through the porous earth1 or through vents and crevices1 is able to penetrate into natural caverns or artificial mines4 ,for the combination of moisture1 warmth1 and air is able to develop organic life even thousands of feet below the surface of the earth2 while light1 though indispensable to most creatures1 would blight and destroy the inhabitants of the subterranean vaults4 ,on surveying the flora of these dismal recesses1 we find it consisting exclusively of mushrooms or fungi1 the lowest forms of vegetation1 which1 shunning the light1 love darkness and damp4 ,their appearance in the caves is1 as everywhere else1 dependent upon the existence of an organic basis1 and thus they are most commonly found germinating on pieces of wood1 particularly in a state of decomposition1 which have been conveyed into the caverns either through the agency of man or by the influx of water4 ,species of a peculiarly luxuriant growth are sometimes seen to spread over the neighbouring stones1 or apparently to spring from the rocky ground1 where1 however1 on closer inspection1 vestiges of decayed organic substances will generally be detected4 ,thus vegetation in caves most commonly keeps pace with the quantity of mouldering wood which they contain1 and flourishes not only near their entrance but in their deepest recesses1 as1 for instance1 in the ,cave of ,adelsberg1 where1 at a distance of more than a thousand fathoms from its entrance1 the pegs which have been driven into the stalactital walls for the purpose of measuring its length are covered with a rich coat of fungi4 ,nothing can be more curious than to see these plants1 thriving and luxuriating in deep stillness and gloom1 under circumstances so alien to the ordinary conditions of life4 ,among the fungi found in caves1 many also vegetate upon the surface of the earth exposed to the influence of light1 and not seldom degenerate into monstrous forms in their less congenial subterranean abodes2 but many are the exclusive children of darkness4 ,the ,austrian naturalist ,scopoli published in #aggb the first exact description of more than seventy subterranean fungi1 collected chiefly in the mines of ,schemnitz and ,idria2 and about twenty years later ,humboldt wrote his celebrated treatise on the same subject4#ai ,since then ,g4 ,f4 ,hoffmann has described the subterranean flora of the ,harz ,mountains2#bj and latterly the botanists ,welwitsch and ,pokorny have examined the caves of ,carinthia1 where they discovered no less than eighteen species of fungi1 among others the mouse-tail mushroom 7,agaricus myurus1 ,hoffm471 which is also found in the ,harz1 and bears on a slender hairy stalk1 more than a foot long1 a small hat1 scarcely a quarter of an inch in diameter4 ,some of these fungi are remarkable for their size 7,thelephora rubiginosa sanguinolenta71 others for their elegance 7,diderma nigripes74 ,footnote #ai3 #8,flora ,fribergensis ,plantas ,cryptogamicas prsertim subterraneas exhibens4' ,footnote #bj3 #8,vegetabilia in ,hercyni ,subterraneis collecta ,norinberg4' #ahaa4 ,some years ago a gigantic fungus1 found growing from the woodwork of a tunnel near ,doncaster1 afforded a striking proof of the luxuriancy of subterranean vegetation4 ,it measured no less than fifteen feet in diameter1 and was1 in its way1 as great a curiosity as one of the colossal trees of ,california4 ,even the plants that flourish in the darkness of caves have been rendered subservient to our use4 ,the cultivation of the edible mushroom in spacious caverns or ancient quarries is practised to a great extent in the environs of ,paris1 at ,arcueil1 ,moulin de la ,roche1 and ,st4 ,germain1 but particularly at ,montrouge1 on the southern side of the city4 ,the mushroom-beds are entirely underground1 seventy or eighty feet below the surface1 at a depth where the temperature is nearly uniform all the year round4 ,these extensive catacombs1 formed by long burrowing galleries1 have no opening but by a circular shaft1 to be descended by clambering down a perpendicular pole or mast1 into the sides of which large wooden pegs are fixed1 at intervals of ten or twelve inches1 to rest the feet upon4 ,the baskets containing the ripe mushrooms are hoisted from below by a pulley and rope4 ,the compost in which they grow consists of a white gritty earth1 mixed with good stable manure1 and is moulded into narrow beds about twenty inches high1 ranged along the sides of the passages or galleries1 and kept exquisitely neat and smooth4 ,the mushroom sporules are introduced to the beds either by flakes of earth taken from an old bed1 or else from a heap of decomposing stable manure in which mushrooms have naturally been engendered4 ,the beds are covered with a layer of earth an inch thick1 the earth being merely the white rubbish left by the stone-cutters above4 ,they must be well watered1 and removed after two or three months1 when their bearing qualities are exhausted4 ,in one of the caves at ,montrouge alone there are six or seven miles of mushroom-bedding1 a proof that this branch of industry is by no means unimportant4 ,while subterranean vegetation is exclusively confined to mushrooms1 animal life of almost every class has far more abundant representatives1 for plants are in general much more dependent on the vivifying influence of light4 ,the various animals which are found dwelling in caves may be subdivided into two groups2 one1 which1 though preferring darkness1 and spending a great part of its existence under the earth1 yet often voluntarily seeks the light of day1 or at least wanders forth at night2 while the other is exclusively subterranean1 and is never seen above the surface of the earth1 unless by chance or when driven up by violence4 ,to the first group belong most of the insectivorous and rodent quadrupeds that dwell in self-made burrows1 or pursue a subterranean prey1 such as the armadilloes and the moles4 ,the large family of the bats likewise love to sleep by day1 or to hibernate in warm and solitary caves1 where they are sometimes found in numbers as countless as the sea-birds which flock round some rocky island of the north4 ,when ,professor ,silliman visited the ,mammoth ,cave 7,october #af1 #ahbb71 he everywhere saw them suspended in dense clusters from the roofs1 though a large number had not yet retired into winter-quarters4 ,in a small space1 scarcely four or five inches square1 he counted no less than forty bats1 and convinced himself that at least one hundred and twenty find room on a square foot1 as they held not only by the surface of the walls of their retreat1 but by each other1 one closely crowding over another4 ,such clusters are found in the interior of the cavern1 which branches out in many directions as far as two miles from the entrance1 so that a very superficial survey allows them to be counted by millions4 ,who1 in these dismal regions1 where no change of temperature or of light announces the various seasons1 tells them that the reign of winter is past8 who awakes them at the proper time out of the deep sleep in which they remain plunged for months8 ,the same mysterious voice of instinct which regulates the migrations of the birds and the wanderings of the fishes1 and which in this case1 as in every other1 is equally wonderful and incomprehensible4 ,in the class of birds we find many cave-haunting species4 ,the pigeons like to nestle in grottoes1 which also serve as welcome retreats to the moping owl2 and various swallows and swifts breed chiefly in the darkness of caverns4 ,one of the most remarkable of these troglodytic birds is the ,guacharo1 which inhabits a large cave in the ,valley of ,caripe1 near the town of ,cumana1 and of which an interesting account has been given by ,humboldt1 who first introduced it to the notice of ,europe4 ,the ,gueva del ,guacharo is pierced in the vertical profile of a rock1 and the entrance is towards the south1 forming a noble vault eighty feet broad and seventy-two feet high4 ,the rock surmounting the cavern is covered with trees of gigantic growth1 and all the luxuriant profusion of an inter-tropical vegetation4 ,plantain-leaved heliconias1 and wondrous orchids1 the ,praga palm1 and tree arums1 grow along the banks of a river that flows out of the cave1 while lianas1 and a variety of creeping plants1 rocked to and fro by the wind1 form elegant festoons before its entrance4 ,what a contrast between this magnificently decorated portal and the gloomy mouth of the ,surtshellir1 imbedded in the lava wildernesses of ,iceland8 ,as the cave at first penetrates into the mountain in a straight direction1 the light of day does not disappear for a considerable distance from the entrance1 so that visitors are able to go forward for about four hundred and thirty feet without being obliged to light their torches2 and here1 where light begins to fail1 the hoarse cries of the nocturnal birds are heard from afar4 ,the guacharo is of the size of the common fowl4 ,its hooked bill is wide1 like that of the goat-sucker1 and furnished at the base with stiff hairs directed forwards4 ,the plumage1 like that of most nocturnal birds1 is sombre brownish grey1 mixed with black stripes and large white spots4 ,the eyes are incapable of bearing the light of day1 and the wings are disproportionately large1 measuring not less than four feet and a half from tip to tip4 ,it quits the cavern only at nightfall1 especially when there is moonlight2 and ,humboldt remarks that it is almost the only frugivorous nocturnal bird yet known1 for it does not prey upon insects like the goatsucker1 but feeds on very hard fruits1 which its strong hooked beak is well fitted to crack4 ,the horrible noise made by thousands of these birds in the dark recesses of the cavern can be compared only to the wild shrieks of the sea-mews round a solitary bird mountain1 or to the deafening uproar of the crows when assembled in vast flocks in the dark fir-forests of the ,north4 ,the clamour increases on advancing deeper into the cave1 the birds being disturbed by the torch- light2 and as those nestling in the side avenues of the cave begin to utter their mournful cries when the first sink into silence1 it seems as if their troops were alternately complaining to each other of the intruders4 ,by fixing torches to the end of long poles1 the ,indians1 who serve as guides into the cavern1 show the nests of these birds1 fifty or sixty feet above the heads of the explorers1 in funnel-shaped holes with which the cavern roof is pierced like a sieve4 ,once a year1 about midsummer1 the ,guacharo ,cavern is entered by the ,indians4 ,armed with poles they ransack the greater part of the nests1 while the old birds1 uttering lamentable cries1 hover over the heads of the robbers4 ,the young which fall down are opened on the spot4 ,the peritonum is found loaded with fat1 and a layer of the same substance reaches from the abdomen to the vent1 forming a kind of cushion between the birds' legs4 ,the ,european nocturnal birds are meagre1 as1 instead of feasting on fruits and oily kernels1 they live upon the scanty produce of the chase2 while in the guacharo1 as in our fattened geese1 the accumulation of fat is promoted by darkness and abundant food4 ,at the period above mentioned1 which is known at ,caripe as the #8oil harvest1' huts are erected by the ,indians with palm leaves near the entrance1 and even in the very porch of the cavern4 ,there the fat of the young birds just killed is melted in clay pots over a brushwood fire1 and is said to be very pure and of a good taste4 ,its small quantity1 however1 is quite out of proportion to the numbers killed1 as not more than #aej or #afj jars of perfectly clear oil are collected from the massacre of thousands4 ,the way into the interior of the cavern leads along the banks of the small river which flows through its dark recesses2 but sometimes large masses of stalactites obstruct the passage1 and force the visitor to wade through the water1 which is1 however1 not more than two feet deep4 ,as far as #a1deh feet from the entrance the cave maintains the same direction1 width1 and height of sixty or seventy feet1 so that it would be difficult to find another mountain cavern of so regular a formation4 ,humboldt had great difficulty in persuading the natives to pass beyond the part of the cave which they usually visit to collect the oil1 as they believed its deeper penetralia to be the abode of their ancestors' spirits2 but since the great naturalist's visit1 they seem to have abandoned their ancient superstitions1 or to have acquired a greater courage in facing the mysteries of the grotto1 for1 while they would only accompany ,humboldt as far as #bcf fathoms into the interior of the cave1 later travellers1 such as ,codazzi and ,beaupertuis1 have advanced with their guides to double the distance1 though without reaching its end4 ,they found that beyond the furthest point explored by ,humboldt the cave loses its regularity1 and has its walls covered with stalactites4 ,in the embranchments of the grotto ,codazzi found innumerable birds4 ,it was formerly supposed that the guacharo was exclusively confined to this cave2 latterly1 however1 it has also been found in the province of ,bogota4 ,the discovery of animals adapted for perpetual darkness is but of modern date1 and as the vast majority of caves have not yet been thoroughly explored by zoologists1 the number of genera and species already known gives us reason to believe that future investigations will add considerably to their number4 ,in the ,adelsberg1 ,lueg1 and ,magdalena grottoes1 which form but an inconsiderable part of the extensive cavernous regions of ,carniola1 seven exclusively subterranean insects1 one spider1 two scorpionides1 one millepede1 two crustaceans1 one snail1 and one reptile--in all fifteen different species of animals1 belonging to no less than six different classes--have been found4 ,illustration3 ,,leptodirus ,,hochenwartii4 ,among these dwellers of the dark1 warfare is as rife as in the regions of light4 ,thus1 in the recesses of the ,grotto of ,adelsberg1 the cavern beetle 7,leptodirus ,hochenwartii7 is persecuted and devoured by the scorpioniform ,blothrus spelus1 and by the eyeless spider 7,stalita tnaria74 ,the black and brown ,leptodirus discovered in the ,grotto of ,adelsberg in #ahca1 by ,count ,hochenwart1 is distinguished by long and delicate antenn and legs1 and comparatively small translucent and smooth elytra4 ,the unique specimen found at the time was unfortunately lost1 and although twenty-five florins were offered to the cavern guides for one of these beetles1 fourteen years passed before it was re- discovered in the same cave4 ,since then other collectors have been more fortunate1 particularly ,prince ,robert ,khevenhller1 who1 during his repeated visits to the ,cave of ,adelsberg1 captured no less than twenty specimens of the ,leptodirus4 ,cautiously feeling its way with its long antenn1 the beetle slowly ascends the damp stalactital columns1 and accelerates its movements at the approach of a light4 ,the greater number were found in the evening1 thus giving reason for supposing that the ,leptodirus is a noctural beetle1 although it is hardly possible to conceive how the alternating influence of night and day can still be felt in these regions of darkness4 ,the manner in which it is pursued by the eyeless ,blothrus 7discovered in #ahcc1 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,schmidt71 has been several times observed by ,prince ,khevenhller4 ,he once saw one of these cavern scorpions slowly crawling along1 stretching out its palpi in all directions1 and evidently on the search4 ,he immediately guessed that the animal was engaged in a hunting expedition1 and soon found that he was not mistaken1 for a fine ,leptodirus was crawling about four feet higher on the opposite wall4 ,for a long time the ,prince left the two insects undisturbed1 until he had thoroughly convinced himself that the movements of the ,blothrus were evidently regulated by those of the ,leptodirus1 and that the former was1 beyond all doubt1 in pursuit of the beetle4 ,a ,leptodirus having been thrown along with a ,blothrus into a phial1 was immediately cut to pieces and devoured4 ,the eyeless cavern spider 7,stalita tnaria71 with brownish palp and a snow-white abdomen1 is not seldom found in the hollows of the stalactites1 lying in wait for the unfortunate ,leptodirus4 ,on the surface of the earth spiders are frequently obliged to fast for a very long time2 but in caverns where life is so sparingly distributed1 the patience of the ,stalita must be exemplary1 even among spiders4 ,her appearance on the snow-white stalactital columns1 where she only becomes visible when illumined by the full light of a taper1#ba is very striking4 ,like a vision1 she sweeps away in her ivory robe1 accompanied by her increasing shadow1 until she finally disappears in the darkness4 ,footnote #ba3 ,torches are not allowed to be carried in the ,grotto of ,adelsberg1 that the whiteness of the stalactites may not be tarnished by the smoke4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,proteus ,,aguinus4 ,but the largest and most interesting of all the ,european cave animals is undoubtedly the ,olm 7,proteus anguinus2 ,hypochthon74 ,this enigmatic reptile was first found in the famous ,lake of ,cirknitz1 which1 communicating with numerous subterranean caves1 alternately receives and loses its waters through openings in the rock4 ,after long and heavy rains the floods1 which the hidden vaults are no longer able to contain1 gush forth in foaming cataracts1 and the lake1 which generally forms but a long and narrow channel1 then swells to at least three times its ordinary width4 ,sometimes1 after a long drought1 the contrary takes place1 and the whole lake disappears under ground4 ,thus1 from ,december #ahcc to ,october #ahcd1 not a trace of it was visible1 so thoroughly had it concealed itself in its subterranean reservoirs1 where its fishes1 secure from the persecutions of man1 multiplied in a remarkable manner4 ,the ,olm1 which only casually comes to the light of day1 along with the overflowing waters of the ,cirknitz ,lake1 was first discovered in #ahad1 in one of its permanent subterranean abodes4 ,the ,magdalena or #8,black ,grotto' situated about a league to the north of ,adelsberg1 slants abruptly into the bowels of the mountain4 ,after a long and difficult passage over blocks of stone or through soft mud1 a tranquil pool is at length reached1 which rises or falls simultaneously with the waters of the ,poik1 and proves1 by this reciprocal action1 that1 in all probability1 all the numerous grottoes and subterranean river channels of this so strangely undermined country form but one vast and intricate network4 ,it was in this pool1 which no light illumines and no wind ever stirs1 that numerous ,protei were first discovered2 but as hundreds of specimens have since found their way to the cabinets of naturalists1 to be observed1 dissected1 or bottled up in spirits1 their number has very much decreased1 and the time is perhaps not far distant when they will be entirely extirpated in the grotto1 where from time immemorial they had enjoyed an undisturbed security4 ,the ,proteus is one of those remarkable reptiles which breathe at the same time through lungs and gills1 having on each side of the neck three rose-red branchi1 which it retains through life1 as its lungs are but imperfectly developed4 ,it has a long1 eel-like body with an elongated head1 a compressed tail1 and four very short and thin legs4 ,the skin is flesh-coloured1 and so translucent that the liver and the heart1 which beats about fifty times in a minute1 can be distinctly seen underneath4 ,in spite of its apparent weakness1 it is able to glide rapidly through the water4 ,its four little legs remain immovable while swimming2 they are only used for creeping1 and then in a very imperfect manner4 ,during rapid movements the gills swell and assume a lively scarlet colour2 when quiet1 they collapse and become white like the rest of the body4 ,sometimes the animal raises its head above the water to breathe1 but pulmonary respiration evidently plays but a secondary part in its economy1 as it can only live a very short time out of the water4 ,the skeleton consists almost entirely of cartilage4 ,the eyes1 two little black spots1 lie buried under the skin1 and1 as may well be imagined1 are very imperfectly developed4 ,although more than a thousand specimens have been observed1 yet but little is known about its mode of life1 nor has it been ascertained whether it is oviparous or brings forth live young4 ,in a captive state the ,proteus is able to live for several years without any apparent food2 but on fastening a small worm to the extremity of a thin stick1 and holding it under the water close to the head of the reptile1 it shoots rapidly towards it1 swallows it with the same velocity1 then ejects it again1 and repeats this manuvre several times1 until it finally retains the morsel4 ,the untiring zeal of the ,german naturalists has discovered the ,proteus in thirty-one different caverns1 and ascertained seven distinct species1 varying by their size1 the form of the head1 the position of the eyes1 and the colour of the skin4 ,six of these species belong to the caverns of ,carniola1 and the seventh to those of ,dalmatia4 ,two different species never inhabit the same cavern4 ,during the visit which the ,archduke ,ferdinand paid1 in #ahai1 to the ,magdalena ,grotto1 the most remarkable parts of the cave were brilliantly illuminated1 so as to produce a magical effect4 ,charon's boat1 issuing from a dark recess1 came gliding along over the black surface of the pool4 ,the grim ferryman drew up his net before the august visitors1 and presented them with six ,protei that had been entangled in its meshes4 ,dr4 ,schmidl mentions part of the subterranean river in the ,planina ,cave1 #a1gae fathoms from the entrance1 as the spot where the ,protei are most abundant4 ,near to a small cascade which the rivulet here forms over a reef1 the waters absolutely swarm with them1 and the light-coloured animals1 darting about in all directions in the dark stream1 afford a strange and picturesque spectacle4 ,as the cavern is of most difficult access1 they here enjoy a tranquillity rarely disturbed1 and no doubt they have many other still more hidden retreats1 to which man is incapable of penetrating4 ,the best method for transporting the ,proteus is now perfectly understood1 and living specimens have been conveyed as far as ,russia1 ,hungary1 and ,scotland4 ,all that they need is a frequent supply of fresh water1 and a careful removal of all light4 ,their food need cause no trouble1 as the water contains all they require4 ,it is recommended to lay a piece of stalactite from their native grotto in the vase in which they are transported4 ,when resting or sleeping1 they then coil themselves round the stone1 as if tenderly embracing it4 ,in this manner they have already been kept above five years out of their caverns4 ,the guides to the ,grotto of ,adelsberg have always got a supply on hand1 and sell them for about two florins a-piece4 ,on turning our attention from the grottoes of ,carniola to those of the ,new ,world1 we find1 in the vast ,mammoth ,cave in ,kentucky1 a no less interesting animal creation1 which1 though different from that of the ,austrian caverns1 still shows a certain family resemblance1 and affords another proof that a similarity of external circumstances always produces analogous forms of organic life4 ,thus1 the two blind beetles which are found in the ,mammoth ,cave belong to the same genera 7,anophthalmus and ,adelops7 that have also their representatives in the ,grotto of ,adelsberg4 ,the largest insect is here a species of cricket1 with enormously long antenn2 there are also two small white eyeless spiders and a few crustaceans4 ,the ,mammoth ,cave has no proteiform reptile to boast of1 but a peculiar blind rat and a peculiar blind fish4 ,the cavern rat1 which is tolerably numerous1 but which1 on account of its remarkable timidity1 seldom shows itself1 differs from the common or ,norway rat1 by its bluish colour1 its white abdomen1 neck1 and feet1 and its soft hair4 ,it has large black eyes1 like those of a rabbit1 but entirely destitute of an iris1 and uncommonly long whiskers1 as if ,nature had wished to indemnify it for the loss of sight by a more perfect development of the sense of touch4 ,although the eyes of this rat are large and brilliant1 yet ,professor ,silliman convinced himself of their perfect insensibility to light4 ,all proof is wanting that it ever visits the upper world4 ,illustration3 ,,blind ,,fish 7,,amblyopsis ,,spel,,us74 ,the blind fish 7,amblyopsis spelus7 is now become tolerably rare from its having been so frequently fished out of the ,lethe stream1 as the subterranean river of the ,mammoth ,cave is called4 ,many physiologists have already made it the subject of their observations1 and are generally of opinion that the ,amblyopsis was not originally blind1 but that1 having found its way into the cave1 it gradually lost its powers of vision4 ,the celebrated naturalist ,agassiz1 however1 being perfectly convinced that all animals existing in a wild state have been created within their actual bounds with all the peculiarities of structure which distinguish them at the present day1 is of opinion that the blind fish and all the other blind animals of the ,mammoth ,cave are the aboriginal children of darkness1 and have at no time been connected with the world of light4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,caves ,,as ,,places ,,of ,,refuge4 ,the ,cave of ,adullam--,mahomet in the ,cave of ,thaur--,the ,cave of ,longara--,the ,cave of ,egg--,the ,caves of ,rathlin--,the ,cave of ,yeermalik--,the ,caves of ,granada--,aben ,aboo1 the ,morisco king--,the ,caves of ,gortyna and ,melidoni-- ,atrocities of ,french ,warfare in ,algeria--,the ,caves of the ,dahra--,the ,cave of ,shelas--,st4 ,arnaud4 ,in times of war or persecution1 caverns have often served as places of concealment4 ,it was in the cave of ,adullam that ,david hid himself to escape from the fury of ,saul2 and on the flight from ,mecca to ,medina1 ,mahomet and his disciple ,abu ,bekr took refuge in a cave in ,mount ,thaur4 ,they left ,mecca while it was yet dark1 making their way on foot by the light of the stars1 and the day dawned as they found themselves at the foot of the hill1 about an hour's distance from the holy city4 ,scarcely were they within the cave when they heard the sound of pursuit4 ,abu ,bekr1 though a brave man1 quaked with fear4 #8,our pursuers1' said he1 #8are many1 and we are but two4' #8,nay1' replied ,mahomet1 #8there is a third3 ,god is with us6' ,and here the ,moslem writers relate a miracle dear to the minds of true believers4 ,by the time1 say they1 that his pursuers1 the ,koreishites1 reached the mouth of the cave1 an acacia-tree had sprung up before it1 in the spreading branches of which a pigeon had made its nest and laid its eggs1 and over the whole a spider had woven its web4 ,when the ,koreishites beheld these signs of undisturbed quiet1 they concluded that no one could recently have entered the cavern1 so they turned away and pursued their search in another direction4 ,but caverns have not always proved safe places of refuge1 and a barbarous enemy has often used them for the destruction of those who there vainly sought safety4 ,thus1 in ,palestine1 the ,jews1 who hid themselves with their wives and children in deep caverns hollowed in the flanks of a precipitous mountain1 could not escape the satellites of ,herod1 who1 let down from above in large baskets or tubs1 put these defenceless fugitives to the sword4 ,during the ,gallic war ,csar ordered his lieutenant ,crassus to wall up the mouths of the caves in which the inhabitants of ,aquitaine had sought a refuge1 and many of them were thus immured alive4 ,in the year #aeaj1 when the ,french army1 on its retreat from ,italy1 was traversing the defiles of ,piedmont1 the rearguard1 commanded by the famous ,chevalier ,bayard1 the good knight #8without fear or reproach1' having halted at ,longara1 the mercenaries1 who formed a considerable part of his troops1 spread over the country1 pillaging and destroying wherever they went4 ,to escape from these savage bands1 the nobles of the district persuaded about two thousand of the peasantry to accompany them1 with their families and an abundant supply of provisions1 into the ,cave of ,longara1 which forms a vast though low vaulted hall1 about #a1bjj feet long and #cjj feet broad1 but with an entrance so narrow that only a single person can pass at a time4 ,the mercenaries1 having discovered the secret of the cave1 rushed to the spot1 eager for pillage4 ,the unfortunate refugees vainly strove to soften the hearts of these barbarians1 but1 finding all supplications vain1 they took courage from despair1 and1 favoured by the natural strength of the cave1 repelled the attack of the first banditti who attempted to force an entrance4 ,the ruffians now returned to the charge in greater numbers2 but being still unable to accomplish their object1 they formed the diabolical plan of setting fire to a heap of hay1 straw1 and greenwood1 which they piled up before the mouth of the grotto4 ,the smoke penetrated into the cave and in a short time the two thousand wretches it contained--mostly women and children--were suffocated4 ,bayard1 enraged at this barbarous act1 which sullied his own honour1 ordered the ringleaders to be seized and hanged before the entrance of the cave4 ,while these malefactors were in the hands of the executioner1 a lad of fourteen1 the only survivor of the catastrophe1 was seen to crawl out of the grotto4 ,bayard ordered every aid to be rendered him which his state required1 and could not refrain from tears while listening to his lamentable tale4 ,the boy related that when the smoke began to spread in the cavern1 the nobles1 resolving to die at least like soldiers1 wanted to sally forth1 sword in hand1 but were prevented by the peasants1 who fell upon them and disarmed them1 saying1 #8,you have led us hither1 and here with us you shall die6' ,thus1 a few moments before a common doom was to destroy both nobles and serfs1 a horrible strife had arisen between them in the darkness of the cave4 #8,and thou1 my friend1' asked ,bayard1 #8by what miracle hast thou escaped death8' #8,i had remarked1' answered the lad1 #8a feeble ray of daylight in a corner of the grotto1 and applied my mouth to the crevice through which it passed4 ,i soon fainted1 but this small portion of fresh air preserved my life4 ,when ,i recovered my senses1 ,i remembered all that had passed1 but ,i was alone1 and it took me a long time to crawl out of the grotto4' #8,all thy companions1' answered ,bayard1 #8have been buried1 by my orders1 in consecrated ground2 and behold6 there hang their assassins6' ,unfortunately the history of our land is tarnished with similar deeds of atrocity4 ,a cave in the ,isle of ,egg1 one of the ,hebrides1 has a very narrow entrance1 through which one can hardly creep on knees and hands1 but it rises steep and lofty within1 and runs into the bowels of the rock to the depth of #bee measured feet4 ,the rude and stony bottom of this cave is strewed with the bones of men1 women1 and children1 the sad relics of the ancient inhabitants of the island1 #bjj in number1 of whose destruction the following story is related4 #8,the ,macdonalds1 of the ,isle of ,egg1 a people dependent on ,clanranald1 had done some injury to the ,laird of ,macleod4 ,the tradition of the isle says that it was by a personal attack on the chieftain1 in which his back was broken2 but that of the other isles bears that the injury was offered to two or three of the ,macleods1 who1 landing upon ,egg1 and behaving insolently towards the islanders1 were bound hand and foot1 and turned adrift in a boat1 which the winds and waves safely conducted to ,skye4 ,to avenge the offence given1 ,macleod sailed with such a body of men as rendered resistance hopeless4 ,the natives1 fearing his vengeance1 concealed themselves in the cavern2 and1 after strict search1 the ,macleods went on board their galleys1 after doing what mischief they could1 concluding the inhabitants had left the isle4 ,but next morning they espied from their vessels a man upon the island1 and1 immediately landing again1 they traced his retreat1 by means of a light snow on the ground1 to the cavern4 ,macleod then summoned the subterraneous garrison1 and demanded that the inhabitants who had offended him should be delivered up4 ,this was peremptorily refused4 ,the chieftain thereupon caused his people to divert the course of a rill of water1 which1 falling over the mouth of the cave1 would have prevented his purposed vengeance4 ,he then kindled at the entrance of the cavern a huge fire1 and maintained it until all within were destroyed by suffocation4'#bb ,footnote #bb3 ,voyages in the ,lighthouse ,yacht1 published in ,lockhart's #8,life of ,sir ,walter ,scott4' ,in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 a no less horrible deed occurred during the campaign of ,essex against the ,irish rebels4 ,when the ,english forces entered ,antrim1 the ,scots of that county had sent their wives and children1 their aged and their sick1 to the island of ,rathlin for safety4 ,sir ,john ,norris was directed by the ,earl to cross over and kill all that he could find4 ,the run up the ,antrim coast was rapidly and quietly accomplished4 ,before an alarm could be given the ,english had landed close to the church which bears ,columba's name4 ,the castle was taken by storm1 and every soul in it--about two hundred--put to the sword4 ,it was then discovered that the greater part of the fugitives1 chiefly mothers and their little ones1 were hidden in the caves about the shores4 #8,there was no remorse1' says ,froude1 #8not even the faintest shadow of perception that the occasion called for it4 ,they were hunted out as if they had been seals or otters1 and all destroyed4' ,when the barbarian ,genghis ,khan invaded ,koondooz in ,central ,asia1 #gjj men took refuge1 with their wives and families1 in the cave of ,yeermalik1 and defended themselves so valiantly that1 after trying in vain to destroy them by fire1 the invader built them in with huge natural blocks of stone1 and left them to die of hunger4 ,in the year #ahdj1 the cave was visited by ,captain ,burslem and ,lieutenant ,sturt1 probably the only ,europeans that ever entered its sepulchral recesses1 as the people in the neighbourhood believe it to be the abode of ,sheitan 7the devil71 and are as reluctant to guide a stranger as to explore it themselves4 ,the entrance is halfway up a hill1 and is fifty feet high1 with about the same breadth4 ,not far from the entrance the travellers found a passage between two jagged rocks1 possibly the remains of ,genghis ,khan's fatal wall1 so narrow that they had some difficulty in squeezing through1 and then before long came to a drop of sixteen feet1 down which they were lowered by ropes4 ,here they left two men to haul them up on their return1 and bade farewell to the light of day4 ,the narrow path1 which led by the edge of a black abyss1 sometimes over a flooring of smooth ice for a few feet1 widened gradually till they reached a damp and dripping hall1 so vast in size that the light of their torches did not enable them to form any idea of its size4 ,in this colossal hall1 or rather tomb1 they found the remains of the victims of ,genghis ,khan3 hundreds of skeletons in a perfectly undisturbed state-- one1 for instance1 still holding the skeletons of two infants in its long arms--while some of the bodies had been preserved1 and lay shrivelled1 like the mummies reposing in the sepulchral vault of the ,great ,st4 ,bernard4 ,in the dark history of ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 one of the darkest passages is that of the rebellion and final destruction of the ,moors of ,granada4 ,driven to despair by an intolerable tyranny1 the unfortunate people at length rose in arms against their oppressors2 but all their bravery1 aided by the natural strength of their mountain fastnesses1 failed to defend them against the superior arms of their pitiless enemy4 ,defeated in every encounter1 driven from every stronghold1 thousands perished by famine or the sword1 and those who submitted were either condemned to a cruel death or exiled from their native soil4 ,many were driven to seek a refuge in the caves of the ,alpujarras1 south-east of ,granada1 and of the bold sierras that stretch along the southern shores of ,spain4 ,their pursuers followed up the chase with the fierce glee of the hunter tracking the wild beast of the forest to his lair4 ,there they were huddled together1 one or two hundred frequently in the same cavern4 ,it was not easy to detect the hiding-place amidst the rocks and thickets which covered up and concealed the entrance4 ,but when it was detected1 it was no difficult matter to destroy the inmates4 ,the green bushes furnished the material for a smouldering fire1 and those within were soon suffocated by the smoke1 or1 rushing out1 threw themselves on the mercy of their pursuers4 ,some were butchered on the spot2 others were sent to the gibbet or the galleys2 while the greater part1 with a fate scarcely less terrible1 were given up as the booty of the soldiers1 and sold into slavery4 ,aben ,aboo1 the last chief of the insurgents1 who had hitherto eluded every attempt to seize him1 but whose capture was of more importance than that of any other of his nation1 had a narrow escape in one of these caverns not far from ,berchal1 where he lay hid with a wife and two of his daughters4 ,the women were suffocated1 with about seventy other persons2 but the ,morisco chief succeeded in making his escape through an aperture at the further end1 which was unknown to his enemies4 ,unfortunately1 the little king of the ,alpujarras1 as he was contemptuously called by the ,spaniards1 was soon after killed in another cavern by a traitor's hand1 and with him fell the last hope of the ,moriscos4 ,his corpse1 set astride on a mule1 and supported erect in the saddle by a wooden frame1 concealed beneath ample robes1 was led in triumphal procession through the streets of ,granada1 and then decapitated4 ,the body was given to the rabble1 who1 after dragging it through the streets with scoffs and imprecations1 committed it to the flames1 while the head1 inclosed in a cage1 was set up over the gate which opened on the ,alpujarras4 ,there it remained for many a year1 no one venturing to remove it1 for on the cage was inscribed1 #8,this is the head of the traitor ,aben ,aboo4 ,let no one take it down1 under pain of death4' ,the neighbourhood of ,gortyna1 in the island of ,crete1 has become celebrated in modern times for a mountain-labyrinth1 with numerous and intricate passages1 which exists in a valley near it1 and in which the myth of the ,ddalean labyrinth was probably localised4 ,during the revolutionary war against the ,turkish yoke 7#ahbb-ahbh7 the ,christian inhabitants of the adjacent villages1 for months together1 lived in this cavern1 merely sallying out by day to till their lands1 or to gather their crops1 when it was safe to do so4 ,though the dark recesses of the cavern were not very inviting abodes for human beings for any long period1 yet the sense of safety gave it1 doubtless1 a peculiar charm2 for no one could approach within range of the numerous muskets pointed from masked loopholes at its entrance1 without being immediately shot down2 nor could either fire or smoke suffocate or dislodge its inmates1 as the entrance is in the side of a steep hill1 #ejj or #fjj feet above the bed of the wild valley in which it is situated1 and thus is safe from attack in every direction4 ,history as well as tradition states that1 in all troubled times in ,crete1 the labyrinth of ,gortyna has been the retreat of the inhabitants of the neighbourhood2 but when ,captain ,spratt visited it in #aheb1 its only inhabitants were bats1 who1 by their mode of hooking on to each other1 were hanging from the ceiling like clusters of bees4 ,under good native guides1 he spent nearly two hours in threading its tortuous passages1 which turn in so many ways and have so many branches as to justify the conclusion that a master hand must have directed the excavation4 ,the mark of the tool is seen upon every side of the avenues and chambers1 indicative of its artificial character4 ,less fortunate than their brethren of ,gortyna were the unfortunate ,cretans who1 during the same war1 took refuge in the cave of ,melidoni4 ,in #ahbb1 when ,hussein ,bey marched against the neighbouring village1 the inhabitants1 to the number of three hundred1 repaired to the cave1 taking with them their valuables and provisions sufficient for six months4 ,the entrance is so narrow and steep that they were perfectly secured against an attack1 and the ,turks in their first attempt lost twenty-five men4 ,finding that they refused submission on any terms1 ,hussein ,bey ordered a quantity of combustibles to be brought to the entrance and set on fire4 ,the smoke1 rolling into the cavern in immense volumes1 drove the miserable fugitives into the remoter chambers1 where they lingered a little while longer1 but were all eventually suffocated4 ,the ,turks waited some days1 but still did not dare to enter1 and a ,greek captive was finally sent down on the promise of his life being spared4 ,the ,turks then descended and plundered the bodies4 ,a week afterwards1 three natives of the village stole into the cavern to see what had become of their friends and relatives4 ,it is said that they were so overcome by the terrible spectacle that two of them died within a few days4 ,years afterwards1 when the last vestiges of the insurrection had been suppressed1 the ,archbishop of ,crete blessed the cavern1 making it consecrated ground2 and the bones of the victims were gathered together and partially covered up1 in the outer chamber--a vast elliptical hall1 about eighty feet in height1 and propped in the centre by an enormous stalactitic pillar4 ,on all sides the stalactites hang like fluted curtains from the roof1 here in broad sheeted masses1 there dropping into single sharp folds1 but all on a scale of ,titanic grandeur4 ,in this imposing and silent hall1 under the black banners of eternal ,night1 lay heaped the mouldering skulls and bones of the poor ,christians4 ,they could not have had a more appropriate sepulchre4 ,such have been the atrocities of ,turkish warfare within the memory of living man2 but ,french officers have in our days emulated the cruelty of ,ottoman commanders1 and shown that the nation which boasts of marching at the head of civilisation has still retained much of its ancient ,gallic barbarism4 ,when ,marshal ,pelissier filled with smoke the crowded caves of the ,dahra in #ahdd1 and destroyed many hundreds of ,kabyls whose great crime it was to defend their country against the ,french hordes1 it has been stated1 as an excuse for this atrocity1 that he left open some of the entrances to the caves1 and that he only resorted to the smoke as a means of compelling the fugitives to come out and surrender2 but no such excuse can be pleaded in favour of his successor1 ,st4 ,arnaud4 ,in the summer of #ahde1bc this ,french commander received private information that a body of ,arabs had taken refuge in the cave of ,shelas4 ,thither he marched a body of troops4 ,eleven of the fugitives came out and surrendered2 but it was known to ,st4 ,arnaud1 though not to any other ,frenchman1 that five hundred men remained in the cave4 ,all these people ,colonel ,st4 ,arnaud determined to kill1 and at the same time to keep the deed secret even from the troops engaged in the operation1 as the smoking of the ,caves of the ,dahra had not greatly tended to raise ,france in the public opinion of ,europe4 ,except his brother and ,marshal ,bugeaud1 whose approval was the prize he sought1 no one was to know what he did4 ,he contrived to execute both his purposes4 ,thus he writes to his brother3--#8,i had all the apertures hermetically stopped up4 ,i made one vast sepulchre4 ,no one went into the caverns2 no one but myself knew that under these there are #ejj brigands who will never again slaughter ,frenchmen4 ,a confidential report has told all to the marshal1 without terrible poetry or imagery4 ,brother1 no one is so good as ,i am by taste and by nature4 ,from the #hth to the #abth ,i have been ill1 but my conscience does not reproach me4 ,i have done my duty as a commander1 and to-morrow ,i would do the same over again2 but ,i have taken a disgust to ,africa4' ,with such nauseous sentiment wrote the man1 #8good by taste and nature1' who seven years later was to attach the memory of his name to the bloody days of ,december1 and to deal with many a ,french republican as he had dealt with the ,arabs4 ,footnote #bc3 ,kinglake4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,hermit ,,caves--,,rock ,,temples--,,rock ,,churches4 ,st4 ,paul of ,thebes--,st4 ,anthony--,his ,visit to ,alexandria1 and death-- ,numerous ,cave ,hermits in the ,east--,st4 ,benedict in the ,cave of ,subiaco-- ,st4 ,cuthbert--,st4 ,beatus--,rock ,temples of ,kanara--,the ,wonders of ,ellora-- ,ipsamboul--,rock ,churches of ,lalibala in ,abyssinia--,the ,cave of ,trophonios--,the ,grotto of ,st4 ,rosolia near ,palermo--,the ,chapel of ,agios ,niketas in ,greece--,the ,chapel of ,oberstein on the ,nahe--,the repentant fratricide4 ,the dim twilight of a forest1 its leafy vaults1 its majestic silence1 or its foliage moaning in the wind1 are all apt to strike the mind with a religious awe4 ,but the solitude and stillness of caverns is equally well adapted to awaken feelings of devotion1 and thus we find that contemplative minds in every age1 and of every creed1 have found in them congenial retreats4 ,the ,indian fakir and the ,mahometan dervish love the seclusion of the silent grotto1 and here also the ,hebrew prophets not seldom enjoyed their ecstatic visions4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,rock-,,cut ,,temple3 ,,porch ,,of ,,the ,,chaitya ,,cave ,,temple1 ,,ajunta4 ,there can be no doubt that1 during the first ages of ,christianity many an unknown anchorite retired to some solitary cave1 as to a harbour of refuge from the rude contact of the world2 but the first hermit mentioned in ecclesiastical history is ,st4 ,paul of ,thebes1 in ,egypt1 who1 during the persecution of ,decius1 in the middle of the third century1 retreated to the desert1 where1 dwelling in a cave1 and living on the fruits of trees1 he reached his hundredth year4 ,his friend and disciple1 ,st4 ,anthony1 who first roused among his contemporaries a wide- spread inclination for hermit seclusion1 plays a far more conspicuous part in the annals of the ,church4 ,born of wealthy ,coptic peasants1 this remarkable man1 at the age of twenty1 divided his whole property among the poor1 and thenceforth devoted himself to a life of the strictest ascetism4 ,he retired first to a rock-cave in the neighbourhood of his native village1 and then to the more distant ruins of a deserted castle1 where he spent twenty years as a hermit4 ,meanwhile his reputation for sanctity had spread throughout all ,egypt1 and numerous candidates for a hermit life besought him to take them under his spiritual care4 ,he yielded to their entreaties1 and soon the neighbouring desert was crowded with the huts of zealous anchorites1 who revered him as their model4 ,but he was surrounded not only by these pious disciples2 the worldly-minded also came flocking to his cave for advice or assistance2 for the belief was general that1 like the first ,apostles1 he was gifted with the power of casting out devils and foretelling future events4 ,anthony1 thus disturbed in his solitary meditations1 resolved to bury himself still deeper in the desert1 and fled to a cave in the furthest parts of ,egypt1 near a source shaded by a few date-palms4 ,here he hoped to be able to live entirely for prayer and contemplation1 but his hopes proved vain1 for1 after a long search1 his disciples discovered his retreat1 and again anchorites and worldlings broke in upon his solitude4 ,in his hundredth year he was prevailed upon by ,st4 ,athanasius to visit ,alexandria1 where1 whenever he appeared1 crowds gathered round him to kiss the hem of his garment and to implore his blessing4 ,even the ,emperor ,constantine the ,great wrote to him2 yet so indifferent had he become to all worldly distinctions that he could with difficulty be prevailed upon to have the letter read to him4 ,thus1 honoured by high and low1 and yet avoiding all honour1 ,anthony reached the patriarchal age of #aje4 ,at the approach of death he begged two of his most beloved disciples to conduct him to the wildest part of the desert4 ,here he died in their arms1 after having first made them promise to keep the place of his burial secret1 as he feared that an undue reverence might be paid to his bones4 ,anthony's example was followed far and wide over the eastern world4 ,whole colonies of hermits settled in the desert of ,thebes1 near ,lake ,moeris1 in ,southern ,palestine1 in ,armenia1 and ,pontus4 ,their numbers amounted to thousands1 many living in rude huts1 which they erected with their own hands1 while others found a congenial retreat in the grottoes and rock-tombs which abound in many of the countries where they dwelt4 ,from the ,east the spirit of monastic seclusion soon spread to ,western ,europe4 ,st4 ,benedict1 the founder of the order which has rendered such signal service to learning during the ,middle ,ages1 spent three years in an inaccessible cave near ,subiaco1 five leagues from ,tivoli4 ,romanus1 a monk in a neighbouring convent1 alone knew of his retreat1 and daily let down by a rope1 from the top of the rock in which the cave was situated1 the small quantity of bread which he needed for his subsistence4 ,here he was at length discovered by some shepherds1 who at first sight took him for a wild beast1 as he was clothed in skins1 but soon discovered that he was a saint by the wise lessons he gave them4 ,a similar longing for a life of pious seclusion induced ,st4 ,cuthbert to quit the ,convent of ,lindisfarne1 of which he had been prior1 and to seek a retreat in a grotto excavated by his own hands1 on one of the ,farne ,islands1 on the coast of ,northumberland4 ,an ox-hide1 which he hung before its entrance and turned towards the side whence the wind blew1 afforded a scanty shelter against the rigours of a northern winter4 ,but the fame of his sanctity spread over all ,england1 and numerous pilgrims resorted to his cave1 to profit by his advice1 or to seek consolation in their troubles4 ,one day1 when he had spent eight years in seclusion1 the king of ,northumbria1 attended by his principal nobles1 landed on ,cuthbert's island-rock to beg him to accept the episcopal dignity of ,durham1 to which he had been elected4 ,the holy anchorite yielded1 with many tears1 and after an obstinate resistance1 for he was loth to accept duties which tore him from his solitude4 ,after two years he resigned his bishopric1 and returned to his beloved cave1 where he shortly after died4 ,according to a popular legend the ,entrochi1 or calcareous joints of the petrified ,lily-,encrinites1 which are found among the rocks of the ,farne ,islands1 are forged by his spirit1 and pass there by the name of #8,st4 ,cuthbert's beads4' ,while at this task1 he is supposed to sit during the night upon a certain rock1 and to use another as his anvil4 #8,such tales had ,whitby's fishers told1 ,and said they might his shape behold1 ,and hear his anvil sound2 ,a deadened clang--a huge dim form1 ,seen but1 and heard1 when gathering storm ,and night was closing round4'--,marmion4 ,the ,beatenberg1 situated on the northern side of the lake of ,thun1 is named after a celebrated cave in which ,st4 ,beatus1 originally a ,british noble1 who had come to preach the ,gospel to the wild men of the district1 dwelt for many years1 and died at the advanced age of ninety4 ,his relics remaining there1 his fte-day attracted such crowds of pilgrims that reforming ,berne sent two deputies in #aebh to carry off the saint's skull and bury it between the lakes of ,thun and ,brienz2 but still the pilgrimages continued1 and at length1 in #aeff1 the ,protestant zeal of ,berne went to the expense of a wall1 and thus effectually shut out the pilgrims1 who1 in more modern times1 have been profitably replaced by crowds of tourists4 ,both in the heathen and the ,christian world1 grottoes1 particularly such as had been hallowed by the lives of sainted anchorites1 have frequently been consecrated to divine service2 and to render them still more worthy of their destination1 the rude excavations of nature have not seldom been enlarged and beautified with all the resources of art4 ,among these subterranean places of worship1 those of ,india are deservedly renowned for their colossal size1 and for the vast labour bestowed upon the sculptures with which they are adorned4 ,a description of the famous rock-temples of ,kanara1 in the island of ,salsette1 near ,bombay1 will give the reader some idea of their magnificence4 ,the way leads over a narrow mountain-path1 through a jungle so dense that the traveller is obliged to quit his palanquin1 and to ascend on foot the steep acclivity1 from which1 at some distance from the summit1 the large temple overlooks the country4 ,this colossal work is hewn out of the solid rock1 ninety feet long and thirty-eight feet broad1 with a corresponding height1 and forms an oblong square with a vaulted roof4 ,two colossal rows of columns divide the hall into three naves or avenues1 and give it the form of an ancient basilica4 ,as the ,temple of ,kanara served the ,portuguese for some time as a church1 during their occupation of the small archipelago of ,bombay1 the heathen sculptures which decorated the interior have naturally been mostly destroyed4 ,this is the more to be regretted as the well-preserved and masterly-executed capitals of the mighty columns justify the belief that their artistic merit must have been worthy of the grand dimensions of the hall4 ,the beautiful portico1 however1 is still richly decorated4 ,on each side a recess contains a colossal1 well-executed statue1 and long inscriptions in unknown characters are carved on the square pillars of the entrance4 ,the charms of a mysterious past thus add to the interest of this beautiful monument1 the work of an astonishing patience and perseverance4 ,the outer face of the portico1 as well as the vestibule extending before it1 twenty-eight feet deep1 have been considerably injured by the ravages of time3 many stones have started from their joints1 and a multitude of creeping plants cling to the mouldering statues4 ,thus the efforts of man to rear eternal monuments are vain2 they must necessarily yield to the living powers of nature4 #8,the cloud-capped towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 ,the solemn temples1 the great globe itself1 ,yea1 all which it inherit1 shall dissolve1 ,and1 like this unsubstantial pageant faded1 ,leave not a rack behind4'#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,shakespeare1 #8,tempest1' iv4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,rock-,,temples ,,of ,,ajunta4 ,steps are hewn in the rock to the summit of the mountain1 and various intricate paths lead to smaller excavations1 consisting mostly of two cells and a portico4 ,near each of them is a well or basin1 likewise hewn out of the rock1 in which the rain-water collects1 affording a grateful beverage to the tired wanderer4 ,many of these caves are larger and more perfect than the others1 and some in their general effect resemble the great temple1 although far inferior in size and decoration4 ,the whole aspect of this perforated mountain shows that a complete cave- town1 capable of containing several thousand inhabitants1 has been hollowed out in its flanks4 ,the largest excavation was1 beyond a doubt1 the chief temple4 ,the smaller caves1 arranged according to the same plan1 likewise served for devotional purposes2 and the rest were dwellings more or less commodious and large according to the rank or means of their possessors1 or1 what is still more likely1 the abode of pious ,brahmans and their scholars at the time when ,india was the cradle of arts and sciences1 while the nations of ,europe were still plunged in barbarism4 ,from the summit of this wonderful mountain the spectator enjoys a beautiful prospect4 ,the island of ,salsette lies before him as if spread out on a map1 affording a most agreeable variety of rice-fields and cocoa-nut groves1 of villages and meadows1 of woody hills and fruitful vales4 ,the surrounding mountains form a foreground of grey rocks1 dotted with trees1 or excavated into dark grottoes1 once the abode of fakirs1 but now the retreats of tigers1 snakes1 huge bats1 and enormous swarms of bees1 while towards the south the horizon is bounded by the island of ,bombay1 with its forest of masts1 towards the east by the mainland1 towards the north by ,bassein and the neighbouring mountains1 and towards the south by the ocean4 ,the enjoyment of the picturesque scene is marred only by the many tigers which infest the mountains1 and frequently descend into the plain1 where they not only carry away sheep and oxen1 but also tear many a poor ,hindoo to pieces4 ,the rock-temples of ,kanara are rivalled by those of ,elephanta1 ,karli1 and ,ajunta1 and far surpassed in magnificence and extent by the excavations of ,ellora1 near the town and fort of ,dowlatabad1 where a whole mountain of hard red granite has been hollowed out into an immense range of highly ornamented grottoes and temples1 fit for the residence of a whole pantheon of deities1 and for the reception of a whole nation of pilgrims4 ,about three miles to the north of ,madras1 where the rock touches the sea1 navigators had long remarked some pillars of stone rising from the water and covered with rude sculptures4 ,from these the spot received the name of the ,seven ,pagodas4 ,most of them have since been destroyed by the tides1 and one only is still standing1 though tottering to its fall4 ,these1 however1 were but the advanced posts of the colossal excavations in the rocky wall behind2 for here also are seen large grottoes1 porticoes1 and temples1 as at ,ellora1 though of somewhat smaller proportions1 and of less beautiful execution4 ,they are dedicated to the worship of ,vishnu and ,siva1 and covered with inscriptions4 ,a whole rock- town1 or at least a vast sanctuary1 thus lies concealed on this solitary coast4 ,similar cave-temples are met with in ,cochin ,china1 ,birmah1 ,malwah1 and ,ceylon1 where the spacious rock-temple of ,dambool is deservedly celebrated for its antiquity1 and for its numerous statues of ,buddha1 in the varied attitudes of exhortation and repose4 ,on the banks of the mysterious ,nile we find rock-temples rivalling those of ,india in colossal grandeur1 and among these ,ipsamboul is pre-eminent in splendour4 #8,after sailing for some hours1' says ,warburton1#be #8through a country quite level on the eastern bank1 we come upon a precipitous rocky mountain1 starting up so suddenly from the river's edge1 that its very summits are reflected in the water4 ,we moored under a sand-bank1 and1 accompanied by half-a-dozen of the crew with torches1 approached this isolated and stupendous rock4 ,yet even here the daring genius of ,ethiopian architecture ventured to enter into rivalry with ,nature's greatness1 and found her material in the very mountains that seemed to bid defiance to her efforts4 ,footnote #be3 #8,the ,crescent and the ,cross4' #8,on the face of the vertical cliff a recess is excavated to the extent of about a hundred feet in width4 ,from this four gigantic figures stand out in very bold relief4 ,between the two central stony giants1 a lofty doorway opens into a vast hall1 supported by square pillars1 each the size of a tower1 and covered with hieroglyphics4 ,just enough painting still glimmers faintly on these columns to show that they were formerly covered with it2 and the walls are carved into historic figures in slight relief2 these1 as our torches threw an uncertain glare over them1 seemed to move and become instinct with life4 #8,this temple was dedicated to ,athor1 the lady of ,aboccis 7the ancient name of ,ipsamboul71 who is represented within under the form of the sacred bow4 ,this was1 however1 a mere 8chapel of ease0 to the great temple1 excavated from a loftier rock1 about fifty yards distant4 ,between these two a deep gorge once ran to the river1 but this is now choked up with sand1 in whose burning waves we waded knee-deep to the ,temple of ,osiris4 #8,here a space of about #ajj feet in height is hewn from the mountain2 smooth1 except for the reliefs4 ,along the summit runs a frieze of little monkeys in long array1 as if the architect felt the absurdity of the whole business1 or as ,byron sometimes finishes off a sublime sentence with a scoff4 ,then succeeds a line of hieroglyphics and some faintly- carved figures1 also in relief1 and then four colossal giants that seem to guard the portal4 ,they are seated on thrones 7which form1 with themselves1 part of the living rock71 and are about sixty feet high4 ,one is quite perfect1 admirably cut1 and the proportions admirably preserved2 the second is defaced as far as the knee2 the third is buried in sand to the waist2 and the fourth has only the face and neck visible above the desert's sandy avalanche4 #8,the doorway stands between the two central statues1 and is surmounted by the statue of ,isis wearing the moon as a turban4 #8,on entering1 the traveller finds himself in a temple1 which a few days' work might restore to the state in which it was left1 just finished1 three thousand years ago4 ,the dry climate and its extreme solitude have preserved its most delicate details from injury2 besides which it was hermetically sealed by the desert for thousands of years1 until ,burckhardt discovered it1 and ,mr4 ,hay cleared away its protecting sands4 #8,a vast and gloomy hall1 such as ,eblis might have given ,vathek audience in1 receives you in passing from the flaming sunshine into that shadowy portal4 ,it is some time before the eye can ascertain its dimensions through the imposing gloom1 but gradually there reveals itself1 around and above you1 a vast aisle1 with pillars formed of eight colossal giants1 upon whom the light of heaven has never shone4 ,these images of ,osiris are backed by enormous pillars1 behind which run two great galleries2 and in these torchlight alone enabled us to peruse a series of sculptures in relief representing the triumphs of ,rameses the ,second1 or ,sesostris4 ,the painting1 which once enhanced the effect of these spirited representations1 is not dimmed1 but crumbled away2 where it exists the colours are as vivid as ever4 #8,this unequalled hall is one hundred feet in length1 and from it eight lesser chambers1 all sculptured1 open to the right and left4 ,straight on is a low doorway opening into a second hall of similar height1 supported by four square pillars1 and within all is the adytum1 wherein stands a simple altar of the living rock in front of four large figures seated on rocky thrones4 ,this inner shrine is hewn at least one hundred yards into the rock1 and here1 in the silent depth of that great mountain1 these awful idols1 with their mysterious altar of human sacrifice1 looked very preadamitic and imposing4 ,they seemed to sit there waiting for some great summons which should awaken and reanimate these 8kings of the earth1 who lie in glory1 every one in his own house40 #8,we wandered through many chambers1 in which the air is so calm and undisturbed that the very smell of the torches of the last explorers of these caverns was perceptible4' ,in ,abyssinia the rock-churches of ,lalibala likewise give proof of an ancient state of civilisation1 strongly contrasting with the barbarism of the present times4 ,like the temples of ,ellora1 some of these curious structures have been hollowed out of single blocks of stone left standing in the centre of open courts excavated in the bosom of the rock1 while others are completely subterranean4 ,though far inferior in magnificence and extent to those wonderful edifices1 they are yet very remarkable4 ,the courts1 in which the three principal monolithic churches are respectively dedicated to our ,saviour1 to the ,holy ,virgin1 and to ,st4 ,emmanuel1 communicate with each other by narrow passages1 the whole thus forming a continued series of excavations4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,emmanuel is forty- eight feet long1 thirty-two feet broad1 and forty feet high1 but it is surpassed in size by the ,church of the ,holy ,virgin1 where the rock-walls of the court are moreover perforated with sepulchral vaults and with cells for the habitation of monks4 ,the town of ,lalibala is situated in a beautiful country1 #g1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 on the slope of the mighty ,ascheten mountain1 and commands a prospect of ,alpine magnificence4 ,though it is now reduced to about #b1jjj inhabitants1 its eight rock-churches 7five monolithic and subarial1 three subterranean71 prove that it must once have been a place of considerable importance4 ,divine service is still performed in all these churches1 which are the resort of numerous pilgrims1 and to whose service above #ejj priests1 monks1 and nuns are attached4 ,though ancient ,greece has no such huge rock-temples to boast of as ,india or ,egypt1 yet caverns played an important part in her ancient religious history4 #8,before the old tribes of ,hellas erected temples to the divinities1' says ,porphyry1 in his treatise ,de ,antro ,nympharum1 #8they consecrated caves and grottoes to their service2 in the island of ,crete to ,zeus1 in ,arcadia to ,artemis and to ,pan2 in the isle of ,naxos to ,dionysos4' ,caves were the site of some of the most celebrated ,grecian oracles4 ,the tripod of the ,delphian pythoness stood over a subterranean hollow1 from which the divine inspiration was supposed to ascend2 and pilgrims from all parts of ,hellas resorted to a cave in the neighbourhood of ,lebadeia1 a city of ,botia1 and named after ,trophonios1 a mythical personage who was supposed to have lived there for many years1 and was subsequently deified as an oracular god4 ,those who repaired to this cave for information were required1 after passing some preparatory days in a chapel dedicated to ,fortune and to the #8good genius1' to anoint themselves with oil1 to bathe in a certain river1 and to drink of the water of two neighbouring springs called ,lth and ,mnmosyn1 the first of which made them forgetful of the past1 while the second fixed in their memory all they heard and saw in the cavern4 ,they were then clothed in a linen robe1 took a honeyed cake in their hands1 and1 after praying before an ancient statue of ,trophonios1 descended into the subterranean chamber by a narrow passage4 ,here it was that the future was unfolded to them1 either by visions or extraordinary sounds4 ,the return from the cave was by the same passage1 but the persons consulting were obliged to walk backwards4 ,they generally came out astonished1 melancholy1 and dejected4 ,the priests on their return placed them on an elevated seat1 called the seat of ,mnmosyn or remembrance1 and the broken sentences they uttered in their confused state of mind were considered as the answer of the oracle4 ,they were then conducted to the chapel of the #8good genius1' where by degrees they recovered their usual composure and cheerfulness4 ,there can be no doubt that the priests introduced themselves into the cave by secret passages1 and worked upon the excited imagination of their dupes by terrible sounds and apparitions4 ,during the palmy days of the oracle1 the neighbourhood of the ,cave of ,trophonios was decorated with temples and statues2 at present its very site is uncertain4 ,like ancient paganism1 ,christianity not seldom celebrates her rites in caves hallowed by the memory of saints and anchorites4 ,a stately church rises over the ,grotto of the ,nativity1 at ,bethlehem1 and a magnificent pile has been constructed at ,jerusalem over the rock-tomb in which our ,saviour was buried4 ,the grotto on ,mount ,carmel1 to which the prophet ,elijah retreated from the world1 is now dedicated to divine worship1 in the convent which bears his name2 and the cave in which ,john the ,evangelist is said to have written the ,apocalypse during his exile in the island of ,patmos has also been converted into a chapel4 ,one of the most celebrated rock-churches is the grotto of ,st4 ,rosolia1 the patroness of ,palermo4 ,this illustrious lady was niece to ,king ,william the ,good1 and1 as the legends inform us1 no less remarkable for her beauty than for her virtues1 which made her the admiration of all ,sicily4 ,never was a princess more fitted to adorn society2 but the world had so few attractions for a spirit that could only breathe in the pure regions of piety1 that1 at the age of fifteen1 she retired to the solitary mountains1 and1 from the date of her disappearance1 in #aaei1 was never more heard of for about five hundred years4 ,the people thought she had been taken up to heaven1 as the fitting abode for her more than human perfections2 but in the year #afbd1 during the time of a dreadful plague1 a holy man had a vision that the saint's bones were lying in a cave near to the top of the ,monte ,pellegrino1 and that if these were taken up with due reverence and carried in procession thrice round the walls of the city1 they should immediately be delivered from the scourge4 ,the bones were accordingly sought and found1 thrice carried round the town1 as the vision had described1 and the plague suddenly ceased4 ,from that time ,st4 ,rosolia was revered as the patron saint of ,palermo1 and the remote cave where she probably spent many years of her solitary life1 became one of the most renowned sanctuaries of the ,catholic ,church1 and the resort of innumerable pilgrims4 ,the mountain is extremely high1 and so steep that before the discovery of ,st4 ,rosolia it was looked upon as almost inaccessible2 but a fine road1 very properly termed ,la ,scala1 or the stair1 has been cut out in the rock1 and leads from terrace to terrace1 over almost perpendicular precipices1 to the entrance of the holy grotto1 which is situated near the very top of the mountain1 and commands a magnificent prospect4 ,within two miles of the foot of the mountain1 the eye discerns the city of ,palermo1 with its beautiful villas and luxuriant gardens1 and then1 taking a wider range1 glances to the north1 over the dark blue sea bounded by the ,lipari ,islands and the ever-fuming cone of ,stromboli2 while to the east a large portion of ,etna1 although at the distance of almost the whole length of ,sicily1 towers like a giant above the minor mountain chains4 ,a church and other buildings1 forming a kind of court yard1 where some priests reside1 appointed to watch over the treasures of the place1 and to receive the offerings of pilgrims that visit them1 have been erected round the grotto4 ,as may easily be imagined1 the history of rock-chapels has frequently been embellished with legendary tales4 ,the chapel of ,agios ,niketas 7,st4 ,nicholas7 in ,crete1 is at present merely a smoky-looking cave beneath a large detached mass of rock1 lying on the slope of an abrupt mountain2 but there are still the remains of a building which once extended far beyond the present limits4 ,the roof of the cavern1 although very uneven1 is also elaborately ornamented with paintings1 representing the remarkable events in the life of the ,saviour and of ,st4 ,nicholas1 and showing that considerable cost and artistic care have been bestowed upon it4 ,though it is now abandoned1 an event that is said to have happened about four or five centuries ago gives this cave a special interest with the natives4 ,the church was crowded with ,christians from the adjacent villages on the eve of the festival of their patron saint ,agios ,niketas1 so as to be ready 7as is usual with the ,greeks7 for the matin service at daybreak4 ,but the fires which the assembled party had lighted near it had been observed at sea by a ,barbary corsair then cruising off the island1 and guided him to the spot1 where1 under the darkness of the night1 he landed his crew in a neighbouring cove4 ,thus unobserved1 they stole up to the church1 and1 finding it full of the natives1 closed the door and windows upon them1 and waited for day1 the better to secure their captives for embarkation4 ,in this dreadful plight the unfortunate ,cretans raised their voices in a general prayer to ,saint ,niketas4 ,their supplications were heard1 for the priest soon after informed them that the saint had shown him a way of escape--through the back part of the cavern1 by opening a small aperture communicating with another cavern that led finally out upon the mountain slope over the rock4 ,through this aperture they all silently crept unseen and unheard by the corsairs4 ,another interesting legend is attached to a small rock-chapel situated beneath the ruins of the ancient ,castle of ,oberstein1 on the ,nahe4 ,the ,baron of ,oberstein1 having1 in a fit of jealousy1 hurled his younger brother from the balcony of the castle1 fled from the scene of his crime4 ,for years he wandered1 a wretched outcast1 from land to land2 but wherever he went the curse of ,cain was upon him1 and left him no rest by night or day4 ,at length he came to ,rome1 to confess his fratricide at the feet of the ,sovereign ,pontiff1 who comforted him with the assurance that he would recover his lost peace by returning to ,oberstein and excavating with his own hands a rock-chapel for the interment of his brother on the spot where he fell4 ,soon after the self-banished lord made his appearance at ,oberstein in a hermit's garb1 and set to work upon the hard rock with indefatigable zeal4 ,never was labour performed with better will1 and such1 consequently1 was the progress of the excavation that it seemed as if he were assisted by the angels in his penitential task4 ,at the expiration of four years1 the rock-chapel was completed1 and the bones of the murdered man were conveyed with great ceremony to the tomb which had been prepared for their reception at the foot of the altar4 ,as soon as they were lowered into the grave1 the murderer bent over them2 a smile of ineffable happiness was seen to illumine his emaciated features1 and he dropped down dead upon the remains of his brother4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,ice-,,caves ,,and ,,wind-,,holes4 ,ice-caves of ,st4 ,georges and ,st4 ,livres--,beautiful ,ice-stalagmites in the ,cave of ,la ,baume--,the ,schafloch--,ice ,cataract in the ,upper ,glacire of ,st4 ,livres--,ice ,cavern of ,eisenerz--,the ,cave of ,yeermalik--,volcanic ,ice- caves--olian ,caverns of ,terni--,causes of the low temperature of ,ice- caves4 ,some caves1 remarkable for an extremely low temperature even in summer1 form natural ice-cellars1 though unconnected with glaciers or snow mountains1 and in latitudes and at altitudes where ice could not under ordinary circumstances be supposed to exist4 ,besides the interest attaching to these natural curiosities1 these ice-caves are sometimes lucrative sources of revenue to their owners1 or answer various purposes of use or comfort4 ,in hot summers1 when the supplies of the artificial ice-houses fail in ,geneva and ,lausanne1 the hotel-keepers have recourse to the stores laid up for them by nature in the ice-caves or glacires of ,st4 ,georges and ,st4 ,livres1 situated in the canton of ,vaud1 on the slope of the ,jura4 ,other ice-caves are made use of as dairies1 or as storehouses for cheese2 and the quarries of ,niedermendig1 near the small town of ,andernach1 on the ,rhine1 which are likewise remarkable for a glacial temperature1 serve as excellent beer-cellars4 ,to ,mr4 ,browne1 who has made them his special study1 we are indebted for an interesting account of the ice-caves of ,france and ,switzerland1#bf which1 as may naturally be expected in halls and galleries hung with drapery of transparent silver1 not seldom offer scenes of beauty rivalling the most renowned stalactital grottoes4 ,footnote #bf3 #8,ice ,caves of ,france and ,switzerland3 a ,narrative of ,subterranean ,exploration4' ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,browne4 ,longmans1 #ahfe4 ,illustration3 ,,lower ,,glaci,,re ,,of ,,st4 ,,livres4 ,in the ,glacire of ,grce-,dieu1 or ,la ,baume1 near ,besanon1 ,mr4 ,browne was particularly struck with three large stalagmites of ice rising in a line across the middle of the cave4 ,the central mass was remarkable only for its size1 the girth being sixty-six and a half feet at some distance from the ice-floor1 with which it blended2 but nothing could be more strikingly lovely than the stalagmite to its right1 owing to the good taste of some one1 who had found that much ice was wont to accumulate on that spot1 and had accordingly fixed the trunk of a small fir-tree1 with the upper branches complete1 to receive the water from the corresponding fissure in the roof4 ,the consequence was that1 while the actual tree had vanished from sight under its crystal covering1 the ice with which it was incrusted showed every elegance of form which a mould so graceful could suggest1 each twig of the different boughs becoming1 to all appearance1 a solid bar of frosted ice1 from which complicated groups of icicles streamed down4 ,but the mass to the left was the grandest and most beautiful of all4 ,it consisted of two lofty heads1 like weeping willows in ,carrara marble1 with three or four others less lofty1 resembling a family group of lions' heads in a subdued attitude of grief1 richly decked with icy manes4 ,similar heads seemed to grow out here and there from the solid sides of the huge mass1 which measured seventy-six and a half feet in girth about two feet from the floor4 ,when this column was looked at from the side removed from the entrance to the cave1 so that it stood in the centre of the light which poured down the long slope from the outer world1 the transparency of the ice made the whole look as if it were set in a narrow frame of impalpable liquid blue--the effect of light penetrating through the mass at its extreme edges4 ,other and no less striking beauties rewarded our subterranean explorer on his visit to the ,schafloch or ,trou-aux-,moutons1 a vast ice-cave on the ,rothhorn1 in the canton of ,berne1 which takes its name from the fact that1 when a sudden storm comes on1 the sheep and goats make their way to it for shelter1 though never going so far as the spot where the ice begins4 ,on entering the cave the way lies over a wild confusion of loose masses of stone1 which soon1 however1 begin to be intermingled with ice1 until the latter entirely hides the naked rock under a crystal mantle4 #8,on either side of the cave was a grand column of ice1 forming the portal1 as it were1 through which we must pass to further beauties4 ,the ice-floor rose to meet these columns in a graceful swelling curve1 perfectly continuous1 so that the general effect was that of two columns whose roots expanded and met in the middle of the cave4 ,convinced that internal investigations would prove interesting1 ,i began to chop a hole in one of the pillars about two feet from the ground1 and having made an entrance sufficiently large1 proceeded to get into the cavity which presented itself4 ,the flooring of the dome-shaped grotto in which ,i found myself was loose rock1 at a level of about two feet below the surface of the ice-floor1 on which my guide ,christian still stood4 ,the dome itself was not high enough to allow me to stand upright1 and from the roof1 principally from the central part1 a complex mass of delicate icicles passed down to the floor1 leaving a narrow burrowing passage round1 which was itself invaded by icicles from the lower part of the sloping roof1 and by stubborn stalagmites of ice rising from the floor4 ,the details of this central cluster of icicles1 and1 in fact1 of every portion of the interior of the strange grotto were exceedingly lovely1 and ,i crushed with much regret1 on hands and knees1 through fair crystal forests and frozen dreams of beauty4 ,in making the tour of this grotto1 contorting my body like a snake1 to get in and out among the ice- pillars1 and do as little damage as might be1 ,i yet1 with all my care1 was accompanied by the incessant shiver and clatter of breaking and falling ice4 ,having squeezed myself out again through the narrow hole1 ,i now passed between the two gigantic columns1 and found that the sea of ice became still broader and bolder1 until we came to the edge of a glorious ice-fall1 round and smooth and perfectly unbroken1 passing down like the rapids of some river too deep for its surface to be disturbed1 and plunging majestically into a dark gulf1 of which we could see neither the roof nor the end4' ,we will now follow ,mr4 ,browne to the ,upper ,glacire of ,st4 ,livres1 where the interesting discovery was made that the ice-stream which filled the cave1 instead of terminating with the wall of rock at its end1 turned off to the right1 and was lost in darkness4 ,by tying a candle to a long stick1 and thrusting it down the slope of ice1 it was further found that the stream passed down at a very steep incline1 and poured under a narrow and low arch in the wall of the cave1 beyond which nothing could be seen4 ,steps were now cut down the slope by one of the party1 who was carefully let down1 and1 his work being completed1 the others followed him through the arch--a rather awkward undertaking1 for1 on pushing through1 their breasts were pressed on to the ice1 while their backs scraped against the rock which formed the roof4 #8,as soon as this trough was passed1' says ,mr4 ,browne1 #8the ice spread out like a fan1 and finally landed us in a second cavern1 #gb feet long by #cf feet broad1 to which this was the only entrance4 ,the breadth of the fan at the bottom was #bg feet1 and near the archway a very striking column poured from a vertical fissure in the wall1 and joined the main stream4 ,the fissure was partially open to the cave1 and showed the solid round column within the rock3 this column measured #ah feet in circumference1 a little below the point where it became free of the fissure1 and it had a stream of ice #bb feet long pouring from its base4 ,the peculiar structure of the ice gave the whole mass the appearance of coursing down very rapidly1 as if the water had been frozen while thus moving1 and had not therefore ceased so to move4444 ,at the farthest end of the cave1 a lofty dome opened up in the roof1 beneath which a very lovely cluster of columns had grouped itself1 formed of clear porcelain- like ice1 and fretted and festooned with the utmost delicacy1 as if ,andersen's ,ice ,maiden had been there in one of her amiable moods and had built herself a palace4' ,illustration3 ,,ice ,,streams ,,in ,,the ,,upper ,,glaci,,re ,,of ,,st4 ,,livres4 ,in ,upper ,styria1 the ,frauenmauer ,mountain1 which overlooks the mining town of ,eisenerz1 contains a remarkable ice-chamber1 consisting of a grotto from thirty to forty fathoms long1 decked with ice-crystals1 pillars of ice1 and cascades of the same material1 the floor being composed of ice as smooth as glass4 ,in the summer pleasure parties assemble in the cave1 and amuse themselves with sliding down its sloping ice-floors4 ,in his work on the ,natural ,wonders of the ,austrian ,empire1 the naturalist ,sartori describes his visit to an ice-cave on the ,brandstein1 a peak situated in the same district1 which thus appears to be rich in glacires4 ,he found crimpons necessary for descending the frozen snow1 which led from the entrance to the floor of the cave1 where he discovered pillars and capitals and pyramids of ice of every possible shape and variety1 as if the cave had contained the ruins of a ,gothic church or a fairy palace4 ,at the further end1 after passing large cascades of ice1 his party reached a dark grey hole1 which lighted up into blue and green under the influence of the torches2 they could not discover the end of this hole1 and the stones which they rolled down into it seemed to go on for ever4 ,other natural glacires are also mentioned as occurring in ,bohemia1 ,hungary1 the ,harz1 in several places in ,north ,america1 and probably there are few mountainous regions without them4 ,the ,cave of ,yermalik1 already mentioned among the silent retreats of nature which have been rendered infamous by the cruelty of man1 is likewise highly interesting as a natural glacire4 ,after leaving the roomy dome in which they found the skeletons of the victims of ,genghis ,khan1 ,captain ,burslem and ,lieutenant ,sturt proceeded through several low arches and smaller caves1 and reached at length a vast hall1 in the centre of which was an enormous mass of clear ice1 smooth and polished as a mirror1 and in the form of a gigantic beehive1 with its dome-shaped top just touching the long icicles which depended from the jagged surface of the rock4 ,a small aperture led to the interior of this wonderful congelation1 which was divided into several compartments of every fantastic shape4 ,in some the glittering icicles hung like curtains from the roof2 in others1 the vault was smooth as glass4 ,beautifully brilliant were the prismatic colours reflected from the varied surface of the ice when the torches flashed suddenly upon them as they passed from cave to cave4 ,around1 above1 beneath1 everything was of solid ice1 and being unable to stand on account of its slippery nature1 they slid1 or rather glided mysteriously1 along the glassy surface of this hall of spells4 ,in one of the largest compartments the icicles had reached the floor1 and gave the idea of pillars supporting the roof4'#bg ,footnote #bg3 ,burslem1 #8,a ,peep into ,toorkistan4' ,rocks of volcanic formation seem to afford favourable opportunities for the congelation of water4 ,ice-caves are found in ,mount ,etna1 on the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 and among the lava-currents of ,iceland4#bh ,scrope visited one of these natural glacires near the village of ,roth1 in the neighbourhood of ,andernach1 on the ,rhine4 ,it formed the mouth of a deep fissure in a current of basalt derived from an ancient volcanic cone above it1 and its floor was covered with a crust of ice at the time of his visit1 about noon on a very hot day in ,august4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,cave of ,suitshellir4 ,the phenomenon of wind-grottoes is analogous to that of ice-caves1 and not seldom associated with it4 ,here cold currents of air1 increasing in violence as the day is hotter1 are found to blow from the interstices of rocks4 ,one of the most celebrated of these olian caverns is found near ,terni in ,italy4 ,the entrance is closed by an old gate1 through the crevices of which the wind issues with a rustling noise1 while in the grotto itself the current is sufficiently strong to extinguish a torch4 ,the proprietors of some neighbouring villas have put the phenomenon to an ingenious use4 ,leaden pipes1 branching out from the grotto1 convey on sultry summer days an agreeable coolness through masks of gypsum with wide distended mouths1 which are fixed in the walls of the apartments4 ,the small town of ,roquefort in ,france has been renowned ever since the time of the ,romans for the delicious flavour of its cheese1 which is said to owe its excellence to the cool cellars in which it is matured4 ,these are excavated on the northern slope of a great chalk plateau1 and communicate with numerous fissures in the rock1 from which air-currents stream forth of so low a temperature as to cause a thermometer marking #bc ,r4 in the shade1 and in the external atmosphere1 to fall to #d ,r4 when exposed to their influence4 ,the cellars are so valuable that one1 which cost #ab1jjj francs in construction1 sold for #bae1jjj francs4 ,in times of ignorance1 superstition could not fail to attach its fables to the phenomenon of wind-grottoes4 ,a cave near ,eisenach was supposed to be the seat of purgatory1 and popular credulity or terror willingly transformed the sounds produced by the rushing air-currents into the wailings of tormented souls4 ,fortunately1 modern science affords us a more satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon4 ,pictet represents the case of a cave with cold currents of air to be much the same as that of a mine with a vertical shaft ending in a horizontal gallery1 of which one extremity is in communication with the open air1 at a point much lower1 of course1 than the upper extremity of the shaft4 ,the cave or wind-hole corresponds to the horizontal gallery1 and the various fissures in the rock take the place of the vertical shaft1 and communicate freely with the external air4 ,in summer the columns of air contained in these fissures assume nearly the temperature of the rock in which they rest--that is to say1 the mean temperature of the district2 and therefore they are heavier than the corresponding external columns of air which terminate at the mouth of the cave4 ,the consequence is1 that the heavy cool air descends from the fissures1 and streams out into the cave1 appearing as a cold current1 and the hotter the day--that is1 the lighter the columns of external air--the more violent will be the disturbance of equilibrium1 and therefore the more palpable the current4 ,the evaporation which takes place as the air-currents descend through the moist rock-fissures likewise tends to lower their temperature4 ,several naturalists have attempted to explain the phenomena of ice-caves in a similar manner1 as being produced by cold currents still further refrigerated by the evaporation caused in the moist and porous rocks through which they pass4 ,but to this theory there are weighty objections1 as in many ice-caves there is no current whatever1 and in all the cases of cold air streams investigated or mentioned by ,de ,saussure1 the lowest temperatures observed were still considerably above the freezing-point1 and consequently incapable of converting water into ice4 ,mr4 ,browne believes that1 in many cases1 the phenomenon may be satisfactorily accounted for by the position and surroundings of the caves in which it occurs2 though1 no doubt1 cold currents and evaporation may often have an influence in maintaining the low temperature of ice-caves4 ,in every one of the fourteen natural glacires which he visited1 the level at which the ice was found was considerably below the level at the entrance of the cave2 so that1 on ordinary principles of gravitation1 the heavy cold air within could not be dislodged by the lighter warm summer air without4 ,heat naturally spreads very slowly in a cave like this2 and even when some amount of heat does reach the ice1 the latter melts but slowly1 for ice absorbs #fj ,c4 in melting2 and thus when ice is once formed1 it becomes a material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave4 ,another means for preventing the encroachments of the hotter seasons is the dense covering of trees and shrubs1 which1 in the case of many of the glacires1 shields their entrance or their roof from the rays of the sun1 and thus keeps off the effects of direct radiation4 ,mr4 ,browne found all the glacires that came under his observation thus protected1 with the single exception of that of ,st4 ,georges1 where1 in consequence of an incautious felling of wood immediately near the mouth1 trunks of trees had been laid horizontally over it1 to prevent the rays of the sun from striking down on to the ice4 ,he moreover invariably found that the entrances to the caves were more or less sheltered against all winds--a very important condition1 as air-currents from without would infallibly bring in heated air1 in spite of the specific weight of the cold air stored within4 ,there can be no doubt1 too1 that the large surfaces which are available for evaporation have much to do with maintaining a somewhat lower temperature than the mean temperature of the place where the cave occurs4 ,another great advantage which some glacires possess must be borne in mind1 namely1 the collection of snow at the bottom of the pit in which the entrance lies4 ,this snow absorbs1 in the course of melting1 all the heat which strikes down by radiation1 or is driven down by accidental turns of the wind2 and the snow water thus forced into the cave will1 at any rate1 not seriously injure the ice4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,glaci,,re ,,of ,,st4 ,,georges4 ,it is easy to understand how1 in caves thus protected against the influence of summer heat1 a great part of the ice accumulated during the winter may be preserved1 and that1 for an explanation of the phenomenon1 it is by no means necessary to have recourse to cold blasts descending from the interior of the rock in which they are situated4 ,it is indeed a common belief that the ice-caves are colder in summer than in winter1 and consequently contain a greater abundance of ice during the former season2 but this belief may well be considered as one of those popular fallacies1 which--though1 by dint of repetition1 they come to be common articles of faith--have in fact no substantial proofs to support them4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,rock ,,tombs ,,and ,,catacombs4 ,biban-el-,moluk1 the ,royal ,tombs of ,thebes--,the ,roman ,catacombs--,their ,extent--,their ,mode of ,excavation--,touching ,sepulchral ,inscriptions-- ,antony ,bosio1 the ,columbus of the ,catacombs--,the ,cavaliere di ,rossi--,the ,catacombs of ,naples and ,syracuse--,the ,catacombs of ,paris4 ,the remoteness of caves and grottoes from the busy haunts of life1 their eternal silence and their nightly gloom1 have ever pointed them out as fit resting-places for the dead4 ,from the earliest times they have been used as sepulchral vaults1 and where nature neglected to hollow out the rock1 it has often been excavated for this purpose by the hand of man4 ,thus the ,pharaohs of ,egypt rested not in temples and mausoleums reared in the heart of cities1 but they chose the desert-ravine for their sepulchre1 and hid their tombs in deep excavations in the earth4 ,a more impressive scene can hardly be imagined than that which is afforded by these splendid memorials4 ,of all such monuments which still mark the site of ancient ,thebes1 perhaps none are more striking to the traveller than the royal tombs--,biban-el-,moluk--which the pride of monarchs1 whose very name is now a mystery1 excavated four thousand years ago in the bosom of the ,libyan mountains4 #8,the next morning at daybreak1' says ,warburton1#bi #8we started for the ,tombs of the ,kings4 ,i was mounted on a fine horse1 belonging to the sheikh of the village1 and the cool air of the morning1 the rich prospect before us1 and the cloudless sky1 all conspired to impart life and pleasure to my relaxed and languid frame4 ,i had been for a month almost confined to my pallet by illness1 and now1 mounted on a gallant barb1 sweeping across the desert1 with the mountain breezes breathing round me1 ,i felt a glow of spirits and exhilaration of mind and body to which ,i had been long a stranger4 ,for a couple of hours we continued along the plain1 which was partially covered with wavy corn1 but flecked widely here and there with desert tracts4 ,then we entered the gloomy mountain gorges1 through which the ,theban monarchs passed to their tombs4 ,our path lay through a narrow defile1 between precipitous cliffs of rubble and calcareous strata1 and some large boulders of coarse conglomerate lay strewn along this desolate valley1 in which no living thing of earth or air ever met our view4 ,the plains below may have been1 perhaps1 once swarming with life and covered with palaces2 but the gloomy defile we were now traversing must have ever been as they now are1 lonely1 lifeless1 desolate--a fit avenue to the tombs for which we were bound4 ,footnote #bi3 #8,the ,crescent and the ,cross4' #8,after five or six miles' travel1 our guide stopped at the base of one of the precipices1 and1 laying his long spear against the rock1 proceeded to light his torches4 ,there was no entrance apparent at the distance of a few yards1 nor was this great tomb betrayed to the outer world by any visible aperture1 until discovered by ,belzoni4 ,this extraordinary man seems to have been one of the few who have hit off in life the lot for which ,nature destined them4 ,his sepulchral instincts might have been matter of envy to the ghouls2 with such unerring certainty did he guess at the place containing the embalmed corpses most worthy of his body-snatching energies4 #8,we descended by a steep path into this tomb1 through a doorway covered with hieroglyphics1 and entered a corridor that ran some hundred yards into the mountain4 ,it was about twenty feet square1 and painted throughout most elaborately in the manner of ,raphael's ,loggia at the ,vatican1 with little inferiority of skill or colouring4 ,the doorways were richly ornamented with figures of a larger size1 and over each was the winged globe or a huge scarabus4 ,in allusion1 probably1 to the wanderings of the freed spirit1 almost all the larger emblems on these walls wore wings1 however incompatible with their usual vocations2 boats1 globes1 fishes1 and suns1 all were winged4 ,on one of the corridors there is an allegory of the progress of the sun through the hours1 painted with great detail2 the god of day sits in a boat 7in compliment to the ,nile he lays aside his chariot here71 and steers through the hours of the day and night1 each of the latter being distinguished by a star4 ,the ,nile in this1 as in all other circumstances of ,egyptian life1 figures as the most important element2 even the blessed souls for its sake assume the form of fishes1 and swim about with angelic fins in this ,river of ,life4 ,one gorgeous passage makes way into another more gorgeous still1 until you arrive at a steep descent4 ,at the base of this1 perhaps #djj feet from daylight1 a doorway opens into a vaulted hall of noble proportions1 whose gloom considerably increases its apparent size4 ,here the body of ,osirei1 father of ,rameses the ,second1 was laid about #c1bjj years ago1 in the beautiful alabaster sarcophagus which ,belzoni drew from hence1 the reward of his enterprise4 ,its poor occupant1 who had taken such pains to hide himself1 was 8undone0 for the amusement of a ,london conversazione4 #8,there are numerous other tombs1 all full of interest2 but as the reader who is interested in such things will consult higher authorities than mine1 ,i shall only add that the whole circumstance of ancient ,egyptian life1 with all its vicissitudes1 may be read in pictures out of these extraordinary tombs1 from the birth1 through all the joys and sorrows of life1 to the death1 the lamentations over the corpse1 the embalmer's operations1 and finally the judgment and the immortality of the soul4 ,in one instance the ,judge is measuring all men's good actions in a balance against a feather from an angel's wing2 in another1 a great serpent is being bound head and foot1 and cast into a pit2 and there are many other proofs1 equally convincing1 of the knowledge that this mysterious people possessed of a future life and judgment4' ,but not the kings alone2 the illustrious1 the wealthy1 the whole nation reposed in rock-tombs magnificently sculptured or rudely excavated1 according to the means of the defunct4 ,behind the ruins of the stately temples of ancient ,thebes1 which extend from ,gourna to ,medinet ,abou1 and fill the narrow strip of desert between the inundated fields and the foot of the mountains1 lies an interminable necropolis1 whose graves1 like the cells of a bee-hive1 one close to the other1 are hewn in the rocky ground of the plain1 or in the slopes of the neighbouring hills4 ,these grottoes1 originally destined for sarcophagi and mummies1 are now occupied by fellahs and their herds1 as they were in the fifth and sixth century by pious anchorites2 and1 being roomy and situated at a considerable height above the plain1 may be considered as the most healthy dwellings of the country4 ,the oldest graves are hewn in the mountains2 and at a later period1 when the rocky plain at their foot alone gave room for these excavations1 it gradually became invaded by the dead4 ,in the more splendid of these mausoleums1 high gates and walls inclosed deep courtyards1 scooped out of the rock1 and from these long corridors led to subterranean halls1 profusely decorated with sculptures and paintings4 ,similar cities of the dead were found in ,upper ,egypt1 near the cities of the living1 wherever the adjoining rocks allowed them to be excavated4 ,those of ,syout--the ancient ,lycopolis1 where along an extent of several miles the whole declivity of the ,libyan mountains is perforated with graves rising in terraces to their very summit--of ,el ,kab 7,eileithyia71 of ,assuan 7,syene71 of ,madfuneh 7,abydos71 of ,kan 7,antopolis71 and of a hundred other places1 would in any other country excite the wonder of the traveller2 here1 where along the ,nile one gigantic necropolis follows upon another1 they hardly attract any attention4 ,but the ancient ,egyptians not only embalmed human bodies and preserved them in rock-tombs1 they also converted into mummies the various animals to which they paid divine homage1 and deposited them in subterranean cavities4 ,this honour was paid to ,apis1 the ox-god1 to the sacred ,ibis1 to dogs1 cats1 and even to the repulsive crocodile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the ,rome of the ,csars and the ,rome of the ,popes1 there is a third ,rome1 scarcely less remarkable than the other two4 ,the two former1 gilded by the warm sunbeam1 proudly rise above the banks of the ,tiber with their ruins1 palaces1 and churches1 while the latter lies hidden beneath the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,gallery ,,with ,,tombs4 ,from the cupola of ,st4 ,peter's1 the most favourable station for a panoramic view of all the monuments and buildings of the ,eternal ,city1 the eye is also best able to embrace at one glance the general topography of the catacombs or of subterranean ,rome4 ,fifteen great consular roads1 over which the victorious legions once marched out to subjugate the world1 radiate from the centre of the town1 and furrow the arid ,campagna1 until they are finally lost in the hazy distance4 ,to the right and left of these causeways the catacombs have been hollowed out in the depths of the earth1 and1 though separated by the ,tiber into two distinct regions1 yet their various subdivisions trace a vast circle1 the size of which may be measured by the circumference of the town itself4 ,to form some idea of their extent1 we must fancy an intricate wilderness of galleries and arched alcoves with their layers of sarcophagi1 one above another2 their lucernaria1 for light or ventilation2 their stairs1 straight or winding2 and all this1 not on one level only1 but floor beneath floor--one1 two1 three1 four1 five--hewn out on a labyrinthine1 yet harmonious and economic plan4 ,network is perhaps a feeble description of these vast and intricate mazes2 a spider's web seen through the glass of a naturalist1 or rather four or five spiders' webs1 one within the other1 would seem a more fitting illustration4 ,such is the immensity of this city of the dead that1 according to the opinion of those who have made themselves best acquainted with all its subdivisions1 their galleries1 supposing them ranged in a line1 would form a street #ijj miles long1 and lined by no less than six millions of tombs6 ,so vast a necropolis would command attention in any country1 or as the memorial of any age1 or of any part of the human race2 but to us the catacombs of ,rome are doubly interesting1 as the mysterious crypts which served the first confessors of our faith for the purposes of sepulture and sometimes of concealment4 ,their extent at once precludes the idea of their having been excavated in a clandestine manner1 as was at one time erroneously believed2 and1 moreover1 history tells us that1 apart from some passing storms of persecution1 the ,christians had as little reason as the ,jews1 their religious ancestors1 for making a secret of their faith1 or of their places of interment4 ,from the times of the ,apostles their community constantly grew and multiplied throughout the ,roman world--in ,rome especially1 the centre of that world--and there can be little doubt that from ,nerva to the middle of the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius 7from #if to about #aff7 and so onward to the great persecution under ,decius 7,a4,d4 #bdi-bef71 the ,christians1 if exposed here and there and at times to local persecutions1 were growing in unchecked and still expanding numbers4 ,but as the living community increased1 so also must the number of its dead1 a reverence for whom was1 among the survivors1 not only a solemn duty but a deep-rooted passion4 ,the ,christians not only inherited from the ,jews the ancient usage of interment1 but this respect for the dead was strengthened by the belief that ,christ had risen bodily from the grave1 and that a bodily resurrection was to be their own glorious privilege4 ,hence the burning of the dead1 customary among the wealthier pagans1 was to them a profanation2 and as the body of the slave was as holy as that of his master1 it claimed the same right of decent burial4 ,but where was room for the spacious burial-places required for so vast a community8 ,within the walls of the city interment was very properly forbidden by the law1 and at a convenient distance beyond its crowded precincts1 large plots of ground could hardly be obtained2 but the formation of subterranean cemeteries on a vast scale was greatly facilitated by the geological formation of the land4 ,three different kinds of stone compose the groundwork of the ,roman campagna3 the tufa litoide1 as hard and durable as granite1 which furnished the materials for the palaces and temples of the ,csarian city2 the tufa granolare1 which1 though consistent enough to retain the form given it by the excavators1 cannot be hewn or extracted in blocks1 and the loose tufa friabile1 or pozzuolana1 which has been extensively used from the earliest ages for mortar or ,roman cement4 ,it is evident that neither the hard lithoid nor the loose tuff were suitable for the excavation of the catacombs1 while this purpose could be admirably attained in the courses of the granular tuff1 which1 though not too hard to be worked1 is yet solid enough to make walls for long and intricate passages1 to be hewn into arches vaulting over deep recesses for the reception of coffins1 and to support floor below floor down to the utmost depth to which the formation reaches4 ,neither in the stone quarries nor in the sand-pits of ancient ,rome is there the slightest sign that they were ever used for the purposes of sepulture1 while in the granular tuff not a yard seems to have been excavated except for the making of tombs1 which line the walls throughout their prodigious length1 as close to one another as the berths in the sides of a ship4 ,though the most ancient catacombs were excavated by the ,jews1 yet these excavations are of a very limited extent when compared with those of ,christian origin1 where1 instead of the seven-branched candlestick and other sacred emblems of the ,jewish persuasion1 every ornament or inscription marked or painted upon the walls bears witness to the faith of those who were deposited--to use the peculiar and appropriate expression--within these narrow cells4 ,everywhere we see ,christian symbols only--the horse1 emblematic of strength in the faith2 the hunted hare1 of persecution2 the dove and the cock1 of the ,christian virtues of vigilance and meekness2 the peacock and the phnix1 of resurrection2 the anchor1 of hope in immortality2 the palm-leaf1 of the martyr's triumph over death1 and many others4 ,the sepulchral inscriptions are short and simple1 but often extremely tender and touching1 recalling to memory1 in a few brief words1 the innocence and purity of life1 the beauty and the wisdom1 or the amiable1 peace-loving character1 of the deceased4 ,the pompous or desponding tone of the heathen mortuary inscriptions disappears2 the ,christian #8sleeps and sleeps in peace4' ,there is no sign of affectation or hypocrisy in these simple epitaphs1 and the ennobling influence of the new creed upon the spirit of man is1 perhaps1 nowhere more conspicuous than in the unostentatious inscriptions traced upon the tombs of its first confessors4 ,the use of the catacombs for the various purposes of interment1 assembly1 or concealment began1 no doubt1 with the first persecution under ,nero4 ,most of the inscriptions however1 bear the date of the fourth or fifth century1 and some are evidently of a much later period4 ,when this custom may have ceased is uncertain1 but in the ,middle ,ages the catacombs were entirely forgotten1 and remained blocked up1 until towards the end of the sixteenth century1 when they were reopened and explored by the indefatigable and courageous ,antony ,bosio1 who devoted thirty-three years of his life to this labour4 ,during his frequent wanderings through the ,roman ,campagna1 this zealous archologist once found1 to the left of the ,appian ,way1 near to the church of ,sancta ,maria in ,palmis1 a brick vault in a field covered with rubbish4 ,he immediately presumed it to be the entrance of a catacomb1 and descended through the narrow opening4 ,fired with scientific ardour1 he penetrated further and further into recesses untrodden for centuries by the foot of man4 ,the passage soon became so narrow and low as to oblige him to creep1 but neither the difficulty of the exploration1 nor the fear of being crushed to death by the crumbling stones1 could restrain him2 and thus1 day after day1 he continued his perilous search1 until1 finally1 a complete subterranean city revealed itself1 although he could not ascertain its limits1 for1 however far he might probe its intricacies1 new passages were still branching out on every side1 and the maze descended in several successive stories deeper and deeper into the earth4 ,after ,bosio1 other archologists have continued his researches1 and in our days the ,cavaliere de ,rossi--to whose indefatigable zeal is due1 amongst others1 the discovery of the ,catacomb of ,callistus1 where many of the early popes have been entombed--has all but completed the topography of subterranean ,rome4 ,besides the ancient metropolis of the world1 several other old ,italian towns possess remarkable catacombs or subterranean burial-places4 ,those of ,naples1 historically far less interesting than those of ,rome1 are executed on a far more spacious plan4 ,they are situated not beneath the town itself1 but in a neighbouring mountain1 where they have been excavated to a distance of more than two miles4 ,large galleries1 eighteen feet broad1 and fourteen or fifteen high1 branch out into a number of smaller passages1 while the walls on both sides are pierced1 like those in ,rome1 with horizontal sepulchral cavities1 six1 or even seven1 one above the other4 ,the ,catacombs of ,syracuse1 under the site of the ancient ,achradina1 are the largest and best preserved known4 ,they are all excavated in the solid rock1 and form lofty vaults1 very different from the narrow and dangerous burrows of subterranean ,rome4 ,a broad gallery runs through the whole of the labyrinth1 and from this many other passages of an inferior width branch out1 leading to large circular vaults with openings at the top for the admission of light4 ,many of these have been closed1 as they were equally dangerous for the people in their neighbourhood and their cattle1 so that torches are necessary for visiting them4 ,along the walls are a number of niches1 which served as sepulchres1 so that these excavations1 which originally were quarries1 and during the flourishing times of the city were used by its vast population for various household purposes1 were ultimately converted into a city of the dead4 ,the ,catacombs of ,paris1 though ancient as quarries1 are of a very modern date as places of sepulture4 ,until the end of the reign of ,louis ,,xvi4 the principal burying-ground of ,paris had been the ,cemetery of the ,innocents1 near the church of the same name4 ,originally situated beyond the walls of the town1 it had in course of time been so surrounded by the growing metropolis as to occupy its centre4 ,here1 during nearly ten centuries1 numberless bodies had been deposited1 so that1 from the malaria it engendered1 it became a constant source of danger to the living4 ,at length the cemetery became so intolerable a nuisance that its suppression and conversion into a public market-place was decreed in #aghe4 ,the question now arose where the bones to be displaced should be deposited1 and1 from their proximity to the town and their extent1 the ancient quarries were chosen as the most favourable spot for a vast subterranean necropolis4 ,but these immense excavations1 which1 having been abandoned for several centuries1 had in many places fallen in1 needed a full year for repairs before they could be safely used for their new purpose4 ,at length1 on ,april #g1 #aghg1 they were solemnly consecrated1 and the same day the workmen began to remove the bones from the ,cemetery of the ,innocents--an operation which needed more than fifteen months for its completion4 ,gradually many others of the ancient cemeteries of ,paris were in like manner removed to the catacombs1 so that they are said to contain the bones of more than three millions of bodies4 ,all these bones are symmetrically piled up along the sides of the galleries2 the apophyses of the large thigh and arm bones are disposed in front1 so as to make a nearly uniform surface1 interrupted from space to space by a row of skulls4 ,some of the crypts or sepulchral chambers are rather lugubriously decorated with festoons or pyramids of skulls and cross-bones1 and many of the stone pillars which support the vaults have likewise received ornaments of the same sexton taste4 ,sixty- three staircases lead from different parts of the town into the catacombs1 and are used by the workmen and agents appointed to take care of the subterranean necropolis2 but visitors are admitted only every three months by the entrance at the ,barrire du ,maine4 ,a descent of ninety steps brings them to a narrow gallery1 which conducts them1 after several windings to the more roomy vaults where the bones are deposited2 and after wandering for some time among these gloomy memorials which are piled up on either side1 they finally emerge into daylight through another gallery1 similar to the first4 ,no doubt ,paris affords many a more pleasant ramble1 but hardly one more interesting1 or capable of making a deeper impression on the mind4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,caves ,,containing ,,remains ,,of ,,extinct ,,animals4 ,the ,cave ,hyena and the ,cave ,bear--,the ,cavern of ,kirkdale--,the ,moa ,caves in ,new ,zealand--,various ,species of ,moas--,their enormous size4 ,besides their picturesque beauty or their solemn grandeur1 some caves are extremely interesting as containing the bones of extinct quadrupeds or birds4 ,unrivalled in point of antiquity by the oldest tombs erected by man1 they carry us back to times which1 though of comparatively recent date1 are still so far removed from the present day as almost to terrify the imagination--for how many ages must have elapsed1 and what changes of climate must have taken place1 since the hyena or the tiger inhabited the grottoes of northern ,europe8 ,in many cases the bones found in ossiferous caves must have been washed into them by currents of water1 or else they may be the remains of animals that accidentally dropped in through holes in the roof2 but there can be no doubt that frequently the caves in which the bones of extinct carniverous animals have been found1 served as their dens while they were living4 ,the abundance of bony dung associated with the remains of the hyena1 as well as the great number of bones all belonging to one species which are frequently found congregated in the same cave1 is strongly confirmatory of this opinion1 no less than the circumstance that the walls of several ossiferous caves1 when deprived of their stalactital covering1 have been found smoothed or rounded off from the frequent ingress and egress of their former inhabitants as they squeezed themselves or dragged their prey through a narrow passage4 ,besides1 the hyenas and bears of the present day frequently live in caves1 thus justifying the inference that their extinct predecessors had the same habit4 ,the antiquity of many of the animal remains found in caves is proved not only by their being dissimilar to existing species1 but by the manner in which they are entombed4 ,for ages they accumulated on the floor of the cave1 often to a considerable depth1 mixed with mud or sand or fragments of rock--then1 when1 from a change of level or some other cause1 the cavern became uninhabited1 a thick crust of stalagmite was slowly formed1 and burying them all1 as under solid stone1 preserved them undisturbed1 until some accident revealed their existence after a time the length of which escapes all calculation4 ,the dim vista into the past appears still more shadowy in the case of the cavern discovered by ,dr4 ,schmerling at ,choquier about two leagues from ,lige1 where three distinct beds of stalagmite were found1 and between each of them a mass of breccia and mud1 mixed with quartz1 pebbles1 and in the three deposits the bones of extinct quadrupeds6 ,ossiferous caves have been found and examined in many parts of the world3 in ,france1 in ,belgium1 chiefly in the valleys of the ,meuse and its tributaries2 in ,austria and ,hungary1 in ,germany and ,england4 ,it is remarkable that while the remains of a large and extinct species of bear1 although found in our caves1 are much more common on the ,continent1 the bones of the hyena form by far the largest proportion of those obtained from the ,english caverns4 ,thus under the incrustated floors of our rock-crevices and hollows1 we ,and the proofs that our island was once inhabited by brutes which are now confined to ,africa and the adjacent parts of ,asia4 ,but the extinct hyena of ,england was a much larger and more formidable animal than either the striped hyena of ,abyssinia or the spotted hyena of the ,cape1 the latter of whom it most resembled4 ,the abundance of these animals1 and the length of the period during which they inhabited ,england1 may be inferred from ,dr4 ,buckland's account of the opening of the celebrated cavern of ,kirkdale4 #8,the bottom of the cave1 on first removing the mud1 was found to be strewed all over1 like a dog-kennel1 from one end to the other1 with hundreds of teeth and bones1 and on some of the bones marks could be traced1 which1 on applying one to the other1 appeared exactly to fit the form of the canine teeth of the hyena that occurred in the cave4 ,mr4 ,gibson alone collected more than three hundred canine teeth of the hyena1 which must have belonged to at least seventy-five individuals1 and adding to these the similar teeth ,i have seen in other collections1 ,i cannot calculate the total number of hyenas1 of which there is evidence1 at less than two or three hundred4' ,the grisly bear of the ,rocky ,mountains 7,ursus ferox7 is the most ferocious of its race at the present day4 ,it is about nine feet long1 and is said to attain the weight of #hjj pounds4 ,its strength is so prodigious that even the bison contends with it in vain4 ,but this huge and formidable animal was surpassed in size and strength by the extinct bear 7,ursus spelaeus7 which once inhabited the caverns of ,europe1 at a time when vast and interminable forests covered the land1 and the ,rhine and the ,danube flowed through wastes like those through which the ,mackenzie or the ,yenissei now find their way to the ocean4 ,from the proportions of the molar teeth1 and from some peculiarities of appearance and wearing1 it has been inferred that this extinct species lived chiefly on vegetable food2 but its prodigious strength1 and the huge canines with which its jaws were armed1 enabled it to cope with its contemporaries1 the large ,auerox and the teichorhine rhinoceros1 and to defend itself successfully against the large lion or tiger whose remains have also been found in the caverns of western ,europe1 and which1 if we may judge by the size of their canine teeth1 must have been more than a match for the largest felides of the present day4 ,besides the hyena and the bear1 more than a hundred species of extinct animals have been discovered in our ossiferous caves4 ,in those of ,paviland1 ,glamorganshire1 bones of a primeval elephant have been found2 and in that of ,wirksworth1 ,derbyshire1 the almost entire skeleton of a rhinoceros lay buried in a considerable mass of gravel and osseous fragments4 ,how the large creature came there is a question that may well exercise the ingenuity of a geologist4 ,though in these and similar cases1 the bone-caves have been found to contain the remains of animals very different from those now existing in the same region1 yet in general they show a remarkable relationship1 in the same land or continent1 between the dead and the living4 ,thus in the caves of ,brazil there are extinct species of all the thirty-two genera1 excepting four1 of the terrestrial quadrupeds now inhabiting the provinces in which the caves occur1 such as fossil ant-eaters1 armadilloes1 tapirs1 peccaries1 guanacoes1 opossums1 and numerous ,south ,american gnawers1 monkeys and other animals4 ,illustration3 ,,cave ,,in ,,dream ,,lead ,,mine1 ,,near ,,wirksworth1 ,,derbyshire4 ,the kangaroo1 as is well-known1 is peculiar to ,australia1 and caverns in that country have been described by ,sir ,t4 ,mitchell1 containing fossil bones of a large extinct kangaroo4 ,a singular wingless bird1 the ,apteryx australis1 is found only in the wilds of the interior of ,new ,zealand1 where it takes refuge in the clefts of rocks1 hollow trees1 or in deep holes which it excavates in the ground4 ,the caves of that country show us that it was preceded by other wingless birds of a gigantic structure--the ,moas1 by the side of which even the ostriches of the present day would shrink into comparative insignificance4 ,these wonderful creatures would probably have remained unknown to the present day1 if1 in #ahci1 the thigh-bone of a ,moa had not fallen by chance into the hands of ,professor ,owen1 who from this single fragment drew up a surprisingly correct notice of the bird4 ,this memoir1 sent out to ,new ,zealand1 gave a stimulus to further researches1 and from the larger quantity of the ,moa's bones now sent to ,england1 ,professor ,owen built up the beautiful skeleton which1 along with those of the ,mylodon robustus1 of the ,mammoth1 and of the primeval stag1 forms one of the most conspicuous ornaments of the splendid ,museum in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields4 ,but the reconstructive genius of our great palontologist1 not satisfied with this triumph1 has detected a whole group of ostrich-like birds among the remnants of the past1 which the ,new ,zealanders1 who1 as we may suppose1 are no adepts in comparative anatomy1 all confound under the common name of the ,moa2 and thus five species of ,dinornis1 the ,palaeopteryx1 the ,aptornis1 and the comparatively small ,notornis1 have been1 as it were1 resuscitated by a miracle of science4 ,a specimen of the last-named species of these birds was caught alive in a remote1 unfrequented part of the south island of ,new ,zealand in #ahej by some sealers1 who1 ignorant of the value of their prize1 killed and devoured it as if it had been a common turkey4 ,fortunately1 however1 the skin of this unique bird1 the link between the living and the dead1 the last perhaps of a race coeval with the gigantic ,moas1 was preserved from destruction4 ,the largest species of ,moa 7,dinornis robustus7 must have stood1 when alive1 about thirteen or fourteen feet high1 since ,dr4 ,thomson saw a complete leg1 which stood six feet from the ground4 ,like the ostrich1 this feathered giant was incapable of flight1 its rudimentary wings being unable to raise it from the ground4 ,it had three toes on each foot1 and tradition says that its feathers were beautiful and gaudy4 ,portions of the eggs of the bird have been found among their bones1 of a sufficient size to estimate the probable size of a whole egg1 and the conclusion is that the hat of a full-grown man would have been a proper- sized egg-cup for it4 ,from the structure of the toes1 which were well adapted for digging up roots1 and from the traditional report that the ,moas were in the habit of swallowing stones to promote digestion1 it may be concluded that they were herbivorous4 ,this is about as much as we know of the aspect and habits of this colossal ,struthionide1 whose apparent confinement to the small ,new ,zealandic group is one of the most curious enigmas of its history4 ,as it is extremely improbable that so gigantic a race was originally formed for so narrow a sphere1 we are led to believe that ,new ,zealand is but the remnant of a vast continent now whelmed under the waves of the ,pacific4 ,when the group was first peopled by the ,maories1 about five hundred years ago1 the ,moas had already become excessively rare1 and the last of them seem to have perished during the seventeenth century1 though the ,new ,zealanders believe that some of them still live in the remote and unfrequented wilds of their native land4 ,the bones of the various species of ,moa have been partly found in morasses1 partly in the beds of mountain torrents1 but chiefly in various caves1 which1 no doubt1 served the living animals as dwellings or places of refuge4 ,one of these caverns1 called by the ,new ,zealanders #8,te ,anaoteatua1' or the ,cave of the ,spirit1 was visited by ,dr4 ,thomson1#cj who describes it as very remarkable4 ,it is situated in the tertiary1 extremely cavernous1 and undermined limestone mountain chain which extends along the west coast of the northern island1 and whose picturesque beauties and natural curiosities are destined to occupy a conspicuous place in some future guide-book4 ,its entrance1 resembling the gateway of an old castle1 is concealed by a thick foliage of shrubs1 and a dark green creeper adheres to the limestone rock and covers the opening4 ,the cave extends in a tortuous direction underneath the hill for upwards of a mile1 and consists of several different passages4 ,from its roof and sides numerous stalactites are hanging1 some of them six feet long1 and composed of transparent calcareous spar1 while others have a red tint4 ,in that part of the cave which ,dr4 ,thomson explored1 there were three openings in the roof at different places1 each from ten to fifteen feet in circumference1 through which light was seen streaming in1 one hundred and fifty feet above the head4 ,immediately below these openings there were heaps of wood and dbris washed down from the surface2 but these openings did not throw much light into the cave1 so that even during the day it was perfectly dark4 ,a subterranean stream of water runs through part of it1 and then disappears under the rock4 ,footnote #cj3 #8,on the ,moa ,caves of ,new ,zealand4' ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal1 vol4 lvi4 #ahed4 ,before the introduction of ,christianity1 this cave was held in the greatest terror by all ,new ,zealanders1 and no one would have ventured to enter it2 but as ,moa bones fetch a high price1 the love of money at length conquered the superstitious fears of some ,christian natives1 and their boldness was rewarded by a tolerably rich harvest of bones1 although their search was made in a very hasty and imperfect manner4 ,another cave situated in the same neighbourhood1 and bearing the indigenous name of #8,te ,anaotemoa' or the ,cave of the ,moa1 did not enjoy the privilege of spiritual protection1 and the ,maories were in the habit of resorting to it to procure the skulls of the ,moas1 to keep the powder which they used for tattooing1 and their long bones for the manufacture of fish-hooks1 before they became acquainted with the use of iron4 ,the ,cave of the ,moa is in a limestone hill1 with two openings1 one towards the north-east and the other towards the south-west4 ,the north- east opening has evidently been caused by the falling in of the roof1 and is apparently of no great age2 the south-west entrance is #ad feet high and #aj feet broad1 and covered over with trees and bushes4 ,the cave is #afe feet long1 the greatest breadth #bh feet1 and the height #fj feet4 ,the roof is oval1 and numerous stalactites drop gracefully from it1 giving a cathedral-like effect to the whole4 ,one part of the floor is covered over with calcareous spar1 another part with a large deposit of soft stalagmites1 and the part of the floor furthest distant from the south-west opening is covered with earth1 limestones1 and mud1 which appear to have fallen down when the roof of the cave gave way1 which now forms the north-east opening4 ,it is under this earth1 and the soft deposit of carbonate of lime1 that the ,moas' bones are found4 ,dr4 ,thomson got only four skulls in this cave1 and the scarcity of them was accounted for by their use in former days as powder-holders4 ,there was nothing to lead him to think that these bones had been deposited in the cave by water1 for he found a remnant of almost every bone in the body1 from the spine and the rings of the trachea down to the last bone of the toes4 ,the bones belonged to the largest and also to the smaller species of ,moas4 ,it would require several days' labour of many men to clear out the bottom of this cave properly1 in order to see what bones it contains2 but1 as far as ,dr4 ,thomson saw1 there were no osseous remains of man or of any animals1 except ,moas1 in it1 nor any marks of fire1 sculpture1 nor figures of any kind on the walls of the cave4 ,there are1 no doubt1 many other grottoes and cavities containing ,moas' bones in the islands1 but they are carefully kept secret by the natives1 as1 on account of the high price paid for the bones1 they may almost be regarded as small gold-mines4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,subterranean ,,relics ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,man4 ,the ,peat ,mosses of ,denmark--,shell ,mounds--,swiss ,lacustrine ,dwellings-- ,ancient ,mounds in the ,valley of the ,mississippi--,the ,caves in the ,valley of the ,meuse--,dr4 ,schmerling--,human ,skulls in the ,cave of ,engis-- ,explorations of ,sir ,charles ,lyell in the ,cave of ,engihoul--,caverns of ,brixham--,caves of ,gower--the ,sepulchral ,grotto of ,aurignac--,flint ,implements discovered in the ,valley of the ,somme--,gray's ,inn ,lane an ancient ,hunting ,ground for ,mammoths4 ,among the various researches of geologists1 there are perhaps none of a more general interest than those which relate to the antiquity of the human race4 ,we would gladly know whether those strata and caves which contain so many relics of the past afford us also some insight into the primitive condition of man--some indication of the times when he first appeared upon the stage of life4 ,within the last years many discoveries have been made which have thrown light upon the subject1 and proved that1 though man1 geologically speaking1 is of recent origin1 and probably the youngest born of creation1 his ancestry still stretches back at least as far as that remote period when the huge ,mammoth ranged over the north1 when the cavern bear and the cavern hyena tenanted the excavations of our limestone hills1 and the uncouth form of the rhinoceros brushed through the dense primeval forests of our land4 ,in the following pages ,i intend briefly to point out some of the most interesting of these discoveries4 ,the peat-mosses of ,denmark1 varying in depth from ten to thirty feet1 show their enormous antiquity by the changes which have taken place in the vegetation of the land since the first periods of their growth4 ,at their lowest levels lie thick prostrate trunks of the ,scotch fir1 which must once have grown on their margin1 but which is not now1 nor has ever been in historical times1 a native of the ,danish isles4 ,at higher levels the pines disappear1 and are supplanted by the sessile variety of the common oak1 while still higher occurs the pedunculated variety of the same oak1 now in its turn almost superseded by the common beech4 ,it is impossible to calculate the number of ages needed to bring about these vast changes in the forest scenery of ,denmark--a very moderate estimate carries them back seven thousand years--but at every depth in the peat1 and under all these various trees1 implements and other articles of human workmanship have been found1 which show that1 since the appearance of man1 the fir and the oak have successively flourished and disappeared4 ,in addition to the peat-mosses1 the ,danish #8shell-mounds' throw some light on the prehistoric ages of that northern land4 ,these mounds1 or #8refuse-heaps1' consisting chiefly of thousands of cast-away shells of the oyster1 cockle1 and other molluscs of existing species1 may be seen at certain points along the shores of nearly all the ,danish islands4 ,the shells are plentifully mixed up with the bones of various quadrupeds1 birds1 and fishes1 which served as the food of the savages by whom the mounds were accumulated1 while scattered all through them are rude implements of stone1 horn1 wood1 and bone1 with fragments of coarse pottery1 mixed with charcoal and cinders1 but never any implements of bronze or of iron4 ,similar refuse-heaps are found near the huts of many wild nations of the present day1 as1 for instance1 near the miserable wigwams of the ,fuegians1 who live chiefly upon limpets4 ,the most striking proof that the ,danish refuse-heaps are very old is derived from the character of their imbedded shells4 ,these1 indeed1 belong entirely to living species1 but the common eatable oyster is now unknown in the brackish waters of the ,baltic1 and the eatable mussels1 cockles1 and periwinkles1 which in the refuse-heaps are as large as those which grow in the open sea1 now only attain a third of their natural size4 ,hence we may confidently infer that in the days when the savage inhabitants of the ,danish coasts accumulated these heaps1 the ocean must have had freer access than now to the ,baltic1 and mixed its waters through broader channels with those of that inland sea4 ,as in the peat-bogs the implements and weapons found buried with the ,scotch fir are all made of stone1 whereas those coinciding with the oak epoch are made of bronze1 we may farther conclude that the stone hatchets and knives of the refuse-heaps likewise belong to the same distant period when evergreen forests flourished in the ,danish isles4 ,the ancient ,swiss lacustrine dwellings1 so frequently mentioned of late years1 afford us another highly interesting glimpse into remote prehistoric ages4 ,they seem first to have attracted attention during the dry season of #ahec-d1 when the lakes and rivers were unusually low1 and when the inhabitants of ,meilen on the ,lake of ,zurich resolved to raise the level of some ground1 by throwing upon it the mud obtained by dredging in the adjoining shallow water4 ,during these dredging operations they discovered a number of wooden piles deeply driven into the bed of the lake1 and1 among them1 many stone instruments1 fragments of rude pottery1 fishing gear1 and the bones of various animals2 those which contained marrow being split open1 in the same way as those found in the ,danish shell-mounds4#ca ,footnote #ca3 ,see also the article on ,lacustrine ,abodes1 in the ,edin4 ,review1 ,july #ahfb4 ,the ruins thus unexpectedly brought to light were evidently those of a village of unknown date1 and since then many other hill-dwellings 7more than a hundred and fifty in all7 have been detected near the borders of the ,swiss lakes1 at points where the depth of water does not exceed fifteen feet4 ,such aquatic sites were probably selected as places of safety1 since they could be approached only by a narrow bridge or by boats1 and the water would serve for protection alike against wild animals and human foes4 ,the relative age of the pile-dwellings is clearly illustrated by the nature of the relics that lie scattered among their ruins4 ,in some1 only bronze utensils or ornaments are found2 in others all the articles are of stone4 ,the former1 indicating an advance in civilisation1 are evidently of a more recent age1 but1 even among the villages of the stone period1 some are of later date than others1 as they exhibit signs of an improved state of the arts4 ,thus we have here a long perspective into an unknown past1 for even the bronze villages are probably of an age long antecedent to the ,roman period4 ,the oldest stone settlements are perhaps as old as the times of the ,danish refuse-heaps2 but even among their ruins1 some domesticated animals occur1 namely1 the ox1 sheep1 goat1 and dog1 and the appearance of three cereals indicates that the population had already made some progress in the agricultural arts4 ,amber ornaments1 which could only have found their way from the ,baltic1 as also hatchets and wedges of jade1 of a kind not occurring in ,switzerland or in the adjoining parts of ,europe1 and which some mineralogists would derive from the ,east1 prove the existence of an active commercial intercourse1 even at that early age1 which the ,swiss archologists and geologists carry back as far as #g1jjj years4 ,in the basin of the ,mississippi1 and especially in the valley of the ,ohio and its tributaries1 many large mounds have been found1 which have served in some cases for temples1 in others for outlook or defence1 and in others for sepulture4 ,some of these earthworks are on so grand a scale as to embrace areas of fifty or a hundred acres within a simple inclosure2 and the solid contents of one mound are estimated at twenty millions of cubic feet1 equal to about one-fourth of the bulk of the ,great ,pyramid of ,egypt4 ,from several of these repositories pottery and ornamental sculpture have been taken1 as also weapons made of unpolished hornstone and various articles in silver and copper4 ,an active commercial intercourse must have existed between the ,ohio mound-builders and the natives of distant regions1 as mica from the ,alleghanies1 sea- shells from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 obsidian from the ,mexican mountains1 and implements made of native copper from ,lake ,superior1 have been found among the buried articles4 ,the extraordinary number of the mounds implies a long period during which a settled agricultural population1 considerably advanced in the industrial arts1 occupied the fertile valleys or the alluvial plains in the basin of the ,mississippi1 covered1 since then1 with vast forests1 and tenanted by wild hunters without any traditionary connexion with their more civilised predecessors4 ,the epoch when this people flourished1 or the adverse circumstances which swept them away1 are all equally unknown2 but the age and nature of the trees found growing on some of their earthworks afford at least some data for estimating the minimum of time which must have passed since the mounds were abandoned4 ,trunks1 displaying eight hundred rings of annual growth1 have been cut down from them1 and several generations of trees must have lived and died before the mounds could have been overspread with that variety of species which they supported when the white man first set foot in the valley of the ,ohio4 ,in a memoir on this subject1 ,general ,harrison1 who was skilled in woodcraft1 observes that #8beyond all doubt no trees were allowed to grow so long as the earthworks were in use2 and when they were forsaken1 the ground1 like all newly cleared ground in ,ohio1 would for a time be monopolised by one or two species of tree1 such as the yellow locust and the black or white walnut4 ,when the individuals which were the first to get possession of the ground had died out one after the other1 they would in many cases1 instead of being replaced by the same species1 be succeeded 7by virtue of the law which makes a rotation of crops profitable in agriculture7 by other kinds1 till at last1 after a great number of centuries 7several thousand years1 perhaps71 that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of ,north ,america1 and far exceeding what is seen in ,european forests1 would be established4' ,in all the cases hitherto mentioned1 the remains or relics of prehistoric man1 however remote a date we may assign to them1 have been found associated with fossil shells and mammalia of living species4 ,in the instances ,i am now about to relate1 we advance a step further back1 and find man the contemporary either of extinct mammalia or such as could now no longer exist in the lands where once they throve4 ,as the mere mention of the numerous caves in ,belgium1 ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 in which human bones or articles of human workmanship have been found embedded along with the fossil remains of extinct animals1 would tire the reader's patience1 ,i select from the number a few which have afforded the most convincing proofs of the antiquity of man4 ,the credit of having given the first impulse to these fruitful investigations is due to the late ,dr4 ,schmerling1 of ,lige1 who1 with untiring zeal1 devoted several years of his life to the exploring of the ossiferous caverns which border the valley of the ,meuse and its tributaries4 ,to gain access to many of the caves was in itself no easy task1 as their openings could be reached only by a rope tied to a tree2 and when we consider that1 after these arduous preliminaries1 ,dr4 ,schmerling had frequently to creep on all fours through contracted passages leading to larger chambers1 there to superintend by torchlight1 week after week1 and year after year1 the workmen who were breaking through a stalagmitic crust as hard as marble1 in order to remove1 piece by piece1 the underlying bone breccia nearly as hard1 and that while thus directing their labours he stood for hours with his feet in the mud1 and with water dripping from the roof on his head1 in order to mark the position and guard against the loss of each single bone which they brought to light1 we can scarcely praise too highly his rare devotion to the cause of science4 ,among these caverns thus laboriously explored1 that of ,engis was found to contain the remains of at least three human beings deeply buried under a thick floor of stalagmite4 ,the skull of one of these1 who may have been a beauty when the ,meuse flowed at least fifty feet above its present channel1 was embedded by the side of a mammoth's tooth4 ,another skull was buried five feet deep in a breccia in which the tooth of a rhinoceros1 several bones of a horse1 and some of the reindeer1 together with some ruminants1 occurred4 ,on the right bank of the ,meuse1 on the opposite side of the river to ,engis1 is the cavern of ,engihoul1 where likewise bones of extinct animals1 mingled with those of man1 were observed to abound2 but with this difference1 that whereas in the ,engis cave there were several human crania and but very few other bones1 in ,engihoul there occurred numerous bones of the extremities belonging to at least three human beings1 and only two small fragments of a cranium4 ,none of the caves examined by ,schmerling contained an example of an entire skeleton1 and the bones were invariably so rolled and scattered as to preclude all idea of their having been intentionally buried on the spot4 ,as no gnawed bones nor any coprolites were found1 he inferred that the caverns of the province of ,lige had not been the den of wild beasts1 but that their organic and inorganic contents had been swept into them by streams communicating with the surface of the country4 ,in #ahfj ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 on a visit to ,lige1 determined still further to examine the ,cave of ,engihoul1 into which ,schmerling had delved in #ahca1 and engaged some workmen to break through the crust of stalagmite with the intention of searching for bones in the undisturbed earth beneath4 ,bones and teeth of the cave-bear were soon found1 and1 at the depth of two feet below the crust of stalagmite1 three fragments of a human skull1 and two perfect lower jaws with teeth1 all associated with the bones of bears1 large pachyderms and ruminants1 and so precisely resembling these in colour and state of preservation as to leave no doubt that man was contemporary with the extinct animals4 ,our ,english bone-caves have likewise afforded abundant proofs of the antiquity of our race4 ,in #aheh a new series of caverns having been accidentally discovered near the sea at ,brixham1 by the roof of one of them being broken through in quarrying1 the ,royal ,society resolved to have it scientifically and thoroughly examined4 ,the united length of the galleries which were cleared out under the superintendence of experienced geologists amounted to several hundred feet4 ,their width never exceeded eight feet4 ,they were sometimes filled up to the roof with mud1 but occasionally there was a considerable space between the roof and floor4 ,the numerous fossils discovered during the progress of the excavations were all numbered and labelled with reference to a journal in which the geological position of each specimen was recorded with scrupulous care4 ,as in many other bone-caverns1 the underground passages and channels were generally found floored with a layer of stalagmite1 varying in thickness from one to fifteen inches1 and next below occurred loam or bone-earth from two to fifteen feet in thickness4 ,in the latter were found remains of the mammoth1 of the cave-bear1 of the cave-lion1 and other extinct mammalia4 ,no human bones were obtained1 but many flint knives1 chiefly from the lowest part of the bone-earth1 and one of the most perfect lay at the depth of thirteen feet from the surface1 and was covered with bone-earth of that thickness4 ,at one point in the overlying stalagmite a perfect reindeer's horn was found sticking1 and in another an entire humerus of the cave-bear--a convincing proof that both these animals must have lived after the flint tools were manufactured1 or in other words that man in this district preceded the cave-bear4 #8,a glance at the position of ,windmill ,hill1 in which the caverns are situated1 and a brief survey of the valleys which bound it on three sides1 are enough to satisfy a geologist that the drainage and geographical features of this region have undergone great changes since the gravel and bone-earth were carried by streams into the subterranean cavities4 ,some worn pebbles of hematite1 in particular1 can only have come from their nearest parent rock at a period when the valleys immediately adjoining the caves were much shallower than they now are4 ,the reddish loam in which the bones are embedded is such as may be seen on the surface of limestone in the neighbourhood1 but the currents which were formerly charged with such mud must have run at a level seventy-eight feet above that of the stream now flowing in the same valley4'#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,lyell1 #8,antiquity of ,man1' p4 #aja4 ,in #ahfa1 ,colonel ,wood found1 in a newly discovered cave of the peninsula of ,gower1 in ,glamorganshire1 the remains of two species of rhinoceros1 ,r4 teichorhinus and ,r4 hemitchus1 in an undisturbed deposit1 in the lower part of which were some well-shaped flint knives1 evidently of human workmanship4 ,this is the first well-authenticated example of the occurrence of human implements in connexion with ,r4 hemitchus--the first proof that this extinct brute1 elsewhere the usual companion of the mammoth1 has been coeval with man4 ,in #aheb1 on the side of a hill near the small town of ,aurignac in the ,south of ,france1 a sepulchral grotto was discovered which1 though unadorned and rude1 is of the highest interest1 as in point of antiquity it surpasses all other burial-places known1 and leads us back to times long anterior to the oldest traditions of our race4 ,in that year a labourer observed that rabbits1 when hotly pursued by the sportsman1 ran into a hole which they had burrowed in a talus of rubbish washed down from the hill above4 ,expecting no doubt to #8drag some struggling savage into day' he reached as far into the opening as the length of his arm1 and drew out1 to his surprise1 one of the long bones of a human skeleton4 ,his curiosity being excited he then began to dig a trench through the middle of the talus1 and in a few hours found himself opposite a large heavy slab of rock1 placed vertically against the entrance4 ,having removed this1 he discovered on the other side of it an arched cavity almost filled with bones1 among which were two entire skulls1 which he recognised at once as human4 ,the good people of ,aurignac1 highly interested in the discovery1 flocked to the cave1 and as they probably expressed a wish to see the bones of what they supposed to be their forefathers enjoy a ,christian burial1 the mayor ordered these human relics to be removed from the lonely spot in which they had so long reposed in peace1 and to be re-interred in the parish cemetery4 ,but before this was done--having1 as a medical man1 a knowledge of anatomy1 though1 as it seems1 a very imperfect idea of the ethnological value of the discovery--he ascertained that the bones must have formed parts of no less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes4 ,unfortunately1 the skulls were injured in the transfer1 and the interment was so negligently conducted that when1 after the lapse of eight years1 ,m4 ,lartet visited ,aurignac1 even the place could not be pointed out into which the skeletons had been thrown4 ,the eminent antiquary1 however1 resolved systematically to investigate the ground inside and outside the vault1 and1 having obtained the assistance of some intelligent workmen1 made the following interesting discoveries1 which amply rewarded him for his trouble4 ,outside the grotto1 he found a layer of ashes and charcoal1 about six inches thick1 extending over an area of six or seven square yards1 and going no further than the entrance of the cave1 there being no cinders or charcoal in the interior4 ,among the ashes were fragments of sandstone1 reddened by heat1 which had once formed a hearth1 not fewer than a hundred flint articles1 and knives1 projectiles1 sling-stones1 and chips4 ,here also lay scattered the bones of various animals1 some belonging to species extinct for thousands of years in ,france1 such as the mammoth1 the ,siberian rhinoceros1 the reindeer1 and the gigantic ,irish deer2 and among these bones those which had contained marrow were invariably split open1 as if for its extraction1 many of them being also burnt4 ,the spongy parts1 moreover1 were wanting1 having been eaten off and gnawed after they were broken--the work1 according to ,m4 ,lartet1 of hyenas1 whose bones and coprolites were mixed with the cinders and dispersed through the overlying soil4 ,these beasts of prey are supposed to have prowled about the spot1 and fed on such relics of the funeral feasts as remained after the retreat of the human visitors4 ,in the cave itself1 along with some detached human bones which had escaped removal to the churchyard1 were also found the bones of animals and some rude works of art1 flat pieces of shell pierced through the middle as if for being strung into a bracelet1 and the carved tusk of a young boar1 perforated lengthwise as if for suspension as an ornament4 ,the bones of animals inside the vault differed in a remarkable manner from those of the exterior1 as none of them were broken1 gnawed1 half- eaten1 or burnt1 like those which were found lying among the ashes on the other side of the great slab which formed the portal4 ,they seemed also to have been clothed with their flesh when buried in the layer of loose soil strewed over the floor1 as they were often observed to be in juxtaposition1 and in one spot all the bones of the leg of an ,ursus spelus were lying together uninjured4 ,when we consider that it is still the custom of many savage tribes to bury with the bodies of the dead pieces of meat1 such as the bear's fat haunch1 so that they may not lack food on their long journey to the land of spirits1 we gain a most interesting glimpse into the life of prehistoric man1 the contemporary of the reindeer1 the cave-bear1 and the mammoth in the ,south of ,france4 ,armed with flint weapons1 he had established his supremacy over the wild beasts of the forest4 ,rude and ferocious as no doubt he was1 he carefully preserved the remains of his friends and kinsfolk1 and performed funeral feasts before the vaults in which their bodies were interred4 ,the lower parts of the ,valley of the ,somme1 far above ,amiens and below ,abbeville1 as far as the sea1 are covered with a bed of peat1 in some places more than thirty feet thick4 ,near the surface of these moor grounds ,gallo-,roman remains have been found1 and1 still deeper1 ,celtic weapons of the stone period2 but the thickness of the superincumbent vegetable matter is far inferior to that of the underlying peat1 so that many thousands of years must necessarily have passed since the first growth of that swampy vegetation4 ,but1 however remote its age1 it is still of later date than the adjoining or underlying alluvial deposits of clay1 gravel1 and sand1 which cannot originally have ended abruptly as they do now1 but must have once been continuous further towards the centre of the valley4 ,a long time must necessarily have elapsed between their deposition and subsequent denudation1 and the first growth of the peat4 ,in the lowest1 and consequently oldest1 of these beds1 there has been found also a mixture of freshwater and marine shells1 bones of the primitive elephant and teichorhine rhinoceros1 and a number of flint implements shaped by the hands of man4 ,thus we have here convincing proofs that a race of savages inhabited the ,valley of the ,somme long before it was scooped out to its present depth1 and when as yet not a trace existed of the thick bed of peat which now covers its lower grounds1 and required so many thousand years for its formation4 ,similar flint implements1 in connexion with the bones of extinct animals1 have been disinterred from ancient drift formations in many parts of ,england--in ,surrey1 ,middlesex1 ,kent1 ,bedfordshire1 and ,suffolk4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is1 among others1 a flint spear-headed weapon which was found with an elephant's tooth near ,gray's ,inn ,lane in #agae4 ,when1 according to the old myth1 ,evander led neas over the site of future ,rome1 they saw the cattle grazing in what was to be the ,forum1 and heard them bellowing among the future dwellings of the rich senators and knights1 ----#8passimque armenta videbant ,romanoque ,foro et lautis mugire ,carinis4' ,the change thus pointed out by ,virgil was far less than that exemplified by these few relics of a time when possibly no intervening sea separated ,britain from the rest of the world4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,troglodytes ,,or ,,cave-,,dwellers--,,cannibal ,,caves4 ,cave ,dwellings in the ,val d',ispica--,the ,sicanians--,cannibal ,caves in ,south ,africa--,the ,rock ,city of the ,themud--,legendary ,tale of its ,destruction4 ,caves were probably the earliest habitations of primitive man1 the first rude shelter for which he had to do battle with the hyena or the bear4 ,as we have seen in the preceding chapter1 some of the oldest relics of his prehistoric existence have been discovered in caves2 and at a far later period1 when he had already made some progress in the arts1 we find many races still adhering to the subterranean dwellings of their forefathers4 ,such a state of things may possibly be indicated in the mythical stories of the ,greek and ,trojan heroes1 who1 near the base of ,mount ,etna1 are said to have found caverns tenanted by the troglodytic tribe of the ,cyclops4 ,in another part of ,sicily the old cave-dwellings of the ,val d',ispica deservedly attract the antiquarian's attention4 ,the vale is a narrow gorge1 situated between ,modica and ,spaccafurno2 and throughout its whole length of about eight ,italian miles1 the rock-walls on both sides are pierced with innumerable grottoes1 which at first sight might be taken for the productions of nature1 but on a closer inspection evidently show that they are the work of man1 and have been originally excavated to serve as dwellings4 ,the luxuriant vegetation of the ,val forms a pleasing contrast with the naked sterility of the plain in which it is imbedded2 a small rivulet flows along the bottom1 and irrigates wild fig-trees and stately oleanders2 on a higher level grow broad-leaved acanthuses and wild artichokes1 while thick festoons of cactus hang down from the top of the rocks and shade the entrance of the grottoes4 ,these are excavated at various heights above the bottom of the vale1 and often consist of two or three stories1 one above the other4 ,a great part of the rock-wall on the right bank of the brook has fallen in1 and exposes to sight the internal arrangement of the dwellings4 ,on the mounds of rubbish the visitor is able to ascend to the entrances of the caves1 which originally can have been accessible only by ladders4 ,the chambers are seldom more than twenty feet deep and six feet high and broad4 ,the above-mentioned rock-slip has laid open1 among others1 a dwelling of three stories1 with flights of steps in a good state of preservation1 to which1 on account of its superior dimensions1 the neighbouring peasants have given the name of ,castello d',ispica1 and which may have been the abode of a chieftain4 ,several mortar-like basins or troughs1 hollowed in the rock1 evidently served for the pounding of corn1 so that the inhabitants1 whoever they were1 must have known at least some of the arts of civilised life4 ,a few of the rooms or burrows 7for their size hardly warrants a better name7 are still tenanted by shepherds1 whose whole furniture consists of a kettle1 a few pots1 and some skins to lie upon4 ,parthey1 a learned ,german traveller1#cc who visited many of the caves 7the whole number probably exceeding #a1ejj71 nowhere found the least traces of ornament about them2 the doors and windows were mere rough holes broken through the rock4 ,thus there can be no doubt that the fragments of painted vases and sculptured marble that have been found here and there in the caves belong to a much later period1 for a people sufficiently advanced in the arts to paint vases and to chisel marble could not possibly have been content with a mole-like existence4 ,if we seek to ascertain the probable age of this cavern city1 all circumstances combine to throw back its origin to a very ancient date4 ,the total want of artistic decoration at once forbids us to assign these extensive but rude excavations to one of the ,greek tribes which successively founded colonies in the island after expelling the aborigines from their ancestral seats4 ,in the ,roman1 the ,saracenic1 or some later period a band of fugitives might indeed have found a temporary retreat in this remote vale1 but could hardly have remained concealed long enough to execute a work which evidently required long years of undisturbed toil4 ,thus it has been conjectured that these caves were the dwellings of the ancient ,sicanians1 a people who became known to history only when about to disappear for ever from the stage of the world1 having left no memorial of their existence save perhaps these rude vestiges of an infant state of society4 ,footnote #cc3 #8,wanderungen durch ,sicilien4' ,we may justly presume that the aborigines of ,malta1 the ,balearic ,islands1 and ,sardinia were likewise troglodytes when the first foreign colonists landed on the shores of these islands4 ,and such1 after the lapse of more than thirty centuries1 are the ,sarde shepherds of the present day1 who frequently have no better dwellings than the caves of the rocks4 ,in ,southern ,italy the traveller meets with traces of the same primitive mode of life4 ,near a place called ,iscalonga1 in the province of ,basilicata ,mr4 ,mallet found many inhabited caves1 excavated in dry tufa of extreme antiquity4 ,some of the troglodytes came out to see him pass1 and looked savage and queer enough in their rough brown blanket-cloaks1 with peaked hoods and sheepskins4 ,irrespective of climate1 we at the present day find cave-dwellers among the tribes of the frozen regions of the ,north and the ,arabs of the stony wastes bordering on the ,red ,sea1 in the ,libyan deserts1 and in the sandstone rocks of ,southern ,africa1 wherever nature has formed grottoes or the soft material admits of an easy excavation4 ,amongst the many interesting objects of the ,transgariep country are the celebrated cannibal caverns which extend from the ,moluta river to the ,caledon river4 ,thirty years ago they were inhabited by a race of men who1 like the lion or the panther1 were the scourge of the whole neighbouring country4 ,their mode of living was to send out hunting parties1 who would conceal themselves among the rocks and bushes1 and lie in ambush near roads1 drifts1 gardens1 or watering-places for the purpose of surprising and capturing women1 children1 or travellers4 ,the influence of the chieftain ,moshesh induced them to change their evil practices for a better mode of life1 and they are now said to be an inoffensive people of agriculturists and traders4 ,when ,mr4 ,james ,henry ,bowker visited the caves near the sources of the ,caledon river1 in #ahfh1 he met at one of them an old savage1 one of the most ill-looking ruffians he had ever beheld1 who had formerly assisted at the cooking and bone-picking of many a human victim1 and1 like the ,last ,minstrel1 seemed greatly to regret that #8,old times were changed1 ,old manners gone2' and that #8,the bigots of the iron time ,had called his harmless life a crime4' ,the largest cavern is situated amongst the mountains beyond ,thaba ,bosigo1 the residence of the old chief ,moshesh1 about ten miles distant from the deserted missionary station ,cana4 ,the entrance to this cavern is formed by the overhanging cliff1 and its arched and lofty roof is blackened with the smoke and soot of the fires which served for the preparation of many a horrible repast4 ,at the further end of the cave some rough irregular steps led up to a gloomy-looking natural gallery where the victims not required for immediate consumption were confined4 ,the cannibals1 consisting of ,betshuana and ,kafir tribes1 had the less excuse for their barbarity as they inhabit a fine agricultural country1 which likewise abounds in game2 but it is said that1 having in a time of famine been reduced to the horrible extremity of eating human flesh1 they acquired a taste for it1 and continued to relish it as a delicacy even in times of abundance4 ,though they are now reported to be no longer cannibals1 there is reason to fear that they have not yet entirely abandoned their diabolical way of living1 for among the numerous bones which strewed the floor of the cavern and had chiefly belonged to children and young persons1 ,mr4 ,bowker found some that could hardly have been there many months4 ,the skull of a child which lay before the mouth of the cavern afforded a touching example of #8life in death1' for a little bulb had sprung up from its cavity and covered it with a graceful tuft of drooping leaves4 ,at the distance of a ten days' journey from ,medina on the road of the pilgrim caravans from ,damascus1 lies the deserted rock-city of the ,themud1 where a whole people had hewn their dwellings in the black rock1 decorating the entrances with small columns on both sides1 and tracing numerous inscriptions on the walls4 ,no ,european traveller has ever visited this curious spot1 for the ,bedouins render the neighbourhood insecure1 and the pilgrims to the holy cities allow no infidel to accompany them on their journey4 ,how the subterranean city came to be deserted is still a secret of the past2 but probably its ruin must be traced back as far as the first or second century of the ,christian era1 for ,mahomet cites it more than once in his ,koran as a warning to all true believers4 ,according to the legend the prophet ,saleh once came to ,themud to convert the idolatrous inhabitants to the belief of the one true ,god4 ,as a proof of his divine mission they required a miracle to be performed1 upon which the prophet1 raising his staff1 struck the rock1 which immediately opened and gave passage to a she-camel with its young4 ,but the obdurate pagans1 still persisting in their incredulity1 killed the camel1 and the young would no doubt have shared its mother's fate1 if it had not speedily retired into the rock whence it had come forth4 ,the sacrilegious crime of the ,themud did not long remain unpunished4 ,a dreadful earthquake destroyed them to the last man1 and ever since the place is cursed4 ,when the caravan passes by1 the pilgrims raise loud shouts and hurry along as fast as they can1 fearful of their dromedaries becoming shy from the wailings of the young camel1 which is still supposed to exist in the rock4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,tunnels4 ,subterranean ,london--,the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel--,its ,length--,ingenious ,boring ,apparatus--,the ,grotto of the ,pausilippo--,the ,tomb of ,virgil4 ,the most renowned subterranean works of previous ages are generally of a religious character1 as they have been executed to serve either as resting-places for the dead1 or as temples in which gods or saints were worshipped4 ,thus the rock-tombs of the ,egyptian ,pharaohs and the sacred grottoes of ,india still bear witness to the feelings which conceived and realised the idea of these stupendous excavations4 ,our own times furnish no similar examples of underground temples or mausoleums on a scale so grand as to command the admiration of posterity4 ,we neither scoop out whole mountains nor deeply plunge into the entrails of the earth to reverence the dead or to testify our devotion2 our subterranean labours all bear the stamp of practical utility4 ,but never yet has the genius of man executed such wondrous excavations as those of the present day2 and though the purposes for which they are performed may seem commonplace and prosaic when compared with the ideal aims of the unknown artists who planned the ,pharaonic rock-tombs1 or the temples of ,ellora1 yet the boldness of their conception entitles them to rank among the grandest architectural works1 while the difficulty of their execution would have appalled the most enterprising engineers of any age4 ,modern ,london alone has more subterranean wonders to boast of than all the capitals of the ancient world4 ,as in the human frame numberless vessels and nerves provide for the circulation of the blood1 and convey telegraphic signals through every part1 so in the vast body of our metropolis an amazing system of subterranean communication carries off the sewerage of its millions of inhabitants1 provides them with light and water1 conveys intelligence from one end to the other of its enormous circuit almost with the rapidity of thought1 transports thousands of travellers below the crowded streets1 and1 not satisfied with all these achievements1 opens passages under the broad river to which it owes its boundless wealth4 ,illustration3 ,,boring ,,machine ,,in ,,the ,,tunnel1 ,,mont ,,cenis4 ,but even the wonders of subterranean ,london1 or of ,paris--where troops moving underground can march from one fortified caserne to the other1 so that1 in a more literal sense than ,pompey1 the rulers of ,france can say that they have but to stamp upon the ground to make legions start up from the soil--are surpassed by those which the railroad calls forth in its triumphal progress through the world4 ,the ,alps themselves1 with their eternal snows1 no longer oppose a barrier to the locomotive2 and we have lived to witness the completion of the most gigantic tunnel ever yet devised by man4 ,the borer has slowly but indefatigably done its work in the entrails of ,mont ,cenis1 and the subterranean junction of ,france and ,italy has been at length achieved4 ,the tunnel1 which pierces #ab1bja metres1 or nearly seven miles1 of solid rock1 opens on the ,italian side at ,bardonneche1 #a1bia metres 7about #d1jjj feet7 above the level of the sea1 and on the ,french side at ,modane1 at a height of #a1afc metres4 ,from each opening the tunnel gently ascends towards its culminating point in the centre of the mountain1 so as to allow the waters to drain off on either side4 ,the direction of the excavations was determined by trigonometrical measurement1 which of course required the nicest accuracy1 as a deviation of but half a centimetre on both sides would amount to no less than #abj metres in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,boring ,,machine ,,in ,,the ,,second ,,working ,,gallery1 ,,mont ,,cenis ,,tunnel4 ,for this purpose a signal was erected on the mountain above the culminating point or the centre of the tunnel2 and opposite to each entrance1 in the same longitudinal axis1 a large theodolite pointed to the above-mentioned signal and towards a light in the interior of the tunnel1 so that the slightest deviation from the requisite direction was rendered mathematically impossible4 ,the machines used in the drivage of the tunnel were worked by means of compressed air4 ,the comminuted rock produced during the boring was continuously removed by a jet of water squirted into the hole by the machine--a precaution which was found to be of great economy in the wear of the tools4 ,under ordinary conditions the working speed was about #bjj strokes per minute1 at which rate from eight to ten holes1 of #af inches diameter and #ce inches deep1 could be bored in the shift of six hours4 ,the tunnel is of an #ah section1 #ac feet broad and #i feet high2 eight machines were employed at one time2 they were mounted on a wrought-iron frame1 which travelled on a railway1 and could be removed to a safe distance when the blasting took place4 ,from #fe to #gj holes were bored in the face of the rock1 and then loaded with uniform charges1 made up into cartridges1 and primed with fuses of different lengths1 so as to explode in groups at definite intervals4 ,a horizontal series at about mid height was first fired1 then followed two vertical side rows1 then a group near the crown of the arch1 and finally a horizontal series near the floor4 ,in this way the rock was blown down in nearly uniform fragments of from six to eight inches in the side4 ,at first1 owing to the hardness of the quartz-slate which had to be pierced1 the work went on very slowly2 but at a greater depth1 the mountain was found to consist of limestone strata1 so that at length it advanced about thirteen feet per day4 ,the compressed air which set the borers in motion served also for the ventilation of the tunnel1 as every stroke of the piston liberated sufficient pure air to drive back to a considerable distance from the workmen the suffocating gases1 produced by the blasting1 which otherwise would render breathing impossible4 ,air-pumps placed before the entrance finally conducted the fumes of the gunpowder or dynamite into the open air4 ,it is evident that the difference in height of the two openings1 and the gradual ascent towards the centre1 will insure a thorough ventilation4 ,in the beginning of ,september #ahfi the ,italian side of the tunnel1 which is #e1iac metres long1 was completed1 while on the ,french side only #d1bbb metres were accomplished and #bjef remained to be bored1 and it was calculated that this gigantic enterprise would most probably be terminated by the beginning of #ahga4 ,it was1 however1 completed a few days earlier4 ,when ,louis ,quatorze1 that model of regal pomposity1 succeeded in placing the crown of ,spain on the head of his grandson ,philip of ,anjou1 he bid him grandiloquently farewell with the words3 #8,go1 my son6 the ,pyrenees no longer exist4' ,with more truth is our age able now to declare that the ,alps have ceased to be a barrier between nations4 ,there can be no doubt that the ,mont ,cenis tunnel will soon be followed by similar undertakings1 some probably on a still grander scale4 ,the governments of ,italy1 ,switzerland1 and ,germany have already decided upon piercing a tunnel through the ,mount ,st4 ,gothard4 ,in winter the traveller will no longer be obliged to ascend the solitudes of the ,schllenen1 to cross the ,devil's ,bridge1 and then1 after traversing the valley of ,urseren1 to pursue his perilous way up to the summit of the pass1 before a zigzag descent1 along yawning precipices1 leads him into the sunny vale of the ,ticino2 but at ,gschenen on the north he will plunge at once into the bowels of the mountain1 and in an hour will suddenly emerge at ,airilo into the genial south4 ,in early spring the change of climate will be almost miraculous2 on one side winter still reigning supreme1 the earth covered with deep snow and the cold wind moaning through the leafless trees--and then1 after a short interval of darkness1 the rich vegetation of an ,italian vale bursting forth in all its first luxuriance1 birds singing in the chestnut groves1 and the green meads enamelled with myriads of flowers4 ,it is curious to compare these stupendous works with the most celebrated tunnel of ancient times1 the ,grotto of the ,pausilippo1 near ,naples1 which serves as a passage for the travellers who intend visiting ,puzzuoli1 ,bai1 or ,cum1 without being obliged to ascend the mountain or to cross the bay4 ,it is about a mile long1 from thirty to eighty feet high and twenty-eight feet broad1 so as to allow three carriages to pass abreast4 ,twice a year1 in ,february and ,october1 the last rays of the sun dart for a few minutes through the whole length of the grotto2 at all other times a speck of gray uncertain light terminates the long and solemn perspective4 ,the origin of this celebrated grotto is unknown4 ,some old chroniclers have imagined it as ancient as the ,trojan war2 others attribute it to the mysterious race of the ,cimmerians4 ,the ,neapolitans attribute a more modern1 though not more certain1 origin to their famous cavern1 and most piously believe it to have been formed by the enchantments of ,virgil1 who1 as ,addison very justly observes1 is better known at ,naples in his magical character than as the author of the #8neid4' ,this strange infatuation most probably arose from the fact that the tomb1 in which his ashes are supposed to have been deposited1 is situated above the grotto1 and that1 according to popular tradition1 it was guarded by those very spirits who assisted in constructing the cave4 ,king ,robert1 a wise1 though far from poetical1 monarch1 conducted his friend ,petrarch with great solemnity to the spot1 and1 pointing to the entrance of the grotto1 very gravely asked him whether he did not adopt the general belief1 and conclude that this stupendous passage derived its origin from ,virgil's powerful incantations4 #8,when ,i had sat for some time1' says ,beckford1#cd #8on a loose stone immediately beneath the first gloomy arch of the grotto1 contemplating the dusky avenue1 and trying to persuade myself that it was hewn by the ,cimmerians1 ,i retreated1 without proceeding any further1 and followed a narrow path which led me1 after some windings and turnings1 along the brink of the precipice1 across a vineyard1 to that retired nook of the rocks which shelters ,virgil's tomb1 most venerably mossed over and more than half concealed by bushes and vegetation4 ,the clown who conducted me remained aloof at awful distance whilst ,i sat communing with the manes of my beloved poet1 or straggled about the shrubbery which hangs directly above the mouth of the grot4 ,footnote #cd3 #8,italy4' #8,advancing to the edge of the rock1 ,i saw crowds of people and carriages1 diminished by distance1 issuing from the bosom of the mountain1 and disappearing almost as soon as discovered in the windings of the road4 ,clambering high above the cavern1 ,i hazarded my neck on the top of one of the pines1 and looked contemptuously down on the race of pigmies that were so busily moving to and fro4 ,the sun was fiercer than ,i could have wished1 but the sea breezes fanned me in my arial situation1 which commanded the grand sweep of the bay1 varied by convents1 palaces1 and gardens1 mixed with huge masses of rock1 and crowned by the stately buildings of the ,carthusians and fortress of ,st4 ,elmo4 ,add a glittering blue sea to this perspective1 with ,caprea rising from its bosom1 and ,vesuvius breathing forth a white column of smoke into the ther1 and you will then have a scene upon which ,i gazed with delight for more than an hour1 forgetting that ,i was perched upon the head of a pine with nothing but a frail branch to uphold me4 ,however1 ,i descended alive1 as ,virgil's genii1 ,i am resolved to believe1 were my protectors4' ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,on ,,mines ,,in ,,general4 ,perils of the ,miner's ,life--,number of ,casualties in ,british and ,foreign ,coal ,mines--,life in a ,mine--,occurrence of ,ores--,extent and ,depth of ,metallic ,veins--,mines frequently discovered by ,chance--,the ,divining ,rod-- ,experimental ,borings--,stirring ,emotions during their ,progress--,sinking of ,shafts--,precautions against ,influx of ,water--,expense--,shaft ,accidents-- ,various ,methods of working ,mineral ,substances--,working in ,direct and ,reverse ,steps--,working by ,transverse ,attacks--,open ,quarry ,workings-- ,pillar and ,stall ,system--,long ,wall ,system--,dangerous ,extraction of ,pillars--,mining ,implements--,blasting--,heroes in ,humble ,life--,firing in the ,mine of ,rammelsberg--,transport of ,minerals ,underground--,modern ,improvements--,various ,modes of ,descent--,corfs--,wonderful ,preservation of a ,girl at ,fahlun--,the ,loop--,safety ,cage--,man ,machines--,timbering and ,walling of ,galleries--,drainage by ,adit ,levels--,remarkable ,adits--,the ,great ,cornish ,adit--,the ,georg ,stollen in the ,harz--,the ,ernst ,august ,stollen--,steam ,pumps--,drowning of ,mines--,irruption of the ,sea into ,workington ,colliery--,hubert ,goffin--,irruption of the ,river ,garnock into a ,mine--,ventilation of ,mines--,upcast ,shafts--,fire ,damp--,dreadful ,explosions--,the ,safety ,lamp--,the ,choke ,damp--,conflagrations of ,mines--,the ,burning ,hill in ,staffordshire4 ,few metals are found in a native state1 nor are they commonly scattered in loose masses1 nuggets1 grains1 or scales over the surface of the earth4 ,hence the seeker's trouble is by no means confined to the task of gathering these masses1 or of separating them by washing from the alluvial sand or gravel with which they are mixed2 much more frequently they are chemically combined with other substances from which a far advanced state of science is alone able to separate them1 or deeply imbedded in subterranean mines1 often so difficult of access as to tax for their working all the energies of man and all the resources of his metallurgic skill4 ,the labours of the miner require indeed no less courage and presence of mind than those of the mariner4 ,he no more knows whether he shall ever return from the pit into which he descends in the morning for his hard day's work than the sailor knows whether he shall ever revisit the port which he is leaving4 ,he is perpetually at war with fire and earth1 with air and water1 and this eternal strife levies a no less heavy tribute of death and suffering than the storms of the raging seas4 ,in the year #ahfg1 #a1aij persons perished in our #c1aib collieries1 which employ a total of #ccc1aaf workmen4 ,of these1 #bhf were killed by explosions2 #ddi by falls of rock2 #baa by other subterranean causes2 #aef in the shafts2 and #hh above ground4 ,in the same year1 #bic lives were lost in the ,prussian collieries1 where #ajb1ggc workmen find employment4 ,of these1 #ci perished by fire-damp2 #ajf by fall of roof2 #fe in shafts2 #gd by casualties under ground2 and #i by casualties above ground4 ,these melancholy lists may give us some idea of the number of serious but non- fatal accidents which are not mentioned in the official accounts4 ,every visitor to a coal-mine will meet with many pit lads who have been #8lamed' 7or injured7 several times in a few years1 and who reckon events by the mournful chronology of their various #8lamings4' ,collieries1 as will be seen in the sequel1 are indeed peculiarly liable to frightful accidents2 yet the number of lives lost in the inspected ironstone mines of ,great ,britain1 in #ahff1 amounted to #ha4 ,extending our view to the mines of ,austria and ,russia1 of ,france and ,belgium1 of ,mexico and ,peru1 c41 c41 where the same dangers cause1 no doubt1 an equal amount of death or suffering1 we may justly conclude that not a day1 probably not an hour1 passes that does not doom more than one miner to an untimely grave or to permanent mutilation4 ,but if mining is attended with a lamentable amount of individual suffering1 the benefits derived from it by mankind in general are so important that the whole fabric of modern civilisation may be said to rest upon its basis4 ,coal and the useful metals rule the world4 ,wherever they occur in large masses they establish the prosperity of a people on the surest foundations2 and ,england is in a great measure indebted for her high station among the nations of the earth to the treasures hidden beneath her soil4 ,a large mine displays unquestionably some of the most interesting scenes of human activity4 ,the restless industry pervading its subterranean caves and galleries impresses the visitor with feelings of wonder akin to those which he experiences when he first sets foot on a man-of-war2 and if he feels giddy on seeing the sailor climb the loftiest masts1 the sight of the yawning abyss into which the miner undauntedly descends seems terrible to his unaccustomed eye2 and as he penetrates further and further into the recesses of this unknown world1 his sensations are not rendered more agreeable4 ,the intricate passages branching out into a mysterious distance2 the vaults and high halls faintly illumined here and there by a glimmering lamp2 the dark forms emerging every now and then from some obscure recess1 and then again plunging into night1 like demon shades2 the clanking of hammers1 the rushing of waters1 the creaking of wheels1 the monotonous sound of machinery1 or the loud explosion which1 repeated by subterranean echoes1 rolls like muttering thunder from vault to vault1 the oppressive air in the low galleries1 through which he can only move in a stooping position2 the fear of being crushed any moment by a falling rock1 or shivered to atoms by fire-damp combustion1--all combine to produce an impression which can seldom be made by any scenes above ground4 ,the admiration which this imposing spectacle necessarily calls forth in his mind increases when he reflects how much skill and experience was required1 and how many improvements and inventions had to be made1 before mining could be brought to its present state of perfection4 ,ores sometimes occur1 like coal1 in layers or beds1 running parallel with the strata of the inclosing rocks1 or in prodigious irregular masses4 ,most commonly1 however1 they are found in veins traversing the rocks in every conceivable direction1 and filling the crevices and chasms which former terrestrial revolutions have rent in the hard stone4 ,from the wild and titanic powers that have here been at work1 it may easily be imagined how irregular the direction of these veins must be1 and under how many various forms they must appear4 ,here they are horizontal1 there vertical2 here they form thin layers1 there they fill chasms several hundred feet thick4 ,sometimes they split into several minor branches1 or make abrupt bends1 and frequently they have been rent1 torn1 or displaced in every possible manner by subsequent revolutions4 ,their length is as various as their thickness or their direction4 ,some are short1 while others traverse the rocks to a distance of many miles4 ,thus the argentiferous veins in the neighbourhood of ,clausthal1 in the ,harz1 are three leagues long1 and the famous ,veta ,madre1 or chief lode of ,guanaxuato in ,mexico1 has been traced for a length of eight miles4 ,with regard to depth1 the lower extremity of hardly a single mineral bed or vein of any note has as yet been pointed out1 though many have been worked to a considerable depth4 ,thus1 one of the pits of ,st4 ,andreasberg1 in the ,harz1 is #b1dhe feet deep1 though1 on account of its high situation in the mountains1 not much more than #bhj feet below the surface of the sea1 while1 in the coal mines of ,valenciennes and ,lige1 the deepest shafts are sunk from #a1cjj to #a1fjj feet below the level of the ocean4 ,the shaft of the colliery of ,sacre ,madame1 near ,charleroi1 is #hjj yards deep1 and that of ,dukinfield ,colliery #b1jej feet4 ,the great difficulty of carrying on mining operations at great depths will1 probably1 for ever prevent most metalliferous veins from being followed to their origin in the bowels of the earth2 for while on high mountains the rarefaction of the atmosphere prevents respiration1 the increasing pressure or impurity of the air at a depth of four or five thousand feet below the level of the sea must necessarily hinder the free expansion of the lungs4 ,the weakness of our organisation soon sets limits to our progress1 whether we wish to rise into the air or to penetrate into the interior of the earth2 and it is only on spiritual wings that we soar aloft to the stars1 or wander through the mysterious depths of our planet4 ,how have the ores been collected or precipitated in the veins or strata where they are often found in such enormous quantities8 ,partly they ascended as vapour from unknown depths1 and then were condensed in the crevices1 mixing with the gangue or the stones which filled the volcanic chasms2 and partly their solutions1 of which the mineral springs of the present day afford us so many examples1 permeated the porous rocks1 and saturated them on cooling1 or were forced to relinquish their valuable contents by some more powerful chemical affinity4 ,thus1 numberless years before man appeared upon the stage of his future empire1 the means were provided without which it would never have been possible for him to establish his dominion over the earth1 and to make himself master of the treasures it bears on its surface4 ,when we consider the frequent upheavings and subsidences of the earth- rind and the denuding power of water1 which1 in the long series of ages1 cuts deep ravines into the mountains and washes away whole strata1 we cannot wonder that many metalliferous veins emerge or crop out on the surface of the earth1 so that a fortunate chance sufficed for their discovery4 ,thus1 a poor ,indian looking for wood first found the rich deposits of silver that had so long been buried in obscurity under the sterile soil of ,copiapo in ,chili 7#afcb74 ,partridges1 in whose stomachs grains of gold were found1 are said to have led to the discovery of the rich mines of ,kremnitz and ,schemnitz in ,hungary2 and ,ramm1 a huntsman of the emperor ,otho the ,great1 having bound his horse to a tree in a forest near ,goslar in the ,harz ,mountains1 the fretful steed1 stamping with impatience and tearing up the soil1 pointed out the celebrated lode of the ,rammelsberg1 which is still worked to the present day4 ,but if in these and similar instances the treasures of the subterranean world have revealed themselves spontaneously to man1 in many other cases laborious and costly investigations have been found necessary for their discovery4 ,as civilisation advanced1 and the value of the metals1 of coal and salt1 came to be more and more appreciated1 nothing could be more natural than the desire of no longer relying upon the discoveries of chance or upon the mines bequeathed by former ages1 but of sounding the mysterious recesses of the earth1 and forcing her1 by dint of patient exploration1 to reveal the riches she conceals under her surface4 ,thus1 as far back as the eleventh century1 the divining rod came into practice1 and found full credence in a superstitious age4 ,a forked branch of the hazel-tree1 cut during a peculiar phase of the moon1 was the means employed in ,germany for the discovery of buried treasures1 of veins of metal1 of deposits of salt1 or of subterranean sources4 ,but the miraculous rod did not indiscriminately show its powers in every hand2 it was necessary to have been born in certain months1 and soft and warm-- or1 according to the modern expression1 magnetic--fingers were indispensable for handling it with effect4 ,the diviner possessing these necessary qualifications took hold of the rod by its branches so that the stem into which they united was directed upwards4 ,on approaching the spot where the sought-for treasure lay concealed1 the magical rod slowly turned towards it1 until finally the stem had fully changed its position and pointed vertically downwards4 ,to increase the solemnity of the scene1 the wily conjurors generally traced magical circles that were not to be passed1 burnt strong smelling herbs and spices1 and uttered powerful charms to disarm the enmity of the evil spirits that were supposed to guard the hidden treasures4 ,at present1 the divining-rod has lost its old reputation1 and more rational means are employed for the discovery of mineral wealth4 ,relying on experience1 tact1 and geological knowledge1 the investigator carefully examines the country where ores or coal are supposed to be concealed1 and having fixed upon an appropriate spot1 has recourse either to experimental digging or to boring for testing the truth of his opinion4 ,these expensive explorations1 though often unsuccessful1 frequently prove highly remunerative1 and many a saline spring1 or coal seam1 or metallic vein would1 without their assistance1 have remained unknown and unproductive4 ,boring through hard stone is necessarily a very tedious work1 but as it proceeds it awakens not only in those who are directly interested in its success1 but in every intelligent witness1 all the stirring emotions of a game of chance4 #8,of all branches of business1' says ,williams1 a thoroughly devoted miner--#8of all the experiments that a man of sensibility can be engaged in1 or attend to1 there is1 perhaps1 none so amusing1 so engaging1 and delightful as a successful trial upon the vestigia1 or appearances1 of a seam of coal1 or other mineral discoveries4 ,when you are attending the people who are digging down or forward upon the vestige of the coal1 and the indications are increasing and still growing better under your eye1 the spirit of curiosity and attention is awakened1 and all the powers of expectation are elevated in pleasing hopes of success4 ,and when your wishes are at length actually fulfilled--when you have discovered a good coal of sufficient thickness1 and all circumstances are favourable1 the heart then triumphs with solid and satisfactory joy4' ,in a mining country like ,england1 where the spirit of enterprise is continually on the look-out for new sources of profit1 it may naturally be supposed that searches for coal or metallic ore must be frequently undertaken4 ,thus in all our mining districts there are professional master-borers1 who engage for a fixed price to drill the hardest rock to any depth that may be required4#ce ,their chief implements are boring- rods1 made of the best and most tenacious ,swedish iron2 chisels fitted with screws1 tipped with good steel1 with a face of two and a half to three and a quarter inches1 and generally eighteen inches in length2 and a wimble1 which is a hollow iron instrument like an auger1 whose cavity is from six to ten inches in length1 with an opening up at one side1 with partial overlap1 the better to receive and hold the chopped strata4 ,footnote #ce3 ,in the ,north of ,england the prices of boring in the ordinary strata of that coal-field are as follows3-- s4 d4 ,first five fathoms #e #f per fathom4 ,second five 0 #aa #j 0 ,third five 0 #af #f 0 ,fourth five 0 #bb #j 0 and so increasing #es4 #f;d4 per fathom on each succeeding depth of five fathoms4 ,in boring through very hard strata the prices are from #hj to #ajj per cent4 higher4 ,when the bore is intended to penetrate to a considerable depth1 a lofty triangle of wood is set above the bore-hole4 ,in boring1 the lowermost rod is the chisel1 which continually operates on the rock or stratum4 ,the uppermost rod terminates in a stout ring1 through which passes a cross-piece held by two men in working1 and which is also suspended to a springing pole by a chain4 ,one or more rods being pushed into the ground1 two men on a wooden stage take hold of a cross stave at the end of the springing pole and work it steadily up and down1 while two men below1 by means of the cross-piece1 at the same time heave the suspended rods a few inches1 and then allow them to fall by their own weight1 walking slowly round the hole4 ,by these combined operations of chopping and scooping the workmen make slow but sure way through whatever substance may be in contact with the chisel4 ,when the hole is too deep1 and the added rods become too heavy to be conveniently lifted by manual labour1 a brake or lever1 or a horse-gin or steam-engine1 is employed4 ,as the boring proceeds1 it is also frequently necessary to lower pipes into the hole made1 to prevent the falling of fragments from the sides of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,process ,,of ,,boring4 ,when the position of a mineral vein is ascertained1 its direction known1 and some reasonable conjecture made concerning its extent1 thickness1 and value1 measures must be taken to obtain1 by subterraneous excavation1 the buried mineral1 and for this purpose vertical pits or shafts must be sunk1 and horizontal galleries1 or1 as they are sometimes called1 levels1 must be driven1 to prepare the way for its convenient extraction1 and at the same time to carry off1 so far as may be1 the water which either rises into the mine from springs1 or drains into it from the surrounding strata4 ,some idea may be formed of the extent of these works in many of the more considerable mines1 when we learn that the total amount of sinking in the ,consolidated ,mines in ,cornwall is stated to amount to more than twelve miles of perpendicular depth 7including1 of course1 the winzes or underground shafts71 and that the horizontal galleries extend to as much as forty miles in length4 ,a mine like this is1 in fact1 a large subterranean town1 with numerous lanes and avenues1 passages and thoroughfares4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,a ,,lead ,,mine ,,in ,,cardiganshire4 a4 ,shafts4 b4 ,levels4 ,in sinking a shaft1 danger is to be apprehended both from the falling in of loose and incoherent strata1 and from the lateral springs1 which sometimes empty themselves into the workings to an extent which it would at first appear hopeless to contend against4 ,in such cases there is no safety to be obtained without walling the shaft with brick or stone1 or securing it by timber or metal tubbing4 ,for this purpose many of our coal pits were formerly lined throughout with three-inch boards1 nailed to a circular wooden framework called a crib1 which was firmly attached to the sides of the pit at convenient distances4 ,but this method1 although it has been known to keep out a pressure of water equal to #ajj pounds on the square inch1 is not considered so safe as the metal tubbing now adopted in all difficult works4 ,in comparatively solid ground the cast-iron tubs are forced down the shaft1 but in soft ground they sink by their own weight4 ,as they descend1 fresh tubs are added1 until the work is finished4 ,when we consider that1 in the coal-pits in the north of ,england1 many shafts have a diameter of as much as fifteen feet1 that in some cases they are sunk to a depth of nearly #cjj fathoms1 and that1 under the most favourable circumstances1 even where tubbing is not required to guard against the influx of springs1 it is necessary to line almost the whole of the interior with bricks1 to prevent the loose strata from falling or being washed in1 we cannot wonder that as much as #ajj1jjjl4 and ten years of labour have1 in some cases1 been expended before the seam of coal has been reached that was to repay all this vast outlay of capital and time4 ,unsightly and filthy as such a shaft may be1 it is in reality a great triumph of architectural skill4 ,in most of our collieries one shaft serves for winding up the coal1 for the passage of the men up and down1 for ventilation1 and for drainage by means of the engine-pumps4 ,to answer these various purposes it is subdivided or bratticed by brick or wooden partitions into two1 three1 or four compartments2 but this arrangement is very defective1 for the safety of the workmen requires that in every large coal-pit1 and indeed in every mine1 there should be at least two separate shafts4 ,when the partitions of the single shaft become injured or burnt1 which has not unfrequently been the case1 the ventilation of the pit may suddenly be deranged1 and many lives have thus been endangered4 ,the obstruction of a shaft by the breakage of an engine has caused some of the most appalling tragedies in mining history4 ,on ,january #aj1 #ahfb1 the beam of the pumping engine broke at the ,hartley ,colliery in the ,newcastle coalfield1 and striking1 like a huge catapult1 with its enormous weight of forty tons1 against the sides of the shaft as it descended1 accumulated an enormous mass of rubbish and broken timbers at the depth of #ach yards from the surface4 ,two hundred and four colliers were thus shut out from all hope of rescue1 for no exertion could possibly remove1 in time enough to save them1 the vast pile of ruins that obstructed their escape to the upper world4 ,the methods of working1 winning1 or excavating mineral substances naturally vary1 according to the magnitude and direction of the beds1 lodes1 or seams in which they are contained4 ,with a vein of moderate width1 as soon as the preparatory labours have brought the miners to the point of the vein from which the ulterior workings are to ramify1 the first object is to divide the mass of ore into solid rectangular compartments by means of oblong galleries1 generally pierced ten fathoms below one another1 with pits of communication opened up1 thirty1 forty1 or fifty yards asunder1 which follow the slope of the vein4 ,these galleries and shafts are usually of the same breadth as the vein1 unless when it is very narrow1 in which case it is necessary to cut out a portion of the roof or the floor4 ,such workings serve at once the purposes of mining1 by affording a portion of ore1 and for the complete investigation of the nature and riches of the vein1 a certain extent of which is thus prepared before removing the cubical masses4 ,it is proper to advance first of all in this manner to the greatest distance from the central point which can be mined with economy1 and afterwards to remove the rectangular blocks in working back to that point4 ,this latter operation may be carried on in two different ways1 by attacking the ore from above or from below4 ,in either case the excavations are disposed in steps1 similar to a stair1 upon their upper or under side4 ,the first is styled a working in direct or descending steps2 the second a working in reverse1 or ascending steps4 ,by this method a number of miners are able to proceed simultaneously without interfering with each other4 ,in rich lodes and in the case of thick masses1 the system of working in large chambers or extensive excavations1 or by transverse attacks1 is employed4 ,superficial deposits are worked like open quarries4 ,in ,british practice1 coal is generally worked on the post 7or pillar and stall7 system1 or on the long-wall system4 ,the pillar and stall principle is carried out in the working away of a certain portion of the coal as a first measure1 and in leaving the remainder in pillars1 which are either to serve permanently for the support of the roof1 or to be at some future time partially or totally removed4 ,in the ,north of ,england1 where this system has been brought to perfection1 it is also named panel-work1 because the whole area is divided into quadrangular panels1 each panel containing an area of from eight to twelve acres1 and round each panel is at first left a solid wall of coal of from forty to fifty yards thick4 ,through the panel walls roads and air-courses are driven in order to work the coal contained within these walls4 ,thus all the panels are connected together with the shaft as to roads and ventilation1 and each district or panel has a particular name1 so that any circumstance relating to the details of the colliery can be readily referred to a specified place4 ,illustration3 ,,part ,,of ,a ,,colliery ,,laid ,,out ,,in ,,four ,,panels4 ,a4 ,engine shaft3 divided ,f1 ,g4 ,two panels completed as into three compartments1 to the first work4 an engine pit and two coal pits4 ,b1 ,c4 ,dip head level4 ,d4 ,panel1 with the rooms a a in regular progress to the rise4 ,a1 ,e4 ,the rise or crop gallery4 ,h4 ,panel fully worked out4 ,k1 ,k4 ,panel walls4 ,by this plan1 of which the above illustration gives a distinct idea1 the pillars of a panel may be worked out at any time most suitable for the economy of the mine1 and the loss of coal amounts to no more than about a tenth1 instead of a third or a half by the old methods4 ,when the pillars of a panel are to be worked out1 the most distant range is first attacked1 and as the workmen cut away the furthest pillars1 props of wood are placed between the pavement and the roof1 within a few feet of each other1 as shown by the dots at ,i4 ,this is continued till an area of one hundred square yards is cleared of pillars4 ,this operation is termed #8working the goaf4' ,the only use of the prop-wood is to prevent the stratum which forms the ceiling over the workmen's heads from falling down and killing them by its splintery fragments4 ,experience has proved that before proceeding to take away another set of pillars1 it is necessary to allow the last made goaf to fall4 ,the workmen then begin to draw out the props4 ,this is a most hazardous employment4 ,knocking down the more remote props one after another1 they quickly retreat under the protection of the remaining props4 ,meanwhile the roof stratum begins to break by the sides of the pillars and falls down in immense pieces2 while the workmen still persevere1 boldly drawing and retreating till every prop is removed4 ,nay1 should any props be so firmly fixed by the top pressure that they will not give way to the blows of heavy mauls1 they are cut through with axes1 the workmen making it a point of honour to leave not a single prop in the goaf4 ,if any props are left1 it causes an irregular subsidence of the strata1 and throws more pressure on the adjacent pillars4 ,the miners next proceed to cut away the pillars nearest to the sides of the goaf1 setting prop- wood1 then drawing it1 and retreating as before1 until every panel is removed excepting small portions of pillars which require to be left under dangerous stones1 to protect the retreat of the workmen4 ,while this operation is going forward and the goaf extending1 the superincumbent strata1 being exposed without support over a larger area1 break progressively higher up2 and when strong beds of sandstone are thus giving way1 the noise of the rending rocks is very peculiar and terrific2 at one time loud and sharp1 at another hollow and deep4 ,as the pillars of the panels are taken away1 the panel walls are also worked progressively backwards to the pit-bottom1 so that only a small portion of the coal is eventually lost4 ,when mines are fully worked1 the main shaft is frequently continued down to other seams of coal1 which are excavated in the same way as the first seam4 ,in such cases the workings communicate with each other by shafts called #8staples1' which are sunk at intervals between the seams of coal4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,mining ,,operations4 ,the principle of long-wall working 7,shropshire and ,derbyshire method7 is the extraction of all the available coal by the single process of first working1 maintaining the roads by means of stone-walls or wooden props4 ,this system is applicable with advantage only to thin seams which lie near to the surface1 and in which the workings may be of a very limited extent4 ,illustration3 ,,tools ,,used ,,by ,,miners ,,in ,,cornwall4 a4 ,pick4 b4 ,gad4 c4 ,shovel4 d4 ,mallet4 e4 ,borer4 f4 ,claying-bar4 g4 ,needle or nail4 h4 ,scraper4 i4 ,tamping-bar4 ,according to the various hardness of the minerals or of the rocks in which they are embedded1 different means and implements for dividing the masses are employed4 ,in loose earth1 sand1 and clay1 shovels and scrapers suffice2 in gypsum1 coal1 and rock-salt1 the pick becomes necessary2 in many hard slates1 gads must be driven into the small openings made with the point of the pick4 ,in still harder stones1 forming the great majority of those which occur in veins and strata1 recourse must be had to the explosive power of gunpowder1 which is also largely employed in our coal-mines4 ,the tools used for this purpose are the borer1 an iron bar tipped with steel1 formed like a thick chisel1 which is held by one man straight in the hole with constant rotation on its axis1 while another strikes the head of it with the iron sledge or mallet2 the scraper for clearing out the hole from time to time2 the claying-bar1 a tapering iron rod1 which1 after the introduction of some tenacious clay into the cavity1 is forced into it with great violence1 and1 condensing the clay into all the crevices of the rock1 secures the dryness of the hole2 and the nail1 a small taper rod of copper1 which1 after the charge has been introduced1 is inserted to reach the bottom of the hole1 which is now ready for tamping4 ,for this purpose1 any soft species of rock free from flinty particles1 which might provoke a premature explosion1 is introduced in small quantities at a time1 and rammed very hard by the tamping bar1 which is held steadily by one man and struck with a sledge by another4 ,the hole being thus filled1 the nail is withdrawn by putting a bar through its eye and striking it upwards4 ,thus a small perforation or vent is left for the safety fuse1 a woven cylinder containing gunpowder1 and protected by a coating of tar4 ,the fire being applied1 the men retire to a safe distance4 ,often1 in order to lose as little time as possible1 a number of shots are fired together1 so that the explosions1 pouring out their tongues of flame in rapid succession1 and awakening the subterranean echoes far and wide1 afford a highly interesting spectacle4 ,but woe to the miner if he be too hasty to return to his post1 for it often happens that a treacherous shot goes off several minutes after being lighted1 and1 exploding in the face of the imprudent workman1 disfigures him for life1 or kills him on the spot4 ,accidents in blasting arise also from other causes1 such as a negligent handling of the powder while preparing the charge1 or some delay in retiring after the fuse has been kindled4 ,it was an incident of the latter kind which some years back called forth the following instance of heroism4 #8,in a certain ,cornish mine1' says ,thomas ,carlyle1#cf #8two miners1 deep down in the shaft1 were engaged in putting in a shot for blasting2 they had completed their affair1 and were about to give the signal for being hoisted up4 ,one at a time was all their coadjutor at the top could manage1 and the second was to kindle the match and then mount with all speed4 ,now it chanced1 while they were still below1 one of them thought the match too long1 tried to break it shorter1 took a couple of stones1 a flat and a sharp1 to cut it shorter1 did cut it off the due length1 but1 horrible to relate1 kindled it at the same time1 and both were still below4 ,both shouted vehemently to the coadjutor at the windlass1 both sprang at the basket2 the windlass-man could not move it with them both4 ,here was a moment for poor miner ,jack and miner ,will6 ,instant horrible death hangs over both1 when ,will generously resigns himself4 8,go aloft1 ,jack1 and sit down4 ,away6 ,in one minute ,i shall be in heaven60 ,jack bounds aloft1 the explosion instantly follows1 bruises his face as he looks over2 he is safe above ground2 and poor ,will8 ,descending eagerly1 they find poor ,will1 too1 as if by miracle1 buried under rocks which had arched themselves over him1 and little injured2 he too is brought up safe2 and all ends joyfully1 say the newspapers1 which have duly specified the event4 ,footnote #cf3 #8,life of ,sterling1' p4 #bgh4 #8,such a piece of manly promptitude and salutary human heroism was worth investigating4 ,it was investigated and found to be accurate to the letter1 with this addition and explanation1 that ,will ,verran1 an honest1 ignorant1 good man1 entirely given up to ,methodism1 had been perfect in the 8faith of assurance20 certain that he should get to heaven if he died1 certain that ,jack ,roberts would not1 which had been the ground of his decision in that great moment2 for the rest that he much wished to learn reading and writing1 and find some way of life above ground instead of below4 ,by aid of the ,misses ,fox and the rest of that family1 a subscription 7modest ,anti-,hudson ,testimonial7 was raised for this ,methodist hero2 he emerged into daylight with fifty pounds in his pocket2 did strenuously try1 for certain months1 to learn reading and writing2 found he could not learn those arts1 or either of them2 took his money and bought cows with it1 wedding at the same time some likely milkmaid4' ,several attempts have recently been made to diminish the dangers of blasting1 by substituting gun-cotton or nitroglycerine for gunpowder2 or by firing charges by means of the electric battery1 but hitherto without much success4 ,an enormous quantity of gunpowder is consumed for blasting in many of the larger mines4 ,in #ahcf1 #fd1jjj pounds were used in the ,consolidated ,mines in ,cornwall1 and #ij1ajj pounds in the ,fowey ,consolidated ,copper ,mines4 ,the total amount of gunpowder consumed in the ,cornish and ,devonian ,mines in the year #ahcg reached #cjj tons1 which cost #ac1bjjl4 ,this one item may serve to give some idea of the enormous working expenses of a large mining concern4 ,sometimes the rock is so tenacious as to render boring too tedious and expensive an operation1 and fire becomes necessary for subduing the solidity of the stone4 ,in this manner the ancient mine of ,rammelsberg1 near ,goslar1 is forced to yield its treasures1 and whole forests are annually consumed in order to loosen the hornstone and indestructible spar of its metalliferous veins4 ,every ,saturday morning the fire is applied to the numerous piles of billets and faggots that have been distributed throughout the course of the week4 ,those in the upper floors of exploitation are first burned1 in order that the inferior piles may not obstruct by their vitiated air the combustion of the former4 ,thus at four o'clock in the morning the fires are kindled in the upper ranges1 and then from pile to pile the firemen descend towards the lower floor1 which occupies them till three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the vaults of ,rammelsberg now afford a truly magnificent spectacle4 ,the rising flames1 flickering against the walls of the vaults1 and ascending in broad sheets towards their roof2 the dense clouds of smoke rolling towards the air vents2 the crackling of the wood2 the loud detonations of the stones rent by the expansive force of heat from the primitive rock2 the lurid glare of the conflagration2 the naked workmen with their mighty stirring-poles1 flitting like dark spirits before the blazing pile2 the intense heat1 and the air loaded to suffocation with sulphurous fumes1-- all combine to produce a picture worthy of ,dante's #8,inferno4' ,during the ,sunday the noxious vapours engendered by the conflagration have time to disperse2 and on the ,monday morning the workmen detach1 with long forks of iron1 the ores that have been loosened by the flames4 ,the ore being extracted from its bed1 it becomes necessary to bring it to the light of day1 an operation which is of course of the greatest importance1 and not seldom requires the aid of complicated machinery1 particularly in coal mines1 where large masses have to be conveyed as economically and speedily as possible to the upper world4 ,a great improvement has been effected of late years in the facility of transporting minerals underground1 by the introduction of small tramroads1 and the saving of expense thus effected sometimes amounts to one-half the former cost4 ,many of our larger mines are provided with miles of this subterranean railroad1 and the advantage is greater1 because for the most part there is a slight descent from the workings to the bottom of the shaft1 to allow of a more complete system of drainage than could otherwise be attained4 ,but frequently where the galleries are low1 narrow1 and crooked1 the carriage is still effected by means of sledges1 barrows1 or little waggons1 which are with difficulty dragged or pushed along1 over planks or uneven and muddy roads2 and sometimes even the interior transport of the ore is executed on the backs of men--a most disadvantageous practice1 which is gradually wearing out4 ,illustration3 ,,conveyance ,,of ,,minerals ,,underground4 ,in great mines1 such as the coal and salt mines of ,great ,britain1 the salt mines of ,wielitzka1 the copper mines of ,fahlun1 the lead mines of ,alston ,moor1 horses have long been introduced into the workings1 to drag heavier waggons1 or a train of waggons attached to one another4 ,in some cases these animals are brought to the surface at stated intervals1 but generally when once let down the pit they for ever bid adieu to the light of day4 ,strange to say1 this unnatural mode of existence1 which would soon undermine the vigour and spirits of man1 agrees admirably well with their health1 of which the greatest care is taken1 as their useful services are duly appreciated by their owners4 ,they are abundantly fed with hay and oats of the best quality2 their stalls are large and well ventilated2 and as they labour in a mild and equable temperature1 they remain free from many complaints to which horses are liable4 ,their good condition and sleek1 shining coats prove that they have no sentimental longing for green fields or the bright sunshine4 ,in a few of the largest collieries it has been found advantageous to establish underground stationary engines1 which bring the trains of waggons1 by means of an endless rope1 along the galleries to the bottom of the shaft4 ,in other mines1 such as those of ,worsley in ,lancashire1 subterranean canals are cut1 upon which the mineral is transported in boats4 ,in the ,european mines1 the ores are usually lifted from the bottom of the shaft to the surface by steam-power1 or horse-gins2 but in ,spanish ,america1 men1 and even women1 are employed for this purpose4 ,the steep ladders which they ascend with heavy weights upon their backs1 consist merely of the thick trunks of fir-trees1 into which1 at intervals of every ten or eleven inches1 deep notches have been cut2 but these rude steps are mounted with perfect security and ease by the sure-footed ,indians4 ,in many ,european mines1 where the workmen are let down or raised by means of ropes1 wire cables1 or chains1 they sometimes sit on transverse round pieces of wood or in a kind of chair1 consisting of two strong leather belts1 one of which serves as a seat1 and the other for supporting the back4 ,in ,wielitzka ten of these chairs are attached to the cable at distances of seven or eight feet one from another4 ,the persons seated in the uppermost and lowest chairs direct the descent1 and take great care to prevent the conveyance grazing against the sides of the shaft1 for were it to be hooked fast by a nail or any other projection1 a fall into a deep precipice of several hundred feet would be the almost inevitable and fatal consequence4 ,the old method of descending into a colliery was by a corf or strong basket1 hooked on by a chain to the rope that hung down the shaft4 ,stepping into this1 the men would swing down the dark hollow1 gaily and readily1 but not always safely4 ,thus1 in the year #ahce1 in a colliery near ,lige1 seven workmen were already seated in a corf that was about to descend into the shaft1 when one of their comrades1 anxious to seize the opportunity1 came hurrying along1 and1 in spite of all remonstrances1 jumped into it2 but the rope1 unable to bear the shock and the increased weight1 suddenly snapped1 and all eight were precipitated into the abyss1 from which not one of them came forth alive4 ,in the ,swedish mines small barrels or tuns are generally used as vehicles of descent1 and the workmen are uncommonly dexterous in preventing their little arial skiff from striking against the rugged rock-walls1 when it would run the danger of being wrecked4 ,women1 and even children1 who find occupation in the mines1 are often seen standing on the narrow edge of one of these swinging1 turning1 or oscillating tuns1 with an arm slung round the rope2 and such is the power of habit that they will quietly knit where even a stout-nerved man would be appalled by the frowning cliffs above or the black abyss below4 ,in the year #aghe a girl1 descending alone into the pit of ,fahlun1 and unable to direct the tun1 could not prevent it from striking against a rock4 ,jerked out of her conveyance by the violence of the shock1 she fell upon a narrow ledge1 about one hundred feet from the bottom of the pit1 to which she clung with all the energy of despair4 ,her position was indeed terrific1 for the least motion would have precipitated her into the dark grave which seemed to yawn for her reception1 and to have given her but a momentary respite in order to make her feel more bitterly the pangs of approaching death4 ,already her strength was giving way1 already a cloud swam before her eyes1 when some bold miners1 venturing their own lives in the hazardous undertaking1 succeeded in rescuing her from her awful position1 and snatching her as it were from the very jaws of death4 ,another method much adopted1 and preferred by the pitmen in our collieries1 was passing down and up in the loop4 ,the pitman inserted one leg into a loop formed by curving the terminal chain and hooking it back upon an upper link1 and then twined his arm tightly round the rope above4 ,in this way he descended through any depth1 and1 as he alleged1 with greater safety than in a bucket1 out of which he might be ejected1 while nothing except the breaking of the rope could harm him in loop4 ,at present the safety-cage is generally used4 ,this is simply a vertical railway carriage running down and up upon guides1 and thereby introducing into the shaft the improvements of the iron road4 ,into one of its square narrow compartments two or three men crouch together1 others get into an upper compartment1 and down the cage moves easily and safely1 the men needing only to take care that hands or fingers do not hang beyond the edge1 while four or five minutes of easy motion carry them down a thousand or fifteen hundred feet below the surface of the earth4 ,illustration3 ,,miners ,,descending ,,shaft ,,in ,,owen',s ,,safety ,,cage4 ,in many mines the workmen climb up and down the shafts on fixed ladders1 with landing-stages for resting2 and it may easily be imagined how severely their strength must be taxed when1 after their hard day's labour1 they have still to ascend step by step a thousand or even two thousand feet1 before they can return to their families4 ,some of the ,cornish mines require a full hour to rise from the lowest depths to #8grass1' and besides this considerable loss of time1 diseases of the lungs and heart1 which often terminate fatally1 or prematurely make the miner an invalid1 are the consequence of these fatiguing journeys4 #8,o thou grumbling clerk in ,london city1' exclaims the author of #8,cornwall and its ,mines1'#cg #8whose daily fatigues only extend to the ascent into and descent from the trim omnibus that takes you to or from ,peckham or ,kennington6 ,only think for a moment of travelling some four or five times the height of ,st4 ,paul's daily--before and after work6 ,o thou querulous socialist1 demagogue1 or artisan1 who canst sit in a comfortable coffee-house1 under a flaming gas-light1 immediately before and after work--or in your own snug parlour1 by your own fireside or murmuring kettle--do but think for a moment of the ,cornish miner1 and what he must do before he can reach home or house6 ,i fully believe that the best cure for discontent and gloom in fortunate workmen would be to put them upon the treadmill of a deep ,cornish mine--for a temporary treadmill it is4' ,footnote #cg3 ,london3 ,longmans1 #aheg4 ,it had long been deemed of the utmost importance to devise some easier mode of locomotion2 but it was not till #ahcc that the circumstance of two water-wheels having been thrown out of work by the opening of the deep ,georg ,adit in the ,hartz mines suggested the idea of employing the pump-rods for aiding the ascent of the miners4 ,the trial was first made with a portion of one hundred fathoms4 ,this was divided into twenty-two portions2 and on each portion iron steps were fixed1 at intervals of four feet1 while hand-holds were fixed at convenient distances4 ,a reciprocating motion of four feet was given to each rod1 and the miners stepped to and fro from a bracket or ledge on one rod to the parallel one on the other4 ,as one rod is always descending while the other is ascending1 and vice vers1 it is easy to understand how this alternate stepping on to the little platforms must lead to the ascent or descent of the miner4 ,at the division between each two of the twenty-two portions1 there is a larger platform on which he may rest awhile2 and nothing is lost by his rest1 for the reciprocal motion goes on1 and is ready again for his use when he is ready for it4 ,this first machine surpassed expectation4 ,short as the length of ascent was1 many invalids of the district were now able to resume their underground labours1 as the fatigue of mounting or descending was reduced1 by the alternate action of the machinery1 to a mere easy lateral motion4 ,the advantages of this new method in saving both time and power were so obvious that it was soon imitated in the other deep metalliferous veins of the ,hartz2 and at present power-ladders or man-engines of an improved construction1 such as the substitution of a single rod for the double apparatus above described1 are in very general use over the ,continent1 whence they have passed in a modified form into ,cornwall1 where they are worked by steam4 ,in ,fowey ,consols ,mine the machine extends to a depth of #a1fhj feet4 ,the rod is eight inches square1 with twelve-inch platforms at intervals of twelve feet2 and there are stationary platforms equidistant at the side of the shaft4 ,when a miner is about to descend the steps on a movable platform1 the rod descends and carries him down twelve feet2 he steps upon a fixed platform while the rod rises again2 he then steps upon another movable platform1 and descends another twelve feet1 and so on to the bottom4 ,in ascending1 there is simply a reversed process4 ,it is a very interesting sight to witness the ascent or descent of bodies of miners at certain hours of the day and night4 ,you see them passing each other in the shafts1 in a kind of zig-zag course1 of as great regularity as any zig-zag will permit4 ,as one miner steps off the rod platform to one fixed platform1 another steps on to it from another fixed platform on the other side4 ,thus there are two streams of miners moving in opposite directions along the same rod at the same time1 and this curious spectacle is rendered doubly pleasing when we consider how much distressing toil has been alleviated by the employment of the man-engine4 ,machinery constructed on the same principle has been latterly adopted in the mines of ,anzin1 for transporting the coal step by step to the surface2 and it is evident that when coal mines are worked at greater depths than at present1 ropes1 however strong1 will no longer be able to sustain even their own weight1 and the whole transport up and down a shaft of perhaps #c1jjj or #c1ejj feet must be performed by means of similar machines4 ,illustration3 ,,timbering ,,of ,a ,,mine4 ,wherever the excavated rock is not hard or solid enough to bear the superincumbent weight1 the galleries of a mine must necessarily be supported by timbering or walling4 ,timbering is most used1 frequently in the form represented in the annexed woodcut2 and when we consider how miles upon miles of galleries are thus supported1 we can easily imagine that whole forests must be engulfed in our mines4 ,it has been calculated that for the total quantity of timber in use for mining purposes in ,cornwall1 it would require no less than #adj square miles of forest of ,norwegian pine1 averaging a growth of #abj years4 ,the expense thus incurred is enormous2 the cost for timber1 duty free1 in ,cornish and ,devon mines1 amounted in #ahcf to #id1achl4 and is probably still larger at the present time4 ,for timbering1 no tree is more esteemed than the larch or the ,norwegian pine1 on account of its great durability in the wet2 but whatever wood may be employed1 it is necessary to peel off the bark1 experience having shown that unless this is done the wood rots much more easily1 as the fibres of the rind attract a far greater quantity of moisture than the smooth surface of the splint4 ,like the potato and the grape1 subterranean timbering is exposed to the attacks of a fungus1 producing what is called dry-rot4 ,the parasite germinates in the sap which remains in the wood1 or at least derives its nourishment from it4 ,its vegetation is at first scarcely perceptible2 but soon its white fibres multiply1 and form at length small sponges on the surface4 ,the decomposition of the wood now advances with rapid strides1 and terminates at last in the total destruction of the ligneous fibres4 ,not satisfied with depriving the roof of its support1 the dry- rot likewise produces a vitiation of the air1 so that wherever timbering is employed1 it is reckoned among the great enemies of the mine and of the miner4 ,many remedies have been recommended1 among which kyanizing1 or saturating the wood with a solution of corrosive sublimate1 is one of the most efficacious1 though unfortunately too expensive to be of universal use4 ,mushrooms of various kinds likewise flourish upon the moist surface of the spars1 and various insects collect near this parasitic vegetation4 ,illustration3 ,,transverse ,,sections ,,of ,,walled ,,drain ,,galleries4 ,the timbering of a mine also affords very convenient lurking-places to the numerous rats which are met with underground1 where they contrive to live upon the crumbs or offal of the miners' meals1 or upon candle-ends and remains of wicks4 ,not seldom the timbering of a gallery1 weakened by rot1 gives way under the pressure of the roof1 which falls in with a tremendous crash1 and sometimes buries the unfortunate miner under its ruins4 ,another disadvantage attending timbering is its liability to catch fire1 and thus1 wherever the cost is not found too great1 the chief galleries of a mine are now usually constructed of stone4 ,sometimes the two sides of a gallery are lined with vertical walls1 and its roof is supported by an ogival vault or an arch4 ,if the sides of the mine are solid1 a simple arch is sufficient to sustain the roof2 and at other times the whole surface of a gallery is formed of a single elliptic vault1 the great axis of which is vertical1 and the bottom is surmounted by a wooden plank1 under which the waters run off4 ,illustration3 ,,drainage ,,of ,a ,,mine ,,by ,,adit ,,levels4 a4 ,shaft4 b4 ,shallow adit4 c4 ,deep adit4 d4 ,mineral lode4 ,the miner is generally in a state of perpetual warfare with the water1 which threatens to inundate the scene of his labours2 and as in a leaky ship the pumps must be kept continually working to prevent the vessel from sinking1 so here also perpetual efforts are necessary to keep off the encroachments of this never-tiring foe4 ,when a mine is situated above the level of a valley or of the neighbouring sea1 its drainage may be effected in a comparatively easy manner by means of sloping galleries1 dry-levels or adits1 which in many cases serve also for the transport of the ore or coal4 ,in some mines these drainage levels are executed on a truly gigantic scale4 ,thus the ,great ,cornish ,adit1 which extends through the large mining district of ,gwennap1 begins in the valley above ,carnon1 and receives the branch adits of fifty mines in the parish of ,gwennap1 forming excavations and ramifications which have an aggregate extent of between thirty and forty miles1 and which are in some places #djj feet below the surface of the ground4 ,the longest branch is from ,cardrew mine1 and is five and a half miles in length4 ,this great adit opens into the sea at ,restronget ,creek1 and empties its waters into ,falmouth ,harbour4 ,a similar great drain is ,nent ,force ,level1 in the north of ,england1 which drains the numerous mines in ,alston ,moor4 ,it consists of a stupendous aqueduct nine feet broad1 and in some places from sixteen to twenty feet high4 ,for more than three miles it passes under the course of the river ,nent1 to ,nentsbury engine-shaft1 and is navigated underground by long narrow boats4 ,at the distance of a mile in the interior1 daylight is seen at its mouth like a star1 and this star is continually enlarging upon you until you find yourself in open daylight4 ,the ramifications of the ,great ,adit ,levels of the mines of ,freiberg in ,saxony have a total length of seventy-two miles2 but the most stupendous works of this description are those in the district of ,clausthal and ,zellerfeld1 in the ,hartz1 where1 as the mining operations have been carried on deeper and deeper1 adits have been successively driven below adits4 ,four of these levels date from times previous to the seventeenth century2 but1 as they were found insufficient1 the famous ,georg ,stollen was added to their number in #aggg4 ,this gigantic tunnel1 which1 piercing the hard rock1 required twenty-three years for its completion1 is above five miles long1 and passes #ijj feet below the church of ,clausthal4 ,it serves the double purpose of a draining gallery and of a navigable canal4 ,the water is always kept at a height of from fifty to sixty inches2 and the boats1 which carry about five tons1 are propelled by means of a chain attached to the vault1 along which the boatmen drag or push them forward4 ,in this economical manner about #bj1jjj tons of ore are annually brought to daylight4 ,the boats are made and repaired in a subterranean wharf1 which1 though far from being one of the largest1 may probably boast of being the deepest4 ,until #ahea the ,georg ,stollen answered all the purposes for which it was constructed1 but at the end of that period the increased depth and extension of the mines rendered necessary the addition of a new great adit level1 which has been named the #8,ernst ,august ,stollen1' in honour of the late king of ,hanover4 ,in spite of its vast dimensions1 this magnificent work1 which is six and three-quarter miles long1 about ten feet high1 and six and a half broad1 required only thirteen years for its completion1 and may justly be considered as one of the triumphs of modern engineering4 ,the excavation was begun simultaneously at ten different points1 and such was the admirable precision of the plans that all the junctions of the different sections of the gallery fitted accurately into each other4 ,below the ,ernst ,august ,gallery 7#dcg yards71 the form of the country allows no deeper adit level to be driven2 but to provide for the increasing vertical extension of the workings1 a new underground gallery1 without any opening to the surface1 and at a depth of #bfb yards below the former1 is already in contemplation4 ,the water is to be raised to the ,ernst ,august ,level by a special hydraulic machine placed in a vertical shaft1 which will serve at the same time for raising the ore and for the passage of the miners4 ,the expense is calculated at about #fj1jjjl4 but will be amply repaid by the new field of mineral wealth which it will open4 ,thus in the ,hartz one magnificent work is but the precursor of another4 ,when a mine is so situated that drainage galleries cannot be established1 engines must be employed for pumping up the waters4 ,thus1 in ,cornwall1 where most of the copper mines open almost at the sea level1 an enormous influx of water can be kept in check only by an equally enormous steam-power4 ,in the ,united and ,consolidated ,mines between ,truro and ,redruth1 seven steam-pumps1 working with the united strength of #b1jjj horses1 are kept constantly in motion1 and raise above #b1ejj1jjj gallons of water in twenty-four hours4 ,in #ahcg the whole quantity of water pumped out of the earth by sixty ,cornish engines attained the amazing aggregate of close upon thirty- seven millions of tons2 but since then mining has been carried on more extensively and deeper1 and consequently additional steam-power has become necessary to keep pace with the increasing waters4 #8,even to the eye of an observer who is practised in machinery#ch of great magnitude1 the first sight and the subsequent examination of such engines is very gratifying4 ,to watch the labour of a giant would be interesting2 but to see the giant not only labouring at ease amidst his enormous work but at the same time at the command of a child1 who should be able to stop him at any moment--this would be doubly interesting4 ,such is the case with the great ,cornish engines1 for even the largest of them may be stopped by a child of ten or twelve years of age4 ,another peculiar feature1 too1 of these engines is this1 that they work with a quietness--or absence of clash and clatter--which is in the inverse ratio of their magnitude4 ,the water makes a great rush in the pumps1 but the engine itself is calm and comparatively noiseless--like a great mountain reposing in calm greatness while a perpetual spring brawls at its feet4' ,footnote #ch3 #8,cornwall1 its ,mines and ,miners4' ,in the coal-fields of the ,north equally gigantic efforts must be made to keep down the water4 ,in sinking to the coal at ,dalton-le-,dale1 eight or nine miles from ,durham1 the borers penetrated the vast bed of sand beneath the magnesian limestone1 which appears to contain the chief subterranean water-stores of the district4 ,in this case their outburst was truly terrific1 amounting1 on ,june #a1 #ahdj1 to the enormous quantity of #c1bhe gallons every minute4 ,to oppose this formidable enemy the spirited proprietors of the mine at once proceeded to erect the necessary steam-power for pumping off #c1jjj or #d1jjj gallons a minute2 but1 the waters still increasing1 it became necessary to meet them with a double and treble force1 so that finally the floods had to be kept down by steam engines of an aggregate power equivalent to #a1ehd horses and setting twenty- seven sets of pumps in motion4 ,sometimes the influx of water into a coal mine is so enormous that no human contrivance can oppose it1 and man is obliged to give up the conflict in despair4 ,during the progress of the attempted winning of a pit at ,haswell in the county of ,durham1 the engine power erected pumped out the water to the amount of #bf1gjj tons per day2 but still the floods came in1 and at last won the victory4 ,from the same cause many collieries have been closed1 of late years1 on the banks of the ,tyne1 and among these the famous ,wallsend ,colliery1 which has given its name to the best kinds of coal4 ,the drowning of a coal mine not seldom occurs from the irruption of water accumulated in old wastes or ancient workings occupying a higher level in the vicinity4 ,the growing pressure of such a body of water upon the beds or barriers below becomes enormous2 and then the water1 testing every weak point of the body opposed to its escape1 at length unexpectedly rushes into the space which it finds open before it4 ,all the works below are completely filled1 and the mines are for a time rendered useless1 or1 it may be1 for ever abandoned4 ,this was the cause1 in #ahae1 of the celebrated accident at ,heaton1 near ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 in which ninety lives were lost4 ,the water flowed from two adjoining old collieries which had been abandoned seventy years before4 ,a barrier of six feet withstood a pressure of thirty fathoms of water4 ,but an irruption was aided at last by a natural fissure of the rock1 and the catastrophe followed before any adequate protection could be interposed4 ,about thirty years later a tremendous calamity of the like kind1 after an outlay of #ajj1jjjl41 totally ruined the ,baghilt coal mines1 in ,wales4 ,the water came from adjoining mines1 which had been long abandoned4 ,if correct plans and descriptions of all the ancient workings had been preserved1 these accidents1 which happen frequently1 might easily be prevented1 as an exact knowledge of the localities would enable the owners to leave sufficiently strong barriers in parts where they are now often most inadequate4 ,such is the importance of accurate mining records that thousands of pounds would be freely given at this moment by many owners for a knowledge of old works of which no plan exists and which no memory can now recall4 ,fortunately1 the legislature has now taken steps to introduce a system of registration such as has already existed long ago in ,prussia1 ,austria1 and ,belgium1 and which1 at least1 will answer the purpose of obtaining greater security for the future4 ,sometimes an enormous fall of rain1 descending on the neighbouring country1 finds its way into the mines through fissures in the ground or by breaking through galleries1 and causes irreparable mischief2 sometimes even a whole river bursts into the works and ruins them for ever4 ,thus1 in #ahef1 the ,south ,tamar ,consols1 in ,devonshire1 was flooded by the giving way of the bed of the ,tamar1 under which the workings were carried4 ,even the ,sea has been known to take fatal vengeance for the undermining of her domain4 ,workington ,colliery extended to the distance of #a1ejj yards under the ,irish ,channel1 and the workings1 being driven considerably to the rise1 were brought at length within fifteen fathoms of the bottom of the sea4 ,the pillars of coal which supported the overlying strata were hardly strong enough to support the roof1 but the imprudence of a manager eager to produce a larger quantity of coal weakened even this insufficient support by working it partly away4 ,heavy falls of the roof1 accompanied by discharges of salt water1 gave repeated warnings of the impending catastrophe1 which took place on ,july #cj1 #ahcg4 ,so violent was the irruption that many persons at a distance of hundreds of yards observed the whirlpool commotion of the sea as it rushed into the gulf beneath4 ,some few workmen near the shaft had time to escape1 but thirty-six men and boys and as many horses were destroyed by the waters1 which in a few hours entirely filled the excavations1 the extension of which had tasked the labour of years4 ,the heroic devotion of a miner has invested with a more than ordinary interest the inundation of the mine of ,beaujonc1 near ,lige1 which took place on ,february #bh1 #ahab4 ,one hundred and twenty-seven persons were in the pit when the waters burst in from some old workings4 ,thirty-five had time to make their escape through the shaft2 twenty-two were drowned in their eagerness to reach it2 the majority1 severed from the upper world by an impassable gulf1 remained behind4 ,hubert ,goffin1 the overman1 could have ascended in the tub2 but1 though the father of six children1 his sense of duty would not allow him to desert his post1 and he resolved to save all his men or to perish with them4 ,as the rising waters forced the prisoners to seek a higher level1 the boys burst out weeping and the boldest began to despair2 but ,goffin revived their courage by reminding them that their friends without would make every effort to save them4 ,as one day after another passed1 the prisoners suffered all the horrors of hunger1 which some of them endeavoured to appease by devouring the candles they had brought with them4 ,others went to the water in the hopes of finding the body of some drowned comrade4 ,two of the pitmen quarrelled1 and were on the point of coming to blows4 #8,let them fight1' said the others2 #8if one of them is killed we will eat him'--a declaration which at once put an end to the dispute4 ,to satisfy their thirst they had nothing but the foul water of the pit4 ,some made vows to all the saints1 others complained in their delirium that they had to wait for their meals4 ,in the midst of these scenes of horror1 ,goffin alone retained his courage1 and1 exhorting1 consoling1 encouraging1 and reproving on all sides1 appeared as the guardian angel of his despairing comrades4 ,meanwhile every effort was being made from without to bring them succour4 ,although as soon as the accident took place the pumps were incessantly at work1 the water had risen to a height of #ad metres in the shaft on the following morning1 and as it was still rising there was reason to fear that the captives1 blocked up in a constantly narrowing space1 would soon be suffocated4 ,it was resolved to strike a gallery from the neighbouring pit of ,mamouster to ,beaujonc1 a distance of #age metres4 ,unfortunately1 only two men could hew at a time1 but such was the ardour with which the work was prosecuted that on the morning of ,march #d a shout of triumph announced that the longed-for communication was effected1 and that the prisoners were alive4 ,crawling through the narrow passage1 they were wrapped up in woollen blankets and strengthened with soup and wine before being hoisted to the surface4 ,goffin and his son1 a lad of twelve1 were the last to leave the pit2 as a brave sea captain1 after some great catastrophe1 never thinks of his own safety till he has satisfied himself of that of his men4 ,with the exception of those who were drowned immediately after the accident took place1 all were saved4 ,the joy of some families1 the despair of others1 may be imagined when the final count was made4 ,as a reward for ,goffin's admirable conduct1 he was decorated with the cross of the ,legion of ,honour and received a pension of #fjj francs4 ,nine years later he was killed by an explosion of fire-damp1 and thus the hostile elements with which he had so long waged a successful war triumphed over him at last4 ,the sudden irruption of an immense body of water into a mine naturally causes a compression of the air in those galleries which are cut off from all communication with the shaft4 ,this pressure1 which may rise to three or four atmospheres--or1 in other words1 may be three or four times greater than that of the external air--not only produces symptoms of suffocation and cerebral congestion in the unfortunate miners who are exposed to it1 but1 forcing its way through fissures in the roof or violently rupturing it1 sometimes produces the effect of an explosion of gunpowder1 throwing the earth to a distance1 and even overturning houses4 ,one of the most interesting of the accidents of this kind on record occurred in #ahcc1 in an extensive ,scotch colliery1 into which the waters of the river ,garnock had broken through a cavity in its bed4 ,as the stream poured into the mine the opening gradually enlarged1 until at length the whole body of the river plunged into the excavations beneath4 ,the river was affected by the tides1 and this engulfment took place at low water2 but as the tide rose the sea entered with prodigious force1 until the whole workings1 extending for many miles1 were completely filled4 ,no sooner1 however1 had this taken place1 than the pressure of the water in the pits became so great that the confined air1 which had been forced back into the high workings1 burst through the surface of the earth in a thousand places1 and many acres of ground were seen to bubble up like the boiling of a cauldron4 ,great quantities of sand and water were also thrown up1 like showers of rain1 during a period of five hours1 and an extensive tract of land was laid waste4 ,besides the danger of being crushed to death by a fall of rock1 or immured in a living tomb by an obstruction of the shaft or an irruption of water1 the miner has another1 and often still more formidable1 enemy to encounter in the noxious gases frequently evolved in coal-pits4 ,thus in all well-regulated mines the greatest attention is paid to ventilation1 so that no part of the workings may be left without a proper supply of air4 ,in ordinary cases the natural currents1 which set in different directions through the shafts and galleries1 may sufficiently purify the atmosphere2 but in the coal mines which are peculiarly subject to the evolution of foul gases1 artificial or mechanical means must be resorted to for driving away the hurtful vapours as quickly as they form4 ,to establish a proper air current1 the usual method is to keep a large fire continually burning at the bottom of one of the two shafts of the pit1 or of one of the two compartments of the single shaft1 and the difference of temperature thus caused between the column of air of the upcast shaft and the downcast becomes the motive power which impels or drags the air current in obedience to it4#ci ,yet this meets but half the difficulty2 for the air current1 which naturally tends to the shortest passage1 must be forced to do its duty in every corner of the pit1 and not suffered to escape through the upcast shaft before it has performed the longest circuit4 ,for this purpose a great number of mechanical contrivances are adopted1 in the shape of #8stoppings1' of brick1 or wood1 or stone1 all so placed as to divert ,footnote #ci3 ,mr4 ,samuel ,plimsoll 7#8,letters on the ,iron ,trade1' ,times1 ,february #aj1 #ahfh7 informs us that in the ,belgian coal mines the ventilation is carried on in a more economical and effective manner4 ,here no furnaces are lighted at the bottom of the upcast1 because one-twentieth of the coal required for a furnace will make steam for an engine to work fans which act somewhat in the manner of huge paddle-wheels in steam- ships1 and by rapid rotation over the shaft produce a draught which the incoming air rushes to meet1 and thus powerfully promote ventilation4 ,these fans they can work and control1 and are therefore independent of those atmospheric influences to which some of our greatest calamities have been ascribed--the damp1 heavy atmosphere of early winter4 ,in the great colliery of ,sacre ,madame1 near ,charleroi1 one of these fans will draw #cd1jjj cubic metres 7about #iah1jjj cubic feet7 per minute4 and drive the air current into the several galleries of the pit1 and to make it perform every kind of complex movement1 from turning back upon its own right or left to turning over in a somersault upon itself4 ,the most curious and admirably simple contrivance is that of splitting the air by means of a wooden erection1 which meets and cuts the current in two1 and sends one part on the one hand and another on the other hand4 ,in fact1 what is commonly practised in minutely irrigating a meadow is also effected in thoroughly airing a mine4 ,we may form some idea of the underground travels which the air is thus obliged to perform1 by being forced along from split to split1 when we hear that at ,hetton ,colliery the ventilating current in the total equals no less than #aif1jjj cubic feet of air per minute circulating through the mine at a velocity of #ah feet #c inches per second4 ,the foul gases or damps evolved in mines are either heavy or light4 ,the most remarkable of the former is the choke-damp1 or black-damp1 the name given by the miners to carbonic acid gas4 ,from its great specific gravity 7#aebg71 this gas rests on the floor of the mine and gradually accumulates1 having no tendency to escape beyond a slow mixture which takes place with atmospheric air2 while the light fire-damp1 or carburetted hydrogen1 which1 though not immediately fatal when breathed1 explodes on the slightest contact with flame1 tends to rise to the surface4 ,the quantity of fire-damp which is poured out into the workings of some mines is very considerable1 and constantly varying4 ,some seams of coal are much more full of it than others1 and in working these1 which are technically called fiery seams1 it is not uncommon for a jet of inflammable air to issue out at every hole made for the reception of the gunpowder before blasting4 ,in the celebrated ,wallsend ,colliery1 in an attempt made to work the ,bensham ,seam 7an attempt which ended in a fearful accident71 ,mr4 ,buddle said1 in evidence before a committee of the ,house of ,commons3--#8,i simply drilled a hole into the solid coal1 stuck a tin pipe into the aperture1 surrounded it with clay1 and lighted it4 ,i had immediately a gas light4 ,the quantity evolved from the coal was such that in every one of those places ,i had nothing to do but to apply a candle1 and then could set a thousand pipes on fire4 ,the whole face of the working was a gas-pipe from every pore of coal4' ,the force with which the gas escapes on some occasions from clefts or joints is so great as to prove much previous compression4 ,these sudden outbursts are locally termed blowers4 ,their issues and effects are surprising4 ,in one minute they have been known to foul the air to a distance of #cjj yards1 and their noise is described as like that of rushing waters1 or the roar of a blast furnace4 ,they are not merely dangerous from their inflammable vapours1 but also from the pieces of coal which their tension not seldom forces from the roof1 and whose fall maims or kills the unfortunate workmen beneath4 ,the fire-damp is very liable to accumulate in old workings1 or goaves1 which thus1 unless completely isolated by stone and mortar1 become a highly dangerous neighbourhood to the other parts of the mine4 ,the immense quantity of gas evolved from a goaf of about five acres in ,wallsend old pit affords a striking example of the danger of all such accumulations4 ,a four-inch metallic pipe was conducted from the bottom of the pit to the surface of the ground and a few feet above it1 when1 a light being applied1 a hissing streamer of flame flashed forth and burned night and day4 ,the amount of gas thus drawn off from the mine was at first computed at about #ae1jjj hogsheads in twenty-four hours4 ,long did the little pipe continue to pour out in streaming flame thousands upon thousands of hogsheads of escaping fire-damp4 ,the total issue might have illuminated a little town4 ,the explosion of inflammable gas is the most fearful enemy the collier has to encounter4 ,three or four cubic inches of carburetted hydrogen1 when ignited1 produce a detonation like that of a pistol-shot2 half a cubic foot1 enclosed in a bottle and set fire to1 shivers the bottle into fragments2 hence we may judge how terrific the effects must be when a blower pours forth its thousands of cubic feet into the galleries of a mine1 and the careless approach of a light lets loose the demons of destruction4 ,the explosion of a large subterranean powder magazine would not be more terrific4 ,often without a moment's warning the unfortunate pitman is scorched and shrivelled to a blackened mass1 or is literally shattered to pieces against the rugged sides of the mine4 ,illustration3 ,,safety ,,lamp4 ,it may easily be imagined that many efforts have been made1 and many contrivances suggested1 to disarm the fire-damp of its terrors2 but ,sir ,humphry ,davy's safety-lamp was the first invention which successfully coped with it4 ,the power of the safety-lamp lies in the non- communication of explosions through small apertures1 and the discovery of this natural law1 as well as its practical application1 is one of the greatest exploits of ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,a cylinder an inch and a half in diameter and seven inches long1 formed of wire gauze1 with #ghd apertures to the square inch1 surrounds the light of the lamp4 ,when the miner1 armed with this apparatus1 enters an atmosphere tainted with fire-damp1 a light blue flame fills the cylinder2 but1 as if chained by some magic power1 it is unable to transgress its bounds2 and as in our ,zoological ,gardens we quietly view the beasts of the forest behind their iron grating1 so the miner looks calmly upon his powerless foe4 ,unfortunately1 the negligence or the obstinate and blind perversity of the miner too often renders even this splendid invention ineffectual4 ,the safety-lamp requires to be kept in perfect order1 and unless certain precautions are taken while using it1 it loses its protecting power4 ,thus1 although perfectly secure when at rest1 it seems certain that the rapid motion communicated by the swing of the arm during a hurried transit through the mine has in many cases produced an explosion4 ,blowing out the lamp is likewise attended with danger1 as the flame is then easily driven through the gauze1 and1 like a tiger escaping from his den1 may spread terror and havoc around2 but the chief cause of accidents consists in the small quantity of light diffused by the safety-lamp1 and the consequent dislike acquired by the miners to its use4 ,though in all well-regulated coal-pits one or several workmen are exclusively employed in keeping the lamps in the most perfect order1 though they are handed to the miners burning and well closed1 and fines are imposed upon any attempt to remove the gauze1 yet the best regulations cannot possibly exclude the chance of accident resulting from the almost inconceivable carelessness of men whose daily tasks lead them into imminent danger4 ,thus it is a melancholy but unquestionable fact that the number of accidents from fire-damp since the introduction of the ,davy lamp has been many more in a given number of years than before that invention4 ,this has1 no doubt1 partly arisen from the larger number of persons employed on the whole2 but it is to be feared that it has chiefly happened from dangerous portions of a mine being taken into work which without the ,davy could not have been attempted1 and partly also from the extreme carelessness of the workmen in removing the wire gauze4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,recent improvements have done much to render the ,davy lamp a more perfect instrument of safety4 ,these more or less insure increased illumination1 prevention of bad usage by locking1 and more perfect combustion4 ,by an ingenious contrivance1 one of these improved lamps cannot be opened without previous extinguishment4 ,unfortunately1 the fatal effects of this rashness are not confined to the foolhardy miner who thus casts away the shield that preserves him from danger1 but generally extend to many of his innocent comrades4 ,in the year #ahef an explosion which took place in the ,cymmer coal-pit killed #aaj persons1 and in the year #aheg #agj workmen in the ,lundshill colliery were swept from life to death with the rapidity of lightning4 ,in the year #aheh the fire-damp levied a contribution of #bae victims in the coal-pits of ,england1 while in #ahei it was satisfied with #ie4 ,but in #ahfj1 as if to make up for this deficiency1 it raged with double violence2 for1 after having already claimed a tribute of #hj lives1 the dreadful explosion which took place in the ,risca ,colliery on ,december #a destroyed no less than #adb men and boys4 ,the fire-damp explosion which occurred at the ,oaks ,colliery in #ahff swept away the unprecedented number of #cfa victims1 and in the same year #ia workmen perished from the same cause at ,talk-o'-th'-,hill ,colliery4 ,in these dreadful catastrophes the most terrible agent of destruction is not always the burning and concussion of the actual blast of fire-damp1 but the choke-damp which succeeds the explosion4 ,for the carbon of the inflammable gas1 uniting with the oxygen of the air1 produces that deadly poison1 carbonic acid gas1 which1 from the disturbed ventilation of the pit1 soon spreads far and wide through the galleries2 so that the poor colliers who are caught in an exploded pit have two chances of death against them--one from burning1 and the other from suffocation4 ,the effect of death by the one gas or the other is very distinctly seen in the countenances of the dead4 ,the men killed by the fire-damp are marked with burns and scorching1 and their features are more or less distorted or disfigured4 ,on the other hand1 where men have been suffocated by choke-damp1 their features are placid and simply inanimate4 ,the fragile and faulty separations 7whether doors or stoppings of any kind7 having been broken down1 there is an end to a hope of safe retreat even for men totally unharmed by the flames1 for at once the air takes the shortest course between the entrance and exit1 and leaves the shattered parts unventilated4 ,whatever after-damp is then and there generated exerts its effects in full1 and those who cannot rush to the shaft are suffocated4 ,in the explosion at ,risca it was declared by the surgeon to the pit that of those who were killed no less than seventy persons died from the effects of after-damp who had not been near the fire4 ,in the great ,haswell explosion1 several years since1 seventy-one deaths out of ninety-five were occasioned by choke-damp2 and at the explosion in the ,middle ,dyffryn ,pit in #aheb no less than seven-eighths of the deaths proceeded from this cause4 ,persons of great experience attribute at least seventy per cent4 of the deaths in fiery mines to after-damp1 while some advance them even to ninety per cent4 ,after relating so many frightful disasters1 too frequently caused by imprudence and rashness1 it is a more pleasing task to mention a few instances of warnings taken in time4 ,at ,walker ,colliery on the ,tyne1 in the year #ahdf1 a huge mass of coal weighing about eleven tons was forced from its bed1 and a great discharge of gas succeeded4 ,two men who were furnished with ,davy lamps were working where this discharge took place2 one of them had his lamp covered with the falling coal1 and the other had his extinguished4 ,they groped their way to warn the other miners1 and then all1 extinguishing their lamps as they went1 safely escaped to the bottom of the shaft1 and were drawn up4 ,a few months after a second discharge from another part of the same colliery took place4 ,a bore-hole having been made1 a violent noise like the blowing off of steam was heard1 and a heavy discharge of gas filled the air courses for a distance of #fda yards and over an area of #hf1cjf cubic feet4 ,at #djj yards from the point of efflux a mining officer met the foul air1 felt it blowing against him1 saw the safety-lamp in his hand enlarge its flame1 and drew down the wick4 ,still the gas continued to burn in his lamp for ten minutes1 making the wires red hot1 and then the light went out--a hint not lost on the owner1 who quickly followed its example4 ,at a distance of #fda yards from the efflux of the gas he met four men and boys whose lamps were rapidly reddening4 ,at once they had the self-possession to immerse them in water1 and thus escaped all danger of explosion4 ,the disastrous effects of the fire-damp are not confined to the loss of human life2 they are also extremely injurious to the workings1 tearing up galleries1 shattering machinery1 or even setting fire to the mine--an accident which may also be caused by spontaneous combustion#da or by the negligence of the workmen4 ,these fires are often subdued by isolating the burning coal seam1 by means of dams or clay walls1 or by filling the mine with water2 but not seldom they last for years1 and assume dimensions which mock all human efforts to extinguish them4 ,footnote #da3 ,experience has proved that when sulphuret of iron undergoes a chemical change into vitriol it disengages a sufficient quantity of heat to set fire to the coal with which it is often found mixed4 ,at ,brl1 near ,st4 ,etienne1 a coal mine has been on fire for ages4 ,the soil on the surface is barren and calcined1 and the dense sulphurous fumes1 escaping from innumerable crevices1 give the country a complete volcanic aspect4 ,in the carboniferous basins of ,staffordshire and of ,saarbrck and ,silesia there are likewise coal mines which have been on fire for a long period4 ,at ,zwickau in ,saxony the first accounts of one of these subterranean conflagrations date as far back as the fifteenth century1 and the fire still burns on4 ,the hot vapours which rise from the surface have since #ahcg been put to an ingenious use4 ,conducted through pipes into conservatories1 they ripen the choicest fruits of the south1 and produce a tropical climate under a northern sky4 ,in a ,staffordshire colliery which had been on fire for many years1 and which was called by the inhabitants ,burning ,hill1 it was noticed that the snow melted on reaching the ground1 and that the grass in the meadows was always green4 ,some speculators conceived the idea of establishing a school of horticulture on the spot1 and imported colonial plants at a heavy expense4 ,these flourished for a time1 but one day the subterranean fire went out1 and as the heat it had imparted to the soil gradually diminished and departed1 the exotic vegetation likewise drooped and died4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,gold4 ,the ,golden ,fleece--,golden ,statues in ancient ,temples--,a ,free-thinking ,soldier--,treasures of ancient ,monarchs--,first ,gold ,coins--,ophir--,spanish ,gold ,mines--,bohemian ,gold ,mines--,discovery of ,america--,siberian ,gold ,mines--,california--,marshall--,rush to the ,placers--,discovery of ,gold in ,australia--,the ,chinaman's ,hole--,new ,eldorados--,alluvial ,gold ,deposits in ,california and ,australia--,washing--,quartz-crushing4 ,gold is probably the metal which has been longest known to man4 ,for as it is found only in the metallic state1 its weight and brilliancy most naturally have attracted attention or awakened greed at a very early age4 ,thus we read in the ,bible that one of the rivers flowing from ,paradise #8compasseth the whole land of ,havilah1 where there is gold1 and the gold of that land is good4' ,gold is also mentioned among the riches of ,abraham1 and when the patriarch's servant met ,rebekah at the fountain of ,nahor1 he presented the damsel with a #8golden earring of half a shekel weight1 and two bracelets for her hands of ten shekels weight of gold1' undoubtedly the first trinkets on record4 ,the mythical history of ,greece has likewise been thought to point to a very ancient knowledge of gold1 and the story of the search for the #8,golden ,fleece' has by some been explained as an expedition undertaken in quest of the metal2 for the use of sheepskins or woollen coverings1 to collect and retain the minutest particles of gold during the operation of washing1 is common in many auriferous countries4 ,from the great value which the ancient nations attached to its possession1 gold was largely used for the decoration of their temples1 and many of their idols were made of gold4 ,such1 among others1 was the image of ,belus1 seated on a golden throne in the great temple of ,babylon2 that of ,apollo at ,delphi1 and the magnificent statue of the ,olympian ,zeus1 composed1 by the hand of ,phidias1 of ivory and gold1 and still less remarkable for its costly materials than for the consummate beauty of its workmanship4 ,pliny relates that a massive golden statue of the goddess ,anaitis was taken by ,marc ,antony in his war against the ,parthians4 ,the ,emperor ,augustus1 dining one day at ,bononia with an old veteran who had taken part in the campaign1 asked him whether it was true that the sacrilegious soldier who had first laid hands on the goddess had been suddenly deprived of the use of his eyes and limbs1 and had thus miserably perished4 #8,i myself am the man1' answered the smiling host2 #8you are dining from off her thigh1 and to her am ,i indebted for all the plate in my possession4' ,the wealth of monarchs was estimated less by the extent of their domains than by the gold which they possessed1 and as each successive conqueror added to the spoils of vanquished nations1 the treasures accumulated by single despots grew to an almost fabulous amount4 ,every schoolboy knows that the vast treasures of ,crsus fell into the hands of ,cyrus1 who1 according to the rather questionable authority of ,pliny1 acquired in ,asia ,minor no less than #bd1jjj pounds weight of gold1 without reckoning the vases and the wrought metal4 ,to this treasure his son ,cambyses added the gold of ,egypt1 and ,darius ,hystaspis the tribute of the frontier nations of ,india4 ,thus the gold of almost the whole known world was accumulated in one single hoard1 which1 after the taking of ,persepolis1 fell into the hands of ,alexander the ,great4 ,plutarch relates that #aj1jjj teams of mules and #ejj camels were needed for the transport of this wealth to ,susa1 where ,alexander was cheated out of a great part of it by his treasurer4 ,rome1 the subsequent mistress of the world1 naturally absorbed the greater part of the riches of ,tyre and ,carthage1 of ,asia and ,egypt4 ,sixty-six years after the third ,punic war the public treasury contained #a1fbj1hca pounds weight of gold1 and still greater wealth was accumulated under the ,csars4 ,as the empire declined1 the hoards amassed in the times of its increasing power were once more dispersed4 ,a considerable part1 however1 found its way to ,constantinople1 and after many a loss1 caused by the repeated disasters of a thousand years1 the remnant fell at length into the hands of the victorious ,turks4 ,the time when gold was first coined is unknown4 ,the oldest specimen in the ,imperial ,cabinet at ,vienna is from ,cyzicus1 a town of ,mysia1 and bears the date of the seventh century before ,christ2 the next coin in point of antiquity is ,persian1 and was probably struck under the reign of ,cyrus4 ,according to ,pliny1 gold was first coined by the ,romans in the year #edg after the foundation of the city4 ,during the empire of the ,chalifes ,abuschafar-al-,monsur established a mint at ,bagdad1 in which silver coins 7dirhems7 and gold coins 7dinars7#db were struck4 ,the ,visigoths in ,spain likewise had golden coins2 but in the other western medival ,states they first appear1 after a long interval1 under ,lewis the ,pious1 son of ,charlemagne1 in ,venice1 in #abij2 and in ,bohemia1 under ,john of ,luxembourg4 ,the gold of the ,carolingian monarch probably proceeded from the spoils of the old west ,roman ,empire2 that of the ,venetians 7zecchins or ducats7 was1 no doubt1 obtained1 like that of the ,phnicians of old1 by trading with the gold countries of ,africa and of the distant ,east4 ,the ,florentines1 the rivals of ,venice1 likewise obtained wealth by trade1 and struck gold coins1 which1 from their being stamped with a flower1 the arms of ,florence1 were called fiorini1 or florins4 ,footnote #db3 ,these names were borrowed from the ,greek ,drachma and the ,latin ,denarius4 ,the coins of the kings of ,bohemia were made from indigenous gold4 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that since those times the use of gold coins has been constantly increasing with the progress of trade and civilisation2 but even now1 in many ,african and ,asiatic countries which possess large quantities of gold1 no coins are struck1 but the metal is weighed1 and thus serves as a medium of exchange1 in the same manner as in the times of ,abraham or ,jacob4 ,the countries from which the ancients obtained their chief supply of gold were the ,indian ,highlands1 ,colchis1 and ,africa4 ,the seat of ,ophir1 which furnished this precious metal to the ,phnician and ,jewish traders1 is unknown4 ,while some authorities place it on the east coast of ,africa1 others fix its situation somewhere on the west coast of the ,indian peninsula2 and ,humboldt is even of opinion that the name had only a general signification1 and that a voyage to ,ophir meant no more than a commercial expedition to any of the coasts or isles of the ,indian ,ocean1 just as at present we speak of a voyage to the ,levant or the ,west ,indies4 ,the golden sands over which the ,pactolus1 a small river of ,lydia1 rolled1 gave rise1 it has been said1 to the wealth of ,crsus4 ,the richest auriferous land in ,europe was the ,iberian peninsula1 which for centuries yielded a golden harvest1 first to the ,carthaginians1 then to the ,romans1 and at a still later period to the ,visigoths and the ,moors4 ,during the middle ages ,bohemia was renowned for its gold1 and the accounts that have reached us of the times when her auriferous deposits first began to be extensively worked remind us of the scenes which our own age has witnessed in ,california or ,australia4 ,bloody conflicts frequently arose between gold-diggers and peasants because the former devastated the fields and meadows and left them permanently sterile4 ,even now in many parts of the country long ranges of sand hillocks and rubbish mounds remain as memorials of the medival gold-diggers4 ,frequent famines arose in the land1 as many of the inhabitants gave up agriculture for mining4 ,a new epoch in the history of gold began with the discovery of ,america4 ,we all know by what prodigies of valour the ,spaniards obtained possession of the treasures of ,montezuma and of the ,peruvian ,incas1 and how frequently acts of a fiendish cruelty1 inspired by the love of gold1 and aggravated by a bloodthirsty fanaticism1 tarnished the lustre of their arms4 ,more recently1 about the year #ahcf1 rich deposits of auriferous sand were discovered in ,siberia1 and soon raised the frozen regions of the ,jenisei to the rank of the first gold-producing country in the world4#dc ,but the fame of the ,russian mines was soon eclipsed by the eventful discovery of the ,californian placers4 ,footnote #dc3 #8,the ,polar ,world1' p4 #bca4 ,it was in ,january #ahdh1 a short time after the incorporation of the province with the ,united ,states1 that one ,james ,marshall1 who had contracted to build a saw-mill on the land of ,captain ,sutter1 about sixty miles east of ,sacramento1 discovered the glittering particles in the mud of the brook on which he was at work4 ,trembling with excitement1 he hurried to his employer1 and told his story4 ,captain ,sutter at first thought it was a fiction1 or the wild dream of a maniac2 but his doubts were soon at an end when ,marshall laid on the table before him a few ounces of the shining dust4 ,the two agreed to keep the matter secret1 and quietly to share the golden harvest between them4 ,but1 as they afterwards searched more narrowly1 their eager gestures and looks happened to be closely watched by a ,mormon labourer employed about the neighbourhood4 ,he followed their movements1 and the secret was speedily divulged4 ,it appears that ,marshall did not escape the ordinary lot of discoverers1 for a few years later he was wandering1 poor and homeless1 over the land which was first indebted to him for its enormous development4 ,the intelligence of the ,californian gold treasures soon spread over the world1 and a wonderful flood of immigration began into the newly- proclaimed ,eldorado4 ,an innumerable crowd of adventurers from every part of the ,new ,world1 from the ,sandwich ,islands1 from ,europe1 from ,australia1 came pouring in over the ,rocky ,mountains1 through ,mexico1 round ,cape ,horn1 or across the ,pacific1 all eager to seize fortune in a bound or to perish in the attempt4 ,every week dispatched its thousands to the diggings1 and saw its hundreds of successful adventurers return to dissipate their earnings in the gambling saloons of the infant metropolis4 ,in less than ten years ,california numbered more than half a million of inhabitants1 and ,san ,francisco1 from an obscure hamlet1 had risen to the rank of one of the great commercial emporiums of the world4 ,science had little to do with the discovery of gold in ,california2 but the case was different in ,australia4 ,as early as #ahdd ,sir ,roderick ,murchison directed attention to the remarkable resemblance between the ,australian cordillera and the auriferous ,uralian chain4 ,two years later1 his surmises about the hidden treasures of that distant colony were confirmed by some samples of auriferous quartz sent to him from ,australia4 ,relying upon this fact1 he advised some ,cornish emigrants to choose ,australia for their new home1 and to seek for gold among the dbris of the primitive rocks4 ,his opinion having become known at ,sydney1 through the newspapers1 researches were made1 which proved so far successful that in #ahdh gold was found in several places in ,south ,australia4 ,the first important discovery was1 however1 not made before the year #ahea1 when ,mr4 ,hargraves made known to ,government that rich gold deposits were situated to the north-west of ,bathurst1 on the ,summerhill and ,lewis rivulets1 which flow into the ,macquarie4 ,when the geological ,government inspector arrived at ,summerhill ,creek1 on ,may #ai1 he found that about four hundred persons had already assembled there1 who1 without any other mining apparatus than a shovel and a simple tin pot1 gained1 on an average1 from one to two ounces of gold daily4 ,soon after1 still richer deposits were found near the ,turon and the ,meroo1 two other branches of the ,macquarie4 ,here a native shepherd1 in the service of ,dr4 ,kerr1 found three quartz blocks1 of which the largest contained sixty pounds weight of pure gold4 ,it may easily be supposed that the whole neighbourhood became at once the scene of active researches1 which at first proved fruitless1 until at length a fourth quartz block was discovered1 and publicly sold for a thousand pounds4 ,other discoveries were made within the bounds of ,new ,south ,wales2 but even the richest of them were soon to be obscured by the treasures of the neighbouring colony4 ,as late as #ahcf ,port ,philip had remained an unknown land1 for it was not until then that its first settlers1 attracted by the richness of the pastures1 arrived from ,tasmania4 ,soon a small town arose on the ,yarra- ,yarra1 and1 though badly chosen as a port1 ,melbourne soon rose to importance4 ,in #ahej the district was made an independent colony1 which received the name of ,victoria4 ,here the traders and sheep-drivers now mourned over the news from ,sydney4 ,the best workmen had already left for the gold-fields1 and if the exodus went on increasing1 nothing remained for them but to follow the example1 or quietly to await the ruin of their hopes--a patience which agrees but little with the ,anglo-,saxon character4 ,to prevent the impending evil1 a reward of #bjj guineas was immediately set upon the discovery of a gold-field within #abj miles from ,melbourne1 and soon after the world was astonished by the intelligence of the fabulous riches of ,ballarat1 at the source of the ,river ,lea4 ,the first consequence of this discovery was that the towns of ,geelong and ,melbourne1 both not above sixty miles from ,ballarat1 were immediately deserted by their inhabitants1 and that1 within a few weeks1 more than #c1jjj gold-diggers had collected on the spot1 who were gaining1 on an average1 their ten or twenty pounds a day4 ,but here also there was no definite resting-place1 for new prospects of dazzling wealth constantly allured the crowd to new and still more distant fields of enterprise4 ,twenty thousand people1 meeting with fair success1 would migrate in a day1 abandon their claims1 and rush upon the new tract4 ,the passions of human nature were roused by one of the strongest of its instincts2 and madness and suicide1 arising from excess of joy and wild despair1 were far from uncommon occurrences4 ,the whole order of society was inverted1 and the labourer became of more importance than the employer of labour4 ,the scum of the adjoining colonies boiled over and deluged the land with vice and crime4 ,bush-ranging extended over every portion of the country1 and even the streets of ,melbourne became the scenes of robbery and murder4 ,the diggers were of all nations3 ,germans1 ,french1 ,italians1 ,american-,irish1 ,californians1 and ,chinese--these last being the best conducted of this motley population1 who as early as #ahfj numbered #ej1jjj4 ,to this strange people one of the most remarkable of the ,australian gold discoveries is due4 ,the immigration-tax1 which had been vainly devised to check their influx 7for they are objects of the greatest antipathy to the white gold-diggers71 drove them to a surreptitious mode of entering the colony2 and1 landing at ,gurchen ,bay in ,south ,australia1 and taking a course thence over the frontier across the ,grampian ranges1 they came upon a deposit of marvellous richness1 in the neighbourhood of ,mount ,ararat4 ,in one of their first encampments1 while picking up the roots of grass and prying for gold1 they found the celebrated #8,chinaman's ,hole1' which yielded #c1jjj ounces in a few hours4 ,this led to the greatest rush which had ever been known in the gold- fields1 for #fj1jjj people congregated there in a few weeks1 and before a month had elapsed an immense town was systematically laid out4 ,shops1 taverns and hotels1 theatres and billiard-rooms1 sprang up in the desert1 like the mystic trees of ,indian jugglers1 and were quickly followed by a daily mail and a daily newspaper4 ,thus1 within the space of two months1 the magical power of gold converted a wild mountain gorge into a teeming city1 where frontages were nearly as valuable as in the heart of ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,gold-,,washing ,,in ,,australia4 ,the great social disorganisation which distinguished the first few years of the ,australian gold discoveries has long since passed away1 together with much of the excitement natural to a transition state4 ,order now universally prevails1 and the occupations of life are pursued with as much regularity as in the oldest ,states4 ,the growth of the colony1 which scarcely thirty years since was a mere unknown waste1 is not the least marvellous of the many marvels that have been worked by gold4 ,in the year #ahea the population of the province was #gg1cde persons1 of whom #bh1adc were located in ,melbourne4 ,in #ahfj1 it had already increased to #dfb1jjj1 and probably the next few years will find it augmented to a million1 while ,melbourne already rivals our larger cities in size and wealth4 ,the wonderful discoveries in ,california and ,australia having made gold the all-absorbing topic of the day1 it is not surprising that new ,eldorados were now eagerly sought for wherever the geological formation of a country held out the hope of similar treasures4 ,fresh and highly-productive gold-fields have1 within the last few years1 been opened in ,british ,columbia1 and1 still further to the north1 in the ,arctic wilds of the infant colony of ,stikeen4 ,numerous diggers are at work in ,new ,zealand1 and in the deserts to the north of the ,cape4 ,a system of auriferous veins has been discovered in ,north ,wales2 the county of ,sutherland1 the ,ultima ,thule of our isle1 claims to be ranked among the gold-producing regions2 and numerous adventurers are on their way to the frozen deserts of ,lapland1 where the glittering metal is said to abound in the basin of the ,ivalo4 ,at no former period of the world's history has gold been so eagerly sought for over such extensive areas in all parts of the globe2 never have larger quantities of the precious metal been added to the accumulated hoards of ages4 ,no doubt this vast influx of wealth has in many cases been productive of evil consequences2 but its beneficial influence upon the progress and happiness of mankind far outweighs the injury it may too frequently have caused by rousing the worst passions of our nature4 ,an astonishing impetus has already been given to commerce and industry2 competence and wealth have been diffused over many lands2 deserts have been transformed into growing empires2 and a vast continent1 long despised as the convict's prison1 has been raised in the social scale to a height almost commensurate with its geographical importance4 ,the mineral formations in which gold originally occurs are the crystalline primitive rocks1 the compact transition rocks1 and the trachytic and trap rocks1 which1 by their disintegration have1 in the course of ages1 enriched large alluvial tracts with particles of the precious metal4 ,torrents and rivers washed them down from the heights1 along with the worthless rubbish of their original matrix1 and finally deposited them in the gulleys and ravines of the lower grounds4 ,hence the alluvial territories have always been the chief sources of auriferous wealth1 and this circumstance explains how countries which at one time abounded in gold have long since ceased to be of importance4 ,for the comparative ease with which the metal could generally be obtained by digging and washing1 and the greed which stimulated the researches of thousands1 could not fail to exhaust even the richest placers4 ,no one now dreams of searching for gold in the sands of the ,pactolus or of the ,golden ,tagus2 no modern ,argonaut sails to ,colchis in quest of the golden fleece2 the fields of ,bohemia are no longer ransacked by gold-seekers2 and a like fate probably awaits many of our modern ,eldorados4 ,a marked difference between the gold deposits of ,australia and ,california deserves to be noticed4 ,the gold of ,california is found in the midst of1 or contiguous to1 the existing great mountain ranges1 amidst regions of peaked1 jagged1 irregular crests1 and upheaved and distorted strata1 the undoubted effects of internal convulsions4 ,it has not1 however1 selected as its resting-place the smooth levels and hanging slopes of the contiguous hills4 ,the metal1 ground finer and finer as it is carried forward by the torrents that year after year tear up the river-beds1 finally settles in the form of fine flakes or dust along the banks and at the bottoms of the great streams of the country4 ,hence the ,californian diggers generally find the drifts of the precious metal in the strata immediately under the surface1 either associated with the subsoil1 or in the holes or #8pockets' of water-worn rocks4 ,in ,victoria the most prolific gold-fields are in regions where the old formations are pierced by igneous rocks which have flowed from extinct volcanoes2 and some of the richest alluvial deposits have been found on the pipe-clay bottom of flat1 wide-spread plains1 or settled in great subterranean gutters1 under broad1 elongated slopes1 which the miner can reach only by sinking his shaft through stratum after stratum1 from fifty to three hundred feet down1 before he reaches the buried treasure4 ,the inference necessarily is that much of the gold-drift of ,australia is of an earlier origin than the deposits of ,california1 which are the products of the existing mountain ranges1 and therefore will be exhausted in a comparatively brief period4 ,in ,victoria1 not seldom three distinct auriferous deposits1 the result of successive upheavals and depressions1 occur in the same locality2 and the miner finds1 in the course of his working1 a first1 second1 and third bottom1 the last being always on the solid and unmoved palozoic rock1 from which all the gold has been derived4 ,rich as the auriferous drifts of the deep alluvial deposits are frequently found to be1 they must be within definite limits1 having been deposited by currents and the continuous action of waves not far from the localities where the gold was originally formed4 ,but the alluvial gold of ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales is not confined to drifts and gutters4 ,there are hundreds1 probably thousands1 of square miles1 where the clay1 earth1 and sand are impregnated with gold in sufficient quantities to pay well for washing4 ,besides these deposits of incalculable wealth1 there are vast reserves of gold locked up in the great mountain ranges both of ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales1 the hidden wealth of which will eventually be brought to light by systematic mining4 ,as even the richest auriferous drift would be comparatively worthless without the assistance of water1 the diversion of a running stream through a #8placer' is often one of the most laborious undertakings of the gold-digger4 ,pliny speaks of #8the bringing of the rivers from the mountains1 in many instances for a hundred miles1 for the purpose of washing the dbris1' and this method of hydraulic mining is now carried on in ,california on a stupendous scale4 ,thus1 north of ,mariposa ,county1 the thick deposits1 often semi-indurated1 are now washed down by vast streams of water 7thrown by the pressure of a column of water of #aej feet71 that do the work of running off the earth and gravel and gathering the gold in an incredibly short time4 ,the ores of auriferous quartz are treated in a different way from the alluvial dbris4 ,after having been crushed and pulverised by powerful machinery1 the finely powdered quartz is then treated with mercury1 a method well known to the ancients4 ,this metal dissolves out the gold1 producing an amalgam1 which1 by straining and distillation1 yields the gold4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,silver4 ,its ancient ,discovery--,its uses among the luxurious ,romans--,the ,mines of ,laurium--,silver ,mines of ,bohemia1 ,saxony1 and ,hungary--,colossal ,nuggets-- ,silver ,ores--,silver ,production of ,europe--,mexican ,silver ,mines--,the ,veta ,madre of ,guanaxuato--,the ,conde de la ,valenciana--,zacatecas and ,catorce-- ,adventures of a ,steam-engine--,la ,bolsa de ,dios ,padre--,the ,conde de la ,regla--,ill-fated ,english ,companies--,indian ,carriers--,the ,dressing of ,silver ,ores--,amalgamating ,process--,enormous ,production of ,mexican ,mines-- ,potosi--,cerro de ,pasco--,gualgayoc--,the ,mine of ,salcedo--,hostility of the ,indians--,the ,monk's ,rosary--,chilian ,mines--,the ,comstock ,lode4 ,like that of gold1 the first discovery of silver precedes the historic times1 and must no doubt be sought for in the remotest antiquity2 for as it is not seldom found in a native state1 its brilliancy could not fail to attract attention at a very early age4 ,veins of silver ore1 moreover1 not seldom crop out on the surface1 a circumstance which likewise greatly facilitated the accidental discovery of the metal4 ,thus ,diodorus relates that streams of melted silver flowed out of the calcined soil where some shepherds had set fire to a forest in the ,pyrenees4 ,the cunning ,phnician merchants1 who were trading in the neighbourhood1 bought the metal for a trifle from the natives1 who1 ignorant of its value1 gladly exchanged it for some worthless trinkets4 ,our earliest annals show us silver in common use among the more polished nations of antiquity1 both for ornamental purposes and as a means of exchange4 ,when we read in the ,bible that ,abraham weighed to ,ephron the ,hittite #8four hundred shekels of silver1 current money with the merchant' for the purchase of the field of ,machpelah1 where ,sarah was buried1 we cannot possibly doubt that1 long before the patriarch's time1 great quantities of silver must have circulated among the traders of the ,east1 and that even then it belonged to the discoveries of ancient days4 ,homer describes the shields and helmets of his heroes as inlaid with silver1 and in ,northern ,asia silver ornaments have been found in the tumuli of the ,tschudi1 a mysterious people who have left no vestiges of their existence save their tombs4 ,the ,babylonian1 ,assyrian1 and ,persian monarchs imposed large tributes of silver on the conquered nations of ,asia1 and at a later period the treasures thus amassed by a long line of despots came into the possession of ,alexander the ,great1 and finally of the ,romans1 who absorbed all the riches of ,carthage and the ,east4 ,in the reign of ,augustus1 the tables of the wealthy senators groaned under silver dishes weighing from one hundred to five hundred pounds2 silver statues of their ancestors decorated their apartments1 and they not seldom performed their luxurious ablutions in baths of silver4 ,mirrors of this metal were in frequent use among a people to whom the art of applying a lustrous amalgam to the back of a plate of glass was unknown4 ,the skill of the artist not seldom added an inestimable value to the intrinsic worth of an embossed or chiselled silver vase1 and ,pliny mentions several works of this kind which enjoyed a world-wide celebrity4 ,the most ancient silver mines of which we have any historical account were situated in the mountainous parts of ,chalda and in ,spain4 ,with the development of the ,grecian ,states1 ,eastern ,europe also began to furnish its contingent4 ,silver mines were discovered and worked in the ,pangan ,mountains1 between ,macedonia and ,thrace1 in the islands of ,siphnos and ,cyprus4 ,athens derived a considerable part of its revenue from the mines of ,laurium in ,attica4 ,at first the profits derived from this source were distributed among the citizens1 until ,themistocles persuaded the general assembly of the people to devote them to the construction of ships of war4 ,the battle of ,salamis was won by the galleys built with the money thus obtained1 so that the silver mines of ,laurium have been the means of adding some of its brightest pages to the history of ,ancient ,greece4 ,after the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 the exhausted or neglected mines of the ,east1 and of the ,iberian peninsula1 ceased to be the sources from which silver flowed over the world4 ,the riches amassed during ages of civilisation were now scattered among barbarous hordes1 or buried in the ruins of cities destroyed by fire2 and as no new influx replaced the losses caused by accident or the slow wear of time1 the precious metals gradually became more rare and of increasing value1 until ,germany began to open a new era in mining history1 and for a time to take the lead among the silver-producing countries of the globe4 ,the first discovery of this metal in ,bohemia dates back as far as the seventh century2 and in the tenth the ,rammelsberg in the ,hartz ,mountains began to yield its still unexhausted treasures4 ,in the twelfth century the silver mines of ,saxony and ,hungary were discovered1 and at a much later period those of ,kongsberg in ,norway4 ,many of these deposits are remarkable for the richness of their ores1 and for the large masses of native or crystallised silver which they have sometimes yielded4 ,from the mine of ,himmelsfrst1 near ,freiberg in ,saxony1 lumps or nuggets weighing above a hundred pounds have more than once been extracted4 ,the largest single block ever known was discovered at ,schneeberg1 in the ,saxon ,erzgebirge1 in the year #adgg4 ,it consisted of silver-glance and native silver1 and measured no less than seven yards in length and three and a half in width4 ,on hearing of this magnificent prize1 ,duke ,albrecht of ,saxony visited the mine1 where he eat his dinner from the block4 ,agricola ,bermannus relates that1 during the repast1 he exclaimed1 #8,frederick is a wealthy and powerful emperor1 but he has never dined from a table such as this4' ,the subsequent smelting of this wonderful mass produced #dj1jjj pounds of solid silver4 ,large nuggets of solid silver have likewise been found at ,kongsberg4 ,a block weighing #efj pounds1 which was discovered in #afff1 is still preserved as a curiosity in the ,copenhagen ,museum2 and as a convincing proof that the ancient riches of these northern mines are not yet exhausted1 a still larger block1 weighing #gej pounds1 was disinterred as late as the year #ahcd4 ,though native silver is found in many localities1 our chief supply of the precious metal is derived from the ores in which it is found combined with other substances1 such as silver-glance 7sulphuret of silver72 antimonial silver2 red-silver 7sulphuret of silver and antimony72 horn silver 7chloride of silver71 c4 ,a considerable quantity is likewise obtained as an accessory product from the lead mines1 by separating it from the galena or lead-glance1 which usually contains a small percentage of silver4 ,at present the mines of the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire1 which in the year #ahea produced #abb1iej marks of silver1 are the richest in ,europe4 ,in ,bohemia the mines of ,birkenberg1 near ,przibram1 yield on an average #dj1jjj marks a year1 considerably more than the celebrated mine of ,schemnitz in ,hungary1 which in the year #ahed produced #bf1jfd marks4 ,prussia obtains from her mines in the ,hartz ,mountains in ,nassau and the county of ,mansfeld about #ajj1jjj marks2 and the kingdom of ,saxony1 which1 in proportion to its small extent1 holds the first rank among the silver-producing countries of ,europe1 produces annually about #ec1jjj marks4 ,in ,great ,britain1 silver is accessorily obtained from the lead mines1 to an amount of about #hj1jjj marks per annum4 ,france produces #bf1hjj marks1 ,sweden and ,norway #f1jjj marks1 and ,italy #d1ejj2 while ,spain1 which in ancient times enriched ,tyre and ,carthage with the rich produce of her silver mines1 yields at present but an insignificant quantity4 ,on adding together the various sums above mentioned1 we find that1 exclusively of the ,russian ,empire1 which obtains the greater part of its silver 7about #fe1jjj marks a year7 from the ,altai ,mountains in ,siberia1 the whole annual production of ,europe may be estimated at about #djj1jjj marks4 ,this quantity1 large as it is1 sinks into comparative insignificance when compared with the enormous masses of silver with which1 ever since their discovery and conquest by ,cortez and ,pizarro1 ,mexico and ,peru have enriched the world4 ,the ,mexican silver mines1 which deserve a particular notice from the immensity of their produce and the interesting details with which their history abounds1 are mostly situated on the back or on the western slopes of the ,cordillera of ,anahuac at elevations which sometimes approach the line of perpetual snow4 ,but little is known of their first history4 ,the lodes of ,tasco and ,pachuca appear to have been worked soon after the conquest1 and in #aedh1 twenty-eight years after the death of ,montezuma1 the mines of ,zacatecas were opened1 though situated above #djj miles from the capital4 ,muleteers travelling from ,mexico to ,zacatecas are said to have discovered the silver mines of ,guanaxuato4 ,many of my readers will no doubt be surprised to hear that the ,mexican silver ores are generally poor4 ,on an average they contain only from three to four ounces of silver per cwt41 much less than the ores of ,annaberg1 ,marienberg1 and other districts of ,saxony4 ,their comparative poverty is1 however1 amply redeemed by their abundance and the facility with which they are worked4 ,after these preliminary remarks ,i will now briefly describe the chief ,mexican silver mines4 ,the ,sierra de ,santa ,rosa1 a group of porphyritic hills1 rises in the centre of the province of ,guanaxuato4 ,partly arid and partly covered with the evergreen oak1 it attains an absolute height of from #h1jjj to #i1jjj feet2 but1 as the neighbouring plain is nearly #f1jjj feet above the sea1 it hardly attracts the notice of the traveller accustomed to the vast proportions of the ,andes4 ,the southern slope of this porphyritic range is crossed by the famous ,veta ,madre of ,guanaxuato1 the richest silver lode as yet discovered in ,mexico4 ,this enormous vein1 which traverses the country for upwards of eight miles1 with an average width of from #abj to #ace feet1 is1 however1 not productive throughout its whole extent1 but the ore occurs in branches and bunches1 leaving intermediate spaces of dead and unproductive ground4 ,among the numerous mines that have been opened along its course1 the ,valenciana exhibited1 at the beginning of the present century1 the almost unparalleled example of a mine which1 during a period of more than forty years1 never yielded its proprietors less than an annual income of from #hj1jjjl4 to #abj1jjjl4 ,the part of the ,veta in which it is situated had remained unexplored till #agfj1 when ,obregon1 a young ,spaniard1 began to work it1 with the assistance of some friends who advanced him the necessary capital4 ,in the year #agff the diggings had reached a depth of #bdj feet1 and the expenses were far greater than the proceeds4 ,but ,obregon clung with the passionate ardour of a gambler to the hazardous enterprise on which he had staked all his hopes of fortune4 ,in #agfg he entered into partnership with a small shopkeeper1 ,otero1 who was destined soon to share the fabulous riches that were about to reward his perseverance4 ,already in the following year the produce of the mine considerably increased1 and in #agga it began to yield enormous masses of sulphuret of silver4 ,from that time till #ahjd1 when ,humboldt left ,mexico1 it never produced less than #efj1jjjl4 worth of silver annually1 and the net profits of the partners amounted in some years to #bdj1jjjl4 ,under the title of ,conde de la ,valenciana1 ,obregon maintained the simple habits and the urbanity of character which had distinguished him in poverty4 ,when he began to work his mine1 the goats were feeding on the spot where ten years later a thriving town of #h1jjj souls had started into existence4 ,guanaxuato1 the capital of the ,state of the same name1 is indebted to the neighbourhood of the richest silver mines in the world for its origin and prosperity4 ,inclosed in a narrow valley1 its houses rise in terraces one above the other2 and the contrast of the magnificent abodes of the rich mining proprietors with the miserable huts of their dependants adds to the singular appearance of the place4 ,the ,mexican miner is1 however1 not so poor as his wretched dwelling might lead us to suppose4 ,in some measure he shares the fortunes of the proprietors of the mines1 as he is entitled to part of the ore2 so that when the vein is more than usually productive his weekly profits may amount to as much as a hundred dollars4 ,yet he never thinks of purchasing a piece of land1 or of repairing his hut1 when favoured by fortune2 but foolishly squanders his money in drinking and gambling1 and seldom returns to his work before his last farthing has been spent4 ,the population of ,guanaxuato naturally fluctuates with the prosperity of the mines4 ,in #ahjf and #ahjg1 when they were in the highest state of activity1 it amounted to #ij1jjj souls2 during the wars of independence it sank to #bj1jjj1 but since then it has again risen to #fj1jjj4 ,next to the mines of ,guanaxuato those of ,zacatecas are distinguished by their richness4 ,they are likewise situated on the great central plateau of the ,cordillera in a wild mountain region whose forbidding aspect forms a strange contrast to the riches concealed under its surface4 ,in #ahbf the ,united ,mexican and the ,bolaos ,company undertook the working of these mines2 and two years after1 the latter had the good fortune to find an exceedingly rich vein1 which up to the year #ahcd produced no less than #a1fhj1caf marks of silver4 ,before #aggj the populous district of ,alamos de ,catorce in the ,state of ,san ,luis de ,potosi1 was still a complete desert4 ,about this time a free negro1 named ,milagros1 who made a scant livelihood as an itinerant musician1 having lost his way1 was obliged to pass the night in the forest4 ,on the following morning he found a few drops of silver on the spot where he had made a fire1 and1 on a closer examination1 discovered the rich cropping out of a bed of argentiferous ores4 ,he lost no time in establishing the right of property which he derived from his discovery1 and opened the shaft ,milagros1 which1 in a few years1 made him a wealthy man4 ,soon after ,don ,barnab de ,zepeda discovered the chief vein of ,catorce-- the ,veta ,madre--which continued to be worked with great success until the revolution4 ,this event having proved as destructive to the draining machines of ,catorce as to those of ,guanaxuato and ,zacatecas1 a contract was made with an ,english house for the furnishing of a steam-engine1 the first ever seen in ,mexico4 ,it was landed at ,tampico in ,may #ahbb1 but arrived at ,alamos six months later1 as the carts which dragged the heavy piece of machinery broke down every moment on the wretched roads which lead to the central plateau on which the mines are situated4 ,this1 however1 was but the prelude of new difficulties2 for as the neighbouring forests could not furnish wood fit for the purpose1 it was necessary to order iron pump-tubes in ,england1 which did not arrive before #ahbf1 so that the engine could not be set to work until four years had passed after its arrival in ,mexico4 ,the history of ,catorce affords many remarkable examples of good fortune2 but as most of the rich mineros 7mine-proprietors7 were men of low birth and without education1 they squandered their treasures as fast as they acquired them4 ,medellin1 the proprietor of the mine ,dolores1 once spent #cf1jjj dollars on a christening party2 and at times1 when the share of the hewers amounted to one-third of the extracted ores1 a common miner would stake two or three thousand dollars on the issue of a cock-fight4 ,among the first settlers at ,catorce was an ecclesiastic named ,flores1 who bought for #gjj dollars a newly-opened mine1 which received the significant name of #8,la ,bolsa de ,dios ,padre1' or #8,god the ,father's ,money-,bag4' ,never was a small capital more profitably invested1 for1 at a depth of about twenty yards1 a deposit of such enormous richness was discovered that in less than three years the profits of ,padre ,flores amounted to three millions and a half of dollars4 ,the mines of ,pachuca1 ,real del ,monte1 and ,moran began to be worked soon after the conquest4 ,the ,veta de la ,biscayna1 the chief vein of the district1 yielded immense profits from the sixteenth to the beginning of the eighteenth century1 when1 in consequence of insufficient drainage1 the mines were drowned4 ,an enterprising hidalgo1 ,don ,jos ,bustamente1 then began to drive a draining gallery1 #g1jjj feet long1 which1 however1 was only finished after his death by his partner1 ,don ,pedro ,terreros1 a merchant of ,queretaro4 ,its immense cost was amply repaid1 for ,terreros extracted no less than fifteen millions of dollars from the mine1 and was ennobled under the title of ,conde de la ,regla4 ,his liberality was worthy of his wealth1 for besides a gift of two ships of the line--one of them of #aab guns--to ,king ,charles ,,iii4 of ,spain1 he lent the court of ,madrid a million of dollars1 which1 it is almost superfluous to remark1 were never repaid4 ,he built the enormous factories of ,la ,regla at a cost of more than #djj1jjjl41 and left his children a property rivalling that of the ,conde de la ,valenciana4 ,since #aggd1 however1 the profits of the ,biscayna1 which was now worked #cjj feet below the adit1 began to diminish2 for though it still continued to yield enormous quantities of ore1 the water flowed in so abundantly that twenty-eight baritels1#dd each requiring forty horses1 and worked at an expense of #b1jjjl4 per week1 was incapable of mastering it4 ,at the death of the old ,conde the works were abandoned1 until #agia1 when his heirs once more set all the baritels in motion2 but the proceeds not covering the expenses1 the works were again abandoned4 ,footnote #dd3 ,a very primitive contrivance for raising the water in skin bags4 ,in the year #ahbd1 when the frenzy of mining speculations was at its height1 a company was formed in ,london1 with a capital of #djj1jjjl41 for the purpose of working the mine of ,tlalpujahua1 in the ,state of ,mejoacan1 which had long since been abandoned4 ,without any accurate information1 a number of supervisors and workmen were sent to the spot in #ahbe1 when they found all the mines under water4 ,yet1 in spite of this rather unpromising state of affairs1 the company1 not satisfied with its first acquisitions1 entered into new engagements1 so that at the end of #ahbe it had contracted for no less than eighty mines1 for which it bound itself to pay the proprietors annuities amounting to more than #ej1jjj dollars during the first three years4 ,operations were now begun in many places at once1 but every one of them ended in disappointment2 and in #ahbh the company1 after spending every farthing of its capital1 vanished into #8airy nothing1' abandoning the mines to their original proprietors1 and leaving the ill-fated shareholders to mourn over their credulity and folly4 ,subsequently another ,english company undertook the working of the mines of ,real del ,monte1 and after spending no less than #ae1cha1fcc dollars1 against a produce of #aj1dha1dge dollars1 was dissolved in #ahdh4 ,mr4 ,buchan now undertook the management for a ,mexican company1 and almost immediately struck the great ,rosario vein1 which opened a long career of prosperity1 and yielded a profit of a million of dollars in #ahfg4 ,every fortnight a conducta1 or escort1 of one hundred and fifty armed men#de conveys the silver1 in bars of seventy pounds1 inclosed in an iron safe1 to the capital4 ,footnote #de3 ,illustrated ,london ,news1 ,no4 #adgg1 ,saturday1 ,april #aa1 #ahfh4 ,it would be vain to seek in the ,mexican mines for the scientific arrangement which is to be found in most of the ,english or ,german subterranean workings4 ,one of their chief faults consists in a want of communication between their various parts1 so that they resemble those ill-arranged houses where1 to go from one room to another1 one is obliged to traverse long and crooked passages4 ,hence the impossibility of introducing in most of the mines an economical transport by means of tramroads and waggons1 and hence also the necessity of conveying the ore to the surface by human labour4 ,the native ,indians1 however1 are admirable carriers1 for they will climb steep ladders1 with #bdj to #chj pounds1 and perform this hard work for six hours consecutively4 ,their muscular strength seemed truly astonishing to ,humboldt1 who1 though having no weight to carry but his own1 felt himself utterly exhausted after ascending from a deep mine4 ,most of the ,mexican silver is extracted from the ores by the process of amalgamation4 ,for this purpose the ore is first crushed either by rollers1 or1 more generally1 by stamps1 called in ,mexico molinos1 which in principle resemble those used in the tin mines of ,cornwall1 but are not so powerful1 and are worked either by water-power or by mules4 ,illustration3 ,,stamping ,,mill4 ,the crushed ores are then conveyed to the arrastres1 or grinding- mills1 which are usually arranged in rows in a large gallery or shed4 ,the ore1 having been brought into a finely divided state1 is next allowed to run out of the arrastre into shallow tanks or reservoirs1 where it remains exposed to the sun until it has the appearance of thick mud1 and in this state the process is proceeded with4 ,the lama1 as it is called1 or slime1 is now laid out on the patio1 or amalgamation floor 7which is in some places boarded1 and in others paved with flat stones71 in large masses called tortas1 from forty to fifty feet in diameter1 and about a foot thick2 and so extensive are the floors that a large number of these tortas are seen in progress at the same time4 ,when the ore has been laid out in masses on the patio1 the operations necessary to produce the chemical changes commence4 ,the first ingredient introduced is salt1 in the proportion of fifty pounds to every ton of ore1 and a number of mules are made to tread it1 so that it may be dissolved in the water and intimately blended with the mass4 ,on the following day another ingredient is introduced1 called in ,mexico magistral4 ,it is common copper-pyrites1 or sulphide of copper and iron1 pulverised and calcined1 which converts it into a sulphate4 ,about twenty-five pounds of this magistral are added for every ton of ore in the torta1 and the mules are again put in1 and tread the mass for several hours4 ,chemical action now commences1 and new combinations between the decomposed mineral substances are in progress4 ,quicksilver is then introduced1 being spread over the torta in very small particles1 which is effected by passing it through a coarse cloth4 ,the quantity required is six times the estimated weight of the silver contained in the ore4 ,illustration3 ,,grinding ,,mill4 ,the quicksilver being spread over the surface1 the mules are once more put in1 and tread the whole until it is well mixed4 ,great skill is now required to watch the progress of the amalgamation1 and to decide whether any one of the ingredients that have been added to the ore is in deficiency or excess4 ,the amalgamating process being at length ended1 the mass is washed in large vats1 through which streams of water are made to pass1 so as to drive away the lighter particles of the mud and to leave the heavy amalgam at the bottom of the tub4 ,after being strained through the strong canvas bottom of a leathern bag1 in order to separate the superfluous mercury1 the amalgam is finally heated in large retorts1 when the quicksilver is volatilised and the pure silver remains behind4 ,as a considerable quantity of mercury is thus lost1 this metal has always had a great influence on the working of the ,mexican mines4 ,when1 in times of war1 the importation of quicksilver from ,europe was stopped1 thus causing a considerable increase in its price1 the ores accumulated in the magazines1 as their poverty made it impossible to meet the additional expense2 and then it not unfrequently happened that proprietors1 possessing ores to the amount of several millions of dollars1 were unable to pay their current expenses4 ,in the last century1 the ,mexican mines annually required sixteen thousand hundredweight of mercury1 which was furnished chiefly by the mines of ,almaden1 ,huancavelica1 and ,idria4 ,the sale of mercury to the various mining proprietors was a ,government monopoly4 ,the quantity of silver produced by the ,mexican mines in #aaj years1 ending with the first year of the present century1 amounted to about ninety-eight millions of pounds troy1 and the total value of the gold and silver produced from #afhi to #ahjc to about #bhe millions of pounds sterling4 ,the production was most abundant in the years #ahje1 #ahjf1 and #ahji1 when it reached the sum of twenty-six and twenty-seven millions of dollars4 ,it then fell enormously during the revolutionary wars2 but the ,english mining mania of #ahbd having furnished the necessary capital for the re- opening of a large number of mines1 it again gradually rose1 and even reached during some years the rate of its most flourishing period4 ,but it never amounted to one-third of the value which is now annually extracted from our coal mines2 and while the latter open new and unbounded sources of wealth by the activity they communicate to numberless branches of industry1 ,mexico--a prey to bigotry1 ignorance1 anarchy1 and sloth--remains1 in spite of her silver mines1 as poor and as barbarous as ever4 ,in ,south ,america1 the mines of ,potosi1 ,cerro di ,pasco1 and ,gualgayoc1 are the most renowned for their richness4 ,in #aede1 an ,indian1 while pursuing some deer along the declivity of a steep mountain1 took hold of a shrub1 the roots of which1 giving way1 brought to view a mass of silver1 the first discovery of the riches which have rendered ,potosi the proverbial symbol of wealth4 ,the ,indian1 wisely concealing his good fortune1 repeatedly visited the mine1 but his improved circumstances having been remarked by one of his countrymen1 he was obliged to take him into the secret4 ,unfortunately a quarrel ensued1 and the faithless confidant betrayed it to his master1 ,don ,jos ,villaroel1 a ,spaniard1 whose extraordinary success in working the mines soon drew the attention of all ,america to the wild ,cerro di ,potosi4 ,a town of #ajj1jjj inhabitants soon rose in the desert1 in spite of the wintry inclemency of the climate 7#ab1hdb feet above the level of the sea7 and of the fabulous prices of provisions1 as all the necessaries of life had to be conveyed from a vast distance over the pathless mountains4 ,but if living in ,potosi was extravagantly dear1 ,mammon took care to provide his votaries with the necessary means2 for the treasures which were here extracted from the bosom of the earth seem rather to belong to the world of ,oriental romance than to that of sober reality4 ,according to ,humboldt1 the mountain of ,potosi1 whose topmost mine is situated #ae1chd feet above the level of the sea--considerably higher than the eternal snows of the summit of ,mont ,blanc--produced from #aede to #ahjc no less than #bcj1jjj1jjjl41 besides the silver which was not registered1 or had been carried off by fraud1 and which may probably have amounted to as much again4 ,during the period of their greatest prosperity--from #aehe to #afjf--when they annually yielded #hhb1jjj marks of silver1 #ae1jjj ,indians were occupied in the mines of ,potosi4 ,at present1 however1 their produce1 though still considerable1 has diminished to one-eighth1 and the population of the town has shrunk in the same proportion4 ,the ores were at first reduced in a very imperfect manner1 according to the old ,indian method4 ,on the mountains surrounding the town of ,potosi1 wherever the wind blew with sufficient force1 portable smelting ovens of clay1 in which numerous holes kept up a strong current of air1 received alternate layers of ore and charcoal1 and the lively blast soon separated the metal from the dross4 ,the first travellers in the ,cordillera describe with enthusiasm the magnificent aspect of more than #f1jjj fires1 which every evening blazed on the mountain crests of ,potosi4 ,amalgamation was first introduced about the year #aega4 ,on the bleak ,puna1 or high table-land between the parallel chains of the ,cordillera and the ,andes1 is situated the famous mining town of ,pasco4 ,surrounded by a crescent of steep and naked rocks1 its straggling buildings extend over an uneven ground1 bordered by small marshes and lagunes4 ,the shivering traveller1 descending from the windy heights1 is at first agreeably surprised by the sight of a large town in the midst of these dreary solitudes2 but a nearer inspection of its narrow crooked streets1 and of its miserable huts1 with here and there a stately mansion1 soon dissipates the fancies he may have formed at a distance4 ,the wild1 forbidding aspect of the neighbourhood1 and the rigorous climate1 only a short day's journey from the loveliest valleys1 prove the greatness of the subterranean treasures which could induce so large a population to settle in so harsh a region4 ,the mines of ,pasco1 like those of ,potosi1 were discovered1 it is said1 by an ,indian shepherd1 who1 accidentally lighting a fire where the ores cropped out1 found silver among the ashes4 ,there are two chief lodes1 with numerous branches1 so that the whole neighbourhood may be considered as resting on a subterranean network of silver4 ,the entrances to most of the mines are situated in the town itself2 and1 as every proprietor thinks only of his present profits1 they are worked in so slovenly a manner that they frequently fall in4 ,tschudi1 who visited some of the deepest of them1 always thought himself extremely fortunate when1 after descending on half-rotten steps or by mouldering ropes and rusty chains1 he returned again to daylight without accident1 and mentions an instance where three hundred workmen were buried in the ruins of a mine1 in which the necessary props had been shamefully neglected4 ,when a mine is very productive1 it is said to be in #8boya2' and when such periods of affluence take place in several of the mines at once1 the population of ,pasco sometimes increases to double or treble the usual number4 ,the ,peruvian miners are no less dishonest than their fellow-workmen in ,mexico1 and equally cunning in robbing their employers4 ,on the other hand their patience and perseverance are unrivalled4 ,satisfied with the coarsest food1 and with a still more miserable hut1 they undergo an amount of bodily toil which no ,european could endure4 ,their only solace is the chewing of ,coca1 the mysterious plant to which they ascribe such wonderfully stimulating powers1 and which has at length begun to awaken the curiosity of ,european chemists and naturalists4#df ,when a #8boya' raises their earnings to a considerable sum1 they spend it in drunkenness1 and never think of returning to their work until their last farthing or their last credit is exhausted4 ,the mineros1 or proprietors of the mines1 are almost equally uncivilised4 ,passionately devoted to gambling and mining speculations1 they are commonly deeply in debt to the capitalists of ,lima1 who advance them money at the rate of #ajj and #abj per cent42 and when a #8boya' favours them1 this sudden increase of wealth is merely the prelude of new embarrassment4 ,footnote #df3 ,the seventeenth chapter of #8,the ,tropical ,world' is devoted to the ,erythroxylon ,coca4 ,according to law1 all the produce of the silver mines should be sent to the ,callana or ,government smelting-house2 but in order to avoid the heavy duties levied by the ,state1 vast quantities are smuggled to the coast4 ,the annual produce registered at the ,callana amounts to about #cjj1jjj marks1 but perhaps as much again is exported in a clandestine manner4 ,besides the mines of ,pasco1 ,peru possesses many others of considerable value1 situated chiefly in the provinces of ,pataz1 ,huamanchuco1 ,caxamarca1 and ,gualgayoc4 ,the famous ,cerro de ,san ,fernando de ,gualgayoc1 fourteen leagues from the town of ,caxamarca1 is an isolated mountain traversed by numberless veins of silver4 ,its summit is sharply serrated by a multitude of tower-like or pyramidal pinnacles1 and its steep sides are not only pierced by several hundred galleries for the extraction of the ores1 but also by many natural openings or caverns1 through which the dark blue sky is visible to the spectator standing at the foot of the mountain4 ,the singularity of aspect is increased by the numberless huts1 sticking like nests to the slopes of the fortress-like mountain wherever a ledge allowed them to be constructed4 ,during the first thirty years after the discovery of the mines from #agga to #ahjb1 they yielded considerably more than thirty-two millions of dollars1 and are still very productive4 ,one of the most celebrated silver mines of ,peru was that of ,salcedo1 renowned alike for its richness and for the tragical end of its possessor4 ,don ,jos ,salcedo1 a poor ,spaniard who had settled in ,puno1 fell in love with an ,indian girl1 whose mother1 on condition of his marrying her daughter1 revealed to him the existence of a rich silver lode4 ,the fame of ,salcedo's wealth spread far and wide1 and excited the envy of ,count ,lemos1 the viceroy1 who sought to obtain possession of the mine4 ,as the good-natured and liberal ,salcedo had become very popular among the ,indians1 this circumstance was made use of by the rapacious viceroy to accuse him of fomenting among the natives a spirit of rebellion against the ,spanish yoke4 ,he was cast into a dungeon1 and the obsequious judges condemned him to death4 ,while in prison ,salcedo begged the viceroy to submit the case to the high court of justice at ,madrid1 and to allow him to appeal to the mercy of the king4 ,at the same time he offered1 as an acknowledgment for this favour1 to give the viceroy daily a bar of silver1 from the day the ship left the port of ,callao to its return from ,europe4 ,if we consider that in those times a journey from ,peru to ,spain and back required at least from twelve to sixteen months1 we may form some idea of ,salcedo's wealth4 ,the viceroy1 however1 would not listen to the proposal1 the very brilliancy of which probably inflamed still more his cupidity1 and he ordered ,salcedo to be hung4 ,but his cruelty met with the disappointment it deserved2 for when it became known that nothing could save ,salcedo1 his ,indian friends destroyed the works of the mine1 and so carefully concealed the entrance that it has remained undiscovered to the present day4 ,after performing this work of retribution1 the ,indians dispersed1 and neither promises nor tortures could wring the secret from those that were caught4 ,though the mines of ,peru have yielded and still yield vast quantities of silver1 yet probably only a few of the richest lodes are worked2 for the ,indians1 to whom other lodes are well known1 will never reveal their existence to the white men4 ,they know by experience how small a benefit they derive from the mines1 which are to them but a source of severe labour4 ,thus they prefer leaving the treasures of the earth undisturbed1 or use them only in cases of extreme necessity4 ,in many provinces undoubted proofs exist that the richest silver mines are secretly worked by the ,indians1 but all efforts to discover them have proved fruitless4 ,a ,franciscan monk at ,huancayo1 a desperate gambler and almost always in want of money1 had by his friendly manners gained the goodwill of the ,indians4 ,one day1 after a severe loss1 he bitterly complained of his distress to one of his ,indian friends4 ,after some hesitation the man promised to assist him1 and brought him on the following evening a bag full of rich silver ores4 ,this gift he repeated several times4 ,but the monk1 greedy after more1 begged the ,indian to show him the mine--a request which1 after repeated refusals1 was at length reluctantly granted4 ,on the appointed night1 the ,indian1 with two of his comrades1 came to the ,franciscan's dwelling1 took him on his shoulders1 after first carefully blindfolding him1 and carried him1 alternately with his friends1 a distance of several leagues into the mountains4 ,here they halted1 and the ,franciscan's bandage having been removed1 he found himself in a subterranean gallery1 where the richest silver ores sparkled from the walls4 ,after feasting on the grateful sight and filling his pockets1 he was carried back again in the same way4 ,on his return he secretly loosened the string of his rosary1 and let a bead drop from time to time1 hoping by this means to be able to find the mine4 ,but1 on the following morning1 as he was about to reconnoitre1 his ,indian friend knocked at the door1 and saying1 #8,father1 thou hast lost thy rosary6' brought him a whole handful of the loose beads4 ,in #ahej the mines in the province of ,copiapo in ,chili yielded #cce1jjj marks of silver1 nearly as much as the entire production of ,europe1 and the ,state of ,nevada in ,north ,america bids fair to rival the riches of ,peru4 ,the ores are found on the eastern slopes of the ,sierra ,nevada1 in the region of the ,carson ,river1 and have since #ahei attracted a stream of emigrants to the ,washoe ,mine4 ,at the present time they annually produce about #af1jjj1jjj dollars of silver1 chiefly from the ,comstock ,lode1 which may be ranked among the richest mineral deposits ever encountered in the history of mining enterprise4 ,thus we find veins and deposits of silver ore scattered throughout almost the entire length of ,america2 and no doubt many an unknown ,potosi still lies concealed in the lonely ravines or on the bleak sides of the ,andes1 awaiting but some fortunate discoverer to astonish the world with its treasures4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,copper4 ,its valuable ,qualities--,english ,copper ,mines--,their comparatively recent ,importance--,dreary ,aspect of the ,cornwall ,copper ,country--,botallack-- ,submarine ,copper ,mines--,a ,blind ,miner--,swansea--,smelting ,process--,the ,mines of ,fahlun--,their ,ancient ,records--,alten ,fjord--,drontheim--,the ,mines of ,rivaas--,the ,mines of ,mansfeldt--,lake ,superior--,mysterious ,discoveries-- ,burra ,burra--,remarkable ,instances of ,good ,fortune in ,copper ,mining4 ,copper derives its name from the island of ,cyprus1 where it was extensively mined and smelted by the ,greeks2 but its first discovery is of much more ancient date1 and loses itself in the darkness of the prehistoric ages4 ,weapons and tools of bronze--its alloy with tin--have been found both in the tumuli of extinct nations and in the lacustrine dwellings of the ,swiss lakes1 erected by an unknown people in unknown times4 ,among the ,egyptians1 the ,greeks1 and ,etrurians1 copper was in immemorial use1 and the ancient ,celtic nations fought their battles with copper or brazen swords1 and felled the trees for the construction of their rude hovels with axes of the same metal4 ,as in many parts of the world native copper is found scattered over the surface of the earth in large lumps or masses1 it naturally attracted the attention of barbarous tribes much sooner than iron1 which very rarely occurs in the native state2 and some fortunate chance or lucky experiment having shown that1 when rendered malleable by heat1 it could easily be hammered into any convenient shape1 it soon became1 and has ever since remained1 one of the most valuable metals4 ,forming important compounds with tin 7bronze7 and zinc 7brass71 remarkably incorrodible as compared with iron1 and nearly as tenacious in structure1 but not so hard1 it is recommended by its qualities for a variety of uses1 and its consumption everywhere increases with the progress of civilization and the extension of commerce4 ,fortunately copper is of such common occurrence that a mere enumeration of the localities where it is found would swell into a long and tedious list2 it is enough to state that rich copper mines exist both in the ,old ,world and the ,new1 and promise an inexhaustible supply to the most distant generations4 ,in ,europe ,england is the chief copper-producing country4 ,rich mines have been discovered and worked in ,anglesey1 ,shropshire1 ,cheshire1 and ,staffordshire1 in the counties of ,wicklow1 ,cork1 and ,waterford2 but by far the largest quantity is supplied by ,cornwall and ,devon4 #8,the history of ,cornish copper1' says ,mr4 ,warner1 #8is as a mushroom of last night compared with that of tin4 ,lying deep below the surface of the earth1 it would be concealed from the inquiries of human industry till such time as natural philosophy had made considerable progress1 and the mechanical arts had reached their present state of perfection2 for notwithstanding tin in ,cornwall seldom runs deeper than fifty fathoms below the surface1 good copper is seldom found at a less depth than that4 ,accordingly we do not find that any regular researches were made for copper ores in ,cornwall till the latter end of the fifteenth century1 when a few adventurers worked in an imperfect manner some insignificant mines4 ,half a century afterwards1 in the reign of ,elizabeth1 though the product of the mines would naturally be greater than before1 yet little advantage seems to have been derived to the country at large from the working of its copper4 ,writers hint at the mystery made of its uses by the merchants4 ,in the next reign1 however1 all mystery was dispersed1 the mines were inspected1 their value determined1 and a system was introduced of working them to greater advantage4' ,yet so wretched was the knowledge of mineralogy before #agab that the yellow copper ore1 at present so highly valued1 was considered of no importance and cast aside as worthless rubbish4 ,since the reign of ,george ,i4 there has been so much improvement that1 next to iron and coal1 copper is now the most important of our mineral products4 ,the chief ,cornish copper mines are situated in the districts of ,camborne1 ,redruth1 and ,gwennap1 which are about the dreariest of all ,british wildernesses4 ,few trees are to be seen1 few fields2 furze and wild berries form the chief vegetation of the niggard soil4 ,blocks upon blocks of stone are scattered over these desolate moorlands1 that have been excavated1 dug into hillocks1 disturbed and turned over and over again1 sometimes by the primeval stream-works of the old men or ancient miners1 sometimes by more modern labour in search of metallic wealth4 ,off the roads these districts are utterly impervious on wheels or on horseback1 and the traveller can only walk1 or rather flounder1 over them by jumping from patch to patch of firmer land4 ,yet this scene of apparent poverty is in reality one of the very richest portions of the kingdom1 and conceals more wealth beneath its sterile surface than has ever been produced by a similar extent of the fairest fields and pastures4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,botallack ,,mine1 ,,cornwall4 ,the bluff promontory of ,botallack1 not far from ,cape ,cornwall1 conceals in its rocky entrails a copper mine1 the most singularly placed1 probably1 of any mine in the world1 for nowhere do the triumphs of industry appear in more picturesque connection with the magnificent scenery of the ocean4 ,the metalliferous veins running along the cliffs into the sea vainly concealed themselves beneath the swelling surge2 in vain a huge barrier of rocks seemed to render them inaccessible to the miner1 as soon as it became known that here1 buried under the ocean1 lay treasures that would amply repay the cost and labour expended1 and the danger encountered in seeking for them4 ,to those who stand below the cliff and look up from the sea1 the view is fearfully grand1 and remarkable for the combination of the wonders of art with the wonders of nature4 ,the separate parts of an enormous steam- engine had to be lowered #bjj feet down the almost perpendicular precipice1 and a tram-road runs right up the face of the cliff4 ,lofty chimneys1 pouring out dense volumes of black smoke1 are seen perched on the verge and even on the ledges of a tremendous precipice1 and the miner has built his hut over the sea-bird's roost4 ,all these constructions seem at the mercy of every storm1 and to the beholder from beneath they almost appear suspended in the air and tottering to their fall4 ,on one side of the cliff tall ladders scale the rock2 but he must have strong nerves who can tread them fearlessly1 the sea roaring under him and flinging its raging spray after him as he ascends1 while in other parts mules and their riders may be seen trotting up and down the rocky tracks which the pedestrian visitor would scarcely dare to pass4 ,a strange and restless life pervades a scene which nature seemed to have for ever removed far from the busy haunts of man4 ,a visit to this remarkable mine leaves an ineradicable impression on the mind4 ,descending ladder after ladder1 and passing on from gallery to gallery1 stepping over rough stones and awkward holes1 now stooping down under masses of overhanging rock1 and now climbing over stony projections beneath your feet1 you are at length informed that you are vertically #abj feet below the sea-level1 and horizontally #dhj feet under the bottom of the ocean or beyond low-water mark1 while still deeper down human beings are hewing the hard rock4 ,the brine oozes through the metallic ceiling1 and the sound of distant waters falls faintly upon the ear4 ,there are other submarine mines in the neighbourhood of ,botallack4 ,in ,little ,bounds and ,wheal ,cock the hardihood of the miners tempted them to follow the ore upwards1 even to the sea2 but the openings made were very small1 and1 the rock being extremely hard1 a covering of wood and cement in the former1 and a small plug in the latter mine1 sufficed to exclude the water1 and protected the workmen from the fatal consequences of their rashness4 #8,in all these1 and in ,wheal ,edward and ,levant1' says ,mr4 ,henwood1#dg #8,i have heard the dashing of the billows and the grating of the shingle overhead even in calm weather4 ,i was once1 however1 underground in ,wheal ,cock during a storm4 ,at the extremity of the level seaward1 some eighty or one hundred fathoms from the shore1 little could be heard of its effects1 except at intervals1 when the reflux of some unusually large wave projected a pebble outward1 bounding and rolling over the rocky bottom4 ,but when standing beneath the base of the cliff1 and in that part of the mine where but nine feet of the rock stood between us and the ocean1 the heavy roll of the large boulders1 the ceaseless grinding of the pebbles1 the fierce thundering of the billows1 with the crackling and boiling as they rebounded1 placed a tempest in its most appalling form too vividly before me ever to be forgotten4 ,more than once1 doubting the protection of our working shield1 we retreated in affright1 and it was only after repeated trials that we had confidence to pursue our investigations4' ,footnote #dg3 #8,transactions of the ,royal ,geological ,society of ,cornwall1' vol4 v4 p4 #aa4 ,it seems that at times of great storms1 even the miners1 accustomed for years to these submarine caverns1 have been terrified by the roaring of the sea4 ,they have heard1 as it were1 mountain dashing against mountain1 or as if all the artillery of ,england was booming over their heads4 ,yet their roof of rock1 thin as it is in some parts1 has hitherto shielded them against the sea1 and will no doubt continue to defend them against it4 ,on leaving these wonderful submarine excavations1 the scenery of the upper world appears doubly beautiful4 ,the #8,traveller ,underground'#dh tells us a remarkable story of a blind man who once worked in ,botallack1 and continued his perilous toils underground for a long period1 from the dread of being compelled to accept parish relief4 ,by the fruits of his labour he supported a family of nine children1 and such was his marvellous recollection of every turning and winding of the mine that he became a guide to his fellow- labourers if by any accident their lights were extinguished4 ,on being discharged from this employment 7and they must truly have had rocky hearts who did discharge him71 this poor blind man soon afterwards met his death in a melancholy manner4 ,being engaged as attendant on some brick-layers1 who were building a house at ,st4 ,ives1 he had to carry the hods of mortar up to the scaffolding4 ,stepping too far back from a platform1 he fell1 and died almost immediately4 ,footnote #dh3 #8,cornwall1 its ,mines and ,miners4' ,london1 #ahfj4 ,the chief copper ores of ,cornwall are the bisulphuret 7containing nearly equal parts of copper1 sulphur1 and iron71 the sulphuret1 or grey ore of the miners 7containing more than #gi per cent4 of copper71 and the black ore1 an almost pure oxide2 but when extracted from the mine1 these ores are generally so mixed up with impurities that their average contents do not amount to more than #b or #c per cent4 ,they have consequently to undergo various processes of picking1 crushing1 sorting1 and washing1 before they are rendered saleable and fit for export to the smelting works of ,swansea1 the grand emporium for copper4 ,the reason why they are not smelted on the spot is that the fuel needed is more bulky than the ore1 and it is cheaper to bring the copper of ,cornwall to the coal of ,south ,wales than to take the coal to the copper4 ,in ,swansea--but half a century ago a mere hamlet1 and now a flourishing town of #cf1jjj inhabitants--we find all the conditions needed for the development of a vast industry4 ,coal and water-power in inexhaustible abundance1 excellent roads and railroads1 the nearness of the sea1 canals which allow vessels of considerable burden to load and unload close to the smelting huts1 so that their high masts rise alongside of the towering chimneys--these are the natural and artificial advantages to which ,swansea owes its rank as the first copper manufacturing town in the world4 ,for1 not satisfied with the abundant ores of ,great ,britain1 its smelting works seek their materials in almost every copper-producing country of the globe4 ,the rich ores of ,chili and ,australia1 of ,cuba and ,north ,america1 of ,norway and ,tuscany1 all find their way to ,swansea1 which re- exports the metal to every part of the world4 ,vivian's works1 the most important of the establishments of ,swansea1 are situated in a vale a couple of miles from the town4 ,a maritime canal enables brigs to sail at high tide up to the smelting furnaces1 whence a second canal leads to the coal-pits1 ascending the hill by a succession of locks4 ,although in the building of this huge factory not a thought was given to grace or beauty of form1 utility being the sole aim in view1 still its vast extent leaves on the mind a certain impression of grandeur4 ,the whole smelting process is carried on in reverberatory furnaces4#di ,in order to disengage the sulphur and other volatile impurities1 the ore is first roasted in at least sixteen of these powerful ovens1 each of which holds forty hundredweight1 and performs its office in six hours4 ,the smoke of all these furnaces collects in a huge chimney1 which1 after climbing the hill for about six hundred feet1 ends in a mighty column two hundred feet high4 ,the roasted ores are then mixed with a certain proportion of fluor spar1 and smelted in twenty smaller reverberatory furnaces4 ,a ton is introduced at a time1 and in each oven seven tons can be smelted in twenty-four hours4 ,it would lead me too far were ,i to enter into more minute details4 ,i will therefore briefly state that the copper is still obliged to pass four times through differently constructed furnaces before it is sufficiently pure to be rolled into sheets or to be granulated1 a condition in which it is used for the fabrication of brass1 as it then presents more surface to the action of the zinc1 and combines with it more readily4 ,to produce this granulation1 the metal is poured into a large ladle pierced with holes1 and placed above a cistern filled with water1 which must be hot or cold according to the form of the grains required4 ,when it is hot1 round grains are obtained1 analogous to lead shot1 and the copper in this state is called bean shot4 ,when the melted copper falls into cold water perpetually renewed1 the granulations are irregular1 thin1 and ramified1 constituting feathered shot4 ,footnote #di3 ,a reverberatory furnace is a furnace in which intense heat is produced by a flame which1 while passing through a furnace1 reverberates from the roof over the substance to be fused1 the draught being created by means of a lofty chimney4 ,the process of preparing the copper does not present the bustle and activity nor the glare and brilliancy of an ironwork4 ,the smoke and vapour disengaged from the ore are of the most noxious and disagreeable kind1 and impart to the whole neighbourhood a singularly gloomy character4 ,the stunted vegetation is so kept down by it that there are no trees1 and1 instead of grass1 a dry1 yellow1 sickly growth of chamomile barely covers the ground4 ,when viewed from a neighbouring eminence at night1 the livid glare from the chimneys1 the rolling white clouds of smoke which fill up the valley beneath1 the desolate-looking heaps of slag1 and the pungent sulphurous vapours remind the spectator of #8,the dismal situation1 waste and wild1 ,the dungeon horrible on all sides round1' where ,satan lay weltering after his fall from heaven4 ,after ,england1 ,sweden1 ,germany1 and ,russia take the lead among the copper-producing countries of ,europe4 ,the mines of ,fahlun in ,dalecarlia are no less remarkable for their picturesque appearance than the celebrated iron mines of ,dannemora in the same province4 ,a vast pit1 #a1bjj feet long1 #fjj feet broad1 and above #ahj feet deep1 with precipitous1 sometimes vertical1 and occasionally even overhanging walls1 opens before the spectator1 who might fancy himself standing on the brink of an enormous crater4 #8,the aspect of this deep chasm1' says ,professor ,haussmann1#ej #8affords a desolate picture of ruin caused by improvidence and waste1 as it owes its origin to the successive fallings in of subterranean excavations carelessly widened and left without sufficient supports4 ,from the vast mounds of rubbish accumulated at the bottom of the pit1 remnants of ancient shafts1 formed of thick beams of wood1 are seen protruding1 but these show only a part of the devastation produced by the great falling in which took place in the year #afgh4 ,on the northern side of the pit is a broad and convenient wooden staircase1 by which not only the miners1 but also the horses used for working the subterranean machinery1 descend to the bottom4 ,thence it gradually winds underground to a depth of #agg fathoms4' ,footnote #ej3 #8,geological ,travels through ,sweden4' ,as is generally the case in ,sweden1 the ore of ,fahlun forms considerable masses1 the chief being a vast reniform lump #a1bjj feet long and #fjj broad at its upper surface1 and gradually narrowing as it descends4 ,near this gigantic stock are situated similar deposits1 which though of smaller dimensions are still very considerable4 ,from the copper pyrites being deposited chiefly on the circumference or the outer shell of these reniform masses1 which are themselves of extremely irregular outline1 the mining operations are carried on with great difficulty1 and exhibit a perfect labyrinth of crooked and winding galleries1 situated at various depths1 and supported by pillars or sometimes by walls--a peculiarity which explains the successive fallings in that have formed the enormous pit of ,fahlun4 ,the mine has been worked from time immemorial1 and is said to have been known even before the ,christian era4 ,the oldest document extant bears the date of the year #acdg1 and contains the privileges granted to the proprietors of the mine by ,king ,olaus ,smek2 but still more ancient documents are mentioned1 among others a purchase-deed of the year #abjj4 ,as the ores are poor1 their abundance alone renders the working of the mine profitable2 but ,fahlun has seen its best days and is doomed to a gradual decline4 ,during its greatest prosperity it is said to have yielded #e1jjj tons of copper annually1 but in #ahff it furnished no more that #fjj tons1 or about one-third of the entire production of ,sweden4 ,in #agai a body1 preserved from corruption by the vitriolic water with which it had been saturated1 was found in an abandoned part of the ,fahlun mines4 ,when it had been brought up to the surface1 the whole neighbourhood flocked together to see it2 but nobody could recognise a lost friend or kinsman in its young and handsome features4 ,at length an old woman1 more than #hj years of age1 approached with tottering steps1 and casting a glance on the corpse1 uttered a piercing shriek and fell senseless on the ground4 ,she had instantly recognised her affianced lover1 who had mysteriously disappeared more than sixty years previously1 but whose image she still bore in her faithful memory4 ,as he was not employed in the mines1 no search had been made for him underground at the time4 ,most probably he had fallen1 by some accident1 into one of the numerous crevices by which the surface of the mines is traversed4 ,thus the tottering woman1 weighed down with the double burden of infirmity and age1 saw once more the face of her lover as she had looked upon it in the days of her youth4 ,in the sister kingdom of ,norway1 which produces annually about #dhj tons of copper1 the mines of the ,alten ,fjord are remarkable for their high northern situation 7in #gj ,n4 ,lat41 beyond the ,arctic ,circle74 ,a piece of copper ore found by a ,lap woman in #ahbe fell accidentally into the hands of ,mr4 ,crowe1 an ,english merchant in ,hammerfest1 who immediately took measures for obtaining a privilege from ,government for the working of a mine4 ,all preliminaries being arranged1 he set off for ,london1 where he founded a company with a capital of #ge1jjjl4 ,when ,marmier visited the ,alten ,fjord in #ahdb1 more than #a1ajj workmen were employed in these most northerly mining works of the world2 but probably the number has since decreased4 ,although ,drontheim or ,tronyem is renowned in ,norse history as the seat of many kings1 yet the town seems as if built but yesterday4 ,repeated conflagrations have often reduced its wooden houses to ashes4 ,the choir of the ancient cathedral1 the finest edifice ever built in so high a latitude1 is the only remaining memorial of old ,tronyem2 but the modern city is remarkably clean and well built1 and gives evidence1 by its outward appearance1 of the prosperity of its citizens1 which is partly owing to the fish-trade and partly to the neighbouring copper-mines of ,rraas4 ,the tall chimneys of the smelting huts and other manufactories founded on the mineral riches of the country show that the spirit of trade is perfectly awake in the old capital of ,saint ,olaus1 and that the abode of the ancient sea-kings is none the worse for having abandoned piracy for the more homely pursuits of modern commerce4 ,the copper ores1 which were first discovered in #afdd1 occur in the ,rraas ,mountains in extensive veins4 ,the entrance1 which resembles the mouth of a cave and leads into the mine by a gradual descent1 is so broad that carts laden with ore and drawn by horses can freely pass in and out4 ,when ,professor ,haussmann1 of ,gttingen1 visited the mine1 long stalactites of ice hung from the roof of the entrance and covered its rugged walls with crystal drapery4 ,the lights of the numerous workmen who opened the march made the ice glitter with all the colours of the rainbow1 and then1 as they went onward1 illuminated the broad galleries1 propped by mighty pillars1 and branching into gloomy recesses4 ,at length they halted1 and all at once1 on a given signal1 the brilliant illumination was changed into the deepest darkness4 ,a deathlike stillness now reigned in the vault1 when suddenly a flash of lightning blazed through the gloom1 a loud clap of thunder instantly followed1 and1 with crash on crash1 the explosions of many charges of blasting powder shook the walls of the neighbouring galleries4 ,after the last shot was fired1 the torches were relit1 and joyously exchanging the usual salutation of ,german miners3 #8,glck auf6'#ea the company moved on4 #8,i cannot find words1' says the ,professor1 in whose honour the impressive scene had been arranged1 #8to express the pleasure ,i felt at this cordial reception given me in the high north by men unknown to me a few days since4 ,it confirmed the experience ,i had already so often made before1 that probably no profession so soon produces a friendly and intimate connexion between strangers as that of the miner4' ,footnote #ea3 #8,good luck upwards6' or #8,a happy return to daylight4' ,the copper production of ,germany is about equal in amount to that of the ,scandinavian kingdoms4 ,the ,rammelsberg1,b near ,goslar in the ,hartz1 which has been worked ever since the year #ifh1 is probably the oldest mine in ,europe4 ,the famous copper mines of the county of ,mansfeldt in ,prussia afford a striking example of the success obtainable in mining operations by perseverance and a wise economy4 ,the whole thickness of the cupriferous bed of bituminous shale is no more than from eight to sixteen inches2 but as the ore1 though poor1 contains a small quantity of silver1 this circumstance1 assisted by good management and the application of science1 has not only rendered it possible to work the mines for many centuries1 but to render them so flourishing that in #aheb they produced #a1cej tons of copper and #ca1hjj marks of silver1 leaving a net profit of more than #bj1jjjl4 ,the hewers are obliged to perform their labour in galleries not more than twenty-two or twenty-eight inches high1 the narrowest limits within which a man can possibly move and work4 ,the boys who transport the ore slide or creep with a truly wonderful rapidity along the floor1 dragging after them1 by means of a sling attached to their foot1 a waggon loaded with as much as five hundredweight of ore4 ,the hewer's wages for seven hours of this hard work are no more than two shillings2 yet the miners look very healthy and cheerful1 a remarkable proof of the wonderful effects of habit4 ,the vast empire of ,russia produces about #e1jjj tons of copper annually1 chiefly from the mines of the ,ural1 belonging to ,prince ,demidoff2 but a large proportion is furnished by the ,asiatic mines of the ,alta and of ,nertschinsk in ,transbaikalia4 ,new deposits have lately been discovered in the land of the ,kirghise1 near the ,irtysch2 and1 as the ores are exceedingly rich1 and coal is found near them1 they will1 no doubt1 become valuable in time4 ,during the last twenty years ,america has far exceeded ,europe in the production of copper4 ,the inexhaustible mines of ,chili extend along the whole coast of the republic1 and are generally situated within a convenient distance from the sea and near the best ports of the ,pacific1 such as ,caldera1 ,coquimbo1 and ,valparaiso4 ,originally the ores were all sent to ,europe to be smelted2 but since #ahfe the discovery of coal near various parts of the coast has encouraged the establishment of numerous smelting furnaces1 so that ,chili now exports no less than from #dj1jjj to #de1jjj tons of metallic copper1 besides furnishing large quantities of ore to the smelting works of ,swansea4 ,after ,chili no country has made such rapid strides in copper-mining as the ,united ,states4 ,the primeval forests of ,northern ,michigan and ,wisconsin would probably still be the undisputed domain of the ,indian hunter if the mineral treasures of the soil had not been a prize too valuable to escape the notice of our wealth-seeking age4 ,soon after the first settlement of the ,french in ,canada some bold adventurers had indeed penetrated as far as the distant shores of ,lake ,superior1 and given wonderful accounts of the large masses of copper which they had seen scattered over the country2 but the want of all means of communication hindered for a long time the advance of the miner4 ,the ,chippeways1 who for centuries had occupied the banks of the lake1 where1 like all other ,indian tribes1 they spent their time in hunting and fishing1 never thought of availing themselves of the mineral riches of their territory4 ,they indeed picked up now and then some pieces of copper1 and sold them as curiosities to the fur-dealers with whom they traded2 but they were still far too uncivilized to seek in the neighbouring hills for deposits of the valuable metal4 ,their traditions give no account of their first settlement in the country2 they believed themselves to be aboriginals4 ,thus1 when at length the land came to be geologically surveyed1 the discovery of extensive prehistoric mining works created no small astonishment4 ,these relics of an unknown people1 whose existence and disappearance is one of the most interesting enigmas of ancient ,american history1 are chiefly situated on the hill-crests of ,isle ,royale and in the ,ontanagon district1 where they may be traced for miles4 ,trees1 many hundred years old1 now grow in the hollows laboriously excavated by that extinct race in the hard rock with tools of stone or copper4 ,shafts1 twenty or thirty feet deep1 sunk in the hardest greenstone1 have been discovered after felling the trees and removing the rubbish which1 in the course of time1 had been accumulated in the cavities4 ,in many the old tools were found which served to excavate them--stone hammers of various sizes1 or chisels of artificially hardened copper4 ,on the hill behind the ,minnesota ,pit a mass of copper several tons in weight was found placed on wooden rollers1 which proved that those unknown miners must have possessed a considerable mechanical knowledge1 without which it would have been impossible to remove such heavy masses4 ,in some galleries copper blocks were discovered from which pieces had been chiselled off1 and the whole of the works gave proofs of a skill and persevering industry quite foreign to the unsettled habits of the wild and indolent race of hunters which1 as far as memory reached1 had occupied these distant regions4 ,although the expeditions of ,general ,cass in #ahai and of ,major ,long in #ahbc had drawn public attention to the copper of ,lake ,superior1 still twenty years more passed before they became the object of mining speculations1 which at once rose to a feverish height4 ,numerous companies were started in #ahdc1 and mines were opened in many hundred places at once4 ,the natural consequence of this copper mania was disappointment in most cases1 and in #ahdg the greater number of the mines1 which had been opened with the most extravagant expectations1 were abandoned4 ,a few companies only withstood the crisis1 and ultimately proved so remarkably successful as fully to retrieve the lost credit of the copper country1 the annual yield of which at the present time is about #aj1jjj tons1 and consequently nearly equals that of ,cornwall4 ,the copper occurs in the native state in veins intersecting the trap and sandstone1 but also in scattered superficial masses along the chain of hills which extends from the western to the north-eastern extremity of ,lake ,superior4 ,in no known locality have such large masses of copper been found4 ,an enormous block was discovered in ,february #aheg in the ,minnesota mine4 ,it was forty-five feet in length1 twenty-two feet at the greatest width1 and the thickest part was more than eight feet4 ,it contained over ninety per cent4 of copper1 and weighed about #dbj tons4 ,a still more prodigious mass1 sixty-five feet long1 thirty-two feet broad1 and four feet thick1 was found in #ahfi4 ,this king of copper nuggets weighed no less than #a1jjj tons1 and was worth #hj1jjjl41 or more than the greatest lump of gold that ever came to light in ,australia or ,california4 ,rich copper mines have likewise been discovered in the ,states of ,maryland1 ,pennsylvania1 ,massachusetts1 and ,new ,york1 but chiefly in ,california1 where since #ahfa the small town of ,copperopolis#eb has risen into importance4 ,more than #cj1jjj tons of ,californian copper ores 7chiefly sulphurets7 are now annually exported to the smelting-houses of the bay of ,boston1 which are likewise supplied by the ores of ,chili and ,canada1 and form a new ,swansea on the opposite shore of the ,atlantic4 ,the whole annual production of the ,united ,states at present exceeds #bj1jjj tons of metallic copper1 mostly consumed in the country4 ,footnote #eb3 ,this hybrid name1 a vile compound of ,english and ,greek1 is enough to excite the wrath of a philologist4 ,the mines of ,cuba1 which were very important1 have latterly fallen off2 but in #ahff the exportation to ,swansea still amounted to #aa1bed tons of ore4 ,among the rich copper countries of the world ,i have finally to mention ,south ,australia1 ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,victoria4 ,the most extraordinary copper mine of modern times for produce is that of ,burra-,burra in ,south ,australia4 ,it was started in ,september #ahde1 with a capital of #ab1jjjl41 subscribed by a few merchants and traders of ,adelaide1 and in the following five years yielded no less than #ef1dbh tons of ore1 worth #gch1ajhl4 ,the gold discoveries momentarily put a stop to its prosperity2 but of late years the works have been resumed1 and other rich mines have been opened1 so that copper will long remain one of the staple productions of ,australia4 ,the history of some of our copper mines affords examples of good fortune no less remarkable than those which we find mentioned in the annals of the ,mexican silver-mining4 ,tresavean ,copper ,mine1 within a walk of ,redruth1 had once or twice been abandoned as a failure4 ,at length it was taken up by parties who persevered in exploring it1 and succeeded in discovering its wealth by an outlay of little more than #a1jjjl4 ,from #ahch to #ahdc the profits averaged #cj1ficl4 per annum1 and in #ahcc #fcjl4 were divided per share1 or in all #fj1dhjl4 upon ninety-nine shares1 each share having about #bjl4 paid up1 so that in one year the profits surpassed more than thirty times the capital invested4 ,old ,crinnis ,copper ,mine1 near ,st4 ,austell1 was in #ahjh abandoned1 after repeated failures1 and declared by the best miners of the day to be not worth #8a pipe of tobacco4' ,in #ahji ,mr4 ,joshua ,rowe1 of ,torpoint1 and some co-adventurers1 notwithstanding the general contempt for the mine1 began working it again4 ,as it still remained poor1 the adventurers dropped off one by one1 leaving the entire cost of working upon ,mr4 ,rowe1 who1 after laying out a few additional hundreds1 was rewarded by the discovery of a rich mass of ore at about ten fathoms from the surface4 ,upon this becoming known1 the old adventurers again claimed their shares2 but ,mr4 ,rowe resisted their unjust pretentions and won his lawsuit4 ,in the short space of four years and a half1 this mine made a clear profit of #afh1jjjl41 besides paying #bj1jjjl4 for law expenses4 ,another instance of remarkable success is afforded by the ,devon ,great ,consols ,mines1 which were opened in the year #ahdd4 ,the capital of the company which undertook their working was parted into #a1jbd shares1 with #al4 paid on each share4 ,in the same year by ,november a rich copper lode was cut1 and the profits paid working expenses without call4 ,the lodes soon began to turn out so rich that in the six years between the dates of #ahdd and of #ahej the company extracted and sold copper ores to the amount of #fjj1jjjl4 ,after paying all expenses1 the shareholders received about #bjg1jjjl41 or more than #bjjl4 per share on #al4 paid4 ,no more was called1 and thus an average annual dividend of #cel41 equivalent to #c1ejj per cent41 fell to the lot of each share4 ,such instances1 however1 of good fortune are very rare1 for mining in ,cornwall1 as elsewhere1 is much more frequently attended with disappointment and loss4 ,sometimes an apparently rich produce is absorbed by still greater expenses1 or veins very promising when first opened fall off below1 and occasion immense loss to the adventurers4 ,a sudden fall in the price of the metal is alone sufficient to render many of the poorer mines perfectly worthless for a long time4#ec ,hence nothing can be more hazardous than to invest capital in a mining concern2 and if ,shakespeare had foreseen the delusions of modern speculations in concerns of this kind1 he could not more truly have characterised them than by saying-- #8,the earth hath bubbles as the water hath1 ,and these are of them4' ,footnote #ec3 ,since the discovery of the rich ,north ,american and ,chilian mines the price of copper has fallen about #cj per cent4 ,the consequence has been a great diminution of our copper production4 ,thus ,cornwall and ,devonshire1 which in #ahef yielded #bjf1agg tons of copper ore1 worth #a1bda1hcel41 saw their produce gradually diminish from that time1 and in #ahfe furnished no more than #aei1dji tons1 worth only #gec1dbgl4 ,in #ahef the mean average price of copper was #abcl4 per ton2 in #ahfe it was no more than #idl4 #gs4 ,yet the hope of suddenly getting rich1 and the very risks and daring attending all mining undertakings1 have an almost magical attraction2 and1 in spite of numberless instances of loss or ruin1 there will probably never be a want of speculators willing to embark their fortunes on this unstable foundation4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,tin4 ,tin known from the most remote antiquity--,phnician ,traders--,the ,cassiterides--,diodorus ,siculus--,his ,account of the ,cornish ,tin ,trade--,the ,age of ,bronze--,valuable ,qualities of ,tin--,tin ,countries--,cornish ,tin ,lodes--,tin ,streams--,wheal ,vor--,a ,subterranean ,blacksmith--,huel ,wherry1 a ,tin ,mine under the ,sea--,carclaze ,tin ,mine--,dressing of ,tin ,ores-- ,smelting--,the ,cornish ,miner4 ,tin is one of the metals most anciently known to man4 ,its first discovery is hidden1 like that of silver1 gold1 copper1 and iron1 in complete obscurity1 for even the names of the nations which first made use of it are not known4 ,axes and lances1 sickles and fishhooks of bronze--the well-known alloy of copper and tin--occur among the ruins of the ancient lacustrine habitations of ,switzerland1 and the tin of these bronze utensils could only be obtained by commerce from countries far remote1 where it must1 doubtless1 have been known for many ages1 before it found its way into the heart of ,central ,europe4 ,thus a few bronze implements picked up among other rubbish in the muddy bed of an ,helvetian lake open a long vista into the obscure history of primitive man4 ,on turning from ,europe to the ,east we find other proofs that tin has been known from the most remote antiquity4 ,it is mentioned in the ,book of ,numbers 7xxxi4 #bb7 among the spoil which the children of ,israel gained by their victory over the ,midianites2 and ,ezekiel1 in his prophetic warning to the ,tyrians1 enumerates tin as forming part of their riches4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,michael',s ,,mount1 ,,cornwall4 ,it is frequently noticed by ,homer as a substance used for architectural ornaments or for the embellishment of the armour of his heroes1 and its ,greek name #8,kassiteros1' which evidently represents the ,sanscrit #8,kastira1' leaves no doubt as to the part of the world from which it was first obtained4 ,the tin which1 in times unrecorded by chronology1 served for the consumption of ,western ,asia1 ,egypt1 and ,greece1 was supplied by the mines of ,india to the ,phnician traders1 who conveyed it1 either by land to ,babylon1 or by water to the ports of the ,red ,sea4 ,at a much later period that great merchant people extended their maritime expeditions to the ,west1 and sailing along the ,atlantic coast of ,gaul1 ultimately discovered ,cornwall1 which afforded them a new and inexhaustible supply of tin4 ,with the jealous spirit of trade1 they long made a profound secret of its position2 but about #dej years before ,christ1 ,herodotus speaks of the ,cassiterides1 or tin islands1 which some have supposed to be ,britain4 ,four centuries later ,diodorus ,siculus1 who lived in the times of ,julius ,csar and ,augustus1 gives us an interesting account of the ancient tin trade of ,britain4 #8,the inhabitants of that extremity of ,britain which is called ,bolerion' 7probably ,land's ,end71 says the historian whose narrative is the more deserving of attention as we are told that he visited all the places he mentions3 #8both excel in hospitality and also1 by reason of their intercourse with foreign merchants1 they are civilized in their mode of life4 ,these prepare the tin1 working very skilfully the earth which produces it4 ,the ground is rocky1 but it has in it earthy veins1 the produce of which is brought down and melted and purified4 ,then1 when they have cast it into the form of cubes1 they carry it to a certain island adjoining to ,britain and called ,iktis 7probably ,st4 ,michael's ,mount74 ,during the recess of the tide the intervening space is left dry1 and they carry over abundance of tin to this place on their carts2 and it is something peculiar that happens to the islands in these parts lying between ,europe and ,britain1 for at full tide1 the intervening passage being overflowed1 they appear islands1 but when the sea returns a large space is left dry and they are seen as peninsulas4 ,from hence1 then1 the traders purchase the tin of the natives and transport it into ,gaul1 and finally1 travelling through ,gaul on foot1 in about thirty days they bring their burdens on horseback to the river ,rhone4' ,thus we learn from an authentic source how the tin of ,cornwall found its way to ,italy in the times of the first ,roman ,emperors2 but long before that period the wild inhabitants of ,cornwall must have discovered the use of the metallic treasures of their barren soil and the way to barter them for the commodities of the rude tribes of their own island or of the neighbouring nations of ,gaul4 ,when we consider the various and important uses to which tin may be applied1 we cannot wonder at its importance in the commerce of the ancient world4 ,the discovery of bronze marks one of the great epochs in the progress of human civilization1 and the nations that could command its use became at once superior1 in peace and war1 to the tribes who had only flint spear-heads for their defence or flint hatchets for the construction of their huts4 ,at a later period1 when iron gradually supplanted the use of bronze for many purposes1 tin still continued to be highly esteemed for its many excellent qualities4 ,possessing a lustre but little inferior to that of silver1 it is not soon tarnished1 and not only retains its metallic brilliancy a long time1 but when lost easily recovers it4 ,under the hammer it is extended into leaves called tin- foil1 which are about one-thousandth of an inch thick1 and might easily be beaten into one-half that thickness if the purposes of trade required it4 ,the application of tin to the coating of other metals has been carried to great perfection1 and it forms the chief ingredient in various kinds of pewter and other white metallic alloys1 such as ,britannia metal1 which are manufactured into domestic utensils by casting1 stamping1 and other ingenious processes4 ,tin is the substance which1 coated with quicksilver1 makes the reflecting surface of glass mirrors4 ,it is also very important in dyeing processes1 as its solutions in nitric1 muriatic1 and other acids gives a degree of permanency and brilliancy to several colours not to be obtained by the use of other mordants4 ,a compound of tin with gold gives the fine crimson and purple colours to stained glass and artificial gems1 and enamel is produced by the fusion of oxide of tin with the materials of plate glass4 ,there are only two ores of tin--the peroxide1 or tinstone1 and the pyrites1 or stannine4 ,the former alone occurs in sufficient abundance for metallurgic purposes1 and has been found in few countries in a workable quantity4 ,in ,asia its richest deposits occur in ,sumatra1 the peninsula of ,malacca1 and some smaller islands1 particularly ,banca and ,billiton4 ,the stanniferous region in this part of ,asia extends from #bj ,n4 ,lat4 to #e ,s4 ,lat41 and in many places the ore is found in such quantities in the alluvial grounds as to be separated in the easiest manner1 by washing or #8streaming1' from the gravel or sand with which it is mixed4 ,the facility with which it is obtained renders its cost of extraction so small that large quantities find their way to the ,european markets4 ,in #ahff the mines of ,banca furnished #e1cfb tons of tin1 and those of the ,sound #e1bed tons of the same metal4 ,the port of ,london alone received #d1djj tons of tin from these two sources4 ,in consequence of the constantly increasing importation from the ,malay countries1 the price of the metal has been constantly decreasing since #ahef1 so that the ton of ore1 which at that time was worth #gjl41 now fetches no more than #dhl4 ,unfortunately these low prices have materially injured the prosperity of our ,cornish mines1 which from year to year find it more difficult to compete with ,banca and ,billiton4 ,their production1 however1 still continues to be immense1 for in #ahff they yielded #ae1jhj tons of ore1 from which #i1iij tons of metal were extracted4 ,this quantity is greater than that of any preceding year2 and as many of the deep mines of ,cornwall are changing from copper into tin ore1 increased supplies will be obtained to meet any demand4 ,compared with this vast production1 that of ,saxony 7seventy-six tons71 ,bohemia 7twenty-one tons71 ,spain1 and ,france is so insignificant as to be hardly worth mentioning2 but our ,australian possessions have lately increased the small number of tin-producing countries1 and give promise of future importance4 ,both ,cornwall and ,devon possess tin mines1 which1 however1 are most important in the county #8,where ,england1 stretched towards the setting sun1 ,narrow and long1 o'erlooks the western wave4'--,,cowper4 ,the undulating surface of this arid peninsula1 which1 being remarkable neither for agricultural nor foreign commerce1 has been celebrated since the remotest ages for the mineral riches concealed beneath its barren soil1 consists almost exclusively of slaty transition rocks or killas1 traversed or intersected by a central granitic range and by dykes of porphyry or elvan which cut the slate and granite1 occasionally traversing both in one continuous body of rock1 somewhat in the manner of trap-dykes1 and evidently of a later formation4 ,the lodes or mineral veins traverse the granite1 the slate1 and the elvan indiscriminately1 but they occur more especially at the junction of granite and slate4 ,they have commonly one prevailing direction1 but they invariably throw off into the containing rock #8shoots1 strings1 and branches1' often in such abundance that1 instead of one main lode1 called a champion lode1 the whole is an irregular network of veins4 ,it is not at all certain that the same lode has ever been traced for more than a mile in length4 ,very often the lode first discovered dwindles to a mere line1 whilst some of its offshoots swell out1 enlarge1 and rival1 or even surpass1 both in size and richness1 the veins from which they have separated4 ,the metalliferous or valuable contents of a lode generally bear but a small proportion to its unprofitable parts4 ,instead of forming uniform lines of metal or pure ore1 running throughout the whole extent of the vein1 they generally occur in what the miners term bunches1 or in patches of various sizes and shapes4 ,these very rarely occupy the whole space between the walls or containing sides of the lode1 but they are mixed up with a variety of other substances1 the chief of which is quartz4 ,sometimes a lode is filled with a compact and perfectly solid mass2 at other times it abounds in cavities which may occur in any one of the ingredients and also of any size1 from those of the hollows of a honeycomb to hollows of several fathoms in length and depth4 ,in many lodes tin is found associated with copper1 and frequently above the latter1 so that the upper part of many a copper lode has been worked as a tin lode4 ,the veins of ,cornwall have no determinate size1 being sometimes very narrow1 and at others exceeding several fathoms in width2 sometimes they extend to a great length and depth1 at others they end after a short course4 ,they vary so in breadth that in the same lode one part may consist of a mere line between the opposing walls1 while another swells to a width of from thirty to forty feet4 ,these great changes1 however1 seldom happen within several fathoms of each other4 ,lodes which yield both tin and copper in mixture are considerably larger than those which yield each metal singly4 ,it is also a general fact that the lodes diminish in breadth in proportion to their depth4 ,the richest tin ores are more commonly found between forty and sixty fathoms deep2 but in some instances1 as in ,dolcoath mine1 the depth of #bjj fathoms has been attained without exhausting the supply1 and ,tresavean mine has been worked to great profit at more than #cbj fathoms from the surface4 ,tin veins are considered to be good working when only three inches wide1 provided the ore be good for its width4 ,besides being contained in lodes1 tin is also found in alluvial beds1 probably resulting from the disintegration of the former during a long series of ages4 ,this stream-tin1 as it is called1 is met with either in a pulverized sandy state in separate stones1 called shodes1 or in a continued course of stones1 which are sometimes found together in large numbers1 and occur at depths varying from one to fifty feet4 ,this course is called a stream1 and when rich in ore was formerly called ,beauheyl1 which is a ,cornish word signifying a #8living stream4' ,in the same figurative style1 when the stone was but lightly impregnated with tin1 it was said to be #8just alive1' and dead when it contained no metal4 ,tin streams of irregular breadth1 though seldom less than a fathom1 are often scattered in different quantities over the whole breadths of the moor bottoms or valleys in which they are found4 ,as the confluence of rivers makes a flood1 so the meeting of tin-streams makes what is called a rich #8floor of tin4' ,the ore1 being thus disseminated both in the alluvium which covers the gentle slopes of the hills1 and in that which fills the valleys winding round their base1 is easily obtained by conveying over its bed a stream of water1 which1 by washing away the lighter matter1 leaves the heavy ore to be picked up where the operation has been performed4 ,there can be no doubt that this was the oldest method of tin-getting1 and the abundant traces of ancient stream-works which are to be seen from ,dartmoor to the ,land's ,end give proof of the great accumulation which must have been formerly worked out by this method4 ,in the course of ages most of these alluvial deposits have been exhausted1 and where1 thirty or forty centuries ago1 large quantities of tin ore were superficially gathered with little ingenuity and labour1 the miner is now obliged to descend many a fathom deep into the bowels of the earth and work his slow way through the hard rock4 ,yet1 after so many centuries of research and extraction1 tin-streaming is still carried on in several places1 as1 for instance1 at ,carnon1 north of ,falmouth1 where a long line of stream-works extends down the valley4 ,the ore1 mixed with rounded pieces of slate1 granite1 and quartz1 lies buried about fifty feet from the surface1 beneath the bottom of an estuary1 where trees are discovered in their place of growth1 together with human skulls and the remains of deer1 amidst the vegetable accumulation which immediately covers the stanniferous beds4 ,thus ruins are here piled up above ruins4 ,in #ahff the number of tin mines in activity amounted to #aci in ,cornwall and to #bf in ,devonshire4 ,in #aheb the most important works were ,balleswidden1 ,great ,polgarth1 ,pollberro1 and ,drake ,wall2 but1 as nothing is more fluctuating than the fortunes of mines1 others have probably taken the lead since that period4 ,wheal ,vor1 in the parish of ,breage1 three miles from ,helston1 may be cited as a conspicuous example of the changes of fortune so frequent in the annals of ,cornish mining4 ,twenty-five years ago it was considered the richest tin mine in ,cornwall4 ,more than #bjj1jjjl4 profit had been divided among the shareholders4 ,in #ahdc there were fifteen engines at work on this extensive sett1 which had the appearance of a town1 and the machinery was valued at #ajj1jjjl4 ,here was put up the first steam- engine ever erected in ,cornwall1 between the years #agaj and #agad4 ,the lode from which the chief part of the ore was raised was still productive in #ahdc1 when the mine employed #a1bjj persons1 and the monthly cost of working had been1 some years before #ahdc1 about #ab1jjjl4 per month4 ,the mine1 however1 became less profitable1 and1 wearing out by degrees1 finally stopped4 ,there was formerly a blacksmith's forge at the bottom of this mine1 in full operation at #a1dgj feet below the surface of the earth4 ,all the miners' tools were steeled1 sharpened1 and repaired1 and bucket-rods cut and welded in this subterranean smithy1 which was clear and free from dust1 smoke1 and sulphur1 and did not in the least annoy the miners4 ,within the last few years the mine has been resuscitated with a capital of #bjj1jjjl42 but1 as the shares have fallen from #djl4 to #hl41 the attempt seems to have been far from profitable4 ,the history of the rise and fall of ,huel ,wherry1#ed a tin mine which was opened1 more than a century ago1 in the midst of the sea1 near the town of ,penzance1 is too interesting to be passed over in silence4 ,in this place a gravelly bottom was left bare at low water4 ,here a multitude of small veins of tin ore crossed each other in every direction through elvan rocks1 and were worked whenever the sea1 the tide1 and the season would permit1 until the depth became unmanageable4 ,about the year #aggh ,thomas ,curtis1 a poor miner1 was bold enough to renew the attempt4 ,the distance of the shoal from the neighbouring beach at high water is about #abj fathoms1 and this distance1 in consequence of the shallowness of the beach1 is not materially lessened at low water4 ,it is calculated that the surface of the rock is covered about ten months in the year1 and that the depth of the water upon it at spring tide is nineteen feet4 ,a very great surf is caused1 even in the summer1 by the prevailing winds1 while in winter the sea bursts over the rock in such a manner as to render useless all attempts to carry on mining operations4 ,yet all these difficulties had to be overcome by a poor uneducated man4 ,as the work could be prosecuted only during the short time the rock appeared above water--a time still further abridged by the necessity of previously emptying the excavation already made--three summers were spent in sinking the pump-shaft1 which was a work of mere bodily labour4 ,a frame of boards1 made watertight by pitch and oakum1 and carried up to a sufficient height above the spring tide1 was then applied to the mouth of the shaft4 ,to support this boarded turret--which was twenty feet high above the rock1 and two feet one inch square-- against the violence of the surge1 eight stout bars were applied1 in an inclined direction1 to its sides1 four of them below1 and four1 of an extraordinary length and thickness1 above4 ,a platform of boards was then lashed round the top of the turret1 supported by four poles1 which were firmly connected with these rods4 ,lastly1 upon this platform was fixed a windlass for four men4 ,footnote #ed3 #8,cornwall1 its ,mines and ,miners4' ,by such an erection it was expected that the miners would be enabled to pursue their operations at all times1 even during the winter months1 whenever the weather was not particularly unfavourable4 ,but as soon as the excavation was carried1 to some extent1 in a lateral direction1 the hope was disappointed1 for the sea water penetrated through the fissures of the rock1 and1 in proportion as the workings became enlarged1 the labour of raising the ore to the mouth of the shaft increased4 ,to add to all this1 it was found impossible to prevent the water from forcing its way through the shaft during the winter months1 or1 on account of the swell and surf1 to remove the tin-stone from the rock to the beach opposite4 ,hence the whole winter was a period of inaction1 and the regular working of the mine could not be resumed before ,april4 ,nevertheless1 the short interval which was still allowed for labour below ground was sufficient to reward the bold and persevering projector4 ,the close of this wonderful mine1 from which many thousand pounds worth of tin was raised1 was as romantic as its commencement4 ,an ,american vessel broke from its anchorage in ,gwavus ,lake1 and1 striking against the stage1 demolished the machinery1 and thus put an end to an adventure which1 both in ingenuity and success1 was in all probability unequalled in any country4 ,this wonderful mine was worked again a few years since2 but1 although a very large sum of money was expended1 and it had all the advantage of improved machinery1 yet it failed to be a profitable adventure1 and was eventually abandoned4 ,the ,carclaze tin-mine1 near the town of ,st4 ,austell1 though unimportant with regard to its produce1 deserves to be noticed for its picturesque appearance and the manner in which it is worked4 ,it consists of a large open excavation1 of a mile in circuit and from twenty to thirty fathoms in depth1 looking more like a vast natural crater than a hollow made by human hands2 and for hours the visitor might traverse the dreary and barren hilly common in which it is situated without suspecting that a mine is close at hand4 ,no engine-house and chimney towering aloft announces it from afar2 the whole business is confined to the interior of the punch-bowl hollow4 ,every detail of the works is here exposed to view1 and it would seem as if a complete mine had been turned inside out for the benefit of timid travellers1 who would wish to see the various operations of mining without the risk of a descent below the surface4 ,the walls of this vast hollow or crater are almost perpendicular1 and the view from the ridge of the precipice1 into which but few footpaths descend1 is rendered interesting by the fantastic shape of the rocks1 worn or hewn into a thousand grotesque forms by the action of the waters or the pickaxe of the miner2 by the enormous number of holes and hollows resulting from ancient excavations2 by the white colour of the granite1 veined with the darker metalliferous streaks2 by the water-wheels at the bottom1 which1 worked by streams from the neighbouring commons1 propel the machinery for crushing the stones1 loosened by the water as it flows down the sides of the cavity2 and by the men1 women1 and children1 scattered over the works4 ,the ore is obtained without much difficulty1 and is easily separated from the friable and decomposed granite1 in which it is embedded1 by repeated washings in the streams that are made to flow out at the bottom of the mine through a channel or tunnel1 and which carry away the soft growan or granite by their rapid current1 while the heavier metalliferous substances are precipitated4 ,as the ores are very poor1 not even containing one per cent4 of tin1 ,carclaze1 which has been already worked for many centuries1 would long since have been abandoned but for the abundance of the ores and the comparatively small expense of their extraction4 ,the dressing of the tin ores1 or the process by which they are separated as far as possible from the earthy impurities which are mixed up with them1 and are generally much lighter1 begins with cleaning and sorting1 and then goes on to washing and stamping1 and finally to calcination in the burning-house and to smelting4 ,the tin ores of ,cornwall and ,devonshire are all reduced within the counties where they are mined1 as the law prohibits their exportation--a most absurd and antiquated regulation1 which1 however1 in this case is not injurious to private interests1 as the vessels which bring the fuel from ,wales for the smelting furnaces return to ,swansea and ,neath laden with copper ores4 ,the smelting works1 not exceeding seven or eight in number1 belong generally not to the proprietors of the mines1 but to other parties1 who purchase the ore from the proprietors4 ,the smelting is effected by two different methods1 which may be briefly described by stating that1 by the first and most common1 the ore1 mixed with culm1 is exposed to heat upon the hearth of a reverberating furnace1 in which pit coal is used as fuel2 while by the second method1 which is applied merely to stream-tin1 and which is followed in order to obtain tin of the finest quality1 the ore is fused in a blast-furnace called a blowing-house1 in which wood fuel or charcoal is used4 ,the melted tin runs off from the furnace into an open basin1 whence it flows into a large vessel1 where it is allowed to settle4 ,the scori are skimmed off1 and the subsequent operations consist of refining by allowing the mass of the metal to rest1 then submitting the upper and pure portion to the refining basin1 and remelting the lower part4 ,in order to convert the blocks into grain-tin1 they are heated until they become brittle1 and made to fall from a considerable height in a semi- fluid state1 thus producing an agglomerated mass of elongated grains4 ,the number of persons that find occupation in and about the ,cornish and ,devonian tin mines may amount to about #bj1jjj4 ,the wages are1 on an average1 much inferior to those of the pitmen and pitlads in the northern coal-fields2 but1 on the other hand1 the ,cornish miner is exempt from many evils to which the northern miners are subject4 ,he has not to fear the fatal fire-damp1 and can sit at ease and hear or read of explosions that have destroyed hundreds in a few minutes4 ,his intellectual superiority to the agricultural labourer may be at once inferred from the nature of his pursuits4 ,the latter plods on through life like a mere human machine1 and1 as he is never thrown on his own resources in the progress of his monotonous occupations1 his stock of ideas remains scanty and confined4 ,but the ,cornish miner is the reverse of all this4 ,he is engaged mostly in work requiring the exercise of the mind4 ,he is constantly taking a new #8pitch'#ee in a new situation1 where his judgment is called into action4 ,his wages are not the stinted recompense of half-emancipated serfdom2 but they arise from contract1 and depend upon some degree of skill and knowledge4 ,in fact the chances of the lode keep expectation constantly awake1 and thus3-- #8,hope reigns triumphant in the miner's breast1 ,who never is1 but always to be blest4' ,footnote #ee3 ,the lodes in the ,cornish tin and copper mines are divided by shafts and galleries into rectangular compartments1 called #8pitches4' ,these are open to the inspection of all the labouring miners in the county1 and1 by an admirable system1 each #8pitch' is let by public competition1 for two months1 to two or four or more miners1 who may work it as they choose4 ,these men agree to break the ores1 wheel them1 raise them to the surface1 and bring them 7if desired7 into a fit condition for the market4 ,the ores so raised are sold every week1 and the miner immediately receives his tribute1 or percentage for which he agreed to work4 ,the sinking of shafts and the driving of levels is paid by tut-work1 or task work1 at so much per fathom4 ,if he is at all imaginative1 golden dreams enliven the darkness of his underground labour4 ,he is in fact a kind of subterranean stock-jobber1 and #8settling day' is as anxious a time for the humble tributer at the ,land's ,end as for the bold speculator of the ,stock ,exchange4 ,when not exhausted after his hard day's labour1 the miner frequently cultivates a small patch of land4 ,many have tolerable gardens1 and some are able to perform their own carpentry1 while1 if near the coast1 others are expert fishermen4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,iron4 ,iron the most valuable of ,metals--,its wide ,diffusion over the ,earth-- ,meteoric ,iron--,iron very anciently known--,extension of its ,uses in ,modern ,times--,british ,iron ,production--,causes of its ,rise--,hot ,blast-- ,puddling--,coal-smelting--,the ,cleveland ,district--,rapid ,rise of ,middlesborough--,british ,iron ,ores--,production of ,foreign ,countries--,the ,magnetic ,mountain in ,russia--,the ,eisenerz ,mountain in ,styria--,dannemora-- ,elba--,the ,united ,states--,the ,pilot ,knob--,the ,cerro del ,mercado4 ,as an instrument of civilisation iron is the most valuable and the most indispensable of all mineral substances4 ,even coal is of inferior importance to the welfare of mankind1 for iron may be obtained without its aid1 while coal could not possibly be extracted from the bowels of the earth without the assistance of iron4 ,hard and malleable1 tenacious and ductile1 endowed with the singular property of welding1 which is found in no other metal except platinum1 and acquiring new qualities by its conversion into steel1 it accommodates itself to all our wants and even to our caprices1 so that no other metal has such various and extensive uses4 ,it clothes our war ships with a case of impenetrable armour1 and sets the finest watch in motion2 it provides the sempstress with her needle1 and guides the mariner over the ocean2 it furnishes the husbandman with his ploughshare1 and the soldier with his sword2 it concentrates in the steam-engine the sinews of a thousand horses1 and mocks on the railroad the fleetness of the swiftest courser4 ,it is1 in one word1 the embodiment of power1 the chief agent of all social progress4 #8,were the use of iron lost among us1' says the illustrious ,locke1 #8we should1 in a few ages1 be unavoidably reduced to the wants and ignorance of the ancient savage ,americans2' nor will this view be deemed extravagant if we reflect that1 but for iron1 man would be virtually without tools1 since it is almost the only metal capable of taking a sharp edge and keeping it4 ,the bounty of the ,creator1 which bestowed on man this inestimable gift1 has also provided for its wider diffusion over the earth than is the case with any other of the useful metals4 ,few mineral substances or stones are without an admixture of it4 ,sands1 clays1 the waters of rivers or springs1 are scarcely ever perfectly free from iron1 while animal and vegetable substances likewise afford it in the residues which they leave after incineration4 ,its mines may truly be said to be inexhaustible2 in some its ores occur in compact masses of extraordinary magnitude1 in others they spread in vast strata or extend in veins of a prodigious length4 ,yet1 in spite of its wide diffusion1 the extraction of iron from its ores generally requires so much metallurgic skill that its use would probably have remained undiscovered by the ancients if ,providence had not in a wonderful manner revealed1 as it were1 its existence to mankind4 ,all iron of a terrestrial origin is combined with other substances1 which conceal its true nature from the uninitiated eye1 and from which it is with difficulty separated2 but here and there1 scattered over the surface of the earth1 are found solitary masses of metallic iron1 which1 having fallen from the skies1 may truly be called erratic boulders from another world4 ,the idea of their having dropped from the clouds was long ridiculed by the learned2 but their fall has been so often observed1 and so circumstantially recorded in the annals of almost every age1 that scepticism has been obliged to yield to the weight of accumulated evidence1 and science no longer doubts their meteoric origin4 ,nothing can be more interesting than these mysterious heralds from the distant fields of ether1 which1 after wandering through space for countless ages1 have at length been brought within the sphere of attraction of our planet1 and1 alighting on its surface1 afford us tangible proofs that many of the substances of which our earth is composed--iron1 nickel1 silex1 c41 c4--exist beyond its limits1 and that most probably our whole solar system is constructed of the same materials as our globe4 ,but meteoric iron--which sometimes occurs in enormous masses#ef--;is more than a mere object of curiosity1 for it has had a most important influence on the progress of the human race4 ,on such a mass undoubtedly the first smith exercised his skill1 and it was this which first made mankind acquainted with a metal more valuable than copper or gold4 ,footnote #ef3 ,the weight of the mass found at ,otumpa1 in the ,gran ,chaco ,gualamba1 in ,south ,america1 by ,don ,rubin de ,celis 7#aghc7 was estimated at about fifteen tons4 ,a piece from this mass1 weighing #a1djj pounds1 is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,as we see from the example of the ,esquimaux1 whom ,captain ,ross 7#ahai7 found in possession of knives and harpoons which they had made from masses of meteoric iron1 the discovery was probably made at a very remote period1 while man was still in the savage state2 but iron having once become known1 the desire to obtain it in larger quantities from other sources naturally grew with the progress of civilisation1 and gradually led to the knowledge of its ores and of the art of utilising them4 ,thus there can hardly be a doubt that iron-smelting was practised long before historic times4 ,in ,india and ,china the origin of its use loses itself in the remotest antiquity2 and the imposing monuments of ancient ,egypt1 many of which are at least five thousand years old1 could not possibly have been erected without the aid of iron4 ,in the ,book of ,deuteronomy 7iv4 #bj7 the land of ,egypt is compared to an iron-furnace--a figurative expression which shows that even at that early period iron- smelting must have been a well-known branch of industry4 ,the iron weapons found in the lacustrine dwellings of ,switzerland likewise point to a very ancient use of iron in ,central ,europe1 no less than the fact mentioned by ,csar1 that during the siege of ,avaricum 7,bourges7 the works erected by the ,romans for taking the town were repeatedly destroyed by the subterranean galleries of the besieged1 who1 as the conqueror relates1 were accustomed to such underground labour from their habitually working in iron-mines1 an industry which1 to judge from this passage1 must even then have been of ancient date in ,gaul4 ,for many ages the uses of iron remained chiefly confined to the instruments of agriculture and of war--to the ploughshare and the sword4 ,with the progress of civilisation its employment extended to many purposes unknown before2 and in our times the construction of ships and buildings1 of railroads and bridges1 absorbs quantities which would have appeared incredible almost within the memory of living man4 ,hence the manufacture of iron has made more rapid progress since the beginning of the present century than in any former period of the world's history1 and even the present immense production scarcely keeps pace with a demand to which it is not easy to assign a limit4 ,among the iron-producing countries of the globe ,great ,britain occupies by far the first rank1 and there is every reason to believe that it will long continue to maintain it4 ,the ,british ores1 indeed1 are generally poor1 as clay1 silica1 phosphorus1 and a variety of impurities which are with difficulty separated from the metal1 enter into the composition of those which supply the greatest part of our iron2 but this deficiency is more than counterbalanced by many advantages4 ,most of the ,british iron mines are situated in those districts where coal is cheapest1 the ore being often even raised from the same pit as that from which the coal is extracted4 ,limestone1 the necessary flux1 is at hand1 while fire-clay1 no unimportant article in the building of the furnaces1 on whose long- continued working so much depends1 is found in the same ground as the ore itself4 ,the largest and most complete manufactories have long been established in the most convenient places4 ,with an almost unlimited amount of capital1 the most perfect and the cheapest communication by water is open to all parts of the world2 and the further processes which the metal has to undergo are performed at once on the spot in the best manner and at the smallest possible expense4 ,no other land can boast of equal or greater facilities for the production of an unlimited quantity of cheap iron1 so that1 even with the assistance of heavy protective duties1 most of the iron-producing countries of ,europe find it difficult to compete in their own markets with the produce of ,great ,britain4 ,the art of making iron in this country is of very ancient though of unascertained date4 ,it was probably found by the ,romans in a far advanced state4 ,it certainly was carried on by them subsequently to a great extent--a fact proved by the immense beds of iron cinders discovered in the ,forest of ,dean2 nor has it ever been discontinued by the other races who in succession have held sway in the island4 ,but1 though of such ancient origin1 and enjoying so many natural advantages1 our iron manufacture remained confined within very narrow limits so long as the ore was exclusively smelted by means of charcoal made from wood4 ,the manufacture was even for some time partially prohibited in ,england1 the consumption of wood-charcoal in the process of smelting being so great as to create apprehensions that1 if care were not taken of the remaining forests1 enough timber would not be left to supply the wants of the navy4 ,it seems almost incredible in our days that ,acts were passed in the reigns of ,elizabeth and ,james forbidding the felling of timber for the smelting of iron1 except in certain districts of ,kent1 ,sussex1 and ,surrey1 then the principal seats of the manufacture1 and even there the erection of new works was expressly forbidden4 ,attention was then directed to the smelting of ironstone by means of pit coal4 ,amongst others1 ,lord ,dudley gallantly struggled to establish a manufactory in the neighbourhood of ,stourbridge1 and partially succeeded2 but what with riots among the ironworkers1 who destroyed his works1 and the wars of the ,great ,rebellion1 which ruined his fortune1 he reaped no advantage from his enterprise4 ,nothing contributed to arrest the decline in this branch of trade1 and towards the middle of last century the number of furnaces1 which in the reign of ,james ,i4 had amounted to #cjj1 fell off to #ei1 the total make of which amounted to not more than #ag1cej tons1 being an average of #bid tons per annum for each furnace1 a quantity very little exceeding that sometimes made in a single week in some of the huge furnaces in ,wales in the present day4 ,the partial use of pit coal in the process of smelting was revived in ,coalbrookdale1 in ,shropshire1 about #agac4 ,the chief difficulty was to keep the coal in a state of combustion sufficiently intense for the purpose of smelting the ore2 the hand-worked bellows1 or the more powerful water movement1 which produced blast enough for charcoal1 having comparatively little effect upon coal4 ,this obstacle was finally overcome through the perseverance and enterprise of ,dr4 ,john ,roebuck 7a physician in ,birmingham1 and grandfather of the late distinguished member for ,sheffield71 who1 seeking for more economical methods of smelting iron ore than those then in use1 founded in #agei the now celebrated ,carron ,works1 where ,john ,smeaton1 the illustrious architect of the ,eddystone lighthouse1 first introduced 7#agfj7 a new contrivance for throwing a powerful and constant blast into the furnace4 ,by means of a forcing pump1 a large column of air1 of triple or quadruple density to that which had been previously obtained1 could now be poured into the furnace2 and effects equivalent to this great improvement followed4 ,the same smelting oven that formerly yielded ten or twelve tons weekly now sometimes produced forty tons in the same period2 and such was the impulse given to the trade by this unexpected success of a powerful blast with pit coal that in #aghh the manufacture of pig-iron in ,england1 ,wales1 and ,scotland amounted to #fh1cjj tons1 being an increase of #ej1iej tons on the quantity manufactured previous to the introduction of pit coal4 ,in #aghb ,mr4 ,cort1 after many years of experiments1 discovered the means of converting cast or pig-iron into malleable iron by a process which was at once sure1 rapid1 and economical4 ,the iron is remelted in a puddling furnace1 as it is called1 which is heated with raw coal1 and there1 by a series of operations1 the object of which is to give the iron malleability and toughness by expelling the carbon1 it is manipulated until it acquires the consistency of a solid white-hot ball4 ,in this shape it is subjected to the action of an enormous hammer1 by which the coarser parts are beaten from it1 and it is formed into the shape of thick short bars1 called blooms or slabs4 ,while still red-hot it is passed through a series of grooved rollers1 till it is drawn out into a long bar1 the exact dimensions of which are regulated by the requirements of the manufacture for which it is destined4 ,the bars thus made are technically called puddled bars1 and considered as half- manufactured iron4 ,to refine them into merchant-iron1 they are again submitted to the action of fire1 and1 when hot enough1 are welded together and formed into the various denominations of bars1 rods1 hoops1 sheets1 or plates4 ,mr4 ,cort's discovery1 though of immense importance1 would yet have proved of comparatively small value without the aid of the double-power steam-engine1 which was about the same time invented by ,james ,watt1 and supplied the power which was needed to give our iron- works their full development4 ,hitherto the #8top measures' only of the mineral had been worked1 and generally on #8the rise of the mine1' where the water would not lie1 or those strata favourably situated on the side of a hill where levels could be driven in and the water released4 ,water was the great enemy in the pits1 and even in shallow workings it often accumulated faster than a gin turned by horse-power could bring it to the surface4 ,by the new agency of steam the deepest pits were drained1 and materials were drawn up from the bowels of the earth in a quantity and with a rapidity and security hitherto unknown4 ,by the same means that prodigious blast was obtained for the furnaces to which all subsequent improvements of the manufacture owe their origin4 ,instead of the rude machinery of waterwheels and bellows1 huge engines of enormous power forced an immense volume of air through several small tuyeres or tubes so disposed at the lower part of the furnaces that in each portion of the ignited mass an equally diffused blast might raise an equal intensity of heat4 ,furnaces of greater height and much larger capacity than any hitherto known were erected1 and in its general aspect the iron manufacture assumed very much the appearance which it maintains at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,blast ,,furnace4 a4 ,tuyeres4 ,most readers are aware#eg that the flaming towers which give such an unearthly effect at night to what is called the ,black ,country1 round ,wolverhampton1 are iron furnaces1 and that the projecting circular galleries which surround their tops are contrived for pouring down their capacious throats1 by apertures placed at equal distances1 an equable and regular supply of the materials with which they are fed4 ,besides the iron-stone and the fuel1 there is needed a third substance1 which is called #8a flux1' because it forms a fusible compound with the earthy matter of the mineral4 ,when we are acquainted with the foreign matter in combination with the ore1 chemistry tells us what substance we ought to add for the purpose of eliminating the metal4 ,among the wonderful provisions of nature for the convenience of man1 none is more remarkable than that by which many substances are fusible in conjunction at a temperature which either could resist separately4 ,the ,british ores are for the most part argillaceous1 that is to say1 they are combined with what1 in its general character and appearance1 resembles clay4 ,to all such limestone in due proportion must be added2 but if the earthy matter consists of lime1 clay is the proper flux4 ,in either case the foreign matter and the flux are fused into one substance4 ,the liberated iron sinks downwards1 and having now itself become fusible by the combination of carbon1 with which it has been impregnated by the fuel1 it melts as it reaches the point of fusion1 and settles down in the lowest part of the furnace1 otherwise called the hearth4 ,it is followed by the scoria1 slag1 or #8cinder' 7as it is always called in the trade71 composed of the flux1 the foreign matter of the ores1 and the ashes of the fuel1 which are now in a vitrified state2 and this artificial lava1 being of much less specific gravity1 rests on the surface of the iron and protects it from the action of the blast4 ,the furnace is #8continued in blast1' that is to say1 in full operation1 and must be fed equably and constantly night and day1 till the manufacturer thinks fit to blow it out1 either for the purpose of repairing it1 or of reducing his make of iron4 ,at certain intervals1 generally twice in the twenty-four hours1 the furnace is tapped2 that is to say1 the stoppage of sand which closes an orifice at the bottom is knocked away1 the liquefied metal rushes out1 and is guided successively into moulds of sand in the form of short thick bars1 which1 by a rude metaphor1 as old as the invention of casting1 are called #8pigs1' while the main channel down which the red-hot torrent flows is called the #8sow4' ,footnote #eg3 #8,quarterly ,review1' vol4 cix4 p4 #aad4 ,the invention of the hot blast gave a new and mighty impulse to the production of iron4 ,though ,mr4 ,scrivenor#eh mentions the remarkable fact that in the furnaces of ,peru a contrivance has been noticed for letting the air pass over hot coals1 and thus become heated in its passage to the fire1 yet it was personal observation1 and not archological research1 that1 in #ahbi1 suggested to ,mr4 ,neilson1 of the ,clyde ,iron ,works1 the possibility of economising fuel by substituting hot for cold air in blowing his furnaces4 ,before this important discovery more than eight tons of coke had been required to produce one ton of pig-iron2 but on heating the blast1 previously to its entering the smelting-oven1 to a temperature of #cjj ,f41 it was found that a saving of two and a half tons of coal could be made on every ton of iron1 and on raising it to the temperature of #fjj ,f4--a heat somewhat more than sufficient to melt lead--a still more considerable saving of fuel was effected1 while at the same time the important discovery was made that at this high temperature bituminous and even anthracitic coal might be used instead of coke4 ,another advantage was that the same steam power now sufficed for applying the blast to four furnaces which had formerly been required for three2 and the total result of the improvement was a saving of #gb per cent4 of fuel4 ,thus we have here another instance of the important results that may be gained from a single good idea when worked out by clever practical men1 for the hot blast has most assuredly increased the wealth of ,england by many millions a year6 ,footnote #eh3 #8,history of the ,iron ,trade4' ,another circumstance likewise tended considerably to increase the production of pig-iron4 ,it was found that the hot blast not only had power sufficient to produce in the raw coal the requisite intensity of heat1 but also to expel from it1 to a certain extent1 the sulphur1 which injured the quality of the iron1 and thus a great economy in labour as well as in the quantity of fuel was effected4 ,since then the black-band1 an iron-stone found in great quantities in ,scotland1 and also1 to a less extent1 in ,wales1 but not readily convertible into iron by the old methods1 and also the ,northamptonshire and the ,cleveland ores1 discoveries of a later date and of an incalculable extent1 have been made by the hot blast to yield their iron in great abundance4 ,the power of using the black-band alone in the furnace1 and not1 as before the introduction of the hot blast1 in small quantities only1 and combined with other ores1 constituted a new era in the manufacture of iron1 and gave to ,scotland1 till then an iron-making district of little importance1#ei the pre-eminence over all others for the production of soft fluid iron1 best suited to ordinary founding purposes4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the metal was formerly so scarce in their country that in the times of the ,edwards the ,scotch were accustomed to make predatory incursions into ,england for the sake of the iron they could carry off4 ,now they not only manufacture sufficient for their own use1 but actually export above half-a-million tons4 ,the ,cleveland district1 formerly unknown in metallurgy1 is now the seat of a vast industry1 keeping more than a hundred furnaces in blast4 ,the head-quarters of this new iron-country are established at ,middlesborough1 on whose site there existed but one house in #ahbi1 but which in #ahfa had grown into a town of #bd1jjj inhabitants1 and still increases at the rate of #a1jjj a year4 ,branch railways bring the stone here for smelting from all the neighbouring quarries1 and the dense cloud of smoke that hangs over the place serves as a land-mark1 not only from the high ground of ,yorkshire1 but even from some parts of ,westmoreland4 ,but ,middlesborough1 #8the youngest child of ,england's enterprise' as it has been called by ,mr4 ,gladstone1 is by no means one of the loveliest of her offspring4 ,scarcely a blade of grass and not a single tree relieves the dull monotony of its dreary streets of small houses1 darkened by perpetual smoke1 which1 as the wind sways it1 affords1 at rare intervals1 glimpses of distant hills or of the ,tees1 serving only to make the prison of a town more gloomy4 ,mines and furnaces have also been established in other parts of the district--in ,rhosdale1 at ,grosmont near ,whitby1 and elsewhere--and not a year passes without the opening of new veins and the rising of new smoke-clouds amid the lovely dales of north- western ,yorkshire4 ,the iron which eventually finds its way to ,middlesborough is sent thence to every part of the world4 ,its quality is essentially inferior to that derived from the coal-measures2 but for ordinary purposes1 and for mixing with the finer classes1 it is of great value4 ,looking to the future1 we cannot doubt that the ,middlesborough district is destined to have no rival in any part of the world1 for even now its works compete in magnitude with those of our old iron fields4 ,a material which had hitherto been thrown away was also1 by the agency of the hot blast1 made available for the purposes of the iron master4 ,the #8tap cinder1' or refuse of the puddling furnace1 which is not to be confounded with the cinder of the blast furnace1 contains a considerable percentage of metal1 and when thrown again into the furnace greatly increases the yield1 though it proportionally deteriorates the quality of the iron4 ,the results of all these successive discoveries and innovations1 aided by the facilities of transport afforded by canals and railroads1 are truly astonishing4 ,the make of iron which1 on the introduction of steam1 had suddenly risen to nearly #ej1jjj tons per annum1 reached #abe1jjj in #agif1 and in #ahjf had advanced to nearly #bfj1jjj4 ,in #ahbe the make was nearly #fjj1jjj tons2 in #ahdj it amounted to #a1cjj1jjj tons2 and in #ahed to #b1gjj1jjj tons4 ,in #ahfe it reached the enormous figure of #d1hai1bed tons--as much as the combined production of ,continental ,europe and the ,united ,states2 and there is little doubt that the present yield does not fall much short of #f1jjj1jjj tons6 ,a similar colossal expansion is without a parallel in the annals of metallurgic industry4 ,the chief districts which furnish this incredible quantity of iron are situated in ,yorkshire1 ,south ,wales1 ,staffordshire1 ,durham1 ,lancashire1 ,cumberland1 ,shropshire1 ,derbyshire1 and the ,west of ,scotland4 ,the number of furnaces in blast in #ahfe were1 in ,england #cgf1 distributed over #agf iron-works2 in ,wales #ace1 distributed over #di works2 and in ,scotland #ada1 over #cb4 ,to supply these furnaces there were raised #i1iaj1jde tons of ore1 the estimated value of which at the place of production was #c1cbd1hjdl41 that of the pig-iron1 at the mean average cost at the place of production1 being #ab1jdh1accl4 ,of the iron-stone1 #a1chd1ejj tons were argillaceous carbonate from the coal-measures of ,staffordshire and ,worcestershire2 #c1aff1jjj tons from the ,yorkshire mines2 nearly #a1ejj1jjj tons from the coal-measures of ,north and ,south ,wales1 and #a1ejj1jjj tons argillaceous carbonate from ,scotland4 ,of the red hematites of ,whitehaven and ,ulverstone1 which consist almost entirely of peroxide of iron1 and are reckoned among our best ores1 #bad1dcc tons were smelted at the spot1 and #icg1chf tons exported for the supply of ,staffordshire1 ,south ,wales1 and other districts4 ,the brown hematite 7brown oxide of iron7 of the ,forest of ,dean1 where the ore exists in almost unlimited quantity1 is raised exclusively for shipment to the iron-works of ,south ,wales4 ,though not rich1 yet1 from the great masses in which it is found1 its cost of production is very low4 ,the finest iron ores1 such as the black oxide or magnetite1 specular iron1 and spathose iron1 or sphrosiderite1 which furnish the best kinds of iron1 are unfortunately but of rare occurrence in ,great ,britain4 ,as we see by the following table#fj of the production of cast iron in the chief ,european mining ,states-- ,countries ,years ,tons ,years ,tons ,great ,britain #ahdj #a1djj1jjj #ahfe #d1ebg1jjj ,france #ahde #bga1jjj #ahfd #a1bac1jjj ,prussia #ahce #cb1hjj #ahfe #ggb1jjj ,belgium #ahde #acd1ejj #ahfd #dej1jjj ,russia #ahch #aga1jjj #ahfe #bgh1jjj ,austria #ahce #bjj1jjj #ahfe #bei1jjj ,sweden #ahce #ig1ejj #ahfe #bbg1jjj ,spain #ahej #bf1jjj #ahfe #dh1jjj ,italy #ahch #bj1jjj #ahfe #bg1jjj ,france occupied the next rank to ,great ,britain in #ahfd2 but since #ahff ,prussia1 besides the rapid development of the iron industry in ,westphalia and the ,rhenish provinces1 has acquired new and valuable mines by the annexation of ,hanover and ,nassau4 ,her production had consequently risen to #a1jjj1jjj tons in #ahfh1 and probably the time is not far distant when she will have outstripped ,france4 ,nassau possesses inexhaustible supplies of specular iron ore of a remarkable purity1 which not only feed the blast furnaces of ,westphalia1 but are also largely exported to ,england4 ,footnote #fj3 ,from the official reports of the ,international ,jury of the ,universal ,exhibition of #ahfg in ,paris4 ,in proportion to the smallness of her territory ,belgium rivals ,great ,britain in the production of iron1 supplied exclusively by the brown oxide 7brown hematite71 and surpasses the vast empire of the ,czar4 ,but ,russia has the advantage over all the countries previously mentioned of possessing inexhaustible deposits of magnetic iron ore 7magnetic loadstone--magnetite7 which affords bar-iron of the very best quality2 and though hitherto the immense distances which separate the mines from the larger centres of consumption have retarded the progress of the iron manufacture1 the construction of railroads is gradually overcoming these obstacles1 and possibly even the now unworked ,siberian mines of the ,alta and of ,transbaikalia1 where coal is found along with iron1 may acquire importance at a not far distant time4 ,at present the chain of the ,oural 7,permia and ,orenburg7 furnishes nine-tenths of all the iron produced in the empire4 ,the most remarkable of the ,ouralian mines is the famous magnetic mountain ,wissokaja ,gora1 in the neighbourhood of ,nishne- ,tagilsk1 which ,peter the ,great bestowed in #agjb on the armourer ,nikita ,demidoff of ,tula1 along with a vast extent of forests and arable land4 ,this magnetic mountain or hill1 which is #cjj fathoms long1 #bej broad1 and #bdj feet high1 rises from the midst of a plain1 in the form of a broad1 flat eminence4 ,it consists almost entirely of pure magnetic iron ore1 and is worked like an open quarry2 but1 on account of its hardness1 the ore requires to be blasted with powder4 ,although many millions of tons have been extracted from it since it first came into the possession of the ,demidoff family1 it may easily be imagined that a mass of at least #fjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet of iron-ore is not easily removed1 and will outlast the labours of many generations4 ,the quantity of cast-iron annually produced amounts to #be1ejj tons1 which is converted1 partly at ,nishne-,tagilsk and partly in the neighbouring forges1 into bar-iron1 anchors1 kettles1 scythes1 nails1 wire1 c4 ,the excellent quality of the iron allows it to be rolled into very thin plates1 which are frequently made use of in ,russia for the roofing of houses1 and are also manufactured at ,nishne-,tagilsk into lacquered wares1 which find a ready sale throughout the whole of ,european and ,asiatic ,russia4 ,the iron-working industry of ,austria has its chief seats in ,styria1 ,carinthia1 ,transylvania1 and ,bohemia1 and1 though out of proportion with the vast natural resources of the empire1 has of late made rapid progress4 ,the ores1 which are of an excellent quality1 are mostly smelted with charcoal1 as they are generally situated at a great distance from the coal mines4 ,the ,noric or ,styrian iron has enjoyed an excellent reputation ever since the time of the ,romans1 when the imperial manufactory of ,laureacum on the ,danube supplied the legions with swords and javelins4 ,in a pass of the ,styrian ,alps1 between the valleys of the ,mur and the ,enns1 lies one of the most remarkable iron mines in the world1 the famous ,erzberg or iron-mountain1 which rises to a height of #c1jjj feet1 and whose summit and sides are almost everywhere coated with a thick mantle of the richest ore4 ,authentic records show that it has been worked ever since the year #gab2 and probably the ,romans derived a part of their ,noric iron from this source1 as the ore is not here concealed in the bowels of the earth1 but crops out on the surface1 near a mountain pass which was undoubtedly known to them4 ,as at ,nishne-,tagilsk1 the ore thus conveniently situated is quarried from the mountain1 and thus in course of time extensive excavations or grottoes have been formed all over its surface1 affording a most interesting spectacle4 ,the bottom of these iron-stone pits is irregularly strewn with large blocks of ore through which wind narrow footpaths4 ,roads lead from one pit to the other1 and close by are situated the small huts in each of which ten or twenty of the miners sleep as long as the working season lasts1 for their families generally live lower down in the deeper valleys4 ,on the top of the mountain stands a colossal crucifix of iron1 near which an annual thanksgiving feast is celebrated4 ,though the mines are easily worked1 the conveyance of their produce to the smelting-ovens of ,eisenerz and ,vordernberg is a matter of much greater difficulty1 and requires numerous tram-roads1 galleries1 and shafts1 through which the ore is precipitated from a higher to a lower level4 ,at the foot of the mountain they all unite in one main shaft1 which leads into a gallery ornamented with a monumental gate4 ,thus the whole of the ,erzberg is covered with various machines1 pits1 horizontal and vertical galleries1 tunnels1 and roads1 and represents as it were a mine turned inside out1 where all the operations which are elsewhere performed underground are1 as at the ,carclaze tin-mine in ,cornwall1 exposed to the open day4 ,here1 instead of dirty and dangerous ladders1 convenient footpaths1 bordered with trees and illumined by the sun1 lead from gallery to gallery and from pit to pit1 and instead of being confined in dismal passages1 the miner enjoys magnificent views of the grandest ,alpine scenery4 ,the annual produce of the ,erzberg amounts to #be1jjj tons of excellent iron1 as the ore 7sparry iron1 carbonate of iron1 sphrosiderite7 is nearly as pure as the magnetic iron-stone of ,russia1 and affords natural steel with the greatest facility4 ,the railroad now being built in ,styria will no doubt greatly increase this production1 which might be continued for many thousand years without exhausting the vast mineral wealth which ,nature has here deposited4 ,though ,sweden furnishes but an insignificant quantity of iron when measured by an ,english scale1 yet1 in point of quality1 its produce is unrivalled in the world4 ,the purest iron-ores 7magnetic iron-stone7 abound in the mountain chains which traverse the kingdom1 and immense forests afford almost inexhaustible supplies of charcoal for their smelting1 so that hitherto the want of roads has alone prevented the production of iron from attaining dimensions equal to the natural resources of the country4 ,many of the richest mines1 particularly in the more northern provinces1 have never yet been worked1 as for instance the enormous mounds of magnetic iron-ore at ,gellivara 7#fg ,n4 lat47 in ,swedish ,lapland1 beyond the ,arctic circle1 which1 from their situation in a polar desert1 have hitherto been totally useless4 ,in #ahfe an attempt was made to utilize them by means of a railroad and the canalization of the river ,luleo1 but after a heavy expense the works were finally abandoned4 ,thus the manufacture of iron1 which1 under more favourable circumstances1 would reach as far as its ores extend1 is confined to ,dalecarlia1 the more central provinces of ,kopperberg1 ,wermland1 and ,upsala1 where the celebrated mines of ,dannemora1 which furnish the fine ,oeregrund iron1 largely imported into ,england for the manufacture of steel1 deserve our particular notice1 both for their ancient renown and their wild and colossal grandeur4 ,an excellent road leads from the famous university town of ,upsala to ,old ,upsala1 old and hoary in the fullest sense of the word1 for its church dates from the ,pagan times1 and close by rise three tumuli which1 according to popular tradition1 contain the remains of no less important personages than ,odin1 ,thor1 and the divine ,freya4 ,further on towards the north-east1 six geographical miles from ,upsala1 lie the iron-works of ,oesterby1 remarkable for their beautiful situation in a natural park of forests and lakes1 and thence half an hour's walk over the plain brings one to the far-famed pit of ,dannemora4 ,the country around is perfectly level1 a succession of pine-woods and open grounds1 and no sign announces the vicinity of the mine1 until at length the traveller sees a few huts and some machines for lifting the ore1 and then suddenly stands on the brink of an enormous pit1 or rather of a vast crater1 whose black and precipitous walls inclose an area of at least a mile in circumference4 ,on looking down into the abyss1 which descends to a depth of #dej feet1 and is here and there enlivened with patches of perennial snow1 he perceives along its black walls the still blacker entrances to labyrinthine caves fringed in some parts with long stalactites of ice of aquamarine transparency and colour4 ,from some of these hollows the flames of piles of fir-wood are seen to creep along the hard rock which they are to soften1 and the deep gulf is animated by troops of miners1 the distant clang of whose hammers1 closely resembling the clicking of a number of clocks1 forms a strange concert with the creaking noise of the machinery4 ,attracted by the novelty of the interesting sight1 the eye wanders from one object to another1 and time steals on rapidly and unperceived--when suddenly a bell tolls1 and the scene as suddenly changes4 ,it is noon1 and the tuns1 which before were hauled up from the deep laden with ore1 are now seen ascending with a living freight--men1 women1 and children--standing quite unconcernedly on the narrow edge of the tub1 and holding with one hand the chain to which it is attached4 ,soon a deathlike silence reigns in the pit--a striking contrast with the noise and life it erewhile displayed--and now loud shouts are heard1 warning all those who may have remained behind that the battery prepared during the previous working hours is about to explode4 ,again a profound silence--and then loud thunder bursts forth1 with many an echo1 from the depth of the abyss4 ,for several minutes the whole neighbourhood trembles as if shaken by an earthquake4 ,through the black clouds of smoke which ascend from the gulf1 pieces of stone or ore are hurled upwards1 frequently far beyond the brink of the pit1 and most of the detonations are followed by the crash of the falling fragments rent by the explosion from the mother- rock4 ,for many centuries this remarkable mine has afforded employment to many hundreds of workmen1 without showing any signs of exhaustion1 for its mighty mass of magnetic iron-ore descends to an unknown depth and seems to be practically inexhaustible4 ,though the mineral resources of ,spain are immense1 yet its iron-industry is so little developed that more than two-thirds of the excellent ores of ,biscay1 instead of being smelted in the country1 are exported to ,france and ,england4 ,in ,italy the red oxide and magnetic iron-stone mines of ,elba have been celebrated since the remotest antiquity1 but1 from the want of fuel on the island1 their entire produce1 which amounts to about #ajj1jjj tons1 is exported to the coast of ,italy1 to ,france1 and to ,england4 ,the principal mines are situated on the slope of a steep mountain fronting the sea1 and are divided by horizontal terraces into five stories or huge steps communicating with each other by means of oblique roads1 on which carts convey the ores to the shore4 ,though worked for more than #b1jjj years1 the mines1 which occupy about #gjj workmen1 are apparently able to supply the wants of the remotest posterity4 ,on turning to ,america we find the ,united ,states making gigantic strides in the extension of their iron manufacture1 which has risen from #cdg1jjj tons in #ahdj to #a1bjj1jjj tons in #ahfd2 and as here none of the elements of progress are wanting--a boundless mineral wealth1 liberal institutions1 which allow the freest scope to individual energy1 and an unrivalled spirit of enterprise--there can hardly be a doubt that finally the ,united ,states must become the first iron-country in the world4 ,the masses of magnetic iron-stone and red oxide which extend along ,lake ,superior1 over a length of #abj miles and a breadth of from five to thirty1 would alone suffice to provide for the wants of the whole of the human race for many thousands of years4 ,they only began to be worked in #ahdi2 and in #ahff the railroad which leads from the mines transported #bjd1ded tons of ore4 ,the thriving town of ,marquette1 the central point of this new seat of industry1 was1 scarcely twenty years ago1 a complete wilderness1 where the ,red ,indian pursued the beasts of the forest1 unconscious that the treasures concealed beneath his natal soil would one day be the cause of his expulsion from the hunting-grounds of his fathers4 ,the ,state of ,missouri possesses two #8iron-mountains' similar to the magnetic mountain of the ,demidoff3 one of them called ,pilot ,knob is #fjj feet high1 the other #bbj4 ,an immense mass of magnetic oxide has also been discovered in ,california1 near the northern extremity of the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,but though iron is found in abundance in many parts of the ,union1 7,tennessee1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 c471 the ,states of ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania produce by far the greatest quantity4 ,brazil and the island of ,cuba likewise contain vast deposits of the richest iron-ores2 and in ,mexico we find the famous ,cerro del ,mercado1 an iron-mountain #fcc feet high1 which rises in grotesque form from the valley of ,durango4 ,this wonderful mound has been calculated to contain #c1bdd1jjj1jjj cubic feet1 or #ded1jjj1jjj tons1 of magnetic iron ore1 capable of yielding #bij1jjj1jjj tons of cast iron1 or more than fifty times the annual production of ,great ,britain6 ,a more industrious and civilised race would here find a boundless field for profitable employment2 but the indolent ,mexican1 steeped in ignorance and falling from one revolution into another1 still leaves these treasures almost untouched1 and1 neglecting the vast resources of his country1 draws nearly his whole supply of iron from the distant forges of ,great ,britain4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,lead4 ,its ,properties and extensive ,uses--,alston ,moor--,belgian ,lead ,mines--,galena in ,america--,extraction of ,silver from ,lead ,ores--,pattinson's ,process--,a great part of our wealth is due to the laboratory4 ,lead was but little prized by the ancients1 who1 unacquainted with gunpowder1 needed no bullets for war or for the chase4 ,the history of its first discovery is lost in obscurity1 but it probably became known much later than copper or tin1 as less metallurgic skill is required for the smelting of the cupreous or stanniferous ores than for the reduction of galena or sulphide of lead1 which is the most abundant of the plumbiferous ores1 and may indeed be regarded as the only commercial ore of any value1 if we except the carbonates1 which are probably formed by its decomposition4 ,lead1 however1 is mentioned both in the ,book of ,job and in the fourth book of ,moses1 #8,oh6 that my words were graven with an iron pen on tablets of lead1' exclaims the long-suffering patriarch1 and the legislator of the ,jews commands his people to #8make go through the fire1 gold1 silver1 brass1 tin1 and lead1 and everything that may abide it4' ,the ,phnicians1 who provided ,greece and ,egypt with ,spanish lead1 frequently made use of this metal to increase the weight of their anchors2 and ,herodotus1 describing a bridge in ,babylon1 mentions that its stones were fastened with clasps of iron soldered with lead4 ,the physical properties of this metal qualify it for a great variety of uses4 ,as it is but little altered by exposure to air or water1 it makes excellent pump-tubes and rain-gutters2 while its considerable weight1 its softness1 its flexibility1 and the facility with which it melts at a comparatively low temperature render it an invaluable material for the soldier's bullet or the huntsman's shot4 ,combined with oxygen it forms the pigment called red-lead1 or minium1 and united with carbonic acid white-lead1 or ceruse1 which is still more frequently used in painting4 ,in the manufacture of glass and crystal it plays an important part1 as it forms one of the chief ingredients of flint-glass and crown-glass1 of which1 as is well known1 the achromatic lenses are made which have so wonderfully improved the distinctness of our telescopes4 ,united with tin it forms an alloy which is more fusible than either metal alone1 and which is consequently used as a solder by the plumbers1 while with antimony it combines into a hard mass which serves to make letters for the printing-press4 ,all these various uses absorb immense quantities of lead1 and render it one of the most valuable products of the subterranean world4 ,among the lead mines of ,europe we find the first rank occupied by those of ,spain1 which in #ahfc furnished the enormous mass of #cji1idj tons of galena4 ,the principal mines are situated in ,guipuzcoa1 ,catalonia1 ,arragon1 the ,sierra ,morena1 and1 above all1 in the mountain chain of the ,alpujarras1 where the rocks of the ,sierra ,gador are everywhere traversed by veins of galena4 ,the production of ,north ,germany is also very considerable4 ,in #ahfe ,prussia furnished #eg1hjh tons of galena1 and the ,hanoverian ,hartz ,mountains1 which produced #aja1daa tons in #ahfd1 and now belong to the same monarchy1 have raised its previous production to a threefold amount4 ,the chief lead mines of ,england are situated near ,alston ,moor1 where the three counties of ,northumberland1 ,durham1 and ,cumberland meet together4 ,the lofty hills of the district1 bare of wood and almost wholly covered with marshy heaths1 are intersected by the valleys through which run the ,tyne1 the ,wear1 and the ,tees1 with their numerous branches4 ,the country1 though little frequented by tourists1 is wild and picturesque2 but the deep gorges with which it is furrowed have more than a mere romantic interest1 for they lay open to view numerous veins of ore1 and direct the operations of the miner to the places where it is sufficiently abundant to reward his toil4 ,the town of ,alston1 the mining centre of the district1 is beautifully situated close to the river ,tyne1 which1 about five miles above it1 ascends1 between lofty hills1 to the foot of ,cross ,fell1 this picturesque mountain giving a character of considerable grandeur to the surrounding scenery4 ,the mines of the ,alston ,moor district produce annually about #be1jjj tons of lead4 ,the waters are drawn off by long adit levels1 and the ores are dragged out by horses to the day4 ,this region extends southward to the ,yorkshire valleys of ,swaledale1 ,arkendale1 and to ,grassington1 where numerous lead mines are worked under very similar circumstances4 ,the ,yorkshire mines yielded in #ahef #h1ihf tons of lead4 ,another important lead district lies in the northern part of ,derbyshire1 in the hilly country of the neighbourhood of the ,peak1 so well known and so often visited for its picturesque beauty4 ,the mines of ,derbyshire1 which yield annually #e1jjj tons of lead1 are getting exhausted2 they are very numerous1 but in general inconsiderable4 ,next to ,alston ,moor the lead mines of ,flintshire and ,denbighshire are the most productive1 furnishing annually nearly #f1jjj tons of lead4 ,an important group of veins of lead occurs in the slaty rocks of ,cardiganshire and ,montgomeryshire1 all of which have an ,e4,w4 direction2 although so far from parallel that they often meet1 and frequently form at such points of intersection #8courses' of ore4 ,some of these mines were very profitably worked in the seventeenth century1 and during the last thirty years several of them have been highly productive4 ,there are considerable lead mines in the south of ,scotland1 at ,wanlockhead and ,leadhills in ,lanarkshire2 and those of ,strontian1 in ,argyleshire1 likewise deserve to be noticed4 ,the ,isle of ,man has two important lead mines1 the ,foxdale and ,laxey1 the former remarkable for the great size of its main lode4 ,the elevated tracts of ,wicklow likewise contain some valuable lead mines1 at ,luganure and ,glenmalure4 ,in #ahff the total produce of our lead mines amounted to #ia1jdg tons of galena1 which yielded #fg1cij tons of metal4 ,the island of ,sardinia1 already renowned among the ancients for its rich lead mines1 produces about #ae1jjj tons1 or nearly as much as ,france1 where however the extraction of galena has of late years made considerable progress4 ,belgium1 which in #ahda produced no more than #cd tons1 raised in #ahfd no less than #af1ghj tons1 chiefly from the mines of ,bleyberg--,montzen1 situated in the carboniferous limestone near ,verviers4 ,to render these rich deposits available1 vast difficulties had to be surmounted by the united powers of enterprise1 capital1 and engineering skill4 ,rivers and brooks1 diverted from their ancient course1 were made to flow through new water-tight channels1 and such is the amount of drainage required in that aquiferous region that engines of two thousand horse-power have to raise from a depth of #cfj feet a daily quantity of #hjj1jjj cubic feet of water4 ,in ,greece the immense mounds of scori accumulated near the ancient silver mines of ,laurium1 have been found to contain about ten per cent4 of lead4 ,their total mass is estimated at no less than #c1jjj1jjj tons1 and they afford a convincing proof both of the importance of the ancient silver production of ,attica1 and of the imperfection of the old ,athenian mining operations4 ,a ,french company has lately been formed for smelting this prodigious accumulation of scori1 once cast aside as rubbish4 ,in ,siberia the famous lead mines of ,nertschinsk1 where many an unfortunate exile is doomed to end his days1 are worked merely for the silver contained in them4 ,in ,south ,america1 the ,chilian lead mine of ,mina ,grande1 near ,coquimbo1 is renowned for its extreme richness1 and ,brazil has considerable veins of galena1 in the province of ,minas ,geraes2 but probably the ,united ,states of ,north ,america 7,wisconsin1 ,arkansas1 ,iowa1 ,illinois71 possess the largest galena deposits in the world4 ,in ,wisconsin1 they extend all over a vast territory of more than #d1jjj square miles4 ,as yet the works are conducted in the most negligent manner1 by a crowd of adventurers4 ,in winter1 when the air in the pits is more salubrious1 and agricultural labour ceases1 needy farmers1 bankrupt traders1 and thriftless artisans flock from all parts to the lead country for the purpose of repairing their broken fortunes4 ,in summer when malaria renders the pits extremely unhealthy1 this nomadic population melts away like chaff before the wind4 ,yet1 in spite of the rough mode of extraction which prevails in the ,american lead country1 the mines of ,iowa1 ,wisconsin1 and ,illinois yielded about #bj1jjj tons of lead in #ahff1 and their produce is constantly increasing4 ,in all lead mines1 the galena often occurs in pieces so large that they do not require to be separated from the veinstone by the processes of stamping and washing4 ,they are then called pure ores1 and the most simple preparation is sufficient to prepare them for the smelting furnace4 ,when the ore has been picked and so far prepared1 it is first roasted or heated in a reverberatory furnace1 an operation which causes the oxygen of the air to combine with the two elementary bodies of which galena is composed4 ,after undergoing this chemical change1 the ore is now mixed with coke1 charcoal1 or peat1 and reduced by smelting in a small blast furnace of a peculiar kind4 ,under the influence of heat1 the carbon of the coal1 uniting with the oxygen of the ore1 flies off in the form of carbonic acid gas1 while the metallic lead1 which in the finer ores amounts to #gj or #hj per cent41 sinks to the bottom of the furnace4 ,almost all the varieties of galena contain a greater or less proportion of silver1 which it is often found worth while to separate from them4 ,this process is at present effected according to a most ingenious method1 founded on the circumstance first noticed in the year #ahbi1 by the late ,h4 ,l4 ,pattinson1 of ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 that when lead containing silver is melted in a suitable vessel1 afterwards slowly allowed to cool1 and at the same time kept constantly stirred at a certain temperature near the melting point of lead1 crystals begin to form4 ,these1 as rapidly as they are produced1 sink to the bottom1 and on being removed are found to contain much less silver than the lead originally melted4 ,the still fluid portion1 from which the crystals have been removed1 will at the same time be proportionally enriched4 ,by repeated meltings and crystallisations in a series of cast-iron pots with fire-places beneath1 the workman is thus able to deprive almost entirely of its silver by far the largest portion of the lead operated upon1 while the remainder becomes an exceedingly rich alloy of both metals1 so as to contain fifty times its original proportion of silver4 ,this rich lead is subsequently exposed in a refining furnace to a strong blast of air at a high temperature1 fresh supplies of lead being constantly introduced as the operation proceeds4 ,by this means the lead becomes rapidly oxidized and converted into litharge1 which partly runs off in the fluid state1 and is partly 7about #aj per cent47 lost by sublimation1 while the silver forms a cake at the bottom of the cupel4 ,the brightening of the silver1 which lustrously shines forth at the moment of the separation of the last traces of lead1 indicates the precise period at which the operation should be ended1 and the blast is then turned off and the fire removed from the grate4 ,before the introduction of ,pattinson's ingenious process1 the separation of the silver from the lead was attended with a much greater loss of the latter metal1 as greater quantities had to be cupelled to effect the same result4 ,the economy obtained amounts to no less than #ih per cent42 for where formerly #ajj cwt4 of lead were lost by sublimation1 the same quantity of silver is now obtained with a loss of no more than #b cwt41 and at the same time with a considerable saving of fuel4 ,ores very poor in silver1 as for instance those of ,alston ,moor or ,derbyshire1 which formerly could not be profitably cupelled1 are now advantageously treated by the ,pattinson process4 ,this is but one example of the valuable practical results which may be obtained from a single scientific discovery4 ,but chemistry has introduced thousands of similar technical improvements in almost all branches of manufacturing industry1 and were we to add together the profits thus obtained1 we should find that a great part of our wealth is due to the laboratory4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,mercury4 ,not considered as a true ,metal by the ,ancients--,its ,properties and ,uses-- ,almaden--,formerly worked by ,convicts--,diseases of the ,miners--,idria--,its ,discovery--,conflagration of the ,mine--,its ,produce--,huancavelica--,new ,almaden4 ,among the metals known to antiquity mercury was the last discovered4 ,it is mentioned neither in the ,bible nor in ,homer1 who accurately1 though briefly1 describes the characters and uses of all the other ancient metals2 but we learn from the works of ,aristotle that its discovery must have preceded the times of ,alexander the ,great4 ,from its always remaining fluid in the temperate climates of the earth1 it was1 however1 not considered as a true metal2 for the ancients had no means of ascertaining that at the low temperature of -#ci ,fahr41 it becomes malleable and assumes the solid form4 ,the ,greeks called it ,hydrargyros or water-silver1 from its fluidity and argentine colour2 the ,romans1 #8argentum vivum1' or live silver1 from which our #8quicksilver' has been derived1 and in the ,middle ,ages the alchemists gave it the planetary name of ,mercury1 which has been generally adopted in modern scientific language4 ,at a very early age cinnabar 7sulphide of mercury71 the beautiful scarlet ore from which it is chiefly obtained1 was employed by the ancients as a colouring material for imparting a florid complexion to triumphant generals or to guests at the festive board4 ,the extent to which this cosmetic was used may be inferred from the facts mentioned by ,pliny1 that the ,greeks imported red cinnabar from ,almaden #gjj years before the ,christian era1 and that ,rome in his time received #gjj1jjj pounds from the same mines4 ,as the alchemists considered quicksilver as the fittest substance for transmutation into gold1 it became the subject of innumerable experiments2 and though these manipulations had not the desired effect1 they accidentally led to the discovery of several of its combinations1 which soon became known as powerful medicines4 ,but it was reserved for modern times to appreciate and understand the full importance of mercury1 and to extend the field of its utility to a variety of uses unknown to former ages4 ,alloyed with tin-foil1 it forms the reflecting surface of looking- glasses2 and by its ready solution of gold and silver1 and subsequent dissipation by a moderate heat1 it becomes the great instrument of the arts of gilding and silvering copper and brass4 ,the same property makes it available in extracting these precious metals from their ores4 ,to science it is a substance of paramount value4 ,its great density1 and its regular rate of extension and contraction by increase and diminution of temperature1 give it the preference over all liquids for filling barometer and thermometer tubes1 so that without mercury we should know but little indeed about the laws of caloric and of atmospherical pressure4 ,in chemistry it furnishes the only means of collecting and manipulating1 in the pneumatic trough1 such gaseous bodies as are condensible over water4 ,to its aid1 in this respect1 the modern advancement of chemical discovery is pre-eminently due1 and without its assistance many a branch of industry which now greatly adds to the wealth of the nation could never have existed4 ,mercury does not rank among those metals which are copiously disseminated over the surface of the earth4 ,considerable deposits or veins of even its commonest and most abundant ores 7red cinnabar2 hepatic cinnabar7 are confined to a few spots1 and all ,europe possesses but two important quicksilver mines--at ,almaden in ,spain1 and ,idria in ,carniola4 ,the ,sierra ,morena or the ,black ,mountains in the ,iberian ,peninsula1 so well known as the scene of the exploits of ,don ,quixote1 are no less renowned in the mining world for their subterranean riches1 among which the famous quicksilver mines of ,almaden del ,azogue hold a conspicuous rank4 ,this small town of about #aj1jjj inhabitants is situated on the northern border of the above-mentioned mountain chain1 at the south- western extremity of the province of ,new ,castile1 and1 unlike most other ,spanish cities1 affords the pleasing sight of well-built houses and clean and regular streets4 ,as is generally the case in mining districts1 the neighbourhood is sterile1 but picturesque1 and from the neighbouring mountains magnificent prospects open on every side4 ,the mines of ,almaden1 after having been the property of the religious knights of ,calatrava1 who had assisted in expelling the ,moors1 were farmed off to the ,fuggers1 the celebrated merchant princes of ,augsburg1 whose descendants still rank among the high aristocracy of ,germany4 ,afterwards1 from the date of #afde till the present time1 they have either been worked on ,government account or farmed off to private companies4 ,a visit to these celebrated mines is highly interesting4 ,a spacious tunnel or gallery1 completely walled with solid masonry1 leads into the bosom of the mountain and branches out at its extremity into several galleries hewn in the slate which forms the matrix of the vein4 ,one of these galleries conducts to the ,boveda de ,santa ,clara1 a vast circular hall in which formerly stood a horse-gin1 for raising the ore to the surface4 ,at present1 however1 this work is performed through a shaft which descends to the lowest level of the mine4 ,from another gallery convenient stairs lead down to the first working level of the mine1 and thence short ladders to the deeper stories4 ,the shafts are wide1 the galleries high enough to allow one to walk upright through them4 ,the upper stories are almost thoroughly dry1 the lower ones humid2 the water1 however1 is easily removed by hand-pumps1 which raise it from story to story into a large subterranean reservoir1 emptied once a week by a steam-engine of fifty-four horse-power4 ,the veins are so extremely rich that1 though they have been worked pretty constantly during so many centuries1 the mines have hardly reached the depth of #a1adj feet4 ,the lode actually under exploration is from fourteen to sixteen yards thick1 and it becomes thicker still at the crossing of the veins4 ,its present annual produce amounts to about #hj1jjj cwt4 of pure mercury4 ,the ore presents a beautiful sight in the galleries where it is worked1 on account of the dark red glittering colour of the cinnabar1 which is sometimes earthy and sometimes forms compact crystalline masses1 or fine crystals mixed with calcareous spar4 ,often when a hewer detaches a block of ore with his pickaxe1 quicksilver masses of the size of a pigeon's egg roll from a crevice in which they were lodged1 and1 leaping along the floor1 divide into thousands of small drops4 ,this1 however1 is no loss1 for all the rubbish which accumulates in the galleries is carefully collected4 ,the ores are treated in thirteen double distillatory furnaces1 called alodels1 and yield only ten per cent4 upon an average4 ,but the analysis of the ores leaves no doubt that the barbarous apparatus employed in its sublimation causes a loss of nearly one-half of the quicksilver1 which is dispersed in the air1 to the great injury of the workmen's health4 ,this apparatus has remained without any material change for the better since the days of the ,moorish dominion in ,spain4 ,the furnaces are heated with brushwood1 particularly with the resinous branches of the ,cistus ladaniferus1 which grows over the greatest part of the surrounding mountains4 ,this dark evergreen shrub often extends over many miles of ground1 and when in flower covers the hills with a beautiful snow-white carpet4 ,formerly only criminals condemned to hard labour for life were employed to work in the mines of ,almaden4 ,at sunrise they were conducted from a prison1 which still exists1 through a subterranean passage into the mines1 where they were obliged to toil till evening1 when they were led back again to their dungeons1 so that they never saw the light of day4 ,after a few years these poor wretches generally died from inhaling the poisonous vapours of the mercury4 ,reduced to despair1 they set fire1 at the beginning of the last century1 to the galleries1 which were then constructed of wood1 and thus rendered the mining operations impossible for many years4 ,since then only free miners are employed1 who are well paid1 and not allowed to work longer than six hours a day4 ,most of them1 however1 die at an early age1 between thirty and forty1 and those who live longer are affected by a spasmodic trembling1 so as to be unable to keep a limb quiet4 ,after the mines of ,almaden those of ,idria in ,carniola are the richest in ,europe4 ,this neat little town lies in one of the largest and most picturesqe basins of the ,julian ,alps4 ,the gigantic and naked rock walls which inclose the sequestered valley are only partially decked along their summits with clumps of firs2 but lower down the slopes are covered with beautiful meadows and forests1 and here and there on the projecting spurs of the mountains stand picturesque chapels1 which serve to heighten the beauties of the magnificent panorama4 ,chance--to which man owes so much both of good and evil--also led to the discovery of the subterranean treasures of ,idria4 ,in the year #adig a peasant found1 in a tub which he had placed under a brook1 some drops of a heavy liquid shining like silver4 ,although quite ignorant of the value of his discovery1 he still was cunning enough to carry them to a goldsmith without mentioning the place where he had found them4 ,at length a man named ,anderlein1 having promised him a handsome reward1 became master of the secret1 and associating himself with several wealthy persons1 began to work the mine4 ,after several years the property passed into the hands of a company of goldsmiths of ,salzburg and ,augsburg1 which derived such profits from the mine as to excite the greed of the neighbouring ,venetians1 who in the year #aeaj forcibly drove away the ,germans1 but were soon after expelled by the ,emperor ,maximilian1 who1 as soon as he heard of this insolent attack1 sent some troops into the forest of ,idria and restored it to its rightful owners4 ,in #aegh the mine was incorporated among the domains of the ,state1 and began to be worked with greater regularity4 ,the entrance lies to the south of the town1 on the slope of a small hill projecting from the circular zone of mountains which gird the basin4 ,the visitor may either descend1 in less than five minutes1 to the bottom of the pit1 through a perpendicular shaft1 in one of the large tubs which serve to raise the ore1 or he may make use of convenient stairs4 ,here and there are landing-places1 whence galleries lead to the various fields or stories of the mine1 the lowest of which is #ade fathoms under ground4 ,the vein1 however1 descends much further1 to an unknown depth1 and its horizontal extent has likewise not yet been measured4 ,as the limestone in which the ores are imbedded does not form a solid compact mass1 but is of a loose nature1 most of the galleries had1 from the very beginning of the mining operations1 to be artificially propped4 ,until the end of the last century wooden beams were chiefly used for this purpose--a construction which frequently gave rise to fearful fires4 ,thus on ,march #af1 #ahjc1 the workmen saw a thick smoke issuing from several of the deepest galleries4 ,it rose higher and higher1 and spread through the upper galleries of the mine4 ,no fire was to be seen1 no sound of flames was to be heard1 yet there could be no doubt that the mine was burning4 ,some of the workmen boldly undertook to descend to the scene of the fire1 but in vain2 they were obliged to flee before their enemy1 for the smoke was not only dense and suffocating1 but so impregnated with poisonous vapours that no living being could exist within its reach4 ,an attempt was now made to smother the fire by shutting out the air4 ,all the galleries were blocked as near as possible to the supposed seat of the fire1 as well as the two shafts which led to the upper world4 ,the mine remained thus closed during five weeks1 but to no purpose2 for when it was reopened1 the fire burst forth more furiously than before4 ,the flames now howled fearfully from the bottom of the pit1 and the mercurial and sulphurous fumes which rose from it threatened instant death to anyone who should be rash enough to approach them4 ,the director of the mine now resolved to flood the works as a last resource against the ravages of fire4 ,a river was turned into the perpendicular shaft1 and ran during two days and three nights into the pit4 ,on the first day there was no perceptible effect1 but on the second--whether it were that the vapours produced by the meeting of the antagonistic elements were striving for an outlet1 or that new inflammable gases had been formed--a most terrific explosion took place1 which made the whole mountain tremble as if shaken by an earthquake4 ,the huts close to the opening of the shaft were rent to pieces1 the stone houses at the foot or on the slopes of the hill fell in with a tremendous crash1 and the inhabitants of ,idria1 fancying the day of judgment had arrived1 fled in terror to the hills4 ,in the mine itself the explosion was afterwards found to have torn up the galleries1 to have burst the vaulted roofs1 and to have hurled away the stairs4 ,but the victory was now won4 ,the vapour gradually drew off1 and after a few weeks it was possible once more to descend into the pit4 ,two full years1 however1 passed before the water was fully pumped out into the ,idriza1 where it poisoned all the fishes1 with the exception of the eels1 who1 it seems1 are proof against everything except roasting or boiling4 ,even after all the water had been removed1 it was still found impossible to work in the mines1 partly from the heat1 but chiefly on account of the venomous fumes1 which soon produced all the symptoms of mercurial disease4 ,in order to stimulate almost superhuman exertions1 an exorbitant salary was offered to all those who should venture to explore the most dangerous passages1 and gather the quicksilver1 which in some places had collected in considerable masses4 ,but many paid for their greed with their lives1 and for many months afterwards the air remained so noxious that the ordinary mining works could not possibly be carried on4 ,to prevent similar accidents for the future1 and also on account of the increasing scarcity of wood1 the galleries have since then been walled with stone2 but when we consider that the whole length of the subterranean passages amounts to no less than fifty miles1 we cannot wonder that many of them are still propped with wood1 and that as recently as #ahdf fire raged in the mine1 which was again quenched by putting part of it under water4 ,the stone galleries are vaulted1 and of a masterly construction1 seven feet high and six feet broad4 ,the cost is less than one would suppose1 as the progress of the mining operations furnishes the necessary materials4 ,the temperature in many galleries is equal to that of a conservatory2 and if a floral hall1 bathed in light and filled with delicious odours1 is felt to be disagreeably hot1 the warmth of the air is naturally far more intolerable in dismal excavations1 where the workman pursues his laborious task by the weak glimmering of a lamp1 and in an atmosphere full of deadly vapours4 ,here1 as in ,almaden1 a premature old age is the lot of the unhappy miners1 who while young tremble like old men4 ,yet some attain a tolerably good old age1 and he who reaches his forty-fifth year with trembling limbs is said to get accustomed to the effects of the poison1 and may then live1 or rather vegetate1 till sixty or seventy4 ,scarcely any animals live in the mines of ,idria4 ,even spiders cannot long resist the noxious atmosphere4 ,rats1 however1 formerly existed there in considerable numbers1 but have almost entirely disappeared since the last fire1 which proved too much even for them4 ,in some parts of the mine the mercury is inclosed in the clay-slate in extremely fine globules1 so as scarcely to be visible to the naked eye2 but on removing the ore many of them fall out and collect on the floor1 in larger drops or small pools1 which are carefully gathered in leather pouches or bags4 ,by far the greatest part of the mercury of ,idria1 however1 is combined with sulphur1 and is obtained by distilling the ore in vast furnaces4 ,it may easily be imagined that the carriage of a liquid body of the weight of mercury requires the greatest care4 ,the old mode of packing1 still partly in use1 is in sheep-skins1 which can acquire the necessary firmness only by being tanned with alum1 and are attentively examined before being used4 ,after having been filled1 the sack is first tried on a wooden table1 and1 having successfully stood the ordeal of severe pressing and punching1 is enclosed in a second skin4 ,two of these packages1 each containing forty-one pounds and a few ounces1 are then placed in a small cask1 and three of these in a square box4 ,but as1 in spite of all these precautions1 the sacks will sometimes burst1 the mercury is now frequently transported in large iron bottles1 the stoppers of which are firmly screwed down by means of a machine invented for the purpose4 ,all the quicksilver packed up in this manner is sent to ,trieste1 and thence chiefly to ,england1 while that which is destined for ,vienna and ,germany is exported in sacks4 ,in the years #ahef1 #aheg1 and #aheh1 #d1egj1 #g1agh1 and #d1cca hundredweight of mercury were produced in ,idria1 and sold at an average price of one hundred florins4 ,in #ahej mercury was worth two hundred and fifty florins the hundredweight1 and thus we see how detrimental the competition of ,california has been to the ,austrian treasury1 which1 in its chronic state of atrophy1 is little able to bear any diminution of revenue4 ,a great part of the produce of the mines--about #a1jjj hundredweight--is manufactured into cinnabar in ,idria1 which supplies almost all ,europe with this splendid red colouring matter4 ,all the other ,european quicksilver veins1 in ,tyrol1 ,bohemia1 ,hungary1 and the ,bavarian ,palatinate1 are utterly insignificant when compared with ,almaden and ,idria1 as none of them produce more than a few hundredweight4 ,but even ,almaden and ,idria have lost much of their former importance since the discovery of the rich mines of ,new ,almaden in ,california1 which in #ahfe yielded #d1jjj hundredweight of mercury4 ,as the uses of mercury are few1 the falling off in price has been the consequence4 ,but the greater cheapness of mercury has had a most favourable influence on the production of silver in ,mexico1 ,peru1 ,bolivia1 c41 as many of the poorer ores can now be profitably worked2 and thus ,california1 which by its gold placers threatened to disturb the relative value of the two precious metals1 has1 by promoting at the same time the production of silver1 largely helped to maintain the former equilibrium and to relieve the fears of many political economists4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that1 while ,europe has for the last three centuries received almost all its silver from ,america1 ,mexico and ,peru were all the time dependent upon the old world for the mercury without which ,potosi and ,guanaxuato would have been comparatively unproductive4 ,quicksilver1 it is true1 had been found here and there1 but the only mine of importance was that of ,huancavelica in ,peru1 the discovery of which in the year #aefg is attributed to the ,indian ,gonzalo ,navincopa1 though1 according to ,humboldt1 it was already known to the ,incas1 who made use of cinnabar to paint their cheeks1 as ,roman senators and ,athenian archons had done before them4 ,here1 at a height surpassing that of the ,peak of ,teneriffe by #a1ejj feet1 from #d1jjj to #f1jjj cwt4 of quicksilver were annually obtained1 until the folly of a director ruined the chief mine4 ,ever since #aghj ,huancavelica had with difficulty supplied the growing wants of the ,peruvian silver mines1 for at a greater depth the ore was found to be mixed with sulphuret of arsenic1 which greatly deteriorated its quality4 ,as the lode forms an enormous mass1 strong pillars had been left standing to support the roof1 and these props the above-mentioned director had the improvident temerity to remove1 in order to increase the produce of the mine4 ,what anyone with a little experience or common-sense might have foreseen1 took place4 ,the rock1 deprived of its supports1 gave way1 the roof fell in with a tremendous crash1 and the mine was ruined--a memorable warning against the greed which1 snapping at a shadow1 loses the substance4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,new ,,metals4 ,zinc--,the ,ores1 but not the ,metal1 known to the ,ancients--,rapid ,increase of its ,production--,chief ,zinc-producing ,countries--,platinum--,antimony-- ,bismuth--,cobalt and ,nickel--,wolfram--,arsenic--,chrome--,m anganese--,cadmium-- ,titanium--,molybdenum--,aluminium--,alu minium ,bronze--,magnesium--,sodium-- ,palladium--,rhodium--,thallium4 ,the metals known to the ancients were either such as occur in a native state and whose lustre must attract even the attention of the savage1 or such as are easily extracted from their ores by the simple agency of fire and carbon1 and consequently require no complicated metallurgic treatment4 ,their number is limited to the seven substances described in the preceding chapters2 but the art of the modern chemist has greatly extended our knowledge of metals1 and revealed to us the existence of no less that fifty-six of these elementary bodies4 ,some have been found to lurk under the obscure disguise of alkaline and earthy matters1 such as clay and chalk1 magnesia and sand1 soda and potash2 others have been discovered in the water of mineral springs1 or under the brilliant mask of precious stones4 ,most of these were unknown before the beginning of the present century1 nor can there be a doubt that future researches will make us acquainted with many metals whose existence is still a secret to mankind4 ,most of these new metals are as yet mere objects of curiosity1 either from their rarity or the great difficulty and cost of their production2 but some of them are already of considerable use1 and within the last fifty years zinc has obtained a rank among the most important products of the mineral world4 ,calamine1 the chief ore which provides us with this metal1 was indeed known to the ancients1 who by smelting it with copper ores obtained an alloy similar to our brass2#fa but the metal itself seems to have been first discovered by the famous alchemist ,bombastus ,paracelsus1 who flourished towards the end of the fifteenth century4 ,zinc1 however1 remained unnoticed as a useful metal until the year #ahje1 when ,hobson and ,sylvester's discovery that it is malleable at a temperature of #cjj ,f41 and can then be worked to any shape with great facility1 caused it to replace lead for many purposes1 in which its hardness and other valuable qualities render it superior4 ,as it is very easily extended into thin sheets1 and combines the advantages of lightness1 salubrity1 and durability1 it is frequently used for the roofing of houses and for the sheathing of ships4 ,many of our domestic utensils1 particularly those which serve for the holding of liquids1 are now made of zinc4 ,large quantities are moulded into architectural ornaments2 and the splendid white colour of the oxide of zinc has made it a triumphant rival of ceruse1 or white-lead4 ,to provide for so many uses1 the production of zinc has in a short time made strides without a parallel in the history of metals4 ,while before #ahjh from #aej to #bjj tons sufficed for the annual consumption of ,europe1 more than #aaj1jjj tons are now required1 so that in little more than half a century the demand has increased more than five hundred times1 and a metal previously almost unnoticed is now produced in masses worth several millions of pounds4 ,footnote #fa3 ,a coin of ,nero1 analysed by ,arthur ,phillips1 was found to consist of #hajg per cent4 copper1 #ajf tin1 and #aggc zinc2 another1 of ,hadrian1 of #hegh copper1 #aai tin1 #aha lead1 #fdc zinc1 and #jgd iron4 ,the chief zinc-producing countries of ,europe are ,prussia and ,belgium4 ,the ,prussian mines1 which in #ahff yielded #a1bjd1dai hundredweight1 or about #fj1jjj tons1 are situated in ,silesia1 ,westphalia1 and the ,rhenish provinces4 ,in the same year ,belgium produced #ce1ejj tons1 chiefly from the mines of the ,vieille ,montagne1 near ,aix-la-,chapelle1 where calamine occurs in a large mass1 imbedded in chalk1 and is worked like an open quarry4 ,in ,england calamine is1 next to galena1 the most important ore obtained from the ,derbyshire mines1 and of late years large quantities of blende or sulphuret of zinc--an ore which1 on account of the special difficulties offered by its treatment1 had hitherto been neglected--are likewise furnished by the ,isle of ,man1 ,denbighshire1 ,flintshire1 and ,cornwall4 ,in #ahfd our entire production of zinc amounted to no more than #d1jdj tons2 but since that period it has been considerably increased by the importation of immense quantities of ,sardinian1 ,swedish1 and ,spanish ores1 which are for the most part reduced in the works of ,messrs4 ,vivian1 at ,swansea4 ,for many years the ,united ,states depended upon ,europe for their whole supply of zinc2 but as nature seems to have denied none of her mineral riches to the great republic1 the discovery of immense deposits of calamine and blende in the state of ,tennessee has enabled them to compete successfully with foreign produce1 and the works of ,leehigh and ,lasalle now furnish a large proportion of the zinc consumed in the country4 ,platinum1 the heaviest body in nature1 was first discovered by the ,spaniards1 in the gold mines of ,darien1 probably in the first half of the sixteenth century2#fb but as it remained infusible in the strongest heat1 and no method was known for purifying its ore1 in which it is remarkably combined with six or even seven other metals1 it continued for a long time to be a mere object of curiosity4 ,in #aggb ,count ,sickingen discovered that it can be welded like iron when urged to a white heat1 and first succeeded in producing platinum wire and platinum leaves4 ,a few years after the celebrated ,swedish chemist1 ,bergmann1 isolated it from the metallic substances associated with its ore1 and proved it to be a peculiar metal4 ,footnote #fb3 ,kopp1 #8,geschichte der ,chemie1' vol4 iv4 p4#bba4 ,platinum is found in almost all the auriferous districts of the globe1 but generally in such small quantities as not to be worth the collecting4 ,kuschwa ,goroblagodat and ,nishne-,tagilsk1 in the ,ural1 furnish annually about eight hundred hundredweight1 which is nearly ten times the amount from ,brazil1 ,columbia1 ,st4 ,domingo1 and ,borneo4 ,but1 in spite of this scanty production1 its discovery must be considered as one of the most important conquests which science has made in the material world1 as its perfect infusibility1 its hardness1 its unalterability by air and water1 and its property of withstanding the action of the most corrosive simple acids1 render it an invaluable material for the fabrication of various chemical vessels1 without whose assistance many important discoveries could not possibly have been made4 ,to the manufacturers of sulphuric acid large retorts of platinum are indispensable for concentrating this highly corrosive fluid1 which devours every other metallic vase with which it comes in contact4 ,the price of platinum is intermediate between that of gold and silver4 ,the ores of ,antimony played a great part in the labours of the alchemists1 but the metal is first mentioned in the works of ,basilius ,valentinus1 who flourished during the second half of the fifteenth century4 ,it is used chiefly in several important alloys4 ,combined with lead it constitutes type-metal1 and united with lead and tin it is employed for making ,britannia metal1 and the plates on which music is engraved4 ,nearly all the antimony of commerce is furnished by the grey sulphuret 7stibnite71 which occurs in ,hungary1 ,saxony1 ,south ,america1 and ,australia4 ,though ,cornwall produces a considerable quantity of antimonial ore1 our chief supply is derived from ,singapore1 the emporium of the various mines of ,borneo and other parts of the ,malayan ,archipelago4 ,the grey antimony ore was employed by the ancients for colouring the hair and the eyebrows1 and for staining the upper and under edges of the eyelids--a practice still in use among ,oriental nations for the purpose of increasing the apparent size of the eye4 ,according to ,dioscorides1 it was prepared for this purpose by inclosing it in a lump of dough1 and then burning it in the coals till it was reduced to a cinder4 ,it was then extinguished with milk and wine1 and again placed upon coals and blown until it was ignited1 after which the heat was discontinued1 lest1 as ,pliny says1 #8plumbum fiat'--it become lead4 ,it hence appears that the metal antimony was occasionally seen by the ancients1 though not distinguished from lead4 ,bismuth1 a metal of a dull silver-white colour1 inclining to red1 is first mentioned in the writings of the alchemists of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is almost exclusively furnished by the mines of ,schneeberg in ,saxony1 where it is generally found in a native state4 ,on account of its great fusibility and brittleness it is seldom used alone2 but associated with other metals it forms several valuable alloys4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the ,saxon and ,bohemian miners believed all those ores from which1 in spite of their promising appearance1 they were unable to extract a useful metal1 to be a work of the gnomes mocking the industry of man4 ,some of these ores they called ,kobold--an opprobrious name given to these evil subterranean spirits1 who were supposed to be of dwarfish stature and intense ugliness2 others ,nickel--a name probably of the same meaning as our old ,nick4 ,the progress of metallurgic industry has fully exculpated the gnomes of all evil intentions1 for the last century succeeded in extracting the metals ,cobalt and ,nickel from those rebellious ores4 ,cobalt1 though as yet but rarely employed1 gives promise of some future importance1 as it appears to be extremely tenacious4 ,a wire made of pure cobalt will carry nearly double the weight that an iron wire of the same thickness will do4 ,the cobalt ores1 which impart a magnificent blue colour to glass1 have lost much of their importance as pigments since the discovery of artificial ultramarine1 while the nickel ores which usually accompany them1 and were formerly thrown away as rubbish1 have become valuable1 since the metal which they contain has found some important uses4 ,the small coin of ,belgium and ,switzerland is now made of nickel instead of copper1 and large quantities are employed in the fabrication of ,german silver1 or ,argentine plate1 an alloy of copper1 nickel1 and zinc1 which1 from its hardness and brilliant white colour1 furnishes an excellent material for tablespoons and forks4 ,both the nickel and cobalt ores are produced chiefly by ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,germany2 our own mines furnish but insignificant quantities4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,camden works 7,new ,jersey7 now produce nickel at the rate of #aej1jjj pounds a year4 ,tungsten1 a metal discovered in #aghc by two ,spanish chemists1 the brothers ,juan and ,fausto d',elhujar1 in a black mineral called wolfram1 which frequently occurs along with tin ores in ,cornwall 7where it is known under the names of cal1 or callen1 and gossan71 ,saxony1 ,austria1 c41 is in its isolated state a mere object of scientific curiosity1 but when melted with cast steel or even with iron only1 in the proportion of from two to five per cent41 it produces a steel which is very hard and fine-grained1 and for tenacity and density is superior to any other steel made4 ,hence wolfram-steel1 which is now coming extensively into use in ,germany1 makes the best knives and razors2 but1 unfortunately1 the rarity and high price of wolfram confine its production within narrow limits4 ,several of the tungstates1 or salts of tungsten1 are used as pigments2 and the tungstate of soda has the highly valuable property of rendering fabrics uninflammable1 and thus furnishes a means for preventing the accidents which constantly occur from the burning of ladies' dresses4 ,albert the ,great1 a famous alchemist of the thirteenth century1 is supposed to have been the discoverer of ,arsenic1 a tin-white metal1 which1 however1 soon loses its brilliancy when exposed to the air1 and turns black4 ,from its poisonous qualities it is only used in some unimportant alloys which serve for the manufacture of insignificant articles1 such as buttons or buckles4 ,some of its ores and combinations1 which1 from their lively yellow1 green1 and red colour1 would otherwise have been valuable pigments1 are likewise for the same reason seldom used4 ,a great number of copper1 nickel1 lead1 cobalt1 zinc1 and iron ores contain some arsenic2 but this dangerous substance is obtained chiefly from the common arsenical pyrites 7,mispickel--sulphuret of iron and arsenic71 which occurs in ,cornwall and ,devonshire4 ,the whole supply of arsenical ores amounted in #ahff to about #b1faj tons1 of which ,england and ,prussia furnished the greater part4 ,the metal ,uranium1 discovered in #aghi by the celebrated ,klaproth1 in a black heavy mineral1 called ,pechblende 7pitch-blende71 occurring in the mines of the ,erzgebirge1 is not used as such1 but is very valuable in porcelain-painting1 as it affords a beautiful orange colour in the enamelling fire1 and a black colour in that in which the porcelain is baked4 ,a laboratory has been opened at ,joachimsthal1 where the ore is converted into uranate of soda for this purpose4 ,chrome1 like cobalt1 is used chiefly as a pigment4 ,several of its salts are splendid yellow colouring matters1 and its oxide imparts the finest green tints to porcelain4 ,the metal itself1 which was discovered by ,vauquelin in #agig1 is1 as yet1 an object of interest only to the chemist1 but may one day become important1 as in its pure state it is very hard1 unalterable by air and water1 and even less fusible than platina4 ,most of its ores belong to the rarer minerals1 and but one1 chrome-iron1 occurs in sufficient abundance for industrial purposes4 ,it is found in ,hungary1 in ,norway 7which annually exports about #af1jjj tons to ,hamburg and ,holland71 in ,siberia1 and in large quantities in ,maryland and ,pennsylvania4 ,the ore employed in ,england is obtained mostly from ,baltimore1 ,drontheim1 and the ,shetland ,isles1 and amounts to about #b1jjj tons annually4 ,manganese is likewise a metal which has not yet left the domain of the laboratory1 but some of its ores are of considerable and increasing importance4 ,the grey and black oxides of manganese are largely used for the manufacture of the chloride of lime1 a substance well known for its bleaching properties4 ,they also serve in the fabrication of flint-glass1 as a means for correcting the green tinge which it is apt to derive from iron1 and are employed in the manufacture of various kinds of steel4 ,the ores of manganese are chiefly provided by the mines of ,nassau1 which in #ahfd yielded #ad1dfj tons1 and of ,huelva in ,spain1 which furnished #bd1dcj tons in #ahfe4 ,our ,cornish mines likewise produce considerable quantities1 but are still far from being able to supply the wants of our colossal industry1 which1 in #ahff1 required the importation of no less than #dh1gjj tons of oxide of manganese from foreign countries4 ,cadmium1 which accompanies most of the zinc ores1 was discovered by ,stromeyer in #ahah4 ,its sulphuret affords a fine yellow pigment2 but the metal itself1 which has the colour and lustre of tin1 and is very fusible and ductile1 has no commercial value4 ,rutile1 a red-brown mineral1 occurring in small quantities in the ,alps1 ,norway1 and many other localities1 where it is generally found in crystals1 imbedded in quartz1 was found by ,klaproth1 in #agie1 to be the oxide of a peculiar metal which1 according to the old fashion of giving mythological names to new planets and metals1 obtained the name of ,titanium4 ,the metal1 which has a copper-red colour1 has not hitherto been applied to use2 but rutile is employed as a yellow colour in painting porcelain1 and also for giving the requisite tint to artificial teeth4 ,like ,titanium1 the metal ,molybdenum1 discovered by ,hjelm in #aghb1 is as yet interesting only in a scientific point of view2 but one of its salts is used by the cotton-printers as a valuable colouring matter1 and another is indispensable as a re-agent in many chemical researches4 ,thus more than one of the modern metals has already become an important object to the porcelain-painter or the dyer4 ,aluminium1 the metal which ,sir ,h4 ,davy discovered in clay or alumina1 and of which the purest native oxides are the varieties of corundum 7oriental ruby1 sapphire1 c471 has of late become of technical importance1 and though the cost of its production is very great1 as a pound of aluminium is worth about #dl41 yet it already serves for many purposes4 ,its silvery lustre and perfect unalterability by atmospherical influences render it an excellent material for objects of art and ornament1 and from its low specific gravity 7#b-efajj7 it makes excellent tubes for telescopes and opera-glasses1 which when composed of any other metal are of a fatiguing weight4 ,even culinary vases have already been made of aluminium1 for1 besides its perfect innocuousness1 it cools very slowly when heated1 and greasy substances do not adhere to it4 ,its high price is the only obstacle which has hitherto limited its uses4 ,with copper it forms an alloy 7aluminium-bronze7 discovered by ,dr4 ,john ,percy1 which possesses the hardness1 tenacity1 and malleability of iron without its liability to rust1 and consequently has already found numerous applications4 ,the beautiful gold colour of this alloy makes it a valuable material for the fabrication of the vases and ornaments used in ,catholic churches1 and a recent decree of the ,pope has authorised its employment for this purpose4 ,magnesium1 the metallic basis of magnesia1 a native earth widely disseminated in the mineral kingdom1 and forming a constituent part of whole mountain chains1 had ever since its discovery by ,sir ,humphry ,davy been a mere object of curiosity1 when a few years ago1 ,mr4 ,sonstadt1 an ,english chemist1 succeeded in producing it in larger quantities4 ,its silvery brilliancy1 hardness1 and ductility1 its low specific gravity1 and unalterability by air and water1 are qualities which will probably lead to an extensive employment when a cheaper method of production shall have been discovered2 but even now it has found a highly interesting use4 ,it is so easily inflammable that a wire of considerable thickness can be ignited in the flame of a candle1 and the light evolved by the combustion is of almost solar intensity4 ,in lighthouses it serves to guide the mariner in his course2 it lights up the obscurest recesses of stalactital caverns1 and with its assistance the photographer no longer depends upon the sun1 and reveals to us the hidden paintings and sculptures of rock-tombs and temples as distinctly as if they were exposed to the light of day4 ,sodium1 the metallic basis of soda1 was discovered by ,sir ,humphry ,davy in #ahjg4 ,it is lighter than water1 and white and lustrous as silver2 but exposure to air almost immediately converts it into soda4 ,thus it can never become directly useful1 like aluminium or magnesium2 but being indispensable for reducing the ores of these two metals1 it renders important indirect services1 and is consequently produced in considerable quantities4 ,palladium1 one of the hardest and heaviest of metals1 is of a steel grey colour1 passing into silver white4 ,its alloy with silver1 which has the valuable property of not tarnishing in air1 is eminently fitted for the manufacture of delicate scientific instruments4 ,the ,wollaston medal1 given by the ,geological ,society1 is1 in honour of its discoverer1 made of palladium1 which is considerably dearer than gold4 ,in #ahjd1 the same eminent philosopher discovered another metal in native platina1 to which he gave the name of ,rhodium4 ,mixed with steel in the proportion of one to fifty1 rhodium produces an excellent metal for making the sharpest cutting instruments1 and a mixture of equal parts of rhodium and steel makes the best telescopic mirrors1 as it is not liable to be tarnished4 ,it is also employed for making the unalterable nibs of the so-called rhodium pens4 ,thallium1 though one of the newest metals1 as it was discovered by ,mr4 ,crookes as recently as #ahfa1 already bids fair to render some important services4 ,it imparts to optical glasses a considerable density and dispersive power1 and should no other use be found for it1 this alone would render it a valuable acquisition4 ,such is the brief history of those new metals which have already found a useful employment in the industrial arts4 ,it throws a vivid light upon the rapid progress of modern chemistry1 for the very existence of most of them was undreamt of at the beginning of the present century1 and their discovery could be attained only by an amount of analytical knowledge beyond the scope of any previous age4 ,on witnessing these triumphs of science we may well ask where they will end1 and when the goal will be reached beyond which it will be impossible for the human intellect to penetrate8 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,coal4 ,the ,age of ,coal--,plants of the ,carboniferous ,age--,hugh ,miller's ,description of a ,coal ,forest--,vast ,time required for the ,formation of the ,coal-fields--,derangements and ,dislocations--,faults--,their ,disadvantages and ,advantages--,bituminous ,coals--,anthracites--,our ,black ,diamonds--,advantageous ,position of our ,coal ,mines--,the ,south ,welsh ,coal- field--,great ,central and ,manchester ,coal-fields--,the ,whitehaven ,basin and the ,dudley ,area--,newcastle and ,durham ,coal-fields--,costly ,winnings--,a ,ball in a ,coal-pit--,submarine ,coal ,mines--,newcastle ,view from ,tynemouth ,priory--,hewers--,cutting ,machines--,putters--,onsetters-- ,shifters--,trapper ,boys--,george ,stephenson--,rise of ,coal ,production--,probable ,duration of our ,supply--,prussian ,coal ,mines--,belgian--,coal ,mines in various other countries--,maunch ,chunck4 ,the history of the primitive races of mankind1 as far as we are able to trace it in the few relics that have survived their existence1 shows us that an age of stone was followed by one of bronze1 which in its turn was succeeded by one of iron4 ,the ,golden ,age has probably never existed but in the fancy of poets who sought in the land of dreams a compensation for the deficiencies of the real world2 and there can be no doubt that1 despite ,california and ,australia1 our own times are as far from realising the pleasing vision as any before them4 ,but a title to which they have a better claim is founded upon the vast use of the mineral fuel without which the glorious inventions of ,watt and ,stephenson would have been comparatively vain2 and whoever has attentively examined the foundations of our industry1 our commerce1 our wealth1 and our civilisation will hardly deny that we live in what may justly be termed the ,age of ,coal4 ,this mineral1 the importance of which in the political economy of the leading nations of the globe can hardly be overrated1 is also one of surpassing interest in a geological point of view1 for the history of its formation is one of the great marvels of the subterranean world4 ,illustration3 ,,pecopteris ,,adiantoides4 ,illustration3 ,,sphenopteris ,,affinis4 ,the plants whose growth and decay originally furnished the materials of which our black coal#fc is composed1 flourished in that far distant period when as yet no bird or mammalian quadruped had made its appearance1 when even the gigantic ,ichthyosaurus was not yet born1 and the progress of organic life had not advanced beyond the creation of some uncouth reptiles or strangely formed fishes4 ,from the vast space of time which separates us from the carboniferous age1 it may easily be imagined that the state of the vegetable world was then extremely different from that now prevailing4 ,the vegetable remains which constitute coal have generally been so transformed as to afford no trace of their original texture2 yet the distinct plants found here and there preserved in the mass1 and which amount to about five hundred species1 plainly bear the character of a swampy vegetation1 and show that they must have grown in submerged1 or at least extremely humid1 situations4 ,they consist chiefly of ferns1 of ,lepidodendra1 allied to the club- mosses of the present day1 of a few coniferous trees1 the woody structure of some of them showing that they were related to the ,araucarian division of pines1 more than to any of our common ,european firs2 of some large #8horsetails1' and of ,sigillari and ,calamites1 that seem to have been distinct from all tribes of now existing plants4 ,scanty as are these relics of an extinct world1 they yet allow the fancy to reconstruct the forests of which they formed a part1 and to wander through those dismal woods where generations after generations of arborescent ferns and moor-plants flourished and decayed for the use of beings that were to appear millions of years later upon the stage of life4 ,footnote #fc3 ,lignite1 or brown coal1 is of more modern origin4 ,illustration3 ,,lepidodendron ,,elegans4 ,illustration3 ,,asterophyllites ,,comosa4 ,illustration3 ,,sigillaria ,,oculata4 ,illustration3 ,,calamites ,,nodosus4 ,the following description by ,hugh ,miller will assist our fancy in roaming among the primeval thickets from which coal was formed3 #8,we have before us a low shore1 covered with a dense vegetation4 ,huge trees of wonderful form stand out far into the water4 ,there seems no intervening beach4 ,a thick hedge of reeds1 tall as the masts of pinnaces1 runs along the deeper bays1 like water-flags at the edge of a lake4 ,a river of vast volume comes rolling from the interior1 darkening the water for leagues with its slime and mud1 and bearing with it to the open sea reeds and ferns and cones of the pine1 and immense floats of leaves1 and now and then some bulky tree undermined and uprooted by the current4 ,we near the coast1 and now enter the opening of the stream4 ,a scarce penetrable phalanx of reeds1 that attain to the height and wellnigh to the bulk of forest trees1 is ranged on either hand4 ,the bright and glossy stems seem rodded like ,gothic columns2 the pointed leaves stand out green at every joint1 tier above tier1 each tier resembling a coronal wreath1 or an ancient crown with the rays turned outwards1 and we see atop what may be either large spikes or catkins4 ,what strange forms of vegetable life appear in the forest behind6 ,can that be a club-moss that raises its slender height for more than fifty feet from the soil8 ,or can these tall palm-like trees be actually ferns1 and these spreading branches mere fronds8 ,and then these gigantic reeds6 are they not mere varieties of the common horsetail of our bogs and marshes1 magnified some sixty or a hundred times8 ,have we arrived at some such country as the continent visited by ,gulliver1 in which he found thickets of weeds and grass tall as woods of twenty years' growth1 and lost himself amid a forest of corn fifty feet in height8 ,the lesser vegetation of our own country1 its reeds1 mosses1 and ferns1 seems here as if viewed through a microscope1 the dwarfs have sprung up into giants1 and yet there appears to be no proportional increase in size among what are unequivocally its trees4 ,yonder is a group of what seem to be pines--tall and bulky1 'tis true1 but neither taller nor bulkier than the pines of ,norway and ,america4 ,there is an amazing luxuriance of growth all around us4 ,scarce can the current make way through the thickets of aquatic plants that rise thick from the muddy bottom2 and though the sunshine falls bright on the upper boughs of the tangled forest beyond1 not a ray penetrates the more than twilight gloom that broods over the marshy platform below4 ,the rank steam of decaying vegetation forms a thick blue haze1 that partially obscures the underwood4 ,deadly lakes of carbonic acid gas have accumulated in the hollows2 there is a silence all around1 uninterrupted save by the sudden splash of some reptile fish that has risen to the surface in pursuit of its prey1 or when a sudden breeze stirs the hot air1 and shakes the fronds of the giant ferns1 or the catkins of the reeds4 ,the wide continent before us is a continent devoid of animal life1 save that its pools and rivers abound in fish and mollusca1 and that millions and tens of millions of the infusory tribes swarm in the bogs and marshes4 ,here and there1 too1 an insect of strange form flutters among the leaves4 ,it is more than probable that no creature furnished with lungs of the more perfect construction could have breathed the atmosphere of this early period and have lived4' ,as coal seams have been discovered as far to the north as ,greenland1 ,melville ,island1 and ,spitzbergen1 where now no trees will grow1 it has been inferred that1 in the primeval ages which witnessed their birth1 a tropical climate must have reigned over the whole surface of the earth2 but the vegetation of arborescent ferns does not necessarily imply a very warm climate1 as such plants are found to flourish in ,new ,zealand1 together with many conifers and club-mosses1 so that a forest in that temperate country may make a nearer approach to the carboniferous vegetation than any other now existing on the globe4 ,so much is certain1 that a very different distribution of sea and land must in those times have mitigated the severity of the ,arctic winter1 or1 perhaps1 as ,professor ,oswald ,heer conjectures1 our solar system may then have rolled through a space more densely clustered with stars1 whose radiant heat gave to our earth the advantage of a mild climate1 even at the poles4 ,the space of time required for the formation of the coal-fields is as immeasurable as the distance that separates us from ,sirius4 ,we know by experience how thin the sheet of humus is which the annual leaf-fall of our trees1 or the yearly decay of our moor-plants1 leaves behind1 and how many decenniums must elapse before one single inch of solid mould is formed4 ,but there are many coal strata eight1 ten1 or even forty or fifty feet thick2 and if we consider besides the mighty pressure of the superincumbent rocks which store them in the smallest compass1 we cannot possibly doubt that one such stratum must have required thousands of years for its formation4 ,our wonder increases when we reflect that in many coal-measures 7the series of beds intimately associated with the seams of coal7 no less than a hundred thick and thin seams of coal alternate with layers of sandstone and shale1 so that the reckoning would swell to millions were we able to fathom the ages of their successive growth4 ,it may well be asked how such vast masses of vegetable origin1 which required the sun's light for their formation1 came thus to be incased in stone thousands of feet beneath the surface of the earth8 ,more than one theory has been advanced to solve this difficult problem1 which can hardly be explained in any other manner than by a general1 slowly progressing subsidence of the humid lowlands1 alternating with periods of rest4 ,fancy a wide delta land1 similar to ,egypt or the ,netherlands1 covered with luxuriant forests1 whose spoils1 accumulating where they fall1 form in the course of centuries a thick stratum of vegetable matter4 ,this land then sinks1 suddenly or gradually1 under water1 many a fathom deep1 and remains there perhaps for ten thousand years1 till a vast deposit is formed of sandstone and shale1 brought down from the highlands by the rivers that come rolling from the interior1 the pressure of which1 aided by water1 converts the stratum of wood into coal4 ,by this deposit the bottom is gradually filled up1 and the bay again converted into marsh or meadow1 upon which again vegetation flourishes for a thousand years till the materials of a second bed of coal are collected4 ,a third submergence takes place1 rocky strata are again deposited1 the water again shoals into land capable of bearing plants1 a third period of forests commences1 and continues till the mass of vegetable matter destined to form a new bed of coal is accumulated4 ,it is unnecessary to pursue the series any further2 let it suffice to say that in this manner coal followed upon sand1 or sand upon coal1 till in the carboniferous basin of ,nova ,scotia1 for instance1 a vertical subsidence of three miles was gradually filled up by the waste swept down from the higher lands1 or by the accumulation of vegetable matter4 ,great as are these changes of level1 they do not indicate any more considerable or violent perturbations than those which take place at the present day1 either from earthquakes or from slow oscillations of the soil4 ,large areas in the ,pacific and elsewhere are known to be actually subsiding at the rate of three or four feet in the century1 and when measured on the scale of geological time1 the depression which sunk the first carboniferous forests of ,south ,wales or ,nova ,scotia to the depth of ten or twenty thousand feet1 probably proceeded at the same slow rate4 ,adding to these vast epochs of gradual subsidence the long periods of rest which intervened between them1 it is perhaps no exaggeration to affirm that several millions of years may have been required for the formation of a coal-field such as that of ,saarbrcken or ,south ,wales4 ,the fossil remains inclosed in the various layers of the carboniferous beds alone suffice to prove the immensity of time required for their accumulation1 for the species of ferns or lycopods imbedded in the lower seams of a coal-field are found gradually to disappear in the higher ones1 while new species are continually appearing on rising in the series1 until1 finally1 the plants of the older seams have completely made way for newer forms4 ,thus the coal formation has1 during the vast ages of its growth1 changed more than once the aspect of its flora1 and the plants which flourished in its youth had long since disappeared from the earth when it approached its end4 ,illustration3 ,,coal-,,beds ,,rendered ,,available ,,by ,,elevation4 a b c1 shafts4 ,a ,b ,c1 coal-beds4 ,although all coal-fields must have originally been formed in horizontal or slightly undulating situations1 yet in many cases they have undergone enormous derangements or dislocations from subsequent terrestrial changes2 and to this circumstance is mainly due their utility to man4 ,had they been permitted to remain in their primitive geological position1 we probably should never have enjoyed the benefit of the coal1 because it would have been too deep for our reach4 ,we might have known it to be there1 but it would have been beyond our power to pierce a mile or two into the earth4 ,but1 by a wonderful and merciful providence1 the oscillations to which the earth-rind is subject1 have frequently upheaved them enormously out of their original positions2 and the elevated portions having often been denuded by water1 large patches of coal have thus been rendered available to man4 ,the various subterranean changes which have acted upon the coal-fields during the course of unnumbered ages have not only raised or sunk1 but frequently dislocated1 contorted1 ruptured1 or broken them up in a most extraordinary manner4 ,in the coal-field near ,mons1 in ,belgium1 for instance1 a vast lateral pressure has curved the strata again and again1 and even folded them four or five times into zigzag bendings1 so that on sinking a shaft the same continuous layer of coal is cut through several times4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,coal-,,field ,,south ,,of ,,malmesbury4 #a4 ,old red sandstone4 #b4 ,mountain limestone4 #c4 ,millstone grit4 #d4 ,coal seams4 #e4 ,coarse sandstone4 #f4 ,new red sandstone4 #g4 ,lias4 #h4 ,inferior oolite4 #i4 ,great oolite4 #aj4 ,corn brash and forest marl4 ,frequently a concave form has been the result of these terrestrial revolutions1 and hence coal-fields are often called coal-basins4 ,thus1 in the coal-field south of ,malmesbury1 the strata appear to dip from the surface1 and rise again to it after attaining a certain depth1 so that a section of them suggests the idea of a boat or basin4 ,very commonly one portion of a continuous stratum or series of strata has been broken away from the rest1 and has been displaced1 either by elevation or depression1 or shifting on one side1 for various distances4 ,the amount of displacement is sometimes only a few inches1 and at other times several hundred fathoms1 and the extent may be twenty yards or twenty miles4 ,we may easily conceive the difficulties which these disruptions frequently throw in the way of the miner1 who in following what he considers a valuable seam of coal is suddenly stopped by coming in contact with a fault1 a trouble1 or a slip1 as these phenomena are expressively called1 and finds the coal shifted several yards above or below1 or even completely lost4 ,on the other hand1 the miner1 thus provokingly stopped in his labours1 must not forget that it is perhaps owing to the very shifts he complains of that the outcrop of the coal has occurred at all in his neighbourhood1 and that the coal is workable throughout a very large portion of the district in which he is interested4 ,a most important advantage is also derived from the existence of these numerous faults in coal strata2 namely1 that they intersect a large field of coal in all directions1 and by the clayey contents which fill up the cracks accompanying minor faults1 they become natural coffer- dams1 which prevent the body of water accumulated in one part of the field from flowing into any opening which might be made in it in another part4 ,a remarkable instance of the advantage arising from the presence of a great line of fault occurred in the year #ahbe at ,gosforth1 near ,newcastle1 where a shaft was dug on the wet side of what is locally termed the ,great ,ninety ,fathom ,dyke1 which there intersects the coal- field4 ,the workings were immediately inundated with water1 and it was found necessary to abandon them4 ,another shaft1 however1 was sunk on the other side of the dyke1 only a few yards from the former1 and in this they descended nearly #bjj fathoms1 or #a1bjj feet1 without any hindrance from the water4 ,the separation of a coal-field into small areas by dykes or faults is likewise very beneficial in case of fire in a coal-pit1 for in this case the combustion is prevented from spreading widely1 and destroying1 as it otherwise would1 the whole of the ignited seam4 #8,the natural disposition of coal in detached portions1' says the author of an excellent article in the ,edinburgh ,review1#fd #8is not simply a phenomenon of geology1 but it also bears upon national considerations4 ,it is remarkable that this natural disposition is that which renders the fuel most accessible and most easily mined4 ,were the coal situated at its normal geological depth1 that is1 supposing the strata to be all horizontal and undisturbed or upheaved 7sic71 it would be far below human reach4 ,were it deposited continuously in one even superficial layer1 it would have been too readily1 and therefore too quickly mined1 and all the superior qualities would be wrought out1 and only the inferior left2 but as it now lies1 it is broken up by geological disturbances into separate portions1 each defined and limited in area1 each sufficiently accessible to bring it within man's reach and labour1 each manageable by mechanical arrangements1 and each capable of gradual excavation without being subject to sudden exhaustion4 ,selfish plundering is partly prevented by natural barriers1 and we are warned against reckless waste by the comparative thinness of coal-seams1 as well as by the ever-augmenting difficulty of working them at increased depths4 ,by the separation of seams one from another1 and by varied intervals of waste sandstones and shales1 such a measured rate of mining is necessitated as precludes us from entirely robbing posterity of the most valuable mineral fuel1 while the fuel itself is preserved from those extended fractures and crumblings and falls which would certainly be the consequence of largely mining the best bituminous coal1 were it aggregated into one vast mass4 ,in fact1 by an evident exercise of forethought and benevolence in the ,great ,author of all our blessings1 our invaluable fuel has been stored up for us in deposits the most compendious1 the most accessible1 yet the least exhaustible1 and has been locally distributed into the most convenient situations4 ,our coal- fields are1 in fact1 so many bituminous banks1 in which there is abundance for an adequate currency1 but against any sudden run upon them nature has interposed numerous checks1 by locking up whole reserves of the precious fuel in the bank cellar1 under the invincible protection of ponderous stone-beds4' ,footnote #fd3 ,vol4 cxi4 p4 #hj4 ,if we examine the nature of the mineral fuel thus provided for us in the bowels of the earth1 we find a number of varieties greatly differing from each other in chemical composition and in combustible value4 ,thus the anthracites or non-bituminous coals1 which contain from eighty- five to ninety-seven per cent4 of pure carbon1 are not easily ignited1 and yield no flame and but little or no smoke4 ,illustration3 ,map showing the ,,coal ,,fields and ,,chief ,,mining ,,districts of ,,great ,,britain ,the bituminous coals1 on the contrary1 contain a large proportion of volatile matter1 amounting to as much as thirty1 forty1 or fifty per cent41 and are consequently very inflammable1 burning with a bright flame1 considerable smoke1 and a penetrating odour4 ,but as ,nature in general does not love those sharp divisions to which theorists are so partial1 thus also there is no fixed boundary between these two classes of mineral fuel2 and we find an uninterrupted series of intermediate qualities between pure anthracite and the fattest coal4 ,it may be remarked that if coal were of one uniform chemical composition1 its utility would be confined within narrower limits1 as the bituminous1 semi-bituminous1 and anthracital varieties have each their distinguishing properties which adapt each to special uses4 ,some kinds1 from their richness in volatile bituminous matter1 are excellent for the manufacture of illuminating gas1 while1 from their smaller proportion of carbon1 they could hardly be used for the making of iron2 and the anthracites1 which yield little or no gas1 are very serviceable for smelting or domestic purposes4 ,it appears from the researches of modern chemistry that the different varieties of coal are due to the progress of decomposition which wood and vegetable matter undergo when buried in the earth1 exposed to moisture1 and partially or entirely excluded from the air4 ,slowly evolving carbonic acid gas1 and thus parting with a portion of their original oxygen1 they become gradually converted into lignite or wood- coal1 which contains a larger proportion of hydrogen than wood does4 ,a continuance of decomposition changes this lignite into common or bituminous coal1 chiefly by the discharge of carburetted hydrogen1 or the gas by which we illuminate our streets and houses2 and bituminous coal still continuing to evolve its volatile matter1 not only after its being covered with strata thousands of feet in thickness1 but even to the present day 7as the fire-damp sufficiently proves7 is thus ultimately transformed into anthracite1 to which the various names of splint-coal1 glance-coal1 hard-coal1 and culm have been given4 ,when we consider the manner in which coal has been formed in swampy lowlands1 or more particularly in river-deltas1 which gradually subsided to a considerable depth beneath the level of the sea1 we cannot wonder that1 when compared with the whole extent of the globe1 the area of the coal-fields is extremely limited1 and confined to but a few favoured countries4 ,in our times delta lands occupy but a small part of the continents and large islands1 and there is no reason to suppose that they were more considerable during the carboniferous age1 or at any other epoch4 ,besides1 many of the ancient deltas1 probably1 never subsided at all1 so that no coal could be formed on their site2 and others1 where coal strata were gradually piled up1 may still be whelmed beneath the sea awaiting some future upheaval to become serviceable to future generations of man4 ,after the preliminary remarks on coal and the coal formation in general1 ,i will now briefly describe the chief coal-producing countries of the globe4 ,first on the list stands ,great ,britain1 whose pre-eminence in industry and commerce is entirely founded on her vast deposits of coal4 ,it is this invaluable mineral which sets those countless steam-engines in motion that perform the labours of a hundred millions of men2 which spins and weaves the cotton of ,america1 the silk of ,china1 the wool of ,australia1 and the flax of ,belgium into that amazing variety of tissues that serve to clothe almost all the nations of the globe2 and which finally produces a greater quantity of the cheapest iron than the combined efforts of all the world4 ,thus our coals may well be called our black diamonds1 and the comparison is indeed paying the latter too high a compliment1 for larger masses of diamonds would be utterly worthless1 while1 by means of our coal1 we are able to enjoy the produce of every zone4 ,not only do our fifty-one coal-fields surpass in magnitude those which are disseminated over a far greater territory in ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,france2 but their local distribution and geological formation are as favourable as could possibly be wished4 ,furthest north we see the considerable deposits of ,scotland extending from the coast of ,fife to the valley of the ,clyde4 ,it is to them that ,glasgow owes its half-a- million of inhabitants1 and a wealth far surpassing that of all ,scotland under the reign of #8bonnie' ,queen ,mary4 ,in ,england1 north of the ,trent1 along the ,wear and ,tyne1 and even extending far beneath the sea1 we have the coal-fields of ,northumberland and ,durham1 with ,cumberland and those of ,yorkshire1 ,nottinghamshire1 and ,derbyshire4 ,after these comes the large field of ,lancashire1 or1 as it is sometimes named1 the ,manchester ,coal-field4 ,looking to the central districts1 we see the coals of ,north and ,south ,staffordshire and of ,leicestershire4 ,in the north-west we have the field of ,north ,wales2 in the more central west1 the deposits of the ,plain of ,shrewsbury1 ,coalbrook ,dale1 and the ,clee ,hills2 and in the south-west1 the great coal-field of ,south ,wales1 and the minor ones of the ,forest of ,dean1 of ,somersetshire1 and of ,gloucestershire4 ,illustration3 ,,coal ,,basin ,,of ,,clackmannanshire4 a1 b4 ,coal seams4 c4 ,limestone strata4 x1 y4 ,slips4 ,the inspection of a good geological map shows us at once how advantageously for commerce these several coal-stores are distributed4 ,every large coal-field in ,england and ,scotland is hardly ever distant more than thirty miles from the next1 so that from the ,clyde to ,somersetshire the whole interior of the country can easily1 by means of canals and railroads1 be provided with fuel4 ,the east and west coasts of the land are nowhere above fifty miles from a coal-field2 and even the most remote localities in the three kingdoms are able to provide themselves from distances within #aej miles4 ,but it is chiefly the neighbourhood of the sea which gives such an incomparable value to our most important coal-fields2 as1 thanks to this advantageous situation1 which none of the ,french1 ,belgian1 and ,german coal-fields possess1 ,great ,britain is enabled to provide not only her own coast-towns1 but almost all the sea-ports in the world1 with a cheaper fuel than can be produced in their own country4 ,even in ,ostend1 ,belgian coal1 rendered dear by canal transport1 is unable to compete with that which is brought over sea from ,england2 and ,hamburg provides herself with fuel from ,newcastle and ,hartlepool1 and not from the coal- fields of ,saxony and ,westphalia4 ,coal is found in seventeen counties in ,ireland1 over an area of about #c1jjj square miles4 ,yet1 notwithstanding this great abundance of coal which the country possesses1 and which is distributed throughout almost all parts of the island1 from ,limerick to ,antrim1 her capital and chief cities and ports have hitherto depended upon ,great ,britain for their supplies of mineral fuel1 both for domestic and for manufacturing purposes4 ,to those who are unacquainted with the actual circumstances1 it appears scarcely credible that this fine country has made so little use of the coal which has been so bountifully bestowed upon her4 ,among other causes not political1 which perpetuate this state of things1 is the extraordinary facility and cheapness with which the ports of ,ireland can be supplied from the great western coal-fields of ,great ,britain4 ,the excellence1 abundance1 and cheapness of peat1 which is not only the common fuel of the poor in the interior1 and1 indeed1 of all classes in some districts1 but is also brought in barges by the great canal1 and consumed to a considerable amount in the capital itself1 is another reason why the ,irish coal-mines have1 as yet1 been so little worked4 ,when we consider the vast importance of coal1 we cannot wonder at the paramount influence which it has exercised over the distribution of our population in modern times4 ,while ,salisbury1 ,winchester1 and ,canterbury-- important towns of medival ,england--are reduced to atrophy from the distance and absence of coal-fields1 ,newcastle1 ,leeds1 ,manchester1 ,sheffield1 ,birmingham1 ,glasgow1 and a host of other flourishing towns may truly be said to be built on coal4 ,where there are large coal-fields there is life and a prospect of almost unlimited prosperity1 for they are sure to attract machinery and man4 ,take a geological map of a new and thinly-populated country2 and if it be marked with coal-fields the spots where large cities will exist hereafter may be safely determined4 ,a more detailed examination of the chief coal-fields of ,england shows us the immensity of the mineral riches which are here still hoarded up for the benefit of future generations4 ,the superficial extent of the ,south ,welsh coal-fields is about a thousand square miles4 ,on its northern wing we find on an average twenty-one coal bands1 forming an aggregate thickness of eighty and a half feet4 ,in some parts of the south wing there are even as many as thirty-three bands of an aggregate thickness of one hundred and four feet of pure coal1 so that the average depth of the field may be estimated at ninety-two feet4 ,numerous transversal valleys intersect this magnificent coal-field1 and afford the easiest means of working it in every depth4 ,they also facilitate the transport of the coal on the canals and railroads which lead along their bottom or along their slopes to the harbours of the ,bristol ,channel4 ,in the chapters on iron and copper1 ,i have had occasion to describe the gigantic industries1 founded on these natural advantages1 which have raised ,south ,wales from being one of the most insignificant into one of the most important provinces of the empire4 ,all the coals of this basin are so rich in carbon as to yield from seventy to ninety per cent4 of coke4 ,they are either anthracites or only semi-bituminous1 and are consequently not suitable for making gas1 nor are they much liked for burning in open fire-places1 as they do not emit a genial flame4 ,on the other hand1 the semi-bituminous ,welsh coal is invaluable for burning in steam-engines1 for it has been proved to generate one-quarter more steam than any other kind of ,english coal4 ,one of its properties--by no means unimportant--is its non-liability to spontaneous combustion1 which1 it is well known1 occasionally takes place with bituminous coals1 and by which vessels have been lost at sea1 and warehouses ignited on land4 ,the value of the ,welsh steam or slightly bituminous coal is enhanced by its quality of burning almost without smoke1 a property hitherto slightly appreciated1 but the importance of which in time of war is evident4 ,steamers burning the fat1 bituminous coal can be tracked at sea at least seventy miles1 before their hulls become visible1 by the dense columns of black smoke pouring out of their pipes or chimneys1 and trailing along the horizon4 ,it is a complete tell-tale of their whereabouts1 which is not the case with vessels burning ,welsh or anthracital coal4 ,from its compactness and density1 the latter has likewise great advantages in point of stowage space over the ordinary weak bituminous coals4 ,for long voyages this concentration of power and economy of space may easily be appreciated4 ,from its great superiority over other kinds1 ,welsh coal has been exclusively used for some time past by the ,french ,government1 and it is also employed in ,england by all the chief mail packet companies4 ,coal is not exported from the ,south ,wales basin as much as from some other fields1 owing to the enormous requirements of the large iron works1 most of which consume as much as can be supplied by their collieries4 ,every week1 however1 sees increased supplies of ,welsh coal thrown into the ,london market1 and every year fresh collieries are opened to meet the demand4 ,the total number of pits in ,south ,wales in #ahfe was four hundred and eighteen1 which produced between seven and eight million tons annually4 ,the ,new ,navigation ,pit at ,mountain ,ash may be cited as an example of the grand scale on which the most important of these workings are conducted4 ,the shaft is eighteen feet in diameter inside the walling1 and divided into four compartments1 two of which are for the drawing of coal1 one for sending the workmen up and down1 and the fourth for the drainage4 ,notwithstanding the great depth of three hundred and seventy yards1 a carriage containing two half-tons of coal can be wound up in one minute1 and the whole colliery is estimated to supply more than one thousand tons a day4 ,the mineral property extends over an area of seven miles long by three miles in width1 covering from four thousand to five thousand acres of four-foot coal4 ,from this one case the reader may form a slight estimate of the boundless resources of the whole basin4 ,the ,great ,central ,coal-field1 which ranges through ,south ,yorkshire1 ,nottinghamshire1 and ,derbyshire1 has a superficial extent of about one thousand square miles4 ,in character it is closely allied to that of ,newcastle1 and is considered by some geologists to be a re-emergence of the same strata from beneath the covering of the magnesian limestone under which they suppose it to be concealed through the intervening space4 ,it extends a little from the north-east of ,leeds nearly to ,derby1 a distance of more than sixty-five miles4 ,its greatest width--twenty- three miles--is on the north1 reaching nearly to ,halifax on the west4 ,on the south it extends towards the east to ,nottingham1 and is there about twelve miles wide4 ,though possessing some fine coal-seams1 it is of far inferior importance to the ,manchester or ,south ,lancashire ,coal-field1 from which it is separated by a lofty chain of hills4 ,this highly valuable basin1 which extends over about five hundred and fifty square miles1 begins in the north-west of ,derbyshire1 and continues thence to the south-west part of ,lancashire1 forming an area somewhat in the shape of a crescent1 having ,manchester nearly in the centre4 ,illustration3 ,,dudley ,,coal-,,field4 #a4 ,limestone strata4 #b4 ,coal4 ,of the smaller coal-fields1 the most important are the ,whitehaven basin 7one hundred and twenty square miles7 and the ,dudley or ,south ,staffordshire area 7ninety square miles7 which is particularly valuable for the extensive iron works which it maintains4 ,one portion of this coal-field is distinguished by the presence of one continuous bed of coal thirty feet thick1 which for ,british coal is astonishing2 and this mass extends seven miles in length and four in breadth4 ,in this favoured district coal-seams five or six feet thick are called thin seams2 in ,newcastle they would be called thick seams4 ,though not so extensive as the ,south ,welsh area1 the coal-fields of ,newcastle and ,durham are of far more ancient celebrity4 ,their produce is chiefly shipped on the ,tyne1 ,wear1 and ,tees1 small rivers hardly traceable on a map of the world1 and yet far more important to commerce than the mighty ,orinoco or the thousand-armed ,amazon4 ,this magnificent coal area is bounded on the north by the river ,coquet1 and extends southward nearly as far as ,hartlepool1 a distance of about forty-eight miles4 ,its extreme breadth is about twenty-four miles1 and the whole superficial extent may amount to about eight hundred square miles4 ,there are in all about fifty-seven different seams of coal in the ,great ,northern ,coal-field1 varying in thickness from an inch to five feet five inches and six feet1 and comprising an aggregate of about seventy-six feet of coal4 ,the pits are established chiefly with reference to one or more of the three following seams4 ,the most valuable is called the ,high ,main ,seam1 and is about six feet thick4 ,the next in value is the ,bensham ,seam1 about three feet thick1 which is remarkable for its excellent quality as a domestic coal1 and for the enormous quantity of gas evolved from it in the mine4 ,the ,hutton or ,low ,main ,seam1 averaging from three feet six inches to five feet nine inches1 is likewise of very good quality1 and is extensively worked4 ,it must1 however1 be remarked that the same seam of coal is not generally valuable in all places4 ,thus the ,high ,main1 which furnishes excellent coal on the ,tyne1 becomes injured as it proceeds in a south-easterly direction by being intermixed with a band of coal of inferior quality containing iron pyrites1 c4 ,the ,newcastle ,coal-field is generally worked at a great depth1 an expense of upwards of #ej1jjjl4 having in some instances been incurred before the seam of coal was reached which was to reward all this vast outlay and labour4 ,the most remarkable and enterprising work of this kind on record is a sinking at ,monk ,wearmouth ,colliery near ,sunderland4 ,after piercing the superincumbent beds of magnesian limestone and lower new red sandstone1 the coal strata were reached at a depth of three hundred and thirty feet2 but at the same time a spring was tapped which poured water into the workings at the rate of three thousand gallons per minute4 ,this fearful influx was kept under by a steam-engine of two hundred horse-power1 and the work was made sure by strong metal tubbing1 and carried on successfully1 though not without extreme difficulty4 ,on entering the coal measures1 however1 a new and unexpected check was experienced in the extra thickness of the uppermost coal strata1 for which no calculation had been made1 and the difficulties were increased when at the depth of one thousand feet a fresh feeder or spring of water was tapped4 ,additional expense and great loss of time were thus caused2 but the proprietors persevered with real ,anglo-,saxon pertinacity1 undaunted by the apparently hopeless nature of the undertaking1 and by the fearful expenses incurred4 ,success crowned their efforts1 and finally1 at a depth of #a1gaj feet1 the ,hutton seam of coal was reached1 at a cost which1 including the necessary preliminary operations1 could not have been less than #ajj1jjjl4 ,another remarkable and costly piece of mining was that of ,gosforth ,colliery1 which lies about three miles north from ,newcastle1 on the west bank of a romantic #8dean' or little valley1 through which the ,ouseburn winds its way to the ,tyne4 ,the sinking was commenced in #ahbe1 and the coal was won on ,saturday1 ,january #ca1 #ahbi4 ,the ,high ,main coal was reached at twenty-five fathoms below the surface1 but near its first appearance the seam was thrown down in an inclined direction by the great ,ninety ,fathom ,dyke which there intersects the coal-field4 ,hence it became necessary to sink the shaft to the depth of #aha fathoms1 in order to come at the level of the lower range of coal4 ,this having been accomplished1 a horizontal drift #gjj yards long was worked through the face of the dyke to the seam of coal a little above its junction with the dyke4 ,a great part of this excavation had to be made through solid rock4 ,to celebrate the completion of this remarkable work1 a grand subterranean ball was given at the very place of triumph1 #a1ajj feet below the surface of the earth4 ,as the guests arrived at the bottom of the shaft they went to the end of the drift to the face of the coal1 where each person hewed a piece of coal as a memento of the day1 and then returned to the ball-room1 which was brilliantly lit up1 and where born-and-bred ladies joined in a general dance with born-and-bred pitmen's daughters4 ,between #bjj and #cjj persons were present1 nearly one-half of them belonging to the fair sex4 ,it must be remembered that the pit had not been worked1 so that no smoke and dust exuded from its mouth or defiled the ball-room4 ,some of the older coal-pits1 where excavations have been going on perhaps for a century or more1 may be likened to large subterranean cities4 ,the galleries of ,st4 ,hilda ,colliery1 near ,south ,shields1 are full seventy miles long2 and ,killingworth pits are said1 on good authority1 to have nearly one hundred and sixty miles of gallery excavation4 ,in some parts the operations of the collier have encroached upon the domains of the ocean4 ,at the ,howgill pits1 for instance1 west of ,whitehaven1 the excavations have been carried more than #a1jjj yards under the sea1 and about #fjj feet below its bottom4 ,but the most remarkable marine colliery which ,great ,britain has ever possessed was situated at ,borrowstounness4 ,the coal was found to continue under the bed of the sea in this place1 and the colliers had the courage to work it half a mile from the shore1 where there was an entry that went down into the submarine coal-pit4 ,this was made into a kind of round quay1 built so as to keep out the tide which flowed there twelve feet4 ,here the coals were laid1 and a ship of that draught of water could lay her side to the quay and take in the coal4 ,this wonderful pit1 which belonged to the ,earl of ,kincardine's family1 continued to be wrought many years to the great profit of the owners1 and the astonishment of all that saw it2 but at last an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at once1 together with the labourers who were at work4 #8,while1' says the ,french geologist1 ,faujas de ,saint ,fond 7who visited this remarkable mine about the end of the last century71 #8the pitmen1 by the dismal shine of their lamps1 make the deep caverns resound with the blows of their pickaxes1 ships driven by a fair wind sail over their heads1 and the sailors1 rejoicing at the beautiful weather1 express their joy in songs3 at another time a storm arises2 the horizon is in flames1 the thunder roars1 the sea rages1 the boldest tremble2 then the pitmen1 unconscious of the terrible scene1 calmly pursue their labours1 and think with pleasure of their homes1 while the ship above is shattered to pieces and sinks2 unfortunately1 but too faithful a picture of the daily changes of human life4' ,illustration3 ,map showing the ,,coal ,,fields and ,,mineral ,,districts of ,,america ,nowhere in the world1 perhaps1 does human activity display a more restless energy than on the site of the ,newcastle ,coal-field1 where1 night and day1 successive trains heaped with the black diamonds of ,england speed along far-stretching railways1 and hurry down to river and ocean1 until they are unloaded and their contents shipped by machinery4 ,steam-engines are unceasingly at work drawing coals and pumping out water4 ,thousands of men are underneath our feet cutting down the coal by severe and peculiar labour1 while thousands above are receiving the loads and speeding them forwards4 #8,go where you will1 there is a network of small railways1 leading from pit to pit in hopeless intricacy1 but all having a common terminus on the river's bank or the ocean's shore4 ,go where you will1 tall chimneys rise up before you1 and here and there a low line of black sheds1 flanked by chimneys of aspiring altitude1 indicates that you are arriving at a colliery4 ,as you draw nearer1 men and boys of blackest hue pass you and peer at you with inquiring glances4 ,now trains of coal- waggons rush by more frequently1 noises of the most discordant character increase1 and you know that you are at the pit's mouth1 when you behold two gigantic wooden arms slanting upwards1 upon which are mounted the pulleys and wheels that carry the huge flat wire ropes of the shaft4 ,for a moment the wheels do not revolve--no load is ascending or descending-- but the next minute they turn rapidly1 and up comes the load of coals or human beings to the surface4 ,perhaps the most impressive sight is a large colliery fully engaged at nightwork1 with burning crates of coal suspended all around2 and after this a view from some neighbouring eminence of all the far-flaming waste coal-heaps1 burning up the accumulation of waste and small coal not worth carriage1 ever added to the ever-consuming mound1 until the whole district appears like the active crater of some enormous volcano4'#fe ,footnote #fe3 #8,edinburgh ,review1' vol4 cxi4 p4 #hf4 ,the banks of the ,tyne are in many places very high and precipitous1 and consequently render peculiar contrivances necessary for the shipping of the coals4 ,the means used for this purpose are various3 sometimes inclined tunnels1 through which the train of waggons is lowered in chains to the water2 sometimes slopes1 along which the coals are shovelled into the ship1 or still better1 the ingenious mechanism of which ,william ,howitt gives us the following description3-- #8,as you advance over the plain you see a whole train of waggons loaded with coal1 careering by themselves without horse1 without steam-engine1 without man1 except that there sits one behind1 who1 instead of endeavouring to propel these mad waggons on their way1 seems labouring hopelessly by his weight to detain them4 #8,but what is your amazement when you come in sight of the river ,tyne1 and see these waggons still careering on to the very brink of the water6--to see a railway carried from the high bank1 and supported on tall piles1 horizontally1 above the surface of the river1 and to some distance into it1 as if to allow those vagabond trains of waggons to run right off1 and dash themselves down into the river6 ,illustration3 ,,shipping ,,coal4 #8,there they go1 all mad together6 ,another moment1 and they will shoot over the end of the lofty railway1 and go headlong into the ,tyne1 helter-skelter4 ,but behold6 these creatures are not so mad as you imagine them4 ,they are instinct with sense2 they have a principle of self-preservation1 as well as of speed1 in them4 ,see1 as they draw near the river they pause1 they stop6 one by one they detach themselves2 and as one devoted waggon runs on1 like a victim given up for the salvation of the rest1 to perform a wild summersault into the water below1 what do we see8 ,it is caught6 ,a pair of gigantic arms separate themselves from the end of the railway4 ,they catch the waggon1 they hold it suspended in the air1 they let it softly and gently descend--and whither8 ,into the water8 ,no2 we see now that a ship already lies below the end of the railway4 ,the waggon descends to it2 a man standing there strikes a bolt1 the bottom falls1 and the coals which it contains are nicely deposited in the hold of the vessel4 ,up1 again1 soars the empty waggon in that pair of gigantic arms4 ,it reaches the railway2 it glides like a black swan into its native lake upon it2 and away it goes1 as of its own accord1 to a distance1 to await its brethren1 who successively perform the same exploit1 and then joining it1 all scamper back again as hard as they can over the plain to the distant pit4' ,the produce of the collieries situated further up the ,tyne1 where the river is no longer navigable by sea-going craft1 is conveyed in a kind of oval vessels1 called keels1 to the port of ,newcastle1 or its out- stations1 ,north and ,south ,shields1 where it is discharged into larger ships4 ,newcastle may well be called the capital of ,king ,coal4 ,once a town of military importance1 as the old1 grim-looking donjon-keep of ,robert ,curthose1 the son of the ,conqueror1 still testifies1 it entirely owes its modern importance to the treasures of coal adjacent to its walls4 ,its quays1 black and sooty as the mineral on which its prosperity is founded1 are lined with a dense row of counting-houses1 and before them in the river still denser rows of colliers lie at anchor2 while between both ebbs and flows a black-looking crowd--for all here wear the livery of the article to which all owe their bread4 ,some idea may be formed of the vast activity waving to and fro in this chief artery of the coal trade1 from the fact that the annual arrivals in the ,tyne are not less than #ac1jjj or #ad1jjj1 #aj1jjj of which are on account of the coal trade4 ,sunderland1 the great port of the river ,wear1 where annually more than #aj1jjj cargoes of coal are shipped to all ports of the world2 ,hartlepool1 a town of modern date with magnificent docks2 ,stockton-on- ,tees1 and a number of minor places of shipment on the coast1 likewise owe their prosperity to coal1 so that probably no other article of trade gives constant employment to so many vessels within so confined a territory4 ,from ,tynemouth ,priory1 a ruin romantically situated on a bold promontory1 the visitor frequently enjoys a magnificent marine picture2 for when1 after long-continued easterly gales1 the wind changes to a westerly breeze1 many hundred vessels--mostly colliers--put to sea together in a single tide1 and distribute themselves over the ocean with their prows turned in almost every direction1 some southward and coast- wise1 for ,english ports1 for the ,channel1 and for the southern countries of ,europe2 others1 northward for ,scotland and the ,norwegian coast2 and others1 again1 due east1 for ,denmark and the ,baltic--all sinking deep in the water1 weighed down by that mineral fuel which is more valuable for ,england than if it were replaced by the mines of ,mexico or the diggings of ,australia4 ,yet a few years1 and probably the dingy and crawling craft1 which perform the chief part in this animated scene1 will be abolished4 ,clipper screw steamers are rapidly taking their place1 and the railroads daily transport a greater proportion of the seven or eight million tons of coal which are annually devoured by our huge metropolis4 ,before quitting the ,northern coal districts1 a few words may be added on the swarthy population whose labours bring their subterranean riches to the light4 ,the chief underground workmen are the hewers1 who either remove the coal with pickaxes1 or sometimes blast it with powder4 ,to hew well is a work of skill as well as of strength1 and men must be early practised in it to earn high wages by piece-work4 ,in tolerably thick seams of coal of five and six feet and upwards1 hewing is more a work of strength than skill2 but in the narrower seams skill predominates4 ,in these the arm is confined1 the blow is shortened1 the pick is impeded4 ,to gain space by adaptation of position1 you may see one hewer kneeling down on one or both knees1 another squatting1 another stooping or bending double1 and occasionally one or more lying on their sides or on their backs1 picking and pegging away at the seam above them4 ,if the seam be hard as well as thin1 and the man's position confined1 it is manifest that he cannot get his strength to bear in full1 or his full measure of coals4 ,in such cases he is bathed in perspiration1 in a state of semi-nudity1 enveloped in floating and clinging coal-dust4 ,if to this we add the very faint light imparted by the ,davy lamps1 the constantly thickening atmosphere1 the exhalations from living beings1 exaggerated by heat1 and not diminished by any free current of air1 and remember that eight hours is the usual day's work of the hewer1 we must surely confess that few men have their strength more hardly tasked1 or earn their bread in a more laborious manner4 ,illustration3 ,,coal ,,hewers ,,at ,,work4 ,to relieve this arduous toil1 coal-cutting machines have lately been devised1 which are worked either by steam or by compressed air1 and will probably in time perform a great part of the hewer's labour1 as those already in employment appear to be well adapted to the purpose for which they are contrived1 and further improvements in their construction will no doubt be introduced4 ,coal-cutting machines1 which act either by picking or gouging1 have been found to work more economically than manual labour1 while at the same time much less coal is destroyed and reduced to slack4 ,a matter of still more importance is the diminished risk to the persons and lives of the employed1 who1 when working in a constrained position1 and consequently unable to relieve themselves from the fall of a superincumbent mass of coal1 are frequently crushed to death4 ,the application of machinery to cutting coal gives another advantage of national importance1 as1 by enabling the working to be carried into the deeper seams of coal which lie at so high a temperature as to present serious or insurmountable difficulty to handwork1 it will render available to posterity new and hitherto inaccessible stores of coal4 ,the hewers may possibly fear to be thrown out of employment by its introduction on an extensive scale2 but as it will relieve them from their most irksome drudgery1 and allow them to reserve their strength for less injurious trial1 they cannot but be thankful for the aid which it affords them4 ,they are usually paid according to the number of baskets or tubs they are able to fill4 ,these are then conveyed by the putters through the smaller or lower galleries of the pit to the headways1 where they are hoisted by the crow-men upon the rolleys or waggons for transporting the coals from the crow to the shaft4 ,the roads along which the rolleys are driven are made sufficiently high for an ordinary horse by cutting away the roof or the floor4 ,some of them are two miles long1 and are kept in repair by a rolley-wayman4 ,where tubs are used for the conveyance of coal the whole way1 no crow is necessary1 but a lad1 termed a #8flatman1' who links the tubs together at the level or the flat4 ,next to the hewers1 the putters are the hardest labourers in the pit2 and in some places their labour is even harder1 for it is no easy matter to push corfs or tubs1 weighing from six to ten hundredweight1 along galleries which are often but three or four feet high1 where the heat not seldom averages about #gh ,fahr41 and in consequence of the increased pressure of the air1 water boils at #bbj4 ,the term #8putter' includes the specific distinctions of the #8headsman1' #8half-marrow1' and the #8foal4' ,where full tubs or baskets are to be pushed along the rails from the hewers to the crow and the rolley-drivers1 the headsmen take the chief part2 a half-marrow goes at each end of the train alternately with another half-marrow2 while a foal always precedes the train4 ,at the bottom of the shaft the #8onsetters' are stationed1 who attach the tubs to the ropes which hoist them to the surface4 ,besides these various classes of workmen1 we find the #8shifters1' who keep the galleries in repair1 and the little #8trapper-boys1' whose duty it is to open the ventilating-doors whenever they hear the drivers or trains of coal- waggons coming on one side or the other4 ,their task1 though humble1 tedious1 and requiring the least amount of intelligence1 is of great importance1 as the numerous doors which they guard must remain open only long enough for the passage of the trains1 and must then be closed again immediately1 or the current of air needed to ventilate the mine would be diverted in its course4 ,it is hardly possible to imagine a more joyless childhood than that of these little fellows1 condemned to sit in solitary gloom during the greater part of the day1 and only comforted by the sudden shout or song of a team-driver1 approaching with his train of waggons1 and demanding the opening of the door4 ,besides the workers underground1 a number of labourers or artisans are constantly employed above pit1 from the #8banksmen1' whose duty it is to see all things living and lifeless up and down the shaft1 to the #8staithmen1' who attend to the staith or shipping place of coals4 ,many find constant occupation in the raff-yard1 where old waggons1 ironwork1 and woodwork are duly hospitalled and refitted for fresh duty4 ,the daily work of the mine is conducted according to the strictest discipline4 ,the #8resident viewer' is supreme1 and has subordinate viewers1 overseers1 and wastemen1 lamp-keepers1 and other officers1 who have each their departments1 and discharge their duties assiduously4 ,thus a first-rate northern colliery establishment--where a total of more than five hundred persons are variously employed--resembles a little community in itself4 ,men of all educations1 arts1 grades1 and duties1 and males of almost all ages1 from ten years1 are here2 men1 too1 of all appearances--from the gentlemanly viewer to the doubtful wasteman1 and from the underground workers-in-chief--the hewers--to the humble trapper- boys4 ,the peculiar nature of his underground occupations1 which condemns the pitman1 while working1 to a position of great restraint1 and taxes the limbs and muscles in a very unequal manner1 naturally influences his outward appearance1 so that he can be easily distinguished from every other operative4 ,his stature is diminutive1 his figure disproportioned and misshapen2 his legs being much bowed1 and his chest protruding like that of a pigeon4 ,his arms are long1 and oddly suspended4 ,his countenance is not less strange than his figure1 his cheeks being generally hollow1 his brow overhanging1 his cheekbones high1 his forehead low and retreating1 his complexion pallid4 ,many of these bodily peculiarities or malformations are probably hereditary4 ,pitmen have always lived in communities2 they have associated only among themselves1 and have thus acquired peculiar habits and ideas4 ,they almost invariably intermarry1 and it is not uncommon in their marriages to commingle the blood of the same family4 ,they have thus transmitted natural and accidental defects through a long series of generations1 and may now be regarded in the light of a distinct race of beings4 ,in spite of the general march of intelligence1 their education is still very imperfect1 and they are just emerging from the greatest possible moral and intellectual darkness--an improvement due mainly to the ,wesleyan ,methodists4 ,the untiring labours of this religious sect not only imparted to the colliery population in the ,north of ,england a higher tone of moral feeling1 but in their efforts to instil religious principles into their minds1 afforded them1 through ,sunday-schools1 a slight amount of education and an imperfect capability of reading4 ,these first seeds of improvement will1 it is hoped1 gradually ripen into fruit1 and oppose a strong barrier to the prominent vices of colliers--gambling and intemperance4 ,a lack of mental and personal openness and boldness1 a great inclination to injury and theft1 the grossest superstition1 and a want of the commonest economy and forethought1 are likewise faults which are said to be very common among them4 ,deception is so much a practice with them that they deceive when no earthly advantage can be obtained from their dishonesty4 ,oh the other hand1 the proofs of filial affection which they exhibit1 and the noble feelings and heroism which they display when explosions or accidents take place1 prove that the groundwork of their character is good1 and merely requires the influence of a better education to remove a great part of the blemishes which ignorance has engrafted upon an originally wholesome stock4 ,under every disadvantage1 several eminent men have sprung from their class4 ,thomas ,bewick1 the celebrated wood- engraver1 was early immured in pits2 the late celebrated mathematician1 ,dr4 ,hutton1 was originally a hewer of coal2 ,professor ,hann1 of ,king's ,college1 in ,london1 was a boy working underground in a northern colliery2 and ,george ,stephenson1 the illustrious engineer whose wonderful inventions have revolutionised the world1 and who1 after the lapse of many ages1 will still be reckoned among ,england's most illustrious sons1 began life as a trapper4 ,though the use of coal was already known to the ancient ,britons1 yet the first public notice of the mineral is mentioned by ,hume to have been in the time of ,henry ,,iii41 who1 in the year #abgb1 granted a licence to dig coals to the town of ,newcastle4 ,somewhat later in #abia1 the abbot and monastery of ,dunfermline in ,scotland obtained a similar grant4 ,the first coal is said to have been brought to ,london about the year #acje1 where it was used only by smiths1 dyers1 and soap-boilers4 ,the smoke1 which was supposed to be injurious to health1 caused great annoyance to the wealthier inhabitants of the city1 so that in #acaf its use was prohibited by a decree of ,edward ,i4 ,this ordinance seems1 however1 to have been but little attended to2 for a few years later inspectors were named to levy fines in case of its non-observance1 and if these proved ineffectual1 to demolish the fireplaces arranged for the burning of coal4 ,the complaints against this fuel continued several centuries1 for as late as #affa ,king ,charles ,,ii4 was prayed to remedy the nuisance by banishing from town manufacturers who required large quantities of coal4 ,yet1 in spite of all the interdictions1 complaints1 and prejudices arrayed against it1 coal continued to grow in use2 for as early as #afae1 ,newcastle gave employment to about four hundred vessels1 one-half of which number supplied the demands of ,london4 ,french ships even then fetched coals in that port1 and the ,hanse towns conveyed them to ,flanders4 ,about the middle of the seventeenth century the coal trade1 notwithstanding an increase of price1 required nine hundred vessels2 and fifty years later1 half a million of tons were exported from ,newcastle1 requiring fourteen hundred vessels for their carriage4 ,during the eighteenth century the northern coal trade constantly increased with the steady growth of ,london1 which in #aggj1 although not possessing one- sixth of its present population1 already consumed seven hundred thousand tons2 and it would have been impossible for the collieries to satisfy the constantly growing demand if the invention of the steam-engine had not lent its powerful aid to raise larger quantities of coal from a greater depth1 and to drain many works which otherwise would have been deluged with water4 ,the other ,english coal-fields began to be worked at a much later period than that of ,newcastle1 but rapidly grew in importance with the vast increase of our manufactories and smelting furnaces4 ,the extraction of coal is indeed constantly increasing at a truly gigantic rate4 ,thus1 in #ahde our whole annual production was rated at thirty-five millions of tons2 in #ahei it amounted1 according to trustworthy returns1 to sixty-eight millions2 in #ahfe it had advanced to ninety-six million tons2 and now probably exceeds one hundred million tons--a mass so enormous that with it a girdle of coal three feet wide1 and about seven high1 might be put round the earth4 ,the question of the duration of our coal-fields is evidently one of great national interest4 ,it has of late excited the attention both of statesmen and philosophers1 but unfortunately it is more easily put than answered4 ,while some authorities give us the cheering assurance that we have enough to last us for the next two thousand years at least1 others limit our supply to three or four centuries1 or assign even a couple of hundred years as the period when our descendants will have to seek their coals in the mines of other countries4 ,the quantity of fuel left in the ,newcastle basin--the most anciently worked of our coal-fields--was estimated by ,mr4 ,hall1 in #ahed1 at #e1aba1hhh1ief tons4 ,dividing this total by #bj1jjj1jjj of tons as the present annual consumption1 the future supplies of this famous coal-field would thus be limited to about two hundred and fifty years--a very short period in the history of a nation4 ,the immense consumption of coal in the iron furnaces and foundries of ,staffordshire will probably lead to an exhaustion of that coal-field even before ,northumberland and ,durham1 for its area is scarcely more than one-half of the area of the ,northern ,coal-field4 ,it has1 indeed1 one very thick seam of coal of from thirty to forty feet1 but this will not alone compensate the difference4 ,the coal-fields of ,yorkshire1 ,lancashire1 and ,derbyshire1 situated amongst the numerous iron-works and manufactories1 as well as large populations1 justify a similar prophecy2 but1 on the other hand1 better prospects are held out by the great coal-field of ,south ,wales4 ,after deducting the coal practically unattainable from its depth1 sixty thousand millions of tons may be considered a liberal estimate of the available mass4 ,at the present rate of extraction 7ten millions of tons7 this would give a supply for the next six thousand years2 but supposing the other sources to fail1 the extraction of coal from the ,south ,wales basin would of course be increased to such an extent as to limit its duration to six or seven centuries4 ,it may be remarked that the largest estimates of future coal supply are based on the assumption that mines may be worked at a depth of four or five thousand feet2 but this is very problematical4 ,mechanical skill may indeed pierce shafts to this depth1 or even deeper2 but the increase of temperature which is raised by one degree for about every successive seventy feet1 along with the increasing density of the air1 must ever oppose insuperable obstacles to human labour at such a distance below the level of the sea4 ,to the natural heat and density arising from depth must be added the corruptions arising from human perspiration1 which are constantly on the increase during working hours in working places4 #8,we speak1' says the author of an excellent article in the ,quarterly ,review1#ff #8from some brief personal experience of what these things are at a depth of nearly eighteen hundred feet1 where the actual temperature varied from eighty- five to eighty-six and a half degrees4 ,such experience is necessary to qualify any man to judge of the vertical limit of human labour1 and we hesitate to fix it at more than two thousand five hundred feet1 and should fix it at that depth only for the hardiest of hewers and haulers of coal4' ,footnote #ff3 ,volume cx4 ,the pressure of superincumbent strata1 which renders the upholding of the roof1 even at fourteen or fifteen hundred feet1 a problem of ceaseless anxiety and expense1 must also be taken into account4 ,at depths much exceeding two thousand feet1 it is very doubtful if the roofs could be securely upheld except at such an outlay as would considerably raise the cost of extraction1 while the coal itself would be more and more dense1 and therefore more and more difficult to dislodge4 ,for these various reasons1 all the strata of coal situated below the depth of two thousand five hundred feet1 or at the very utmost three thousand feet1 may be considered as practically unworkable2 and thus sober-minded calculators1 on comparing the available solid contents of our coal-fields with the rate of extraction1 have come to the conclusion that a thousand years is the maximum of the probable future supply of ,england and ,wales4 ,adding to this the ,scotch and ,irish coal1 which are not included in the estimate1 and swelling our account with lignite and peat1 we have at any rate sufficient materials for keeping our fires burning for a good time to come1 and may safely leave all desponding views on the subject to distant generations4 ,next to ,england1 no ,european country has so rapidly increased its coal production as the ,german empire1 where1 thanks to the railroads1 the consumption of mineral fuel is yearly extending over a wider range1 and gradually supplanting in many localities the use of wood4 ,the official tables inform us that in #ahff1 #dcb1eid1ibf cwt4 of black coal1 and #acj1ffa1ahb cwt4 of lignite--together1 about #bh million tons--were produced1 a mass considerably greater than the joint production of ,france and ,belgium1 and equal to about seven twenty-fifths of the production of ,england4 ,the chief coal-fields are those of ,upper ,silesia1 of the ,ruhr1 of the ,saar1 of ,waldenburg 7in ,lower ,silesia71 of ,dresden and ,zwickau 7in ,saxony71 of ,aachen 7,aix-la-,chapelle71 ,ibbenburen1 and ,minden1 which not only supply the greater part of ,germany1 but also yield a considerable exportation to ,france1 ,switzerland1 and ,holland4 ,the ,german ports on the ,north ,sea and the ,baltic still largely consume ,british coal1 which1 however1 has been entirely driven from the ,rhine2 and ,berlin1 which in #ahfj burnt #bjb1igj tons of ,english coal1 consumed little more than one-half that quantity 7#abc1dja tons7 in #ahfe1 in spite of a considerable increase of population2 while at the same time the consumption of coal from ,upper ,silesia increased from #fa1gjj to #cbc1gab tons4 ,the small but thriving kingdom of ,belgium1 where the collieries of ,lige1 ,namur1 and ,hainaut give rise to a commercial activity unequalled on the ,continent1 occupies the third rank among the coal countries of ,europe1 its production in #ahfc having amounted to #aj1ejj1jjj tons4 ,the provinces of ,namur and ,lige consume almost all the coal they produce1 while ,mons and ,charleroi1 in ,hainaut1 export more than three millions of tons to ,france4 ,this country1 which1 in #ahfb1 produced #i1djj1jjj tons of coal1 requires at least #af1jjj1jjj for its consumption1 and imports the difference from ,belgium1 ,england1 and ,germany4 ,the chief coal-basins are situated in the departments of the ,loire1 du ,nord1 ,sane-et-,loire1 and ,gard1 which furnish about seven-eighths of the whole production4 ,austria1 whose principal coal mines are situated in ,bohemia1 produces about #c1ejj1jjj tons4 ,spain possesses magnificent coal-fields in the ,asturias and ,santanders1 but as yet they have been but little worked4 ,besides the coal-basins of the mother country1 ,britain is richly provided with coals in many of her colonies4 ,in ,new ,south ,wales and ,tasmania1 in ,labuan and ,farther ,india1 in ,hindostan and ,new ,zealand1 in ,british ,columbia and ,honduras1 valuable basins or seams of coal have been discovered2 and a magnificent coal-field1 far surpassing in magnitude those of the ,british ,islands1 extends from ,newfoundland1 by ,cape ,breton1 ,prince ,edward ,island1 and ,nova ,scotia1 across a large portion of ,new ,brunswick4 ,thus far it has been but little worked1 in countries but thinly peopled1 and covered for the most part with boundless forests2 but as from its general proximity to the sea it offers every advantage for mining operations1 a brilliant future may safely be predicted for the lands it underlies4 ,the coal-fields of the ,united ,states are of still more ample proportions1 as they surpass in extent all the known coal-basins of the world besides4 ,beyond the ,alleghany ,mountains we find the magnificent ,appalachian ,coal-field1 traversing eight of the principal ,states in the ,american ,union1 from the northern frontiers of ,pennsylvania to ,alabama1 and covering a space of about sixty-five thousand square miles4 ,of scarcely inferior extent are the vast coal-fields of ,indiana1 ,illinois1 and ,kentucky1 which nearly equal in magnitude the whole of ,england2 and another smaller but highly important coal region is situated between the lakes ,erie1 ,huron1 and ,michigan1 not to mention the minor coal-basins scattered here and there from ,texas to ,missouri1 and from ,new ,york to ,maine4 ,as yet1 the ,americans have not derived full benefit from their extraordinary coal deposits2 but the possession of so vast an accumulation of power allows us to predict a future of almost boundless enterprise and production for that wonderful country4 ,while in most of our coal-seams deep shafts have to be sunk to obtain the coal1 and steam power has to be constantly employed to prevent its submersion1 the ,appalachian ,coal-field is intersected by three great navigable rivers1 the ,monongahela1 the ,alleghany1 and the ,ohio1 all of which lay open on their banks the level seams of coal4 ,at ,brownhill1 on the first of these rivers1 the main seam of bituminous coal1 ten feet thick1 breaks out in the steep cliff at the water's edge4 ,horizontal galleries may be driven everywhere at very slight expense1 and so worked as to drain themselves1 while the cars laden with coal1 and attached to each other1 glide down on a railway so as to deliver their burden into barges moored to the river's bank4 ,the same seam may be followed the whole way to ,pittsburg1 fifty miles distant4 ,being nearly horizontal1 it crops out1 as the river descends1 at a continually increasing1 but never at an inconvenient1 height above the ,monongahela4 ,besides this main seam1 another layer of workable coal1 six feet thick1 breaks out on the slope of the hills at a greater height4 ,here almost every proprietor can open a coal pit on his own land1 and the stratification being very regular1 he may calculate with precision the depth at which coal may be won4 ,one of the most remarkable collieries in the world is that of ,maunch ,chunk 7or the ,bear ,mountain7 in ,pennsylvania1 where an enormous bed of anthracitic coal1 nearly sixty feet thick1 and probably caused by the doubling back of a twenty-eight feet seam upon itself1 is quarried in the open air2 the overlying sandstone1 forty feet thick1 having been removed bodily from the top of the hill1 which1 to use the miners' expression1 has been #8scalped4' ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,bituminous ,,substances4 ,formation of ,petroleum--,enormous ,production of the ,pennsylvanian ,wells-- ,asphalte used by the ,ancients--,asphalte ,pavements--,the ,pitch ,lake of ,trinidad--,jet--,its ,manufacture in ,whitby4 ,the class of bituminous minerals exhibits a long series of inflammable substances1 which are supposed to be derived from the decomposition of organic matter in the rocks containing them4 ,some 7,petroleum--,rock- naphtha7 issue in a fluid state from the earth1 while others pass by insensible gradations from petroleum into pittasphalte or maltha 7viscid bitumen71 and the latter as insensibly into the solid form of asphalte4 ,certain bitumens1 again1 differ but slightly in composition from bituminous coals1 so that it is1 in reality1 very difficult to draw a decided line between them4 ,hence it is highly probable that in petroleum we see the product of a primeval vegetation which1 under the influence of chemical change and heat1 has partly assumed a liquid form1 and oozing from the deep-seated strata in which it was confined by terrestrial revolution1 now permeates the superficial rocks1 or exists collected in subterranean cavities1 whence it issues in jets and fountains whenever an outlet is made by boring4 ,petroleum springs have been known for many ages in ,burmah1 where there are about one hundred wells from one hundred and eighty to three hundred and six feet deep1 each lined with horizontal tubes1 but not all now worked2 at ,baku1 in the neighbourhood of the holy fires1 already mentioned2 near the village of ,amiano1 in ,parma1 whence enough was formerly obtained to light the streets of ,genoa2 at ,zante1 one of the ,ionian islands1 which has furnished oil for more than two thousand years1 its petroleum spring having been mentioned by ,herodotus2 at ,agrigentum1 in ,sicily1 which1 according to ,pliny1 furnished a mineral oil that was collected and used for burning in lamps2 on the banks of the ,kuban1 and many other localities2 but it is only since the discovery of the immense sources of supply in the north-eastern ,states of ,america and in ,canada that petroleum has become not only an article of the greatest commercial importance1 but a blessing to millions in all parts of the world4 ,it gladdens the long winter evenings of the ,icelandic peasant1 and enlivens the hut of the ,australian settler2 it has found its way into the remotest glens of the ,alps1 and to the distant sea- ports of ,china4 ,no wonder that its economical and cheerful light has caused its consumption to increase with a rapidity almost without a precedent in the annals of commerce4 ,though scarcely ten years have passed since the ,american wells first began to pour forth their streams of oil1 no less than #fgj1jjj1jjj gallons were exported in #ahff from the ports of ,philadelphia and ,new ,york4 ,one-third of this enormous quantity found its way to ,england2 one-fifth to the port of ,antwerp1 its chief staple place for ,western ,germany and the ,north of ,france2 the remainder was distributed among all the sea-ports of the world from ,hamburg to ,hong ,kong1 and from the ,cape to ,valparaiso4 ,when we reflect that this amazing mass of liquid bitumen1 which formed the cargo of no less than seven hundred and thirty-one large vessels1 must necessarily be increased from year to year to meet a constantly increasing demand1 it might almost be feared that1 in spite of the prodigality of nature1 its subterranean reservoirs must one day be exhausted4 ,asphalte1 a mineral pitch of a deep black colour and a conchoidal brilliant fracture1 is frequently found swimming on the surface of the ,lake ,asphaltites1 or ,dead ,sea1 in ,juda1 which receives its name from the circumstance4 ,it also occurs in many parts of ,egypt1 where it was used for embalming4 ,the ancients also frequently employed it1 combined with lime1 in their buildings4 ,not only do we find the ruined walls of temples and palaces in the ,east with the stones cemented with this material1 but some of the old ,roman castles in this country are found to hold bitumen in the cement by which their stones are secured4 #8,it is a remarkable fact1' says the late ,dr4 ,ure1 #8that the substance thus employed in the earliest constructions upon record1 should for so many thousand years have fallen well-nigh into disuse among civilised nations2 for there is certainly no class of minerals so well fitted as the bituminous1 by their plasticity1 fusibility1 tenacity1 adhesiveness to surfaces1 impenetrability by water1 and unchangeableness in the atmosphere1 to enter into the composition of terraces1 foot pavements1 roofs1 and every kind of hydraulic work4 ,bitumen1 combined with calcareous earth1 forms a compact semi-elastic solid1 which is not liable to suffer injury by the greatest alternations of frost and thaw1 which often disintegrate in a few years the hardest stone1 nor can it be ground to dust and worn away by the attrition of the feet of men and animals1 as sandstone1 flags1 and even blocks of granite are4 ,an asphalte pavement rightly tempered in tenacity1 solidity1 and elasticity1 seems to be incapable of suffering abrasion in the most crowded thoroughfares2 a fact exemplified of late in a few places in ,london1 but much more extensively and for a much longer time in ,paris4' ,many of the asphalte pavements made in ,england have1 indeed1 proved failures2 but as the proper proportions of the respective ingredients may not have been maintained1 further trials are advisable4 ,at present1 although bitumen is employed1 and with seeming advantage1 as a cement between paving-stones1 its use in the formation of foot pavement has been confined within narrow limits4 ,in ,europe1 the most extensive mine of asphaltic rock is undoubtedly that of the ,val de ,travers in the canton of ,neufchtel2 but the most remarkable deposit of bitumen in the world is the celebrated ,great ,pitch ,lake in the island of ,trinidad4 ,with regard to its formation1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell remarks that the ,orinoco1 which discharges its vast volume of water right opposite to the island1 has for ages been rolling down great quantities of woody and vegetable bodies into the surrounding sea1 where1 by the influence of currents and eddies1 they may be arrested and accumulated in particular places4 ,the frequent occurrence of earthquakes and other indications of volcanic action in these parts lends countenance to the opinion that these vegetable substances may have undergone1 by the agency of subterranean fire1 those transformations or chemical changes which produce petroleum2 and this may1 by the same causes1 be forced up to the surface1 where1 by exposure to the air1 it becomes inspissated1 and forms the different varieties of pure and earthy pitch or asphaltum so abundant in the island4 ,the ,pitch ,lake is a mile and a half in circumference2 the bitumen is solid and cold near the shores1 but gradually increases in temperature and softness towards the centre1 where it is boiling4 ,the solidified bitumen appears as if it had cooled as the surface boiled in large bubbles4 ,the ascent from the lake to the sea1 a distance of three-quarters of a mile1 is covered with a hardened pitch1 on which trees and vegetables flourish1 and the best pine-apples in the ,west ,indies1 called black pines1 grow wild4 ,as the ,trinidad pitch has been found by chemical analysis to be an excellent material for the making of gas1 it will probably become an important article of commerce4 ,the wonder is that it has been so long neglected4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,pitch ,,lake1 ,,trinidad4 ,,west ,,indies4 7,from an ,original ,sketch47 ,though ,jet is frequently considered to be wood in a high state of bituminisation1 yet the fact that we find this beautiful substance surrounding fossils1 and casing adventitious masses of stone1 seems to show that a liquid1 or1 at all events1 a plastic condition must at one time have prevailed in its formation4 ,this opinion is further strengthened by the circumstance that petroleum strongly impregnates the rock in which it is found1 giving out a strong odour when it is exposed to the air4 ,jet occurs chiefly in the neighbourhood of ,whitby in ,yorkshire1 the estates of ,lord ,mulgrave being especially productive4 ,the jet miner searches with great care the slaty rocks1 and finding the jet spread out1 often in extreme thinness1 between the laminations of the rock1 he follows it with great care1 and is frequently rewarded by its thickening out to two or three inches4 ,the art of working jet is of very ancient date in this country1 for the ,romans certainly employed it for ornamental purposes1 and probably found it in use among the ,britons whom they conquered4 ,lionel ,charlton1 in the #8,history of ,whitby1' says that in one of the ,roman tumuli1 lying close to the jaw-bone1 he found the earring of a lady having the form of a heart1 with a hole in the upper end for suspension from the ear4 ,there exists no doubt that1 when the ,abbey of ,whitby was the seat of learning and the resort of pilgrims1 jet-rosaries and crosses were common4 ,the manufacture was carried on till the time of ,elizabeth1 when it seems to have ceased suddenly1 and was not resumed till the year #ahjj1 when ,robert ,jefferson1 a painter1 and ,john ,carter made beads and crosses with files and knives4 ,a stranger coming to ,whitby1 and seeing them working in this rude way1 advised them to try to turn it2 they followed his advice1 and found it answer4 ,several more then joined them1 and the trade has been gradually increasing since2 so that at present the total annual value of the mourning ornaments made at ,whitby and ,scarborough amounts to no less than #abe1jjjl4 ,about #bej men and boys are employed in searching for jet1 and between #fjj and #gjj are engaged in its manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,salt4 ,geological ,position of ,rock ,salt--,mines of ,northwich--,their immense ,excavations--,droitwich and ,stoke--,wieliczka--,berchtesgaden and ,reichenhall--,admirable ,machinery--,stassfurt--,processes employed in the ,manufacture of ,salt--,origin of ,rock-salt ,deposits4 ,common salt is so necessary to man1 and of such vast importance to the manufacturer and agriculturist1 that the processes by which it is obtained are justly reckoned among the chief branches of industry4 ,in many of the warmer countries of the globe it is procured simply by the evaporation of sea-water in shallow lagoons2 in others1 it gushes forth in briny springs1 or occurs in inland lakes1 pools1 and marshes1 or is extracted in the solid form of rock-salt from the bosom of the earth4 ,the geological position of rock-salt is very variable2 it is found in all sedimentary formations1 and is generally interstratified with gypsum1 and associated with beds of clay4 ,in ,england its chief deposits occur in the new red sandstone in the region around ,northwich1 in ,cheshire4 ,they consist of two beds1 which are not less than one hundred feet thick1 and are supposed to constitute large insulated masses about a mile and a half long and nearly #a1cjj yards broad4 ,the uppermost bed occurs at seventy-five feet beneath the surface1 and is separated from the lower mass by layers of indurated clay1 thirty-one and a half feet thick1 with veins of rock-salt running between them4 ,hitherto only the lower bed has been worked1 for the upper deposits are of inferior purity4 ,these valuable mines were accidentally discovered in #afgj during an unsuccessful sinking for coal2 and as ever since that time they have furnished a constantly increasing quantity of salt1 amounting during the last few years to more than #hjj1jjj tons1 the vastness of the excavations may easily be imagined4 ,to support the roof1 which is about twenty feet above the floor1 and extends in some cases over several acres1 huge pillars not less than fifteen feet thick have been left standing at irregular intervals1 thus forming immense rows of galleries1 which even when illuminated by thousands of lights are lost in a dim and endless perspective1 which may well remind the spectator of the fabled ,hall of ,eblis4 ,as the salt is detached from the rock by blasting1 the grandeur of the scene is not a little heightened by the frequent explosions re-echoing through the spacious vaults1 and booming like thunder from some dark and distant gallery4 ,for the transport of the salt underground1 the roomy passages are traversed in every direction by tram-roads1 on which waggons drawn by horses easily convey it from the place of extraction to the bottom of the shaft4 ,the chief part of the ,cheshire salt 7both fossil and rock7 manufactured is sent by the river ,weever to ,liverpool4 ,as it is rarely found of sufficient purity for immediate use1 it is first dissolved in water1 and afterwards reduced to a crystalline state by evaporating the solution4 ,the necessary coals are mostly brought by canal from the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,helens1 and salt taken as a return freight2 so that1 as in a clock-work where one wheel catches into another1 nothing is wanting to render its manufacture as economical as possible4 ,among the mineral treasures which nature has so prodigally bestowed upon ,great ,britain1 the salt-mines of ,cheshire hold a conspicuous rank1 as they not only provide chiefly for our own vast consumption1 but also for that of many other countries4 ,in #ahfd the salt exports amounted to #eif1jfc tons1 the total value being #bha1ddcl4 ,about one-third of this immense quantity 7#ahc1jig tons7 found its way to the ,british ,east ,indies1 #gb1bja tons to ,russia1 and #hf1bjh tons to the ,united ,states4 ,next in importance to the ,cheshire mines are the brine-pits of ,droitwich and ,stoke1 in ,worcestershire1 the former of which are said to have been worked in the time of the ,romans1 and now chiefly supply the ,london market4 ,in #ahfe their produce amounted to #ahe1jjj tons1 of which about #dj1jjj were exported4 ,at ,droitwich the borings are only #age feet deep1 and so abundant is the supply of brine that1 if the pumps cease working1 it speedily rises to within nine feet of the surface1 and if left unremoved1 soon overflows4 ,the most renowned salt-mines on the continent of ,europe are undoubtedly those of ,wieliczka1 a small town of about #f1jjj inhabitants1 situated to the south of ,cracow1 in a fruitful valley on the northern borders of the ,carpathian mountains4 #8,after descending #baj feet1' says ,mr4 ,bayard ,taylor1 an ,american traveller who visited them a few years ago1 #8we saw the first veins of rock-salt in a bed of clay and crumbled sandstone4 ,thirty feet more1 and we were in a world of salt4 ,level galleries branched off from the foot of the staircase2 overhead1 a ceiling of solid salt1 under foot a floor of salt1 and on either side gray walls of salt1 sparkling here and there with minute crystals4 ,lights glimmered ahead1 and on turning a corner we came upon a gang of workmen1 some hacking away at the solid floor1 others trundling wheelbarrows full of the precious cubes4 ,here was the chapel of ,st4 ,anthony--the oldest in the mines--a ,byzantine excavation1 supported by columns1 with altar1 crucifix1 and life-size statues of saints1 apparently in black marble1 but all as salt as ,lot's wife1 as ,i discovered by putting my tongue to the nose of ,john the ,baptist4 ,the humid air of this upper story of the mines has damaged some of the saints4 ,francis1 especially1 is running away like a dip candle1 and all of his head is gone except his chin4 ,the limbs of ,joseph are dropping off as if he had the ,norwegian leprosy1 and ,lawrence has deeper scars than his gridiron could have made1 running up and down his back4 ,a ,bengal light1 burnt at the altar1 brought into sudden life this strange temple1 which presently vanished into utter darkness1 as if it had never been4 #8,i cannot follow1 step by step1 our journey of two hours through the labyrinths of this wonderful mine4 ,it is a bewildering maze of galleries1 grand halls1 staircases1 and vaulted chambers1 where one soon loses all sense of distance or direction1 and drifts along blindly in the wake of his conductor4 ,everything was solid salt except where great piers of hewn logs had been built up to support some threatening roof1 or vast chasms1 left in quarrying1 had been bridged across4 ,as we descended to lower regions1 the air became more dry and agreeable1 and the saline walls more pure and brilliant4 ,one hall1 #ajh feet in length1 resembled a ,grecian theatre1 the traces of blocks taken out in regular layers representing the seats for the spectators4 ,out of this single hall #a1jjj1jjj cwt4 of salt had been taken1 or enough to supply the #dj1jjj1jjj inhabitants of ,austria for one year4 #8,two obelisks of salt commemorated the visit of ,francis ,i4 and his ,empress in another spacious1 irregular vault1 through which we passed by means of a wooden bridge1 resting on piers of the crystalline rock4 ,after we had descended to the bottom of this chamber1 a boy ran along the bridge above with a burning ,bengal-light1 throwing flashes of blue lustre on the obelisks1 on the scarred walls1 vast arches1 the entrances to deeper halls1 and the far roof1 fretted with the picks of the workmen4 ,the effect was truly magical4 ,presently we entered another and loftier chamber1 yawning downwards like the mouth of hell1 with cavernous tunnels opening out of the further end4 ,in these tunnels the workmen1 half naked1 with torches in their hands1 wild cries1 fireworks1 and the firing of guns 7which here so reverberates in the imprisoned air that one can feel every wave of sound71 give a rough representation of the infernal regions1 for the benefit of the crowned heads who visit the mines4 ,a little further1 we struck upon a lake four fathoms deep1 upon which we embarked in a heavy1 square boat1 and entered a gloomy tunnel1 over the entrance of which was inscribed 7in salt letters7 8,good luck to you60 ,midway in the tunnel1 the halls at either ends were suddenly illuminated1 and a crash1 as of a hundred cannon bellowing through the hollow vaults1 shook the air and water in such wise that our boat had not ceased trembling when we landed in the further hall4 ,a tablet inscribed 8,heartily welcome60 saluted us on landing4 ,finally1 at the depth of #dej feet1 our journey ceased1 although we were but half way to the bottom4 ,the remainder is a wilderness of shafts1 galleries1 and smaller chambers1 the extent of which we could only conjecture4 ,we then returned through scores of tortuous passages to some vaults1 where a lot of gnomes1 naked to the hips1 were busy with pick1 mallet1 and wedge1 blocking out and separating the solid pavement4 ,the process is quite primitive1 scarcely differing from that of the ancient ,egyptians in quarrying granite4 ,the blocks are first marked out on the surface by a series of grooves2 one side is then deepened to the required thickness1 and wedges being inserted under the block1 it is soon split off4 #8,the number of workmen employed in the mines is #a1ejj1 all of whom belong to the #8upper crust1'--that is1 they live on the outside of the world4 ,they are divided into gangs1 and relieve each other every six hours4 ,each gang quarries out1 on an average1 a little more than #a1jjj cwt4 of salt in that space of time1 making the annual yield #a1ejj1jjj cwt46 #8,the men we saw were fine1 muscular1 healthy-looking fellows2 and the officer1 in answer to my questions1 stated that their sanitary condition was quite equal to that of field labourers4 ,he explicitly denied the ridiculous story of men having been born in these mines1 and having gone through life without ever mounting to the upper world4' ,as far as explored1 the salt-bed occupies a space of #i1jjj feet in length and #d1jjj in width1 and consists of five successive stages or stockwerke1 separated from each other by intervening strata of from #ajj to #aej feet in thickness1 and reaching to a depth of #a1ejj feet4 ,notwithstanding the immense amount of salt already quarried from this wonderful deposit1 which1 according to authentic records1 has been worked ever since the twelfth century1 and perhaps even much earlier1 it is estimated that1 at the present rate of exploitation1 the known supply cannot be exhausted under #cjj years4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that sources of sweet water are found in the mines in close proximity to the salt1 a circumstance which is owing to the latter not forming a continuous stratum1 but being imbedded in large nests or insular masses in the tertiary clay of the mountain1 so that in several places the water filtering from the top is able to gush forth in the subterranean galleries without any saline admixture4 ,in the summer of #ahfh a serious accident happened to the mines of ,wieliczka1 which at one time was supposed to threaten their total destruction4 ,in the hope of discovering valuable potash salts1 such as occur at ,stassfurt1 in the vicinity of the rock-salt1 a boring was imprudently attempted at a great depth1 through a contiguous aquiferous stratum1 and the consequence was that1 instead of meeting with the expected result1 a powerful spring was tapped1 which1 pouring forth an immense volume of water1 filled the lower galleries4 ,the inhabitants of the village of ,wieliczka1 which is situated above the mines1 were terrified4 ,they not only feared for the ruin of the mine1 which afforded them their chief means of subsistence1 but dreaded also the falling in of their houses1 in consequence of the melting of the salt-pillars which upheld the flooded galleries4 ,fortunately their fears proved to be exaggerated1 as the inundation1 which remained confined to the lower galleries1 is now being rapidly brought under by means of powerful steam pumps1 and measures have been taken for blocking up the spring4 ,even supposing the water to have continued pouring in with undiminished force1 and without any effort being made to drain it off1 the excavations are so vast that it would have taken many years to fill them4 ,besides the mines of ,wieliczka1 ,austria possesses many other considerable deposits of rock-salt in ,gallicia 7,bochnia71 ,hungary1 and ,transylvania4 ,in ,salzburg 7,ischl1 ,halstadt ,hall71 ,tyrol1 and the neighbouring mines of ,berchtesgaden1 in ,bavaria1 the salt does not occur in large solid masses1 fit to be at once extracted from the bosom of the earth1 but imbues masses of gypsum and anhydrite1 which become quite light and porous when the salt has been removed by water4 ,as it would be too expensive to remove this compound1 an ingenious method has been contrived for introducing water into the mines from above1 and drawing it off again through an adit or lower gallery as soon as it is saturated with salt4 ,the brine thus obtained at ,berchtesgaden is then conveyed1 by means of pipes or conduits1 to ,reichenhall and ,rosenhain1 where the necessary fuel for its evaporation is near at hand4 ,the distance from ,berchtesgaden to ,rosenhain is no less than thirty leagues2 and between both places many high mountains1 steep rocks1 and narrow gorges intervene4 ,the works which lead the brine over this distance1 and through all these natural obstacles1 may therefore justly be considered as a masterpiece of mechanical skill4 ,as the pipes must often ascend mountains1 the highest elevation above the pit being #a1bah feet1 and then again slant down into ravines2 as in many parts rocks had to be levelled and forests cut down for the purpose of laying them1 and as they are subject to frequent damage in a severe climate1 it may easily be imagined that the greatest engineering power was required for the execution of so grand a work4 ,hydraulic machines serve to raise the brine over the mountains1 and the water-power of the rivulets descending from the heights is used for forcing it upwards4 ,the contrivance is so admirable that the small machine at ,berchtesgaden raises #bgj cwt4 of brine to a height of #caa feet by means of an equal weight of water descending from a height of #cge feet4 ,in some parts the tubes of this colossal duct run along the high road1 in others tunnels have been pierced to shorten the distance4 ,thus the ,alpine rock-salt requires much ingenuity to be rendered productive1 while in other parts we find rock-salt cropping out on the surface of the earth1 so as to be very easily worked4 ,the soil of many extensive wastes in ,asia and ,africa is covered and impregnated with salt1 which has never been inclosed by superimposed deposits4 ,near ,lake ,oroomiah1 in ,persia1 it forms hills and extensive plains1 and it abounds in the neighbourhood of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,in the valley of ,cardona in the ,pyrenees two thick masses of rock-salt1 apparently united at their bases1 make their appearance on one of the slopes of the hill4 ,one of the beds1 or rather masses1 has been worked1 and measures about #acj yards by #bej1 but its depth has not been determined4 ,it consists of salt in a laminated condition and with confused crystallisation4 ,that part which is exposed is composed of eight beds1 nearly horizontal1 and having a total thickness of fifteen feet1 but the beds are separated from one another by red and variegated marls and gypsum4 ,the second mass not worked appears to be unstratified1 but in other respects resembles the former2 and this portion1 where it has been exposed to the action of the weather1 is steeply scarped and bristles with needlelike points1 so that its appearance has been compared to that of a glacier4 ,the rock-salt deposit of ,ilezk1 about fifty miles to the south of ,orenburg1 in ,russia1 is still more remarkable4 ,on the sides of a crater- like pit1 which has been dug into the mass where it most nearly approaches the surface1 the rock-salt is seen standing in perpendicular walls4 ,on the west side of the gap a convenient staircase leads to the bottom4 ,the salt is hewn in large square blocks1 which are afterwards sawn into smaller pieces of eighty-five pounds4 ,the regular annual produce is fixed by ,government at #gjj1jjj pud1 or about #aj1jjj tons1 of which part is furnished gratuitously to the neighbouring ,kirghise hordes1 who no doubt are made to pay dearly for their salt in some other manner4 ,the labours in the mine are only carried on during the summer1 and begin by pumping out the water which has settled at the bottom of the pit from the melting snow2 while the transport to the next river by means of sledges takes place during the winter4 ,were this mine situated in a less barbarous or more accessible country1 it might easily rival1 or even surpass1 the produce of ,cheshire4 ,to the south of the pit1 where the regular mining operations1 such as they are1 take place1 a great number of old pits or holes may be seen1 in which the ,cossacks1 ,baschkirs1 and ,kirghise used to provide themselves with salt before ,government undertook the regular working of the mine in #aged4 ,these pits1 some of which are sixty feet square1 and from six to eight feet deep1 are generally full of a saturated brine of a brownish colour1 and are made use of for bathing by the ,kirghise1 who justly consider them as an excellent remedy for many diseases4 ,before #ahef all the salt produced in ,prussia was obtained from brine springs1 but since that time enormous beds of rock-salt have been discovered in various parts of the kingdom4 ,those of ,stassfurt1 near ,magdeburg1 produced #b1bef1jjj cwt4 in #ahff1 part of which was exported into foreign countries1 through the ports of ,lubeck and ,hamburg4 ,but the mines of ,stassfurt1 besides rock-salt1 contain also an inexhaustible quantity of highly valuable potash salts1 which are largely used for agricultural purposes1 and supply the wants of the numerous chemical manufactories which have rapidly converted an obscure hamlet into a flourishing seat of industry4 ,at ,speerenberg1 about twenty miles to the south of ,berlin1 the earth-borer has pierced through an enormous deposit of rock-salt1 more than two thousand feet thick1 and at ,segeberg1 in the province of ,sleswig-,holstein1 a shaft is now being sunk into a rich bed of rock-salt1 recently discovered4 ,the method of preparing the rock-salt1 and the processes employed in manufacturing salt from brine springs1 are nearly the same in all salt- works4 ,the first process is to obtain a proper strength of brine1 either by saturating fresh water with the salt that has been brought up from the mine1 or pumping up the salt water from springs that have become saturated by passing through saliferous beds4 ,the brine obtained in a clear state is put into evaporating pans and brought as quickly as possible to a boiling heat 7in the case of strong brine #bbf ,f471 when a skin is formed on the surface1 consisting chiefly of impurities4 ,this is taken off1 and either thrown away or used for agricultural purposes1 and the first crystals which form are likewise raked away and thrown aside as of little value4 ,the heat is then kept up to the boiling point for about eight hours1 during which time evaporation goes on steadily1 the liquid gradually diminishing1 and the salt being deposited2 it is then raked out1 put into moulds1 and placed in a drying stove1 to render it perfectly dry and ready for sale4 ,when salt is to be prepared from the weak brines which are of common occurrence in ,france and ,germany1 the brine is concentrated by natural evaporation previous to the more costly application of artificial heat4 ,having been first raised by pumps1 it is then allowed to trickle in a continuous stream down the surface of bundles of thorns exposed to the sun and wind1 and built up in regular walls between parallel wooden frames4 ,these evaporating works 7,gradirwerke or graduation-houses7 are frequently of an immense extent4 ,at ,salza1 near ,schnebeck1 for instance1 the graduation-house is #e1hag feet long1 the thorn walls are from #cc to #eb feet high in different parts1 and present a total surface of #be1jjj feet4 ,according to the weakness of the brine it must be the more frequently pumped up and made to flow down repeatedly over the thorns in different compartments of the building4 ,an immense quantity of fuel is saved by this economical mode of evaporation4 ,the origin of rock-salt deposits is one of the most interesting geological questions4 ,according to some authorities1 they were the result of igneous agency1 while others are of opinion that in every case they have been deposited from solution in water4 ,their usual occurrence in lenticular or irregularly-shaped beds1 having a great horizontal extension1 favours the aqueous theory1 for masses protruded upwards1 or sublimated by volcanic power1 are generally found to occupy vertical fissures4 ,to account for their formation we must suppose a sea such as the ,mediterranean cut off by an elevation of the land at its mouth from its previous communication with the ocean1 and gradually losing more water by evaporation than it receives by rain and rivers4 ,as thus the amount of salt which it holds dissolved increases1 deposits of rock-salt will ultimately form at the bottom of its deepest parts1 and subsequent changes in the earth's surface may then either conceal them under superincumbent strata1 as at ,northwich1 or leave them exposed1 as in many of the ,african or ,asiatic wastes4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,sulphur4 ,sulphur ,mines of ,sicily--,conflagration of a ,sulphur ,mine--,the ,solfataras of ,krisuvick--,iwogasima in ,japan--,solfatara of ,puzzuoli--,crater of ,teneriffe--,alaghez--,bdshegy in ,transylvania--,sulphur from the ,throat of ,popocatepetl--,sulphurous ,springs--,pyrites--,mines of ,san ,domingos in ,portugal--,the ,baron of ,pommoro4 ,though in every volcanic region of the globe sulphurous exhalations arise from a great number of craters or solfataras1 yet sulphur is but rarely found in sufficient quantities to remunerate the miner's toil4 ,in this respect the island of ,sicily is unrivalled1 for no other country possesses such masses of this valuable1 and in many cases indispensable1 mineral4 ,the numerous sulphur pits of ,sicily1 which occur in crevices or hollows over a space of #aej geographical miles1 are situated chiefly in the southern part of the island1 in the districts between the sea-border of the province of ,girgenti and the mountains of ,etna1 ,mannaro1 ,castro ,giovanni1 and ,catolica4 ,they are no doubt the produce of a vast volcanic action which took place about the beginning of the tertiary period1 when the sulphurous fumes1 rising through countless clefts or fumaroles from the mysterious furnaces of the deep1 condensed in the chalk and clay grounds of the superficial strata4 ,in former times1 as long as the chief use of sulphur was confined to the fabrication of gunpowder1 its production was comparatively insignificant2 but since the manufacture of sulphuric acid has become a branch of industry of continually increasing importance1 sulphur1 the ingredient necessary to its formation1 has considerably risen in value1 and now constitutes the chief article of ,sicilian exportation4 ,girgenti1 the most important town on the south coast of the island1 though its dirty miserable streets and its #ae1jjj inhabitants form a melancholy contrast to the wealth and luxury of ancient ,agrigentum1 within whose lofty walls a population of #hjj1jjj souls is said to have existed1 owes to the increase of the sulphur trade the slight dawn of prosperity which has enlivened it during these latter years4 ,all the sulphur-pits in the south-west of the island send their produce to the port of ,girgenti1 and on every road one meets with long files of mules and asses loaded with sacks of sulphur4 ,the grape disease1 against which this mineral is everywhere used in ,france and ,italy as the only successful remedy1 has given a new impulse to the sulphur trade by raising the price to about three times its former value4 ,the merchants of ,girgenti did not neglect this opportunity for making their fortunes1 for as soon as the grape disease became a national calamity for the chief wine-producing countries1 they bought up large tracts of sulphur-grounds1 and thus acquired considerable wealth4 ,a visit paid by ,dr4 ,hckel#fg in #ahei to the sulphur pits near ,girgenti proves that mining operations in ,sicily are still in the primitive condition described by all former travellers4 ,not even our commonest improvements are known2 the pickaxe and the spade are almost the only implements employed1 and with these the earth is excavated in the most slovenly manner1 wherever a vein promises to be productive4 ,the materials thus loosened from the rock are carried out of the mine in baskets and thrown into large heaps1 from which the sulphur is extracted in the following wasteful manner4 ,the conical mounds are covered with a mantle of moist clay1 in which some openings are left for the emission of the smoke1 and set fire to at the bottom4 ,the melted sulphur collects in grooves or channels1 and flows into square forms1 where it congeals into a solid mass4 ,this method1 which is said to have been first introduced by the ,saracens1 causes1 of course1 a great loss of sulphur2 but distilling ovens heated by coal have been found too expensive to answer4 ,dr4 ,hckel traversed one of the longest excavations1 which was sometimes so narrow that he could only with difficulty pass1 and then expanded into high vaults whose roof was ornamented with beautiful crystals of celestine and gypsum4 ,the workmen were completely naked1 on account of the oppressive heat which reigns in these pits2 and their dark brown skins1 sprinkled with light yellow sulphur dust1 gave them a very strange and savage appearance4 ,most of the inhabitants of ,girgenti are at present employed in the sulphur mines1 and comparatively few are engaged in cultivating the beautiful gardens and fields that extend from the foot of the town to the sea1 and occupy the site where once the ancient city of ,agrigentum rose from the shore to the terraced hills which are still crowned with the ruins of her colossal temples4 ,footnote #fg3 #8,zeitschrift fr allgemeine ,erdkunde1' ,no4 #hd1 ,juni1 #ahfj4 ,on an average1 the sulphur-ores of ,sicily yield about sixteen per cent4 of brimstone1 and the quantity annually produced has increased from #id1ihe tons in #ahea to #ahd1agc tons in #ahff4 ,besides ,girgenti1 the chief ports from which sulphur is exported are those of ,licata1 ,terranova1 ,siculiana1 ,palermo1 ,messina1 and ,catania4 ,one of the most remarkable events in the history of ,sicilian sulphur mines occurred during the last century in the solfatara of ,sommatino4 ,this celebrated pit1 which is situated on the precipitous right bank of the ,salso ,valley1 took fire in #aghg1 through the negligence of the workmen1 and as may easily be imagined from the inflammable nature of the materials1 the conflagration caused the complete abandonment of the pit4 ,after two years1 however1 during which the fire raged incessantly1 the mountain suddenly burst asunder on its south-eastern flank1 and a stream of melted sulphur1 gushing forth from the cleft1 precipitated itself into the neighbouring river4 ,this phenomenon1 which was evidently caused by ,nature having performed on a vast scale an operation similar to that by which the sulphur is usually extracted from the ore1 produced a mass of the purest brimstone1 amounting to more than #dj1jjj tons1 so that the owners of the pit1 who had given up their property as totally lost1 became enriched by the very circumstance which had seemed to menace them with utter ruin4 ,next to the sulphur mines of ,sicily1 those of ,teruel and ,lorca1 in ,spain1 which in #ahfb furnished #ab1fci tons1 are the most considerable in ,europe4 ,the mines of ,perticara di ,talamella1 in ,italy1 annually yield about #d1jjj tons2 and the ,austrian sulphur pits of ,swoszowice1 near ,cracovia1 and of ,radoboy1 in ,croatia1 produced #a1hfg tons in #ahfe4 ,in all these mines the sulphur has been deposited or condensed in times long past1 undoubtedly in the same manner as it is formed in the solfataras of the present day1 where the decomposition of the volanic gases on reaching the atmosphere causes the precipitation of sulphur4 ,most of these still active solfataras are unproductive in a commercial sense1 either from their inaccessible position in the crater basins of enormous volcanoes1 or from their situation in remote deserts1 or from the small quantities of the mineral forming on their surface4 ,the solfataras of ,krisuvick in ,iceland1 for instance1 are separated from the nearest ports by such rugged lava-fields as to render the cost of transport an almost insurmountable obstacle to their being worked with profit4 ,but though undeserving of the mercantile speculator's attention1 these northern sulphur pits rank among the most striking natural wonders of ,iceland4#fh ,footnote #fh3 #8,the ,polar ,world1' p4 #eb4 ,the remote solfataras of ,japan afford a more abundant supply4 #8,the sulphur1' says ,kmpfer1 in his history of that singular country1 #8is the produce of a small island which1 from the great quantity it affords of this substance1 is called 8,iwogasima10 or the ,sulphur ,island4 ,it is not above a hundred years since the natives first ventured to explore that desert spot1 which1 from the smoke rising from its surface1 was previously supposed to be the abode of demons4 ,at length a bold adventurer obtained leave to visit the dreaded island4 ,he chose fifty resolute men to accompany him on his hazardous expedition1 and on landing found1 instead of the fiends he expected to encounter1 a volcanic soil1 covered in many parts with thick deposits of sulphur1 and emitting dense volumes of smoke from countless fumaroles4 ,ever since that time the island yields a considerable revenue to the ,prince of ,satzuma4' ,one of the most celebrated solfataras is that of ,puzzuoli1 near ,naples4 ,it may be considered as a nearly extinguished crater1 and appears1 by the accounts of ,strabo and others1 to have been before the ,christian era in very much its present state1 giving vent continually to aqueous vapours1 together with sulphureous and muriatic acid gases1 like those evolved by ,vesuvius4 ,this remarkable spot has attracted the attention of naturalists and poets since the remotest antiquity1 and ,homer mentions it in his immortal narrative of the peregrinations of ,ulysses4 ,the process for the separation of the sulphur1 which is condensed in considerable quantities amongst the gravel collected in the circle which forms the interior of the crater1 is conducted in the following manner4 ,the mixture of sulphur and gravel is dug up and submitted to distillation1 to extract the sulphur2 the gravel is then returned to its original place1 and in the course of about thirty years is again so rich in sulphur as to serve for the same process once more4 #8,the crater of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1' says ,leopold von ,buch1 #8is now but an immense solfatara4 ,the sulphureous vapours which escape from every part of the vast cauldron1 decompose the rock1 convert it into white clay1 and cover it in many places with beautiful crystals of sulphur4 ,by this constant chemical action1 the soil towards the centre of the crater has been rendered so soft that in many places great caution is necessary to avoid sinking into the yielding mass1 which has a temperature higher than that of boiling water4' ,a remarkable sulphur formation occurs on the rocks surrounding the crater of the volcano ,alaghez1 situated in ,northern ,armenia4 ,the sulphur is precipitated in thick crusts on their walls1 and as the summit of the crater is inaccessible1 the people of the neighbourhood1 in order to collect the sulphur1 fire at it with musket balls1 and pick up the fragments thus detached4 ,close beneath the summit of the ,patuka1 in ,java1 is a circular lake about fifteen hundred feet in diameter4 ,the borders are covered with a rich vegetation2 the water is clear and colourless1 but appears yellowish from the reflection of the sulphur which covers the whole bottom of the lake4 ,in #ahah ,reinwardt found in this piece of water an islet completely composed of sulphur4 ,after the eruption of the ,tashem ,idjem1 another ,javanese volcano1 in #agif1 such quantities of sulphur were formed that several hundred shiploads could be gathered and exported as the produce of this single volcanic paroxysm4 ,the mountain ,bdshegy1 in ,transylvania1 exhibits the remarkable phenomenon of sulphur caves4 ,on entering one of these vast subterranean crevices1 incrustations of sulphur are seen to cover the lower part of the walls2 but respiration is still easy and free4 ,on advancing a few steps the air acquires a sharp acidulous taste1 and the feet begin to feel a warmth which gradually increases to an intolerable heat4 ,on advancing still further the lights are extinguished4 ,a speedy retreat is necessary1 and imprudent visitors have been known to pay for their curiosity with their lives4 ,in the island of ,milo there are likewise numerous caverns the walls of which are incrusted with sulphur and alum4 ,a visit to these grottoes1 which annually yield about five hundred tons of pure sulphur1 is not without danger from the suffocating fumes that issue from their crevices4 ,some of the ,arabian volcanoes also produce considerable quantities of sulphur1 such as the ,dufan1 which is called ,djebel-el-,kebril1 or #8,sulphur ,mountain' by the ,arabs1 and is mentioned in the writings of ,herodotus4 ,though the craters of volcanoes are generally almost inaccessible1 yet history mentions a curious instance where the most extraordinary exertions were made for collecting sulphur above the regions of perpetual snow4 ,during the wondrous campaign which ended in the overthrow of the empire of ,montezuma1 ,cortez1 being in want of powder1 sent a party under ,francisco ,montao1 a cavalier of determined resolution1 to gather sulphur from the smoking throat of ,popocatepetl1 which rises1 with its silvery sheet of everlasting snow1 to the height of #ag1heb feet above the level of the sea4 ,after traversing the lower region1 which was clothed with a dense forest1 so thickly matted that in some places it was scarcely possible to penetrate it1 the track of the ,spaniards opened on a black surface of glazed volcanic sand and of lava1 the broken fragments of which1 arrested in its boiling process in a thousand fantastic forms1 opposed continual impediments to their advance4 ,they now came to the limits of perpetual snow1 where new difficulties presented themselves1 as the treacherous ice gave an imperfect footing1 and a false step might precipitate them into the frozen chasms that yawned around4 ,to increase their distress respiration in these arial regions became so difficult that every effort was attended with sharp pains in the head and limbs4 ,at length they reached the edge of the crater1 which presented an irregular ellipse at its mouth more than a league in circumference4 ,a lurid flame burned gloomily at the bottom1 sending up a sulphurous steam1 which1 cooling as it rose1 was precipitated on the walls of the cavity4 ,the party cast lots1 and it fell on ,montao himself to descend in a basket into this hideous abyss1 into which he was lowered by his companions to the depth of four hundred feet6 ,this was repeated several times1 till the adventurous cavalier had collected a sufficient quantity of sulphur for the wants of the army4 ,many mineral springs owe their medicinal properties to the hydrosulphuric acid which they contain1 and whose decomposition frequently gives rise to the formation of sulphur4 ,when the large marble slab which covers the imperial source at ,aix-la-,chapelle is removed at the end of every twenty years1 about two hundred pounds of sulphur are collected from the walls above the spring4 ,combinations of sulphur with metals1 particularly with iron and copper 7pyrites71 occur in much more considerable masses and in a far greater number of localities than the pure uncombined mineral4 ,formerly the sulphides of iron 7#eb per cent4 sulphur1 #dg per cent4 iron7 and copper served only for the fabrication of vitriol and alum2 but since the progress of chemical science has allowed them to be profitably used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid1 they have acquired a far greater importance4 ,our own mines1 which are situated chiefly in the county of ,wicklow1 produced in #ahff at least #ace1jjj tons of iron pyrites1 besides which an additional quantity of about #ajj1jjj tons was imported from other countries4 ,in ,southern ,spain the mines of cupriferous pyrites--particularly in the province of ,huelva1 and in the ,sierra de ,tharsis1 which on account of the copper they contain were already worked in times anterior to the ,roman occupation1 and give proof of their ancient importance by the vast dimensions of their excavations--produced in #ahfc no less than #bdf1acg tons4 ,in ,portugal the mines of ,san ,domingos1 in the province of ,alentejo1 likewise afford a remarkable example of the mining industry of the ,romans1 in the ancient adit which served for draining the works4 ,they merely used the ores that were richest in copper1 and rejected the poorer qualities1 which form the immense mounds of scori round the mouth of the excavations4 ,after having been abandoned for many centuries the mines of ,san ,domingos are once more diligently worked4 ,their newly acquired importance is due chiefly to the enterprise of ,mr4 ,james ,mason1 now ,baron of ,pommoro4 ,a railroad nine miles long unites the mine with the left bank of the ,guadiana1 which has been rendered navigable for larger vessels for a length of ten miles4 ,moreover the port of ,pommoro has been excavated in the steep bank of the river for the convenient shipping of the pyrites4 ,before #aheh a solitary hermitage was the only dwelling at ,san ,domingos1 which is now a thriving village of five hundred houses1 with a handsome church and a railroad station4 ,the number of the workmen employed in #ahff amounted to two thousand1 and large works were being erected for the separation of the copper4 ,in #ahei the produce of these mines amounted to #g1hhg tons1 and in #ahff it had already risen to #afg1jbh tons1 which formed the cargo of #edd ships4 ,such are the wonderful changes which can be brought about when the right man finds the right place for the employment of his energies4 ,france produced in #ahff about #ajj1jjj tons of pyrites1 ,prussia #ch1bdh tons1 and ,belgium #bh1ief tons1 so that the total production of ,europe now probably amounts to more than a million tons4 ,in ,canada the ore of a vast deposit of pyrites is exported to the ,united ,states1 where it serves for the fabrication of sulphuric acid4 ,thus a substance scarcely noticed twenty years ago has become an important article of commerce in both hemispheres4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,amber4 ,various ,modes of its ,collection on the ,prussian ,coast--,what is ,amber8--,the extinct ,amber ,tree--,insects of the ,miocene ,period inclosed in ,amber-- ,formidable ,spiders--,ancient and ,modern ,trade in ,amber4 ,amber is a resinous substance1 the produce of extinct forests that now lie buried in the earth or under the bottom of the sea4 ,it is found abundantly on the ,prussian coast of the ,baltic1 where it is collected in many ways4 ,after stormy weather it is frequently cast ashore by the surf1 or remains floating on the water4 ,the amber-fishers1 clothed in leather dresses1 then wade into the sea1 and secure the amber with bag-nets1 hung at the ends of long poles4 ,they conclude that much amber has been detached from its bed when they discover many pieces of lignite floating about4 ,in some parts the faces of the precipitous cliffs along the shore are explored in boats1 and masses of loose earth or rock1 supposed to contain the object of search1 are detached with long poles having iron hooks at their ends4 ,it is also dredged for on an extensive scale at the bottom of the ,frische and ,curische ,haffs1 and further inland large quantities are dug up out of the earth4 ,that which is washed ashore generally consists of small pieces1 more or less damaged1 while the specimens obtained by digging or dredging are frequently of large size and of a tuberous form1 so that1 though inferior in quantity to the former1 their value is probably ten times greater4 ,digging for amber is a favourite pursuit of the peasantry2 and though in many cases it proves unsuccessful1 yet sometimes it is highly remunerative4 ,near the village ,kowall1 a few miles from ,dantzig1 avenues of trees were planted a few years back along the high road4 ,on digging one of the holes destined for their reception1 a rich amber nest was found4 ,favourable signs induced the landowner to persevere in digging1 and at length1 at a depth of about thirty feet1 such rich deposits of amber were found as enabled him to pay off all the mortgages on his estate4 ,the territories where amber is found extend over ,pomerania and ,east and ,west ,prussia1 as far as ,lithuania and ,poland1 but chiefly in the former provinces1 where it is found almost uniformly in separate nodules in the sand1 clay1 or fragments of lignite of the upper tertiary and alluvial formations4 ,it also occurs in the beds of streams1 and in the sand-banks of rivers4 ,how far its seat may extend under the ,baltic is of course unknown4 ,amber is likewise met with on the coast of ,denmark and ,sweden1 in ,gallicia and ,moravia1 near ,christiania in ,norway1 and in ,switzerland1 near ,basle4 ,it is occasionally found in the gravel-pits near ,london1 and specimens have been dug up in ,hyde ,park4 ,at ,aldborough1 after a raking tide1 it is thrown on the beach in considerable quantities1 along with masses of jet4 ,on the ,sicilian coast1 near the mouth of the ,river ,giaretta1 many pieces of a peculiar blue tinge are collected and sent to ,catania to be cut and polished4 ,single pieces and even large deposits of amber are said to have been discovered on the coasts of the ,caspian ,sea1 in ,siberia1 ,kamtschatka1 and ,china1 in ,north ,america and ,madagascar4 ,these accounts1 however1 require confirmation1 as several other fossil or non-fossil resinous substances so strongly resemble amber as to have deceived even well- informed naturalists4 ,what is this substance1 and how has it been produced8 ,there is now no longer any doubt that1 like other vegetable resins1 it has been secreted by trees which have long since disappeared from the surface of the earth1 but once formed extensive forests on the islands or shores of the vast sea which at that time covered the plains of ,northern ,europe as far as the foot of the ,ouralian chain4 ,how those islands disappeared1 and how those primeval forests came to be buried under land and sea1 becomes apparent from the changes that have taken place in the ,south ,baltic lands since the last two thousand years in consequence of partial upheavings and subsidences4 ,according to the oldest ,prussian chronicler1 ,peter of ,duesburg1 whose narrative begins with the year #abbf1 the waves of the ,baltic at that time reached as far as the present town of ,kulm1 and a century later vessels sailed as far as ,thorn4 ,the present delta of the ,vistula was a shallow morass1 dotted here and there with a flat island1 and continued in that state until towards the end of the thirteenth century1 when dykes1 raised by the industry of man1 prevented the constantly recurring inundations of the river1 and converted gloomy swamps into fertile meadows4 ,in other parts we find the sea incroaching upon the land4 ,since the times of the ,teutonic ,order a whole province between ,pillau and ,balga has been submerged by the floods of the ,frische ,haff2 and the first ,christian church in ,prussia1 originally built five miles from the sea1 now stands close to the shore4 ,dense fir-forests rose in gloomy monotony1 but a thousand years back1 where now the ,baltic rolls its waters2 and where at that time ships lay at anchor we now find hillocks of sand4 ,after such changes in comparatively so short a time1 we cannot wonder that the islands of the amber period should have been replaced by other lands and another sea4 ,we are indebted for the first accurate observations on the nature of the amber-tree to ,professor ,goeppert1 who proved1 by the microscopical examination of the cells of fossil pieces of wood that were veined or streaked with amber1 and thus evidently had secreted the resin1 that they proceeded from several conifer1 belonging to the extinct genus ,pinites4 ,in many of our pines and firs we frequently find between the annual rings crevices or interstices filled with resinous matter1 but far less abundantly than in the amber-trees4 ,the only existing coniferous plant that can in any way be compared to them is the ,dammara australis1 of ,new ,zealand1 at the base of whose trunk masses of resin1 weighing twenty or thirty pounds1 are frequently found4 ,in ,brazil ,von ,martius often saw similar lumps at the foot of the copal-tree1 which dropping from the trunk had collected in considerable masses between the roots1 thus showing that the large rounded or globular pieces of amber must have been formed in the same manner1 while the thin and flat straight or cupuliform pieces were moulded upon the rind1 or between the annual rings of the tree4 ,when we consider the abundant secretion of the amber-trees1 and the numberless ages during which they may have flourished1 we cannot wonder that1 since the oldest historic times1 every violent storm which stirs up the ancient forest-grounds at the bottom of the ,baltic casts the valuable fossil ashore1 and that in all probability future generations will still be able to collect it in undiminished quantities4 ,interesting in itself1 amber acquires a still greater scientific importance through the remains of extinct plants and animals which are found imbedded in its substance1 as in a transparent shrine4 ,as1 in the present day1 many a luckless fly is caught in the recently secreted resins of the conifer and hymene1 thus also amber1 while still in a semi-fluid state1 became the tomb of numerous insects and spiders4 ,so wonderful is their preservation that they seem to have lived but yesterday1 and yet how many millenniums may since have passed away2 for although the amber formation belongs to the miocene period1 and is consequently of modern date when compared with the forests of the coal- formation1 we still are separated from it by a vast series of ages4 ,illustration3 ,,insects ,,or ,,vegetable ,,substances ,,enclosed ,,in ,,amber4 ,the extinct organic world which is thus beautifully revealed to us so greatly resembled the present vegetable and animal creation that1 on a superficial examination of the fossil remains contained in a rich amber collection1 one would hardly suppose them to be anything very uncommon4 ,the unlearned observer who connects the idea of a past world with grotesque or gigantic forms1 shakes his head with an incredulous smile1 and thinks that he has often seen similar flowers blooming in the fields1 or met with similar insects in the forest4 ,even the naturalist is uncertain1 until a closer inspection teaches him that each of these so wonderfully preserved plants or animals possesses some distinct characteristics which widely distinguish it from the analogous forms of the present day4 ,of the plants of the coal period we find not a single one existing in the ,amber ,forest2 the vegetation is much more complicated and various in its aspect2 and the numerous conifer indicate a climate similar to that of the present northern regions4 ,but arboreal growth was by no means confined to the conifer1 for evergreen oaks and poplars flourished along with them4 ,heath plants1 chiefly belonging to genera similar to ,andromeda1 ,kalmia1 ,rhododendrum1 ,ledum1 and ,vaccinium1 as testified by numerous leaves1 formed the underwood of these forests1 a vegetation similar in character to that of the ,alleghany ,mountains4 ,the deep shade of these primitive woods prevented the evaporation of water1 the ground remained damp and swampy1 and the mouldering leaves produced a thick layer of humus1 on which flourished1 no doubt1 a dense cryptogamous vegetation1 as well-preserved ferns1 mosses1 lichens1 conferv1 and small mushrooms1 partly growing as parasites on dead insects1 sufficiently testify4 ,but the vegetable remains of that ancient period are far surpassed in variety and number by the embalmed relics of the animal creation4 ,among #b1jjj specimens of insects collected by ,dr4 ,berendt1 to whom we owe the best monograph on amber1 this naturalist found more than #hjj different species4 ,flies1 phrygane1 and other neuroptera1 crustacea1 millepedes and spiders1 blattid in every phase of development1 beetles1 bees1 and a large variety of ants1 show a great similarity to the insect life of the present day1 and justify the conclusion that the contemporaneous animal forms1 whose size or peculiar habitat prevented their being embalmed in amber1 were comparatively no less abundant4 ,whether man already existed at the time of the amber-formation is a question which1 of course1 could only be thoroughly settled by the discovery of some specimen of human workmanship imbedded in the fossilised resin4 ,at all events1 the amber-rings of rude workmanship which have been found at a considerable depth below the surface of the earth1 along with rough pieces1 sufficiently prove that man must have been a very old inhabitant of the ,baltic regions1 for those remarkable specimens of his unskilled industry have evidently preceded the catastrophe which buried the rough amber under the earth1 and must have been exposed for the same lapse of time to the influences of the soil1 as they are all found covered with the same dull and damaged crust4 ,that birds enlivened the amber-forest might well have been supposed1 as there was no want of fruits and mealy seeds for their subsistence2 but their existence is proved beyond all doubt by a feather which ,dr4 ,berendt discovered in a piece of pale yellow transparent amber4 ,to what bird may this remarkable relic of the past have belonged1 and when may the wing to which it was attached while living have cleaved the air8 ,no fish or reptile has ever yet been found in amber1 however frequently fraud may have attempted to imbed them in a resinous case for the deception of ignorance4 ,it is1 indeed1 hardly conceivable that the finny and agile inhabitants of the waters could ever have allowed themselves to be caught in the resins of a terrestrial forest1 though some small and less active reptiles may occasionally have been entrapped4 ,of all the insects and spiders1 and the more rare crustaceans inclosed in amber1 not a single specimen belongs to a species of the present time2 but though the species have disappeared1 almost all the animals of those primitive woods1 as far as they are known1 belong to genera of the present time1 so that upon the whole the proportion of the still flourishing genera to such as are extinct is as eight to one4 ,it is remarkable that1 along with many specimens similar to the present indigenous types1 some are found with a tropical character1 whose representatives are at present existing in the ,brazilian forests1 while others are completely without any analogous forms in the present creation2 as1 for instance1 those strange ,arachnidans1 the ,archi1 which1 armed with toothed mandibles longer than the head1 and provided with strong raptorial claws1 must have been most formidable enemies to the contemporaneous insects4 ,amber was held in high estimation by the nations of antiquity1 and reckoned among the gems on account of its rarity and value4 ,ornaments made of this substance have been found among the vestiges of the lacustrine dwellings of ,switzerland1 and afford a convincing proof that even in prehistoric times it was an article of commerce4 ,many centuries before the ,christian era the ,phnician navigators purchased amber from the ,german tribes on the coast of the ,north ,sea1 these1 in their turn1 having obtained it1 probably by barter1 from the ,baltic lands4 ,thus from hand to hand the beautiful fossil resin found its way to the courts of the ,indian princes on the ,ganges1 and of the ,persian kings in ,susa and ,persepolis4 ,according to ,barth#fi the search for the ,amber ,land was most probably the aim of the journey which the celebrated traveller ,pytheas of ,massilia undertook #ccj years before ,christ1 in the times of ,alexander the ,great4 ,footnote #fi3 #8,urgeschichte ,deutschlands4' ,plato and ,aristotle1 ,herodotus and schylus1 have described and lauded in prose and verse the wonderful properties of amber1 which was not only highly valued for its beauty1 its aromatic smell1 and its electro- magnetic power1 but also for the medicinal virtues ascribed to it by a credulous age4 ,under ,nero the wealthy ,roman senators and knights lavished immense sums on decorating the seats and tables1 the doors and columns1 of their state-rooms with amber1 ivory1 and tortoiseshell2 and even at a later period1 under ,theodosius the ,great1 when the declining empire was already verging to its fall1 large quantities still continued to be imported from ,germany4 ,though no longer so highly prized as by the ancients1 amber still continues to be a source of considerable profit to the ,baltic provinces4 ,almost all the amber collected throughout the land finds its way to the seaports of ,knigsberg and ,dantzig1 where it is sorted according to its size and quality4 ,good round pieces of a shape fit to be worked into ornaments1 and weighing about half an ounce1 are worth from nine to ten dollars per pound2 a good piece of a pound weight fetches as much as fifty dollars2 and first-rate specimens of a still more considerable size1 and faultless in form and colour1 are worth at least one hundred dollars1 or even more1 per pound4 ,a mass weighing thirteen pounds has been found1 the value of which at ,constantinople was said to be no less than #cj1jjj dollars4 ,smaller pieces from the size of a bean to that of a pea1 such as are fit for the beads of necklaces or rosaries1 are valued at from two to four shillings per pound1 and the grit or amber rubbish which is used for varnishing1 fumigating1 or the manufacture of oil and acid of amber1 is worth no more than from three to eighteen pence4 ,it is much to be regretted that amber1 when melted or dissolved1 is incapable of coalescing into larger masses with the retention of all its former qualities1 as then its value would be considerably greater4 ,large amber vases would then ornament the apartments of the wealthy1 and the corpses of the illustrious dead might repose in transparent shrines1 and their features be preserved from decay for many ages4 ,the trade in rough amber is almost exclusively in the hands of the ,jews1 who purchase it from the amber-fishers1 or are interested in the diggings which are made on most of the littoral estates4 ,through the agency of the smaller collectors1 it is then concentrated in the hands of the rich traders1 who sell or export it in larger assortments4 ,the best qualities only of translucent1 milky1 or semi-opaque amber find a ready sale in the ,oriental market1 where they are almost exclusively used for making the mouth-pieces to pipes1 and these form an essential constituent of the ,turkish tschibouque2 for there is a current belief among the ,eastern nations that amber is incapable of transmitting infection4 ,every ,turkish pasha sets his pride on a rich collection of pipes1 as it is the hospitable custom of the ,orient to offer a cup of coffee and a hookah or tschibouque to a stranger2 and this fashion is of no small importance to the amber-dealers of the ,baltic4 ,a somewhat inferior quality is sent by way of ,copenhagen and ,london to ,china1 ,japan1 and to the ,east and ,west ,indies4 ,russia also consumes a considerable quantity of amber1 which is very elegantly turned or manufactured in ,st4 ,petersburg and ,polangen1 and thence finds its way over the whole empire4 ,here1 as among the ,turks1 only the translucent and perfectly opaque white qualities are esteemed2 the latter being chiefly employed for the manufacture of the calculating tables which are commonly used by the ,russian merchants4 ,necklaces of transparent amber are in great request among the peasantry of ,hanover and ,brunswick1 where strings of pale-coloured crystalline beads weighing from half a pound to a pound are worth from fifty to sixty dollars4 ,amber of a deeper colour and of a rounded form is chiefly exported to ,spain1 ,france1 and ,italy4 ,thus each country chooses according to its taste among the abundant amber-masses which extinct forests furnish to the inhabitants of the ,baltic coast-lands1 and which trade1 through a hundred known and unknown channels1 scatters over the whole surface of the globe4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,mineral ,,substances ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,industrial ,,arts4 ,alum--,alum ,mines of ,tolfa--,borax--,the ,suffioni in the ,florentine ,lagoons-- ,china ,clay3 how formed8--,its ,manufacture in ,cornwall--,plumbago--,emery-- ,tripolite4 ,alum1 a double salt1 consisting of sulphate of alumina 7the peculiar earth of clay7 and sulphate of potash1 or sulphate of alumina and sulphate of ammonia1 was known to the ancients1 who used it in medicine1 as it is now used1 and also as a mordant in dyeing1 as at the present day4 ,their alum was chiefly a natural production1 which was best and most abundantly obtained in ,egypt4 ,in later times ,phocis1 ,lesbos1 and other places supplied the ,turks with alum for their magnificent ,turkey red2 and the ,genoese merchants imported large quantities from the ,levant into ,western ,europe for the dyers of red cloth4 ,in #adei ,bartholomew ,perdix1 a ,genoese merchant who had been in ,syria1 observed a stone suitable for alum in the ,island of ,ischia1 and burning it with a good result1 was the first who introduced the manufacture into ,europe4 ,about the same time ,john di ,castro learnt the method at ,constantinople1 and manufactured alum at ,tolfa4 ,this discovery of the mineral near ,civita ,vecchia was considered so important by ,john di ,castro that he announced it to the ,pope as a great victory over the ,turks1 who annually took from the ,christians #cjj1jjj pieces of gold for their dyed wool4 ,the manufacture of alum was then made a monopoly of the ,papacy2 and instead of buying it as before from the ,east1 it was considered a ,christian duty to obtain it only from the ,states of the ,church4 ,with the progress of ,protestantism1 however1 the manufacture began to spread to other countries4 ,hesse-,cassel began to make alum in #aeed1 and in #afjj alum slate was found near ,whitby in ,yorkshire4 ,alum-stone is a rare mineral1 which contains all the elements of the salt1 but mixed with other matters from which it must be freed4 ,for this purpose it is first calcined1 then exposed to the weather1 in heaps from two to three feet high1 which are continually kept moist by sprinkling them with water4 ,as the water combines with the alum1 the stones crumble down and fall eventually into a pasty mass1 which must be lixiviated with warm water1 and allowed to settle in a large cistern4 ,the clear liquor on the surface1 being drawn off1 is to be evaporated and then crystallised4 ,a second crystallisation finishes the process1 and furnishes a marketable article4 ,thus the ,roman alum is made2 but its production being far from enough for the supply of the world1 the greater portion of the alum found in ,british commerce is made from alum- slate and analogous minerals1 which contain only the elements of two of the constituents1 namely1 clay and sulphur1 and to which1 therefore1 the alkaline ingredient must be added4 ,borax1 or ,borate of ,soda1 is a substance extensively used in the glazes of porcelain1 and recently in the making of the most brilliant crystal when combined with oxide of zinc4 ,formerly its chief supply was obtained under the name of ,tincal1 from ,thibet1 where the crude product was dug in masses from the edges and shallow parts of a salt lake2 and1 in the course of a short time1 the holes thus made were again filled4 ,crude borax is also found in ,china1 ,persia1 the ,island of ,ceylon1 and in ,south ,america2 but at present by far the largest quantity used in commerce is derived from the lagoons of ,tuscany1 where vapours charged with a minute quantity of boracic acid rise from volcanic vents4 ,before the discovery of this acid1 in the time of the ,grand ,duke ,leopold ,i41 by the chemist ,hoefer1 the fetid odour developed by the accompanying sulphuretted hydrogen gas1 and the disruptions of the ground occasioned by the appearance of new suffioni or vents of vapour1 had made the superstitious natives regard them as a diabolical scourge1 which they vainly sought to remove by priestly exorcisms2 but since #ahah the skill1 or rather the industrial genius1 of ,count ,larderel1 originally a simple wandering merchant1 has rendered these once abhorred fugitive vapours a source of prosperity to the country1 and were they to cease1 all the saints of the calendar would be invoked for their return4 ,by a most ingenious contrivance the waters which have been impregnated by the volcanic steams are concentrated in leaden reservoirs by the heat of the vapours themselves4 ,the liquid1 after having filled the first compartment1 is diffused very gradually into the second1 then into the third1 and successively to the last1 where it reaches such a state of concentration that it deposits the crystallised acid1 which the workmen immediately remove by means of wooden scrapers4 ,as this mode of gradual concentration requires very few hands and no artificial heat1 a circumstance of great importance in a country without fuel1 it may almost be said that the acid is obtained without expense4 ,the produce of the lagoons amounts to more than #b1jjj tons annually4 ,china-clay1 or kaolin1 a substance largely used for the fabrication of porcelain and in paper-making1 is quarried from amidst the granitic masses of ,dartmoor and ,cornwall4 ,it results from the decomposition of felspar1 the chief constituent of granite1 and is thus1 to a certain point1 provided by ,nature4 ,as it is1 however1 mixed with many grosser particles1 it requires repeated washings in a series of small pits or tanks1 until finally the water1 still holding in suspension the finer and purer china-clay1 is admitted into larger ponds4 ,here the clay is gradually deposited1 and the clear water on the surface is from time to time discharged by plug-holes on one side of the pond4 ,this process is continued until by repeated accumulations the ponds are filled4 ,the clay is then removed to large pans about a foot and a half in depth1 where it remains exposed to the air until it is nearly dry--a tedious operation in our damp climate1 as during the winter at least eight months are necessary1 whilst during the summer less than half the time suffices4 ,when the clay is in a fit state it is cut into oblong masses and carried to the drying-house1 a shed the sides of which are open wooden frames constructed in the usual way for keeping off the rain1 but admitting the free passage of the air4 ,the clay thus prepared is next scraped perfectly clean1 and is then packed up into casks and carried to one of the adjacent ports1 to be shipped for the potteries or the paper manufactories4 ,it is of a beautiful and uniform whiteness1 and is perfectly smooth and soft to the touch4 ,china-clay is an important article of commerce4 ,the average annual production of ,cornwall and ,devonshire amounts to #aje1jjj tons1 and it is reckoned that more than #bjj1jjjl4 is annually spent in ,cornwall in obtaining and preparing it4 ,as in our times no branch of industry remains unimproved1 a machine has recently been invented which greatly accelerates the drying4 ,the lumps of china-clay are placed in the compartments of the drying machine1 and the whole is then rotated with great velocity4 ,thus the water is thrown off by the operation of the centrifugal force1 and two tons of clay can be dried in five minutes4 ,the remarkable contrast between the extreme hardness and softness of the same primitive rock is a curiosity of geology well worth notice4 #8,a stone1' says the author of #8,cornwall and its ,mines1' #8is primevally fused and cooled into as hard a substance as nature affords2 so hard that it paves our streets in long enduring slabs and blocks4 ,tens of thousands of feet passing daily over it make no impression upon it4 ,years of travel only see it smooth and shining4 ,the men who pass over it pass away1 but it is still durable and unsoftened4 ,halls and mansions1 clubs and palaces1 are built of it1 and it endures unmarked by ,time's devouring tooth4 ,is it not adamantine8 ,but lo6 what is that elegant cup from which you are sipping your tea8 ,it is of ,worcestershire china1 fine and almost pellucid4 ,well1 it is made out of the soft ruins of that very granite whose endurance is proverbial4 ,how remarkable that the best types of firmness and fragility should be found in the same stone6 ,what the immense billows of the ,atlantic are now beating upon1 at the ,land's ,end1 without effect1 that very substance has been found in such a friable natural condition as to be finally moulded into that vase which stands1 elegant and admired1 upon your mantelpiece1 and which one puff of wind1 or one whirl of a lady's silk dress1 would dash down into innumerable and unmendable fragments4' ,valuable kaolins are likewise found in ,china and ,japan1 in ,saxony and ,france2 but the production is nowhere so extensive as in ,cornwall4 ,the best quality of ,plumbago1 graphite1 or black-lead1 from which the finest lead-pencils were made1 was formerly abundantly supplied by the mine of ,borrowdale in ,cumberland4 ,at one time as much as #ajj1jjjl4 was realised in a year1 the plumbago selling at forty-five shillings per pound4 ,its high value1 however1 proved a source of loss to the proprietors1 for robbery found here a most profitable field4 ,even the guard stationed over it by the owners was of little avail against determined thieves1 for about a century ago a body of miners broke into the mines by main force1 and held possession of it for a considerable time4 ,the treasure was then protected by a building consisting of four rooms upon the ground floor1 and immediately under one of them is the opening1 secured by a trapdoor1 through which alone workmen could enter the interior of the mountain4 ,the mine has now1 however1 not been worked for many years4 ,its #8nests' of plumbago seem to be exhausted1 and it is no longer an object capable of exciting greed1 or worthy of anxious protection4 ,at present the mines of ,batougal1 near ,irkutsk in ,east ,siberia1 furnish large quantities of graphite of the very best quality2 and the plumbago from ,ceylon is likewise highly esteemed4 ,inferior qualities--employed for counteracting friction between rubbing surfaces of wood or metal1 for making crucibles and portable furnaces1 for giving a gloss to the surface of cast iron1 c4 c4--are supplied by ,lower ,austria1 ,bohemia1 ,bavaria1 ,ticonderago in the ,state of ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,arendal in ,norway1 ,finland1 c4 c4 ,the name black-lead applied to plumbago1 from its resembling lead in its external appearance1 is very inappropriate1 as not a particle of that metal enters into its composition4 ,plumbago might indeed more justly be called black-diamond1 for1 consisting1 in its pure state1 of carbon1 it is consequently but another form of the chief of precious stones4 ,the beautiful oriental ruby has likewise a humble cousin among the useful minerals1 as it is identical in composition with ,emery1 which1 since the remotest antiquity1 has been employed for the grinding of metals and glass4 ,emery was formerly almost exclusively furnished by the island of ,naxos2 but since #ahdg new mines have been discovered in some other isles of the ,grecian ,archipelago1 and in the neighbourhood of ,smyrna1 from which place it is now imported in large quantities4 ,in #ahej the total production of the ,east amounted to #a1ejj tons4 ,in #ahfd a considerable mine of emery was discovered at ,chester 7,hampden ,county1 ,massachusetts71 and as might be expected in a country where none of the gifts of nature are allowed to be wasted1 already provides for the wants of all the manufactories of the ,united ,states4 ,tripolite1 a mineral related to the precious opal1 as it consists almost entirely of silica1 is likewise used for polishing stones1 metals1 and glasses4 ,its composition is truly remarkable1 as it is actually formed of the exuvi1 or rather the flinty envelopes of diatoms1 which belong to the minutest forms of vegetable life4 ,they are recognised with such distinctness in the microscope that the analogies between them and living species may be readily traced1 and in many cases there are no appreciable differences between the living and the petrified4 ,as every cubic inch of tripolite contains millions of these exuvi1 and the stone not seldom occurs in deposits often many miles in area1 imagination is at a loss to conceive the innumerable multitudes of organised atoms whose flinty remains have been piled up in these masses of hard rock4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,celebrated ,,quarries4 ,carrara--,the ,pentelikon--,the ,parian ,quarries--,rosso antico and ,verde antico--,the ,porphyry of ,elfdal--,the ,gypsum of ,montmartre--,the ,alabaster of ,volterra--,the ,slate ,quarries of ,wales--#8,princesses' and #8,duchesses'-- #8,ladies' and #8,fat ,ladies'--,st4 ,peter's ,mount near ,maestricht--,egyptian ,quarries--,haggar ,silsilis--,the ,latomi of ,syracuse--,a ,triumph of ,poetry4 ,besides metals1 and the various minerals mentioned in the previous chapter1 the solid earth-rind furnishes an inexhaustible supply of marbles1 slates1 and stones for building or paving2 and their extraction occupies a vast number of industrious hands4 ,in a popular work on geology1 published some years ago1 ,mr4 ,burat informs us that about #gj1jjj persons were employed in the #ah1jjj more or less important quarries at that time worked in ,france1 and that the produce of their labour amounted to a value of more than #b1jjj1jjjl4 ,there can be no doubt that the quarries of ,england or ,germany are at least equally productive1 and thus a very moderate estimate leads us to the conclusion that the quarries of ,europe1 from those which furnish the costliest marble to those which yield the commonest building-stone1 employ at least half a million of workmen1 and produce an annual value of no less than #ab1jjj1jjjl41 a sum which is probably doubled or trebled before the heavy materials can be placed in the hands of the consumer4 ,a land ribbed with stone1 like ,england1 has therefore a considerable advantage over a flat alluvial plain1 like ,holland1 as it possesses in its rocky foundations a source of wealth which nature has denied to the latter4 ,though several other stones1 such as granite and porphyry1 are susceptible of a fine polished surface1 and serve for the decoration of palaces and churches1 yet marble or pure compact limestone is chiefly used for ornamental purposes1 both on account of its beautifully variegated tints1 and its inferior hardness1 which allows it to be more easily worked4 ,our ,derbyshire and ,devonshire quarries supply a great variety of richly coloured marbles2 but the best material for the sculptor is supplied by the limestone mountains of ,carrara1 which furnish a homogeneous marble of the purest white1 with a fine granular texture1 resembling that of loaf sugar4 ,these far-famed quarries1 which were worked by the ancients1 having been opened in the time of ,julius ,csar1 are situated between ,spezzia and ,lucca1 in the ,alpe ,apuana1 a small mountain-group no less remarkable for its bold and sharp outlines than for its almost total isolation from the monotonous chain of the ,apennines1 from which it is separated by a wide semicircular plain4 ,where the ,alpe ,apuana faces the sea1 it is chiefly formed of magnesian and glimmer slate1 in which large masses of limestone are imbedded2 but the more inland part of the group belongs entirely to the limestone formation1 and abounds in romantic scenery and noble peaks towering to a height of six thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,towards its north-western extremity rises ,monte ,sacro 7#e1bjj feet in height71 the famous marble mountain on whose slopes are scattered the quarries to which the small town of ,carrara owes its ancient and world-wide celebrity4 ,the quarries themselves by no means afford an imposing sight1 as they are mostly small1 and very badly worked2 but it is interesting to watch the transport of the huge blocks of superb material from the various glens in which the quarries are situated1 while the numerous water-mills for cutting or polishing the marble enliven the whole neighbourhood4 ,in the town of ,carrara numerous sculptors are constantly employed in rough-hewing the marble into various forms1 such as capitals1 friezes1 busts1 c41 c41 in order to diminish the cost of transport1 or to discover faults in the stone before it is shipped4 ,there are also shops where marble trinkets or ornaments are exposed for sale2 but ,florence1 ,leghorn1 and ,genoa are the chief dpts of ready-made marble articles1 such as vases1 urns1 sculptured chimney-pieces1 and copies of renowned statues4 ,different kinds of fruit are also executed in marble1 and with the aid of colour made to imitate nature so closely as to deceive the eye4 ,in ,carrara the inferior qualities of marble are used for building and paving1 as it is here the cheapest material4 ,the window and door frames1 the flooring and the chimney slabs1 in even the meanest houses1 are made of marble1 and form a striking contrast to the squalid poverty of the remainder of the furniture4 ,the quarries which furnished the material for the finest works of the ,grecian chisel partake of the interest which attaches to every vestige of ancient art4 ,about eight miles to the north of ,athens rises the ,pentelikon1 or ,mount ,penteles1 from whose flanks was excavated the marble that served for the construction of the ,parthenon1 of the ,temple of the ,olympian ,zeus1 and of the other matchless edifices of the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,no other quarries in the world can boast of their material having undergone a more beautiful transformation1 for never has marble been more highly ennobled than by the genius of ,pheidias6 ,the ancient roads ascending from the foot of the mountain to the quarries still show the traces of the sledges on which were transported the huge blocks of more than twenty tons in weight that now lie scattered among the ruins of the ,acropolis4 ,on the summit of the ,pentelikon the ,athenians had placed a statue of ,pallas ,athene1 that the goddess might overlook the land devoted to her worship4 ,here1 from a height of #c1ejj feet1 she looked down upon the plain of ,marathon1 and many other spots of everlasting renown2 but the outlines of the prospect are monotonous and naked1 and require for their embellishment the beautifying remembrances of the past4 ,mount ,marpena1 in the island of ,paros1 furnished the most renowned statuary marble of ancient times4 ,it was called ,lychnites because its quarries were worked by lamp-light1 in deep1 minelike excavations2 and the difficulty and cost of its extraction show how highly it was prized4 ,it has a yellowish white colour and a texture composed of fine shining scales lying in all directions4 ,the celebrated ,arundelian marbles at ,oxford consist of ,parian marble1 as does also the ,medicean ,venus4 ,more than twenty centuries have elapsed since the ,parian quarries were abandoned in consequence of the decay of ,grecian art2 but in our enterprising days a company has been formed 7#aheg7 for working the beautiful marble which has been recently discovered near ,st4 ,minas1 not far from the site of the ancient quarries1 and is said to be superior not only to that of ,carrara but even to the renowned ,lychnites of the ancients4 ,the quarries which in olden times furnished the beautifully coloured marbles called ,rosso antico and ,verde antico had likewise for many centuries been abandoned and totally forgotten4 ,in #ahdf they were rediscovered on the island of ,tino and in the ,maina by ,professor ,siegel1 who soon after undertook to work them1 and has furnished1 among others1 a large number of the beautiful columns of ,rosso antico which decorate the interior of the court of the basilica of ,st4 ,paul's in ,rome4 ,the hammer of the quarryman once more resounds in the wilds of the ,taygetos1 and the lawless robber of the ,maina already feels the beneficial influence of industry4 ,on the slopes of the mountains which bound the impetuous ,oesterdal ,elbe in ,sweden1 in a wild and desolate country1 where the poverty of the people is so great that they frequently grind the bark of fir-trees to mix it with their bread1 are situated the finest quarries of porphyry which ,europe possesses4 ,this beautiful stone1 which attracts the eye even in its unpolished state1 consists of a red-brown or blood-red mass1 in which numerous small flesh-coloured felspar pieces are embedded4 ,after having been rough-hewn on the spot1 the blocks are transported to the neighbouring works of ,elfdal1 where they are cut and polished into slabs1 vases1 chimney-pieces1 and other articles fit for the decoration of palaces4 ,the contrast is most striking when1 after having traversed the barren neighbourhood1 and still deeply impressed with the sight of poverty and distress on his road1 the traveller suddenly finds himself before a group of handsome buildings which at once bear witness to the activity within4 ,besides the red porphyry of ,elfdal1 that of the ,altai ,mountains in ,asia deserves to be noticed4 ,it consists of a brown-red mass with snow-white crystals1 and is capable of a very fine polish4 ,the quarries are situated on the face of a high rock on the left bank of the ,kurgun1 one of the wildest mountain streams of the ,altai1 about one hundred miles from the town of ,kolywansk1 where it is cut and polished4 ,gypsum1 or sulphate of lime1 and the peculiar form of that mineral called ,alabaster1 are substances of considerable importance in the arts4 ,rendered more valuable by a slight admixture of carbonate of lime1 the gypsum of ,montmartre1 near ,paris1 has long been celebrated for its excellence as a cement or stucco4 ,it is found resting on a limestone of marine origin1 and in some places appears immediately beneath the vegetable soil1 so that it can be readily and conveniently worked without having recourse to subterranean excavation4 ,these quarries furnish the whole of northern ,france with the well-known plaster of ,paris1 and the value of their annual produce amounts to not less than #ajj1jjjl4 ,when sulphate of lime or gypsum assumes the opaque1 consistent1 and semi-transparent form of alabaster1 it is worked like marble4 ,the pure white and harder varieties are usually employed for the sculpture of statues and busts2 while the softer kinds are cut into vases1 boxes1 lamps1 and other ornamental objects4 ,the alabaster quarries in the neighbourhood of the ancient ,etruscan town of ,volterra are the most famous in ,europe1 and have afforded employment for many centuries to her industrious population4 ,volterra exports her beautiful produce to all parts of the world1 even as far as the interior of ,china4 ,beggary is here unknown 7a rare case in ,italy71 for even women and children are all employed in cutting1 sawing1 rasping1 or filing alabaster4 ,in the remotest antiquity1 when the city was still called ,volathri or ,volaterr1 this industry was practised within her walls1 and a collection of sepulchral urns and other works of ,etruscan art contained in the town-hall bears testimony to her ancient skill4 ,now1 however1 art seems to have degenerated into mere manufacturing ability2 the statues and other objects are almost always repetitions of the same models1 and but very rarely some speculative person introduces a novelty1 for the purpose of obtaining a somewhat higher price for his wares4 ,illustration3 ,,fenrhyn ,,slate ,,quarry1 ,,north ,,wales4 ,great ,britain possesses apparently inexhaustible quantities of alabaster in the red marl formation in the neighbourhood of ,derby1 where it has been worked for many centuries4 ,the great bulk of it is used for making plaster of ,paris1 and as a manure1 or as the basis of many kinds of cements4 ,for these common industrial purposes it is worked by mining underground1 and the stone is blasted by gunpowder2 but this shakes it so much as to render it unfit for works of ornament1 to procure blocks for which it is necessary to have an open quarry4 ,by removing the superincumbent marl1 and laying bare a large surface of the rock1 the alabaster1 being very irregular in form1 and jutting out in several parts1 can be sawn out in blocks of a considerable size and comparatively sound4 ,this stone1 when preserved from the action of water1 which soon decomposes it1 is extremely durable1 as may be seen in churches all over this country1 where monumental effigies many centuries old are still as perfect as when they proceeded from the sculptor's chisel4 ,the ,derbyshire alabaster1 commonly called ,derbyshire spar1 gives employment to a good many hands in forming it into useful and ornamental articles4 ,another kind of alabaster also found in ,derbyshire is crystallised in long needlelike silky fibres1 which1 being susceptible of a high polish and quite lustrous1 is used for making necklaces1 bracelets1 brooches1 and other small articles4 ,besides her inexhaustible coal1 iron1 and lead mines1 ,wales possesses in her slate quarries a great source of mineral wealth4 ,for this article1 which many would suppose to be but of secondary importance1 is here found in such abundance and perfection as to command a ready market all over the world4 ,thus1 in ,north ,wales the face of the mountains is everywhere dotted or scarred with slate quarries1 of which by far the most important and largest are those of ,llandegui1 six miles from ,bangor1 in which more than three thousand persons are employed4 ,this circumstance alone will give an idea of their extent1 but still more their having their own harbour1 ,port ,penrhyn1 which holds vessels of from #cjj to #djj tons1 and whence slates are sent not only to all parts of ,great ,britain1 but even to ,north ,america4 ,the cost of the inclined planes and railroads which serve to transport the slates from the quarries to the port is said to have amounted to #agj1jjjl4 ,the masses of slate are either detached from the rock by blasting1 or by wedges and crowbars4 ,they are then shaped on the spot into the various forms for which they are destined to be used4 ,though the quarries of ,llandegui are unrivalled1 yet there are others which give employment to workmen whose numbers range from a thousand to fifteen hundred4 ,in those that export their produce by way of ,carnarvon1 which owes its prosperity almost entirely to this branch of industry1 about #b1cjj men were employed in the year #ahdb1 and since then their number has very much increased4 ,walking on the handsome new quay of the town1 the visitor everywhere sees slates ready for shipment in the numerous small vessels which crowd the picturesque harbour4 ,they are heaped up and arranged or sorted in large regular piles according to their dimensions or quality1 the #8ladies' and #8fat ladies' apart1 as also the #8countesses1' #8marchionesses1' #8princesses1' #8duchesses1' and #8queens1' for by these aristocratic names the slate merchants distinguish the various sizes of the humble article they deal in4 ,kohl1 the celebrated traveller1 remarks that1 whenever a new branch of industry springs up in ,england1 a number of active hands and inventive heads set to work to extend its application4 ,this was also the case with the ,welsh slates1 when1 about half a century ago1 they first began to attract the notice of the commercial world4 ,a polish was soon invented in ,london which gave them the appearance of the finest black marble4 ,as they are easily worked with the aid of a turning lathe1 they can thus be used for the manufacture of many useful and ornamental articles1 which have all the lustre of ebony1 and may be obtained at a much cheaper rate4 ,the quarries of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 near ,maestricht in the ,netherlands1 are probably the most extensive in ,europe4 ,for the white tufaceous limestone of the mountain has been used from time immemorial both for building and manuring1 and the enormous extent of its caverns is perhaps even owing in a greater measure to the agriculturist than to the architect4 ,and yet ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 situated near a town of moderate extent1 would hardly have been excavated beyond the limits of a common quarry if the broad ,meuse1 flowing at its foot1 had not opened towards ,holland an almost unlimited market for its produce4 ,sure of being able to dispose of all the materials they can possibly extract from the earth1 the quarrymen of the neighbourhood are thus yearly adding new passages to the labyrinths at which so many generations of their forefathers have toiled from age to age4 ,in spring and summer they are mostly occupied with agricultural pursuits1 and then but rarely leave the light of day to burrow in the entrails of the earth by the dismal #8sheen' of smoky lamps2 but as soon as the approach of winter puts a stop to the labours of the field1 they descend into the cavities of the mountain1 and begin to excavate the vast mounds of stone or grit which are to be shipped in the following spring4 ,accompanied by a guide1 the stranger enters these amazing quarries1 that extend for miles into the interior of the mountain1 and is soon lost in wonder at their endless passages1 perpetually crossing each other to the right and left1 and ending in utter darkness4 ,the dismal grandeur of these dark regions is increased by their awful silence1 for but rarely a drop of water falls from the vaults into a small pool below1 and even the voice of man dies away without awakening an echo4 ,but in order to make one feel the full impression of night and silence1 the guide1 after penetrating to some distance into the interior of the cave1 extinguishes his torch4 ,a strange sensation of awe then creeps over the boldest heart1 and by an almost irresistible instinct the stranger seeks the nearest wall1 as if to convince himself that he has at least the sense of touch to depend upon where the eye vainly seeks for the least ray of light1 and the ear as vainly listens for a sound4 ,then also he feels how dreadful must have been the agonies of the despairing wretches who1 having lost their way in these dark labyrinths1 prayed and wept and shouted in vain1 until their last groans died away unheard4 ,it has not seldom happened that persons have hopelessly strayed about in these vast caverns1 and there slowly perished1 while but a few fathoms above the labourer was driving his plough forward or the reaper singing his evening song4 ,in several parts of the caverns an inscription on the walls points out where and under what circumstances a corpse has been found1 or a few traces of black chalk give a rude portrait of the victim4 ,here we read the short story of a workman who1 losing his way1 roamed about till the last glimmer from his torch died out in his burnt fingers2 there that of another whose lamp by some chance was overturned1 and who1 plunged in sudden darkness1 was no longer able to find his way out of some remote passage4 ,the ,french geologist1 ,faujas de ,saint-,fond1 who1 in the year #agih minutely explored the ,mount1 relates that one day the torches that were carried before him discovered at some distance a dark object stretched out upon the floor1 which on a closer inspection proved to be a corpse4 ,it was a shrivelled mummy1 completely dressed1 the hat lying close to the head1 the shoes separated from the feet1 and a rosary in its hand4 ,from the dress ,faujas conjectured it to be the body of a workman1 and perhaps more than half a century might have passed since the poor man died in the quarry which had probably given him bread for many a year4 ,the dry air1 and the total absence of insects in these subterranean vaults1 explained the mummy-like preservation of the corpse4 ,in the year #afdj four ,franciscan monks resolved1 for the greater glory of ,god and of their tutelary saint1 to construct a chapel in a deserted part of the caverns4 ,taking with them a thick pack of thread1 they attached one end of it to a spot where the trodden path ceased1 and penetrating deeper and deeper into the unknown vaults as long as their thread lasted1 finally came to a larger cavity or hall1 which had probably not been visited for centuries1 but which in consequence of their misfortune has since become one of the show-places of the quarry4 ,at the entrance one of them drew with a piece of coal a still existing sketch of his convent on the wall1 and wrote underneath the date of the discovery which was to be so fatal to him and his companions4 ,what must have been their dismay when1 wishing to retrace their steps1 they discovered that1 by some accident1 the thread which alone could lead them out of the labyrinth had been severed1 and that they were left without guide or compass in the inextricable maze of the caverns4 ,the prior1 alarmed at their prolonged absence1 and knowing that they had visited the quarries1 ordered them to be sought for4 ,but such is the vast extent of the excavations that it was only after seven days that their corpses were found1 lying closely together1 their faces downwards and their hands folded1 as if their last moments had been spent in prayer4 ,the caverns of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 generally devoted only to the pacific labours of the quarryman or to unbroken silence1 have once been the scene of a bloody fight2 and as the quiet waters of the ,todtensee1 on the heights of the ,grimsel1 have witnessed a sanguinary battle between the ,french and the ,russians1 so these subterranean vaults have once resounded with the din of fire-arms and the shouts of embittered enemies4 ,during the siege above mentioned1 which brought ,maestricht into the power of the ,french ,republic1 some sharpshooters of the besieging army took up their position in the quarries4 ,the ,austrians1 who occupied ,fort ,st4 ,pierre1 on the back of the mountain1 and had already made several successful sorties1 formed the plan of penetrating into the caverns from the interior of the fort1 in the hope of surprising the enemy who occupied their entrances4 ,but as the torches which lighted their silent march betrayed their intentions1 the ,frenchmen cautiously and slowly advanced upon them1 surprised them with a sudden volley of musketry1 and drove back into the depths of the caverns all those who were not made prisoners or killed4 ,to the geologist the quarries of ,st4 ,peter's are particularly interesting1 as the calcareous tuff of which they are composed is extremely rich in valuable petrifactions4 ,here1 among others1 was found1 in #aggj1 the famous skull of the ,mososaurus ,hoffmanni1 a giant lizard twenty feet long1 which before the discovery of the still more colossal ,ichthyosauri in ,england and ,bavaria was considered as the most remarkable fossil known1 and now forms one of the chief ornaments of the ,museum of the ,jardin des ,plantes in ,paris4 ,there are no subterranean animals peculiar to the caverns of ,st4 ,peter's1 such as have been found in large natural caves2 but foxes and martens not seldom find here a secure retreat1 and many a bat hibernates in their warm recesses4 ,near the small village ,el ,massara1 which1 like all the hamlets on the ,nile1 stands in a grove of date-palms1 are situated the quarries which furnished materials for the temples and pyramids of ,memphis4 ,after having first traversed a wide plain of sand1 the visitor reaches the foot of the ,mokattam mountain4 ,here the ground is everywhere covered with enormous heaps of rubbish from the quarries1 which look more like an attempt to cut the whole mountain into blocks and carry it away than simple excavations for building materials4 ,at first sight the traveller might indeed almost fancy that all the eighteen thousand towns of ancient ,egypt must have been dug out of these stupendous excavations4 ,here he may see the mountain cut through from top to bottom1 and open spaces as large as the squares of a great capital on a level with the plain1 while there the rock has been hollowed out into enormous halls1 their roofs reposing on titanic pilasters4 ,in one spot the rocky wall has been cut rectangularly1 after which it runs parallel to the river for a distance of about fifteen hundred feet1 and then again projects at a right angle towards the plain1 so that in the space between the wings there would be room enough for a small town1 yet all the stone which once filled this vast cavity has been sawn from the rock and carried over the ,nile4 ,here and there enormous masses of stone1 like those which in winter roll from the high ,alps into the valleys1 have fallen from the overhanging rock4 ,many bear evident traces that the hand of man originally severed them from the mountain2 but their size was such as to baffle even the perseverance and mechanical skill of the ,egyptians4 ,no power could remove them from the spot1 and thus they remained to be worn away by time1 which as yet1 however1 has hardly left a trace of its passage upon their chiselled sides4 ,from the mounds of rubbish that lie before the openings of the quarries there is a magnificent view of the long line of pyramids which mark1 to the west1 the extreme limits of the fertile land4 ,here1 indeed1 is a place for meditation1 for nowhere do stones preach a more impressive sermon6 ,the quarries of ,haggar ,silsilis1 in a wild mountainous country between ,assuan and ,edfu1 are on a still grander scale4 ,passages as broad as streets1 running on both sides between walls fifty or sixty feet high1 now stretching straight forward1 now curving1 extend from the eastern bank of the river into the heart of the mountain1 where spaces have been hollowed out large enough to embrace the ,roman ,colosseum6 ,to the north numberless ,cyclopean caverns have been hewn out1 and enormous colonnades stretch along the foot of the mountain4 ,the rough-hewn irregular roof rests upon immense square1 or many-sided1 pillars1 frequently eighty or a hundred feet in circumference4 ,enormous blocks1 already completely separated from the rock1 rest on smaller ones1 ready to be transported1 while in other parts the labours of the quarrymen were suddenly arrested by the invasion of the foreign conqueror who put a stop to the dominion of the priests4 ,the ,bedouin1 astonished at these vast works1 so alien to his roving habits1 exclaims at their aspect1 with a wondering mien1 #8,wallah6 if these unbelievers had lived until now1 they would have carried away the whole mountain and levelled it with the ground6' ,syracuse1 the proud city that vied with ,rome itself1 and the remembrance of whose magnificence and glory1 both in arts and arms1 will live as long as classical literature1 is now reduced to a heap of rubbish1 for her remains deserve not the name of a city4 ,but though even her ruins have mostly disappeared1 #8etiam periere ruin1' yet the vast quarries which furnished the materials for her palaces and temples still bear witness to her ancient grandeur4 ,the ,latomi of the ,capuchins1 thus named from a convent of that order1 situated on the rock above1 now form a noble subterranean garden1 one of the most romantic and beautiful spots imaginable4 ,most of it is about one hundred feet below the level of the earth1 and of an incredible extent4 ,the whole is hewn out of a rock as hard as marble1 composed of a concretion of shells1 gravel1 and other marine bodies4 ,the bottom of this immense quarry1 from which pro bably the greatest part of ,syracuse was built1 is now covered with an exceedingly rich soil2 and as no wind from any point of the compass can touch it1 it is filled with a great variety of the finest shrubs and fruit-trees1 which bear with prodigal luxuriance1 and are never blasted4 ,the oranges1 citrons1 pomegranates1 and figs are all of a remarkable size1 and1 frequently growing out of the hard rock1 where there is no visible soil1 exhibit a very uncommon and pleasing appearance4 ,this quarry is the same that ,cicero eloquently describes as the vast and magnificent work of the kings and tyrants of ancient ,syracuse1 hewn out of the rock to a prodigious depth4 ,it also served as a prison for the ,athenian soldiers that were made captives during the ,peloponnesian war1 and even now these vast excavations might be used for a similar purpose1 as their high and overhanging walls forbid the possibility of escape1 and ten men would be able to guard ten thousand without danger4 ,yet the genius of ,euripides liberated many of his countrymen from this deep pit of bondage1 for happening to sing a chorus of one of his immortal tragedies1 they moved the tyrant to restore them to liberty1 in honour of their illustrious fellow-citizen4 ,never has a more grateful offering been awarded to a poet's genius1 and never has the magical power of the ,muses celebrated a nobler triumph4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,precious ,,stones4 ,diamonds--,diamond ,cutting--,rose ,diamonds--,brilliants--,the ,diamond ,district in ,brazil--,diamond ,lavras--,the great ,russian ,diamond--,the ,regent--,the ,koh-i-,noor--,its ,history--,the ,star of the ,south--,diamonds used for ,industrial ,purposes--,the ,oriental ,ruby and ,sapphire--,the ,spinel--,the ,chrysoberyl--,the ,emerald--,the ,beryl--,the ,zircon--,the ,topaz--,the ,oriental ,turquoise--,the ,garnet--,lapis ,lazuli--,the ,noble ,opal--,inferior ,precious ,stones--,the ,agate-,cutters of ,oberstein--,rock ,crystal--,the ,rock-crystal ,grotto of the ,galenstock4 ,in former ages superstition ascribed a strange mysterious power to precious stones4 ,gems of conspicuous size or lustre were supposed to confer health and prosperity on their owners1 to preserve them in the midst of the most appalling dangers1 or even to give them a command over the world of spirits4 ,the crucible of modern chemistry has1 indeed1 effectually dispelled these illusions of a poetic fancy2 but the precious stones have lost nothing in value by their nature being better known4 ,they are still the favourite and most costly ornaments of wealth and beauty1 and they still deservedly rank among the wonders of creation4 ,for surely no fabled talismanic virtues can be more worthy of admiration than that natural power which in the secret laboratories of the subterranean world has caused their atoms to unite in lustrous crystals1 and imparted to such vulgar materials as carbon1 clay1 or sand the gorgeous reflections of the rainbow or the glorious colours of the setting sun4 ,the diamond1 it is almost unnecessary to say1 is the chief of precious stones1 none other equalling it in brilliancy and refractive energy4 ,although generally colourless1 like pure rock-crystal1 yet it is also found of every variety of tint1 from a roseate hue to crimson red1 or from a pale yellow to dark green and blue1 or even black4 ,colourless diamonds are in general most highly esteemed1 but coloured stones are sometimes of an exquisite beauty1 and of corresponding value4 ,blue is an exceedingly rare colour1 and one of this shade1 the celebrated ,hope diamond1 which weighs forty-four and a half carats1#gj and unites the charming colour of the sapphire with the prismatic fire of the diamond1 is valued at #be1jjjl4 ,footnote #gj3 ,the carat is equal to #c grains ,troy weight4 ,as the rough stones are rarely found with an even or transparent surface1 the assistance of art is required to develop their full beauty4 ,the diamond1 being by far the hardest of all substances1 can only be cut and polished by itself4 ,hence the lapidaries begin their operations by rubbing several diamonds against each other while rough1 after having first glued them to the ends of two wooden blocks thick enough to be held in the hand4 ,it is the powder thus rubbed off the stones1 and received in a little box for the purpose1 that serves to grind and polish them4 ,the process of diamond-cutting is effected by a horizontal iron plate of about ten inches' diameter1 called a schyf or mill1 which revolves from two thousand to three thousand times per minute1 and is sprinkled over with diamond dust mixed with oil of olives4 ,the diamond is fixed in a ball of pewter at the end of an arm resting upon the table on which the plate revolves2 the other end1 at which the ball containing the diamond is fixed1 is pressed upon the wheel by movable weights at the discretion of the workman4 ,the method of cutting and polishing diamonds was unknown in ,europe before the fifteenth century1 but appears to have been practised long before in ,india1 though in a rude manner4 ,the original facetting of the ,koh-i-,noor was the work of an unknown and prehistoric age4 ,the diamonds which were employed as ornaments before that period1 as for instance the four large stones which enrich the clasp of the imperial mantle of ,charlemagne1 as now preserved in ,paris1 remained in their rough and uncut state4 ,the invention is ascribed to ,louis von ,berguen1 a native of ,bruges1 then the great emporium of ,western trade and luxury1 who in the year #adgf cut the fine diamond of ,charles the ,bold2 and ever since that time ,antwerp and ,amsterdam have maintained the first rank in the practice of an art which might be supposed to have a more appropriate seat in ,london or ,paris1 the centres of modern wealth and fashion4 ,diamonds are generally cut either as rose diamonds or as brilliants4 ,the rose diamond is flat beneath1 while the upper face rises into a dome1 and is cut into facets4 ,the brilliant1 which is always three times as thick as the rose diamond1 is likewise cut into facets1 but so as to form two pyramids rising from a common central base or girdle4 ,each pyramid is truncated at the top by a section parallel to the girdle1 which cuts off -#eah of the whole height from the upper one1 and -#aah from the lower one4 ,the superior and larger plane thus produced is called the table2 and the inferior and smaller one is called the collet4 ,although the rose diamond projects bright beams of light in more extensive proportion often than the brilliant1 yet the latter shows an incomparably greater play1 from the difference of its cutting4 ,in executing this there are formed thirty-two faces of different figures1 and inclined at different angles all round the table on the upper side of the stone1 while on the under side twenty-four other faces are made round the small table4 ,it is essential that the faces of the top and the bottom shall correspond together in sufficiently exact proportions to multiply the reflections and refractions1 so as to produce the gorgeous display of prismatic colours which renders the brilliant so pre- eminently beautiful4 ,from the hardness of the diamond1 its cutting is a very tedious and expensive operation1 requiring more time in the proportion of fifty to one than the cutting of the sapphire1 which comes next to it in hardness4 ,experiment has determined that the diamond consists of pure carbon1 so that the same substance which in its common black state is utterly worthless in very small quantities1 becomes the most costly of precious stones1 when it makes its appearance in the crystalline form4 ,already ,newton1 by observing the extraordinary refractive power of the diamond1 had been led to place it among combustibles2 but ,cosmo ,,iii41 ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 was the first who proved the truth of this bold conjecture by actual observation4 ,he exposed diamonds to the heat of the powerful burning glass of ,tschrnhausen1 and saw them vanish in a few moments into air4 ,the formation of the diamond in nature is one of the many problems which #8our philosophy' has not yet enabled us to solve4 ,time is an element which enters largely into nature's works2 she occupies a thousand or even thousands of years to produce a result1 while man in his experiments is confined to a few years at most4 ,the most anciently renowned diamond districts are situated in the ,indian peninsula1 in the kingdoms of ,golconda and ,visapour1 extending from ,cape ,comorin to ,bengal1 at the foot of a chain of mountains called the ,orixa1 which appear to belong to the trap-rock formation4 ,tavernier describes them as giving employment to thousands of workmen1 but they seem now to be all but exhausted4 ,we are but little acquainted with the diamond mines of ,landak in ,borneo1 though ,ida ,pfeiffer1 on her second voyage round the world1 obtained permission to visit them1 a favour but rarely accorded to strangers by the suspicious potentate to whom they belong4 ,so much is certain1 that very few stones from this quarter find their way to the civilised world1 which at present draws its chief supplies from the mines of ,serro do ,frio and ,sincora in ,brazil4 ,when diamonds were first found in the ,serro do ,frio1 about the beginning of the last century1 the real value of the glittering crystals was so little known that they were made use of as card-marks by the planters of the neighbourhood4 ,an inspector of mines1 who had been some time in ,india1 was the first who discovered their true nature4 ,wisely keeping his secret to himself1 he collected a large quantity of them1 and escaped with his treasure to ,europe4 ,in #agbi1 the governor of ,brazil1 ,don ,loureno de ,almeida1 sent some of the transparent stones of the ,serro to the court of ,lisbon with the remark that he supposed them to be diamonds1 and thus the attention of ,government was at length attracted to their value4 ,by a decree of the #hth of ,february1 #agcj1 the diamond district was placed under the rule of an ,intendant1 armed with the most arbitrary powers4 ,not only all strangers were carefully excluded from its limits1 but not even a ,portuguese or a ,brazilian was allowed to tread its forbidden ground without a special permission2 its population was limited to a scanty number1 nor durst the foundation of a new house be laid unless in the presence of magistrates and mining inspectors4 ,a system of secret delations was introduced worthy of the worst times of the ,inquisition1 and many an innocent person was banished1 imprisoned1 or transported to ,africa1 without even knowing his accuser1 or the trespass laid to his charge4 ,in one word despotism seemed to have exhausted all her inventive powers for the purpose of securing to the ,crown the monopoly of the costliest gem on earth4 ,but in spite of every precaution1 it was impossible to put down the contraband trade in diamonds4 ,the audacity of the smugglers increased with the obstacles placed in their way1 so that a far more considerable quantity of diamonds was secretly sold and exported than ever came into the hands of ,government4 ,traversing the deep forests on almost inaccessible mountain paths1 the bold free-traders met1 at some place of appointment1 the negroes who had been able to secrete some of the precious stones1 and paid them a trifle for diamonds which beyond the limits of the district were worth at least twenty times the price given4 ,sometimes even the smugglers searched for diamonds themselves in the unfrequented wilderness4 ,while some were washing the sands1 others kept watch upon an eminence1 and gave notice of the approach of the soldiers1 who were constantly patrolling the district4 ,the heaviest penalties could not prevent the inhabitants of the ,serra from defrauding the ,crown1 and ,herr von ,tschudi 7#8,travels in ,south ,america in #aheg-ahfa'7 was told many amusing instances of their smuggling contrivances4 ,one of them had concealed a diamond of twenty- five carats in the handle of his riding whip1 for which purpose he had practised for many weeks the art of plaiting the thin leather straps which covered it1 and another had secreted his precious stones in a kettle with a double bottom4 ,when the ,brazils became an independent country1 the monopoly of the diamond trade was abandoned by the new ,government1 and any speculator was allowed to search for diamonds on payment of a slight duty4 ,the precious stones are found chiefly in alluvial deposits 7,cascalho virgem71 in the beds of torrents1 or along low river-banks1 and frequently large quantities of overlying rubbish4 7,cascalho bravo7 have to be removed before the diamond-bed can be reached4 ,the mining labours are generally performed by slaves1 though some of the poorer miners1 or ,faiscadores1 have no other assistance but that of their own families4 ,the work varies with the seasons4 ,during the dry period of the year the cascalho is removed from the beds of the desiccated brooks1 and dams are raised or canals dug for the purpose of turning off the stream into another channel1 while the wet season is made use of for washing the sands4 ,while this operation is going on1 an overseer1 seated on a high chair1 keeps a sharp look-out upon the negroes2 but in spite of all his attention1 and of the severe punishments that await them in case of discovery1 they know how to secrete many a diamond1 by rapidly throwing it into their mouth1 and concealing it under their tongue or swallowing it4 ,in the ,portuguese times an ,intendant1 complaining to the overseers of the frequency of theft1 accused them of negligence1 but was told that no vigilance in the world could prevent it4 ,to convince himself of the fact1 he ordered a negro who enjoyed the reputation of being a most expert hand at secreting diamonds to be brought before him1 and placing a small stone in a heap of sand1 promised him his liberty in case he should succeed in appropriating the stone without being detected4 ,the negro began to wash the sand according to the usual method1 while the ,intendant was observing him all the time with the eyes of a lynx4 ,after a few minutes he asked the slave whether he had found the stone4 #8,if the word of a white man can be trusted1' answered the black1 #8,i am from this moment free2' and taking the diamond out of his mouth1 he handed it to the ,intendant4 ,the negroes employed in the diamond washings are generally hired by the miners at so many milrees a week4 ,although their labour is very severe1 they generally prefer it to any other1 as on ,sundays and ,feast-days they are allowed to search on their own account 7of course in places not previously occupied71 and have1 moreover1 an opportunity of stealing diamonds4 ,the profits thus lawfully or unlawfully made they generally spend in drinking1 a slave but very rarely saving money for the purpose of purchasing his freedom4 ,in the ,portuguese times1 while the mines were still worked on account of ,government1 a negro who was fortunate enough to find a stone weighing an oitava 7#ag carats7 was at once rewarded with his liberty2 at present only small rewards are given4 ,formerly most diamonds were found in the district of ,tejuco1 the capital of which received in #ahca the significant name of ,diamantina2 but in #ahdd new mines were discovered in the ,serro do ,sincora1 in the province of ,bahia1 whose richness eclipses that of the most brilliant times of ,tejuco4 ,the total produce of ,brazil is estimated at about #cjj1jjj carats1 annually worth on the spot from #cjj to #ejj milrees the oitava 7#ag carats74 ,the miners rarely make a fortune1 as their expenses are very great2 the chief profits of the diamond trade fall to the share of the merchants1 who purchase the stones in the mining districts and then sort and export them4 ,the price of diamonds is subject to considerable fluctuations1 which1 proceeding from the markets of ,london1 ,paris1 and ,amsterdam1 are most sensibly felt in the diamond districts1 for the great ,european houses in whose hands the trade of the rough stones is concentrated1 and who dispose of considerable capital1 are able to wait for better times1 while the small ,brazilian trader or miner is soon obliged1 for want of money1 to sell his stones at any price4 ,after the breaking out of the ,crimean war1 diamonds were very much depreciated at ,diamantina4 ,they were offered for sale at absurdly low prices1 and even then a purchaser was rarely to be found4 ,the market improved very slowly2 but when the war was at an end1 the prices once more rose to a height which had never been known before4 ,the commercial crisis in ,north ,america and ,europe at the end of #aheg1 and in the beginning of #aheh1 caused a new reaction1 the effects of which ,tschudi was able to note during his stay at ,diamantina4 #8,good ware' 7fazenda regular e boa71 consisting of stones averaging a vintem#ga in weight1 which a few months before had been paid with #ejj milrees the oitava1 were now offered for #cjj4 ,a stone of six vintems was sold in ,march #aheh for #agj milrees2 six months before it would have been worth #bdj or #bfj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,in the ,brazilian diamond trade1 the oitava 7#ag carats7 is considered as the unity of weight4 ,it is subdivided into #d quartas or #cb vintems2 the vintem is equal to #b-ahajj grains4 ,stones of half a vintem still pass as good ware 7fazenda ainda boa71 when well-shaped and colourless4 ,middling ware 7fazenda mediana7 consists of from #fd to #ajj stones to the oitava1 while all below that weight is sold as refuse4 ,while the price of the smaller stones of about a vintem or less is regulated by the exporters in ,rio1 conjointly with the ,european houses1 fancy prices are asked at ,diamantina for larger stones of several carats4 ,a fine diamond of an oitava sells for about three contos of rees 7#cfjl471 and one of two oitavas1 or thirty-five carats1 is often sold on the spot for ten to twelve contos 7#abjjl4-#addjl474 ,during the last thirty years1 diamonds have risen about forty per cent4 in price in ,europe1 a natural consequence of the increase of wealth and luxury while the supply of the article continues to be limited4 ,as1 however1 many large stones have recently been found in ,south ,africa1 and ,australia now adds the diamond to her many sources of natural wealth1 its value will probably once more decline4 ,when cut and polished1 a brilliant of the first or purest water in ,england1 weighing one carat1 is valued at #abl41 a rose diamond of the same weight at #hl41 while the value of all those of a larger size is calculated by multiplying the square of the weight in carats by twelve or eight1 except for those exceeding twenty carats1 the price of which increases at a much more rapid rate4 ,the enormous value ascribed to large diamonds is1 however1 merely fanciful1 for they are worth neither more nor less than what purchasers may be inclined or able to give for them4 ,according to the above valuation1 stones weighing #ajj carats would be worth at least 7#ajj #ajj #aj1jjj #ab7 #abj1jjjl42 a sum which has probably never yet been paid for a diamond of that weight4 ,a very trifling spot or flaw of any kind lowers exceedingly the commercial value of a diamond4 ,the number of large diamonds is very small4 ,among ten thousand stones1 the ,brazilian mines furnish but one that weighs ten carats2 diamonds above twenty carats are very rare1 and in all ,europe there are but five diamonds of more than one hundred carats4 ,the largest of these is the magnificent gem of the first water1 without fault or blemish1 which sparkles in the ,imperial sceptre of ,russia4 ,it weighs #aid carats2 its largest diameter is one inch three lines and a half2 its height ten lines4 ,it is of ,east ,indian origin1 and once figured with another similar stone in the throne of ,nadir ,shah4 ,when this tyrant was murdered1 it was stolen1 and ultimately came into the possession of an ,american merchant named ,schafrass1 who purchased it with several other valuable stones of an ,afghan chieftain in ,bagdad1 for the round sum of #ej1jjj piasters4 ,in #aggb the ,empress ,catharine ,,ii4 bought the diamond of ,schafrass1 who had meanwhile settled in ,amsterdam1 for #dej1jjj silver roubles and a patent of nobility4 ,of somewhat smaller size1 but of unparallelled beauty1 is the magnificent diamond called the ,pitt or ,regent1 which ,mr4 ,pitt1 grandfather of the famous ,lord ,chatham1 into whose possession it had come while governor of ,madras1 sold to the ,duke of ,orleans1 ,regent of ,france1 for #ace1jjjl4 having himself paid #ab1ejjl4 for it to ,tamohund1 the most famous native dealer in ,india4 ,it originally weighed #daj carats1 but has been reduced to #acf by cutting it into a brilliant-- an operation which is said to have lasted two years4 ,it is now the first among the jewels belonging to the ,french ,government2 ,napoleon used to wear it in the hilt of his sword4 ,during the five years the stone remained in his possession1 ,governor ,pitt is said to have lived in such constant dread of having it stolen1 that he never made known beforehand the day of his coming to town1 nor slept two nights following in the same house4 ,if this story be true1 great indeed must have been his relief when he parted with his gem1 which1 though small in weight1 was to him a true millstone in anxiety4 ,the diamond of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 which weighs #aci carats1 and is consequently a trifle larger than the ,regent1 once belonged to ,charles the ,bold of ,burgundy1 and at the battle of ,nancy fell into the hands of an ignorant trooper1 who plucked the gem from the helmet of the unfortunate duke and sold it for a crown4 ,at a later period it came into the possession of the ,court of ,tuscany1 and is now the first crown jewel of the ,emperor of ,austria4 ,the most celebrated diamond in the world is undoubtedly the ,koh-i-,noor1 or #8mountain of light1' which1 according to ,hindu legend1 was worn by one of the heroes of the ,great ,war which took place about four thousand years ago1 and which forms the subject of the epic poem the ,maha- ,bhrata4 ,after numberless vicissitudes and peregrinations1 we find it in the possession of the ,grand ,moguls1 and in #agci in that of ,nadir ,shah1 who1 on his occupation of ,delhi1 compelled ,mohammed ,shah1 the great- grandson of ,aurungzeb1 to give up to him all the valuables contained in the imperial treasury4 ,according to the family and popular tradition1 ,mohammed ,shah was imprudent enough to wear the ,koh-i-,noor in front of his turban at his interview with his conqueror1 who being #8the mildest-mannered man ,with all true breeding of a gentleman1' insisted on exchanging turbans in proof of his regard2 and is said to have bestowed upon the diamond thus politely annexed the name of ,koh-i- ,noor4 ,after the fall of his dynasty1 the stone became the property of ,ahmed ,shah1 the founder of the ,abdali dynasty of ,kabul1 and1 when ,mr4 ,elphinstone was at ,peshawur1 was worn by his successor ,shah ,shuja1 on his arm4 ,when ,shah ,shuja was driven from ,kabul1 he became the nominal guest and actual prisoner of ,runjeet ,singh1 who1 following the good example of ,nadir ,shah1 gently persuaded his proteg to part with his diamond for the revenues of three villages1 not one rupee of which he ever realised4 #8,by what do you estimate its value8' asked the ,sikh ,maharajah of his victim1 as the surrendered ,koh-i-,noor lay on the arm of his new master4 #8,by its good luck1#8 said ,shah ,shuja1 #8for it hath ever been his who hath conquered his enemies4' ,subsequent events fully proved the truth of this remark1 for when the ,punjab was annexed by the ,british ,government1 it was stipulated among other conditions that the ,koh-i-,noor should be presented to the ,queen of ,england4 ,but in spite of its promising name1 the #8,mountain of ,light' was but of inferior lustre1 for the ,orientals are mere bunglers in the art of diamond-cutting1 and lay greater weight upon the size than upon the brilliancy of a jewel4 ,hence it was resolved to have it recut by the most skilful ,amsterdam lapidaries1 who came over to ,england for the purpose4 ,the operation1 which was performed with the assistance of a small steam-engine1 and cost no less than #e1jjjl41 was perfectly successful2 and though the ,koh-i-,noor1 which formerly weighed #ahf carats1 has been reduced by its conversion into a brilliant of #ajb-caf carats1 it has gained so much in lustre that it now fully deserves the name assigned to it by the hyperbolical phraseology of the ,east4 ,all these large diamonds originally came from ,india2 but latterly they have been rivalled by a stone of ,brazilian origin1 originally weighing #bed carats1 but reduced by cutting to #abe1 which has received the poetical name of #8,estrella do ,sul' or ,star of the ,south4 ,it is a singular fact that as yet this beautiful gem has brought good luck to none of its possessors4 ,an old negro woman accidentally found it in a diamond mine at the ,rio da ,bagagem1 in ,minas ,geraes1 among a heap of pebbles that had been previously washed4 ,she gave it to her master1 who did not even reward her with her liberty1 and superstition has traced all the ill-luck attached to the stone to that ungenerous act4 ,the first proprietor of the diamond was a needy man1 who for a trifling sum had been allowed by the proprietor of the mine to search for stones with the few slaves he possessed4 ,the proprietor now claimed the diamond1 alleging that it had not been found on the premises hired by the former2 and a law suit1 profitable of course to none but the lawyers1 was the consequence4 ,to be able to defend his cause1 the possessor of the stone pawned it to the ,brazilian ,bank for about #h1jjjl41 for which he had to pay fifteen per cent4 commission and a high interest4 ,the law suit1 as may naturally be supposed1 lasted so long that the man died before it was decided1 and but a very small sum of money remained to his widow4 ,after passing through several hands1 the stone was purchased at ,rio for a million of francs1 by a ,dutch jeweller1 who1 to make up this considerable sum1 was obliged to borrow money at the usual high interest of the place4 ,he took the stone with him to ,amsterdam1 where it was cut1 at an expense of about #d1jjjl4 ,the great desideratum now was to find a purchaser for the magnificent jewel1 which1 however1 did not prove of the first water4 ,it was offered for sale to several crowned heads1 and no princely bridal was allowed to pass without an attempt to dispose of the #8,star of the ,south2' but all efforts proved fruitless1 for it seems that the monarchs of our days are of opinion that the exorbitant sums formerly paid for diamonds of an uncommon size may be invested in a much more profitable manner4 ,the unfortunate speculator died of a broken heart4 ,by the latest accounts the stone is still in ,paris1 held in pawn by a commercial house1 which most probably will keep it1 as the accumulated interest of years must of course absorb its whole value4 ,the uncut stone belonging to the ,king of ,portugal1 and weighing #a1fhj carats1 is now well known to be not1 as was supposed1 the greatest diamond in the world1 but a mere white topaz4 ,the quality of another stone of #ach carats1 found near the ,rio ,abaete in #agia1 and likewise in the ,portuguese treasury1 has not been determined4 ,so much1 however1 is certain1 that the ,portuguese ,crown possesses 7or possessed a few years ago7 the richest collection of diamonds in the world1 the value of which was estimated at about #c1jjj1jjjl4787 ,of all the stones annually sent to ,lisbon by the ,general ,intendant of the diamond districts1 the king selected the largest and finest for the royal treasury1 and the others were sold4 ,when ,king ,joao ,,vi4 returned in #ahba from ,brazil to ,portugal1 he carried along with him almost as many diamonds as ,voltaire's ,candide on his escape from ,eldorado4 ,the jewels were deposited in sealed bags in the vaults of the ,lisbon ,bank1 where they remained forty years as a dead capital4 ,in #ahfc it was at length very wisely resolved1 with the consent of the ,cortes1 to sell these rough diamonds1 and to invest the proceeds for the benefit of the civil list4 ,though diamonds are usually washed out from the soil1 yet they also generally occur in regions that afford a laminated granular quartz rock1 called ,itacolumite1 which in thin slabs is translucent and more or less flexible4 ,this rock occurs in the mines of ,brazil and the ,urals1 and also in ,georgia and ,north ,carolina1 where a few diamonds have been found4 ,before taking leave of the prince of gems1 ,i will not omit mentioning that it is not only the costliest of all ornaments1 but serves also for several more humble though more useful purposes1 as for cutting glass by the glazier1 and all kinds of hard stones by the lapidary4 ,small drills are made either of imperfect diamonds1 or of fragments split off from good stones in their manufacture for jewelling4 ,they are used for drilling small holes in rubies and other hard stones1 for piercing holes in china where rivets are to be inserted1 or in any other vitreous substance1 however hard4 ,diamonds have also been recently used for arming the end of the borer in a new rock-boring machine1 for scooping out holes in the hardest rocks1 such as granite and porphyry4 ,the use of diamond dust within a few years has increased very materially with the increased demand for all articles wrought by it1 such as cameos and intaglios4 ,the mineral substance that ranks next to the diamond1 whether we estimate it by its hardness1 the splendour of its colour1 or its rareness1 is that called by the mineralogists ,corundum4 ,it consists of pure crystallised alumina 7the oxide of the now well-known metal aluminium71 variously tinted by the addition of small quantities of iron or chromium4 ,to this class belong the ruby1 the sapphire1 the topaz1 the emerald1 the amethyst1 and other stones of gorgeous colour1 distinguished by the epithet #8oriental' prefixed to the name4 ,the ,oriental ,ruby1 or ,red ,sapphire1 is the red stone par excellence of jewellery1 and1 from its fiery lustre1 probably identical with the carbuncle of ,pliny1 and the anthrax or #8burning coal' of ,theophrastus4 ,its finest colour is a most rich and lovely crimson1 known as the pigeon's blood tint2 but its scarlet tints are also most beautiful4 ,the red rays of the prism falling on a ruby produce a charming effect4 ,pegu is the land of rubies1 and ,australia now likewise furnishes stones of excellent quality4 ,a perfect ruby above three and a half carats is more valuable than a diamond of the same weight4 ,if it weigh one carat it is worth ten guineas2 two carats1 forty guineas2 three carats1 one hundred and fifty guineas2 six carats1 above one thousand guineas4 ,the largest oriental ruby known to be in the world was brought from ,china to ,prince ,gagarin1 ,governor of ,siberia4 ,it came afterwards into the possession of ,prince ,menschikoff1 and is now a jewel in the imperial crown of ,russia4 ,the blue variety of the corundum is the ,oriental ,sapphire of the jeweller4 ,there is one hue of it of a soft pure azure1 distinguished from the commoner kinds by its retaining its fine blue even by candlelight1 when an ordinary sapphire looks purple or black4 ,unlike the ruby1 it occurs in specimens of a considerable size4 ,a good blue stone of ten carats is valued at fifty guineas4 ,if it weighs twenty carats its value is two hundred guineas1 but under ten carats the price may be estimated by multiplying the square of its weight in carats into half a guinea2 thus one of four carats would be worth eight guineas4 ,a sapphire of a barbel-blue colour1 weighing six carats1 was disposed of in ,paris by public sale for #gjl42 and another of an indigo blue1 weighing #f carats and #c grains1 brought #fjl41 both of which sums much exceed what the preceding rule assigns1 from which we may perceive how far fancy may go in such matters4 ,the ,spinels1 whose transparent and more precious forms consist essentially of alumina combined with magnesia1 and tinted perhaps with iron1 include two resplendent stones1 the ,spinel ,ruby1 a scarlet variety of considerable fire and of rich colour1 and the ,balais or ,balass ,ruby1 thus called from one of the most celebrated localities of the spinel in former times1 namely ,beloochistan or ,balastan4 ,the latter is of a delicate and rarely deep rose-colour1 showing a blue tint when looked through1 and a redder one when it is looked at4 ,both of these minerals are termed rubies by the jewellers1 and the deeper-tinted kinds are sometimes sold for the true stone4 ,in fact1 nearly all the large and famous gems that pass under the name of rubies belong to this species1 as for instance the ancient ruby in the crown of ,england1 which was presented to ,edward the ,black ,prince by ,don ,pedro the ,cruel1 and the enormous stone1 time-honoured in ,indian tradition1 that came along with the ,koh-i-,noor into ,her ,majesty's possession4 ,such was the superstitious value attached to it by its former proprietor1 ,runjeet ,singh1 that he would sooner have lost a province than this stone4 ,when the weight of a good spinel exceeds four carats1 it is said to be valued at half the price of a diamond of the same weight4 ,the ,chrysoberyl1 called also by the jewellers the ,oriental ,chrysolite1 is a stone of almost adamantine lustre and transparence4 ,it is a compound of alumina and the rare oxide glucina1 a constituent of the beryl4 ,it has usually a peculiar1 sometimes a very delicate greenish yellow or primrose colour1 and is then one of the most beautiful of gems4 ,the finer specimens are from ,brazil4 ,the ,emerald and the ,beryl are one and the same mineral--a silicate of alumina and glucina1 which owes to a small trace of iron its blue1 pink1 or yellow tints1 or else to a little chromium the transcendent green which characterises it as the emerald4 ,the colour of this beautiful gem is so pleasant to the eye that the ancients attributed to it the power of strengthening and relieving the sight when fatigued by previous exertions4 ,both from its beauty and rareness they held it in high estimation1 and ,pliny ranks the emerald in value immediately after the diamond and the oriental pearl4 ,in the ,egyptian tombs real emeralds are sometimes found as the ornaments of regal mummies1 and they have not seldom been discovered among the ruins of ,rome1 or at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,scythia1 ,bactria1 and ,egypt were renowned among the ancients as the countries which furnished the most beautiful emeralds4 ,at present these precious stones are obtained chiefly from ,new ,granada and ,siberia1 in which latter country they occur of much larger size1 but of less beauty1 and consequently far inferior value4 ,the first ,siberian emeralds were discovered in the year #ahca1 in the neighbourhood of ,catharinenburg1 by some peasants1 while making tar1 and other mines were opened in #ahcd ten versts distant from the former4 ,here was found an enormous stone1 fourteen inches long and twelve broad1 and weighing #af lbs4 troy1 and another superb specimen consisting of twenty crystals1 from half an inch to five inches long1 and as much as two inches thick1 embedded in a matrix of mica-schist4 ,both these monstrous gems now rank among the chief ornaments of the ,imperial ,mineralogical ,cabinet4 ,when the ,spaniards conquered ,peru1 they found many beautiful emeralds in the possession of the natives4 ,the largest of these stones1 about the size of an ostrich egg1 was adored as a god in one of the temples1 and other emeralds of a smaller size placed around it were honoured as its children4 ,in their blind fanaticism1 the otherwise greedy ,spaniards shivered the god and his family to pieces1 but it is more than probable that the wisest of the band quietly picked up the fragments and afterwards disposed of them to advantage4 ,the finest stones used to be found in the valley of ,manta2 but the ,indians kept the mines secret1 to avoid being obliged to work in them1 or perhaps out of hatred against their oppressors4 ,at present1 the ,american emeralds are chiefly obtained from the valley of ,tunka1 in the province of ,santa ,f de ,bogota1 in ,new ,granada4 ,the price of emeralds varies considerably1 according to their purity1 the beauty of their colour1 their lustre1 and their size4 ,before the discovery of ,america1 they were uncommonly dear1 all knowledge of the old mines having been lost1 so that the emeralds still used as ornaments were all ancient4 ,afterwards their value decreased1 when a greater quantity was imported from ,peru2 but recently they have again risen in price1 as ,america at present furnishes but few good stones4 ,a splendid specimen in the possession of ,mr4 ,hope1 weighing six ounces1 cost #ejjl42 another fine ,american emerald belonging to the ,duke of ,devonshire is two inches long1 and weighs above eight ounces1 but1 owing to flaws1 it is but partially fit for jewellery4 ,the ,beryl1 which exhibits every gradation of tint1 from a pale azure blue to a fine mountain green1 and also occurs in a pale orange yellow variety1 is found in great perfection at ,oduntschilon and ,mursinsk in ,siberia4 ,a beautifully clear crystal1 ten inches long1 discovered in the latter locality in #ahbh1 and forming part of the mineralogical museum at ,petersburg1 is valued at #h1jjjl4 ,formerly ,brazil and ,cangayum in the ,deccan were in much repute as fields in which the beryl was found1 and many a brilliant little stone has been furnished by the ,mourne ,mountains in ,ireland4 ,the ,zircon consists of the mixed oxides of silicon and of the rare element zirconium1 and is one of the heaviest and most lustrous of gem- stones4 ,its colourless variety is the nearest match in brilliancy and refractive energy for the diamond1 while the deep orange-tinted red zircon is that transcendent gem1 the true hyacinth1 which makes a very superb ring-stone4 ,the ,topaz1 a silicate of alumina and fluorine1 is found chiefly in ,siberia1 ,brazil1 and ,saxony1 and is also met with in the granitic detritus of ,cairngorm in ,aberdeenshire4 ,the colourless ,brazilian variety 7,pingo d'agoa1 or waterdrop7 surpasses rock-crystal in purity and refractive power1 and being of the same weight as the diamond1 is sometimes mistaken for it4 ,the pale yellow topaz when heated in a crucible assumes a rose-red colour1 and is then called by the jewellers ruby of ,brazil4 ,the ,saxon topaz1 on the other hand1 becomes white when exposed to heat1 and thus deprived of colour is sold for the diamond4 ,in ancient times the topaz was highly esteemed2 but1 in spite of its beauty1 it is not now considered of very great value1 from its being too frequently found1 and is sold in the rough for about forty shillings per pound4 ,when of a beautiful #8forget-me-not' blue1 and above the size of a pea1 the ,oriental ,turquoise1 which in inferior specimens is but of little value1 fetches a considerable price1 so that fine stones of about half an inch in length are worth #ael4 or #bjl4 ,the turquoise1 which consists of phosphate of alumina coloured by oxide of copper1 occurs chiefly in the mountainous range of ,persia1 whence it is brought by the merchants of ,bochara to ,moskau2 but the ,shah is said to retain for his own use all the larger and finely tinted specimens4 ,major ,macdonald gives the following account of a new field for the turquoise which he discovered in ,arabia ,petra4 #8,in the year #ahdi1 during my travels in ,arabia in search of antiquities1 ,i was led to examine a very lofty range of mountains1 composed of iron sandstone1 many days' journey in the desert2 and whilst descending a mountain of about six thousand feet high1 by a deep and precipitous gorge1 which in the winter time served to carry off the water1 ,i found a bed of gravel1 where ,i perceived a great many small blue objects mixed with the other stones2 on collecting them ,i found they were turquoises of the finest colour and quality4 ,on continuing my researches through the entire range of mountains1 ,i discovered many valuable deposits of the same stones1 some quite pure in pebbles1 and others in the matrix4 ,the action of the weather gradually loosens them from the rock1 and they are rolled into the ravines1 and1 in the winter season1 mixed up by the torrents with beds of gravel1 where they are found4' ,the ,occidental or ,bone ,turquoise1 which has generally but one-fourth of the value of the oriental1 is said to be fossil bones or teeth1 coloured with oxide of copper4 ,the ,garnet1 a silicate of some base which may be lime1 magnesia1 oxide of iron1 or chromium1 is in its finer specimens one of the most beautiful coloured products of nature's laboratory4 ,by jewellers the garnets are classed as ,syrian1 ,bohemian1 or ,cingalese1 rather from their relative value and fineness than with any reference to the country from which they are supposed to have been brought4 ,those most esteemed are called ,syrian garnets1 not because they come from ,syria1 but after ,syrian1 the capital of ,pegu1 which city was formerly the chief mart for the finest garnets4 ,their colour is violet purple1 which in some rare instances vies with that of the finest oriental amethyst2 but it may be distinguished from the latter by acquiring an orange tint by candlelight4 ,the ,bohemian garnet is generally of a dull poppy-red colour1 with a very perceptible hyacinth orange tint1 when held between the eye and the light4 ,when the colour is a full crimson1 it is called pyrope or fire-garnet1 a stone of considerable value when perfect and of large size4 ,garnet is easily worked1 and when facet-cut is nearly always 7on account of the depth of its colour7 formed into thin tables1 which are sometimes concave or hollowed out on the under side4 ,cut stones of this latter kind1 when skilfully set1 with a bright silver foil1 have often been sold as rubies4 ,though ,lapis ,lazuli1 a silicate of soda1 lime1 and alumina1 with the sulphide of iron and sodium in minute quantities1 is without transparency1 and without much lustre1 yet its beautiful azure-blue tints1 often interspersed with yellow specks1 and veins of iron pyrites1 which1 from their brilliant appearance in the comparatively dull blue stone1 might easily be mistaken for gold1 entitle it to be ranked among the semi-precious stones4 ,the finest quality1 which sells in the mass for #cjl4 per pound1 is used for jewellery1 and for making costly vases and ornamental furniture4 ,lapis lazuli was also the source from which the beautiful pigment ultramarine was obtained2 but this colour is now prepared artificially at a very cheap rate4 ,this beautiful mineral is found in crystalline limestone of a greyish colour on the banks of the ,indus1 and in granite in ,persia1 ,china1 and ,siberia4 ,in the long list of the crystalline or hyaline quartzes1 consisting of silex or silica in various degrees of purity1 there is but one variety1 the ,noble ,opal1 that ranks among precious stones of the first quality4 ,in this beautiful gem1 minute fissures are apparently striated with microscopic lines1 which1 diffracting the light1 flash out rainbow tints of the purest and most brilliant hues4 ,the ,noble ,opal1 which is one of the favourite jewels of modern times1 was no less highly esteemed by the ancients1 #8for in this stone1' says ,pliny1 #8we admire the fire of the ruby1 the brilliant purple of the amethyst1 the lustrous green of the emerald1 all shining together in a wonderful mixture4' ,for the sake of a magnificent opal1 set in a ring1 and valued at #bj1jjjl4 of our money1 the senator ,nonius was exiled by ,mark ,antony4 ,he might have escaped banishment by presenting his opal to the covetous triumvir2 but he preferred exile with his gem to staying in ,rome without it4 ,the ,precious ,opal is so rare a stone that1 with all our mining enterprise and geological research1 we know of only two certain localities for it1 namely1 in ,hungary and in ,mexico1 though some specimens are said to have been found in the province of ,honduras and in the stormy ,feroe ,islands4 ,the opal mines of ,hungary1 situated at ,czernewitza1 in the county of ,saros1 belong to the ,crown1 and are at present farmed by ,herr ,goldschmidt of ,vienna1 for #aj1jjj florins annually4 ,about #aej workmen are employed1 and as good stones occur but rarely1 and are of a corresponding value1 it may easily be imagined that1 what with the constant fear of being robbed1 and that of not being able to cover his expenses1 poor ,herr ,goldschmidt is no less to be pitied than ,governor ,pitt while in possession of his diamond4 ,the finest and largest opal in the world is in the ,imperial ,mineralogical ,cabinet in ,vienna4 ,it has the most magnificent play of colours1 chiefly green and red1 weighs seventeen ounces1 and is irregularly cut1 so as not to diminish the mass4 ,an ,amsterdam jeweller is said to have offered half a million of florins for this unique gem4 ,unfortunately1 its large size prevents its being used as an ornament1 as for this purpose it would have to be cut to pieces1 which would be an unpardonable piece of ,vandalism4 ,their relative beauty increases the value of opals so considerably that fine stones of a moderate bulk have1 in modern times1 been frequently sold at the price of diamonds of equal size4 ,the so-called #8,mountain of ,light1' an ,hungarian opal in the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 weighed #ebf carats1 and was estimated at #d1jjjl4 ,the black opals1 which allow the red fire of the ruby to flash out from the dark ground-colour of the stone1 are also highly esteemed4 ,besides the commoner varieties of opal1 such as semi-opal1 opal jasper1 wood opal1 different kinds of quartz crystal1 including amethyst1 ,cairngorm stone1 and a long and beautiful array of jaspers and chalcedonies1 such as agate1 onyx1 sard1 plasma1 and chrysoprase1 may be placed in a list of stones of the second degree in point of value1 if that value be estimated by rarity and price4 ,the cutting1 or grinding and polishing of most of these stones1 which are commonly comprised under the name of agates1 is chiefly carried on in the small towns of ,oberstein and ,idar1 situated in the picturesque valley through which the rapid ,idar flows into the ,nahe1 a tributary of the ,rhine4 ,the sterile soil yields but a scanty produce1 but the neighbouring hills abound in chalcedonies1 which afford the people an ample indemnity for the barrenness of their land4 ,as early as the fourteenth century1 the art of agate-cutting was introduced into this remote valley1 from ,italy1 where it had long been practised2 but for a long time the trade was conducted in a very rude manner4 ,the workmen themselves undertook the sale of their ware1 and wandered as pedlars to the neighbouring castles or towns1 where they could hope to dispose of their agates to the best advantage4 ,it was not before the middle of the last century that the industry of ,oberstein made a considerable progress4 ,gold and silversmiths settled in the small town to set the stones as they came out of the hands of the grinders1 and gradually a more wealthy class of traders was formed1 who undertook long voyages1 and extended their operations to distant countries4 ,the fairs of ,frankfort and ,leipzig were regularly attended by the merchants of ,oberstein and ,idar1 and some of them even ventured as far as ,smyrna or ,archangel4 ,the taste and the ability of the workmen improved as their market extended1 but now the want of the raw material began to be felt4 ,the neighbouring hills were no longer able to meet the demand1 the stones continually rose in price1 the better qualities could hardly be procured1 and thus the agate manufactory was menaced with decline1 when a fortunate circumstance gave it a new impulse4 ,some of the inhabitants of ,idar who in #ahbg had emigrated to ,brazil discovered in their new home an inexhaustible supply of stones4 ,enormous masses of chalcedony were found scattered as boulders near the banks of some rivers or disseminated in the plains1 and could be sent as ballast at a trifling expense across the ocean4 ,thus almost all the rough material that ,oberstein needs comes at present from ,brazil or even ,india1 and only the rarer varieties of agate-jaspis are at present collected in the neighbourhood of ,idar4 ,in possession of the best materials1 supplied by a number of localities1 and comprising all imaginable varieties of chalcedony--carnelion1 plasma1 heliotrope1 jaspis1 rock-crystal1 amethyst1 topaz1 lapis lazuli1 malachite--and commanding a market which extends further and further over the globe1 the prosperity of ,oberstein and ,idar steadily increases4 ,one hundred and eighty-three water-mills 7with #gbd large grinding-stones71 situated along the romantic ,idar1 give employment to about #c1jjj workmen1 and the value of the manufactured stones amounts to at least #bbj1jjjl4 annually4 ,no stones are so porous or so easily coloured by artificial means as the varieties of chalcedony4 ,in ancient times the onyxes from the ,nerbudda were #8baked in ovens1' and to this day1 in the neighbourhood of ,brooch1 the nodules of onyx dug in the dry season from the beds of torrents are packed in earthen pots with dry goat's-dung1 which is set on fire4 ,by this baking process the grey or dark green iron hydrate which permeates their pores and gives them a dull colour is changed into the red oxyde1 which imparts to the improved stones rich hues of orange and hyacinthine red1 and the more ornamental of the mottled onyxes that come from ,cambay are those thus artificially beautified4 ,the art of baking and colouring is now fully understood in ,oberstein4 ,some agates consist of impermeable white bands or layers alternating with others of a grey or dull colour1 and of a porous nature4 ,when placed in honey and exposed to a moderate heat for eight or ten days1 the saccharine matter penetrates into the microscopical pores4 ,then the stones are boiled in sulphuric acid1 which1 carbonising the honey1 imparts a deep black colour to the porous layers which it had permeated1 and by thus setting-off the white layers to the best advantage1 changes a previously almost worthless stone into a beautiful onyx or sardonyx4 ,an ,italian who came to ,oberstein to buy rough agates for the cameo- cutters of ,rome made the ,germans acquainted with this method1 which had long been practised by his countrymen4 ,by other chemical processes1 some of which are generally known1 while others are kept a secret1 rich yellow1 or apple-green1 or blue tints are imparted by the agate-dealers of ,oberstein to the rough produce of nature4 ,a description of all the varieties of quartz used for ornamental purposes would lead me too far2 but a few words on rock-crystal may not be uninteresting4 ,this beautiful mineral occurs in many varieties1 such as the violet1 rock-crystal1 or amethyst1 the most beautiful specimens of which are procured from ,india1 ,ceylon1 and ,persia2 the false topaz when yellow1 the morion when black1 the smoky quartz when smoke-brown4 ,the limpid and colourless kinds are often called ,bristol or ,irish diamonds1 after the various localities in which they are found4 ,rock-crystal frequently occurs in the ,alps1 as is well known to every traveller in ,switzerland4 ,small rock-crystals have hardly any value1 but considerable prices are paid for very large specimens1 which are accordingly much sought for by chamois-hunters and goatherds4 ,about a century since a quartz cave was opened at ,zinken1 which afforded #a1jjj cwt4 of rock-crystal1 and at that early period brought #cjj1jjj dollars4 ,one crystal weighed #hjj pounds4 ,in #ahfg a party of tourists1 descending from the solitudes of the ,galenstock1 discovered1 in a band of white quartz traversing a precipitous rock-wall about a hundred feet above the ,tiefen ,glacier1 some dark spots which the guide1 ,peter ,sulzer1 of ,guttannen1 declared to be cavities in which undoubtedly rock-crystals would be found4 ,the weather being unpropitious1 no search was made at the time2 but a few weeks after ,sulzer and his son revisited the spot1 and after having clambered up to the holes with great difficulty1 found that they communicated with a dark cavity1 from which the intrepid explorers extracted some pieces of black rock-crystal with the curved handles of their alpenstocks4 ,in the ,august of the following year the ,sulzers1 accompanied by a few friends from ,guttannen1 to whom they had imparted the secret1 made a more decisive attempt to force their way into the cave1 by widening the entrance with gunpowder4 ,to clamber and maintain one's position on a nearly vertical rock on ledges only a few inches broad is at all times a matter of no small difficulty2 but this difficulty is very much increased when at the same time the hammer and other implements for blasting are to be handled4 ,the weather was also very bad1 and every now and then a dreadful gust of wind threatened to hurl the hardy adventurers from the rock upon the glacier4 ,hail and rain stiffened their limbs2 and thus they passed a miserable night closely huddled together on a narrow projection before the cavity4 ,wet to the skin1 and their teeth chattering with cold1 they resumed their labours on the following morning1 and at length sufficiently widened the entrance to open a passage into a cave which was found to penetrate to a considerable depth into the mountain4 ,the cave was filled nearly up to its roof with a mound consisting of pieces of granite and quartz mixed with chlorite sand2 but here and there1 imbedded in the rubbish1 glistened the large planes of jet black morions which showed that their toil had not been fruitless4 ,originally the crystals had grown from the sides or the roof of the cave2 and who can tell the ages that were required for their formation1 or the mysterious circumstances that favoured their growth8--then at an equally unknown time the concussion of an earthquake1 or maybe their own weight1 had detached them from the rock to which they clung1 and precipitated them upon the floor4 ,upon the whole more than a thousand large crystals were found in the cave1 many of them weighing from fifty pounds to more than three cwt4 ,after the first explorers had collected about a ton1 the whole able- bodied population of ,guttannen1 provided with hammers1 spades1 ropes1 baskets1 and trucks1 came forth to carry away the remainder4 ,as the report had spread that the ,canton of ,uri1 on whose territory the cave was situated1 intended to stop their proceedings1 they worked night and day with feverish haste1 and in the space of a week had entirely stripped it of its treasures1 which were partly conveyed to the new ,furca ,road1 and partly transported over the glaciers to the ,grimsel4 ,one of the party fell into a crevice with a crystal of a hundred pounds upon his back1 but extricated himself1 though he was obliged to abandon his prize4 ,thus when the authorities from ,uri made their appearance on the spot nearly all the crystals had been removed out of their reach4 ,seven of the finest specimens1 each rejoicing in an individual name1 like the mammoth-trees of ,america1 now form a magnificent group in the museum of ,berne1 to which they were sold for #h1jjj francs4 ,the #8king1' #cb inches high and #c feet in circumference1 weighs #bee pounds2 the 'grandfather1' though of inferior height1 makes up for this deficiency by a superior girth1 and weighs #bgf pounds4 ,many other fine crystals were sold to various museums and private collections for six or seven francs per pound1 so that ,sulzer's discovery will long be gratefully remembered in the annals of the poor village of ,guttannen4 ,,index4 ,aben ,aboo1 last ,morisco chief of ,granada1 his end1 #agd ,abraham1 his purchase of the field of ,machpelah with silver money1 #big ,abydos1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,abyssinia1 rock-churches of1 #ahf ,aconcagua1 height of the volcano of1 #ed ,adelsberg1 cave of1 vast dimensions of the1 #ace1 #ach entrance to the ,cave of1 #acg stalagmital formations of1 #adj traversed by a river1 #aej fungi in the1 #aeg subterranean animals found in the1 #afb1 #afc insects in the1 #afc ,adit levels1 drainage by1 #bfi ,adullam1 ,david's refuge in the cave of1 #afi olian caverns1 #aih-bjj those of ,terni1 #aih fables respecting1 #aii ,africa1 future services of ,artesian wells to1 #ea cannibal caves of ,south1 #bcd ,agates1 #dif of ,oberstein1 #dif1 #dih ,aidepsos1 antiquity of the hot baths of1 #dd ,ajunta1 rock-temples of1 #ahb1 #ahc ,alabaster1 origin of1 #d of ,montmartre1 #dfh of ,volterra1 #dfh of ,england1 #dfi ,alaghez1 sulphur of the crater of the volcano of1 #dde ,albania1 subterranean water-courses of1 #aej ,albano1 ,lake of1 the crateriform hollow forming the1 #acb ,albert the ,great1 his discovery of arsenic1 #che ,alchemists1 their search for gold1 #cga ,aleschga1 fire temple of1 #ia ,aleutian ,mountains1 volcanoes of the1 #fa ,aleutian ,archipelago1 formation of a new volcanic island in the1 #fj ,alexander the ,great1 wealth of1 #bhf1 #bih ,aldborough1 amber found on the coast at1 #dej ,algeria1 ,artesian wells of1 #ea ,algiers1 great part of1 destroyed by the earthquake of #agee1 #aah ,aljaska1 volcanoes of the peninsula of1 #fa ,almaden del ,azogue1 quicksilver mines of1 #cga-cgc mines of ,new ,almaden in ,california1 #cgh ,alpujarras1 destruction of the ,moors of ,granada in the caves of1 #agc1 #agd ,alston1 situation of the town of1 #cff ,alston ,moor1 horses used in the mines of1 #bfb great drain of ,nent ,force ,level1 #bgj lead mines of1 #cfe1 #cff ,alta1 copper mines of the1 #cbf porphyry of the1 #dfh ,alten ,fjord1 copper mines of1 #cbd ,aluminium1 discovery and uses of1 #chg ,aluminium-bronze1 #chg ,amber1 modes of collecting1 on the ,prussian coast1 #ddi diggings near ,dantzig1 #ddi1 #dej various places in which it is found1 #dej what is amber8 #dej the extinct amber-tree1 #dea insects inclosed in amber1 #deb-dee ancient and modern trade in1 #dee-deg constituents of1 #deh mines of ,tolfa1 #deh manufacture of1 #dei ,amblyopsis spelus1 of the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 #afh ,america1 number of active volcanoes in ,western and ,central1 #fa copper mines of1 #cbf ancient copper mines of1 #cbg iron industry of1 #cfb lead mines of1 #cfg silver mines of1 #cjj-cad coal-fields of ,north1 #dbd fossil monkeys of ,south1 #bd animals of the ,pliocene period and of the present day1 #bd ,ammonites1 number of species of the1#ah characteristics of the1 #ah ,ammonites ,henleyi1 #i ,anaitis1 golden statue of the goddess1 #bhf ,anchorites1 caves of1 #agh ,ancyloceras gigas1 #ai ,andernach1 on the ,rhine1 glacial beer cellars of1 #aib entrance to the glacire of1 #bja ,andes1 sea-shells found on the1 #cd fish disgorged from the volcanic caverns of the1 #fi ,andr1 ,st41 town and church of1 buried by a landslip of ,mount ,grenier1 #abg ,andreasberg1 ,st41 depth of one of the pits of1 #bdg ,animals1 impressions produced on1 by an earthquake1 #aac subterranean1 #aei-afh divine honours paid to them by the ,egyptians1 and converted into mummies1 #bje caves containing remains of extinct animals1 #bac ,anoplotheriums1 size and characteristics of the1 #bc ,antopolis1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,anthony1 ,st41 of ,egypt1 his rock-cave1 life1 and death1 #agh1 #agi ,anthracites1 or non-bituminous coal1 #dja1 #djb value of1 for steam-engines1 #dje ,antimony1 first mention of1 #chc uses of1 #chc ,antioch1 earthquake of1 in the reign of ,trajan1 #ig its subsequent subversion by an earthquake1 #ig ,antiparos1 ,grotto of1 #acd ,antuco1 eruption of the volcano of1 in #ahce1 #gi ,apallachian coal-field1 its enormous extent1 #dbd ,apollo1 at ,delphi1 golden statue of1 #bhe ,apteryx australis of ,new ,zealand1 #baf ,aptornis1 ,professor ,owen's resuscitation of the1 #bag ,aqueducts of the ,romans1 #da of the ,turks1 #da1 #db ,aqueous rocks1 countless ages of the formation of the1 #a1 #e incomplete knowledge of these sedimentary formations1 #a aqueous strata disturbed by igneous formations1 #d ,arabia1 sulphur of1 #ddf ,arcadia1 consecrated caves to ,artemis and ,pan in1 #ahg ,arcueil1 artificial mushroom-beds at1 #aeh ,arica1 effects of an earthquake sea-wave at1 #aji ,argentiferous veins of the ,clausthal and the ,veta madre1 their length1 #bdg ,armenia1 hermits in1 #agi ,arnaud1 ,st41 ,colonel1 his massacre of the ,arabs in the cave of ,shelas1 #agf ,arracan1 mud volcanoes of the coast of1 #ic ,arsenic1 discovery of1 #che supply of1 #che ,artesian wells1 subterranean heat shown by1 #cb theory of1 #dh of the inhabitants of the ,sahara1 mentioned by ,olympiodorus1 #dh the well of ,grenelle at ,paris1 #di ,artesian well sunk in the ,london basin1 #di various uses of ,artesian wells1 #ej those of ,algeria1 #ea future importance of1 in ,africa and ,australia1 #ea1 #eb ,ashes thrown out by volcanic eruptions1 #ff1 #fg ,asia ,minor1 earthquakes of1 in the reign of ,tiberius1 #ig1 #ajj ,asphalte1 #dbf found swimming on the ,dead ,sea1 #dbg uses of1 #dbg pavements made of1 #dbh ,assuan1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,asterophyllites comosa1 #cib ,augustus1 ,emperor1 and the sacrilegious soldier1 story of1 #bhf ,aurignac1 sepulchral grotto of1 #bbh1 #bbi ,australia1 future importance of ,artesian wells to1 #eb stalactital caves of1 #ada ossiferous caves of1 #baf discovery of gold in1 #bhi ,sir ,roderick ,murchison's surmises1 #bhi copper mines of1 #cbi ,austria1 coal-fields of1 #dbc salt mines of1 #dcc-dcf ,auvergne1 carbonic acid gas springs of1 #hh maare1 or crateriform hollows1 in1 #acb ,avaricum 7,bourges71 ,csar's siege of1 #cdg ,averno1 ,lake of1 formed in an extinct crater of a volcano1 #eg ,aviculopecten sublobatus1 fossils of1 #ae ,axmouth1 landslip at1 #abh ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's account of it1 #abh ,azores1 earthquakes in the1 #ajj ,azure ,cave of ,capri1 beauty of the marine excavation called the1 #adc ,babylon1 golden image of ,belus at1 #bhe ,bagdad1 coins of1 #bhg ,baghilt coal mine1 in ,wales1 drowned1 #bgc ,bahaud1 ,port1 upheaval of the land at1 #cf ,baku1 burning springs of1 #ia new mud volcano near1 #ie ,balearic ,islands1 troglodytes of1 #bcd ,ballarat1 gold mines of1 #bia ,baltic1 changes on the shores of the1 #dea ,banca1 tinstone of1 #cce ,bann ,bridge1 subsidence of the land at1 #cf ,barbary1 earthquake of #agee in1 #aah ,barigazzo1 burning springs near1 #ij ,bath1 thermal springs of1 #dc ,bats1 clusters of1 in caverns1 #aei ,baumann's ,cave1 in the ,harz ,mountains1 #acf fatal expedition1 #acf ,bean shot and feathered shot of copperworks1 #cba1 #cbb ,bear1 grisly1 of the ,rocky ,mountains1 #abe bones of huge and formidable extinct species found in caverns1 #abc1 #abe remains of bears found in caves1 #bac ,beatus1 ,st41 his cave on the ,lake of ,thun1 #aha pilgrimages to his cave1 #aha ,beauheyl1 or #8living streams' of tin1 #ccg ,beaujonc1 scenes of the inundation of the mine of1 #bgd ,beckford1 his remarks on the ,grotto of ,pausilippo and ,virgil's tomb1 #bdb1 #bdc ,beetle1 cavern1 in the cave of ,adelsberg1 #afc in the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 #afg ,belemnites of the ,lias and ,oolite1 #ai size and characteristics of the1 #ai1 #bj ,belemnite1 restored1 #ai ,belgium1 lead mines of1 #cfg production of zinc in1 #cha coal-fields of1 #dbc ,belus1 image of1 in the temple of ,babylon1 #bhe ,belzoni1 his aptitude for his work1 #bjc ,benedict1 ,st41 his cave near ,subiaco1 #ahj ,berchtesgaden1 salt mines of1 #dcf ,bergmann1 his experiments with platinum1 #chb ,berguen1 ,louis von1 discovers the art of cutting diamonds1 #dgh ,beryl1 the1 #dia1 #dib ,bethlehem1 ,church and ,grotto of the ,nativity at1 #ahh ,bewick1 ,thomas1 a coal-hewer in early life1 #dai ,biban-el-,moluk1 the royal tombs of ,thebes1 #bjb-bjd ,biscayana1 ,veta de la1 silver mine of1 #cjd its great wealth and subsequent abandonment1 #cjd ,billiton1 tinstone of1 #cce ,birds1 cave-haunting1 #afj ,birmah1 mud volcanoes of1 #ic rock-temples1 #ahd ,bismuth1 first mention of1 #chc whence furnished1 #chc ,bituminous substances1 #dbf ,black ,country1 iron furnaces of the1 #cea ,black lead4 ,see ,plumbago4 ,blast furnaces for iron1 #ceb benefits of the hot blast1 #cec ,blasting in mines and its dangers1 #beh-bfj ,bleyberg--,montzen1 lead mines of1 #cfg ,blothrus spelus1 of the ,cave of ,adelsberg1 #afc its pursuit of the cavern-beetle1 #afc ,blowers in coal-mines1 #bgi ,bogs1 effects of bursting of1 #acj ,bohemia1 ice-caves of1 #aig gold coins of1 #bhg gold of1 #bhh silver mines of1 #bii their produce1 #cjj tin mines of1 #ccf iron mines of1 #ceh coal-fields of1 #dbc ,bolivia1 active volcanoes of1 #fa ,bolsena1 ,lake of1 formed in the extinct crater of a volcano1 #eg ,bonifacio1 in ,corsica1 caverns of1 #add1 #ade ,borax1 or borate of soda1 former chief supply of1 #dei obtained as a crude substance in various places1 #dei the suffioni of the ,florentine lagoons1 #dfj ,boring for minerals1 #bdi ,williams's account of the emotions of the boring party1 #bdi mode of operation1 #bej1 #bea prices in the ,north of ,england for boring1 #bej note implements used for boring1 #bej ,borneo1 diamond mines of1 #dhj ,borrowstoness ,colliery1 #daj ,bosio1 ,anthony1 his discovery of the catacombs1 #bji ,boston1 in ,america1 smelting-houses of the ,bay of1 #cbh ,botallack mine1 in ,cornwall1 #cag-cai the blind miner of1 #cai1 #cbj ,bourbon1 ,isle of1 volume of the lava stream of the eruption of #aghg1 #ge ,bracciano1 ,lake of1 formed in the extinct crater of a volcano1 #eg ,brachiopods of the ,silurian seas1 #ab1 #ac ,brandstein1 ice-cave of1 #aig ,brazil1 ossiferous caves of1 #baf iron-ores of1 #cfc lead mines of1 #cfg ,bressay1 islet of1 its marine caverns1 #adb ,breton1 ,cape1 rain-drops of the ,carboniferous period preserved at1 #bi ,brienz1 village of1 twice buried by a landslip1 and twice reconstructed1 #abg ,brilliants1 #dgi1 #dhd ,britannia metal1 #cce manufacture of1 #chc ,brittany1 traces of depression of the land on the coast of1 #cg ,brixham1 bone-caves of1 #bbg ,bronze1 an alloy of copper and tin1 #ccb implements of1 found in ,switzerland1 #ccb ,brownhill1 in ,north ,america1 bituminous coal-field at1 #dbd ,brl1 near ,st4 ,etienne1 burning coalmine at1 #bhc ,brunswick1 ,new1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,buch1 ,leopold von1 his observations as to the rise of the land of ,sweden1 #ce ,bdshegy1 in ,transylvania1 sulphur caves of the mountain1 #ddf visit to the caves1 #ddf ,bufador1 or the water-spout of ,pope ,luna1 #adf ,buffalo1 food of the1 #bf ,burgbrohl1 carbonic acid gas spring of1 and quantity it produces1 #hh ,burra-,burra copper mine1 in ,australia1 #cbi ,busingen1 destruction of the village of1 #abd ,bustamente1 ,don ,jos1 his draining gallery1 #cjd ,cadiz1 effects of the great earthquake of #agee on1 #aag1 #aah ,cadmium1 discovery and uses of1 #chf ,calabria1 earthquake of #aghc in1 #ih conduct of the peasants in the1 #ii movement of the sea during the earthquake1 #ajg depth of the original shock of #aheg1 #aaa ,calamine1 zinc produced from1 #chj worked in ,prussia1 ,belgium1 and ,england1 #cha ,calamites nodosus1 #cic ,caldera1 copper mines of1 #cbf ,california1 upheaval of the land at1 #cd discovery of gold in1 #bhh immense flood of emigration into1 #bhi gold-washing at1 #bie copper mines of1 #cbh iron discovered in1 #cfb quicksilver of1 #cgh ,callistus1 catacomb of1 discovery of the1 #baj ,calobozo1 sounds accompanying earthquakes at1 #ajc ,camborne1 copper mines of1 #cag ,cambrian rocks1 antiquity of the1 #b1 #c1 #aj fossils of the1 #aj1 #aa ,cambyses1 his enormous wealth1 #bhf ,campagna1 different kinds of stone of the1 #bjh ,canada1 iron pyrites of1 #ddh ,canary ,islands1 earthquakes of the1 #ajj maare1 or crateriform hollows1 of the1 #acb ,cane1 ,grotto del1 cruel experiments on dogs at1 #hi ,canstadt1 in ,wurtemberg1 mills kept at work in winter by ,artesian wells1 #ej ,capac ,urcu1 the volcanic cone of1 blown to pieces1 #fg ,caraccas1 town of1 destroyed by an earthquake1 #aja ,carbonic acid gas springs1 #hh those of ,germany1 #hh ,carboniferous period1 fishes of the1 #ac vegetable and animal remains of the1 #ad1 #ah insects of the1 #ae rain-drops of the1 preserved at ,sydney1 in ,cape ,breton1 #bi proof of the density of the atmosphere of the1 #bi plants of the1 #cia ,carburetted hydrogen1 springs of1 #ij-ic ,carclaze tin mine1 #cda ,cardiganshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,cardona1 rock-salt of the valley of1 #dcg ,cardrew mine1 in ,cornwall1 drainage of1 #bgj ,carguairazo1 fish disgorged from the eruption of the volcano of1 #fi1 #gj ,carinthia1 dollinas and jamas of1 #acj subterranean water-courses of1 #aej fungi of the caves of1 #aeh iron of1 #ceh ,carlsbad1 hot springs of1 #dc ,carmel1 ,mount1 grotto of the prophet ,elijah on1 #ahh church on1 #ahh ,carniola1 dollinas and jamas of1 #acj subterranean water-courses of1 #aej ,carnon1 near ,falmouth1 tin-stream of1 #cch ,carrara marble1 origin of1 #d quarries of1 #dfe situation of the quarries1 #dfe the town of1 #dfe ,carron iron-works established1 #cej ,carson river1 silver mines near the1 #cad ,cass1 ,general1 his report on the copper mines of ,lake ,superior1 #cbh ,cassiterides1 or tin islands1 ,herodotus' mention of1 #ccc ,cassotis1 at ,delphi1 antiquity of the1 #dd ,castro1 ,john di1 his manufacture of alum at ,tolfa1 #deh ,catacombs of ,rome1 #bje gallery with tombs1 #bjf sepulchral inscriptions1 #bji ,bosio's discovery of the catacombs1 #bji ,cavaliere de ,rossi's researches1 #baj these of ,naples and ,syracuse1 #baj those of ,paris1 #baj ,catania threatened by the lava-stream from ,etna1 #gb partly destroyed by the lava1 #gc ,catorce1 ,alamos de1 silver mine of1 #cjc ,caucasus1 mud volcanoes of the1 #ic1 #ie earthquakes of1 #ajj ,cavern-roofs1 falling in of1 causing landslips1 #abi ,caves1 in general1 #acc their various forms1 #acc natural tunnels1 #acc1 #acd dimensions of caves1 #ace discovery of caves1 #ace the various rocks in which they occur1 #acf marine caves1 #adb volcanic caves1 #adf cave rivers1 #adi cave vegetation1 #aef subterranean animals1 #aei caves as places of refuge1 #afi hermit caves and rock-temples1 #agh subterranean places of worship1 #aha ice-caves and wind-holes1 #aib rock-tombs and catacombs1 #bjb caves with bones of extinct animals1 #bac subterranean relics of prehistoric man1 #bba troglodytes1 or cave-dwellers1 #bca cave of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 near ,maestricht1 #dgj ,celsius1 his observations of the rise of the land in ,sweden1 #ce ,cemeteries1 rock-hewn1 of ,egypt1 #bjd1 #bje ,cenis1 ,mont1 railway tunnel through1 #bch-bdj machines for boring the1 #bch1 #bci mode of proceeding1 #bch-bdj ,cervus megaceros1 the1 of ,ireland1 #bh ,ceylon1 rock-temples of1 #ahd ,chalcedony1 #dig ,chalda1 silver mines of1 #bih ,chalk group1 star fish of the1 #ah ,charlemagne1 imperial mantle of1 #dgh ,cheshire1 salt mines of1 #dca ,chili1 number of active volcanoes of1 #fa great earthquake of1 in #ahce1 #gi earthquakes of1 generally1 #ajj effects of the earthquake sea-wave after the shock1 #ajh silver mines of1 #cac1 #cad copper mines of1 #cbf lead mines of1 #cfg ,china-clay1 or kaolin1 how formed1 #dfj mode of treating it1 #dfj export of1 from ,cornwall and ,devonshire1 #dfa #8,chinaman's ,hole1' gold diggings at1 #bib ,chinese1 their use of springs of carburetted hydrogen1 #ij1 #ia at the ,australian gold diggings1 #bia their discovery of gold near ,mount ,ararat1 #bia ,choke-damp1 or black-damp1 #bgh destruction caused by1 #bha ,choquier1 bones of extinct animals found in the cavern of1 #bad ,christians1 tombs of the early1 near ,rome1 #bjg1 #bjh ,chrome1 uses of1 #che discovery of1 #chf whence obtained1 #chf ,chrysoberyl1 or oriental chrysolite1 #dia ,chuquibamba1 height of the volcano of1 #ed ,cinnabar1 uses of1 in early ages1 #cgj ,cirknitz ,lake1 the ,proteus first discovered in the1 #afd1 #afe ,clara1 ,boveda de ,santa1 at ,almaden1 #cgb ,cleveland district1 iron manufacture of the1 #ced ,clausthal1 length of the argentiferous veins of1 #bdg great adit levels of the mines of1 #bgj ,clodius1 ,roman prtor1 defeated by ,spartacus at ,vesuvius1 #hb ,coal and coal mines1 #bde1 #bdf age of1 #cij plants of the ,carboniferous age1 #cia extent of the coal seams1 #cie vast time required for the formation of the coal-fields1 #cie the probable mode of formation1 #cif derangements and dislocation of coal beds1 #cig1 #cih separation of a coal-field into small areas by dykes or faults1 #cii bituminous and non-bituminous coals1 #dja chief coal-producing countries of the world1 #djb the coal-fields of ,great ,britain1 #djb-dbb the hewers and their work1 #dae1 #dah other workmen1 below and above the pit1 #daf1 #dag early knowledge of coal1 #dai its use prohibited by ,edward ,i4 in ,london1 #dai the trade in coal in the middle of the seventeenth century1 #dbj increase in the demand and supply1 #dbj the question of the duration of our coal-fields1 #dbj coal-fields of foreign countries1 #dbb-dbe ,coal-hewers of the ,north of ,england1 #dad at work1 #dae how they are paid1 #daf ,coalbrookdale1 iron manufacture in1 #cdi ,coal-cutting machines1 #dae ,cobalt1 name of1 #chd uses of1 and whence obtained1 #chd ,coca1 stimulating properties of1 #caa ,cochin ,china1 rock-temples of1 #ahd ,coins1 the oldest known gold1 #bhg ,collieries1 casualties in1 #bde drainage of the water in1 #bgb ,colossochelys ,atlas1 gigantic proportions of the1 #bd ,columbia1 mud volcanoes of1 #ic ,columbia1 ,british1 gold-fields of1 #bic coal-fields of1 #dbd ,consolidated ,mines in ,cornwall1 amount of sinking in the1 #bea ,conto1 ,monte1 landslip of the1 #abg ,copal-tree1 resin at the foot of the1 #dea ,copiapo1 in ,chili1 discovery of silver at1 #bdh silver mines of1 #cac ,copper1 name and antiquity of1 #cae how found1 #cae its uses and compounds1 #cae mines of ,cornwall1 #caf1 #cag ores and process of smelting1 #cbj1 #cba mines of ,sweden1 ,germany1 and ,russia1 #cbb-cbf those of ,america1 #cbf-cbi and of ,australia1 #cbi history of some of our copper mines1 #cbi lodes of ,cornwall1 #ccg ,copperopolis1 copper mines of1 #cbh ,coquimbo1 copper mines of1 #cbf ,corals1 primeval1 #af ,corneale1 ,cave of1 colossal stalagmites of the1 #adj ,cornwall1 mines of1 #caf tin mines of1 #ccf persons employed in them1 #cdc zinc produced in1 #chb ,china-clay of1 #dfj1 #dfa ,corsica1 marine caves of1 #ade ,cort1 ,mr41 his improvements in iron manufacture1 #cej ,corundum1 #dhi ,cosiguina1 phenomena of an eruption of1 #fe1 #fg destruction caused by the eruption of #ahce1 #fg ,cosmo ,,iii41 ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 burns a diamond1 #dgi ,cotopaxi1 shape of1 #ec enormous stones hurled by an eruption of1 #ff phenomena of the eruption of #ahjc1 #fi noises heard #aji miles off during an eruption of1 #ajd ,cretaceous period1 fossils of the1 #ai1 #bb1 #bc causes of landslips in the1 #abi ,crete1 labyrinth of1 #agd1 #age consecrated caves and grottoes to ,zeus in1 #ahg ,crimea1 mud volcanoes of the1 #ic ,crinnis ,copper ,mine1 ,old1 abandoned but reworked1 #cbi1 #ccj ,crinoids1 or sea-lilies1 fossil1 #ag ,crsus1 his enormous wealth1 #bhf ,crookes1 ,mr41 his discovery of thallium1 #chh ,crowe1 ,mr41 of ,hammerfest1 forms a copper-mining company in ,norway1 #cbd ,crustaceans of the ,silurian seas1 #aa1 #ab cavern1 #afc1 #afg ,cuba1 copper mines of1 #cbi iron ores of1 #cfc ,cumana1 destruction of the town of1 by an earthquake1 #ajb sounds accompanying the shocks1 #ajc ,cuthbert1 ,st41 his cave on the ,coast of ,northumberland1 #ahj account of him1 #ahj #8beads of ,st4 ,cuthbert1' #ahj ,curtis1 ,thomas1 his difficult work in the ,huel ,wherry tin mine1 #cci1 #cdj ,cyclops1 troglodytic caverns of the1 at the base of ,mount ,etna1 #bcb ,cyrus1 enormous treasures accumulated by1 #bhf ,cyprus1 ancient silver mines of1 #bih ,cyzicus1 the oldest known specimen of a gold coin of1 #bhg ,dahra1 ,french atrocities at the caves of the1 #agf ,dalecarlia1 iron ores of1 #cfj ,dalmatia1 dollinas and jamas of1 #acj subterranean water-courses of1 #aej ,dalton-le-,dale1 drainage of the coal-mine of1 #bgb ,dambool1 rock-temple of1 #ahd ,dammara australis1 masses of resin at the base of the trunk of the1 #dea ,dana1 ,professor1 his views respecting volcanoes1 #gi ,dannemora1 iron-works of1 #cfj ,dantzig1 amber found near1 #ddi ,darien1 platinum discovered at1 #chb ,darius ,hystaspis1 his enormous wealth1 #bhf ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 his safety-lamp1 #bhj his discovery of aluminium and magnesium1 #chg and of sodium1 #chh ,delgada1 ,punta1 in the ,island of ,san ,miguel1 #adg ,delphi1 subterranean hollow under the tripod of the priestess of1 #ahg ,demidoff1 ,prince1 his copper mines1 #cbf his iron mountain in the ,oural1 #ceg1 #ceh ,denbighshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,derbyshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,denmark1 enormous antiquity of the peat mosses of1 #bba remnants of a former vegetation and articles of human workmanship found in the mosses of1 #bbb the #8shell-mounds' of1 #bbb ,depressions1 subterranean1 #cd1 #cf submarine forests in various places1 #cf evidences of depression1 #cf1 #cg probable causes of1 #ch ,derbyshire spar1 #dfi ,devon ,great ,consols ,mines1 success of the copper mines of1 #ccj ,devonian period1 fishes of the1 #ac ,devonshire1 tin mines of1 #ccf miners and wages of1 #cdc china-clay of1 #dfj1 #dfa ,diablerets1 falls of the1 #aba escape of a peasant from his living tomb in the1 #abb causes of the phenomenon1 #abc ,diamond1 the1 #dgg diamond-cutting1 #dgh rose diamonds and brilliants1 #dgi destroyed by heat1 #dgi stones of ,india and ,brazil1 #dhj the ,russian diamond1 and the ,pitt or ,regent diamond1 #dhe that of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 #dhe the ,koh-i-,noor1 #dhf diamonds and diamond-dust used for industrial purposes1 #dhi ,dinornis1 size of the1 #bh ,professor ,owen's resuscitation of the1 #bag ,dinotherium1 size and characteristics of the1 #bc ,diodorus ,siculus1 his account of the tin trade of ,britain1 #ccc ,divining rod1 the1 #bdh how used1 #bdi ,dolcoath tin mine1 #ccg ,dolores1 mine of1 #cjc ,domingos1 ,san1 in ,portugal1 ,roman mines of1 #ddh now worked by the ,baron of ,pommoro1 #ddh account of the works1 #ddh ,donati1 ,vitaliano1 his account of the fall of a mountain near ,sallenches1 #abb ,doncaster1 gigantic fungus in a tunnel near1 #aeh ,donegal1 bursting of bogs in1 #aca ,droitwich1 salt-works of1 #dcb ,drontheim1 or ,tronyem1 city of1 #cbd ,dudley1 ,lord1 establishes iron-works near ,stourbridge1 #cdi ,dufan1 in ,arabia1 sulphur of the1 #ddf ,dukinfield colliery1 depth of1 #bdg ,dunfermline1 monastery of1 obtains a licence to dig coals1 #dai ,durham1 coal-fields of1 #djc1 #djg ,dyeing1 use of tin in the processes of1 #cce ,earthquakes1 preceding volcanic eruptions1 #fe volcanoes considered as the safety-valves of1 #gh1 #gi but sometimes accompany volcanic eruption1 #gi extent of misery caused by1 #ig-ii the horrors of1 increased by man1 #ii the progress of civilisation retarded by earthquakes1 #ii1 #ajj regions to which they are confined1 #ajj duration of the shocks1 #aja indications of a coming earthquake1 #ajb sounds accompanying earthquakes1 #ajc sounds unaccompanied by movement of the earth1 #ajd vertical or undulatory motion of shocks1 #ajd extent and force of the seismic wave motion1 #aje1 #ajf movements of the sea in earthquakes1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aag extent of the wave motion1 #aji changes caused by earthquakes in the configuration of the soil1 #aji1 #aaj causes of earthquakes1 #aaa probable depth of the focus1 #aaa1 #aab opinions of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell and ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope1 #aab effects of an earthquake on man and animals1 #aab1 #aac account of the great earthquake of ,lisbon1 #aad ,egg1 ,isle of1 atrocities of the ,macleods in the cave of the1 #aga ,egypt1 rock-temples of1 #ahd tombs of the kings in ,thebes1 #bjb-bjd compared to an iron furnace1 #cdg quarries of1 #dgd1 #dge ,ehrenberg1 his discovery of the animated dust of the ,harmattan1 #aef ,eifel1 volcanic district of the1 #eh carbonic acid gas springs of the1 #hh crateriform hollows1 or maare1 in the1 #aca ,eileithyia1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,eimeo1 hole in the island of1 #acc tradition respecting this hole1 #acc ,elba1 iron industry of1 #cfb ,elephanta1 rock-temples of1 #ahc ,elevations of the land produced by earthquakes1 #aaa ,elfdal1 porphyry of1 #dfg ,ellora1 rock-temples of1 #ahc ,emerald1 or beryl1 #dia1 #dib ,emery1 whence obtained1 #dfc total production of1 #dfc ,emmanuel1 ,st41 church of1 in ,abyssinia1 #ahg ,ems1 hot springs of1 #dc ,enamel1 materials used for1 #cce ,encrinites lily1 called #8,st4 ,cuthbert's beads1' #aha ,encrinus liliiformis1 fossil1 #ag1 #ah ,engihoul1 human remains in the cavern of1 #bbf ,dr4 ,schmerling's explorations1 #bbf ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's1 #bbg ,engis1 human bones discovered in the cavern of1 #bbf ,engines1 stationary1 used in mines1 #bfc ,england1 subsidence of the land on the west and east coasts of1 #cf1 #cg effects of a violent earthquake in1 #ajj shocks felt in1 at various times1 #ajj1 #aja effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah the extinct hyena of1 found in caves1 #bad ossiferous caves in1 #bbg flint implements found in1 #bca main causes of the prosperity of1 #bde copper mines of1 #caf manufacture of iron in1 #cdi lead mines of1 #cfe1 #cff zinc produced in1 #cha1 #chb vast deposits of coal of1 #djb1 #djc and their convenient distribution1 #djc extent of the ,great ,central ,coal-field1 #djf quarries of1 #dfd ,eozoon canadense1 the only fossil found in the ,laurentian rocks1 #aj its extreme antiquity1 #aj ,epomeo1 volcano of1 its long periods of rest1 #eh ,erasinos1 in ,greece1 antiquity of the spring of1 #dd ,ernst ,august ,stollen1 in the ,harz1 #bga ,erzberg1 or iron mountain1 in ,styria1 #ceh works at1 and produce of1 #cei ,esquimaux1 their iron implements1 #cdg ,estrella do ,sul1 or ,star of the ,south1 diamond1 #dhg ,etna1 ,mount1 ,m4 ,houel's exploration of the crater of1 #ee streams of lava in the eruption of #affi1 #gj numbers of parasitic cones on the flanks of1 #ga rate of progress of the lava-stream of #afii1 #gb retention of heat in the lava-stream of #ahcb1 #gc the ,fossa della ,palomba on1 #adg ice-caves of1 #aih troglodytic caverns of the ,cyclops at the base of1 #bcb ,euripides1 his triumph1 #dgf ,europe1 volcanoes of1 #fa ,eurypterids1 of the ,silurian seas1 #ab ,fahlun1 horses used in the copper mines of1 #bfb narrow escape in the mine1 #bfd copper-mine of1 #cbb ore of the mine1 #cbc the preserved body found in1 #cbc ,ferdinand1 ,archduke1 his visit to the ,cave of ,magdalena1 #aff ,fez1 effects of the earthquake of #agee at1 #aah ,fingal's ,cave1 ,sir ,w4 ,scott's description of1 #adc ,fino1 ,don ,andrea del1 narrative of1 in an earthquake1 #ii ,fire1 its eternal strife with water1 #a1 #b the subterranean forces1 #g ,fire-damp1 or carburetted hydrogen1 #bgh fatal explosions caused by1 #bha ,fish disgorged by volcanoes from caverns1 #fi blind cavern1 of the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 #afh of the ,upper ,silurian group1 #ac destruction of vast numbers of1 by volcanic eruption1 #ae1 #af ,flintshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,flores1 ,padre1 his silver mine of #8,la ,bolsa de ,dios ,padre1' #cjd ,florins1 or fiorini1 origin of1 #bhg ,fontaine-sans-fond1 the1 near ,sable1 #adi ,footprints of former ages1 preservation of1 #bh1 #bi ,forests1 submarine1 in various places1 #cf ,fossils1 chronological importance of1 to the geologist1 #e1 #f1 #h extinction of species1 #i1 #aj1 #ad those of the oldest and later periods1 #aj-bi ,fountains1 artificial1 principle on which they are constructed1 #db of lava1 #ga1 #gb of marine caverns1 #adf ,foxdale lead mine1 in the ,isle of ,man1 #cff ,frais ,puits1 phenomenon of the1 #aej ,france1 effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah tin mines of1 #ccf consumption of coal in1 #dbc ,frauenmauer ,mountain in ,upper ,styria1 ice-cave of the1 #aif1 #aig ,fredonia1 town of1 lit by springs of carburetted hydrogen1 #ij ,freiberg1 drainage of the mines of1 #bgj ,french1 their atrocities in the ,cave of ,longara1 #agj their cruelty in ,algeria1 #agf ,frio1 ,serro do1 diamonds of the1 #dhj ,fuegians1 #8shell mounds' of the1 #bbb ,fumaroles or steam-jets of volcanoes1 #fc those of ,jorullo of #agei seen in #ahjc1 #gd ,fungi1 subterranean1 #aeg ,scopoli's description of1 #aeg gigantic one at ,doncaster1 #aeh the artificial mushroom-beds near ,paris1 #aeh ,furnaces1 reverberatory1 #cba ,gallicia1 salt mines of1 #dcf ,ganoid fishes of the ,upper ,silurian group1 #ac ,garnet1 the1 #did ,garnock river bursts into a colliery1 #bgf ,gas-springs1 #hh ,gellivara1 in ,swedish ,lapland1 mounds of magnetic iron-ore at1 #cfj ,gems1 superstitious power of1 #dgg ,geological revolutions1 influence of1 on the earth-rind1 #a tabular geological profile1 #c periods of geological formations1 #e the same mineral substances in the oldest and newest formations1 #e guidance of the geologist in ascertaining the periods of the formations1 #e a continuous development to more highly organised species1 #f ,georges1 ,st41 ice-cave of1 #aib entrance to the glacire of1 #bja ,georg ,stollen1 great adit levels of the1 in the ,harz1 #bgj ,germain1 ,st41 artificial mushroom-beds at1 #aeh ,germany1 effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah copper mines of1 #cbe lead mines of ,north ,germany1 #cfe coal-fields of1 #dbb consumption of coal in1 #dbc quarries of1 #dfd ,gibraltar1 ,rock of1 monkeys of the1 #bd ,girgenti1 town and trade of1 #ddb the sulphur mines of1 #ddb ,glass1 stained1 colours of1 how formed1 #cce ,glenmalure1 lead mines of1 #cff ,glyptodon1 size and characteristics of the1 #be ,goaves1 or old workings in coal mines1 fire-damp in1 #bgi ,goeppert1 ,professor1 his observations on the extinct amber-tree1 #dea ,goethe1 his remarks on the great ,lisbon earthquake1 #aai ,goffin1 ,hubert1 his heroism1 #bge his future career1 #bgf ,gold1 antiquity of man's knowledge of1 #bhe the story of the ,golden ,fleece1 #bhe statues of gold in ancient temples1 #bhe quantities of gold possessed by ancient monarchs1 #bhf earliest use of the metal1 #bhg auriferous land of the ,iberian peninsula1 #bhh ,california and ,australia1 #bhh1 #bhi ,british ,columbia and other places1 #bic localities in which gold is deposited1 #bic1 #bid ,goldau1 ,vale of1 devastated by a landslip1 #abc destruction of the village of1 #abd ,golden ,fleece1 story of the1 #bhe ,golubinas1 or pigeon-holes1 in ,dalmatia and ,carniola1 #acj ,goniatites of the ,carboniferous period1 #ah extinction of the1 #ah ,good ,hope1 ,cape of1 upheaval of the land at the1 #cd ,goroblagodat1 ,kuschwa1 platinum of1 #chb ,gortyna1 in ,crete1 labyrinth of1 #agd1 #age ,gosforth ,colliery1 #dji ,gothard1 ,mount ,st41 proposed tunnel through1 #bda ,gower1 bone-cave of1 #bbh ,grce-,dieu1 glacire of1 #aib stalagmites of ice in the1 #aic1 #aid ,graham's ,island1 volcanic formation of1 #ei its disappearance1 #ei ,granada1 ,new1 extent of the wave-motion of an earthquake at1 #aje ,granada1 in ,spain1 destruction of the ,moors of1 #agc ,graphite4 ,see ,plumbago4 ,grasshopper1 wing of1 of the ,carboniferous period1 #ae ,greece1 subterranean water-courses of1 #aej consecrated caves and grottoes of1 #ahg ,greenhouses kept warm by water from ,artesian wells1 #ej ,greenland1 evidence of subsidence of the land at1 #cg ,grenelle1 heat of the ,artesian well of1 at various depths1 #cb1 #di ,grenier1 ,mount1 landslip of1 #abg ,grosmont1 iron manufacture of1 #cee ,guacharo1 the ,cueva del1 #afj1 #afa ,guacharo1 a troglodytic bird1 #afj1 #afa wholesale slaughter of1 by the ,indians1 #afa1 #afb where found1 #afj1 #afb ,gualgayoc1 the ventanillas of1 #acc ,gualgayoc1 ,cerro de ,san ,fernando de1 silver mines of1 #cji1 #caa ,guanaxuato1 subterranean noises heard at1 without earthquake1 #ajd ,guanaxuato1 rise of the town of1 #cjb ,guatemala1 volcanoes near the town of1 #fa ,guadiana1 engulfment of the river1 #aej ,gunpowder1 amount of1 used in blasting in mines1 #bfj ,gwennap1 copper mines of1 #cag ,gypsum1 origin of1 #d ,haggar ,silsilis1 in ,egypt1 quarries of1 #dge ,haiti1 upheaval of the land at1 #cd ,hann1 ,professor1 a coal-hewer in early life1 #dai ,hanover1 iron manufacture of1 #ceg ,harmattan1 animated dust of the1 #aef ,hartlepool1 export of coal from1 #dac ,hartley ,colliery1 accident in the1 #bec ,harz ,mountains1 subterranean flora of the1 #aeh ice-caves of the1 #aig great adit levels of the mines in the1 #bgj ,haussmann1 ,professor1 his visit to the ,norwegian copper mine of ,rraas1 #cbd ,hawaii1 effect of the eruption of ,mauna ,loa in #ahdj1 #gf effects of an earthquake sea-wave at1 #aji ,heat1 subterranean1 #ca zone of invariable temperature1 #ca1 #cb increasing temperature at a greater depth1 #cb rate of increase1 #cb proof everywhere of a subterranean source of heat1 #cb ,heaton1 accident at the colliery of1 #bgc ,herculaneum1 destruction of the town of1 #ha-he the mud-stream which caused the destruction1 #he discovery of the buried town1 #hf ,hermits1 caves of1 #agh ,hermits1 numbers of1 in rock-caves and huts in the ,east1 #agi ,herodotus1 his mention of the ,cassiterides1 #ccc ,hetton ,colliery1 ventilation of the1 #bgh ,hiera1 volcanic island of1 #fj ,hilda1 ,st41 colliery and galleries of1 #daj ,himmelfrst1 in ,saxony1 silver-fields of1 #bii ,hindostan1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,hoffmann1 ,g4 ,f41 his description of the subterranean flora of the ,harz ,mountains1 #aeh ,holland1 earthquakes felt in1 #aja effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah ,homer1 tin ornaments mentioned by1 #ccb ,honduras1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,horses used in mines1 #bfb ,hot-springs in the frozen lands as well as in the tropics1 #cc as a vent of subterranean heat1 #cc ,houel1 ,m41 his dangerous exploration of the crater of ,mount ,etna1 #ee ,howitt1 ,william1 his description of shipping coal on the ,tyne1 #dab ,huancayo1 the ,franciscan monk of1 #cac ,huatulco1 fountains of marine caverns in1 #adf ,huel ,wherry1 rise and fall of the tin-mine of1 #cci ,humboldt1 ,m41 his visit to the volcano of ,rucu-,pinchincha1 #ee his treatise on subterranean fungi1 #aeh ,huancavelica1 quicksilver mine of1 #cgh ,hungary1 ice-caves of1 #aig salt mines of1 #dcf ,hutton1 ,dr41 a coal-hewer in early life1 #dai ,hydrostatic laws regarding the flow of springs1 #dj1 #da ,hyena1 remains of1 found in caves1 #bac1bad ,ibarra1 supposed causes of a fever at1 #gj ,iberian peninsula1 auriferous land of1 #bhh ,ice1 effect of the meeting of a lava-stream with1 #gd ,ice-caves and their phenomena1 #aic-bja ,iceland1 volcanic formation of1 #d ,iceland1 geysirs of1 #de-dh ,bunsen's theory of the causes of the geysirs of1 #dg1 #dh volcanoes of1 #fa mud-volcanoes of1 #ic ice-caves of1 #aih ,ichthyosaurus communis1 characteristics and size of the1 #bj1 #ba where found1 #bb ,idria1 fungi of the mines of1 #aeh quicksilver mines of1 #cgc-cgh ,iktis1 island of1 mentioned by ,diodorus ,siculus1 #ccc ,iguanodon1 size and characteristics of the1 #bb ,ilezk1 rock-salt deposit of1 #dch ,illinois1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,india1 mud-volcanoes of1 #ic rock-temples of1 #aha ,indiana1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,indies1 ,west1 earthquakes of1 #ajj1 #aja ,insects enclosed in amber1 #deb-dee ,ipsamboul1 rock-temple of1 #ahd ,warburton's description of it1 #ahd-ahf ,ireland1 effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah coal-fields of1 #djd why they are so little worked1 #djd ,iron1 its value1 #cde its wide diffusion1 #cde meteoric iron1 #cdg ancient knowledge of1 #cdg extension of its uses in modern times1 #cdh ,british iron production1 #cdh smelting1 #cdi the hot blast1 #cec the ,cleveland district and the trade of ,middlesborough1 #cfd amount and value of the ,british iron trade1 #cee other statistics of the trade1 #cef production of foreign countries1 #ceg-cfc ,irtysch1 copper and coal near the1 #cbf ,isalco1 formation of the volcano of1 #ei in a constant state of eruption1 #fb ,iscalonga1 in ,basilicata1 cave-dwellings of1 #bcd ,iserlohn1 in ,westphalia1 discovery of a cavern at1 #ace ,ispica1 ,val d'1 cave-dwellings in the1 #bcb ,istria1 subterranean water-courses of1 #aej ,italy1 mud-volcanoes of1 #ic earthquakes of1 #ajj effects of the earthquake of #agee in1 #aah maare1 or crateriform hollows1 of1 #acb cave-dwellings of ,southern1 #bcd iron industry of1 #cfb ,iwogasima1 or ,sulphur ,island1 of ,japan1 #ddd ,japan1 sulphur of1 #ddd ,java1 number of active volcanoes of1 #fa the #8,valley of ,death1' or ,poison ,valley1 of1 #hi mud-volcanoes of1 #ic maare1 or crateriform hollows1 of1 #acb sulphur of1 #dde1 #ddf ,jesuits1 their intrigues during the earthquake at ,lisbon1 #aaf ,jet1 formation of1 #dbi found at ,whitby1 #dbi manufacture of jet ornaments1 #dcj ,john the ,evangelist1 ,st41 his cave in the ,isle of ,patmos1 #ahh the cave converted into a chapel1 #ahh ,jorullo1 formation of the volcano of1 #eh length of time the heat was retained in the lava-stream of #agei1 #gd ,judd1 ,dr41 his dangerous visit to the crater of ,kilauea1 #ef ,jura ,mountains1 cauldron-shaped depressions in the1 #acj ,kab1 ,el1 in ,upper ,egypt1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,kamtschatka1 energy of the volcanoes of1 #fa earthquakes in1 in #agcg1 #gi ,kan1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,kanara1 rock-temples of1 #aha-ahc ,kaolin1 or china-clay1 how formed1 and where1 #dfj-dfb ,karli1 rock-temples of1 #ahc ,kea1 ,mount1 tranquillity of the eruption of1 in #ahdc1 #gf ,kentucky1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,kertsch1 mud-volcanoes near1 #ic ,kilauea1 the lava lakes of1 #fd length of the lava-stream in the eruption of #ahdj1 #gj amount of lava thrown out by the eruption of #ahdj1 #gf ,killingworth ,colliery1 #daj ,kingston1 in ,jamaica1 effects of an earthquake sea-wave at1 #ajg ,kinsale1 effect of an earthquake sea-wave in the harbour of1 #aah ,kirghise hordes1 their salt-works1 #dch ,kirkdale1 ,dr4 ,buckland's account of the ossiferous cave of1 #bad1 #bae ,klaproth1 his discovery of uranium1 #che works at ,joachimsthal1 #che his discovery of rutile1 or titanium1 #chf ,klutschewskaja ,skopa1 eruption of the volcano of1 #gi ,koh-i-,noor1 or ,mountain of ,light1 diamond and its history1 #dhf ,kohl1 uses of1 #chc ,kongsberg1 in ,norway1 silver mines of1 #bii nuggets found at1 #bii ,kopperberg1 iron manufacture of1 #cfj ,ktlingia1 effects of the eruption of1 in #ageh1 #fi ,kremnitz1 discovery of the gold mines of1 #bdh ,krisuvick1 in ,iceland1 solfatara of1 #ddd ,kupferschiefer1 or copper-slate1 of ,thuringia1 fossils of the1 #ae ,labuan1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,lacustrine dwellings of ,switzerland1 #cae discovery of the1 #bbc ancient iron weapons found in the1 #cdg ,laibach1 ,upper1 river traversing the caves of1 #aej ,lalibala1 rock-churches of1 #ahf town of1 and country round1 #ahg ,landslips1 effects of earthquakes in producing1 #aaj that of ,putley1 in ,hertfordshire1 #aaj igneous and aqueous causes of landslips1 #aba cases of landslips1 #aba-abh caused by the falling in of cavern-roofs1 #abi ,lanuto volcano1 lake formed in the extinct crater of the1 #eg ,lapis lazuli1 #did ,lapland1 auriferous veins in1 #bic ,laureacum1 on the ,danube1 ,roman iron manufactures at1 #ceh ,laurentian rocks1 #b1 #c their thickness1 #b the only fossil found in the1 #aj ,laurium1 ancient silver mines of1 #bih amount of lead in the scori of the ancient silver mines of1 #cfg ,lava1 formation of fiery streams of1 during volcanic eruptions1 #gj phenomena attending the flow of a lava-stream1 #gb effect of the meeting of a lava-stream with the sea1 #gc and with ice1 #gd vast dimensions of lava-streams1 #gd-gf waste of desolation of lava-fields1 #gg progress of lava-streams1 #gg ,laxey lead mine1 in the ,isle of ,man1 #cff ,lead1 mine of1 in ,cardiganshire1 section of a1 #beb its property and uses1 #cfd its antiquity1 #cfd the mines of1 in ,europe1 #cfe production of1 in foreign countries1 #cff-cfh preparation of the ores1 #cfh ,pattinson's process1 #cfh ,leadhills1 in ,lanarkshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,lebadeia1 in ,botia1 cave of ,trophonios near1 #ahg ,lepidodendron elegans1 #cib ,leptodirus ,hochenwartii1 of the ,cave of ,adelsberg1 #afc ,levant1 ,cornish copper mine of1 #cai ,levels1 in mining1 #bea extent of the works in some cases1 #bea drainage by adit levels1 #bfi1 #bgj ,lias1 fossils of the1 #ai ,lige1 depth of the coal mines of1 #bdg accident in a colliery at1 #bfc ,life1 organic1 progress of1 on earth1 #bh1 #bi everywhere present on the earth1 #aef ,lignite1 or wood-coal1 #dja ,lima1 frequency of earthquakes at1 #aje displacement of stones of obelisks by earthquake shocks1 #aje effects of the earthquake sea-wave of #agdf1 #ajh indifference of the inhabitants of1 to earthquakes1 #aac ,limestone1 magnesian1 or ,permian group1 animal remains of the1 #ae ,limestone caves1 #acf causes of their excavation1 #acf stalactites and stalagmites1 #aci1 #adj origin and slow formation of limestone1 #ada ,lisbon1 great earthquake of1 #aad effect of the shock1 #aad fire and thieves in the city1 #aae1 #aaf total loss of life from all causes1 #aaf effects of this earthquake in various parts of the world1 #aag-aai ,little ,bounds1 copper mine of1 #cai ,livres1 ,st41 ice-caves of1 #aib lower glacire of1 #aic upper glacire of1 #aie ice-streams of the upper glacire1 #aie1 #aif ,lizards1 oldest known fossils of1 #ad1 #ae the enormous species of the ,mesozoic ocean1 #bj1 #ba ,llandegui1 slate quarries of1 #dfi1 #dgj ,locke1 his remark respecting iron1 #cde ,lomond1 ,loch1 sea-shells found on the banks of1 #cd effects of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah ,london shaken by the ,lisbon earthquake of #agee1 #aah subterranean wonders of1 #bcg1 #bch ,long1 ,major1 his report on the copper mines of ,lake ,superior1 #cbh ,longara1 ,cave of1 massacre by the ,french in the1 #agj ,lorca1 sulphur mine of1 #ddd ,lowerz1 destruction of the village of1 by a landslip1 #abd ,luganure1 lead mines of1 #cff ,luna1 ,pope1 waterspout of1 #adf ,lycopolis1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,maare1 or crateriform hollows1 of the ,eifel1 #aca in other places1 #acb ,macaluba1 mud volcano of1 #id known to the ancients1 #id ,madana1 in ,santa ,cruz1 height of the volcano of1 #ed ,madeira1 volcanic formation of1 #d ,madfuneh1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,magdalena ,grotto1 or #8,black ,grotto1' ,protei of the1 #afe1 #aff visit of the ,archduke ,ferdinand to the1 #aff ,magnesium1 discovery and uses of1 #chg ,magnetic mountain in ,russia1 #cfg ,maina1 marble of1 #dfg ,malacca1 tinstone of1 #cce ,malaga1 effects of the earthquake of #agee at1 #aah ,malmesbury1 section of the coal-field south of1 #cih ,malta1 troglodytes of1 #bcd ,malwah1 rock-temples of1 #ahd ,mammalia1 geological period of its prominence in life1 #bc ,mammoth1 or primitive elephant1 size and characteristics of the1 #bf ,professor ,owen's skeleton of the1 #bag ,gray's ,inn ,lane an ancient hunting-ground for1 #bca ,mammoth ,cave1 in ,kentucky1 vast dimensions of the1 #ace1 #ach ,professor ,silliman on the1 #aci clusters of bats in the1 #aei animals of the1 #afg ,man1 ,isle of1 lead mines of1 #cff zinc produced in1 #chb ,man1 prehistoric1 subterranean relics of1 in ,denmark1 #bba in ,switzerland1 #bbc age of human relics in caves1 #bbe ,manchester ,coal-field1 #djc ,manganese1 ores of1 #chf ,mansfeldt1 in ,prussia1 silver and copper mines of1 #cbe ,marble of ,derbyshire and ,devonshire1 #dfe that of ,carrara1 #d1 #dfe that of ,pentelikon and ,parian1 #dff ,rosso antico and ,verde antico1 #dfg ,marennes1 upheaval of the chalk cliffs at1 #cf ,marpena1 ,mount1 in ,paros1 marble of1 #dff ,marquette1 ,american town of1 its iron industry1 #cfb ,marshall1 ,james1 his discovery of gold in ,california1 #bhh his subsequent life1 #bhi ,marsupites ornatus1 fossil1 #ah ,martinique1 ,island of1 destructive earthquake in the1 #aja ,maryland1 copper mines of1 #cbh ,masaya1 volcanoes of1 constant eruption of the1 #fc ,massachusetts1 copper mines of1 #cbh ,master-borers in the ,north of ,england1 #bej their charges per fathom1 #bej ,mastodon1 where the fossils of1 are mostly found1 #bg size and characteristics of the1 #bg ,matlock1 thermal springs of1 #dc ,mauna ,loa1 in ,hawaii1 shape of the volcano of1 #ec1 #ed ,dr4 ,judd's visit to1 #ef growth of ferns on1 #fc the lava-lakes of1 #fd length of the lava-stream of an eruption of1 #gj parasitic cones of1 #ga volume of the lava-stream of #ahdj1 #ge ,maunch ,chunk 7or ,bear ,mountain71 in ,pennsylvania1 enormous coal-field of1 #dbe ,mauritius1 fountains of marine caverns in1 #adf ,mediterranean ,sea1 upheaval of the land on the shores of the1 #cd marine caverns of the coasts of the1 #add ,medellin1 the proprietor of the mine of ,dolores1 #cjc ,meerfeld1 crateriform hollow and lake of1 #acb ,megatherium1 size and characteristics of the1 #bd1 #be ,melidoni1 cave of1 ,turkish massacre in the1 #age ,mequinez1 effects of the earthquake of #agee at1 #aah ,mercado1 ,cerro del1 of ,mexico1 #cfc ,mercury1 its properties and uses1 #cgj1 #cga known to the ,greeks and ,romans1 #cgj mines of ,almaden1 #cga those of ,idria1 #cgc diseases to which the miners are liable1 #cgc mines of ,america1 #cgh ,metallic veins1 how generally found in mines1 #bdf how ores collected or precipitated in1 #bdg ,metamorphic rocks1 origin of1 #d1 #e ,meteoric iron1 #cdg the mass found at ,otumpa1 #cdg note ,mettler1 ,blsi1 story of the escape of him and his wife1 #abd ,mettler1 ,sebastian ,meinhardt1 his escape from destruction1 #abe ,meuse1 ossiferous caverns of the valley of the1 #bbf ,mexico1 silver mines of1 #cjj-cjh iron ores of1 #cfc ,michael's ,mount1 ,st41 in ,cornwall1 #ccc ,middlesborough1 its rapid rise1 #ced its iron manufacture1 #cee ,miguel1 ,island of1 the ,punta ,delgada of the1 #adg ,milagros1 his silver mine in ,san ,luis de ,potosi1 #cjh ,miller1 ,hugh1 his account of a coal forest1 #cic ,milo1 ,island of1 mud volcanoes of1 #ih sulphur caves of the island of1 #ddf ,mina ,grande1 lead mine of1 #cfg ,minardo1 ,monte1 near ,bronte1 volcanic formation of1 #fg height of1 #ga ,mines1 in general1 #bdd labours and perils of the miner1 #bdd1 #bde casualties in mines1 #bde life in a mine1 #bde1 #bdf length and depth of mines1 #bdg discoveries of lodes1 #bdh the divining-rod1 #bdh boring1 #bdi divisions in coal mines1 #bee long-wall working1 #beg general view of mining operations1 #beg tools employed in ,cornwall1 #beh mode of blasting1 #beh heroism of miners1 #bei1 #bgd mode of loosening hard stones1 #bfj1 #bfa tramways underground1 and the conveyance of minerals1 #bfa1 #bfb methods of descending1 #bfc-bff man-engines for ascending or descending1 #bfg timbering and draining1 #bfh-bgb inundation1 or drowning of mines1 #bgc evolution of foul gases1 #bgf1 #bgg ventilation1 #bgg choke-damp1 fire-damp1 and blowers1 #bgh1 #bgi the safety-lamp1 #bhj burning mines1 #bhc habits of the ,mexican miners1 #cjb ,minnesota mine1 copper of1 #cbg1 #cbh enormous nugget of copper found near1 #cbh ,miocene period1 animals of the1 #bc ,mirrors of silver among the ,romans1 #bih substance used for making1 #cce ,mississippi1 ancient mounds in the valley of the1 #bbd ,missouri1 #8iron-mountains' of1 #cfb ,moa1 the great extinct bird of ,new ,zealand1 #baf1 #bag the cave of the ,moa1 #bai ,moeris1 ,lake1 hermits near the1 #agi ,molinos of the silver mines of ,mexico1 #cjf ,molybdenum1 discovery and uses of1 #chg ,monarchs1 vast treasures of1 in ancient times1 #bhf ,monkeys1 fossil1 of ,south ,america1 characteristics of the1 #bd small species of1 on the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 #bd ,monk ,wearmouth ,colliery1 #djh ,montao1 ,francisco1 his descent into the crater of ,popocatepetl1 #ddf ,monte1 ,real del1 silver mines of1 #cjd present yield of1 #cje ,monte ,video1 upheaval of the land at1 #cd ,montgomeryshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,montmartre1 gypsum and alabaster of1 #dfh ,montrouge1 artificial mushroom-beds at1 #aeh ,moors of ,granada1 destruction of1 by ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 #agc ,moran1 silver mines of1 #cjd ,morocco1 earthquakes of1 #ajj effects of the earthquake of #agee at1 #aah ,morran1 in ,algeria1 ,artesian well in the desert of1 #ea ,mososaurus1 size and characteristics of the1 #bc skull of the1 found1 #dgc1 #dgd ,moulin de la ,roche1 artificial mushroom-beds at1 #aeh ,mountain ,ash1 in ,south ,wales1 coal workings of the ,new ,navigation ,pit at1 #djf ,mud-streams caused by volcanic eruptions1 #fi destruction of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii by1 #he those of ,obu1 #ie ,mud-volcanoes1 #ic-if in various places1 #ic-ie origin of1 #ie1 #if ,murchison1 ,sir ,roderick1 his surmises respecting gold in ,australia1 #bhi ,mrtschenstock1 tunnel in the1 #acd ,mushrooms1 subterranean1 #aeg the artificial mushroom-beds near ,paris1 #aeh ,musk-ox1 food of the1 #bf ,mylodon1 size and characteristics of the1 #bd1 #be ,professor ,owen's skeleton of the1 #bag ,naples1 earthquake in1 in #aheg1 #ih catacombs of1 #baj ,nassau1 iron manufacture of1 #ceg ,nativity1 grotto of the1 at ,bethlehem1 #ahh church of the1 #ahh ,nauheim1 carbonic acid gas spring of1 #hh ,naxos1 consecrated caves to ,dionysos in1 #ahg ,naxos1 emery of the island of1 #dfc ,neilson1 ,mr41 his discovery of the hot blast for iron furnaces1 #cec ,nemi1 ,lake of1 the crateriform hollow forming the1 #acb ,nent ,force ,level1 great drain of1 #bgj ,nertschinsk1 in ,transbaikalia1 copper mines of1 #cbf lead mines of1 #cfg ,nettuno1 ,antro di1 in ,sardinia1 #add ,nettuno1 ,grotta di1 in ,sicily1 #ade ,neusalzwerk1 temperature of the well of1 at various depths1 #cb ,nevada1 state of silver mines of the1 #cad ,newcastle1 coal-fields of1 #djg their extent1 #djh the various seams of coal1 #djh human activity of the coal-fields1 #daa1 #dab appearance of the town1 #dac first licence to dig coals given to the town1 #dai ,newfoundland1 gradual upheaval of the land of1 #cf fountains of marine caverns in1 #adf ,niagara1 carburetted hydrogen evolved near the falls of1 #ic ,nicaragua1 ,lake of1 volcanoes near the1 #fa ,nicaragua1 mud-volcanoes of1 #ic earthquakes of1 #ajj ,nicholas1 ,st41 rock-chapel of1 in ,crete1 #ahi legend of1 #aij ,nickel1 name of1 #chd uses of1 and whence obtained1 #chd ,nicolas d',aliermont1 ,st41 aquiferous layers or beds of stone at1 #dj ,noises1 subterranean1 accompanying earthquakes1 #ajc ,normandy1 traces of depression of the land on the coast of1 #cg ,norr ,lake1 emptied by a landslip1 #acj ,northumberland1 coal-fields of1 #djc ,northwich1 salt mines of1 #dca ,norway1 copper mines of1 #cbd ,noss1 islet of1 its marine caves1 #adb ,notornis1 ,professor ,owen's reconstruction of the1 #bag ,nuovo1 ,monte1 in the ,bay of ,bai1 volcanic formation of the1 #fg ,oberstein1 rock-chapel of1 #aij legend of the chapel1 #aij1 #aia ,obregon works the silver mine of ,guanaxuato1 #cja1 #cjb his title and urbanity of character1 #cjb ,obu1 eruption of the1 #ie mud-streams of1 #ie ,oche1 ,dent d'1 landslip of the1 #abg ,oesterby1 iron-works of1 #cfj ,ohio1 ancient mounds in the valley of the1 #bbd #8,oil harvest' of ,caripe1 #afa ,olm1 or ,proteus1 discovery of the1 #afd1 #afe various places in which it has been found1 #aff description of the animal1 #afe-afg ,olonne1 ,island of1 upheaval of the land round the1 #cf ,onyx1 the1 #dig ,ontanagon district1 in ,america1 ancient copper mines1 #cbg ,oolite rocks1 their thickness1 #b ,oolitic period1 fossils of the1 #ai1 #bb ,opal1 precious1 #die mines of1 in ,hungary1 #die ,ophir1 seat of1 #bhg ,ores1 how generally found in mines1 #bdf how they have been collected or precipitated1 #bdg #8,orkneyman's ,harbour1 ,the1' the marine cavern so called1 #adc ,oroomiah1 ,lake1 in ,persia1 salt of the hills and plains of1 #dcg ,orthoceratites of the primitive seas1 #ah extinction of the1 #ah ,oscillatory movements of the earth1 #cd-cg probable causes of1 #ch ,otero1 a shopkeeper1 joins in working the mine of ,guanaxuato1 #cjb ,owen1 ,professor1 his memoir and skeleton of the great ,moa of ,new ,zealand1 #bag ,owls1 cave-haunting1 #afj ,pachuca1 silver mines of1 #cjd ,pachyderms1 remains of large extinct1 #bf1 #bg ,palotheriums1 size and characteristics of1 #bc ,palopteryx1 ,professor ,owen's reconstruction of the1 #bag ,palladium1 discovery and uses of1 #chh ,palestine1 ,southern1 hermits in1 #agi ,palomba1 ,fossa della1 on ,etna1 #adg ,papalardo1 ,baron1 his efforts to divert the lava-stream from ,catania1 #gb1 #gc ,parian marble1 or ,lychnites1 #dff ,paris1 artificial mushroom-beds near1 #afh catacombs of1 #baj1 #baa old cemeteries of1 #baa plaster of1 #dfh ,parsees1 their worship of fire1 #ia their legend of the devil1 #ia their occupation and abandonment of ,baku1 #ib ,pasco1 ,cerro di1 silver mines of1 #cji ,pasco1 mining town of1 #caj mines of1 #caj1 #caa ,patmos1 cave and church of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist1 #ahh ,paul1 ,st41 of ,thebes1 the first hermit1 his cave1 #agh ,pausilippo1 ,grotto of1 #bda origin of the1 #bdb ,paviland1 ossiferous caves of1 #bae ,peak1 in the ,island of ,timor1 blown up and replaced by a cavity1 #fh ,pecopteris adiantoides1 #cia ,peniscola1 fountains of marine caverns in1 #adf ,pennsylvania1 copper mines of1 #cbh coal-fields of1 #dbe petroleum springs of1 #dbg ,pentacrinus briareus1 fossil1 #ag1 #ah ,pentelikon1 or ,mount ,penteles1 marble of1 #dff ,pepandajan1 in ,java1 the volcanic cone of1 blown to pieces1 #fg ,percy1 ,dr4 ,john1 his discovery of aluminium-bronze1 #chg ,perdix1 ,bartholomew1 his manufacture of alum1 #deh ,permian period1 fishes of the1 #ac fossils of the1 #ae ,peroxide of tin1 or tinstone1 #cce richest deposits of1 #cce ,perticara di ,talamella in ,italy1 sulphur mines of1 #ddd ,peru1 active volcanoes of1 #fa earthquakes of1 #ajj indifference of man in1 to earthquakes1 #aac silver mines of1 #cjj iron furnaces of1 #cec ,peter's ,mount1 ,st41 near ,maestricht1 quarries of1 #dgj visit of ,faujas de ,saint-,fond1 #dgb ,petroleum1 formation of1 #dbf old springs of1 in ,europe1 #dbf1 #dbg production of the springs of ,america1 #dbg ,petrospongid1 or stone sponges1 #ag ,pfeiffer1 ,ida1 her visit to the diamond mines of ,borneo1 #dhj ,pharaohs1 rock-tombs of the1 in ,thebes1 #bjb-bjd ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 his destruction of the ,moors of ,granada1 #agc ,philip1 ,port1 town of1 #bij ,philotheus1 ,st41 his cave on ,mount ,penteles1 #dff ,phnicians1 their tin-trade1 #ccc their traffic in and uses of lead1 #cfd ,pietra ,mala1 burning springs of1 #ij ,pigeons1 cave-haunting1 #afj ,pilot ,knob #8iron mountain1#8 #cfb ,pines1 black1 of ,trinidad1 #dbi ,pitt1 or ,regent1 diamond1 #dhe ,pittasphalte1 formation of1 #dbf ,piuka ,jama1 cave of1 #aed1 #aee the ,river ,poik flowing below the1 #aed ,piz ,mountain1 destructive effects of a landslip of the1 #abg ,planina1 river traversing the ,cave of1 #aej explored by ,adolph ,schmidl1 #aea abundance of ,protei in the1 #aff ,platinum1 discovery of1 #chb where obtained1 #chb its qualities1 #chc ,playfair1 his observations as to the rise of the land in ,sweden1 #ce ,plesiosaurus1 size and characteristics of the1 #ba where found1 #bb ,pleurotomaria carinata1 fossils of1 #ae ,pliny the ,elder1 death of1 as described by his nephew1 #hb-hd ,pliocene period1 animals of the1 #bd ,plumbago1 graphite1 or black lead1 former trade in1 in ,cumberland1 #dfb the mine exhausted1 #dfb places where found at present1 #dfb ,plrs1 town of1 buried by a landslip1 #abg ,polistena1 effects of an earthquake at1 #ih ,poik ,river1 engulfment and re-appearance of the1 #aej a subterranean canoe voyage on the1 #aea-aed the river flowing beneath the ,piuka ,jama1 #aed ,pombal1 ,marquis of1 his conduct in the great earthquake of ,lisbon1 #aaf1 #aag ,pompeii1 destruction of the town of1 #ha-he the mud-stream which effected the destruction1 #he present state of the ,roman town of1 #hg ,pontus1 hermits in1 #agi ,popocatepetl1 depth of the crater of1 #ed ,montao's visit to the crater of1 #ddf ,porphyry of ,elfdal1 #dfg of the ,altai1 #dfh ,portugal earthquakes of1 #ajj ,potosi1 ,san ,luis de1 silver mines of1 #cjc1 #cji ,precious stones1 #dgg ,proteus anguinus1 discovery of the1 #afd1 #afe description of the animal1 #afe-afg its abundance in the ,cave of ,planina1 #aff different caverns in which it has been found1 #aff ,prussia1 iron manufacture of1 #ceg production of zinc in1 #cha salt-works of1 #dch ,pterichthys ,milleri of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland1 #ac1 #ad ,pterodactyli1 size and characteristics of the1 #ba ,pterygotus acuminatus1 #ab ,pulvermaar of ,grillenfeld1 lake or maare of1 #acb ,puzzuoli1 solfatara of1 #ddd ,quarries1 celebrated1 #dfd those of ,france1 #dfd those of ,england and ,germany1 #dfd of ,carrara and the ,pentelikon1 #dfe1 #dff porphyry1 #dfg1 #dfh alabaster and plaster of ,paris1 #dfh slate1 #dfi of ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1 near ,maestricht1 #dgj of ,egypt1 #dgd ,quicksilver4 ,see ,mercury4 ,quito1 active volcanoes of1 #fa tradition respecting them1 #fg earthquakes of1 #ajj ,radoboy1 sulphur mines of1 #ddd ,rain-prints of former ages1 preservation of1 #bi ,rammelsberg1 in the ,hartz--silver mines of the1 #bii discovery of the lode of the1 #bdh burning hard mineral stone in1 #bfj1 #bfa copper found in1 #cbe ,rat1 blind cavern1 of the ,mammoth ,cave of ,kentucky1 #afg ,rathlin1 island of1 massacre by the ,english under ,sir ,john ,norris in the1 #agb ,ravinazzo ,mountain1 landslip of the1 #abg ,red-lead1 how made1 #cfe ,redruth1 copper mines of1 #cag ,regla1 ,conde de la4 ,see ,terreros4 ,reptiles1 oldest known fossils of1 #ad1 #ae enormous marine fossil reptiles of the ,mesozoic ocean1 #bj footprints of reptiles of the ,cambrian formation1 #bj ,rhodium1 discovery and uses of1 #chh ,rhosdale1 iron manufacture of1 #cee ,riobamba1 destruction of the town of1 #gh1 #gi destroyed by an earthquake1 #ajd remarkable displacement of objects during the shocks1 #ajd silence during the shocks1 #ajd ,ripple-marks of former ages1 preservation of1 #bh1 #bi ,rivers1 cave1 #adi-aea explorations of ,adolph ,schmidl in the ,cave of ,planina1 #aea ,rochelle1 ,la1 upheaval of the land at1 #cf ,rock-tombs and catacombs1 #bjb ,rock-crystal1 #dih the grotto of the ,galenstock1 #dii ,roebuck1 ,dr4 ,john1 his improvements in iron manufacture1 #cej ,romanus1 the monk1 feeds ,st4 ,benedict in his cave1 #ahj ,rome1 wealth of1 after the third ,punic war and in the time of the ,csars1 #bhf1 #bih gold coins of1 #bhg ,ronciglione1 ,lake of1 formed in the extinct crater of a volcano1 #eg ,roquefort cheese1 #aih ,rraas ,mountains1 copper mines of1 in ,norway1 #cbd ,rosa1 ,sierra de ,santa1 #cja silver mines of the1 #cja ,rosalia1 ,st41 rock-church of1 in ,sicily1 #ahh1 #ahi story of1 and of the discovery of her bones1 #ahh1 #ahi ,rossberg1 or ,rufi1 landslip of the1 #abc causes of the catastrophe1 #abd ,rossi1 ,monte1 height and area of1 #ga ,rossi1 ,cavaliere de1 his researches in the catacombs of ,rome1 #baj ,rosso antico1 #dfg ,roth1 natural ice-cave of1 #aih ,rthen1 villages of ,upper and ,lower1 destroyed by a landslip1 #abd ,royale1 ,isle1 ancient copper mines of1 #cbg ,ruby1 the oriental1 #dhi in the crown of ,england1 #dij ,rucu-,pinchincha1 ,humboldt's view down the volcano of1 #ee ,russia1 copper mines of1 #cbf iron manufacture of1 #ceg1 #ceh salt-works of1 #dcg1 #dch amber ornaments of1 #deg the ,imperial diamond of1 #dhe ,rutile1 or ,titanium1 discovery and uses of1 #chf1 #chg ,saarbrck1 oldest known reptiles found in the coal-field of1 #ad other wonders of the coal-field of1 #ae vast time required for the formation of the coal-fields of the1 #cig ,sable1 in ,anjou1 the ,fontaine-sans-fond near1 #adi ,sabrina1 island of1 volcanic formation of the1 #ei its disappearance1 #ei ,sacre ,madame1 near ,charleroi1 depth of the colliery of1 #bdg mode of ventilation in the mine of1 #bgg note ,sacro1 ,monte1 marble mountain of1 #dfe ,safety-cages1 used in descending mines1 #bfd1 #bfe ,safety-lamp1 ,davy's1 #bhj improvements in the1 #bha ,sahara1 wells of the inhabitants of the1 #dh1 #ej future importance of ,artesian wells to1 #ea ,salamis1 fleet which gained the battle of1 #bih ,salcedo1 silver mine of1 #caa tragical end of its proprietor1 ,don ,jos ,salcedo1 #cab ,sallee1 effects of an earthquake sea-wave at1 #aah ,sallenches1 fall of a mountain near1 #abb ,salt1 geological position of1 #dca the mines of ,northwich1 #dca those of ,droitwich and ,stoke1 #dcb that of ,wieliczka1 #dcc-dcf in other places1 #dcf-dci method of preparing it1 #dci origin of rock-salt1 #ddj ,salza1 manufacture of salt at1 #dci ,salzburg1 salt mines of1 #dcf ,san ,francisco1 its rapid rise1 #bhi ,santorin1 submarine volcano of1 #fj1 #fa ,sapphire1 red1 #dhi oriental1 #dij ,sardinia1 cave-dwellers of1 #bcd the dwellings of the ,sarde shepherds of the present day1 #bcd lead mines of1 #cff ,saviour's1 ,our1 tomb at ,jerusalem1 church built over the1 #ahh ,saxony1 tin mines of1 #ccf coal-fields of1 #djd ,schafloch1 ice-cave of1 #aid1 #aie ,schmerling1 ,dr41 his investigations respecting the antiquity of man1 #bbf ,schemnitz1 fungi of the mines of1 #aeh discovery of the rich mines of1 #bdh produce of silver in the mines of1 #cjj ,schmidl1 ,adolph1 his explorations of the subterranean river ,poik and ,cave of ,planina1 #aea ,schneeberg1 large block of silver found at1 #bii use made of the burning vapours1 #bhc bismuth of1 #chc ,scilano1 village of1 buried by a landslip1 #abg ,scilla1 ,prince of1 his death1 #ajg1 #ajh ,scopoli1 his description of subterranean fungi1 #aeg ,scori1 length of time the liquid fire is retained in the interior of a lava-stream1 #gc ,scotland1 lead mines of1 #cff coal-fields of1 #djc ,scott1 ,sir ,walter1 his visit to #8,the ,orkneyman's ,harbour1' #adc and to ,fingal's ,cave1 #adc ,scrope1 ,mr4 ,poulett1 his description of the ,volcano of ,stromboli1 #fb ,sea-shells found on the ,andes and ,alps1 #cd1 #cg and in other places at present removed from the sea1 #cd ,sea1 movements of the1 in earthquakes1 #ajf1 #ajg extent of the wave-motion1 #aje1 #ajf cases of the destructive effects of the earthquake waves1 #ajg-aji1 #aag-aai ,segeberg1 deposit of salt at1 #dci ,senegal1 deposits of the ,arca senilis on the banks of the river inland1 #cd ,sequoia1 gigantic trees of the1 #bh ,seven ,pagodas1 rock-temples near ,madras so called1 #ahd ,seville1 effects of the earthquakes of #agee at1 #aah ,shelas1 cave of1 ,colonel ,st4 ,arnaud's massacre in the1 #agf #8,shell-mounds' of ,denmark1 #bbb those of the ,fuegians1 #bbb ,shetland1 marine caves of1 #adb ,shields inlaid with silver in ,homer's time1 #bih ,siberia1 auriferous land of1 #bhh lead mines of1 #cfg emeralds of1 #dia ,sicanians1 cave-dwellings of the ancient1 #bcb ,sicily1 earthquakes of1 #ajj marine grottoes of1 #ade sulphur mines of1 #dda ,sickingen1 ,count1 his experiments with platinum1 #chb ,sidi ,rascheed1 in ,algeria1 ,artesian well of1 #ea ,sigillaria oculata1 #cib ,silurian period1 crustacea of the1 #aj-ab brachiopods of the1 #ab1 #ac fishes of the1 #ac ,silver1 discoveries of lodes of1 #bdh antiquity of the discovery of1 #big most ancient silver mines1 #bih ,european silver-fields1 #bii1 #cjj mines of ,mexico and ,peru1 #cjj-cad mode of crushing and decomposing the ores1 #cjf-cjg law of ,peru respecting the silver mines1 #caa mines of ,chili and ,nevada1 #cac1 #cad ,singapore1 antimony of1 #chc ,siphnos1 ancient silver mines of1 #bih ,siphon1 principle of a1 #dd note ,siphonia costata1 fossil1 #af ,sioa1 constant state of eruption of the volcano of1 #fc ,sivatherium giganteum1 size and characteristics of1 #bg1 #bh ,skaptar ,jkul1 in ,iceland1 lava-stream of the eruption of1 in #aghc1 #gj that of #aghg1 #ge ,skerries1 water-spouts or fountains of the1 #adf ,slate quarries of ,north ,wales1 #dfi ,smeaton1 ,john1 his improvements in iron manufacture1 #cej ,sodium1 discovery and uses of1 #chh ,solway ,moss1 appearance and area of the1 #acj bursting of the1 #acj1 #aca ,sommatino1 conflagration of the solfatera of1 #ddc ,somme1 flint implements of the ,valley of the1 #bcj1 #bca ,spain1 gold coins of the ,visigoths of1 #bhg auriferous land of1 #bhh ancient silver mines of1 #bih tin mines of1 #ccf iron industry of1 #cfa lead mines of1 #cfe coal-fields of1 #dbc cupriferous pyrites of1 #ddg ,spartacus1 revolt of1 #hb his defeat of ,clodius at ,vesuvius1 #hb ,speerenberg1 deposit of salt at1 #dci ,sphenopteris affinis1 #cia ,spider1 eyeless1 of the ,cave of ,adelsberg1 #afc ,spinel1 the1 #dij ,spirifer princeps1 #ab ,spiriferid1 #ac ,sponges1 fossil1 of the primitive seas1 #af ,springs1 always warmer than the air in the locality where they gush forth1 #cb hydrostatic laws regarding the flow of1 #dj-db temperature of the water of1 #dc geological phenomena favouring the production of thermal springs1 #dc mineral particles in springs1 #dc1 #dd intermittent springs1 #dd geysirs of ,iceland1 #de-dh ,artesian wells1 #dh-eb carbonic acid gas springs1 #hh-ij of carburetted hydrogen1 #ij-ic ,staffordshire1 burning mines of1 #bhc the ,burning ,hill of1 #bhc1 #bhd ,stag1 ,professor ,owen's skeleton of the primeval1 #bag ,stalactites and stalagmites1 formation of1 #aci1 #adj their varieties of form and slow formation1 #adj ,dr4 ,schmidl's #8,stalactital ,paradise1' #aeb in the ,cave of ,guacharo1 #afb of the ,cave of ,melidoni1 #agf in the ,norwegian copper mine of ,rraas1 #cbe ,stalita tnaria1 the eyeless cavern spider1 #afc1 #afd ,stamping-mill in the silver mines of ,mexico1 #cjf ,star fish1 of the ,chalk group1 #ah ,stassfurt1 mines of1 #dch ,steam1 important part played by1 in volcanic phenomena1 #da ,steam-jets1 or fumaroles1 of volcanoes1 #fc those of the eruption of ,jorullo in #agei1 seen in #ahjc1 #gd ,stephenson1 ,george1 a coal-trapper in life1 #dai ,stikeen1 gold-fields of1 #bic ,stockton-on-,tees1 export of coal from1 #dac ,stoke1 in ,worcestershire1 salt mines of1 #dcb ,stone implements of ,denmark1 #bbb of the ,brixham caverns1 #bbg of the ,valley of the ,somme1 #bcj ,stromboli1 diameter of the crater of1 #ed constant activity of the volcano of1 #fb ,mr4 ,poulett ,scrope's description of it1 #fb ,stromeyer1 his discovery of cadmium1 #chf ,strontian1 in ,argyleshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,styria1 iron of1 #ceh ,subiaco1 ,st4 ,benedict's ,cave near1 #ahj ,suffioni of the ,florentine lagoons1 #dfj ,sulphur of the mines of ,sicily1 #dda exports of1 #ddc conflagration of a sulphur mine1 #ddc mines of ,ternel and ,lorca1 #ddd combinations of sulphur with metals1 #ddg ,sumatra1 deposits of tinstone in1 #cce ,sunderland1 export of coal from1 #dac ,superior1 ,lake1 copper scattered near the shore of1 #cbe1 #cbg ancient copper mines near1 #cbg ,surtshellir1 in ,iceland1 formation of the1 #adh ,sutherland1 gold-fields of1 #bic ,swallows1 cave-haunting1 #afj ,swansea1 copper-works of1 #cbj1 #cba ,sweden1 effect of the great earthquake of #agee in1 #aah mode of descending mines in1 #bfd copper mines of1 #cbb ,swifts1 cave-haunting1 #afj ,switzerland1 subterranean relics of prehistoric man in1 #bbc ancient iron implements found in1 #cdg ,swoszwice1 sulphur mines of1 #ddd ,syene1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,syracuse1 catacombs of1 #baj city of1 #dge the ,latomi of1 #dge ,syria1 earthquakes of1 in the reign of ,tiberius1 #ig1 #ajj ,syout1 in ,upper ,egypt1 rock-hewn cemeteries of1 #bje ,tagilsk1 ,nishne1 platinum of1 #chb ,taman1 mud-volcanoes of the peninsula of1 #ic1 #ie ,tamelhat1 in ,algeria1 ,artesian well at1 #ea ,tangiers1 effects of an earthquake sea-wave in1 #aah ,tap cinders of the iron puddling furnaces1 #cee ,tasmania1 coal-fields of1 #dbd ,tauretunum1 ,roman town of1 destroyed by a landslip1 #abg ,tees1 importance of the river1 #djg ,teir1 ,djebel1 height of the volcano of1 #ed ,temboro1 cone of the volcano of1 blown to pieces1 #fg ,temenitz1 engulfment and reappearance of the river1 #aej ,temples1 rock1 of ,india1 #aha ,teneriffe1 ,peak of1 shape of the1 #ec ice-caves of1 #aih solfatara of the1 #dde ,tenger1 ,gunong1 in ,java1 diameter of the crater of the volcano of1 #ed ,terebratul of the ,silurian seas1 #ac hastata1 fossils of1 #ae ,ternel1 sulphur mine of1 #ddd ,terni1 olian caverns of1 #aih ,terranuova1 effects of an earthquake at1 #ih ,terreros1 ,don ,pedro1 his silver mine of ,la ,regla1 #cjd ,tertiary period1 mammalia of the1 #bc ,thallium1 discovery and uses of1 #chh ,thaur1 ,mount1 ,mahomet's refuge in a cave of1 #afi ,moslem miracle of1 #afi ,thebes1 hermits in the desert of1 #agi the royal tombs of1 #bjb-bjd ,themud1 rock city of the1 #bcf legendary tale respecting the1 #bcf ,thomson1 ,dr41 his cave explorations in ,new ,zealand1 #bah-bbj ,tin1 antiquity of the knowledge of1 #ccb mentioned in the ,bible1 #ccb ,phnician trade in1 #ccc uses and importance of1 #ccd the two ores of tin1 #cce lodes of ,cornwall1 #ccg number of mines in ,devon and ,cornwall at work1 #cch smelting of tin1 #cdb number and wages of the miners1 #cdc nature of the miner's work1 #cdc ,tin-foil1 #ccd ,tino1 island of1 ,rosso antico1 #dfg ,titanium1 or rutile1 discovery and uses of1 #chf1 #chg ,titus1 the ,emperor1 his benevolence to the survivors of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 #he ,tjerimai1 ,gunong1 in ,java1 extinct volcano of1 #ee its height and depth1 #ee ,tlalpujahua1 silver mine of1 #cje ,toeplitz1 hot springs of1 #dc ,tofua1 constant activity of the volcano of1 #fc lake formed in the crater of the extinct volcano of1 #eg ,tolfa1 manufacture of alum at1 #deh ,tombs1 rock-hewn1 #bjb ,topaz1 the1 #dic ,tplitz1 effect of the ,lisbon earthquake of #agee on the mineral waters of1 #aah ,torgatten1 in ,norway1 natural tunnel of the grotto of1 #acd ,trajan1 the ,emperor1 in an earthquake at ,antioch1 #ig ,transbaikalia1 iron of1 #ceg ,transgariep country1 cannibal caverns of the1 #bcd ,transylvania1 iron of1 #ceh salt mines of1 #dcf ,travers1 ,val de1 asphalte mine of the1 #dbh ,trebich ,cave1 near ,trieste1 #acd ,tresavean ,copper ,mine1 wealth of1 #cbi tin mine1 #ccg ,treviso1 three villages of1 buried by a landslip of the ,piz ,mountain1 #abg ,triassic rocks1 their thickness1 #b fossils of the1 #bb ,trilobites1 #aj1 #aa eye of1 magnified1 #aa gradually vanish in the ,carboniferous period1 #ad ,trinidad1 mud volcanoes of1 #ic1 #id ,trinidad1 the great ,pitch ,lake of1 #dbh the black pines of1 #dbi ,tripolite1 its composition and uses1 #dfc ,troglodytes1 or dwellers in caves1 #bcb ,trophonios1 ,cave of1 #ahg visitors to the cave for information1 #ahh ,trou-aux-,moutons1 vast ice-cave of the ,rothhorn1 #aid1 #aie ,tschudi1 silver ornaments of the1 #bih ,tuileries1 principle on which the grand fountain of the1 is supplied1 #db ,tungstate of soda1 uses of1 #che ,tungsten1 discovery of1 #chd uses of1 #che ,tunnels1 natural1 #aac1 #cd ,turks1 their atrocities in modern warfare1 #agf their use of amber in pipes1 #def ,turquoise1 the1 #dic ,turrilites tuberculatus1 #ai ,tuscany1 suffioni of the lagoons of1 #dfj ,tyne1 importance of the river1 #djg shipping coal on the banks of the1 #daa1 #dab ,tynemouth ,priory1 view from the1 #dad ,ubes1 ,st41 nearly destroyed by an earthquake sea-wave1 #aag ,united ,states of ,america1 copper mines of1 #cbh1 #cbi ,upheavals1 subterranean1 #cd taking place at the present day1 #cd slow elevation of the land in ,sweden1 #ce and in other places1 #ce1 #cf marks chiselled on the ,swedish rocks1 #cg probable causes of1 #ch ,upsala1 iron manufacture of1 #cfj the old city of1 and the burial-places of ,odin1 ,thor1 and ,freya1 #cfj ,ural1 or ,oural1 ,mountains1 the iron of the1 #ceg copper mines of the1 #cbf ,uranium1 discovery and uses of1 #che ,valenciana1 ,conde de1 his silver mine and fortune1 #cjb1 #cjd ,valenciennes1 depth of the coal mines of1 #bdg ,valentinus1 ,basilius1 his mention of antimony1 #chc ,valdivia1 extent of wave-motion of an earthquake at1 #aje1 #ajf ,valparaiso1 upheaval of the land at1 #cd ,valparaiso1 copper mines of1 #cbf ,vaucluse1 celebrated fountain of1 #adi ,vegetation1 subterranean1 #aeg mushrooms or fungi1 #aeg ,velleja1 ,roman town of1 buried by a landslip1 #abg ,venetian gold coins1 #bhg ,ventriculites1 fossil1 #af ,verde antico1 #dfg ,vesuvius1 its long period of rest1 and resumption of its activity1 #eh the lava-stream of the eruption of #ahbb1 #gj lava-fountains of the eruption of #agid1 #gb advance of a lava-stream into the sea near ,torre del ,greco1 #gc vast dimensions of the lava-stream of1 #ge state of the volcano previous to the eruption of #gi ,a4,c41 #ha first indication of the catastrophe1 #hb account of ,pliny the ,younger1 #he ,veta madre1 silver mine of1 #bdg1 #cja ,victoria1 colony of1 #bij gold-fields of1 #bid ,villaroel ,don ,jos1 his silver mine of the ,cerro di ,potosi1 #cji ,vincent1 ,island of1 volcanic eruption on the1 #ff disappearance of a mountain at1 #fh ,virgil1 tomb of1 #bdb belief in his incantations1 #bdb ,visigoths of ,spain1 their gold coins1 #bhg ,vivarrais1 carbonic acid gas springs of the1 #hh ,vivian's copper-works at ,swansea1 #cba ,volcanoes1 heat required for the production of the lava of1 #cc extent of the action of1 #cc important part played by steam in volcanic phenomena1 #da extinct and active volcanoes1 #ec their shapes and heights1 #ec1 #ed their craters1 #ed desolation near them1 #ed dimensions and depths of various craters1 #ed dangers of crater explorations1 #ee1 #ef lakes in the craters of extinct volcanoes1 #eg line of demarcation between active and extinct volcanoes1 #eh volcanoes still constantly forming1 #eh submarine volcanoes1 #ei formation of volcanic islands1 #ei number of known volcanoes1 #fj unequal distribution of1 #fa in a constant state of activity1 #fa1 #fb steam-jets1 or fumaroles1 #fc1 #gd phenomena of volcanic eruption1 #fe stones and ashes thrown out1 #ff explosion of cones1 #fg disastrous effects of showers of sand1 pumice1 and lapilli1 #fh mud-streams formed1 #fi torrents formed by melted snow1 #fi formation of fiery streams of liquid lava1 #gj parasitic cones of eruption1 #gj wooded volcanic craters1 #ga phenomena attending the flow of a lava-stream1 #gb1 #gc effect of the meeting of lava and the sea1 #gc and of lava and ice1 #gd vast dimensions of lava-streams1 #ge1 #gf waste of desolation in lava-fields1 #gg considered as safety-valves1 #gh1 #gi probable causes of1 #gi1 #hj destruction of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 #ha-hg mud-volcanoes1 #ic-if formation of volcanic caves1 #adf-adh ,volterra1 alabaster of1 #dfh ,vultur1 ,mount1 beauty of the forest scenery around the extinct craters of1 #eg ,wales1 auriferous veins found in1 #bic lead mines of1 #cff time required for the formation of the coal-fields of ,south1 #cig their superficial extent1 #dje the coal-fields of ,north1 #djc total number of pits in the ,south1 #djf slate quarries of ,north1 #dfi ,new ,south1 copper mines of1 #cbi coal-fields of1 #dbd ,walker colliery1 on the ,tyne1 disaster in1 prevented1 #bhb ,wallsend colliery1 drowned1 #bgc attempt made to work a part of it1 #bgh ,wanlockhead1 lead mines at1 #cff ,warburton1 his description of the rock-temple of ,ipsamboul1 #ahd-ahf his visit to the tombs of the ,pharaohs at ,thebes1 #bjb-bjd ,wash1 evidences of subsidence of the land on the shores of the1 #cg ,washoe silver mine1 #cad ,water1 its eternal strife with fire1 #a1 #b the waters of the ,cambrian or ,silurian ocean1 #aa filtered and made pure by the earth1 #dj temperature of the water of springs1 #dc subterranean distribution of the waters1 #ci hydrostatic laws regarding the flow of springs1 #dj1 #da ,bunsen's theory of the ,geysirs1 #dg geological phenomena favouring the production of thermal springs1 #dc geysirs of ,iceland1 #de-dh ,artesian wells1 #dh-eb effect of the meeting of a lava-stream and the sea1 #gc movements of the sea in earthquakes1 #ajg action of water in limestone caves1 #ach1 #aci and in forming marine caves1 #adb ,water-spouts of caverns in the ,skerries1 #adf in mines1 #bfi modes of draining1 #bfi ,waterfall1 a subterranean1 #aec ,watt1 ,james1 his invention and its importance in iron manufacture1 #cea ,wear1 importance of the river1 #djg ,wermland1 iron manufacture of1 #cfj ,westphalia1 coal-fields of1 #dje ,wheal ,cock1 copper mine of1 #cai ,wheal1 ,edward1 ,cornish copper mine of1 #cai ,wheal ,vor1 rise and fall of the tin mine of1 #cci ,whitehaven coal-basin1 extent of the1 #djg excavations under the sea at the1 #daj ,white-lead manufacture of the ,brohl1 #hi ,white-lead1 how made1 #cfe ,wicklow1 lead mines of1 #cff iron pyrites of1 #ddg ,wielitzka1 salt mines of1 #bfb1 #dcc-dce method of descending the1 #bfc accident in the1 #dce ,wiesbaden1 hot springs of1 #dc ,wind-grottoes1 #aih-bjj fables respecting1 #aii ,wirksworth1 ossiferous caves of1 #bae1 #baf ,wissokaja ,gora1 the magnetic mountain of1 #ceg ,wolfram1 discovery of1 #chd ,wollaston1 his discovery of palladium1 #chh and of rhodium1 #chh ,wood1 ,colonel1 his discovery of a bone-cave at ,gower1 #bbh ,workington ,colliery1 drowned1 #bgd ,worship1 subterranean places of1 #aha-ahc ,worsley1 in ,lancashire1 subterranean canals in1 #bfc ,yeermalik1 massacre by ,genghis ,khan in the cave of1 #agb1 #agc visit to the cave1 #agc as a natural ice-cave1 #aig ,york1 ,new1 copper mines of1 #cbh ,yorkshire1 lead mines of1 #cff ,zacatecas1 silver mine of1 #cjb ,zealand1 ,new1 effects of the earthquake of #ahee in upraising land1 #aaa maare1 or crateriform hollows of1 #acb the ,apteryx australis of1 #baf the gigantic ,moa of1 #baf1 #bag ,professor ,owen's memoir and skeleton of the bird1 #bag ossiferous caves of the country1 #bah gold-fields of1 #bic vegetation of1 similar to that of the coal-fields1 #cie coal-fields of1 #dbd ,zellerfeld1 great adit levels of the mines of1 #bgj ,zepeda1 ,don ,barneb de1 his discovery of the silver vein of ,catorce1 #cjc ,zeus1 ,olympian1 ,phidias' ivory and gold statue of1 #bhf ,zinc1 not known to the ancients1 #chj production of1 #chj1 #cha the chief zinc-producing countries1 #cha1 #chb ,zircon1 the1 #dib ,zoroaster1 religion of1 restored by the ,sassanides of ,persia1 #ib ,zwickau1 in ,saxony1 burning mine at1 #bhc ,footnotes ,works by the same ,author4 -------------- ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,living ,,wonders4 ,with several hundred ,wood ,engravings2 and an entirely ,new ,series of ,illustrations in ,chromoxylography1 representing the most ,interesting ,objects described in the ,work1 from ,original ,drawings by ,henry ,noel ,humphreys4 ,third ,english ,copyright ,edition4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ----------------------- #8,dr4 ,,hartwig',s volume is a perfect model of the popular treatment of a large subject4 ,it is at once full1 clear1 concise1 and attractive2 and it possesses the merit1 absolutely unique as far as our experience goes in works of this kind1 of being readable from end to end4 ,though closely packed with details--sufficiently so indeed to be a good1 though of course not an exhaustive1 book of reference for practical use--these are so well selected and arranged1 so concisely related1 and so carefully subordinated to general views1 that they never produce any sensation of weariness1 monotony1 or confusion4 ,there are some admirable chromoxylographs1 and an infinitude of excellent woodcuts scattered up and down the pages with a profuse hand4 ,in short1 the ,sea has received from ,dr4 ,,hartwig a recommendation to public attention which can scarcely perhaps increase its popularity1 but which will certainly enable many of its admirers to regard it with a more enlarged and intelligent admiration4 ,the title1 large as it is1 does the work some injustice1 for we are apt to forget the ,sea itself in the ,living ,wonders which it nourishes2 and we scarcely include1 in our conception of life1 the vegetation of the ocean4 ,this1 however1 is no fault of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s2 for he fairly exhausts his subject4 ,the first seventy pages are devoted to a very clear account of the general features of the sea4 ,its extent and depth and colour1 its coast-line and currents1 the height and velocity of its waves1 the theory of its tides1 the mighty circulation whereby the life-currents of the earth rise in evaporation from the ocean surface1 are dispersed through the upper regions of the air1 are condensed in rain1 and1 trickling through the soil1 return in rivers to their native reservoir1 are all set forth with great skill and beauty of language4 ,dr4 ,,hartwig then passes on to the inhabitants of the sea4 ,first come the 8hugest of living things10 the ,cetaceans1 with their kindred the seals and walruses--animals which in their anatomy and habits form a curious link between the tribes of earth and water1 and in their vast size and outlandish forms seem1 at least in fancy1 to connect the present age with distant geological periods4444 ,penguins and auks and albatrosses next come under our notice3 then turtles1 the only modern representatives of the ancient saurians2 then follows a description of many of the more curious fishes--among which we notice some singular creatures with fins and tails and gills1 which can not only live for days out of water1 but actually creep up trees and catch insects4 ,crabs and barnacles1 worms and molluscs1 star-fishes1 sea-urchins1 coral- polyps1 and our familiar friends the sea-anemones1 all come in for their fair share of attention4 ,even the microscopic foraminifera and diatomace are included3 one chapter is given to marine plants1 and another to the primitive ocean2 while the whole is appropriately closed with a brief sketch of the progress of maritime discovery4 ,and all this is packed into an elegant volume of #djj pages4 ,never1 surely1 was such a mine of information presented in so pleasing a shape4 ,dr4 ,,hartwig has skimmed the very cream of marine science1 and thrown all its daintiest morsels into a single attractive dish4' ,,guardian1 ,first ,notice4 #8,this is the third edition1 considerably enlarged1 of the first and best of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s beautiful and popular volumes on natural history4 ,the size of the book is increased by a hundred pages2 a good deal of it is remoulded2 two whole new chapters have been added1 one on ,marine ,caves1 the other on ,marine ,constructions1 such as ,lighthouses and ,breakwaters2 some of the old illustrations have disappeared1 but their place has been supplied by more and better2 so that the new edition really amounts to a recasting of the entire book4 ,it was a very good book before2 it is better and more complete now4 ,whether we regard the letterpress or the numerous illustrations1 it takes a rank second to none among ornamental and popular books of science4' ,,guardian1 ,second ,notice4 ,,the ,,tropical ,,world3 a ,popular ,scientific ,account of the ,natural ,history of the ,animal and ,vegetable ,kingdoms and the ,equatorial ,regions4 ,with #h ,chromoxylographic ,plates and about #hjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ------------------------- #8,this work well deserves popularity1 and is just the book to interest young persons who have the sense to perceive that the truths of nature are not only stranger but far more profitable than some fictions4 ,all that intelligent women and children desire to know about the tropics will be found here--the aspects of nature1 the rivers and coasts1 the great sandy deserts1 the gigantic vegetation1 and the animal denizens from insects to apes2 but excluding the tropical varieties of man4' ,,medical ,,times and ,,gazette4 #8,dr4 ,,hartwig has followed up his admirable book on the ,,sea by another1 not less admirable1 on the ,tropical ,world4 ,the same wide erudition1 vivid powers of description1 and happy intermixture of popular and scientific treatment are displayed in it2 and its pages are adorned by the same profusion of elegant illustration4 ,within the tropics ,nature revels in her wildest luxuriance3 bird1 beast1 reptile1 and plant take there strange forms and colours1 or attain unusual magnitude4 ,dr4 ,,hartwig has steeped his pen in the glowing atmosphere of the tropics2 and with it1 as with a wand1 he leads us through successive regions of a sunny fairyland teeming with beautiful natural objects in inexhaustible variety1 changeful and brilliant as the effulgent landscapes amid which they flourish4' ,,guardian4 #8,the tropics give us something like a picture of the antediluvian world4 ,the heat and moisture1 with the consequent luxuriance of vegetation in tangled overgrowth1 the violence of the storms1 and the ferocity and hideousness of many animal forms1 mark out these equatorial regions as very striking1 very picturesque1 very interesting1 but not very agreeable as a residence4 ,unless we are young1 robust1 and adventurous1 it is pleasanter to read of such regions in our milder ,europe1 and to visit them in imagination1 following the adventures of others4 ,and this journey ,dr4 ,,hartwig enables us to make through his excellent compilation4444 ,we have indicated the nature of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s book1 and have only to add that it is compiled with great skill1 and written in a clear and agreeable style4 ,it is seldom that we have occasion to notice a more satisfactory work of the class to which it belongs4' ,,saturday ,,review4 #8,we ought not to conclude these gleanings without a brief notice of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s popular book4 ,there are those who look with contempt on popular science of all kinds1 and regard with undisguised aversion such compilations as the one before us4 ,we do not share these feelings in the least degree2 on the contrary1 we welcome most heartily such introductions to the study of natural history4 ,true1 they may be sometimes of little scientific value1 but they are very useful stepping- stones to something more solid4 ,they are more especially intended for the young1 but those of mature years may derive much profit by a perusal of many of these works1 and even the naturalist may read them with pleasure and instruction4 ,the numerous beautifully illustrated and carefully compiled works on natural history1 such as the ,tropical ,world1 together with the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1 by the same writer1 and several others which have appeared within the last few years1 are an encouraging sign of the growing interest which the rising generation takes in the study of the great ,creator's works1 and we heartily wish them ,godspeed4' ,,quarterly ,,review4 ,works by the same ,author4 ,,the ,,harmonies ,,of ,,nature1 ,,or ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,creation4 ,with #h full-page ,engravings on ,wood1 from ,original ,designs by ,f4 ,w4 ,keyl1 and about #bjj ,woodcuts in the ,text4 #hvo4 price #ahs4 #8,as a sort of abridged ,,kosmos brought down so as to include the latest discoveries of science1 ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s ,harmonies of ,nature is admirable for the view it gives of the order of nature as we can at present conceive it4 ,such a work enlarges and clears our conception of the universe1 and we can heartily commend both the ability with which the facts are elucidated and the reverential spirit with which they are treated4' ,,globe4 #8,dr4 ,,hartwig',s book at first looks like a system of natural history3 it swarms with woodcuts of zoology and comparative anatomy4 ,but it properly belongs to general psychology2 for its object is comparison and deduction1 and a view of the chain of being1 which 444 after some general cosmogony1 begins at the lowest phases of vegetable life and ends with man4444 ,the book is very interesting1 and fills a very useful place4' ,,athen,,um4 #8,the nature of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s ,harmonies of ,nature will perhaps be better understood if we call it a popularised ,,kosmos4 ,beginning with the starry heavens1 the ,author leads us through air and ocean1 and shows in broad outline how material nature is adapted to the organic life which fills it4 ,he then traces out the ascending grades of organic life itself from plants to sponges and jelly-fishes1 and from them up through molluscs1 insects1 fishes1 birds1 and mammals1 to man himself1 the crown of all4 ,this great outline is filled up with sufficient detail to give it substance and interest4 ,it is traced with a flowing and expressive pen1 and illustrated by an elegant and abundant pencil4 ,those who have seen ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s former works will be satisfied to know that this is no unworthy companion to them4' ,,guardian4 #8,the ,harmonies of ,nature will add to its ,author's well-deserved reputation as the most correct and philosophic as well as the most entertaining writer of the day on popular natural history4 ,unlike most of the compilers of this class of works1 ,dr4 ,,hartwig has a very extensive knowledge of his subject1 a knowledge sufficient to enable him to present to his readers a well-arranged work1 that may be read with profit as well as with pleasure4 ,the object of the work is to point out and illustrate the unity of plan which prevails throughout creation4444 ,compared with the popular natural histories current in ,france and ,england1 the works of ,dr4 ,,hartwig are of much higher excellence2 and for those readers who desire to know something about physical science without becoming painful and diligent students1 no volume can be recommended as more delightful than the ,harmonies of ,nature4' ,the ,,field4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,the ,,polar ,,world2 ,a ,,popular ,,description ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,nature ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,and ,,antarctic ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,with #h ,chromoxylographic ,plates1 #c ,maps1 and #he ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #bas4 #8,the appearance of ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s book at this time is very opportune4 ,there is every reason to believe that public attention will be directed during the next ten or fifteen years to the ,polar regions and the contemplated expeditions to them4 ,whether or not the suggestions are carried out which were made at the recent meeting of the ,geographical ,society for an educating trial trip to the ,arctic coast1 there can be no doubt that there will be an expedition in #ahha-ahhb for the purpose of observing the transit of ,,venus in the ,antarctic ,seas4 ,sabrina ,land and ,possession ,island are spoken of as suitable stations for the observations4 ,most readers would have to refer to their maps1 or to almost forgotten books of ,antarctic travel to make themselves acquainted with those localities4 ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s volume gives maps1 description1 and history of all that is known concerning these icy regions in a few compendious pages4444 ,like ,dr4 ,,hartwig',s former works1 the ,polar ,world is a model of interesting and authentic compilation4 ,starting from ,iceland1 he takes us round the lands which circle about the ,north ,pole1 describing their natural features1 the people who inhabit them1 the birds1 beasts1 and fishes1 and the scanty vegetation1 which is frequently little more than varieties of mosses and lichens4 ,the same plan is followed in the regions of the ,south ,pole4 ,in his treatment of all these subjects the ,author combines the qualities of a clever historian1 a well-informed geographer1 and a correct naturalist4 ,gathering up all the information supplied by numerous explorers1 he has presented to us the result in a beautifully illustrated volume1 containing a clear1 concise1 and faithful description of man and nature in high latitudes4 ,the work will be exceedingly useful as well as interesting to the naturalist1 as nearly every chapter in it contains careful accounts of the animals peculiar to the regions described4444 ,the ,polar ,world will add greatly to the already well-deserved reputation of the ,author4' ,,land and ,,water4 ,london3 ,,longmans and ,,co4 ,paternoster ,row4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,at #cgj4af1 the freezing point of mercury is given as #8-#ci ,fahr4'1 which should be -#ci ,celsius4 ,at #aih4i1 the paragraph ending #8pillars supporting the roof'1 includes a single closing quote1 the opening of which is either missing1 or it is itself a mistake4 ,given the wording of the paragraph1 it is likely the latter4 ,errors deemed most likely to be the printer's have been corrected1 and are noted here4 ,the references are to the page and line in the original1 or where two columns were employed1 the page1 column1 and line4 ,where the spelling of index entries disagree with their references in the text1 they have been corrected4 xvii4#bd 7,green ,added4 #e4ac subterrannean fires ,removed4 #ih4cd were found clasped in each other's arms4' ,added4 #aje4aj valley of the ,mississippi ,added4 #aji4aj a vesta_/ige remaining ,replaced4 #aeh4dj prsertim subterraneas exhibens4' ,added4 #afd4bh communicating with un_/numerous subterranean ,transposed4 #aih4i pillars supporting the roof4' ,removed4 #bag4aj forms one of the most conspicuous ornaments ,added4 #bhb4b with the oxgy_/ygen of the air1 ,transposed4 #cda4af more like a vast natural crater that_/n a ,replaced4 hollow #cef4bj of ,north and and ,south ,wales ,removed4 #cii4ah acccompanying ,removed4 #ddc4ai ,sicn_/uliana ,replaced4 #dif4ca an ample im_/ndemnity ,replaced4 #ejd4b4c ,canstadt1 in ,wurtembu_/erg1 ,replaced4 #ejh4a4da ,estrello_/a do ,sul1 or ,star of the ,south ,replaced4 #ead4b4d ,mushrooms1 subterrannean ,removed4 #ead4b4ag ,nan_/uheim1 carbonic acid gas spring of1 #hh ,replaced4 #eag4b4de ,schaflock1 ice-cave of1 #aid1 #aie ,added4