,mod]n ,fr5* ,philosophy ,a /udy ( ! ,developm5t s9ce ,comte4 by ,j4 ,alex&] ,gunn1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d4 ,fell[ ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool2 ,lectur] 9 ,psy*ology to ! ,liv]pool ,univ]sity ,ext5sion ,bo>d ,,) ,a ,,=eword ,,by ,,h5ri ,,b]gson de l',academie francaise et de l',academie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques ,t4 ,,fi%] ,,unw91 ,,ltd4 ,,london3 ,,adelphi ,,t]race ,fir/ publi%$ 9 #aibb4 7,all rights res]v$7 ,,to ,,my ,,tea*] ,,alex&] ,,mair ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,liv]pool ,,z ,a ,,small ,,tok5 ,,( ,,e/eem ,,& ,,an ,,ackn[l$gm5t ,,( ,,8 ,,in/ruction ,cont5ts ,,=eword ,,by ,,h5ri ,,b]gson ,,preface ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,antec$5ts ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ma9 ,,curr5ts ,,s9ce #ahea ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sci5ce ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,fre$om ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,progress ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,e?ics ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,religion ,,conclusion ,,bibliography ,,comp>ative ,,table ,,index 8,mais il n'y a pas que cette ,france1 que cette ,france glorieuse1 que cette ,france rvolutionnaire1 cette ,france mancipatrice et initiatrice du g5re huma91 que cette ,france d'une activit m]veilleuse et comme on l'a dit1 cette ,france n\rrie des ides gnrales du monde1 il y a une autre ,france que je n'aime pas mo9s1 une autre ,france qui m'e/ encore plus *re1 c'e/ la ,france misrable1 c'e/ la ,france va9cue et humilie1 c'e/ la ,france qui e/ accable1 c'e/ la ,france qui trane son b\let depuis quatorze sicles1 la ,france qui crie1 suppliante v]s la ju/ice et v]s la lib]t1 la ,france que les despotes p\ss5t con/amm5t sur les *amps de bataille1 s\s prtexte de lib]t1 p\r lui faire v]s] son sang p> t\tes les artres et p> t\tes les ve9es1 oh6 cette ,france-l1 je l'aime40--,,gambetta1 ,disc\rs1 #bi ,septemb]1 #ahgb4 8,les jeunes g5s de t\s les pays du monde qui sont v5us dans les campagnes de ,france combattre p\r la civilisation et le droit s]ont sans d\te plus disposs y rev5ir1 apres la gu]re *]*] la n\rriture intellectuelle4 ,il importe qu'ils soi5t assurs de l'y tr\v]1 sa9e1 abondante et =te40--,m4 ,d4 ,,p>odi1 ,inspecteur de l',acadmie de ,p>is1 #aiai4 ,,=eword ,je s]ais heureux que le public anglais st le bi5 que je p5se du livre de ,m4 ,gunn1 sur la philosophie francaise depuis #ahea4 ,le sujet *oisi e/ neuf1 c> il n'exi/e pas1 ma connaissance1 d'ouvrage relatif t\te cette priode de la philosophie franaise4 ,le beau livre que ,m4 ,p>odi vi5t de publi] en franais traite surt\t des v+t d]nires annes de notre activit philosophique4 ,m4 ,gunn1 remontant jusqu' ,augu/e ,comte1 a eu raison de plac] a9si devant n\s t\te le seconde moiti du sicle pass4 ,cette priode de c9quante ans qui a prcde notre v+time sicle e/ d'une importance capitale4 ,elle con/itue rellem5t notre dix-neuvime sicle philosophique1 c> l'oeuvre mme de ,ma9e de ,biran1 qui e/ antrieure1 n'a t bi5 connue et tudie qu' ce mom5t1 et la plup>t de nos ides philosophiques actuelles ont t labores p5dant ces c9quante ans4 ,le sujet e/ d'ailleurs d'une complication extrme1 en raison du nombre et de la v>it des doctr9es1 en raison surt\t de la div]sit des que/ions entre lesquelles se sont p>tags tant de p5seurs4 ,dr4 ,gunn a su ram5] t\tes ces que/ions un petit nombre de problmes ess5tiels 3 la sci5ce1 la lib]t1 le progrs1 la morale1 la religion4 ,cette division me p>at heureuse4 ,elle rpond bi51 ce me semble1 aux pr9cipales proccupations de la philosophie francaise4 ,elle a p]mis l'auteur d'tre complet1 t\t en re/ant simple1 clair1 et facile suivre4 ,elle prs5te1 il e/ vrai1 un inconvni5t1 en ce qu'elle morcelle la doctr9e d'un auteur en fragm5ts dont *acun1 pris "p1 p]d un peu de sa vitalite et de son individualit4 ,elle risque a9si de prs5t] comme trop semblable d'autres la solution que tel philosophe a donne de tel problme1 solution qui1 replace dans l'ensemble de la doctr9e1 app>atrait comme propre ce p5seur1 orig9ale et plus =te4 ,mais cet inconvni5t tait 9vitable et l'env]s de l'avantage que je signalais plus haut1 celui de l'ordre1 de la cont9uit et de la cl>t4 ,le travail du ,dr4 ,gunn m'app>at comme t\t fait di/+u4 ,il tmoigne d'une in=mation s+ulirem5t t5due1 prcise et sre4 ,c'e/ l'oeuvre d'un esprit d'une extrme s\plesse1 capable de s'assimil] vite et bi5 la p5se des philosophes1 de class] les ides dans leur ordre d'importance1 de les expos] m?odiquem5t et les apprci] leur ju/e valeur4 ,h4 ,b]gson ,^! pages are a revis$ extract f ! m =mal ,rapport :i* 0 pres5t$ by ,m4 ,b]gson to ! ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool4 ,,preface ,?is "w is ! fruit ( mu* read+ & rese>* done 9 ,p>is at ! ,sorbonne & ,biblio?que nationale4 ,x is1 sub/antially1 a revis$ =m ( ! !sis pres5t$ by ! writ] to ! ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool = ! degree ( ,doctor 9 ,philosophy1 obta9$ 9 #aiba4 ,! au?or is indebt$1 !re=e1 to ! ,univ]sity = p]mission to publi%4 ,m especially mu/ he record 8 deep gratitude to ! ,fr5* ?9k]s :o gave bo? /imulus & enc\ragem5t to him dur+ 8 soj\rn 9 ,p>is4 ,=emo/ among ^! is ,m4 ,h5ri ,b]gson1 ^u ^: rapport ! ,doctorate 0 conf]r$1 & :o has express$ 8 appreciation ( ! "w by contribut+ a ,=eword = publication4 ,m5tion mu/ also be made ( ! enc\ragem5t giv5 by ! late ,m4 ,emile ,b\tr\x & by ! em95t editor ( ! well-kn[n ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale1 ,m4 ,xavi] ,lon1 a lead+ _s 9 ! ,socit de ,philosophie1 ^: meet+s ! writ] 0 privileg$ to att5d by invitation4 ,!n ,,mm4 ,bruns*vicg1 ,levy-,bruhl1 ,lal&e1 ,rey & ,l5oir1 f "t to "t discuss$ ! "w ) him & he mu/ record 8 appreciation ( _! k9dness4 ,to ,pr(essor ,mair ( ,liv]pool is due ! initial sugge/ion1 & x has be5 felt a fitt+ tribute to 8 sup]vision1 criticism1 enc\ragem5t & sympa?y t ?is book %\ld be respectfully d$icat$ to him by "o ( 8 grateful pupils4 ,9 ! lab\r ( deal+ ) ! pro(s1 ! writ] has to ackn[l$ge ! co-op]ation ( ,miss ,m4 ,l9n & ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,turn]1 ,m4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,! me?od adopt$ 9 ?is hi/ory has be5 delib]ately *os5 = its usefulness 9 emphasis+ ! developm5t ( ideas4 ,a purely *ronological me?od has n be5 foll[$4 ,! biographical sy/em has likewise be5 reject$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ?\ght c5tres r\nd problems1 & x progresses 9 relation to ^! problems4 ,! p>ticul> mann] 9 :i* ! ma9 problems pres5t$ !mselves to ! ,fr5* ?9k]s ( ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 l>gely det]m9$ by ! ev5ts & ideas :i* m>k$ ! p]iod f #aghi to #ahea4 ,= ?is reason a *apt] has be5 devot$ to ,antec$5ts4 ,betwe5 ! ,revolution & ! c\p d'tat ( ,napoleon ,,iii41 f\r di/9ct l9es ( ?\ght are disc]nible4 ,!n ! ma9 curr5ts f ! ye> #ahea d[n to #aiba are describ$1 ) special ref]5ce to ! developm5t ( ! ma9 problems4 ,! reconciliation ( sci5ce & consci5ce prov$ to be ! ma9 g5]al problem1 :i* became m def9itely t ( ,fre$om4 ,?is 9 itself is intimately b\nd up ) ! doctr9es ( progress1 ( hi/ory1 ( e?ics & religion4 ,^! topics are discuss$ 9 a mann] :i* %[s _! be>+ ^u ea* o!r4 ,! conclusion aims at display+ ! *>act]i/ics ( ,fr5* ?\ght :i* reveal !mselves 9 ! /udy ( ^! great problems4 ,its vitality1 concret5ess1 cle>ness1 brilliance & precision are not$ & a comp>ison made betwe5 ,fr5* ?\ght & ,g]man philosophy4 ,f a g5]al philosophical /&po9t few p]iods c\ld be s fasc9at+4 ,few1 if any1 c\ld %[ su* a complete revolution ( ?\ght z t witness$ s9ce ! ye> #ahea4 ,to br+ ?is out cle>ly is ! ma9 object ( ! pres5t book4 ,x is int5d$ to s]ve a d\ble purpose4 ,prim>ily1 x aims at be+ a contribution to ! hi/ory ( ?\ght :i* w provide a def9ite k ( ! be/ t has be5 said & ?\ght among philosoph]s 9 ,france dur+ ! la/ sev5ty ye>s4 ,fur!r1 x is itself an appeal = s]i\s att5tion to be giv5 to ,fr5* philosophy4 ,?is is a field :i* has be5 comp>atively neglect$ by ,engli% /ud5ts1 s f> z ! n9ete5? c5tury is conc]n$1 & ?is is especially true ( our p]iod1 :i* is r\ghly t f ,comte to ,b\tr\x 7:o pass$ away la/ mon?7 & ,b]gson 7:o has ?is ye> resign$ 8 pr(essor%ip74 ,x is ! e>ne/ desire ( ! writ] to draw bo? philosophical /ud5ts & lov]s ( ,france & its lit]ature to a clos] /udy & appreciation ( mod]n ,fr5* philosophy4 ,emotion & s5tim5t are inadequate bases = an ent5te :i* is to be really cordiale betwe5 any two peoples4 ,an und]/&+ ( _! deepe/ ?\ghts is also necess>y & desirable4 ,su* an und]/&+ is1 aft] all1 b a /ep t[>ds t it]nationalisation ( ?\ght1 t common fund ( human culture & k1 :i* sets itself z an ideal be=e ! nations ( ! _w4 ,la philosophie n'a pas de patrie6 ,les ides sont actuellem5t les =ces int]nationales4 ,j4 ,a4 ,g4 ,,! ,,univ]sity1 ,,liv]pool1 ,decemb]1 #aiba ,,*apt] ,i 7,,introductory7 ,,antec$5ts ,,hi/orical ,,survey ,,( ,,! ,,ma9 ,,curr5ts ,,f ,,! ,,revolution ,,( #aghi ,,up ,,to #ahea4 ,aft] ! ,revolution--,! ,traditionali/s3 ,*ateaubu&1 ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,mai/re1 ,lam5nais1 ,lacordaire ,ma9 ,curr5ts3 #a4 ,ma9e de ,biran4 #b4 ,! ,eclectics3 ,c\s91 ,j\ffroy4 #c4 ,! ,sociali/s3 ,sa9t-,simon1 ,f\ri] & ,cabal1 ,pr\dhon & ,blanc4 #d4,positivism3 ,augu/e ,comte4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,antec$5ts ,?is "w deals ) ! great ,fr5* ?9k]s s9ce ! "t ( ,augu/e ,comte1 & treats1 "u v>i\s aspects1 ! developm5t ( ?\ght 9 relation to ! ma9 problems :i* confront$ ^! m54 ,9 ! comm5cem5t ( su* an und]tak+ we are oblig$ to ackn[l$ge ! cont9uity ( human ?\ght1 to recognise t x t5ds to approximate to an organic :ole1 & t1 consequ5tly1 me?ods resembl+ ^? ( surgical amputation are to be avoid$4 ,we _c absolutely isolate "o p]iod ( ?\ght4 ,= ?is reason a brief survey ( ! e>li] ye>s is necess>y 9 ord] to ori5t ! approa* to ! p]iod specially plac$ 9 ! limelight1 namely #ahea-aiba4 ,9 ! _w ( speculative ?\ght & 9 ! realm ( practical politics we f9d reflect$1 at ! op5+ ( ! c5tury1 ! "w ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution>ies on ! "o h&1 & t ( ,immanuel ,kant on ! o!r4 ,c\pl$ ) ^! great factors 0 ! p]vad+ influ5ce ( ! ,encyclopdi/s & ( ! ?9k]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,^! two gr\ps ( influ5ces1 ! "o sudd5 & 9 ! nature ( a %ock to political & metaphysical ?\ght1 ! o!r quiet] b no less effective1 comb9$ to produce a feel+ ( in/ability & ( dissatisfaction at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,a s5se ( *ange1 inde$ ( resurrection1 fill$ ! m9ds & he>ts ( ^? :o saw ! op5+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! old ari/ocracy & ! mon>*y 9 ,france _h gone1 & 9 philosophy ! old metaphysic _h receiv$ a bl[ at ! h&s ( ! au?or ( ! ,?ree ,critiques4 ,no bett] expression 0 giv5 to ! psy*ological /ate ( ,france at ?is "t ?an t ( ,alfr$ de ,musset 9 8 ,confession d'un ,enfant du ,sicle4 ,t\te la maladie du sicle prs5t 7he wrote7 vi5t de deux causes2 le peuple qui a pass p> '#ic et p> #ahad porte au cur deux blessures4 ,t\t ce qui tait n'e/ plus2 t\t ce qui s]a n'e/ pas encore4 ,ne *]*ez ailleurs le secret de nos maux4#a ,de ,musset 0 "r1 ! :ole c\rse ( ! c5tury 0 m>k$ by conflict betwe5 two =ces--on ! "o h& a t5d5cy to reaction & cons]vatism1 on ! o!r an impulse to radicalism & revolution4 #a ,! extract is tak5 f ,premire p>tie1 *4 #b4 ,! book 0 publi%$ 9 #ahcf4 ,some:at simil> s5tim5ts are utt]$ ) ref]5ce to ?is "t by ,mi*elet4 7,see 8 ,hi/oire du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 vol4 i41 p4 #i74 ,x is true t "o gr\p ( ?9k]s endeav\r$1 by a p]fectly natural reaction1 to recall _! fell[-c\ntrym51 at ?is "t ( unre/1 back to ! doctr9es & traditions ( ! pa/1 & tri$ to f9d 9 ! fai? ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* & ! practice ( ! ,ca?olic religion a rally+-po9t4 ,! mon>*y & ! ,*ur* 7 eulogis$ by ,*ateaubri&1 :ile on ! m philosophical side ef=ts on behalf ( traditionalism 7 made v nobly by ,de ,bonald & ,joseph de ,mai/re4 ,:ile !y repres5t$ ! old ari/ocracy & recall$ ! !ocracy & ecclesia/icism ( ! pa/ by advocat+ reaction & ,ultramontanism1 ,lam5nais attempt$ to adapt ,ca?olicism to ! new conditions1 only to f9d1 z did ,r5an lat]1 t 8"o _c argue ) a b> ( iron40 ,n ! brilliant appeals ( a ,lacordaire1 :o ?und]$ f ,notre ,dame1 nor ! mod]nism ( a ,lam5nais1 nor ! ef=ts 9 religi\s philosophy made by ,de ,mai/re1 71 h[ev]1 suffici5t to meet ! ne$s ( ! "t4 ,! old traditions & ! old dogmas did n (f] ! salvation !y pr(ess$ to d4 ,consequ5tly v>i\s gr\ps ( ?9k]s work$ out solutions satisfactory to !mselves & :i* !y (f]$ to o!rs4 ,we c di/+ui% cle>ly f\r ma9 curr5ts1 ! me?od ( introspection & inve/igation ( ! inn] life ( ! s\l1 ! adoption ( a spirituali/ philosophy ^u an eclectic basis1 ! se>* = a new society aft] ! mann] ( ! sociali/s &1 la/ly1 a positive philosophy & religion ( humanity4 ,^! f\r curr5ts =m ! hi/orical antec$5ts ( our p]iod & to a brief survey ( !m we n[ turn4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,to f9d ! orig9 ( _m ( ! t5d5cies :i* appe> prom95tly 9 ! ?\ght ( ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 p>ticul>ly ^? display$ by ! new spirituali/ic philosophy 7:i* m>k$ ! la/ ?irty ye>s ( ! c5tury71 we mu/ g back to ! p]iod ( ! ,revolution1 to ,ma9e de ,biran 7#agff-ahbd7--;a unique & orig9al ?9k] :o laid ! f\ndations ( mod]n ,fr5* psy*ology & :o 01 we may note 9 pass+1 a contempor>y ( ,*ateaubri&4 ,a c]ta9 tone ( romanticism m>ks ! "w ( bo? ! lit]>y man & ! philosoph]4 ,ma9e de ,biran 0 n a ?9k] :o reflect$ ^u 8 own exp]i5ces 9 retreat f ! _w4 ,born a ,c\nt1 a ,lifegu>dsman to ,l\is ,,xvi4 at ! ,revolution1 & fai?ful to ! old ari/ocracy1 he 0 appo9t$1 at ! ,re/oration1 to an important adm9i/rative position1 & lat] became a deputy & a memb] ( ! ,/ate ,c\ncil4 ,8 writ+s 7 mu* great] 9 ext5t ?an is g5]ally ?\ght1 b only "o important "w appe>$ 9 publication dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,?is 0 8 treatise1 or mmoire1 entitl$ ,habitude1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahjc4 ,?is "w well illu/rates ,ma9e de ,biran's hi/orical position 9 ! developm5t ( ,fr5* philosophy4 ,x came at a tome :5 att5tion & int]e/1 s f> z philosophical problems 7 conc]n$1 c5tr$ r\nd two 8foci40 ,^! respective c5tres are indicat$ by ,de/utt de ,tracy1#b ! disciple ( ,condillac on ! "o h&1 & by ,cabanis#c on ! o!r4 ,bo? 7 8ideologues0 & 7 ridicul$ by ,napoleon :o endeav\r$ to lay mu* blame ^u ! philosoph]s4 ,we mu/ notice1 h[ev]1 ?is diff]5ce4 ,:ile ! s*ool ( ,condillac1#d influ5c$ by ,locke1 endeav\r$ to "w out a psy*ology 9 t]ms ( ab/ractions1 ,cabanis1 anxi\s to be m concrete1 attempt$ to int]pret ! life ( ! m9d by ref]5ce to physical & physiological ph5om5a4 #b ,de/utt de ,tracy1 #aged-ahcf4 ,8 ,elem5ts ( ,ideology appe>$ 9 #ahja4 ,he succe$$ ,cabanis 9 ! ,acadmie 9 #ahjh1 & 9 a complim5t>y ,disc\rs pron\nc$ ^u 8 pr$ecessor claim$ t ,cabanis _h introduc$ m$ic9e into philosophy & philosophy into m$ic9e4 ,?is rem>k might well h be5 appli$ lat] to ,claude ,b]n>d4 #c ,cabanis1 #ageg-ahjh1 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,morale de l',homme1 #ahjb4 ,he 0 a fri5d ( ,de ,biran1 z also 0 ,ampre1 ! celebrat$ physici/ & a man ( consid]able philosophical p[]4 ,a gr\p us$ to meet *ez ,cabanis at ,auteuil1 compris+ ,de ,biran1 ,cabanis1 ,ampre1 ,roy>d-,coll>d1 ,guizot1 & ,c\s94 #d ,condillac belongs to ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,he di$ 9 #aghj4 ,8 ,trait des ,s5sations is dat$ #aged4 ,x is ! special m]it ( ,de ,biran t he endeav\r$1 & t successfully1 to e/abli% bo? ! concret5ess & ! ess5tial spirituality ( ! inn] life4 ,! attitude & me?od :i* he adopt$ became a =ce 9 free+ psy*ology1 & inde$ philosophy 9 g5]al1 f m]e play ) ab/ractions4 ,8 doctr9es prov$ valuable1 too1 9 e/abli%+ ! reality & irr$ucibility ( ! m5tal or spiritual nature ( man4 ,ma9e de ,biran took z 8 />t+-po9t a psy*ological fact1 ! reality ( consci\s ef=t4 ,! self is active r ?an speculative2 ! self is action or ef=t--t is to say1 ! self is1 fundam5tally & prim>ily1 w4 ,= ! ,c>tesian =mula ,cogito1 ergo sum1 ,de ,biran propos$ to sub/itute t ( ,volo1 ergo sum4 ,he w5t on to ma9ta9 t we h an int]nal & imm$iate p]ception ( ?is ef=t ( w ?r\gh :i* we realise1 at "o & ! same "t1 our self 9 its fulle/ activity & ! resi/ance to its op]ations4 ,9 su* ef=t we realise ourselves z free causes &1 9 spite ( ! doctr9e ( physical det]m9ism1 we realise 9 ourselves ! self z a cause ( its own volitions4 ,! great] ! resi/ance or ! great] ! ef=t1 ! m d we realise ourselves z be+ free & n ! absolute victims ( habit4 ,( ?is fre$om we h an imm$iate consci\sness1 x is une donne immdiate de la consci5ce4 ,?is fre$om is n always realis$1 = ov] aga9/ ! t5d5cy to action we mu/ set ! c\nt]-t5d5cy to passivity4 ,betwe5 ^! two exi/s1 9 v>y+ degrees ( approa* to ! two extremes1 habitude4 ,our inn] life is se5 by ! psy*ologi/ z a field ( conflict betwe5 ! s5sitive & ! reflective side ( our nature4 ,x is ?is :i* gives to ! life ( ?is homo duplex all ! elem5ts ( /ruggle & trag$y4 ,9 ! desires & ! passions1 says ,ma9e de ,biran1 ! true self is n se54 ,! true self appe>s 9 memory1 reason+ &1 above all1 9 w4 ,su*1 9 brief1 is ! outl9e ( ,de ,biran's psy*ology4 ,to 8 two /ages1 vie s5sitive & vie active 7ou rflexive71 he add$ a ?ird1 la vie div9e4 ,9 8 religi\s psy*ology he upheld ! great ,*ri/ian doctr9es ( div9e love & grace z aga9/ ! less human attitude ( ! ,/oics4 ,he /ill insi/s ^u ! p[] ( w & action & is an enemy ( ! religi\s vice ( quietism4 ,9 8 clos+ ye>s ,de ,biran p5n$ 8 ideas ^u our realisation ( ! div9e love by intuition4 ,8 int5se int]e/ 9 ! inn] life ( ! _s gives ,de ,biran's ,j\rnal ,intime a rank among ! illum9at+ writ+s ^u religi\s psy*ology4 ,ma9e de ,biran 0 no?+ if n a psy*ologi/4 ,! mo/ absurd /atem5t ev] made ab\t him 0 t he 0 8! ,fr5* ,kant40 ,?is is v mislead+1 = ,de ,biran's g5ius %[$ itself 9 8 psy*ological p[] & n 9 critical metaphysics4 ,! importance ( 8 "w & 8 trem5d\s influ5ce ^u our p]iod1 especially ^u ! new spiritualism1 w be app>5t4 ,inde$ he himself =esaw ! great possibilities :i* lay op5 to philosophy along ! l9es he laid d[n4 8,qui sait10 he rem>k$1#e 8t\t ce que peut la rflection conc5tre et s'il n'y a pas un n\veau monde intrieur qui p\rra tre dc\v]t un j\r p> quelque #8,colomb mtaphysici54'0 ,) ,ma9e de ,biran began ! movem5t 9 ,fr5* philosophy :i* work$ ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,guyau1 ,b\tr\x & p>ticul>ly ,b]gson4 ,a c>eful exam9ation ( ! philosophy ( ?is la/ ?9k] %[s h[ great is 8 debt to ,ma9e de ,biran1 ^: inspiration he w>mly ackn[l$ges4 #e ,p5ses1 p4 #bac4 ,b x is only comp>atively rec5tly t ,ma9e de ,biran has come to 8 own & t 8 real p[] & influ5ce h be5 recognis$4 ,!re are two reasons = ?is1 fir/ly ! lack ( publication ( 8 writ+s1 & secondly 8 be+ kn[n = long only ?r\gh ! "w ( ,c\s9 & ! ,eclectics1 :o 7 imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) 8 "w4 ,^u ?is s*ool ( ?\ght he _h "s little influ5ce :i* 0 imm$iate & p]sonal1 b ,c\s91 al?\gh he edit$ "s ( 8 unpubli%$ "w1 fail$ to appreciate its orig9ality & value4 ,s = a "t ,de ,biran's influ5ce wan$ :5 t ( ,c\s9 himself fad$4 ,ma9e de ,biran /&s q 9 a diff]5t category f ! ,eclectics1 z a unique figure at a transition p]iod1 ! h]ald ( ! be/ t 0 to be 9 ! ?\ght ( ! c5tury4 ,c\s9 & ! ,eclectic s*ool1 h[ev]1 ga9$ ! (ficial fav\r1 & eclecticism 0 = _m ye>s ! 8(ficial philosophy40 ,,ii ,?is ,eclectic ,s*ool 0 due to ! "w ( v>i\s ?9k]s1 ( :om we may cite ,l>omiguire 7#agef-ahcg71 :o m>ks ! transition f ,condillac1 ,roy]-,coll>d 7#agfc-ahde71 :o1 ab&on+ ,condillac1 turn$ = inspiration to ! ,scotti% ,s*ool 7p>ticul>ly to ,reid71 ,victor ,c\s9 7#agib-ahfg71 ,j\ffroy 7#agif-ahdb7 & ,paul ,janet 7#ahbc-ahii71 ! la/ ( ! notable eclectics4 ,( ^! 8! *ief0 0 ,c\s94 ,8 p]sonality dom9at$ ?is :ole s*ool ( ?\ght1 8 ipse dixit 0 ! crit]ion ( or?odoxy1 an or?odoxy :i* we mu/ note 0 support$ by ! p[]s ( (ficialdom4 ,he rose f ! ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure to a pr(essor%ip at ! ,sorbonne1 :i* he held f ! ,re/oration 7#ahae to #ahcj71 ) a break ( a few ye>s dur+ :i* 8 c\rse 0 susp5d$4 ,^! ye>s he sp5t 9 ,g]many1 to :i* c\ntry att5tion _h be5 attract$ by ! "w ( ,madame de ,/al1 ,de l',allemagne 7#ahac74 ,f #ahcj to ! beg9n+ ( our p]iod 7#ahea7 ,c\s91 z director ( ! ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure1 z a pair de ,france & a m9i/] ( /ate1 organis$ & controll$ ! education ( 8 c\ntry4 ,he ?us ex]cis$ a v great influ5ce ov] an entire g5]ation ( ,fr5*m51 to :om he prop\nd$ ! doctr9es ( 8 spiritualism4 ,8 tea*+ 0 m>k$ by a /rong reaction aga9/ ! doctr9es ( ! previ\s c5tury1 :i* _h giv5 su* value to ! data ( s5se4 ,c\s9 abhorr$ ! mat]ialism involv$ 9 ^! doctr9es1 :i* he /yl$ une doctr9e dsolante1 & he endeav\r$ to raise ! dignity & conception ( man z a spiritual be+4 ,9 ! ,preface to 8 ,lectures ( #ahah1 ,du ,vrai1 du ,beau et du ,bi5 7,edition ( #ahec71 publi%$ fir/ 9 #ahdf1 he lays /ress ^u ! elem5ts ( 8 philosophy1 :i* he pres5ts z a true spiritualism1 = x subord9ates ! s5sory & s5sual to ! spiritual4 ,he upholds ! ess5tially spiritual nature ( man1 8 lib]ty1 moral responsibility & obligation1 ! dignity ( human virtue1 dis9t]e/$ness1 *>ity1 ju/ice & beauty4 ,^! fruits ( ! _s reveal1 ,c\s9 claim$1 a ,god :o is bo? ! au?or & ! ideal type ( humanity1 a ,be+ :o is n indiff]5t to ! welf>e & happ9ess ( 8 creatures4 ,!re is a ve9 ( romanticism ab\t ,c\s91 & 9 him may be se5 ! same _s :i*1 on ! lit]>y side1 0 at "w 9 ,hugo1 ,lam>t9e & ,de ,vigny4 ,c\s9's philosophy atta*$ itself r to ! ,scotti% s*ool ( 8common s5se0 ?an to ! analytic type ( doctr9e :i* _h prevail$ 9 8 own c\ntry 9 ! previ\s c5tury4 ,to ?is he add$ mu* f v>i\s s\rces1 su* z ,s*ell+ & ,hegel among ! mod]ns1 ,plato & ! ,alex&rians among ! anci5ts4 ,9 view+ ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ,c\s9 advocat$ a division ( sy/ems into f\r classes--s5sualism1 idealism1 scepticism & my/icism4 ,ow+ to ! insuffici5cy ( 8 vrits de s5s commun he 0 prone to confuse ! hi/ory ( philosophy ) philosophy itself4 ,!re is p]haps no bran* ( sci5ce or art s intimately b\nd up ) its own hi/ory z is philosophy1 b we mu/ bew>e ( sub/itut+ an hi/orical survey ( problems = an actual h&l+ ( ^? problems !mselves4 ,c\s91 h[ev]1 did mu* to e/abli% 9 8 native l& ! tea*+ ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,8 own aim 0 to f\nd a metaphysic spiritual 9 "*1 bas$ ^u psy*ology4 ,:ile he did n agree ) ! sy/em ( ,kant1 he reject$ ! doctr9es ( ! empirici/s & set 8 influ5ce aga9/ ! mat]iali/ic & sceptical t5d5cies ( 8 "t4 ,yet he _c be excus$ f 8opportunism0 n only 9 politics b 9 ?\ght4 ,9 ord] to reta9 8 p]sonal influ5ce he endeav\r$ to pres5t 8 philosophy z a sum ( doctr9es p]fectly consi/5t ) ! ,ca?olic fai?4 ,?is 0 p>tly1 no d\bt1 to c\nt]act ! "w & influ5ce ( t gr\p ( ?9k]s already ref]r$ to z ,traditionali/s1 ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,mai/re & ,lam5nais4 ,c\s9's ef=ts 9 ?is direction1 h[ev]1 dissatisfi$ bo? *ur*m5 & philosoph]s & gave rise to ! rem>k t 8 tea*+ 0 b une philosophie de conv5ance4 ,we mu/ add too t ! vagu5ess ( 8 spiritual tea*+ 0 l>gely responsible = ! welcome accord$ by _m m9ds to ! positivi/ tea*+ ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,:ile ,ma9e de ,biran _h a real influ5ce ^u ! ?\ght ( our p]iod #ahea-aiba1 ,c\s9 /&s 9 a diff]5t relation to subsequ5t ?\ght1 = t ?\ght is l>gely *>act]is$ by its be+ a reaction aga9/ eclecticism4 ,positivism rose z a direct revolt aga9/ x1 ! neo-critical philosophy dealt bl[s at bo?1 :ile ,ravaisson1 ! initiator ( ! neo-spiritualism1 ^u :om ,c\s9 did n look v fav\rably1 endeav\r$ to reorganise ^u a diff]5t foot+1 & on s\nd] pr9ciples1 free f ! defici5cies :i* mu/ always accompany eclectic ?\ght1 ^? ideas & ideals to :i* ,c\s9 9 8 spiritualism _h vaguely indicat$ 8 loyalty4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,c\s9's dea? co9cides 9 date ) ! f\ndation ( ! neo-spiritual philosophy by ,ravaisson's celebrat$ manife/o to ideali/s1 = su*1 z we %all see1 0 8 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie au ,dix-neuvime ,sicle 7#ahfg74 ,c\s9's spiritualism _h a notable influ5ce ^u sev]al important m5--e4g41 ,mi*elet & 8 fri5d ,edg> ,qu9et1 & m indirectly ^u ,r5an4 ,! latt] spoke ( him 9 w>m t]ms z un excitateur de ma p5se4#f #f ,x is wor? not+ t two ( ! big curr5ts ( opposition1 ^? ( ,comte & ,r5\vi]1 arose outside ! pr(essional & (ficial tea*+1 free f ! ,univ]sity :i* 0 entirely dom9at$ by ,c\s94 ,?is expla9s mu* ( ! sl[ness ) :i* ,comte & ,r5\vi] 7 appreciat$4 ,among ,c\s9's disciples "o ( ! mo/ prom95t 0 ,j\ffroy ( ! ,collge de ,france4 ,! psy*ological int]e/ 0 ke5 9 8 "w1 b 8 ,mlanges philosophiques 7#ahhc7 %[$ him to be occupi$ ) ! problem ( human de/9y4 ,paul ,janet 0 a noble uphold] ( ! eclectic doctr9e or old] spiritualism1 :ile among associates & t>dy foll[]s mu/ be m5tion$ ,gami]1 ,damiron1 ,franke1 ,c>o & ,jules ,simon4 ,,iii ,we h se5 h[1 z a consequ5ce ( ! ,revolution & ( ! cold1 de/ructive1 criticism ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 !re 0 a dem& = con/ructive ?\ght4 ,?is 0 a desire common n only to ! ,traditionali/s b to ,de ,biran & ,c\s94 ,!y aim$ at intellectual recon/ruction4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 !re 7 "s :o combat$ ! pr9ciples ( ! ,revolution1 z did ! ,traditionali/s1 :ile "s tri$ to correct & to /eady ^? pr9ciples 7z ,de ,biran & ,c\s971 !re 7 o!rs :o endeav\r$ to complete !m & to c>ry out a m rigor\s application ( ! ,revolution>y wat*words1 ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit4 ,! ,sociali/s 7& lat] ,comte7 aim$ at n m]ely intellectual1 b social recon/ruction4 ,! ,revolution & ! ,w> _h %[n m5 t _m *anges c\ld be produc$ 9 society 9 a comp>atively %ort "t4 ,?is enc\rag$ bold & imag9ative spirits4 ,endeav\rs aft] bett] ?+s1 aft] new sy/ems & a new ord] ( society1 %[$ !mselves4 ,! "w ( political philosoph]s attempt$ to give expression to ! sociali/ idea ( society4 ,= long !re _h be5 ma9ta9$ ! ecclesia/ical conception ( a p]fect social ord] 9 ano!r _w4 ,x 0 n[ ?\ght t humanity w\ld be bett] employ$1 n 9 imag9+ ! glories ( a 8h]eaft]10 b 9 8till+ its g>d510 9 /riv+ to realise "h on e>? some?+ ( t bless$ fell[%ip & happy social ord] treasur$ up 9 heav54 ,?is is ! dom9ant note ( socialism1 :i* is closely b\nd up at its orig91 n only ) political ?\ght1 b ) humanit>ianism & a feel+ ess5tially religi\s4 ,its progress is a feature ( ! :ole c5tury4 ,! mo/ notable expression ( ! new sociali/ic idea 0 t ( ,c\nt ,h5ri de ,sa9t-,simon 7#agfj-ahbe71 a relative ( ! celebrat$ ,duke4 ,he _h great confid5ce 9 ! p[] ( sci5ce z an in/rum5t = social recon/ruction1 & he took ov] f a m$ical man1 ,dr4 ,burd91 ! notions :i*1 lat] on1 ,augu/e ,comte 0 to =mulate into ! doctr9es ( ,positivism4 ,sa9t-,simon's influ5ce %[$ itself :ile ! c5tury 0 "y1 8 fir/ "w ,lettres d'un ,habitant de ,g5ve appe>+ 9 #ahjc4 ,9 ?is he outl9$ a s*eme = plac+ ! au?oritative p[] ( ! community1 n 9 ! h&s ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 b 9 a freely elect$ body ( ?9k]s & arti/es4 ,he !n endeav\r$ to urge ! importance ( ord] 9 society1 z a c\nt]p>t to ! ord] erect$ by sci5ce 9 ! _w ( k4 ,to ?is end 0 direct$ 8 ,introduction aux ,travaux sci5tifiques du ,dix-neuvime ,sicle 7#ahjg-h74 ,he also indicat$ ! importance = social welf>e ( ab&on+ ! preoccupation ) an imag9>y heav51 & po9t$ out t ! m social & political !ory c\ld be emancipat$ f ! influ5ce ( !ological dogmas ! bett]4 ,at ! same "t he q recognis$ ! importance ( religi\s beliefs to a community1 & 8 sociological view ( religion =e%ad[$ ,guyau's /udy1 an important "w :i* w claim our att5tion 9 due c\rse4 ,9 #ahac1 ,sa9t-,simon publi%$ 8 ,mmoire sur la ,sci5ce de l',homme1 9 :i* he laid d[n notions :i* 7 ! g]m ( ,augu/e ,comte's ,law ( ! ,?ree ,/ages4 ,) ! peace :i* foll[$ ! ,battle ( ,wat]loo1 a trem5d\s /imulus 0 giv5 9 ,france to indu/rial activity1 & ,sa9t-,simon =mulat$ 8 motto 8,all by indu/ry & all = indu/ry40 ,real p[]1 he %[$1 lay n 9 ! h&s ( gov]nm5ts or gov]nm5t ag5ts1 b ) ! indu/rial class4 ,society !re=e %\ld be organis$ 9 ! mann] mo/ fav\rable to ! work+ class4 ,ultimate economic & political p[] re/s ) !m4 ,^! ideas he set =? 9 ,l',indu/rie1 #ahag-ah1 ,la ,politique1 #ahai1 ,l',organisateur1 #ahai-cj1 ,le ,sy/me indu/riel1 #ahba-bb1 ,le ,cat*isme des ,indu/riels1 #ahbb-bd4 ,s9ce #ahag among 8 fell[- work]s 7 n[ ,augu/9 ,?i]ry & "y ,augu/e ,comte1 8 secret>y1 ! mo/ important figure 9 ! hi/ory ( ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury4 ,f9d+ t exposition & reason$ demon/ration ( 8 ideas 7 n suffici5t1 ,sa9t-,simon made appeal to s5tim5t by 8 ,appel aux ,philan?ropes1 a treatise on human bro!rhood & solid>ity4 ,?is he foll[$ up 9 #ahbe by 8 la/ book1 publi%$ ! ye> ( 8 dea?1 ,le ,n\veau ,*ri/ianisme4 ,?is book endeav\r$ to outl9e a religion :i* %\ld prove itself capable ( reorganis+ society by inculcat+ ! bro!rhood ( man 9 a m effective mann] ?an t ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,frat]nit 0 ! wat*word he /ress$1 & he plac$ wom5 on an equal political & social foot+ ) m54 ,he set =? ! grave defici5cies ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9es z proclaim$ by ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant alike4 ,bo? are curs$ by ! s9 ( individualism1 ! virtue ( sav+ "o's own s\l1 :ile no attempt at social salvation is made4 ,bo? ,ca?olics & ,prote/ants he labell$ vile h]etics1 inasmu* z !y h turn$ aside f ! social tea*+ ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,if we are to love our neighb\r z ourselves we mu/ z a :ole community "w = ! bett]m5t ( our fell[s socially1 by erect+ a =m ( society m 9 accord ) ,*ri/ian pr9ciples4 ,we mu/ /rive to d x "h & n[1 & n sit pi\sly gett+ ready = ! next _w4 ,we mu/ n ?9k x religi\s to despise ! body or mat]ial welf>e4 ,god manife/s ,himself z matt] & _s1 s ,religion mu/ n despise economics b r unite indu/ry & sci5ce z ,love unites _s & matt]4 ,et]nal ,life1 ( :i* ,*ri/ianity makes s mu*1 is n to be s\ght1 argu$ ,sa9t-,simon1 9 ano!r _w1 b "h & n[ 9 ! love & s]vice ( our bro!rs1 9 ! uplift ( humanity z a :ole4 ,sa9t-,simon believ$ 9 a fat$ progress & an inevitable bett]m5t ( ! condition ( ! work+ classes4 ,! influ5ce ( ,hegel's view ( hi/ory & ,condorcet's social !ories is app>5t 9 "s ( 8 writ+s4 ,8 insi/5ce ^u organisation1 social au?ority & ! depreciative view ( lib]ty :i* he held %[ well h[ he 0 ! real fa!r ( _m lat] doctr9es & ( applications ( ^! doctr9es1 z = example by ,l59 9 ! ,soviet sy/em ( ,bol%evik ,russia4 ,sa9t-,simon =e%ad[$ ! dictator%ip ( ! prolet>iat1 al?\gh 8 s*eme ( social organisation involv$ a triple division ( humanity into intellectuals1 arti/s & indu/rials4 ,_m ( 8 doctr9es _h a def9ite communi/ic t5d5cy4 ,among !m we f9d indicat$ ! abolition ( all h]$it>y rights ( inh]itance & ! di/ribution ( prop]ty is plac$1 z 9 ! communi/ programme1 9 ! h&s ( ! organis+ au?ority4 ,sa9t-,simon _h a ke5 insight into mod]n social conditions & problems4 ,he /ress$ ! economic int]-relation%ips & insi/$ t ! _w mu/ be reg>d$ z 8"o work%op40 ,a /atem5t ( ! pr9ciples ( ! ,sa9t- ,simoni/ ,s*ool1 among :om 0 ! curi\s "* ,enfant91 0 pres5t$ to ! ,*ambre des ,dputs 9 ! critical ye> #ahcj4 ,! disciples seem to h %[n a m def9ite communism ?an _! ma/]4 ,! influ5ce ( ,sa9t-,simon1 precursor ( bo? socialism & positivism1 _h consid]able influ5ce ^u ! social philosophy ( ! :ole c5tury4 ,x only dim9i%$ :5 ! new] type ( sociali/ doctr9e appe>$1 ! s-call$ 8sci5tific0 socialism ( ,m>x & ,engels4 ,sa9t-,simon's impulse1 h[ev]1 act$ p[]fully ^u ! m9ds ( mo/ ( ! ?9k]s ( ! c5tury1 especially 9 _! y\?4 ,r5\vi] & ,r5an 7 fir$ ) "s ( 8 ideas4 ,! _s ( ,sa9t-,simon express$ itself 9 our p]iod by promot+ an int5se int]e/ 9 philosophy z appli$ to social problems4 ,sa9t-,simon 0 n1 h[ev]1 ! only ?9k] at ?is "t ) a social programme to (f]4 ,9 contra/ to 8 s*eme we h t ( ,f\ri] 7#aggb-ahcg7 :o endeav\r$ to avoid ! suppression ( lib]ty involv$ 9 ! organisation propos$ by ,sa9t-,simon4 ,! psy*ology ( ,f\ri] 0 peculi> & x col\r$ 8 e?ical & social doctr9e4 ,he believ$ t ! evils ( ! _w 7 due to ! repression ( human passions4 ,^! 9 !mselves1 if giv5 lib]ty ( expression1 w\ld prove h>moni\s4 ,z ,newton _h prop\nd$ ! law ( ! univ]sal attraction ( matt]1 ,f\ri] endeav\r$ to prop\nd ! law ( attraction betwe5 human be+s4 ,passion & desire lead to mutual attraction2 ! basis ( society is free association4 ,f\ri]'s ,trait de l',association dome/ique et agricole 7#ahbb71 :i* foll[$ 8 ,?orie des ,quatre ,m\vem5ts 7#ahjh71 propos$ ! =mation ( associations or gr\ps1 phalanges1 9 :i* work]s unite ) capital = ! self-gov]nm5t ( indu/ry4 ,he1 l ,sa9t- ,simon1 attacks idl]s1 b ! two ?9k]s look ^u ! capitali/ manag] z a work]4 ,! int5se class- antagonism ( capitali/ & lab\r] _h n yet =mulat$ itself & 0 n felt /rongly until voic$ on behalf ( ! prolet>iat by ,pr\dhon & ,m>x4 ,f\ri]'s proposals 7 ^? ( a b\rgeois bus9ess man :o knew ! comm]cial _w intimately1 :o criticis$ x & condemn$ ! exi/+ sy/em ( civilisation4 ,v>i\s exp]im5ts 7 made to organise communities bas$ ^u 8 phalanges4 ,cabet1 ! au?or ( ,ic>ia 7#ahdj7 & ,le n\veau ,*ri/ianisme1 0 a fur!r p[] 9 ! promotion ( socialism & ow$ n a little ( 8 inspiration to ,rob]t ,ow54 ,! mo/ int]e/+ & p[]ful ( ! e>ly sociali/ philosoph]s is und\bt$ly ,pr\dhon 7#ahji- #ahfe71 a /rik+ p]sonality1 mu* misund]/ood4 ,:ile ,sa9t-,simon1 a c\nt1 came f ! ari/ocracy1 ,f\ri] f ! b\rgeoisie1 ,pr\dhon 0 a real son ( ! p1 a m\?piece ( ! prolet>iat4 ,he 0 a man ( admirable m5tal en]gy & le>n+1 :i* he _h obta9$ solely by 8 own ef=ts & by a /ruggle ) pov]ty & mis]y4 ,e>ne/ & passionate by nature1 he yet =mulat$ 8 doctr9es ) m sanity & mod]ation ?an is usually suppos$4 ,labels ( 8a!i/0 & 8an>*i/0 h s]v$ well to misrepres5t him4 ,c]ta9ly two ( 8 wat*words 7 likely en\gh to raise ho/ility 9 _m qu>t]s4 8,god10 he said1 8is evil10 8,prop]ty is !ft40 ,?is la/ maxim 0 ! subject ( 8 book1 publi%$ 9 #ahdj1 ,qu'e/-ce que la proprit8 7ou1 ,re*]*es sur le pr9cipe du droit et du g\v]nem5t7 to :i* 8 answ] 0 8,c'e/ le vol60 ,pr\dhon took up ! great wat*word ( ,egalit1 & _h a passion = social ju/ice :i* he bas$ on 8! "r to ! :ole product ( lab\r40 ,?is c\ld only come by mutual ex*ange1 fairly & freely4 ,he di/+ui%$ betwe5 private 8prop]ty0 & individual 8possession40 ,! latt] is an admitt$ fact & is n to be aboli%$2 :at he is anxi\s to ov]?r[ is private 8prop]ty10 :i* is a toll ^u ! lab\r ( o!rs & is !re=e ultimately & morally !ft4 ,he hat$ ! ,/ate = its support ( ! 8?ieves10 & 8 doctr9es are a philosophy ( an>*y4 ,he fur!r enunciat$ !m 9 ,sy/me des ,contradictions conomiques 7#ahdf7 & ,de la ,ju/ice 7#aheh74 ,9 #ahdh he 0 elect$ a dput &1 toge!r ) ,l\is ,blanc & ,pi]re ,l]\x1 figur$ 9 ! ,revolution ( #ahdh4 ,blanc 0 a man ( action1 :o _h a concrete s*eme = transition f ! capitali/ rgime to ! sociali/ /ate4 ,he believ$ 9 ! organisation ( lab\r1 univ]sal suffrage & a new di/ribution ( weal?1 b he disapprov$ /rongly ( ! dictator%ip ( ! prolet>iat & ( viol5t revolution4 ,pr\dhon express$ 8 great admiration = ,blanc4 ,! "w ( bo? ( ^! m5 is a contradiction to ! ass]tion put =w>d by ! ,m>xian s*ool t sociali/ doctr9e 0 m]ely s5tim5tal1 utopian & 8unsci5tific0 prior to ,m>x4 ,_m ( ! views ( ,pr\dhon & ,blanc 7 f> m 8sci5tific0 ?an ^? ( ,m>x1 because !y 7 clos] to facts4 ,pr\dhon diff]$ pr(\ndly f ,m>x 9 8 view ( hi/ory 9 :i* he saw ! influ5ce ( ideas & ideals1 z well z ! op]ation ( purely economic factors4 ,to ! doctr9e ( a mat]iali/ic det]m9ation ( hi/ory ,pr\dhon rightly opposes t ( a spiritual det]m9ation1 by ! ?\ghts & ideals ( m54#g ,! true revolution ,pr\dhon & ,blanc ma9ta9$ c come only ?r\gh ! p[] ( ideas4 #g ,inde$1 x is highly probable t ) ! gr[+ dissatisfaction ) ,m>xian !ories ! "w ( ,pr\dhon w come into great] prom95ce1 replac+ l>gely t ( ,m>x4 ,on ! p]sonal relations ( ,pr\dhon ) ,m>x 7#ahah-ahhc71 :o 0 n9e ye>s y\ng] ?an ! ,fr5*man1 see ! int]e/+ volume by ,m>x's desc5dant1 ,m4 ,jean ,longuet 7,dput de la ,se9e71 ,la ,politique int]nationale du ,m>xisme 7,k>l ,m>x et la ,france7 7,alcan74 ,on ! debt ( ,m>x to ! ,fr5* social ?9k]s see ! acc\nt giv5 by ,pr(essor ,*>les ,&l] 9 8 special edition ( ! ,communi/ ,manife/o1 ,le ,manife/e ,communi/e 7avec introduction hi/orique et comm5taire71 7,ri$]71 also ! la/ section ( ,r5\vi]'s ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire1 vol4 iv4 ,all ^! e>ly sociali/ ?9k]s _h ?is 9 common3 !y agre$ t purely economic solutions w\ld n soo! ! ills ( society1 b t moral1 religi\s & philosophic tea*+ mu/ accompany1 or r prec$e1 all ef=ts t[>ds social re=m4 ,! e>lie/ ( !m1 ,sa9t-,simon1 _h ass]t$ t no society1 no sy/em ( civilisation1 c endure if its spiritual pr9ciples & its economic organisation are 9 direct contradiction4 ,:5 bro!rly love on ! "o h& & m]ciless competition on ! o!r are equally extoll$1 !n hypocrisy1 unre/ & conflict are inevitable4 ,,iv ,! rise ( positivism ranks ) ! rise ( socialism z a movem5t ( prim>y importance4 ,bo? 7 9 orig9 ne>] to "o ano!r ?an !y n[ appe> to be4 ,we h se5 h[ ,sa9t-,simon 0 imbu$ ) a _s ( social re=m1 a desire to reorganise human society4 ,?is desire ,augu/e ,comte 7#agih-aheg7 %>$2 he felt himself call$ to x z a sacr$ "w1 & he extoll$ 8 8incomp>able mission40 ,he lam5t$ ! an>*ical /ate ( ! _w & contra/$ x ) ! _w ( ! anci5ts & t ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! h>mony & /ability ( m$iaeval society 7 due1 ,comte urg$1 to ! spiritual p[] & unity ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur* & fai?4 ,! lib]ty ( ! ,re=mation (f]s no real basis = society1 x is ! _s ( criticism & ( revolution4 ,! mod]n _w ne$s a new spiritual p[]4 ,su* 0 ,comte's judgm5t ^u ! _w ( 8 "t4 ,:]e 9 ! mod]n _w c\ld su* a new organis+ p[] be f\nd8 ,to ?is "q ,comte gave an answ] simil> to t ( ,sa9t-,simon3 he turn$ to sci5ce4 ,! influ5ce ( ,sa9t-,simon is "h app>5t1 & we mu/ note ! p]sonal relations betwe5 ! two m54 ,9 #ahag ,comte became secret>y to ,sa9t-,simon1 & became intimately associat$ ) 8 ideas & 8 "w4 ,comte recognis$1 ) 8 ma/]1 ! supreme importance ( e/abli%+1 at ! outset1 ! relations actually obta9+ & ! relations possible betwe5 sci5ce & political organisation4 ,?is l$ to ! publication1 9 #ahbb1 ( a treatise1 ,plan des ,travaux sci5tifiques ncessaires p\r rorganis] la ,socit1 :i* un=tunately l$ to a qu>rel betwe5 ! two fri5ds1 & f9ally1 9 #ahbd1 to a def9ite rupture by :i* ,comte seems to h be5 embitt]$ & made r ho/ile to 8 old ma/] & to h assum$ an ung5]\s attitude4#h ,comte1 h[ev]1 be+ a pr\d & ambiti\s _s1 0 p]haps bett] left alone to hew out 8 own pa?4 ,9 him we h "o ( ! greate/ m9ds ( mod]n ,france1 & 8 doctr9e ( positivism is "o ( ! dom9at+ features ( ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury4 #h ,9 consid]+ ! relations betwe5 ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte we may usefully comp>e ^? betwe5 ,s*ell+ & ,hegel 9 ,g]many4 ,8 break ) ,sa9t-,simon %[$ 8 own res\rces2 he _h und\bt$ly a f9] s5se ( ! difficulties ( 8 re=m+ task ?an _h ,sa9t-,simon2 moreov]1 he possess$ a sci5tific k :i* 8 ma/] lack$4 ,su* equipm5t he ne$$ 9 8 ambiti\s task1 & x is "o ( ! *ief m]its ( ,comte t he attempt$ s l>ge a project z ! ,positive ,philosophy endeav\r$ to be4 ,?is philosophy 0 conta9$ 9 8 ,c\rs de ,philosophie positive 7#ahcj-ahdb71 :i* he reg>d$ z ! !oretic basis ( a re=m+ political philosophy4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ aspects ( ?is "w1 h[ev]1 is its claim to be a positive philosophy4 ,_h n ,comte accept$ ! ,sa9t-,simoni/ doctr9e ( a belief 9 sci5ce z ! great future p[] 9 society8 ,h[ !n comes x t he gives u a 8philosophie positive0 9 ! fir/ place & n1 z we might expect1 a 8sci5ce positive08 ,comte's answ] to ?is is t sci5ce1 no less ?an society itself1 is disord]$ & /&s 9 ne$ ( organisation4 ,! sci5ces h proce$$ to "w 9 a piecemeal fa%ion & are unable to pres5t u ) une vue d'ensemble4 ,x is ! rle ( philosophy to "w ^u ! data pres5t$ by ! v>i\s sci5ces &1 )\t go+ beyond ^! data1 to arrange !m & give u an organic unity ( ?\ght1 a syn!sis1 :i* %all produce ord] 9 ! m9d ( man & subsequ5tly 9 human society4 ,! precise "p to be play$ by philosophy is det]m9$ by ! exi/+ /ate ( sci5tific k 9 ! v>i\s dep>tm5ts & s dep5ds ^u ! g5]al /age ( intellig5ce :i* humanity has rea*$4 ,! intellectual developm5t ( humanity 0 =mulat$ g5]ally by ,comte 9 :at is kn[n z 8,! ,law ( ! ,?ree ,/ages10 probably t "p ( 8 doctr9e :i* is be/ kn[n & :i* is mo/ obvi\s4 8,! ,law ( ! ,?ree ,/ages0 m]ely sets d[n ! fact t 9 ! race & 9 ! individual we f9d ?ree successive /ages1 "u :i* conceptions are =m$ diff]5tly4 ,! fir/ is ! !ological or fictiti\s /age1 9 :i* ! explanation ( ?+s is ref]r$ to ! op]ations ( div9e ag5cy4 ,! second is ! metaphysical or ab/ract /age :51 = div9ities1 ab/ract pr9ciples are sub/itut$4 ,9 ! ?ird1 ! sci5tific or positive /age1 ! human m9d has pass$ beyond a belief 9 div9e ag5cies or metaphysical ab/ractions to a rational /udy ( ! effective laws ( ph5om5a4 ,! human _s "h enc\nt]s ! real1 b x ab/a9s f pret5sions to absolute k2 x does n !orise ab\t ! beg9n+ or ! end ( ! univ]se or1 inde$1 its absolute nature2 x takes only into consid]ation facts )9 human k4 ,comte laid great emphasis ^u ! necessity ( recognis+ ! relativity ( all ?+s4 ,all is relative2 ?is is ! "o absolute pr9ciple4 ,our k1 he insi/$ 7especially 9 8 ,disc\rs sur l',esprit positif1 #ahdd1 :i* =ms a valuable introduction to 8 ?\ght z express$ 9 8 l>g] works71 is entirely relative to our organisation & our situation4 ,relativity1 h[ev]1 does n imply unc]ta9ty4 ,our k is inde$ relative & nev] absolute1 b x gr[s to a great] accord ) reality4 ,x is ?is passion = 8accord ) reality0 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! sci5tific or positivi/ _s4 ,! sci5ces are !mselves relative & mu* att5tion is giv5 by ,comte to ! prop] classification ( ! sci5ces4 ,he det]m9es 8 hi]>*y by arrang+ !m 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y h !mselves complet$ ! ?ree /ages & arriv$ at positivity4 ,ma!matics1 a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry1 biology & sociology are 8 arrangem5t4 ,?is la/ nam$ has n yet arriv$ at ! f9al /age2 x is b a sci5ce 9 ! mak+4 ,comte1 inde$1 himself gives x its "n & f\nds x z ! sci5ce ( society1 sci5ce appli$ to politics1 z 0 fir/ indicat$ 9 8 s*eme ( "w & e>ly ideas ( re=m4 ,comte /rongly insi/s ^u ! social aspect ( all k & all action4 ,he ev5 goes to ! ext5t ( reg>d+ ! individual man z an ab/raction2 = him ! real be+ is ! social be+1 ,humanity4 ,! /udy ( human society has a d\ble aspect1 :i* is also a feature ( ! o!r sci5ces4 ,z 9 biology !re is ! /udy ( anatomy on ! "o h& & ( physiology on ! o!r1 s 9 sociology we mu/ inve/igate bo? ! laws :i* gov]n ! exi/5ce ( a society & ^? :i* control its movem5ts4 ,! di/9ction is1 9 %ort1 t ( ! /atic & ! dynamic1 & x embraces 9 sociological /udy ! important conceptions ( ord] & ( progress4 ,comte v rightly /ress$ ! idea ( progress z *>act]i/ic ( mod]n times1 b he lam5t$ its be+ divorc$ f t ( ord]4 ,he blam$ ! cons]vative view ( ord] z responsible = promot+ among 8progressives0 ! _s ( an>*y & revolution4 ,a positive sociology w\ld1 ,comte ma9ta9$1 reconcile a true ord]1 :i* does n exclude *ange1 ) real progress1 a movem5t :i* is nei!r de/ructive nor caprici\s4 ,comte "h owes a debt 9 "p to ,montesquieu & l>gely to ,condorcet1 ^: ,esquisse d'un ,tableau hi/orique des ,progrs de l',esprit huma9 7#agie7 did mu* to promote s]i\s reflection ^u ! "q ( progress4 ,we h already not$ ,comte's int5se valuation ( ,humanity z a :ole z a ,supreme ,be+4 ,9 8 lat] ye>s1 notably aft] #ahde1 :5 he met 8 8,beatrice0 9 ! p]son ( ,clotilde de ,vaux1 he gave to 8 doctr9es a s5tim5tal expression ( :i* ! ,religion ( ,humanity ) its ritualism 0 ! outcome4 ,?is positivi/ religion endeav\r$ to sub/itute = ! traditional ,god ! ,supreme ,be+ ( ,humanity--a ,be+ capable1 accord+ to ,comte1 ( su/a9+ our c\rage1 becom+ ! end ( our actions & ! object ( our love4 ,to ?is he atta*$ a morality calculat$ to combat ! egoism :i* t5ds to dom9ate & to de/roy mank9d & int5d$ to /r5g!n ! altrui/ic motives 9 man & to raise !m to ! s]vice ( ,humanity4 ,we f9d ,comte1 at ! op5+ ( our p]iod1 re/at+ 8 doctr9es 9 8 ,sy/me de ,politique positive 7#ahea-ed71 to :i* 8 fir/ "w 0 meant to s]ve z an ,introduction4 ,9 #ahef he began 8 ,syn?se subjective1 b he di$ 9 #aheg4 ,comte is a s+ul>ly desolate figure2 ! p[]s ( (ficialdom 7 aga9/ him1 & he exi/$ ma9ly by :at he c\ld ga9 f tea*+ ma!matics & by a p5sion rais$ by 8 admir]s 9 ,engl& & 8 own l&4 ,! influ5ce ( 8 philosophy has be5 great & f>- rea*+1 b x is ! _s ( positivism :i* has surviv$1 n its cont5t4 ,subsequ5t developm5ts 9 sci5ce h r5d]$ mu* ( 8 "w obsolete1 :ile 8 ,religion has nev] made a great appeal4 ,comte's mo/ not$ disciple1 ,littr 7#ahja-ahha71 reg>d$ ?is latt] z a retrograde /ep & conf9$ himself to ! e>ly "p ( 8 ma/]'s "w4 ,mo/ important = u 9 ! pres5t "w is ,comte's influ5ce ^u subsequ5t ?9k]s 9 ,france1 notably ,ta9e1 & we may add1 ,r5an1 ,c\rnot1 & ev5 ,r5\vi]1 al?\gh ^! la/ two promot$ a vigor\s reaction aga9/ 8 philosophy 9 g5]al4 ,he influ5c$ 8 adv]s>ies1 a notable te/imony4 ,actually1 h[ev]1 ! positivi/ philosophy f\nd a great] welcome on ! ,engli% side ( ! ,*annel f ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ,sp5c] & ,lewes4 ,! empiricism ( ! ,engli% s*ool prov$ a m fruitful soil = positivism ?an ! vague spiritualism ( ,c\s9 to :i* x (f]$ /rong opposition4 ,positivism1 or r ! positivi/ /&po9t 9 philosophy1 turn$ at a lat] date to reseek its fa!rl& & aft] a soj\rn 9 ,engl& reappe>s z an influ5ce 9 ! "w ( ,fr5* ?9k]s ne> ! end ( ! c5tury--e4g41 ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson express elem5ts ( positivism4 ,we h n[ pass$ 9 review ! f\r ma9 curr5ts ( ! fir/ half ( ! c5tury1 9 a mann] int5d$ to ori5t ! approa* to our p]iod1 #ahea-aiba4 ,)\t su* an ori5tation mu* ( ! subsequ5t ?\ght w\ld lose its correct col\r+ & p]spective4 ,!re is a cont9uity1 ev5 if x be p>tly a cont9uity m>k$ by reactions1 & ?is w be se5 :5 we n[ exam9e ! ?ree g5]al curr5ts into :i* ! ?\ght ( ! subsequ5t p]iod is divid$4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,ma9 ,,curr5ts ,,s9ce #ahea ,introductory3 ,influ5ce ( ev5ts ( #ahdh-ahea--,reaction>y "* ( ,second ,empire--,disgu/ ( _m ?9k]s 7e4g41 ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e1 ,r5an1 ,r5\vi]1 ,hugo1 ,qu9et7--,effects ( #ahgj1 ! ,w>1 ! ,commune1 & ! ,?ird ,republic4 ,g5]al "* ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,p]iod--,reaction aga9/ bo? ,eclecticism & ,positivism4 ,,! ,,?ree ,,ma9 ,,curr5ts4 ,i4 ,positivi/ & naturali/ curr5t turn+ ^u itself1 se5 9 ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e1 & ,r5an4 ,,ii4 ,c\rnot1 ,r5\vi]1 & ! neo-critical philosophy4 ,,iii4 ,! ,new ,spiritual ,philosophy1 to :i* ! ma9 contributors 7 ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x1 ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,b]gson1 ,blondel1 & ,web]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,ma9 ,,curr5ts ,! ye> #ahea 0 "o ( rem>kable importance = ,france2 a crisis !n occurr$ 9 its political & intellectual life4 ,! hopes & aspirations to :i* ! ,revolution ( #ahdh _h giv5 rise 7 %att]$ by ! c\p d'tat ( ,l\is ,napoleon 9 ! mon? ( ,decemb]4 ,! proclamation ( ! ,second ,empire h]ald$ ! revival ( an era ( imp]ialism & reaction 9 politics1 accompani$ by a decl9e 9 lib]ty & a dim9ution ( idealism 9 ! _w ( ?\ght4 ,a c5sor%ip ( books 0 e/abli%$1 ! press 0 depriv$ ( its lib]ty1 & ! tea*+ ( philosophy =bidd5 9 lyces4#a #a ,! revival ( philosophy 9 ! lyces began :5 ,victor ,drury re9troduc$ ! /udy ( ,logic4 ,v>i\s ard5t & ?\ghtful spirits1 ^: m9ds & he>ts _h be5 uplift$ by ! ev5ts ( #ahdh1 hop+ to see ! dawn ( an era express+ 9 action ! ideals ( ! fir/ ,revolution1 ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit1 7 bitt]ly disappo9t$4 ,social ideals su* z _h be5 creat$ by ,sa9t-,simon & 8 s*ool receiv$ a rude rebuff f =ce1 milit>ism & imp]ialism4 ,s great 0 ! m+l$ disappo9tm5t & disgu/ ( _m t !y left = ev] ! realm ( practical politics to apply !mselves to ! arts1 lett]s or sci5ces4 ,int]e/+ examples ( ?is /ate ( m9d are to be f\nd 9 ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e1 ,r5an & ,r5\vi]1 &1 we may add1 9 ,mi*elet1 ,victor ,hugo & ,edg> ,qu9et4 ,! fir/ ( ^!1 ,va*]ot1 :o _h succe$$ ,c\s9 z ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy at ! ,sorbonne1 lo/ 8 *air1 z did ,qu9et & also ,mi*elet1 :o 0 fur!r depriv$ ( 8 position z ,ar*ivi/4 ,hugo & ,qu9et1 hav+ tak5 active political "p 9 ! ev5ts ( #ahdh1 7 driv5 into exile4 ,disgu/1 disappo9tm5t1 disillusionm5t & pessimism *>act]ise ! attitude ( all ?is gr\p ( ?9k]s to political ev5ts1 & ?is react$ n only ^u _! c>e]s b ^u _! entire philosophy4 8,) reg>d to ! ,second ,empire10 we f9d ,r5an say+1#b 8if ! la/ t5 ye>s ( its duration 9 "s measure repair$ ! mis*ief done 9 ! fir/ eight1 x mu/ nev] be =gott5 h[ /rong ?is ,gov]nm5t 0 :5 x 0 a "q ( cru%+ ! intellig5ce1 & h[ feeble :5 x came to rais+ x up40 #b ,9 8 ,preface to ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,! di%e>t5+ end ( ! ,empire 9 moral deg5]acy & milit>y defeat only add$ to ! gloom9ess1 aga9/ :i* ! ,r$ ,flag & ! r$ fires ( ! ,commune ca/ a lurid & pa!tic gl[1 ^u :i* ! ,prussians c\ld look d[n ) a grim smile f ! heights ( ,p>is4 ,only ) ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,?ird ,republic 9 #ahga1 & its ratification a few ye>s lat]1 does a feel+ ( *e]fulness make itself felt 9 ! ?\ght ( ! "t4 ,! ye>s f #ahhj onw>ds h be5 rem>kable = _! fruitfulness 9 ! philosophic field--to su* an ext5t d political & social ev5ts react ^u ! mo/ philosophical m9ds4 ,?is is a heal?y sign2 x %[s t ^? m9ds h n deta*$ !mselves f contact ) ! _w1 t ! _s ( philosophy is a liv+ _s & n m]ely an academic or pr(essional product divorc$ f ! fi]ce realities ( hi/ory4 ,we h already indicat$1 9 ! treatm5t ( ! 8,antec$5ts0 ( our p]iod1 ! dom9ance ( ,eclecticism1 support$ by ! p[]s ( (ficialdom1 & h rem>k$ h[ ,positivism arose z a reaction aga9/ ,c\s9's vague spiritualism4 ,9 approa*+ ! second half ( ! c5tury we may 9 g5]al *>act]ise its ?\ght z a reaction aga9/ bo? eclecticism & positivism4 ,a transitional curr5t c be di/+ui%$ :]e positivism turns1 z x 71 aga9/ itself 9 ! "w ( ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e & ,r5an4 ,! works ( ,c\rnot & ! indefatigable ,r5\vi] ) 8 neo-criticism m>k ano!r ma9 curr5t4 ,ultimately !re came to triumph t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury a new spiritualism1 ow+ mu* inspiration to ,de ,biran1 b :i*1 unlike ,c\s9's doctr9es1 _h suff]$ ! discipl9e ( ! positivi/ _s4 ,! ma9 contributors to ?is curr5t are ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,f\ille & ,guyau1 ,b\tr\x1 ,b]gson1 ,blondel & ,web]4 ,our /udy deals ) ! significance ( ^! ?ree curr5ts1 & hav+ made ?is cle> we %all !n discuss ! developm5t ( ?\ght 9 connection ) ! v>i\s problems & ideas 9 :i* ! philosophy ( ! p]iod f\nd its expression4 ,9 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason ,kant endeav\r$1 at a "t :5 speculation ( a dogmatic & uncritical k9d 0 curr5t1 to call att5tion to ! necessity = exam9+ ! in/rum5t ( k itself1 & !reby discov]+ its fitness or inadequacy1 z ! case might be1 = deal+ ) ! problems :i* philosophy proposes to inve/igate4 ,?is 0 a ^w spok5 9 due season &1 h[ev] mu* subsequ5t philosophy has deviat$ f ! conclusions ( ,kant1 x has at lea/ rememb]$ ! significance ( 8 advice4 ,! result has be5 t ! attitude adopt$ by philosoph]s to ! problems be=e !m has be5 det]m9$ l>gely by ! k9d ( answ] :i* !y (f] to ! problems ( k itself4 ,obvi\sly a m9d :i* ass]ts t we c nev] be sure ( kn[+ any?+ 7or z 9 "s cases1 t ?is ass]tion is itself unc]ta97 w see all que/ions ?r\gh ! gre5-glasses ( scepticism4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ?9k] :o believes t we d h k ( c]ta9 ?+s & c be c]ta9 ( ?iss1 :e!r by objective pro( or a subjective intuition1 is sure to h1 n only a diff]5t conclusion ab\t problems1 b1 :at is probably m important = ! philosophic _s1 a diff]5t means ( approa*+ !m4 ,writ+ 9 #ahfj on ! g5]al /ate ( philosophy1 ,r5an po9t$ out1 9 8 ,essay ,la ,mtaphysique el son ,av5ir#c t metaphysical speculation1 /rictly s-call$1 _h be5 9 abeyance = ?irty ye>s1 & did n seem incl9$ to cont9ue ! traditions ( ,kant1 ,hegel1 ,hamilton & ,c\s94 ,! reasons :i* he gave = ?is depression ( ! philosophical m>ket 71 fir/ly1 ! feel+ ( ! impossibility ( ultimate k1 a scepticism ( ! in/rum5t1 s f> z ! human m9d 0 conc]n$1 & secondly1 ! r disda9ful attitude adopt$ by _m m9ds t[>ds philosophy ow+ to ! gr[+ importance ( sci5ce--9 %ort1 ! "q1 8,is !re any place left = philosophy2 has x any raison d'tre80 #c ,essay publi%$ lat] 7#ahgf7 9 8 ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques4 ,cf4 especially pp4 #bfe-bff4 ,! progress ( ! positive sci5ces1 & ! ass]tions ( _m t philosophy 0 futile & trea*]\s1 l$ philosophy to give an acc\nt ( itself by a k9d ( apologia pro vita sua4 ,9 ! face ( rem>ks ak9 to t ( ,newton's 8,physics bew>e ( metaphysics10 ! latt] _h to be/ir itself or pass out ( exi/5ce4 ,x 01 inde$1 ?is ext9ction :i* ! m ard5t & devot$ sci5tific spirits h]ald$1 re-it]at+ ! w>-cry ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,x 0 a crisis1 9 fact1 = philosophy4 ,0 x to become m]ely a univ]sal sci5ce8 ,0 x to ab&on ! task ( solv+ ! problems ( ! univ]se by rapid intuitions & a priori con/ructions & und]take ! con/ruction ( a sci5ce ( ! :ole1 built up f ! data & results ( ! sci5ce ( ! p>ts--i4e41 ! sep>ate sci5ces ( nature8 ,0 !re1 !n1 to be no place = metaphysics 9 ?is classification ( ! sci5ces to :i* ! curr5t ( ?\ght 0 t5d+ ) increas+ impetuosity8 ,0 a sci5ce ( prim>y or ultimate tru?s a useless *im]a1 to be reject$ entirely by ! human m9d 9 fav\r ( an all-suffic+ belief 9 positive sci5ce8 ,^! 7 ! que/ions :i* p]plex$ ! ?\ghtful m9ds ( t "t4 ,we %all d well1 !re=e1 9 our survey ( ! half c5tury be=e u1 to inve/igate ! two problems :i* 7 /ress$ by ,r5an 9 ! essay we h quot$1 = 8 acute m9d possess$ a unique p[] ( s5s+ ! feel+ & ?\ght ( 8 "t4 ,our prelim9>y task w be ! exam9ation ( ! g5]al attitude to k adopt$ by ! v>i\s ?9k]s & s*ools ( ?\ght1 foll[+ ?is by an inquiry into ! attitude adopt$ to sci5ce itself & its relation to philosophy4 ,i ,) ^! consid]ations 9 m9d1 let u exam9e ! ?ree curr5ts ( ?\ght 9 our p]iod beg9n+ ) t :i* is at once a prolongation ( positivism & a trans=mation ( x1 a curr5t express$ 9 ! "w ( ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e & ,r5an4 ,eti5ne ,va*]ot 7#ahji-ahig7 0 p>tially a disciple ( ,victor ,c\s9 & a repres5tative also ( ! positivi/ attitude to k4 ,8 "w1 h[ev]1 pass$ beyond ! b\nds indicat$ by ^! names4 ,he rema9$ a conv9c$ naturali/ & believ] 9 positive sci5ce1 b1 unlike ,comte1 he did n despise metaphysical inquiry1 & he s\ght to f9d a place = x 9 ?\ght4 ,va*]ot1 :o _h won a reputation = himself by an hi/orical "w on ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool1 became tne director ( ! ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure1 an important position 9 ! intellectual _w4 ,he "h advocat$ ! doctr9es by :i* he s\ght to give a to metaphysics4 ,8 mo/ important book1 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,sci5ce1 9 ?ree volumes1 appe>$ 9 #aheh4 ,he suff]$ imprisonm5t ! foll[+ ye> = ,8 lib]al pr9ciples "u ! ,empire :i* _h already depriv$ him ( 8 position at ! ,sorbonne4 ,! g5]al attitude to k adopt$ by ,va*]ot recalls 9 "s respects ! metaphysical doctr9es ( ,sp9oza1 & he endeav\rs to comb9e ! purely naturali/ic view ( ! _w ) a metaphysical conception4 ,! result is a pr(\nd &1 = ,va*]ot1 irreconcilable dualism1 9 :i* ! real & ! ideal are set aga9/ "o ano!r 9 rigor\s contra/1 & ! gap betwe5 !m is n bridg$ or ev5 attempt$ to be fill$ up1 z1 at a lat] date1 0 ! task assum$ by ,f\illee 9 8 philosophy ( ides-=ces4 ,= ,va*]ot ! _w is a unity1 et]nal & inf9ite1 b lack+ p]fection4 ,p]fection1 ! ideal1 is incompatible ) reality4 ,! real is n at all ideal1 & ! ideal has no reality4#d ,9 ?is unsatisfactory dualism ,va*]ot leaves u4 ,8 doctr9e1 al?\gh mak+ a sup]ficial appeal by its seem+ positivism on ! "o h&1 & its ma9t5ance ( ! notion ( ! ideal or p]fection on ! o!r1 is actually f> m p>adoxical ?an t :i* ass]ts t ultimately x is ! ideal only :i* is real4 ,:ile ,/4 ,anselm _h endeav\r$ to e/abli% by 8 pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god ! reality ( p]fection1 ,va*]ot1 by a rev]sal ( ?is pro(1 arrives at ! opposite conclusion1 & at a po9t :]e x seems t x w\ld be = ! ideal an imp]fection to exi/4 ,! absolute exi/5ce ( all ?+s is ?us sep>at$ f ! ideal1 & no attempt is made to relate ! two1 z ,sp9oza _h s rigor\sly done1 by ma9ta9+ t reality is p]fection4#e #d ,x is int]e/+ to contra/ ?is ) ! attitude ( ! new spirituali/s1 especially ,f\ille's conception ( idees-=ces1 ( ideas & ideals realis+ !mselves4 ,see also ,guyau's attitude4 8,l'idal n'e/-il pas1 sur la t]re o n\s sommes ,plus fcond et plus beau que la ralit80 --,illusion fconde4 #e ,va*]ot contribut$ fur!r to ! ?\ght ( 8 "t1 notably by a book on religion1 #ahfi1 & lat] 9 life seems to h become sympa!tic to ! ,new ,spiritualism1 on :i* he also wrote a book 9 #ahhd4 ,! influ5ce ( ,va*]ot 0 9 "s measure cont9u$ 9 t ( 8 pupil1 ,hippolyte ,ta9e 7#ahbh-ahic71 a ?9k] :o _h consid]able influ5ce ^u ! developm5t ( ?\ght 9 our p]iod4 ,8 ability z a critic ( art & lit]ature 0 p]haps m m>k$ ?an 8 purely philosophical influ5ce1 b ?is is1 nev]!less1 important1 & _c be ov]look$4 ,ta9e 0 a /ud5t ( ! ,ecole ,normale1 & 9 #ahea 0 appo9t$ to tea* philosophy at ,nev]s4 ,! c\p d'tat1 h[ev]1 *ang$ 8 c>e]1 & he turn$ to lit]ature z 8 ma9 field1 writ+ a "w on ,la ,fonta9e = 8 doctorate 9 #ahec4 ,9 ! ye> ( ,comte's dea? 7#aheg7 ,ta9e publi%$ 8 book1 ,les ,philosophes franais du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 9 :i* he turn$ 8 p[]ful batt]ies ( criticism ^u ! vague spiritualism pr(ess$ by ,c\s9 & (ficially fav\r$ 9 ,france at t "t4#f ,by 8 adv]se criticism ( ,c\s9 & ! ,eclectic ,s*ool1 ,ta9e plac$ 8 influ5ce ^u ! side ( ! positivi/ foll[]s ( ,comte4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be errone\s to reg>d him z a m]e disciple ( ,comte1 z ,ta9e's positivism 0 9 its g5]al =m a wid] doctr9e1 yet m rigor\sly sci5tific 9 "s respects ?an t ( ,comte4 ,!re 0 also an important diff]5ce 9 _! attitude to metaphysics4 ,ta9e upheld /rongly ! value1 &1 inde$1 ! necessity1 ( a metaphysical doctr9e4 ,he nev] made mu* ( any debt or allegiance to ,comte4 #f ,see 8 *apt] xii4 on 8,! ,success ( ,eclecticism10 pp4 #bhc-cjg4 ,c\s91 he criticises at l5g?2 ,de ,biran1 ,roy]-,coll>d & ,j\ffroy are includ$ 9 8 c5sures4 ,we might m5tion t ?is book 0 fir/ issu$ 9 ! =m ( articles 9 ! ,revue de l',in/ruction publique dur+ ! ye>s #ahee1 #ahef4 ,9 #ahfj a volume deal+ ) ! ,philosophy ( ,art appe>$ f 8 p51 9 :i* he n only endeav\r$ to relate ! art ( a p]iod to ! g5]al environm5t 9 :i* x arose1 b1 9 addition1 he dealt ) c]ta9 psy*ological aspects ( ! problem4 ,l>gely z a result ( ! tal5t display$ 9 ?is "w1 he 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahfd to tne *air ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,art & /hetics 9 ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts4 ,ta9e's int]e/ 9 philosophy1 & especially 9 psy*ological problems1 0 m prom95tly demon /rat$ 9 8 book ,de l',intellig5ce1 ! two volumes ( :i* appe>$ 9 #ahgj4 ,9 ?is "w he takes a /rict view ( ! human intellig5ce z a me*anism1 ! work+s ( :i* he sets =? 9 a precise & cold mann]4 ,8 treatm5t ( k is ak91 9 "s respects1 to ! doctr9es ( ! ,engli% ,utilit>ian & ,evolution>y ,s*ool z repres5t$ by ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ,ba9 & ,sp5c]4 ,! ma9 feature ( ! ,d>w9ian doctr9e is set by ,ta9e 9 ! =egr\nd ( epi/emology4 ,!re is1 accord+ to him1 8a /ruggle = exi/5ce0 9 ! realm ( ! individual consci\sness no less ?an 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,?is inn] conflict is betwe5 psy*ical elem5ts :i*1 :5 victori\s1 result 9 s5se-p]ception4 ,?is aw>5ess1 or halluc9ation vraie1 is n k ( a purely speculative "*2 x is 7z1 at a lat] date1 ,b]gson 0 to ma9ta9 9 8 doctr9e ( p]ception7 ess5tially b\nd up ) action1 ) ! in/9ct & me*anism ( movem5t4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable features ( ,ta9e's "w is 8 attitude to psy*ology4 ,he rejects absolutely ! r scornful attitude adopt$ ) reg>d to ?is sci5ce by ,comte2 at ! same "t he %att]s ! flimsy edifice ( ! eclectics 9 ord] to lay ! f\ndation ( a sci5tific psy*ology4 8,! true & indep5d5t psy*ology is10 he rem>ks1 8a magnific5t sci5ce :i* lays ! f\ndation ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 :i* gives life to physiology & op5s up ! pa?way to metaphysics40#g ,our debt to ,ta9e is imm5se1 = he initiat$ ! great curr5t ( exp]im5tal psy*ology = :i* 8 c\ntry has s9ce become fam\s4 ,x is n our int5tion 9 ?is pres5t "w to foll[ out 9 any detail ! purely psy*ological "w ( ! p]iod4 ,psy*ology has m & m become diff]5tiat$ f1 & to a l>ge degree1 indep5d5t (1 philosophy 9 a /rictly metaphysical mean+ ( t ^w4 ,yet we %all d well 9 pass+ to note t ?r\gh ,ta9e's "w ! sci5tific attitude to psy*ologv & its _m problems 0 tak5 up & develop$ by ,ribot1 ^: /udy ( ,engli% ,psy*ology appe>$ 9 ! same ye> z ,ta9e's ,intellig5ce4 ,p>ticul>ly by 8 frequ5t illu/rations drawn f abnormal psy*ology1 ,ta9e 8set ! tone0 = contempor>y & lat] /udy ( m5tal activity ( ?is type4 ,ribot's lat] books h be5 ma9ly devot$ to ! /udy ( 8! abnormal10& 8 ef=ts are *>act]i/ic ( ! lab\rs ( ! ,p>is ,s*ool1 compris+ ,*>cot1 ,paulhan1 ,b9et & ,janet4#h ,fr5* psy*ology has 9 consequ5ce become a cle>ly def9$ 8s*ool10 ) *>act]i/ics peculi> to itself :i* di/+ui% x at once f ! psy*ophysical rese>* ( ,g]man work]s & f ! analytic lab\rs ( ,engli% psy*ologi/s4 ,its debt to ,ta9e at ! outset mu/ n be =gott54 #g ,de l',intellig5ce1 ,conclusion4 #h ,by ,*>cot 7#ahbe-ahic71 ,leons sur les ,maladies du ,sy/me n]veux faites la ,salptrire & ,localisation dans les ,maladies du ,c]veau et de la ,moelle p9ire1 #ahhj4 ,by ,ribot 7#ahci-aiaf71 ,hrdit1 ,etude psy*ologique1 #ahgc1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahge2 ,les ,maladies de la ,mmoire1 ,essai dans la ,psy*ologie positive1 #ahha1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahhb2 ,maladies de la ,volont1 #ahhc1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahhd2 ,maladies de la ,p]sonnalit1 #ahhe1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahie4 ,ribot express$ regret at ! way 9 :i* abnormal psy*ology has be5 neglect$ 9 ,engl&4 ,see 8 critique ( ,ba9 9 8 ,psy*ologie anglaise contempora9e4 ,9 #ahgj ,ribot decl>$ ! indep5d5ce ( psy*ology z a /udy1 sep>ate f philosophy4 ,ribot _h v wide int]e/s beyond pure psy*ology1 a fact :i* is /ress$ by 8 comm5c+ 9 #ahgf ! p]iodical ,la ,revue philosophique de la ,france et de l',etrang]4 ,by ,b9et 7#aheg-aia671 ,magntisme animal1 #ahhf2 ,les ,altrations de la p]sonnalit1 #ahib2 ,l',introduction la ,psy*ologie exprim5tale1 #ahid4 ,he f\nd$ ! review ,l',anne psy*ologique 9 #ahie4 ,by ,janet 7,pi]re71 born #ahei n[ ,pr(esseur at ! ,collge de ,france1 ,l',automatisme psy*ologique1 #ahhi2 ,etat m5tal des ,hy/riques1 #ahid2 & ,neuroses et ,ides-fixes1 #ahih4 ,he f\nd$ ! ,j\rnal de ,psy*ologie4 ,by ,paulhan1 ,phnom5es affectifs & ,l',activit m5tale4 ,to ! fame ( ! ,p>is ,s*ool ( ,psy*ology mu/ n[ be add$ t ( ! ,nancy ,s*ool embrac+ ! "w ( ,c\4 ,! ,w> & ! subsequ5t c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ,france seem$ to deep5 ! sadness & pessimism ( ,ta9e's "*4 ,he describ$ himself z naturellem5t tri/e1 & f9ally 8 sev]e positivism develop$ into a rigor\s /oicism ak9 to t ( ,m>cus ,aurelius & ,sp9oza4 ,?is attitude ( m9d col\r$ 8 unf9i%$ hi/orical "w1 ,les ,orig9es de la ,france contempora9e1 ^u :i* he 0 engag$ = ! la/ ye>s ( 8 life 7#ahgf-ahid74 ,x may be notic$ = its be>+ ^u ! /udy ( sociological problems :i* x indirectly enc\rag$4 ,j z ,ta9e _h reg>d$ a "w ( art z ! product ( social environm5t1 s he looks ^u hi/orical ev5ts4 ,?is hi/ory be>s all ! m>ks ( ,ta9e's rigid1 positive philosophy1 int5sifi$ by 8 lat] /oicism4 ,! ,revolution ( #aghi is treat$ 9 a cold & /]n mann] devoid ( en?usiasm ( any sort4 ,he c\ld n make hi/orical n>rative live l ,mi*elet1 & f 8 own record ! ,revolution itself is almo/ un9telligible4 ,= ,ta9e1 h[ev]1 we mu/ rememb]1 human nature is absolutely ! product ( race1 environm5t & hi/ory4#i #i ,mi*elet 7#agih-ahgd71 m5tion$ "h z an hi/orian ( a type entirely diff]5t f ,ta9e1 influ5c$ philosophic ?\ght by 8 volumes ,le ,peuple1 #ahdf2 ,l',am\r1 #aheh2 ,le ,prtre1 ,la ,femme et la ,famille1 #ahei2 & ,la ,bible de l',humanit1 #ahfd4 ,he & 8 fri5d ,qu9et 7#ahjc-ahge71 :o 0 also a ,pr(essor at ! ,college de ,france1 & 0 ! au?or ( ,gnie des ,religions1 #ahdb1 _h consid]able influ5ce prior to #ahdh ( a political & religi\s "*4 ,!y 7 9 /rong opposition to ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* & _h ke5 controv]sies ) ! ,jesuits & ,ultramontani/s4 ,9 ! philosophy ( ,ta9e v>i\s influ5ces are se5 at "w int]act+4 ,! _s ( ! ,fr5* ?9k]s ( ! previ\s c5tury--s5suali/s & ideologi/s--reappe>s 9 him4 ,:ile 9 a measure he fluctuates betwe5 naturalism & idealism1 ! pr$om9at+ tone ( 8 "w is cle>ly positivi/4 ,he 0 a great /ud5t ( ,sp9oza & ( ,hegel1 & ! influ5ce ( bo? ^! ?9k]s appe>s 9 8 "w4 ,l ,sp9oza1 he believes 9 a univ]sal det]m9ation2 l ,hegel1 he ass]ts ! real & ! rational to be id5tical4 ,9 8 g5]al attitude to ! problems ( k ,ta9e criticises & passes beyond ! /&po9ts ( bo? ,hume & ,kant4 ,he opposes ! purely empirici/ s*ools ( bo? ,france & ,engl&4 ,! purely empirical attitude :i* looks ^u ! _w z fragm5t>y & ph5om5al is defici5t1 accord+ to ,ta9e1 & is1 moreov]1 incompatible ) ! notion ( necessity4 ,?is notion ( necessity is *>act]i/ic ( ,ta9e's :ole "w1 & 8 /rict adh]5ce to x 0 ma9ly due to 8 absolute belief 9 sci5ce & its me?ods1 :i* is a m>k ( all ! positivi/ type ( ?\ght4 ,:ile he reject$ ,hume's empiricism he also oppos$ ! doctr9es ( ,kant & ! neo-critical s*ool :i* f\nd its inspiration 9 ,kant & ,hume4 ,ta9e ass]t$ t x is possible to h a k ( ?+s 9 _! objective reality1 & he appe>s to h bas$ 8 epi/emology ^u ! doctr9e ( analysis propos$ by ,condillac4 ,ta9e disagre$ ) ! !ory ( ! relativity ( human k & ) ! ph5om5al basis ( ! neo-critical tea*+1 its rejection ( 8! ?+ 9 itself40 ,he believ$ we _h k n m]ely relative b absolute1 & he claim$ t we c pass f ph5om5a & _! laws to compreh5d ! ess5ce ( ?+s 9 !mselves4 ,he endeav\rs to avoid ! difficulties ( ,hume by dogmatism4 ,:ile cl++ to a semi-,hegelian view ( rationality he avoids ,kant's critical attitude to reason itself4 ,we h 9 ,ta9e n a critical rationali/ b a dogmatic rationali/4 ,:ile ! rational aspect ( 8 ?\ght comm&s a c]ta9 respect & has _h 9 _m directions a v :olesome influ5ce1 notably1 z we h rem>k$1 ^u psy*ology1 yet x proves itself 9 ! la/ analysis self-contradictory1 = a true rationalism is critical 9 "* r ?an dogmatic4 ,9 ,ta9e'a great contempor>y1 ,erne/ ,r5an 7#ahbc-ahib71 a v diff]5t temp] is se54 ,! two ?9k]s bo? possess$ popul>ity z m5 ( lett]s1 & resembl$ "o ano!r 9 be+ devot$ to lit]>y & hi/orical pursuits r ?an to philosophy itself4 ,r5an 0 tra9$ = ! prie/hood ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,he has left u a record ( 8 e>ly life 9 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,we !re h an autobiography ( a s9c]e & s5sitive s\l1 enc\rag$ 9 8 prie/ly c>e] by 8 family & 8 tea*]s to su* a degree t he _h conceiv$ ( no o!r c>e] = himself1 until at ! age ( tw5ty1 "u ! influ5ce ( mod]n sci5tific doctr9es & ! criticism ( ! ,biblical records1 he f\nd himself an unbeliev]1 c]ta9ly n a ,roman ,ca?olic1 & n1 9 ! ord9>y int]pretation ( t r vague t]m1 a ,*ri/ian4 ,! h>%1 unrel5t+ dogmatism ( ! ,roman ,*ur* drove ,r5an f ,*ri/ianity4 ,we f9d him rem>k+ t _h he liv$ 9 a ,prote/ant4 c\ntry he might n h be5 fac$ ) ! dilemma4#aj ,a via m$ia might h pres5t$ itself 9 "o ( ! v num]\s =ms into :i* ,prote/ant ,*ri/ianity1 is divid$4 ,he might h ex]cis$ 9 su* a sph]e1 8 prie/ly functions z did ,s*lei]ma*]4 ,r5an's break ) ,rome emphasises ! cle>-cut division :i* exi/s 9 ,france betwe5 ! ,*ri/ian fai? 7repres5t$1 almo/ entirely by ! ,roman ,*ur*7 & libre-p5se1 a po9t :i* w claim our att5tion lat]1 :5 we come to treat ( ! ,philosophy ( ,religion4 #aj ,cf4 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse1 p4 #bib4 ,hav+ ab&on$ ! sem9>y & ! ,*ur*1 ,r5an work$ = 8 univ]sity degrees4 ,! ev5ts ( #ahdh-di inspir$ 8 "y he>t ) great en?usiasm1 "u ! influ5ce ( :i* he wrote 8 ,av5ir de la ,sci5ce4 ,?is book 0 n publi%$1 h[ev]1 until #ahij1 :5 he _h lo/ 8 e>ly hopes & illusions4 ,9 #ahdi he w5t away ^u a mission to ,italy4 8,! reaction ( #ahej-ea & ! c\p d'tat in/ill$ into me a pessimism ( :i* ,i am n yet cur$10 s he wrote 9 ! preface to 8 ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques4#aa ,"s ye>s aft] ! c\p d'tat he publi%$ a volume ( essays 7,essais de ,morale et de ,critique71 & he %[$ 8 acqua9tance ) ,arabic philosophy by an excell5t treatise on ,av]roes et l',av]roisme 7#ahei74 ,! foll[+ ye> he visit$ ,syria &1 9 #ahfa1 0 appo9t$ ,pr(essor ( ,hebrew at ! ,collge de ,france4 ,he !n began 8 monum5tal "w on ,les ,orig9es du ,*ri/ianisme1 ( :i* ! fir/ volume1 ,la ,vie de ,jsus1 appe>$ 9 #ahfc4 ,its importance = religi\s ?\ght we %all consid] 9 our la/ *apt]2 "h x mu/ suffice to obs]ve its imm$iate consequ5ces4 ,^! 7 t]rific onslaughts f ! cl]gy ^u its au?or1 :i*1 al?\gh !y br\ght ! att5tion ( 8 c\ntrym5 & ( ! _w ^u ,r5an1 result$ 9 ! ,imp]ial ,gov]nm5t susp5d+ 8 t5ure ( ! *air4 ,aft] ! fall ( ! ,empire1 h[ev]1 he return$ to x1 & "u ! ,?ird ,republic became ,director ( ! ,collge de ,france4 #aa ,publi%$ only 9 #ahie4 ,! preface ref]r$ to is dat$ #ahga4 ,r5an1 al?\gh he broke (f 8 c>e] 9 ! ,*ur* & 8 connection ) organis$ religion1 reta9$1 nev]!less1 mu* ( ! prie/ly "* all 8 life1 & he himself confesses ?is3 8,i h le>n$ sev]al ?+s1 b ,i h *ang$ 9 n[ise z to ! g5]al sy/em ( intellectual & moral life4 ,my habitation has become m spaci\s1 b x /ill /&s on ! same gr\nd4 ,i look ^u my e/rangem5t f or?odoxy z only a *ange ( op9ion conc]n+ an important hi/orical "q1 a *ange :i* does n prev5t me f dwell+ on ! same f\ndations z be=e40 ,he inde$ f\nd x impossible to reconcile ! ,ca?olic fai? ) free & hone/ ?\ght4 ,8 break ) ! ,*ur* made him an enemy ( all sup]/ition1 & 8 writ+s rais$ aga9/ him ! hatr$ ( ! ,ca?olic cl]gy1 :o reg>d$ him z a des]t]4 ,9 ! cu/om>y t]ms ( heat$ !ological debate he 0 /yl$ an a!i/4 ,?is 0 grossly unfair or mean+less4 ,:i* ^w we use "h dep5ds ^u our def9ition ( !ism4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,r5an 0 "o ( ! mo/ deeply religi\s m9ds ( 8 "t4 ,8 e>ly religi\s s5tim5ts rema9$1 9 ess5ce if n 9 =m1 ) him ?r\gh\t 8 life4 ,^! 7 always associat$ ) ! t5d] memories he _h ( 8 "m & belov$ si/] & 8 virtu\s tea*]s1 ! prie/s 9 ! little t[n ( ,brittany1 :5ce he came4 ,mu* ( ! ,breton my/icism clung to 8 s\l1 & mu* ( 8 philosophy is a re/at$1 rationalis$ =m ( 8 e>ly beliefs4 ,z a figure 9 ! intellectual life ( ! "t1 ,r5an is difficult to e/imate4 ,! v subtilty ( 8 intellect betray$ him into an oscillation :i* 0 f> f admirable1 & prev5t$ 8 c\ntrym5 9 8 own day f 8gett+ to grips0 ) 8 ideas4 ,^! 7 kaleidoscopic4 ,r5an seems a type1 reflect+ _m t5d5cies ( ! "t1 useful z an illu/ration to ! hi/orian ( ! ideas ( ! p]iod2 b = philosophy 9 ! special s5se he has none ( ! cle>ly def9$ importance ( m5 l ,r5\vi]1 ,la*eli]1 ,guyau1 ,f\ille1 ,b]gson or ,blondel4 ,8 humanism keeps him free f dogmatism1 b 8 m9d fluctuates s t 8 g5]al attitude to ! ultimate problems is "o ( res]ve1 ( scepticism & ( frequ5t p>adox & contradiction4 ,r5an seems to comb9e ! positivi/ scorn ( metaphysics ) ! ,kantian idealism4 ,at times1 h[ev]1 8 attitude is r ,hegelian1 & he believes 9 univ]sal *ange :i* is an evolv+ ( _s1 ! ideal or ,god1 call x :at we w4 ,we ne$ n be too p>ticul> ab\t names or =ms ( ?\ght1 =1 aft] all1 ev]y?+ 8may be only a dream40 ,t is ,r5an's attitude1 to temp] en?usiasm by irony1 to ass]t a duty ( d\bt1 & (t51 p]haps1 to ga9 a lit]>y brilliance by contradictory /atem5ts4 8,! survey ( human affairs is n complete10 he rem9ds u1 8unless we allot a place = irony beside t ( te>s1 a place = pity beside t ( rage1 & a place = a smile alongside respect40#ab #ab ,preface to 8 ,drames philosophiques1 #ahhh4 ,x 0 ?is v]satility :i* made ,r5an a lov] ( ! philosophic dialogue4 ,?is lit]>y & dramatic =m naturally appeal$ /rongly to a m9d :o 0 s v consci\s ( ! fact t ! tru?s ) :i* philosophy deals _c be directly d5i$ or directly affirm$1 z !y are n subject to demon/ration4 ,all ! high problems ( humanity ,r5an recognis$ z be+ ( ?is k9d1 z involv+ f9ally a rational fai?2 & he claim$ t ! be/ we c d is to pres5t ! problems ( life f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 ,?is is due entirely to ! peculi> "* ( philosophy itself1 & to ! di/9ction1 :i* mu/ nev] be ov]look$1 betwe5 k & belief1 betwe5 c]titude & op9ion4 ,geometry1 = example1 is n a subject = dialogues b = demon/ration1 z x involves k & c]titude4 ,! problems ( philosophy1 on ! contr>y1 involve 8une nuance de foi10 z ,r5an /yles x4 ,!y involve will$ adhesion1 acceptance or *oice2 !y provoke sympa?y or hate1 & call into play human p]sonality ) its v>y+ %ades ( col\r4 ,?is /ate ( nuance ,r5an ass]ts to be ! "o ( ! h\r = philosophy4 ,x is n ! "t1 he ?9ks1 to attempt to /r5g!n by ab/ract reason+ ! 8pro(s0 ( ,god's exi/5ce or ( ! reality ( a future life4 8,m5 see j n[ t !y c nev] "k any?+ ( ! supreme cause ( ! univ]se or ( _! own de/9y4 ,nev]!less !y are anxi\s to li/5 to ^? :o w speak to !m ab\t ei!r40#ac #ac ,f 8 ,preface to ,drames philosophiques4 ,k1 ,r5an ma9ta9$1 lies some:]e betwe5 ! two s*ools into :i* ! majority ( m5 are divid$4 8,:at y are look+ = has long s9ce be5 discov]$ & made cle>10 say ! or?odox4 8,:at y are look+ = is impossible to f9d10 say ! practical positivi/s1 ! political 8raill]s0 & ! a!i/s4 ,x is true t we %all nev] "k ! ultimate secret ( all be+1 b we %all nev] prev5t man f desir+ m & m k or f creat+ = himself work+ hypo!ses or beliefs4 ,yet al?\gh ,r5an admits ?is tru? he nev] approa*es ev5 ! pragmati/ position ( support+ 8creative beliefs40 ,he r urges a c]ta9 passivity t[>ds problems & op9ions4 ,we %\ld1 he argues 9 8 ,exam5 de ,consci5ce philosophique1#ad let !m "w !mselves out 9 u4 ,l a spectator we mu/ let !m modify our 8intellectual ret9a02 we mu/ let reality reflect itself 9 u4 ,by ?is he does n mean to ass]t t ! tru? ab\t t reality is a matt] ( pure indiff]5ce to u-f> f x4 ,precisely because he is s consci\s ( ! importance ( true k1 he is anxi\s t we %\ld approa* ! /udy ( reality )\t previ\s prejudices4 8,we h no "r10 he rem>ks1 8to h a desire :5 reason speaks2 we mu/ li/5 & no?+ m40#ae #ad ,9 8 ,feuilles deta*es1 pp4 #dja-ddc4 #ae ,feuilles dta*es1 p4 #djb4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ,r5an's attitude to ! problems ( k 0 l>gely sceptical4 ,:ile1 z we %all see 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 he extoll$ sci5ce1 8 attitude to belief & to k 0 irritat+ 9 its vagu5ess & *angeabl5ess4 ,he appe>$ to pose too mu* z a dilettante mak+ a %[ ( subtle intellect1 r ?an a s]i\s ?9k] ( ! fir/ rank4 ,8 em95ce & g5ius are unque/ion$1 b he play$ 9 a bewit*+ & frequ5tly bewild]+ mann] ) great & s]i\s problems1 & "o _c help wi%+ t ?is great intellect ( 8--& x 0 unque/ionably great--0 n m /eady & 0 n appli$ by its own] m /eadfa/ly & c\rage\sly to ultimate problems4 ,8 writ+s reflect a bewild]+ v>iety ( contradictory moods1 playful1 sca?+1 s]i\s & mock+4 ,inde$1 he repli$ 9 8 ,feuilles deta*es 7#ahib7 to ! accusations ( ,amiel by insi/+ t irony is ! philosoph]'s la/ ^w4 ,= him z = 8 brilliant fell[-c\ntryman1 ,anatole ,france1 ironical scepticism is ! ultimate product ( 8 reflection ^u life4 ,8 ,exam5 de ,consci5ce philosophique is 8 ,confession ( ,fai?1 writt5 f\r ye>s be=e 8 dea?1 9 :i* he tries to def5d 8 sceptical attitude & to put =w>d scepticism z an apology = 8 own unc]ta9ty & 8 p>adoxical *anges ( view4 ,irony int]m+les ) 8 d\bt "h too4 ,we d n "k1 he says1 ultimate reality2 we d n "k :e!r !re be any purpose or end 9 ! univ]se at all4 ,!re may be1 b on ! o!r h& x may be a f>ce & fiasco4 ,by refus+ to believe 9 any?+1 reject+ bo? alt]natives1 ,r5an argues1 ) a k9d ( m5tal c[>dice1 we avoid ! consequ5ce ( be+ absolutely deceiv$4 ,he recomm5d$ an adoption ( mix$ belief & d\bt1 optimism & irony4 ,?is is a surpris+ attitude 9 a philosoph] & is n *>act]i/ic ( great mod]n ?9k]s1 mo/ ( :om pref] belief 7hypo!tical al?\gh t be7 to non-belief4 ,d\btless ,r5an's e>ly tra9+ _h a psy*ological effect :i* op]at$ p]haps l>gely unconsci\sly ?r\gh\t 8 life1 & 8 lit]>y & l+ui/ic ability seems to h giv5 him a reputation :i* 0 r t ( a man ( lett]s ?an a philosoph]4 ,he _h n ! m5tal /r5g? or frankness to face alt]natives squ>ely & to decide to adopt "o4 ,consequ5tly he m]it$ ! application ( ! old prov]b ab\t be+ betwe5 two /ools4 ,?is application 0 actually made to ,r5an's attitude 9 a critical rem>k by ,r5\vi] 9 8 ,esquisse d'une ,classification des ,doctr9es philosphiques4#af ,r5\vi] _h no difficulty 9 po9t+ out t ! man :o hesitates deprives himself ( t great reality1 ! ex]cise ( 8 own p[] ( free *oice1 9 itself valuable & m ak9 to reality 7:atev] be ! *oice7 ?an a m]e 8sitt+ on ! f5ce10 an attitude :i*1 s f> f assur+ "o ( gett+ ! advantages ( bo? possibilities z ,r5an claims1 may m ju/ly seem to deprive "o ( ! advantages 9 bo? directions4 ,! ne$s ( life dem& t we con/ruct beliefs ( "s sort4 ,we may be wrong & err1 b pure scepticism su* z ,r5an advocat$ is unt5able4 ,life1 if x is to be real & e>ne/1 dem&s ( u t we h fai? 9 "s values1 t we con/ruct "s beliefs1 "s hypo!ses1 by :i* we may "w4 #af ,vol4 ii41 p4 #cie4 ,bo? ,r5an & ,ta9e ex]cis$ a consid]able influ5ce ^u ,fr5* ?\ght4 ,:ile inh]it+ ! positivi/ outlook !y1 to a great degree1 p]haps unconsci\sly1 und]m9$ ! positive position1 bo? by _! int]e/ 9 ! humanities1 9 art1 lett]s & religion & 9 _! metaphysical attitude4 ,ta9e1 beg9n+ ) a rigid naturalism1 came gradually to approa* an ideali/ic /&po9t 9 _m respects1 :ile ,r5an1 beg9n+ ) a dogmatic idealism1 came to acute d\bt1 hypo!ses1 8dreams0 & scepticism4 ,ta9e kept 8 ?\ghts 9 too rigid a m\ld1 solidifi$1 :ile ^? ( ,r5an seem f9ally to h exi/$ only 9 a gase\s /ate1 intangible1 vague & hazy4 ,we h obs]v$ h[ ! positivi/ curr5t f ,comte 0 c>ri$ ov] by ,va*]ot to ,ta9e4 ,9 ,r5an we f9d t curr5t pres5t also1 b x has begun to turn aga9/ itself4 ,:ile we may say t 8 "w reflects 9 a v rem>kable mann] ! _s ( 8 "t1 especially ! positivi/ fai? 9 sci5ce1 yet we are also able to f9d 9 x1 9 spite ( 8 imm5se scepticism1 ! indications ( a spirituali/ or ideali/ movem5t1 grop+ & %ap+ itself z ! c5tury gr[s old]4 ,,ii ,:ile ! positivi/ curr5t ( ?\ght 0 work+ itself out ?r\gh ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e & ,r5an to a position :i* =ms a connect+ l9k betwe5 ,comte & ! new spiritualism 9 :i* ! reaction aga9/ positivism & eclecticism f9ally culm9at$1 ano!r influ5ce 0 mak+ itself felt indep5d5tly 9 ! neo-critical philosophy ( ,r5\vi]4 ,we mu/ "h note ! "w & influ5ce ( ,c\rnot 7#ahja-ahgg71 :i* =m a v def9ite l9k betwe5 ! doctr9es ( ,comte & ^? ( ,r5\vi]4 ,he ow$ mu* to positivism1 & he contribut$ to ! =mation ( neo-criticism by 8 influ5ce ^u ,r5\vi]4 ,c\rnot's ,essai sur le ,fondem5t de nos ,connaissances appe>$ 9 #ahea1 ?ree ye>s be=e ,r5\vi] gave to ! _w ! fir/ volume ( 8 ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 ,9 #ahfa ,c\rnot publi%$ 8 ,trait de l',en*anem5t des ,ides1 :i* 0 foll[$ by 8 ,consid]ations sur le ,m>*e des ,ides 7#ahgb7 & ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalisme 7#ahge74 ,^! volumes =m 8 contribution to philosophical ?\ght1 8 rema9+ works be+ ma9ly conc]n$ ) political economy & ma!matics1 a sci5ce 9 :i* he won di/9ction4 ,l ,comte1 ,c\rnot oppos$ ! spiritualism1 ! eclecticism & ! psy*ology ( ,c\s91 b he 0 possess$ ( a m philosophic m9d ?an ,comte2 he c]ta9ly _h great] philosophical k1 0 bett] equipp$ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy & _h mu* great] respect = metaphysical !ory4 ,he %>$ ) ,comte1 h[ev]1 an int]e/ 9 social problems & biology2 he also adopt$ 8 g5]al attitude to k1 b ! _s ( ,c\rnot's "w is mu* less dogmatic ?an t ( ! great positivi/1 & he made no pret5sions to be a 8pontiff0 su* z ,comte aspir$ to be4 ,inde$ 8 lack ( pret5sions may acc\nt p>tly = ! lack ( att5tion ) :i* 8 "w 7:i* is %rewd1 ?\ghtful & res]v$7 has be5 treat$4 ,he aim$ at indicat+ ! f\ndations ( a s\nd philosophy r ?an at (f]+ a sy/em ( ?\ght to ! public4 ,?is temp] 0 ! product ( 8 sci5tific attitude4 ,x 0 by an exam9ation ( ! sci5ces & p>ticul>ly ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* !y dep5d t he =mulat$ 8 gr\p ( fundam5tal doctr9es4 ,he avoid$ ha/y g5]alisations or a priori con/ructions &1 true to ! sci5tific _s1 bas$ 8 ?\ght ^u ! data af=d$ by exp]i5ce4 ,he agre$ he>tily ) ,comte reg>d+ ! relativity ( our k4 ,an inve/igation ( ?is k %[s x to be bas$ on ?ree pr9ciples--ord]1 *ance1 & probability4 ,we f9d ord] exi/+ 9 ! univ]se & by sci5tific me?ods we try to grasp ?is ord]4 ,?is involves induction1 a me?od :i* _c give u absolute c]ta9ty1 al?\gh x approximates to x4 ,x gives u probability only4 ,!re is !re=e a reality ( *ances1 & cont+5cy or *ance mu/ be admitt$ z a factor 9 evolution & 9 human hi/ory4 ,c\rnot =e%ad[s _m ( ! doctr9es ( ! new spirituali/s z well z ^? ( ! neo-critical s*ool4 ,mu* 9 8 "w h]alds a ,b]gson z well z a ,r5\vi]4 ,?is is noticeable 9 8 attitude to sci5ce & to ! problem ( cont+5cy or fre$om4 ,x is fur!r se5 9 8 doctr9e t ! vivant is incapable ( demon/ration1 9 8 view ( ! s\l or high] in/9ct :i* he di/+ui%$ f ! intellig5ce1 9 ! biological int]e/ display$ 9 8 "w 7due p>tly to ! "w ( ,bi*at#ag71 & 9 8 idea ( a ,travail de ,cration4 ,unlike ,b]gson1 h[ev]1 he admits a teleology1 = he believ$ ?is insep>able f liv+ be+s1 b he reg>ds x z a haz>d\s f9ality1 n rigid or inconsi/5t ) fre$om4 #ag ,bi*at 7#agga-ahjb7 0 a not$ physiologi/ & anatomi/4 ,9 #ahjj appe>$ 8 ,re*]*es physiologiques sur la ,vie et la ,mort1 foll[$ 9 #ahja by ,anatomie gnrale1 applique la ,physiologie et la ,mdec9e4 ,! imm$iate influ5ce ( ,c\rnot 0 felt by only a small circle1 & 8 mo/ notable aff9ity 0 ) ,r5\vi]1 al?\gh ,c\rnot 0 less /rictly an intellectuali/4 ,l ,r5\vi] he look$ ^u philosophy z a 8,critique gnrale40 ,he 0 also conc]n$ ) ! problem ( ! categories & ) ! compatibility ( sci5ce & fre$om1 a problem :i* 0 n[ assum+ a v c5tral position 9 ! ?\ght ( ! p]iod4 ,r5\vi]1 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 philosophy1 0 p>tly influ5c$ by ! "w ( ,c\rnot4 ,9 ?is lone1 /]n1 indefatigable work] we h "o ( ! mo/ p[]ful m9ds ( ! c5tury4 ,*>les ,r5\vi] %>es ) ,augu/e ,comte ! fir/ hon\rs ( ! c5tury 9 ,france s f> z philosophical "w is conc]n$4 ,curi\sly en\gh he came f ,comte's bir?-place1 ,montpelli]4 ,:5 ,r5\vi] 0 born 9 #ahae1 sev5te5 ye>s lat] ?an ,comte1 ! great positivi/ 0 9 8 second ye> ( /udy at ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique 9 ,p>is4 ,to ?is great sci5tific & ma!matical in/itution came ,r5\vi]1 to f9d ,comte z ,rptiteur ( ,high] ,ma!matics4 ,he 0 n only a ke5 /ud5t ( ! ma!matical sci5ces b also an ard5t foll[] ( ,sa9t-,simon1 & al?\gh 9 lat] life he lo/ _m ( ! hopes ( 8 y\? ! ,sa9t-,simon _s rema9$ ) him1 & he reta9$ a ke5 int]e/ 9 social e?ics & p>ticul>ly 9 ! ideas ( ,f\ri]1 ,pr\dhon & ,blanc4 ,at ! ,ecole he met z fell[-pupils ,jules ,lequi] & ,felix ,ravaisson4 ,in/ead ( ent]+ ! civil s]vice ,r5\vi] !n appli$ himself to philosophy & political sci5ce1 influ5c$ und\bt$ly by ,comte's "w4 ,! ye> #ahdh1 :i* saw ! second attempt to e/abli% a republic1 gave ,r5\vi]1 n[ a zeal\s republican1 an opportunity1 & he issu$ 8 ,manuel rpublica9 de l',homme et du ,citoy54 ,?is volume1 int5d$ = s*oolma/]s1 _h ! approval ( ,c>not1 ,m9i/] ( ,education to ! ,provision>y ,gov]nm5t4 ,its sociali/ doctr9es 7 s criticis$ by ! ,*amb] ( #ahdi t ,c>not1 & ) him ! ,gov]nm5t1 fell f p[]4 ,r5\vi] w5t fur!r 9 8 ,g\v]nem5t direct et ,organisation communale et c5trale de la ,rpublique1 9 :i* he collaborat$ ) 8 sociali/ fri5ds 9 outl9+ a s*eme ( communism1 mak+ ! canton a local p[]1 a s*eme :i* conta9$ ! g]m-idea ( ! ,soviet ( ,bol%evik ,russia4 ,su* ideas 71 h[ev]1 f> too advanc$ = ! ,france ( t date & _! proposal did m h>m ?an good to ! progressive p>ty by produc+ a reaction 9 wav]+ m9ds4 ,r5\vi]1 ?r\gh ! pap] ,lib]t de p5s]1 laun*$ attacks ^u ! policy ( ! ,presid5cy1 & began 9 ! ,revue philosophique a s]ial ,u*ronie1 a novel ( a political & philosophical "*4 ,x 0 nev] f9i%$4 ,sudd5ly1 l a bolt f ! blue1 came1 on ,decemb] &1 ! c\p d'tat4 ,! effect ( ?is ^u ,r5\vi] 0 pr(\nd4 ,disgu/$ at ! p[] ( ! mon>*y1 ! %att]+ ( ! republican hopes1 ! suppression ( lib]ty & ! g5]al reaction1 he ab&on$ political life entirely4 ,:at politics lo/1 h[ev]1 philosophy has ga9$1 = he turn$ 8 acute m9d ) its trem5d\s en]gy to ! /udy ( ! problems ( ! univ]se4 ,?ree ye>s aft] ! c\p d'tat1 9 ! same ye> 9 :i* ,comte complet$ 8 ,sy/me de ,politique positive1 #ahed1 ,r5\vi] publi%$ ! fir/ volume ( 8 magnum opus1 ! ,essais de ,critique gnrale4#ah ,! appe>ance ( ?is "w is a notable date 9 ! developm5t ( mod]n ,fr5* philosophy4 ,! problems !re9 discuss$ w conc]n u 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,"h we mu/ po9t out ! indefatigable lab\r giv5 to ?is "w by ,r5\vi]4 ,! writ+ & revision ( ^! essays cov]$ almo/ ! :ole ( ! half c5tury1 conclud+ 9 #ahig4 ,9 _! fir/1 brief] =m !y occupi$ ! decade #ahed-fd1 & consi/$ ( f\r volumes only1 :i* on revision became f9ally ?irte54#ai ,^! ,essays range ov] ,logic1 ,psy*ology1 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,sci5ces & ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4 #ah ,x is int]e/+ = ! comp>ative /udy ( ! ?\ght ( ! c5tury to obs]ve t ! great "w ( ,lotze 9 ,g]many1 ,mikrocosmos1 0 contemporane\s ) ! ,essais ( ,r5\vi]4 ,lotze's ?ree volumes appe>$ 9 #ahef1 #aheh & #ahfd4 ,! ,logik & ,metaphysik ( ,lotze %\ld also be comp>$ ) ,r5\vi]'s ,essais4 ,fur!r comp>ison or contra/ may be made ) ref]5ce to ! ,logic ( bo? ,bradley & ,bosanquet 9 ,engl&4 #ai ,s9ce #aiab ! ,essais de ,critique gnrale are available 9 t5 volumes1 ow+ to ! publications ( new editions ( ! fir/ ?ree ,essays by ,a4 ,col9 9 five volumes4 ,= details ( ! orig9al & revis$ publication ( ! "w1 see our ,bibliography1 "u ,r5\vi] 7pp4 #ccd-cce74 ,hav+ ?us laid ! f\ndations ( 8 own ?r\ght1 ,r5\vi]1 9 conjunction ) 8 s*ol>ly fri5d ,pillon1 und]took ! publication ( a mon?ly p]iodical1 ,l',anne philosophique1 to enc\rage philosophic ?\ght 9 ,france4 ,?is appe>$ fir/ 9 #ahfg1 ! same ye> 9 :i* ,ravaisson laid ! f\ndations ( ! new spiritualism by 8 celebrat$ ,rapport4 ,9 #ahfi ,r5\vi] publi%$ 8 notewor?y treatise ^u ,e?ics1 9 two volumes1 ,la ,sci5ce de la ,morale4 ,! w> ( #ahgj br\ght 8 mon?ly p]iodical to an untimely end4 ,! conclusion ( ! w> 9 #ahga result$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t1 = ! ?ird "t1 ( a republic1 :i* 9 spite ( _m vicissitudes has cont9u$ ev5 to ?is day4 ,) ! re/oration ( peace & ( a republic1 ,r5\vi] felt enc\rag$ to und]take ! ambiti\s s*eme ( publi%+ a weekly pap]1 n only philosophical 9 "* b political1 lit]>y & religi\s4 ,he desir$ ard5tly to address 8 c\ntrym5 at a "t :5 !y 7 r intellectually & morally bewild]$4 ,he felt he _h some?+ con/ructive to (f]1 & hop$ t ! 8new criticism10 z he call$ x1 might become ! philosophy ( ! new republic4 ,?us 0 f\nd$1 9 #ahgb1 ! fam\s ,critique philosophique1 :i* aim$ prim>ily at ! consolidation ( ! republic politically & morally1#bj ,?is pap] appe>$ z a weekly f its comm5cem5t until #ahhd1!n cont9u$ = a fur!r five ye>s z a mon?ly4 ,r5\vi] & 8 fri5d ,pillon 7 assi/$ by o!r contributors1 ,a4 ,sabati]1 ,l4 ,dauriac1 ,r4 ,alli]1 :o 7 m or less disciples ( ! neo-critical s*ool4 ,v>i\s articles 7 contribut$ by ,william ,james1 :o _h a great admiration = ,r5\vi]4 ,! two m51 al?\gh widely diff]5t 9 temp]am5t & me?od1 _h c]ta9 aff9ities 9 _! doctr9e ( tru? & c]titude4#ba #bj ,9 ! e>ly numb]s1 political articles1 z 0 natural 9 ! ye>s foll[+ #ahga1 7 prom95t4 ,among ^! e>ly articles we may cite ! "o1 8,is ,france morally oblig$ to c>ry out ! t]ms ( ! ,treaty impos$ ^u h] by ,prussia80 #ba ,on ?is relation%ip see ,james's ,w to ,believe1 p4 #adc1 #ahig1 & ! d$ications 9 8 ,"s ,problems ( ,philosophy 7to ,r5\vi]71 & 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology 7to ,pillon71 also ,lett]s ( ,william ,james1 ,septemb] i#h?1 #ahib4 ,r5\vi]'s en?usiasm = 8 p]iodical did n1 h[ev]1 abate 8 en]gy or ard\r = m la/+ "w4 ,he und]took ! task ( revis+ & augm5t+ 8 great "w1 ! ,essais de ,critique gnrale1 & add$ to ! s]ies ano!r 7fif?7 ,essay1 9 f\r volumes4 ,he also issu$ 9 #ahgf ! curi\s "w ,u*ronie1 a hi/ory ( 8:at might h be50 79 8 view7 ! developm5t ( ,european civilisation4 ,toge!r ) ,pillon he translat$ ,hume's ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,mean:ile ! ,critique philosophique cont9u$ to combat any symptoms ( a fur!r c\p d'tat1 & 8to uphold /rictly republican pr9ciples & to fight all t sav\r$ ( ,caes> or imp]ialism40 ,9 #ahgh a qu>t]ly supplem5t ,la ,critique religieuse 0 add$ to attack ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* & to dim9i% its p[] 9 ,france4#bb #bb ,! significance ( ?is ef=t is m fully dealt ) 9 our la/ *apt]4 ,articles :i* _h appe>$ 9 ?is qu>t]ly 7 publi%$ z ,esquisse d'une ,classification sy/matique des ,doctr9es philosophiques 9 #ahhe 9 two volumes1 ! second ( :i* conta9$ ! important ,confession ( ,fai? ( ,r5\vi]1 entitl$1 ,h[ ,i arriv$ at ?is ,conclusion4 ,8 ?\ght assum$ a slightly new =m t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury1 at ! end ( :i* he publi%$1 9 conjunction ) 8 disciple ,prat1 a rem>kable volume1 :i* took a prize at ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques1 to :i* r late 9 ! day he 0 admitt$ z a memb] at ! age ( eighty-five4 ,9 its title ,la ,n\velle ,monadologie1 & me?od x reveals ! influ5ce ( ,leibnitz4 ,! close ( ! c5tury %[s u ,r5\vi] z an old man1 /ill an enorm\s work]1 celebrat+ 8 eighty-six? bir?day by plann+ & writ+ fur!r volumes 7,les ,dilemmes de la ,mtaphysique pure & its sequel1 ,hi/oire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques74 ,?is 8gr& old man0 ( mod]n ,fr5* philosophy liv$ on into ! e>ly ye>s ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 /ill publi%+1 /ill writ+ to ! la/4 ,8 f9al volume1 ,le ,p]sonnalisme1 0 a re/atem5t ( 8 philosophy1 issu$ :5 he 0 9 8 eighty-n9? ye>4 ,he di$ 89 h>ness0 9 #aijc1 dictat+ to 8 fri5d ,prat a rsum ( 8 ?\ght on important po9ts & leav+ an unpubli%$ "w on ! philosophy ( ,kant4#bc #bc ,! rsum 0 publi%$ by ,prat a c\ple ( ye>s lat] z ,d]ni]s ,entreti5s1 ! volume on ! ,doctr9e de ,kant1 foll[$ 9 #aijf4 ,r5\vi]'s c>e] is a /rik+ "o & we h sket*$ x some:at fully "h because ( its %[+ m di/9ctly ?an t ( ,ta9e or ,r5an ! reflections ( contempor>y hi/ory ^u ! ?9k+ m9ds :o liv$ ?r\gh ! ye>s #ahdh-ea & #ahgj-ga4 ,r5\vi] 0 a "y _s 9 ! ye> ( ! revolution1 #ahdh1 & liv$ "r on ?r\gh ! c\p d'tat1 ! ,second ,empire1 ! ,franco-,prussian ,w>1 ! ,commune1 ! ,?ird ,republic1 & he =esaw & p]haps influ5c$ ! ,republic's attitude to ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,8 c>e] is ! mo/ significant & enlight5+ "o to foll[ ( all ! ?9k]s :o come )9 our p]iod4 ,let u note t he nev] held any academic or public tea*+ appo9tm5t4 ,8 life 0 9 ! ma9 a seclud$ "o &1 l ,comte1 he f\nd ! ,univ]sity a limit$ pres]ve clos$ aga9/ him & 8 philosophy1 dom9at$ by ! decl9+ eclecticism :i* drew its inspiration f ,c\s94 ,only gradually did 8 influ5ce make itself felt to su* a degree t ! ,univ]sity 0 compell$ to take notice ( x4 ,n[ 8 "w is m appreciat$1 b n z mu* z x might be1 & outside 8 own c\ntry he is little kn[n4 ,! /ud5t f9ds 8 writ+s some:at difficult ow+ to ! au?or's heavy /yle4 ,he has none ( ! lit]>y ease & brilliance ( a ,r5an4 ,b 8 "w 0 great & noble1 animat$ by a passion = tru? & a hatr$ ( philosophical 8%ams0 & a curr5t ( deep moral e>ne/ness col\rs all 8 "w4 ,he _h consid]able p[] z a critic1 = ! tra9+ ( ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique produc$ a /rictly logical temp] 9 8 "w1 :i* is t ( a true philosoph]1 n t ( a m]ely brilliant litt]ateur or dilettante1 & he mu/ be reg>d$ z "o ( ! intellectual giants ( ! c5tury4 ,:ile we see 9 ,positivism a sy/em ( ?\ght :i* oppos$ itself to ,eclecticism1 we f9d 9 ! philosophy ( ,r5\vi] a sy/em ( doctr9e :i* is oppos$ to bo? ,eclecticism & ,positivism4 ,inde$ ,r5\vi] puts up a /rong m5tal fight aga9/ bo? ( ^! sy/ems2 ! latt] he reg>d$ z an ambiti\s conceit4 ,he agre$1 h[ev]1 ) ,comte & ) ,c\rnot ^u ! relativity ( our k4 8,i accept10 he says1 8"o fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! ,positivi/ ,s*ool--namely1 ! r$uction ( k to ! laws ( ph5om5a40#bd ,! au?or ( ! ,essais de ,critique gnrale consid]$ himself1 h[ev]1 to be ! apo/olic successor1 n ( ,comte1 b ( ,kant4 ,! title ( neo-criticisme#be :i* he gave to 8 philosophy %[s 8 aff9ity ) ! au?or ( ! ,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft4 ,?is is v noticeable 9 8 me?od ( treat+ ! problem ( k by criticis+ ! human m9d & especially 9 8 giv+ a pref]5ce to moral consid]ations4#bf ,x w\ld be1 h[ev]1 v errone\s to reg>d ,r5\vi] z a disciple ( ,kant1 = he am5ds & rejects _m ( ! doctr9es ( ! ,g]man philosoph]4 ,we h not$ ! fact t he translat$ ,hume2 we mu/ obs]ve also t ,hume's influ5ce is v /rongly m>k$ 9 ,r5\vi]'s 8ph5om5alism40#bg 8,r5\vi] is connect$ ) ,hume10 says ,pillon1 9 ! preface he contribut$ to ! translation1#bh 8z mu* z ) ,kant4 4 4 4 ,he reconciles ,hume & ,kant4 4 4 4 ,some?+ is lack+ 9 ,hume1 ! notion ( law2 some?+ is sup]flu\s 9 ,kant1 ! notion ( sub/ance4 ,x 0 necess>y to unite ! ph5om5alism ( ,hume ) ! a priori tea*+ ( ,kant4 ,?is 0 ! "w accompli%$ by ,r5\vi]40 #bd ,preface to ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 #be ,! ,engli% ^w 8criticism0 is1 x %\ld be not$1 translat$ 9 ,fr5* by 8critique0 & n by ! ^w 8criticisme10 a t]m :i* is us$ = ! philosophy ( ! ,kritik ( ,kant4 #bf ,9 recognis+ ! primacy ( ! moral or practical reason 9 ,kant1 ,r5\vi] resembles ,fi*te4 #bg ,r5\vi]'s ph5om5alism %\ld be comp>$ ) t ( ,%adwor? ,hodgson1 z set =? 9 ! volumes ( 8 l>ge "w on ,! ,metaphysic ( ,exp]i5ce1 #ahii4 ,hodgson has giv5 8 e/imate ( ,r5\vi] & 8 relation%ip to him 9 ,m9d 7volume = #ahha74 #bh ,psy*ologie de ,hume 3 ,trait de la ,nature huma9e1 ,r5\vi] ,prface p> ,pillon1 p4 lxviii4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ,pillon's eulogy is altoge!r s\nd 9 its approval ( ! 8reconciliation0 ( ,hume & ,kant1 = su* a reconciliation ( opposites may well appe> impossible4 ,r5\vi] himself fac$ ?is problem ( ! reconciliation ( opposites :5 at an e>ly age he incl9$ to foll[ ! ,hegelian philosophy1 a doctr9e :i* may v well be describ$ z a 8reconciliation ( opposites10 p> excell5ce4 ,dissatisfi$1 h[ev]1 ) su* a s*eme ,r5\vi] came r\nd to ! ,kantian /&po9t & !n pass$ beyond x to a position absolutely contr>y to t ( ,hegel4 ,?is position is frankly t opposites _c be reconcil$1 "o or ! o!r mu/ be reject$4 ,r5\vi] ?us made ! law ( contradiction ! basis ( 8 philosophy1 z x is ! basis ( our pr9ciples ( ?\ght or logic4 ,he rigor\sly appli$ ?is pr9ciple to t v int]e/+ "p ( ,kant's "w1 ! ant9omies1 :i* he held %\ld nev] h be5 =mulat$4 ,! reasons put =w>d = ?is /atem5t 7 two3 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction & ! law ( numb]4 ,r5\vi] did n believe 9 :at ma!maticians call an 8inf9ite numb]40 ,he held x to be an absurd & contradictory notion1 = to be a numb] at all x mu/ be num]ical & !re=e n inf9ite4 ,! application ( ?is to ! ,kantian ant9omies1 z = example to ! que/ions1 8,is space inf9ite or f9ite8 ,_h ! _w a beg9n+ or n80 is int]e/+ because x treats !m z ,alex&] did ! ,gordian knot4 ,! admission t space is inf9ite1 or t ! _w _h no beg9n+1 involves ! admission ( an 8inf9ite numb]10 a contradiction & an absurdity4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 su* a numb] is a pure fiction we mu/ logically conclude t space is f9ite1#bi t ! _w _h a beg9n+ & t ! asc5d+ s]ies ( causes has a fir/ t]m1 :i* admission involves fre$om at ! he>t ( ?+s4 #bi ,x is int]e/+ to obs]ve h[ ! /ress laid by ,r5\vi] ^u ! f9it5ess ( space & ^u relativity has f\nd expression 9 ! sci5tific _w by ,e9/e91 long aft] x _h be5 express$ philosophically4 ,z ,r5\vi] _h treat$ ! ant9omies ( ,kant1 s he makes %ort "w ( ! ,kantian conception ( a _w ( n\m5a 7,d+e an si*7 ( :i* we "k no?+1 b :i* is ! f\ndation ( ! ph5om5a we "k4 ,l ,hume1 he rejects all notion ( sub/ance1 ( :i* ,kant's n\m5on is a survival f anci5t times4 ,! idea ( sub/ance he abhors z lead+ to pan!ism & to fatalism1 doctr9es :i* ,r5\vi] en]getically opposes1 to uphold man's fre$om & ! dignity ( human p]sonality4 ,9 ! philosophy ( ,kant p]sonality 0 n includ$ among ! categories4 ,r5\vi] draws up = himself a new li/ ( categories diff]+ f ^? ( ,kant4 ,beg9n+ ) ,relation !y culm9ate 9 ,p]sonality4 ,^! two categories indicate two ( ! /rongholds ( ,r5\vi]'s philosophy4 ,beg9n+ f 8 fundam5tal !sis 8,all is relative10 ,r5\vi] po9ts out t z no?+ c possibly be kn[n save by or 9 a relation ( "s sort x is evid5t t ! mo/ g5]al law ( all is t ( ,relation itself4 ,relation is !re=e ! fir/ & fundam5tal category embrac+ all ! o!rs4 ,!n foll[1 ,numb]1 ,position1 ,succession1 ,quality4 ,to ^! are add$ ! important ones1 ,becom+1 ,causality1 ,f9ality proce$+ f ! simple to ! composite1 f ! ab/ract to ! concrete1 f ! elem5ts mo/ easily select$ f our exp]i5ce to t :i* embraces ! exp]i5ce itself1 ,r5\vi] comes to ! f9al category 9 :i* !y all f9d _! consummation-,p]sonality4 ,! importance :i* he atta*es to ?is category col\rs 8 entire ?\ght & p>ticul>ly det]m9es 8 attitude to ! v>i\s problems :i* we %all discuss 9 our foll[+ *apt]s4 ,z we c ?9k ( no?+ save 9 relation to consci\sness & consequ5tly we _c conceive ! univ]se ap>t f p]sonality1 our k ( ! univ]se1 our philosophies1 our beliefs are 8p]sonal0 con/ructions4 ,b !y ne$ n be on t acc\nt m]ely subjective & individuali/ic 9 "*1 = !y ref] to p]sonality 9 its wide s5se1 a s5se %>$ by o!r p]sons4 ,?is has important consequ5ces = ! problem ( c]titude 9 k & ,r5\vi] has "h c]ta9 aff9ities to ! pragmati/ /&po9t4 ,8 discussion ( c]titude is v closely b\nd up ) 8 treatm5t ( ! problem ( fre$om1 b we may indicate "h ,r5\vi]'s attitude to ,belief & ,k1 a problem 9 :i* he 0 aid$ by ! "w ( 8 fri5d ,jules ,lequi]1#cj :om he quotes 9 8 second ,essai de ,critique gnrale4 ,r5\vi] consid]s x advisable to approa* ! problem ( c]titude by consid]+ its opposite1 d\bt4 ,9 a fam\s passage 9 8 second ,essai he /ates ! circum/ances "u :i* we d n d\bt--namely1 8:5 we see1 :5 we "k1 :5 we believe40 ,ow+ to our liability to error 7ev5 see+ is n believ+1 & we frequ5tly *ange our m9ds ev5 ab\t our 8see+071 x appe>s t belief is always involv$1 & m correctly 8we believe t we see1 we believe t we "k40 ,belief is a /ate ( consci\sness involv$ 9 a c]ta9 affirmation ( :i* ! motives %[ !mselves z adequate4 ,c]titude arises :5 ! possibility ( an affirmation ( ! contr>y is entirely reject$ by ! m9d4 ,c]titude ?us appe>s z a k9d ( belief4 ,all k1 ,r5\vi] ma9ta9s1 involves an affirmation ( w4 ,x is "h we see ! contra/ s /rongly m>k$ betwe5 him & ,r5an1 :o wi%$ u to 8let ?+s ?9k !mselves out 9 u40 8,e affirmation 9 :i* consci\sness is reflective is subord9at$1 9 consci\sness1 to ! det]m9ation to affirm40 ,our k1 our c]titude1 our belief1 :atev] we pref] to call x1 is a con/ruction n purely intellectual b involv+ elem5ts ( feel+ &1 above all1 ( w4 ,ev5 ! mo/ logically incontrov]tible tru? are sometimes unconv9c+4 ,?is is because c]titude is n purely intellectual2 x is une affaire passionnelle4#ca ,r5\vi] "h n only approa*es ! pragmati/ position1 b he recalls ! attitude to w1 assum$ by ,ma9e de ,biran4 ,= ! ,c>tesian =mula ,de ,biran _h sugge/$ ! sub/itution ( ,volo1 ergo sum4 ,! inadequacy ( ! ! ,cogito1 ergo sum is rem>k$ ^u by ,lequi]1 ^: treatm5t ( ! "q ( c]ta9ty ,r5\vi] foll[s4 ,z all demon/ration is d$uctive 9 "* & s requires exi/+ premises1 we _c expect ! premire vrit to be demon/rable4 ,if1 f ! or c]ta9ty1 we mu/ turn to ! w to create belief1 or c]ta9ty1 we mu/ turn to ! w to create beliefs1 = no evid5ce or previ\s tru?s exi/ = u4 ,! ,cogito1 ergo sum really does n give u a />t+ po9t1 z ,desc>tes claim$ = x1 s9ce !re is no prop] sequ5ce f cogito to sum4 ,"h we h m]ely two selves1 moi-p5se & moi-objet4 ,we ne$ a live sp>k to bridge ?is gap to unite ! two into "o complete liv+ self2 ?is is f\nd 9 moi-volont1 9 a free act ( w4 ,?is free act ( w affirms ! exi/5ce ( ! self by unit+ 9 a syn!tic judgm5t ! ?9k+-self to ! object-self4 8,i refuse10 says ,r5\vi]1 quot+ ,lequi]1 8to foll[ ! "w ( a k :i* w\ld n be m9e4 ,i accept ! c]ta9ty ( :i* ,i am ! au?or40 ,! premire vrit is a free p]sonal act ( fai?4 ,c]ta9ty 9 philosophy or 9 sci5ce reposes ultimately ^u fre$om & ! consci\sness ( fre$om4 #cj ,jules ,lequi] 0 born 9 #ahad & ent]$ ! ,ecole polyte*nique 9 #ahcd1 leav+ two ye>s lat] = a milit>y /aff appo9tm5t4 ,?is he ab&on$ 9 #ahch4 ,he di$ 9 #ahfb aft] hav+ de/roy$ mo/ ( 8 writ+s4 ,?ree ,ye>s aft] 8 dea? 0 publi%$ ! volume1 ,la ,re*]*e d'une premire ,vrit1 fragm5ts po/humes de ,jules ,lequi]4 ,! read] %\ld note ! v int]e/+ rem>ks by ,r5\vi] at ! end ( ! fir/ volume ( 8 ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 #aiab ed41 pp4 #cfi-cic1 on ,lequi] & 8 ,philosophy1 also ! ,fragm5ts repr9t$ by ,r5\vi] 9 t "w1 ,comm5t tr\v]1 comm5t *]*]1 vol4 i41 on ,subject & ,object 7vol4 ii471 & on ,fre$om4 #ca ,lotze employs a simil> phrase1 e9e ,gem?s-sa*e4 ,"h aga91 z 9 ! philosophy ( ,c\rnot1 we f9d ! ma9 emphasis fall+ ^u ! d\ble problem ( ! p]iod4 ,x is 9 reality "o problem ) two aspects--! relation ( sci5ce to morality1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! place & significance ( fre$om4 ,! g5]al influ5ce ( ,r5\vi] has l$ to ! =mation ( a neo-critical 8s*ool0 ( ?\ght1 prom95t memb]s ( :i* may be cit$3 ,pillon & ,prat1 8 intimate fri5ds1 ,sailles & ,d>lu1 :o h contribut$ monographs ^u _! ma/]'s tea*+1 toge!r ) ,hamel91 ,li>d & ,bro*>d1 em95t disciples4 ,hamel9 7#ahef-aijg71 ^: premature & accid5tal dea? depriv$ ,france ( a ke5 ?9k]1 is kn[n = 8 ,essai sur les ,elm5ts pr9cipaux de la ,reprs5tation 7#aijg71 supplem5t+ ! doctr9es ( ,r5\vi] by ^? ( ,hegel4 ,9 ! "w ( ,li>d 7#ahdf-aiag71 ,la ,sci5ce positive et la ,mtaphysique 7#ahgi71 we see a comb9ation ( ! influ5ce ( ,va*]ot1 ,r5\vi] & ,kant4 ,he 0 also p]plex$ by ! problem ( effici5t & f9al causes z 0 ,la*eli]1 ^: fam\s !sis ,de l',induction appe>$ eight ye>s e>li]4 ,:ile ,la*eli] 0 influ5c$ by ,kant1 he1 none ! less1 belongs to ! curr5t ( ! new spiritualism :i* we %all pres5tly exam9e4 ,li>d1 h[ev]1 by 8 adh]5ce to _m critical & neo-critical /&po9ts may be ju/ly look$ ^u z belong+ to t great curr5t ( :i* ,r5\vi] is ! prom95t ?9k]4 ,bro*>d 7#ahdh-aijg7 is ma9ly kn[n by 8 treatise ,de l',erreur 7#ahgi7 & 8 volumes on ,e?ics1 ,de la ,responsabilit morale 7#ahgf71 & ,de l',univ]salit des ,notions morales 7#ahgf71 9 all ( :i* ! primacy ( moral consid]ations is advocat$ 9 a tone inspir$ by ,r5\vi]'s /rong moral /&po9t4 ,! "w ,de l',erreur emphasises ! importance ( ! problem ( fre$om z be+ ! crux ( ! :ole "q involv$ 9 ! relation ( sci5ce & morality4 ,adh]+ to ! neo-critical doctr9es 9 g5]al1 & p>ticul>ly to ! value ( ! practical reason1 ,bro*>d1 by 8 insi/5ce ^u action z a f\ndation = belief1 has m>k$ aff9ities ) ! doctr9es ( ,blondel 7& ,olle-,laprune71 ! significance ( ^: "w w appe> at ! end ( our next section4 ,! ph5om5alism ( ,r5\vi] 0 foll[$ up by two ?9k]s1 :o _c1 h[ev]1 be reg>d$ z belong+ to 8 neo-critical s*ool4 ,9 #ahhh ,g\rd publi%$ 8 "w entitl$ ,le ,phnomne1 :i* 0 foll[$ six ye>s lat] by ! slightly m coh]5t attempt ( ,boirac to base a philosophy ^u ! ph5om5alism :i* expresses itself s rigidly 9 ,hume4 ,9 8 book ,l',ide du ,phnomne 7#ahid71 he _h1 h[ev]1 rec\rse to ! ,leibnitzian doctr9es1 :i* _h f9ally ex]cis$ a consid]able influ5ce ov] ,r5\vi] himself4 ,,iii ,! reaction aga9/ positivism & aga9/ eclecticism took ano!r =m q ap>t f t ( ! neocritical philosophy4 ,?is 0 ! triumphant spirituali/ philosophy1 z we may call x1 to give x a g5]al "n1 repres5t$ by a s]ies ( great ?9k]s--,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,b\tr\x1 ,b]gson &1 we may add1 ,blondel4 ,^! m5 h all ( !m _h an influ5ce mu* great] ?an t ( ,r5\vi]1 & ?is is true ( ea* ( !m sep>ately4 ,?is is r notewor?y =1 if we exclude ,f\illee1 ^: writ+s are r too num]\s1 ! works ( all ! o!r m5 toge!r d n equal 9 quantity ! "w ( ,r5\vi]4 ,!re is ano!r po9t :i* is wor?y ( notice4 ,:ile ,r5\vi] work$ 9 comp>ative solitude & nev] taught philosophy 9 any college or univ]sity1 be+1 9 fact1 neglect$ by ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 all ! company--,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson--_h a connection ) ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is 9 g5]al1 be+ associat$ ) ! ,sorbonne1 ! ,collge de ,france or ! important ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure4 ,! initiator ( ! spirituali/ic philosophy 0 ,ravaisson 7#ahae-aijj71 :o himself drew inspiration f ,ma9e de ,biran1 to ^: "w he _h call$ att5tion z e>ly z #ahdj 9 a vigor\s article contribut$ to ! ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,?is r\s$ ! indignation ( ,victor ,c\s9 & ! eclectics1 :o 9 rev5ge exclud$ ,ravaisson f ! ,in/itute4 ,8 indep5d5t _s _h be5 %[n 9 8 !sis ,de l',habitude 7#ahch7cb & 8 rem>kable /udy ( ! metaphysics ( ,ari/otle 7#ahcg-ahdf74 #cb ,reproduc$ 9 #ahid 9 ! ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,ravaisson's *ief title to fame1 h[ev]1 lies 9 8 fam\s philosophic manife/o ( #ahfg1 = su*1 9 fact1 0 8 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,,xix ,sicle4 ,?is ,report1 prep>$ = ! ,exposition univ]selle at ! reque/ ( ! ,m9i/ry ( ,education1 m>ks an epo*1 = ) x began ! curr5t ( ?\ght :i* 0 to dom9ate ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,! 8manife/o0 0 a call to free spirits to ass]t !mselves 9 fav\r ( a valid idealism4 ,x1 9 itself1 laid ! f\ndations ( su* a philosophy & dealt a bl[ to bo? ! ,eclectic ,s*ool ( ,c\s9 & ! foll[]s ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,ravaisson wrote little1 b 8 influ5ce 0 p[]ful & made itself felt 9 ! ,univ]sity1 :]e 9 8 (fice ( presid5t ( ! agrgation en philosophie he ex]cis$ no little influ5ce ov] ! m9ds ( y\ng] m54 ,8 pupils1 among :om are to be f\nd ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson1 h te/ifi$ to ! pr(\nd & inspir+ influ5ce :i* ?is ?9k] ex]cis$4 ,a notable tribute to 8 memory is ! address giv5 by ,b]gson :5 he 0 appo9t$ to take ,ravaisson's place at ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques 9 #aijd4 ,v>i\s influ5ces meet 9 ,ravaisson & det]m9e 8 g5]al attitude to ?\ght4 ,he rev]ts1 z we h said1 to ,ma9e de ,biran1 ^: insi/5ce ^u ! inn] life he approves4 ,we mu/ exam9e human consci\sness & make x our basis4 ,we h 9 x p[]s ( w1 ( desire & ( love4 ,ravaisson bl5ds ! ,ari/otelian insi/5ce ^u ,?\ght ) ! ,*ri/ian insi/5ce ^u ,love4 ,9 8 me?od he manife/s ! influ5ce ( ! ,g]man philosoph]1 ,s*ell+1 ^: lectures he att5d$ at ,muni* 9 company ) ! "y ,swiss ?9k]1 ,secretan4#cc ,?is influ5ce is se5 9 8 doctr9e ( syn!sis & 8 intellectual intuition4 ,sci5ce cont9ues to give u analyses ev] m detail$1 b x _c lead u to ! absolute4 ,our highe/1 mo/ sublime k is ga9$ by a syn!sis pres5t$ 9 & to our consci\sness1 an intuition4 ,fur!r1 he argues t effici5t causes1 ab\t :i* sci5ce has s mu* to say1 are really dep5d5t ^u f9al causes4 ,spiritual reality is ant]ior to mat]ial reality1 & is *>act]is$ by goodness & beauty4 ,himself an arti/1 imbu$ ) a passionate love ( ! beautiful 7he 0 gu>dian ( sculptures at ! ,l\vre71 he con/ructs a philosophy 9 ! mann] ( an arti/4 ,l ,guyau1 he writes metaphysics l poetry1 & al?\gh he did n give u any?+ l ,v]s d'un ,philosophe1 he w\ld h endors$ ! rem>ks :i* ,guyau made on ! relation ( poetry & philosophy if1 inde$1 x is n a fact t 8 influ5ce inspir$ ! y\ng] man4 #cc ,*>les ,secretan 7#ahae-ahie71 a ,swiss ?9k] ) :om ,r5\vi] _h int]e/+ correspond5ce4 ,8 ,philosophie de la ,lib]t appe>$ 9 #ahdh-ahdi1 foll[$ by o!r works on religi\s philosophy4 ,pillon wrote a monograph ^u him4 ,aft] survey+ ! curr5ts ( ?\ght up to #ahfg ,ravaisson n only summ$ up 9 8 conclud+ pages ! elem5ts ( 8 own philosophy1 b he v5tur$ to assume ! role ( prophet4 8,_m signs p]mit u to =esee 9 ! ne> future a philosophical epo* ( :i* ! g5]al "* w be ! pr$om9ance ( :at may be call$ spirituali/ic realism or positivism1 hav+ z g5]at+ pr9ciple ! consci\sness :i* ! m9d has ( itself z an exi/5ce recognis$ z be+ ! s\rce & support ( e o!r exi/5ce1 be+ none o!r ?an its action40#cd ,8 prophecy has be5 fulfill$ 9 ! "w ( ,la*eli]1 ,guyau1 ,f\ille1 ,b\tr\x1 ,b]gson1 ,blondel & ,web]4 #ce ,rapport1 #bnd ed41 #ahhe1 p4 #bge4 ,aft] ,ravaisson ! spirituali/ philosophy f\nd expression 9 ! "w ( ,la*eli] 7#ahcb-aiah71 a ?9k] ^: importance & ^: influ5ce are bo? q out ( proportion to ! small am\nt :i* he has writt54#cf ,a brilliant !sis ( only "o hundr$ pages1 ,du ,fondem5t de l',induction1 su/a9$ 9 #ahga1 toge!r ) a little /udy on ! ,syllogism & a highly important article on ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique1 contribut$ to ! ,revue philosophique 9 ,may ( #ahhe1 con/itute practically all 8 writt5 "w4#cg ,x 0 orally t he made 8 influ5ce felt2 by 8 tea*+ at ! ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure 7#ahfd-ahge7 he made a pr(\nd impression ^u ! y\? ( ! ,univ]sity & ! ,ecole by ! dignity & ri*ness ( 8 ?\ght1 z well z by its ?or\ghness4 #cf ,dr4 ,m]z1 9 8 admirable ,hi/ory ( ,european ,?\ght 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 is wrong 9 reg>d to ,la*eli]'s dates2 he confuses 8 resignation ( pr(essor%ip 7#ahge7 ) 8 dea?4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 did n occur until z late z #aiah4 ,see ! ref]5ces 9 ,m]tz1 vol4 iii41 p4 #fbj1 & vol4 iv41 p4 #bag4 #cg ,! !sis & ! article h be5 publi%$ toge!r by ,alcan1 accompani$ by notes on ,pascal's ,wag]4 ,! ,etude sur le ,syllogisme also =ms a volume 9 ,alcan's ,biblio?que de ,philosophie contempora9e4 ,la*eli] 0 a pupil ( ,ravaisson1 & owes 8 initial inspiration to him4 ,he _h1 h[ev]1 a mu* m rigor\s & precise attitude to problems4 ,?is is app>5t 9 ! conc5tration ( ?\ght conta9$ 9 8 !sis4 ,x is "o ( ,la*eli]'s m]its t he recognis$ ! significance ( ,kant's "w 9 a v pr(\nd mann]4 ,until 8 !sis appe>$ ! influ5ce ( ,leibnitz _h be5 m noticeable 9 ,fr5* ?\ght ?an t ( ,kant4 ,x 0 noticeable 9 ,ravaisson1 & ,r5\vi]1 9 spite ( 8 pr(ess$ adh]5ce to ,kant1 pass$ to a ,leibnitzian position 9 8 ,n\velle ,monadologie4 ,! valuable "w ,du ,fondem5t de l',induction is conc]n$ ma9ly ) ! problem ( f9al causes1 :i* ,la*eli] d$uces f ! necessity ( totality judgm5ts ov] & above ^? :i* conc]n m]ely effici5t causes4 ,on ! pr9ciple ( f9al causes1 or a ideological conception ( a rational unity & ord]1 he f\nds ,induction4 ,x _c be f\nd$1 he claims1 ^u a m]e empiricism4 ,?is is a po9t :i* w conc]n u lat] 9 our exam9ation ( ! problem ( sci5ce4 ,la*eli] 0 left1 h[ev]1 ) ! dualism ( me*anism1 op]at+ solely by effici5t causes1 & teleology manife/$ 9 f9al causes1 a dualism f :i* ,kant did n manage to escape4 ,9 8 article ,psy*ologic et ,mtaphysique he endeav\r$ to int]pret me*anism itself z a teleological activity ( ! _s4#ch ,he indicates ! absolute basis ( our life & exp]i5ce1 inde$ ( ! univ]se itself1 to be ! absolute spontaneity ( _s4 ,9 _s & 9 fre$om we live & move & h our be+4 ,we d n affirm ourselves to be :at we are1 b r we are :at we affirm ourselves to be4 ,we mu/ n say t our pres5t dep5ds ^u our pa/1 = we really create all ! mom5ts ( our life 9 "o & ! same act1 :i* is bo? pres5t to ea* mom5t & above !m all4#ci ,"h psy*ology appe>s z ! sci5ce ( ?\ght itself & resolves itself into metaphysics4 ,"h1 too1 we f9d ! significance ( ! new spiritualism2 we see its aff9ity )1 & its contra/ to1 ! doctr9es ( ! old] spiritualism z pr(ess$ by ,c\s94 ,la*eli] "h /rikes ! note :i* is s cle>ly *>act]i/ic ( ?is curr5t ( ?\ght1 & is no less m>k$ 9 8 "w ?an 9 t ( ,b]gson--namely1 a belief 9 ! supremacy ( _s & 9 ! reality ( fre$om4 #ch ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ?is ) ! attitude tak5 by ,lotze 9 ,g]many4 #ci ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique1 p4 #aga4 ,! notion ( fre$om & ( ! spontaneity ( ! _s became wat*words ( ! new spirituali/ philosoph]s4 ,"u ! "w & influ5ce ( ,b\tr\x 7#ahde-aiba7 ^! ideas 7 fur!r emphasis$ & work$ out m def9itely to a position :i* assumes a critical attitude to ! dogmatism ( mod]n sci5ce & e/abli%es a cont+5cy 9 all ?+s4 ,b\tr\x's !sis ,de la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature appe>$ 9 #ahgd & 0 d$icat$ to ,ravaisson4 ,8 *ief fame & 8 importance 9 ! developm5t ( ! spirituali/ philosophy re/ ^u ?is book alone4 ,9 #ahid he publi%$ a c\rse ( lectures giv5 at ! ,sorbonne 9 #ahib-c1 ,sur l',ide de ,loi naturelle1 :i* supplem5ts ! !sis4 ,outside 8 own c\ntry att5tion has be5 m readily be/[$ ^u 8 writ+s on ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ( :i* subject he 0 ,pr(essor4 ,9 8 own c\ntry1 h[ev]1 great int]e/ & value are atta*$ to 8 "w on ,! ,cont+5cy ( ! ,laws ( ,nature4 ,9 ?is ,b\tr\x comb9es ! attitude ( ,ravaisson ) t ( ,la*eli]4 ,! totality ( ! laws ( ! univ]se manife/s1 accord+ to him1 a cont+5cy4 ,no explanation ( ^! laws is possible ap>t f a free spiritual activity4 ,! /ress laid ^u cont+5cy 9 ! laws ( nature culm9ates 9 ! belief 9 ! fre$om ( man4 ,! critique ( sci5ce :i* m>k$ ,b\tr\x's "w has pr(\ndly influ5c$ ?9k]s l ,hannequ91 ,payot & ,milhaud1#dj & 9 ! foll[+ c5tury appe>s 9 ! "w ( ,duhem & ( ,h5ri ,po9c>1 ! not$ ma!matician1 ^: books on ,la ,sci5ce et l',hypo?se 7#aijb71 ,la ,valeur de la ,sci5ce 7#aije71 & ,sci5ce et ,m?ode 7#aiji7 h confirm$ _m ( ,b\tr\x's conclusions4#da #dj ,hannequ9's notable "w is ! ,essai critique sur ,l',hypo?se des ,atomes 7#ahif74 ,payot's *ief book is ,la ,croyance 7#ahif74 ,milhaud's critique ( sci5ce is conta9$ 9 8 ,essai sur les ,conditions et les ,limites de la ,c]titude logique 7#ahid71 & 9 ,le ,rationnel 7#ahih74 ,duhem's book is ,la ,?orie physique 7#aijf74 #da ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,b\tr\x m>ri$ ,po9c>'s si/]1 & t 8 son1 ,pi]re ,b\tr\x1 ^: education 0 guid$ by bo? 8 uncle & 8 fa!r1 is n[ ,pr(essor at ! ,collge de ,france4 ,emile ,b\tr\x 0 a pupil ( ,zell]1 ^: lectures on ,greek philosophy he att5d$ 9 ,heidelb]g1 #ahfh4 ,he express$ to ! writ] 8 grief at ! lat] pro/itution ( ,g]man ?\ght to nationali/ & mat]iali/ aims4 ,he 0 ,pr(essor ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 ,p>is f #ahhh1 !n ,honor>y ,pr(essor ( ,mod]n ,philosophy4 ,9 #aiad he gave ! ,h]tz ,lecture to ! ,briti% ,academy on ,c]titude et ,vrit4 ,he 0 until 8 dea? ,directeur de la ,fondation ,?i]s1 a college = po/-graduate /udy1 lit]>y1 philosophical & sci5tific4 ,:ile ! new spirituali/ curr5t 0 ?us t5d+ to a position f> remov$ f t ( ,ta9e1 at ! comm5cem5t ( our p]iod1 a wav]+ note 0 /ruck by ! ideali/ ,f\ille 7#ahch-aiab71 :o1 :ile ma9ta9+ a g5]al attitude 9 h>mony ) ! new doctr9es endeav\r$ to effect a reconciliation ) ! m positive attitude to sci5ce & philosophy4 ,9 8 philosophie des ides-=ces#db he endeav\r$ to comb9e & reconcile ! div]g+ attitudes ( ,plato & ( ,comte4 ,he %[s a scorn ( ! neo-critical ?\gh ( ,r5\vi]4 ,he wrote 9 8 %ort] life m books ?an did ,r5\vi]1 & he is conspicu\s among ?is lat] gr\p ( ?9k]s = 8 mass-production ( books1 :i* appe>$ /eadily at ! rate ( "o p] annum to ! ext5t ( "s ?irty-sev5 volumes1 aft] he gave up 8 position z matre de confr5ce at ! ,ecole ,normale ow+ to ill-heal?4#dc #db ,8 ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces appe>$ 9 #ahij1 ,la ,psy*ologie des ,ides-=ces ?ree ye>s lat]4 ,8 ,morale des ,ides-=ces belongs to ! next c5tury 7#aijg71 b its pr9ciples 7 conta9$ already 9 8 !sis ,lib]t et ,dt]m9isme4 #dc ,he only held ?is = ?ree ye>s1 #ahgb-ge4 ,f\ille1 ) ! noble/ int5tions1 set himself to ! solution ( t problem :i* we h already indicat$ z be+ ! c5tral "o ( our p]iod1 ! relation ( sci5ce & e?ics1 or1 9 brief1 ! problem ( fre$om4 ,?is 0 ! subject ( 8 !sis1 und\bt$ly ! be/ book he ev] wrote1 ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme1 :i* he su/a9$ 9 #ahgb4dd ,! attitude :i* he takes 9 t "w is ! keynote to 8 entire philosophy4 ,well gr\nd$ 9 a k ( ! hi/ory ( sy/ems ( philosophy1 anci5t & mod]n1 he recognises elem5ts ( tru? 9 ea*1 accompani$ by errors due ma9ly to a "o-sid$ p]spective4#de ,he recalls a /atem5t ( ,leibnitz to ! effect t mo/ sy/ems are "r 9 _! ass]tions & err 9 _! d5ials4 ,f\ille 0 conv9c$ t !re 0 reconciliation at ! he>t ( ?+s1 & t ! contradictions we see are due to our po9t ( view4 ,fac+1 !re=e1 9 ?is _s1 ! problems ( ! h\r1 he set himself 8to reconcile ! f9d+s ( sci5ce ) ! reality ( _s1 to e/abli% h>mony betwe5 ! det]m9ism upheld by sci5ce & ! lib]ty :i* ! human _s acclaims1 betwe5 ! me*anism ( nature & ! aspirations ( man's he>t1 betwe5 ! ,true :i* is ! object ( all sci5ce & ! ,good :i* is ! goal ( morality40#df #dd ,?is "w creat$ q a /ir 9 ! intellectual & political _w 9 ,france j aft] ! w>4 ,f\ille's book l$ to an attack on ! m9i/ry1 :i* did n g s f> z t occasion$ by ,r5\vi]'s volume 9 #ahdi4 7,see p4 #fa47 #de ,f\ille /&s 9 m>k$ contra/ to ,comte 9 8 g5]al acqua9tance ) ! hi/ory ( ideas4 ,comte1 l ,sp5c]1 knew little ( any philosophy b 8 own4 ,f\ille1 h[ev]1 0 well s*ool$1 n only 9 ,plato & ! anci5ts1 b _h intimate k ( ! "w ( ,kant1 ,comte1 ,sp5c]1 ,lotze1 ,r5\vi]1 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson4 #df ,?is is also ! idea express$ at l5g? 9 8 ,av5ir de la ,mtaphysique1 #ahhi4 ,f\ille _h no desire to (f] m]ely ano!r eclecticism la mode de ,c\s92 he selects1 !re=e1 8 own pr9ciple ( proc$ure4 ,?is pr9ciple is f\nd 9 8 notion ( ide-=ce4 ,foll[+ anci5t usage1 he employs ! t]m 8idea0 = any m5tal pres5tation4 ,= ,f\ille1 h[ev]1 ideas are n ides-spectacles1 m]ely ex]cis+ a platonic influ5ce 8remote z ! />s %9+ above u40 ,!y are n m]ely m5tal reproductions ( an object1 real or hypo!tical1 outside ! m9d4 ,ideas are 9 !mselves =ces :i* endeav\r to "w out _! own realisation4 ,f\ille opposes 8 doctr9e to ! evolution>y !ory ( ,sp5c] & ,huxley4 ,he disagrees ) _! me*anism & epiph5om5alism1 po9t+ out legitimately t our ideas1 f> f be+ results ( purely physical & indep5d5t causes1 are !mselves factors1 & v vital factors1 9 ! process ( evolution4 ,f\ille looks ^u ! me*ani/ic arrangem5t ( ! _w z an expression or symbol ( idea or _s 9 a mann] n unlike t ( ,lotze4 ,he be>s out 8 view ( ides-=ces by %[+ h[ a /ate ( consci\sness tries to realise its object4 ,! idea ( movem5t is closely b\nd up ) ! physiological & physical action1 &1 moreov]1 t5ds to produce x4 ,?is realisation is n a m]ely me*ani/ic process b is teleological & dep5ds on ! vital unity betwe5 ! physical & ! m5tal4 ,on ?is fundam5tal notion ,f\ille con/ructs 8 psy*ology1 8 e?ic1 8 sociology & 8 metaphysic4 ,he sees 9 ! evolution>y process ideas at "w :i* t5d to realise !mselves4 ,"o ( ^! is ! idea ( fre$om1 9 :i* idea he endeav\rs to f9d a true reconciliation ( ! problem ( det]m9ism 9 sci5ce & ! dem&s ( ! human _s :i* decl>es itself free4 ,! love ( fre$om aris+ f ! idea ( fre$om creates 9 ! long run ?is fre$om4 ,?is is ,f\ille's me?od all ?r\gh4 8,to conceive & to desire ! ideal is already to beg9 its realisation40 ,he applies 8 me?od ) mu* success 9 ! realm ( e?ics & sociology :]e he opposes to ! ,m>xian doctr9e ( a mat]iali/ det]m9ation ( hi/ory t ( a spiritual & intellectual det]m9ation by ideas4 ,f\ille's philosophy is at once intellectual & volunt>i/4 ,he has himself describ$ x z 8spirituali/ic volunt>ism40 ,x is a sy/em ( idealism :i* reflects almo/ all ! elem5ts ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,9 places 8 doctr9e ( reconciliation appe>s to break d[n1 & ! psy*ological law summ$ up 9 ides-=ces is h>dly suffici5t to be> ! va/ erection :i* ,f\ille builds ^u x4 ,! idea is nev]!less a valuable & fruitful "o4 ,f\ille's respect = positive sci5ce is notewor?y1 z is also 8 great int]e/ 9 social problems4#dg #dg ,at ! end ( ! c5tury ^! problems receiv$ highly specialis$ att5tion 9 ! "w ( ! sociologi/s inspir$ by ,comte's influ5ce4 ,works ( special m]it 9 ?is direction are3 tspmas1 ) 8 ,socit's animales 7#ahgf7 & ,t>de1 pr$ecessor ( ,b]gson at ! ,collge de ,france 7#ahdc-aijg71 ) 8 ,crim9alit comp>e 7#ahih7 & ,les ,lois de l',imitation 7#aijj71 also ,durkheim's "w ,de la ,division du ,travail social 7#ahic7 & ,les ,rgles de la ,m?ode sociologique 7#ahid71 & ,iz\let1 ) 8 ,la ,cit mod]ne 7#ahid74 ,note ^? ( ,levy-,bruhl1 ,b\gl1 & ,le ,bon4 ,! importance ( ! sociological aspect ( all problems 0 emphasis$ 9 a brilliant mann] by ,guyau 7#ahed-ahhh71 ! /ep-son ( ,f\ille4 ,guyau 0 a gift$ "y man1 ^: dea? at ! e>ly age ( ?irty-f\r 0 a sore b]eavem5t = ,f\ille & und\bt$ly a disa/] = philosophy4 ,guyau 0 tra9$ by 8 /ep-fa!r1#dh & assi/$ him 9 8 "w4 ,:5 ill-heal? =c$ bo? m5 f _! pr(essor%ips1#di !y liv$ 9 happy comrade%ip at ,m5tone at ! same "t1 x is int]e/+ to note1 t ,nietzs*e 0 resid+ !re4 ,equally int]e/+ is x to obs]ve t al?\gh ,guyau & ,f\ille 7 unaw>e ( ! ,g]man ?9k]'s pres5ce or 8 "w1 ,nietzs*e 0 well acqua9t$ ) !irs1 p>ticul>ly t ( ,guyau4 ,d\btless he w\ld h be5 pleas$ to meet ! au?or ( ! ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction 7#ahhe7 & ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir 7#ahhg74 ,editions ( ^! books exi/ 9 ! ,nietzs*e-,ar*iv be>+ ,nietzs*e's notes & comm5ts4 #dh ,"s au?orities are ( op9ion t ,f\ille 0 actually ! fa!r ( ,guyau4 ,f\ille m>ri$ ,guyau's "m4 #di ,guyau taught at ! ,lyce ,condorcet 7#ahgd7 :]e "y ,h5ri ,b]gson 0 /udy+ 7#ahfh-ahgh74 ,guyau himself has a c]ta9 aff9ity ) ,nietzs*e1 aris+ f 8 insi/5ce ^u ,life & its p[]2 b ! au?or ( ! delightful little collection ,v]s d'un ,philosophe 7#ahha7 is free f ! egoism express$ 9 ,d] ,wille zur ,ma*t4 ,guyau posits z 8 ide-directrice ! conception ( ,life1 bo? individual & social1 & 9 ?is concept he pr(esses to f9d a basis m fundam5tal ?an t ( =ce1 movem5t or exi/5ce4 ,life involves expansion & int5sion1 fecundity & creation4 ,x means also consci\sness1 intellig5ce & feel+1 g5]osity & sociability4 8,he only lives well :o lives = o!rs40 ,life c only exi/ by ext5d+4 ,x c nev] be purely egoi/ic & endure2 a c]ta9 giv+ ( itself1 9 g5]osity & 9 love1 is necess>y = its cont9uance4 ,su* is ! view :i* ! ,fr5* philosoph]-poet expresses 9 opposition to ,nietzs*e1 />t+1 h[ev]1 f ! concept ( ,life did ,nietzs*e4 ,guyau work$ out a doctr9e ( e?ics & ( religion bas$ ^u ?is concept :i* w dem& our special att5tion 9 its prop] place1 :5 we consid] ! moral & religi\s problem4 ,he /rove to give an ideali/ic sett+ to ! doctr9es ( evolution1 & ?is alone w\ld give him a place among ! great ?9k]s ( ! p]iod4 ,9 8 doctr9e ( ! relation ( ?\ght & action ,guyau foll[$ ! philosophie des ides-=ces4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are v rem>kable aff9ities betwe5 ! ?\ght ( ,guyau & t ( ,b]gson4 ,guyau is n s sev]ely intellectual z ,f\ille2 8 mann] ( ?\ght & excell5ce ( /yle are n unlike ,b]gson4 ,m noticeably he has a conception ( life n f> remov$ f ! lan vital4 ,8 8expansion ( life0 has1 l ,b]gson's volution cratrice1 no goal o!r ?an t ( its own activity4 ,aft] ,guyau's dea? 9 #ahhh x 0 f\nd t he _h be5 ex]cis$ 9 m9d ab\t ! problem ( ,"t1 = he left ! manuscript ( a book entitl$ ,la ,g5se de l',ide de ,temps4#ej ,he !re9 set =? a belief 9 a psy*ological1 het]og5e\s "t o!r ?an ma!matical "t1 :i* is really spatial 9 "*4 ,9 ?is psy*ological "t ! _s lives4 ,! ye> foll[+ ,guyau's dea?1 b be=e 8 po/hum\s "w appe>$1 ,b]gson publi%$ 8 !sis ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,consci5ce 7#ahhi71 :i* is bett] describ$ by its ,engli% title ,"t & ,free ,w1 & 9 :i* ?is problem :i* _h be5 pres5t to ,guyau's m9d is tak5 up & treat$ 9 an orig9al & /rik+ mann]4 ,9 ,guyau1 too1 is se5 ! rise ( ! conception ( activity s m>k$ 9 ! "w ( ,b]gson & ( ,blondel4 8,x is action & ! p[] ( life10 he insi/s1 8:i* alone c solve1 if n entirely at lea/ p>tially1 ^? problems to :i* ab/ract ?\ght gives rise40#ea #ej ,?is "w 0 edit$ & publi%$ by ,f\ille two ye>s aft] ,guyau's dea?1 & review$ by ,b]gson 9 ! ,revue philosophique 9 #ahia4 #ea ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #bej4 ,b]gson1 born 9 #ahei1 ,pr(essor at ! ,collge de ,france f #aija to #aiba1 n[ retir$1 has _h a popul>ity to :i* none ( ! o!r ?9k]s ( ?is gr\p1 or inde$ ( our p]iod1 has atta9$4 ,he is ! only "o ( ! new ideali/s or spirituali/s :o is well kn[n outside 8 own c\ntry4 ,= ?is reason =eign]s are apt to reg>d him z a ?9k] unrelat$ to any special curr5t ( ?\ght1 an innovator4 ,al?\gh mu* is orig9al & novel 9 8 philosophy1 8 ?\ght m>ks ! /age 9 ! developm5t to :i* ! spirituali/ curr5t has atta9$ 9 contempor>y ?\ght4 ,! movem5t ( :i* he =ms a "p we c trace back z f> z ,ma9e de ,biran1 to :om ,b]gson owes mu*1 z he does also to ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x & ,guyau4 ,two important books by ,b]gson came prior to #aijj1 8 ,"t & ,free ,w 7#ahhi7 & 8 ,matt] & ,memory 7#ahif74 ,8 fam\s ,creative ,evolution appe>$ 9 #aijg4 ,x is b 8 fir/ "w 8writ l>ge10 = we h 9 ,"t & ,free ,w ! ess5tials ( 8 philosophy4 ,he makes1 z did ,guyau1 a c5tral po9t ( ,*ange1 a univ]sal becom+1 & attacks ! ord9>y notion ( "t1 :i* he reg>ds z false because x is spatial4 ,we ourselves live & act 9 dure1 :i* is ,b]gson's t]m = real "t z oppos$ to t fictiti\s "t ( ! ma!matician or a/ronom]4 ,he ?us lays /ress ^u ! inw>d life ( ! _s1 ) its ri*ness & novelty1 its et]nal becom+1 its self-creation4 ,he has 8 own peculi> mann] ( approa*+ our c5tral problem1 t ( fre$om1 ( :i* he realises ! importance4 ,= him ! problem resolves itself into an application ( 8 doctr9e ( la dure1 to :i* we %all turn 9 due c\rse4 ,b]gson insi/s ) ,guyau & ,blondel ^u ! prim>y significance ( action4 ,! importance atta*$ to action col\rs 8 :ole !ory ( k4 ,8 epi/emology re/s ^u ! !sis t 8! bra9 is an in/rum5t ( action & n ( repres5tation10 & t 89 ! /udy ( ! problems ( p]ception ! />t+- po9t %\ld be action & n s5sation40 ,?is is a psy*ology f> diff]5t f t ( ,condillac & ,ta9e1 & x is l>gely ^u 8 m]it z a psy*ologi/ t ,b]gson's fame re/s4 ,he devot$ 8 second "w1 ,matt] & ,memory1 to %[+ t memory is some?+ o!r ?an a function ( ! bra94 ,8 di/9ction betwe5 8pure0 memory & m]e memoris+ p[]1 :i* is habit1 recalls ! mmoire ( ,ma9e de ,biran & ( ,ravaisson ^u ,habit4 ,b]gson sees 9 memory a manife/ation ( _s1 :i* is a fundam5tal reality1 no m]e epiph5om5on4 ,_s is ev] /riv+ aga9/ matt]1 b 9 spite ( ?is dualism :i* he _c escape1 he ma9ta9s t _s is at ! orig9 ( ?+s4 ,?is is a difficulty :i* is m cle>ly se5 9 8 lat] book1 ,creative ,evolution4 ,matt] is our enemy & ?reat5s our p]sonality 9 its spiritual reality by a t5d5cy to lead u into habit1 away f life1 fre$om & creativ5ess4 ,fur!r we mu/1 he claims1 endeav\r to see ?+s sub specie durationis 9 a dure1 9 an et]nal becom+4 ,we _c expect to grasp all ! v>i$ reality ( life 9 a =mula or inde$ 9 any purely intellectual mann]4 ,?is is ! *ief defect ( sci5ce & ( ! s-call$ sci5tific po9t ( view4 ,x tries to fix 9 concepts1 m\lds & solid =ms a reality :i* is liv+ & mov+ et]nally4 ,= ,b]gson all is ,*ange1 & ?is et]nal becom+ we c only grasp by intuition4 ,intuition & intellect d n1 h[ev]1 oppose "o ano!r4 ,we are ?us l$ to realise t ,life is m ?an logic4 ,! ,b]gsonian philosophy concludes ) intuitionism & cont+5cy1 :i* drew ^u x ! sev]e criticisms ( ,f\ille1#eb :o t]m$ x a philosophy ( scepticism & nihilism4 ,( all ! spirituali/ gr\p ,f\ille /&s ne>e/ ! positive attitude to sci5ce1 & 8 /rong intellectualism comes out 9 8 criticism ( ,b]gson1 :o well repres5ts1 toge!r ) ,blondel1 ! t5d5cy t[>ds non-intellectual attitudes inh]5t 9 ! spirituali/ developm5t4 ,blondel has endeav\r$ to treat ! great problems1 a task :i* ,b]gson has n attempt$ z yet1 p>tly because he 7,b]gson7 %>es ,r5an's belief t 8! day ( philosophic sy/ems has gone10 p>tly because he desires to lay ! basis ( a philosophy ( ! _s to :i* o!rs aft] him may contribute1 & s he devotes 8 att5tion to me?od & to ^? crucial po9ts1 su* z ! problem ( fre$om ^u :i* a l>g] doctr9e mu/ necess>ily re/4#ec #eb ,p>ticul>ly 9 8 "w ,le ,m\vem5t idali/e et la ,raction contre la ,sci5ce positive 7cf4 4#bjf71 #ahif1 & lat] 9 ,la ,p5se et les n\velles ,ecoles anti-intellectuali/es1 #aiaj4 #ec ,= a full] appreciation ( ! ,b]gsonian doctr9es ?an is possible 9 su* a survey z ?is1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! au?or's monograph1 ,b]gson & ,8 ,philosophy1 ,me?u5 & ,co41 #aibj4 ,! curr5t ( ! new idealism or spiritualism rea*es a culm9at+ po9t 9 ! "w ( ,blondel 7born ab\t #ahgj71 ^: rem>kable & notewor?y book ,l',action appe>$ 9 l#hic4ed ,! fundam5tal !sis ( ! ,philosophy ( ,action#ee is t man's life is prim>ily "o ( action1 consequ5tly philosophy mu/ conc]n itself ) ! active life & n m]ely ) ?\ght4 ,by its nature1 action is some?+ unique & irr$ucible to o!r elem5ts or factors4 ,x is n ! result ( any syn!sis3 x is itself a liv+ syn!sis1 & _c be dealt ) z ! sci5ti/ deals ) 8 data4 ,blondel lays emphasis1 z did ,b]gson1 ^u 8! liv+0 be+ unique & inexpressible 9 =mulae4 ,intellect _c grasp action2 8"o p5etrates ! liv+ reality only by plac+ oneself at ! dynamic po9t ( view ( ! w40#ef ,8 words recall ,b]gson's attitude to ! free act4 8,! pr9ciple ( action eludes positive k at ! mom5t at :i* x makes x possible1 &1 9 a ^w t ne$s to be bett] def9$1 x is subjectivity40#eg #ed ,! same ye> 9 :i* ! philosophic int]e/ 9 ,france1 gr[+ s9ce #ahgj1 & ke5] 9 ! eighties1 l$ to ! f\ndation ( ! fam\s ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale by ,xavi] ,lon4 ,9 #ahgf 7! same ye> 9 :i* ,pr(essor ,croom ,rob]tson 9 ,engl& e/abli%$ ! p]iodical ,m9d7 ,ribot _h f\nd$ ! ,revue philosophique de la ,france et de l',etrang]4 ,^! j\rnals1 along ) ! tea*+ 9 ! ,lyces1 h contribut$ to make ! ,fr5* p ! be/ educat$1 philosophically1 ( any p4 #ee ,x is int]e/+ to note t ?is designation has be5 us$ by its au?or to replace 8 orig9al t]m 8pragmatisme10 :i* he employ$ 9 #ahhh & ab&on$ ^u becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! !ory ( ,peirce & ,james1 & ) _! use ( ! t]m 9 ano!r mann]1 ) :i* he did n agree4 ,see ,bullet9 de la ,socit franaise de ,philosophie1 #aijb4 #ef ,l' ,action1 p4 #ajj4 #eg ,ibid41 p4 #hg4 ,blondel1 h[ev]1 leads u beyond ?is subjectivity1 = x is n ! w :i* causes :at is4 ,f> f t1 he ma9ta9s t 9 s f> z x wills x implies some?+ :i* x does n & _c create ( itself2 x wills to be :at x is n yet4 ,we d n act = ! m]e sake ( act+1 b = "s end1 some?+ beyond ! p>ticul> act4 ,action is n self-conta9$ or self- suffic+3 x is a /riv+ to fur!r atta9m5t or a*ievem5t4 ,x !re=e pre-supposes "s reality beyond itself4 ,"h appe> ! elem5ts ( 8passion0 & 8suff]+0 due to resi/ance1 = all action involves "s opposition4 ,9 p>ticul> moral action implies ?is resi/ance & a consci\sness ( p[] to ov]come ! resi/ance1 & x !re=e involves a reality :i* transc5ds ! sph]e 9 :i* we act4 ,ow+ to ?is inequality betwe5 ! p[] & ! wi%1 we are oblig$ to complete our actions or our activity 9 g5]al by a belief 9 a ,reality beyond4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 8a beyond t is )910 a ,div9e p[] imman5t 9 man4 ,?is view1 ,blondel claims1 unites ! idea ( ,god 8transc5d5t0 ) ! idea ( ,god z 8imman5t40 ,man's action p>takes ( bo?1 = 9 s f> z x results f 8 own w x is imman5t2 transc5d5ce is1 h[ev]1 impli$ 9 ! fact t ! end ( man's action z a :ole is n 8giv540 ,blondel leads u to a conception ( a religi\s idealism 9 :i* e act ( our ord9>y exi/5ce leads ultimately to a religi\s fai?4 ,e action is sacram5tal4 ,blondel & 8 foll[] ,lab]?onnire1 :o has tak5 up ?is idea f 8 ma/] 9 8 volume ( ,essais de ,philosophie rligieuse 7#aija71 g beyond a purely pragmati/ or volunt>i/ position by f9d+ ! supreme value ( all action1 & ( ! univ]se1 n 9 w b 9 love4 ,= ,blondel ?is ^w is no m]e s5tim5t or transi5t feel+1 b a concrete reality :i* is ! p]fection ( w & ( intellect alike1 ( action & ( k4 ,! 8,philosophy ( ,action10 ass]ts ,blondel1 includes ! 8,philosophy ( ! ,idea40 ,9 ! fact ( love1 he claims1 is f\nd ! p]fect unity betwe5 ! self & ! non-self1 ! gr\nd ( p]sonality & its relation to ! totality ( p]sons1 produc+ a unity 9 :i* ea* is se5 z an end to o!rs z well z to himself4 8,love10 says ,lab]?onnire1 8is ! fir/ & la/ ^w ( all4 ,x is ! pr9ciple1 ! means & ! end4 ,x is 9 lov+ t "o gets away f self & raises oneself above "o's temporal individuality4 ,x is 9 lov+ t "o f9ds ,god & o!r be+s1 & t "o f9ds oneself40 ,x is1 9 %ort1 ^! ideali/s claim1 ! ,summum ,bonum2 9 x is f\nd ! ,absolute :i* philosoph]s & religi\s my/ics ( all ages h ev] s\ght4 ,! 8philosophy ( action0 is intimately b\nd up ) ! 8philosophy ( belief10 =mulat$ by ,oll-,laprune1 & ! movem5t 9 religi\s ?\ght kn[n g5]ally z ,mod]nism1 :i* is itself due to ! influ5ce ( mod]n philosophic ?\ght ^u ! dogmas ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 z ^! are /at$ by ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,bo? ! ,philosophy ( ,belief & ,mod]nism are *>act]is$ by an int5se spirituality & a moral e>ne/ness :i* ma9ta9 ! primacy ( ! practical reason ov] ! !oretical reason4 ,life1 insi/s ,oll-,laprune 9 8 book ,le ,prix de la ,vie 7l#hhe71eh is n contemplation b active creation4 ,he urges u to a creative evolution ( ! good1 to an employm5t ( ides-=ces4 8,!re are ?+s to be made ^: measure is n det]m9$2 !re are ?+s to be discov]$1 to be inv5t$1 new =ms ( ! good1 ideas :i* h nev] yet be5 receiv$--creations1 z x 71 ( ! _s t loves ! good40 ,?is dynamism & p[] ( w is ess5tial4 ,we mu/ n lose ourselves 9 ab/ractions2 action is ! supreme ?+3 x alone con/itutes reality4 #eh ,?is has be5 foll[$ 9 ! new c5tury by ,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme1 #aijf4 ,z e>ly z #ahhj1 h[ev]1 he issu$ 8 "w ,la ,c]titude morale1 :i* influ5c$ ,blondel1 8 pupil4 ,a simil> note is s\nd$ by ! ,mod]ni/s or ,neo-,ca?olics1 p>ticul>ly by ! brilliant disciple & successor ( ,b]gson1 ,le ,roy1 :o 9 ,dogme et ,critique 7#aijg7 has bas$ ! reality ( religi\s dogma ^u its practical significance4 ,we f9d ,pguy 7:o fell on ! field ( battle 9 #aiad7 apply+ ,b]gsonian ideas to a f]vid religi\s fai?4 ,wilbois unites ^! ideas to social e?ics 9 8 ,devoir et ,dure 7#aiab74 ,9 q diff]5t qu>t]s ! new spiritualism & philosophy ( action h appe>$ z inspir+ ! ,syndicalism ( ,sorel1 :o endeav\rs to apply ! doctr9es ( ,b]gson1 ,oll-,laprune & ,blondel to ! solution ( social que/ions 9 8 ,rflexions sur la ,viol5ce 7#aijg7 & ,illusions du ,progrs 7#aiaa74 ,x w\ld be errone\s to reg>d ,b]gson's intuitional philosophy z typical ( all contempor>y ,fr5* ?\ght4 ,foll[+ ,r5\vi]1 ,f\ille & ,b\tr\x1 !re prevail curr5ts ( a m intellectuali/ or rationali/ type1 to :i* we are1 p]haps1 too close to see 9 true & hi/orical p]spective4 ,! lan vital ( ,fr5* ?\ght cont9ues to manife/ itself 9 a mann] :i* comb9es ! "w ( ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson ) ,blondel's idealism4 ,a ke5 int]e/ is be+ tak5 9 ! works ( ,sp9oza1 ,kant & ,hegel1 & ?is is obvi\sly influ5c+ ! tr5d ( ,fr5* philosophy at ! mom5t1 )\t giv+ rise to a m]e eclecticism4 ,fr5* ?\ght is too orig9al & too en]getic = t4 ,9 addition to ^! classical /udies we %\ld note ! great & gr[+ influ5ce ( ! "w ( ,durkheim & ( ,hamel91 bo? ( :om we h already m5tion$4 ,! =m] gave an imm5se impetus to sociological /udies by 8 e>li] "w4 ,fur!r int]e/ arose ) 8 ,=mes lm5taires de la ,vie religieuse 9 #aiab4 ,hamel9 indicat$ a turn+-po9t f neo-criticisme ?r\gh ! new spirituali/ doctr9es to ,hegelian me?ods & ideas4 ,bruns*wicg1 :o produc$ a c>eful /udy ( ,sp9oza1 wrote z e>ly z #ahig on ,la ,modalit du ,jugem5t1 a truly ,kantian topic4 ,?is ?9k]'s lat] works1 ,les ,etapes de la ,philosophie ma!matique 7#aiab7 & ! little volume ,la ,vie de l'esprit1 illu/rate a t5d5cy to c>ry out ! l9e tak5 by ,b\tr\x--namely1 to arrive at ! /atem5t ( a valid idealism discipl9$ by positivism4 ,! pap]s ( ,b]!lot 9 8 ,evolutionnisme et ,platonisme are a fur!r contribution to ?is great end4 ,9 ! "w ( ,evell91 ,la ,raison pure et les ,ant9omies 7#aijg71 ! int]e/ 9 ,kant & ,hegel is aga9 se54 ,nol1 :o contribut$ an excell5t monograph on ,la*eli] to ! ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale 7t j\rnal :i* is an excell5t witness 9 itself to ! vitality ( contempor>y ,fr5* philosophy71 produc$ a c>eful /udy ( ,hegel's ,logik 9 #ahig4 ,s9ce t date int]e/ has gr[n along ! l9es ( ,b\tr\x1 ,b]gson & ,blondel 9 an attempt to rea* a positive idealism1 :i* w\ld comb9e ! /rictly positivi/ attitude s de> to ,fr5* m9ds ) ! t5d5cy to spiritualism or idealism :i* !y also manife/4 ,?is attempt1 :i* 9 "s respects am\nts to an ef=t to re/ate ! pr9ciples ( ,hegel 9 mod]n or contempor>y t]ms1 0 und]tak5 by ,web] 9 #aijc 9 8 book entitl$ ,v]s le ,positivisme absolu p> l',idalisme4 ,philosophy 9 ,france realises to-day t ! true c\rse ( spiritual developm5t w be at once positive & ideali/ic4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,sci5ce ,,introduction3 ,! sci5tific outlook--,progress ( ! sci5ces--,! positivi/ _s1 its action on sci5ce1 philosophy & lit]ature--,! problem z pres5t$ to philosophy4 ,i4 ,comte's positivism--,"w ( prom95t sci5ti/s--,position ma9ta9$ by ,b]!lot & ,b]n>d--,r5an's confid5ce--,va*]ot & ,ta9e--,insuffici5cy ( sci5ces alone4 ,,ii4 ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] attack ! dogmatism ( sci5ce4 ,,iii4 ,! neo-spirituali/ gr\p cont9ue & develop ?is attack1 :i* becomes a m>k$ feature 9 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x1 & ,b]gson4 ,entire *ange ( attitude 9 ! developm5t ( ! p]iod4 ,! problem ( fre$om op5$ up 9 ! process4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,sci5ce ,hav+ ?us survey$ ! ma9 curr5ts ( our p]iod & indicat$ ! g5]al attitude adopt$ to k by ! v>i\s ?9k]s1 we approa* m closely to ! problem ( ! relation ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury 0 a p]iod 9 :i* ?is problem 0 ke5ly felt1 & ,france 0 ! c\ntry 9 :i* x 0 t5sely discuss$ by ! mo/ acute m9ds among ! philosoph]s & among ! sci5ti/s4 ,fr5* ?\ght & culture1 true to ! tradition ( ! great geometrician & metaphysician ,desc>tes1 h produc$ m5 ^: tra9+ has be5 highly sci5tific z well z philosophical4 ,h] philosoph]s h be5 ke5ly v]s$ 9 ma!matics & physical sci5ce1 :ile h] sci5ti/s h _h consid]able p[] z philosophical ?9k]s4 ,"o ( ! v prom95t t5d5cies ( ?\ght 9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 ! gr[+ belief & confid5ce 9 ! natural sci5ces4 ,9 ,france ?is 0 9 l>ge measure due to ! progress ( ^? sci5ces !mselves & to ! influ5ces ( ,comte1 :i* 0 support$ by ! =eign influ5ces ( ,kant's tea*+ & t ( ! ,engli% ,s*ool1 p>ticul>ly ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,^! ?ree great /reams ( ?\ght1 widely diff]5t 9 _m respects1 _h ?is 9 common--t !y t5d$ to confuse philosophy & sci5ce to su* a degree t x seem$ d\btful :e!r ! =m] c\ld be grant$ any exi/5ce by itself4 ,sci5ce1 some:at intoxicat$ by ! praise & wor%ip be/[$ ^u h]1 became pr\d1 arrogant & ov]be>+4 ,%e scorn$ facts :i* c\ld n be adapt$ to h] own nature1 %e ignor$ data :i* 7 n quantitative & mat]iali/ic1 & %e reg>d$ tru? z a sy/em ( laws capable ( expression by /rict ma!matical me?ods & =mulae994 ,h5ce sci5ce became *>act]is$ by a firm belief 9 absolute det]m9ism1 9 laws ( necessity op]at+ aft] ! mann] ( ma!matical laws4 ,?is 8univ]sal ma!matic0 endeav\r$ also to expla9 ! complex by ref]5ce to ! simple4 ,difficulties 7 enc\nt]$ all along ! l9e1 = exp]i5ce1 x 0 f\nd1 did n q fit into rigid =mulae991 8new0 elem5ts ( exp]i5ce pres5t$ a unique "* & di/ress+ discrepancy4 ,confid5ce 9 sci5ce1 h[ev]1 0 n %ak5 by ?is1 = ! p]fect sci5ce1 x 0 imag9$1 0 assur$ 9 a %ort "t4 ,pati5ce might be ne$$1 b no d\bt 0 ent]ta9$ ( ! possibility ( su* a con/ruction4 ,d\bt]s 7 told to look at ! ris+ sci5ces ( psy*ology & sociology1 :i*1 z ,augu/e ,comte _h himself prophesi$1 7 approa*+ gradually to ! 8type0 v5]at$--namely1 an exact & ma!matical "*4 ,biology1 x 0 urg$1 0 m]ely a special bran* ( physico-*emi/ry4 ,z = beliefs 9 fre$om1 9 art1 morality & religion1 ^!1 l philosophy 7metaphysics7 itself1 belong$ to ! e>li] /ages 7! !ological & metaphysical7 ( ,comte's li/1 /ages rapidly to be replac$ by ! ?ird & f9al 8positive0 era4 ,su*1 briefly /at$1 7 ! affirmations s confid5tly put =w>d on behalf ( sci5ce by its devot$ wor%ipp]s4 ,confid5ce 9 sci5ce 0 a m>k$ feature ( ! "w writt5 by ,r5an 9 ! ye>s #ahdh-ahdi1 ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce4 ,yet1 p>adoxical z x may seem1 ,r5an himself play$ a l>ge "p 9 und]m9+ ?is confid5ce4 ,yet ! "t ( 8 writ+ ?is "w is und\bt$ly ! p]iod :5 ! confid5ce 9 sci5ce 0 mo/ m>k$4 ,by ?is x is n impli$ t an ev5 great] confid5ce 9 sci5ce has n be5 pr(ess$ s9ce by _m ?9k]s4 ,t is probably true1 b ! important po9t is t at ?is "t ! confid5ce 9 sci5ce 0 less resi/$ ?an ev] 9 its hi/ory4 ,x seem$ to h a cle> field & positivism seem$ to be gett+ unto itself a mighty victory4 ,! cult ( facts1 :i* is s m>k$ a *>act]i/ic ( ! sci5tific or positivi/ temp]1 p5etrat$1 x is int]e/+ to note1 into ! realm ( lit]ature1 :]e x assum$ ! =m ( 8realism40 ,9 8 ,intellig5ce we f9d ,ta9e rem>k+1 8de t\t petits fails bi5 *oisis1 importants1 significatifs1 amplem5t circon/ancis et m9utieusem5t ns1 voil auj\rd'hui la matire de t\te sci5ce40#a ,x 0 also1 9 ! op9ion ( sev]al writ]s1 ! matire de t\te littrature4 ,! passion = m9ute details %[s itself 9 ! realism ( ,flaub]t & ,zola1 9 ! psy*ology ( ,/5d?al99 & ! novels ( ! ,gonc\rts4 ,x 0 no accid5t t _! works 7 s lov$ by ,ta9e4 ,a simil> _s ( 8positivism0 or 8realism0 animat$ bo? !m & him4 #a ,preface to ,intellig5ce4 ,) ! turn ( ! half c5tury1 h[ev]1 a *ange manife/$ itself by ! fact t ! positivi/ curr5t began to turn aga9/ itself1 & our p]iod is1 9 "s respects1 :at ,f\ille has call$ la raction c5tre la sci5ce positive4#b ,! function ( philosophy is ess5tially criticism1 & al?\gh at t p]iod ! vitality ( philosophy 0 l[1 x nev]!less f\nd en\gh en]gy to criticise ! dem&s & cr$5tials ( ,sci5ce4 #b ,comp>e also ,aliotta's book1 ,! ,ideali/ic ,reaction aga9/ ,sci5ce1 ,eng4 trans41 #ail#d4 ,! publication ( ,claude ,b]n>d's volume ,introduction la ,mdec9e exp]im5tale#c drew f ! p5 ( ,paul ,janet1 ! la/ ( ! ,eclectic ,s*ool dom9at$ by ,c\s91 an article ( criticism :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 & 0 lat] publi%$ 9 8 volume ( essays entitl$1 ,les ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 ,al?\gh ,janet's essay reveals all ! defici5cies ( ! old] spiritualism1 he makes a gallant attempt to combat ! dogmatism & ! assum$ f9ality ( ,b]n>d's po9t ( view & t ( ! sci5ti/s 9 g5]al4 ,janet reg>d$ ! sci5ces & _! relation to philosophy z con/itut+ an important problem = ! c5tury & 9 ?is judgm5t he 0 n mi/ak54 #c ,cf4 ,livre ,,iii41 ,sci5ce1 *ap1 i41 on 8,me?od 9 ,g5]al02 *ap1 ii41 on ,! ,exp]im5tal ,me?od 9 ,physiology10 pp4 #bac-bgi4 ,i ,we h1 9 our ,introductory ,*apt]1 reckon$ ,augu/e ,comte among ! influ5tial antec$5ts ( our p]iod4 ,"h1 9 approa*+ ! /udy ( ! problem ( sci5ce1 we may note t ! t5d5cy t[>ds ! /rictly sci5tific attitude1 & to ! promotion ( ! sci5tific _s 9 g5]al1 0 p>tly due to ! influ5ce ( 8 positivism4 ,comte's int5d$ ,religion ( ,humanity fail$1 8 sy/em ( positive philosophy has be5 neglect$1 b ! ,,_s :i* he inculcat$ has abid$ & has borne fruit4 ,we w\ld be wrong1 h[ev]1 if we attribut$ mu* to ,comte z ! orig9ator ( t _s4 ,8 positive philosophy1 al?\gh x greatly /imulat$ & /r5g!n$ ! positive attitude adopt$ by ! natural sci5ces1 0 itself 9 l>ge measure inspir$ by & bas$ ^u ^! sci5ces4 ,consequ5tly mu* ( ,comte's glory 0 a reflect$ light1 8 ?\ght 0 a *all5ge to ! old spiritualism1 an ass]tion ( ! rights ( ! sci5ces to proclaim _! exi/5ce & to dem& s]i\s consid]ation4 ,al?\gh he succe$$ 9 call+ ! att5tion ( philosophy to ! natural sci5ces1 yet ow+ to ! m]e fact t he bas$ himself on ! sci5ces ( 8 day mu* ( 8 ?\ght has become obsolete by ! progress & ext5sion ( ^? v sci5ces !mselves4 ,he t5d$1 ) a curi\s dogmatism1 to assign limits to ! sci5ces by keep+ !m 9 sep>ate comp>tm5ts & 9 g5]al by desir+ k to be limit$ to human ne$s4 ,al?\gh !re is important tru? 9 8 doctr9e ( discont9uity or irr$ucible diff]5ces1 ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ! natural sci5ces has cle>$ away _m b>ri]s :i* he imag9$ to be impassable4 ,!re /ill are1 & may always be1 gaps 9 our k ( ! progress f inorganic to organic1 f ! liv+ creature to self-consci\s p]sonality1 b we h a great] conception ( ! unity ( ,nature ?an _h ,comte4 ,_m new ideas & discov]ies h trans=m$ sci5ce s9ce 8 day1 p>ticul>ly ! doctr9es deal+ ) heat z a =m ( motion1 ) light1 electricity1 & ! radio-activity ( matt]1 ! /ructure ( ! atom1 & ! int]-relation ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,comte's claim = diff]5t me?ods 9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce is ( consid]able int]e/1 9 view ( pres5t-day biological problems & ! controv]sies ( vitali/s1 me*ani/s & neo-vitali/s4#d ,al?\gh ,comte insi/$ ^u discont9uity1 yet he urg$ ! necessity = an esprit d'ensemble1 ! consid]ation ( ?+s syn!tically1 9 _! 8toge!rness40 ,he fe>$ t analysis1 ! esprit de dtail or ma!matisation1 0 be+ c>ri$ out l'outrance4 ,?is op9ion he fir/ /at$ 9 #ahbe 9 8 tract entitl$ ,considrations sur les ,sci5ces et les ,savants4 ,on ! social side he br\ght ?is po9t out fur!r by insi/+ on ! esprit d'ensemble z involv+ ! social /&po9t 9 opposition to a purely individuali/ic view ( human life4 #d ,see1 = example1 ,! ,me*anism ( ,life1 by ,dr4 ,john/one1 ,pr(essor ( ,oceanography 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,liv]pool4 7,arnold1 #aiba47 ,comte 0 sl[ to realise ! importance ( ,e?ics z an indep5d5t /udy4 ,psy*ology he nev] recognis$ z a sep>ate discipl9e1 deem+ x "p ( physiology4 ,he gave a curi\s appreciation to phr5ology4 ,un=tunately he ov]look$ ! important "w done by ! introspectioni/ psy*ologi/s 9 ,engl& & ! important "w ( ,ma9e de ,biran 9 8 own c\ntry4 ,"o is /ruck by ,comte's inability to appreciate ! imm5se place occupi$ by psy*ology 9 mod]n life & 9 p>ticul> its expression 9 ! mod]n novel & 9 mu* mod]n poetry4 ,an acqua9tance ) ! works ( m5 l ,de ,regni]1 ,pi]re ,loti & ,anatole ,france is suffici5t to %[ h[ l>ge a factor ! psy*ological me?od is 9 ,fr5* lit]ature & life4 ,x is to be put d[n to ,comte's et]nal discr$it t he fail$ to appreciate psy*ology4 ,"h lies ! greate/ defect 9 8 "w1 & x is 9 ?is connection t 8 "w is n[ be+ supplem5t$4 ,positivism 9 ,france to-day is n a synonym = 8,comtism0 at all2 ! t]m is n[ employ$ to d5ote ! _s & temp] display$ 9 ! me?ods ( ! exact sci5ces4 ,= ,comte1 we mu/ nev] =get1 sci5tific inve/igation 0 a means & n an end 9 itself4 ,8 ma9 purpose 0 social & political reg5]ation4 ,positivism s9ce ,comte diff]s f 8 philosophy by a ke5 att5tion be/[$ ^u psy*ology1 & _m ( ,comte's inadequate conceptions h be5 enri*$ by ! introduction ( a due recognition ( psy*ological factors4 ,x is to be not$ t ,comte di$ two ye>s be=e ,d>w9's *ef-d'uvre appe>$1 & t he oppos$ ! doctr9e ( evolution z put =w>d by ,lam>ck4 ,al?\gh ,comte's pr9ciple ( discont9uity may 9 g5]al h tru? 9 x1 ! problem is a f> m complicat$ "o ?an he imag9$ x to be4 ,aga91 :ile ,comte's opposition to ! subjectivism ( ,c\s9 0 a :olesome influ5ce1 he did n accord to psy*ology its full rights1 & ?is alone has be5 gravely aga9/ ! acceptance ( 8 philosophy1 & expla9s p>tly ! rise & progress ( ! new spirituali/ doctr9es4 ,8 "w s]v$ a useful purpose1 b ,comte nev] clos$ def9itely ) ! problem ( ! precise significance ( 8positivism0 or ) its relation to a g5]al conception ( ! univ]se2 9 %ort1 he conf9$ himself to increas+ ! sci5tific _s 9 ?\ght1 leav+ aside ! difficulty ( relat+ sci5ce & philosophy4 ,comte /at$ 9 8 ,philosophie positive#e t he reg>d$ attempts to expla9 all ph5om5a by ref]5ce to "o law z futile1 ev5 :5 und]tak5 by ! mo/ compet5t m9ds well v]s$ 9 ! /udy ( ! sci5ces4 ,al?\gh he believ$ 9 discont9uity he tri$ to bridge "s gaps1 notably by 8 endeav\r to ref] c]ta9 physiological ph5om5a to ! law ( gravitation4 #e ,vol4 i41 pp4 #ec-ef4 ,! *ief "w :i* ?is und\bt$ly great m9d accompli%$ 0 ! organisation ( ! sci5tific _s z x appe>$ 9 8 "t4 ,r5an h>dly does ju/ice to him 9 8 s>ca/ic rem>k 9 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 8,i felt q irritat$ at ! idea ( ,augu/e ,comte be+ dignifi$ ) ! title ( a great man = hav+ express$ 9 bad ,fr5* :at all sci5tific m9ds _h se5 = ! la/ two hundr$ ye>s z cle>ly z he _h done40 ,8 "w m]its m ?an dismissal 9 su* a tone1 & we may "h note1 z ! ess5ce ( ! _s :i* he tri$ to express1 8 def9ition ( ! positive or sci5tific attitude to ! univ]se giv5 at ! comm5cem5t ( 8 celebrat$ ,c\rs de ,philosophie positive4 ,!re1 9 def9+ ! positive /age1 ,comte speaks ( x z t p]iod 9 :i* 8! human _s1 recognis+ ! impossibility ( obta9+ absolute conceptions1 ab&ons ! se>* = ! orig9 & ! goal ( ! univ]se & ! inn] causes ( ?+s1 to set itself ! task m]ely ( discov]+1 by reason+ & by exp]i5ce comb9$1 ! effective laws ( ph5om5a--t is to say1 _! inv>iable relations ( succession & ( simil>ity40#f ,?is positive _s ,comte /rove to express r ?an to orig9ate1 = x 0 already !re 9 ! sci5ces4 ,und\bt$ly 8 "w made x m prom95t1 m cle>1 & s we h to note an int]action betwe5 positivism 9 ! sci5ces & 9 philosophy4 #f ,leon i4 ,x is equally important = our purpose to notice t ! p]iod 0 "o ri* 9 sci5tific ?\ght4 ,! "w ( ,lavoisi] & ,bi*at1 bo? ( :om z contempor>ies ( ,ma9e de ,biran1 belong to ! =m] c5tury1 0 n[ be>+ fruit4 ,lavoisi]'s influ5ce _h be5 great ov] *emi/ry1 :i* he e/abli%$ on a mod]n basis1 by =mulat+ ! important !ory ( ! cons]vation ( mass & by cle>+ away false & fan- ta/ic conceptions reg>d+ combu/ion4#g ,bi*at1 ! great anatomi/ & physiologi/1 di$ 9 #ahjb1 b ! publication ( 8 works 9 a complet$ =m 0 n accompli%$ until #ahed4 ,! "w & influ5ce ( ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces are notewor?y features ( ,fr5* culture at ?is "t4 ,!re /&s out prom95tly ! highly important "w ( ,cuvi] 9 anatomy1 zoology & palontology4#h ,! n9ete5? c5tury 0 a p]iod ( great sci5ti/s & ( great sci5tific !ories4 ,lev]ri]1 apply+ himself to ! problem ( ! motions ( ,uranus1 f\nd a solution 9 ! hypo!sis ( ano!r planet1 ,neptune1 :i* 0 actually discov]$ f 8 calculations 9 #ahdf4 ,?is 0 a notable victory = logical & sci5tific me?od4 ,9 #ahji ,lam>ck _h outl9$1 prior to ,sp5c] or ,d>w91 ! s*eme ( ! evolution>y !ory 7,trans=mism74#i ,sp5c]'s "w1 :i* appe>$ f #ahej onw>ds1 has always comm&$ respect & att5tion 9 ,france ev5 among its critics4#aj ,int]e/ increas$ ^u ! publication ( ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species 9 #ahei1 & its translation into ,fr5* 9 #ahfb4 ,^! dates co9cide ) ! rise ( ! ,socit d',an?ropologie de ,p>is1 f\nd$ by ,broca 9 ! same ye> t ,d>w9's book appe>$4 ,ano!r translation f ,d>w9's "w foll[$ 9 #ahgb1 ,desc5dance de l',homme1 :i* ar\s$ fur!r int]e/ 9 ! evolution>y !ory4 ,at ! same "t ! "w ( m5 su* z ,pa/eur1 ,b]tr&1 ,b]!lot & ,b]n>d gave an impetus & a p[] to sci5ce4 ,po9c>e belongs r to ! tw5tie? c5tury4 ,pa/eur 7#ahbb-ahie7 %[$ mank9d h[ sci5ce c\ld cure its ills by pati5t lab\r & c>eful inve/igation1 & e>n$ ! _w's gratitude = 8 noble "w4 ,8 v>i\s ,disc\rs & 8 volume1 ,le ,budget de la ,sci5ce 7#ahfh71 %[ 8 fai? 9 ?is progressive p[] ( sci5ce4 ,9 ,b]tr& 7#ahbb-aijj71 8 contempor>y :o held ! position ( ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics at ! ,college de ,france1 a simil> attitude appe>s4 #g ,lavoisi] p]i%$ at ! guillot9e 9 #agid1 & 8 dea? 0 a tragic loss to sci5ce4 #h ,cuvi]'s ,anatomie comp>e appe>$ 9 ! ye>s #ahjj-ahje1 foll[+ 8 ,hi/oire naturelle 7#agih-agii74 ,lat] came 8 ,rapport sur les ,sci5ces naturelles 7#ahaj7 & 8 "w ,le ,regne animal 7#ahaf74;,he di$ 9 #ahcb4 ,we may note t ,cuvi] oppos$ ! speculative evolution>y doctr9es ( ,lam>ck1 ) :om he indulg$ 9 controv]sy4 #i ,9 8 "w1 ,philosophie zoologique1 ou ,exposition des ,considrations relatives a l',hi/oire naturelle des ,animaux1 #b vols ,p>is1 ,d5tu1 #ahji4 #aj ,8 ,social ,/atics 0 publi%$ 9 #ahej1 & 8 ,psy*ology five ye>s lat]4 ,8 life "w1 ,! ,syn!tic ,philosophy1 ext5ds ov] ! p]iod #ahfj-ahif4 ,"o ( ! =emo/ sci5tific m9ds1 h[ev]1 0 ,claude ,b]n>d 7#ahac-ahgh71 a fri5d ( ,r5an1 :o held ! ,*air ( ,m$ic9e at ! ,college de ,france1 & 01 9 addition1 ! ,pr(essor ( ,physiology at ! ,facult des ,sci5ces at ! ,sorbonne4 ,sci5ce1 ,b]n>d ma9ta9$1 conc]ns itself only ) ph5om5a & _! laws4 ,he endeav\r$ 9 8 celebrat$ ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdc9e exprim5tale1 publi%$ 9 #ahfe1 to e/abli% ! sci5ce ( physiology ^u a s\nd basis1 hav+ respect only to fact1 n own+ homage to !ories ( a metaphysical "* or to ! au?ority ( p]sons or cre$s4 ,he desir$ to obta9 by su* a rigor\s & precise me?od1 objectivity4 8,! exp]im5tal me?od is10 he insi/s1 8! really sci5tific me?od1 :i* proclaims ! fre$om ( ! human _s & its intellig5ce4 ,x n only %akes (f ! yoke ( metaphysics & ( !ology1 9 addition x refuses to admit p]sonal consid]ations & subjective /&po9ts40#aa #aa ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdc9e exprim5tale1 *ap4 ii1 sect4 #d4 ,b]n>d's attitude is di/9ctly t ( a positivi/1 & ! g5]al tone ( 8 rem>ks z well z 8 attitude on _m special po9ts agrees ) t ( ,comte4 ,8 conclusions reg>d+ physiology are ak9 to ^? express$ by ,comte conc]n+ biology4 ,b]n>d excludes any metaphysical hypo!sis su* z ! op]ation ( a vital pr9ciple1 & adh]es /rictly to physico*emical =mulas4 ,he accepts1 h[ev]1 ,comte's w>n+ ab\t ! r$uction ( ! high] to t]ms ( ! l[]1 or1 9 ,sp5c]ian phraseology1 ! explanation ( ! m complex by ! less complex4 ,consequ5tly1 he c>efully avoids ! /atem5t t he desires to 8r$uce0 physiology to physics & *emi/ry4 ,he makes no facile & light-he>t$ transition z did ,sp5c]2 on ! contr>y1 he claims t ! liv+ has "s specific quality :i* _c be 8r$uc$0 to o!r t]ms1 & :i* _c be summ$ up 9 ! =mulae ( physics or *emi/ry4 ,! physiologi/ & ! m$ical practition] mu/ nev] ov]look ! fact t e liv+ be+ =ms an organism & an individuality4 ,! physiologi/1 cont9ues ,b]n>d1 mu/ take notice ( ?is unity or h>mony ( ! :ole1 ev5 :ile he p5etrates ! int]ior to "k ! me*anism ( ea* ( its p>ts4 ,! physici/ & ! *emi/ c ignore any notion ( f9al causes 9 ! facts !y obs]ve1 b ! physiologi/ mu/ admit a h>moni\s f9ality1 a h>mony pre-e/abli%$ 9 ! organism1 ^: actions =m & express a unity & solid>ity1 s9ce !y g5]ate "o ano!r4 ,life itself is creation2 x is n capable ( expression m]ely 9 physico-*emical =mulae4 ,! creative "*1 :i* is its ess5ce1 nev] c be s express$4 ,b]n>d po/ulat$ an ab/ract1 ide directrice et cratrice1 presid+ ov] ! evolution ( an organism4 8,dans t\t g]me vivant1 il y a une ide cratrice qui se dveloppe et se manife/e p> l'organisation4 ,p5dant t\te sa dure l'tre vivant re/e s\s l'influ5ce de cette mme =ce vitale1 cratrice1 et la mort arrive lorsqu'elle ne peut plus se ralis]4 ,ici comme p>t\t1 t\t drive de l'ide1 qui1 seule1 cre et dirige40#ab #ab ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdc9e exprim5tale1 p4#aea ff4 ,! positivi/ _s is aga9 v m>k$ 9 ! doctr9es ( ,b]!lot 7#ahbg-aijg71 ano!r v great fri5d ( ,r5an1 :o1 9 addition to be+ a ,s5ator1 & ,m9i/] ( ,education & ( ,=eign ,affairs1 held ! ,*air ( ,organic ,*emi/ry at ! ,collge de ,france4 ,9 #ahhf he publi%$ 8 volume1 ,sci5ce et ,philosophie1 :i* conta9s "s int]e/+ & illum9at+ obs]vations ^u ,la ,sci5ce idale et la ,sci5ce positive4 ,"p ( ?is1 x may be not$1 0 writt5 z e>ly z #ahfc1 9 correspond5ce ) ,r5an1 & z a reply to a lett] ( 8 ( :i* we %all speak pres5tly4#ac ,b]!lot /ates 8 case ) a cle>ness :i* m]its quotation4 #ac ,see ! ,fragm5ts ( ,r5an1 publi%$ #ahgf1 pp #aic-bda4 ,reponse de ,m4 ,b]!lot4 8,positive sci5ce10 he says1 8seeks nei!r fir/ causes nor ! ultimate goal ( ?+s4 ,9 ord] to l9k toge!r a multitude ( ph5om5a by "o s+le law1 g5]al 9 "* & con=mable to ! nature ( ?+s1 ! human _s has foll[$ a simple & inv>iable me?od4 ,x has /at$ ! facts 9 accordance ) obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 comp>$ !m1 extract$ _! relations1 t is ! g5]al facts1 :i* h 9 turn be5 v]ifi$ by obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 :i* v]ification con/itutes _! only gu>antee ( tru?4 ,a progressive g5]alisation1 d$uc$ f prior facts & v]ifi$ unceas+ly by new obs]vations1 ?us br+s our k f ! plane ( p>ticul> & popul> facts to g5]al laws ( an ab/ract & univ]sal "*4 ,b1 9 ! con/ruction ( ?is pyramid ( sci5ce1 ev]y?+ f base to summit re/s ^u obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 ,x is "o ( ! pr9ciples ( positive sci5ce t no reality c be e/abli%$ by a process ( reason+4 ,! univ]se _c be grasp$ by a priori me?ods40 ,l ,comte1 ,b]!lot believ$ 9 ! progress ( all k ?r\gh a !ological & metaphysical /age to a def9itely sci5tific or positive era4 ,! sci5ces are z yet "y1 & we _c imag9e ! developm5t & improvem5t1 social & moral1 :i* w accrue f _! triumph 9 ! future4 ,= ,b]!lot1 z = ,r5an1 ! idea ( progress 0 b\nd up ess5tially ) ! triumph ( ! sci5tific _s4 ,9 a ,disc\rse at ! ,sorbonne giv5 9 commemoration ( ! fiftie? anniv]s>y ( 8 be+ appo9t$ ,pr(essor at ! ,collge de ,france1 we f9d ?is fai? 9 sci5ce reit]at$4 8,to-day10 he rem>ks1 8,sci5ce claims a triple direction ( societies1 mat]ially1 intellectually & morally4 ,by ?is fact ! role ( ! m5 ( sci5ce1 bo? z individuals & z a class1 has unceas+ly come to play a great "p 9 mod]n /ates40 ,^! sci5tific m51 ,b]!lot & ,b]n>d1 ) :om ,r5an 0 on t]ms ( fri5d%ip1 _h a l>ge influ5ce 9 ! =mation ( 8 ?\ght1 aft] he _h quitt$ ! sem9>y & ! ,*ur*4 ,z a "y man ,r5an possess$ ! positive _s 9 a m>k$ degree1 & did n fail to disclose 8 en?usiasm = 8,sci5ce0 & = ! sci5tific me?od4 ,8 book ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 :i* we h already not$1 0 writt5 :5 he 0 only tw5ty-five1 & "u ! imm$iate influ5ce ( ! ev5ts ( #ahdh1 p>ticul>ly ! sociali/ _s ( ,sa9t-,simon & ! 8organis+0 attitude ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,x did n1 h[ev]1 see publication until #ahij1 :5 ! ,empire _h produc$ a pessimi/ic temp] 9 him1 lat] acc5tuat$ by ! ,commune & ! ,prussian ,w>4 ,! dom9ant note ( ! :ole "w is ! t\*+ & almo/ pa!tic belief 9 ,sci5ce1 :i* leads ! "y writ] to an optimism bo? 9 ?\ght & 9 politics4 8,sci5ce0 con/itutes = him ! all-9-all4 ,al?\gh he _h j previ\sly ab&on$ ! sem9>y1 8 prie/ly /yle rema9$ ) him to su* a degree t ev5 8 treatm5t ( sci5ce is *>act]is$ by a mixture ( ! unction ( ! cur & ! subtilty ( ! dialectician4 ,levites 7 /ill to be necess>y to ! p ( ,israel1 b !y 7 to be ! prie/s ( ! mo/ ,high1 ^: "n1 accord+ to ,r5an1 0 8,sci5ce40 ,8 ard\r = ,sci5ce is n conf9$ to ?is "o book3 x runs ?r\gh all 8 writ+s4 ,prosp]o1 a "* :o p]sonifies rational ?\ght 9 ,l',eau de ,j\v5ce1 "o ( ,r5an's ,drames philosophiques1 expresses an ard5t love = sci5ce cont9ually4 ,9 8 preface to ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse we f9d ,r5an ^u ! same !me4 ,qua9tly en\gh he n only praises ! objectivity :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! sci5tific po9t ( view1 b seems to delight 9 its ab/raction4 ,! sup]iority ( mod]n sci5ce consi/s1 he claims1 9 ?is v ab/raction4 ,b he is aw>e t ! v indefatigability ) :i* we fa?om nature removes u1 9 a s5se1 fur!r f h]4 ,he recognises h[ sci5ce leads away f ! imm$iacy ( vital & close contact ) nature h]self4 8,?is is1 h[ev]1 z x %\ld be10 ass]ts ,r5an1 8& let no "o fe> to prosecute 8 rese>*es1 = out ( ?is m]ciless dissection comes life40 ,he does n /ay to assure u1 or to enlight5 u1 z to h[ t life c be infus$ into ! ab/ract facts :i* h result$ f ! process ( dissection4 ,fruitful & sugge/ive z _m ( 8 pages are1 !y fail to approa* ! concrete difficulties :i* ?is passage m5tions4 ,writ+ f ,d9ant 9 ,brittany 9 #ahfc to 8 fri5d1 ,b]!lot1 ,r5an gives 8 view ( ! ,sci5ces ( ,nature & ! ,hi/orical ,sci5ces4 ,?is lett]1 repr9t$ 9 8 ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques1 9 #ahgf1 expresses ,r5an's4views 9 a cle> & simple =m ^u ! place ( sci5ce 9 8 m9d & also ^u ! idea ( progress1 z = him ! two are intimately connect$4 ,extreme confid5ce is express$ 9 ! p[] ( sci5ce4 ,r5an at ?is "t _h writt51 b n publi%$1 8 ,av5ir de la ,sci5ce4 ,9 a brief mann] ?is lett] summ>ises mu* conta9$ 9 ! l>g] "w4 ,! po9t ( view is simil>4 ,sci5ce is to be ! great re=m+ p[]4 ,! ^w 8,sci5ce0 is s con/antly ^u ,r5an's lips t we c see t x has become an obsession ) mm to employ x1 or a device4 ,c]ta9ly ,r5an's ext5sive & ill-def9$ usage ( x conceals grave difficulties4 ,"o is tempt$ frequ5tly to reg>d x z a synonym = philosophy or metaphysics1 a ^w :i* he dislikes4 ,t does n1 h[ev]1 add to cle>ness1 & ,r5an's usage ( 8,sci5ce0 z a t]m confuses bo? sci5ce & philosophy toge!r4 ,ev5 if ?is 7 n ! case1 !re is ano!r important po9t to note-- namely1 t ev5 on a /rict] int]pretation ,r5an1 by 8 wide use ( ! t]m1 actually und]m9es ! confid5ce 9 ! natural sci5ces4 ,= he embraces )9 ! t]m 8,sci5ce0 n m]ely ^? bran*es ( inve/igation :i* we t]m 9 g5]al ! sci5ces ( nature1 b also ! critical /udy ( language1 ( hi/ory & lit]ature4 ,he expressly endeav\rs to %[ 9 ! lett] to ,b]!lot t true sci5ce mu/ include ! product ( man's _s & ! record ( ! developm5t ( t _s4 ,r5an assum$ q def9itely a positivi/ attitude to metaphysics4 8,philosophy10 he rem>ks1 8is n a sep>ate sci5ce2 x is "o side ( e sci5ce4 ,9 ! great optic p5cil ( human k x is ! c5tral region :]e ! rays meet 9 "o & ! same light40 ,metaphysical speculation he scorn$1 b he admitt$ ! place = a criticism ( ! human m9d su* z _h be5 giv5 by ,kant 9 ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,kantian also1 9 its pr(essions at lea/1 0 ! philosophy ( ,va*]ot1 :o /at$ t ! aim ( 8 "w1 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,sci5ce1 0 8! reconciliation ( metaphysics ) sci5ce40#ad ,^! dialogues betwe5 a philosoph] & a man ( sci5ce1 = ( su* discussions ! book is compos$1 nev] really help u to get close to ! problem1 = ,va*]ot's ,kantianism is a pr(ession :i* m]ely cov]s an actual positivism4 ,8 metaphysical doctr9es are sup]impos$ on a sev]e & rigid naturalism1 b are kept f conflict ) !m1 or ev5 relation ) !m1 by be+ allott$ to a di/ant limbo ( pure ideals1 outside ! _w :i* sci5ce displays to u4 #ad ,see p>ticul>ly 8 /atem5ts to ?is effect 9 8 ,preface1 pp4 xxxvii-xl4 ,ta9e1 9 spite ( 8 sev]ely positive attitude1 0 a /rong *ampion ( metaphysics4 ,! sci5ces ne$$1 he claim$1 a sci5ce ( fir/ pr9ciples1 a metaphysic4 ,)\t x1 8! man ( sci5ce is m]ely a manuvre & ! arti/ a dilettante40 ,! positive sci5ces he re- g>d$ z inf]ior types ( analysis4 ,above !m 8is a sup]ior analysis :i* is metaphysics1 & :i* r$uces or takes up ^! laws ( ! sci5ces into a univ]sal =mula40 ,?is high] analysis1 h[ev]1 does n give ! lie to ! o!rs3 x completes !m4 ,x 0 inde$ a belief & hope ( ,ta9e t ! sci5ces w be m & m p]fect$ until !y c ea* be express$ 9 a k9d ( g5]ic =mula1 :i* 9 turn may be capable ( expression 9 "s s+le =mula4 ,?is s+le law is be+ s\ght by sci5ce & metaphysic1 al?\gh x mu/ belong to ! latt] r ?an to ! =m]4 ,f x1 z f a spr+1 proce$s1 accord+ to ,ta9e1 ! et]nal roll ( ev5ts & ! inf9ite sea ( ?+s4 ,ta9e's antagonism to ! purely empirical s*ools c5tres r\nd 8 conception ( ! law ( causality4 ,he disagrees ) ! ass]tion t ?is law is a syn!tic1 a po/]iori judgm5t1 a habit1 z ,hume said1 or a me*anical att5te1 z ,mill ?\ght1 or a g5]alisation ( ! s5sation ( ef=t :i* we feel 9 ourselves1 z 0 sugge/$ by ,ma9e de ,biran4 ,yet he also opposes ,kant's doctr9e1 9 :i* causality is reg>d$ z a syn!tic a priori judgm5t4 ,8 own criticism ( ,hume & ,kant 0 direct$ to d5ial ( ! elem5ts ( het]og5eity 9 exp]i5ce1 :i* are s ess5tial to ,hume's view1 & to a d5ial ( ! di/9ction ma9ta9$ by ,kant betwe5 logical & causal relations4 ,ta9e consid]$ t all might be expla9$ by logical relations1 t all exp]i5ce might "s day be express$ 9 "o law1 "o =mula4 ,! m geometrico ( ,sp9oza & ! 8univ]sal ma!matic0 ( ,desc>tes reappe> 9 ,ta9e4 ,he ev5 essays 9 ,l',intellig5ce to equate ! pr9ciple ( causality 7pr9cipe de raison explicative7 ) t ( id5tity4 ,8 attempt to r$uce ! pr9ciple ( causality to t ( id5tity did n succe$ v well1 & f ! nature ( ! case ?is 0 to be expect$4 ,z ,f\ille well po9ts out 9 8 criticism ( ,ta9e1 bo? 9 ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme & ! conclud+ pages ( 8 e>li] "w on ,plato1#ae ! notion ( diff]5ce & het]og5eity :i* arises 9 ! action ( cause & effect c nev] be r$ucible to a m]e id5tity1 = ! notion ( id5tity has no?+ 9 common ) t ( diff]5ce4 ,diff]5ces _c be ignor$2 v>iety & *ange are und5iable facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,f\ille "h t\*es ! weak spot ( ,ta9e's doctr9e4 ,9 spite ( a seem+ly great p[] ( criticism !re is an und]ly+ dogmatism 9 8 "w1 & ! *ief ( ^? dogmas1 :i* he does n submit to criticism1 is ! ass]tion ( ! univ]sal necessity ( all ?+s4 ,to ?is po/ulate he gives a false air ( objectivity4 ,he avoids /at+ :y we d objectify causality1 & he div]ts discussion f ! position t ?is po/ulate may itself be subjective4 #ae ,vol4 #d4 ,! p>ticul> be>+ ( ,ta9e's psy*ology ^u ! g5]al problem ( k is int]e/+4 ,he def9es p]ception 9 ,l',intellig5ce z une halluc9ation vraie4 ,8 doctr9e ( ! 8d\ble aspect10 physical & m5tal1 recalls to m9d ! ,modes ( ,sp9oza4 ,9 8 attitude to ! difficult problem ( movem5t & ?\ght he re/s 9 ! dualism ( ,sp9oza1 fluctuat+ & n enunciat+ 8 doctr9e cle>ly4 ,! primacy ( movem5t to ?\ght he ab&on$ z too me*anical a doctr9e1 & reg>d$ ! type ( exi/5ce z m5tal 9 "*4 ,ta9e ?us passes f ! mat]ialism ( ,hobbes to ! idealism ( ,leibnitz4 8,! physical _w is r$ucible to a sy/em ( signs1 & no m is ne$$ = its con/ruction & conception ?an ! mat]ials ( ! moral _w40 ,:5 we feel ourselves con/ra9$ to admit ! necessity ( c]ta9 tru?s1 if we are incl9$ to reg>d ?is z due to ! "* ( our m9ds !mselves 7notre /ructure m5tale71 z ,kant ma9ta9$1 ,ta9e rem9ds u t we mu/ admit t our m9d adapts itself to its environm5t4 ,he "h adopts ! view ( ,sp5c]1 a ?9k] :o seems to h _h f> m influ5ce ^u ! ,cont95t ?an 9 8 own c\ntry4 ,al?\gh ,ta9e ?us reposes 8 epi/emology ^u ?is basis1 he does n answ] ! "q :i* ! ,kantian c /ill put to him--namely1 8,h[ d we "k ! /ructure ( ?+s80 ,he is unable to escape f ! difficulty ( admitt+ ei!r t x is f exp]i5ce1 an admission :i* 8 anti-empirical attitude =bids him to make 7& :i* w\ld damage 8 dogma ( univ]sal logical necessity71 or t our k is obta9$ by analys+ our own ?\ghts1 9 :i* case he leaves u 9 a vici\s circle ( pure subjectivity f :i* !re is no means ( escape4 ,! tru? is t ,ta9e va9ly tri$ to e/abli% a ph5om5al doctr9e1 n purely empirical 9 "* l t ( ,hume1 b a ph5om5alism w$d$ to a necessity :i* is suppos$ to be self-explanatory4 ,su* a notion ( necessity1 h[ev]1 is =mal & ab/ract4 ,r ?an accept ,ta9e's view ( a law1 a =mula1 an 8et]nal axiom0 at ! basis ( ?+s1 we are oblig$ to po/ulate an activity1 creative 9 "*1 ( ^: action univ]sal laws are b expressions4 ,law1 =mula1 axiom )\t action are m]e ab/ractions :i* c ( !mselves produce no?+4 ,ta9e's positivism1 h[ev]1 0 n s rigid z to exclude a belief 9 ! value ( metaphysics4 ,x is ?is :i* di/+ui%es him f ! ,comtian ,s*ool4 ,we see 9 him ! confid5ce 9 sci5ce complem5t$ by an admission ( metaphysics1 equival5t to a turn+ ( 8positivism0 9 sci5ce & philosophy aga9/ itself4 ,mu* heavi] onslaughts ^u ! sov]eignty ( sci5ce came1 h[ev]1 f ! ?9k] :o is ! great logician & metaphysician ( our p]iod1 ,r5\vi]4 ,to him & to ,c\rnot we n[ turn4 ,,ii ,:ile ,ta9e _h inde$ ma9ta9$ ! necessity ( a metaphysic1 he %>$ to a l>ge degree ! g5]al confid5ce 9 sci5ce display$ by ,comte1 ,b]n>d1 ,b]!lot & ,r5an4 ,b ! second & ?ird gr\ps ( ?9k]s into :i* we h divid$ our p]iod took up fir/ a critical attitude to sci5ce &1 f9ally1 a r ho/ile "o4 ,c\rnot m>ks ! transition betwe5 ,comte & ,r5\vi]4 ,8 ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances et sur les ,c>actres de la ,critique philosophique conta9s "s v calm & c>eful ?\ght on ! relation ( sci5ce & philosophy1 :i* is ! product ( a s9c]e & well-balanc$ m9d4#af ,he inh]its f ! positivi/s an int5se respect = sci5tific k1 & rem>ks at ! outset t he is ho/ile to any philosophy :i* w\ld be s fooli% z to attempt to ignore ! "w ( ! mod]n sci5ces4 #af ,see 9 p>ticul> ! second *apt] ( vol4 #b1 ,du ,contra/e de la ,sci5ce et de la ,philosophie et de la ,philosophie des ,sci5ces1 pp4 #baf-bee4 ,8 "w ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalisme is a /rik+ example ( ?is ef=t on ,c\rnot's "p1 be+ devot$ to a /udy ( ! use :i* c be made 9 philosophy ( ! data af=d$ by ! sci5ces4 ,some:at aft] ! mann] ( ,comte1 ,c\rnot looks ^u ! v>i\s sci5ces z a hi]>*y rang+ f ma!matics to sociology4 ,yet he rem9ds ! sci5ti/s ( ! insuffici5cy ( _! po9t ( view1 = ! sci5ces1 rightly pursu$1 lead on to philosophy4 ,he lam5ts1 h[ev]1 ! confusion ( ! two1 & ?9ks t su* confusion is 8p>tly due to ! fact t 9 ! realm ( speculations :i* are naturally )9 ! doma9 ( ! philosoph]1 !re are to be f\nd "h & !re c]ta9 !ories :i* c actually be r$uc$ to a sci5tific =m0#ag ,he (f]s1 z an in/ance ( ?is1 ! !ory ( ! syllogism1 :i* has aff9ities to algebraical equations--b ?is int]p5etration %\ld n cause u1 he argues1 to ab&on or to lose sight ( ! di/9ction betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy4 #ag ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bbd4 ,?is di/9ction1 accord+ to ,c\rnot1 lies 9 ! fact t sci5ce has = its object t :i* c be measur$1 & t :i* c be r$uc$ to a rigor\s *a9 or connection4 ,9 brief1 sci5ce is *>act]is$ by quantity4 ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 conc]ns itself ) quality1 = x endeav\rs n s mu* to measure z to appreciate4 ,c\rnot rem9ds ! apo/les ( sci5ce t quantity1 h[ev] intimately b\nd up ) reality x may be1 is n ! ess5ce ( t reality itself4 ,he is afraid1 too1 t ! neglect ( philosophy by sci5ce may cause ! latt] to develop along purely utilit>ian l9es4 ,z an inve/igation ( reality1 sci5ce is n ultimate4 ,x has limits by ! fact t x is conc]n$ ) measurem5t1 & ?us is exclud$ f ^? ?+s :i* are qualitative & incapable ( quantitative expression4 ,sci5ce1 moreov]1 has its roots 9 philosophy by virtue ( ! metaphysical po/ulates :i* x utilises z its basis4 ,physics & geometry1 ,c\rnot ma9ta9s1 bo? re/ ^u def9itions :i* owe _! orig9 to speculative ?\ght r ?an to exp]i5ce1 yet ^! sci5ces claim an absolute value = !mselves & = ^? po/ulates z be+ descriptions ( reality 9 an ultimate s5se4 ,foll[+ out 8 di/9ction betwe5 philosophy & ! sci5ces1 ,c\rnot claims 9 a ,kantian mann] t :ile ! latt] are products ( ! human und]/&+ ! =m] is due to ! op]ation ( reason4 ,?is app>5t dualism ,c\rnot does n %r9k f ma9ta9+2 inde$1 he makes x an argum5t = 8 doctr9e ( discont9uity4 ,! developm5t ( a sci5ce involves a c]ta9 brea* ) reality1 = ! progress ( ! sci5ce involves ab/raction1 :i* ev] becomes m complicat$4 ,c\rnot "h br+s out ! po9t :i* we notic$ 0 /ress$ by ,r5an4#ah #ah ,see above1 p4 #aje4 ,reason produces 9 u ! idea ( ord]1 & ?is 8idea ( ord] & ( reason 9 ?+s is ! basis ( philosophic probability1 ( induction & analogy40#ai ,?is has important be>+s ^u ! unity ( sci5ce & ^u ! conception ( causality :i* x upholds4 ,9 a c>eful exam9ation ( ! problems ( induction & analogy1 ,c\rnot emphasises ! tru? t !re are facts :i* _c be fitt$ into a measur$ or logical sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,reality _c be fitt$ into a =mula or into concepts1 = ^! fail to express ! inf9ite v>iety & ri*ness ( ! reality :i* displays itself to u4 ,sci5ce c nev] be adequate to life1 ) its puls+ spontaneity & fre$om4 ,x is philosophy ) its vue d'ensemble :i* tries to grasp & to express ?is concret5ess1 :i* ! sci5ces1 b\nd to _! sy/ematic connection ( ev5ts )9 sep>ate comp>tm5ts1 fail to rea* or to %[ u4 ,ref]r+ to ! ideas ( beauty & ( goodness1 ,c\rnot urges a 8transrationalism10 z he calls x1 :i*1 :ile loyal to ! rational requirem5ts ( sci5ce1 w enable u to take ! wid] outlook assum$ by philosophy4#bj #ai ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances1 p4 #chd4 #bj ,! p>allelism ( "s ( ,c\rnot's ideas "h ) ^? express$ by ,b]gson1 al?\gh !y h be5 enunciat$ by ! lat] ?9k] 9 a m decid$ mann]1 is s obvi\s z h>dly to ne$ to be indicat$4 ,l ,c\rnot1 ! au?or ( ! ,essais de ,critique gnrale 0 a ke5 antagoni/ ( all ^? :o s\ght to deify ,sci5ce4 ,x 0 inde$ ?is :i* l$ ,r5\vi] to give ?is title to 8 great "w1 ! fir/ "p ( :i* 0 publi%$ at a "t :5 ! confid5ce 9 ,sci5ce appe>$ to be comp>atively unassail$4 ,we f9d him def5d+ philosophy z aga9/ ! sci5ti/s & o!rs by an insi/5ce ^u its critical function4 ,9 exam9+ ,comte's positivism 9 8 "w ,hi/oire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques1 ,r5\vi] po9ts out t its initial idea is a false "o--namely1 t philosophy c be con/itut$ by an assembl+ toge!r ( ! sci5ces4#ba ,su* an assembly does n1 he objects1 make a sy/em4 ,ea* sci5ce has its own po/ulates1 its own data1 & ,sci5ce z a :ole unity ( ?\ght or k does n exi/4 ,he attacks at ! same "t ! calm presumption ( ! positivi/ :o ma9ta9s t ! sci5tific /age is ! f9al & highe/ developm5t4 ,r5\vi] is consid]ably annoy$ at ?is unw>rant$ dogmatism & assum$ air ( f9ality4 #ba ,book ,x43 ,de l',etat actuel de la ,philosophie en ,france1 *ap4 #a41 ,de l',ab\tissem5t des ,esprits au ,positivisme1 pp4 #daf-dag4 ,ow+ to ! excell5t tra9+ he _h receiv$ at ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique1 & by 8 own pr(\nd /udy1 ,r5\vi] 0 able on _m te*nical po9ts to meet ! sci5ti/s on _! own gr\nd4 ,8 ?ird ,essai de ,critique gnrale is devot$ to a /udy ( 8! ,pr9ciples ( ,nature10 9 :i* he criticises _m ( ! pr9ciples & assumptions ( me*anism1 :ile _m pages ( 8 two previ\s ,essais are conc]n$ ) ! discussion ( que/ions intimately affect+ ! sci5ces4#bb #bb ,?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ! matt] pr9t$ z app5dices to 8 *apt]s4 7,cf4 ! ,logic1 vol #b47 ,an important section ( 8 second ,essay1 ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 deals ) ! 8,classification ( ! ,sci5ces40#bc ,r5\vi] !re po9ts out t ! attempt to classify ! sci5ces 9 accordance ) _! degrees ( c]ta9ty ends 9 failure4 ,all ( !m1 :5 loyal to _! own pr9ciples1 endeav\r to display equal c]ta9ty4 ,by loyalty ,r5\vi] %[s t he means adh]5ce to an exam9ation ( c]ta9 classes ( ph5om5a1 ! obs]vation ( facts & laws1 ) ! proposal ( hypo!ses1 put =w>d frankly z su*4 ,he draws a l9e betwe5 ! logical & ! physical sci5ces--a division :i* he claims is n only a division accord+ to ! nature ( _! data1 b also accord+ to me?od4 ,foll[+ ano!r division1 we may draw a l9e betwe5 sci5ces :i* deal ) objects :i* are organic1 liv+ creatures1 & ^? :i* are n4 #bc ,vol4 #b1 *ap4 xviii41 ,de la ,c]titude des ,sci5ces et leur ,classification rationnelle1 pp4 #aci-ahf1 includ+ lat] obs]vations on ,sp5c]4 ,r5\vi]'s l9e is n1 x mu/ be rememb]$ 9 ?is connection1 a purely imag9>y "o4 ,x is a real l9e1 an actual gap4 ,= him !re is a real discont9uity 9 ! univ]se4 ,ta9e's doctr9e ( a univ]sal explanation1 ( a rigid unity & cont9uity1 is1 = ,r5\vi]1 ana!ma1 c'e/ la ma?matisation a l'outrance4 ,?is appe>s mo/ m>k$ly 9 ! pages :i* he devotes to ! consid]ation ( la syn?se totale4 ,an important section ( 8 ,trait de ,logique 7! fir/ ,essai de ,critique gnrale7 deals ) ! problem ( ?is ,total ,syn!sis ( all ph5om5a4#bd ,?is is a conception :i* ,r5\vi] affirms to be unw>rantable &1 inde$1 9 ! la/ analysis impossible4 ,a g5]al syn!sis1 an organisation or connect$ hi]>*y ( sci5ces1 is a fond hope1 an illusion only ( a m9d :i* c ov]look ! real discont9uity :i* exi/s betwe5 ?+s & betwe5 gr\ps ( ?+s4 #bd ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajg-aae1 & also vol4 #b1 pp4 #bjb-bde4 ,he sees 9 x ! feti% ( ! ,absolute & ! ,inf9ite & ! lure ( pan!ism1 a doctr9e to :i* he opposes 8 8,p]sonalism40 ,he rem9ds ! sci5ti/s t p]sonality is ! great factor to :i* all k is relat$1 & t all k is relative4 ,a law is a law1 b ! gu>antee ( its p]man5ce is n a law4 ,x is no m easy1 claims ,r5\vi]1 to say :y ph5om5a d n /op ?an x is to "k :y !y h begun4 ,laws inde$ abide1 b 8n ap>t f consci\s p]sonalities :o affirm !m40#be ,fur!r1 attack+ ! self-confid5t & dogmatic attitude 9 ! sci5ti/s1 ,r5\vi] rem9ds !m t x is impossible to demon/rate e proposition2 & 9 an important note on 8,induction & ! ,sci5ces0#bf he po9ts out t induction always implies a c]ta9 croyance4 ,?is is no peculi>1 my/ical ?+2 x is a fact1 he rem>ks1 :i* col\rs all ! int]e/+ acts ( human p]sonality4 ,he "h approa*es ,c\rnot 9 obs]v+ t all speculation is att5d$ by a c]ta9 coeffici5t ( d\bt or unc]ta9ty & s becomes really rational belief4 ,) ,c\rnot1 too1 ,r5\vi] s5ses ! importance ( analogy & probability 9 connection ) hypo!ses 9 ! _w ( nature & ( morals4 ,9 %ort1 he recognises z c5tral ! problem ( fre$om4 #be ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cba4 #bf ,note ,b to *ap4 xxxv4 ( ! ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ac4 ,r5\vi] attacks ,comte's classification or 8hi]>*y0 ( ! sci5ces z mis*iev\s & inexact4 ,x is n bas$1 he claims1 ^u any di/9ction 9 me?od1 nor ( data4 ,x is n true t ! sci5ces are arrang$ by ,comte 9 an ord] :]e !y successively imply "o ano!r1 nor 9 an ord] 9 :i* !y h come to be con/itut$ z 8positive04#bg #bg ,?is outbur/ ( attack is a sample ( ,r5\vi]'s usual attitude to ,positivism4 7,deuxime ,essai1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aff-agj47 ,he ju/ifies to ! sci5ti/ ! =mulation ( hypo!sis z a necess>y work+ me?od ( co-ord9at+ 9 a provisional mann] v>y+ ph5om5a4 ,_m hypo!ses & inductions ( sci5ce are1 h[ev]1 unju/ifiable f a /rictly logical /&po9t1 ,r5\vi] rem9ds u4 ,8 *ief objection1 h[ev]1 is t ^? hypo!ses & inductions are put =w>d s frequ5tly z c]ta9ties by a sci5ce :i* is dogmatic & surpasses its limits4 ,sci5ce1 ,r5\vi] claims1 does n give u a k ( ! absolute1 b an und]/&+ ( ! relative4 ,x is 9 ! light ( 8 doctr9e ( relativity & ( ! application ( ! law ( numb] t he criticises _m ( ! attitudes adopt$ by ! sci5ti/s4 ,:atev] sav\rs ( ! ,absolute or ! ,inf9ite he opposes1 & 8 view ( cause dep5ds on ?is4 ,he scorns ! fiction ( an inf9ite regress1 & affirms real beg9n+s to v>i\s classes ( ph5om5a4 ,causality is n to be expla9$1 he urges 9 8 ,n\velle ,monadologie1 save by a h>mony4 ,he diff]s f ,leibnitz1 h[ev]1 9 claim+ 9 ! int]e/s ( fre$om t ?is h>mony is n pre-e/abli%$4 ,9 meet+ ! doctr9e ( ! r$uction ( ! complex to ! simple1 ,r5\vi] cites ! case ( 8r$uc+0 s\nd1 heat1 light & electricity to movem5t4 ,?is may be sup]ficially correct z a g5]ality1 b ,r5\vi] aptly po9ts out t x ov]looks ! fact t1 al?\gh !y may all be ab/ractly *>act]is$ z movem5t1 yet !re are diff]5ces betwe5 !m z movem5ts :i* correspond to ! diff]5ces ( s5sation !y ar\se 9 u4 ,r5\vi] upholds real diff]5ces1 real beg9n+s1 &1 x mu/ be add$1 a reality beh9d & beyond ! appe>ances ( nature4 ,8 ,monadologie admits t 8we c cont9ue to expla9 nature ma!matically & me*anically1 provid$ we recognise t x is an ext]nal appe>ance--t ?\ght1 m9d or _s is at ! he>t ( x40 ,?is l9ks ,r5\vi] to ! gr\p ( new spirituali/s4 ,8 attitude to sci5ce is ak9 to !irs4 ,he does n fe> sci5ce :5 x conf9es itself to its prop] limits & recognises ^!4 ,x has no qu>rel ) philosophy nor philosophy ) x4 ,advance 9 sci5ce involves1 he believes1 an advance also 9 !ology & 9 metaphysics4 ,! sci5ces are responsible = work+ out ! laws det]m9+ ! developm5t ( ! ,univ]se4 ,b betwe5 ,sci5ce1 an ideal una*iev$1 & ! sci5ces :i* 9 !mselves are s feeble1 imp]fect & limit$1 ,r5\vi] claims t ,g5]al ,criticism1 or ,philosophy1 has its place4 8,9 spite ( ! discr$it into :i* philosophy has fall5 9 ^! days1 x c & ought to exi/4 ,its object has be5 always ! inve/igation ( ,god1 man1 lib]ty1 immortality1 ! fundam5tal laws ( ! sci5ces4 #8,all ^! intimately connect$ & int]p5etrat+ problems comprise ! doma9 ( philosophy40 ,9 ^? cases :]e no sci5ce is possible1 ?is seem+ impossibility mu/ itself be inve/igat$1 & philosophy rema9s z a 8,g5]al ,criticism0 7,critique gnrale7 ( our k4 8,x is ?is notion10 he says1 8:i* ,i desir$ to indicate by bani%+ ! ^w #8,philosophy' f ! title ( my ,essays4 ,! "n ought to *ange :5 ! me?od *anges40#bh ,?us ,r5\vi] seeks to e/abli% a 8critique0 midway betwe5 scepticism & dogmatism1 & endeav\rs to f\nd a philosophy :i* recognises at "o & ! same "t ! dem&s ( sci5ce et consci5ce4 #bh ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ceb4 ,,iii ,on turn+ to ! spirituali/ curr5t ( ?\ght we f9d x1 l ! neo-criticism1 no less ke5 9 its criticism ( sci5ce4 ,! inadequacy ( ! purely sci5tific attitude is ! recurr+ !me f ,ravaisson to ,b\tr\x1 ,b]gson & ,le ,roy4 ,! attitude assum$ by ,ravaisson col\r$ ! :ole ( ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ! new spirituali/ doctr9es1 & n lea/ _! be>+ ^u ! problem ( sci5ce & its relation to metaphysics4 ,me*anism1 ,ravaisson po9t$ out1 quot+ ! classical au?or ^u :om he _h himself writt5 s brilliantly 7,ari/otle71 does n expla9 itself1 = x implies a 8prime mov]10 n itself 9 motion1 b :i* produces movem5t by spiritual activity4 ,ravaisson also ref]s to ! te/imony ( ,leibnitz1 :o1 :ile agree+ t all is me*anical1 c>efully add$ to ?is /atem5t "o to ! effect t me*anism itself has a pr9ciple :i* mu/ be look$ = outside matt] & :i* is ! object ( metaphysical rese>*4 ,?is spiritual reality is f\nd only1 accord+ to ,ravaisson1 9 ! p[] ( goodness & beauty--t is to say1 9 a reality :i* is n non-sci5tific b r ultra-sci5tific4 ,!re are realities1 he claims1 to :i* sci5ce does n atta94 ,! explanation ( nature presupposes s\l or _s4 ,x is true1 ,ravaisson admits1 t ! physical & *emical sci5ces consid] !mselves indep5d5t ( metaphysics2 true also t ! metaphysician 9 ignor+ ! /udy ( ^? sci5ces omits mu* f 8 e/imate ( ! _s4 ,inde$1 he _c well disp5se ) ! results ( ! sci5ces4 ,t admission1 h[ev]1 does n d away ) ! possibility ( a true 8apologia0 = metaphysics4 ,to ,newton's s>ca/ic rem>k1 8,physics bew>e ( metaphysics10 ,hegel repli$ cog5tly t ?is 0 equival5t to say+1 8,physics1 keep away f ?\ght40 ,_s1 h[ev]1 _c be omitt$ f ! acc\nt2 x is ! condition ( all t is1 ! light by :i* we see t !re is su* a ?+ z a mat]ial univ]se4 ,?is is ! c5tral po9t ( ,ravaisson's philosophy4 ,! sci5ces ( nature may be all[$ & enc\rag$ to "w dilig5tly ^u _! own pr9ciples1 b ! v fact t !y are individual sci5ces compels !m to admit t !y view ! :ole 8piecemeal04 ,philosophy seeks to int]pret ! :ole z a :ole4 ,ravaisson quotes ,pascal's say+1 8,il faut avoir une p5se de d]rire la tte et jug] de t\t p> l40 ,?is p5se de d]rire la tte1 says ,ravaisson1 :ile n prev5t+ ! v>i\s sci5ces f speak+ 9 _! own tongue1 is j ! metaphysical or philosophical idea ( ! :ole4 ,x is claim$1 ,ari/otle us$ to say1 t ma!matics h absolutely no?+ 9 common ) ! idea ( ! good4 8,b ord]1 proportion1 symmetry1 are n ^! great =ms ( beauty80 asks ,ravaisson4 ,= him !re is _s at ! he>t ( ?+s1 an activity1 un feu primitif qui e/ l'me1 :i* expresses itself 9 ?\ght1 9 w & 9 love4 ,x is a fire :i* does n burn itself out1 because x is endur+ _s1 an et]nal cause1 ! absolute sub/ance is ?is spiritual reality4 ,:]e ! sci5ces fall %ort is t !y fail to %[ t nature is b ! refraction ( ?is _s4 ,?is is a fact1 h[ev]1 :i* bo? religion & philosophy grasp & uphold4 ,^! criticisms 7 di/urb+ = ^? m9ds :o f\nd entire satisfaction 9 ,sci5ce or r 9 ! sci5ces1 b !y 7 some:at g5]al4 ,ravaisson's "w inculcat$ a _s r ?an su/a9$ a dialectic4 ,its *ief value lay 9 ! inspiration :i* x imp>t$ to subsequ5t ?9k]s :o endeav\r$ to "w out 8 g5]al ideas ) great] precision4 ,x 0 ?is task :i* ,la*eli] set himself 9 8 ,induction4 ,he _h ke5ly felt ! m5ace ( sci5ce1 z _h ,janet2#bi he _h appreciat$ ! *all5ge (f]$ to x by ,ravaisson's ideas4 ,moreov]1 ,la*eli]'s acute m9d discov]$ ! crucial po9ts ^u :i* ! new spiritualism c\ld base its attack ^u ! purely sci5tific dogmatism4 ,:atev] ,leibnitz might h said1 creative spontaneity ( ! _s1 z x 0 acclaim$ by ,ravaisson1 c\ld n easily be fitt$ into ! me*anism & det]m9ism upheld by ! sci5ces4 ,ravaisson _h admitt$ ! action ( effici5t causes 9 s f> z he admitt$ ! action ( me*anism1 :i* is b ! outcome ( ^! causes4 ,9 ?is way he endeav\r$ to satisfy ! ess5tial dem&s ( ! sci5tific attitude to ! univ]se4 ,b recognis+ ! inadequacy ( ?is attitude he _h upheld ! reality ( f9al causes & ?us oppos$ to ! sci5ti/s a metaphysical doctr9e ak9 to ! religi\s attitude ( ,hell5ism & ,*ri/ianity4 #bi ,we ref] "h to ! quotation f ,janet's ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 giv5 above on p4 #ie4 ,janet himself wrote on ,f9al ,causes b n ,wl? ! dep? or p5etration ( ,la*eli]4 ,la*eli] saw t ! important po9t ( ,ravaisson's doctr9e lay 9 ! problem ( ^! two types ( causality4 ,8 !sis is !re=e devot$ to ! exam9ation ( effici5t & f9al causes4 ,?is little "w ( ,la*eli] m>ks a highly important advance 9 ! developm5t ( ! spirituali/ philosophy4 ,he cl>ifies & re-affirms m precisely ! position indicat$ by ,ravaisson4 ,la*eh] te>s up ! treaty ( compromise :i* 0 draft$ by ,leibnitz to meet ! rival dem&s ( sci5ce ) its effici5t causes & philosophy ) its f9al causes4 ,! _w ( free creative spontaneity ( ! _s _c be reg>d$1 ,la*eli] claims 7& ?is is 8 vital po9t71 z m]ely ! complem5t (1 or ! reflex f1 ! _w ( me*anism & det]m9ism4 ,he works out 9 8 !sis ! doctr9e t effici5t causes c be d$uc$ f ! =mal laws ( ?\ght4 ,?is 0 ,ta9e's position1 & x 0 ! limit ( ,ta9e's doctr9e4 ,la*eli] goes fur!r & und]m9es ,ta9e's !ories by uphold+ f9al causes1 :i* he %[s dep5d ^u ! conception ( a totality1 a :ole :i* is capable ( creat+ its p>ts4 ,?is view ( ! :ole is a philosophical conception to :i* ! natural sci5ces nev] rise1 & :i* !y _c1 by ! v nature ( _! data & _! me?ods1 compreh5d4 ,yet x is only su* a conception :i* c supply any rational basis = ! unity ( ph5om5a & ( exp]i5ce4 ,only by see+ ! v>iety ( all ph5om5a 9 ! light ( su* an organic unity c we f9d any mean+ 9 ! t]m univ]se1 & only ?us1 cont9ues ,la*eli]1 only on ! pr9ciple ( a rational & univ]sal ord] & on ! reality ( f9al causes1 c we base our inductions4 ,! 8uni=mity ( nature10 t feti% ( ! sci5ti/s :i*1 z ,la*eli] well po9ts out1 is m]ely ! empirical regul>ity ( ph5om5a1 (f]s no adequate basis = a s+le induction4 ,la*eli] develop$ 8 doctr9es fur!r 9 ! article1 ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique4 ,we c obs]ve 9 x ! m>ks :i* s pr(\ndly di/+ui% ! new spiritualism f ! old1 z once taught by ,c\s94 ,! old spiritualism _h no place betwe5 its psy*ology & its metaphysics = ! natural sci5ces4 ,inde$ x 0 q incapable ( deal+ ) ! problem :i* _! exi/5ce & success pres5t$1 & s x *ose to ignore !m z f> z possible4 ,! new spiritualism1 ( :i* ,la*eli] is p]haps ! pr(\nde/ speculative m9d1 n only is acqua9t$ ) ! place & results ( ! sci5ces1 b x feels itself equal to a criticism ( !m1 an advance :i* m>ks a highly important developm5t 9 philosophy4 ,9 ?is article ,la*eli] endeav\rs to pass beyond ! /&po9t ( ,c\s91 & 9 s do+ we see n only ! influ5ce ( ,ravaisson's ideas ( ! creative activity ( ! _s1 b also ( ! discipl9e ( ! ,kantian criticism1 ) :i* ,la*eli]1 unlike _m ( 8 contempor>ies 9 ,france at t "t1 0 well acqua9t$4 ,he fir/ %[s t ! /udy ( psy*ology reveals to u ! human p[]s ( s5sation1 feel+ & w4 ,^! are ! imm$iate data ( consci\sness4 ,ano!r elem5t1 h[ev]1 ent]s into consci\sness1 n z ^! ?ree1 a def9ite cont5t1 b z a col\r+ ( ! :ole4 ,?is o!r elem5t is 8objectivity10 an aw>5ess or belief t ! _w )\t exi/s & cont9ues to exi/ indep5d5tly ( our obs]vation ( x4 ,la*eli] combats1 h[ev]1 ! ,kantian conception ( ! 8?+-9-itself40 ,if1 he argues1 ! _w ar\nd u appe>s z a reality :i* is indep5d5t ( our p]ception1 x is n because x is a 8?+-9-itself10 b r x appe>s z indep5d5t because we1 possess+ consci\s intellig5ce1 succe$ 9 mak+ x an object ( our ?\ght1 & ?us save x f ! m]e subjectivity :i* *>act]ises our s5se-exp]i5ce4 ,x is ^u ?is fact1 ,la*eli] rightly insi/s1 t all our sci5ce reposes4 ,a !ory ( k z propos$ by ,ta9e1 bas$ solely on s5sation & pr(ess+ belief 9 halluc9ation vraie1 is itself a contradiction & an abuse ( language4 8,if ?\ght is an illusion10 rem>ks ,la*eli]1 8we mu/ suppress all ! sci5ces40#cj #cj ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphisique1 p4#aea47,see especially ! passages on pp4#aej-aeh47 ,he !n proce$s to %[ t if we admit ?\ght to be ! basis ( our k ( ! _w1 t is1 ( our sci5ces1 !n we admit t our sci5ces are !mselves conn/ructions1 bas$ ^u a syn!tic1 con/ructive1 creative activity ( our m9d or _s4 ,= our ?\ght is n m]ely ano!r 8?+0 add$ to ! _w ( ?+s outside u4 ,our ?\ght is n a giv5 & pr$et]m9$ datum1 x is 8a liv+ dialectic10 a creative activity1 a self-creative process1 :i* is syn!tic1 & n m]ely analytic 9 "*4 8,?\ght10 he says1 8c re/ ^u itself1 :ile ev]y?+ else c only re/ ^u x2 ! ultimate po9t d'appui ( all tru? & ( all exi/5ce is to be f\nd 9 ! absolute spontaneity ( ! _s40#ca ,"h1 ,la*eli] ma9ta9s1 lies ! real a priori2 "h1 too1 is ! v important passage f psy*ology to metaphysics4 #ca ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique1 p4 #aeh4 ,f9ally 8 treatm5t ( ! problems ( k & ( ! f\ndations ( sci5ce leads him to reemphasise n only ! reality ( _s b its spontaneity4 ,he recognises ) ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] t ! vital problem = sci5ce & philosophy is t ( fre$om4 ,! nature ( exi/5ce is = ,la*eli] a manife/ation ( _s1 & is se5 9 w1 9 necessity & 9 fre$om4 ,x is important to note t = him x is all ^! simultane\sly4 8,be+10 he rem>ks 9 conclud+ 8 brilliant essay1#cb 8is n fir/1 a bl9d necessity1 !n a w :i* mu/ be = ev] b\nd d[n 9 advance to necessity &1 la/ly1 a fre$om :i* w\ld m]ely be able to recognise su* necessity & su* a b\nd w2 be+ is entirely free1 9 s f> z x is self-creative2 x is entirely an expression ( w1 9 s f> z x creates itself 9 ! =m ( some?+ concrete & real2 x is also entirely an expression ( necessity1 9 s f> z its self-creation is intelligible & gives an acc\nt ( itself40 #cb ,ibid41 p4 #agj4 ,at ?is /age some?+ 9 ! nature ( a tempor>y 8set-back0 is giv5 to ! fl[ ( ! spirituali/ curr5t by ,f\illee's attitude1 :i* takes a diff]5t l9e f t ( ,ravaisson & ,la*eli]4 ,! attitude t[>ds ,sci5ce1 :i* we f9d adopt$ by ,f\illee1 is det]m9$ by 8 two g5]al pr9ciples1 t ( reconcilation1 & 8 own doctr9e ( ides-=ces4 ,8 conciliatory _s is well se5 9 ! fact t1 al?\gh he has a great respect = sci5ce & inh]its _m ( ! qualities conta9$ 9 ,ta9e's philosophy1 p>ticul>ly ! ef=t to ma9ta9 a regul> cont9uity & solid>ity 9 ! developm5t ( reality1 nev]!less he is imbu$ ) ! _s ( idealism :i* *>act]ises all ?is gr\p ( ?9k]s4 ,! result is a mixture ( ,platonism & naturalism1 & to ?is he himself confesses 9 8 "w1 ,le ,m\vem5t idali/e et la ,raction contre la ,sci5ce positive1 :]e he expresses a desire 8to br+ back ,plato's ideas f heav5 to e>?1 & s to make idealism consonant ) naturalism40#cc #cc ,le ,m\vem5t idali/e el la ,raction contre la ,sci5ce positive1 p4 xxi4 ,f\ille claims to take up a position midway betwe5 ! mat]iali/s & ! ideali/s4 ,nei!r /&po9t is1 9 8 view1 adequate to describe reality4 ,he is p>ticul>ly oppos$ to ! mat]iali/ic & me*ani/ic ?\ght ( ! ,engli% ,evolution>y ,s*ool1 z pres5t$ by ,sp5c] & ,huxley1 ) its pret5sions to be sci5tific4 ,f\illee accepts1 ) !m1 ! notion ( evolution1 b he disagrees entirely ) ,sp5c]'s attempt to ref] ev]y?+ to me*anism1 ! me*anism ( matt] 9 motion4 ,9 any case1 ,f\ille claims1 movem5t is a v sl5d] & "o-sid$ elem5t ( exp]i5ce ^u :i* to base our *>act]isation ( all reality1 = ! idea ( motion arises only f our visual & tactual exp]i5ce4 ,he revolts f ! epiph5om5alism ( ,huxley z f a dire h]esy4 ,consci\sness _c be reg>d$ z a m]e 8fla% 9 ! pan40 ,ev5 sci5ce mu/ admit t all ph5om5a are to be def9$ by _! relation to1 & action ^u1 o!r ph5om5a4 ,consci\sness1 s reg>d$1 w be se51 he claims1 z a unique p[]1 possess+ ! prop]ty ( act+ ^u matt] & ( initiat+ movem5t4 ,x is itself a factor1 & a v vital "o1 9 ! evolution>y process4 ,x is no m]e reflex or passive repres5tation4 ,on ?is po9t ( ! irr$ucibility ( ! m5tal life & ! validity ( its action1 ,f\ille p>ts company ) ,ta9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he disagrees ) ! ideali/ic s*ool ( ?\ght1 :i* upholds a pure intellectualism & = :om ?\ght is ! accept$ *>act]isation ( reality4 ,?is1 compla9s ,f\ille1 is z mu* an ab/raction & a "o-sid$ view z t ( ,sp5c]4 ,9 ?is mann] ,f\ille endeav\rs to 8rectify ! sci5tific conception ( evolution0 by 8 doctr9e ( ides-=ces4 8,!re is10 he says1#cd 89 e idea a comm5cem5t ( action1 & ev5 ( movem5t1 :i* t5ds to p]si/ & to increase l an lan4 4 4 4 ,e idea is already a =ce40 ,psy*ologically x is se5 9 ! active1 conative or appetitive aspect ( consci\sness4 ,to ?9k ( a ?+ involves already1 9 "s measure1 a t5d5cy t[>d x1 to desire x4 ,physiologically consid]$1 ides-=ces are f\nd to op]ate1 n me*anically1 b by a vital solid>ity :i* is mu* m ?an m]e me*anism1 & :i* unites ! inn] consci\sness to ! out] physical fact ( movem5t4 ,f a g5]al philosophical po9t ( view ! doctr9e ( ides-=ces e/abli%es ! irr$ucibility ( ! m5tal1 & ! fact t1 s f> f ! m5tal be+ a k9d ( phosphoresc5ce produc$ z a result ( ! evolution>y process1 x is a prime factor 9 t evolution1 ( :i* me*anism is only a symbol4 ,"h ,f\ille rises almo/ to ! spiritualism ( ,ravaisson4 ,me*anism1 he decl>es1 is1 aft] all1 b a mann] ( repres5t+ to ourselves ?+s 9 space & "t4 ,sci5ti/s speak ( =ces1 b ! real =ces are ideas1 & o!r s-call$ 8=ces0 are m]ely analogies :i* we h con/ruct$1 bas$ ^u ! inn] m5tal feel+ ( ef=t1 t5d5cy1 desire & w4#ce #cd ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme1 p4 #ig1 #d;e ed4 #ce ,?is 0 a po9t ^u :i* ,ma9e de ,biran _h insi/$4 7,see p4 #bj47 ,! sci5ti/s h too (t51 z ,f\ille well po9ts 9 8 "w on ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces1 reg>d$ ! concept ( ,evolution z all-suffic+1 z self-explanatory4 ,philosophy1 h[ev]1 _c accept su* dogmatism f sci5ce1 & ass]ts t evolution is itself a result & n 9 itself a cause4 ,) su* a view ,f\ille is f\nd ultimately 9 ! l9e ( ! g5]al developm5t ( ! spiritual philosophy cont9u+ ! ho/ility to sci5ce z ultimate or all-suffic+4 ,fur!r developm5ts ( ?is attitude are se5 9 ,b\tr\x & 9 ,b]gson4 ,9 ! "w ( ,b\tr\x we f9d a cont9uation ( t type ( criticism ( sci5ce :i* 0 a feature 9 ,ravaisson & ,la*eli]4 ,he has also aff9ities ) ,r5\vi] 7&1 we may add1 ) ,comte71 because ( 8 insi/5ce ^u ! discont9uity ( ! sci5ces2 ^u ! elem5t ( 8newness0 f\nd 9 ea* :i* prev5ts ! high] be+ d$uc$ f ! l[]1 or ! sup]ior expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! inf]ior4 ,b\tr\x opposes ,sp5c]'s doctr9es & is a ke5 antagoni/ ( ,ta9e & 8 claim to d$uce all f "o =mula4 ,su* a notion z t ( ,ta9e is q absurd1 accord+ to ,b\tr\x1 = !re is no necess>y bond betwe5 "o & ano!r sci5ce4 ,?is is ,b\tr\x's ma9 po9t 9 ,la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature4 ,by a survey ( laws ( v>i\s types1 logical1 ma!matical1 me*anical1 physical1 *emical1 biological1 psy*ological & sociological1 ,b\tr\x endeav\rs to %[ t !y are con/ructions built up f facts4 ,j z nature (f]s to ! sci5ti/ facts = data1 s ! sci5ces !mselves (f] ^! natural laws z data to ! philosoph]1 = 8 con/ruct$ explanation ( ?+s :i* is metaphysics or philosophy4 8,9 ! actual condition ( our k10 he rem>ks1 8sci5ce is n "o1 b multiple2 sci5ce1 conceiv$ z embrac+ all ! sci5ces1 is a m]e ab/raction40 ,?is is a rem>k :i* recalls ,r5\vi]'s witty say+1 8,i %\ld v mu* l to meet ?is p]son ,i he> s mu* ab\t1 call$ #8sci5ce4'0 ,we h only sci5ces1 ea* work+ aft] its own mann] ^u a small portion ( reality4 ,man has a ?ir/ = k1 & he sees1 says ,b\tr\x1 9 ! _w an 8ensemble0 ( facts ( inf9ite v>iety4 ,^! facts man endeav\rs to obs]ve1 analyse1 & describe ) increas+ exactness4 ,sci5ce1 he po9ts out1 is j ?is description4 ,x is futile to attempt a resolution ( all ?+s into ! pr9ciple ( id5tity4 8,! _w is full ( a numb] ( ?+s10 &1 !re=e1 argues ,b\tr\x1 ! =mula ,a ,b c nev] be /rictly & absolutely true4 8,nature nev] (f]s to u id5tities1 b only resemblances40 ,?is has important be>+ ^u ! law ( causality1 ( :i* ! sci5ces make s mu*4 ,= !re is su* a degree ( het]og5eity 9 ! ?+s to :i* ! mo/ elem5t>y & g5]al laws ( physics & *emi/ry are appli$ t x is impossible to say t ! consequ5t is proportional to ! antec$5t--t is to say1 x is impossible to "w out absolutely ! /atem5t t an effect is ! unique result ( a c]ta9 inv>iable cause4 ,! fundam5tal l9k escapes u & s1 = u1 !re is a c]ta9 cont+5cy 9 exp]i5ce4 ,!re is1 fur!r1 a creativ5ess1 a newness1 :i* is un=eseeable4 ,! passage f ! inorganic to ! organic /resses ?is1 = ! obs]vation ( ! =m] w\ld nev] lead u to ! o!r1 = x is a creation1 a v]itable 8new0 ?+4 ,b\tr\x is "h deal+ h>d bl[s at ,ta9e's conception4 ,he cont9ues x by %[+ t 9 ! consci\s liv+ be+ we are introduc$ to a new elem5t :i* is aga9 absolutely irr$ucible to physical factors4 ,life1 & consci\sness too1 are bo? creators4 ,! life ( ! m9d is absolutely sui g5]is2 x _c be expla9$ by physiology1 by reflex action1 or look$ ^u z m]ely an epiph5om5on4 ,already ,b\tr\x f9ds himself fac+ ! c5tral problem ( ,fre$om4 ,he recognises t z psy*ological ph5om5a appe> to conta9 qualities n giv5 9 _! imm$iate antec$5ts1 ! law ( proportion ( cause to effect does n apply to ! actions ( ! human m9d4 ,! pr9ciple ( causality & ! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy are m !mselves sci5tific 8%ibbole?s10 & nei!r ( !m1 ass]ts ,b\tr\x1 c be work$ out s absolutely z to ju/ify !mselves z ultimate descriptions ( ! univ]se4 ,!y are valuable z practical maxims = ! sci5ti/1 ^: object is to foll[ ! ?reads ( action 9 ?is v>i$ _w ( ours4 ,!y are incomplete1 & h m]ely a relative value4 ,philosophy _c p]mit _! application to ! totality ( ?is liv+1 puls+ univ]se4 ,= cause1 we mu/ rememb]1 does n 9 its /rictly sci5tific mean+ imply creative p[]4 ,! cause ( a ph5om5on is itself a ph5om5on4 8,! positive sci5ces 9 va9 pret5d to seize ! div9e ess5ce or reason beh9d ?+s40#cf ,!y arrive at descriptive =mul & !re !y leave u4 ,b1 z ,b\tr\x well rem9ds u 9 conclud+ 8 !sis1 =mulas nev] expla9 any?+ because !y _c ev5 expla9 !mselves4 ,!y are simply con/ructions made by obs]vation & ab/raction & :i* !mselves require explanation4 #cf ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature1 p #aed4 ,! laws ( nature are n re/rictions :i* h be51 z x 71 impos$ ^u h] ,!y are !mselves products ( fre$om2 !y are1 9 h]1 :at habits are to ! individual4 ,_! con/ancy is l ! /ability ( a riv]-b$ :i* ! freely runn+ /ream at "s e>ly "t holl[$ out4 ,! _w is an assembly ( be+s1 & its vitality & nature _c be express$ 9 a =mula4 ,x comprises a hi]>*y ( creatures1 ris+ f inorganic to organic =ms1 f matt] to _s1 & 9 man x displays an obs]v+ intellig5ce1 ris+ above m]e s5sibility & expressly modify+ ?+s by free w4 ,9 ?is conception ,b\tr\x foll[s ,ravaisson1 & he is also influ5c$ by t ?9k]'s belief 9 a spiritual ,p[] ( goodness & beauty4 ,he ?us leads u to ! sph]e ( religion & philosophy1 bo? ( :i* endeav\r1 9 _! own mann]1 to complete ! inadequacy ( ! purely sci5tific /&po9t4 ,he ?us /&s l9k$ up 9 ! total developm5t ) ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi]1 & 9 8 own gr\p ) ,la*eli]1 9 reg>d to ?is "q ( ! relation ( philosophy & ! sci5ces4 ,! critique ( sci5ce1 :i* is s prom95t 9 ,b\tr\x1 0 *>act]i/ic ( a numb] ( ?9k]s :om we _c d m ?an m5tion "h 9 pass+1 = 9 g5]al _! "w is n 9 l9e ) ! spirituali/ developm5t1 b is a sub-curr5t runn+ out & sep>at$ f ! ma9 /ream4 ,?is is %[n prom95tly 9 ! fact t1 :ile ,b\tr\x's critique is 9 ! int]e/s ( idealism & ! ma9t5ance ( "s spiritual values1 mu* subsequ5t criticism ( sci5ce is a m]e empiricism &1 be+ divorc$ f ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! spirituali/ philosophy1 t5ds m]ely to acc5tuate a ve9 ( unc]ta9ty--inde$1 scepticism ( k4 ,su* is ! g5]al /&po9t tak5 by ,milhaud1 ,payot1 & ,duhem4 ,r ap>t f ^! /&s ! works ( acute m9ds l ,po9c>1 ,dur& de ,gros1 & ,hannequ91 ^: discussion ( ! atomic doctr9es is a "w ( consid]able m]it4 ,to ^! may be add$ ,lal&e's criticism ( ! doctr9e ( evolution & integration by 8 oppos+ to x t ( dissolution & dis9tegration4 ,pass+ ref]5ces to ^! books mu/ n1 h[ev]1 deta9 u f foll[+ ! ma9 developm5t :i*1 f ,b\tr\x1 is c>ri$ on by ,b]gson4 ,we f9d t ,b]gson1 l ,b\tr\x1 holds no brief = sci5ce1 & 9 p>ticul> he opposes "s ( its doctr9es :i* h be5 dogmatically & uncritically accept$4 ,8 "w1 ,matire et ,mmoire1 is a direct critique ( ! sci5tific po/ulate ( psy*o-physical p>allelism :i* ,b]gson reg>ds z ! crux ( ! problem at issue betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy--namely1 t ( fre$om4 ,he %[s t ?is !ory1 :i* has be5 adopt$ by sci5ce because ( its conv5i5ce1 ought n to be accept$ by philosophy )\t criticism4 ,9 8 op9ion x _c /& ! criticism :i* he br+s aga9/ x4 ,a relation betwe5 s\l & body is und5iable1 b he does n agree t t relation is "o ( absolute p>allelism4 ,to ma9ta9 p>allelism is to settle at once & be=eh&1 9 an unw>rantably a priori mann]1 ! :ole problem ( fre$om4 ,8 int5se spiritualism sees also 9 su* a doctr9e ! deadly enemy ,epiph5om5alism1 ! belief t ! spiritual is only a product ( ! physical4 ,he ma9ta9s ! unique & irr$ucible nature ( consci\sness1 & claims t ! life ( ! s\l or _s is ri*] & wid] ?an ! m]e physical activity ( ! bra91 :i* is really its in/rum5t4 ,b]gson asks u to imag9e ! revolution :i* might h be51 _h our e>ly sci5ti/s devot$ !mselves to ! /udy ( m9d r ?an matt]1 & claims t we suff] f ! dogmatism ( mat]iali/ic sci5ce & ! geometrical & ma!matical conceptions ( 8a univ]sal sci5ce0 or 8ma!matic0 :i* come f ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & are se5 lat] 9 ,ta9e4 ,! inadequacy ( ! sci5tific /&po9t is a !me ^u :i* ,b]gson nev] tires ( insi/+4 ,n only does he reg>d a metaphysic z necess>y to complete ?is inadequacy1 b he claims t our intellect is incapable ( grasp+ reality 9 its flux & *ange4 ,! true in/rum5t ( metaphysics is1 accord+ to him1 intuition4 ,b]gson's doctr9e ( intuition does n1 h[ev]1 am\nt to a pure ho/ility to intellectual con/ructions4 ,^! are valuable1 b !y are n adequate to reality4 ,metaphysics _c disp5se ) ! natural sci5ces4 ,^! sci5ces "w ) concepts1 ab/ractions1 & s suff] by be+ intellectual m\lds4 ,we mu/ n mi/ake !m = ! liv+1 puls+1 ?robb+ reality ( life itself :i* is f> wid] ?an any intellectual con/ruction4 ,by 8 insi/5ce ^u ?is po9t1 9 :i* he jo9s h&s ) sev]al ( 8 pr$ecessors1 ,b]gson claims to h got ov] ! ,kantian difficulties ( admitt+ ! value & possibility ( a metaphysic4 ,!re is no?+ irrational1 he insi/s1 9 8 doctr9e ( metaphysical intuition or 8intellectual sympa?y02 x is r sup]-rational1 ak9 to ! _s ( ! poet & ! arti/4 ,! v>i\s sci5ces c supply data &1 z su*1 are to be respect$1 = !y h a relative value4 ,:at ,b]gson is eag] to d is to combat _! absolute value4 ,8 metaphysic is1 h[ev]1 no m]e 8philosophy ( ! sci5ces0 9 ! s5se ( be+ a m]e summ>y ( ! results ( ! sci5ces4 ,8 intuition is m ?an a m]e g5]alisation ( facts2 x is an 8integral exp]i5ce10 a p5etration ( reality 9 its flux & *ange1 a look+ ^u ! _w sub specie durationis4 ,x is a vision1 b x is "o :i* we _c obta9 )\t intellectual or sci5tific lab\r4 ,we c become bett] acqua9t$ ) reality only by ! progressive developm5t ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,we _c live on ! dry bread ( ! sci5ces alone1 an intuitional philosophy is necess>y = our spiritual welf>e4 ,sci5ce promises u well-be+ or pleasure1 b philosophy1 claims ,b]gson1 c give u joy1 by its intuitions1 its sup]-intellectual vision1 t vital contact ) life itself 9 its fulness1 :i* is f> gr&] & tru] ?an all ! ab/ractions ( sci5ce4 ,?is is ! culm9ation ( mu* already indicat$ 9 ,c\rnot1 ,r5\vi]1 ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 & ,b\tr\x1 :i* ,b]gson pres5ts 9 a mann] q unique1 ?us clos+ 9 our p]iod ! developm5t ( t criticism & ho/ility to ! f9ality & absolut5ess ( ! purely sci5tific attitude :i* is s m>k$ a feature ( bo? our second & ?ird gr\ps1 ! neo-critical ?9k]s & ! neo-spirituali/s4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,beg9n+ ) a gl[+ confid5ce 9 ! sci5ces z ultimate int]pretations ( reality1 we ?us h witness$ a complete turn ( ! tide dur+ ! develop-99 s9ce #ahea4 ,also1 9 foll[+ out ! *anges 9 ! attitude adopt$ to ,sci5ce1 we h be5 enabl$ to discov] 9 a g5]al mann] t ! c5tral & vital problem :i* our p]iod pres5ts is t ( ,fre$om4 ,x w be int]e/+ to f9d :e!r 9 reg>d to ?is problem1 too1 a simil> *ange ( front w be noticeable z ! p]iod is foll[$ to its close4 ,,note4--,! read] may be int]e/$ to f9d t ,e9/e9 has br\ght out "s ( ,b\tr\x's po9ts v emphatically1 & has confirm$ ! view ( geometry held by ,po9c>4 ,comp>e ! foll[+ /atem5ts3 ,b\tr\x3 8,ma!matics _c be appli$ ) exactness to reality40 8,ma!matics & exp]i5ce c nev] be exactly fitt$ into ea* o!r40 ,po9c>3 8,=mul are n true1 !y are conv5i5t40 ,e9/e93 8,if we d5y ! relation betwe5 ! body ( axiomatic ,euclidean geometry or ! practically rigid body ( reality1 we readily arrive at ! view ent]ta9$ by t acute & pr(\nd ?9k]1 ,h4 ,po9c> 4 4 4 ,sub specie t]ni1 ,po9c>1 9 my op9ion1 is "r0 7,sidelights on ,relativity1 pp4 #cc-ce74 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,fre$om ,,introductory3 ,! c5tral problem ( our p]iod--,! reconciliation ( sci5ce ) man's beliefs c5tres ar\nd ! "q ( ,fre$om--,unsatisfactor9ess ( ,kant's solution felt4 ,i4 ,! positivi/ belief 9 univ]sal & rigid det]m9ism1 especially %[n 9 ,ta9e4 ,r5an's view4 ,,ii4 ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] uphold ,fre$om--,/rong logical & moral case put =w>d = x4 ,,iii4 ,! new spirituali/s1 ,ravaisson & ,la*eh]1 set ,fre$om 9 ! =efront ( _! philosophy--,f\ille attempts a reconciliation by ! idea ( ,fre$om z a det]m9+ =ce--,guyau1 ,b\tr\x1 ,blondel & ,b]gson insi/ on ! reality ( ,fre$om--,!y surpass ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] by uphold+ cont+5cy --,?is is especially true ( ,guyau1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson4 ,belief 9 creativ5ess & spontaneity replace ! old] belief 9 det]m9ism4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,fre$om ,! discussions reg>d+ ! relation betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy l$ ! ?9k]s ( our p]iod naturally to ! crucial problem ( fre$om4 ,sci5ce has almo/ inv>iably /ood = det]m9ism1 & m5 7 becom+ impati5t ( a dogmatism :i*1 by its d5ial ( fre$om1 left little or no place = man1 8 actions1 8 beliefs1 8 moral feel+s4 8,la nature fatale (fre la ,lib]t ,un problme40#a #a ,guyau1 9 8 ,v]s d'un ,philosophe1 8,mom5ts de ,foi--,i410 ,en lisant ,kant1 p4 #eg4 ,x 0 precisely ?is problem :i* 0 acutely felt 9 ! philosophy ( our p]iod z x develop$ & approa*$ ! close ( ! c5tury4 ,9 a celebrat$ passage ( 8 ,critique ( ,judgm5t ! philosoph] ,kant _h drawn att5tion to ! necessity ( br++ toge!r ! concept ( fre$om & ! concept ( nature z con/ruct$ by mod]n sci5ce1 = ! two 71 he rem>k$1 sep>at$ by an abyss4 ,he himself felt t ! realm ( fre$om %\ld ex]cise an influ5ce ^u ! realm ( sci5ce1 b 8 own me?od prohibit$ 8 attempt+ to indicate ) any precis5ess :at t influ5ce might be4 ,! fatal error ( 8 sy/em1 ! artificial division ( n\m5a & ph5om5a1 l$ him to assign fre$om only to ! _w ( n\m5a4 ,among ph5om5a x _h no place1 b reign$ transc5d5t1 unkn[n & unkn[able1 beyond ! _w we "k4 ,! artificiality ( su* a solution 0 app>5t to ! ?9k]s :o foll[$ ,kant1 & p>ticul>ly 0 ?is felt 9 ,france4 8,poor consolation is x10 rem>k$ ,f\ille1 9 reply to ,kant's view1 8= a prison] b\nd ) *a9s to "k t 9 "s unkn[n realm af> he c walk freely devoid ( 8 fett]s40 ,! problem ( fre$om1 bo? 9 its n>r[ sph]e ( p]sonal free-w & 9 its l>g] social significance1 is "o :i* has m]it$ ! att5tion ( all peoples 9 hi/ory4 ,france1 h[ev]1 has be5 pre-em95tly a cradle = mu* acute ?\ght on ?is matt]4 ,x loom$ increas+ly l>ge on ! horizon z ! ,revolution approa*$1 x %one brilliantly 9 ,r\sseau4 ,s9ce ! ,revolution x has be5 equally discuss$1 & is ! fir/ ( ! ?ree wat*words ( ! republic1 ^: philosoph]s1 no less ?an its politicians1 h f\nd x "o ( _! ma9 !mes4 ,! supreme importance ( ! problem ( fre$om 9 our p]iod 0 due ma9ly to ! ne$ felt by all ?9k]s = attempt+1 9 a mann] diff]5t f t ( ,kant1 a reconciliation betwe5 sci5ce & morals 7sci5ce et consci5ce71 & to f9d amid ! developm5t ( sci5tific ?\ght a place = ! p]sonality ( ! ?9k] himself1 n m]ely z a passive spectator1 b z an ag5t1 a will+ & act+ be+4 ,paul ,janet1 9 8 essays entitl$ ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1#b treat+ ! "q ( sci5ce1 asks :e!r ! gr[+ precision ( ! natural sci5ces & 8! ext5sion ( _! #8positive' me?ods1 :i* involve a doctr9e or assumption ( infallible necessity1 d n imp]il gravely ! fre$om ( ! moral ag5t80 ,:ile himself believ+ t1 h[ev] closely ! sci5ces may seem to encroa* ^u ! free p[] ( ! human s\l1 !y w only approa* 9 an indef9ite 8asymptote10 nev] succe$+ 9 annull+ x1 he s5ses ! importance ( ! problem4 ,sci5ce may endeav\r to tie u d[n to a belief 9 univ]sal & rigid det]m9ism1 b ! human _s revolts f ! acceptance ( su* a view1 & acclaims1 to "s degree at lea/1 ! reality ( a fre$om :i* _c be easily reconcil$ ) ! det]m9i/ doctr9es4 #b ,publi%$ 9 #ahgb4 ,9 ! p]iod :i* we h "u review ! c5tral problem is und\bt$ly t ( fre$om4 ,practically all ! great ?9k]s 9 ,france dur+ ?is p]iod occupi$ !mselves ) ?is problem1 & rightly s1 = !y realis$ t mo/ ( ! o!rs ) :i* philosophy conc]ns itself dep5d 9 a l>ge degree ^u ! attitude adopt$ to fre$om4 ,c\rnot1 ,r5\vi]1 ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,f\ille1 ,b\tr\x1 ,blondel & ,b]gson h play$ ! *ief "p 9 ! ar5a ( discussion1 & al?\gh diff]+ consid]ably 9 _! me?ods ( treatm5t & n a little 9 ! =m ( _! conclusions1 !y are at "o 9 ass]t+ ! vital importance ( ?is problem & its primacy = philosophy4 ,! rem>k ( ,f\ille is by no means too /rong3 8,! problem :i* we are go+ to discuss is n only a philosophical problem2 x is1 p> excell5ce1 ! problem = philosophy4 ,all ! o!r que/ions are b\nd up ) ?is40#c ,?is tru? w be app>5t :51 aft] %[+ ! developm5t ( ! doctr9es conc]n+ fre$om1 we come1 9 our subsequ5t *apt]s1 to consid] its application to ! que/ions ( progress1 ( e?ics & ( ! philosophy ( religion4 #c ,9 8 preface to 8 ,!sis ,lib]t et ,dt]m9isme1 lat] editions1 p4 vii4 ,i ,we f9d 9 ! ?\ght ( our p]iod a v /rik+ developm5t or *ange 9 reg>d to ! problem ( fre$om4 ,beg9n+ ) a /rictly positivi/ & naturali/ belief 9 det]m9ism1 x concludes ) a spiritualism or idealism :i* n only upholds fre$om b goes fur!r 9 its reaction aga9/ ! det]m9i/ doctr9es by ma9ta9+ cont+5cy4 ,ta9e & ,r5an bo? express ! initial attitude1 a firm belief 9 det]m9ism1 b x is mo/ cle> & rigid 9 ! "w ( ,ta9e4 ,8 :ole philosophy is ho/ile to any belief 9 fre$om4 ,! /rictly positivi/1 empirici/ & naturali/ tone ( 8 ?\ght comb9$ ) ! p[]ful influ5ce ( ,sp9oza's sy/em to produce 9 him a firm belief 9 necessity--a necessity :i*1 z we h se51 0 sev]ely rational & ( ! type se5 9 ma!matics & 9 logic4 ,al?\gh x mu/ also be admitt$ t 9 ?is view ( *ange & developm5t ,ta9e 0 p>tly influ5c$ by ! ,hegelian philosophy1 yet 8 =mulations 7 f> m precise & ma!matical ?an ^? ( ! ,g]man ?9k]4 ,we h1 9 consid]+ 8 attitude to sci5ce1 se5 ! t5aci\s mann] 9 :i* he cl+s to 8 dogma ( causality or univ]sal necessity4 ,all liv+ ?+s1 man includ$1 are held 9 ! firm grip ( 8! /eel p9c]s ( necessity40 ,e fact & e law 9 ! univ]se has its raison explicative1 z ,ta9e /yles x4 ,he quotes ) approval1 9 8 treatm5t ( ?is "q at ! close ( 8 "w ,de l',intellig5ce1 ! words ( ! great sci5ti/ & positivi/ ,claude ,b]n>d3 8,il y a un dt]m9isme absolu1 dans les conditions d'exi/5ce des phnomnes naturels1 aussi bi5 p\r les corps vivants que p\r les corps bruts40#d ,9 ,ta9e & ! s*ool ( sci5ti/s l ,b]n>d1 ^: op9ions on ?is matt] he voices1 no room is accord$ to fre$om4 #d ,de l',intellig5ce1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dhj1 ! quotation f ,b]n>d is to be f\nd 9 8 ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdec9e exprim5tale1 p4 #aae4 ,ta9e's belief 9 univ]sal necessity & 8 naturali/ic outlook l$ him to reg>d man f ! physical /&po9t z a me*anism1 f ! m5tal po9t ( view a !orem4 ,vice & virtue are1 to quote 8 own words1 8products j z vitriol or sug>40 ,?is rem>k hav+ appe>$ to _m ?9k]s a sc&al\s ass]tion1 ,ta9e expla9$ 9 an article contribut$ to ! ,j\rnal des ,dbats#e t he did n mean to say t vice & virtue 71 l vitriol or sug>1 *emical b !y are nev]!less products1 moral products1 :i* moral elem5ts br+ into be+ by _! assemblage4 ,&1 he argues1 j z x is necess>y 9 ord] to make vitriol to "k ! *emical elem5ts :i* g to its composition1 s 9 ord] to create 9 man ! hatr$ ( a lie x is useful to se>* = ! psy*ological elem5ts :i*1 by _! union1 produce tru?fulness4 #e ,on ,decemb] #ai?1 #ahgb4 ,ev5 ?is explanation ( 8 position1 h[ev]1 did n prev5t ! ass]tion be+ made t su* a view entirely does away ) all "q ( moral responsibility4 ,to ?is criticism ,ta9e object$4 8,x does n involve moral indiff]5ce4 ,we d n excuse a wick$ man because we h expla9$ to ourselves ! causes ( 8 wick$ness4 ,"o c be det]m9i/ ) ,leibnitz & nev]!less admit ) ,leibnitz t man is responsible --t is to say1 t ! di%one/ man is wor?y ( blame1 ( c5sure & puni%m5t1 :ile ! hone/ man is wor?y ( praise1 respect & rew>d40 ,9 "o ( 8 ,essais ,ta9e fur!r argu$ 9 def5ce ( 8 doctr9e ( univ]sal det]m9ation t s9ce ,,we ourselves are det]m9$--t is to say1 s9ce !re is a psy*ological det]m9ism z well z a physical det]m9ism--we d n feel ! re/riction :i* ?is det]m9ism implies1 we h ! illusion ( fre$om & act j z if we 7 free4 ,to ?is ,f\ille repli$ t ! value ( ,ta9e's argum5t 0 equal to t ( a man :o might say1 8,because ,i am asleep1 all ( me1 all my p[]s & faculties1 !re=e ,i am 9 a /ate :]e ,i am p]fectly free & responsible40 ,c]ta9ly ,ta9e's rem>k t we are det]m9$ _h no?+ 9 common ) ! belief 9 t true det]m9ism1 :i* is equally true fre$om1 s9ce x is self-det]m9ation4 ,ta9e pr(ess$ no su* doctr9e1 & re/$ 9 a purely naturali/ic fatalism1 built ^u =mul ( geometry & logic1 9 ab/raction f ! actual liv+ & act+ ( ! s\l1 & ?is dogma ( det]m9ism1 to :i* he clung s de>ly1 col\rs 8 view ( e?ics & ( hi/ory4 ,= ,ta9e1 8! ,_w is a liv+ geometry0 & 8man is a !orem t walks40 ,l ,ta9e1 ,r5an set out f ! belief 9 univ]sal causation1 b he employ$ ! conception n s mu* 9 a w>f>e aga9/ man's fre$om ( action z aga9/ ! !ologians' belief 9 miracle & ! sup]natural4 ,!re is none ( ,ta9e's rig\r & precis5ess 9 ,r5an1 & x is difficult to grasp 8 real attitude to ! problem ( fre$om4 ,if he ev] _h "o1 may be d\bt$4 ,! bl5d+ ( viewpo9ts1 ! p>adox s *>act]i/ic ( him1 seems app>5t ev5 9 ?is "q4 ,8 int5se humanism prompt$ him to rem>ks 9 praise ( fre$om1 & he seems to h recognis$ 9 man a c]ta9 p[] ( fre$om2 b 9 view ( 8 belief 9 univ]sal cause he is c>eful to qualify ?is4 ,fur!r1 8 int5sely religi\s m9d rema9$ 9 love ) ! doctr9e ( div9e guidance :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ,*ri/ian & mo/ religi\s ?\ght4 ,al?\gh ,r5an left ! ,*ur*1 ?is belief nev] left ,r5an4 ,he sees ,god work+ out an et]nal purpose 9 hi/ory1 & ?is he nev] reconcil$ ) ! problem ( man's free w4 ,! humani/ 9 him c\ld rem>k t ! "o object ( life is ! developm5t ( ! m9d1 & ! fir/ condition = ?is is fre$om4 ,"h he appe>s to h 9 view fre$om f political & religi\s re/rictions4 ,he is ?9k+ ( ! educational problem4 ,8 own attitude to ! ultimate "q ( fre$om 9 itself1 z oppos$ to det]m9ism1 is be/ express$ 9 8 ,exam5 d'une ,consci5ce philosophique4 ,he !re %[s t ! univ]se is ! result ( a l5g?y developm5t1 !4 beg9n+s ( :i* we d n "k4 8,9 ! innum]able l9ks ( t *a910 says ,r5an1 8we f9d n "o free act be=e ! appe>ance ( man1 or1 if y l1 liv+ be+s40 ,) man1 h[ev]1 fre$om comes into ! s*eme ( ?+s4 ,a free cause is se5 employ+ ! =ces ( nature = will$ ends4 ,yet ?is is b nature itself blossom+ to self-consci\sness2 ?is free cause emanates f nature itself4 ,!re is no rude break betwe5 man ) 8 free p[] & unconsci\s nature4 ,bo? are int]connect$4 ,fre$om is inde$ ! appe>ance ( some?+ 8new10 b x is n1 insi/s ,r5an1 some?+ divorc$ f :at has gone be=e4 ,we see 9 ,r5an a rejection ( ! sev]ely det]m9i/ic doctr9e ( ,ta9e1 b x is by no means a complete rejection or refutation ( x4 ,r5an adh]es l>gely to ! sci5tific & positivi/ attitude :i* is su* a feature ( ,ta9e's "w4 ,8 humanism1 h[ev]1 recognises ! inadequacy ( su* doctr9es & compels him to speak ( fre$om z a human factor1 & he ?us br+s u a /ep ne>] to ! developm5t ( ! case = fre$om put =w>d s /rongly by ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] & by ! neo-spirituali/s4 ,,ii ,a v p[]ful opposition to all doctr9es bas$ ^u or uphold+ det]m9ism %[s itself 9 ! "w ( ,c\rnot & ! neo-critical philosophy4 ,! idea ( fre$om is a c5tral "o 9 ! ?\ght ( bo? ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi]4 ,c\rnot devot$ 8 e>ly lab\rs to a critical & highly te*nical exam9ation ( ! "q ( probability1 consid]$ 9 its ma!matical =m1 a task = :i* he 0 well equipp$4#f ,be+ n only a man ( sci5ce b also a metaphysician1 or r a philosoph] :o approa*$ metaphysical problems f ! impulse & data accord$ him by ! sci5ces1 ,c\rnot 0 naturally l$ to ! wid] problem ( probabilit philosophique4 ,he %[s 9 8 ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances t haz>d or *ance are n m]ely words :i* we use to cov] our ignorance1 z ,ta9e w\ld h claim$4 ,ov] aga9/ ! doctr9e ( a univ]sal det]m9ism he ass]ts ! reality ( ^! factors4 ,! t]ms *ance & haz>d repres5t a real & vital elem5t 9 our exp]i5ce & 9 ! nature ( reality itself4 ,probability is a factor to be reckon$ )1 & ?is is s because ( ! elem5ts ( cont+5cy 9 nature & 9 life4 ,fre$om is b\nd up ess5tially ) ! vitality :i* is nature itself4 #f ,see 8 ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances3 8,haz>d10 *ap4 iii42 8,probabilit ,philosophique10 *ap1 iv41 pp4 #ga-aja2 & *ap4 v41 8,de l',h>monie et de la ,f9alit10 pp4 #aja-add4 ,! neo-critical philosoph]1 ,r5\vi]1 is a notable *ampion ( fre$om4 ,we h already se5 ! importance he atta*es to ! category ( p]sonality4 ,= him1 p]sonality repres5ts a consci\sness 9 possession ( itself1 a free & rational h>mony--9 %ort1 fre$om p]sonifi$4 ,f a /rictly demon/rative po9t ( view ,r5\vi] ?9ks x is impossible to prove fre$om z a fact4 ,h[ev]1 he lays be=e u ) int5se s]i\sness v>i\s4 consid]ations ( a psy*ological & a moral "* :i* h an important be>+ ^u ! problem4 ,?is problem1 he ass]ts1 n only conc]ns our actions b also our k4 ,to br+ out ?is po9t cle>ly1 ,r5\vi] develops "s ( ! ideas ( 8 fri5d1 ,jules ,lequi]1 on ! notion ( ! autonomy ( ! reason1 or r ( ! reasonable w4 ,9 ?is way he %[s d\bt & criticism to be !mselves signs ( fre$om1 & ass]ts t we =m our notions ( tru? freely1 or t at lea/ !y are creations ( our free ?\ght1 n laid ^u u by an ext]nal au?ority4 ,m light is ?r[n on ! problem by consid]+ :at ,r5\vi] calls v]tige m5tal1 a psy*opa?ological condition due to a di/urbance ( ! rational h>mony or self-possession :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! p]sonal consci\sness4 ,?is /ate is *>act]is$ by halluc9ation & error4 ,x is ! extreme opposite ( ! self-consci\s1 reflective p]sonality 9 full possession ( itself & ex]cis+ its w rationally4 ,r5\vi] %[s t betwe5 ^! two extremes !re are num]\s planes ( v]tige m5tal 9 :i* ! "p play$ by our w is small or negligible1 & we are ?us victims ( habit or t5d5cy4 ,is !re1 !n1 any place = fre$om8 ,!re mo/ c]ta9ly is1 says ,r5\vi]1 = our fre$om manife/s itself :5ev] we inhibit an action to :i* we are excit$ by habit1 passion or imag9ation4 ,our fre$om is ! product ( reflection4 ,we are at lib]ty to be free1 to det]m9e ourselves 9 accordance ) high] motives4 ,?is p[] is j our p]sonality ass]t+ itself1 & x does n contradict our be+1 m (t5 ?an n1 victims ( habit4 ,we h x 9 our p[] to make fre% beg9n+s4 ,r5\vi]'s disbelief 9 /rict cont9uity is "h aga9 app>5t4 ,we mu/ admit fre$om ( creation 9 ! p]sonality itself1 & n seek to expla9 our actions by try+ to asc5d "s scale ( causes to inf9ity4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a sum to inf9ity ( a s]ies2 !re is no su* ?+ z ! influ5ce ( an inf9ite s]ies ( causes ^u ! p]=mance ( a consci\sly will$ act 9 :i* ! p]sonality ass]ts its initiative-- t is1 its p[] ( initiation ( a new s]ies1 9 %ort1 its fre$om4 ,pass+ f ^! psy*ological consid]ations1 ,r5\vi] calls our att5tion to "s ( a moral nature1 no less important1 9 8 op9ion1 = %$d+ light ^u ! nature ( fre$om4 ,if1 he argues1 all is necess>y1 if all human actions are pr$et]m9$1 !n popul> language is guilty ( a grave extravagance & appe>s ridicul\s1 ins9uat+1 z x does1 t _m acts might h be5 left undone & _m ev5ts might h occurr$ diff]5tly1 & t a man might h done o!r ?an he did4 ,9 ! light ( ! hypo!sis ( rigor\s necessity1 ! m5tion ( ambigu\s futures & ! notion ( 8be+ o!rwise0 7le p\voir tre autrem5t7 seem fooli%4 ,sci5ce may ass]t ! docr9e ( necessity & prea* x valiantly1 b ! human consci5ce feels x to be untrue & w n be ga9said4 ,! sci5ti/ himself is =c$ to admit t man does n accept 8 gospel ( univ]sal pr$e/9ation or fatalism4 ,?is ,r5\vi] recognises z an important po9t 9 ! debate4 ,/range1 is x n1 he rem>ks1 t ! m9d ( ! philosoph] himself1 a sanctu>y or %r9e = tru?1 %\ld appe> z a rebelli\s citadel refus+ to surr5d] to ! tru? ( ?is univ]sal necessity4 ,we believe ourselves to be free ag5ts or1 at lea/ be+s :o are capable ( "s free action4 ,h[ev] slight su* action1 x w\ld invalidate ! hypo!sis ( univ]sal necessity4 ,if all ?+s are necessitat$1 !n moral judgm5ts1 ! notions ( "r & ( duty1 h no f\ndation 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 ,virtue & crime lose _! "*2 ! s5tim5ts & feel+s1 su* z regret1 hope1 fe>1 desire1 *ange _! mean+ or become mean+less4 ,r5\vi] lays great /ress ^u ^! moral consid]ations4 ,aga91 if ev]y?+ be necessitat$1 error is z necess>y z tru?4 ,! false is inde$ true1 be+ necess>y1 & ! true may become false4 ,disputes rage ov] :at is false or true1 b ^! disputes _c be condemn$1 = !y !mselves are1 by virtue ( ! hypo!sis1 necess>y1 & ! disputes are necess>ily absurd & ridicul\s f ?is po9t ( view4 ,:]e !n is tru?8 ,:]e is morality8 ,we h "h no basis = ei!r4 ,look+ ?us at hi/ory1 all its crimes & infamies are equally lawful1 = !y are inevitable2 su* is ! result1 ,r5\vi] %[s1 ( view+ all human action z univ]sally pr$et]m9$4 ,! objections ?us put =w>d by ,r5\vi] aga9/ ! doctr9e ( univ]sal necessity are p[]ful ones4 ,!y possess great weight & result 9 ! admission1 ev5 by its uphold]s1 t 8! judgm5t ( fre$om is a natural datum ( consci\sness & is b\nd up ) our reflective judgm5ts ^u :i* we act1 be+ itself ! f\ndation ( ^!40 ,yet1 we h1 ,r5\vi] rem9ds u1 no logical pro( ( ! reality ( fre$om4 ,we feel ourselves mov$1 spontane\sly & uncon/ra9$4 ,! future1 9 s f> z x dep5ds ^u ourselves1 appe>s n z pre>rang$ b ambigu\s1 op54#g ,:e!r our judgm5t be true or false1 we 9 practical life act inv>iably on ! belief 9 fre$om4 ,t1 ( c\rse1 z ,r5\vi] admits at ?is /age ( 8 discussion1 does n prove t our belief is n an illusion4 ,x is a feel+1 natural & spontane\s4 #g ,cf41 lat]1 ,b]gson's rem>k3 8,! portals ( ! future /& wide op51 ! future is be+ made40 ,"o ( ! mo/ curr5t =ms ( ! doctr9e ( fre$om has be5 t kn[n z ! 8lib]ty ( indiff]5ce40 ,! uphold]s ( ?is !ory reg>d ! w z sep>at$ f motives & ends4 ,! op]ation ( ! w is reg>d$ by !m z indiff]5t to ! claims or influ5ce ( reason or feel+4 ,w is sup]add$ ext]nally to motives1 :]e su* exi/1 or may be sup]impos$ on intellectual views ev5 to ! ext5t ( annull+ ^!4 ,judgm5t & w are sep>at$ 9 ?is view1 & ! w is a purely arbitr>y or indiff]5t factor4 ,x c op]ate )\t reason aga9/ reason4 ,! oppon5ts ( fre$om f9d little difficulty 9 assail+ ?is view1 9 :i* ! w appe>s to op]ate l a dice or a r\lette game1 absolutely at haz>d1 r$uc+ man to a non-rational creature4 ,su* a type ( w1 h[ev]1 ,r5\vi] decl>es to be non-exi/5t1 = e man :o has full consci\sness ( an act ( 8 has at ! same "t a consci\sness ( an end or purpose = ?is act1 & he proposes to realise by ?is means a good :i* he reg>ds z pref]able to any o!r4 ,9 s f> z he has d\bts ( ?is pref]5ce ! act & ! judgm5t w be susp5d$4 ,he mu/1 h[ev]1 if he be an intellig5t be+1 pursue :at he deems to be 8 good--t is to say1 :at he deems to be good at ! "t ( act+4 ,r5\vi] "h agrees ) ,socrates & ,plato 9 ! view t no man delib]ately & kn[+ly wills :at he consid]s to be evil or to be bad = him4 ,virtue involves k1 & al?\gh !re is ! almo/ prov]bial phrase ( ,ovid & ( ,paul1 ab\t see+ & approv+ ! bett]1 yet nev]!less do+ ! worse1 x is a g5]al /atem5t :i* does n express an anti!sis z pres5t to consci\sness at ! "t ( action4 ,! ag5t may aft]w>ds say 4 4 4 8,video meliora proboque det]iora sequor40 b at ! "t ( action 8! worse0 mu/ appe> to him z a good1 at any rate !n & 9 8 own judgm5t4 ,fur!r1 beyond ^! psy*ological consid]ations !re are grave moral objections1 ,r5\vi] po9ts out1 to admitt+ 8an indiff]5t w10 = ! acts ( su* a w be+ purely arbitr>y & haphaz>d1 ! man w be no moral ag5t1 no responsible p]son4 ,a man :o wills ap>t f ! consid]ation ( any motive :atev] c nev] p]=m any m]itori\s action4 ,"u ! conception ( an indiff]5t w ! t]m 8m]it0 ceases to h a mean+4 ,! !ologians :o h ass]t$ ! doctr9e 7inde$1 x seems to h orig9at$1 ,r5\vi] ?9ks1 ) !m7 h readily admitt$ ?is po9t1 = x op5s up ! way = _! !ory ( div9e grace or ! good w ( ,god act+ directly ^u or )9 ! ag5t4 ,w & m]it are = !m q sep>ate1 ! latt] be+ due to ! my/ical op]ations ( div9e fav\r or grace1 9 hon\r ( :i* ! indiff]5ce ( ! w has be5 po/ulat$4 ,philosoph]s n giv5 to appeals to div9e grace1 :o h upheld ! doctr9e ( ! indiff]5t w1 h really be5 less consi/5t ?an ! !oloians & h fall5 into grave error4 ,r5\vi] appeals to ! te/imony ( ! p5al laws ( all nations 9 fav\r ( 8 criticism ( an indiff]5t w4 ,motive is deem$ a real factor1 = m5 are n deem$ to h act$ indiff]5tly4 ,"s delib]ation1 inde$1 is impli$ 9 all action :i* is consci\s & human1 "s comp>ison ( motives & a consci\s1 decision4 ,! values ( tru?1 z well z ^? ( morality are equally fatal to ! indiff]5ti/2 =1 asks ,r5\vi]1 is a man to be reg>d$ z n det]m9$ to affirm z true :at he judges to be true8 ,! doctr9e ( fre$om z repres5t$ by t ( an indiff]5t w is no less vici\s1 ,r5\vi] affirms1 ?an ! oppos+ doctr9e ( univ]sal necessity4 ,! tru? is t !y bo? re/ on fictions4 8,indiff]5tism0 imag9es a w divorc$ f judgm5t1 sep>at$ f ! rational man himself1 an unseizable p[]1 a my/]i\s absolute cause unconnect$ ) reflection or delib]ation1 a m]e *im]a4 ,= det]m9ism ! w is equally a fiction4 ,a way out ( ?is difficulty is to be f\nd1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 9 view+ ! w 9 a mann] diff]5t f t ( ! 8indiff]5ti/s40 ,let u suppose ! w b\nd up ) motive1 a motive drawn f ! intellectual & moral equipm5t ( ! man4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 gives rise to psy*ological det]m9ism4 ,! w1 x is argu$1 foll[s always ! la/ det]m9ation ( ! und]/&+4 ,great] subtilty att5ds on ?is argum5t aga9/ fre$om ?an ^? put =w>d on behalf ( physical det]m9ism4 ,r5\vi] sees t !re is no escape f su* a doctr9e z psy*ological det]m9ism unless we take a view ( ! w z b\nd up ) ! nature ( man z a :ole1 ) 8 p[]s ( intellect & feel+4 ,su* a w _c be *>act]is$ z indiff]5t or z ! m]e resultant ( motives4 ,! ,kantian elem5t 9 ,r5\vi]'s ?\ght is noticeable 9 ! /rong moral /&po9t f :i* he discusses all problems1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly true ( 8 discussion ( ?is v vital "o ( fre$om4 ,he is by no means1 h[ev]1 a disciple ( ,kant1 & he jo9s battle /rongly ) ! ,kantian doctr9e ( fre$om4 ,?is is natural 9 view ( 8 entire rejection ( ,kant's 8?+-9-itself10 or n\m5a1 & x foll[s !refrom1 = ,kant atta*$ fre$om only to ! n\m5al _w1 d5y+ its op]ation 9 ! _w ( ph5om5a4 ,! rejection ( n\m5a leaves ,r5\vi] free to discuss fre$om 9 a less remote or less artificial mann] ?an t ( ,kant4 ,if x be true1 argues ,r5\vi]1 t necessity rules supreme1 !n ! human _s c f9d peace 9 absolute resignation2 & 9 look+ back ov] ! pa/ hi/ory ( humanity "o ne$ n h diff]5t feel+s f ^? ent]ta9$ by ! geologi/ or paleontologi/4 ,e?ics1 politics & hi/ory ?us become purely 8natural0 sci5ces 7if inde$ e?ics c\ld "h h mean+1 w\ld x n be id5tical ) an?ropology8 ,at any rate1 x w\ld be purely positive4 ,a normative view ( e?ics w\ld be q unt5able 9 ! face ( univ]sal necessity74 ,any inconv5i5ce1 pa9 or inju/ice w\ld h to be accept$ & n ev5 nam$ 8evil10 mu* less c\ld any ef=t be truly made to expel x f ! s*eme ( ?+s4 ,to ^! accusations ! def5d]s ( necessity object4 ,! practical man1 !y say1 ne$ n feel ?is1 9 s f> z he is "u ! illusion ( fre$om & unaw>e ( ! rigor\s necessity ( all ?+s4 ,he ne$ n refra9 f action4 ,b ?is def5ce ( necessity leads ^? :o wi% to ma9ta9 ! case aga9/ x to cont9ue ! argum5t4 ,suppose t ! ag5t does n =get t all is necessitat$1 :at !n8 ,"u no illusion ( ! idea ( fre$om1 he !n acts at e mom5t ( 8 exi/5ce 9 ! k t he _c b d :at he is do+1 he _c b w :at he wills1 he _c b desire :at he desires4 ,9 "t ?is mu/ produce1 says ,r5\vi]1 insanity ei!r ( an idle type or a furi\s k9d1 he w become an indiff]5t imbecile or a rav+ fanatic1 9 ei!r case a "* q abnormal & dang]\s4 ,^! are extreme results1 b betwe5 ! two extremes all degrees ( "* are to be1 f\nd4 ,! mo/ common type ( practical reason pres5ts an ant9omy 9 ! sy/em ( univ]sal necessity4 ,! case = necessity mu/ reckon ) ?is fact--namely1 t ! op]ation ( necessity has itself giv5 rise to e?ics :i* exi/s1 &1 accord+ to ! case1 its exi/5ce is a necess>y "o2 yet e?ics con/itutes itself 9 opposition to necessity1 & "u ! sway ( necessity is q mean+less4 ,"h is a p>adox :i* is n less5$ if we suppose ! e?ical position to be an absurd & false "o4 ,:e!r false or n1 morality 9 "s =m is practically z univ]sal z human nature4 ,t nature1 ,r5\vi] insi/s1 c h>dly ) s9c]ity believe an hypo!sis or a dogma :i* its own moral in/9cts belie cont9ually4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 tru? lies ) ! uphold]s ( fre$om1 !n man's action is se5 to h great value & significance1 = man !n appe>s z creat+ a new ord] ( ?+s 9 ! _w4 ,8 new acts1 ,r5\vi] admits1 w n be )\t prec$+ ones1 )\t roots or reasons1 b !y w be )\t necess>y connection ) ! :ole s*eme ( ?+s4 ,he is ?us creat+ a new ord]2 he is creat+ himself & mak+ 8 own hi/ory4 ,consci\s pride or bitt] remorse c bo? alike be pres5t to him4 ,! great revolutions ( hi/ory w be reg>d$ by him n z my/ical sweep+s ( "s unkn[n =ce ext]nal to himself1 b z results ( ! ?\ght & "w ( humanity itself4 ,a philosophy :i* s reg>ds fre$om w ?us be a truly 8human0 philosophy4 ,r5\vi] rightly recognises t ! :ole philosophy ( hi/ory turns ^u ! attitude :i* we adopt to fre$om4 ,9 view ( ! _m difficulties connect$ ) ! problem ( fre$om _m ?9k]s w\ld urge u to a compromise4 ,r5\vi] is aw>e ( ! dang]s ( ?is attitude1 & he br+s into play aga9/ x 8 logical me?od ( deal+ ) problems4 ,?is does n contradict 8 /atem5t ab\t ! indemon/rability ( fre$om1 nor does x m9imise ! weight & significance ( ! moral case = fre$om3 x complem5ts x4 ,betwe5 contradictories or incompatible propositions no middle c\rse c be foll[$4 ,fre$om & necessity _c be bo? at ! same "t true1 or bo? at ! same "t false1 = ( ! two ?+s "o mu/ be true--namely1 ei!r human actions are all ( !m totally pr$et]m9$ by _! conditions or antec$5ts1 or !y are n all ( !m totally pr$et]m9$4 ,x is to ?is pass t we are br\ght 9 ! logical /atem5t ( ! case4 ,n[ sceptics w\ld "h ass]t t d\bt 0 ! only solution4 ,?is w\ld n realh be a solution1 & h[ev] legitimate d\bt is 9 front ( conflict+ !ories1 x involves ! dea? ( ! s\l if x op]ates 9 practical affairs & 9 any circum/ances :]e "s belief is absolutely necess>y to ! conduct ( life & to action4 ,! fre$om 9 "q1 z ,r5\vi] is c>eful to rem9d u1 does n involve our ma9ta9+ ! total indet]m9ation ( ?+s or d5ial ( ! op]ations ( necessity )9 limits4 ,room is left = fre$om :5 x is %[n t ?is necessity is n univ]sal4 ,_m consequ5ces ( free acts may be necessitat$4 ,= example1 says ,r5\vi]1 ,i h a /one 9 my h&4 ,i c freely w to hurl x nor? or s\?1 high or l[1 b once ?r[n f my h& its pa? is /rictly det]m9$ by ! law ( gravity4 ,! volunt>y movem5t ( a man on ! e>? may1 h[ev] slightly1 alt] ! c\rse ( a di/ant planet4 ,fre$om1 we might say1 op]ates 9 a sph]e to :i* necessity supplies ! matt]4 ,ultimately any free act is a *oice betwe5 two alt]natives1 equally possible1 b bo? necessitat$ z possibilities4 ,! po9ts ( free action may seem to take up a small am\nt ( room 9 ! _w1 s to speak1 b we mu/ realise h[ vital !y are to any judgm5t reg>d+ its "*1 & h[ trem5d\sly important !y are f a moral po9t ( view4 ,s f>1 claims ,r5\vi]1 f ! admittance ( fre$om be+ a de/ruction ( ! laws ( ! univ]se1 x really %[s u a special law ( t univ]se1 n o!rwise to be expla9$--namely1 ! moral law4 ,fre$om is ?us reg>d$ by ,r5\vi] z a positive fact1 a moral c]ta9ty4 ,fre$om is ! pill> ( ! neo-critical philosophy2 x is ! fir/ tru? involv$ at once 9 all action & 9 all k4 ,tru? & error are n well expla9$1 or1 inde$1 at all expla9$1 by a doctr9e :i*1 embrac+ !m bo? z equally necess>y1 ju/ifies !m equally1 & s 9 a s5se v]ifies bo? ( !m4 ,x 0 ?is po9t :i* ,bro*>d develop$ 9 8 "w ,l',erreur1 :i* has neo-critical aff9ities4 ,man is only capable ( sci5ce because he is free2 x is also because he is free t he is subject to error4#h ,r5\vi] claims t 8we d n avoid error always1 b we always c avoid x40#i ,tru? & error c only be expla9$1 he urges1 by belief 9 ! ambiguity ( futures1 movem5ts ( ?\ght involv+ *oice betwe5 op9ions :i* conflict--9 %ort1 by belief 9 fre$om4 ,! calculation ( probabilities & ! law ( ! great numb]s demon/rates1 ,r5\vi] claims1 ! indet]m9ation ( futures1 & consci\sness is aw>e ( ?is ambiguity 9 practical life4 ,?is belief 9 ! ambiguity ( futures is a condition1 he %[s1 ( ! ex]cise ( ! human consci\sness 9 its moral aspect1 & ?is consci\sness 9 action reg>ds itself z susp5d$ be=e indet]m9ation--t is1 x affirms fre$om4 ,?is affirmation ( fre$om ,r5\vi] ass]ts to be a necess>y elem5t ( any rational belief :atev]4 ,x alone gives moral dignity & supremacy to p]sonality1 ^: exi/5ce is ! deepe/ & mo/ radical ( all exi/5ces4 ,! p]sonal life 9 its highe/ s5se & its noble/ manife/ation is precisely ,fre$om4 ,r5\vi] assures u t !re is no?+ my/]i\s or my/ical ab\t ?is fre$om4 ,x is n absolute lib]ty & cont+5cy ( all ?+s2 x is an attribute ( p]sons4 ,! "p play$ ?us freely by p]sonality 9 ! s*eme or ord] ( ! univ]se proves to u t t ord] or s*eme is n def9$ or =m$ 9 a pr$et]m9$ mann]2 x is only 9 process ( be+ =m$1 & our p]sonal ef=ts are ess5tial factors 9 its =mation4 ,! _w is an ord] :i* becomes & :i* is creat+ itself1 n a pre-e/abli%$ ord] :i* simply unrolls itself 9 "t4 ,= a prop] und]/&+ ( ! nature ( ?is problem 8we are oblig$ to turn to ! practical reason4 ,x is a moral affirmation ( fre$om :i* we require2 inde$1 any o!r k9d ( affirmation w\ld1 ,r5\vi] ma9ta9s1 presuppose ?is4 ,! practical reason mu/ lay d[n its own basis & t ( all true reason1 = reason is n divid$ aga9/ itself reason is n some?+ ap>t f man2 x is man1 & man is nev] o!r ?an practical--i4e41 act+40#aj ,consid]$ f ?is /&po9t !re are f\r cases :i* pres5t !mselves to ! tribunal ( our judgm5t--namely1 ! case = fre$om1 ! case aga9/ fre$om1 ! case = necessity & ! case aga9/ necessity4 #h ,de ,l',erreur1 p4 #dg4 #i ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #if4 #aj ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p #gh4 ,! position is t]sely put 9 ! ,dilemma pres5t$ by ,jules ,lequi]1 ! fri5d ( ,r5\vi]1 quot$ 9 ! ,psy*ologie rationnelle4 ,!re are f\r possibilities3 ,to affirm necessity1 necess>ily4 ,to affirm necessity1 freely4 ,to affirm fre$om1 necess>ily4 ,to affirm fre$om1 freely4 ,on exam9+ ^! possibilities we f9d t to affirm necessity1 necess>ily1 is valueless1 = its contradictory1 fre$om1 is equally necess>y4 ,to affirm necessity1 freely1 does n (f] u a bett] position1 = "h aga9 x is necessity :i* is affirm$4 ,if we affirm fre$om necess>ily1 we are 9 little bett] case1 = necessity op]ates aga9 7al?\gh ,r5\vi] notes t ?is gives a c]ta9 basis = morality74 ,9 ! free affirmation ( fre$om1 h[ev]1 is to be f\nd n only a basis = morals1 b also = k & ! se>* = tru?4 ,inde$1 z we are ?us =c$ 8to admit ! tru? ( ei!r necessity or fre$om1 & to *oose betwe5 ! "o & ! o!r ) ! "o or ) ! o!r10#aa we f9d t ! affirmation ( necessity involves contradiction1 = !re are _m p]sons :o affirm fre$om1 & ?is !y d1 if ! det]m9i/ be "r1 necess>ily4 ,! affirmation ( fre$om1 on ! o!r h&1 is free f su* an absurdity4 #aa ,ibid41 p4 #ach4 ,su* is ! conclusion to :i* ,r5\vi] br+s u aft] 8 weal? ( logical & moral consid]ations4 ,he comb9es bo? types ( discussion & argum5t 9 ord] to und]m9e ! belief 9 det]m9ism & to uphold fre$om1 :i* is1 9 8 view1 ! ess5tial attribute ( p]sonality & ( ! univ]se itself4 ,he ?us succe$$ 9 alt]+ sub/antially ! balance ( ?\ght 9 fav\r ( fre$om1 & fur!r weight 0 add$ to ! same side ( ! scales by ! new spirituali/ gr\p :o plac$ fre$om 9 ! =efront ( _! ?\ght4 ,,iii ,! developm5t ( ! treatm5t ( ?is problem )9 ! ?\ght ( ! new spirituali/s or ideali/s is extremely int]e/+1 & x proce$$ f9ally to a def9ite doctr9e ( cont+5cy z ! c5tury drew to its close4 ,! consid]ations set =? are usually psy*ological 9 tone1 & n s l>gely e?ical z 9 ! neo-critical philosophy4 ,ravaisson decl>$ himself a *ampion ( fre$om4 ,he accept$ ! pr9ciple ( ,leibnitz1 to ! effect t ev]y?+ has a reason1 f :i* x foll[s t ev]y?+ is necessitat$1 )\t :i* !re c\ld be no c]titude & no sci5ce4 ,b1 says ,ravaisson1 !re are two k9ds ( necessity--"o absolute1 "o relative4 ,! =m] is logical1 ! type ( ! pr9ciple ( id5tity1 & is f\nd 9 syllogisms & 9 ma!matics1 :i* is j logic appli$ to quantity4 ,! o!r type ( necessity is moral1 & is1 unlike ! =m]1 p]fectly 9 accord ) fre$om4 ,x inde$ implies fre$om1 ! fre$om ( self-det]m9ation4 ,! truly wise man c- n help do+ :at is "r & good4 ,! slave ( ,passion & caprice & evil has no fre$om4 ,! wise man select+ ! good *ooses x infallibly1 b at ! "t ) p]fect free-w4 8,x is p]haps because ! good or ! beautiful is simply no?+ o!r ?an love--t is1 ! p[] ( w 9 all its purity1 & s to w :at is truly good is to w oneself 7c'e/ se v\loir soi-mme740#ab #ab ,la ,philosophie en ,france1 p4 #bfh4 ,nature is n1 z ! mat]iali/s endeav\r to ma9ta91 entirely geometrical--t is to say1 fatali/ic 9 "*4 ,morality ent]s into ! s*eme ( ?+s &1 ) x1 ends freely /riv5 =4 ,!re is pres5t a fre$om :i* is a k9d ( necessity1 yet oppos$ to fatalism4 ,?is fre$om involves a det]m9ation by conceptions ( p]fection1 ideals ( beauty & ( good4 8,fatality is b an appe>ance2 spontaneity & fre$om con/itute reality40#ac ,s f>1 cont9ues ,ravaisson1 f all ?+s op]at+ by brute me*anism or by pure haz>d1 ?+s op]ate by ! developm5t ( a t5d5cy to p]fection1 to goodness & beauty4 ,in/ead ( ev]y?+ submitt+ to a bl9d de/9y1 ev]y?+ obeys1 & obeys will+ly1 a div9e ,provid5ce4 #ac ,ibid41 p4 #bgj4 ,ravaisson's fundam5tal spiritualism is cle> 9 all ?is1 & x s]ves z ! />t+-po9t = ! ?9k]s :o foll[ him4 ,spiritualism is b\nd up ) spontaneity1 creation1 fre$om1 & ?is is 8 c5tral po9t1 ?is insi/5ce on fre$om4 ,:ile resi/+ me*anical det]m9ation he endeav\rs to reta9 a det]m9ation ( ano!r k9d--namely1 by ends1 a teleology or f9alism4 ,?is is extremely int]e/+ :5 obs]v$ 9 relation to ! subsequ5t developm5t 9 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x1 ,blondel & ,b]gson4 ,la*eli]'s treatm5t ( fre$om is an important l&m>k 9 ! spirituali/ developm5t4 ,by 8 conc5trat$ analysis ( ! problem ( induction he br\ght out ! significance ( effici5t & f9al causes respectively4 ,he appe>s z ! pupil ( ,ravaisson1 ^: initial inspiration is app>5t 9 8 :ole "w1 especially 9 8 treatm5t ( fre$om4 ,he dwells ^u ! fact ( ! spontaneity ( ! _s--a po9t ( view :i* ,ravaisson succe$$ 9 imp>t+ to ! ?ree ?9k]s1 ,la*eli]1 ,b\tr\x & ,b]gson4 ,besides ! influ5ce ( ,ravaisson1 h[ev]1 t ( ,kant & ,leibnitz appe>s 9 ,la*eli]'s attitude to fre$om4 ,yet he passes beyond ! ,kantian position1 & he rejects ! d\ble-aspect doctr9e :i* ,leibnitz ma9ta9$ ) reg>d to effici5t & f9al causes4 ,la*eli] insi/s t ! spontaneity ( _s /&s above & und]lies ! :ole ( nature4 ,?is is ! po9t :i* ,b\tr\x1 "u ,la*eli]'s influ5ce1 took up 9 8 ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature4 ,la*eli]1 9 attack+ ! purely me*ani/ic conception ( ! univ]se1 endeav\r$1 z he himself put x1 8to sub/itute ev]y:]e =ce = in]tia1 life = dea? & fre$om = fatalism40 ,r ?an univ]sal necessity x is univ]sal cont+5ce :i* is ! real def9ition ( exi/5ce4 ,we are free to det]m9e ourselves 9 accordance ) ends we set be=e u1 & to act 9 ! mann] necess>y to accompli% ^? ends4 ,our life itself1 z he %[s 9 ! conclusion ( 8 brilliant little article ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique1 is creative1 & we mu/ bew>e ( argu+ t :at we h be5 makes u :at we are1 = t "* :i* we look ^u z det]m9+ u ne$ n d s if we free ourselves f habit1 &1 fur!r1 ?is "* is1 9 any case1 itself ! result ( our free actions ov] ext5d$ "t1 ! free creation ( our own p]sonality4 ,:ile ) ,ravaisson & ,la*eli] ! concept ( fre$om 0 be+ r fully develop$ 9 opposition to ! det]m9i/ doctr9es1 ,f\ille1 9 8 brilliant & acute !sis on ,lib]t et ,dt]m9isme1 endeav\r$ to call a halt to ?is supremacy ( ,fre$om1 & to be true to ! pr9ciples ( reconciliation :i* he laid d[n = himself 9 8 philosophy4 ,he confesses himself1 at ! outset1 to be a pacifi/ r ?an a bellig]5t 9 ?is classic dispute betwe5 det]m9i/s on ! "o h& & p>tisans ( fre$om on ! o!r4 ,he believes t1 on intimate inve/igation pursu$ suffici5tly f>1 ! two oppos+ doctr9es w be se5 to conv]ge4 ,su* a decl>ation w\ld seem to be dang]\sly sup]ficial 9 a w>f>e z bitt] & z %>p z ?is4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t1 z is ! case ) _m :o pr(ess to conciliate two conflict+ views1 ,f\ille leaves u at times )\t precise & def9ite indication ( 8 own position4 ,9 contra/ to ! attitude ( ,ravaisson & ,la*eli] ,f\ille incl9es 9 "s respects to ! attitude ( ,ta9e & _m passages ( 8 book %[ him to be hold+ at lea/ a tempor>y brief = ! p>tisans ( det]m9ism4 ,he agrees notably ) ,ta9e 9 8 object+ to ! cont5tion t "u ! det]m9i/ !ory moral values lose _! significance4 ,f\ille claims t x is bo? incorrect & unfair to argue t 8"u ! necessity-hypo!sis a ?+ be+ all t x c be is !reby all t x %\ld be40#ad4 #ad ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme1 p4 #ea 7f\r? edition74 ,he goes on to po9t out t ! consci\sness ( indep5d5ce1 :i* is an ess5tial ( fre$om1 may be no?+ m ?an a lack ( consci\sness ( our dep5d5ce4 ,motives he is incl9$ to speak ( z det]m9+ ! w itself1 :ile he looks ^u ! 8lib]ty ( indiff]5ce0 or ( haz>d z m]ely a concession to ! op]ations ( me*anical necessity4 ,! 8lib]ty ( indiff]5ce0 is (t5 ! m]e play ( in/9ct & ( fatality1 :ile haz>d1 s f> f be+ an argum5t 9 ! h&s ( ! uphold]s ( fre$om1 is really a det]m9ation made previ\sly by some?+ o!r ?an "o's own w4 ,?is is a direct attack ^u ! doctr9es put =w>d by bo? ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi]4 ,f\ille is well aw>e ( ?is1 & tw5ty pages ( 8 !sis are devot$ to a critical & ho/ile exam9ation ( ! /atem5ts ( bo? ,r5\vi] & 8 fri5d ,lequi]4#ae ,f\ille claims t ^! two ?9k]s h only disguis$ & misplac$ ! 8lib]ty ( indiff]5ce02 !y h n1 he ?9ks1 really suppress$ x1 al?\gh bo? ( !m pr(ess to reject x absolutely4 ,a ke5 discussion betwe5 ,f\ille & ,r5\vi] arose f ?is & cont9u$ = "s "t1 be+ m>k$ on bo? sides by p[]ful dialectic4 ,r5\vi] us$ 8 pap] ! ,critique philosophique z 8 m$ium1 :ile ,f\ille cont9u$ 9 subsequ5t editions ( 8 !sis1 9 8 ,ide mod]ne du ,droit & also 9 8 acute /udy ,critique des ,sy/mes de ,morale contempora9s4 ,f\ille took ,r5\vi] to task p>ticul>ly = 8 ma9ta9+ t if all be det]m9$ !n tru? & error are indi/+ui%able4 ,f\ille claims t ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & error is by no means p>allel to t betwe5 necessity & fre$om4 ,an error may1 he po9ts out1 be necessitat$1 & consequ5tly we mu/ look else:]e = our doctr9e ( c]titude ?an to ! affirmation ( fre$om4 ,9 ! philosophy ( ,r5\vi]1 z we h se51 ^! two are intimately connect$4 ,f\ille criticises ! neo-critical doctr9e ( fre$om on ! gr\nd t ,r5\vi] m>s 8 ?\ght by a t5d5cy to look ^u ! det]m9i/ z a passive & in]t creature4 ,?is1 he says1 is 8! argum5t ( laz9ess0 appli$ to ! intellig5ce4 8,"o =gets10 says ,f\ille1 8t if intellig5ce is a mirror1 x is n an immovable & p[]less mirror3 x is a mirror always turn+ itself to reality40#af #ae ,ibid41 pp4 #aag-acg4 #af ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme1 p4 #abi4 ,on exam9+ closely ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,r5\vi] & ,f\ille ov] ?is problem ( fre$om1 we may attribute x to ! fact t :ile ! "o ?9k] is di/9ctly & rigor\sly an uphold] ( cont9uity1 ! o!r believes 9 no su* absolute cont9uity4 ,= ,f\ille !re is1 9 a s5se1 no?+ new "u ! sun1 :ile ,r5\vi] 9 8 ?\ght1 :i* has be5 well describ$ z a philosophy ( discont9uity1 has a place = new ?+s1 real beg9n+s1 & he is 9 ?is way l9k$ up to ! doctr9e ( creative developm5t z set =? ultimately by ,b]gson4 ,x w be se5 also z we proce$ t ,f\ille1 = all he has to say on behalf ( det]m9ism1 is n s widely sep>at$ 9 8 view ( fre$om f t work$ out by ,b]gson1 al?\gh at ! fir/ glance ! gulf betwe5 !m seems a wide "o4 ,f\ille1 :ile attack+ ,r5\vi]1 did n sp>e t o!r acute ?9k]1 ,la*eli]1 f ! :ip ( 8 criticism4 ,he takes objection to a passage 9 t writ]'s ,induction :]e he advocates ! doctr9e t ! production ( ideas 8is free 9 ! mo/ rigor\s s5se ( t ^w1 s9ce ea* idea is 9 itself absolutely indep5d5t ( t :i* prec$es x1 & is born out ( no?+1 z is a _w40 ,to ?is view ( ! spontaneity ( ! _s ,f\ille opposes ! rem>k t ,la*eli] is consid]+ only ! new =ms :i* are assum$ by a me*anism :i* is always op]at+ "u ! same laws ( causality4 ,he asks u 9 ?is connection to imag9e a kaleidoscope :i* is be+ turn$ r\nd4 ,! images :i* succe$ ea* o!r w be 9 ?is s5se a =mal creation1 a =m indep5d5t ( t :i* w5t be=e1 b1 z he is anxi\s to rem9d u1 ! same me*anical & geometrical laws w be op]at+ cont9ually 9 produc+ ^! =ms4 ,hav+ _h ^! enc\nt]s ) ! uphold]s ( fre$om1 & ?us to "s degree hav+ convey$ ! impression ( be+ on ! side ( ! det]m9i/s1 ,f\ille proce$s to ! task he _h set himself--namely1 t ( reconciliation4 ,he felt ! unsatisfactor9ess ( ,kant's treatm5t ( fre$om1#ag & he endeav\rs to rem$y ! lack 9 ,kant ( a real l9k betwe5 ! det]m9ism ( ! natural sci5ces & ! human consci\sness ( fre$om1 realis$ 9 ! practical reason4 ,f\ille proposes to f9d 9 8 ides-=ces a middle t]m & to (f] u a solution ( ! problem at issue 9 ! dispute4 #ag ,see above1 p4 #acf4 ,he beg9s by %[+ t !re has be5 an un=tunate neglect ( "o important factor 9 ! case--a factor ^: reality is frankly admitt$ by bo? p>ties4 ,?is c5tral1 inconte/able fact is ! idea ( fre$om4 ,?is idea1 accord+ to ,f\ille1 arises 9 u z ! result ,( a comb9ation ( v>i\s psy*ological factors1 su* z notions ( div]sity1 possibility1 ) ! t5d5cy to action aris+ f ! notion ( action1 :i* ?us %[s itself z a =ce4 ,! comb9ation ( ^! results 9 ! g5esis ( ! idea ( fre$om4 ,n[ ! /rong] ?is idea ( fre$om is 9 our m9ds ! m we make x become a reality4 ,x is an 8idea-=ce0 :i* by be+ ?\ght t5ds to action & ?us increases 9 p[] & fruitfulness4 ,! idea ( fre$om becomes1 by a k9d ( det]m9ism1 m p[]ful 9 proportion to ! degree ) :i* x is act$ ^u4 ,det]m9ism ?us reflects ^u itself & 9 a curi\s way turns to op]ate aga9/ itself4 ,?is direct+ p[] ( ! idea ( fre$om _c be d5i$ ev5 by ! mo/ rigor\s uphold]s ( det]m9ism4 ,!y at lea/ are =c$ to f9d room 9 _! doctr9e = ! idea ( fre$om & its practical action on ! lives ( m51 bo? individually & 9 societies4 ,! vice ( ! doctr9es ( det]m9ism has be5 ! refusal to admit ! reality ( ! lib]at+ idea ( fre$om1 :i* is t5d+ always to realise itself4 ,! belief 9 fre$om is1 !re=e1 ,f\ille claims1 a p[]ful =ce 9 ! _w4 ,no?+ is a m sure r$eem] ( m5 & societies f evil ways ?an ! realisation ( ?is idea ( fre$om4 ,s l>gely is ?is ! case t inde$ ! ext9ction ( ! belief 9 fre$om w\ld1 he argues1 n diff] mu* 9 consequ5ce f ! f9d+ t fre$om 0 an illusion1 or1 if x be a fact1 its abolition4 ,hav+ ?us rectifi$ ! doctr9e ( det]m9ism by includ+ a place )9 x = ! idea ( fre$om1 ,f\ille proce$s by c>eful analysis to %[ ! error ( belief 9 fre$om und]/ood z t ( an indiff]5t w4 ,?is raises z _m fallaci\s views z t ( a det]m9ism b]eft ( ! idea ( fre$om4 ,! caprici\s & indiff]5t lib]ty he rejects1 & 9 s do+ %[s u ! importance ( ! intellig5t p[] ( will+1 & also reaffirms ! det]m9i/s' !sis ( inability to d c]ta9 ?+s4 ,! psy*ology ( "* %[s u a det]m9$ fre$om1 & 9 ! intellig5t p]sonality a reconciliation ( fre$om & det]m9ism is se5 to be effect$4 ,f\ille %[s t if x 7 n true t v l>gely :at we h be5 makes u :at we are1 & t :at we are det]m9es our future actions1 !n education1 moral guidance1 laws & social sanctions w\ld all be useless4 ,indiff]5tism 9 ?\ght is ! rev]sal ( all ?\ght4 ,f\ille sees t ! anti!sis betwe5 ,fre$om & ,necessity is n absolute1 & he modifies ! w>m? ( ,r5\vi]'s onslaughts ^u ! uphold]s ( det]m9ism4 ,b he believes we c con/ruct a notion ( moral fre$om :i* w n be incompatible ) ! det]m9ism ( nature4 ,to effect ?is reconciliation1 h[ev]1 we mu/ ab&on ! view ( ,fre$om z a decision indiff]5tly made1 an action ( %e] w unrelat$ to intellig5ce4 ,fre$om is n caprice2 x is1 ,f\ille claims1 a p[] ( indef9ite developm5t4 ,yet1 9 ! long & p5etrat+ ,introduction to 8 volume on ! ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces1 ,f\ille po9ts out t h[ev] mu* sci5ce may feel itself call$ ^u to uphold a doctr9e ( det]m9ism = its own specific purposes1 we mu/ rememb] t ! sph]e ( sci5ce is n all-embrac+4 ,!re is ! sph]e ( action1 & ! practical life dem&s &1 to a degree demon/rates1 fre$om4 ,f\illee admits 9 ?is connection ! indet]m9ation ( ! future1 p\r notre esprit4 ,we act ^u ?is idea ( relative indet]m9ism1 comb9+ ) x ! idea ( our own action1 ! "p :i* we p]sonally feel call$ ^u to play4 ,he recognises 9 8 analysis h[ important is ?is po9t = ! solution ( ! problem4 ,we _c ov]look ! contribution :i* our p]sonality is capable ( mak+ to ! :ole unity ( life & exp]i5ce1 n only by its a*ievem5ts 9 action1 b by its ideals1 by t :i* we feel bo? c & %\ld be4 ,h]e9 lies1 accord+ to ,f\ille's analysis1 ! secret ( duty & ! ideal ( our p[] to fulfil x1 bas$ ^u ! c5tral idea ( our fre$om4 ,by ?us act+ on ^! ideas1 & by ! light & inspiration ( ^! ideals1 we t5d to realise !m4 ,x is ?is :i* m>ks ! po9t :]e a doctr9e ( pure det]m9ism n only %[s itself errone\s & inadequate1 b z ,f\illee puts x1 ! human consci\sness is ! po9t :]e x is oblig$ to turn aga9/ itself 8z a s]p5t :i* bites its own tail40#ah ,fatalism is a speculative hypo!sis & no?+ else4 ,fre$om is equally an hypo!sis1 b1 adds ,f\ille1 x is an hypo!sis :i* is at "w 9 ! _w4 #ah ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces1 ,introduction1 p4 lxxiv4 ,9 ! ?\ght ( ,guyau !re is a fur!r insi/5ce ^u fre$om 9 spite ( ! fact t 8 spiritualism is sup]-add$ to mu* :i* reveals ! naturali/ & positive outlook4 ,he upholds fre$om &1 inde$1 cont+5cy1 urg+1 z aga9/ ,ravaisson's teleology1 t !re is no def9ite t5d5cy t[>ds tru?1 beauty & goodness4 ,at all times1 too1 ,guyau is consci\s ( union ) nature & ) 8 fell[s 9 a way :i* op]ates aga9/ a facile ass]tion ( fre$om4 ,9 8 ,v]s d'un ,philosophe he rem>ks3 8,ce mot si d\x au coeur et si *]1 ,lib]t1 ,j'en prfrs encore un3 c'e/ ,solid>it40#ai #ai ,v]s d'un ,philosophe1 8,solid>it10 p4 #ch4 ,! ma9t5ance ( ! doctr9e ( lib]ty1 :i* 9 view ( ! facts we are b\nd to ma9ta91 does away1 ,guyau insi/s1 ) ! doctr9e ( ,provid5ce2 = him1 z = ,b]gson1 !re is no prvision b only n\veaut 9 ! univ]se4 ,guyau inde$ is n incl9$ to admit ev5 t end :i* ,b]gson seems to fav\r--namely1 8spontaneity ( life itself40 ,! _w does n f9d its end 9 u1 any m ?an we f9d our 8ends0 fix$ = u 9 advance4 ,no?+ is fix$1 arrang$ or pr$et]m9$2 !re is n ev5 a primitive adaptation ( ?+s to "o ano!r1 = su* adaptation w\ld involve ! pre-exi/5ce ( ideas prior to ! mat]ial _w1 toge!r ) a demiurge arrang+ ?+s ^u a plan 9 ! mann] ( an ar*itect4 ,9 reality !re is no plan2 e work] conceives 8 own4 ,! _w is a sup]b example1 n ( ord]1 su* z we associate ) ! idea ( ,provid5ce 9 action1 b ! rev]se1 disord]1 ! result ( cont+5cy & fre$om4 ,! supreme emphasis ^u ! reality ( fre$om appe>s1 h[ev]1 9 ! "w ( ,b\tr\x & ( ,b]gson at ! end ( our p]iod4 ,!y arrive at a position diametrically oppos$ to t ( ! uphold]s ( det]m9ism1 by _! doctr9es ( cont+5cy z reveal$ bo? 9 ! evolution ( ! univ]se & 9 ! realm ( p]sonal life4 ,!re is ?us se51 z 0 ! case ) ! problem ( sci5ce1 a complete 8turn ( ! tide0 9 ! developm5t s9ce ,comte4 ,b\tr\x1 summ+ up 8 !sis ,la cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature1 indicates cle>ly 9 8 conclud+ *apt] 8 belief 9 cont+5cy1 fre$om & creativ5ess4 ,! old adage1 8no?+ is lo/1 no?+ is creat$10 to :i* sci5ce seems incl9$ to atta* itself1 has n an absolute value1 = 9 ! hi]>*y ( creatures cont+5cy1 fre$om1 newness appe> 9 ! high] ranks4 ,!re is at "w no d\bt a pr9ciple ( cons]vation1 b ?is mu/ n lead u to d5y ! exi/5ce & action ( ano!r pr9ciple1 t ( creation4 ,! _w rises f inorganic to organic =ms1 f matt] to _s1 & 9 man himself f m]e s5sibility to intellig5ce1 ) its capacity = criticis+ & obs]v+1 & to w capable ( act+ ^u ?+s & modify+ !m by fre$om4 ,b\tr\x incl9es to a doctr9e ( f9alism some:at aft] ! mann] ( ,ravaisson4 ,! _w he conceives z attract$ to an end2 ! beautiful & ! good are ideals seek+ to be realis$2 b ?is belief 9 f9ality does n1 he expressly ma9ta9s1 exclude cont+5cy4 ,to illu/rate ?is1 ,b\tr\x uses a metaphor f seaman%ip3 ! sailors 9 a %ip h a port to make =1 yet _! adaptations to ! wea!r & sea en r\te p]mit ( cont+5cy along ) ! f9ality involv$ 9 _! mak+ = port4 ,s x is ) be+s 9 nature4 ,!y h n m]ely ! "o end1 to exi/ amid ! ob/acles & difficulties ar\nd !m1 8!y h an ideal to realise1 & ?is ideal consi/s 9 approa*+ to ,god1 to 8 lik5ess1 ea* aft] 8 k9d4 ,! ideal v>ies ) ! creatures1 because ea* has 8 special nature1 & c only imitate ,god 9 & by 8 own nature40#bj #bj ,la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #aeh4 ,b\tr\x's doctr9e ( fre$om & cont+5cy is n oppos$ to a teleological conception ( ! univ]se1 & 9 ?is respect he /&s 9 contra/ to ,b]gson1 :o1 9 ! rigor\s application ( 8 !ory ( fre$om1 rules out all "q ( teleology4 ,) ,r5\vi] & ) ,b]gson1 h[ev]1 ,b\tr\x agrees 9 ma9ta9+ t ?is fre$om1 :i* is ! basis ( cont+5cy 9 ?+s1 is n & _c be a datum ( exp]i5ce1 directly or indirectly1 because exp]i5ce only seizes ?+s :i* are actually realis$1 :]eas ?is fre$om is a creative p[]1 ant]ior to ! act4 ,h]$ity1 in/9ct1 "* & habit are words by :i* we mu/ n be misl$ or ov]aw$ into a disbelief 9 fre$om4 ,!y are n absolutely fatal & fully det]m9$4 ,! same w1 insi/s ,b\tr\x1 :i* has creat$ a habit c conqu] x4 ,w mu/ n be p>alys$ by b[+ to ! assum$ supremacy ( in/9cts or habits4 ,habit itself is n a contradiction ( spontaneity2 x is itself a result ( spontaneity1 a /ate ( spontaneity itself1 & does n exclude cont+5cy or fre$om4 ,metaphysics c1 !re=e1 accord+ to ,b\tr\x1 con/ruct a doctr9e ( fre$om bas$ on ! conception ( cont+5cy4 ,! supreme pr9ciples accord+ to ?is philosophy w be laws1 n ^? ( ! positive sci5ces1 b ! laws ( beauty & goodness1 express+ 9 "s measure ! div9e life & suppos+ free ag5ts4 ,9 fact ! triumph ( ! good & ! beautiful w result 9 ! replacem5t ( laws ( nature1 /rictly s call$1 by ! free ef=ts ( wills t5d+ to p]fection--t is1 to ,god4 ,fur!r /udies ^u ! problem ( fre$om are to be f\nd 9 ,b\tr\x's lectures giv5 at ! ,sorbonne 9 #ahib-ic 9 ! c\rse entitl$ ,de l',ide de la ,loi naturelle dans la ,sci5ce et la ,philosophie contempora9es4 ,he !re recognises 9 fre$om ! crucial "q at issue betwe5 ! sci5ti/s & ! philosoph]s1 = he /ates ! object ( ?is c\rse ( lectures z be+ a critical exam9ation ( ! notion we h ( ! laws ( nature1 ) a view to det]m9+ ! situation ( human p]sonality1 p>ticul>ly 9 reg>d to free action4#ba ,b\tr\x recognises t :5 ! doma9 ( sci5ce 0 less ext5sive & less rigor\s ?an x is n[ x 0 mu* easi] to believe 9 fre$om4 ,! belief 9 ,de/9y possess$ by ! anci5ts has fad$1 b we may well ask ourselves1 says ,b\tr\x1 :e!r mod]n sci5ce has n replac$ x by a yet m rigor\s fatalism4#bb ,he consid]s t ! mod]n doctr9e ( det]m9ism re/s ^u two assumptions--namely1 t ma!matics is a p]fectly intelligible sci5ce1 & is ! expression ( absolute det]m9ism2 also t ma!matics c be appli$ ) exactness to reality4 ,^! assumptions ! lectur] %[s to be unju/ifiable4 ,ma!matics & exp]i5ce c nev] be fitt$ exactly into ea* o!r1 = !re are elem5ts 9 our exp]i5ce & 9 our own nature :i* _c be ma!matically express$4 ,?is ,b\tr\x well emphasises 9 8 lecture ^u sociological laws1 :]e he ass]ts t hi/ory _c be reg>d$ z ! unroll+ ( a s+le law1 nor c ! pr9ciple ( causality1 /rictly speak+1 be appli$ to x4#bc ,an antec$5t c]ta9ly may be an influ5ce b n a cause1 z prop]ly und]/ood4 ,he "h agrees ) ,r5\vi] s position & attitude to hi/ory1 & %[s ! vital be>+ ( ! problem ( fre$om ^u ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 to :i* we %all pres5tly give our special att5tion4 #ba ,de l',ide de la ,loi naturelle1 ,lecture ,,iv41 p4 #bi4 #bb ,comp>e ,janet's rem>k1 giv5 on p4 #acf4 #bc ,lecture ,,xiii4 ,in/ead ( ! ideal ( sci5ce1 a ma!matical unity1 exp]i5ce %[s u1 ,b\tr\x affirms1 a hi]>*y ( be+s1 display+ v>iety & spontaneity--9 %ort1 fre$om4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 f mod]n sci5ce be+ an advocate ( univ]sal det]m9ism1 x is really1 :5 rightly reg>d$1 a demon/ration1 n ( necessity1 b ( fre$om4 ,b\tr\x's treatm5t ( ! problem ( fre$om ?us demon/rates v cle>ly its connection ) t ( sci5ce1 & also ) t ( progress4 ,x =ms pre-em95tly ! c5tral problem4 ,! idea ( fre$om is prom95t 9 ! 8philosophy ( action0 & 9 ! ,b]gsonian philosophy2 inde$1 ,b]gson's treatm5t ( ! problem is ! culm9ation ( ! developm5t ( ! idea 9 ,c\rnot1 ,r5\vi] & ! neo-spirituali/s4 ,9 ,blondel ! notion is n s cle>ly work$ out1 z !re are o!r consid]ations ^u :i* he wi%es to insi/4 ,blondel is deeply conc]n$ ) ! p[] ( ideals ov] action1 & 8 ?\ght ( fre$om has aff9ities to ! psy*ology ( ! ides-=ces4 ,?is is app>5t 9 8 view ( ! w1 :]e he does n admit a purely volunt>i/ doctr9e4 ,8 insi/5ce on ! dynamic ( ! w 9 action is cle>1 b he rem9ds u t ! w does n cause or produce ev]y?+1 = ! w wills to be :at is n yet2 x /rives = a*ievem5t1 to ga9 some?+ beyond itself4 ,mu* ( ,blondel's treatm5t ( fre$om is col\r$ by 8 religi\s & moral psy*ology1 factors ) :i* ,b]gson does n greatly conc]n himself 9 8 writ+s4 ,blondel endeav\rs to ma9ta9 man's fre$om ( action & at ! same "t to rema9 loyal to ! religi\s notion ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce1 or some?+ ak9 to t4 ,consequ5tly he is l$ to ! dilemma :i* always pres5ts itself to ! religi\s consci\sness :5 x ass]ts its own fre$om--namely1 h[ c t fre$om be consi/5t ) ,div9e guidance or action8 ,*ri/ian !ology has usually be5 det]m9i/ 9 "*1 b ,blondel attempts to save fre$om by look+ ^u ,god z a ,be+ imman5t 9 man4 ,b]gson makes ,fre$om a v c5tral po9t 9 8 philosophy1 & 8 treatm5t ( x be>s signs ( ! influ5ce ( ,de ,biran1 ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli]1 ,guyau & ,b\tr\x4 ,he rejects1 h[ev]1 ! doctr9e ( f9ality z upheld by ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli] & ,b\tr\x1 :ile he /resses ! cont+5cy :i* ?is la/ ?9k] _h br\ght =w>d4 ,8 solution ( ! problem is1 h[ev]1 peculi>ly 8 own1 & is b\nd up ) 8 fundam5tal idea ( *ange1 or ,,la ,,dur,e4 ,9 8 "w ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,consci5ce1 or ,"t & ,free-,w1 he criticises ! doctr9e ( physical det]m9ism1 :i* is bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 & on a purely me*ani/ic conception ( ! univ]se4 ,he "h po9ts out1 & lat] /resses 9 8 ,mati]e et ,mmoire1 ! fact t x has n be5 prov$ t a /rictly det]m9$ psy*ical /ate corresponds to a def9ite c]ebral /ate4 ,we h no w>rant = conclud+ t because ! physiological & ! psy*ological s]ies exhibit "s correspond+ t]ms t !re=e ! two s]ies are absolutely p>allel4 ,to d s is to settle ! problem ( fre$om 9 an entirely a priori mann]1 :i* is unju/ifiable4 ,! m subtle & plausible case = psy*ological det]m9ism ,b]gson %[s to be no m t5able ?an t (f]$ = ! physical4 ,x is due to adh]5ce to ! vici\s ,association-psy*ology1 :i* is a psy*ology )\t a self4 ,to say ! self is det]m9$ by motive w n suffice1 = 9 a s5se x is true1 9 ano!r s5se x is n1 & we mu/ be c>eful ( our words4 ,if we say ! self acts 9 accordance ) ! /ronge/ motive1 well & good1 b h[ d we "k x is ! /ronge/8 ,only because x has prevail$--t is1 only because ! self act$ ^u x1 :i* is totally diff]5t f claim+ t ! self 0 det]m9$ by x ext]nally4 ,to say ! self is det]m9$ by c]ta9 tives is to say x is self-det]m9$4 ,! ess5tial ?+ 9 all ?is is ! vitality ( ! self4 ,! :ole difficulty1 ,b]gson po9ts out1 arises f ! fact t all attempts to demon/rate fre$om t5d only to /r5g!n ! artificial case = det]m9ism1 because fre$om is only *>act]i/ic ( a self 9 action4 ,he is "h 9 l9e on ?is po9t ) ,r5\vi] & ,b\tr\x1 al?\gh ! reasons he gives = x g beyond 9 psy*ological p5etration ^? assign$ by ^! ?9k]s4 ,:5 our action is ov]1 says ,b]gson1 x seems plausible to argue a case = det]m9ism because ( our spatial conception ( "t & ! relation%ips ( ev5ts 9 "t4 ,we h a habit ( ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( space1 by ma!matical "t1 n 9 real "t or la dure z ,b]gson calls x1 ! "t 9 :i* ! liv+ s\l acts4 ,b]gson ?us makes room 9 ! univ]se = a fre$om ( ! human w1 a creative activity1 & ?us deliv]s u f ! bonds ( necessity & fatalism 9 :i* ! physical sci5ces & ! associationi/ psy*ology w\ld b9d u4 ,we p]ceive ourselves z c5tres ( indet]m9ation1 creative spirits4 ,we mu/ gu>d our fre$om1 = x is an ess5tial attribute ( _s4 ,9 s f> z we t5d to become dom9at$ by matt]1 :i* acts ^u u 9 habit & conv5tion1 we lose our fre$om4 ,x is n absolute1 & _m nev] a*ieve x1 = _! p]sonality nev] %9es =? at all3 !y live _! lives 9 habit & r\t9e1 victims ( automatism4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 ,b]gson urges1 great p[] ( creation4 ,he /resses1 z did ,guyau1 ! ,conception ( ,life1 z free1 exp&+1 & 9 sev]al respects 8 view ( fre$om is clos] to t ( ,guyau ?an to t ( ,b\tr\x1 9 spite ( ! latt]'s cont+5cy4 ,!re is no f9alism admitt$ by ,b]gson1 = he sees 9 any teleology only 8a rev]s$ me*anism40 ,obvi\sly ! ma9t5ance ( su* a doctr9e ( fre$om z t ( ,b]gson is ( c5tral importance 9 any philosophy :i* conta9s x4 ,our conceptions ( e?ics & ( progress dep5d ^u our view ( fre$om4 ,= ,b]gson 8! portals ( ! future /& wide op51 ! future is be+ made40 ,he is an apo/le ( a doctr9e ( absolute cont+5cy :i* he appli$ to ! evolution ( ! _w1 9 8 fam\s volume ,l',evolution ,cratrice 7publi%$ 9 #aijg74 ,8 philosophy has be5 t]m$ pessimi/ic by "s 9 view ( 8 rejection ( any teleological conception4 ,su* a doctr9e w\ld conflict ) 8 8free0 univ]se & 8 absolute cont+5cy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x leaves op5 an optimi/ic view1 because ( its fre$om1 its insi/5ce ^u ! possibilities ( developm5t4 ,x is n only a reaction aga9/ ! e>li] doctr9es ( det]m9ism1 x is a deliv]ance ( ! human s\l :i* has always refus$1 ev5 :5 religi\s1 to ab&on entirely ! belief 9 its own fre$om4 ,su* is ! doctr9e ( fre$om :i* closes our p]iod1 a /rik+ contra/ to ! det]m9ism :i*1 "u ! influ5ce ( mod]n sci5ce1 *>act]is$ its op5+4 ,! critique ( sci5ce & ! assaults ^u det]m9ism proce$$ ^u p>allel l9es4 ,9 _m respects !y 7 two aspects ( ! "o problem1 & 9 !mselves 7 suffici5t to describe ! ess5tial developm5t 9 ! ?\ght ( our half c5tury1 = ! consid]ations ( progress1 e?ics & religion to :i* we n[ turn d]ive _! significance l>gely f :at has be5 set =? 9 ^! *apt]s on ,sci5ce & ,fre$om4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,progress ,,introductory 3 ,fre$om & ,progress intimately connect$--,confid5ce 9 ,progress1 a m>k$ feature ( ! e>li] half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 0 b\nd up ) confid5ce 9 ,sci5ce & ,reason1 & 9 a belief 9 det]m9ism1 ei!r natural or div9e--,condorcet1 ,sa9t-,simon1 ,comte & o!rs proclaim ,progress z a dogma4 ,i4 ,! idea ( progress 9 ,va*]ot1 ,tame & ,r5an--,int]e/+ reflections ( ,r5an bas$ on belief 9 ,reason4 ,,ii4 ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] reg>d ,progress 9 a diff]5t light1 ow+ to _! ideas on ,fre$om--,!y look ^u x z a possibility only1 b n assur$1 n inevitable--,r5\vi]'s /udy ( hi/ory 9 relation to progress & 8 view ( immortality z ,progress--,no law ( progress exi/s4 ,,iii4 ,! new spirituali/ gr\p emphasise ! lack ( any law ( progress1 by _! insi/5ce on ! spontaneity ( ! _s1 creativ5ess & cont+5cy--,difficulties ( f9alsm or teleology 9 relation to progress z free--,no law or gu>antee ( progress4 ,,conclusion 3 ,complete *ange f e>li] p]iod reg>d+ ,progress--,new view ( x develop$--,facile optimism reject$4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,progress ,intimately b\nd up ) ! idea ( fre$om is t ( progress4 ,=1 al?\gh our ma9 approa* to ! discussion ( fre$om 0 made by way ( ! natural sci5ces1 by a critique ( physical det]m9ism1 & also by way ( ! problem ( p]sonal action1 involv+ a critique ( psy*ological det]m9ism1 x mu/ be not$ t !re h appe>$ ?r\gh\t ! discussion v cle> indications ( ! vital be>+ ( fre$om ^u ! wide field ( humanity's developm5t consid]$ z a :ole--9 %ort1 its hi/ory4 ,! philosoph] mu/ give "s acc\nt ( hi/ory1 if he is to leave no gap 9 8 view ( ! univ]se4 ,! philosophy ( hi/ory w obvi\sly be va/ly diff]5t if x be bas$ on det]m9ism r ?an on fre$om4 ,:5 ! philosoph] looks at hi/ory 8 ?\ghts mu/ inevitably c5tre ar\nd ! idea ( progress4 ,he may believe 9 x or may reject x z an illusion1 b 8 attitude to x w be v l>gely a reflection ( ! doctr9e :i* he has =m$ reg>d+ fre$om4 ,! notion ( progress is probably ! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature :i* di/+ui%es mod]n civilisation f ^? ( =m] times4 ,x w\ld h seem$ to ! ,greeks fooli%ness4 ,we owe x to ! p :o1 9 ! mod]n _w1 h be5 :at ,greece 0 9 ! anci5t _w1 ! glori\s "m ( ideas4 ,! eighte5? c5tury 0 m>k$ 9 ,france by a gr[+ belief 9 progress1 :i* 0 enc\rag$ by ! ,encyclopa$i/s & rose to en?usiasm at ! ,revolution4 ,its be/ expression 0 t giv5 by ,condorcet1 himself an ,encyclopa$i/1 & orig9ally a support] ( ! ,revolution4 ,8 ,sket* ( an ,hi/orical ,picture ( ! ,progress ( ! ,human ,m9d 0 writt5 9 #agic 7:ile its au?or 0 ?reat5$ ) ! guillot9e#a71 publi%$ two ye>s lat]1 & became1 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 a p[]ful /imulus to ?\ght conc]n+ progress4 ,mu* ( ! "w is defective1 b x _h a great influ5ce ^u ,sa9t-,simon1 ! e>ly sociali/s1 & ^u ! doctr9es ( ,augu/e ,comte1 :i* !mselves are imm$iate antec$5ts ( our own p]iod4 ,we may note briefly "h1 t ,condorcet believ$ 9 a sure & infallible progress 9 k & 9 social welf>e4 ,?is is ! important doctr9e :i* ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte bo? accept$ f him4 ,8 ideal ( progress is conta9$ 9 ! ?ree wat*words ( ! ,revolution1 ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit1 p>ticul>ly ! la/ two4 ,he =eca/s an ab&onm5t ( milit>ism1 prophesies an era ( univ]sal peace1 & ! reign ( equality betwe5 ! sexes4 ,equality is a po9t :i* he insi/s ^u v ke5ly1 &1 al?\gh he did n speak ( sociology z did ,comte1 nor ( socialism z did ,sa9t-,simon1 he claim$ t ! true hi/ory ( mank9d is ! hi/ory ( ! great mass ( work]s3 x is n diplomatic & milit>y1 n ! record ( dazzl+ de$s ( great m54 ,condorcet1 h[ev]1 0 dogmatic 9 8 belief 9 progress1 & he did n "w out any 8law0 ( progress1 al?\gh he believ$ progress to be a law ( ! univ]se1 9 g5]al1 & an und5iable tru? 9 reg>d to ! life-hi/ory ( mank9d4 #a ,he 0 ultimately imprison$ & driv5 to suicide4 ,lat]1 8 fri5d ,cabanis upheld a simil>ly optimi/ic view1 & endeav\r$ to argue = x1 aga9/ ! ,traditionali/s1 :o we may rememb] endeav\r$ to re/ate ,ca?olicism1 & to make an appeal to ^? :om ! ev5ts ( ! ,revolution _h di/urb$ & disillusion$4 ,! outcome ( ! ,t]ror _h some:at %ak5 ! belief 9 a /raight=w>d progress1 b en?usia/ic expon5ts ( ! doctr9e 7 nei!r lack+ nor sil5t4 ,madame de ,/al cont9u$ ! ?\ght ( ,condorcet1 ?us =m+ a l9k betwe5 him & ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,traditionali/s & ! g5]al curr5t ( ?\ght & lit]ature kn[n z ,romanticism1 help$ also to solve a difficulty :i* di/+ui%es ,condorcet f ,comte4 ,?is difficulty lay 9 ! eighte5?-c5tury attitude to ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* ,condorcet _h accept$1 & :i* s]i\sly damag$ 8 !sis ( g5]al progress1 = 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ! ,middle ,ages 7 look$ ^u z a black1 d>k regress1 = :i* no ?9k] _h a good ^w to say4 ,! *ange ( view is se5 mo/ m>k$ly :5 we come to ,comte1 ^: admiration ( ! ,middle ,ages is a conspicu\s feature ( 8 "w4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte 7 work+ out _! ideas1 great popul>ity 0 giv5 to ! belief 9 progress by ! influ5ce ( ,c\s91 ,j\ffroy1 ,guizot1 & by ,mi*elet's translation ( ! ,sci5za nuova ( ! ,italian ?9k] ,vico1 a book !n a c5tury old b practically unkn[n 9 ,france4 ,= ,c\s91 ! _w process 0 a result ( a necess>y evolution ( ?\ght1 :i* he conceiv$ 9 r ,hegelian fa%ion4 ,j\ffroy agre$ ) ?is fatal progress1 al?\gh he endeav\r$ to reconcile x ) t ( p]sonal fre$om4 ,guizot's ma9 po9t 0 t progress & civilisation are ! same ?+1 or r1 t civilisation is to be def9$ only by progress1 = t is its fundam5tal idea4 ,8 def9ition ( progress is n1 h[ev]1 /rik+ly cle>1 & he calls att5tion to two types ( progress--"o involv+ an improvem5t 9 social welf>e1 ! o!r 9 ! spiritual or intellectual life4 ,al?\gh ,guizot tri$ to %[ t progress 9 bo? ^! =ms is a fact1 he did n t\* ultimate que/ions1 nor did he successfully %[ t progress is ! univ]sal key to human hi/ory4 ,he did n really support 8 argum5t t civilisation is progress 9 any conv9c+ way1 b he gave a /imulus to reflection on ! "q ( ! relation%ip ( ^! two4 ,mi*elet's translation ( ,vico came at an appropriate "t1 & s]v$ a useful purpose4 ,x %[$ to ,france a ?9k] :o1 :ile n d5y+ a c]ta9 progress ov] %ort p]iods1 d5i$ x ov] ! long p]iod1 & rev]t$ r to ! old notion ( an et]nal recurr5ce4 ,= ,vico1 ! c\rse ( human hi/ory 0 n rectil9eal b r spiral1 al?\gh he1 too1 refra9$ f indicat+ any law4 ,he claim$ cle>ly en\gh t ea* civilisation mu/ give way to b>b>ism & an>*y1 & ! cycle be aga9 begun4 ,su* 7 ! ideas ^u progress :i* 7 curr5t at ! "t :5 ,sa9t-,simon1 ,f\ri] & ,comte 7 busily ?9k+ out _! doctr9es1 ! ma9 *>act]i/ics ( :i* we h already not$ 9 our ,introduction on ! imm$iate antec$5ts ( our p]iod4 ,! ?\ght giv5 to ! "q ( progress 9 mod]n ,france is almo/ un9telligible save 9 ! light ( ! doctr9es curr5t f ,condorcet1 ?r\gh ,sa9t-,simon to ,comte1 = ! second half ( ! c5tury is aga9 *>act]is$ by a criticism & inde$ a reaction aga9/ ! idea pr(ess$ 9 ! fir/ half4 ,?is 0 true 9 reg>d to ,sci5ce & to ,fre$om4 ,we %all see a simil> type ( developm5t illu/rat$ aga9 respect+ ,progress4 ,already we h not$ ! g5]al aim & object :i* bo? ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte _h 9 view4 ,! important fact = our discussion "h is t ,sa9t-,simon1 by 8 respect = ! ,middle ,ages1 & = ! p[] ( religion1 0 able to rectify ! defects :i* ! ideas ( ! eighte5? c5tury _h left 9 ,condorcet's doctr9e ( progress4 ,moreov]1 he claim$1 z ,condorcet _h n done1 to indicate a 8law ( progress10 :i* gives rise alt]nately to 8organic0 & to 8critical0 p]iods4 ,! ,middle ,ages 71 9 ! op9ion ( ,sa9t-,simon1 an admirable p]iod1 display+ z !y did an organic society1 :]e !re 0 a temporal & spiritual au?ority4 ,) ,lu!r began an an>*ical1 critical p]iod4 ,accord+ to ,sa9t-,simon s law ( progress a new organic p]iod w succe$ ?is1 & ! *>act]i/ic ( t p]iod w be socialism4 ,he advocat$ a gradual *ange1 n a viol5t revolution>y "o1 b he saw 9 socialism ! inevitable feature ( ! new era4 ,) its triumph w\ld come a new _w organisation & a league ( peoples 9 :i* w> w\ld be no m1 & 9 :i* ! lot ( ! prolet>iat w\ld be free f oppression & mis]y4 ,! ,sa9t-,simoni/ ,s*ool became practically a religi\s sect1 & ! *ief note 9 its gospel 0 8,progress40 ,t ! notion ( progress 0 conspicu\s 9 ! ?\ght ( ?is "t is v evid5t4 ,x 01 inde$1 9 ! =egr\nd1 & a ho/ ( writ]s te/ify to ?is1 :om we _c d mu* m ?an m5tion "h4 ,a numb] ( !m figur$ 9 ! ev5ts ( #ahdh4 ,! social re=m]s all invok$ 8,progress0 z ju/ification = _! !ories be+ put into action4 ,baz>d took up ! ideas ( ,sa9t-,simon & exp\nd$ !m 9 8 ,exposition de la ,doctr9e sa9t-simoni5ne 7#ahcj74 ,bu*ez1 9 8 "w on ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 assum$ progress 7#ahcc74 ,! "w ( ,l\is ,blanc on ,l',organisation du ,travail appe>$ 9 #ahci 9 a p]iodical call+ itself ,revue des ,progrs4 ,! bro*ure f ,pr\dhon1 on prop]ty1 came 9 #ahdj1 & 0 foll[$ lat] by ,la ,philosophie du ,progrs 7#ahea74 ,mean:ile ,f\ri]'s ,?orie des ,quatre ,m\vem5ts et des ,de/9es gnrales attempt$ 9 r a fanta/ic mann] to po9t ! road to progress4 ,wor?less z _m ( 8 qua9t pages are1 !y 7 a sev]e indictm5t ( mu* 9 ! exi/+ ord]1 & help$ to increase ! int]e/ & ! fai? 9 progress4 ,f\ri]'s disciple1 ,considrant1 0 a prom95t figure 9 #ahdh4 ,! ,utopia propos$ by ,cabet insi/$ ^u frat]nit z ! keynote to progress1 :ile ! volumes ( ,pi]re ,l]\x1 ,de l',humanit1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! same ye> z ,cabet's volume1 #ahdj1 emphasis$ galit z ! ess5tial factor4 ,8 humanit>ianism influ5c$ ! woman-noveli/1 ,george ,s&4 ,?is same wat*word ( ! ,revolution _h be5 eulogis$ by ,de ,tocqueville 9 8 important /udy ( ! ,am]ican ,republic 9 #ahcd1 & t writ] _h claim$ galit z ! goal ( human progress4 ,all ^! m5 take progress z an und\bt$ fact2 !y only v>y by us+ a diff]5t "o ( ! ?ree wat*words1 ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit1 to d5ote ! k9d ( progress !y mean4 ,mean:ile1 ,mi*elet & 8 fri5d ,qu9et combat$ ! ,hegelian conception ( hi/ory ma9ta9$ by ,c\s91 & !y claim$ lib]t to be ! wat*word ( progress4 ,! confid5ce ( all 9 progress is almo/ pa!tic 9 its unqualifi$ optimism4 ,x is n rem>kable t ! ev5ts ( #ahea prov$ a rude %ock4 ,jav>y1 a writ] :o1 9 #ahej1 publi%$ a little "w1 ,de l',ide du ,progrs1 claim$ t ! idea is ! supremely int]e/+ "q ( ! "t 9 its relation to a g5]al philosophy ( hi/ory & to ! ultimate de/9y ( mank9d4 ,?is is fairly evid5t f ! writ]s we h cit$1 )\t ,jav>y's rem>k1 b x is wor? not+ z be+ ! obs]vation ( a contempor>y4 ,) ! m5tion ( ,reynaud's ,philosophie religieuse1 uphold+ ! pr9ciple ( indef9ite p]fectability & ,pelletan's ,pr(ession du ,foi du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 :]e9 he ma9ta9$ confid5tly & dogmatically t progress is ! g5]al law ( ! univ]se1 we mu/ pass on f ^! m9or p to consid] "o :o _h a pr(\nd] influ5ce on ! latt] half ( ! c5tury1 & :o took ov] ! notion ( progress f ,sa9t-,simon4 ,?is 0 ,comte1 ^: attitude to progress 9 _m respects resembles t ( ,sa9t-,simon1 b he br\ght to 8 "w a m5tal equipm5t lack+ 9 ! e>li] writ] & succe$$1 by ! position he gave to x 9 8 ,positive ,philosophy1 9 mak+ ! idea ( progress "o :i* subsequ5t ?9k]s c\ld n omit f consid]ation4 ,accord+ to ,comte1 ! c5tral factor 9 progress is ! m5tal4 ,ideas1 z ,f\ille 0 lat] to ass]t1 are ! real =ces 9 humanity's hi/ory4 ,^! ideas develop 9 accordance ) ! 8,law ( ! ,?ree ,/ages10 already expla9$ 9 our ,introduction4 ,9 spite ( ! app>5t cle>ness & simplicity ( ?is law1 ,comte _h to admit t z a g5]al law ( all developm5t x 0 to "s degree r5d]$ difficult 9 its application by ! lack ( simultaneity 9 developm5t 9 ! diff]5t sph]es ( k & social life4 ,:ile recognis+ ! m5tal z ! keynote to progress1 he also insi/$ ^u ! solid>ity ( ! physical1 intellectual1 moral & social life ( man1 & to ?is ext5t admitt$ a connection & int]action betwe5 mat]ial welf>e & intellectual progress4 ,! importance ( ?is admission lay 9 ! fact t x l$ ,comte to qualify :at fir/ appe>s z a def9ite & confid5t belief 9 a rectil9eal progress4 ,he admits t su* a conception is n true1 = !re is retrogression1 conflict1 wav]+1 & n a /eady developm5t4 ,yet he claims t !re is a g5]al & ultimate progress ab\t a mean l9e4 ,! causes :i* %ake & ret>d ! /eady progress are n all-p[]ful1 !y _c upset ! fundam5tal ord] ( developm5t4 ,^! causes :i* d give rise to v>iations are1 we may note 9 pass+1 ! effects ( race1 climate & political & milit>y feats l ^? ( ,napoleon1 = :om ,comte did n disguise 8 hatr$1 /yl+ him ! man :o _h done mo/ h>m to humanity4 ,great m5 upset 8 sociological !ories1 b ,comte 0 no democrat & /rongly oppos$ ideas ( ,lib]ty & ,equality4 ,we h rem>k$ ^u 8 g5]al attitude to 8 own age1 z "o ( criticism & an>*y4 ,9 ?is he 0 probably correct1 b he q und]e/imat$ ! ext5t & duration ( t an>*y1 p>ticul>ly by 8 e/imate ( ! decl9e & fall ( ,ca?olicism & ( milit>ism1 :i* he reg>d$ z ! two evils ( ,europe4 ,! ev5ts ( ! tw5tie? c5tury w\ld h be5 a rude %ock to him1 p>ticul>ly ! int]national conflagration ( #aiad-aiah4 ,x 0 to ,europe t ,comte conf9$ 8 philosophy ( hi/ory & consequ5tly n>r[$ x4 ,he knew little outside ?is field4 ,he endeav\r$1 h[ev]1 to apply 8 new sci5ce ( sociology to ! developm5t ( ,european hi/ory4 ,8 "w conta9s mu* :i* is good & in/ructive1 b fails ultimately to e/abli% any law ( progress4 ,x does n seem to h occurr$ to ,comte's m9d t !re might n be "o4 ,?is 0 ! "q :i* 0 pres5t$ to ! ?9k]s aft] him1 & occupies ! *ief place 9 ! subsequ5t discussion ( progress4 ,i ,9 ! second half ( ! c5tury ! belief 9 a def9ite & inevitable progress appe>s 9 ! "w ( ^? ?9k]s inspir$ by ! positivi/ _s1 ,va*]ot1 ,ta9e & ,r5an4 ,va*]ot's views on ! subject are giv5 9 "o ( 8 ,essais de ,philosophie critique1#b entitl$ 8,doctr9e du ,progrs40 ,^! pages1 9 :i* sublime confid5ce %9es undimm$1 7 int5d$ z "p ( a long] "w on ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory4 ,_m ( ,r5an's essays1 & especially ! conclud+ *apt]s ( 8 "w ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 likewise pr(ess an extreme confid5ce 9 progressive developm5t4 ,yet ,ta9e & ,r5an are bo? free f ! excessive & gl[+ confid5ce express$ by ,condorcet1 ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte4 ,und\bt$ly ! ev5ts ( _! own "t react$ ^u _! doctr9e ( progress1 & we h already not$ ! pessimism & disappo9tm5t :i* col\r$ _! ?\ghts reg>d+ contempor>y political ev5ts4 ,bo?1 h[ev]1 are rationali/s1 & h un%ak5 fai? 9 ! ultimate triumph ( reason4 #b ,publi%$ 9 #ahfd4 ,! attitude :i* ,ta9e adopts to hi/ory f9ds a p>allel 9 ! fatalism & det]m9ism ( ,sp9oza1 = he looks ^u ! entire life ( mank9d z ! unroll+ ( a rigidly pr$et]m9$ s]ies ( ev5ts4 8,our pref]5ces10 he rem>ks1 8are futile2 nature & hi/ory h det]m9$ ?+s 9 advance2 we mu/ accommodate ourselves to !m1 = x is c]ta9 t !y w n accommodate !mselves to u40 ,ta9e's view ( hi/ory reflects 8 rejection ( fre$om1 = he ma9ta9s t x is a va/ regulat$ *a9 :i* op]ates indep5d5tly ( individuals4 ,fatalism col\rs x entirely4 ,x is precisely ?is attitude ( ,ta9e :i* raises ! wra? ( ,r5\vi]1 & also t ( bo? ,c\rnot & ,f\ille1 ^: discussions we %all exam9e pres5tly4 ,!y see 9 su* a doctr9e an untrue view ( hi/ory & a !ory vici\s & dete/able f a moral /&po9t1 al?\gh x d\btless1 z ,f\ille s>ca/ically rem>ks1 has be5 a v advantage\s "o = ! exploit]s ( humanity 9 all ages to tea* & to prea* to ! p4 ,9 pass+ f ,ta9e's fatali/ic view ( hi/ory to note 8 views on progress we f9d him ass]t+ t man's nature does n 9 itself inspire great optimism1 = t nature is l>gely animal1 & man is ev] ready1 h[ev] 8civilis$0 he may appe> to be1 to return to 8 native primitive f]ocity & b>b>ism4 ,man is n1 accord+ to ,ta9e1 ev5 a sane animal1 = he is by nature mad & fooli%4 ,heal? & wisdom only occasionally reign1 & s we h no great gr\nd = optimism :5 we exam9e closely ! nature ( man1 z x really is4 ,ta9e's treatm5t ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution#c %[s 8 ho/ility to democracy1 & he is sceptical ab\t ! value or mean+ ( ! wat*words1 8,rights ( ,man10 or ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit4 ,?is la/1 he claims1 is m]ely a v]bal fiction useful = disguis+ ! reality1 :i* is actual w>f>e ( all aga9/ all4 #c 8,la ,rvolution10 9 8 l>ge "w1 ,les ,orig9es de la ,france contempora9e4 ,yet 9 spite ( ^! consid]ations ,ta9e believes 9 a def9itely gu>ante$ progress4 ,man's l[] nature does n inspire optimism1 b 8 high p[] ( reason does1 & x is on ?is fai? 9 reason t ,ta9e confid5tly f\nds 8 ass]tions reg>d+ progress4 ,he sees 9 reason ! ultimate end & mean+ ( all else4 ,! triumph ( reason is an ideal goal to :i*1 9 spite ( s _m ob/acles1 all ! =ces ( ! univ]se are /riv+4 ,9 ?is intellectual progress1 ?is gradual rationalisation ( mank9d1 ,ta9e sees ! ess5tial elem5t ( progress ^u :i* all o!r goods dep5d4 ,! bett]m5t ( social conditions w naturally foll[2 x is ! spiritual & m5tal factor :i* is ! keynote ( progress ,reason1 he cont5ds1 w give u a new e?ic1 a new politic & a new religion4 ,r5an %>es ) ,ta9e ! belief 9 reason & its ultimate triumph4 ,8 views on progress are1 h[ev]1 m discursive1 & are extremely int]e/+ & sugge/ive4 ,he 0 9 8 lat] ye>s %rewd en\gh to discov] ! difficulties ( 8 own doctr9e4 ,?us al?\gh he believ$ 9 a 8gu>ante$0 progress1 ,r5an m>ks a /age midway betwe5 ! idea ( progress z held by ,comte & ,ta9e on ! "o h&1 & by ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] on ! o!r4 ,8 e>ly book1 ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 gl[s ) ard5t belief 9 ?is assur$ progress1 :i* is b\nd up ) 8 confid5ce 9 sci5ce & rationality4 8,our cre$10 he !re decl>es1 8is ! reasonabl5ess ( progress40 ,?is idea ( progress is almo/ z c5tral a po9t 9 ,r5an's ?\ght z x 0 9 t ( ,comte1 & he gave x a m metaphysical significance4 ,8 g5]al philosophy owes mu* to hi/ory1 & = him ! philosophy ( hi/ory is ! explanation ( progress4 ,by ?is t]m he means an ev]-gr[+ t5d5cy to p]fection1 to full] consci\sness & life1 to nobl]1 bett] & m beautiful ends4 ,he ?9ks x necess>y to conceive ( a sort ( inn] spr+1 urg+ all ?+s on to full] life4 ,he seems "h to anticipate vaguely ! c5tral conception ( ,guyau & ( ,b]gson4 ,b1 l ,ta9e1 ,r5an f\nds 8 doctr9e ( progress on rationalism4 ,he well expresses ?is 9 "o ( 8 ,drames philosophiques 7,l',eau de ,j\v5ce71 ?r\gh ! m\? ( ,prosp]o1 :o repres5ts rational ?\ght4 ,?is "* decl>es t 8x is sci5ce :i* br+s ab\t social progress1 & n progress :i* gives rise to sci5ce4 ,sci5ce only asks f society to h grant$ to x ! conditions necess>y to its life & to produce a suffici5t numb] ( m9ds capable ( und]/&+ x40#d ,9 ! preface writt5 = ?is drama he decl>es t sci5ce or reason w ultimately succe$ 9 creat+ ! p[] & =ce ( gov]nm5t 9 humanity4 #d ,l',eau de ,j\v5ce1 ,act #d1 ,sc5e ,i41 ,conclusion4 ,^! ?\ghts re-e*o _m ( ! s5tim5ts voic$ on behalf ( progress by ,condorcet1 ,sa9t-,simon & ,comte4 ,x is int]e/+1 h[ev]1 to note an important po9t on :i* ,r5an n only p>ts company ) !m1 b ranges himself 9 opposition to !m4 ,?is po9t is t ( socialism or democracy1 call x :at "o w4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #ahga ,r5an 0 deta9$ at ,v]sailles dur+ ! upro> ( ! ,commune 9 ,p>is1 & !re wrote 8 ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques1 :i* 7 publi%$ five ye>s lat]4 ,9 ^! pages c]ta9 doctr9es ( progress & hi/ory are set =?1 notably 9 ! 8dialogues ( ?ree philosoph]s ( t s*ool ^: gr\nd-pr9ciples are ! cult ( ! ideal1 ! negation ( ! sup]natural & ! inve/igation ( reality40 ,r5an raises a discussion ( ! end ( ! _w's developm5t4 ,! univ]se1 he ma9ta9s1 is n devoid ( purpose3 x pursues an ideal end4 ,?is goal to :i* ! evolution>y process moves is ! reign ( reason4 ,b !re are /rik+ limitations to ?is advance4 ,f ?is k+dom ( reason on ! e>? ! mass ( m5 are %ut out4 ,r5an does n believe 9 a gradual improvem5t ( ! mass ( mank9d accompani$ by a g5]al rationalisation :i* is democratic4 ,! tru? is t ,r5an 0 an intellectual ari/ocrat &1 z su*1 he abhorr$ ,demos4 ,8 gospel ( culture1 ^u :i* he lays ! greate/ /ress1 is = ! few :o are call$ & *os51 :ile ! _m rema9 outside ! pale1 beyond ! p[] ( ! salvation he (f]s4 ,! developm5t ( ! democratic idea he looks ^u z ?or\ghly mis*iev\s1 inasmu* z x involves1 9 8 op9ion1 deg5]ation1 a levell+ d[n to m$iocrity4 ,9 8 philosophy ( hi/ory he adopts an attitude some:at ak9 to t ( ,c>lyle 9 8 wor%ip ( ,great ,m54 ,! end ( hi/ory is1 ,r5an /ates1 ! production ( m5 ( g5ius4 ,! great mass ( m51 ! common /uff ( humanity1 he lik5s to ! soil f :i* ^! ,great ,ones gr[4 ,! majority ( m5 h _! exi/5ce ju/ifi$ only by ! appe>ance ^u ! sc5e ( 8,h]oes ( ,culture40 ,9 ?is tea*+ ! p>allelism to ! gospel ( ! ,sup]man is app>5t1 yet x seems cle> t al?\gh ,r5an's man ( culture despises ! ignorance & vulg>ity ( ! cr[d1 he does s condesc5d+ly z a b5efactor1 & is free f ! passionate hatr$ & scorn to :i* ,nietzs*e's ,sup]man is addict$4 ,nev]!less1 ,r5an's attitude ( uncompromis+ ho/ility to democratic developm5t is v m>k$4 ,he c\ples 8 confid5ce 9 ,sci5ce to 8 anti-democratic views1 & affirms ! 8,h]d0 to be incapable ( culture4 ,al?\gh ! process ( rationalisation & ! e/abli%m5t ( ! k+dom ( reason is applicable only to ! patrician & n to ! plebs1 ?is process is claim$ by ,r5an to be capable ( great ext5sion1 n 9 ! numb] ( its adh]5ts b 9 ! ext5t ( culture4 ,9 ?is f9al reign ( reason1 in/9ctive action & impulse w be replac$ by delib]ation1 & sci5ce w succe$ religion4 ,8 fam\s lett] to ,b]!lot includes a brief /atem5t ( 8 views on progressive culture1 :i*1 = him1 con/itutes ! sign ( progress4 8,"o ought nev]10 he writes1 8to regret see+ cle>] into ! dep?s40 ,by endeav\r+ to increase ! treasure ( ! tru?s :i* =m ! paid-up capital ( humanity1 we %all be c>ry+ on ! "w ( our pi\s ance/ors1 :o lov$ ! good & ! true z x 0 und]/ood 9 _! "t4 ,! true m5 ( progress1 he claims1 are ^? :o pr(ess z _! />t+-po9t a pr(\nd respect = ! pa/4 ,r5an himself 0 a great lov] ( ! pa/1 yet we f9d him rem>k+ 9 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse t he has no wi% to be tak5 = an uncompromis+ reactioni/4 8,i love ! pa/1 b ,i envy ! future10 & he ?9ks t x w\ld be extremely pleasant to live ^u ?is planet at z late a p]iod z possible4 ,he appe>s jeal\s ( ! future & ( ! "y1 ^: fate x w be to "k :at w be ! outcome ( ! activities ( ! ,g]man ,emp]or1 :at w be ! climax ( ! conflict ( ,european nationalities1 :at developm5t socialism w take4 ,8 %rewd m9d _h alreadv =ese5 9 a measure ! possible developm5t ( ,g]man milit>ism & ( ,bol%evism4 ,he reg>ds ! _w z mov+ t[>ds a k9d ( 8,am]icanism10 by :i* he means a type ( life 9 :i* culture & ref9em5t %all h little place4 ,yet1 al?\gh he has a horror & a dread ( democracy1 he feels also t ! evils accompany+ x may be1 aft] all1 no worse ?an ^? involv$ 9 ! reaction>y dom9ance ( nobles & cl]gy4 ,humanity has n hi!rto m>*$1 he ?9ks1 ) mu* me?od4 ,ord] he consid]s to be desirable1 b only 9 view ( progress4 ,revolutions are only absurd & odi\s1 he ass]ts 9 ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 to ^? :o d n believe 9 progress4 ,yet he claims t reaction has its place 9 ! plan ( ,provid5ce1 = x works unwitt+ly = ! g5]al good4 8,!re are10 to quote 8 metaphor1 8declivities d[n :i* ! rle ( ! traction eng9e consi/s solely 9 hold+ back40 ,r5an ?9ks t if democratic ideas %\ld secure a cle> triumph1 sci5ce & sci5tific tea*+ w\ld soon f9d ! mode/ subsidies n[ accord$ !m cut (f4 ,he fe>s ! approa* ( an era ( m$iocrity1 ( vulg>ity1 9 fact1 :i* w p]secute ! intellectuals & deprive ! _w ( lib]ty4 ,he is n ?\ghtlessly optimi/ic2 he 0 f> too %rewd an intellect = t4 ,our age1 he sugge/s1 may be reg>d$ 9 future z ! turn+ po9t ( humanity's hi/ory1 t po9t :]e its det]ioration set 91 ! prelude to its decl9e & fall4 ,b he ass]ts1 z aga9/ ?is1 t ,nature does n "k ! mean+ ( ! ^w 8disc\ragem5t40 ,humanity1 prov+ itself incapable ( progress1 b only capable ( fur!r det]ioration1 w\ld be replac$ by o!r =ms4 8,we mu/ n1 because ( our p]sonal ta/es1 our prejudices p]haps1 set ourselves to oppose ! action ( our "t4 ,?is action goes on )\t reg>d to u & probably is "r40#e ,! future ( sci5ce is assur$4 ,) its progress1 ,r5an po9ts out1 we mu/ reckon ^u ! decay ( organis$ religion1 z pr(ess$ by sects or *ur*es4 ,! disappe>ance ( ?is organis$ religion w1 h[ev]1 result mo/ assur$ly 9 a tempor>y moral deg5]ation1 s9ce morality has be5 s conv5tionally b\nd up ) ! ,*ur*4 ,an era ( egoism1 milit>y & economic 9 "*1 w arise & = a "t prevail4 #e ,preface to ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,yet we mu/ n1 ,r5an rem9ds u1 grumble at hav+ too mu* unre/ & conflict4 ,! great object 9 life is ! developm5t ( ! m9d1 & ?is requires lib]ty or fre$om4 ,! wor/ type ( society is ! !ocratic /ate1 or ! anci5t pontifical dom9ion or any mod]n replica ( ^! :]e dogma reigns supreme4 ,a humanity :i* c\ld n be revolution>y1 :i* _h lo/ ! attraction ( 8,utopias10 believ+ itself to h e/abli%$ ! p]fect =m ( exi/5ce w\ld be intol]able4 ,?is raises also ! qu]y t if progress be ! ma9 feature ( our univ]se1 !n we h a dilemma to face1 = ei!r x leads u to a t]m9us ad quem1 & s f9ally contradicts itself1 or else x goes on = ev]1 & x is d\btful !n 9 :at s5se x c be a progress4 ,r5an's own belief 0 ess5tially religi\s1 & 0 col\r$ by ,*ri/ian & ,hebrew conceptions4 ,x 0 a rationalis$ belief 9 a ,div9e ,provid5ce4 ,he pr(ess$ a confid5ce 9 ! f9al triumph ( tru? & goodness1 & has fai? 9 a dim1 f>-(f div9e ev5t :i* he t]ms 8! complete adv5t ( ,god40 ,! objections :i* are s frequ5tly urg$ by le>n$ m5 aga9/ f9alism or teleology ( any k9d :atsoev] ,r5an deem$ sup]ficial & claim$1 rightly en\gh1 t !y are n s mu* direct$ aga9/ teleology b aga9/ !ology1 aga9/ obsolete ideas ( ,god1 p>ticul>ly aga9/ ! dogma ( a delib]ate & omnipot5t ,creator4 ,r5an's own doctr9e ( ! ,deity is by no means cle>1 b he believ$ 9 a spiritual p[] capable ( becom+ "s day consci\s1 omnisci5t & omnipot5t4 ,god w !n h come to himself4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ! univ]se is a progress to ,god1 to an increas+ realisation ( ! ,div9ity 9 tru?1 beauty & goodness4 ,! univ]se1 ,r5an claims1 mu/ be ultimately root$ & gr\nd$ 9 goodness2 !re mu/ be1 9 spite ( all exi/+ 8evils10 a balance on ! side ( goodness1 o!rwise ! univ]se w\ld1 l a va/ bank+-conc]n1 fail4 ,?is balance ( goodness is ! raison d'tre ( ! _w & ! means ( its exi/5ce4 ,! g5]al life ( ! univ]se c be illu/rat$1 accord+ to ,r5an1 by t ( ! oy/]1 & ! =mation )9 x ( ! pe>l1 by a malady1 a process vague1 obscure & pa9ful4 ,! pe>l is ! _s :i* is ! end1 ! f9al cause & la/ result1 & assur$ly ! mo/ brilliant outcome ( ?is univ]se4 ,?r\gh suff]+ ! pe>l is =m$2 & likewise1 ?r\gh con/ant pa9 & conflict1 suff]+ & h>d%ip1 ! _s ( man moves intellectually & morally onw>d & upw>d1 to ! complet$ realisation ( ju/ice1 beauty1 tru? & inf9ite goodness & love1 to ! complete & triumphant realisation ( ,god4 ,we mu/ h pati5ce1 claims ,r5an1 & h fai? 9 ^! ?+s1 & h hope & take c\rage4 8,"o day virtue w prove itself to h be5 ! bett] "p40 ,su* is 8 doctr9e ( progress4 ,,ii ,) ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] our discussion takes a new =m4 ,r5an1 ,ta9e1 ,va*]ot & ! ho/ ( social & political writ]s1 toge!r ) ,augu/ ,comte himself1 _h accept$ ! fact ( progress & clung to ! idea ( a law ( progress4 ,) ^! two ?9k]s1 h[ev]1 !re is a m c>eful consid]ation giv5 to ! problem ( progress4 ,x 0 recognis$ z a problem & ?is 0 an imm5se advance ^u ! previ\s p]iod1 ^: ?9k]s accept$ x z a dogma4 ,true to ! philosophic _s ( criticism & exam9ation :i* involves ! rejection ( dogma z su*1 ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] approa* ! idea ( progress ) res]ve & free f ! confid5tly optimi/ic ass]tions ( ! eighte5? & e>ly n9ete5? c5tury4 ,scorn+ ! rhetoric ( political sociali/s1 positivi/s & rationali/s1 !y endeav\r to view progress z ! c5tral problem ( ! philosophy ( hi/ory1 to asc]ta9 :at x involves1 & to see :e!r su* a phrase z 8law ( progress0 has a mean+ be=e !y invoke x & repeat x 9 ! ov]confid5t mann] :i* *>act]is$ _! pr$ecessors4 ,we h ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ?is "w t ! c5tral problem ( our p]iod 0 t ( fre$om4 ,by survey+ ! g5]al "* ( ! ?\ght ( ! "t1 & 9 foll[+ ?is by an exam9ation ( ! relation ( sci5ce & philosophy1 we 7 able to %[ h[ vital & h[ c5tral ?is problem 04 ,f ano!r side we are aga9 to emphasise ?is4 ,hav+ se5 ! way 9 :i* ! problem ( fre$om 0 dealt )1 we are 9 a position to obs]ve h[ ?is col\r$ ! solutions ( o!r problems4 ,! illu/ration is vivid "h1 = ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] develop _! philosophy ( hi/ory f _! consid]ation ( fre$om1 & base _! doctr9es ( progress ^u _! ma9t5ance ( fre$om4 ,x is obvi\s t ! acceptance ( su* views z ^? express$ on fre$om by bo? ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] mu/ h f>-rea*+ effects ^u _! g5]al attitude to hi/ory1 = h[ is ! dogma ( progress1 z x _h be5 prea*$1 to be reconcil$ ) free action8 ,x is mu* easi] to believe 9 progress if "o be a fatali/4 ,! difficulty "h 0 app>5t to ,comte :5 he admitt$ ! influ5ce ( v>iations1 di/urb+ causes1 :i* result$ 9 ! developm5t ( mank9d assum+ an oscillat+ "* r ?an t ( a /raight-=w>d progress4 ,he did n1 h[ev]1 come suffici5tly close to ?is problem1 & left ! difficulty ( fre$om on "o side by ass]t+ t ! op]ation ( fre$om1 *ance or cont+5cy 7call x :at we w71 issu+ 9 non-pr$et]m9$ actions1 0 s limit$ z n to int]f]e ) ! g5]al c\rse ( progress4 ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] take up ! problem :]e ,comte left x at ?is po9t4 ,ea* ( !m takes x a /age fur!r onw>d 9 ! developm5t4 ,! fundam5tal ideas ( ,c\rnot we h briefly not$ z be+ ^? ( ord]1 *ance & probability4 ,! relation ( ^! to progress he discusses1 n only 9 8 ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances & ! ,trait de l',en*anem5t d',ides1 b also 9 a mo/ int]e/+ mann] 9 8 two volumes entitl$ ,considrations sur la ,m>*e des ,ides et des ,evnem5ts dans les ,temps mod]nes4 ,l ,comte1 he is fai?ful1 z f> z 8 pr9ciples w all[1 to ! idea ( ord]4 ,!re is ord] 9 ! univ]se to a c]ta9 degree2 sci5ce %[s x to u4 ,!re is also1 he ma9ta9s1 fre$om1 haz>d or *ance4 ,look+ at hi/ory he sees1 z did ,comte1 ph5om5a :i*1 ^u tak+ a long p]spective1 appe> z int]f]5ces4 ,pure reason is1 he claims1 really incapable ( decid+ ! vital "q :e!r ^! di/urbances are due to a pure cont+5cy1 *ance or fre$om1 or :e!r !y m>k ! po9ts ( ! influ5ce ( ! sup]natural ^u mank9d's developm5t4 ,he ref]s to ! en*anem5t de circon/ances provid5tielles :i* help$ ! e>ly ,jews & l$ to ! propagation ( _! mono!ism2 :i* help$ also ! developm5t ( ! ,*ri/ian religion 9 ! ,roman ,empire4 ,haz>d itself1 he claims1#f may be ! ag5t or m9i/] ( ,provid5ce4 ,su* a view claims to be loyal at once to fre$om & to ord]4 #f ,essai sur les ,fondam5ts de nos ,connaissances1 vol4 i1 *ap4 #e4 ,c\rnot cont9ues 8 discussion fur!r & submits _m o!r consid]ations ^u progress4 ,he claims t x is absurd to see 9 e s+le occurr5ce ! op]ations ( a div9e provid5ce or ! "w ( a div9e ar*itect4 ,su* a view w\ld exalt 8 conception ( ord]1 und\bt$ly1 b only at ! exp5se ( 8 view ( fre$om4 ,he w n give up 8 belief 9 fre$om1 & 9 consequ5ce decl>es t !re is no pre-arrang$ ord] or plan 9 ! s5se ( a 8law40 ,he sets d[n _m consid]ations :i* appe> z dilemmas to ! pure reason1 & :i* only action1 he ?9ks1 w solve4 ,he po9ts out ! difficulty ( economic & social progress ow+ to our be+ unable to te/ !ories until !y are 9 action on a l>ge field4 ,he %[s too h[ conflict+ v>i\s developm5ts may be1 & h[ progress 9 "o direction may involve deg5]ation 9 ano!r4 ,equality may be good 9 "s ways1 unnatural & evil 9 o!rs4 ,increase ( population may be applaud$ z a progress f a milit>y /&po9t1 b may be an economic evil ) disa/r\s suff]+ z its consequ5ce4 ,! 8progress0 to peace & /ability 9 a society usually involves a decrease 9 vitality & initiative4 ,by mu* weal? ( argum5t1 no less ?an by 8 g5]al attitude1 ,c\rnot 0 able to apply ! breaks to ! excessive confid5ce 9 progress & to call a halt = s\nd] inve/igation ( ! matt]4 ,r5\vi] did mu* m 9 ?is direction4 ,9 8 ,second ,essay ( ,g5]al ,criticism he t\*$ ^u ! problem ( progress 9 relation to fre$om1 & 8 f\r? & fif? essays con/itute five l>ge volumes deal+ ) ! 8,philosophy ( ,hi/ory40 ,he also devotes ! la/ two *apt]s ( ,la ,n\velle ,monadologie to progress 9 relation to societies1 & br+s out ! c5tral po9t ( 8 social e?ics1 t ju/ice is ! crit]ion ( progress4 ,inde$1 all t ,r5\vi] says reg>d+ hi/ory & progress leads up1 9 a mann] peculi>ly 8 own1 to 8 treatm5t ( e?ics1 :i* w claim att5tion 9 our next *apt]4 ,! ,analytic ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory =ms an important item 9 ! philosophical rep]toire ( ,r5\vi]4 ,he claims x to be a necess>y feature ( ! neo-critical1 & inde$ ( any s]i\s1 philosophy4 ,x is1 he claims1 n a bran* ( k :i* has an isolat$ place1 = x is z intimately connect$ to life z is any !ory to ! facts :i* x embraces4 ,t is n to say1 & ,r5\vi] is c>eful to make ?is cle>1 t we approa* hi/ory assum+ t !re are laws gov]n+ x1 or a s+le law or =mula by :i* human developm5t c be express$4 ,! 8,philosophy ( ,hi/ory0 assumes no su* ?+2 x is precisely ?is inve/igation :i* x und]takes1 loyal to ! pr9ciples ( ,g5]al ,criticism ( :i* x1 9 a s5se1 =ms a "p4 ,9 a classification x /rictly /&s betwe5 ,g5]al ,criticism or ,pure ,philosophy & ,hi/ory itself4 8,hi/ory10 says ,r5\vi]1 8is ! exp]i5ce :i* humanity has ( itself10#g & 8 conclusions reg>d+ progress dep5d on ! views he holds reg>d+ human p]sonality & its ess5tial attribute1 fre$om4 ,! philosophy ( hi/ory has to consid] :e!r1 9 obs]v+ ! developm5t ( humanity on ! e>?1 "o may ass]t ! pres5ce ( any g5]al law or laws4 ,c "o say legitimately t !re has be5 developm5t8 ,is !re really su* a ?+ z progress8 ,if s1 :at is our idea ( progress8 ,:at is ! tr5d ( humanity's hi/ory8 ,^! are great que/ions4 #g ,introduction la ,philosophie de l',hi/oire1 ,prface4 ,! attitude :i* ,r5\vi] adopts to ! :ole c\rse ( human hi/ory is bas$ ^u 8 fundam5tal doctr9es ( discont9uity1 fre$om & p]sonality4 ,!re are1 he claims1 real beg9n+s1 unpr$icable occurr5ces1 happ5+s :i* _c be expla9$ z hav+ be5 caus$ by prec$+ ev5ts4 ,we mu/ n1 he urges1 all[ ourselves to be hypnotis$ by ! "n 8,hi/ory10 z if x 7 9 itself "s great p[]1 sweep+ all ( u onw>d 9 its c\rse1 or a va/ ocean 9 :i* we are m]ely waves4 ,r5\vi] /&s firm 9 8 loyalty to p]sonality1 & sees 9 hi/ory1 n a p[] ( ?is sort1 b simply ! total result ( human actions4 ,hi/ory is ! collective "w ( ! human _s or ( free p]sonalities4#h #h ,r5\vi]'s great objection to ,comte's "w 0 due to 8 disagreem5t ) ,comte's conception ( ,humanity4 ,to ,r5\vi]1 ) 8 int5se valuation ( p]sonality1 ?is ,comtian conception 0 too mu* ( an ab/raction4 ,x is errone\s to look ^u x z ei!r ! fatali/ic function+ ( a law ( ?+s or z ! results ( ! action ( an all-p[]ful ,deity or ,provid5ce4 ,nei!r ! 8sci5tific0 view ( det]m9ism nor ! !ological conception ( ,god play+ ) load$ dice1 says ,r5\vi]1 w expla9 hi/ory4 ,x is ! outcome ( human action1 ( p]sonal acts :i* h real wor? & significance 9 its =mation4 ,hi/ory is no m]e display ( m>ionettes1 no ,pun*-&-,judy %[ ) a div9e op]ator pull+ /r+s f 8 conceal$ position beh9d ! curta94 ,equally ,r5\vi] disagrees ) ! view t hi/ory is m]ely an unroll+ 9 "t ( a plan conceiv$ f et]nity4 ,human society & civilisation 7( :i* hi/ory is ! record7 are products ( man's own ?\ght & action1 & 9 consequ5ce manife/ discont9uity1 fre$om & cont+5cy4 ,r5\vi] ?us opposes /rongly all ^? ?9k]s1 su* z ! ,sa9t-,simoni/s1 ,hegelians & ,positivi/s1 :o see 9 hi/ory only a fatali/ic developm5t4 ,he jo9s battle especially ) ^? :o claim t !re is a fatali/ic or necessitat$ progress4 ,hi/ory has no law1 he claims1 & !re is n & _c be any law ( progress4 ,! idea ( progress is c]ta9ly1 he admits1 "o ) :i* ! philosoph] is br\ght v vitally into contact 9 8 survey ( hi/ory4 ,inde$ an elucidation (1 ?is notion might itself be a "p ( ! hi/orian's task4 ,if s1 ! hi/orians h sadly neglect$ "p ( _! "w4 ,r5\vi] calls att5tion to ! fact t all ^? hi/orians or philosoph]s :o accept a com=t+ doctr9e ( humanity's assur$ progress make v plausible /atem5ts1 b !y nev] seem able to /ate ) any cle>ness or def9it5ess :at con/itutes progress1 or :at significance lies 9 _! (t-repeat$ phrase1 8! law ( progress40 ,he rightly po9ts out t ?is insi/5ce ^u a law1 c\pl$ ) a manife/ inability to indicate :at x is1 causes naturally a c]ta9 scepticism z to !re be+ any su* law at all4 ,r5\vi] br&s ! se>* = any law ( progress a futile "o1 s9ce we _c sci5tifically or logically def9e ! goal ( humanity or ! c\rse ( its developm5t because ( ! fact ( fre$om & because ( our ignorance4 ,we mu/ realise t we1 p]sonally at fir/h&1 see only an inf9itesimal "p ( humanity's life on ?is planet alone1 n to speak ( a de/9y possible beyond ?is globe1 & t1 at second-h&1 we h only evid5ce ( a portion ( ! great procession ( human ev5ts4 ,we d n "k humanity's beg9n+ & primitive hi/ory1 nor d we "k its goal1 if x has "o4 ,^! factors alone are grave h9drances to ! =mulation ( any conception ( progress4 ,reflection ^u !m might h sav$ m51 ,r5\vi] obs]ves1 f ! presumptu\s belief 9 assur$ progress4 ,we _c presume ev5 to e/imate ! t5d5cies1 ! direction ( its c\rse1 because ( ! enorm\s & ev]-increas+ complexity ( free human activity4 ,by 8 l>ge "w on ! 8,philosophy ( ,hi/ory10 ,r5\vi] %[s t ! facts ( hi/ory !mselves are aga9/ ! !ory ( a univ]sal & cont9u\s progress1 = ! record %[s u conflict1 advance1 retrogression1 peoples ris+1 o!rs deg5]at+1 empires e/abli%+ !mselves & pass+ away by inw>d ru9 or out] assaults1 or bo?1 & civilisations evolv+ & dis9tegrat+ 9 _! turn4 ,! spectacle does n readily promote an optimi/ic view ( human developm5t at all1 mu* less support ! doctr9e ( a sure & c]ta9 progress4 ,r5\vi] does n bl9d himself to ! con/ant /ruggle & suff]+4 ,! !atre1 or r ! ar5a1 ( hi/ory pres5ts a curi\s spectacle4 ,9 politics & 9 religion he %[s u t !re are conflicts ( au?ority & ( free ?\ght1 a w>f>e ( majorities ) m9orities1 a me?od ( fight+ issues slightly less savage ?an ! appeal to pure =ce1 b am\nt+ to :at he t]ms 8a pacific application ( ! pr9ciple ( =ce40 ,hi/ory %[s u ! corruption1 tyranny & bl9dness ( _m majorities1 & ! tragic & necess>y resort to =ce z ! only pa? to lib]ty = d[n-trodd5 m9orities4 ,h[1 ,r5\vi] asks1 c we fit ?is 9 ) a doctr9e ( assur$ progress1 or1 inde$1 progress at all8 ,fur!r1 he does n f9d x difficult to %[ t mu* un?9k+ utt]ance on ! "p ( ! optimi/s may be some:at *eck$ by calm reflection on ev5 "o or two que/ions4 ,= example1 ,0 progress involv$ 9 ! *ange f anci5t slav]y to ! wage-slav]y ( mod]n indu/rialism8 ,0 ,*ri/ianity1 z ,nietzs*e & o!rs h attempt$ to ma9ta91 a retrogression8 ,or1 aga91 ,0 ! *ange f ,greek city life to ! conditions ( ! ,middle ,ages 9 any way to be reg>d$ z a progress8 ,r5\vi] consid]s x q errone\s to ass]t1 z did ,comte1 t !re is a /eady & cont9u\s developm5t und]ly+ ! oscillations1 & t ! v>iations1 z x 71 f ! direct l9e ( progress cancel "o ano!r or balance ea* o!r1 leav+1 z ,r5an claim$1 a balance always & inevitably on ! side ( goodness4 ,su* a confid5ce 9 ! great _w bank+ conc]n ,r5\vi] does n possess4 ,!re is no gu>antee t ! acc\nt ( goodness may n be ov]drawn & f\nd want+4 ,he rem9ds u /]nly & solemnly ( ! t]rible solid>ity :i* *>act]ises evil4 ,deceit1 gre$1 lu/1 viol5ce & w> h an enorm\s p[] ( bre$+ ea* o!r & ( support+ "o ano!r increas+ly4 ,! optimi/ic doctr9es ( progress are simply untrue /atem5ts ( ! facts ( hi/ory1 & falsely col\r$ views ( human nature4 ,x is an appall+ error 9 8social dynamics0 to ov]look ! cla% ( int]e/1 ! gre$ ( nation & ( class1 ! fundam5tal passionate hate & w>4 ,) x is c\pl$ an error 9 8social /atics10 9 :i* fai? is put 9 in/itutions1 9 ! me*anism ( society4 ,^!1 decl>es ,r5\vi]1 w n save humanity2 !y w1 inde$1 ru9 x if x all[ itself1 ?r\gh spiritual & moral le?>gy1 to be dom9at$ by !m4 ,!y h be5 s]viceable creations ( humanity at "s "t or o!r1 & !y mu/ s]ve m51 b m5 mu/ n be b\nd d[n to s]ve !m4 ,?is s]vitude is evil1 & x has pr(\ndly evil consequ5ces4 ,hav+ attack$ ,comte's view ( progress & ( ord] 9 its /atic & dynamic po9t ( view1 ,r5\vi] !n br+s up 8 heavy artill]y ( argum5t aga9/ ,comte's idealisation ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,to ass]t t ?is p]iod 0 an advance on ! life ( ! ,greek city1 ,r5\vi] consid]s to be little %ort ( impud5ce4 ,! art & sci5ce & philosophy ( ! ,greeks are our be/ h]itage1 :ile ! ,middle ,ages1 dom9at$ by a vici\s & intol]ant ,*ur*1 ) its infallible !ology & its cru%+ p[] ( ! cl]gy1 0 a 8dead h&0 ^u ! human _s4 ,:ile x provid$ an organic society1 x only succe$$ 9 do+ s by n>r[+ & cru%+ ! human intellect4 ,! ,r5asc5ce & ! ,re=mation prov$ t !re 7 ess5tial elem5ts ( human life be+ cru%$ d[n4 ,!y rea*$ a po9t1 h[ev]1 :]e !y explod$4 ,n only does ,r5\vi] ?us decl>e ! ,middle ,ages to be a regress1 b he goes ! l5g? ( ass]t+ t ! developm5t ( ,european hi/ory c\ld h be5 diff]5t4 ,?is is 8 doctr9e ( fre$om appli$ to hi/ory4 ,!re is no reason at all = our reg>d+ ! ,middle ,ages or any su* p]iod z necessitat$ 9 ! ord] ( mank9d's developm5t4 ,!re is no law gov]n+ t developm5t2 consequ5tly1 _h mank9d1 or ev5 a few ( its numb]1 will$ & act$ ^u _! fre$om diff]5tly1 ! :ole tr5d ( ! p]iod we call ! ,d>k ,ages might h be5 q o!r ?an x 04 ,r5\vi] does n %irk ! developm5t ( ?is po9t1 :i* is a c5tral "o = 8 purpose4 ,x may seem fanta/ic to ! hi/orians1 :o mu/ ( c\rse accept ! pa/ z giv5 & consequ5tly reg>d reflection on 8:at might h be50 z wa/$ "t4 ,c]ta9ly ! pa/ _c be alt]$--t is n ,r5\vi]'s po9t4 ,he int5ds to give a lesson to humanity1 a /]n lesson to cure x ( its belief 9 fatalism 9 reg>d to hi/ory4 ,?is is ! :ole purpose ( ! curi\s volume he publi%$ 9 #ahgf1 entitl$ ,u*ronie1 :i* _h z its explanatory sub-title ,l',utopie dans l',hi/oire1 ,esquisse hi/orique du ,dveloppem5t de la ,civilisation europenne1 tel qu'il n'a pas t1 tel qu'il avail pu tre4 ,! book1 consi/+ ( two manuscripts suppos$ to be kept 9 ! c>e ( an old ,dut* monk1 is actually an imag9>y con/ruction by ,r5\vi] himself ( ,european hi/ory 9 ! p]iod #ajj to #hjj ,a4,d41 writt5 to %[ ! real possibility t ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts f ! ,emp]or ,n]va to ! ,emp]or ,*>lemagne might h be5 radically diff]5t f :at x actually 04 ,all ?is is int5d$ by ,r5\vi] to combat ! 8univ]sal ju/ification ( ! pa/40 ,he sees t ! doctr9e ( progress z usually /at$ is n only a lie1 b t x is an extremely dang]\s "o1 = x ju/ifies ! pa/1 or at lea/ condones x z inevitable1 & ?us makes evil a condition ( goodness1 demoralises hi/ory1 nullifies e?ics & enc\rages ! damnation ( humanity itself4 ,?is fatali/ic doctr9e1 ass]ts ,r5\vi] ) great e>ne/ness1 mu/ be ab&on$2 fre$om mu/ be recognis$ z op]ative1 & ! human w z mak+ hi/ory4,!re is no law ( progress1 & ! soon] humanity c come to realise ?is ! bett] x w be = x4 ,only by su* a realisation c x "w out its own salvation4 8,! real law lies01 decl>es ,r5\vi]10only 9 an equal possibility ( progress or det]ioration = bo? societies & individuals40 ,if !re is to be progress x c only come because1 & :51 humanity recognises itself z collectively responsible = its own hi/ory1 & :5 ea* p]son feels 8 own responsibility reg>d+ t action4 ,no acceptance ( ev5ts w avail2 we mu/ w progress & consci\sly set ourselves to realise x4 ,x is possible1 b x dep5ds on u4 ,"h ,r5\vi]'s consid]ations lead him f hi/ory to e?ics4 8,almo/ all ! ,great ,m51 m5 ( great w1 h be5 fatali/s4 ,s sl[ly does humanity em]ge f its %ad[s & beget = itself a j notion ( its autonomy4 ,! phantom ( necessity weighs heavily10 he lam5ts1 8ov] ! night ( hi/ory40#i ,) fre$om & a recognition ( its fre$om by humanity g5]ally we may see ! dawn ( bett] ?+s4 ,humanity w !n consci\sly & delib]ately make its hi/ory1 & n be l$ by ! op]ations ( h]d-in/9ct & fatali/ic beliefs :i* 9 ! pa/ h s disgrac$ & m>r$ its record4 #i ,psy*ologie ralionnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ia4 ,! exi/+ condition ( human society c only be describ$ frankly1 9 ,r5\vi]'s op9ion1 z a /ate ( w>4 ,ea* individual1 ea* class1 ea* nation1 ea* race1 is actually at w> ) o!rs4 ,x matt]s n :e!r a diplomatic /ate ( peace1 z x is call$1 exi/s or n2 t mu/ n bl9d u to ! facts4 ,by in/itutions1 cu/oms1 laws1 hidd5 fraud1 diplomacy1 & op5 viol5ce1 ?is conflict is kept up4 ,x is all w>1 says ,r5\vi]4 ,mod]n society is bas$ on w>1 economic1 milit>y or judicial4 ,inde$1 milit>y & naval w>f>e is a cle> issue1 b only a symbol ( :at always goes on4 ,might always has ! upp] h&1 h5ce ord9>y life 9 mod]n society is j a /ate ( w>4 ,our civilisation does n re/ on ju/ice1 or on ! conception ( ju/ice2 x re/s on p[] & might4 ,until x is f\nd$ on ju/ice1 peace1 he urges1 w n be possible2 humanity w be enslav$ 9 fur!r /ruggles disa/r\s o itself4 ,?is doctr9e ( ! tat de gu]re1 z descriptive ( mod]n society1 he makes a feature ( 8 e?ics1 ^u :i* we mu/ n "h encroa*1 b may po9t out t he insi/s ^u ju/ice z ! ultimate social crit]ion1 & claims t ?is is high] ?an *>ity1 :i* is inadequate z a basis = society1 h[ev] mu* x may alleviate its ills4 ,"o ( ! *ief necessities1 he po9ts out1 an ess5tial to any progressive measure w\ld be to moralise our mod]n notion ( ! /ate4#aj ,9 ! notes to 8 la/ *apt] ( ! ,n\velle ,monadologie ,r5\vi] attacks ! ,m>xian doctr9e ( ! mat]iali/ic det]m9ation ( hi/ory4 #aj ,?is po9t 0 fur!r emphasis$ by ,h5ri ,mi*el 9 8 "w1 ,l',ide de l',etat4 ,?is same book1 h[ev]1 we mu/ note1 m>ks a /age 9 ,r5\vi]'s own ?\ght diff]5t f 8 doctr9es 9 ! e>li] ,essais de ,critique gnrale1 & ?is lat] philosophy1 ( :i* ! ,monadologie & ,p]sonnalisme are ! two mo/ notable volumes1 displays an attempt to look ^u progress f a m ultimate /&po9t4 ,8 ?odice "h involves ! notion1 se5 9 ,ravaisson1 ( an e>ly p]fection1 involv+ a subsequ5t 8fall10 ! _w n[1 ) its gu]re univ]selle1 be+ an int]m$iate /age betwe5 a p]fect or h>moni\s /ate 9 ! pa/ & "o :i* lies 9 ! future4 ,! m>* ( humanity is an unc]ta9 "o because x is free4 ,! philosophy ( hi/ory ?us reit]ates ! c5tral importance ( fre$om4 ,! actual end or purpose ( ?is fre$om is n simply1 says ,r5\vi]1 ! atta9m5t ( p]fection1 b r ! possibility ( progress4 ,x 0 ?is ?\ght :i* l$ him on 9 8 reflections fur!r ?an any ( ! ?9k]s ( our p]iod1 or at lea/ m delib]ately ?an any1 to indicate 8 views on ! doctr9e ( a future life = humanity4 ,s f> f ?is be+ a purely religi\s problem1 ,r5\vi] rightly looks ^u x z m]ely a c>ry+ fur!r afield ( ! conception ( progress4 ,= him1 & ?is is ! significant po9t = u "h1 any notion ( a future life = humanity1 9 ! accept$ s5se ( immortality1 is b\nd up )1 & inde$ bas$ ^u1 ! conception ( progressive developm5t4 ,x is true t ,r5\vi]1 l ,kant1 looks ^u ! problems ( 8,god1 ,fre$om & ,immortality0 z ! c5tral ones 9 philosophy1 true also t he recognises ! significance ( ?is belief 9 a ,future ,life z an extremely important "o = religi\s tea*+2 b 8 ma9 attitude to ! "q is m]ely a cont9uation ( 8 g5]al doctr9e ( progress1 c\pl$ ) 8 appreciation ( p]sonality4 ,x is 9 ?is light only t ,r5\vi] reflects ^u ! problem ( ,immortality4 ,he makes no appeal to a _w beyond our exp]i5ce--a fact :i* foll[s f 8 rejection ( ! ,kantian _w ( 8n\m5a02 nor does he wi% ! discussion to be bas$ on ! ass]tions ( religi\s fai?4 ,he admits t belief 9 a ,future ,life involves fai?1 9 a s5se1 b x is a rational belief1 a philosophical hypo!sis &1 m p>ticul>ly1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 a moral hypo!sis4 ,he ass]ts aga9/ critics t ! und]tak+ ( su* a discussion is a necess>y "p ( any ,critical ,philosophy1 :i* w\ld be incomplete )\t x1 z its omission w\ld involve an inadequate acc\nt ( human exp]i5ce4 ,r5\vi] claims t1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! "q ( a future exi/5ce arises naturally 9 ! human m9d f ! discrepancy :i* is manife/ 9 our exp]i5ce betwe5 nature on ! "o h& & consci5ce on ! o!r4 ,! c\rse ( ev5ts is n 9 accord ) :at we feel to be morally "r1 & ! dem&s ( ! moral law are1 to ,r5\vi]'s m9d1 supreme4 ,he realises h[ acutely ?is discrepancy is sometimes felt by ! human m9d1 & 8 rem>ks on ?is po9t recall ^? ( ! s5sitive s\l1 :o1 feel+ ?is acutely1 cri$ out3 8,ah1 ,love6 c\ld ?\ & ,i ) ,fate conspire ,to grasp ?is sorry ,s*eme ( ,?+s entire1 ,w\ld we n %att] x to bits--& !n ,re-m\ld x ne>] to ! he>t's desire40 ,^! l9es well express ! %>pness ( ,r5\vi]'s own feel+s1 & he claims t1 su* a conspiracy be+ impossible1 ! belief 9 ,immortality becomes a necess>y moral po/ulate or probability4 ,! gr\nds = su* a po/ulate are to be f\nd1 he claims1 ev5 9 ! processes ( nature itself4 ,! law ( f9ality or teleology manife/s itself ?r\gh\t ! univ]se3 purpose is to be se5 at "w 9 ! ,cosmos4 ,x is true t 9 ! l[] /ages ( exi/5ce x seems obscure & unc]ta91 b an obs]v] _c fail to see 8ends0 be+ a*iev$ 9 ! biological realm4 ,! functions ( organisms1 m p>ticul>ly ^? ( ! animal _w1 %[ u a realm ( ends & means at "w = a*iev+ ^? ends4 ,?is developm5t 9 ! direction ( an end1 ?is teleology1 implies1 says ,r5\vi]1 a de/9y4 ,! :ole ( exi/5ce is a gradual procession ( be+s at high] & high] levels ( developm5t1 ends & means to ea* o!r1 & all inh]it+ an imm5se pa/1 :i* is itself a means to _! exi/5ce z ends 9 !mselves4 ,may "o n !n1 sugge/s ,r5\vi]1 make a valid induction f ! de/9y ?us recognis$ & p>tially fulfill$ ( c]ta9 individual creatures1 to a de/9y common to all ^! creatures indef9itely prolong$8#aa #aa ,psy*ologic rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bbj-bba4 ,! objection is "h made t ,nature does n conc]n h]self ) individuals2 = h] ! individual is m]ely a means = ! c>ry+ on & propagation ( ! species4 ,individuals come into be+1 live = a "t & pass away1 ! species lives on p]petually2 only species are 9 ! plan ( ! univ]se1 individuals are ( little or no wor?4 ,to ?is ,r5\vi] replies t species live long b are n p]petual2 :ole species h be5 wip$ out by happ5+s on our planet1 _m n[ are dy+ out4 ,! ins9uation ab\t ! wor?lessness ( individuals r\ses 8 wra?1 = x /rikes at ! v root ( 8 philosophy1 ( :i* p]sonality is ! keynote4 ,?is1 he says1 is to lapse into ,pan!ism1 into doctr9es ( ,buddhi/s & ( ,sp9oza4 ,pan!ism & all k9dr$ views are to be reject$4 ,x is n 9 ! indef9able1 ,all-exi/+1 ! et]nal & inf9ite ,"o1 t we f9d help ) reg>d to ! significance ( ends 9 nature4 ,ends are to be s\ght 9 ! individuals or ! species4 ,b :ile x behoves u to look ^u ! _w z exi/+ = ! species & n ! species = ! sake ( ! _w1 we mu/ rememb] t ! species exi/s = ! sake ( ! individuals 9 x4 ,x is false to look ^u ! individuals z exi/+ m]ely = ! sake ( ! species4 ,if we subord9ate ! individual to ! species1 sacrific+ 8 inh]5t wor? & unique value1 & !n subord9ate species to g5us & all g5]a to ! ,all1 we lose ourselves 9 ! ,inf9ite sub/ance 9 :i* ev]y?+ is swall[$ up4 ,aga91 ,pan!ism t5ds to speak ( ! p]fection ( individuals1 & speaks l\dly ( progress f "o g5]ation to ano!r4 ,b x tells only ( a future :i* involves ! entire sacrifice ( all t has wor? or value 9 ! pa/4 ,x %[s endless sacrifice1 improvem5t too1 b all = naught4 8,:at does x matt] to say t ! be/ is yet to be1 if ! be/ mu/ p]i% z ! good1 to give place to a yet bett] #8be/' :i* w n h ! virtue ( endur+ any m ?an ! o!rs8 ,d we (f] any real consolation to ,sisyphus10 asks ,r5\vi]1 8by promis+ him annihilation1 :i* is c\pl$ ) ! promise ( successors capable ( lift+ 8 old rock high] & /ill high] up ! fatal slope1 by (f]+ him ! et]nal fall+ ( ?is rock & successors :o w cont9ually be annihilat$ & endlessly be replac$ by o!rs80 ,! rock is ! p]sonal life4 ,on ?is !ory1 h[ev] high ! rock be pu%$1 x always is de/9$ to fall back to ! same dep?1 z l[ z if x _h nev] be5 pu%$ up hill at all4 ,we refuse to reconcile a _w conta9+ real ends & purposes )9 x ) su* a game1 va/ & mis]able1 9 :i* no actor plays = 8 own sake1 & all ! false w9n]s lose all _! ga9s by be+ oblig$ to leave ! p>ty :ile ! play goes on = ev]4 ,?is is to ?r[ away all individual wor?1 ! value ( all p]sonal "w & ef=t1 to decl>e individuality a %am1 & to embrace fatality4 ,x is ?is mis*iev\s ,pan!ism :i* is ! curse ( _m religions & _m philosophies4 ,aga9/ x ,r5\vi] wages a ceaseless w>f>e4 ,! individuals1 he ass]ts exi/ bo? = _! own sake & wor?1 also = ! sake & welf>e ( o!rs4 ,9 ! p]son1 ! law ( f9ality f9ds its highe/ expression4 ,p]sonality is ( supreme & unique value4 ,?is be+ s1 x becomes a necess>y po/ulate ( our philosophy1 if we really believe 9 ! significance ( p]sonalities & 9 progress 7:i* ,r5\vi] consid]s to h no mean+ ap>t f !m71 to conclude t dea? is b an ev5t 9 ! c>e] ( ^! p]sonalities4 ,!y are p]petuat$ beyond dea?4 ,= ,r5\vi]1 z = ,kant1 ! *ief argum5ts = survival are bas$ on consid]ations ( a moral "*1 ^u ! dem&s ( ! moral ideal = self- realisation1 = ! atta9m5t ( hol9ess or1 m prop]ly1 8:ol5ess40 ,?is progress c only be made possible by ! cont9u$ exi/5ce aft] bodily dea? ( ! id5tical p]sonality1 unique & ( et]nal wor? 9 ! s*eme ( ?+s1 capable ( fur!r developm5t ?an is possible amid ! conditions ( life z we "k x4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 pres5t to ourselves ,immortality z giv5 by ! developm5t ( appe>ances 9 ?is _w ( ph5om5a1 "u ! g5]al laws ) :i* we are acqua9t$ to-day1 ?us correct+ ! me?od ( ,kant1 :o plac$ ,immortality 9 a n\m5al _w4 ,! salvation ( a philosoph] %\ld n be ( su* a k9d4 ,we mu/ treat ,immortality z a ,law1 n z a miracle4 ,! ?9k] :o accepts ! latt] view quits ! realm ( sci5ce--t is1 ( exp]i5ce & reason--to e/abli% a my/ic ord] 9 contradiction ) ! laws ( nature4 ,! appeal to ! 8sup]natural0 is ! d5ial ( nature1 & ! appellant ru9s 8 own case by 8 appeal4 ,if ,immortality is a fact1 x mu/ be consid]$ rationally4 ,is ,dea?--t is1 ! de/ruction ( individuals z su*1 or ! annihilation ( p]sonalities--a reality8 ,r5\vi] rem9ds ^? :o je] at ! doctr9e ( ,immortality t 8! reality ( dea? 7z s def9$7 has n be51 & _c be1 prov$40 ,our consid]ations mu/ ( necessity be hypo!tical1 b !y c be wor?y ( rational be+s4 ,we mu/ !n keep our hopes & inve/igations )9 ! realm ( ! univ]se & n seek to place our hope ( immortality 9 a region :]e no?+ exi/s1 8n ev5 an e!r to support ! w+s ( our hope40 ,r5\vi]'s g5]al consid]ations l$ him to view all individuals z hav+ a de/9y 9 :i* _! individuality %\ld be cons]v$ & develop$4 ,:5 we turn 9 p>ticul> to man1 ^! po9ts are to be se5 9 full] light4 ,! in/9ctive belief 9 ,immortality is b\nd up ) 8 nature z a ?9k+ be+ :o is capable ( sett+ up1 & ( /riv+ aft]1 ends4 ,?is cont9ual /riv+ is a m>k$ *>act]i/ic ( all human life1 a c\nt+ oneself n to h atta9$1 a miss+ ( ! m>k4 ,! human consci\sness prote/s aga9/ annihilation4 ,at times ?is is v ke5ly express$4 8,at ! p]iod ( ! great aspirations ( ! he>t1 ! ec/asy ( noble passions is accompani$ by ! conviction ( ,immortality4 ,life at its highe/1 realis+ its ri*e/ p]sonality1 prote/s1 9 virtue ( its own wor?1 & 9 ! "n ( ! dep?s ( p[] x /ill feels lat5t 9 itself1 aga9/ ! m5ace ( annihilation40#ab ,x cries out ) its unconqu]able s\l3 8,give me ! glory ( go+ on & n to die60 #ab ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bdi4 ,r5\vi] f9ds a fur!r witness 9 ! te/imony ( ,love--t is to say1 9 nature itself arriv$ at ! consci\sness ( t passion 9 virtue ( :i* x exi/s & assur+ itself by ?is passion1 ( ! p[] to surm\nt all ^! %ort-com+s & failures4 ,love ca/e? out fe>1 ! dread ( annihilation1 & %[s itself 8/rong] ?an dea?40 ,hope & ,love unite 9 /r5g!n+ ! initial belief 9 ,immortality & ! 8w to survive40 ,r5\vi] admits t ?is is a priori reason+1 & spe$ily a po/]iori argum5ts c be br\ght up z mighty batt]+-rams aga9/ ! =tress ( immortal life1 b al?\gh !y mav %ake its walls1 !y are unable to de/roy ! citadel4 ,no?+ c demon/rate ! impossibility ( future exi/5ce1 :]eas ! :ole weight ( ! moral law & ! teleological elem5ts at "w 9 ! univ]se are1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 9 fav\r ( su* a belief4 ,morality1 l e o!r sci5ce1 is entitl$ to1 nay oblig$ to1 employ ! hypo!sis ( h>mony4 ,n[ 9 ?is connection ! hypo!sis ( h>mony 7or1 z ,kant /yl$ x1 ! concurr5ce ( happ9ess & virtue necess>y to a conception ( ord]7 f9ds re9=cem5t f ! consid]ation ( ! mean+ & significance ( fre$om4 ,= ! actual end or purpose ( fre$om is n simply ! atta9m5t ( p]fection1 b r ! possibility ( progress4 ,immortality becomes a necess>y po/ulate1 re9=c$ by in/9ct1 reason1 morality1 by ! fact ( fre$om1 & ! notion ( progress4 ,fur!r1 ,r5\vi] feels t if we posit dea? z ! end ( all we !reby give an absolute victory to physical evil 9 ! univ]se4 ,! po/ulate ( ,immortality has a c]ta9 dignity & wor?4 ,! discussion ( future life mu/1 h[ev]1 be kept )9 ! possibilities ( law & ph5om5a4 ,religi\s views1 su* z ^? ( ,prie/ley1 by _! appeal to ! miracul\s debase ! notion ( ,immortality itself4 ,talk ( an immortal ess5ce1 & a mortal ess5ce is mean+less1 = unless ! same id5tical p]son1 ) 8 unique "* & memory1 p]si/s1 !n our conception ( immortality is ( little or no value4 ,! idea ( an inde/ructible spiritual sub/ance is n any bett] or m acceptable4 ,our notion ( a future life mu/ be bas$ ^u ! inh]5t & inali5able rights ( ! moral p]son to p]si/5ce & to *ances ( fur!r developm5t or progress4 ,al?\gh we mu/ bew>e ( los+ ourselves 9 va9 speculations1 :i* really empty our ?\ght ( all its cont5t1 ,r5\vi] claims t we are q entitl$ to lay d[n hypo!ses4 ,! same g5]al laws :i* we see 9 op]ation & :i* h br\ght ! univ]se & ! be+s 9 x to ! /age ( developm5t 9 :i* !y n[ are may1 )\t contradiction1 be conceiv$ z op]at+ 9 fur!r developm5ts aft] ! *ange we call bodily dea?4 ,!re is no incongruity 9 conceiv+ ! self-same p]sonality cont9u+ 9 a second & diff]5t organism4 ,r5\vi] cites ! case ( ! grub & ! butt]fly & o!r metamorphoses4 ,9 man himself he po9ts to organic crises1 :i* give ! organism a v diff]5t "* & effect a radical *ange 9 its con/itution4 ,= example1 !re is ! critical exit f ! "m's womb1 involv+ ! *ange f a be+ liv+ 9 an enclosure to t ( an indep5d5t creature4 ,:5 once ! crisis ( ! fir/ brea? be pass$ ! organism />ts ^u ano!r life4 ,!re are o!r crises1 z1 = in/ance1 ! radical *anges :i* op]ate 9 bo? sexes at ! /age ( pub]ty4 ,j z ! p]sonality p]si/s 9 its id5tity ?r\gh all ^! *anges1 may x n pass ?r\gh t ( bodily dea?8 ,! ,/oics believ$ 9 a cosmic resurrection4 ,sub/itut+ ! idea ( progress = _! view ( a new beg9n+1 ,r5\vi] claims t we may atta9 ! hypo!sis t all human hi/ory is b a fragm5t 9 a developm5t incomp>ably great] & gr&]4 ,aga91 we may conceive ( life 9 two worlds co-exi/+1 inde$ int]p5etrat+1 s t ! dead are n gone f> f u into "s remote heav54 ,b1 :atev] =m we give to our hypo!sis reg>d+ progress into ano!r exi/5ce beyond ?is pres5t "o1 ,r5\vi] does n easily all[ u to =get t x mu/ be bas$ ^u ! significance ( fre$om1 progress & p]sonality support$ by moral consid]ations4 ,ev5 ?is progress is n gu>ante$1 & ev5 if x %\ld be ! a*ievem5t ( "s spirits !re is no pro( t x is univ]sal4 ,our de/9y1 he f9ally rem9ds u1 lies 9 our own h&s1 = progress "h means an increas$ capacity = progress lat]1 :ile spiritual & moral indiff]5ce w result f9ally1 & inde$1 necess>ily1 9 annihilation4 ,"h1 z s (t5 9 8 "w1 ,r5\vi] puts moral argum5ts & appeals 9 ! =efront ( 8 ?\ght4 ,progress 9 relation to humanity's life on e>? drew f him an appeal = ! e/abli%m5t ( ju/ice3 progress 9 a fur!r _w implies equally a moral appeal4 ,our duty is to keep ! ideal ( progress socially & individually ev] be=e u1 & to be wor?y ( immortality if x be a fact1 r ?an to lose ourselves 9 ! mi/ak5 piety ( 8o!r- worldl9ess40 ,ab\t nei!r progress c we be dogmatic2 x is n assur$1 ,r5\vi] has %[n1 & we mu/ "w = x by ! "r use ( our fre$om1 our intellig5ce & our w4 ,,iii ,no ?9k] discuss$ ! problem ( progress ) great] en]gy or p5etration ?an ,r5\vi]4 ,! new spirituali/ gr\p1 h[ev]1 develop$ c]ta9 views aris+ f ! "q ( cont+5cy1 or ! relation ( fre$om to progress4 ,^! ?9k]s 7 conc]n$ m ) psy*ological & metaphysical "w1 & ) ! exception ( ,f\ille & ,guyau1 !y wrote little :i* bore directly ^u ! problem ( progress4 ,_m ( _! ideas1 h[ev]1 h an indirect be>+ ^u important po9ts at issue4 ,9 ,ravaisson1 ,la*eli] & ,b\tr\x1 we f9d ! "q ( teleology pres5t$1 & also t ( ! opposition ( _s & matt]4 ,f ! outset ! new spiritualism _h to wre/le ) two difficulties inh]5t 9 ! ?\ght ( ,ravaisson4 ,^! 71 fir/ly1 ! reconciliation ( ! fre$om & spontaneity ( ! _s ) ! op]ations ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce or teleology ( "s k9d2 &1 secondly1 ! dualism assum$ 9 ! w>f>e ( _s & matt]1 al?\gh _s 0 held to be sup]ior & ant]ior to matt]4 ,?is la/ involv$ a complication = any doctr9e ( progress1 z x requir$ a primitive 8fall0 to acc\nt = matt]1 ev5 a fall ( ! ,deity himself4 ,?is ,ravaisson himself admits1 & he ?9ks t 9 creat+ ! _w ,god _h to sacrifice "s ( 8 own be+4 ,9 ?is case 8progress0 is set ov] aga9/ a transc5d5tal exi/5ce1 & is b ! reawak5+ ( :at once exi/$ 9 ,god1 & 9 a s5se n[ & et]nally exi/s4 ,progress !re is1 claims ,ravaisson1 t[>ds tru? & beauty & goodness4 ,?is is ! op]ation ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce act+ by attract+ m5 freely to ^! ideals1 & z ^! are symbols ( ,god himself1 progress is ! return ( ! _s ?r\gh self-consci\s p]sonalities to ! full] realisation ( h>mony1 beauty & love--t is1 to ! glory ( ,god1 :o has ev] be51 n[ is1 & ev] %all be1 p]fect beauty1 goodness & love4 ,?us1 al?\gh f a temporal & f9ite /&po9t ,ravaisson c speak ( progress1 x is d\btful if he is ju/ifi$ 9 do+ s ultimately1 sub specie t]nitatis4 ,to solve ! problem 9 ! way he pres5ts x1 "o w\ld ne$ to "k m ab\t ! ultimate value & significance ( ! p]sonalities !mselves1 & _! de/9y 9 relation to ! ,div9ity :o is1 z he claims1 p]fect h>mony1 beauty & love4 ,x 0 ?is po9t1 s de> to an uphold] ( p]sonality1 :i* _h l$ ,r5\vi] to cont9ue 8 discussion ( progress 9 relation to hi/ory z g5]ally und]/ood1 until x embrac$ a wid] field ( et]nal de/9y1 & to consid] ! idea ( a future life z aris+ f1 & bas$ ^u1 ! conception ( progress4 ,x is ?is same po9t :i* lat] p]plexes ,b]gson1 :5 he recognises ?is self-consci\s p]sonality z ! ultimate developm5t ( ! volution cratrice1 & s con/itut+ 9 a s5se ! goal ( ! _s1 al?\gh he is c>eful to /ate t !re is no f9alism involv$ at all4 ,ravaisson /&s = ?is f9alism1 h[ev]1 9 claim+ t !re are ends4 ,he does n see h[ o!rwise we c\ld speak ( progress1 z we %\ld h no crit]ion1 no t]m9us ad quem2 all w\ld be simply process1 n progress4 8,dta*em5t de ,dieu1 ret\r ,dieu1 clture du gr& c]cle cosmique1 re/itution de l'univ]sel quilibre1 telle e/ l'hi/oire du monde40 ,su* is ,ravaisson's doctr9e1 mu* ( :i* is ak9 to1 & inde$ re-e*oes1 mu* 9 ,*ri/ian !ology f ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ) 8 idea ( an et]nal & re/less movem5t ( return to ! div9ity1 to ! ,we/m9/] div9es 9 _! answ] to ! important qu]y ab\t ! *ief end ( man1 :i* !y consid]$ to be n only to glorify ,god b to enjoy ,him = ev]4 ,?is la/ & r /range phrase only seems to h significance if we conceive1 9 ,ravaisson's mann]1 ( beauty1 tru? & goodness z expressions or manife/ations ( ! ,div9ity to :om ! _w-process may freely t5d4 ,= ,la*eli] ! univ]sal process pres5ts a triple aspect1 me*anism :i* is c\pl$ ) f9alism & ) fre$om4 ,^! ?ree pr9ciples are 9 action simultane\sly 9 ! _w & 9 ! individual4 ,ea* ( u is at once matt]1 liv+ s\l & p]sonality--t is1 necessity1 f9ality & fre$om4 ,! laws ( ! univ]se1 s f> f be+ express$ entirely by me*anical =mulae1 c only be express$1 z ,ravaisson _h claim$1 by an approa* to h>mony & beauty1 n 9 t]ms ( logic or geometry4 ,all ?is involves a real progress1 a creativ5ess1 :i* diff]s f ,ravaisson's return1 z x 71 to ! bosom ( ,god4 ,b\tr\x comb9es ! views ( ,ravaisson & ,la*eli] by insi/+ on fre$om & cont+5cy1 b ma9ta9+ at ! same "t a teleological doctr9e4 ,already 9 discuss+ 8 conception ( fre$om we h ref]r$ to 8 metaphor ( ! sailors 9 ! %ip4 ,8 doctr9e ( cont+5cy is directly oppos$ to any rigid pre-orda9$ plan ( reality or progress1 b x does n prev5t ! _s f a creative teleology1 ! =mation ( a plan z x advances4 ,?is is precisely1 is x n1 ! comb9ation ( free action & ( teleology :i* we f9d 9 our own lives8 ,b\tr\x is ?us able to side ) ,ravaisson 9 8 claim to see t5d5cies to beauty & tru? & goodness1 ! fruits ( ! _s1 :i* x creates & to :i* x draws u1 :ile at ! same "t he ma9ta9s fre$om 9 a mann] q z emphatic z ,la*eli]4 ,he is c>eful to rem9d u t 8n all developm5ts are t[>ds p]fection40#ac ,9 p>ticul> he dislikes ! type ( social !ory or ( sociology :i* und]values ! p]sonal life4#ad #ac ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #abg4 #ad ,?us he agrees ) ,r5\vi]'s objection to ,comte's view & to ,communism4 ,simil> 9 _m ways to ! ideas ( ,ravaisson & ( ,b\tr\x are ^? express$ by ,blondel4 ,he is conc]n$ deeply ) ! problem ( ,god & progress1 :i* arises out ( 8 view ( ! ,deity z imman5t & z transc5d5t4 ,he is q ,b]gsonian 9 8 /atem5t t ,god creates ,himself 9 u1 b he qualifies ?is by ask+ ! significant "q1 8,if he does n ,,exi/ h[ c ,he create ,himself 9 u40 ,?is br+s u back to ,ravaisson's view4 ,o!r rem>ks ( ,blondel1 h[ev]1 recall ! doctr9e ( ,va*]ot & ( ,r5an1 t ,god is ! ideal to :i* we are ev] /riv+4 8,x is a necessity t we %\ld be mov+ on1 = ,he is always beyond40 ,all action is an advance1 a progress ?r\gh ! realm ( mat]iali/ic det]m9ism to ! self-consci\s p]sonality 9 man1 b x is f a transc5d5t teleology1 a ,div9e ,provid5ce1 t ?is action proce$s4 ,?is is ! l9e ( ?\ght pursu$ by ,f\ille1 :o 9 _m ( 8 writ+s gives consid]able att5tion to ! doctr9es ( progress4 ,x may be d\bt$1 h[ev] if he ev] surpass$ ! pages 9 8 ,lib]t et ,dt]m9isme & ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces1 :i* deal ) ?is po9t4 ,^! are ! be/ expressions ( 8 philosophy1 & ,f\ille repeat$ himself a great deal4 ,we might add1 h[ev]1 8 ,socialism & 8 book on ,l',av5ir de la ,mtaphysique4 ,we h obs]v$ ! importance atta*$ by ,comte to 8 new sci5ce ( sociology4 ,f\ille endeav\rs to give to x a metaphysical significance ) :i* ,comte did n conc]n himself4 ,he sugge/s 9 8 volume on ,la ,sci5ce sociale contempora9e t z biology & sociology are closely relat$1 ! laws common to !m may h a cosmic significance4 ,is ! univ]se1 he asks1 any?+ m ?an a va/ society 9 process ( =mation1 a va/ sy/em ( consci\s1 /riv+ atoms8 ,social sci5ce :i* ,f\ille looks ^u1 z did ,comte1 z con/itut+ ! cr[n ( human k1 may (f] u1 he ?9ks1 ! secret ( univ]sal life1 & %[ u ! _w z ! great society 9 process ( developm5t1 err+ "h & blund]+ !re 9 an ef=t to rise above ! sph]e ( physical det]m9ism & mat]ialism to a sph]e :]e ju/ice %all be supreme1 & bro!rhood take ! place ( antagonism1 gre$ & w>4 ,! p[] at ! he>t ( ?+s1 :i* is always ready to manife/ itself 9 ! human consci\sness :5 x c1 might be express$1 says ,f\ille1 9 "o ^w z 8sociability40 ,life 9 its social aspect displays a conspiration to a common end4 ,! life ( a community resembles a highly evolv$ organism 9 _m respects1 z ,f\ille %[s2 b al?\gh he ?us p>tially adopts ! biological & positivi/ view ( ! sociologi/s1 ,f\ille does n ov]look ! ideali/ic conceptions ( ,r5\vi] & 8 plea = social ju/ice4 ,he r emphasises ?is plea1 & takes ! opportunity to po9t out t x repres5ts ! be/ political ?\ght ( 8 c\ntry1 be+ f\nd$ on ! doctr9e ( ! contrat social ( ,r\sseau1 ( :i* social !ory x is a cle> & mod]n int]pretation4 ,we may take ! opportunity af=d$ "h by ,f\ille's m5tion ( sociology1 9 :i* he 0 s ke5ly int]e/$1 to obs]ve t ! positivi/ t5d5cy to emphasise an indef9ite progress rema9$ ) mo/ ( ! sociologi/s & "s ( ! hi/orians4 ,x is se5 9 ! two fam\s sociological works ( ,t>de & ,durkheim respectively1 ,les ,lois de l',imitation & ,la ,division du ,travail social4 ,two writ]s on hi/ory des]ve m5tion z illu/rat+ ! same t5d5cy3 ,lacombe1 ^: "w ,de l',hi/oire considre comme ,sci5ce 7#ahid7 0 v positivi/ 9 outlook1 & ,xnopol4 ,?is la/ writ]1 treat+ hi/ory 9 #ahii 9 8 ,pr9cipes fondam5taux de l',hi/oire1#ae di/+ui%$ cause 9 hi/ory f causality 9 sci5ce1 & %[$ t :ite ! latt] leads to ! =mation ( g5]al laws ! =m] does n4 ,hi/ory has no laws1 = x is succession b nev] repetition4 ,mu* ( 8 book1 h[ev]1 reflects ! naturalism & positivism :i* is a feature ( ! sociological writ]s4#af #ae ,?is "w1 revis$ & consid]ably augm5t$1 0 re-issu$ 9 #aije ) ! new title1 ,la ,?orie de l',hi/oire4 #af ,x 0 ?is :i* made ,en\vi] criticise sociology4 ,he disagre$ ) its pr9ciples almo/ entirely4 ,on ?is1 see 8 notes to 8,la ,ju/ice10 ,"p ,,vii4 ( ,la ,n\velle ,monadogie1 pp4 #ebg-ecj4 ,x 0 8 doctr9e ( ides-=ces & its ess5tial spiritualism or idealism :i* di/+ui%$ ,f\ille's attitude f t ( ^! sociologi/s :o 7 8 contempor>ies4 ,x 0 ! basis1 too1 ( 8 tr5*ant criticisms ( socialism1 p>ticul>ly its ,m>xian =ms4 ,f\ille agrees ) ,comte's doctr9e t speculation or ?\ght is ! *ief factor & prime mov] 9 social *ange4 ,= ,f\ille ! idea is always a =ce2 & x is1 9 ?is connection1 ! supreme =ce4 ,! hi/ory ( action c only be und]/ood1 he ass]ts1 9 relation to ! hi/ory ( ideas4 ,?is is ! c5tral gospel ( ! volutionnisme des ides-=ces4 ,! m5tal or spiritual is ! important factor4 ,?is he opposes to ! ,m>xian doctr9e ( economic det]m9ism4 ,w is1 he claims a great] reality ?an brute =ces1 & 9 w lies ! ess5ce ( ! human _s4 ,x is a w1 h[ev]1 :i* is b\nd up ) reason & self-consci\sness1 & :i* is progressive 9 "*4 ,summ+ up 8 "w1 ,hi/oire gnrale de la ,philosophie1 ,f\ille ref]s 9 8 ,conclusion to ! idea ( progress z hav+ become ! dom9ant note 9 philosophy4 ,he looks ^u ! hi/ory ( philosophy z1 9 "s measure1 witness to ?is4 ,above ! ebb & fl[ ( ! v>i$ sy/ems & ideas :i* ! ages h produc$ he sees an advance accompli%$ 9 ! direction to :i* humanity is t5d+--p]fect k ( itself or collective self-consci\sness & p]fect self- possession4 ,?is type ( progress is n to be equat$ ) sci5tific progress4 ,he po9ts out t 9 ! developm5t ( philosophy1 :i* is t ( human reflection itself1 two *>act]i/ics appe>4 ,! di/9ction ( two k9ds or aspects ( tru? is se5 9 philosophy2 "o section1 deal+ ) logic1 psy*ology1 ae/hetic & appli$ e?ics1 or sociology1 approa*es to a sci5tific "* ( demon/rability1 :ile ! o!r section1 :i* con/itutes philosophy 9 ! /rict s5se ( metaphysic1 deals ) ultimate que/ions n capable ( pro( b dem&+ a rational fai?4 ,obvi\sly ! same k9d ( progress _c be f\nd 9 ea* ( ^! sections4 ,?is mu/ be realis$ :5 progress 9 k is spok5 ab\t4 ,he sugge/s1 z illu/rative ( progress ev5 9 ! speculative realm1 ! fact t humanity is sl[ly purify+ its conception ( ,god--a po9t = fur!r notice 9 our la/ *apt]4 ,h[ev] mu* ,f\ille is conc]n$ ) e/abli%+2 a case = progress 9 k1 x is cle> t 8 ma9 /ress is on ! progress 9 self-consci\sness or t self- det]m9ation :i* is fre$om4 ,?is fre$om c only gr[ z man consci\sly realises x himself4 ,x is an ide-=ce1 & has aga9/ x all ! =ces ( fatalism & ( egoism4 ,= ,f\ille q explicitly connects 8 doctr9e ( fre$om ) t ( altruism4 ,! real fre$om & ! real progress are "o1 he claims1 s9ce !y bo? are to be realis$ only 9 ! increas+ p[] ( dis9t]e/$ness & love4 ,he believes 9 ! possibility ( a free progress4 ,fatality is really egoism1 or produces x4 ,f\ille has a r cle> optimism1 = he f9ds 9 ! developm5t ( real fre$om a movem5t :i* w involve a moral & social union ( mank9d4 ,! good- w is m truly human nature ?an egoism & selfi%ness4 ,^! vices1 he ma9ta9s 9 8 ,ide mod]ne du ,droit1#ag are l>gely a product ( unsatisfi$ physical wants4 ,! ideal ( ! good-w is n a contradiction ( human nature1 because1 he ass]ts1 t nature desires & wills its good4 ,m /rik+ly1 he /ates t ! human w t5ds ultimately n to conflict b to co-op]ation z x becomes enlight5$ & univ]salis$4 ,he disagrees ) ! pessimi/s & upholds a comp>atively *e]ful view ( human nature4 ,egoism is mu* less deeply root$ ?an sympa?y1 & !re=e1 he says1 w> & /rife are transitory features ( human developm5t4 ,"o contra/s ! views ( ,ta9e & ,r5\vi] ) ?is1 & feels t man's hi/ory has be51 z f> z we "k x1 entirely ( ?is 8transitory0 nature1 & is long likely to be s4 #ag ,l',ide mod]ne du ,droit1 ,livre ,,iv4 ,f\ille's optimism seems to be ov]drawn ma9ly because ( 8 doctr9e ( ! ide-=ce4 ,he exagg]ates ! response :i* human nature is likely to make to ! ideal good4 ,ev5 if x be lift$ up1 x is n likely to draw all m5 to x4 ,yet ,f\ille's social & e?ical doctr9es /& entirely ^u ?is f\ndation4 ,!y are valuable views1 & ,f\ille is nev] bett] ?an :5 he is exhort+ 8 fell[s to act ^u ! ideas ( fre$om1 ( ju/ice1 ( love & bro!rhood4 ,he is "r 9 8 insi/5ce ^u humanity's p[] to create good- w1 to develop a new ord]4 ,= ! good man1 he says1 fatality & egoism are ob/acles to be ov]come ,believ+ 9 fre$om & 9 sympa?y1 he acts to o!rs 9 a _s ( fre$om & love4 ,by 8 v belief 9 univ]sal good-w among m51 he assi/s l>gely 9 creat+ x & realis+ x 9 ! _w4#ah #ah ,conclusion to ,lib]t et ,dt]m9isme4 ,b did n ,f\ille1 "o asks1 ov]rate ! numb] ( good m5 7z good 9 8 s5se71 or r did he n exagg]ate ! capacities ( human nature to respond to ! ideal :i* he pres5ts8 ,mu* ( 8 confid5ce 9 moral & social progress f9ds its explanation "h4 ,8 /ep-son1 ,guyau1 0 n q s optimi/ic1 al?\gh he believ$ 9 a progress t[>ds 8sociability0 & he adopt$ _m ( ! doctr9es ( ! philosphie des ides-=ces4 ,he attacks *e]ful optimism 9 8 ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 :]e he rem>ks#ai t an absolute !ory ( optimism is really an immoral !ory1 = x involves ! negation ( progress 9 ! /rict & true s5se4 ,?is is because1 :5 x dom9ates ! m9d1 x produces a feel+ ( entire satisfaction & cont5tm5t ) ! exi/+ reality1 result+ 9 resignation & acceptance (1 if n an actual wor%ip (1 ! /atus quo4 ,9 its utt] ob$i5ce to all 8p[]s t be10 ! notions ( "r & ( duty are dimm$1 if n lo/4 ,a def9itely pessimi/ic view ( ! univ]se w\ld1 he sugge/s1 be 9 _m respects bett] & m productive ( good ?an an outrage\s optimism4 ,grant+ t x is a wret*$ /ate 9 :i* a man sees all ?+s black1 x is pref]able1 ,guyau ?9ks1 to t 9 :i* all ?+s appe> rosy or blue4 #ai ,esquisse d'une ,morale1 p4 #aj4 ,guyau concludes 8 ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction by rem>k+3 8,we are1 z x 71 on ! ,levia?an1 f :i* a wave has torn ! rudd] & a bla/ ( w9d c>ri$ away ! ma9ma/4 ,x is lo/ 9 ! ocean z our e>? is lo/ 9 space4 ,x floats ?us at r&om1 driv5 by ! tempe/1 l a huge d]elict1 yet ) m5 ^u x1 & yet x rea*es port4 ,p]haps our e>?1 p]haps humanity1 w also rea* t unkn[n end :i* !y w h creat$ = !mselves4 ,no h& directs u2 ! rudd] has long be5 brok51 or r x has nev] exi/$2 we mu/ make x3 x is a great task1 & x is our task40 ,?is p>agraph speaks = itself z reg>ds ,guyau's attitude to ! doctr9e ( an assur$ progress4 ,9 8 notable book ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir1 ! importance ( :i* we %all note m fully :5 we deal ) ! religi\s problem 9 our la/ *apt]1 ,guyau indicates ! possibilities ( g5]al intellectual progress 9 ! future4 ,! dem& ( life itself = full] expression w involve ! decay ( cramp+ sup]/itions & ecclesia/ical dogmas4 ,! ae/hetic elem5ts w be giv5 a l>g] place1 & !re w be intellectual fre$om4 ,ke5 z ,guyau is ^u ma9ta9+ ! sociological /&po9t1 he sees ! c5tral factor 9 progress to be ! m5tal4 8,progress10 he rem>ks1#bj 8is n simply a s5sible amelioration ( life--x is also ! a*ievem5t ( a bett] intellectual =mulation ( life1 x is a triumph ( logic4 ,to progress is to atta9 to a m complete consci\sness ( "o's self & ( ! _w1 & by t v fact to a m complete inn] consi/5cy ( "o's !ory ( ! _w40 ,guyau foll[s 8 /epfa!r 9 8 view ( 8sociability0 or frat]nit 7to use ! wat*word ( ! ,revolution7 z ! desirable end at :i* we %\ld progressively aim--a conclusion :i* is b ! social application ( 8 c5tral concept ( ,life4 #bj ,introduction to ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir4 ,! next /ep 9 human progress mu/ be 9 ! direction ( human solid>ity4 ,guyau ?9ks x w arise f collective1 co-op]ative en]gy 7syn]gie sociale74 ,fur!r progress mu/ involve simultane\sly sympa?ie sociale1 a community ( fell[%ip or comrade%ip1 promot$ by education ( a true k9d1 n m]e in/ruction1 b a prop] developm5t & valuation ( ! feel+s4 ,"h art w play its "p & h its place beside sci5ce1 e?ics & philosophy 9 fur!r+ ! ideal h>mony 9 human society4 ,su* ,progress involves1 !re=e1 t ! ,beautiful mu/ be s\ght & appreciat$ no less ?an ! ,true & ! ,good1 = x is a revelation ( ! l>g] ,life ( :i* we ourselves are "p4 ,^! ideals are 9 !mselves b manife/ations ( ! ,supreme ,vitality4 ,! same spontane\s vital activity ( :i* ,guyau makes a c5tral doctr9e *>act]ises ,b]gson's view ( reality4 ,he upholds1 l ,b\tr\x1 fre$om & cont+5cy1 b he w n admit f9alism 9 any %ape or =m1 n ev5 a teleology :i* is creat$ 9 ! process ( developm5t4 ,he refuses to admit z true ( ! univ]sal process 9 nature & 9 human hi/ory :at is c]ta9ly true ( human life--! fact t we create ends z we g on liv+4 ,= ,b]gson !re is no end 9 ! univ]se1 unless x be t ( spontaneity ( life su* z ,guyau _h ma9ta9$4 ,!re is no gu>antee ( progress1 no law ( developm5t1 b endless possibility ( progress4 ,su* a view1 z we h already insi/$1 is n pessimi/ic4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 a w>n+ to facile optimism to realise t humanity1 be+ free1 may g 8dead wrong40 ,:ile ,b\tr\x ma9ta9s ) ,ravaisson t !re is at ! he>t ( ?+s a t5d5cy to sup]ior values su* z beauty1 goodness & tru?1 & :ile ,r5an assures u t ! balance ( goodness 9 ! _w is a gu>antee ( its ultimate triumph1 ,b]gson1 l ,r5\vi]1 gives u /]n w>n+ t !re is no gu>antee 9 ! nature ( ?+s t humanity %\ld n set its he>t on o!r values1 on mat]iali/ic & egoi/ic conceptions1 & g d[n 9 ru9 qu>rell+ & fight+ = ^! ?+s4 ,!re is no p[]1 he rem9ds u1 keep+ humanity "r & 9 ! l9e ( desirable progress4 ,all is *ange1 b t is n to say t all *anges are desirable or progressive4 ,"h we arrive at a po9t f> remov$ f ! rosy optimism ( ! e>li] ?9k]s4 ,progress z a com=table doctr9e1 confid5tly accept$ & dogmatically ass]t$1 no long] holds gr\nd2 x is se5 to be q unt5able4 ,9 ,b]gson ! difficulty :i* besets ,ravaisson reappe>s m m>k$ly--namely1 ! relation ( _s & matt] to "o ano!r1 & to ! p[] at ! he>t ( ?+s1 :i*1 accord+ to ,b]gson himself1 is a spiritual pr9ciple4 ,"h we seem =c$ to admit ,ravaisson's view ( a 8fall0 or1 z ! !ologians w\ld say1 a 8,k5osis0 ( ! deity 9 ord] to create ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,yet 9 ! processes ( nature we see _s hav+ to fight aga9/ matt]1 & ( ?is w>f>e ,b]gson makes a great po9t4 ,^! consid]ations lead to discussions :i* ,b]gson has n t\*$ ^u z yet4 ,he does n foll[ ,ravaisson & ,b\tr\x into ! realm ( !ological ideas4 ,if he did he might h to make admissions :i* w\ld compromise1 or at lea/ modify1 o!r doctr9es express$ by him4 ,he w h none ( ,hegel or ( ! ,absolute ,idealism :i* sees ! _w process z a developm5t ( a ,div9e ,idea4 ,x is new & x is creation2 !re is no repetition4 ,ev5 ,god himself se fait 9 ! process1 & x may be1 sugge/s ,b]gson1 t love is ! secret ( ! univ]se4 ,if s we may well ask ) ,blondel1 8,if ,god se fait 9 ! process1 !n does he n already exi/ &1 9 a s5se1 ! process ) him80 ,in/ead1 h[ev]1 ( rev]t+ to ,ravaisson's view ( ! :ole affair be+ a se>* =1 & return to ,god1 ,b]gson claims t ! developm5t is a purely cont+5t "o1 9 :i* a sup]-consci\sness develops by exp]im5t & error4 ,b]gson's ,god1 if he may be s-call$1 is n s mu* a ,creator1 b a p[] creative ( creators--t is1 human p]sonalities capable ( free action4 ,! ,deity is imman5t 9 man1 &1 l man1 is ignorant ( ! tr5d ( ! :ole process4 ,! univ]se1 accord+ to ,b]gson1 is a v haphaz>d affair1 9 :i* ! only p]man5ce is *ange4 ,!re is no goal1 & progress has little mean+ if x be only & m]ely fur!r *ange1 :i* may be equally regress r ?an progress4 ,to live is n m]ely to *ange1 b to triumph ov] *ange to set up "s values z ( absolute wor?1 & to aim at realis+ & fur!r+ ^!4 ,ap>t f "s philosophy ( values ! conception ( progress has little mean+4 ,int]e/+ discussions ( v>i\s aspects ( ! problem are to be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ! sociologi/ we h m5tion$1 ,durkheim1 p>ticul>ly ,la ,division du ,travail sociale1 ,le ,suicide & ,les ,=mes lm5taires de la ,vie religieuse4 ,!re is an int]e/+ volume by ,web]1 entitl$ ,le ,ry?me du ,progres1 & !re are ! num]\s books ( ,dr4 ,gu/ave ,le ,bon4 ,al?\gh he is n /rictly a philosoph] 9 ! academic or pr(essional s5se1 & 8 "w belongs to lit]ature r ?an to ! philosophy ( ! p]iod1 we _c help call+ att5tion briefly "h1 at ! conclusion ( ?is *apt]1 to ! g5ial pessimism ( ,b]gson's great lit]>y contempor>y1 ,anatole ,france1 ! fam\s satiri/ ( our age4 ,8 irony on que/ions l t ( progress is v m>k$ 9 ,l',ile des ,p5gu9s & 9 ,jrme ,coign>d4 ,a rem>k f "o ( 8 works1 ?is latt]1 w suffici5tly illu/rate 8 view on progress4 8,i take little int]e/10 rem>ks 8 "*1 ! ,abb ,coign>d1 89 :at is done 9 ! ,k+'s ,cab9et1 = ,i notice t ! c\rse ( life is 9 no way *ang$1 & aft] re=ms m5 are z be=e1 selfi%1 av>ici\s1 c[>dly1 cruel1 /upid & furi\s by turns1 & !re is always a ne>ly ev5 numb] ( bir?s1 m>riages1 cuckolds & gall[s-birds1 9 :i* is made manife/ ! beautiful ord]+ ( our society4 ,?is condition is /able1 sir1 & no?+ c\ld %ake x1 = x is f\nd$ on human mis]y & imbecility1 & ^? are f\ndations :i* w nev] be want+40 ,! g5ial old ,abb !n goes on to rem9d sociali/ revolution>ies t new economic s*emes w n radically *ange human nature4 ,we easily see ! ills 9 hi/ory & bl9d ourselves ) optimism = ! future4 ,ev5 9 ,sorel1 ! ,syndicali/1 :o has add$ to 8 articles on ,viol5ce 7:i* appe>$ 9 #aijg 9 ! p]iodical ,le ,m\vem5t sociali/e7 a "w on ,les ,illusions du ,progrs1 we f9d ! same doctr9es ab\t ! vices ( mod]n societies1 :i* he consid]s no bett] ?an anci5t ones 9 _! morality2 !y are fill$ ) m hypocrisy1 t is all4 ,france & ,sorel only add m te/imony to ! utt] collapse ( ! old doctr9e ( assur$ & g5]al progress4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,to su* a f9al position d we come 9 foll[+ out ! developm5t ( ! idea ( progress4 ,! e>ly assurance & dogmatic confid5ce :i* m>k$ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! c5tury are foll[$ by a complete ab&onm5t ( ! idea ( a gu>ante$ or assur$ progress1 :e!r bas$ on ! op]ations ( a ,div9e ,provid5ce1 or on fai? 9 ! ultimate triumph ( reason1 or on m]ely a fatali/ic det]m9ism4 ,progress is only a possibility1 & its realisation dep5ds on #8humanity's own actions4 ,fur!r1 any m5tion ( progress 9 future mu/ n only pres5t x z q cont+5t1 b we h to reckon ) ! fact t ! idea ( progress may itself progress until x resolves itself into ano!r conception less complicat$ & less p>adoxical1 su* z 8! atta9m5t ( a new equilibrium40 ,"s ef=t mu/ be devot$ also to a valuation ( crit]ia4 ,v>i\s values h 9 ! pa/ be5 confus$ toge!r1 sci5tific1 mat]iali/ic1 h$oni/ic1 moral1 ae/hetic4 ,ultimately x seems t we %all f9d difficulty 9 settl+ ?is ap>t f ! solution (f]$ by ,r5\vi]--namely1 t true progress is n m]ely intellectual1 b moral4 ,x involves n m]ely a conque/ ( mat]ial nature b ( human nature--a self- ma/]y4 ,progress is to be measur$ n by ! a*ievem5ts ( any ari/ocracy1 intellectual or o!r1 b by ! g5]al social /atus1 & our crit]ion ( progress mu/ be ultimately t ( social ju/ice4 ,?is itself is a t]m ne$+ int]pretation1 & to ?is "q ( e?ics we n[ turn4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,e?ics ,,introduction 3 ,difficulties ( ! moral problem z pres5t$ 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury--,recognis$ z a social problem--,influ5ce ( ,comte important 9 ?is connection--,o!r influ5ces--,*ri/ianity--,kant--,! practical reason4 ,i4 ,ta9e & ,r5an--,r5an's critique ( ,*ri/ian morality--,e>ly sociali/ic views--,*ange 9 8 lat] life--,pref]s crit]ion ( beauty to t ( goodness4 ,,ii4 ,r5\vi] ! great morali/ ( our p]iod--,relation to ,kant --,8 ,sci5ce de la ,morale--,p]sonality 9 ,e?ics--,ju/ice4 ,,iii4 ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,oll-,laprune & ,rauh pass fur!r f ! ,kantian rigorism to an e?ic 9 h>mony ) ! philosophy ( ides-=ces ( life & action--,humanit>ianism ( ,f\ille & ,guyau--,ides-=ces & ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction --,rauh's doctr9es--,o!r ?9k]s4 ,,conclusion3 ,action & belief--,e?ics & ,religion4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,e?ics ,moral philosophy is probably ! mo/ difficult bran* ( ^? v>i\s discipl9es ( ! human _s summ$ up 9 ! g5]al conception ( philosophy4 ,?is difficulty is "o :i* all ! ?9k]s ( our p]iod recognis$4 ,_m ( !m1 occupi$ ) o!r problems on ! psy*ological or metaphysical side1 did n write explicitly ^u e?ics4 ,yet ! problem ( e?ics1 its place1 significance & au?ority1 is b ! o!r side ( t problem ( fre$om :i* has appe>$ ?r\gh\t ?is developm5t z c5tral & vital4 ,! e?ical consci\sness ( man has nev] be5 cont5t = long ) ! ass]tion t e?ics is a purely positive sci5ce1 al?\gh x has obvi\sly a positive side4 ,! ess5ce ( morality has be5 reg>d$ z n m]ely a description ( :at exi/s1 b :at might1 %\ld or ought to exi/4 ,e?ics is normative1 x erects or endeav\rs to outl9e a /&>d :i* is an ideal /&>d4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic ( e?ics1 & s long z ! moral consci5ce ( humanity1 individually & collectively1 does n slumb] nor die1 x w rema9 s4 ,?is conflict betwe5 ! ideal & ! real1 ! positive & normative is inde$ ! *ief s\rce ( pa9 & conflict to man1 b )\t x he w\ld cease to be human4 ,:atev] ! difficulties1 ! philosoph] :o aspires to look ^u human life z a :ole mu/ give "s int]pretation ( ?is vital aspect ( human consci\sness4 ,x is 9 ?is connection t a solution ( ! problem ( fre$om is s valuable1 = "u a purely det]m9i/ & positivi/ read+ ( life1 ! moral s5tim5ts become m]e data = an an?ropological survey1 ! hope & trag$y ( human life are replac$1 com=tably p]haps = "s1 by an int]pretation 9 :i* ! true significance ( e?ics is lo/4 ,"o ( ! out/&+ features ( ! discussion ^u e?ics 9 our p]iod is ! fact t ! social /&po9t col\rs mo/ ( ! discussion4 ,?is 0 l>gely due to ! impulse giv5 by ,comte & cont9u$ by ! sociologi/s4 ,we h already rem>k$ ! importance :i* he atta*$ to 8 new sci5ce ( society or 8sociology40 ,h[ev] mu* ! developm5t ( ?is bran* ( /udy may h disappo9t$ ! hopes ( ,comte1 x has laid a p[]ful & necess>y emphasis ^u ! solid>ity ( ! problems ( society4 ,z ,comte claim$ t psy*ology c\ld n be pr(itably /udi$ 9 ! isolat$ individual alone1 s he insi/$ t e?ics c\ld only be /udi$ ) pr(it f a social /&po9t4 ,?is 0 n =gott5 by subsequ5t ?9k]s1 ev5 by ^? :o 7 n 8 foll[]s1 & ! ma9 developm5t ( ! e?ical problem 9 our p]iod is m>k$ by an increas+ insi/5ce ^u sociability & solid>ity4 ,comte 0 able to turn ! ?\ghts ( philosoph]s away f pre-occupation ) ! isolat$ individual1 conceiv$ z a cold & calculat+ intellectual ma*9e1 a 8fiction0 :i* _h engross$ ! m9ds ( ?9k]s ( ! previ\s c5tury4 ,he 0 able also to indicate ! enorm\s "p play$ by in/9cts1 p>ticul>ly 8h]d-in/9cts10 by passion & feel+s ( social hatr$ & social sympa?y4 ,x 0 ! ext5sion ( social sympa?y ^u :i* ,comte insi/$ z ! *ief good4 ,! great defect ( ,*ri/ianity f an e?ical /&po9t 01 ,comte po9t$ out1 due to its individuali/ic e?ic4 ,to ! doctr9e ( 8sav+ "o's own s\l0 ,comte oppos$ t ( ! salvation ( humanity4 ,! social unit is n ! individual man or woman1 x is ! family4 ,9 t society :i* is n a m]e association b a union1 aris+ f common int]e/s & sympa?y1 ! individual realises himself z "p ( society4 ,! highe/ e?ical conception1 h[ev]1 arises :5 ! individual1 transc5d+ himself & 8 family1 feels & acts z a memb] ( humanity itself1 n only 9 8 public1 b also 9 8 private life4 ,9 ! idea ( humanity ,comte f9ds ! concrete =m ( t univ]sal :i* 9 ! e?ic ( ,kant 0 ! symbol ( duty itself4 ,x 0 by ?is insi/5ce on human social solid>ity t ,comte left 8 m>k ^u ! e?ical problem4 ,_m ( ! details ( social e?ics giv5 9 ! la/ ?ree l>ge volumes ( 8 "w are extremely ?\ghtful & int]e/+1 9 spite ( _! excessive optimism1 b we c only "h indicate :at is suffici5t = our purpose1 8 influ5ce ov] subsequ5t ?\ght4 ,t is summ$ up 9 ! words 8solid>ity0 & 8social /&po9t40 ,we may obs]ve t ! supreme problems 9 social e?ics ,comte reg>d$ z be+ ^? ( education or m5tal developm5t & ! 8"r to "w40#a ,he =esaw1 z did ,r5an1 t ,culture & ,economic ,ju/ice 7 ! two foci ar\nd :i* ! e?ical problems 7 to be rang$ 9 ! imm$iate future4 ,he regrett$ t ! prolet>iat 9 _! cry = ju/ice _h n suffici5t culture to obs]ve t !y !mselves are n a class ap>t1 h[ev] class-consci\s !y be4 ,!y /& solid ) ! community1 & ,comte prophesi$ t1 f9d+ ?is out soon] or lat]1 !y w\ld h to realise ! folly ( viol5t revolution4 ,only a positive culture or education ( ! democracy c\ld1 he believ$1 solve ?is social problem1 :i* is !re precisely because ! prolet>iat are n suffici5tly1 & d n feel !mselves to be1 incorporat$ 9 ! life ( ! community or ( humanity4 ,only :5 !y realise ?is w "w be ennobl$ by a feel+ ( s]vice4 ,! ,*ur* has a moral advantage "h1 9 t %e has h] organisation complete = fur!r+ ! conception ( s]vice to ,god4 ,comte realis$ ?is advantage ( religi\s morality1 b he ?\ght x w\ld come also to 8positive0 morality :5 m5 came to a conception ( s]vice = humanity ,to ?is great end1 he urg$1 our education %\ld be direct$1 & x %\ld aim1 he ?\ght1 at ! decl9e & elim9ation ( milit>ism :i*1 9 ,comte's view corresponds to ! second /age ( developm5t 7m>k$ also by !ology71 a /age to be sup]s$$ 9 man's developm5t1 by an era 9 :i* ! w>-_s w be replac$ by t ( productive s]vice p]=m$ n only p\r la patrie1 b p\r l'humanit4 #a ,comte criticis$ ! tea*+ giv5 to ! "y 9 ,france z be+ 8in/ruction0 r ?an 8education40 ,?is has frequ5tly be5 insi/$ ^u s9ce 8 "t4 ,9 view+ ! g5]al influ5ces :i* bore ^u ! /udy ( ! e?ical problem 9 our p]iod ?is /ress ^u ! social "* ( morality is supreme1 & is ! mo/ di/9ctly m>k$4 ,b 9 addition to ! sociological influ5ce !re are o!rs :i* x is bo? int]e/+ & important to note briefly4 ,!re is ! influ5ce ( traditional religi\s morality1 b\nd up ) ,*ri/ianity z pres5t$ by ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,! defici5cies ( ?is are frequ5tly br\ght out 9 ! discussion1 b 9 c]ta9 ( ! ?9k]s1 *iefly ! 8mod]ni/s10 x appe>s z an influ5ce contribut+ to a religi\s morality & z (f]+1 inde$1 ! basis ( a religion4 ,o!r writ]s1 h[ev]1 :ile reject+ ! traditional morality ( ! ,*ur*1 lay /ress ^u a humanit>ian e?ic :i* has an aff9ity to ! ideali/ic morality prea*$ by ! f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity1 a morality :i* manife/s a _s diff]5t f t :i* 8 ,*ur* has usually %[n4 ,inde$1 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! e?ical developm5t 9 our p]iod is "o ( opposition to ! ecclesia/ical & traditional /&po9t 9 e?ics4 ,!n !re is ! influ5ce ( ,kant's e?ics1 & "h aga91 al?\gh ,r5\vi] ow$ mu* to ,kant1 ! g5]al t5d5cy is to get away f ! =malism & rigorism ( 8 8categorical imp]ative40 ,! curr5t ( ,engli% ,utilit>ian e?ics appe>s z r a negative influ5ce1 & is r scorn$ :5 m5tion$4 ,! common feature is t ( ! social /&po9t1 issu+ 9 conceptions ( social ju/ice or humanit>ianism & f9d+ 9 action & life a concrete morality :i* is b ! reflection ( ! liv+ consci5ce ( mank9d creat+ itself & f9d+ 9 ! claims ( ! practical reason t ,absolute or ,ideal to :i* ! pure reason feels x _c alone atta94 ,i ,ta9e & ,r5an 7 influ5c$ by ! outlook adopt$ by ,comte4 ,x might well be said t ,ta9e 0 m /rictly positivi/ ?an ,comte4 ,9 8 view ( e?ics1 ,ta9e1 z might be expect$ f ! g5]al "* ( 8 "w & 8 philosophical attitude1 adh]es to a rigidly positivi/ & naturali/ conception4 ,he looks ^u e?ics z purely positive1 s9ce x m]ely /ates ! sci5tific conditions ( virtue & vice1 & he despairs ( alt]+ human nature or conduct4 ,?is is due almo/ entirely to 8 doctr9e ( rigid det]m9ism :i* reacts ) disa/r\s consequ5ces ^u 8 e?ical outlook4 ,?is only fur!r confirms our cont5tion t ! problem ( fre$om is ! c5tral & vital "o ( ! p]iod4 ,we h already po9t$ out ! criticism :i* ,f\ille br\ght aga9/ ,ta9e's dogmatic belief 9 det]m9ism1 z an incomplete doctr9e1 a half-tru?1 :i* involves mis*iev\s consequ5ces & p]mits ( no valuable discussion ( ! e?ical problem4 ,m int]e/+ & useful1 if we are to foll[ at all closely ! e?ical ?\ght ( our p]iod1 is x to obs]ve ! attitude adopt$ to e?ics by ,ta9e's contempor>y1 ,r5an4 ,! extreme confid5ce :i* ,r5an pr(ess$ to h 9 8sci5ce10 & inde$ 9 all intellectual pursuits1 l$ him to accord to morality r a second>y place4 8,!re are ?ree great ?+s10 he rem>ks 9 8 ,disc\rs et ,confr5ces1#b 8goodness1 beauty & tru?1 & ! greate/ ( ^! is tru?40 ,nei!r virtue1 he cont9ues1 nor art is able to exclude illusions4 ,tru? is ! repres5tation ( reality1 & 9 ?is _w ! se>* = tru? is ! mo/ s]i\s occupation ( all4 ,"o ( 8 ma9 *>ges aga9/ ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* 9 g5]al is t x has insi/$ ^u moral good to su* an ext5t z to und]value & depreciate ! o!r goods1 express$ 9 beauty & 9 tru?4 ,x has look$ ^u life f "o po9t ( view only--namely1 ! moral--& has judg$ all action by e?ical values alone1 despis+ 9 ?is way philosophy1 sci5ce1 lit]ature1 poetry1 pa9t+ & music4 ,9 its m ascetic moods x has claim$ t ^! ?+s are 8( ! devil40 ,?us ,*ri/ianity has introduc$ a vici\s di/9ction :i* has done mu* to mutilate human nature & to cramp ! :olesome expression ( ! life ( ! human _s4 ,:atev] is an expression ( _s is1 claims ,r5an1 to be look$ ^u z sacr$4 ,if su* a di/9ction z t ( sacr$ & pr(ane 7 to be drawn x %\ld be betwe5 :at app]ta9s to ! s\l & :at does n4 ,! di/9ction1 :5 made betwe5 ! e?ical & ! beautiful or true1 is disa/r\s4 #b ,disc\rs1 dat$ ,novemb] #bf?1 #ahhe4 ,r5an consid]s t ( ! two1 ! e?ical & ! beautiful1 ! latt] may be ! f9] & gr&] di/9ction1 ! =m] m]ely a species ( x4 ,! moral1 he ?9ks1 w give place to ! beautiful4 8,be=e any action10 he himself says 9 ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 8,i pref] to ask myself1 n :e!r x be good or bad1 b :e!r x be beautiful or ugly1 & ,i feel t ,i h 9 ?is an excell5t crit]ion40 ,morality1 he fur!r insi/s1 has be5 conceiv$ up to n[ 9 f> too rigid a mann] z ob$i5ce to a law1 z a w>f>e & /rife betwe5 oppos+ laws4 ,b ! really virtu\s man is an arti/ :o is creat+ beauty1 ! beauty ( "*1 & is fa%ion+ x out ( 8 human nature1 z ! sculptor fa%ions a /atue out ( m>ble or a musician composes a melody f s\nds4 ,nei!r ! sculptor nor ! musician feels t he is obey+ a law4 ,he is express+ & creat+ beauty4 ,ano!r criticism :i* ,r5an br+s aga9/ ! e?ic ( ,*ri/ianity is its insi/5ce ^u humility z a virtue4 ,he sees no?+ virtu\s 9 x z x is g5]ally int]pret$3 q rightly he suspects x ( hypocritically cov]+ a gross pride1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,ph>isees4 ,he gives a place to hone/ asceticism :i* has its nobility1 ev5 al?\gh x be a n>r[1 misconceiv$ ideal4 ,mu* nobl] is x1 he ?9ks1 ?an ! type ( life :i* has only "o object1 gett+ a =tune4 ,?is leads him to ano!r rem>k on ! moral hypocrisy ( s _m pr(ess$ly religi\s folk4 ,hav+ an easy sub/ance & possess+ already a dec5t %>e ( ?is _w's goods1 !y devote all _! en]gies to ! pursuit ( pleasure or ( fur!r sup]flu\s weal?4 ,f ?is position !y criticise ! work] :o endeav\rs to improve 8 lot1 & h ! audacity to tell him 9 pi\s fa%ion t he mu/ n be mat]iali/ic1 & mu/ n set 8 he>t on ?is _w's goods4 ,x w\ld be laughable 7 x n s tragic4 ,! :ole "q ( ! relativity ( ! two positions is ov]look$1 ! :ole e?ic ( ! bus9ess ignor$4 ,mat]ial welf>e is good & valuable1 says ,r5an1 9 s f> z x frees man's _s f mean & wret*$ dep5d5ce & a cramp$ life :i* injures developm5t1 physical & spiritual4 ,^! goods are a means to an end4 ,:51 !re=e1 a man1 already com=tably end[$1 amasses m & m = its own sake1 he commits bo? a pr(ane & immoral act4 ,b :5 a work] endeav\rs to augm5t 8 recomp5se = 8 lab\r1 he is b dem&+ 8:at is ! condition ( 8 r$emption4 ,he is p]=m+ a virtu\s action40#c #c ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 p4 #hc4 ,s\nd z _m ( ^! consid]ations und\bt$ly are1 !y come f ! ,r5an1 :o wrote 9 ! ye>s #ahdh-i ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce4 ,he liv$ long en\gh to see t ^! tru?s _h complem5ts1 t !re might be1 ev5 e?ically1 ano!r side4 ,9 speak+ ( ,progress ?is has be5 not$3 9 8 lat] ye>s he =eca/$ ! com+ ( an era ( egoism1 ( national & indu/rial selfi%ness1 work+ itself out 9 policies ( milit>y imp]ialism among ! nations1 & ( economic gre$ & tyranny among ! prolet>iat4 ,8 rem>ks ab\t ! virtu\s action ( ! work] bett]+ 8 lot 7 inspir$ by ! socialism ( ,sa9t-,simon4 ,r5an did n at t "t raise 9 8 own m9d ! "q ( ! work]s !mselves c>ry+ _! reaction s f>1 t x1 al?\gh j at fir/1 might rea* a po9t :]e x became a dictator%ip decre$ by self-int]e/ alone4 ,x is 9 ,r5\vi] t we f9d ?is dang] m cle>ly indicat$4 ,9 s f> z ,r5an felt x1 8 solution 0 t :i* he sugge/$ = ! elim9ation ( all social wick$ness-- namely1 ! increase ( education4 ,he look$ ^u wick$ness z a symptom ( a lack ( culture1 p>ticul>ly ! lack ( any moral tea*+4 ,x 0 precisely ?is po9t1 ! education ( ! democracy1 morally no less ?an intellectually1 :i* pres5t$ a c]ta9 difficulty to ! ,fr5* ,republic :51 aft] sev]al unsuccessful attempts1 ! plan = /ate education ( a compulsory1 gratuit\s & secul> "* 0 c>ri$ 9 #ahhb1 l>gely ?r\gh ! ef=ts ( ,jules ,f]ry4#d #d ,9 #ahdh ,hippolyle ,c>not _h ?is plan ready4 ,! fall ( ! ,m9i/ry1 9 :i* he 0 ,m9i/] ( ,education1 0 due p>tly to ! discussion rais$ by ,r5\vi]'s book 7see p4 #fa ( ! pres5t "w74 ,) ! fall ( ! ,m9i/ry1 & 9 #ahea1 ( ! ,republic1 ! s*eme w5t too4 ,france _h to wait elev5 ye>s long] ?an ,engl& = free1 compulsory education4 ,h] educational problem has always be5 complicat$ by ! attitude ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* to religi\s education & its ho/ility to 8lay0 s*ools4 ,brilliant z ,france is intellectually1 !re are numb]s ( h] p :o d n read or write ow+ to ! delay ( compulsory /ate education4 ,! late/ c5sus1 t ( #aiba1 ask$ ! "q1 8,savez-v\s la fois lire et crire80 9 ord] to e/imate ?is numb]4 ,,ii ,! great morali/ ( our p]iod 0 ,r5\vi]4 ,n only1 z we h already se51 did e?ical consid]ations m>k & col\r 8 :ole ?\ght1 b he set =? ^? consid]ations !mselves ) a rem>kable p[]4 ,8 treatise 9 two volumes on ,! ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics is "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y contributions to e?ical ?\ght :i* has be5 made 9 mod]n times4 ,al?\gh half a c5tury has elaps$ s9ce its publication on ! eve ( ! ,franco-,prussian ,w>1 its int5se pre-occupation ) ! problems :i* beset our mod]n indu/rial civilisation1 its pr(\nd judgm5ts & discussions conc]n+ subjects s vital to ! _w ( to-day 7su* z ! relations ( ! sexes1 m>riage1 sex-e?ics1 civil lib]ty1 prop]ty1 communism1 /ate int]v5tion1 sociali/ ideals1 nationalism1 w>1 ! mod]n idea ( ! ,/ate1 & int]national law71 give to x a value1 :i* v few works ^u ! subject possess4 ,long z ! "w is1 x has ! m]it ( ?or\ghness1 & difficulties are n slurr$ ov]1 b /at$ frankly1 & "s endeav\rs are made to ov]come !m4 ,consequ5tly1 x is a "w :i* amply repays c>eful /udy4 ,x is almo/ presumption to attempt 9 a few pages to summ>ise ,r5\vi]'s important treatise4 ,"s e/imate ( its significance is1 h[ev]1 vital to our hi/ory4 ,! title itself is notewor?y & mu/ at t date h appe>$ m /rik+ ?an x does to u n[ by its claim t !re is a sci5ce ( e?ics4#e ,we are accu/om$ to reg>d physics1 ma!matics & ev5 logic z entitl$ to ! "n ,sci5ces4 ,c we legitimately speak ( a ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics8 #e ,x is int]e/+ = comp>ative /udy to note t ,leslie ,/eph5's ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics 0 a mu* lat] production ?an ,r5\vi]'s treatise1 appe>+ ?irte5 ye>s lat]4 ,r5\vi] insi/s t we c4 ,morality deals ) facts1 al?\gh !y are n embrac$ by ! categories ( numb]1 ext5sion1 duration or becom+ 7z ma!matical & physical data71 b r by ^? ( causality1 f9ality & consci\sness4 ,! facts 8are n ! natural be+ ( ?+s1 b ! devoir-tre ( ! human w1 ! devoir-faire ( p]sons1 & ! devoir-tre ( ?+s 9 s f> z !y dep5d ^u p]sons40#f ,p]sonal ef=t1 initiative & responsibility lie at ! basis ( all e?ics4 ,morality is a con/ruction1 l e sci5ce1 p>tly individual & p>tly collective2 x mu/ lay d[n po/ulates1 & if x is to ju/ify ! claim to be a sci5ce1 ^! po/ulates mu/ be su* z to comm& a cons5sus g5tium4 ,fur!r1 if e?ics is to be sci5tifically bas$ x mu/ be indep5d5t4 ,9 ! pa/ ?is has un=tunately n be5 ! case1 = hi/ory %[s u e?ics b\nd up ) "s sy/em ( religion or metaphysics4 ,if e?ics is to be e/abli%$ z a sci5ce1 ,r5\vi] po9ts out t x mu/ be free f all hypo!sis ( an irrelevant "*1 su* z cosmological speculations & !ological dogmas4 ,r5\vi]'s insi/5ce ^u ! indep5d5ce ( e?ics 0 foll[$ up 9 an ev5 cle>] & m tr5*ant mann] by ,guyau 9 8 fam\s ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 #f ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #aj4 ,al?\gh1 g5]ally1 e?ics has suff]$ by reason ( its alliance to !ological & metaphysical sy/ems1 ,r5\vi] affirms t1 9 ?is connection1 !re is "o philosophy :i* is n op5 to objection--namely1 ! ,critical ,philosophy ( ,kant4 ,?is is because x subord9ates all ! unkn[n to ph5om5a1 all ph5om5a to consci\sness1 &1 )9 ! sph]e ( consci\sness itself1 subord9ates ! speculative reason 7re95 ,v]nunft7 to ! practical reason 7praktis*5 ,v]nunft74 ,its *ief value1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 lies precisely 9 ?is ma9t5ance ( ! primacy ( moral consid]ations4 ,two /&po9ts or l9es ( ?\ght :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ,r5\vi]1 & ^: pres5ce we h already not$ 9 our fir/ *apt]1 op]ate also 9 8 e?ics & gov]n 8 :ole treatm5t ( ! nature ( morality & ! problems ( ! moral life4 ,briefly /at$ ^! are1 fir/ly1 8 reg>d = ! ,critical ,philosophy ( ,kant2 secondly1 8 view ( man z 8an ord]1 a h>mony ( functions reciprocally condition$1 &1 by ?is fact1 insep>able40#g ,z 9 8 treatm5t ( ,c]titude1 ,r5\vi] %[$ ?is to be a psy*ological complex into :i* ent]$ elem5ts n only ( cognition1 b ( feel+ & w1 ! same insi/5ce ^u ?is unity ( human nature meets u aga9 9 8 e?ics4 8,any e?ical doctr9e :i* def9itely splits up ! elem5ts ( human nature is errone\s40#h ,ab/raction is necess>y & useful = any sci5ce1 ev5 ! sci5ce ( e?ics1 b h[ev] f> we may c>ry our sci5tific analysis1 we mu/ nev] lose sight ( ! fact t we are deal+ ) ab/ractions4 ,to lose sight ( ! relation%ip ( ! data "u obs]vation or discussion is1 inde$1 work+ away f ! goal ( sci5tific k4 #g ,sci5ce de la ,morale 7fir/ edition1 #ahfi71 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahi4 #h ,ibid4 8,no?+10 rem>ks ,r5\vi] 9 ?is connection1 8has done m to h9d] ! spread ( ,kant's doctr9es 9 ! _w ?an 8 ass]tion t ! morally good act mu/ be p]=m$ absolutely )\t feel+40 ,9 view ( man z he is1 & 9 s f> z we und]/& human nature at all1 x seems a va9 & fooli% /atem5t4 ,= ,kant1 ,duty 0 supreme1 & ! sole crit]ion ( a good act 01 = him1 its be+ done f a consci\sness ( ,duty4 ,he himself _h to confess t he did n "k ( any act :i* q fulfill$ ?is ideal ( moral action4 ,) ?is view ( morality ,r5\vi] s he>tily disagrees t he is incl9$ to ?9k t1 s f> f a purely rational act 7if we suppose su* an act possible7 be+ praisewor?y1 he w\ld almo/ give great] moral wor? to an act purely emotional1 ^: 8motive0 lay1 n 9 ! idea ( cold & /]n ,duty1 b 9 ! w>m impulses ( ! human he>t1 spr++ f emotion or feel+ alone4 ,emotion is a "p ( our nature--x has its role to play2 ! rational elem5t ent]s z a guide or controll+ p[]4 ,x is desirable t all acts %\ld be s guid$1 b t is f> f /at+1 z does ,kant1 t !y %\ld proce$ solely f rational consid]ations4 ,ultimately reason & s5tim5t unite 9 fur!r+ ! same ends4 ,no adequate conception ( ju/ice c be arriv$ at :i* is n accompani$ by1 & det]m9$ by1 correlatively1 love ( humanity4 ,kant rigor\sly exclud$ f op]ation ev5 ! mo/ noble feel+s1 ^: intrusion %\ld dim ! wor? & glory ( 8 moral act1 devoid ( feel+4 ,b 8)\t good-w & mutual sympa?y ( p]sons1 no society c\ld ev] h e/abli%$ itself beyond ! family1 & sc>cely ! family itself40#i #i ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahd4 ,r5\vi] confesses t 9 mo/ ( ?is treatm5t ( ! problem ( e?ics he foll[s ,kant#aj & al?\gh 8 admiration = ,kant's "w is n conceal$1 nev]!less he is n altoge!r satisfi$ ) x1 & does n refra9 f criticism4 ,inde$ ?is recon/ruction ( ! ,critical ,philosophy 9 a revis$ v]sion is ! ma9 ef=t ( ! neo-critical philosoph]1 & x is con/antly manife/4 #aj ,on p4 #ajh 7vol4 ,i7 he ref]s to 8le philosophie que je suis1 et que j'aim]ais de p\voir suivre t\j\rs40 ,he compla9s t ,kant did n adh]e rigor\sly to 8 own pr9ciples1 b va9ly /rove to give an objectivity to ! laws ( ! practical reason by connect+ !m to metaphysics4 ,b1 he says1 8on ! o!r h& ,i ma9ta9 t ! errors ( ,kant c be correct$ 9 accordance ) ! actual pr9ciples ( 8 own philosophy4 ,i cont9ue my s]i\s atta*m5t to ?is great re=m] 9 spite ( ! v s]i\s modifications ,i am endeav\r+ to make 9 8 "w40#aa #aa ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 no4 #aaj4 ,9 ! op9ion ( ,r5\vi]1 ,kant's "w1 ! ,metaphysic ( ,morals1 is m>r$ by its neglect ( hi/ory 9 its relation to e?ics1 by a disfigur$ picture ( "r :i* does n make x any m applicable to exi/+ human conditions1 also by ! r artificial & complicat$ nature ( its doctr9es4 ,he fur!r reproa*es ,kant = excessive rigorism & =malism1 accompani$ by a vagu5ess :i* prev5ts ! application ( mu* ( 8 tea*+4 ,?is1 x seems to u1 is a reproa* :i* c be hurl$ easily at mo/ ( ! e?ical tea*]s :om ! _w has se54 ,! incessant vagu5ess ( p>adoxical elem5ts 9 ! utt]ances ( su* tea*]s has inevitably compell$ _! disciples to f9d refuge 9 insi/+ ^u a 8"r _s0 ( action1 be+ devoid ( any cle> tea*+ z to :at might con/itute "r action 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,! rudim5ts ( morality1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 are f\nd 9 ! g5]al notion ( 8obligation10 ! s5se ( ought 7devoir-faire7 :i* ! human consci\sness _c escape4 ,any end ( action is conceiv$ z a good = ! ag5t himself2 & because ( lib]ty ( *oice betwe5 actions or ends1 or betwe5 bo?1 c]ta9 ( ^! are deem$ morally pref]able4 ,!re are c]ta9 obligations :i* are purely p]sonal1 elem5t>y virtues dem&$ f any rational be+4 ,x is 8 int]e/ to pres]ve 8 body by ab/a9+ f excesses2 x is 8 int]e/ also to cons]ve & develop ! faculties ( 8 nature4 ,?is is ! po9t ^u :i* ,guyau makes su* insi/5ce 9 common ) ,nietzs*e--! developm5t1 expansion & int5sification ( life4 ,!re are1 ,r5\vi] po9ts out1 duties t[>ds oneself1 involv+ con/ant wat*fulness & intellig5ce1 s t ! ag5t may be truly self-possess$ "u all circum/ances1 ma9ta9+ an empire ov] himself & n fall+ a con/ant victim to passion4 8,great] is he t rule? himself ?an he t take? a city10 are n va9 words4 ,?is is ! rudim5t>y b ess5tial virtue :i* ,r5\vi] calls 8virtue militant0--moral c\rage4 ,intellectually x issues 9 ,prud5ce or ,wisdom2 on ! side ( s5se & passion x is repres5t$ by ,temp]ance4 ,^! duties are pres5t to consci5ce1 :i* itself arises f a d\bl+ ( consci\sness4 8,we h ! empirical p]son ) 8 exp]i5ce ( ! pa/1 & we h ! ideal p]son--t is to say1 t :i* we wi% to be10#ab our ideal "*4 ,9 s f> z we are consci5ti\s we endeav\r to br+ 8:at we are0 into l9e ) 8:at we conceive we %\ld be40 ,! moral ag5t ?us has duties t[>ds himself1 obligations ap>t f any relation to or ) o!rs ( 8 k9d4 #ab ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #be4 ,?is elem5t>y morality is 8ess5tially subjective10#ac b ?is only %[s u t ! mo/ ?or\gh-go+ individualism does n by its neglect ( o!rs1 its d5ial ( altruism1 !reby escape entirely f moral obligations4 ,!re are always duties to "o's high] self1 ev5 = a ,rob9son ,crusoe4 ,frequ5tly x is /at$ t duties & rights are co-relative2 b ,r5\vi] reg>ds ,duty z m fundam5tal ?an ,"r1 :i* he uses only ( man 9 association ) 8 fell[s4 ,betwe5 p]sons1 "r & duty are 9 a syn!sis1 b ! p]son himself has no rights z di/9ct f duties to himself2 he has no "r n to d :at x is 8 duty to p]=m4 ,f ?is x foll[s t if 8 p]sonal notion ( obligation *anges1 he has no "r :atev] to c>ry out actions 9 accordance ) 8 judgm5ts made prior to 8 *ange ( consci5ce1 m]ely = ! sake ( consi/5cy4 ,he is 9 ?is respect a law to him- self1 = no man c act z a consci5ce = ano!r4 ,! notion ( rights only arises :5 o!rs are 9 "q1 & only too (t5 ! ^w has be5 abus$ by be+ employ$ :]e simply p[] is meant1 z1 = example1 9 _m views ( 8natural "r40 ,?is proc$ure bo? sullies ! usage ( ! t]m ,"r & l[]s ! /atus ( p]sonality4 ,x is always1 ,r5\vi] claims1 to 8! inh]5t wor? & =ce ( p]sonality1 ) its p[]s ( reflection1 delib]ation1 lib]ty1 self-possession & self-direction1 t "o mu/ return 9 ord] to und]/& ea* & e virtue40 #ac ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ha4 ,r5\vi]'s insi/5ce ^u ! inh]5t wor?1 ! dignity & moral value ( p]sonality becomes cle>] z he proce$s f 8 treatm5t ( ! lonely individual 7:o1 x may be object$1 is to su* an ext5t an ab/raction1 z to resemble a fiction7 to associat$ p]sons4 ,! reciprocal relation ( two p]sons br+s out ! ess5tial mean+ ( ,ju/ice4 ,two p]sonalities co-op]at+ = a common end f9d !mselves ea* possess$ ( duties &1 inv]sely !re=e1 ( rights :i* are simply duties reg>d$ f ! po9t ( view n ( ! ag5t1 b ( ! o!r p>ty4 ,! neo-critical e?ic "h br+s itself def9itely into l9e ) ! pr9ciple ( practical reason ( ! ,critical ,philosophy4 ,?is1 says ,r5\vi]1#ad is ! pr(\nd mean+ ( ,ju/ice1 :i* consi/s 9 ! fact t ! moral ag5t1 in/ead ( subord9at+ ! ends ( o!r p to 8 own1 consid]s ! p]sonalities#ae ( o!rs z simil> to 8 own & possess+ _! own ends :i* he mu/ respect4 ,?is pr9ciple is t :i* ,kant =mulat$ "u ! "n ( 8practical obligation0 or 8supreme pr9ciple40#af 8,recognise ! p]sonality ( o!rs z equal 9 nature & dignity1 z be+ an end 9 itself1 & consequ5tly refra9 f employ+ ! p]sonality ( o!rs m]ely z a means to a*ieve y\r own ends40 #ad ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hb-hc4 #ae ,p]sonality is a bett] translation1 z x avoids ! r legal & te*nical mean+ ( 8p]son0 9 ,engli%4 #af ,9 a footnote to ?is passage1 ,r5\vi] /ates 8 own pref]5ce = 8moral obligation0 r ?an 8imp]ative ( consci5ce40 ,?is doctr9e ( ,p]sonalism is an ass]tion n only ( ,lib]t1 ,egalit1 ,frat]nit z necess>y & fundam5tal pr9ciples1 b also ( ! value ( p]sonality 9 g5]al & ! relativity ( 8?+s40 ,x con/itutes an e?ical *all5ge to ! exi/+ /ate ( society :i* is n only incl9$1 9 its headlong pursuit ( weal?1 its fanatical wor%ip ( ,mammon1 to treat its work]s z purely 8means0 to ! atta9m5t ( its end1 b fur!r m9imises p]sonality by its legal codes & social conv5tions1 :i* bo? op]ate f> m readily & effici5tly 9 ! def5ce ( prop]ty ?an 9 ! def5ce or protection ( p]sonality4 ,f ! e?ical /&po9t ! _w is a realm ( ends or p]sons & all o!r values mu/ be adju/$ 9 relation to ^!4 ,we h be5 told by religi\s e?ical tea*]s t we mu/ love our neighb\r z ourself1 & h be5 rem9d$ by morali/s cont9ually ( ! conflict betwe5 ,egoism & ,altruism4 ,r5\vi] po9ts out t ultimately obligation t[>ds o!rs is r$ucible to a duty to oneself4 ,he does n d ?is f ! po9t ( view ( ,hobbes1 :o reg>d$ all actions1 h[ev] altrui/ic !y appe>$ to be1 z f\nd$ purely ^u self-int]e/1 b r f ! opposite /&po9t4 8,we %\ld make our duty to o!rs rank =emo/ among our duties to ourselves40#ag ,?is is ! transc5d5t duty ?r\gh ! p]=mance ( :i* we a*ieve a realisation ( ! solid>ity ( p]sons1 demon/rate an objective value = our own exi/5ce1 & ga9 a full] & ri*] life4 #ag ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #he4 ,! idea ( p]sonal & moral reciprocity 0 =mulat$ by ! ,*9ese & ! ,greeks2 at a lat] date x reappe>$ 9 ! tea*+ ( ,jesus4 ,?is anci5t & almo/ univ]sal maxim has be5 /at$ bo? positively & negatively3 8,d n to o!rs :at y w\ld n h !m d unto y10 8,d z y w\ld be done by40 ,! maxim itself1 h[ev]1 beyond a /atem5t ( ! pr9ciple ( reciprocity r vaguely put1 has no great value = ! sci5ce ( e?ics4 ,r5\vi] reg>ds x n z a pr9ciple ( morality b a rule-(-?umb1 & he consid]s ! negative /atem5t ( x to be m 9 h>mony ) :at 0 int5d$ by ! e>ly e?ical tea*]s--namely1 to give a practical w>n+ aga9/ ! committ+ ( evil actions r ?an to e/abli% a sci5tific pr9ciple ( "r action4 ,r5\vi] has %[n ! orig9 ( ! notion ( ,ju/ice z aris+ prim>ily f an association ( two p]sons4 8,reason e/abli%$ a k9d ( community & moral solid>ity 9 ?is reciprocity40#ah ,?is "r & duty unite to con/itute ,ju/ice4 ,x is truly said t x is j to fulfil "o's duty1 j to dem& "o's "r1 & ,ju/ice is =m$ by a union ( ^! two 9 su* a mann] t !y always complem5t "o ano!r4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! doctr9e ( p]sonality z an end1 we get a g5]al law ( action :i* may be /at$ 9 ^! t]ms3 8,always act 9 su* a way t ! maxim applicable to y\r act c be erect$ by y\r consci5ce into a law common to y & y\r associate40 ,n[ to apply ?is to an association ( any numb] ( p]sons--e g41 human society z a :ole--we ne$ only g5]alise x & /ate x 9 ^! t]ms3 8,act always 9 su* a way t ! maxim ( y\r conduct c be erect$ by y\r consci5ce into a univ]sal law or =mulat$ 9 an article ( legislation :i* y c look ^u z express+ ! w ( e rational be+40 ,?is 8categorical obligation0 is ! basis ( e?ics4 ,x /&s cle> ( hypo!tical cases z a g5]al law ( action1 & 8!re is no su* ?+ really z practical morality10 rem>ks ,r5\vi]1 8except by volunt>y ob$i5ce to a law40#ai #ah ,ibid41 pp4 #gi-hj4 #ai ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajj4 ,! fulfilm5t ( our duties to ourselves g5]ally t5ds to fit u = fulfill+ our duties to o!rs1 & ! neglect ( ! =m] w lead inevitably to inability to p]=m ^! latt]4 ,our duty to o!rs ?us involves our duty to ourselves4#bj #bj ,! notion ( self-sacrifice itself involves also1 to a degree1 ! ma9t5ance ( self1 )\t :i* !re c\ld be no self to sacrifice4 ,hi/ory has frequ5tly giv5 examples ( m5 ( all types refus+ to sacrifice _! lives = a c]ta9 cause because !y wi%$ to pres]ve !m = "s o!r 7& possibly bett]--9 _! m9ds at any rate1 bett]7 =m ( self-sacrifice4 ,p]sonality :i* lies at ! root ( ! moral problem dem&s ,tru? & ,lib]ty1 & x has a "r to ^! two1 = )\t !m x is injur$4 ,!y are ess5tial to a society ( p]sons4 ,ano!r vital elem5t 9 society is ,"w1 ! neglect ( :i* is a grave immoral act1 = z !re is 9 any society a c]ta9 am\nt ( necess>y "w to be p]=m$1 a 8slack]0 dumps 8 %>e ^u 8 fell[s to p]=m 9 addition to _! own %>e4 ,) indu/rial or g5]al laz9ess1 & ! p>asitism ( ^? ^: ri*es enable !m to live )\t work+1 is to be condemn$ also ! %irk+ ( intellectual "w by all4 ,q ap>t f ^? :o are 8intellectuals0 z su*1 a solemn duty ( "w1 ( ?\ght1 reflection & reason+ lies on ea* p]son 9 a society4 ,apa?y among citiz5s is really a =m ( culpable neglig5ce4 ,! duty ( "w & ?\ght is s vital & ( su* e?ical1 political & social importance t ,r5\vi] sugge/s t ! two words1 "w & duty1 be reg>d$ z synonyms4 ,x might1 he ?9ks1 make cle>] to _m ! obligation involv$4 ,ju/ice has be5 made cle> 9 ! =ego+ rem>ks1 b 9 view ( ,kant's di/9ction ( 8l>ge0 & 8/rict0 duties1 ,r5\vi] raises ! "q ( ! relation ( ,ju/ice & ,goodness4 ,he concludes t acts proce$+ f ! latt] are to be di/+ui%$ f ,ju/ice4 ,!y proce$ n f consid]ations ( p]sons z su*1 b f _! 8nature0 or common humanity1 & are ne> to be+ 8duties to oneself40 ,!y are ( ! he>t r ?an ( ! head1 proce$+ f s5tim5ts ( humanity1 & s5tim5t is n1 /rictly speak+1 ! f\ndation ( ju/ice1 :i* is bas$ on ! notions ( duties & rights4 ,!re c be1 !re=e1 an opposition ( ,ju/ice & ( ,goodness 7,k9dness or ,love71 & ! sph]e ( ! latt] is (t5 limit$ by consid]+ ! =m]4 ,r5\vi] recognises ! fact t ,ju/ice 9 ! moral s5se ( recognition & respect = p]sonality is itself (t5 8con/itutionally & legally0 violat$ 9 societies by cu/om1 laws & in/itutions z well z by memb]s ( society 9 _! actions1 & he notes t ?is 8legal0 inju/ice makes ! problem ( ! relation ( ,ju/ice & ,*>ity excessively difficult4 ,! sci5ce ( e?ics is fac$ ) a d\ble task ow+ to ! nature ( man's evolution & hi/ory4 ,human societies h be5 built ^u a basis :i* is n t ( ju/ice & "r1 b ^u ! basis ( =ce & tyranny--9 %ort1 ^u w>4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 = ! morali/ ! tw9 duty ( con/ruct+ laws & pr9ciples = ! true society f\nd$ ^u an e?ical basis1 t is to say on conceptions ( ,ju/ice1 :ile at ! same "t he mu/ give practical advice to 8 fell[s liv+ & /riv+ 9 pres5t society1 :]e a cont9ual /ate ( w> exi/s ow+ to ! op]ation ( =ce & tyranny 9 place ( ju/ice1 & he mu/ s apply 8 pr9ciples t !y may be capable ( mov+ ?is unju/ exi/+ society progressively t[>ds ! ideal society4 ,9 our acc\nt ( ,r5\vi]'s 8,philosophy ( ,hi/ory0 we br\ght out 8 insi/5ce ^u w> z ! ess5tial feature ( man's life on ?is planet1 z ! basis ( our pres5t 8civilisation40 ,"h he proclaims x aga9 9 8 e?ics4#ba ,w> reigns ev]y:]e3 x is ar\nd u & )9 u--individuals1 families1 tribes1 classes1 nations & races4 ,he includes 9 ! t]m mu* m ?an op5 fight+ ) guns4 ,! di/ribution ( weal?1 ( prop]ty 7especially ( l&71 wages1 cu/om duties1 diplomacy1 fraud1 viol5ce1 bigotry1 or?odoxy1 & p]secution1 lies !mselves1 are all1 to him1 =ms ( w>4 ,its mo/ ludicr\s /ronghold is among m5 :o pride !mselves on be+ at peace ) all m51 :ile !y =ce _! idea ( ,god ^u o!r m5's consci5ces4 ,religi\s intol]ance is "o1 & a v absurd k9d ( w>f>e4#bb #ba ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ccb4 #bb ,r5\vi] sums up its _s 9 ! words3 8,crois ce que je crois moi1 o je te tue0 7,la ,n\velle ,monadologie74 ,! pr9ciple ( ju/ice conf]s ^u ! p]son a c]ta9 8"r ( def5ce0 9 ! mid/ ( all ?is exi/+ v>i$ w>f>e ( mank9d4 ,x involves1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]1 resi/ance4 ,! j man _c /& by & see ! unju/ man oppress 8 fell[ s t ! victim is 8oblig$ to give up 8 wai/coat aft] hav+ _h 8 coat torn f him40 ,o!rwise we mu/ confuse ! j ) ! sa9tly man :o only admits "o law--namely1 t ( sacrifice4 ,b ,r5\vi] w h u be cle> z to ! price involv$ 9 all ?is viol5t resi/ance4 ,x means call+ up p[]s ( evil1 emiss>ies ( inju/ice4 ,he does n f\nd 8 8"r ( def5ce0 on rational "r2 x is to misconceive x s to f\nd x4 ,we mu/ recognise ! use ( viol5ce & =ce1 ev5 9 self-def5ce1 z 9 itself evil1 an evil necessitat$ by facts :i* d n con=m to ! rules ( peace & ju/ice !mselves4 ,x is to a l>ge degree necess>y1 un=tunately1 b is none ! less evil & to be frankly reg>d$ z evil1 & likely to multiply evil 9 ! _w1 ow+ to ! trem5d\s solid>ity ( wick$ness ( :i* ,r5\vi] has already spok5 9 hi/ory4 ,x is ! abs5ce ( ! reign ( ju/ice :i* necessitates ^! conflicts1 & we h to cont5t ourselves ) a conception ( actual 8"r10 a conception already bas$ on w>1 n ) "o ( 8rational "r0 or ju/ice4 ,"r 9 ! true s5se1 ,r5\vi] insi/s1 belongs to a /ate ( peace2 9 a /ate ( w>1 su* z our civilisation is p]petually 91 x _c be realis$4 ,! objection may be made t ,r5\vi] is !n ju/ify+ ! means by ! end4 ,he emphatically d5ies ?is4 ,by no means is ?is ! case1 = 8! evil10 he rem>ks1 8:i* corrects ano!r evil does n !re=e become good2 x may be useful1 b x is none ! less evil1 immoral1 or unju/1 & :at is n j is n ju/ifiable4 ,w>s1 rebellions1 revolutions may less5 c]ta9 evils1 b !y d n !reby cease to be any ! less evils !mselves4 ,morally we are oblig$ to avoid all viol5ce2 a revolution is only ju/ifi$ if its success gives an indication ( its absolute necessity4 ,we mu/ lam5t1 f ! /&po9t ( e?ics or ju/ice1 ! evil /ate ( affairs :i* gives rise to x4#bc #bc ,on ?is po9t1 x is int]e/+ to comp>e ) ! above ! views ( ,sp9oza 9 8 ,tractatus ,!ologico-politicus & ,tractatus-politicus1 & ^? ( ,t4 ,h4 ,gre5 9 8 ,lectures on ,political ,obligation4 ,r5\vi] devotes a consid]able portion ( 8 treatise to problems ( dome/ic morals1 economic que/ions & problems ( a political & int]national "*4 ,9 all ^! discussions1 h[ev]1 he ma9ta9s z c5tral 8 !sis ( ! supremacy ( p]sonality4 ,"u droit dome/ique he def5ds v w>mly ! "r ( ! woman & ! wife to treatm5t z a p]sonality4 ,he lam5ts p>ticul>ly ! inju/ice :i* usually rules 9 m>riage1 :]e1 "u a cloak ( legality1 ! m>ri$ man d5ies to 8 wife a p]sonal control ( h] own body & ! fre$om ( self-det]m9ation 9 matt]s ( sexual int]c\rse4 ,s unju/ & loa?some 9 its violation ( ! p]sonality ( woman is ! mod]n view ( m>riage t ,r5\vi] consid]s x little bett] ?an polygamy 7:i* is (t5 a bett] /ate = wom5 ?an monogamy7 or pro/itution4 ,x is less j ?an ei!r1 ow+ to its degradation ( ! p]sonality ( ! wife4 ,he rem>k$ too 9 8 ,n\velle ,monadologie t love 79 ! popul> s5se71 be+ s l>gely an affair ( passion & physical attraction1 is usually unju/1 & t fri5d%ip is a bett] basis = ! relation%ip ( m>riage1 :i* %\ld be1 :ile x la/s among mank9d1 "o ( ju/ice4#bd ,consequ5tly1 x %\ld involve nei!r ! idea ( possession nor ( ob$i5ce1 b ( mutual comrade%ip4 #bd ,see p>ticul>ly ! notes 9 ,la ,n\velle ,monadologie app5d$ to ! f\r? "p1 8,passion10 pp4 #baf-bbb4 ,9 ! economic sph]e ,r5\vi] endeav\rs to uphold fre$om1 & = ?is reason he is an enemy ( communism4 ,ho/ile to ! communi/ic doctr9e ( prop]ty1 he is a def9ite def5d] ( prop]ty :i* he consid]s to be a necessity ( p]sonality4 ,he consid]s ea* p]son 9 ! community entitl$ to prop]ty z a gu>antee ( 8 own lib]ty & developm5t4 ,:ile disagree+ ) communism1 ,r5\vi] is sympa!tic to ! sociali/ view t prop]ty might be1 & %\ld be1 m ju/ly di/ribut$1 & he advocates means to limit excessive possession by private p]sons & to 8g5]alise0 ! di/ribution ( ! goods ( ! community among its memb]s4 ,progressive taxation1 a gu>antee ( ! 8"r to "w0 & a complete sy/em ( insurance are among 8 sugge/ions4 ,he is c>eful1 h[ev]1 to avoid giv+ to ! /ate too mu* p[]4 ,r5\vi] 0 no lov] ( ! /ate4 ,:ile reg>d+ x z necess>y "u pres5t conditions1 he agrees ) ! an>*i/ ideali/s1 to :om gov]nm5t is an evil4 ,he admits its use1 h[ev]1 z a gu>antor ( p]sonal lib]ty1 b is aga9/ any semblance ( /ate- wor%ip4 ,! /ate is n a p]son1 nor is x1 z x exi/s at pres5t1 a moral in/itution4 ,"o ( ! ne$s ( mod]n times is1 he po9ts out1 ! moralis+ ( ! conception ( ! /ate1 & ( ! /ate itself4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 he has no a priori objection to /ate int]f]5ce 9 ! economic sph]e1 & w\ld n advocate a m]e laissez-faire policy1 ) its vici\s consequ5ces1 yet he does n look ) approval ^u su* int]f]5ce unless x be 8! collective expression ( ! p]sonalities =m+ ! community40 ,! fact ( liv+ 9 a society1 highly organis$ al?\gh x be1 does n dim9i% at all ! moral significance ( p]sonality4 ,rights & duties belong ess5tially to p]sons & to !m only4 ,we mu/ bew>e ( ! political philosophy :i* reg>ds ! citiz5s z exi/+ only = ! /ate4 ,r ! /ate exi/s1 or %\ld exi/1 = ! welf>e ( ! citiz5s4 ,9 ! pa/ ?is 0 a grave defect ( milit>y despotisms1 & 0 well illu/rat$ by ! view ( ! /ate tak51 or r inculcat$1 by ,g]man political philosophy4 ,9 ! future ! dang] ( ! violation ( p]sonality may lie1 ,r5\vi] ?9ks1 9 ano!r direction--namely1 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( ,communi/ic /ates4 ,! basic pr9ciple ( 8 e?ic is ! p]son z an end 9 himself1 & ! treatm5t ( p]sons z ends4 ,if ?is be s1 a ,communi/ic ,republic :i* has z its motto 8,ea* = all10 )\t also 8,all = ea*10 may gravely violate p]sonality & ! moral law if1 by con/ra9t1 x treats all its citiz5s & _! ef=ts n z ends 9 !mselves1 b m]ely means to ! collective ends ( all4 ,! moral ideal dem&s t p]sonality mu/ n be oblit]at$4 ,p]sonality b\nd up ) 8autonomy ( reason0 is ! fundam5tal e?ical fact4#be ,9 ! la/ resort1 responsibility re/s ^u ! individuals ( ! society = ! evils ( ! sy/em ( social organisation "u :i* !y live4 ,! /ate itself _c be reg>d$ z a moral p]son4 ,r5\vi] opposes /rongly any doctr9e :i* t5ds to ! p]sonalisation or ! deification ( ! /ate4 #be ,note t ,r5\vi] pref]s ?is t]m to ,kant's 8autonomy ( w10 :i* he ?9ks confuses moral obligation & free-w4 ,he combats also ! mod]n doctr9es ( 8nationality10 & claims t ev5 ! idea ( ! /ate is a high] "o1 = x at any rate involves co-op]at+ p]sonalities1 :ile a nation is a fiction1 ( :i* no satisfactory def9ition c be giv54 ,he laughs at ! 8unity ( language1 race1 culture & religion10 & asks :]e we c f9d a nation8#bf ,w> & dea? h long s9ce de/roy$ su* unit$ & h>moni\s gr\ps z 7 f\nd 9 anci5t times4 #bg ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 #b1 *ap4 xcvi1 8,ides de la ,nationalit et d',etat10 pp4 #daf-dbg4 ,9 approa*+ ! que/ions ( int]national morality ,r5\vi] makes cle> t !re is only "o morality1 "o code ( ju/ice4 ,morality _c be divid$ aga9/ itself1 & !re _c be an admission t ?+s :i* are immoral 9 ! individual are ju/ifiable1 or p]missible1 betwe5 diff]5t /ates4 ,morality has n be5 appli$ to ^! relation%ips1 :i* are gov]n$ by aggressive milit>ism & diplomacy1 ! negation ( all conceptions ( ju/ice4 ,e?ical obligation has only a mean+ & significance = p]sonalities1 & our /ates d b reflect ! morality ( ^? :o con/itute !m2 our _w reflects ! relation%ips & immorality ( ! /ates4 ,w> *>act]ises our :ole civilisation1 dome/ic1 economic & int]national4 ,to h int]- national peace1 int]nal peace is ess5tial1 & ?is pre- supposes ! reign ( ju/ice )9 /ates4 ,w> we %all h ) u1 ,r5\vi] rem9ds u1 9 all its =ms1 9 our in/itutions1 our laws & cu/oms1 until x has disappe>$ f our he>ts4 ,treaties ( 8peace0 & f$]ations or leagues ( nations are !mselves bas$ on inju/ice & on =ce1 & 9 ?is he sees b ano!r in/ance ( ! 8t]rible solid>ity ( evil40#bh ,bett] x is to recognise ?is1 ?9ks ,r5\vi]1 ?an to consid] ourselves 91 or ev5 ne>1 a ,utopia1 :5ce human gre$ & passion h fl$4 #bh ,sci5ce de la ,morale1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dgd4 ,we f9d 9 ,r5\vi]'s e?ics a notable rev]sion to ! individualism :i* *>act]is$ ! previ\s c5tury4 ,mu* ( ! individuali/ic tone ( 8 "w is1 h[ev]1 due to 8 f9d+ himself 9 opposition to ! doctr9es prea*$ by communi/s1 positivi/s1 sociologi/s1 pessimi/ic & fatali/ic hi/orians1 & support]s ( ! deifi$ /ate4 ,r5\vi] acclaims ! fre$om ( ! individual1 b 8 individualism is 8p]sonalism40 ,9 proclaim+ t ! basis ( ju/ice & ( all morality is respect = p]sonality1 z su*1 he has no desire to set up a /&>d ( selfi% individualism2 he wi%es only to combat ^? h]etical doctr9es :i* w\ld m9imise & cru% p]sonality4 ,= him ! moral 8p]son0 is n an isolat$ individual--he is a social human be+1 free & responsible1 :o lives ) 8 fell[s 9 society4 ,only ^u a recognition ( p]sonality z a supreme value c ju/ice or peace ev] be atta9$ 9 human society2 & x is to ?is end t all moral education1 ,r5\vi] advocates1 %\ld t5d4 ,! moral ideal %\ld be1 9 practice1 ! con/ant ef=t to free man f ! t]rible solid>ity ( evil :i* *>act]ises ! civilisation into :i* he is born1 & to e/abli% a community or association ( p]sonalities4 ,su* an ideal does n lie necess>ily at ! end ( a det]m9$ evolution2 ,r5\vi]'s views on hi/ory & progress h %[n u t4 ,consequ5tly x dep5ds ^u u2 x is our duty to believe 9 its possibility & to "w1 ea* accord+ to 8 or h] p[]1 = its realisation4 ,! ideal or ! idea1 w1 9 s f> z x is set be=e self-consci\s p]sonalities z an end1 become a =ce4 ,r5\vi] agrees on ?is po9t ) ,f\ille1 to ^: e?ic1 f\nd$ on ! conception ( ides-=ces1 we n[ turn4 ,,iii ,! philosophy ( ide-=ces prop\nd$ by ,f\ille assumes1 9 its e?ical aspect1 a role ( reconciliation 7:i* is *>act]i/ic1 z we h not$1 ( 8 :ole me?od & 8 entire philosophy7 by attempt+ a syn!sis ( individualism & humanit>ianism4 ,x is !re=e ano!r k9d ( p]sonnalisme1 diff]+ 9 type f t ( ,r5\vi]4 ,f\ille's full /atem5t ( 8 e?ical doctr9es 0 n writt5 until ! ye> #aijg1bi b long be=e ! conclusion ( ! n9ete5? c5tury he _h already indicat$ ! ess5tial po9ts ( 8 e?ics4 ,! conclusion ( 8 !sis ,la ,lib]t et le ,dt]m9isme 7#ahgb7 is v l>gely fill$ ) 8 e?ical views & ) 8 optimism4 ,f\r ye>s lat] appe>$ 8 /udy ,l',ide mod]ne du ,droit en ,allemagne1 en ,anglet]re et en ,france1 :i* 0 foll[$ 9 #ahhj by ,la ,sci5ce sociale contempora9e1 :]e ! relation ( ! /udy ( e?ics to t ( sociology 0 discuss$4 ,a volume conta9+ mu* acute criticism ( curr5t e?ical !ories 0 8 ,critique des ,sy/mes de ,morale contempora9s 7#ahhc71 :i* gave him a fur!r opportunity ( (f]+ by way ( contra/ 8 application ( ! doctr9e ( ides-=ces to ! solution ( moral problems4 ,to ?is he add$ 9 ! foll[+ ye> a /udy ^u ,la ,proprit sociale et la ,dmocratie1 :]e he discuss$ ! e?ical value & significance ( v>i\s political & sociali/ doctr9es4 ,e?ical que/ions rais$ by ! problems ( education he discuss$ 9 8 ,l',enseignem5t au ,po9t de ,vue national 7#ahia74 ,at ! close ( ! c5tury he issu$ 8 book on morality 9 8 own c\ntry1 ,la ,france au ,po9t de ,vue morale 7#aijj74cj #bi ,8 ,morale des ,ides-=ces 0 !n publi%$4 #cj ,x is int]e/+ to note ! weal? ( ,f\ille's almo/ annual output on e?ics alone 9 8 lat] ye>s4 ,we may cite1 9 ! tw5tie? c5tury3 ,la ,r=me de l',enseignem5t p> la ,philosophie1 #aija2 ,la ,conception morale et critique de l',enseignem5t2 ,nietzs*e et l',immoralisme1 #aijd2 ,le ,moralisme de ,kant et l',amoralisme contempora9e1 #aije2 ,les ,elm5ts sociologiques de la ,morale1 #aije2 ,la ,morale des ,ides-=ces1 #aijg2 ,le ,socialisme1 #aiaj2 ,la ,dmocratie politique et sociale en ,france1 #aiaj2 & ! po/hum\s volume1 ,humanitaires et ,lib]taires au ,po9t de ,vue sociologique et morale1 #aiad4 ,f\ille endeav\rs to unite ! purely ideal aspect ( e?ics--t is to say1 its notion ( :at ought to be1 ) ! m positive view ( e?ics z deal+ ) :at n[ is4 ,8 e?ic is1 !re=e1 an attempt to relate m intimately ! tw9 sph]es ( ,r5\vi]1 l'tat de gu]re ) l'tat de paix1 = x is conc]n$ n only ) :at is1 b ) t :i* t5ds to be & :i* c be by ! simple fact t x is ?\ght4 ,z1 h[ev]1 :at c be is a matt] ( int5se int]e/ to u1 we are inevitably l$ f ?is to consid] :at ought to be--t is to say1 :at is bett]1 or ( m wor? or value4 ,! e?ical application ( ! philosophy ( ides-=ces is at once !oretical & practical1 t philosophy be+ conc]n$ bo? ) ideas & values4 ,z 9 8 treatm5t ( fre$om we f\nd ,f\ille beg9n+ ) ! idea ( fre$om1 s "h 9 a p>allel mann] he lays d[n ! idea ( an end ( action z an inconte/able fact ( exp]i5ce1 al?\gh ! exi/5ce ( su* an end is conte/$ & is a sep>ate "q4 ,?is idea op]ates 9 consci\sness z a p[] ( w 7volont de consci5ce74 ,intellig5ce1 p[]1 love & happ9ess-9 %ort1 ! highe/ consci\s life--are involv$ 9 x1 n only = u1 b = all4 ,?us x comes ab\t t ! consci\s subject1 j because he f9ds himself confront$ by nature & by ov]-individual ends1 proposes to himself an ideal1 & imposes at ! same "t ^u himself ! obligation to act 9 con=mity ) ?is full consci\sness :i* is 9 all1 z 9 him1 & ?us he all[s univ]sal consci\sness to op]ate 9 8 own individual life4 ,"h we h consci5ce1 ! idea ( duty or obligation1 acc\nt$ =1 & ! pr9ciple ( autonomy ( ! moral p]son laid d[n4 ,! e?ical life is %[n z ! consci\s w 9 action1 f9d+ )9 itself its own end & rule ( action1 f9d+ also ! consci\s wills ( o!rs l itself4 ,morality is ! indef9ite ext5sion ( ! consci\s w :i* br+s ab\t ! condition t o!rs t5d to become 8me40 ,?r\gh ! increas+ p[] ( intellectual dis9t]e/$ness & social sympa?y1 ! old =mula 8cogito1 conscius sum0 gives place to t ( 8conscii sumus10 & ?is is no m]e intellectual speculation1 b a concrete pr9ciple ( action & feel+ :i* is itself ak9 to ! highe/ & be/ 9 all religions4 ,"o ( ! features ( ?is e?ic is its insi/5ce ^u ! primacy ( self-consci\sness4 ,inde$1 x has its c5tral po9t 9 ! doctr9e ( self-consci\sness1 :i*1 accord+ to ,f\ille1 implies ! consci\sness ( o!rs & ( ! :ole unity ( mank9d4 ,emphasis+ 8 gospel ( ides-=ces1 he outl9es a morality 9 :i* ! ideal %all attract m5 p]suasively1 & n dom9ate !m 9 :at he reg>ds z ! arbitr>y & r despotic mann] ( ,kant4 ,by advocat+ ! primacy ( self-consci\sness ,f\ille claims to e/abli% an e?ic :i* t[]s above ^? f\nd$ ^u pleasure1 happ9ess & feel+4 ,! morality ( ! ides-=ces is n purely s5tim5tal1 n purely intellectual1 n purely volunt>i/2 x claims to re/ on ! totality ( ! functions ( consci\sness1 z reveal$ 9 ! feel+s1 9 intellect & w1 act+ 9 solid>ity & 9 h>mony4 ,he endeav\rs to unite ! positive & evolution>y views ( morality to ^? associat$ ) !ological or metaphysical doctr9es1 conc]n+ ! deity or ! morally p]fect absolute4 ,he claims1 aga9/ ! !ologians & on behalf ( ! positivi/s1 t e?ics c be an indep5d5t /udy1 t x is n necess>ily b\nd up ) !ological dogmas4 ,!re is no ne$ to f\nd ! notion ( duty ^u t ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,our own exi/5ce is suffici5t2 ! voice ( consci5ce is )9 our human nature4 ,he objects1 z did ,nietzs*e1 to ! =mality & rig\r ( ,kant's 8categorical imp]ative40 ,8 me?od is free f ! legalism ( ,kant1 & 9 him & ,guyau is se5 an attempt to relate morality itself to life1 exp&+ & %[+ itself creative ( ideals & t5d+ to _! fulfilm5t4 ,f ! primacy ( self-consci\sness :i* c be express$ 9 ! notion1 ,je p5se1 donc j'ai une valeur morale1 a transition is made to a conception ( values4 ,je p5se1 donc j'evalue des objets4 ,! ess5tial elem5t 9 ! psy*ology ( ! idees-=ces !n comes into play by t5d+ to ! realisation ( ! ideals conceiv$ & bas$ on ! valuation previ\sly made4 ,f9ally1 ,f\ille claims t on ?is e?ical op]ation ( ! ides-=ces c be f\nd$ ! notion ( a univ]sal society ( consci5ces4 ,?is notion itself is a =ce op]at+ to create t society4 ,! ideal is itself p]suasive1 & ,f\illee's inh]5t optimism1 :i* we h obs]v$ 9 8 doctr9e ( progress1 col\rs also 8 e?ical !ory4 ,he has fai? 9 m5's capacity to be attract$ by ! ideals ( love & bro!rhood1 & insi/s t 9 ! ext5sion ( ^! lies ! supreme duty1 & ! ideal1 l ! notion ( duty itself1 is a creation ( our own ?\ght4 ,! realisation ( ! univ]sality1 altruism1 love & bro!rhood ( :i* he speaks1 dep5ds ^u our action1 our p[] to fo/] ideas1 to create ideals1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! m9ds ( ! "y1 & to /rive ev] = _! realisation4 ,?is is ! great ne$ ( our "t1 ,f\ille rightly urges4#ca ,su* a morality conta9s 9 a m conc5trat$ =m1 he ?9ks1 ! be/ t has be5 said & ?\ght 9 ! _w-religions2 x a*ieves also t union ( ! sci5tific _s ) ! aspirations ( man1 :i* ,f\ille reg>ds z s desirable1 & he claims = x a philosophical value by its success 9 unit+ ! subjective & p]sonal factors ( consci\sness ) ^? :i* are objective & univ]sal4 #ca ,! "w ( ,b5jam9 ,kidd %\ld be comp>$ 9 ?is connection1 p>ticul>ly 8 ,social ,evolution1 #ahid2 ,pr9ciples ( ,we/]n ,civilisation1 #aijb2 & ,! ,sci5ce ( ,p[]1 #aiah 7*ap1 v41 8,! ,emotion ( ! ,ideal074 ,simil> 9 sev]al respects to ! e?ical doctr9es ( ,f\ille are ^? ( 8 /ep-son4 ,guyau insi/s m pr(\ndly1 h[ev]1 ^u ! 8free0 conception ( morality1 z spontane\s & liv+1 ?us m>k+ a fur!r reaction f ,kant's doctr9e4 ,bo? ,f\ille & ,guyau int]act$ ^u "o ano!r 9 _! m5tal relation%ip1 & bo? ( !m 7p>ticul>ly ,guyau7 h aff9ities ) ,nietzs*e1 :o knew _! "w4 ,:ile ! ?ree ?9k]s are 9 revolt aga9/ ! ,kantian conception ( e?ics1 ! two ,fr5*m5 use _! conceptions to develop an e?ic altrui/ic 9 "*1 f> remov$ f ! egoism :i* *>act]ises ! ,g]man4#cb #cb ,we f9d ! optimism & humanit>ian idealism ( ! ,fr5*m5 surpris+4 ,may n ?is be piecisely because ! _w has foll[$ ! gospel ( ,nietzs*e8 ,we may dislike him1 b he is a great] pa9t] ( ! real /ate ( _w-morality ?an are ! two ,fr5*m54 ,!y1 ) _! wat*word ( frat]nit1 are proclaim+ a m excell5t way !y are /&+ = an e?ical ideal ( ! highe/ type4 ,guyau1 aft] %[+ 9 8 critique ( ,engli% ,e?ics 7,la ,morale anglaise contempora9e1 #ahgi7 ! inadequacies ( a purely utilit>ian doctr9e ( morality1 endeav\r$ to set =? 9 a m con/ructive mann] ! pr9ciples ( a sci5tific morality 9 8 ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 ,he takes z 8 />t+-po9t ! position :]e ,john ,/u>t ,mill fell f\l ( ! ^w 8desirable40 ,:at1 asks ,guyau1 is ! supreme desire ( e liv+ creature8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is 8,life40 ,:at we all ( u desire mo/ & con/antly is ,life1 ! mo/ int5sive & ext5sive 9 all its relation%ips1 physical & spiritual4 ,9 ! pr9ciple ( ,life we f9d cause & end--a unity :i* is a syn!sis ( all desires & all desirables4 ,moreov]1 ! concept or ! pr9ciple ( ,life embraces all functions ( our nature--^? )9 consci\sness & ^? :i* are subconsci\s or unconsci\s4 ,x ?us relates intimately purely in/9ctive action & reflective acts1 bo? ( :i* are manife/ations ( ,life & c enri* & increase its p[]4 ,! purely h$oni/ic views ( ! ,utilit>ians he consid]s untrue4 ,d\btless1 he admits1 !re is a degree ( tru? 9 ! doctr9e t consci\sness t5ds to pursue ! l9e ( greate/ pleasure or lea/ resi/ance1 b !n we mu/ rememb] h[ slight a "p ?is consci\sness actually plays4 ,in/9cts & an int5sive subconsci\s 8w-to-live0 are con/antly op]at+4 ,a purely sci5tific e?ic1 if x is to pres5t a complete s*eme1 mu/ all[ = ?is by admitt+ t ! purely h$oni/ic se>* aft] pleasure is n 9 itself a cause ( action1 b is an effect ( a m fundam5tal or dom9at+ factor4 ,?is factor is precisely ! ef=t ( ,life to ma9ta9 itself1 to int5sify itself & exp&4 ,! *ief motive p[] lies 9 ! 8int5sity ( ,life40 8,! end :i* actually det]m9es all consci\s action is also ! cause :i* produces e unconsci\s action2 x is ,life itself1 ,life at once ! mo/ int5se & ! mo/ v>i$ 9 its =ms4 ,f ! fir/ ?rill ( ! embryo 9 its "m's womb to ! la/ convulsion ( ! old man1 e movem5t ( ! be+ has _h z cause ,life 9 its evolution2 ?is univ]sal cause ( actions is1 f ano!r po9t ( view1 its con/ant effect & end40#cc #cc ,esquisse d'une ,morale1 p4 #hg4 ,a true e?ic proce$+ ^u ! recognition ( ^! pr9ciples is sci5tific1 & con/itutes a sci5ce hav+ z its object all ! means by :i* ,life1 mat]ial & spiritual1 may be cons]v$ & exp&$4 ,ris+ 9 ! evolution>y developm5t we f9d ! v>iety & scope ( action increas$4 ,! highe/ be+s f9d re/ n 9 sleep m]ely1 b 9 v>iety & *ange ( action4 ,! moral ideal lies 9 activity1 9 all ! v>iety ( its manife/ations4 ,= ,guyau1 z = ,b]gson1 ! wor/ vice is idl5ess1 in]tia1 lack ( lan vital1 decay ( p]sonal initiative1 & a consequ5t deg5]ation to m]ely automatic exi/5ce4 ,h$onism is q unt5able z a pr9ciple2 pleasure is m]ely a consequ5ce1 & its be+ set 9 ! van ( e?ics is due to a false psy*ology & false sci5ce4 ,grant+ t pleasure att5ds ! satisfaction ( a desire1 pa9 its repression1 recognis+ t a feel+ ( pleasure accompanies _m actions :i* exp& life1 we mu/ live1 z ,guyau rem9ds u1 be=e we enjoy4 ,! activity ( life surges )9 u1 & we d n act ) a view to pleasure or ) pleasure z a motive1 b life1 j because x is life1 seeks to exp&4 ,man 9 act+ has creat$ 8 pleasures & 8 organs4 ,! pleasure & ! organ alike proce$ f function--t is1 life itself4 ,! pleasure ( an action & ev5 ! consci\sness ( x are attributes1 n ends4 ,! action arises naturally f ! inh]5t int5sity ( life4 ,! h$oni/s1 too1 says ,guyau1 h be5 neglig5t ( ! wide/ pleasures1 & h frequ5tly conf9$ _! att5tion to ^? ( eat+ & dr9k+ & sexual int]c\rse1 purely s5sitive1 & h neglect$ ^? ( liv+1 will+ & ?9k+1 :i* are m fundam5tal z be+ id5tical ) ! consci\sness ( life4 ,b ,guyau ass]ts t1 z ! greate/ int5sity ( life involves necess>ily its wide/ expansion1 we mu/ give special att5tion to ?\ght & w & feel+1 :i* br+ u into t\* univ]sally ) our fell[s & promote ! wide/ life4 ,?is expansiv5ess ( life has great e?ical importance4 ,) ! *ange 9 ! nature ( reproduction1 involv+ ! sexual union ( two be+s1 8a new moral phase began 9 ! _w40 ,x involv$ an expansion n m]ely physical1 b m5tal--a union1 h[ev] crude1 ( s\l4 ,x is 9 ! ext5sion ( ?is feature ( human life t ,guyau sees ! e?ical ideal4 ,! mo/ p]fect organism is ! mo/ sociable1 = ! ideal ( ! individual life is ! common or social life4 ,morality is = him almo/ synonym\s ) sociability1 dis9t]e/$ness1 love & bro!rhood1 & 9 x we f9d1 he says1 8! fl[] ( human life40 ,all our action %\ld be ref]r$ to ?is moral ideal ( sociability4 ,guyau sees 9 ! phrase 8social s]vice0 a conception :i* %\ld n be conf9$ to ^? :o are endeav\r+ 9 "s religi\s or philan?ropic mann] to alleviate ! suff]+ caus$ by evil 9 human society1 b a conception to :i* ! acts1 all acts1 ( all memb]s ( society %\ld be relat$4 ,l ,r5\vi]1 he gives to "w an important e?ical value4 8,to "w is to produce--t is1 to be useful to oneself & to o!rs40 ,9 "w he sees ! economic & moral reconciliation ( egoism & altruism4 ,x is a good & x is praisewor?y4 ,^? :o neglect & despise x are p>asites1 & _! exi/5ce 9 society is a negation ( ! moral ideal ( sociability & social s]vice4 ,9 s f> z ! "w ( c]ta9 p]sons leads to ! accumulation ( excessive capital 9 individual h&s1 x is likely to annul itself soon] or lat] 9 luxury & idl5ess4 ,su* an immoral /ate ( affairs1 x is ! conc]n ( society1 by its laws ( inh]itance & possession1 to prev5t4 ,hav+ made cle> 8 pr9ciple ( morality1 ,guyau !n has to face ! "q ( its relation to ! notion ( duty or obligation4 ,duty 9 itself is an idea :i* he rejects z vague1 & he disapproves ( ! ext]nal & artificial elem5t pres5t 9 ! ,kantian 8rigorism40 ,= ,guyau ! v p[] ( action conta9$ 9 life itself creates an imp]sonal duty4 ,:ile ,em]son c\ld write3 8,duty says1 #8,i mu/1' ,! y\? replies1 #8,i c1'0 ! view ( ,guyau is directly ! conv]se2 = him 8,i c0 gives ! 8,i mu/02 x is ! p[] :i* prec$es & creates ! obligation4 ,life _c ma9ta9 itself unless x gr[s & exp&s4 ,! s\l t live? to itself1 t live? solely by habit & automatism1 is already dead4 ,morality is ! unity ( ! p]sonality exp&+ by action & by sympa?y4 ,x is at ?is po9t t ,guyau's ?\ght approa*es closely to ! philosophie des ides-=ces ( 8 /ep-fa!r1 by 8 doctr9e ( ?\ght & action4 ,immorality is really unsociability1 & ,guyau ?9ks ?is a bett] key-note ?an to reg>d x z disob$i5ce4 ,if x is s to be spok5 (1 x is disob$i5ce to ! social elem5ts 9 "o's own self--a mis*iev\s duplication ( p]sonality1 egoi/ic 9 "* & pr(\ndly antisocial4 ,! sociological elem5ts :i* *>act]ise all ,guyau's "w are "h v m>k$4 ,9 ! notion ( sociability we f9d an equival5t ( ! old] & m artificial conception ( ,duty--a conception :i* lacks concret5ess & (f]s 9 itself s little guidance because x is ab/ract & empty4 ,! crit]ion ( sociability1 ,guyau claims1 is mu* m concrete & useful4 ,he asks u to obs]ve its spirituality1 = ! m gross & mat]iali/ic pleasures fall %ort ( ! crit]ion by ! v fact t !y _c be %>$4 ,guyau's ?\ght is "h at its be/4 ,! high] pleasures1 :i* are n ^? ( bodily enjoym5t & satisfaction1 b ^? ( ! _s1 :i* ?9ks1 feels1 wills & loves1 are precisely ^? :i* come ne>e/ to fulfill+ ! ideal ( sociability1 = !y t5d less to divide m5 ?an to unite !m & to urge !m to a clos] co-op]ation = _! spiritual advancem5t4 ,guyau writes "h ) s>casm reg>d+ ! lonely imbecile 9 ! c>riage drawn by f\r horses4 ,= 8 own "p x is en\gh to h-- 84 4 4 a ,loaf ( ,bread b5ea? ! ,b\gh1 ,a ,flask ( ,w9e1 a ,book ( ,v]se--& ,?\ ,beside me s++ 9 ! ,wild]ness-- ,& ,wild]ness is ,p>adise en[40 ,he kn[s :o really has *os5 ! bett] "p4 ,"o _c rejoice mu* & rejoice alone4 ,companion%ip & love are supremely valuable 8goods10 & ! pleasure ( o!rs he recognises z a v real "p ( 8 own4 ,! egoi/'s pleasure is1 on ! o!r h&1 v l>gely an illusion4 ,he loses1 says ,guyau1 f> m by 8 isolat$ enjoym5t ?an he w\ld ga9 by %>+4 ,life itself is ! greate/ ( all goods1 z x is ! condition ( all o!rs1 b life's value fades if we are n lov$4 ,x is love1 comrade%ip & ! fell[%ip ( k9dr$ s\ls :i* give to ! humble/ life a significance & a feel+ ( value4 ,?is1 ,guyau po9ts out ) "s t5d]ness1 is ! trag$y ( suicides4 ,^! occurr5ces are a social no less ?an an individual trag$y4 ,! tragic elem5t lies 9 ! fact t !y 7 p]sons :o 7 unable to give _! devotion to "s object1 & ! loss ( p]sonalities 9 ?is way is a real loss to society1 b x is ma9ly society itself :i* is to blame = !m4 ,we ne$ n fe>1 says ,guyau1 t su* a gospel w promote unduly ! op]ation ( m]e animality or in/9ctive action1 = 9 ! gr[? ( ! sci5tific _s he sees ! developm5t ( ! great enemy ( all in/9ct4 ,x is ! dissolv+ =ce p> excell5ce1 ! revolution>y _s :i* incessantly wages w>f>e )9 society aga9/ au?ority1 & 9 ! individual x op]ates ?r\gh reason aga9/ ! in/9ctive impulses4 ,e in/9ct t5ds to lapse 9 s f> z x is reflect$ ^u by consci\sness4 ,! old notion ( duty or obligation mu/1 9 ,guyau's op9ion1 be ab&on$4 ,! sole comm&m5t :i* a sci5tific & positive e?ic1 su* z he endeav\rs to indicate1 c recognise1 is expressible only 9 ! words1 8,develop y\r life 9 all directions1 be an individual z ri* z possible 9 en]gy1 int5sive & ext5sive0--9 o!r words1 8,be ! mo/ social & sociable be+ y c40 ,x is ?is :i* replaces ! 8categorical imp]ative40 ,he aptly po9ts out ! failure ( mod]n society to (f] scope = devotion1 :i* is really a sup]abundance ( life1 & its pron5ess to cru% out opportunities :i* (f] a *all5ge to ! human _s4 ,!re is a claim ( life itself to adv5ture2 !re is a pleasure 9 risk & 9 conflict2 & ?is pleasure 9 risk & adv5ture has be5 l>gely ov]look$ 9 its relation to ! moral life4 ,su* risk & adv5ture are n m]ely a pure negation ( self or ( p]sonal life1 b r1 he consid]s1 t life rais$ to its highe/ p[]1 rea*+ ! sublime4 ,by virtue ( su* devotion our lives are enri*$4 ,he draws a t\*+ picture ( ! sacrifice ^u :i* our mod]n social life & civilisation are bas$1 & draws an analogy betwe5 ! blood ( dead horses us$ by ! pl\ghman 9 f]tilis+ 8 field1 & ! blood ( ! m>tyrs ( humanity1 qui ont fcond l'av5ir4 ,(t5 !y may h be5 mi/ak52 lat] g5]ations may wond] if _! cause 0 wor? fight+ =2 yet1 al?\gh no?+ truly is sadd] ?an to die 9 va91 t devotion 0 valuable 9 & = itself4 ,) ! dem& ( life = risk 9 action is b\nd up ! impetus to und]take risk 9 ?\ght4 ,f ?is spr+s ! moral ne$ = fai?1 = belief & acceptance ( "s hypo!ses4 ,! v div]g5ce or div]sity ( ! _w-religions is n disc\rag+ b r ! rev]se4 ,x is a sign ( heal?y moral life4 ,uni=mity w\ld be highly detrim5tal2 x w\ld cease to express life1 = ) con=mity ( belief w\ld come spiritual decl9e & /agnation4 ,guyau anticipates "h 8 doctr9e ( a religion ( free ?\ght1 a 8non-religion0 ( ! future1 :i* we %all discuss 9 our next *apt]1 :5 we exam9e 8 book on t subject4 ,9 ! div]sity ( religi\s views ,guyau sees a moral good1 = ^! religions are !mselves an expression ( life 9 its ri*ness1 & ! cons]vation & expansion ( ?is ri* v>iety ( life are precisely ! moral ideal itself4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to realise h[ ri* & v>i$ ! nature ( human life really is4 ,revolution>ies1 ,guyau po9ts out1 are always mak+ ! mi/ake ( reg>d+ life & tru? z too simple4 ,life & tru? are s complex t evolution is ! key-note to :at is desirable 9 ! individual intellect & 9 society1 n a revolution :i* mu/ inevitably express ! extreme ( "o side or ! o!r4 ,! se>* = tru? is sl[ & ne$s fai? & pati5ce1 b ! c>eful seek]s ( x are mak+ ! future ( mank9d4 ,b tru? w be discov]$ only 9 relation to action & life & 9 proportion to ! lab\r put into its realisation4 ,! se>* = tru? mu/ nev] be divorc$ f ! active life1 ,guyau insi/s1 &1 inde$1 he approa*es ! view t ! action w produce ! k1 8,he t doe? ! w %all "k ( ! doctr9e40 ,moreov] he rightly sees 9 action ! :olesome cure = pessimism & t cynicism :i* all too frequ5tly arises f an equal appreciation ( oppos+ views4 8,ev5 9 d\bt10 he exclaims1 8we c love2 ev5 9 ! intellectual night1 :i* prev5ts our see+ any ultimate goal1 we c /ret* out a h& to him :o weeps at our feet40#cd ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ d ! duty t lies ne>e/1 9 ! hope & fai? t by t action itself light w come4 #cd ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #agh4 ,9 ! la/ "p ( 8 treatise ,guyau deals ) ! difficult problem ( 8sanction10 s ultimately connect$ ) e?ics1 &1 x mu/ be add$1 ) religion4 ,! ,provid5ce :o rew>ds & puni%es u1 accord+ to ! or?odox religi\s cre$ ( ,*ri/5dom1 is m]ely a p]sonifi$ 8sanction0 or di/ributive ju/ice1 op]at+ 9 a t]re/rial & cele/ial c\rt ( assize4 ,guyau condemns ?is z an utt]ly immoral conception4 ,religi\s sanctions1 z he has n mu* difficulty 9 %[+1 are m cruel ?an ^? :i* a man c\ld imag9e himself inflict+ ^u 8 mortal enemy4 ,! 8,heav5ly ,fa!r0 ought at lea/ to be z good z e>?ly ones1 :o d n cruelly puni% _! *ildr54 ,guyau t\*es ^u an important po9t "h1 :i* w be fur!r emphasis$--namely1 ! necessity = mak+ our idea ( ,god1 if we h "o at all1 h>moni\s ) our own e?ical conceptions4 ,! old ideas ( ! div9ity are pr(\ndly immoral & are bas$ on physical =ce4 ,?is is natural because ^? views :i* h surviv$ 9 mod]n times are ^? ( primitive & savage p to :om ! mo/ holy 0 ! mo/ p[]ful & physically maje/ic4 ,b1 says ,guyau1 n[ t we see t 8all physical =ce repres5ts moral weakness10 ! idea ( ,god ! ,all-t]rible1 ) 8 hell-fire ready = ! s9ful s\l1 mu/ be condemn$ z immoral blasphemy itself4 8,god10 he rem>ks1 89 damn+ any s\l might be said to damn himself40 ,virtue is really its own rew>d4 ,no "o %\ld be or d good 9 ord] to ga9 an entry into p>adise or to escape ! torm5ts ( hell4 ,t is to build morality on an immoral pr9ciple & on a belief1 n 9 goodness z valuable 9 & = itself1 b on a basis ( mat]ial self-int]e/ alone1 8! be/ policy40 ,x is true1 ,guyau admits1 t virtue involves happ9ess1 b x is n 9 ?is s5se4 ,a conflict betwe5 8pleasure0 & virtue is usually "o ( high] v]sus l[] ideals4 ,virtue is n a prec$5t to s5se-happ9ess1 & 9 ?is s5se is n at all equival5t or b\nd up ) happ9ess1 b1 z ! facts ( life reveal1 v (t5 oppos$ to x4 ,guyau opposes ! ord9>y view ( puni%m5t 9 society & %[s t x is bo? immoral & socially h>mful 9 its application4 ,x adds evil to evil1 & legal murd] is really m absurd ?an ! illegal murd]4 ,puni%m5t1 capital or o!r1 is no 8comp5sation0 exact$ = ! crime committ$1 & x nev] c be su*4 ,attempts to treat & cure ! guilty "o w\ld1 ,guyau sugge/s1 be f> m rational1 humane & really b5eficial to society itself1 :i* at pres5t creates by its puni%m5ts1 especially ^? inflict$ = fir/ (f5ces1 a 8crim9al class40 ,"o %\ld conv]t ! crim9al be=e puni%+ him1 & !n1 ,guvau asks1 if he is conv]t$1 :y puni% him8 ,! appeal to ju/ice d5ot$ 9 ! words 8,to ev]yone accord+ to 8 works0 is frequ5tly he>d 9 ! def5ce ( puni%m5t4 ,?is is an excell5t maxim 9 ,guyau's op9ion1 b he is c>eful to po9t out t x is purely "o ( social economics4 ,x is a plea = a j di/ribution ( ! products ( lab\r1 b does n apply at all to ! problem ( puni%m5t4 ,9 a mann] :i* recalls ! rem>ks ( ,r5an1 ,guyau sees 9 evil-do+ a lack ( culture1 or r ( t sociability1 :i* comes ( social culture1 f consci\sness ( a memb]%ip ( society & a solid>ity ) "o's fell[s4 ,9 vice & 9 virtue alike ! human w appe>s aspir+ to bett] ?+s accord+ to its lights4 ,z virtue is its own rew>d1 s is evil2 & ! morali/ mu/ say to ! wick$3 8,v]ily !y h _! rew>d0 7,comme si ce n'tait pas assez p\r eux d'tre m*ants74 ,guyau comm5ts ^u ! gradual modifications ( puni%m5t f a social po9t ( view4 ,!re 0 ! day :5 ! *a/isem5t 0 inf9itely worse ?an ! crime itself4 ,!n came ! morality ( reciprocity1 8an eye = an eye1 & a too? = a too?10 an e?ic :i* repres5t$ a high ideal = primitive man to rea*1 & "o to :i*1 ,guyau ?9ks1 we h yet to rea* to-day 9 "s sph]es ( life4 ,yet a fur!r moral developm5t w %[ h[ fooli%1 9 a civilis$ society1 are wra? & hatr$ ( ! crim9al & ! cry = v5geance4 ,society mu/ aim at ensur+ protection = itself ) ! m9imum ( individual suff]+4 ,puni%m5t mu/ be reg>d$ z an example = ! future r ?an z rev5ge or comp5sation4 ,9 ! individual himself ,guyau obs]ves h[ p[]ful c be ! inn] sanction ( remorse1 ! suff]+ caus$ by ! unrealis$ ideal4 ,?is is p]haps ! only real moral puni%m5t1 & x is "o :i* society _c itself directly en=ce4 ,only by increas+ 8sociability0 & social s5sitiv5ess c ?is sanction be indirectly develop$4 ,h]e9 lies ! highe/ e?ical ideal1 f> m concrete & liv+1 9 ,guyau's op9ion1 ?an ! rigorism ( a ,kant or ! 8s*ola/ic0#ce temp] ( a ,r5\vi]4 ,*>ity or love = all m51 :atev] _! value morally1 intellectually or physically1 mu/1 he claims1 8be ! f9al end pursu$ ev5 by public op9ion40,9 co-op]ation & sociability1 he f9ds ! vital moral ideal2 9 love & bro!rhood1 he f9ds ! real sanction :i* %\ld op]ate40,love supposes mutuality ( love10 he says2 & !re is "o idea sup]ior to t ( ju/ice1 t is ! idea ( bro!rhood1 & he rem>ks ) a humane t5d]ness 8! guilty h probably m ne$ = love ?an anyone else40 8,i h10 he cries1 8two h&s--! "o = gripp+ ! h& ( ^? ) :om ,i m>* along 9 life1 ! o!r to lift up ! fall54 ,inde$1 to ^! ,i %\ld be able to /ret* out bo? h&s toge!r40#cf #ce ,?is is ,guyau's ^w to describe ,r5\vi]1 :om he reg>ds z f> too mu* "u ! influ5ce ( ,kant4 #cf ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #bbc4 ,:ile ,f\ille &1 m especially1 ,guyau 7 ?us outl9+ an e?ic m>k$ by a /rong humanit>ianism1 a m def9itely religi\s e?ic 0 be+ proclaim$ by t curr5t ( philosophy ( belief & ( action :i* has pr(\ndly associat$ itself 9 its lat] developm5ts ) 8,mod]nism0 9 ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,! t5d5cy to /ress action & ! practical reason is noticeable 9 ! "w ( ,bro*>d1 ,oll-,laprune & ,blondel1 also 9 ,rauh4 ,!y agree ) ,r5\vi] 9 advocat+ ! primacy ( ! practical reason1 b _! own reasons = ?is are diff]5t f 81 or at lea/ 9 !m ! reasons are m cle>ly enunciat$4 ,pla9ly ^! reasons lie 9 ! difficulties ( intellectualism & ! que/ ( tru?4 ,!y propose ! que/ ( ! good 9 ! hope ( f9d+ 9 t sph]e "s objectivity1 "s absolute1 9 fact1 :i* !y _c f9d out by intellectual se>*+4 ,!y correspond 9 a some:at p>allel fa%ion to ! philosophy ( intuition ) its rejection ( intellectualism z (f]+ a f9al solution4 ,^! ?9k]s desire by action1 by do+ ! w1 to atta9 to a k ( ! doctr9e4 ,! fir/ ^w 9 _! gospel is-- 8,im ,anfang w> die ,t40 ,x is = !m ! beg9n+ & ! end4 ,_! c]ta9ty is an act ( belief1 :i* gr[s out ( action & life4 ,x is a curi\s mixture ( insi/5ce ^u life & action1 su* z we f9d 9 ,guyau & 9 ,b]gson1 c\pl$ ) a religi\s ,platonism4 ,bro*>d's "w is ( ?is type4 ,he wrote z e>ly z #ahgd on ,la ,responsabilit morale1 & 9 #ahgf on ,l',univ]salit des ,notions morales4 ,?ree ye>s lat] appe>$ 8 "w ,l',erreur4 ,oll-,laprune & ,blondel1 :o be/ repres5t ?is t5d5cy1 d n l ,guyau's e?ics1 :i* lacks ! religi\s idealism :i* !y consid] %\ld be b\nd up ) morality4 ,?is 0 ! !sis develop$ 9 ! volume ,la ,c]titude morale1 writt5 by ,oll-,laprune 9 #ahha4 8,by :at "r10 says ,oll-,laprune 9 8 subsequ5t book ,le ,prix de la ,vie 7#ahie71 8c ,guyau speak ( a high exalt$ life1 ( a moral ideal8 ,x is impossible to speak s :5 y h only a purely naturali/ic e?ic2 = m]ely to "n ^! ?+s is an implication t !re is n only int5sity 9 life1 b also quality4 ,y suppress duty because y c see 9 x only a falsely my/ical view ( life & ( nature4 ,:at y fail to realise is t betwe5 duty & life !re is a pr(\nd agreem5t4 ,y r$uce duty to life1 & 9 life itself y consid] only its quantity & int5sity1 & reg>d z illusion ev]y?+ t is ( a diff]5t ord] f ! natural physical ord] 9 :i* y imprison y\rself40#cg #cg ,le ,prix de la ,vie1 p4 #aci4 ,su* a criticism is n altoge!r fair to ,guyau :o1 z we not$1 proclaim$ ! sup]iority ( ! high] qualities ( spiritual life4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 attack 8 ab&onm5t ( ! idea ( ,duty2 & we mu/ n[ turn to exam9e a ?9k]1 :o1 by 8 contribution to e?ics1 endeav\r$ to satisfy ! claims ( life & ( duty4 ,?is 0 ,rauh1 ^: ,essai sur le ,fondem5t mtaphysique de la ,morale appe>$ 9 #ahij4 ,x _h be5 prec$$ by a /udy ( ! psy*ology ( ! feel+s1 & 0 lat] foll[$ by ,l',expri5ce morale 7#aijc74 ,9 seek+ a metaphysical f\ndation = morality1 ,rauh recalls ,kant's ,metaphysic ( ,morals4 ,he1 inde$1 agrees ) ,kant 9 ! view t ! ess5ce ( morality lies 9 ! s5tim5t ( obligation4 ,belief or fai? 9 an ideal1 by :i* x behoves u to act1 imposes itself1 says ,rauh1 ^u ! m9d ( man z ess5tial4 ,x is z positive a fact z ! laws ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,man n only /ates facts & =mulates g5]al laws 9 a sci5tific mann]1 he also conceives & believes 9 ideals1 :i* become b\nd up 9 8 m9d ) ! s5tim5t ( obligation--t is1 ! g5]al feel+ ( duty4 ,b beyond a g5]al agreem5t ^u ?is po9t1 ,rauh does n foll[ ,kant4 ,he t5ds to look ^u ! e?ical problem 9 ! _s :i* ,guyau1 ,b]gson & ,blondel %[ 9 _! g5]al philosophic outlook4 ,9 life1 action & imm$iacy alone c we f9d a solution4 ,no?+ practical c be d$uc$ f ! ab/ract pr9ciple ( obligation or duty 9 g5]al4 ,! moral consci\sness ( man is1 9 ,rauh's op9ion1 ak9 to ! intuitional p]ceptions ( ,b]gson's philosophy4 ,morality1 moreov]1 is creat+ itself p]petually by ! reflection ( s5sitive m9ds on action & on life itself4 8,morality1 or r moral action1 is n m]ely ! cr[n ( metaphysical speculation1 b itself ! true metaphysic1 :i* is le>nt only 9 liv+1 z x is naught b life itself40#ch ,9 conclud+ 8 !sis1 ,rauh rem9ds u t 8! ess5tial & mo/ c]ta9 factor 9 ! mid/ ( ! unc]ta9ties ( life & ( duty lies 9 ! con/ant consci\sness ( ! moral ideal40 ,9 x he sees a spiritual reality :i*1 if we keep x ev] be=e u1 may inspire ! mo/ insignificant ( our actions & r5d] !m into a h>mony1 a liv+ h>mony ( "*4 #ch ,essai sur le ,fondem5t mtaphysique de la ,morale1 p4 #bee4 ,rauh's doctr9es1 we claim1 h aff9ities to ! doctr9es ( action & intuition4 ,t does n imply1 h[ev]1 t ! intellig5ce is to be m9imis$--f> f ?is2 b ! intellig5ce triumphs "h 9 realis+ t x is n all-suffic+ or supreme4 8,! he>t ha? reasons :i* ! reason _c "k40 ,:ile ,f\ille _h rem>k$ t morality is metaphysics 9 action1 ,rauh po9ts out t 8metaphysics 9 action0 is ! f\ndation ( our k4 ,we mu/1 he insi/s1 seek = c]titude 9 an imm$iate & active adaptation to reality in/ead ( d$uc+ a rule or rules ( action f ab/ract sy/ems4 ,he sep>ates himself f ! sociologi/s#ci by po9t+ out t1 h[ev] l>gely social environm5t may det]m9e our moral ideals & rules ( conduct1 nev]!less ! e?ical decision is fundam5tally an absolutely p]sonal affair4 ,! human consci5ce1 9 s f> z active1 mu/ nev] passively accept ! exi/+ social morality4 ,x f9ds itself sometimes 9 agreem5t1 sometimes oblig$ to give a new] int]pretation to old conv5tions1 & at times is oblig$ to revolt aga9/ !m4 ,9 no case c ! idea ( duty be equat$ simply & calmly ) acquiesc5ce 9 ! collective g5]al w4 ,x mu/ dem& f social morality its cr$5tials & hold itself free to criticise ! curr5t e?ic ( ! community4 ,m (t5 ?an n society acts1 ,rauh ?9ks1 z a break r ?an a /imulus2 & social int]e/ is n a measure ( ! moral ideal1 b r a limitation ( x4 #ci ,! relation ( e?ics & sociology is well discuss$1 n only by ,durkheim 7:o1 9 8 ,division du ,travail social1 speaks ( ! developm5t ( democracy & increas+ respect = human p]sonality71 b also by ,lvy-,bruhl1 :o foll[$ 8 !sis on ,l',ide de ,responsabilit1 #ahhc1 by ! volume1 ,la ,morale el la ,sci5ce des ,moeurs4 ,al?\gh ! moral ideal is "o :i* mu/ be p]sonally work$ out1 x is n a m]ely individuali/ic affair4 ,rauh does n ab&on ! guidance ( reason1 b he objects equally to ! foll[+ ( in/9ct or a transc5d5t tea*+ divorc$ f ! reality ( life4 ,our guide mu/ be reflection ^u in/9ct1 & ?is is only possible by action & exp]i5ce1 ! unique exp]i5ce ( liv+ itself4 ,reason itself is exp]i5ce2 & x is our duty to face problems p]sonally & s9c]ely1 9 a mann] :i* ! rational elem5t 9 u r5d]s 8imp]sonal1 univ]sal & dis9t]e/$40 ,any code ( morality :i* is n directly 9 contact ) life is wor?less1 & all e?ical ideas :i* are n ^? ( our "t are ( little value4 ,only he is truly a man :o lives ! life ( 8 "t4 ,! truly moral man is he :o is alive to ?is _s & :o does n unreflect+ly d$uce 8 rules ( conduct f anci5t books or tea*]s ( a pa/ age4 ,! art ( liv+ is ! supreme art1 & x is ?is :i* ! great morali/s h endeav\r$ to %[ humanity4 ,nei!r ,socrates nor ,jesus wrote d[n _! e?ical ideas3 !y liv$ !m4 ,rauh ?us rem9ds u p>tly ( ,guyau 9 8 insi/5ce ^u life4 ,he reg>ds ! e?ical life at its highe/1 z "o sans obligation ni sanction4 ,r ?an ! ,kantian obligation ( duty1 ( con/ra9t1 he fav\rs 9 8 second book1 ,l',expri5ce morale1 a /ate ( spontaneity1 ( passion & exaltation ( ! p]sonal consci5ce :i* faces ! issue 9 a dis9t]e/$ mann]4 ,! man :o is morally hone/ himself selects 8 values1 8 ideals1 8 ends1 by ! light :i* reason gives him4 ,e?ics becomes ?us an indep5d5t sci5ce1 a sci5ce ( 8ends10 :i* ,reason1 z reflect$ 9 ! p]sonal consci5ce1 acclaims a sci5ce ( ! ideal ord]+ ( life4 ,su* 0 ,rauh's conception ( rational moral exp]i5ce1 "o :i* he endeav\r$ to apply 9 8 lectures to ! two problems :i* he consid]$ to be supreme 9 8 "t1 t ( patriotism & ( social ju/ice4 ,^! problems 7 fur!r t\*$ ^u 9 #ahif1 :5 ,lon ,b\rgeois 7s9ce not$ = 8 advocacy ( ! 8,league ( ,nations07 publi%$ 8 little "w ,solid>it1 :i* 0 also a fur!r contribution to an indep5d5t1 positive & lay morality4 ,9 ! conception ( ! solid>ity ( humanity ?r\gh\t ! ages1 ,b\rgeois accept$ ! tea*+ ( ! sociologi/s1 & urges t h]e9 c be f\nd an obligation1 = ! pres5t g5]ation mu/ repay _! debt to _! ance/ors & be wor?y ( ! social h]itage :i* has made !m :at !y are4 ,some:at simil> s5tim5ts _h ,be5 express$ by ,m>ion 9 8 ,solid>it morale 7#ahhj74 ,e?ical que/ions 7 kept 9 ! =efront by ! society kn[n z ,l',union p\r l',action morale1 f\nd$ by ,desj>d9s & support$ by ,lagneau 7#ahea- #ahid74 ,aft] ! excitem5t ( ! ,dreyfus case 7#ahid- #ahii7 ?is society took ! "n ,l',union p\r la ,v]it4 ,9 #aijb ,lapie made an eloqu5t plea = a rational morality 9 8 ,logique de la ,volont1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,sailles publi%$ 8 ,affirmations de la ,consci5ce mod]ne4 ,! little ,prcis ( ,&r ,lal&e1 writt5 9 ! =m ( a cate*ism1 0 a fur!r contribution to ! e/abli%m5t ( a rational & indep5d5t lay morality1 :i* ! tea*+ ( e?ics z a subject 9 ! lyces & lay s*ools r5d]$ 9 "s degree necess>y4#dj ,?is little "w appe>$ 9 #aijg1 ! same ye> 9 :i* ,paul ,bureau wrote 8 book ,la ,crise morale des ,temps n\veaux4 ,!n ,p>odi 7:o 9 #aiai produc$ a f9e /udy ( ,fr5* ?\ght s9ce #ahijda7 foll[$ up ! discussion ( e?ical problems by 8 "w ,le ,problme morale et la ,p5se contempora9e 7#aiji71 & 9 #aiab ,wilbois publi%$ 8 contribution entitl$ ,devoir et ,dure3 ,essai de ,morale sociale4 #dj ,! tea*+ ( a lay morality is a vital & practical problem :i* ! ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,republic is oblig$ to face4 ,! urg5t ne$ = su* lay tea*+ w be m cle>ly demon/rat$ or evid5t :5 our next *apt]1 deal+ ) ! religi\s problem1 has be5 read4 #da ,la ,philosophie contempora9e en ,france4 ,?us concludes a p]iod 9 :i* ! discussion1 al?\gh n m>k$ by a def9ite turn+ r\nd ( positions z 0 manife/$ 9 our discussions ( sci5ce1 fre$om & progress1 be>s signs ( a g5]al developm5t4 ,?is developm5t is %[n by ! great] insi/5ce ^u ! social aspects ( e?ics & by a turn+ away f ! =malism ( ,kant to a m concrete conception ( duty1 or an e?ic 9 :i* ! notion ( duty itself has disappe>$4 ,?is is ! g5]al t5d5cy f ,r5an ) 8 insi/5ce ^u ! ae/hetic elem5t1 ,r5\vi] ) 8 claim = ju/ice 9 t]ms ( p]sonality1 to ,f\ille1 ,guyau1 ,oll-,laprune & ,rauh ) _! insi/5ce ^u action1 ^u love & life4 ,yet1 al?\gh ! dep>ture f an int5se individualism 9 e?ics is desirable1 we mu/ bew>e ( ! dang] :i* ?reat5s f ! o!r extreme4 ,we _c close ?is *apt] )\t insi/+ ^u ?is po9t4 ,good mu/ be p]sonally realis$ 9 ! inn] life ( individuals1 ev5 if !y =m a community4 ,! collective life is inde$ necess>y1 b x is n collectively t ! good is exp]i5c$4 ,x is p]sonal4 ,9 ! neglect ( ?is important aspect lies ! error ( mu* ,communi/ic philosophy & ( t social sci5ce :i* looks on society z purely an organism4 ,?is analogy is false1 = h[ev] l>gely a community exhibits a g5]al lik5ess to an organism1 x is a sup]ficial resemblance4 ,!re is n a c5tre ( consci\sness1 b a multitude ( su* c5tres ea* liv+ an inn] life ( p]sonal exp]i5ce :i* is peculi>ly its own2 & ^! p]sonalities1 we mu/ rememb]1 are n simply a homog5e\s mass ( social matt]1 !y are capable ( realis+ ! good ea* 9 8 or h] own mann]4 ,?is is ! only realisation ( ! good4 ,9 ?is *apt] we h trac$ ! attempt to reconcile sci5ce et consci5ce1 aft] ! way _h be5 op5$ up by ! ma9t5ance ( fre$om4 ,x 0 recognis$ t reason is n entirely pure speculation3 x is also practical4 ,human nature seeks = goodness z well z = tru?4 ,x is noticeable t :ile ! insi/5ce ^u ! primacy ( ! practical reason develop$1 on ! "o h&1 into a philosophy ( action 7anti-intellectual action 9 its extreme developm5t z %[n 9 ,syndicalism71 ! same t5d5cy1 op]at+ 9 a diff]5t mann] & ^u diff]5t data1 essay$ to f9d 9 action1 & 9 ! belief :i* arises f action1 t ,absolute or ,ideal to :i* ! pure reason feels x _c alone atta9--namely1 ! realisation ( ,god4 ,to ?is problem ( religion we devote our next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,religion ,,introduction3 ,! religi\s situation 9 ,france 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury--,! intellectual & political =ces aga9/ ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*--,its claims1 its or?odoxy & tyranny--,! humanit>ians--,! p[] ( ,rome--,*ur* & ,/ate--,! educational problem--,cl]icalism--,! cult ( ,jeanne d',arc--,! lack ( a via m$ia betwe5 ,roman or?odoxy & libre p5se--,prote/antism negligible4 ,i4 ,comte's ef=t 9 8 8,religion ( ,humanity0--,r5an & ! ,*ur*--,fre$om--,d5ial ( sup]natural elem5ts 9 ,*ri/ianity--,vie de ,jsus--,r5an n irreligi\s--,piety--,love & ,goodness reveal ! ,div9e--,god ! 8ideal0--,va*]ot & ,ta9e4 ,,ii4 ,r5\vi]'s ef=ts1 ) ,pillon1 9 ! ,critique philosophique & ,critique religieuse--,8 republican !ology--,fre$om1 p]sonality & ,god--,! deity z f9ite--,god z ,goodness & z a ,p]son4 ,,iii4 ,ravaisson's bl5d ( ,hell5ism & ,*ri/ian ?\ght--,b\tr\x--,f\ille on ! ,idea ( ,god--,! importance ( ,guyau's ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir--,! decay ( dogma & ecclesia/icism--,! t]m 8irreligion0 mislead+--,sociology & religion-,fre$om--,religi\s education & tol]ance--,mod]nism & ! ,*ur*--,loisy & o!rs--,symbolism & ,fidisme4 ,,conclusion3 ,! p]sonal factor 9 fai?--,fre$om vital to religion--,*ange ( attitude s9ce ! eighte5? c5tury--,value ( religion--,t5d5cy t[>ds a free religion devoid ( dogmas1 expressive ( ! be/ aspirations ( man's m9d4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,religion ,x is outside our purpose to emb>k ^u discussions ( ! religi\s problem 9 ,france1 9 s f> z ?is became a problem ( politics4 ,our int5tion is r to exam9e ! inn] core ( religi\s ?\ght1 ! philosophy ( religion1 :i* =ms an appropriate f9al *apt] to our hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ideas4 ,yet1 al?\gh our discussion be>s ma9ly ^u ! g5]al attitude to religion1 ^u ! developm5t ( c5tral religi\s ideas su* z ! idea ( ,god1 & ^u ! place ( religion 9 ! future--t is to say1 ^u ! philosophy ( religion--x is practically impossible to und]/& ! religi\s attitude ( our ?9k]s )\t a brief notice ( ! religi\s situation 9 ,france dur+ ! n9ete5? & tw5tie? c5turies4 ,9 our ,introduction we briefly call$ att5tion to ! attempt ( ! ,traditionali/s aft] ! ,revolution to recall _! c\ntrym5 to ! ,*ri/ian fai? z pres5t$ 9 & by ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,! ef=ts made by ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,mai/re1 ,*ateaubri&1 ,lam5nais & ,lacordaire did n succe$ z !y _h hop$1 b1 nev]!less1 a consid]able curr5t ( loyalty to ! ,*ur* & ! ,ca?olic religion set 94 ,mu* ( ?is loyalty 0 b\nd up ) s5tim5tal affection = a mon>*y1 & arose p>tly f anti-revolution>y s5tim5ts4#a ,x _c1 h[ev]1 be entirely expla9$ by ^! political feel+s4 ,!re 0 ! expression ( a deep] & m spiritual reaction direct$ aga9/ ! mat]iali/ic & sceptical tea*+s ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,man's he>t crav$ com=t1 consolation & w>m?4 ,x _h be5 />v$ 9 ! previ\s c5tury1 & revolution & w> _h only add$ to ! cup ( bitt]ness4 ,?us !re came an epo* ( ,romanticism 9 religion ( :i* ! s5tim5tal & assum$ or?odoxy ( ,*ateaubri& 0 a sign ( ! times4 ,8 ,gnie du ,*ri/ianisme may n[ appe> to u full ( s5tim5tality1 b x 0 welcom$ at ! "t1 s9ce x express$ at lea/ "s ( ^? aspirations :i* _h = long be5 d5i$ an expression4 ,x 0 ?is :i* m>k$ ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! two c5turies 9 ,france4 ,! eighte5? 0 ma9ly conc]n$ ) sc(f+ at religion4 ,its rationalism 0 t ( ,voltaire4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! p5dulum swung 9 ! opposite direction4 ,romanticism1 9 poetry1 9 lit]ature1 9 philosophy & 9 religion 0 la mode1 & x l$ frequ5tly to s5tim5tality or morbidity4 ,lam>t9e1 ,victor ,hugo & ,de ,vigny pr(ess$ ! ,ca?olic fai? = _m ye>s4 ,we may note1 & ?is is important1 t 9 ,france ! only =m ( ,*ri/ianity :i* holds any sway ov] ! p 9 g5]al is ! ,roman ,ca?olic fai?4 ,outside ! ,roman ,*ur* !re is no religi\s organisation :i* is ( mu* acc\nt4 ,?is expla9s :y x is s r>e to f9d a ?9k] :o owns allegiance to any ,*ur* or religion1 & yet x w\ld be wrong to deem !m irreligi\s4 ,!re is no via m$ia betwe5 ,ca?olicism & free p]sonal ?\ght4 ,?is 0 a po9t :i* ,r5an q ke5ly felt1 & ( :i* 8 own spiritual pilgrimage1 :i* took him out ( ! b\nds ( ! ,*ur* ( 8 y\?1 is a f9e illu/ration4 ,_m ( ,france's noble/ sons h be5 br\ght up 9 ! religi\s atmosph]e ( ! ,*ur* & owe mu* ( _! education to h]1 & ,rome believes 9 education4 ,! control ( education has be5 ?r\gh\t ! c5tury a problem sev]ely conte/$ by ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,m important = our purpose ?an ! details ( ! qu>rels ( ,*ur* & ,/ate is ! intellectual condition ( ! ,*ur* itself4 #a ,de ,mai/re reg>d$ ! ,revolution z an infliction specially be/[$ ^u ,france = h] national neglect ( religion--8 religion1 ( c\rse4 ,! same crude1 mislead+1 & vici\s argum5ts h s9ce be5 put =w>d by ! !ologians 9 _! ef=ts to pu% ! cause ( ! ,*ur* ) ! p4 ,?is 0 v noticeable bo? 9 ! w> ( #ahgj & t ( #aiad4 ,9 ea* case x 0 argu$ t ! w> 0 a puni%m5t f ,god = ,france's frivolity & neglect ( ! ,*ur*4 ,9 #aiad1 9 addition1 x 0 deem$ a direct div9e reply to 8,dise/abli%m5t40 ,?is reveals a /rik+ vitality1 a vig\r & initiative at w> ) ! c5tral p[]s ( ! ,vatican1 a see?+ unre/ :i* uni=mity & au?ority f9d annoy+4 ,h[ /rong ! p[] ( ! c5tral au?ority 01 ! affair ( ! ,concordat _h %[n1 :5 =ty bi%ops 7 depos$ = non-acceptance ( ! arrangem5t betwe5 ,napoleon & ! ,pope4#b ,/rong] /ill 0 ! iron h& ( ! ,pope ov] intellectual fre$om4 #b ,! ,revolution _h sep>at$ ,*ur* & ,/ate & suppress$ cl]ical privilege by ! 8,civil ,con/itution ( ! ,cl]gy0 enactm5t ( #agij4 ,napoleon1 alive to ! patriotic value ( a ,/ate ,*ur*1 repeal$ ?is law & decl>$ ! divorce ( ,*ur* & ,/ate to be null & void4 ,8 negotiations ) ! ,pope 7,pius ,,vii47 result$1 9 #ahja1 9 ! arrangem5t kn[n z ! ,concordat1 by :i* ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* 0 aga9 made ! e/abli%$ national ,*ur*1 its cl]gy became civil s]vants paid by ! ,/ate1 & its wor%ip became a bran* ( public adm9i/ration4 ,lam5nais 0 n a 8mod]ni/10 z ?is t]m is n[ und]/ood1 = 8 !ology 0 or?odox4 ,8 fight ) ! ,vatican 0 = fre$om 9 ! relations ( ! ,*ur* to society4 ,he plead$ 9 8 ,essai sur ,l'indiff]5ce en ,matire de ,religion = ! ,*ur* to accept ! pr9ciple ( fre$om1 to leave ! *]i%$ fondl+ ( ! royali/ cause1 & to pres5t to ! _w ! pr9ciples ( a ,*ri/ian democracy4 ,lam5nais & o!r lib]al-m9d$ m5 desir$ ! sep>ation ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 & 7 tol]ant ( ^? :o 7 n ,ca?olic4 ,!y claim$1 along ) _! own 8"r to believe10 t ( o!rs 8n to believe40 ,8 0 a lib]al ,ca?olicism1 b its proposals fright5$ 8 co-religioni/s1 & drew ^u him 9 #ahcb an encyclical lett] 7,mir>i vos7 f ! ,vatican4 ,! ,pope d5\nc$ lib]alism absolutely z an absurd & an errone\s doctr9e1 a piece ( folly sprung f ! 8fetid s\rce ( indiff]5tism40 ,lam5nais f\nd he c\ld n argue1 z ,r5an himself lat] put x1 8) a b> ( iron40 ,x 0 ! reaction>y ,de ,mai/re1 ) 8 pr9ciple ( papal au?ority1#c & n ,lam5nais1 :om ! ,vatican1 naturally en\gh1 *ose to fav\r1 or r to foll[4 #c ,z /at$ 9 ,du ,pape1 #ahai4 ,?us ,lam5nais f\nd himself1 by an almo/ natural & inevitable process1 outside ! ,*ur*1 & ?is 9 spite ( ! fact t 8 !ology 0 or?odox4 ,he endeav\r$ to pres5t 8 case 9 8 pap] ,l',av5ir & 9 an influ5tial bro*ure1 ,! ,words ( a ,believ]1 :i* left its m>k ^u ,hugo1 ,mi*elet1 ,lam>t9e1 & ,george ,s&4 ,8 views bl5d$ ) ! curr5t ( humanit>ian & democratic doctr9es :i* develop$ f ! ,sa9t-,simoni/s1 ,pi]re ,l]\x & simil> ?9k]s4 ,we h already not$ t ^! social re=m]s held to _! beliefs ) ! conviction t 9 !m & n 9 ! ,roman ,*ur* lay salvation4 ,?is br+s u to a crucial po9t :i* is ! clue to mu* ( ! subsequ5t ?\ght ^u religion4 ,?is is ! pr(\nd & seem+ly irreconcilable diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two conceptions ( religion4 ,! or?odox ,ca?olic fai? believes 9 a sup]natural revelation1 & is firmly conv9c$ t man is inh]5tly vile & corrupt1 born 9 s9 f :i* he _c be r$eem$1 save by ! my/ical op]ations ( div9e grace1 work+ only ?r\gh ! holy sacram5ts & cl]gy ( ! "o true ,*ur*1 to :om all p[] 0 giv51 accord+ to its view1 by ! hi/oric ,jesus4 ,its me?ods are cons]vative1 its discipl9e rigid & bas$ on tradition & au?ority4 ,its sy/em ( salvation is excessively individuali/ic4 ,x holds firmly to ?is pessimi/ic view ( human nature1 bas$ on ! doctr9e ( orig9al s91 ?us ma9ta9+ a cre$ :i*1 9 ! h&s ( a devot$ cl]gy1 :o are free f dome/ic ties1 works z a p[]ful moral =ce ^u ! individual believ]4 ,8 fre$om ( ?\ght is re/rict$2 he c nei!r read nor ?9k :at he likes1 & ! ,*ur*1 hav+ made ! ?irte5?-c5tury doctr9es ( ,aqu9as its (ficial philosophy1 hurls ana!ma at ideas sci5tific1 political1 philosophical or !ological :i* h appe>$ s9ce4 ,no half-measures are all[$3 ei!r "o is a loyal ,ca?olic or "o is n a ,ca?olic at all4 ,9 ?is rel5tlessly uncompromis+ attitude lies ! ma9 /r5g? ( ,ca?olicism2 h]e9 also is conta9$ its weakness1 or at lea/ t elem5t :i* makes x manufacture its own greate/ adv]s>ies4 ,:ile claim+ to be ! "o ,*ur* ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 x does n by any means put him 9 ! =egr\nd ( its religion4 ,its hi]>*y ( sa9ts is r a survival ( poly!ism2 its wor%ip ( ! ,virg9 & cult ( ! ,sacr ,cur issue (t5 9 a religi\s s5tim5tality & s5suality promot$ by ! d5ial ( a m heal?y outlet = in/9cts :i* are an ess5tial "p ( human nature4 ,tribute1 h[ev]1 mu/ be paid--high tribute--to ! devotion ( individuals1 p>ticul>ly to ! "w done by ! religi\s ord]s ( wom51 ^: devotion ! ,*ur* hav+ won by its int5se appeal to wom5 keeps1 consecrates & organises 9 a mann] :i* no o!r ,*ur* has succe$$ 9 do+4 ,?is is l>gely ! secret ( ! vigor\s life ( ! ,*ur*1 = z a p[] ( *>ity ! ,roman ,*ur* is rem>kable & des]ves respect4 ,h] educational ef=ts1 h] missions1 hospitals1 h] humbl] cl]gy1 & h] ord]s :i* (f] opportunity ( s]vice or ( sanctu>y to all types ( human nature--^! con/itute ,roman ,ca?olicism 9 a tru] mann] ?an ! diplomacy ( ! ,jesuits or ! c\ncils ( ! ,vatican4 ,x is ?is puls+ human he>t ( h]s :i* keeps h] alive1 n ! rigid intellectual dogmatism & antiquat$ !ology :i* %e exp\nds1 nor h] loyalty to ! e/abli%$ political ord]1 :i*1 sid+ ) ! ri* & p[]ful1 frequ5tly gives to ?is pr(ess$ly spiritual p[] a debas+ ta9t ( mat]ialism4 ,aga9/ all ?is1 & 9 vital opposition to ?is1 we h ! humanit>ians :o1 reject+ ! doctr9e ( corruption1 believe t human in/9cts & human reason !mselves make = goodness & = ,god4 ,:ile ,ca?olicism looks to ! pa/1 humanit>ianism looks =w>d1 believes 9 fre$om & 9 progress1 & reg>ds ! imman5t ,*ri/-_s z work+ 9 mank9d4 ,its gospel is "o ( love & bro!rhood1 a romantic doctr9e issu+ 9 love & pity = ! oppress$ & ! s9ful4 ,9 ! collective consci\sness ( mank9d x sees ! inc>nation1 ! gr[? ( ! imman5t ,god4 ,!re=e x claims t 9 democracy1 socialism & _w bro!rhood lies ! true ,*ri/ianity4 ,?is1 ! humanit>ians claim1 is ! true religi\s idealism--t :i* 0 prea*$ by ! ,f\nd] himself & :i* 8 ,*ur* has betray$4 ,! humanit>ians make s]vice to mank9d ! ess5ce ( religion1 & reg>d !mselves z m truly ,*ri/ian ?an ! ,*ur*4 ,9 ^? c\ntries :]e ,prote/antism has a l>ge foll[+1 ! two doctr9es ( humanit>ian optimism & ( ! or?odox pessimism reg>d+ human nature are confus$ vaguely toge!r4 ,! ,engli% m9d 9 p>ticul> is able to compromise & to bl5d ! two conflict+ philosophies 9 v>y+ degrees2 b 9 ! ,fr5* m9d its cle>] p5etration & m logical acum5 prev5t ?is4 ,! ,fr5*man is an ideali/ & t5ds to extremes1 ei!r t ( :ole-he>t$ devotion to a dom9at+ ,*ur* or t ( ! ab&onm5t ( organis$ religion4 ,9 ,prote/antism he sees only a halfway h\se1 built ^u ! fir/ pr9ciples ( criticism1 & unwill+ to pursue ^? pr9ciples to _! conclusion--namely1 ! rejection ( all organis$ ,*ur* religion1 ! adoption ( p]fect fre$om = ! individual 9 all matt]s ( belief1 a religion f\nd$ on fre$om & on p]sonal ?\ght :i* alone is free4 ,su* 7 ! two dom9ant notes 9 religi\s ?\ght 9 ,france at ! op5+ ( our p]iod4 ,ca?olicism resi/$ ! humanit>ianism ( #ahdh & /r5g!n$ its p[] aft] ! c\p d'tat4 ,! ,*ur* & ! ,vatican became m /aun* 9 _! opposition to all doctr9es ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,! ,fr5* cl]gy pr(it$ by ! alliance ) ! ari/ocracy1 :ile religi\s ord]s1 p>ticul>ly ! ,jesuits1 increas$ 9 numb] & 9 p[]4 ,veuillot proclaim$ ! virtues ( ,ca?olicism 9 8 writ+s4 ,mean:ile ! ,pope's temporal p[] decreas$1 b 8 spiritual p[] 0 increas+ 9 ext5t & 9 int5sity4 ,c5tralisation w5t on )9 ! ,*ur*1 & ,rome 7i4e41 ! ,pope & ! ,vatican7 became all-p[]ful4 ,j aft] ! half-c5tury op5s ! ,pope 7,pius ,,ix471 9 #ahed1 proclaim$ 8 au?ority 9 ann\nc+ ! dogma ( ! ,immaculate ,conception ( ! ,virg9 ,m>y4#d ,z ,france _h he>d ! s5t5ce1 ,l',etat1 c'e/ moi1 f ! lips ( "o ( its greate/ mon>*s1 x n[ he>d f ano!r qu>t] a simil> pr9ciple enunciat$1 ,l',eglise1 c'e/ moi4 ,z democracy & fre$om cri$ out aga9/ ! "o1 !y did s aga9/ ! o!r4 ,undaunt$1 ! ,vatican cont9u$ 9 its absolutism1 ev5 al?\gh x mu/ h se5 t 9 "s qu>t]s revolt w\ld be ! result4 ,t5 ye>s lat] ! ,pope attack$ ! :ole ( mod]n ?\ght1 to :i* he 0 diametrically oppos$1 9 8 encyclical ,quanta ,cura & 9 8 fam\s ,syllabus1 :i* con/itut$ a catalogue ( ! mod]n errors & h]esies :i* he condemn$4 ,?is fam\s *all5ge 0 q cle> & uncompromis+ 9 its attitude1 conclud+ ) a curse ^u 8him :o %\ld ma9ta9 t ! ,roman ,pontiff c1 & mu/1 be reconcil$ & compromise ) progress1 lib]alism & mod]n civilisation60 ,to ! doctr9e ( ,l',eglise1 c'e/ moi _h n[ be5 add$ t ( ,la ,sci5ce1 aussi1 c'e/ moi4 ,?is 0 n all4 ,9 #ahgj ! dogma ( ,papal ,infallibility 0 proclaim$4 ,by a /range irony ( hi/ory1 h[ev]1 ?is decl>ation ( spiritual absolutism 0 foll[$ by an entire loss ( temporal p[]4 ,! outbreak ( ! w> 9 t same ye> betwe5 ,france & ,prussia l$ to ! ha/y )drawal ( ,fr5* troops f ! ,papal ,doma9 & ! ,et]nal ,city fell to ! secul> p[] ( ! ,italian national army "u ,victor ,emmanuel4 #d ,?is new dogma ( ! ,immaculate ,conception ( ! ,virg9 mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be confus$1 z x (t5 is by ^? outside ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 ) ! q diff]5t & m anci5t proposition :i* ass]ts ! ,virg9 ,bir? ( ,jesus4 ,! defeat ( ,france at ! h&s ( ,prussia 9 #ahga issu$ 9 a revival ( religi\s s5tim5t1 frequ5tly se5 9 defeat$ nations4 ,a special mission or crusade ( national rep5tance ga!r$ 9 l>ge subscriptions :i* built ! enorm\s ,*ur* ( ! ,sacr ,coeur ov]look+ ,p>is f ! heights ( ,montm>tre4#e #e ,! anti-,ca?olic elem5t1 h[ev]1 h _h ! audacity1 & evid5tly ! legal "r1 to place a /atue to a man :o1 "s c5turies back1 0 burn$ at ! /ake = fail+ to salute a religi\s procession1 9 su* a position imm$iately 9 front ( ?is great *ur* t ! plan = ! l>ge /aircase _c be c>ri$ out4 ,seek+ = religi\s consolation1 ! ,fr5* p f\nd a ,ca?olicism :i* _h become embitt]$ & c5tralis$ = w>f>e ^u lib]al religion & humanit>ianism4 ,!y f\nd t ! only organis$ religion !y knew 0 dom9at$ by ! might ( ,rome & ! p[]s ( ! cl]gy4 ,^! ev5 wi%$ ,france1 demoralis$ z %e 0 = ! mom5t1 to und]take ! re/oration ( ! ,pope's temporal p[] 9 ,italy4 ,fur!r1 !y 7 def9itely 9 fav\r ( mon>*y3 8! alt> & ! ?rone0 7 intimately associat$ 9 ! ecclesia/ical m9d4 ,x 0 ! realisation ( ?is :i* prompt$ ,gambetta to cry out to ! ,?ird ,republic ) /]n w>n+1 8,cl]icalism is y\r enemy40 ,?us began ! political fight = :i* ,rome _h be5 /r5g!n+ h]self4 ,) ! defeat ( ! cl]ical-mon>*y p>ty 9 #ahgg ! safety ( ! ,republic 0 assur$4 ,f !n until #aije ! ,republic & ! ,*ur* f\ght ea* o!r4 ,educational que/ions 7 bitt]ly conte/$ 7#ahhj74 ,! p[] ( ! ,jesuits1 especially1 0 reg>d$ z a con/ant m5ace to ! ,/ate4 ,! ,dreyfus affair 7#ahid- #ahii7 did n improve relations1 ) its int5se anti-semitism & anti-cl]icalism4 ,! battle 0 only conclud$ by ! legislation ( ,waldeck-,r\sseau 9 #aija & ,combes 9 #aijc1 expell+ religi\s ord]s4 ,combes himself _h /udi$ = ! prie/hood & 0 viol5tly anti-cl]ical4 ,! culm9ation came 9 ! ,sep>ation ,law ( #aije c>ri$ by ,bri&1 9 ! ,pope's prote/ aga9/ ?is1 foll[$ by ! ,republic's confiscation ( mu* ,*ur* prop]ty1 a /ep :i* might h be5 avoid$ if ! ,fr5* ,ca?olics _h be5 all[$ to h _! way 9 an arrangem5t ) ! ,/ate reg>d+ _! *ur*es4 ,?is 0 prev5t$ by ! sev]ance ( diplomatic relations betwe5 ,france & ! ,vatican & by ! ,pope's disagreem5t ) ! ,fr5* ,ca?olics ^: wi%es he ignor$ 9 8 policy ( def9ite ho/ility to ! ,fr5* ,gov]nm5t4#f #f ,relations ) ! ,vatican1 :i* 7 se5 to be desirable dur+ ! ,great ,european ,w>1 h s9ce be5 resum$ 79 #aiba7 by ! ,republic4 ,dur+ our p]iod a popul> semi-nationali/ & semi-religi\s cult ( ,jeanne d',arc1 8! ,maid ( ,orleans10 appe>$ 9 ,france4 ,! cl]gy expressly enc\rag$ ?is1 ) ! def9ite object ( enli/+ s5tim5ts ( nationality & patriotism on ! side ( ! ,*ur*4 ,ecclesia/ical diplomacy at headqu>t]s quickly realis$ ! use :i* might be made ( ?is patriotic figure :om1 c5turies be=e1 ! ,*ur* _h ?\ght fit to burn z a wit*4 ,! ,vatican saw a possibility ( bl5d+ ,fr5* patriotism ) devotion to ,ca?olicism & ?us possibly /r5g!n+1 9 ! eyes ( ! populace at lea/1 ! wan+ cause ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! adoration ( ,jeanne d',arc 0 approv$ z e>ly z #ahid1 b :5 ! ,*ur* f\nd itself 9 a worse plight ) its relation to ! ,/ate1 x made prep>ations 9 #aijc = h] enrolm5t among ! sa9ts4#g ,%e 0 hon\r$ ! foll[+ ye> ) ! title ( 8,v5]able10 b 9 #aijh1 aft] ! break ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 %e 0 accord$ ! full /atus ( a sa9t1 & h] /atue1 symbolic ( patriotism militant1 /&s 9 mo/ ,fr5* *ur*es z conspicu\s (t5 z t ( ! ,virg91 :o1 9 curi\s contra/1 fondles ! "y *ild1 & expresses ! supreme lovel9ess ( mo!rhood4#h ,! cult ( ,jeanne d',arc fl\ri%$ p>ticul>ly 9 #aiad on ! s5tim5ts ( patriotism1 milit>ism & religiosity !n curr5t4 ,?is 0 natural because x is = ^! v s5tim5ts t %e /&s z a symbol4 ,%e is evid5tly a wor?y goddess ^: wor%ip is wor? :ile1 = we are assur$ t x 0 ?r\gh h] b5efic5t ef=ts t ! ,g]man ,army retir$ f ,p>is 9 #aiad & aga9 9 #aiah4 ,! sa9tly maid ( ,orleans reappe>$ & beat !m back6 ,su* is ! p[] ( ! 8culte0 :i* ! ,*ur* eag]ly fo/]s4 ,! ,sacr ,coeur also has its patriotic & milit>y uses1 figur+ z x did z an emblem on "s regim5tal flags on ! battlefield4 ,mean:ile1 ! celebrations ( ,napoleon's c5t5>y 7#aiba7 give rise to ! conjecture t he1 too1 w 9 "t rank ) ,joan ( ,arc z a sa9t4 ,8 canonisation w\ld a*ieve absolutely t union ( patriotic & religi\s s5tim5tality to :i* ! ,*ur* 9 ,france directs its activities4 #g t is int]e/+ to obs]ve ! lit]ature on ,jeanne d',arc publi%$ at ?is "t3 ,anatole ,france1 ,vie de ,jeanne d',arc 7#b vols41 #aijh72 ,dur&1 ,jeanne d',arc et l',eglise 7#aijh74 ,^! are notewor?y1 also ,&rew ,lang's "w1 ,! ,maid ( ,orleans 7also #aijh74 #h ,h]e91 und\bt$ly1 lies ! /rong appeal ( ! ,*ur* to wom54 ,! va/ majority ( ! #ci1jjj1jjj ,fr5* p are at lea/ nom9ally ,ca?olic1 ev5 if only f c\rtesy or f a utilit>ian po9t ( view4 ,only ab\t "o 9 sixty ( ! population are ,prote/ant4 ,al?\gh among cultur$ cons]vatives !re is a real devotion to ! ,*ur*1 ! cre$ ( ,france is 9 g5]al some?+ f> m broad & human ?an ,ca?olicism1 9 spite ( ! trem5d\sly human qualities :i* t ,*ur* possesses4 ,! cre$ ( ,france is summ$ up bett] 9 art1 nature1 beauty1 music1 sci5ce1 la patrie1 humanity1 9 ! wor%ip ( life itself4#i #i ,^? :o desire to /udy ! religi\s psy*ology ( ,france dur+ our p]iod _c f9d a bett] revelation ?an t giv5 9 ! wond]ful novel by ,rog] ,m>t9 du ,c>d1 entitl$ ,jean ,b>ois4 ,i ,x 0 aga9/ su* a backgr\nd ( ecclesia/ical & political affairs t ! play ( ideas ^u religion w5t on4 ,su* 0 ! environm5t1 ! tradition :i* surr\nd$ our ?9k]s1 & we may v firmly claim t only by a recognition t _! religi\s & national milieu 0 ( su* a type z we h outl9$1 c ! real significance ( _! religi\s ?\ght be und]/ood4 ,only :5 we h grasp$ ! ess5tial attitude ( au?ority & tradition ( ! ,roman ,*ur*1 its ru?less attitude to mod]n ?\ght ( all k9ds1 c we und]/& ! religi\s attitude ( m5 l ,r5an1 ,r5\vi] & ,guyau4 ,we are also enabl$ to see :y ! appeal ( ! ,sa9t-,simoni/ gr\p c\ld pres5t itself z a religi\s &1 inde$1 ,*ri/ian appeal outside ! ,*ur*4 ,x enables u to und]/& :y ,c\s9's spiritualism pleas$ nei!r ! ,ca?olics nor _! oppon5ts1 & to realise :y ! 8,religion ( ,humanity10 :i* ,augu/e ,comte inaugurat$1 made s little appeal4#aj ,?is has be5 well /yl$ an 8inv]t$ ,ca?olicism10 s9ce x endeav\rs to pres]ve ! ritual ( t religion & to embody ! doctr9es ( humanit>ianism4 ,naturally en\gh x drew ^u itself ! scorn ( bo? ^! gr\ps4 ,! ,ca?olic saw 9 x only blasphemy3 ! humanit>ian saw no way 9 :i* x might fur!r 8 ends4 #aj ,littr1 8 disciple1 z we h already not$1 reject$ ?is "p ( 8 ma/]'s tea*+4 ,littr 0 oppos$ by ,rob9et1 :o laid ! /ress ^u ! 8,religion ( ,humanity0 z ! cr[n ( ,comte's "w4 ,comte's attempt to base 8 new religion ^u ,ca?olicism 0 q delib]ate1 = he /rove to introduce analogies ) 8ev]y?+ great & deep :i* ! ,ca?olic sy/em ( ! ,middle ,ages effect$ or ev5 project$40 ,he (f]$ a new & fanta/ic tr9ity1 compil$ a cal5d> ( r5[n$ hi/orical p]sonalities1 to replace t ( unkn[n sa9ts4 ,he proclaim$ 8positive dogmas 8& aspir$ to all ! au?ority & infallibility ( ! ,roman ,pontiff1 support$ by a tra9$ cl]gy1 ^: ^w %\ld be law4 ,curi\sly en\gh he1 too1 _h 8 ana!mas1 9 t he _h days set ap>t = ! solemn curs+ ( ! great enemies ( ! human race1 su* z ,napoleon4 ,x 0 inde$ a rev]s$ ,ca?olicism1 (f]+ a fairly good c>icature ( ! me?ods ( ! ,roman ,*ur*1 & x 0 equally obnoxi\s 9 its tyrannical attitude4#aa ,:ile x pr(ess$ to express humanity & love z its c5tral ideas x proce$$ to outl9e a me?od :i* is ! utt] negation ( ^!4 ,comte made ! great mi/ake ( n realis+ t loyalty to ^! ideals mu/ involve spiritual fre$om1 & t ! religion ( humanity mu/ be a collective inspiration ( free individuals1 :o w 9 love & fell[%ip tol]ate diff]5ces ^u metaphysical que/ions4 ,uni=mity c only be mis*iev\s4 #aa ,guyau's criticisms ( ,comte's 8,religion ( ,humanity0 9 8 ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir are int]e/+4 8,! m>riage ( positive sci5ce & bl9d s5tim5t _c produce religion0 7p4 #cad2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #cff74 8,comtism1 :i* consi/s ( ! rites ( religion & no?+ else1 is an attempt to ma9ta9 life 9 ! body aft] ! dep>ture ( ! s\l0 7p4 #cjg2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #cei74 ,x 0 because he grasp$ ?is vital po9t t ,r5an's discussion ( ! religi\s "q is s in/ructive4 ,= him1 religion is ess5tially an affair ( p]sonal ta/e4 ,"h we h ano!r indication ( ! cle> way 9 :i* ,r5an 0 able to disc]n ! t5d5cies ( 8 "t4 ,he publi%$ 8 ,etudes d',hi/oire religieuse 9 #aheg1 & 8 ,preface to ! ,n\velles ,etudes d',hi/oire religieuse 0 writt5 9 #ahhd4 ,he claims !re t fre$om is ess5tial to religion1 & t x is absolutely necess>y t ! ,/ate %\ld h no p[] :atev] ov] x4 ,religion is z p]sonal & private a matt] z ta/e 9 lit]ature or art4 ,!re %\ld be no ,/ate laws1 he claims1 relat+ to religion at all1 any m ?an dress is prescrib$ = citiz5s by law4 ,he well po9ts out t only a ,/ate :i* is /rictly neutral 9 religion c ev] be absolutely free f play+ ! rle ( p]secutor4 ,! fav\r+ ( "o sect w entail "s p]secution or h>d%ip ^u o!rs4 ,fur!r1 he sees ! iniquity ( tax+ ! community to pay ! exp5ses ( cl]gy to ^: tea*+s !y may object1 or ^: doctr9es are n !irs4 ,fre$om1 ,r5an believ$1 w\ld claim its own 9 ! ne> future &1 d5\nc+ ! ,concordat1 he prophesi$ ! abolition ( ! ,/ate ,*ur*4 ,! wor/ type ( organisation ,r5an holds to be ! !ocratic /ate1 l ,islam1 or ! anci5t ,pontifical ,/ate 9 :i* dogma reigns supreme4 ,he condemns also ! ,/ate ^: religion is bas$ ^u ! pr(ession ( a majority ( its citiz5s4 ,!re %\ld be1 z ,sp9oza 0 wont to /yle x1 8lib]ty ( philosophis+40 ,! days ( ! dom9ance ( dogma are pass+1 9 _m qu>t]s gone by already1 8,religion has become = once & all a matt] ( p]sonal ta/e40 ,r5an himself 0 deeply religi\s 9 m9d4 ,he 0 nev] an a!i/ & did n c>e = ! t]m 8free-?9k]0 because ( its impli$ associations ) ! irreligion ( ! previ\s c5tury4 ,he /&s out1 h[ev]1 n only 9 our p]iod ( ,fr5* ?\ght1 b 9 ! _w developm5t ( ! c5tury z "o ( ! greate/ ma/]s ( religi\s criticism4 ,8 hi/orical "w is important1 & he possess$ a k & equipm5t = t task4 ,8 di/+ui%$ ,semitic s*ol>%ip l$ to 8 obta9+ ! *air ( ,hebrew at ! ,collge de ,france1 & enabl$ him to write 8 ,hi/ories1 "o ( ! ,jews & "o ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,x 0 z a volume ( ?is ,hi/oire des ,orig9es du ,*ri/ianisme t 8 ,vie de ,jsus appe>$ 9 #ahfc4 ,?is life ( ! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity produc$ a pr(\nd /ir 9 ! camps ( religi\s or?odoxy1 & drew ^u its au?or sev]e criticisms4 ,ap>t f ! p>ticul> views set =? 9 t volume1 we mu/ rememb] t ! v fact ( 8 writ+ ^u 8a sacr$ subject10 :i* 0 look$ ^u z a close pres]ve1 res]v$ = ! !ologians or *ur*m5 alone1 0 deem$ at t "t an orig9al & d>+ feat 9 ,france4 ,8 p>ticul> views1 :i* creat$ at ! "t su* sc&al1 7 ak9 to ^? ( ,baur & ! ,tub+5 ,s*ool1 :i* ,/rauss 7,r5an's contempor>y7 _h already set =? 9 8 ,leb5 ,jesu4#ab ,briefly1 !y may be express$ z ! rejection ( ! sup]natural4 ,h]e9 is se5 ! sci5tific or 8positive0 influ5ce at "w ^u ! dogmas ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 a t5d5cy :i* culm9at$ 9 8,mod]nism0 )9 ! ,*ur*1 only to be condemn$ viol5tly by ! ,pope 9 #aijg4 ,x 0 ?is temp]1 produc$ by ! /udy ( docum5ts1 by criticism & hi/orical rese>* :i* put ,r5an out ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,8 rational m9d c\ld n accept ! dogmas laid d[n4 ,lam5nais 7:o 0 cons]vative & or?odox 9 8 !ology1 & possess$ no ta9t ( 8mod]nism0 9 ! te*nical s5se7 _h decl>$ t ! />t+-po9t %\ld be fai? & n reason4 ,r5an aptly asks 9 reply to ?is1 8& :at is to be ! te/1 9 ! la/ resort1 ( ! claims ( fai? is n reason80 #ab ,writt5 9 #ahce4 ,littr issu$ a ,fr5* translation 9 #ahci1 a ye> previ\s to ! appe>ance ( ! ,engli% v]sion by ,george ,eliot4 ,/rauss's life cov]s #ahjh-ahgd4 ,9 ,r5an we f9d a good illu/ration ( ! work+ ( ! _s ( mod]n ?\ght ^u a religi\s m9d4 ,be+ a s9c]e & p5etrat+ intellect he c\ld n1 l s _m p1 le>n$ folk among !m1 keep 8 religi\s ideas & 8 reason 9 sep>ate wat]tight comp>tm5ts4 ,?is k9d ( p ,r5an lik5s 9 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse to "m-o'-pe>l %ells ( ,francois de ,sales 8:i* are able to live 9 ! sea )\t ta/+ a drop ( salt wat]40 ,yet he realises ! com=t ( su* an attitude4 8,i see ar\nd me10 he cont9ues1 8m5 ( pure & simple lives :om ,*ri/ianity has _h ! p[] to make virtu\s & happy4 4 4 4 ,b ,i h notic$ t none ( !m h ! critical faculty1 = :i* let !m bless ,god60 ,he well realises ! cont5tm5t :i*1 spr++ sometimes f a dullness ( m9d or lack ( s5sitiv5ess1 excludes all d\bt & all problems4 ,9 ,ca?olicism he sees a b> ( iron :i* w n reason or b5d4 8,i c only return to x by amputation ( my faculties1 by def9itely /igmatis+ my reason & condemn+ x to p]petual sil5ce40 ,writ+ ( 8 exit f ! ,sem9>y ( ,sa9t ,sulpice1 :]e he 0 tra9$ = ! prie/hood1 he rem>ks 9 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse t 8!re 7 times :5 ,i 0 sorry t ,i 0 n a ,prote/ant1 s t ,i might be a philosoph] )\t ceas+ to be a ,*ri/ian40 ,= ,r5an1 z = s _m m9ds 9 mod]n ,france1 sev]ance f ! ,roman ,*ur* is equival5t to sev]ance f ,*ri/ianity z an organis$ religion4 ,! practical dilemma is pres5t$ ( unque/ion+ ob$i5ce to an infallible ,*ur* on ! "o h&1 or ! attitude ( libre-p5seur on ! o!r4 ,!re are n ! accommodat+ v>ieties ( ! ,prote/ant pres5tation ( ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,r5an's spiritual pilgrimage is b an example ( _m4 ,9 a measure ?is condition ( affairs is a s\rce ( /r5g? to ! ,roman ,*ur* =1 s9ce a break ) x s (t5 means a break ) ,*ri/ianity or inde$ ) all def9ite religion1 only ! bold] & /rong] ?9k]s make ! break :i* _! intellect makes imp]ative4 ,! mass ( ! p1 h[ev] dissatisfi$ !y may be ) ! ,*ur*1 nev]!less accept x1 = !y see no alt]native b ! opposite extreme4 ,no half-way h\se ( non-con=mity pres5ts itself z a rule4 ,yet1 z we h insi/$1 ,r5an _h an ess5tially religi\s view ( ! univ]se1 & he expressly claim$ t 8 break ) ! ,*ur* & 8 criticism ( h] 7 due to a devotion to pure religion1 & he ev5 adds1 to a loyalty to ! _s ( h] ,f\nd]4 ,al?\gh1 z he rem>ks 9 8 ,n\velles ,etudes religieuses1 x is true t ! mo/ mode/ education t5ds to de/roy ! belief 9 ! sup]/iti\s elem5ts 9 religion1 x is none ! less true t ! v highe/ culture c nev] de/roy religion 9 ! highe/ s5se4 8,dogmas pass1 b piety is et]nal40 ,! ext]nal trapp+s ( religion h suff]$ by ! gr[? ( ! mod]n sci5ces ( nature & ( hi/orical criticism4 ,! m9d ( cultivat$ p]sons does n n[ pres5t ! same attitude to evid5ce 9 reg>d to religi\s doctr9es :i* 7 once accept$ )\t "q4 ,! s\rces ( ! orig9s ( ! ,*ri/ian religion are !mselves que/ionable4 ,?is1 ,r5an says1 mu/ n disc\rage ! believ]s 9 true religion1 = t is n ! k9d ( f\ndation ^u :i* religion reposes4 ,dogmas 9 ! pa/ gave rise to divisions & qu>rels1 only by feel+ c religi\s p]sons be unit$ 9 fell[%ip4 ,! mo/ prophetic words ( ,jesus 71 ,r5an po9ts out1 ^? 9 :i* he indicat$ a "t :5 m5 8w\ld n wor%ip ,god 9 ?is m\nta9 nor 9 ,j]usalem1 b :5 ! true wor%ipp]s w\ld wor%ip 9 _s & 9 tru?40 ,x 0 precisely ?is _s :i* ,r5an admir$ 9 ,jesus1 :om he consid]$ m ( a philosoph] ?an ! ,*ur*1 & he rem9ds ! 8,*ri/ians0#ac :o rail$ aga9/ him z an unbeliev] t ,jesus _h _h mu* m influ5ce ^u him ?an !y gave him cr$it =1 &1 m p>ticul>ly1 t 8 break ) ! ,*ur* 0 due to loyalty to ,jesus4 ,by su* loyalty ,r5an meant n a bl9d wor%ip1 b a rev]5ce :i* endeav\r$ to appreciate & foll[ ! ideals = :i* ,jesus himself /ood4 ,x did n involve slavi% acceptance ( all he said1 ev5 if t 7 intelligible1 & cle>1 :i* x is n4 8,to be a ,platoni/10 rem>ks ,r5an1 8,i ne$ n adore ,plato1 or believe all t he said40#ad #ac ,r5an compla9s ( ! ignorance ( ! cl]gy ( ,rome reg>d+ 8 own "w1 :i* !y did n und]/& because !y _h n read x1 m]ely rely+ on ! ,press & o!r s\rces = false & biass$ acc\nts4 #ad ,cf4 ,r5an's ,essay 9 ,que/ions contempora9es on 8,l',av5ir religieux des ,socits mod]nes40 ,r5an is 9 agreem5t ) ! c5tral ideas ( ,jesus' own fai?1 & he rightly reg>ds him z "o ( ! greate/ contributors to ! _w's religi\s ?\ght4 ,r5an's religion is free f sup]naturalism & dogma4 ,he believes 9 inf9ite ,goodness or ,provid5ce1 b he despises ! vulg> & crude conceptions ( ,god :i* s m> a truly religi\s outlook4 ,he po9ts out h[ pray]1 9 ! s5se ( a reque/ to ,heav5 = a p>ticul> object1 is becom+ recognis$ z fooli%4 #8,z a 8m$itation10 an int]view ) "o's own consci5ce1 x has a deeply religi\s value4 ,! vulg> idea ( pray] reposes on an immoral conception ( ,god4 ,r5an rightly sees ! c5tral importance = religion ( possess+ a sane view ( ! div9ity1 n "o :i* belongs to primitive tribal w>gods & wea!r-gods4 ,he aptly says1 9 ?is connection1 t ! "o :o 0 defeat$ 9 #ahga 0 n only ,france b le bon ,dieu to :i* %e 9 va9 appeal$4 ,9 8 place 0 to be f\nd1 rem>ks ,r5an ) a little s>casm1 8only a ,"l ,god ( ,ho/s :o 0 unmov$ by ! moral #8dlicatesse' ( ! ,uhlans & ! inconte/able excell5ce ( ! ,prussian %ells40#ae ,he rightly po9ts to ! immoral use made ( ! div9ity by pi\s folk ^: :ole religion is utilit>ian & mat]iali/ic4 ,!y d good only 9 ord] to get to heav5 or escape hell1#af & believe 9 ,god because x is necess>y = !m to h a confidant & sonsol]1 to :om !y may cry 9 "t ( tr\ble1 & to ^: w !y may resign$ly impute ! evil *a/isem5t :i* _! own errors h br\ght ^u !m individually or collectively4 ,b1 he rightly claims1 x is only :]e utilit>ian calculations & self-int]e/ end1 t religion beg9s ) ! s5se ( ! ,inf9ite & ( ! ,ideal ,goodness & ,beauty & ,love4 #ae ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques1 p4 ix4 #af ,"o pi\s individual ?\ght to conv]t ,r5an himself by writ+ him e mon?1 q briefly1 to ?is effect 8,!re is a hell40 ,he endeav\rs 9 8 ,exam5 de ,consci5ce philosophique 7#ahhh7 to sum up 8 attitude ^u ?is "q4 ,!re he affirms t x is beyond dispute or d\bt t we h no evid5ce :atev] ( ! action 9 ! univ]se ( "o or ( sev]al wills sup]ior to t ( man4 ,! actual /ate ( ?is univ]se gives no sign ( any ext]nal int]v5tion1 & we "k no?+ ( its beg9n+4 ,no b5efic5t int]f]+ p[]1 a deus ex ma*91 corrects or directs ! op]ation ( bl9d =ces1 enlight5s man or improves 8 lot4 ,no ,god appe>s miracul\sly to prev5t evils1 to cru% disease1 /op w>s1 or save 8 *ildr5 f p]il4 ,no end or purpose is visible to u4 ,god 9 ! popul> s5se1 liv+ & act+ z a ,div9e ,provid5ce1 is n to be se5 9 our univ]se4 ,! "q is1 h[ev]1 :e!r ?is univ]se ( ours is ! totality ( exi/5ce4 ,d\bt comes into play "h1 & if our univ]se is n ?is totality1 !n ,god1 al?\gh abs5t f 8 _w1 might /ill exi/ outside x4 ,our f9ite _w is little 9 relation to ! ,inf9ite1 x is a m]e speck 9 ! univ]se we "k1 & its duration to a div9e ,be+ might be only a day4 ,! ,inf9ite1 cont9ues ,r5an1 surr\nds our f9ite _w above & bel[4 ,x /ret*es on ! "o h& to ! inf9itely l>ge conc\rse ( worlds & sy/ems1 &1 on ! o!r1 to ! inf9itely little z atoms1 microbes & ! g]ms by :i* human life itself is pass$ on f "o g5]ation to ano!r4 ,! prospect ( ! _w we "k involves logically & fatally1 says ,r5an1 a!ism4 ,b ?is a!ism1 he adds1 may be due to ! fact t we _c see f> en\gh4 ,our univ]se is a ph5om5on :i* has _h a beg9n+ & w h an end4 ,t :i* has _h no beg9n+ & w h no end is ! ,absolute ,all1 or ,god4 ,metaphysics has always be5 a sci5ce proce$+ ^u ?is assumption1 8,some?+ exi/s1 !re=e some?+ has exi/$ f all et]nity40 :i* is ak9 to ! sci5tific pr9ciple1 8,no effect )- out a cause40#ag #ag ,exam5 de ,consci5ce philosophique1 p4 #dab ( ! volume ,feuilles dta*es4 ,we mu/ n all[ ourselves to be misl$ too f> by ! con/ructions or inductions ab\t ! uni=mity & immutability ( ! laws ( nature4 8,a ,god may reveal himself1 p]haps1 "o day40 ,! inf9ite may dispose ( our f9ite _w1 use x = its own ends4 ,! expression1 8,nature & its au?or10 may n be s absurd z "s seem to ?9k x4 ,x is true t our exp]i5ce pres5ts no reason = =m+ su* an hypo!sis1 b we mu/ keep our s5se ( ! inf9ite4 8,ev]y?+ is possible1 ev5 ,god10 & ,r5an adds1 8,if ,god exi/s1 he mu/ be good1 & he w f9i% by be+ j40 ,x is z fooli% to d5y z to ass]t 8 exi/5ce 9 a dogmatic & ?\ghtless mann]4 ,x is ^u ?is s5se ( ! inf9ite & ^u ! ideals ( ,goodness1 ,beauty & ,love t true fai? or piety reposes4 ,love1 decl>es ,r5an1 is "o ( ! pr9cipal revelations ( ! div9e1 & he lam5ts ! neglect ( x by philosophy4 ,x runs 9 a c]ta9 s5se ?r\gh all liv+ be+s1 & 9 man has be5 ! s*ool ( g5tl5ess & c\rtesy--nay m1 ( morals & ( religion4 ,love1 und]/ood 9 ! high s5se1 is a sacr$1 religi\s ?+1 or r is a "p ( religion itself4 ,9 a tone :i* recalls t ( ! ,new ,te/am5t & ,tol/oi1 ,r5an besee*es u to rememb] t ,god is ,love1 & t :]e ,love is !re ,god is4 ,9 lov+1 man is at 8 be/2 he goes out ( himself & feels himself 9 contact ) ! inf9ite4 ,! v act ( love is v]itably sacr$ & div9e1 ! union ( body & s\l ) ano!r is a holy communion ) ! inf9ite4 ,he rem>ks 9 8 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse1 d\btless rememb]+ ! simple purity & piety ( 8 "m & si/]1 t :5 reflection has br\ght u to d\bt1 & ev5 to a scepticism reg>d+ goodness1 !n ! spontane\s affirmation ( goodness & beauty :i* exi/s 9 a noble & virtu\s woman saves u f cynicism & re/ores u to communication ) ! et]nal spr+ 9 :i* ,god reflects himself4 ,love1 :i* ,r5an ) reason lam5ts z hav+ be5 neglect$ on its mo/ s]i\s side & look$ ^u z m]e s5tim5tality1 (f]s ! highe/ pro( ( ,god4 ,9 x lies our umbilical l9k ) nature1 b at ! same "t our communion ) ! inf9ite4 ,he recalls "s ( ,br[n+'s views 9 8 attitude to love z a r$eem+ p[]4 ,! mo/ wret*$ crim9al /ill has some?+ good 9 him1 a div9e sp>k1 if he be capable ( lov+4 ,x is ! _s ( love & goodness :i* ,r5an admires 9 ! simple fai? ( ^? sep>at$ f> f him 9 _! !ological ideas4 8,god =bid10 he says1#ah 8t ,i %\ld speak slight+ly ( ^? :o1 devoid ( ! critical s5se1 & impell$ by v pure & p[]ful religi\s motives1 are atta*$ to "o or o!r ( ! great e/abli%$ sy/ems ( fai?4 ,i love ! simple fai? ( ! peasant1 ! s]i\s conviction ( ! prie/40 #ah ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce1 pp4 #dcf1 #dcg2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #daj4 8,supprim] ,dieu1 s]ait-ce amo9drir l'univ]s80 asks ,guyau 9 "o ( 8 ,v]s d'un ,philosophe4'#ai ,r5an obs]ves t if we tell ! simple to live by aspiration aft] tru? & beauty1 ^! words w\ld h no mean+ = !m4 8,tell !m to love ,god1 n to (f5d ,god1 !y w und]/& y p]fectly4 ,god1 ,provid5ce1 s\l1 good old words1 r heavy1 b expressive & respectable :i* sci5ce w expla91 b w nev] replace ) advantage4 ,:at is ,god = humanity if n ! category ( ! ideal80#bj #ai 8,"q10 ,v]s d'un ,philosophe1 p4 #fe4 #bj ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce10 p4 #dgf2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #dde4 ,?is is ! po9t ^u :i* ,va*]ot insi/$ 9 8 treatm5t ( religion4 ,he claim$ t ! conception ( ,god arises 9 ! human consci\sness f a comb9ation ( two sep>ate ideas4 ,! fir/ is ! notion ( ! ,inf9ite :i* ,sci5ce itself approves1 ! second ! notion ( p]fection :i* ,sci5ce is unable to %[ u any:]e unless x be f\nd 9 ! human consci\sness & its ?\ghts1 :]e x abides z ! magnetic =ce ev] draw+ u onw>d & acts at ! same "t z a dynamic1 giv+ p[] to e progressive movem5t1 be+ 8! ,ideal0 9 ! m9d & he>t ( man4 ,simil> 0 ! doctr9e ( ,ta9e1 :o saw 9 ,reason ! ideal :i* w\ld produce 9 mank9d a new religion1 :i* w\ld be t ( ,sci5ce & ,philosophy dem&+ f art =ms ( expression 9 h>mony ) !mselves4 ,?is religion w\ld be free 9 doctr9e4 ,ta9e himself look$ ^u religion z 8a metaphysical poem accompani$ by belief10 & he approa*$ to ! conception ( ,sp9oza ( a contemplation :i* may well be call$ an 8intellectual love ( ,god40 ,,ii ,l ,r5an1 ,r5\vi] 0 ke5ly int]e/$ 9 religion & its problems2 he 0 also a ke5 oppon5t ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* & fai?1 aga9/ :i* he br\ght 8 influ5ce into play 9 two ways--by 8 no-criticisme z express$ 9 8 writt5 volumes & by 8 en]getic edit+ ( ! two p]iodicals ,la ,critique philosophique & ,la ,critique religieuse4 ,9 und]tak+ ! publication ( ^! p]iodicals ,r5\vi]'s confess$ aim 0 t ( a def9ite propag&a4 ,:ile ! ,roman ,*ur* pr(it$ by ! feel+s ( disappo9tm5t & demoralisation :i* foll[$ ! ,franco-,prussian ,w>1 & /rove to %eph]d wav]+ s\ls aga9 into its fold1 to f9d !re a peace :i* evid5tly ! _w c\ld n give1 ,r5\vi] 7toge!r ) 8 fri5d ,pillon7 endeav\r$ to rally 8 c\ntrym5 by urg+ ! importance1 &1 if possible1 ! acceptance ( 8 own political & religi\s convictions aris+ out ( 8 philosophy4 ,! ,critique philosophique appe>$ weekly f its comm5cem5t 9 #ahgb until #ahhd1 !reaft] z a mon?ly until #ahhi4 ,among its contributors1 ^: names are ( religi\s significance1 7 ,a4 ,sabati]1 ,l4 ,dauriac1 ,r4 ,alli]#ba & ,william ,james4 #ba ,n[ ,dean ( ! ,prote/ant ,faculty ( ,!ology 9 ,p>is4 ,r5\vi]'s great en?usiasm = 8 p]iodical is ! ma9 feature ( ?is p]iod ( 8 life1 al?\gh1 ow+ to 8 trem5d\s en]gy1 x does n seem to h int]f]$ ) ! publication ( 8 m p]man5t works4 ,! political & g5]al policy ( ?is j\rnal may be summ$ up 9 a s5t5ce f ! la/ ye>'s issue1#bb :]e we f9d ,r5\vi] rem>k+ t x _h be5 8 aim ?r\gh\t 8to uphold /rictly republican pr9ciples & to fight all t sav\r$ ( ,caes>1 or imp]ialism40 ,! decl>$ foe ( mon>*y 9 politics1 he 0 equally ! decl>$ foe ( ! ,pope 9 ! religi\s realm4 ,8 attitude 0 "o ( v m>k$ ho/ility to ! p[] ( ! ,vatican1 :i* he realis$ to be increas+ )9 ! ,roman ,*ur*1 & "o ( ke5 opposition to ! g5]al p[] ( t ,*ur* & h] cl]gy 9 ,france4 ,r5\vi]'s pap] 0 q def9itely & aggressively anti-,ca?olic4 ,he urg$ all ,ca?olic read]s ( 8 pap] :o pr(ess$ loyalty to ! ,republic to quit ! ,roman ,*ur* & to affiliate !mselves to ! ,prote/ant body4 #bb ,la ,critique philosophique1 #ahhi1 tome ii41 p4 #djc4 ,x 0 ) ?is precise object 9 view t1 9 #ahgh1 he add$ to 8 ,critique philosophique a supplem5t :i* he entitl$ ,la ,critique religieuse1 a qu>t]ly int5d$ purely = propag&a purposes4 8,criticism10 he _h said1 8is 9 philosophy :at ,prote/antism is 9 religion40#bc ,z c]titude is1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]'s doctr9es1 ! fruit ( intellig5ce1 he>t & w1 x c nev] be obta9$ by ! co]cion ( au?ority or by ob$i5ce su* z ! ,roman ,*ur* dem&s4 ,he appeal$ to ! te/imony ( hi/ory1 z a witness to ! conflict betwe5 au?ority & ! individual consci5ce4 ,jesus1 :om ! ,*ur* adores1 0 himself a sup]b example ( su* revolt4 ,hi/ory1 h[ev]1 %[s u1 says ,r5\vi]1 ! gradual decay ( au?ority 9 su* matt]s4 ,?\ght1 if x is really to be ?\ght 9 its s9c]ity1 mu/ be free4 ,?is ,r5\vi] realis$1 & 9 ?is fre$om he saw ! *>act]i/ic ( ! future developm5t ( religion1 & %[s himself1 9 ?is connection1 9 sub/antial agreem5t ) ,r5an & ,guyau4 #bc ,ibid41 #ahgc1 pp4 #ade-adf4 ,r5\vi]'s int]e/ 9 !ology & religion1 & 9 ! !ological implications ( all philosophical ?\ght1 0 n due m]ely to a purely speculative impulse1 b to a v practical desire to initiate a rational re/atem5t ( religi\s conceptions1 :i* he consid]$ to be an urg5t ne$ ( 8 "t4 ,he lam5t$ ! influ5ce ( ! ,roman ,*ur* ov] ! m9ds ( ! y\? ( 8 c\ntry1 & realis$ ! vital importance ( ! controv]sy betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate reg>d+ secul> education4 ,r5\vi] 0 a ke5 support] ( ! secul> s*ools 7coles laques74 ,9 #ahgi1 :5 ! educational controv]sy 0 at its height1 he issu$ a little book on e?ics = ^! in/itutions 7,petit ,trait de ,morale p\r les ,ecoles laques71 :i* 0 republi%$ 9 an enl>g$ =m 9 #ahhb1 :5 ! secul> p>ty1 ably l$ by ,jules ,f]ry1 triumph$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( compulsory1 free1 secul> education4 ,t great a*ievem5t1 h[ev]1 did n solve all ! difficulties pres5t$ by ! ,*ur* 9 its educational attitude1 & ev5 n[ ! influ5ce ( cl]icalism is dread$4 ,r5\vi] realis$ all ! dang]s1 b he 0 =c$ also to realise t 8 en?usia/ic & en]getic campaign aga9/ ! p[] ( ! ,*ur* _h fail$ to a*ieve :at he _h desir$4 ,he compla9$ ( receiv+ insuffici5t support f qu>t]s :]e he might well h expect$ x4 ,8 failure is a fairly conclusive pro( t ,prote/antism has no future 9 ,france3 x is a /ubborn survival1 r ?an a gr[+ influ5ce4 ,) ! decl9e 9 ! p[] & appeal ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* w come ! decl9e ( religion ( a dogmatic & organis$ k9d4 ,r5\vi] probably _h an influ5ce 9 ha/5+ ! day ( ! (ficial sev]ance ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 an ev5t :i* he did n live long en\gh to see4#bd #bd ,x occurr$1 h[ev]1 only two ye>s aft] 8 dea?4 ,hav+ become some:at disc\rag$1 ,r5\vi] /opp$ ! publication ( 8 religi\s qu>t]ly 9 #ahhe & made ! ,critique philosophique a mon?ly in/ead ( a weekly ,j\rnal4 ,x ceas$ 9 #ahhi1 b ! foll[+ ye> ,r5\vi]'s fri5d1 ,pillon1 began a new p]iodical1 :i* bore ! same "n z ! "o :i* _h ceas$ ) ! outbreak ( ! w> 9 #ahgj4 ,?is 0 ,l',anne philosophique1 to :i* ,r5\vi] contribut$ articles f "t to "t on religi\s topics4 ,"s writ]s are ( ! op9ion t ,r5\vi]'s attacks on ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* & fai?1 s f> f /r5g!n+ ! ,prote/ant p>ty 9 ,france1 t5d$ r to increase ! ho/ility to ! ,*ri/ian religion g5]ally or1 inde$1 to any religi\s view ( ! univ]se4 ,r5\vi]'s own /atem5ts 9 8 philosophy1 9 s f> z ^! conc]n religion & !ology1 are 9 h>mony ) 8 rejection ( ! ,absolute 9 philosophy & ! ,absolute 9 politics4 ,8 criticism ( ! idea ( ,god1 ! c5tral po9t 9 any philosophy ( religion1 is 9 t]ms simil> to 8 critique ( ! wor%ip ( ! ,absolute or ! deification ( ! ,/ate4 ,9 deal+ ) ! "q ( a 8,total ,syn!sis0 ,r5\vi] indicat$ 8 objections to ! metaphysical doctr9e ( an ,absolute1 :i* is diametrically oppos$ to 8 g5]al doctr9e ( relativity4 ,he is viol5tly 9 conflict ) all religi\s conceptions :i* sav\r ( ?is ,absolute or h a pan!i/ic emphasis1 :i* w\ld dim9i% ! value & significance ( relativity & ( p]sonality4 ,! 8,all-9-,all0 conception ( ,god1 :i* repres5ts ! pan!i/ic elem5ts 9 _m !ologies & religions1 bo? ,*ri/ian & o!r1 is n really a consci\sness1 he %[s1 = consci\sness itself implies a relation1 a union ( ! self & non-self4 ,9 su* a conception actor1 play & !atre all bl5d into "o1 ,god alone is real1 & he is unconsci\s1 = !re is1 accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 no?+ outside himself :i* he c "k4 ,r5\vi] realises t he is fac$ ) ! anci5t problem ( ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 ) ! alt]native ( unity or plurality4 ,) 8 usual logical decisiv5ess ,r5\vi] posits plurality4 ,he does n attempt to reconcile ! two opposites1 & he deals ) ! problem 9 ! mann] 9 :i* he fac$ ! ant9omies ( ,kant4 ,bo? _c be true1 & ! enemy ( pan!ism & absolutism acclaims pluralism1 bo? = logical reasons & 9 ord] to safegu>d ! significance ( p]sonality4 ,9 p>ticul> he directly criticises ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza 9 :i* he sees ! supreme /atem5t ( ?is philosophy ( ! et]nal1 ! p]fect1 necess>y1 un*ang+ ,"o1 :o is ! same ye/]day1 to-day & =ev]4 ,he admits t ! idea ( law or a sy/em ( laws leads to ! introduction ( some?+ approa*+ ! hypo!sis ( unity1 b he is c>eful to %[ by 8 doctr9e ( fre$om & p]sonality t ?is is only a limit$ unity & t1 consid]$ ev5 f a sci5tific /&po9t1 a ,total ,syn!sis1 :i* is ! logical outcome ( su* an hypo!sis1 is ultimately unt5able4 ,he ov]?r[s ! idols ( ,sp9oza & ,hegel4 ,su* absolutes1 inf9ite & et]nal1 :e!r describ$ z an inf9ite love :i* loves itself or a ?\ght ?9k+ ?\ght1 are no?+ m to ,r5\vi] ?an va9 words1 :i* x is absurd to (f] z 8,! ,liv+ ,god40 ,aga9/ ^! metaphysical erections ,r5\vi] opposes 8 doctr9es ( fre$om1 ( p]sonality1 relativity & pluralism4 ,he (f]s 9 contra/ ! conception ( ,god z a ,p]son1 n an ,absolute1 b relative1 n inf9ite1 b f9ite1 limit$ by man's fre$om & by cont+5cy 9 ! _w ( creatures4 ,god1 9 8 view1 is n a ,be+ :o is omnipot5t1 or omnisci5t4 ,he is a ,p]son ( :om man is a type1 c]ta9ly a degrad$ type1 b man is made 9 ! image ( ! div9e p]sonality4 ,our notion ( ,god1 ,r5\vi] rem9ds u1 mu/ be consi/5t ) ! doctr9e ( fre$om1 h5ce we mu/ conceive ( him n m]ely z a creator ( creatures or subjects1 b ( creative p[] itself 9 ^? creatures4 ,! relation ( ,god to man is m complex ?an t ( simple 8creation0 z ?is ^w is usually compreh5d$1 8,x is a creation ( creation10 says ,r5\vi]1#be a rem>k :i* is p>allel to ! view express$ by ,b]gson1 to ! effect t1 we mu/ conceive ( ,god z a 8creator ( creators40#bf ,! exi/5ce ( ?is ,creative ,p]son mu/ be conceiv$1 ,r5\vi] insi/s1 z indissolubly b\nd up ) 8 "w1 & x is un9telligible o!rwise4 ,t "w is "o ( creation & n emanation--x involves m ?an m]e p[] & transc5d5ce4 ,god is imman5t 9 ! univ]se4 #be ,psy*ologie ralionnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ajd4 #bf ,9 8 address to ! ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,society1 #aiad4 ,!ology has wav]$ betwe5 ! two views--t ( absolute transc5d5ce & omnipot5ce & t ( imman5ce bas$ on fre$om & limitation4 ,9 ! fir/1 e s+le ?+ dep5ds ^u ! op]ation ( ,god1 ^: ,provid5ce rules all4 ,?is is pure det]m9ism ( a !ological "*4 ,9 ! o!r view man's free p]sonality is recognis$2 "p ( ! creation is look$ ^u z p>tak+ ( fre$om & cont+5cy1 !re=e ! div9ity is conceiv$ z limit$ & f9ite4 ,r5\vi] insi/s t ?is view ( ,god z f9ite is ! only t5able "o1 = x is ! only "o :i* gives a rational & moral explanation ( evil4 ,9 ! fir/ view ,god is responsible = all ?+s1 evil includ$1 & man is !re=e mu* sup]ior to him f a moral /&po9t4 ,! idea ( ,god mu/ be e?ically acceptable1 & x is un=tunate t ?is idea1 s c5tral to religion1 is ! lea/ susceptible to modification 9 h>mony ) man's e?ical developm5t4 ,we already h notic$ ,guyau's /ress ^u ?is po9t 9 our discussion ( e?ics4 ,our conception ( ,god mu/1 ,r5\vi] claims1 be ! affirmation ( our highe/ category1 ,p]sonality1 & mu/ express ! be/ e?ical ideals ( mank9d4 ,society suff]s = its immoral & primitive view ( ,god1 :i* gives to its religion a b>b>\s "* :i* is disgraceful & revolt+ to f9] or m ?\ghtful m9ds4 ,x is true t ! acceptance ( ! second view1 :i* c>ries ) x ! complete rejection ( ! ideas ( omnipot5ce & omnisci5ce1 modifies pr(\ndly _m ( ! old & primitive views ( ,god4 ,r5\vi] recognises ?is1 & wi%es 8 read]s also to grasp ?is po9t1 = only s is religion to be br\ght =w>d 9 a developm5t h>moni\s ) ! gr[? ( man's m9d 9 o!r sph]es4 ,man %\ld n pr(ess ! results ( elaborate culture 9 sci5ce :ile he pr(esses at ! same "t doctr9es ( ,god :i* are n above ^? ( a savage or primitive p4 ,?is is ! *ief mis*ief :i* ! influ5ce ( ! ,hebrew writ+s ( ! ,old ,te/am5t has _h ^u ! ,*ri/ian religion4 ,! moral consci5ce n[ dem&s _! rejection1 = to ^? :o value religion !y c only appe> z be+ ( pure blasphemy4 ,god is nei!r omnipot5t nor omnisci5t1 consequ5tly _m ?+s mu/ be unkn[n to him until !y happ54 ,=ekn[l$ge & pr$et]m9ation on 8 "p are impossible1 accord+ to ,r5\vi]4 ,god is n to be conceiv$ z a consci\sness envelop+ ! entire univ]se1 pa/1 pres5t & future1 9 a total syn!sis4 ,su* a belief is mis*iev\s to humanity because ( its fatalism1 9 spite ( ! com=table consolation x (f]s to pi\s s\ls4 ,moreov]1 x pres5ts ! absurd view ( ,god work+ (t5 aga9/ himself4 ,! idea ( ,god1 ,r5\vi] %[s1 arises out ( ! discussions ( ! nature ( ! univ]sal laws ( ! univ]se & f ! progress ( p]sonalities4 ,! plausible conceptions ( ,god bas$ on causality & on 8necess>y ess5ce0 h n surviv$ ! onslaughts ( ,criticism4 ,! p]sonality ( ,god seems to u1 says ,r5\vi]1 indicat$ z ! conclusion & ! almo/ necess>y culm9ation ( ! consid]ation ( ! probabilities laid d[n by ! practical reason or moral law4 ,! prim>y1 ?\gh n primitive1 evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( ,god is conta9$ 91 & results f1 ! g5]alisation ( ! idea ( 8ends0 9 ! univ]se4 ,we mu/ n g bevond ph5om5a or seek evid5ce 9 "s fictiti\s sph]e outside ( our exp]i5ce4 ,9 its mo/ g5]al & ab/ract s5se ! idea ( ,god arises f ! conception ( moral ord]1 immortality1 or ! accord ( happ9ess & goodness4 ,we _c d5y ! exi/5ce ( a morality 9 ! ord] & movem5ts ( ! _w1 a physical sanction to ! moral laws ( virtue & ( progress1 an ext]nal reality ( good1 a supremacy ( good1 a witness ( ! ,good itself4 ,r5\vi] does n ?9k t any man1 hav+ suffici5tly develop$ 8 ?\ght1 w\ld refuse to give ! "n ,god to ! object ( ?is supreme conception1 :i* at fir/ may seem ab/ract because x is n 9 any way crude1 _m ( its intr9sic elem5ts rema9+ undet]m9$ 9 face ( our ignorance1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 or j = t v reason1 is ess5tially practical & moral1 repres5t+ ! mo/ notable fact ( all ^? includ$ 9 our belief4 ,?is me?od ( approa*+ ! problem ( ,god is1 he ?9ks1 bo? simple & gr&4 ,x is a noble contra/ to ! s*ola/ic edifice built up on ! metaphysical p]fection ( be+1 call$ ! ,absolute4 ,9 ?is conception all attributes ( p]sonality are replac$ by an accumulation ( metaphysical prop]ties1 contradictory 9 !mselves & q incompatible ) "o ano!r4 ,?is ,absolute is a pure *im]ical ab/raction2 its pure be+ & pure ess5ce are equival5t to pure no?+ or pure nons5se4 ,! feti% ( pure sub/ance1 sub/antial cause1 absolute be+1 :atev] x be call$1 is vici\s at all times1 b p>ticul>ly :5 we are deal+ ) ! fundam5tal problems ( sci5ce4 ,x w\ld be advisable "h t ! only me?od ( inve/igation be t ( a!ism1 = sci5tific inve/igation %\ld n be ta9t$ by any prejudices or preconceiv$ ideas ^u ! nature ( ! div9ity4 ,:at really is ,a!ism8 ,! answ] to ?is qu]y1 says ,r5\vi]1 is cle>4 ,! idea ( ,god is ess5tially a product ( ! moral law or consci5ce4 ,an a!i/ is1 /rictly speak+1 "o :o does n admit ! reality ( ?is moral ord] ( ends & ( p]sons z valuable 9 !mselves4 ,v]ily1 he himself may p]sonally lead a mu* m upright life ?an ! l\d *ampions ( !ism1 b he d5ies ! g5]al moral ord]1 :i* is ,god4 ,) ! epi!t ( a!i/ z commonly us$ = ^? :o m]elv h a conception ( ,god :i* diff]s f ! or?odox view1 we are n "h conc]n$4 ,t may be dismiss$ z a misuse ( ! ^w due to religi\s bigotry4 ,! fruits ( true a!ism are mat]ialism1 pan!ism & fatalism4 ,inde$ any doctr9e1 ev5 a !ological doctr9e1 :i* debases & de/roys ! inh]5t value ( ! human consci\sness & p]sonality1 is rightly to be reg>d$1 :atev] x may say ab\t ,god1 h[ev] x may repeat 8 "n 7& two ( ^! doctr9es are v fond ( ?is repetition1 b ?is mu/ n bl9d u to ! real issue7--t doctr9e is a!i/ic4 ,! mo/ resolute mat]iali/s1 ! mo/ high-m9d$ wor%ipp]s ( ,provid5ce & ! great philosoph]s ( ! ,absolute1 f9d !mselves unit$ "h 9 a!ism4 ,god is n a m]e totality ( laws op]at+ 9 ! univ]se4 ,su* a !ism is b a =m ( real a!ism4 ,we mu/1 insi/s ,r5\vi]1 ab&on views ( ?is type1 ) all t sav\rs ( an ,absolute1 a ,p]fect ,inf9ite1 & affirm our belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( an ord] ( ,goodness :i* gives value to human p]sonality & assures ultimate victory to ,ju/ice4 ,?is is to believe 9 ,god4 ,we arrive at ?is belief rationally & aft] consid]ation ( ! _w & ( ! moral law ( p]sons4 ,?r\gh ^! we come to ,god4 ,we d n beg9 ) him & pret5d to d$uce ^! f 8 nature by "s incompreh5sible a priori propositions4 ,! me?ods ( ! old dogmatic !ology are rev]s$4 ,in/ead ( beg9n+ ) a ,be+ ( :om we "k no?+ & c obvi\sly d$uce no?+1 let u proce$ inductively1 & by c>eful consid]ation ( ! revelation we h be=e u 9 ! _w & 9 humanity let u build up our idea ( ,god4 ,r5\vi] is anxi\s t we %\ld exam9e ! data ^u :i* we may f\nd 8rational hypo!ses0 z to ! nature ( ,god4 ,! ,critical ,philosophy has upset ! demon/rations ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 :i* 7 bas$ ^u causality & ^u necess>y exi/5ce 7! cosmological & ontological pro(s74 ,neo-criticism n only e/abli%es ! exi/5ce ( ,god z a rational hypo!sis1 b 8?is po9t ( view ( ! div9e problem is ! mo/ fav\rable to ! notion ( ! p]sonality ( ,god4 ,! p]sonality ( ,god seems to u to be indicat$ z ! look$-= conclusion & almo/ necess>y consummation ( ! probabilities ( practical reason40#bg #bg ,psy*ologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cjj4 ,! admission ( ends1 ( f9ality1 or purpose 9 ! univ]se is frequ5tly giv5 z involv+ a supreme consci\sness embrac+ ?is teleology4 ,also x is argu$ t ,good c\ld n exi/ 9 its g5]ality save 9 an ext]nal consci\sness--t is1 a div9e m9d4 ,by recall+ ! objections to a total syn!sis ( ph5om5a1 ,r5\vi] refutes bo? ^! argum5ts :i* re/ ^u errone\s me?ods 9 ontology & 9 !ology4 ,! explanation ( ! _w by ,god1 z 9 ! cosmological argum5t1 is fanciful1 :ile ! ontological argum5t leads u to erect an un9telligible & illogical absolute4 ,r5\vi] reg>ds ,god z exi/+ z a g5]al consci\sness correspond+ to ! g5]ality ( ends :i* man himself f9ds be=e him1 f9ite1 limit$ 9 p[] & 9 k4 ,b 9 av[+ ?is ,god1 ,r5\vi] po9ts him out to u z ! fir/ ( all be+s1 a be+ l !m1 n an absolute1 b a p]sonality1 possess+ 7& ?is is important7 ! p]fection ( morality1 goodness & ju/ice4 ,he is ! supreme p]sonality 9 action1 & z a p]fect p]son he respects ! p]sonality ( o!rs & op]ates on our _w only 9 ! degree :i* ! fre$om & individuality ( p]sons :o are n himself c p]mit him1 & )9 ! limits ( ! g5]al laws "u :i* he repres5ts to himself 8 own envelop$ exi/5ce4 ,?is is ! hypo!sis ( unity r5d]$ intelligible1 & z su* ,r5\vi] claims t x bridges 9 a m>vell\s mann] ! gap always deem$ to exi/ betwe5 mono!ism & poly!ism--! two great curr5ts ( religi\s ?\ght 9 humanity4 ,! mono!i/s h appe>$ intol]ant & fanatical 9 _! religion & 9 _! deity 7n 9 s f> z x 0 manife/ 9 ! ?\ghts ( ! simple1 :o pr(ess$ a fai? ( ! he>t1 b z %[n 9 ! ambiti\s !ology ( books & ( s*ools71 be>+ on _! bann] ! signs ( a jeal\s deity1 wi%+ no o!r gods b himself1 decl>+ to 8 aw$ wor%ipp]s3 8,i am t ,i am2 h no o!r gods b me60 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! poly!i/ic peoples h be5 wor%ipp]s ( beauty & goodness 9 all ?+s1 & :]e !y saw ^! ?+s !y creat$ a deity4 ,!y 7 m conc]n$ ) ! immortality ( good s\ls ?an ! et]nal exi/5ce ( "o supreme be+2 !y 7 free-?9k]s1 creators ( beauty & seek]s aft] tru?1 & believ]s 9 fre$om4 ,! humanism ( ,greece /&s 9 contra/ to ! idolatr\s !ocracy ( ! ,hebrews4 ,! unity ( ,god previ\sly m5tion$ does n exclude ! possibility ( a plurality ( div9e p]sons4 ,god ! "o w\ld be ! fir/ & =emo/1 rex hom9um deorumque4 ,"s !re may be t rise ?r\gh sa9tl9ess to div9ity1 ,sons ( ,god1 p]sons surpass+ man 9 intellig5ce1 p[] & morality4 ,to take sides 9 ?is matt] is equival5t to pr(ess+ a p>ticul> religion4 ,we mu/ avoid ! absoluti/ _s 9 religion no less ?an 9 philosophy4 ,by ?is ,r5\vi] means t brutal fanaticism :i* prohibits ! ,gods ( o!r p by passion & hatr$1 :i* aims at e/abli%+ & impos+ its own ,god 7:i* is1 aft] all1 b its own idea ( ,god7 z ! imp]iali/ plants 8 flag1 8 k9d & 8 cu/oms 9 new t]ritory1 9 ! _s ( w> & conque/4 ,su* a 8holy w>0 is an outrage1 bas$ n ^u real religion1 b on intol]ant fanaticism 9 :i* fre$om & ! inh]5t rights ( p]sonality to con/ruct its own p>ticul> fai? are d5i$4 ,r5\vi] f9ds a p>allelism betwe5 ! wor%ip ( ! ,/ate 9 politics & ( ! ,"o ,god 9 religion4 ,! sy/ems 9 :i* unity or plurality ( div9e p]sonality appe>s diff] f "o ano!r 9 ! same way 9 :i* mon>*al & republican ideas diff]4 ,mon>*y 9 religion (f]s ! same ob/acles to progress z x has done 9 politics4 ,x involves a p>allel enslavem5t ( "o's entire self & goods1 a conscription :i* is hateful to fre$om & detrim5tal to p]sonality4 ,to ?is supreme & regal ,provid5ce all is due2 x alone 9 any real s5se exi/s4 ,p]sons are %ad[s1 ( no reality1 s]fs less ?an ! du/1 to :om a mis]able dole is giv5 call$ grace1 = :i* pray] & sacrifice are to be unceas+ly made or *a/isem5ts f ! ,almighty w foll[4 ,?is notion is ! product ( mon>*y 9 politics1 & ) mon>*y x w p]i%4 ,! two are b\nd up1 = 8by ! grace ( ,god0 we are told mon>*s hold _! ?rones1 by 8 fav\r _! sceptre sways & _! battalions move on to victory4 ,?is mon>*al ,god1 ?is ,k+ ( k+s & ,"l ( ho/s1 rul] ( heav5 & e>?1 is ! la/ refuge ( mon>*s on ! e>?4 ,confid5ce 9 bo? has be5 %ak51 & bo?1 ,r5\vi] ass]ts1 w disappe> & give place to a real democracy1 n only to republics on e>?1 b to ! conception ( ! :ole univ]se z a republic4 ,m5 raise up sa9ts & int]cessors to bridge ! gulf betwe5 ! div9e ,mon>* & 8 slaves4 ,!y conceive angels z do+ 8 "w 9 heav52 !y tol]ate prie/s to br+ d[n grace to !m "h & n[4 ,! doctr9e ( unity ?us gives rise to fanatical religi\s devotion or philosophical belief 9 ! absolute1 :i* /ifles religion & p]i%es 9 its own turn4 ,! doctr9e ( immortality1 bas$ on ! belief 9 ! value ( human p]sonality1 leads u away f mon>*y to a republic ( free spirits4 ,a democratic religion 9 ?is s5se w display human nature rais$ to its highe/ dignity by virtue ( an en]getic affirmation ( p]sonal lib]ty1 tol]ance1 mutual respect & lib]ty ( fai?--a free religion )\t prie/s or cl]icalism1 n 9 conflict ) sci5ce & philosophy1 b enc\rag+ ^! pursuits & 9 turn enc\rag$ by !m4#bh #bh ,! fulle/ treatm5t ( ?is is ! l>ge section 9 ! conclusion to ! ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire 7tome iv474 ,cf4 also ! discussion ( ! influ5ce ( religi\s beliefs on societies 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ,la ,n\velle ,monadologie4 ,,iii ,ravaisson1 9 f\nd+ ! new spiritual philosophy1 pr(ess$ c]ta9 doctr9es :i* 7 a bl5d+ ( ,hell5ism & ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ?\ght :i* 0 dom9at$ by positivism1 naturalism or mat]ialism1 or by a %all[ eclecticism1 :]e9 religi\s ideas 7 r held 9 contempt1 he issu$ a *all5ge on behalf ( spiritual values & ideals4 ,beauty1 love & goodness1 he decl>$1 7 div9e4 ,god himself is ^! ?+s1 said ,ravaisson1 & ! div9ity is 8n f> f any ( u40 ,9 s f> z we manife/ ^! qualities we approa* ! p]fect p]sonality ( ,god himself4 ,9 ! inf9ite1 9 ,god1 w is id5tical ) love1 :i* itself is n di/+ui%$ f ! absolutely good & ! absolutely beautiful4 ,?is love c gov]n our wills2 ! love ( ! beautiful & ! good c op]ate 9 our lives4 ,9 s f> z ?is is s1 we p>ticipate 9 ! love & ! life ( ,god4 ,b\tr\x agrees sub/antially ) ,ravaisson1 b he lays m /ress ^u ! free creative p[] ( ! deity z imman5t4 8,god10 he rem>ks 9 8 !sis1 8is n only ! creator ( ! _w1 he is also its ,provid5ce1 & wat*es ov] ! details z well z ov] ! :ole40#bi ,god is ?us an imman5t & creative p[] 9 8 _w z well z ! p]fect be+ ( supreme goodness & beauty4 ,b\tr\x "h f9ds ?is problem ( div9e imman5ce & transc5d5ce z important z does ,blondel1 & 8 attitude is l t ( ,blondel1 midway betwe5 t ( ,ravaisson & ,b]gson4 #bi ,la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #aej4 ,religion1 ,b\tr\x urges1 mu/ %[ man t ! supreme ideal = him is to realise 9 8 own nature ?is idea ( ,god4 ,!re is an obligation ^u man to pursue aft] ^! ?+s-goodness1 tru?1 beauty & love--= !y are 8 good1 !y are ! ,good2 !y are1 inde$1 ,god4 ,9 !m is a h>mony :i* satisfies 8 :ole nature1 & :i* does n neglect or cru% any aspect ( "*1 z n>r[ conceptions ( religion inevitably d4 ,b\tr\x insi/s ^u ! necessity = intellectual satisfaction1 & opposes ! 8philosophy ( action0 9 ils doctr9e ( 8fai? = fai?'s sake40 ,at ! same "t he conceives ,reason z a h>mony1 n m]ely a coldly logical ?+4 ,feel+ & w mu/ be satisfi$ also4#cj #cj ,b\tr\x has 9 8 volume1 ,sci5ce et ,religion dans la ,philosophie contempora9e1 contribut$ a lum9\s & p5etrat+ discussion ( v>i\s religi\s doctr9es f ,comte to ,william ,james4 ,?is 0 publi%$ 9 #aijh4 ,we h obs]v$ already h[ ,f\ille claim$ t ! e?ics ( 8 ides-=ces conta9$ ! gi/ ( :at 0 valuable 9 ! _w religions4 ,he claims t philosophy includes "u ! =m ( rational belief or ?\ght :at ! religions include z in/9ctive belief4 ,9 religion he sees a spontane\s type ( metaphysic1 :ile metaphysic or philosophy is a rationalis$ religion4 ,no?+ 9 ?is connection is m important ?an a rational & h>moni\s view ( ,god4 ,?is he insi/s ^u 9 8 !sis & 9 8 ,sket* ( ! ,future ( a ,metaphysic f\nd$ on ,exp]i5ce4 ,! old idea ( ,god 0 t ( a mon>* gov]n+ ! _w z a despot gov]ns 8 subjects4 ,! gov]nm5t ( ! univ]se may /ill be held to be a mon>*y1 b mod]n sci5ce is c>eful to assure u t x mu/ be reg>d$ z an absolutely con/itutional mon>*y4 ,! mon>*1 if !re be "o1 acts 9 accordance ) ! laws & respects ! e/abli%$ con/itution4 ,reason obliges u to conceive ( ! sov]eign3 exp]i5ce enlight5s u z to ! con/itution4 ,!re c be little d\bt t "o ( ! _w's greate/ books ^u religion is ! "w ( ,guyau1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahhf1 be>+ ! arre/+ title1 ,l',irreligion de l',av5ir4 ,its sub-title describes x z an ,etude sociologique1 & x is ?is treatm5t ( ! subject f ! /&po9t ( sociology :i* is su* a di/9ctive feature ( ! book4 ,! notion ( a social bond betwe5 man & ! p[]s sup]ior to him1 b resembl+ him1 is1 claims ,guyau1 a po9t ( unity 9 :i* all religions are at "o4 ,! f\ndation ( ! religi\s s5tim5t lies 9 sociality1 & ! religi\s man is j ! man :o is dispos$ to be sociable1 n only ) all liv+ be+s :om he meets1 b ) ^? :om he imag9atively creates z gods4 ,guyau's !sis1 briefly put1 is t religion is a manife/ation ( life 7aga9 he insi/s on 8,life10 z 9 8 ,e?ics1 z a c5tral conception71 becom+ self-consci\s & seek+ ! explanation ( ?+s by analogies drawn f human society4 ,religion is 8sociomorphic0 r ?an m]ely an?ropomorphic2 x is1 inde$1 a univ]sal sociological hypo!sis1 my?ical 9 =m4 ,! religi\s s5tim5t expresses a consci\sness ( dep5d5ce1 & 9 addition1 adds ,guyau1 x expresses ! ne$ ( affection1 t5d]ness & love--t is to say1 ! 8social0 side ( man's nature4 ,9 ! conception ( ! ,great ,companion or ,lov+ ,fa!r1 humanity f9ds consolation & hope4 ,*ildr5 & wom5 readily turn to su* an ideal1 & primitive peoples1 :o are j l *ildr51 conceive ( ! deity z sev]e & all- p[]ful4 ,to ?is conception moral attributes 7 subsequ5tly add$1 z man's own moral consci5ce develop$1 & x n[ issues 9 a doctr9e ( ,god z ,love4 ,all ?is developm5t is1 toge!r ) t ( e/hetics & e?ics1 a manife/ation ( life 9 its individual & m especially social manife/ations4 ,x is ! purpose ( ,guyau's book n only to pres5t a /udy ( ! evolution ( religion 9 ?is mann]1 f a sociological po9t ( view1 b to indicate a fur!r developm5t ( :i* ! beg9n+s are already manife/--namely1 a decomposition ( all sy/ems ( dogmatic religion4 ,x is prim>ily ! decay ( dogma & ecclesia/icism :i* he int5ds to indicate by ! ,fr5* t]m irrligion4 ,! ,engli% translation ( 8 "w be>s ! title ,! ,non-religion ( ! ,future4 ,_h ,guyau be5 writ+ & liv+ 9 ano!r c\ntry x is und\bt$ly true t 8 "w w\ld probably h be5 entitl$ ,! ,religion ( ! ,future4 ,ow+ to ! ,roman ,ca?olic environm5t & ! conception ( religion 9 8 own l&1 he 01 h[ev]1 oblig$ to ab&on ! use ( ! ^w religion altoge!r4 ,9 ord] to avoid misund]/&+1 we mu/ exam9e ! s5se he gives to ?is ^w1 & %all see !n t 8 title is n meant to convey ! impression ( be+ anti-religi\s 9 ! wide/ s5se1 nor is x irreligi\s 9 ! ,engli% mean+ ( t ^w4 ,guyau consid]s e positive & hi/orical religion to pres5t ?ree di/9ct & ess5tial elem5ts3 ,an attempt at a my?ical & non-sci5tific explanation ( 7a7 natural ph5om5a--e4g41 int]v5tion1 miracles1 efficaci\s pray]2 7b7 hi/orical facts--e4g41 inc>nation ( ,buddha or ,jesus4 ,a sy/em ( dogmas--t is to say1 symbolic ideas or imag9ative beliefs--=cibly impos$ ^u "o's fai? z absolute v]ities1 ev5 ?\gh !y are susceptible to no sci5tific demon/ration or philosophical ju/ification4 ,a cult & a sy/em ( rites or ( wor%ip1 made up ( m or less immutable practices :i* are look$ ^u z possess+ a m>vell\s efficacy ^u ! c\rse ( ?+s1 a propitiatory virtue4#ca #ca ,l',irrligion de l',av5ir1 p4 xiii2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #aj4 ,by ^! ?ree diff]5t & really organic elem5ts1 religion is cle>ly m>k$ (f f philosophy4 ,ow+ to ! /ability ( ^! elem5ts religion is apt to be c5turies beh9d sci5ce & philosophy1 & consequ5tly reconciliation is only effect$ by a subtle process :i*1 :ile ma9ta9+ ! traditional dogmas & phrases1 evolves a new int]pretation ( !m suffici5tly mod]n to h>monise a little m ) ! advance 9 ?\ght1 b :i* pres5ts a false appe>ance ( /ability & consi/5cy1 disguis+ ! real *ange ( mean+1 ( view-po9t & ( doctr9e4 ,( ?is ef=t we %all see ! mo/ notable in/ance is t ( ! 8,mod]ni/s0 or ,neo-,ca?olics 9 ,france & ,italy1 & ! ,lib]al ,*ri/ians 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica4 ,guyau claims t ^! new] int]pretations1 subtle & useful z !y are1 & frequ5tly ! ass]tions ( m9ds :o desire s9c]ely to adapt ! anci5t traditions to mod]n ne$s1 are 9 !mselves hypocritical1 & ! ,*ur* 9 a s5se does "r to oppose !m4 ,guyau _c see any satisfactor9ess 9 ^! compromises & adaptations :i* lack ! cle>ness ( ! old tea*+1 :i* !y 9 a s5se betray1 :ile !y d n suffici5tly satisfy ! dem&s ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,) ! decay ( ! dogmatic religion ( ,*ri/5dom :i* is supremely /at$ 9 ! fai? ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 !re mu/ foll[ ! non-religion ( ! future1 :i* may well pres]ve1 he po9ts out1 all t is pure 9 ! religi\s s5tim5t & c>ry ) x an admiration = ! cosmos & = ! inf9ite p[]s :i* are !re display$4 ,x w be a se>* =1 & a belief 91 an ideal n only individual1 b social & ev5 cosmic1 :i* %all pass ! limits ( actual reality4 ,h5ce x appe>s t 8non-religion0 or 8a-religion10 :i* is = ,guyau simply 8! negation ( all dogma1 ( all traditional & sup]natural au?ority1 ( all revelation1 ( all miracle1 ( all my?1 ( all rite erect$ into a duty10 is mo/ c]ta9ly n a synonym = irreligion or impiety1 nor does x involve any contempt = ! moral & metaphysical doctr9es express$ by ! anci5t religions ( ! _w4 ,! non-religi\s man 9 ,guyau's s5se ( ! t]m is simply ! man )\t a religion1 z he has def9$ x above1 & he may q well admire & sympa?ise ) ! great f\nd]s ( religion1 n only 9 t !y 7 ?9k]s1 metaphysicians1 morali/s & philan?ropi/s1 b 9 t !y 7 re=m]s ( e/abli%$ belief1 m or less av[$ enemies ( religi\s au?ority & ( e affirmation laid d[n by an ecclesia/ical body 9 ord] to b9d ! intellectual fre$om ( individuals4 ,guyau's rem>ks 9 ?is connection agree ) ! tone 9 :i* ,r5an spoke ( 8 leav+ ! ,*ur* because ( a feel+ ( respect & loyalty to its ,f\nd]4 ,guyau po9ts out t !re exi/s 9 ! bosom ( e great religion a dissolv+ =ce--namely1 ! v =ce :i* 9 ! beg9n+ s]v$ to con/itute x & to e/abli% its triumphant revolt ov] its pr$ecessor4 ,t =ce is ! absolute "r ( private judgm5t1 ! free factor ( ! p]sonal consci5ce1 :i* no ext]nal au?ority c succe$1 ultimately1 9 co]c+ or sil5c+4 ,! ,roman ,*ur*1 & almo/ e o!r organis$ bran* ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 =gets1 :5 fac$ ) a _s :i* w n con=m1 t x is precisely to ?is _s t x owes its own f\ndation & also ! be/ ye>s ( its exi/5ce4 ,guyau has little difficulty 9 press+ ! conclusions :i* foll[ f ! recognition ( ?is vital po9t4 ,briefly1 x foll[s t ! hope ( a _w-religion is an illusion1 :e!r x be ! dream ( a p]fect & _w-wide ,judaism1 ,buddhism1 ,*ri/ianity1 or ,mohamm$anism4 ,! sole au?ority 9 religi\s matt]s1 t ( ! individual consci5ce1 prev5ts any su* consummation1 :i*1 ev5 if x c\ld be a*iev$1 w\ld be mis*iev\s4 ,! future w display a v>iety ( beliefs & religions1 z x does n[4 ,?is ne$ n disc\rage u1 = !re9 is a sign ( vitality or spiritual life1 ( :i* ! _w-religions are examples1 m>r$1 h[ev]1 by _! pr(ession ( univ]sality1 an ideal :i* !y d n & nev] w realise4 ,! notion ( a ,ca?olic ,*ur* or a great _w- religion is really contr>y to ! duty ( p]sonal ?\ght & reflection1 :i* mu/ inevitably 7unless !y give way to m]e lazy repetition ( o!r p's ?\ghts7 lead to diff]5ces4 ,! t5d5cy is = humanity to move away f dogmatic religion1 ) its pret5sions to univ]sality1 ca?olicity1 & mon>*y 7( :i*1 says ,guyau1 ! mo/ curi\s type has j rec5tly be5 a*iev$ 9 our own day1 by ! ,pope's proclamation ( ! dogma ( papal infallibility71 t[>ds religi\s individualism & to a plurality ( religions4 ,!re may1 ( c\rse1 be religi\s associations or f$]ations1 b ^! w be free1 & w n dem& ! adh]5ce to any dogma z su*4 ,) ! decay ( dogmatic religion ! be/ elem5ts ( religi\s life w h fre] scope to develop !mselves1 & w gr[ bo? 9 int5sity & 9 ext5t4 8,he alone is religi\s1 9 ! philosophical s5se ( ! ^w1 :o rese>*es =1 :o ?9ks ab\t1 :o loves1 tru?40 ,su* inquiry or se>* involves fre$om1 x involves conflict1 b ! conflict ( ideas1 :i* is p]fectly compatible ) tol]ation 9 a political s5se1 & is ! ess5ce ( ! _s ( ! great _w tea*]s4 ,?is is :at ,jesus =esaw :5 he rem>k$3 8,i did n come to br+ peace1 b a sword40 ,m fully1 he might h put x1 ,guyau sugge/s3 8,i came n to br+ peace into human ?\ght1 b an incessant battle ( ideas2 n repose1 b movem5t & progress ( _s2 n univ]sal dogma1 b lib]ty ( belief1 :i* is ! fir/ condition ( gr[?40 ,well might ,r5an rem>k t x 0 loyalty to su* a _s :i* caus$ him to break ) ! ,*ur*4 ,:ile attack+ religi\s or?odoxy 9 ?is mann]1 ,guyau is c>eful to po9t out t if religi\s fanaticism ls bad1 anti-religi\s fanaticism is equally mis*iev\s1 wick$ & fooli%4#cb ,:ile ! eighte5? c5tury c\ld only sc(f at religion1 ! n9ete5? realis$ ! absurdity ( su* raill]y4 ,we h come to see t ev5 al?\gh a belief may be irrational & ev5 errone\s1 x may /ill survive1 & x may console multitudes ^: m9ds w\ld be lo/ on ! /ormy sea ( life )\t su* an an*or4 ,:ile dogmatic or positive religions d exi/ !y w d s1 ,guyau rem9ds u1 = q def9ite & adequate reasons1 *iefly because !re are p :o believe !m1 to :om !y mean some?+ & (t5 a great deal4 ,^! reasons c]ta9ly d dim9i% daily1 & ! numb] ( adh]5ts1 too1 b we mu/ refra9 f all t sav\rs ( anti- religi\s fanaticism4#cc ,he himself speaks ) great respect ( a ,*ri/ian mission>y4 ,are we n1 he asks1 bo? bro!rs & humble collaborators 9 ! "w & advance ( humanity8 ,he sees no real inconsi/5cy betwe5 8 own dislike ( or?odoxy & dogma & ! mission>y's "w ( rais+ ! ignorant to a bett] life by ^? v dogmas4 ,x is a case ( relative advance & m5tal progress4 #cb ,he cites a curi\s case ( anti-religi\s fanaticism at ,m>seilles 9 #ahhe1 :5 all texts & scripture pictures 7 remov$ from! s*ools4 #cc ,guyau's book ab\nds 9 illu/rations4 ,he m5tions "h ,huss's approval ( ! s9c]ity ( "o man :o br\ght /raw f 8 own h\se to burn him4 ,huss admir$ ?is act ( a man 9 :om he saw a bro!r 9 s9c]ity4 ,x is ) great weal? ( discussion t ,guyau rec\nts ! g5esis ( religions 9 primitive societies to indicate ! sociological basis ( religion4 ,m important are 8 *apt]s on ! dissolution ( religions 9 exi/+ societies1 9 :i* he %[s ! unsatisfactor9ess ( ! dogmas ( or?odox ,prote/antism equally ) ^? ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,z mis*iev\s z ! notion ( an infallible ,*ur* is t ( an infallible book1 lit]ally--t is to say1 fooli%ly-int]pret$4 ,he recognises t = a lit]al explanation ( ! ,bible mu/ be sub/itut$1 & is1 inde$1 be+ sub/itut$1 a lit]>y explanation4 ,l ,r5an1 he criticises ! vulg> conception ( pray] & ( religi\s morality :i* promotes goodness by promise ( p>adise or fe> ( hell4 ,he urges 9 ?is connection ! futility ( ! ef=t made by ,mi*elet1 ,qu9et &1 m especially1 by ,r5\vi] & ,pillon to 8,prote/antise0 ,france4 ,:ile admitt+ a c]ta9 intellectual1 moral & political sup]iority to x1 ,guyau claims t = ! promotion ( morality !re is little use 9 sub/itut+ ,prote/antism = ,ca?olicism4 ,he =eca/s ! limitation ( ! p[] ( prie/s & o!r religi\s tea*]s ov] ! m9ds ( "y *ildr54 ,prote/ant cl]gym5 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica he consid]s to be no m tol]ant 9 reg>d to ! educational problem ?an ! prie/s4 ,guyau urges ! importance ( an elem5t>y education be+ free f religi\s propag&a4 ,he 0 writ+ 9 #ahhf1 "s ye>s aft] ! secul> education law _h be5 c>ri$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 m to be done1 & he po9ts out 8h[ /range x is t a society %\ld n d its be/ to =m ^? ^: function x is to =m x40#cd ,9 high] education "s att5tion %\ld be giv5 to ! comp>ative /udy ( religions4 8,ev5 f ! po9t ( view ( philosophy1 ,buddha & ,jesus are m important ?an ,anaxim&] or ,?ales40#ce ,x is a pity1 he ?9ks1 t !re is n a little m done to acqua9t ! "y ) ! ideas = :i* ! great _w-tea*]s1 ,confucius1 ,zoroa/]1 ,buddha1 ,socrates1 ,mohamm$1 /ood1 in/ead ( cramm+ a few additional obscure names f e>ly national hi/ory4 ,x w\ld give *ildr5 at lea/ a notion t hi/ory _h a wid] range ?an _! own c\ntry1 a realisation ( ! fact t humanity 0 already old :5 ,*ri/ appe>$1 & t !re are great religions o!r ?an ,*ri/ianity1 religions ^: foll[]s are n poor ignorant savages or hea!n1 b intellig5t be+s1 f :om ev5 ,*ri/ians may le>n mu*4 ,x is ?or\ghly mis*iev\s1 he aptly adds1 to br+ up *ildr5 9 su* a n>r[ m5tal atmosph]e t ! re/ ( _! life is "o long disillusionm5t4 #cd ,l',irrligion de l',av5ir1 p4 #bcb2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #bgh4 #ce ,ibid41 p4 #bcf2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #bhc4 ,) p>ticul> ref]5ce to 8 own c\ntry1 ,guyau criticises ! religi\s education ( wom51 ! "q ( 8mix$ m>riages10 ! celibacy ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic cl]gy1 & ! influ5ce ( religi\s beliefs ^u ! limitation or increase ( ! family4 ,aft] hav+ summ$ up ! t5d5cy ( dogmatic religion to decay1 he asks if any unification ( ! great religions is to-day possible1 or :e!r any new religion may be expect$8 ,! answ] he gives to bo? ^! que/ions is negative1 & he produces a weal? ( v valid reasons 9 support ( 8 f9d+4 ,he is1 ( c\rse1 "h us+ ! t]m religion z he has himself def9$ x4 ,! claim to univ]sality by all _w-religions1 ! insi/5ce by ea* t x alone is ! really be/ or true religion1 precludes any "q ( unity4 ,z well might we imag9e unity betwe5 ,prote/antism & ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,9 ! 8non-religi\s0 /ate1 dogma w be replac$ by individual con/ructions4 ,religion w be a free1 p]sonal affair1 9 :i* ! great philosophical hypo!ses 7e4g41 ,!ism & ,pan!ism7 w be to a l>ge ext5t utilis$4 ,!y w1 h[ev]1 be reg>d$ z su* by all1 z rational hypo!ses1 :i* "s individuals w accept1 o!rs w reject4 ,c]ta9 doctr9es w appeal to "s1 n to o!rs4 ,! evid5ce = a c]ta9 type ( !ism w seem adequate to "s1 n to o!rs4 ,!re w be no endeav\r to impose corporately or s+ly ! acceptance ( any cre$ ^u o!rs4 ,) ,guyau's conception ( ! future ( religion or non-religion1 :i*ev] we c>e to call x1 we may well close ?is survey ( ! religi\s ideas 9 mod]n ,france4 ,9 ! ,roman ,*ur* on ! "o h&1 &1 on ! o!r1 9 ! ?\ght ( ,r5an1 ,r5\vi] & ,guyau1 toge!r ) ! multitude ( ?9k+ m5 & wom5 !y repres5t1 may be se5 ! two t5d5cies--"o cons]vative1 /r5g!n+ its int]nal organisation & au?ority1 9 defiance ( all ! influ5ces ( mod]n ?\ght1 ! o!r a free & p]sonal ef=t1 issu+ 9 a g5u9e humanis+ ( religion & free+ x f ecclesia/icism & dogma4 ,a ^w may be said "h1 h[ev]1 ) ref]5ce to ! 8,mod]ni/s40 ,! ,mod]ni/ movem5t is a ,fr5* product1 ! result ( ! int]action ( mod]n philosophical & sci5tific ideas ^u ! tea*+ ( ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,x has produc$ a philosophical religion :i* owes mu* to ,oll-,laprune & ,blondel1 & is 9 reality mod]n sci5ce ) a v5e] ( religi\s idealism or platonism4 ,x is a !ological compromise1 & has no aff9ities ) ! ef=ts ( ,lam5nais4 ,z a compromise x 0 really oppos$ to ! traditions ( ! ,fr5*1 to ^: love ( %>p & cle> ?9k+ su* g5]al & r vague syn!ses are unacceptable4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t !re is a concret5ess1 a ne>ness to reality & life1 :i* sep>ates x pr(\ndly f ! highly ab/ract !ology ( ,g]many1 z se5 9 ,rits*l & ,h>nack4 ,! ,abb ,m>at ( ! ,!ological ,s*ool at ! ,sorbonne & ,fa!r ,gratry ( ! ,ecole ,normale 7 ! initiators ( ?is movem5t1 z f> back z ! ,second ,empire4 8,mod]nism0 0 nev] a s*ool ( ?\ght1 philosophical or religi\s1 & x %[$ itself 9 a fre$om & life1 a _s r ?an 9 any =mula24 ,z ,sorel's syndicalism is an application ( ! ,b]gsonian & k9dr$ doctr9es to ! left w+s1 & issues 9 a social !ory ( 8action10 s ,mod]nism is an attempt to apply !m to ! "r & issues 9 a religion f\nd$ on action r ?an !ology4 ,! writ+s ( ! ,mod]ni/s are ext5sive1 b we m5tion ! names ( ! *ief ?9k]s4 ,!re is ! not$ exegeti/ ,loisy1 :o 0 dismiss$ 9 #ahid f ! ,ca?olic ,in/itute ( ,p>is & n[ holds ! *air ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,religions at ! ,college de ,france4 ,8 fri5d1 ! ,abb ,b\ri]1 ma9ta9$ ! doctr9e1 8 ,:]e ,*ri/ is !re is ! ,*ur*10 ) a view to insi/+ ^u ! importance ( be+ a ,*ri/ian r ?an a ,ca?olic or a ,prote/ant4 ,! importance ( ! ,ca?olic ?9k]1 ,blondel1 bo? = religion & = philosophy1 has already be5 indicat$ at an e>li] /age 9 ?is book4 ,8 "w inspires mo/4,mod]ni/ ?\ght4 ,blondel prea*es1 ) great weal? ( philosophical & psy*ological argum5t1 ! great ,ca?olic doctr9e ( ! collaboration ( ,god ) man & ( man ) ,god4 ,man at "o ) himself realises 8 highe/ aspirations4 ,div9e transc5d5ce & div9e imman5ce 9 man are reconcil$4 ,god & man1 9 ?is tea*+1 are br\ght toge!r1 & ! /]n realism ( e-day life & ! idealism ( religion unite 9 a sacram5tal union4 ,! supreme pr9ciple 9 ?is union ,lab]?onnire %[s to be ,love4 ,he is at pa9s to make cle>1 h[ev]1 t belief 9 ,love z ! ultimate reality is no m]e s5tim5tality1 no m]e ass]tion ( ! w-to-believe4 ,= him ! intellect mu/ play its "p 9 ! religi\s life & 9 ! expression ( fai?4 ,no pr(\nd] intellectual judgm5t exi/s ?an j ! "o :i* ass]ts 8,god is ,love10 :5 ?is /atem5t is prop]ly appreh5d$ & its mom5t\s significance cle>ly realis$4 ,we _c b lam5t1 ) ,lab]?onnire1 ! abuse ( ?is proposition & its subsequ5t loss ( bo? appeal & mean+ ?r\gh a %all[ famili>ity4 ,! reit]ation ( great conceptions1 :i* is ! me?od by :i* ! great dogmas h be5 h&$ d[n f g5]ations1 t5ds to blurr _! real significance4 ,!y become /]eotyp$ & empty ( life4 ,x is = ?is reason t ,le ,roy 9 ,dogme et ,critique 7#aijg7 insi/$ ^u ! advisability ( reg>d+ all dogmas z expressions ( practical value 9 & = action1 r ?an z intellectual propositions ( a purely 8religi\s0 or ecclesia/ical type1 belong+ solely to ! cre$s4 ,to ,blondel1 ,lab]?onnire1 & ,le ,roy c be add$ ! names ( ,fonsegrive1 ,s]tillanges1 ,loyson & ,h\t91 ! la/ two ( :om ultimately left ! ,*ur*1 = ! ,*ur* made up its m9d to cru% ,mod]nism4 ,! ,pope _h intimat$ 9 #ahgi t ! ?irte5?-c5tury philosophy ( ,aqu9as 0 to be recognis$ z ! only (ficial philosophy4#cf ,f9ally1 ,mod]nism 0 condemn$ 9 a ,vatican encyclical 7,pasc5di ,dom9ici ,gregis7 9 #aijg1 z 0 also ! social & educational ef=t1 ,le ,sillon4 #cf ,?is l$ to revival ( ! /udy ( ! ,summa ,!ologi & to ! comm5cem5t ( ! review ( ,ca?olic philosophy1 ,revue ,?omi/e4 ,su* has be5 ,rome's la/ ^w1 & x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 t ,france is ! mo/ ard5t home ( free ?\ght ^u religi\s matt]s1 t ! ,fr5* p display a _s :i* is unable to /op at ,prote/antism1 b :i* h]alds ! religion or ! non-religion ( ! future to :i* ,guyau has s p[]fully indicat$ ! t5d5cies & has by s do+ help$1 9 conjunction ) ,r5an & ,r5\vi]1 to ha/5 its realisation4 ,a p>allel to ! 8mod]ni/0 !ology ( ! ,ca?olic ?9k]s 0 indicat$ on ! ,prote/ant side by ! !ology ( ,augu/e ,sabati]1 ^: ,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de la ,religion d'aprs la ,psy*ologie et l',hi/oire appe>$ 9 #ahigcg & ( ,m5egoz1#ch ^: ,publications div]ges sur le ,fidisme et son ,application a l',enseignem5t *rti5 traditionnel 7 issu$ 9 #aijj4 ,sabati] assigns ! beg9n+ ( religion to man's tr\ble & di/ress ( he>t caus$ by 8 aspirations1 8 belief 9 ideals & high] values1 be+ at v>iance ) 8 actual condition4 ,religion arises f ?is conflict ( real & ideal 9 ! s\l ( man4 ,?is is ! ess5ce ( religion :i* f9ds its expression 9 ! life ( fai? r ?an 9 ! =mation ( beliefs :i* are !mselves accid5tal & transitory1 aris+ f environm5t & education1 *ang+ 9 =m f aee to age bo? 9 ! individual & ! race4 ,:ile ,le,roy on ! ,ca?olic side1 ma9ta9$ t dogmas 7 valuable = _! practical significance1 ,sabati] & ,mngoz claim$ t all religi\s k is symbolical4 ,dogmas are b symbols1 :i* inadequately attempt to reveal _! object4 ,t object c only be grasp$ by 8fai?0 z di/9ct f 8belief0--t is to say1 by an attitude 9 :i* passion1 in/9ct & intuition bl5d & n by an attitude :i* is purely "o ( intellectual conviction4 ,?is doctr9e ( 8salvation by fai? indep5d5tly ( beliefs0 has a m>k$ relation%ip n only to pragmatism & ! philosophy ( action1 b to ! philosophy ( intuition4 ,a simil> anti-intellectualism col\rs ! 8symbolo-fidi/0 curr5ts )9 ,ca?olicism1 :i* manife/ a m extreme "*4 ,a plea voic$ aga9/ all su* t5d5cies is to be f\nd 9 ,bois' book1 ,de la ,connaissance religieuse 7#ahid71 :]e an endeav\r is made to reta9 a m intellectual attitude1 & x aga9 f\nd expression 9 ! volume by ,b\tr\x1 writt5 z late z #aijh1 :i* deals ) ! religi\s problem 9 our p]iod4 #cg ,x 0 foll[$ aft] 8 dea? 9 #aija by ! volume ,les ,religions d',au?orit et la ,religion de l',esprit1 #aijd4 #ch ,?is is ! late ,eug5e ,mngoz1 ,pr(essor ( ,!ology 9 ,p>is1 n ,f]d9& ,mngoz1 8 nephew1 :o is also a ,pr(essor ( ,!ology n[ at ,/rasb\rg4 ,quot+ ,boehme 9 ! int]e/+ conclusion to ?is book on ,sci5ce & ,religion 9 ,contempor>y ,philosophy 7#aijh7 ,b\tr\x sums up 9 ! words ( ! old ,g]man my/ic 8 attitude to ! div]sity ( religi\s op9ions4 8,consid] ! birds 9 our =e/s1 !y praise ,god ea* 9 8 own way1 9 div]se tones & fa%ions4 ,?9k y ,god is vex$ by ?is div]sity & desires to sil5ce discordant voices8 ,all ! =ms ( be+ are de> to ! inf9ite ,be+ himself60#ci #ci ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ) ! above ! s5tim5ts express$ 9 ,mat!w ,arnold's poem1 entitl$ ,progress3 8,*ildr5 ( m56 ! unse5 ,p[]1 ^: eye ,= ev] do? accompany mank9d1 ,ha? look'd on no religion scornfully ,t m5 did ev] f9d4 ,?is survey ( ! g5]al attitude adopt$ t[>ds religion & ! problems :i* x pres5ts only s]ves to emphasise m cle>ly ^? t5d5cies :i* we h already d5ot$ 9 previ\s *apt]s4 ,z ! discussion ( progress 0 radically alt]$ by ! admission ( ! pr9ciple ( fre$om1 & ! discussion ( e?ics passes bevond rigid =mulae to a fre] conception ( morality1 s "h 9 religion ! insi/5ce ^u fre$om & t recognition ( p]sonality :i* accompanies x1 col\rs ! :ole religi\s outlook4 ,r5an1 ,r5\vi] & ,guyau1 ! ?ree ?9k]s :o h mo/ fully discuss$ religion 9 our p]iod1 jo9 9 proclaim+ ! importance ( ! p]sonal factor 9 religi\s belief1 & 9 valiant opposition to t ,*ur* :i* is ! decl>$ enemy ( fre$om1 !y urge t 9 fre$om ( ?\ght lies ! c\rse ( all religi\s developm5t 9 ! future1 = only ?us c be express$ ! noble/ & highe/ aspirations ( man's _s4 ,,conclusion ,! =ego+ pages h be5 devot$ to a hi/ory ( ideas r ?an to ! ma9t5ance ( any special !sis or p>ticul> argum5t4 ,consequ5tly x does n rema9 = u to draw any def9itely logical conclusions f ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,! opportunity may be ju/ly tak51 h[ev]1 ( summ+ up ! g5]al features ( ! developm5t4 ,few p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( human ?\ght c rival 9 int]e/ t ( ! second half ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ,france4 ,! discussion cov]s ! pr9cipal problems ) :i* man's m9d is occupi$ 9 mod]n times & pres5ts ^! 9 a mann] :i* is di/9ctly human & n m]ely national4 ,?is alone w\ld give value to ! /udy ( su* a p]iod4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 to be add$ ! m /rik+ fact t !re is a complete 8turn+ ( ! tide0 manife/$ dur+ ^! fifty ye>s 9 ! attitude to mo/ ( ! problems4 ,beg9n+ ) an ov]we5+ confid5ce 9 sci5ce & a belief 9 det]m9ism & 9 a de/9$ progress1 ! c5tury clos$ ) a complete rev]sal ( ^! conceptions4 ,mat]ialism & naturalism are bo? recognis$ z inadequate1 a reaction sets 9 aga9/ positivism & culm9ates 9 ! triumph ( spiritualism or idealism4 ,?is idealism is free f ! crud] aspects ( ! ,kantian or ,hegelian philosophy4 ,! ,?+-9-itself & ! ,absolute are ab&on$2 relativity is proclaim$ 9 k1 & fre$om 9 ! _w ( action4 ,?\ghts or ideas %[ !mselves z =ces op]at+ 9 ! evolution ( hi/ory4 ,?is is ma9ta9$ 9 opposition to ! ,m>xian doctr9e ( ! purely economic or mat]iali/ic det]m9ation ( hi/ory4 ,a m>k$ t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 is manife/$ to reg>d all problems f a social /& po9t4 ,! dogmatic confid5ce 9 sci5ce gives way to a m philosophical attitude1 :ile ! conflict ( sci5ce & religion resolves itself into a decay ( dogma & ! conception ( a free religion4 ,we h indicat$ ! problem pres5t$ by 8sci5ce et consci5ce10 & 9 s f> z we h laid d[n any !sis or argum5t 9 ^! pages1 z di/9ct f an hi/orical acc\nt ( ! developm5t1 t !sis has be51 t ! c5tral problem 9 ! p]iod 0 t ( fre$om4 ,x 0 to ?is po9t :i* ! consid]ation ( sci5ce1 or r ( ! sci5ces1 l$ u4 ,we h obs]v$ ! importance ( ! sci5ces = philosophy1 & x is cle> t1 s f> f pres5t+ any real ho/ility to philosophy1 x c acclaim _! autonomy & fre$om1 )\t attempt+ by ab/ract me?ods to absorb !m into itself4 ,!y are equally a concrete "p ( human ?\ght1 & 9 a deep & real s5se a manife/ation ( ! same _s :i* animates philosophy4 ,by recognis+ ! sci5ces philosophy c avoid ! fallacy ( ideology on ! "o h& & naturalism on ! o!r4 ,unlike ! old eclecticism1 ! new ?\ght is able to take acc\nt ( sci5ce & to criticise its ass]tions4 ,we h se5 h[ ?is has be5 accompli%$1 & ! rigidly me*anical view ( ! _w ab&on$ = "o into :i* human fre$om ent]s z a real factor4 ,?is trans=ms ! view ( hi/ory & %[s u human be+s creat+ t hi/ory & n m]ely be+ its bl9d puppets4 ,hi/ory (f]s no *e]ful outlook = ! easy-go+ optimi/2 x is n any m to be reg>d$ z m]e data = pessimi/ic reflections1 b r a record :i* prompts a feel+ ( responsibility4 ,! _w is n ready-made1 & if !re is to be progress x mu/ be will$ by u & a*iev$ by our /ruggle & lab\r4 ,! doctr9e ( imman5ce ^u :i* ! mod]n t5d5cy is to insi/1 9 place ( ! old] idea ( transc5d5ce1 makes u feel1 n only t we are free1 b t our fre$om is n 9 opposition to1 or 9 spite (1 ! div9e _s1 b is precisely an expression ( div9e imman5ce4 ,in/ead ( ! gloomy conception ( a :ole :i* det]m9es itself ap>t f u1 we feel ourselves "p1 & a v responsible "p1 ( a reality :i* det]m9es itself collectively & creatively by its own action1 by its own ideals1 :i* x has itself creat$4 ,?is fre$om mu/ ext5d n only to our conceptions ( hi/ory b also to ^? ( e?ics & ( religion4 8,engli% philosophy ends 9 consid]+ nature z an assemblage ( facts2 ,g]man philosophy looks ^u x *iefly z a sy/em ( laws4 ,if !re is a place midway betwe5 ! two nations x belongs to u ,fr5*m54 ,we appli$ ! ,engli% ideas 9 ! eighte5? c5tury2 we c 9 ! n9ete5? give precision to ! ,g]man ideas4 ,:at we h to d is to temp]1 am5d & complete ! two spirits1 "o by ! o!r1 to fuse !m into "o1 to express !m 9 a /yle t %all be intelligible to ev]ybody & ?us to make ( !m ! univ]sal _s40 ,su* 0 ,ta9e's attitude1 & x indicates cle>ly ! precise position ( ,fr5* ?\ght4 ,we are apt to consid] ,ta9e purely z an empirici/1 b we mu/ rememb] t he disagre$ ) ! radical empiricism ( ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,8 own attitude 0 l>gely t ( a reaction aga9/ ! vague spiritualism ( ! ,eclectic ,s*ool1 especially ,c\s9's eclecticism1 a =eign gr[? on ,fr5* soil1 due to ,g]man influ5ce4 ,! purely a priori con/ructions ( ! old] spiritualism c\ld f9d no room1 & all[$ none1 = ! sci5ces4 ,?is 0 suffici5t to doom x1 & to lead naturally to a reaction ( a positive k9d1 revolt+ f all a priori con/ructions4 ,x 0 to combat ! excessive positive reaction aga9/ metaphysics t ,r5\vi] devot$ 8 en]gies1 b :ile pr(ess+ to mod]nise ,kant & to foll[ out ! g5]al pr9ciples ( 8 ,critical ,philosophy1 ,r5\vi] 0 fur!r remov$ f ! ,g]man ?9k] ?an he at times seems to h obs]v$4 ,r5\vi] mu/ und\bt$ly %>e ) ,comte ! hon\rs ( ! c5tury 9 ,fr5* ,philosophy4 ,_m influ5ces1 h[ev]1 prev5t$ ! g5]al or spe$y acceptance ( ,r5\vi]'s doctr9es4 ,! ,univ]sity 0 clos$ aga9/ him1 z aga9/ ,comte4 ,he work$ 9 isolation & 8 /yle ( pres5tation1 :i* is heavy & labori\s1 does n appeal to ! esprit ( ! ,fr5* m9d4 ,probably1 too1 8 c\ntrym5's ignorance ( ,kant at ! "t ,r5\vi] wrote 8 ,essais de ,critique gnrale prev5t$ an und]/&+ & appreciation ( ! neo-critical advance on ,criticism4 ,r5\vi] comm&s respect1 b he does n appe> to be 9 ! l9e ( developm5t :i* manife/s s ess5tially ! "* ( ,fr5* ?\ght4 ,?is is to be f\nd r 9 t spiritualism1 :i*1 unlike ! old1 does n exclude sci5ce1 b welcomes x1 f9ds a place = x1 al?\gh n by any means an exclusive place4 ,! new spirituali/s did n draw _! inspiration1 z did ,c\s91 f any ,g]man s\rce1 _! initial impulse is d]iv$ f a purely ,fr5* ?9k]1 ,ma9e de ,biran1 :o1 long neglect$1 came to recognition 9 ! "w ( ,ravaisson & ^? subsequ5t ?9k]s ( ?is gr\p1 "r up to ,b]gson4 ,?is curr5t ( ?\ght is m>k$ by a vitality & a concret5ess :i* are a /rik+ contra/ to ! old] eclectic spiritualism4 ,hav+ submitt$ itself to ! discipl9e ( ! sci5ces1 x is acqua9t$ ) _! me?ods & data 9 a mann] :i* enables x to oppose ! dogmatism ( sci5ce1 & to acclaim ! reality ( values o!r ?an ^? :i* are purely sci5tific4 ,ignor+ a priori con/ruction1 or eclectic applications ( doctr9es1 x inve/igates ! out] _w ( nature & ! inn] life ( ! _s4 ,we h said t ^! ideas are pres5t$1 n m]ely f a national /&po9t1 b f "o :i* is deeply human & univ]sal4 8,la ,sci5ce10 re-m>k$ ,pa/eur1 8n'a pas de patrie40 ,we may add t philosophy1 too1 owns no special fa!rl&4 ,!re is n 9 philosophy1 any m ?an 9 religion1 8a *os5 p10 ev5 al?\gh ! ,jews ( old ?\ght !mselves su*1 & among mod]ns ! ,g]mans h _h ?is conceit ab\t _! ,kultur4 ,9 s f> z philosophy aims at ! elucidation ( a true view ( ! univ]se1 x !reby t5ds inevitably to univ]sality4 ,b j z a conception ( int]nationalism1 :i* %\ld fail to take into acc\nt ! factors ( nationality1 w\ld be futile & disa/r\s1 s a conception ( ! evolution ( ?\ght mu/ likewise e/imate ! *>act]i/ics :i* nationality produces ev5 9 ! philosophical field4 ,su* *>act]i/ics1 x w be f\nd1 are n def9ite doctr9es1 = ^! may be transf]r$1 z are sci5tific discov]ies1 f "o nation to ano!r1 & absorb$ 9 su* a mann] t !y become "p ( ! g5]al consci\sness ( mank9d4 ,!y are r diff]5ces ( tone & col\r1 =m or expression1 :i* express ! vital g5ius ( ! nation4 ,!re are features :i* s]ve to di/+ui% ,fr5* philosophy f ! developm5t :i* has occurr$ 9 ,g]many1 ,italy1 ,engl& & ,am]ica4 ,mod]n ,fr5* ?\ght does n delib]ately pr(ess to ma9ta9 allegiance to any pa/ traditions1 = x realises t su* a proc$ure w\ld be inconsi/5t ) t fre$om ( ?\ght :i* is b\nd up ) ! _s ( philosophy4 ,x does1 h[ev]1 betray c]ta9 national features1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! great ,fr5* ?9k]s f ,desc>tes1 ,pascal & ,malebran*e onw>ds4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable po9ts ab\t ^! ?9k]s 0 _! intimacy ) ! sci5ces4 ,desc>tes1 :ile f\nd+ mod]n philosophy1 also gave ! _w analytic geometry2 ,pascal made c]ta9 physical discov]ies & 0 an em95t ma!matician4 ,malebran*e1 too1 0 ke5ly int]e/$ 9 sci5ce4 ,9 ! foll[+ c5tury ! ,encyclopa$i/s display$ _! weal? ( sci5tific k1 & 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury we h se5 ! "w ( ,comte bas$ on sci5ce1 ! ability ( ,c\rnot & ,r5\vi] 9 ma!matics1 :ile m5 l ,b\tr\x1 ,h]gson & ,le ,roy possess a ?or\gh acqua9tance ) mod]n sci5ce4 ,^! facts h m>k$ results1 & di/+ui% ,fr5* philosophy f t ( ,g]many1 :]e ! majority ( philosoph]s appe> to haye be5 !ological /ud5ts 9 _! y\? & to h suff]$ f ! effects ( _! subject = ! rema9d] ( _! lives4 ,!ological /udy does n produce cle>ness2 x does n t5d to cultivate a _s ( precision1 b r "o ( vagu5ess1 ( :i* mu* ,g]man philosophy is ! product4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ma!matics is a /udy :i* dem&s cle>ness & :i* 9 turn increases ! _s ( cl>ity & precision4 ,!re is to be se5 9 our p]iod a /rong t5d5cy to adh]e to ?is feature ( cle>ness4 ,mod]n ,fr5* philosophy is rem>kably lucid4 ,inde$1 x is claim$ t !re is no notion1 h[ev] pr(\nd x may be1 or h[ev] bas$ on te*nical rese>* x may be1 :i* _c be convey$ 9 ! language ( e day4 ,fr5* philosophy does n inv5t a highly te*nical vocabul>y 9 ord] to give itself airs 9 ! eyes ( ! multitude1 on ! plea t obscurity is a sign ( erudition & le>n+4 ,on ! contr>y1 x rememb]s ,desc>tes' intimate association ( cle>ness ) tru?1 rememb]s1 too1 8 cle> & simple ,fr5* :i* he pref]r$ to ! s*ola/ic ,lat94 ,x kn[s t to conv9ce o!rs ( tru? "o mu/ be at lea/ cle> to !m &1 :at is equally important1 "o mu/ be cle> 9 "o's own m9d fir/4 ,cl>ity does n mean %all[ness b r ! rev]se1 because x is due to ke5 p]ceptive p[]1 to a see+ fur!r into ! he>t ( ?+s1 involv+ an intimate contact ) reality4 ,fr5* ?\ght has always rema9$ true to a c]ta9 8common s5se40 ,?is is a dang]\s & ambigu\s t]m4 ,9 its true mean+ x signifies ! g5]al & sane m9d ( man free f all t prejudice or dogma or tradition1 ^u :i*1 ( c\rse1 8common s5se0 9 ! popul> mean+ is usually bas$4 ,a g5u9e 8common s5se0 is m]ely 8lib]t0 = ! op]ation ( t g5]al reason :i* makes man :at he is4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t1 ow+ to ! fact t philosophy is taught 9 ! lyces1 ! ,fr5* are ! be/ educat$ ( any nation 9 philosophical ideas & h a f9] g5]al s5se ( t _s ( criticism & appreciation :i* is ! ess5ce ( philosophy1 ?an has any o!r mod]n nation4 ,philosophy 9 ,france is n writt5 9 ord] to appeal to any s*ool or class4 ,n limit$ to an academic circle only1 x makes its pron\ncem5ts to humanity & ?us embodies 9 a real =m ! pr9ciples ( egalit & frat]nit4 ,x makes a democratic appeal bo? by its cl>t & its belief t la raison commune is 9 "s degree pres5t 9 e human be+4 ,n only 0 cle>ness a /rong po9t 9 ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes1 b !re 0 also an insi/5ce ^u me?od4 ,s9ce ! "t ( 8 fam\s ,disc\rs de la ,m?ode !re has always be5 a unique value plac$ ^u me?od 9 ,fr5* ?\ght1 & ?is aga9 s]ves to di/+ui% x pr(\ndly f ,g]man philosophy1 :i* is1 9 g5]al1 conc]n$ ) ! conception & production ( entire sy/ems4 ,! idea ( an individual & sy/ematic con/ruction is an ambiti\s conceit :i* is n 9 h>mony ) ! pr9ciples ( lib]t1 egalit1 frat]nit4 ,su* a view ( philosophical "w is n a sociable "o1 f a human /&po9t1 & t5ds to give rise to a _s ( au?ority & tradition4 ,ap>t f ?is aspect ( x1 !re is a m important consid]ation4 ,all ^? sy/ems take "o idea z _! />t+-po9t & build up an imm5se con/ruction a priori4 ,b ano!r idea may be tak5 & oppos$ to t4 ,!re is ?us an imm5se wa/age ( lab\r1 & ! individual ef=t is nev] transc5d$4 ,yet an idea is only a portion ( our intellig5ce1 & t intellig5ce itself is1 9 turn1 only a portion ( reality4 ,a wid] conception ( philosophy mu/ be aim$ at1 "o 9 :i* ! vue d'ensemble is n ! ef=t ( "o m9d1 b ( _m1 ea* contribut+ its %>e to a h>moni\s conception1 sy/ematic 9 a s5se1 b n 9 ! ,g]man s5se4 ,mod]n ,fr5* ?\ght has a dislike ( sy/em ( ! individuali/ic type2 x realises t reality is too ri* & complex = su* a rapid con/ruction to grasp x4 ,x is oppos$ to sy/ems1 = ! ,fr5* m9d looks ^u philosophy z a manife/ation ( life itself--life blossom+ to self-consci\sness1 /riv+ ev] to unfold itself m explicitly & m cle>ly1 endeav\r+ to become m h>moni\s1 m beautiful1 & m noble4 ,! real victories ( philosophical ?\ght are n indicat$ by ! production ( sy/ems b by ! discov]y or creation ( ideas4 ,(t5 ^! ideas h be5 s+le & simple1 b !y h become v]itable =ces1 9 ! life ( mank9d4 ,fr5* ?9k]s pref] to "w collectively at p>ticul> problems r ?an at sy/ems4 ,h5ce ! aim & tone ( _! "w is m univ]sal & human1 & be+ m g5]al is apt to be m g5]\s4 ,?is aga9 is ! expression ( lib]te1 galit & frat]nit 9 a true s5se4 ,! ,fr5* pref]1 z x 71 9 _! philosophical campaign = ! intellectual conque/ ( reality div]se batt]ies ( soixante-qu9ze act+ ) precision & al]tness to ! clumsy production ( a 8,big ,b]?a40 ,! production ( ambiti\s sy/ems1 ea* pr(ess+ to be ! f9al ^w 9 ! pres5tation ( reality1 has n attract$ ! ,fr5* _s4 ,x looks at reality diff]5tly & pref]s to deal ) problems 9 a cle> way1 !reby indicat+ a me?od :i* may be appli$ to ! solution ( o!rs z !y pres5t !mselves4 ,?is is inf9itely pref]able to an ambiti\s unification1 :i* c only be obta9$ at ! sacrifice ( cle>ness or mean+1 & x arises f t ke5 contact ) life1 :i* keeps ! m9d f dwell+ too mu* 9 ! sl\gh ( ab/raction1 f :i* "s ( ! ,g]man philosoph]s nev] succe$ 9 escap+4 ,_! pilgrimage to ! ,cele/ial ,city ends !re1 & consequ5tly ! acc\nt ( _! it9]>y _c be ( mu* use to o!r pilgrims4 ,ano!r feature ( mod]n ,fr5* ?\ght is ! intimacy ( ! connection betwe5 psy*ology & metaphysics1 & ! int5sive int]e/ 9 psy*ology1 :i* is b ! ime/igation ( ! inn] life ( man4 ,:ile 9 ! e>ly beg9n+s ( anci5t ,greek philosophy "s "t 0 sp5t 9 exam9+ ! out] _w be=e man gave 8 att5tion to ! _w )91 we f9d ,desc>tes1 at ! beg9n+ ( mod]n philosophy1 mak+ 8 own consci\sness ( 8 own exi/5ce 8 />t+-po9t4 ,introspection has always play$ a prom95t "p 9 ,fr5* philosophy4 ,pascal 0 equally int]e/$ 9 ! out] & ! inn] _w4 ,?r\gh ,ma9e de ,biran ?is feature has come d[n to ! new spirituali/s & culm9ates 9 ,b]gson's ?\ght1 9 :i* psy*ological consid]ations hold fir/ rank4 ,! social feature ( mod]n ,fr5* ?\ght %\ld n be omitt$4 ,9 ,g]many subsequ5t ?\ght has be5 col\r$ by ! ,re=mation & ! p>ticul> aspects ( t movem5t4 ,9 ,france "o may well say t subsequ5t ?\ght has be5 m>k$ by ! ,revolution4 ,!re is a !ological flav\r ab\t mo/ ,g]man philosophy1 :ile ,france1 a see?+ c5tre ( political & social ?\ght1 has giv5 to h] philosophy a m sociological tr5d4 ,! ,fr5* _s 9 philosophy /&s = cle>ness1 concret5ess & vitality4 ,consequ5tly x pres5ts a f> great] brilliance1 ri*ness & v>iety ?an ,g]man philosophy displays4#a ,?is vitality & ev5 exub]ance1 :i* are ^? ( ! _s ( y\? manife/+ a joie de vivre or an lan vital1 h be5 v /rongly m>k$ s9ce ! ye> #ahhj1 & h plac$ ,fr5* philosophy 9 ! van ( human ?\ght4 #a ,x is1 !re=e to be lam5t$ t ,fr5* ?\ght has n receiv$ ! att5tion :i* x deseives4 ,9 ,engl& f> m att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! n9ete5?-c5tury ,g]man philosophy1 :ile ! hi/ory ( ?\ght 9 ,france1 especially 9 ! p]iod betwe5 ,comte & ,b]gson1 has rema9$ 9 sad neglect4 ,?is c & %\ld be spe$ily rem$i$4 ,x w\ld be va9 to ask :i!r its advance w lead4 ,ev5 its own pr9ciples prev5t any su* =eca/2 its creative ri*ness may blossom =? to-morr[ 9 =ms entirely new1 = su* is ! *>act]i/ic ( life itself1 especially ! life ( ! _s1 ^u :i* s mu* /ress is laid 9 mod]n ,fr5* philosophy4 ,! ,new ,idealism lays great /ress ^u dynamism1 volunt>ism or action4 ,fre$om & creative activity are its keynotes1 & life1 ev] full] & ri*]1 is its aspiration4 ,la ,vie1 ( :i* ,france 7& its c5tre1 ,p>is7 is su* an expression1 f9ds =mulation 9 ! philosophy ( contempor>y ?9k]s4#b #b ,! /ud5t ( comp>ative ?\ght w f9d x bo? int]e/+ & pr(itable to comp>e ! "w done rec5tly 9 ,italy by ,croce & ,g5tile4 ,! intellectual k9%ip ( ,croce & ,b]gson has frequ5tly be5 po9t$ out1 b ,g5tile's "w comes v close to ! philosophy ( action & to ! :ole positive-ideali/ic t5d5cy ( contempor>y ,fr5* ?\ght4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly to be se5 9 ,l'atto del p5s>e come atto puro 7#aiab71 & 9 ,teoria g5]alo dello spirito come atto puro 7#aiaf74 ,pr(essor ,c>r1 ! well-kn[n expon5t ( ,b]gson's philosophy1 rem>ks 9 8 introduction to ! ,engli% edition ( ,g5tile's book1 8,we may individualise ! m9d z a natural ?+-object p]son4 4 4 4 ,yet our p[] to ?9k ! m9d 9 ?is way w\ld be impossible 7 n ! m9d ) & by :i* we ?9k x1 itself n a ?+1 n a fact1 b act2 4 4 4 nev] factum1 b always fi]i40 ,?is quotation is f p4 xv ( ! ,!ory ( ,m9d z ,pure ,act4 ,) "o o!r quotation direct f ,g5tile we mu/ close ?is ref]5ce to ,italian neo-idealism4 8,9 s f> z ! subject is con/itut$ a subject by its own act x con/itutes ! object4 4 4 4 ,m9d is ! transc5d5tal activity productive ( ! objective _w ( exp]i5ce0 7pp4 #ah1 #dc74 ,comp>e ) ?is our quotation f ,ravaisson1 giv5 on p4 #ge ( ?is "w1 & ! /atem5t by ,la*eli] on p4 #abb1 bo? ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! ,fr5* ,new ,idealism4 ,"o ^w ( w>n+ mu/ be utt]$ aga9/ ^? :o decl>e t ! t5d5cy ( ,fr5* ?\ght is 9 ! direction ( anti-intellectualism4 ,su* a decl>ation re/s on a misund]/&+1 :i* we h endeav\r$ 9 our pages to disclose ,x is bas$ ess5tially ^u a doctr9e ( ,reason :i* belongs to ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! sev]e rationalism ( t p]iod 0 mis*iev\s 9 t x re/$ ^u a "o-sid$ view ( human nature1 on a n>r[ int]pretation ( 8,reason0 :i* gave x only a logical & almo/ ma!matical significance4 ,to ! ,greeks1 :om ! ,fr5* repres5t 9 ! mod]n _w1 ! t]m 8,,n\s0 meant m ?an ?is--x meant an intelligible h>mony4 ,we w\ld d wrong to look ^u ! mo/ rec5t developm5ts 9 ,france z be+ anti-rational1 !y are b a revolt aga9/ ! n>r[ view ( ,reason1 & !y con/itute an attempt to pres5t to ! mod]n _w a conception ak9 to t ( ! ,greeks4 ,human reason is mu* m ?an a purely logical faculty1 & x is ?is endeav\r to relate all problems to life itself ) its puls+ ?rob1 :i* repres5ts ! real attitude ( ! ,fr5* m9d4 ,!re is a realisation express$ ?r\gh\t t ?\ght1 t life is m ?an logic4 ,! cle>ness ( geometry %[$ ,desc>tes t geometry is n all-embrac+4 ,pascal f\nd t to ! logic ( geometry mu/ be add$ a _s ( appreciation :i* is n logical 9 its nature1 b expresses ano!r side ( man's m9d4 ,to-day ,france sees t1 al?\gh a philosophy mu/ endeav\r to satisfy ! human intellig5ce1 a m]ely intellectual satisfaction is n en\gh4 ,! w & ! feel+s play _! "p1 & x 0 ! gteat fault ( ! eighte5? c5tury to misund]/& ?is ,! se>* to-day is = a sy/em ( values & ( tru? 9 action z well z a doctr9e ab\t ?+s 9 _! purely !oretical aspects4 ,?is is a s]i\s dem&1 & x is "o :i* philosophy mu/ endeav\r to appreciate ,salvation w n be f\nd 9 a m]e dilettantism :i* c only express ieal indiff]5ce1 nor 9 a dogmatism :i* results 9 bigotry & pride4 ,criticism is requir$1 b n a purely de/ructive criticism1 r "o :i* w (f] "s acceptable view ( ! univ]se4 ,su* a view mu/ comb9e true positivism or realism ) a true idealism1 by unit+ fact & _s1 ?+s & ideas4 ,its a*ievem5t c only be possible to m9ds possess+ "s creative & con/ructive p[]1 yet m9ds :o h be5 s*ool$ 9 ! college ( reality4 ,?is is ! task ( philosophy 9 ,france & 9 o!r l&s4 ,t task consi/s n only 9 f9d+ values & 9 def9+ !m b 9 express+ !m actively1 & 9 endeav\r+ to realise !m 9 ! common life4 ,,bibliography ,i4 ,works ( ! ,p]iod classifi$ "u ,au?ors4 7,! m important monographs are cit$47 ,names ( philosophical j\rnals4 ,,ii4 ,books on ! ,p]iod4 ,,iii4 ,comp>ative ,table %[+ contempor>y ,g]man & ,anglo-,am]ican ,works f #ahea to #aiba4 ,i ,,works ,,( ,,! ,,p]iod ,,classifi$ ,,"u ,,au?ors4 ,,b]gson3 ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,consci5ce4 #ahhi4 ,engli% ,translation--,"t & ,free-,w4 #aiaj4 ,matire et ,mmoire4 #ahif4 7,e4,t4#a #aiaa47 ,le ,rire4 #aija4 7,e4,t4 #aiaa47 ,introduction a la ,mtaphysique4 #aijc4 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 7,e4,t4 #aiac47 ,l',evolution cratrice4 #aijg4 7,e4,t4 #aiaa47 ,l',en]gie spirituelle4 #aiai4 7,e4,t4 #aibj47 ,"s monographs on ,b]gson3 ,le ,roy 7#aiab71 ,m>ita9 7#aiad7 9 ,france1 ,meckau] 7#aiag7 9 ,g]many1 & = ! ,engli% read] ,l9dsay 7#aiaa71 ,/ew>t 7#aiaa71 ,c>r 7#aiab71 ,cunn+ham 7#aiaf71 & ,gunn 7#aibj74 ,,b]n>d3 ,introduction a l',etude de la ,mdec9e exprim5tal4 #ahfe4 ,,b]!lot3 ,sci5ce et ,philosophie4 #ahhf4 ,,b9et3 ,magntisme animal4 #ahhf4 ,les ,altrations de la ,p]sonnalit4 #ahib4 ,l',introduction la ,psy*ologie exprim5tal4 #ahid4 7,f\nd$ ! ,anne psy*ologique 9 #ahie47 ,,blondel3 ,l',action1 ,essai d'une ,critique de la ,vie et d'une ,sci5ce de la ,pratique4 #ahic4 ,hi/oire et ,dogme4 #aijd4 ,,boirac3 ,l',ide du ,phnomne4 #ahid4 ,,bois3 ,de la ,connaissance religieuse4 #ahid4 ,,b\rgeois3 ,solid>it4 #ahif4 ,,b\tr\x 7,,emile73 ,de la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature #ahgd4 7,e4,t4 #aiaf47 ,de l',ide de ,loi naturelle dans la ,sci5ce et la ,philosophie contempora9es4 #ahie4 7,e4,t4 #aiad47 ,que/ions de ,morale et d',education4 #ahie4 7,e4,t4 #aiac47 ,de l',influ5ce de la ,philosophie cossaise sur la ,philosophie franaise4 #ahig4 ,la ,sci5ce et la ,religion dans la ,philosophie contempora9e4 #aijh4 7,e4,t4 #aiji47 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france depuis #ahfg4 ,pap] read to ,?ird ,congress ( ,philosophy at ,heidelb]g 9 #aijh4 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,nov41 #aijh4 ,etudes d',hi/oire de la ,philosophie4 7,e4,t4 #aiab47 ,! ,beyond t is ,)94 ,e4,t4 #aiab4 7,addresses47 ,,bro*>d3 ,de la ,responsabilit morale4 #ahgd4 ,de l',univ]salit des ,notions morales4 #ahgf4 ,de ,l',erreur4 #ahgi4 ,,bruns*wicg3 ,la ,modalit du jugem5t4 #ahig4 ,la ,vie de l',esprit4 #aijj4 ,les ,etapes de la ,philosophie ma?matique4 #aiab4 ,,bureau3 ,la ,crise morale des ,temps n\veau4 #aijg4 ,,c>o3 ,le ,matrialisme et la ,sci5ce4 #ahfh4 ,problmes de ,morale sociale4 #ahgf4 ,,comte3 ,c\rs de ,philosophie positive4 #f vols4 #ahcj-db4 ,disc\rs sur l',esprit positive4 #ahdd4 ,sy/me de ,politique positive4 #d vols4 #ahea-d4 ,cat*isme positivi/e4 ,syn?se subjective 7vol4 i474 #ahef4 ,note4--,! ,free & ,cond5s$ ,translation ( ,comte's ,positive ,philosophy 9 ,engli% by ,miss ,m>t9eau1 appe>$ 9 two volumes 9 #ahec4 ,monograph by ,lvy-,bruhl4 ,,c\rnot3 ,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances et sur les ,c>actres de la ,critique philosophique 7#b vols474 #ahea4 ,trait de l',en*anem5t des ,ides fondam5tales dans les ,sci5ces et dans l',hi/oire 7#b vols474 #ahfa4 ,considrations sur la ,m>*e des ,ides et des ,evnem5ts dans les ,temps mod]nes 7#b vols474 #ahgb4 ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalis9e3 ,etude sur l',emploi des ,donnes de la ,sci5ce en ,philosophie4 #ahge4 ,note4--,a numb] ( ! ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale 0 devot$ to ,c\rnot 9 #aije4 ,see also ! ,monograph by ,bott9elli & 8 ,s\v5irs de ,c\rnot4 #aiac4 ,,c\turat3 ,de l',inf9i ma?matique4 ,les ,pr9cipes des ,ma?matiques4 ,,cresson3 ,le ,malaise de la p5se philosophique contempora9e4 #aije4 ,,dauriac3 ,croyance et ,realit4 #ahhi4 ,motions de ,matire et de ,=ce4 #ahgh4 ,,delbos3 ,l',esprit philosophique de l',allemagne et la ,p5se franaise4 #aiae4 ,,duhem3 ,la ,?orie physique4 #aijf4 ,,dunan3 ,les deux ,idalismes4 #aiaa4 ,,durkheim3 ,de la ,division du ,travail social4 #ahic4 ,les ,regles de la ,m?ode sociologique4 #ahid4 ,le ,suicide4 #ahig4 ,les ,=mes lm5taires de la ,vie religieuse4 #aiab4 7,e4 ,t47 ,,esp9as3 ,societs animales4 #ahgf4 ,e,v,e,l,ll,n3 ,la ,raison pure et les ,ant9omies4 #aijg4 ,,fonsegrive3 ,morale et ,socit4 #aijg4 ,,f\ill,e3 ,la ,philosophie de ,platon #b vols4 #ahfi4 ,prize = competition 9 #ahfg1 on !4 ,!ory ( ,ideas1 (f]$ by ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques4 8,cr[n$0 aft] publication by ! ,acadmie franaise4 #ahga4 ,second ,edition1 revis$1 & enl>g$ to f\r volumes4 #ahhh-i4 ,la ,lib]t et le ,det]m9isme4 #ahgb4 7,doctorate ,!sis7 ,la ,philosophie de ,socrate4 #b vols #ahgd4 ,prize 9 #ahfh1 ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques4 ,hi/oire gnrale de la ,philosophie4 #ahge4 ,new ,edition revis$ & augm5t$1 #aiaj4 ,extraits des gr&s ,philosophes4 #ahgg4 ,l',ide mod]ne du ,droit en ,allemagne1 en ,+let]re et en ,france4 #ahgh4 ,la ,sci5ce sociale contempora9e4 #ahhj4 ,critique des ,sy/mes contempora9s4 #ahhc4 ,la ,proprit sociale et la ,dmocratie4 #ahhd4 ,l',av5ir de la ,mtaphysique fonde sur l',expri5ce4 #ahhi4 ,l',evolutionisme des ,ides-=ces4 #ahij4 ,l',enseignem5t au ,po9t de ,vue national4 #ahia 7,e4 ,t4 #ahib47 ,la ,psy*ologie des ,ides-=ces4 #b vols4 #ahic4 ,tempram5t et ,c>actre selon les ,individus1 les ,sexes et les ,races4 #ahie4 ,le ,m\vem5t idali/e et la ,raction contre la ,sci5ce positive4 #ahie4 ,le ,m\vem5t positivi/e et la ,conception sociologique du ,monde4 #ahif4 ,psy*ologie du ,peuple franais4 #ahih4 ,les ,etudes classiques et la ,dmocratie4 #ahih4 ,la ,france au ,po9t de ,vue moral4 #aijj4 ,la ,re=me de l',enseignem5t p> la ,philosophie4 #aija4 ,la ,conception morale et civique de ,l',enseignem5t4 ,nietzs*e et l',immoralisme4 #aijd4 ,esquisse psy*ologique des ,peuples europens4 #aijc4 ,le ,moralisme de ,kant et l',amoralisme contempora94 #aije4 ,les ,elem5ts sociologiques de la ,morale4 #aije4 ,la ,morale des ,ides-=ces4 #aijg4 ,le ,socialisme et la ,sociologie r=mi/e4 #aiji4 ,la ,dmocratie politique et sociale en ,france4 #aiaa4 ,la ,p5se et les n\velles ,ecoles anti-intllectuali/es4 #aiab4 ,po/hum\s3 ,esquisse d'une ,int]prtation du ,monde4 ,humanitaires et ,lib]taires4 #aiad4 ,equival5ts philosophiques des ,religions4 ,on ,f\ille1 monograph by ,augu/9 ,guyau1 son ( ,j4 ,m4 ,guyau4 ,,goblot3 ,trait de ,logique4 #aiah4 ,,g\rd3 ,le ,phnomne4 #ahhh4 ,la ,philosophie de la ,religion4 #aiaa4 ,,guyau3 ,la ,morale d',epicure et ses ,rapports avec les ,doctr9es contempora9es4 #ahgh4 8,cr[n$0 f\r ye>s be=e by ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques4 ,la ,morale anglaise contempora9e4 #ahgi4 ,an ext5sion ( ! ,prize ,essay 7,second ,"p74 ,v]s d'un ,philosophe4 #ahha4 ,problmes de l',e/htique contempora9e4 #ahhd4 ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 #ahhe4 7,e4,t4 #ahih47 ,l',irrligion de l',av5ir4 #ahhg4 7,e4,t4 #ahig47 ,po/hum\s3 ,education et ,hrdit4 7,e4,t4 #ahia47 ,l',art au ,po9t de ,vue sociologique4 ,la ,g5se de l',ide de ,temps4 #ahij4 ,!re is a monograph on ,guyau by ,f\ille4 ,,hamel93 ,essai sur les ,elm5ts pr9cipaux de la ,reprs5tation4 #aijg4 ,,hannequ93 ,essai critique sur l',hypo?se des ,atomes4 #ahif4 ,,iz\let3 ,la ,cit mod]ne4 #ahid4 ,,janet 7,,paul73 ,la ,famille4 #ahee4 ,hi/oire de la ,philosophie morale et politique dans ,l',antiquit et dans les ,temps mod]nes4 #b vols4 #aheh4 ,republi%$ z ,hi/oire de la ,sci5ce politique dans ses ,rapports avec la ,morale4 #ahgb4 ,la ,philosophie du ,bonheur4 #ahfb4 ,la ,crise philosophique4 #ahfe4 ,le ,c]veau et la ,p5se4 #ahfg4 ,elm5ts de ,morale4 #ahfi4 ,les ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahgb4 ,la ,morale4 #ahgd 7,e ,t4 #ahhd47 ,philosophie de la ,rvolution franaise4 #ahge4 ,les ,causes f9ales4 #ahgf4 7,e4,t4 #ahgh47 ,,janet 7,,pi]re73 ,l',automatisme psy*ologique4 #ahhi ,l',etat m5tal des ,hy/riques4 #ahid4 ,nvroses et ,ides-fixes4 #ahih4 7,janet f\nd$ ! ,j\rnal de ,psy*ologie4 #aijd74 ,,jav>y3 ,l',ide du ,progrs4 #ahej4 ,,lab]?onni,,re4 ,le ,dogmatisme morale4 #ahih4 ,essais de ,philosophie religieuse4 #aija4 ,le ,ralisme *rti5 et l',idalisme grec4 ,,la*eli]3 ,du ,fondem5t de l',induction4 #ahga4 ,psy*ologie et ,mtaphysique4 #ahhe4 ,article 9 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale1 n[ publi%$ ) ! above4 ,etude sur le ,syllogisme4 #aijg4 ,monograph by ,sailles1 article by ,nol4 ,,lacombe3 ,de l',hi/oire considre comme ,sci5ce4 #ahid4 ,,lal&e3 ,la ,dissolution oppose l',evolution1 dans les ,sci5ces physiques et morales4 #ahii4 ,prcis raisonn de ,morale pratique p> ,que/ions et ,rponses4 #aijg4 ,,lapie3 ,logique de la ,volont4 #aijb4 ,,le ,,bon3 ,lois psy*ologiques de l',evolution des ,peuples4 ,les ,op9ions et les ,croyances4 #aiaa4 ,psy*ologie du ,socialisme4 #ahii4 ,psy*ologie des ,f\les4 7,e4,t47 ,la ,vie des ,vrits4 #aiad4 ,,lequi]3 ,la ,re*]*e d'une ,premire ,vrit 7,fragm5ts po/humes74 #ahfe4 ,,le ,,roy3 ,dogme et ,critique4 #aijg4 ,,li>d3 ,des ,df9itions gometriques et des ,df9itions empiriques4 #ahgc4 ,la ,sci5ce positive et la ,mtaphysique4 #ahgi4 ,morale et ,enseignem5t civique4 #ahhc4 ,l',enseignem5t suprieure en ,france1 #aghi #ahhi4 #ahhi4 ,,loisy3 ,l',evangile et l',eglise4 7,e4,t47 ,,m>ion3 ,la ,solid>it morale4 #ahhj4 ,m,n,,goz3 ,publications div]ses sur le ,fidisme et son ,application l',enseignem5t *rti5 traditionnel4 #aijj4 ,two additional volumes lat]4 ,,mey]son3 ,id5tit et ,ralit4 #aijg ,,mi*elet3 ,l',am\r4 #aheh ,le ,prtre la ,femme et la ,famille4 #ahei4 ,la ,bible de l',humanit4 #ahfd ,,milhaud3 ,essai sur les ,conditions et les ,limites de la ,c]titude logique4 #ahid ,le ,rationnel4 #ahih4 ,,oll-,,laprune3 ,la ,c]titude morale4 #ahhj4 ,le ,prix de la ,vie4 #ahhe ,la ,philosophie et le ,temps prs5t4 #ahie4 ,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme4 #aijf4 ,,p>odi3 ,le ,problme morale et la ,p5se contempora9e4 #aiaj4 ,,pa/eur3 ,le ,budget de la ,sci5ce4 #ahfh ,,paulhan3 ,phnomnes affectifs4 ,l',activit m5tale4 #ahhi ,,payot3 ,la ,croyance4 #ahif4 ,,pelletan3 ,pr(ession da ,foi du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #aheb4 ,,po9cair3 ,la ,sci5ce et l',hypo?se4 #aijb4 7,e4,t4 #aije47 ,la ,valeur de la ,sci5ce4 #aije4 ,sci5ce et ,m?ode4 #aiji ,d]nires p5ses4 ,,pr\dhon3 ,qu'e/-ce que la ,proprit8 #ahdj ,sy/me des ,contradictions conomiques4 #ahdf ,la ,philosophie du ,progrs4 #ahea4 ,de la ,ju/ice4 #aheh4 ,,rauh3 ,psy*ologie applique la ,morale et l',education4 ,de la ,m?ode dans la ,psy*ologie des ,s5tim5ts4 ,essai sur le ,fondem5t mtaphysique de la ,morale4 #ahij4 ,l',expri5ce morale4 #aijc4 ,,ravaisson-,,molli5 7#ahac-aijj73 ,habitude4 #ahch4 7,!sis47 ,repr9t$ #ahid 9 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,ari/ote4 #ahcg4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 9 #ahdf4 ,developm5t ( "w cr[n$ by ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques 9 #ahcc1 :5 ! au?or 0 tw5ty4 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahfg4 ,la ,philosophie de ,pascal 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #ahhg7 ,l',education 7,revue bleue4 #ahhg74 ,mtaphysique et ,morale 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #ahic74 ,le ,te/am5t philosophique 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #aija74 ,cf4 ,b\tr\x on ,ravaisson 7,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #aijj74 ,b]gson 3 ,disc\rs l',acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques4 #aijd4 ,,r5an3 ,av]ros et l',av]roisme4 #aheb4 ,etudes d',hi/oire religieuse4 #aheg4 ,essais de ,morale et de ,critique4 #ahea74 ,les ,orig9es du ,*ri/ianisme4 #ahfc-hc4 #h vols41 ( :i*3 ,vie de ,jsus4 #ahfc4 7,e4,t47 ,que/ions contempora9es4 #ahfh4 ,la ,r=me intellectual et morale4 #ahga4 ,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques4 #ahgj4 7,e4,t4 #ahhc47 ,drames philosophiques4 ,s\v5irs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 #ahhc4 7,e4,t4 #ahhc47 ,n\velles ,etudes d',hi/oire religieuse4 #ahhd4 7,e4,t4 #ahhf47 ,hi/oire du ,peuple d',isral4 #e vols4 #ahhg-jd4 7,e4,t4 #ahhh-ia4 #c vols47 ,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce4 #ahij4 ,writt5 #ahdh-i4 7,e4,t47 ,feuilles dta*es4 #ahjb4 ,= monographs on ,r5an3 ,alli]3 ,la ,philosophie de ,r5an4 #ahie4 ,monod3 ,r5an1 ,ta9e1 ,mi*elet4 #ahid4 ,sailles3 ,r5an4 #ahid994 ,,r5\vi]3 ,manuel de ,philosophie mod]ne4 #ahdb4 ,manuel de ,philosophie anci5ne4 #ahdd4 ,manuel rpublica9e de l',homme et du ,citoy54 #ahdh4 ,g\v]nem5t direct et ,organisation communale et c5trale de la ,rpublique4 #ahea4 ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 #d vols4 #ahed1 #ahei1 #ahfd1 #ahfd4 7,on revision ^! f\r became ?irte5 vols47 ,la ,sci5ce de la ,morale4 #b vols4 #ahfi4 #a;er ,essai1 revis$3 ,trait de ,logique gnral et de ,logique =melle4 #c vols4 #ahge4 #b;e ,essai1 revis$3 ,trait de ,psy*ologie rationnelle4 #c vols4 #ahge4 ,u*ronie 7,l',utopie dans l',hi/oire71 ,esquisse hi/orique du ,dveloppem5t de la ,civilisation europenne1 tel qu'il n'a pas t1 tel qu'il aurait pu tre4 #ahgf4 ,petit ,trait de ,morale p\r les ,ecoles laques4 #ahgi4 ,esquisse d'une ,classification sy/matique des ,doctr9es philosophiques4 #b vols4 #ahhf4 #c;e ,essai1 revis$3 ,les ,pr9cipes de la ,nature4 #ahib4 ,victor ,hugo1 le ,pote4 #ahic4 #d;e ,essai1 revis$3 ,l'lntroduction la ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire4 #ahif4 #e;e ,essai1 new3 ,la ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire4 #d vols4 ,i4 & ,,ii4 #ahjf4 ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 #ahig4 7,?is br\ght ! ,essais up to ?irte5 volumes47 ,la ,n\velle ,monadologie4 #ahia74 7,) ,l4 ,prat47 78,cr[n$0 by ! ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques47 ,victor ,hugo1 le ,philosophe4 #aijj4 ,les ,dilemmes de la ,mtaphysique pure4 #aija4 ,hi/oire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques4 #aija4 ,le ,p]sonnalisme1 suivi d'une ,etude sur la ,p]ception ext]ne et sur la ,=ce #aijc4 ,po/hum\s3 ,d]ni]s entreti5s4 #aije4 ,doctr9e de ,kant4 #aijf4 ,= 8 two j\rnals1 see "u 8,p]iodicals40 ,9 ! late/ edition ! complete ,essais de ,critique gnrale are only t5 volumes1 z foll[s3 ,logic1 #b2 ,psy*ology1 #b2 ,pr9ciples ( ,nature1 #a2 ,introduction to ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 #a2 & ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 #d4 ,! be/ monograph is t ( ,sailles1 #aije4 ,r5\vi]'s ,correspond5ce ) ! ,swiss ,philosoph]1 ,scretan1 has be5 publi%$2 cf4 also ,! ,lett]s ( ,william ,james4 ,,reynaud3 ,philosophie religieuse4 #aheh4 7,?ird ,edition47 ,,ribot3 ,la ,psy*ologie anglaise contempora9e4 #ahgj4 7,e4,t4 #ahgc47 ,hrdit1 ,etude psy*ologique4 #ahgc4 7,e4,t4 #ahge47 ,la ,psy*ologie allem&e contempora9e4 #ahgi4 7,e4,t4 #ahhf47 ,les ,maladies de la ,mmoire1 ,essai dans la ,psy*ologie positive4 #ahha4 7,e4,t4 #ahhb47 ,les ,maladies de la ,volont4 #ahhc4 7,e4,t4 #ahhd47 ,les ,maladies de la ,p]sonnalit4 #ahhe4 7,e4,t4 #ahie47 ,la ,psy*ologie de l',att5tion4 #ahhi4 7,e4,t4 #ahij47 ,la ,psy*ologie des ,s5tim5ts4 #ahif4 7,e4,t4 #ahig47 ,l',evolution des ,ides gnrales4 #ahig4 7,e4,t4 #ahii47 ,essai sur l',imag9ation cratrice4 #aijj4 ,la ,logique des ,s5tim5ts4 #aijd4 ,essai sur les ,passions4 #aijf4 ,la ,vie inconsci5te et les ,m\vem5ts4 ,,sabati] 7,,augu/e73 ,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de ,religion d'aprs la ,psy*ologie et l',hi/oire4 #ahig4 ,les ,religions d',autorit et la ,religion de l',esprit4 #aijd4 7,e4,t47 ,,sabati] 7,,paul73 ,a propos de la ,sp>ation des ,eglises de l',etat4 #aije4 ,e4,t41 ,rob]t ,dell1 #aijf 7) ,text ( ! ,law74 ,s,,ailles3 ,affirmations de la ,consci5ce mod]ne4 #aijc4 ,,simon3 ,la ,lib]t de ,consci5ce4 #ahei4 ,dieu1 ,patrie1 ,lib]t4 #ahhc4 ,,sorel3 ,reflexions sur la ,viol5ce4 #aijg4 7,e4,t #aiaf47 ,illusions du ,progrs4 #aiaa4 ,,ta9e3 ,les ,philosophes franais au ,x,i,xe ,siecle4 #aheg4 ,essais de ,critique et d',hi/oire4 #aheh4 ,philosophie de l',art4 #b vols4 #ahfe4 7,e4,t4 #ahfe47 ,n\veaux ,essais de ,critique et d',hi/oire4 #ahfe4 ,de l',intllig5ce4 #b vols4 #ahgj4 7,e ,t4 #ahga47 ,! "w ,orig9es de la ,france contempora9e 9 #e vols1 #ahgf-ic4 ,hi/oire de la ,littrature anglaise4 #e vols4 #ahfc4 7,e4,t4 by ,van ,laun4 #ahhg47 ,monographs3 ,de ,m>g]ie3 ,ta9e4 #ahid4 ,monod3 ,r5an1 ,ta9e1 et ,mi*elet4 #ahid4 ,b>zellotti3 ,la ,philosophie de ,ta9e4 ,b\tmy3 ,h4 ,ta9e4 #ahig4 ,giraud3 ,essai sur ,ta9e4 #aija4 ,,t>de3 ,crim9alit comp>e4 #ahih4 ,les ,lois de l',imitation4 #aijj4 ,,va*]ot3 ,hi/oire de l',ecole d',alex&rie4 #ahdf-ea4 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,sci5ce4 #c vols4 #aheh4 ,la ,dmocratie4 #ahfj4 ,essais de ,philosophie critique4 #ahfd4 ,la ,religion4 #ahfh4 ,la ,sci5ce et la ,consci5ce4 #ahgj4 ,le ,n\veau ,spiritualisme4 #ahhd4 ,cf4 ,p>odi on ,va*]ot1 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #ahii4 ,,web]3 ,le ,ry?me du ,progrs4 ,v]s le ,positivisme absolu p> l',idalisme4 #aijc4 ,wl,l,b,o,i,s3 ,devoir et ,dure3 ,essai de ,morale sociale4 #aiab4 ,x,,nopol3 ,pr9cipes fondam5taux de l',hi/oire4 #ahii4 ,revis$ & reissu$ 9 l>g] =m 9 #aije z ,la ,?orie de l',hi/oire4 #a ,?is abbreviation is us$ ?r\gh\t = 8,engli% ,translation40 ,,p]iodicals 8,,la ,,critique ,,philosophique10 ( ,r5\vi] & ,pillon1 #ahgb4 to #ahhd1 weekly2 mon?ly f #ahhe to #ahhi4 8,,la ,,critique ,,religieuse10 #ahgh-ahhd 7qu>t]ly74 ,r5\vi]4 8,,revue ,,philosophique ,,de ,,la ,,france ,,et ,,de ,l',,trang]10 f\nd$ by ,ribot 9 #ahgf4 8,l',,ann,e ,,philosophique40 #ahfg-ahfi4 ,r5\vi] & ,pillon1 ref\nd$ 9 #ahij by ,pillon4 8,,revue ,,de ,m,,taphysique ,,et ,,de ,,morale10 f\nd$ by ,xavi] ,leon 9 #ahic4 8,cr[n$0 by ,acadmie des ,sci5ces morales et politiques1 #aiba4 8,,ann,e ,,psy*ologique10 f\nd$ by ,beaunet & ,b9et1 #ahie4 8,,revue ,,de ,,philosophie10 f\nd$ by ,peillaube1 #aijj4 8,,revue ,,?omi/e40 8,,annales ,,de ,,philosophie ,,*r,,ti5ne40 ,lab]?onnire4 8,,ann,e ,,sociologique40 #ahif-aiab4 ,durkheim4 8,,j\rnal ,,de ,,psy*ologie ,,normale ,,et ,,pa?ologique40 ,f\nd$ #aijd by ,janet & ,dumas4 8,,bullet9 ,,de ,,la ,,soci,t ,,fran,,aise ,,de ,,philosophie40 ,f #aija4 ,,ii ,,g5]al ,,books ,,on ,,! ,,p]iod4 ,,aliotta3 ,! ,ideali/ic ,reaction aga9/ ,sci5ce4 7,e4,t4 f ,italian4 #aiad47 ,,b>?3 ,die ,philosophie d] ,ges*i*te als ,sociologie4 #ahig4 ,,b]gson3 ,la ,philosophie franaise4 #aiae4 ,,b\tr\x3 ,philosophie en ,france depuis #ahfg4 ,report to ,congress ( ,philosophy giv5 9 ! ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #aijh4 ,la ,philosophie3 an ,essay 9 ! volume ( collect$ ,essays entitl$3 ,un ,demi-,sicle de la ,civilisation franaise4 #ahgj- #aiae4 ,pp4 #be-dh4 7,p>is3 ,ha*ette4 #aiaf47 ,,dwel%auv]s3 ,la ,psy*ologie franaise contempora9e4 #aibj4 ,,faguet3 ,dix-,neuvime ,sicle4 #ahhg4 ,politiques et ,morali/es du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahha4 ,,f]raz3 ,etudes sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #c vols4 #ahhb-i4 ,x is int]e/+ to notice ! triple division adopt$ by ,f]raz3 ,socialism 7"u :i* head+ he also gr\ps ,naturalism & ,positivism74 ,traditionalism 7,ultramontanism74 ,spiritualism 7toge!r ) ,lib]alism74 ,,fis*]3 ,ges*i*te d] neu]n ,philosophie4 #i vols4 ,,f\ill,e3 ,hi/oire de la ,philosophie1 ,late/ ,edition1 la/ ,*apt]4 ,le ,m\vem5t idali/e et la ,raction contre la ,sci5ce positive4 #ahif4 ,la ,p5se et les n\velles ,ecoles anti-intellectuali/es4 #aiab4 ,h,,ffd+3 ,mod]n ,philosoph]s4 7,e4,t4 f ,dani%4 #aiae47 ,l,,vy-,,bruhl3 ,mod]n ,philosophy 9 ,france4 ,*icago1 #ahii4 ,,m]z3 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,?\ght 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4 #d vols4 ,a great "w4 ,v compreh5sive1 p>ticul>ly = ,g]man & ,briti% ?\ght4 ,,p>odi3 ,la ,philosophie contempora9e en ,france4 #aiai4 ,an excell5t treatm5t ( ! developm5t f #ahij onw>ds by a ,fr5* ?9k]4 78,cr[n$0 by ,acadmie47 ,,ravaisson3 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahfg4 7,second ,edition1 #ahhi47 ,?is has become an ackn[l$g$ classic4 ,,r5\vi]3 ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 late/ sections47 #ahig4 ,,ruggi]o3 ,mod]n ,philosophy4 #aiab4 7,e4,t4 f ,italian4 #aiba47 ,gives a /imulat+ acc\nt ( ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 ,anglo- ,am]ican & ,italian ?\ght4 ,,/ebb+3 ,pragmatism & ,fr5* ,volunt>ism4 #aiad4 ,,ta9e3 ,les ,philosophes franais du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #aheg4 ,,turquet-,,milnes1 ,g43 ,"s ,mod]n ,fr5* ,writ]s3 ,a ,/udy 9 ,b]gsonism4 #aiba4 ,deals ma9ly ) lit]>y figures-e4g41 ,b>res1 ,pguy1 ,france1 ,b\rget1 ,claudel4 ,,villa3 ,contempor>y ,psy*ology4 7,e4,t4 f ,italian4 #aijc47 ,l',idealismo mod]no4 #aije4 ,,web]3 ,hi/oire de la ,philosophie europenne4 7,eigh? ,edition1 #aiad47 99 99 99 99 99 ,! article contribut$ by ,ribot to ,m9d 9 #ahgg is wor?y ( notice1 :ile mu* light is ?r[n on ! hi/orical developm5t by articles 9 ! curr5t p]iodicals cit$ on p4 #cch1 especially 9 ! ,revue philosophique & ! ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,,iiii ,,comp>ative ,,table ,,! ,,*ief ,,philosophical ,,works ,,9 ,,france1 ,,g]many1 ,,engl& ,,& ,,am]ica ,,f #ahea ,,to #aiba4 ,,france4 ,,g]many4 ,,engl& ,,& ,,am]ica4 l#hea ,,c\rnot3 8,essai sur les ,fondem5ts de nos ,connaissances40 #ahea ,,fe*n]3 8,z5d ,ave/a40 #ahea ,,mansel3 8,prolegom5a to ,logic40 ,,r5\vi]3 8,g\v]nem5t direct et ,organisation communale40 ,,pr\dhon3 8,la ,philosophie du ,progrs40 #aheb ,,moles*ott3 8,d] ,kreislauf des ,leb5s40 ,,lotze3 8,m$iz9is*e ,psy*ologie od] ,physiologie d] ,seele40 #ahed ,,r5\vi]3 8,essai de ,critique gnrale07,i] ,essai74 #ahed ,,f]ri]3 8,in/itutes ( ,metaphysic40 ,,comte completes 8,sy/eme de ,politique positive40 #ahee ,b,,*n]3 8,kraft und ,/(f40 #ahee ,,ba93 8,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect40 ,,fe*n]3 8,ub] die physikalis*e und die philosophis*e ,atomlehre40 ,,sp5c]3 8,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology40 ,,czolbe3 8,neue ,d>/ellung des ,s5sualismus40 #ahef ,,comte3 8,syn?se subjective10 vol4 i4 #ahef ,,lotze3 8,mikrokosmos0 7#ahef-ahfd74 ,,czolbe3 8,die ,en/ehung des ,selb/bewus/se9s40 #aheg ,,ta9e3 8,philosophes ranais du ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 #aheg ,,buckle3 8,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,engl&0 7vol4 i474 ,,r5an3 8,etudes d',hi/oire religieuse40 ,,mansel3 8,! ,limits ( ,religi\s ,?\ght40 #aheh ,,va*]ot3 8,la ,mtaphysique et la ,sci5ce40 #aheh ,,hamilton3 8,lectures0 7#aheh-ahfj74 #ahei ,,r5\vi]3 8,deuxime ,essai de ,critique g5]ale40 ,i#hei ,,d>w93 8,orig9 ( ,species40 #ahfj ,,fe*n]3 8,elem5te d] ,psy*ophysik40 #ahfa ,,c\rnot3 8,trait de l',en*anem5t des ,idees40 #ahfa ,,fe*n]3 8,ub] die ,seel5frage40 #ahfb ,h,,ckel3 8,g5]alle ,morphologie0 7#ahfb-ahff74 #ahfb ,,sp5c]3 8,fir/ ,pr9ciples40 #ahfc ,,r5an3 8,vie de ,jsus40 #ahfc ,,vogt3 8,vorlesung5 iib] d5 ,m5s*540 #ahfc ,,mill 7,j4 ,s473 8,utilit>ianism40 ,,fe*n]3 8,die ,drei ,motive des ,glaub5s40 #ahfd ,,r5\vi]3 8,troisime ,essai de ,critique gnrale02 8,quatrime ,essai de ,critique gnrale40 #ahfe ,,b]n>d3 8,introduction l',etude de la ,mdec9e exprim5tale40 #ahfe ,d,,hr+3 8,d] ,w]t des ,leb5s40 #ahfe ,,hodgson3 8,"t & ,space40 ,,czolbe3 8,die ,gr5z5 und d] ,ursprung d] ,m5s*li*5 ,erk5ntnis40 ,,mill 7,j4 ,s73 8,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy40 ,,hamilton3 8,lectures on ,metaphysics40 ,,/irl+3 8,secret ( ,hegel40 #ahff ,,lange3 8,ges*i*te des ,mat]ialismus40 #ahfg ,,ravaisson3 8,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 #ahfg ,,m>x3 8,das ,kapital40 #ahfg ,,buckle3 8,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,engl&0 7 vol4 ii474 #ahfh ,,r5an3 8,que/ions contempora9es40 #ahfh ,,lotze3 8,ges*i*te d] ,a/hetik 9 ,deuts*l&40 ,h,,ckel3 8,natrli*e ,s*pftungsges*i*te #ahfi ,,r5\vi]3 8,sci5ce de,u ,morale40 #ahfi ,,h>tmann3 8,philosophic des ,unbewus/540 #ahgj ,,ta9e3 8,de l',intellig5ce40 #ahgj ,,rits*l3 8,lehre von d] ,re*f]tigung07#ahgj-ahgd74 #ahga ,,la*eli]3 8,du ,fondem5t de l',induction40 #ahgb ,,f\ill,e3 8,la ,libertc,s et la ,det]m9isme10 #ahgb ,,/rauss3 8,d] ,alte und d] neue ,glaube40 #ahgb ,,maurice3 8,moral & ,metaphysical ,philosophy40 ,,janet3 8,problemes du ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 ,,nietzs*e3 8,die ,geburt d] ,tragdie0 ,,wallace3 8,logic ( ,hegel40 ,,c\rnot3 8,consid]ations sur la ,m>*e des ,idees40 #ahgc ,,ribot3 8,i,wredite40 #ahgc #aigc ,,sigw>t3 8,logik0 7#ahgc-ahgh74 #ahgc #aigc ,,/eph5 7,j4 ,f473 8,lib]ty1 ,equality1,frat]nity40 #ahgd ,,b\tr\x3 8,la ,cont+5ce des ,lois de la ,nature40 #ahgd ,,lotze3 8,drei ,bu*] d] ,logik40 #ahgd ,,sidgwick3 8,me?od ( ,e?ics40 ,,wundt3 8,physiologis*e ,psy*ologie40 ,,br5tano3 8,psy*ologie vom empiris*5 ,/&punkt40 #ahge ,,c\rnot3 8,mat]ialisme1 ,vitalisme1,rationalisme40 ,,r5\vi]3 ,revises fir/ & second 8,essais40 #ahgf ,,r5an3 8,dialogues et ,fragm5ts philosophiques40 #ahgf ,,fe*n]3 8,vors*ule d] ,a/hetik40 #ahgf ,,bradley3 8,e?ical ,/udies40 ,,janet3 8,les ,causes f9ales40 ,,grote3 8,moral ,ideals40 #ahgg ,,fl9t3 8,!ism40 #ahgh ,,f\illee3 8,l',idee du ,droit40 #ahgh ,,nietzs*e3 8,m5s*li*es ,allzum5s*h*es 87#ahgh-ahhj74 #ahgh ,,hodgson3 8,philosophy ( ,reflection40 #ahgi ,,bro*>d3 8,de l',erreur40 #ahgi ,,lotze3 8,drei ,bu*] d] ,metaphysik40 #ahgi ,,sp5c]3 8,data ( ,e?ics40 ,,h>tmann3 8,phanom5ologie des sittli*5 ,bewus/se9s40 ,,balf\r3 8,def5ce ( ,philosophic ,d\bt40 #ahhj ,,av5>ius3 8,kritik d] re95 ,erfahrung07#ahhj-ahij7 #ahhj ,,caird3 8,philosophy ol ,religion40 #ahha ,,guyau3 8,v]s d'un ,philosophe40 #ahha ,,nietzs*e3 8,morg5rote40 #ahhb ,,nietzs*e3 8,die frohli*e ,wiss5s*aft40 #ahhb ,,/eph5 7,l473 8,sci5ce ( ,e?ics40 #ahhc ,,nietzs*e3 8,also spra* ,z>a?u/ra07#ahhc-ahia7 #ahhc ,,gre53 8,prolegom5a to ,e?ics40 ,,duhr+3 8,d] ,ersatz d] ,religion40 ,,bradley3 8,pr9ciples ( ,logic40 ,,wundt3 8,logik40 ,,ma*3 8,die ,me*anik 9 ihr] ,entwicklung40 #ahhe ,,guyau3 8,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction40 #ahhe ,,m>t9eau3 8,types o4 ,e?ical ,!ory40 ,,la*eli]3 8,psy*ologic et ,mtaphysique40 ,,bosanquet3 8,k & ,reality40 #ahhf ,,guyau3 8,l',irreligion de l',av5ir40 #ahhf ,,ma*3 8,analyse d] ,empf9dung540 #ahhf ,,w>d3 8,psy*ology0 7article74 ,,wundt3 8,e?ik40 ,,nietzs*e3 8,j5seits von ,gut und ,bse40 #ahhg ,,nietzs*e3 8,zur ,g5ealogie d] ,moral40 #ahhg ,,se? 7,pr+le-,pattison73 8,hegelianism & ,p]sonality40 #ahhh ,,euck53 8,die ,e9heit des ,gei/esleb5s40 #ahhh ,,bosanqukt3 8,logic40 #ahhi ,,b]gson3 8,les ,donnees imm$iates de la ,consci5ce40 #ahhi ,,wundt3 8,sy/em d] ,philosophie40 #ahhi ,,m>t9eau3 8,/udy ( ,religion40 ,,f\illee3 8,l',av5ir de la ,metaphysique40 ,,lipps3 8,grund?atsa*5 des ,seel5leb5s40 ,,alex&]3 8,moral ,ord] & ,progress40 ,,janet 7,pi]re73 8,l',automatisme psy*ologique40 ,,paulhan3 8,l',activit m5tale40 #ahij ,,r5an3 8,l',av5ir de la ,sci5ce40 #ahij ,,james3 8,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology40 ,,f\ill,e3 8,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-=ces40 ,,rauh3 8,le ,fondem5t mtaphysique de la ,morale0 #ahia ,,simmel3 8,moralwiss5s*aft40 ,,av5>ius3 8,d] m5s*li*e ,weltbegriff40 #ahib ,,r5\vi] ,revises ?ird 8,essai40 #ahib ,,pe>son3 8,gramm> ,( ,sci5ce40 ,,r5an 8,feuilles dta*es40 #ahic ,,durkheim3 8,de la ,division du ,travail social40 #ahic ,,huxley3 8,evolution & ,e?ics40 ,,blondel3 8,l',action40 ,,caird3 8,evolution ( ,religion0 ,,f\ill,e3 8,psy*ologie des ,ides-=ces40 ,,bradley3 8,appe>ance & ,reality40 #ahid ,,me9ong3 8,w]?!orie0 7,psy*ologis*-e?is*e ,unt]su*ung574 #ahid ,,fras]3 8,philosophy ( ,!ism0 ,,h]tz3 8,pr9zipi5 d] ,me*anik40 #ahie ,,f\ill,e3 8,le ,m\vem5t idali/e40 #ahie ,,balf\r3 8,f\ndations ( ,belief40 #ahif ,,b]gson3 8,matire et ,mmoire0 #ahif ,,euck53 8,d] ,kampf um e95 gei/ig5 ,leb5s9halt40 #ahif ,,/\t3 8,analytic ,psy*ology40 ,,r5\vi]3 ,revises f\r? 8,essai40 ,,hobh\se3 8,!ory ( ,k40 ,,r5\vi]3 ,publi%es fif? 8,essai0 7,la ,philosophie analytique de l',hi/oire71 vols4 #a & #b4 ,,m]z3 8,hi/ory ( ,?\ght 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury0 7#ahif-aiad74 ,,mactagg>t3 8,hegelian ,dialectic40 #ahig ,,r5\vi]3 ,ditto1 vols4 #c & #d4 #ahig ,,h>tmann3 8,kategori5lehre40 #ahig ,,james3 8,! ,w to ,believe ,,sabati]3 8,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de ,religion40 ,,drews3 8,das ,i* als ,grundproblem d] ,metaphysik40 ,,ehr5fels3 8,sy/em d] ,w]t!orie0 7#ahig-ahih74 #ahih ,,wallace3 8,natural ,!ology & ,e?ics40 #ahii ,,r5\vi] 7& ,prat73 8,la ,n\velle ,monadologie40 #ahii ,,me9ong3 8,ub] geg5/nde hh]5 ,ordnung40 #ahii ,,w>d3 8,naturalism & ,agno/icism40 ,,bosanquet3 8,philosophical ,!ory ( ! ,/ate40 ,,hodgson3 8,metaphysic ( ,exp]i5ce40 #aijj ,,t>de3 8,les ,lois de l',imitation40 #aijj ,,petzoldt3 8,die ,philosophie d] re95 ,erfahrung40 #aijj ,,royce3 8,! ,_w & ! ,individual40 ,,bruns*wicg3 8,la ,vie de l',esprit40 #aija ,,euck53 8,das ,wes5 d] ,religion40 ,,euck53 8,das ,wahrheitsgehalt d] ,religion40 #aijb ,,po9c> #aijb ,,coh53 8,sy/em d] ,philosophie3 ,logik40 #aijb ,,james3 8,v>ieties ( ,religi\s ,exp]i5ce40 ,,clif=d3 8,essays & ,lectures40 #aijc ,,web]3 8,v]s le ,positivisme absolu p> l',idalisme40 #aijc ,,b]gmann3 8,sy/em des objectiv5 ,idealismus40 #aijc ,,russell3 8,pr9ciples ( ,ma!matics40 ,,rauh3 8,l',expri5ce morale40 ,,s*ill]3 8,humanism40 ,,r5\vi]3 8,le ,p]sonnalisme40 #aijd ,,coh53 8,sy/em d] ,philosophie3 ,e?ik40 #aijd ,,mactagg>t3 8,hegelian ,cosmology40 #aije ,,po9c>3 8,valeur de la ,sci5ce40 #aije ,,ma*3 ,erk5ntnis und ,irrtum40 #aijf ,,oll-,,laprune3 8,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme40 #aijf ,,me9ong3 8,die ,/ellung d] ,geg5/&!orie e9 ,sy/em d] ,wiss5s*aft540 #aijf ,,baillie3 8,ideali/ic ,con/ruction ( ,exp]i5ce40 ,,duhem3 8,la ,?orie physique40 ,,baldw93 8,?\ght & ,?+s40 #aijg ,,hamel93 8,les ,elm5ts pr9cipaux de la ,rpres5tation40 #aijg ,,euck53 8,grundl9i5 e9] neu5 ,leb5saus*auung40 #aijg ,,s*ill]3 8,/udies 9 ,humanism40 ,,b]gson3 8,l',evolution cratrice40 ,,euck53 8,hauptprobleme d] ,religionsphilosophie40 ,,evell93 8,la ,raison pure et les ,ant9omies40 ,,lal&el 8,prcis de ,morale40 ,,f\ill,e3 8,morale des ,ides-=ces40 #aijh ,,b\tr\x3 8,sci5ce et ,religion40 #aijh ,,euck53 8,s9n und ,w]tdes ,leb5s40 ,,euck53 8,philosophie des ,gei/esleb5s40 ,m,,n/]b]g3 8,philosophie d] ,w]te40 #aiji ,,po9c>3 8,sci5ce et ,m?ode40 #aiji ,,dewey3 8,logical ,!ory40 #aiaj ,,remkhe3 8,philosophie als ,grundwiss5s*aft0 #aiaa ,,dunan3 8,les ,deux ,idalismes40 #aiaa ,,euck53 8,konn5 wir no* ,*ri/5 se980 #aiaa ,,w>d3 8,realm ( ,ends40 #aiab ,,f\ill,e3 8,la ,p5se40 #aiab ,,coh53 8,sy/em d] ,philosophie3 /hetik40 #aiab ,,bosanquet3 8,value & ,de/9y ( ! ,individual0 ,,durkheim3 8,=mes lm5taires de la ,vie religieuse40 ,,euck53 8,erk5n5 und ,leb540 #aiac ,,bosanquet3 8,value & ,de/9y ( ! ,individual40 #aiad ,,f\ill,e3 8,humanitaires et ,lib]taires40 #aiae ,,sorley3 8,moral ,values & ! ,idea ( ,god40 #aiag ,,loisy3 8,la ,religion40 #aiah ,,goblot3 8,trait de ,logique40 #aiai ,,b]gson3 8,l',en]gie spirituelle40 #aibj ,,alex&]3 8,space1 ,"t & ,deity40 #aiba ,,russell3 8,analysis ( ,m9d40 ,,mactagg>t3 8,nature ( ,exi/5ce40