,modern ,french ,philosophy ,a study of the ,development since ,comte4 by ,j4 ,alexander ,gunn1 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4,d4 ,fellow of the ,university of ,liverpool2 ,lecturer in ,psychology to the ,liverpool ,university ,extension ,board ,,with ,a ,,foreword ,,by ,,henri ,,bergson de l',academie francaise et de l',academie des ,sciences morales et politiques ,t4 ,,fisher ,,unwin1 ,,ltd4 ,,london3 ,,adelphi ,,terrace ,first published in #aibb4 7,all rights reserved7 ,,to ,,my ,,teacher ,,alexander ,,mair ,,professor ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,liverpool ,,as ,a ,,small ,,token ,,of ,,esteem ,,and ,,an ,,acknowledgment ,,of ,,his ,,instruction ,contents ,,foreword ,,by ,,henri ,,bergson ,,preface ,,chapter ,i4 ,,antecedents ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,main ,,currents ,,since #ahea ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,science ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,freedom ,,chapter ,v4 ,,progress ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,ethics ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,religion ,,conclusion ,,bibliography ,,comparative ,,table ,,index 8,mais il n'y a pas que cette ,france1 que cette ,france glorieuse1 que cette ,france rvolutionnaire1 cette ,france mancipatrice et initiatrice du genre humain1 que cette ,france d'une activit merveilleuse et comme on l'a dit1 cette ,france nourrie des ides gnrales du monde1 il y a une autre ,france que je n'aime pas moins1 une autre ,france qui m'est encore plus chre1 c'est la ,france misrable1 c'est la ,france vaincue et humilie1 c'est la ,france qui est accable1 c'est la ,france qui trane son boulet depuis quatorze sicles1 la ,france qui crie1 suppliante vers la justice et vers la libert1 la ,france que les despotes poussent constamment sur les champs de bataille1 sous prtexte de libert1 pour lui faire verser son sang par toutes les artres et par toutes les veines1 oh6 cette ,france-l1 je l'aime40--,,gambetta1 ,discours1 #bi ,september1 #ahgb4 8,les jeunes gens de tous les pays du monde qui sont venus dans les campagnes de ,france combattre pour la civilisation et le droit seront sans doute plus disposs y revenir1 apres la guerre chercher la nourriture intellectuelle4 ,il importe qu'ils soient assurs de l'y trouver1 saine1 abondante et forte40--,m4 ,d4 ,,parodi1 ,inspecteur de l',acadmie de ,paris1 #aiai4 ,,foreword ,je serais heureux que le public anglais st le bien que je pense du livre de ,m4 ,gunn1 sur la philosophie francaise depuis #ahea4 ,le sujet choisi est neuf1 car il n'existe pas1 ma connaissance1 d'ouvrage relatif toute cette priode de la philosophie franaise4 ,le beau livre que ,m4 ,parodi vient de publier en franais traite surtout des vingt dernires annes de notre activit philosophique4 ,m4 ,gunn1 remontant jusqu' ,auguste ,comte1 a eu raison de placer ainsi devant nous toute le seconde moiti du sicle pass4 ,cette priode de cinquante ans qui a prcde notre vingtime sicle est d'une importance capitale4 ,elle constitue rellement notre dix-neuvime sicle philosophique1 car l'oeuvre mme de ,maine de ,biran1 qui est antrieure1 n'a t bien connue et tudie qu' ce moment1 et la plupart de nos ides philosophiques actuelles ont t labores pendant ces cinquante ans4 ,le sujet est d'ailleurs d'une complication extrme1 en raison du nombre et de la varit des doctrines1 en raison surtout de la diversit des questions entre lesquelles se sont partags tant de penseurs4 ,dr4 ,gunn a su ramener toutes ces questions un petit nombre de problmes essentiels 3 la science1 la libert1 le progrs1 la morale1 la religion4 ,cette division me parat heureuse4 ,elle rpond bien1 ce me semble1 aux principales proccupations de la philosophie francaise4 ,elle a permis l'auteur d'tre complet1 tout en restant simple1 clair1 et facile suivre4 ,elle prsente1 il est vrai1 un inconvnient1 en ce qu'elle morcelle la doctrine d'un auteur en fragments dont chacun1 pris part1 perd un peu de sa vitalite et de son individualit4 ,elle risque ainsi de prsenter comme trop semblable d'autres la solution que tel philosophe a donne de tel problme1 solution qui1 replace dans l'ensemble de la doctrine1 apparatrait comme propre ce penseur1 originale et plus forte4 ,mais cet inconvnient tait invitable et l'envers de l'avantage que je signalais plus haut1 celui de l'ordre1 de la continuit et de la clart4 ,le travail du ,dr4 ,gunn m'apparat comme tout fait distingu4 ,il tmoigne d'une information singulirement tendue1 prcise et sre4 ,c'est l'oeuvre d'un esprit d'une extrme souplesse1 capable de s'assimiler vite et bien la pense des philosophes1 de classer les ides dans leur ordre d'importance1 de les exposer mthodiquement et les apprcier leur juste valeur4 ,h4 ,bergson ,these pages are a revised extract from the more formal ,rapport which was presented by ,m4 ,bergson to the ,university of ,liverpool4 ,,preface ,this work is the fruit of much reading and research done in ,paris at the ,sorbonne and ,bibliothque nationale4 ,it is1 substantially1 a revised form of the thesis presented by the writer to the ,university of ,liverpool for the degree of ,doctor in ,philosophy1 obtained in #aiba4 ,the author is indebted1 therefore1 to the ,university for permission to publish4 ,more especially must he record his deep gratitude to the ,french thinkers who gave both stimulus and encouragement to him during his sojourn in ,paris4 ,foremost among these is ,m4 ,henri ,bergson1 upon whose rapport the ,doctorate was conferred1 and who has expressed his appreciation of the work by contributing a ,foreword for publication4 ,mention must also be made of the encouragement given by the late ,m4 ,emile ,boutroux and by the eminent editor of the well-known ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale1 ,m4 ,xavier ,lon1 a leading spirit in the ,socit de ,philosophie1 whose meetings the writer was privileged to attend by invitation4 ,then ,,mm4 ,brunschvicg1 ,levy-,bruhl1 ,lalande1 ,rey and ,lenoir1 from time to time discussed the work with him and he must record his appreciation of their kindness4 ,to ,professor ,mair of ,liverpool is due the initial suggestion1 and it has been felt a fitting tribute to his supervision1 criticism1 encouragement and sympathy that this book should be respectfully dedicated to him by one of his grateful pupils4 ,in the labour of dealing with the proofs1 the writer has to acknowledge the co-operation of ,miss ,m4 ,linn and ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,turner1 ,m4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the method adopted in this history has been deliberately chosen for its usefulness in emphasising the development of ideas4 ,a purely chronological method has not been followed4 ,the biographical system has likewise been rejected4 ,the history of the development of thought centres round problems1 and it progresses in relation to these problems4 ,the particular manner in which the main problems presented themselves to the ,french thinkers of the second half of the nineteenth century was largely determined by the events and ideas which marked the period from #aghi to #ahea4 ,for this reason a chapter has been devoted to ,antecedents4 ,between the ,revolution and the coup d'tat of ,napoleon ,,iii41 four distinct lines of thought are discernible4 ,then the main currents from the year #ahea down to #aiba are described1 with special reference to the development of the main problems4 ,the reconciliation of science and conscience proved to be the main general problem1 which became more definitely that of ,freedom4 ,this in itself is intimately bound up with the doctrines of progress1 of history1 of ethics and religion4 ,these topics are discussed in a manner which shows their bearing upon each other4 ,the conclusion aims at displaying the characteristics of ,french thought which reveal themselves in the study of these great problems4 ,its vitality1 concreteness1 clearness1 brilliance and precision are noted and a comparison made between ,french thought and ,german philosophy4 ,from a general philosophical standpoint few periods could be so fascinating4 ,few1 if any1 could show such a complete revolution of thought as that witnessed since the year #ahea4 ,to bring this out clearly is the main object of the present book4 ,it is intended to serve a double purpose4 ,primarily1 it aims at being a contribution to the history of thought which will provide a definite knowledge of the best that has been said and thought among philosophers in ,france during the last seventy years4 ,further1 it is itself an appeal for serious attention to be given to ,french philosophy4 ,this is a field which has been comparatively neglected by ,english students1 so far as the nineteenth century is concerned1 and this is especially true of our period1 which is roughly that from ,comte to ,boutroux 7who passed away last month7 and ,bergson 7who has this year resigned his professorship74 ,it is the earnest desire of the writer to draw both philosophical students and lovers of ,france and its literature to a closer study and appreciation of modern ,french philosophy4 ,emotion and sentiment are inadequate bases for an entente which is to be really cordiale between any two peoples4 ,an understanding of their deepest thoughts is also necessary and desirable4 ,such an understanding is1 after all1 but a step towards that iternationalisation of thought1 that common fund of human culture and knowledge1 which sets itself as an ideal before the nations of the world4 ,la philosophie n'a pas de patrie6 ,les ides sont actuellement les forces internationales4 ,j4 ,a4 ,g4 ,,the ,,university1 ,,liverpool1 ,december1 #aiba ,,chapter ,i 7,,introductory7 ,,antecedents ,,historical ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,currents ,,from ,,the ,,revolution ,,of #aghi ,,up ,,to #ahea4 ,after the ,revolution--,the ,traditionalists3 ,chateaubuand1 ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,maistre1 ,lamennais1 ,lacordaire ,main ,currents3 #a4 ,maine de ,biran4 #b4 ,the ,eclectics3 ,cousin1 ,jouffroy4 #c4 ,the ,socialists3 ,saint-,simon1 ,fourier and ,cabal1 ,proudhon and ,blanc4 #d4,positivism3 ,auguste ,comte4 ,,chapter ,i ,,antecedents ,this work deals with the great ,french thinkers since the time of ,auguste ,comte1 and treats1 under various aspects1 the development of thought in relation to the main problems which confronted these men4 ,in the commencement of such an undertaking we are obliged to acknowledge the continuity of human thought1 to recognise that it tends to approximate to an organic whole1 and that1 consequently1 methods resembling those of surgical amputation are to be avoided4 ,we cannot absolutely isolate one period of thought4 ,for this reason a brief survey of the earlier years is necessary in order to orient the approach to the period specially placed in the limelight1 namely #ahea-aiba4 ,in the world of speculative thought and in the realm of practical politics we find reflected1 at the opening of the century1 the work of the ,french ,revolutionaries on the one hand1 and that of ,immanuel ,kant on the other4 ,coupled with these great factors was the pervading influence of the ,encyclopdists and of the thinkers of the ,enlightenment4 ,these two groups of influences1 the one sudden and in the nature of a shock to political and metaphysical thought1 the other quieter but no less effective1 combined to produce a feeling of instability and of dissatisfaction at the close of the eighteenth century4 ,a sense of change1 indeed of resurrection1 filled the minds and hearts of those who saw the opening of the nineteenth century4 ,the old aristocracy and the monarchy in ,france had gone1 and in philosophy the old metaphysic had received a blow at the hands of the author of the ,three ,critiques4 ,no better expression was given to the psychological state of ,france at this time than that of ,alfred de ,musset in his ,confession d'un ,enfant du ,sicle4 ,toute la maladie du sicle prsent 7he wrote7 vient de deux causes2 le peuple qui a pass par '#ic et par #ahad porte au cur deux blessures4 ,tout ce qui tait n'est plus2 tout ce qui sera n'est pas encore4 ,ne cherchez ailleurs le secret de nos maux4#a ,de ,musset was right1 the whole course of the century was marked by conflict between two forces--on the one hand a tendency to reaction and conservatism1 on the other an impulse to radicalism and revolution4 #a ,the extract is taken from ,premire partie1 ch4 #b4 ,the book was published in #ahcf4 ,somewhat similar sentiments are uttered with reference to this time by ,michelet4 7,see his ,histoire du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 vol4 i41 p4 #i74 ,it is true that one group of thinkers endeavoured1 by a perfectly natural reaction1 to recall their fellow-countrymen1 at this time of unrest1 back to the doctrines and traditions of the past1 and tried to find in the faith of the ,christian ,church and the practice of the ,catholic religion a rallying-point4 ,the monarchy and the ,church were eulogised by ,chateaubriand1 while on the more philosophical side efforts on behalf of traditionalism were made very nobly by ,de ,bonald and ,joseph de ,maistre4 ,while they represented the old aristocracy and recalled the theocracy and ecclesiasticism of the past by advocating reaction and ,ultramontanism1 ,lamennais attempted to adapt ,catholicism to the new conditions1 only to find1 as did ,renan later1 that 8one cannot argue with a bar of iron40 ,not the brilliant appeals of a ,lacordaire1 who thundered from ,notre ,dame1 nor the modernism of a ,lamennais1 nor the efforts in religious philosophy made by ,de ,maistre1 were1 however1 sufficient to meet the needs of the time4 ,the old traditions and the old dogmas did not offer the salvation they professed to do4 ,consequently various groups of thinkers worked out solutions satisfactory to themselves and which they offered to others4 ,we can distinguish clearly four main currents1 the method of introspection and investigation of the inner life of the soul1 the adoption of a spiritualist philosophy upon an eclectic basis1 the search for a new society after the manner of the socialists and1 lastly1 a positive philosophy and religion of humanity4 ,these four currents form the historical antecedents of our period and to a brief survey of them we now turn4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,i ,to find the origin of many of the tendencies which appear prominently in the thought of the second half of the nineteenth century1 particularly those displayed by the new spiritualistic philosophy 7which marked the last thirty years of the century71 we must go back to the period of the ,revolution1 to ,maine de ,biran 7#agff-ahbd7--;a unique and original thinker who laid the foundations of modern ,french psychology and who was1 we may note in passing1 a contemporary of ,chateaubriand4 ,a certain tone of romanticism marks the work of both the literary man and the philosopher4 ,maine de ,biran was not a thinker who reflected upon his own experiences in retreat from the world4 ,born a ,count1 a ,lifeguardsman to ,louis ,,xvi4 at the ,revolution1 and faithful to the old aristocracy1 he was appointed1 at the ,restoration1 to an important administrative position1 and later became a deputy and a member of the ,state ,council4 ,his writings were much greater in extent than is generally thought1 but only one important work appeared in publication during his lifetime4 ,this was his treatise1 or mmoire1 entitled ,habitude1 which appeared in #ahjc4 ,this work well illustrates ,maine de ,biran's historical position in the development of ,french philosophy4 ,it came at a tome when attention and interest1 so far as philosophical problems were concerned1 centred round two 8foci40 ,these respective centres are indicated by ,destutt de ,tracy1#b the disciple of ,condillac on the one hand1 and by ,cabanis#c on the other4 ,both were 8ideologues0 and were ridiculed by ,napoleon who endeavoured to lay much blame upon the philosophers4 ,we must notice1 however1 this difference4 ,while the school of ,condillac1#d influenced by ,locke1 endeavoured to work out a psychology in terms of abstractions1 ,cabanis1 anxious to be more concrete1 attempted to interpret the life of the mind by reference to physical and physiological phenomena4 #b ,destutt de ,tracy1 #aged-ahcf4 ,his ,elements of ,ideology appeared in #ahja4 ,he succeeded ,cabanis in the ,acadmie in #ahjh1 and in a complimentary ,discours pronounced upon his predecessor claimed that ,cabanis had introduced medicine into philosophy and philosophy into medicine4 ,this remark might well have been applied later to ,claude ,bernard4 #c ,cabanis1 #ageg-ahjh1 ,rapports du ,physique et du ,morale de l',homme1 #ahjb4 ,he was a friend of ,de ,biran1 as also was ,ampre1 the celebrated physicist and a man of considerable philosophical power4 ,a group used to meet chez ,cabanis at ,auteuil1 comprising ,de ,biran1 ,cabanis1 ,ampre1 ,royard-,collard1 ,guizot1 and ,cousin4 #d ,condillac belongs to the eighteenth century4 ,he died in #aghj4 ,his ,trait des ,sensations is dated #aged4 ,it is the special merit of ,de ,biran that he endeavoured1 and that successfully1 to establish both the concreteness and the essential spirituality of the inner life4 ,the attitude and method which he adopted became a force in freeing psychology1 and indeed philosophy in general1 from mere play with abstractions4 ,his doctrines proved valuable1 too1 in establishing the reality and irreducibility of the mental or spiritual nature of man4 ,maine de ,biran took as his starting-point a psychological fact1 the reality of conscious effort4 ,the self is active rather than speculative2 the self is action or effort--that is to say1 the self is1 fundamentally and primarily1 will4 ,for the ,cartesian formula ,cogito1 ergo sum1 ,de ,biran proposed to substitute that of ,volo1 ergo sum4 ,he went on to maintain that we have an internal and immediate perception of this effort of will through which we realise1 at one and the same time1 our self in its fullest activity and the resistance to its operations4 ,in such effort we realise ourselves as free causes and1 in spite of the doctrine of physical determinism1 we realise in ourselves the self as a cause of its own volitions4 ,the greater the resistance or the greater the effort1 the more do we realise ourselves as being free and not the absolute victims of habit4 ,of this freedom we have an immediate consciousness1 it is une donne immdiate de la conscience4 ,this freedom is not always realised1 for over against the tendency to action we must set the counter-tendency to passivity4 ,between these two exists1 in varying degrees of approach to the two extremes1 habitude4 ,our inner life is seen by the psychologist as a field of conflict between the sensitive and the reflective side of our nature4 ,it is this which gives to the life of this homo duplex all the elements of struggle and tragedy4 ,in the desires and the passions1 says ,maine de ,biran1 the true self is not seen4 ,the true self appears in memory1 reasoning and1 above all1 in will4 ,such1 in brief1 is the outline of ,de ,biran's psychology4 ,to his two stages1 vie sensitive and vie active 7ou rflexive71 he added a third1 la vie divine4 ,in his religious psychology he upheld the great ,christian doctrines of divine love and grace as against the less human attitude of the ,stoics4 ,he still insists upon the power of will and action and is an enemy of the religious vice of quietism4 ,in his closing years ,de ,biran penned his ideas upon our realisation of the divine love by intuition4 ,his intense interest in the inner life of the spirit gives ,de ,biran's ,journal ,intime a rank among the illuminating writings upon religious psychology4 ,maine de ,biran was nothing if not a psychologist4 ,the most absurd statement ever made about him was that he was 8the ,french ,kant40 ,this is very misleading1 for ,de ,biran's genius showed itself in his psychological power and not in critical metaphysics4 ,the importance of his work and his tremendous influence upon our period1 especially upon the new spiritualism1 will be apparent4 ,indeed he himself foresaw the great possibilities which lay open to philosophy along the lines he laid down4 8,qui sait10 he remarked1#e 8tout ce que peut la rflection concentre et s'il n'y a pas un nouveau monde intrieur qui pourra tre dcouvert un jour par quelque #8,colomb mtaphysicien4'0 ,with ,maine de ,biran began the movement in ,french philosophy which worked through the writings of ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,guyau1 ,boutroux and particularly ,bergson4 ,a careful examination of the philosophy of this last thinker shows how great is his debt to ,maine de ,biran1 whose inspiration he warmly acknowledges4 #e ,penses1 p4 #bac4 ,but it is only comparatively recently that ,maine de ,biran has come to his own and that his real power and influence have been recognised4 ,there are two reasons for this1 firstly the lack of publication of his writings1 and secondly his being known for long only through the work of ,cousin and the ,eclectics1 who were imperfectly acquainted with his work4 ,upon this school of thought he had some little influence which was immediate and personal1 but ,cousin1 although he edited some of his unpublished work1 failed to appreciate its originality and value4 ,so for a time ,de ,biran's influence waned when that of ,cousin himself faded4 ,maine de ,biran stands quite in a different category from the ,eclectics1 as a unique figure at a transition period1 the herald of the best that was to be in the thought of the century4 ,cousin and the ,eclectic school1 however1 gained the official favour1 and eclecticism was for many years the 8official philosophy40 ,,ii ,this ,eclectic ,school was due to the work of various thinkers1 of whom we may cite ,laromiguire 7#agef-ahcg71 who marks the transition from ,condillac1 ,royer-,collard 7#agfc-ahde71 who1 abandoning ,condillac1 turned for inspiration to the ,scottish ,school 7particularly to ,reid71 ,victor ,cousin 7#agib-ahfg71 ,jouffroy 7#agif-ahdb7 and ,paul ,janet 7#ahbc-ahii71 the last of the notable eclectics4 ,of these 8the chief0 was ,cousin4 ,his personality dominated this whole school of thought1 his ipse dixit was the criterion of orthodoxy1 an orthodoxy which we must note was supported by the powers of officialdom4 ,he rose from the ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure to a professorship at the ,sorbonne1 which he held from the ,restoration 7#ahae to #ahcj71 with a break of a few years during which his course was suspended4 ,these years he spent in ,germany1 to which country attention had been attracted by the work of ,madame de ,stal1 ,de l',allemagne 7#ahac74 ,from #ahcj to the beginning of our period 7#ahea7 ,cousin1 as director of the ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure1 as a pair de ,france and a minister of state1 organised and controlled the education of his country4 ,he thus exercised a very great influence over an entire generation of ,frenchmen1 to whom he propounded the doctrines of his spiritualism4 ,his teaching was marked by a strong reaction against the doctrines of the previous century1 which had given such value to the data of sense4 ,cousin abhorred the materialism involved in these doctrines1 which he styled une doctrine dsolante1 and he endeavoured to raise the dignity and conception of man as a spiritual being4 ,in the ,preface to his ,lectures of #ahah1 ,du ,vrai1 du ,beau et du ,bien 7,edition of #ahec71 published first in #ahdf1 he lays stress upon the elements of his philosophy1 which he presents as a true spiritualism1 for it subordinates the sensory and sensual to the spiritual4 ,he upholds the essentially spiritual nature of man1 his liberty1 moral responsibility and obligation1 the dignity of human virtue1 disinterestedness1 charity1 justice and beauty4 ,these fruits of the spirit reveal1 ,cousin claimed1 a ,god who is both the author and the ideal type of humanity1 a ,being who is not indifferent to the welfare and happiness of his creatures4 ,there is a vein of romanticism about ,cousin1 and in him may be seen the same spirit which1 on the literary side1 was at work in ,hugo1 ,lamartine and ,de ,vigny4 ,cousin's philosophy attached itself rather to the ,scottish school of 8common sense0 than to the analytic type of doctrine which had prevailed in his own country in the previous century4 ,to this he added much from various sources1 such as ,schelling and ,hegel among the moderns1 ,plato and the ,alexandrians among the ancients4 ,in viewing the history of philosophy1 ,cousin advocated a division of systems into four classes--sensualism1 idealism1 scepticism and mysticism4 ,owing to the insufficiency of his vrits de sens commun he was prone to confuse the history of philosophy with philosophy itself4 ,there is perhaps no branch of science or art so intimately bound up with its own history as is philosophy1 but we must beware of substituting an historical survey of problems for an actual handling of those problems themselves4 ,cousin1 however1 did much to establish in his native land the teaching of the history of philosophy4 ,his own aim was to found a metaphysic spiritual in character1 based upon psychology4 ,while he did not agree with the system of ,kant1 he rejected the doctrines of the empiricists and set his influence against the materialistic and sceptical tendencies of his time4 ,yet he cannot be excused from 8opportunism0 not only in politics but in thought4 ,in order to retain his personal influence he endeavoured to present his philosophy as a sum of doctrines perfectly consistent with the ,catholic faith4 ,this was partly1 no doubt1 to counteract the work and influence of that group of thinkers already referred to as ,traditionalists1 ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,maistre and ,lamennais4 ,cousin's efforts in this direction1 however1 dissatisfied both churchmen and philosophers and gave rise to the remark that his teaching was but une philosophie de convenance4 ,we must add too that the vagueness of his spiritual teaching was largely responsible for the welcome accorded by many minds to the positivist teaching of ,auguste ,comte4 ,while ,maine de ,biran had a real influence upon the thought of our period #ahea-aiba1 ,cousin stands in a different relation to subsequent thought1 for that thought is largely characterised by its being a reaction against eclecticism4 ,positivism rose as a direct revolt against it1 the neo-critical philosophy dealt blows at both1 while ,ravaisson1 the initiator of the neo-spiritualism1 upon whom ,cousin did not look very favourably1 endeavoured to reorganise upon a different footing1 and on sounder principles1 free from the deficiencies which must always accompany eclectic thought1 those ideas and ideals to which ,cousin in his spiritualism had vaguely indicated his loyalty4 ,it is interesting to note that ,cousin's death coincides in date with the foundation of the neo-spiritual philosophy by ,ravaisson's celebrated manifesto to idealists1 for such1 as we shall see1 was his ,rapport sur la ,philosophie au ,dix-neuvime ,sicle 7#ahfg74 ,cousin's spiritualism had a notable influence upon several important men--e4g41 ,michelet and his friend ,edgar ,quinet1 and more indirectly upon ,renan4 ,the latter spoke of him in warm terms as un excitateur de ma pense4#f #f ,it is worth noting that two of the big currents of opposition1 those of ,comte and ,renouvier1 arose outside the professional and official teaching1 free from the ,university which was entirely dominated by ,cousin4 ,this explains much of the slowness with which ,comte and ,renouvier were appreciated4 ,among ,cousin's disciples one of the most prominent was ,jouffroy of the ,collge de ,france4 ,the psychological interest was keen in his work1 but his ,mlanges philosophiques 7#ahhc7 showed him to be occupied with the problem of human destiny4 ,paul ,janet was a noble upholder of the eclectic doctrine or older spiritualism1 while among associates and tardy followers must be mentioned ,gamier1 ,damiron1 ,franke1 ,caro and ,jules ,simon4 ,,iii ,we have seen how1 as a consequence of the ,revolution and of the cold1 destructive1 criticism of the eighteenth century1 there was a demand for constructive thought4 ,this was a desire common not only to the ,traditionalists but to ,de ,biran and ,cousin4 ,they aimed at intellectual reconstruction4 ,while1 however1 there were some who combated the principles of the ,revolution1 as did the ,traditionalists1 while some tried to correct and to steady those principles 7as ,de ,biran and ,cousin71 there were others who endeavoured to complete them and to carry out a more rigorous application of the ,revolutionary watchwords1 ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit4 ,the ,socialists 7and later ,comte7 aimed at not merely intellectual1 but social reconstruction4 ,the ,revolution and the ,war had shown men that many changes could be produced in society in a comparatively short time4 ,this encouraged bold and imaginative spirits4 ,endeavours after better things1 after new systems and a new order of society1 showed themselves4 ,the work of political philosophers attempted to give expression to the socialist idea of society4 ,for long there had been maintained the ecclesiastical conception of a perfect social order in another world4 ,it was now thought that humanity would be better employed1 not in imagining the glories of a 8hereafter10 but in 8tilling its garden10 in striving to realise here on earth something of that blessed fellowship and happy social order treasured up in heaven4 ,this is the dominant note of socialism1 which is closely bound up at its origin1 not only with political thought1 but with humanitarianism and a feeling essentially religious4 ,its progress is a feature of the whole century4 ,the most notable expression of the new socialistic idea was that of ,count ,henri de ,saint-,simon 7#agfj-ahbe71 a relative of the celebrated ,duke4 ,he had great confidence in the power of science as an instrument for social reconstruction1 and he took over from a medical man1 ,dr4 ,burdin1 the notions which1 later on1 ,auguste ,comte was to formulate into the doctrines of ,positivism4 ,saint-,simon's influence showed itself while the century was young1 his first work ,lettres d'un ,habitant de ,genve appearing in #ahjc4 ,in this he outlined a scheme for placing the authoritative power of the community1 not in the hands of ,church and ,state1 but in a freely elected body of thinkers and artistes4 ,he then endeavoured to urge the importance of order in society1 as a counterpart to the order erected by science in the world of knowledge4 ,to this end was directed his ,introduction aux ,travaux scientifiques du ,dix-neuvime ,sicle 7#ahjg-h74 ,he also indicated the importance for social welfare of abandoning the preoccupation with an imaginary heaven1 and pointed out that the more social and political theory could be emancipated from the influence of theological dogmas the better4 ,at the same time he quite recognised the importance of religious beliefs to a community1 and his sociological view of religion foreshadowed ,guyau's study1 an important work which will claim our attention in due course4 ,in #ahac1 ,saint-,simon published his ,mmoire sur la ,science de l',homme1 in which he laid down notions which were the germ of ,auguste ,comte's ,law of the ,three ,stages4 ,with the peace which followed the ,battle of ,waterloo1 a tremendous stimulus was given in ,france to industrial activity1 and ,saint-,simon formulated his motto 8,all by industry and all for industry40 ,real power1 he showed1 lay not in the hands of governments or government agents1 but with the industrial class4 ,society therefore should be organised in the manner most favourable to the working class4 ,ultimate economic and political power rests with them4 ,these ideas he set forth in ,l',industrie1 #ahag-ah1 ,la ,politique1 #ahai1 ,l',organisateur1 #ahai-cj1 ,le ,systme industriel1 #ahba-bb1 ,le ,catchisme des ,industriels1 #ahbb-bd4 ,since #ahag among his fellow- workers were now ,augustin ,thierry and young ,auguste ,comte1 his secretary1 the most important figure in the history of the first half of the century4 ,finding that exposition and reasoned demonstration of his ideas were not sufficient1 ,saint-,simon made appeal to sentiment by his ,appel aux ,philanthropes1 a treatise on human brotherhood and solidarity4 ,this he followed up in #ahbe by his last book1 published the year of his death1 ,le ,nouveau ,christianisme4 ,this book endeavoured to outline a religion which should prove itself capable of reorganising society by inculcating the brotherhood of man in a more effective manner than that of the ,christian ,church4 ,fraternit was the watchword he stressed1 and he placed women on an equal political and social footing with men4 ,he set forth the grave deficiencies of the ,christian doctrines as proclaimed by ,catholic and ,protestant alike4 ,both are cursed by the sin of individualism1 the virtue of saving one's own soul1 while no attempt at social salvation is made4 ,both ,catholics and ,protestants he labelled vile heretics1 inasmuch as they have turned aside from the social teaching of ,christianity4 ,if we are to love our neighbour as ourselves we must as a whole community work for the betterment of our fellows socially1 by erecting a form of society more in accord with ,christian principles4 ,we must strive to do it here and now1 and not sit piously getting ready for the next world4 ,we must not think it religious to despise the body or material welfare4 ,god manifests ,himself as matter and spirit1 so ,religion must not despise economics but rather unite industry and science as ,love unites spirit and matter4 ,eternal ,life1 of which ,christianity makes so much1 is not to be sought1 argued ,saint-,simon1 in another world1 but here and now in the love and service of our brothers1 in the uplift of humanity as a whole4 ,saint-,simon believed in a fated progress and an inevitable betterment of the condition of the working classes4 ,the influence of ,hegel's view of history and ,condorcet's social theories is apparent in some of his writings4 ,his insistence upon organisation1 social authority and the depreciative view of liberty which he held show well how he was the real father of many later doctrines and of applications of these doctrines1 as for example by ,lenin in the ,soviet system of ,bolshevik ,russia4 ,saint-,simon foreshadowed the dictatorship of the proletariat1 although his scheme of social organisation involved a triple division of humanity into intellectuals1 artists and industrials4 ,many of his doctrines had a definite communistic tendency4 ,among them we find indicated the abolition of all hereditary rights of inheritance and the distribution of property is placed1 as in the communist programme1 in the hands of the organising authority4 ,saint-,simon had a keen insight into modern social conditions and problems4 ,he stressed the economic inter-relationships and insisted that the world must be regarded as 8one workshop40 ,a statement of the principles of the ,saint- ,simonist ,school1 among whom was the curious character ,enfantin1 was presented to the ,chambre des ,dputs in the critical year #ahcj4 ,the disciples seem to have shown a more definite communism than their master4 ,the influence of ,saint-,simon1 precursor of both socialism and positivism1 had considerable influence upon the social philosophy of the whole century4 ,it only diminished when the newer type of socialist doctrine appeared1 the so-called 8scientific0 socialism of ,marx and ,engels4 ,saint-,simon's impulse1 however1 acted powerfully upon the minds of most of the thinkers of the century1 especially in their youth4 ,renouvier and ,renan were fired with some of his ideas4 ,the spirit of ,saint-,simon expressed itself in our period by promoting an intense interest in philosophy as applied to social problems4 ,saint-,simon was not1 however1 the only thinker at this time with a social programme to offer4 ,in contrast to his scheme we have that of ,fourier 7#aggb-ahcg7 who endeavoured to avoid the suppression of liberty involved in the organisation proposed by ,saint-,simon4 ,the psychology of ,fourier was peculiar and it coloured his ethical and social doctrine4 ,he believed that the evils of the world were due to the repression of human passions4 ,these in themselves1 if given liberty of expression1 would prove harmonious4 ,as ,newton had propounded the law of the universal attraction of matter1 ,fourier endeavoured to propound the law of attraction between human beings4 ,passion and desire lead to mutual attraction2 the basis of society is free association4 ,fourier's ,trait de l',association domestique et agricole 7#ahbb71 which followed his ,thorie des ,quatre ,mouvements 7#ahjh71 proposed the formation of associations or groups1 phalanges1 in which workers unite with capital for the self-government of industry4 ,he1 like ,saint- ,simon1 attacks idlers1 but the two thinkers look upon the capitalist manager as a worker4 ,the intense class- antagonism of capitalist and labourer had not yet formulated itself and was not felt strongly until voiced on behalf of the proletariat by ,proudhon and ,marx4 ,fourier's proposals were those of a bourgeois business man who knew the commercial world intimately1 who criticised it and condemned the existing system of civilisation4 ,various experiments were made to organise communities based upon his phalanges4 ,cabet1 the author of ,icaria 7#ahdj7 and ,le nouveau ,christianisme1 was a further power in the promotion of socialism and owed not a little of his inspiration to ,robert ,owen4 ,the most interesting and powerful of the early socialist philosophers is undoubtedly ,proudhon 7#ahji- #ahfe71 a striking personality1 much misunderstood4 ,while ,saint-,simon1 a count1 came from the aristocracy1 ,fourier from the bourgeoisie1 ,proudhon was a real son of the people1 a mouthpiece of the proletariat4 ,he was a man of admirable mental energy and learning1 which he had obtained solely by his own efforts and by a struggle with poverty and misery4 ,earnest and passionate by nature1 he yet formulated his doctrines with more sanity and moderation than is usually supposed4 ,labels of 8atheist0 and 8anarchist0 have served well to misrepresent him4 ,certainly two of his watchwords were likely enough to raise hostility in many quarters4 8,god10 he said1 8is evil10 8,property is theft40 ,this last maxim was the subject of his book1 published in #ahdj1 ,qu'est-ce que la proprit8 7ou1 ,recherches sur le principe du droit et du gouvernement7 to which his answer was 8,c'est le vol60 ,proudhon took up the great watchword of ,egalit1 and had a passion for social justice which he based on 8the right to the whole product of labour40 ,this could only come by mutual exchange1 fairly and freely4 ,he distinguished between private 8property0 and individual 8possession40 ,the latter is an admitted fact and is not to be abolished2 what he is anxious to overthrow is private 8property10 which is a toll upon the labour of others and is therefore ultimately and morally theft4 ,he hated the ,state for its support of the 8thieves10 and his doctrines are a philosophy of anarchy4 ,he further enunciated them in ,systme des ,contradictions conomiques 7#ahdf7 and ,de la ,justice 7#aheh74 ,in #ahdh he was elected a dput and1 together with ,louis ,blanc and ,pierre ,leroux1 figured in the ,revolution of #ahdh4 ,blanc was a man of action1 who had a concrete scheme for transition from the capitalist rgime to the socialist state4 ,he believed in the organisation of labour1 universal suffrage and a new distribution of wealth1 but he disapproved strongly of the dictatorship of the proletariat and of violent revolution4 ,proudhon expressed his great admiration for ,blanc4 ,the work of both of these men is a contradiction to the assertion put forward by the ,marxian school that socialist doctrine was merely sentimental1 utopian and 8unscientific0 prior to ,marx4 ,many of the views of ,proudhon and ,blanc were far more 8scientific0 than those of ,marx1 because they were closer to facts4 ,proudhon differed profoundly from ,marx in his view of history in which he saw the influence of ideas and ideals1 as well as the operation of purely economic factors4 ,to the doctrine of a materialistic determination of history ,proudhon rightly opposes that of a spiritual determination1 by the thoughts and ideals of men4#g ,the true revolution ,proudhon and ,blanc maintained can come only through the power of ideas4 #g ,indeed1 it is highly probable that with the growing dissatisfaction with ,marxian theories the work of ,proudhon will come into greater prominence1 replacing largely that of ,marx4 ,on the personal relations of ,proudhon with ,marx 7#ahah-ahhc71 who was nine years younger than the ,frenchman1 see the interesting volume by ,marx's descendant1 ,m4 ,jean ,longuet 7,dput de la ,seine71 ,la ,politique internationale du ,marxisme 7,karl ,marx et la ,france7 7,alcan74 ,on the debt of ,marx to the ,french social thinkers see the account given by ,professor ,charles ,andler in his special edition of the ,communist ,manifesto1 ,le ,manifeste ,communiste 7avec introduction historique et commentaire71 7,rieder71 also the last section of ,renouvier's ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire1 vol4 iv4 ,all these early socialist thinkers had this in common3 they agreed that purely economic solutions would not soothe the ills of society1 but that moral1 religious and philosophic teaching must accompany1 or rather precede1 all efforts towards social reform4 ,the earliest of them1 ,saint-,simon1 had asserted that no society1 no system of civilisation1 can endure if its spiritual principles and its economic organisation are in direct contradiction4 ,when brotherly love on the one hand and merciless competition on the other are equally extolled1 then hypocrisy1 unrest and conflict are inevitable4 ,,iv ,the rise of positivism ranks with the rise of socialism as a movement of primary importance4 ,both were in origin nearer to one another than they now appear to be4 ,we have seen how ,saint-,simon was imbued with a spirit of social reform1 a desire to reorganise human society4 ,this desire ,auguste ,comte 7#agih-aheg7 shared2 he felt himself called to it as a sacred work1 and he extolled his 8incomparable mission40 ,he lamented the anarchical state of the world and contrasted it with the world of the ancients and that of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the harmony and stability of mediaeval society were due1 ,comte urged1 to the spiritual power and unity of the ,catholic ,church and faith4 ,the liberty of the ,reformation offers no real basis for society1 it is the spirit of criticism and of revolution4 ,the modern world needs a new spiritual power4 ,such was ,comte's judgment upon the world of his time4 ,where in the modern world could such a new organising power be found8 ,to this question ,comte gave an answer similar to that of ,saint-,simon3 he turned to science4 ,the influence of ,saint-,simon is here apparent1 and we must note the personal relations between the two men4 ,in #ahag ,comte became secretary to ,saint-,simon1 and became intimately associated with his ideas and his work4 ,comte recognised1 with his master1 the supreme importance of establishing1 at the outset1 the relations actually obtaining and the relations possible between science and political organisation4 ,this led to the publication1 in #ahbb1 of a treatise1 ,plan des ,travaux scientifiques ncessaires pour rorganiser la ,socit1 which unfortunately led to a quarrel between the two friends1 and finally1 in #ahbd1 to a definite rupture by which ,comte seems to have been embittered and made rather hostile to his old master and to have assumed an ungenerous attitude4#h ,comte1 however1 being a proud and ambitious spirit1 was perhaps better left alone to hew out his own path4 ,in him we have one of the greatest minds of modern ,france1 and his doctrine of positivism is one of the dominating features of the first half of the century4 #h ,in considering the relations between ,saint-,simon and ,comte we may usefully compare those between ,schelling and ,hegel in ,germany4 ,his break with ,saint-,simon showed his own resources2 he had undoubtedly a finer sense of the difficulties of his reforming task than had ,saint-,simon2 moreover1 he possessed a scientific knowledge which his master lacked4 ,such equipment he needed in his ambitious task1 and it is one of the chief merits of ,comte that he attempted so large a project as the ,positive ,philosophy endeavoured to be4 ,this philosophy was contained in his ,cours de ,philosophie positive 7#ahcj-ahdb71 which he regarded as the theoretic basis of a reforming political philosophy4 ,one of the most interesting aspects of this work1 however1 is its claim to be a positive philosophy4 ,had not ,comte accepted the ,saint-,simonist doctrine of a belief in science as the great future power in society8 ,how then comes it that he gives us a 8philosophie positive0 in the first place and not1 as we might expect1 a 8science positive08 ,comte's answer to this is that science1 no less than society itself1 is disordered and stands in need of organisation4 ,the sciences have proceeded to work in a piecemeal fashion and are unable to present us with une vue d'ensemble4 ,it is the rle of philosophy to work upon the data presented by the various sciences and1 without going beyond these data1 to arrange them and give us an organic unity of thought1 a synthesis1 which shall produce order in the mind of man and subsequently in human society4 ,the precise part to be played by philosophy is determined by the existing state of scientific knowledge in the various departments and so depends upon the general stage of intelligence which humanity has reached4 ,the intellectual development of humanity was formulated generally by ,comte in what is known as 8,the ,law of the ,three ,stages10 probably that part of his doctrine which is best known and which is most obvious4 8,the ,law of the ,three ,stages0 merely sets down the fact that in the race and in the individual we find three successive stages1 under which conceptions are formed differently4 ,the first is the theological or fictitious stage1 in which the explanation of things is referred to the operations of divine agency4 ,the second is the metaphysical or abstract stage when1 for divinities1 abstract principles are substituted4 ,in the third1 the scientific or positive stage1 the human mind has passed beyond a belief in divine agencies or metaphysical abstractions to a rational study of the effective laws of phenomena4 ,the human spirit here encounters the real1 but it abstains from pretensions to absolute knowledge2 it does not theorise about the beginning or the end of the universe or1 indeed1 its absolute nature2 it takes only into consideration facts within human knowledge4 ,comte laid great emphasis upon the necessity of recognising the relativity of all things4 ,all is relative2 this is the one absolute principle4 ,our knowledge1 he insisted 7especially in his ,discours sur l',esprit positif1 #ahdd1 which forms a valuable introduction to his thought as expressed in his larger works71 is entirely relative to our organisation and our situation4 ,relativity1 however1 does not imply uncertainty4 ,our knowledge is indeed relative and never absolute1 but it grows to a greater accord with reality4 ,it is this passion for 8accord with reality0 which is characteristic of the scientific or positivist spirit4 ,the sciences are themselves relative and much attention is given by ,comte to the proper classification of the sciences4 ,he determines his hierarchy by arranging them in the order in which they have themselves completed the three stages and arrived at positivity4 ,mathematics1 astronomy1 physics1 chemistry1 biology and sociology are his arrangement4 ,this last named has not yet arrived at the final stage2 it is but a science in the making4 ,comte1 indeed1 himself gives it its name and founds it as the science of society1 science applied to politics1 as was first indicated in his scheme of work and early ideas of reform4 ,comte strongly insists upon the social aspect of all knowledge and all action4 ,he even goes to the extent of regarding the individual man as an abstraction2 for him the real being is the social being1 ,humanity4 ,the study of human society has a double aspect1 which is also a feature of the other sciences4 ,as in biology there is the study of anatomy on the one hand and of physiology on the other1 so in sociology we must investigate both the laws which govern the existence of a society and those which control its movements4 ,the distinction is1 in short1 that of the static and the dynamic1 and it embraces in sociological study the important conceptions of order and of progress4 ,comte very rightly stressed the idea of progress as characteristic of modern times1 but he lamented its being divorced from that of order4 ,he blamed the conservative view of order as responsible for promoting among 8progressives0 the spirit of anarchy and revolution4 ,a positive sociology would1 ,comte maintained1 reconcile a true order1 which does not exclude change1 with real progress1 a movement which is neither destructive nor capricious4 ,comte here owes a debt in part to ,montesquieu and largely to ,condorcet1 whose ,esquisse d'un ,tableau historique des ,progrs de l',esprit humain 7#agie7 did much to promote serious reflection upon the question of progress4 ,we have already noted ,comte's intense valuation of ,humanity as a whole as a ,supreme ,being4 ,in his later years1 notably after #ahde1 when he met his 8,beatrice0 in the person of ,clotilde de ,vaux1 he gave to his doctrines a sentimental expression of which the ,religion of ,humanity with its ritualism was the outcome4 ,this positivist religion endeavoured to substitute for the traditional ,god the ,supreme ,being of ,humanity--a ,being capable1 according to ,comte1 of sustaining our courage1 becoming the end of our actions and the object of our love4 ,to this he attached a morality calculated to combat the egoism which tends to dominate and to destroy mankind and intended to strengthen the altruistic motives in man and to raise them to the service of ,humanity4 ,we find ,comte1 at the opening of our period1 restating his doctrines in his ,systme de ,politique positive 7#ahea-ed71 to which his first work was meant to serve as an ,introduction4 ,in #ahef he began his ,synthse subjective1 but he died in #aheg4 ,comte is a singularly desolate figure2 the powers of officialdom were against him1 and he existed mainly by what he could gain from teaching mathematics and by a pension raised by his admirers in ,england and his own land4 ,the influence of his philosophy has been great and far- reaching1 but it is the spirit of positivism which has survived1 not its content4 ,subsequent developments in science have rendered much of his work obsolete1 while his ,religion has never made a great appeal4 ,comte's most noted disciple1 ,littr 7#ahja-ahha71 regarded this latter as a retrograde step and confined himself to the early part of his master's work4 ,most important for us in the present work is ,comte's influence upon subsequent thinkers in ,france1 notably ,taine1 and we may add1 ,renan1 ,cournot1 and even ,renouvier1 although these last two promoted a vigorous reaction against his philosophy in general4 ,he influenced his adversaries1 a notable testimony4 ,actually1 however1 the positivist philosophy found a greater welcome on the ,english side of the ,channel from ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,spencer and ,lewes4 ,the empiricism of the ,english school proved a more fruitful soil for positivism than the vague spiritualism of ,cousin to which it offered strong opposition4 ,positivism1 or rather the positivist standpoint in philosophy1 turned at a later date to reseek its fatherland and after a sojourn in ,england reappears as an influence in the work of ,french thinkers near the end of the century--e4g41 ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,lachelier1 ,boutroux and ,bergson express elements of positivism4 ,we have now passed in review the four main currents of the first half of the century1 in a manner intended to orient the approach to our period1 #ahea-aiba4 ,without such an orientation much of the subsequent thought would lose its correct colouring and perspective4 ,there is a continuity1 even if it be partly a continuity marked by reactions1 and this will be seen when we now examine the three general currents into which the thought of the subsequent period is divided4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,main ,,currents ,,since #ahea ,introductory3 ,influence of events of #ahdh-ahea--,reactionary character of ,second ,empire--,disgust of many thinkers 7e4g41 ,vacherot1 ,taine1 ,renan1 ,renouvier1 ,hugo1 ,quinet7--,effects of #ahgj1 the ,war1 the ,commune1 and the ,third ,republic4 ,general character of the ,philosophy of the ,period--,reaction against both ,eclecticism and ,positivism4 ,,the ,,three ,,main ,,currents4 ,i4 ,positivist and naturalist current turning upon itself1 seen in ,vacherot1 ,taine1 and ,renan4 ,,ii4 ,cournot1 ,renouvier1 and the neo-critical philosophy4 ,,iii4 ,the ,new ,spiritual ,philosophy1 to which the main contributors were ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,boutroux1 ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,bergson1 ,blondel1 and ,weber4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,main ,,currents ,the year #ahea was one of remarkable importance for ,france2 a crisis then occurred in its political and intellectual life4 ,the hopes and aspirations to which the ,revolution of #ahdh had given rise were shattered by the coup d'tat of ,louis ,napoleon in the month of ,december4 ,the proclamation of the ,second ,empire heralded the revival of an era of imperialism and reaction in politics1 accompanied by a decline in liberty and a diminution of idealism in the world of thought4 ,a censorship of books was established1 the press was deprived of its liberty1 and the teaching of philosophy forbidden in lyces4#a #a ,the revival of philosophy in the lyces began when ,victor ,drury reintroduced the study of ,logic4 ,various ardent and thoughtful spirits1 whose minds and hearts had been uplifted by the events of #ahdh1 hoping to see the dawn of an era expressing in action the ideals of the first ,revolution1 ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit1 were bitterly disappointed4 ,social ideals such as had been created by ,saint-,simon and his school received a rude rebuff from force1 militarism and imperialism4 ,so great was the mingled disappointment and disgust of many that they left for ever the realm of practical politics to apply themselves to the arts1 letters or sciences4 ,interesting examples of this state of mind are to be found in ,vacherot1 ,taine1 ,renan and ,renouvier1 and1 we may add1 in ,michelet1 ,victor ,hugo and ,edgar ,quinet4 ,the first of these1 ,vacherot1 who had succeeded ,cousin as ,professor of ,philosophy at the ,sorbonne1 lost his chair1 as did ,quinet and also ,michelet1 who was further deprived of his position as ,archivist4 ,hugo and ,quinet1 having taken active political part in the events of #ahdh1 were driven into exile4 ,disgust1 disappointment1 disillusionment and pessimism characterise the attitude of all this group of thinkers to political events1 and this reacted not only upon their careers but upon their entire philosophy4 8,with regard to the ,second ,empire10 we find ,renan saying1#b 8if the last ten years of its duration in some measure repaired the mischief done in the first eight1 it must never be forgotten how strong this ,government was when it was a question of crushing the intelligence1 and how feeble when it came to raising it up40 #b ,in his ,preface to ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,the disheartening end of the ,empire in moral degeneracy and military defeat only added to the gloominess1 against which the ,red ,flag and the red fires of the ,commune cast a lurid and pathetic glow1 upon which the ,prussians could look down with a grim smile from the heights of ,paris4 ,only with the establishment of the ,third ,republic in #ahga1 and its ratification a few years later1 does a feeling of cheerfulness make itself felt in the thought of the time4 ,the years from #ahhj onwards have been remarkable for their fruitfulness in the philosophic field--to such an extent do political and social events react upon the most philosophical minds4 ,this is a healthy sign2 it shows that those minds have not detached themselves from contact with the world1 that the spirit of philosophy is a living spirit and not merely an academic or professional product divorced from the fierce realities of history4 ,we have already indicated1 in the treatment of the 8,antecedents0 of our period1 the dominance of ,eclecticism1 supported by the powers of officialdom1 and have remarked how ,positivism arose as a reaction against ,cousin's vague spiritualism4 ,in approaching the second half of the century we may in general characterise its thought as a reaction against both eclecticism and positivism4 ,a transitional current can be distinguished where positivism turns1 as it were1 against itself in the work of ,vacherot1 ,taine and ,renan4 ,the works of ,cournot and the indefatigable ,renouvier with his neo-criticism mark another main current4 ,ultimately there came to triumph towards the close of the century a new spiritualism1 owing much inspiration to ,de ,biran1 but which1 unlike ,cousin's doctrines1 had suffered the discipline of the positivist spirit4 ,the main contributors to this current are ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,fouille and ,guyau1 ,boutroux1 ,bergson1 ,blondel and ,weber4 ,our study deals with the significance of these three currents1 and having made this clear we shall then discuss the development of thought in connection with the various problems and ideas in which the philosophy of the period found its expression4 ,in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason ,kant endeavoured1 at a time when speculation of a dogmatic and uncritical kind was current1 to call attention to the necessity for examining the instrument of knowledge itself1 and thereby discovering its fitness or inadequacy1 as the case might be1 for dealing with the problems which philosophy proposes to investigate4 ,this was a word spoken in due season and1 however much subsequent philosophy has deviated from the conclusions of ,kant1 it has at least remembered the significance of his advice4 ,the result has been that the attitude adopted by philosophers to the problems before them has been determined largely by the kind of answer which they offer to the problems of knowledge itself4 ,obviously a mind which asserts that we can never be sure of knowing anything 7or as in some cases1 that this assertion is itself uncertain7 will see all questions through the green-glasses of scepticism4 ,on the other hand1 a thinker who believes that we do have knowledge of certain things and can be certain of thiss1 whether by objective proof or a subjective intuition1 is sure to have1 not only a different conclusion about problems1 but1 what is probably more important for the philosophic spirit1 a different means of approaching them4 ,writing in #ahfj on the general state of philosophy1 ,renan pointed out1 in his ,essay ,la ,mtaphysique el son ,avenir#c that metaphysical speculation1 strictly so-called1 had been in abeyance for thirty years1 and did not seem inclined to continue the traditions of ,kant1 ,hegel1 ,hamilton and ,cousin4 ,the reasons which he gave for this depression of the philosophical market were1 firstly1 the feeling of the impossibility of ultimate knowledge1 a scepticism of the instrument1 so far as the human mind was concerned1 and secondly1 the rather disdainful attitude adopted by many minds towards philosophy owing to the growing importance of science--in short1 the question1 8,is there any place left for philosophy2 has it any raison d'tre80 #c ,essay published later 7#ahgf7 in his ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques4 ,cf4 especially pp4 #bfe-bff4 ,the progress of the positive sciences1 and the assertions of many that philosophy was futile and treacherous1 led philosophy to give an account of itself by a kind of apologia pro vita sua4 ,in the face of remarks akin to that of ,newton's 8,physics beware of metaphysics10 the latter had to bestir itself or pass out of existence4 ,it was1 indeed1 this extinction which the more ardent and devoted scientific spirits heralded1 re-iterating the war-cry of ,auguste ,comte4 ,it was a crisis1 in fact1 for philosophy4 ,was it to become merely a universal science8 ,was it to abandon the task of solving the problems of the universe by rapid intuitions and a priori constructions and undertake the construction of a science of the whole1 built up from the data and results of the science of the parts--i4e41 the separate sciences of nature8 ,was there1 then1 to be no place for metaphysics in this classification of the sciences to which the current of thought was tending with increasing impetuosity8 ,was a science of primary or ultimate truths a useless chimera1 to be rejected entirely by the human mind in favour of an all-sufficing belief in positive science8 ,these were the questions which perplexed the thoughtful minds of that time4 ,we shall do well1 therefore1 in our survey of the half century before us1 to investigate the two problems which were stressed by ,renan in the essay we have quoted1 for his acute mind possessed a unique power of sensing the feeling and thought of his time4 ,our preliminary task will be the examination of the general attitude to knowledge adopted by the various thinkers and schools of thought1 following this by an inquiry into the attitude adopted to science itself and its relation to philosophy4 ,i ,with these considerations in mind1 let us examine the three currents of thought in our period beginning with that which is at once a prolongation of positivism and a transformation of it1 a current expressed in the work of ,vacherot1 ,taine and ,renan4 ,etienne ,vacherot 7#ahji-ahig7 was partially a disciple of ,victor ,cousin and a representative also of the positivist attitude to knowledge4 ,his work1 however1 passed beyond the bounds indicated by these names4 ,he remained a convinced naturalist and believer in positive science1 but1 unlike ,comte1 he did not despise metaphysical inquiry1 and he sought to find a place for it in thought4 ,vacherot1 who had won a reputation for himself by an historical work on the ,alexandrian ,school1 became tne director of the ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure1 an important position in the intellectual world4 ,he here advocated the doctrines by which he sought to give a to metaphysics4 ,his most important book1 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,science1 in three volumes1 appeared in #aheh4 ,he suffered imprisonment the following year for ,his liberal principles under the ,empire which had already deprived him of his position at the ,sorbonne4 ,the general attitude to knowledge adopted by ,vacherot recalls in some respects the metaphysical doctrines of ,spinoza1 and he endeavours to combine the purely naturalistic view of the world with a metaphysical conception4 ,the result is a profound and1 for ,vacherot1 irreconcilable dualism1 in which the real and the ideal are set against one another in rigorous contrast1 and the gap between them is not bridged or even attempted to be filled up1 as1 at a later date1 was the task assumed by ,fouillee in his philosophy of ides-forces4 ,for ,vacherot the world is a unity1 eternal and infinite1 but lacking perfection4 ,perfection1 the ideal1 is incompatible with reality4 ,the real is not at all ideal1 and the ideal has no reality4#d ,in this unsatisfactory dualism ,vacherot leaves us4 ,his doctrine1 although making a superficial appeal by its seeming positivism on the one hand1 and its maintenance of the notion of the ideal or perfection on the other1 is actually far more paradoxical than that which asserts that ultimately it is the ideal only which is real4 ,while ,st4 ,anselm had endeavoured to establish by his proof of the existence of ,god the reality of perfection1 ,vacherot1 by a reversal of this proof1 arrives at the opposite conclusion1 and at a point where it seems that it would be for the ideal an imperfection to exist4 ,the absolute existence of all things is thus separated from the ideal1 and no attempt is made to relate the two1 as ,spinoza had so rigorously done1 by maintaining that reality is perfection4#e #d ,it is interesting to contrast this with the attitude of the new spiritualists1 especially ,fouille's conception of idees-forces1 of ideas and ideals realising themselves4 ,see also ,guyau's attitude4 8,l'idal n'est-il pas1 sur la terre o nous sommes ,plus fcond et plus beau que la ralit80 --,illusion fconde4 #e ,vacherot contributed further to the thought of his time1 notably by a book on religion1 #ahfi1 and later in life seems to have become sympathetic to the ,new ,spiritualism1 on which he also wrote a book in #ahhd4 ,the influence of ,vacherot was in some measure continued in that of his pupil1 ,hippolyte ,taine 7#ahbh-ahic71 a thinker who had considerable influence upon the development of thought in our period4 ,his ability as a critic of art and literature was perhaps more marked than his purely philosophical influence1 but this is1 nevertheless1 important1 and cannot be overlooked4 ,taine was a student of the ,ecole ,normale1 and in #ahea was appointed to teach philosophy at ,nevers4 ,the coup d'tat1 however1 changed his career1 and he turned to literature as his main field1 writing a work on ,la ,fontaine for his doctorate in #ahec4 ,in the year of ,comte's death 7#aheg7 ,taine published his book1 ,les ,philosophes franais du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 in which he turned his powerful batteries of criticism upon the vague spiritualism professed by ,cousin and officially favoured in ,france at that time4#f ,by his adverse criticism of ,cousin and the ,eclectic ,school1 ,taine placed his influence upon the side of the positivist followers of ,comte4 ,it would1 however1 be erroneous to regard him as a mere disciple of ,comte1 as ,taine's positivism was in its general form a wider doctrine1 yet more rigorously scientific in some respects than that of ,comte4 ,there was also an important difference in their attitude to metaphysics4 ,taine upheld strongly the value1 and1 indeed1 the necessity1 of a metaphysical doctrine4 ,he never made much of any debt or allegiance to ,comte4 #f ,see his chapter xii4 on 8,the ,success of ,eclecticism10 pp4 #bhc-cjg4 ,cousin1 he criticises at length2 ,de ,biran1 ,royer-,collard and ,jouffroy are included in his censures4 ,we might mention that this book was first issued in the form of articles in the ,revue de l',instruction publique during the years #ahee1 #ahef4 ,in #ahfj a volume dealing with the ,philosophy of ,art appeared from his pen1 in which he not only endeavoured to relate the art of a period to the general environment in which it arose1 but1 in addition1 he dealt with certain psychological aspects of the problem4 ,largely as a result of the talent displayed in this work1 he was appointed in #ahfd to tne chair of the ,history of ,art and sthetics in the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts4 ,taine's interest in philosophy1 and especially in psychological problems1 was more prominently demon strated in his book ,de l',intelligence1 the two volumes of which appeared in #ahgj4 ,in this work he takes a strict view of the human intelligence as a mechanism1 the workings of which he sets forth in a precise and cold manner4 ,his treatment of knowledge is akin1 in some respects1 to the doctrines of the ,english ,utilitarian and ,evolutionary ,school as represented by ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,bain and ,spencer4 ,the main feature of the ,darwinian doctrine is set by ,taine in the foreground of epistemology4 ,there is1 according to him1 8a struggle for existence0 in the realm of the individual consciousness no less than in the external world4 ,this inner conflict is between psychical elements which1 when victorious1 result in sense-perception4 ,this awareness1 or hallucination vraie1 is not knowledge of a purely speculative character2 it is 7as1 at a later date1 ,bergson was to maintain in his doctrine of perception7 essentially bound up with action1 with the instinct and mechanism of movement4 ,one of the most notable features of ,taine's work is his attitude to psychology4 ,he rejects absolutely the rather scornful attitude adopted with regard to this science by ,comte2 at the same time he shatters the flimsy edifice of the eclectics in order to lay the foundation of a scientific psychology4 8,the true and independent psychology is10 he remarks1 8a magnificent science which lays the foundation of the philosophy of history1 which gives life to physiology and opens up the pathway to metaphysics40#g ,our debt to ,taine is immense1 for he initiated the great current of experimental psychology for which his country has since become famous4 ,it is not our intention in this present work to follow out in any detail the purely psychological work of the period4 ,psychology has more and more become differentiated from1 and to a large degree1 independent of1 philosophy in a strictly metaphysical meaning of that word4 ,yet we shall do well in passing to note that through ,taine's work the scientific attitude to psychologv and its many problems was taken up and developed by ,ribot1 whose study of ,english ,psychology appeared in the same year as ,taine's ,intelligence4 ,particularly by his frequent illustrations drawn from abnormal psychology1 ,taine 8set the tone0 for contemporary and later study of mental activity of this type4 ,ribot's later books have been mainly devoted to the study of 8the abnormal10and his efforts are characteristic of the labours of the ,paris ,school1 comprising ,charcot1 ,paulhan1 ,binet and ,janet4#h ,french psychology has in consequence become a clearly defined 8school10 with characteristics peculiar to itself which distinguish it at once from the psychophysical research of ,german workers and from the analytic labours of ,english psychologists4 ,its debt to ,taine at the outset must not be forgotten4 #g ,de l',intelligence1 ,conclusion4 #h ,by ,charcot 7#ahbe-ahic71 ,leons sur les ,maladies du ,systme nerveux faites la ,salptrire and ,localisation dans les ,maladies du ,cerveau et de la ,moelle pinire1 #ahhj4 ,by ,ribot 7#ahci-aiaf71 ,hrdit1 ,etude psychologique1 #ahgc1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahge2 ,les ,maladies de la ,mmoire1 ,essai dans la ,psychologie positive1 #ahha1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahhb2 ,maladies de la ,volont1 #ahhc1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahhd2 ,maladies de la ,personnalit1 #ahhe1 ,eng4 trans41 #ahie4 ,ribot expressed regret at the way in which abnormal psychology has been neglected in ,england4 ,see his critique of ,bain in his ,psychologie anglaise contemporaine4 ,in #ahgj ,ribot declared the independence of psychology as a study1 separate from philosophy4 ,ribot had very wide interests beyond pure psychology1 a fact which is stressed by his commencing in #ahgf the periodical ,la ,revue philosophique de la ,france et de l',etranger4 ,by ,binet 7#aheg-aia671 ,magntisme animal1 #ahhf2 ,les ,altrations de la personnalit1 #ahib2 ,l',introduction la ,psychologie exprimentale1 #ahid4 ,he founded the review ,l',anne psychologique in #ahie4 ,by ,janet 7,pierre71 born #ahei now ,professeur at the ,collge de ,france1 ,l',automatisme psychologique1 #ahhi2 ,etat mental des ,hystriques1 #ahid2 and ,neuroses et ,ides-fixes1 #ahih4 ,he founded the ,journal de ,psychologie4 ,by ,paulhan1 ,phnomenes affectifs and ,l',activit mentale4 ,to the fame of the ,paris ,school of ,psychology must now be added that of the ,nancy ,school embracing the work of ,cou4 ,the ,war and the subsequent course of events in ,france seemed to deepen the sadness and pessimism of ,taine's character4 ,he described himself as naturellement triste1 and finally his severe positivism developed into a rigorous stoicism akin to that of ,marcus ,aurelius and ,spinoza4 ,this attitude of mind coloured his unfinished historical work1 ,les ,origines de la ,france contemporaine1 upon which he was engaged for the last years of his life 7#ahgf-ahid74 ,it may be noticed for its bearing upon the study of sociological problems which it indirectly encouraged4 ,just as ,taine had regarded a work of art as the product of social environment1 so he looks upon historical events4 ,this history bears all the marks of ,taine's rigid1 positive philosophy1 intensified by his later stoicism4 ,the ,revolution of #aghi is treated in a cold and stern manner devoid of enthusiasm of any sort4 ,he could not make historical narrative live like ,michelet1 and from his own record the ,revolution itself is almost unintelligible4 ,for ,taine1 however1 we must remember1 human nature is absolutely the product of race1 environment and history4#i #i ,michelet 7#agih-ahgd71 mentioned here as an historian of a type entirely different from ,taine1 influenced philosophic thought by his volumes ,le ,peuple1 #ahdf2 ,l',amour1 #aheh2 ,le ,prtre1 ,la ,femme et la ,famille1 #ahei2 and ,la ,bible de l',humanit1 #ahfd4 ,he and his friend ,quinet 7#ahjc-ahge71 who was also a ,professor at the ,college de ,france1 and was the author of ,gnie des ,religions1 #ahdb1 had considerable influence prior to #ahdh of a political and religious character4 ,they were in strong opposition to the ,roman ,catholic ,church and had keen controversies with the ,jesuits and ,ultramontanists4 ,in the philosophy of ,taine various influences are seen at work interacting4 ,the spirit of the ,french thinkers of the previous century--sensualists and ideologists--reappears in him4 ,while in a measure he fluctuates between naturalism and idealism1 the predominating tone of his work is clearly positivist4 ,he was a great student of ,spinoza and of ,hegel1 and the influence of both these thinkers appears in his work4 ,like ,spinoza1 he believes in a universal determination2 like ,hegel1 he asserts the real and the rational to be identical4 ,in his general attitude to the problems of knowledge ,taine criticises and passes beyond the standpoints of both ,hume and ,kant4 ,he opposes the purely empiricist schools of both ,france and ,england4 ,the purely empirical attitude which looks upon the world as fragmentary and phenomenal is deficient1 according to ,taine1 and is1 moreover1 incompatible with the notion of necessity4 ,this notion of necessity is characteristic of ,taine's whole work1 and his strict adherence to it was mainly due to his absolute belief in science and its methods1 which is a mark of all the positivist type of thought4 ,while he rejected ,hume's empiricism he also opposed the doctrines of ,kant and the neo-critical school which found its inspiration in ,kant and ,hume4 ,taine asserted that it is possible to have a knowledge of things in their objective reality1 and he appears to have based his epistemology upon the doctrine of analysis proposed by ,condillac4 ,taine disagreed with the theory of the relativity of human knowledge and with the phenomenal basis of the neo-critical teaching1 its rejection of 8the thing in itself40 ,he believed we had knowledge not merely relative but absolute1 and he claimed that we can pass from phenomena and their laws to comprehend the essence of things in themselves4 ,he endeavours to avoid the difficulties of ,hume by dogmatism4 ,while clinging to a semi-,hegelian view of rationality he avoids ,kant's critical attitude to reason itself4 ,we have in ,taine not a critical rationalist but a dogmatic rationalist4 ,while the rational aspect of his thought commands a certain respect and has had in many directions a very wholesome influence1 notably1 as we have remarked1 upon psychology1 yet it proves itself in the last analysis self-contradictory1 for a true rationalism is critical in character rather than dogmatic4 ,in ,taine'a great contemporary1 ,ernest ,renan 7#ahbc-ahib71 a very different temper is seen4 ,the two thinkers both possessed popularity as men of letters1 and resembled one another in being devoted to literary and historical pursuits rather than to philosophy itself4 ,renan was trained for the priesthood of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,he has left us a record of his early life in ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,we there have an autobiography of a sincere and sensitive soul1 encouraged in his priestly career by his family and his teachers to such a degree that he had conceived of no other career for himself1 until at the age of twenty1 under the influence of modern scientific doctrines and the criticism of the ,biblical records1 he found himself an unbeliever1 certainly not a ,roman ,catholic1 and not1 in the ordinary interpretation of that rather vague term1 a ,christian4 ,the harsh1 unrelenting dogmatism of the ,roman ,church drove ,renan from ,christianity4 ,we find him remarking that had he lived in a ,protestant4 country he might not have been faced with the dilemma4#aj ,a via media might have presented itself in one of the very numerous forms into which ,protestant ,christianity1 is divided4 ,he might have exercised in such a sphere1 his priestly functions as did ,schleiermacher4 ,renan's break with ,rome emphasises the clear-cut division which exists in ,france between the ,christian faith 7represented1 almost entirely by the ,roman ,church7 and libre-pense1 a point which will claim our attention later1 when we come to treat of the ,philosophy of ,religion4 #aj ,cf4 his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse1 p4 #bib4 ,having abandoned the seminary and the ,church1 ,renan worked for his university degrees4 ,the events of #ahdh-di inspired his young heart with great enthusiasm1 under the influence of which he wrote his ,avenir de la ,science4 ,this book was not published1 however1 until #ahij1 when he had lost his early hopes and illusions4 ,in #ahdi he went away upon a mission to ,italy4 8,the reaction of #ahej-ea and the coup d'tat instilled into me a pessimism of which ,i am not yet cured10 so he wrote in the preface to his ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques4#aa ,some years after the coup d'tat he published a volume of essays 7,essais de ,morale et de ,critique71 and he showed his acquaintance with ,arabic philosophy by an excellent treatise on ,averroes et l',averroisme 7#ahei74 ,the following year he visited ,syria and1 in #ahfa1 was appointed ,professor of ,hebrew at the ,collge de ,france4 ,he then began his monumental work on ,les ,origines du ,christianisme1 of which the first volume1 ,la ,vie de ,jsus1 appeared in #ahfc4 ,its importance for religious thought we shall consider in our last chapter2 here it must suffice to observe its immediate consequences4 ,these were terrific onslaughts from the clergy upon its author1 which1 although they brought the attention of his countrymen and of the world upon ,renan1 resulted in the ,imperial ,government suspending his tenure of the chair4 ,after the fall of the ,empire1 however1 he returned to it1 and under the ,third ,republic became ,director of the ,collge de ,france4 #aa ,published only in #ahie4 ,the preface referred to is dated #ahga4 ,renan1 although he broke off his career in the ,church and his connection with organised religion1 retained1 nevertheless1 much of the priestly character all his life1 and he himself confesses this3 8,i have learned several things1 but ,i have changed in nowise as to the general system of intellectual and moral life4 ,my habitation has become more spacious1 but it still stands on the same ground4 ,i look upon my estrangement from orthodoxy as only a change of opinion concerning an important historical question1 a change which does not prevent me from dwelling on the same foundations as before40 ,he indeed found it impossible to reconcile the ,catholic faith with free and honest thought4 ,his break with the ,church made him an enemy of all superstition1 and his writings raised against him the hatred of the ,catholic clergy1 who regarded him as a deserter4 ,in the customary terms of heated theological debate he was styled an atheist4 ,this was grossly unfair or meaningless4 ,which word we use here depends upon our definition of theism4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,renan was one of the most deeply religious minds of his time4 ,his early religious sentiments remained1 in essence if not in form1 with him throughout his life4 ,these were always associated with the tender memories he had of his mother and beloved sister and his virtuous teachers1 the priests in the little town of ,brittany1 whence he came4 ,much of the ,breton mysticism clung to his soul1 and much of his philosophy is a restated1 rationalised form of his early beliefs4 ,as a figure in the intellectual life of the time1 ,renan is difficult to estimate4 ,the very subtilty of his intellect betrayed him into an oscillation which was far from admirable1 and prevented his countrymen in his own day from 8getting to grips0 with his ideas4 ,these were kaleidoscopic4 ,renan seems a type1 reflecting many tendencies of the time1 useful as an illustration to the historian of the ideas of the period2 but for philosophy in the special sense he has none of the clearly defined importance of men like ,renouvier1 ,lachelier1 ,guyau1 ,fouille1 ,bergson or ,blondel4 ,his humanism keeps him free from dogmatism1 but his mind fluctuates so that his general attitude to the ultimate problems is one of reserve1 of scepticism and of frequent paradox and contradiction4 ,renan seems to combine the positivist scorn of metaphysics with the ,kantian idealism4 ,at times1 however1 his attitude is rather ,hegelian1 and he believes in universal change which is an evolving of spirit1 the ideal or ,god1 call it what we will4 ,we need not be too particular about names or forms of thought1 for1 after all1 everything 8may be only a dream40 ,that is ,renan's attitude1 to temper enthusiasm by irony1 to assert a duty of doubt1 and often1 perhaps1 to gain a literary brilliance by contradictory statements4 8,the survey of human affairs is not complete10 he reminds us1 8unless we allot a place for irony beside that of tears1 a place for pity beside that of rage1 and a place for a smile alongside respect40#ab #ab ,preface to his ,drames philosophiques1 #ahhh4 ,it was this versatility which made ,renan a lover of the philosophic dialogue4 ,this literary and dramatic form naturally appealed strongly to a mind who was so very conscious of the fact that the truths with which philosophy deals cannot be directly denied or directly affirmed1 as they are not subject to demonstration4 ,all the high problems of humanity ,renan recognised as being of this kind1 as involving finally a rational faith2 and he claimed that the best we can do is to present the problems of life from different points of view4 ,this is due entirely to the peculiar character of philosophy itself1 and to the distinction1 which must never be overlooked1 between knowledge and belief1 between certitude and opinion4 ,geometry1 for example1 is not a subject for dialogues but for demonstration1 as it involves knowledge and certitude4 ,the problems of philosophy1 on the contrary1 involve 8une nuance de foi10 as ,renan styles it4 ,they involve willed adhesion1 acceptance or choice2 they provoke sympathy or hate1 and call into play human personality with its varying shades of colour4 ,this state of nuance ,renan asserts to be the one of the hour for philosophy4 ,it is not the time1 he thinks1 to attempt to strengthen by abstract reasoning the 8proofs0 of ,god's existence or of the reality of a future life4 8,men see just now that they can never know anything of the supreme cause of the universe or of their own destiny4 ,nevertheless they are anxious to listen to those who will speak to them about either40#ac #ac ,from his ,preface to ,drames philosophiques4 ,knowledge1 ,renan maintained1 lies somewhere between the two schools into which the majority of men are divided4 8,what you are looking for has long since been discovered and made clear10 say the orthodox4 8,what you are looking for is impossible to find10 say the practical positivists1 the political 8raillers0 and the atheists4 ,it is true that we shall never know the ultimate secret of all being1 but we shall never prevent man from desiring more and more knowledge or from creating for himself working hypotheses or beliefs4 ,yet although ,renan admits this truth he never approaches even the pragmatist position of supporting 8creative beliefs40 ,he rather urges a certain passivity towards problems and opinions4 ,we should1 he argues in his ,examen de ,conscience philosophique1#ad let them work themselves out in us4 ,like a spectator we must let them modify our 8intellectual retina02 we must let reality reflect itself in us4 ,by this he does not mean to assert that the truth about that reality is a matter of pure indifference to us-far from it4 ,precisely because he is so conscious of the importance of true knowledge1 he is anxious that we should approach the study of reality without previous prejudices4 8,we have no right10 he remarks1 8to have a desire when reason speaks2 we must listen and nothing more40#ae #ad ,in his ,feuilles detaches1 pp4 #dja-ddc4 #ae ,feuilles dtaches1 p4 #djb4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that ,renan's attitude to the problems of knowledge was largely sceptical4 ,while1 as we shall see in the following chapter1 he extolled science1 his attitude to belief and to knowledge was irritating in its vagueness and changeableness4 ,he appeared to pose too much as a dilettante making a show of subtle intellect1 rather than a serious thinker of the first rank4 ,his eminence and genius are unquestioned1 but he played in a bewitching and frequently bewildering manner with great and serious problems1 and one cannot help wishing that this great intellect of his--and it was unquestionably great--was not more steady and was not applied by its owner more steadfastly and courageously to ultimate problems4 ,his writings reflect a bewildering variety of contradictory moods1 playful1 scathing1 serious and mocking4 ,indeed1 he replied in his ,feuilles detaches 7#ahib7 to the accusations of ,amiel by insisting that irony is the philosopher's last word4 ,for him as for his brilliant fellow-countryman1 ,anatole ,france1 ironical scepticism is the ultimate product of his reflection upon life4 ,his ,examen de ,conscience philosophique is his ,confession of ,faith1 written four years before his death1 in which he tries to defend his sceptical attitude and to put forward scepticism as an apology for his own uncertainty and his paradoxical changes of view4 ,irony intermingles with his doubt here too4 ,we do not know1 he says1 ultimate reality2 we do not know whether there be any purpose or end in the universe at all4 ,there may be1 but on the other hand it may be a farce and fiasco4 ,by refusing to believe in anything1 rejecting both alternatives1 ,renan argues1 with a kind of mental cowardice1 we avoid the consequence of being absolutely deceived4 ,he recommended an adoption of mixed belief and doubt1 optimism and irony4 ,this is a surprising attitude in a philosopher and is not characteristic of great modern thinkers1 most of whom prefer belief 7hypothetical although that be7 to non-belief4 ,doubtless ,renan's early training had a psychological effect which operated perhaps largely unconsciously throughout his life1 and his literary and linguistic ability seems to have given him a reputation which was rather that of a man of letters than a philosopher4 ,he had not the mental strength or frankness to face alternatives squarely and to decide to adopt one4 ,consequently he merited the application of the old proverb about being between two stools4 ,this application was actually made to ,renan's attitude in a critical remark by ,renouvier in his ,esquisse d'une ,classification des ,doctrines philosphiques4#af ,renouvier had no difficulty in pointing out that the man who hesitates deprives himself of that great reality1 the exercise of his own power of free choice1 in itself valuable and more akin to reality 7whatever be the choice7 than a mere 8sitting on the fence10 an attitude which1 so far from assuring one of getting the advantages of both possibilities as ,renan claims1 may more justly seem to deprive one of the advantages in both directions4 ,the needs of life demand that we construct beliefs of some sort4 ,we may be wrong and err1 but pure scepticism such as ,renan advocated is untenable4 ,life1 if it is to be real and earnest1 demands of us that we have faith in some values1 that we construct some beliefs1 some hypotheses1 by which we may work4 #af ,vol4 ii41 p4 #cie4 ,both ,renan and ,taine exercised a considerable influence upon ,french thought4 ,while inheriting the positivist outlook they1 to a great degree1 perhaps unconsciously1 undermined the positive position1 both by their interest in the humanities1 in art1 letters and religion and in their metaphysical attitude4 ,taine1 beginning with a rigid naturalism1 came gradually to approach an idealistic standpoint in many respects1 while ,renan1 beginning with a dogmatic idealism1 came to acute doubt1 hypotheses1 8dreams0 and scepticism4 ,taine kept his thoughts in too rigid a mould1 solidified1 while those of ,renan seem finally to have existed only in a gaseous state1 intangible1 vague and hazy4 ,we have observed how the positivist current from ,comte was carried over by ,vacherot to ,taine4 ,in ,renan we find that current present also1 but it has begun to turn against itself4 ,while we may say that his work reflects in a very remarkable manner the spirit of his time1 especially the positivist faith in science1 yet we are also able to find in it1 in spite of his immense scepticism1 the indications of a spiritualist or idealist movement1 groping and shaping itself as the century grows older4 ,,ii ,while the positivist current of thought was working itself out through ,vacherot1 ,taine and ,renan to a position which forms a connecting link between ,comte and the new spiritualism in which the reaction against positivism and eclecticism finally culminated1 another influence was making itself felt independently in the neo-critical philosophy of ,renouvier4 ,we must here note the work and influence of ,cournot 7#ahja-ahgg71 which form a very definite link between the doctrines of ,comte and those of ,renouvier4 ,he owed much to positivism1 and he contributed to the formation of neo-criticism by his influence upon ,renouvier4 ,cournot's ,essai sur le ,fondement de nos ,connaissances appeared in #ahea1 three years before ,renouvier gave to the world the first volume of his ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 ,in #ahfa ,cournot published his ,trait de l',enchanement des ,ides1 which was followed by his ,considerations sur le ,marche des ,ides 7#ahgb7 and ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalisme 7#ahge74 ,these volumes form his contribution to philosophical thought1 his remaining works being mainly concerned with political economy and mathematics1 a science in which he won distinction4 ,like ,comte1 ,cournot opposed the spiritualism1 the eclecticism and the psychology of ,cousin1 but he was possessed of a more philosophic mind than ,comte2 he certainly had greater philosophical knowledge1 was better equipped in the history of philosophy and had much greater respect for metaphysical theory4 ,he shared with ,comte1 however1 an interest in social problems and biology2 he also adopted his general attitude to knowledge1 but the spirit of ,cournot's work is much less dogmatic than that of the great positivist1 and he made no pretensions to be a 8pontiff0 such as ,comte aspired to be4 ,indeed his lack of pretensions may account partly for the lack of attention with which his work 7which is shrewd1 thoughtful and reserved7 has been treated4 ,he aimed at indicating the foundations of a sound philosophy rather than at offering a system of thought to the public4 ,this temper was the product of his scientific attitude4 ,it was by an examination of the sciences and particularly of the principles upon which they depend that he formulated his group of fundamental doctrines4 ,he avoided hasty generalisations or a priori constructions and1 true to the scientific spirit1 based his thought upon the data afforded by experience4 ,he agreed heartily with ,comte regarding the relativity of our knowledge4 ,an investigation of this knowledge shows it to be based on three principles--order1 chance1 and probability4 ,we find order existing in the universe and by scientific methods we try to grasp this order4 ,this involves induction1 a method which cannot give us absolute certainty1 although it approximates to it4 ,it gives us probability only4 ,there is therefore a reality of chances1 and contingency or chance must be admitted as a factor in evolution and in human history4 ,cournot foreshadows many of the doctrines of the new spiritualists as well as those of the neo-critical school4 ,much in his work heralds a ,bergson as well as a ,renouvier4 ,this is noticeable in his attitude to science and to the problem of contingency or freedom4 ,it is further seen in his doctrine that the vivant is incapable of demonstration1 in his view of the soul or higher instinct which he distinguished from the intelligence1 in the biological interest displayed in his work 7due partly to the work of ,bichat#ag71 and in his idea of a ,travail de ,cration4 ,unlike ,bergson1 however1 he admits a teleology1 for he believed this inseparable from living beings1 but he regards it as a hazardous finality1 not rigid or inconsistent with freedom4 #ag ,bichat 7#agga-ahjb7 was a noted physiologist and anatomist4 ,in #ahjj appeared his ,recherches physiologiques sur la ,vie et la ,mort1 followed in #ahja by ,anatomie gnrale1 applique la ,physiologie et la ,mdecine4 ,the immediate influence of ,cournot was felt by only a small circle1 and his most notable affinity was with ,renouvier1 although ,cournot was less strictly an intellectualist4 ,like ,renouvier he looked upon philosophy as a 8,critique gnrale40 ,he was also concerned with the problem of the categories and with the compatibility of science and freedom1 a problem which was now assuming a very central position in the thought of the period4 ,renouvier1 in the construction of his philosophy1 was partly influenced by the work of ,cournot4 ,in this lone1 stern1 indefatigable worker we have one of the most powerful minds of the century4 ,charles ,renouvier shares with ,auguste ,comte the first honours of the century in ,france so far as philosophical work is concerned4 ,curiously enough he came from ,comte's birth-place1 ,montpellier4 ,when ,renouvier was born in #ahae1 seventeen years later than ,comte1 the great positivist was in his second year of study at the ,ecole ,polytechnique in ,paris4 ,to this great scientific and mathematical institution came ,renouvier1 to find ,comte as ,rptiteur of ,higher ,mathematics4 ,he was not only a keen student of the mathematical sciences but also an ardent follower of ,saint-,simon1 and although in later life he lost many of the hopes of his youth the ,saint-,simon spirit remained with him1 and he retained a keen interest in social ethics and particularly in the ideas of ,fourier1 ,proudhon and ,blanc4 ,at the ,ecole he met as fellow-pupils ,jules ,lequier and ,felix ,ravaisson4 ,instead of entering the civil service ,renouvier then applied himself to philosophy and political science1 influenced undoubtedly by ,comte's work4 ,the year #ahdh1 which saw the second attempt to establish a republic1 gave ,renouvier1 now a zealous republican1 an opportunity1 and he issued his ,manuel rpublicain de l',homme et du ,citoyen4 ,this volume1 intended for schoolmasters1 had the approval of ,carnot1 ,minister of ,education to the ,provisionary ,government4 ,its socialist doctrines were so criticised by the ,chamber of #ahdi that ,carnot1 and with him the ,government1 fell from power4 ,renouvier went further in his ,gouvernement direct et ,organisation communale et centrale de la ,rpublique1 in which he collaborated with his socialist friends in outlining a scheme of communism1 making the canton a local power1 a scheme which contained the germ-idea of the ,soviet of ,bolshevik ,russia4 ,such ideas were1 however1 far too advanced for the ,france of that date and their proposal did more harm than good to the progressive party by producing a reaction in wavering minds4 ,renouvier1 through the paper ,libert de penser1 launched attacks upon the policy of the ,presidency1 and began in the ,revue philosophique a serial ,uchronie1 a novel of a political and philosophical character4 ,it was never finished4 ,suddenly1 like a bolt from the blue1 came1 on ,december and1 the coup d'tat4 ,the effect of this upon ,renouvier was profound4 ,disgusted at the power of the monarchy1 the shattering of the republican hopes1 the suppression of liberty and the general reaction1 he abandoned political life entirely4 ,what politics lost1 however1 philosophy has gained1 for he turned his acute mind with its tremendous energy to the study of the problems of the universe4 ,three years after the coup d'tat1 in the same year in which ,comte completed his ,systme de ,politique positive1 #ahed1 ,renouvier published the first volume of his magnum opus1 the ,essais de ,critique gnrale4#ah ,the appearance of this work is a notable date in the development of modern ,french philosophy4 ,the problems therein discussed will concern us in later chapters4 ,here we must point out the indefatigable labour given to this work by ,renouvier4 ,the writing and revision of these essays covered almost the whole of the half century1 concluding in #ahig4 ,in their first1 briefer form they occupied the decade #ahed-fd1 and consisted of four volumes only1 which on revision became finally thirteen4#ai ,these ,essays range over ,logic1 ,psychology1 the ,philosophy of the ,sciences and the ,philosophy of ,history4 #ah ,it is interesting for the comparative study of the thought of the century to observe that the great work of ,lotze in ,germany1 ,mikrocosmos1 was contemporaneous with the ,essais of ,renouvier4 ,lotze's three volumes appeared in #ahef1 #aheh and #ahfd4 ,the ,logik and ,metaphysik of ,lotze should also be compared with ,renouvier's ,essais4 ,further comparison or contrast may be made with reference to the ,logic of both ,bradley and ,bosanquet in ,england4 #ai ,since #aiab the ,essais de ,critique gnrale are available in ten volumes1 owing to the publications of new editions of the first three ,essays by ,a4 ,colin in five volumes4 ,for details of the original and revised publication of the work1 see our ,bibliography1 under ,renouvier 7pp4 #ccd-cce74 ,having thus laid the foundations of his own throught1 ,renouvier1 in conjunction with his scholarly friend ,pillon1 undertook the publication of a monthly periodical1 ,l',anne philosophique1 to encourage philosophic thought in ,france4 ,this appeared first in #ahfg1 the same year in which ,ravaisson laid the foundations of the new spiritualism by his celebrated ,rapport4 ,in #ahfi ,renouvier published his noteworthy treatise upon ,ethics1 in two volumes1 ,la ,science de la ,morale4 ,the war of #ahgj brought his monthly periodical to an untimely end4 ,the conclusion of the war in #ahga resulted in the establishment1 for the third time1 of a republic1 which in spite of many vicissitudes has continued even to this day4 ,with the restoration of peace and of a republic1 ,renouvier felt encouraged to undertake the ambitious scheme of publishing a weekly paper1 not only philosophical in character but political1 literary and religious4 ,he desired ardently to address his countrymen at a time when they were rather intellectually and morally bewildered4 ,he felt he had something constructive to offer1 and hoped that the 8new criticism10 as he called it1 might become the philosophy of the new republic4 ,thus was founded1 in #ahgb1 the famous ,critique philosophique1 which aimed primarily at the consolidation of the republic politically and morally1#bj ,this paper appeared as a weekly from its commencement until #ahhd1then continued for a further five years as a monthly4 ,renouvier and his friend ,pillon were assisted by other contributors1 ,a4 ,sabatier1 ,l4 ,dauriac1 ,r4 ,allier1 who were more or less disciples of the neo-critical school4 ,various articles were contributed by ,william ,james1 who had a great admiration for ,renouvier4 ,the two men1 although widely different in temperament and method1 had certain affinities in their doctrine of truth and certitude4#ba #bj ,in the early numbers1 political articles1 as was natural in the years following #ahga1 were prominent4 ,among these early articles we may cite the one1 8,is ,france morally obliged to carry out the terms of the ,treaty imposed upon her by ,prussia80 #ba ,on this relationship see ,james's ,will to ,believe1 p4 #adc1 #ahig1 and the dedications in his ,some ,problems of ,philosophy 7to ,renouvier71 and his ,principles of ,psychology 7to ,pillon71 also ,letters of ,william ,james1 ,september i#hth1 #ahib4 ,renouvier's enthusiasm for his periodical did not1 however1 abate his energy or ardour for more lasting work4 ,he undertook the task of revising and augmenting his great work1 the ,essais de ,critique gnrale1 and added to the series another 7fifth7 ,essay1 in four volumes4 ,he also issued in #ahgf the curious work ,uchronie1 a history of 8what might have been0 7in his view7 the development of ,european civilisation4 ,together with ,pillon he translated ,hume's ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,meanwhile the ,critique philosophique continued to combat any symptoms of a further coup d'tat1 and 8to uphold strictly republican principles and to fight all that savoured of ,caesar or imperialism40 ,in #ahgh a quarterly supplement ,la ,critique religieuse was added to attack the ,roman ,catholic ,church and to diminish its power in ,france4#bb #bb ,the significance of this effort is more fully dealt with in our last chapter4 ,articles which had appeared in this quarterly were published as ,esquisse d'une ,classification systmatique des ,doctrines philosophiques in #ahhe in two volumes1 the second of which contained the important ,confession of ,faith of ,renouvier1 entitled1 ,how ,i arrived at this ,conclusion4 ,his thought assumed a slightly new form towards the close of the century1 at the end of which he published1 in conjunction with his disciple ,prat1 a remarkable volume1 which took a prize at the ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques1 to which rather late in the day he was admitted as a member at the age of eighty-five4 ,in its title ,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie1 and method it reveals the influence of ,leibnitz4 ,the close of the century shows us ,renouvier as an old man1 still an enormous worker1 celebrating his eighty-sixth birthday by planning and writing further volumes 7,les ,dilemmes de la ,mtaphysique pure and its sequel1 ,histoire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques74 ,this 8grand old man0 of modern ,french philosophy lived on into the early years of the twentieth century1 still publishing1 still writing to the last4 ,his final volume1 ,le ,personnalisme1 was a restatement of his philosophy1 issued when he was in his eighty-ninth year4 ,he died 8in harness0 in #aijc1 dictating to his friend ,prat a rsum of his thought on important points and leaving an unpublished work on the philosophy of ,kant4#bc #bc ,the rsum was published by ,prat a couple of years later as ,derniers ,entretiens1 the volume on the ,doctrine de ,kant1 followed in #aijf4 ,renouvier's career is a striking one and we have sketched it somewhat fully here because of its showing more distinctly than that of ,taine or ,renan the reflections of contemporary history upon the thinking minds who lived through the years #ahdh-ea and #ahgj-ga4 ,renouvier was a young spirit in the year of the revolution1 #ahdh1 and lived right on through the coup d'tat1 the ,second ,empire1 the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 the ,commune1 the ,third ,republic1 and he foresaw and perhaps influenced the ,republic's attitude to the ,roman ,church4 ,his career is the most significant and enlightening one to follow of all the thinkers who come within our period4 ,let us note that he never held any academic or public teaching appointment4 ,his life was in the main a secluded one and1 like ,comte1 he found the ,university a limited preserve closed against him and his philosophy1 dominated by the declining eclecticism which drew its inspiration from ,cousin4 ,only gradually did his influence make itself felt to such a degree that the ,university was compelled to take notice of it4 ,now his work is more appreciated1 but not as much as it might be1 and outside his own country he is little known4 ,the student finds his writings somewhat difficult owing to the author's heavy style4 ,he has none of the literary ease and brilliance of a ,renan4 ,but his work was great and noble1 animated by a passion for truth and a hatred of philosophical 8shams0 and a current of deep moral earnestness colours all his work4 ,he had considerable power as a critic1 for the training of the ,ecole ,polytechnique produced a strictly logical temper in his work1 which is that of a true philosopher1 not that of a merely brilliant litterateur or dilettante1 and he must be regarded as one of the intellectual giants of the century4 ,while we see in ,positivism a system of thought which opposed itself to ,eclecticism1 we find in the philosophy of ,renouvier a system of doctrine which is opposed to both ,eclecticism and ,positivism4 ,indeed ,renouvier puts up a strong mental fight against both of these systems2 the latter he regarded as an ambitious conceit4 ,he agreed1 however1 with ,comte and with ,cournot upon the relativity of our knowledge4 8,i accept10 he says1 8one fundamental principle of the ,positivist ,school--namely1 the reduction of knowledge to the laws of phenomena40#bd ,the author of the ,essais de ,critique gnrale considered himself1 however1 to be the apostolic successor1 not of ,comte1 but of ,kant4 ,the title of neo-criticisme#be which he gave to his philosophy shows his affinity with the author of the ,kritik der reinen ,vernunft4 ,this is very noticeable in his method of treating the problem of knowledge by criticising the human mind and especially in his giving a preference to moral considerations4#bf ,it would be1 however1 very erroneous to regard ,renouvier as a disciple of ,kant1 for he amends and rejects many of the doctrines of the ,german philosopher4 ,we have noted the fact that he translated ,hume2 we must observe also that ,hume's influence is very strongly marked in ,renouvier's 8phenomenalism40#bg 8,renouvier is connected with ,hume10 says ,pillon1 in the preface he contributed to the translation1#bh 8as much as with ,kant4 4 4 4 ,he reconciles ,hume and ,kant4 4 4 4 ,something is lacking in ,hume1 the notion of law2 something is superfluous in ,kant1 the notion of substance4 ,it was necessary to unite the phenomenalism of ,hume with the a priori teaching of ,kant4 ,this was the work accomplished by ,renouvier40 #bd ,preface to ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 #be ,the ,english word 8criticism0 is1 it should be noted1 translated in ,french by 8critique0 and not by the word 8criticisme10 a term which is used for the philosophy of the ,kritik of ,kant4 #bf ,in recognising the primacy of the moral or practical reason in ,kant1 ,renouvier resembles ,fichte4 #bg ,renouvier's phenomenalism should be compared with that of ,shadworth ,hodgson1 as set forth in the volumes of his large work on ,the ,metaphysic of ,experience1 #ahii4 ,hodgson has given his estimate of ,renouvier and his relationship to him in ,mind 7volume for #ahha74 #bh ,psychologie de ,hume 3 ,trait de la ,nature humaine1 ,renouvier ,prface par ,pillon1 p4 lxviii4 ,it may be doubted whether ,pillon's eulogy is altogether sound in its approval of the 8reconciliation0 of ,hume and ,kant1 for such a reconciliation of opposites may well appear impossible4 ,renouvier himself faced this problem of the reconciliation of opposites when at an early age he inclined to follow the ,hegelian philosophy1 a doctrine which may very well be described as a 8reconciliation of opposites10 par excellence4 ,dissatisfied1 however1 with such a scheme ,renouvier came round to the ,kantian standpoint and then passed beyond it to a position absolutely contrary to that of ,hegel4 ,this position is frankly that opposites cannot be reconciled1 one or the other must be rejected4 ,renouvier thus made the law of contradiction the basis of his philosophy1 as it is the basis of our principles of thought or logic4 ,he rigorously applied this principle to that very interesting part of ,kant's work1 the antinomies1 which he held should never have been formulated4 ,the reasons put forward for this statement were two3 the principle of contradiction and the law of number4 ,renouvier did not believe in what mathematicians call an 8infinite number40 ,he held it to be an absurd and contradictory notion1 for to be a number at all it must be numerical and therefore not infinite4 ,the application of this to the ,kantian antinomies1 as for example to the questions1 8,is space infinite or finite8 ,had the world a beginning or not80 is interesting because it treats them as ,alexander did the ,gordian knot4 ,the admission that space is infinite1 or that the world had no beginning1 involves the admission of an 8infinite number10 a contradiction and an absurdity4 ,since1 therefore1 such a number is a pure fiction we must logically conclude that space is finite1#bi that the world had a beginning and that the ascending series of causes has a first term1 which admission involves freedom at the heart of things4 #bi ,it is interesting to observe how the stress laid by ,renouvier upon the finiteness of space and upon relativity has found expression in the scientific world by ,einstein1 long after it had been expressed philosophically4 ,as ,renouvier had treated the antinomies of ,kant1 so he makes short work of the ,kantian conception of a world of noumena 7,dinge an sich7 of which we know nothing1 but which is the foundation of the phenomena we know4 ,like ,hume1 he rejects all notion of substance1 of which ,kant's noumenon is a survival from ancient times4 ,the idea of substance he abhors as leading to pantheism and to fatalism1 doctrines which ,renouvier energetically opposes1 to uphold man's freedom and the dignity of human personality4 ,in the philosophy of ,kant personality was not included among the categories4 ,renouvier draws up for himself a new list of categories differing from those of ,kant4 ,beginning with ,relation they culminate in ,personality4 ,these two categories indicate two of the strongholds of ,renouvier's philosophy4 ,beginning from his fundamental thesis 8,all is relative10 ,renouvier points out that as nothing can possibly be known save by or in a relation of some sort it is evident that the most general law of all is that of ,relation itself4 ,relation is therefore the first and fundamental category embracing all the others4 ,then follow1 ,number1 ,position1 ,succession1 ,quality4 ,to these are added the important ones1 ,becoming1 ,causality1 ,finality proceeding from the simple to the composite1 from the abstract to the concrete1 from the elements most easily selected from our experience to that which embraces the experience itself1 ,renouvier comes to the final category in which they all find their consummation-,personality4 ,the importance which he attaches to this category colours his entire thought and particularly determines his attitude to the various problems which we shall discuss in our following chapters4 ,as we can think of nothing save in relation to consciousness and consequently we cannot conceive the universe apart from personality1 our knowledge of the universe1 our philosophies1 our beliefs are 8personal0 constructions4 ,but they need not be on that account merely subjective and individualistic in character1 for they refer to personality in its wide sense1 a sense shared by other persons4 ,this has important consequences for the problem of certitude in knowledge and ,renouvier has here certain affinities to the pragmatist standpoint4 ,his discussion of certitude is very closely bound up with his treatment of the problem of freedom1 but we may indicate here ,renouvier's attitude to ,belief and ,knowledge1 a problem in which he was aided by the work of his friend ,jules ,lequier1#cj whom he quotes in his second ,essai de ,critique gnrale4 ,renouvier considers it advisable to approach the problem of certitude by considering its opposite1 doubt4 ,in a famous passage in his second ,essai he states the circumstances under which we do not doubt--namely1 8when we see1 when we know1 when we believe40 ,owing to our liability to error 7even seeing is not believing1 and we frequently change our minds even about our 8seeing071 it appears that belief is always involved1 and more correctly 8we believe that we see1 we believe that we know40 ,belief is a state of consciousness involved in a certain affirmation of which the motives show themselves as adequate4 ,certitude arises when the possibility of an affirmation of the contrary is entirely rejected by the mind4 ,certitude thus appears as a kind of belief4 ,all knowledge1 ,renouvier maintains1 involves an affirmation of will4 ,it is here we see the contrast so strongly marked between him and ,renan1 who wished us to 8let things think themselves out in us40 8,every affirmation in which consciousness is reflective is subordinated1 in consciousness1 to the determination to affirm40 ,our knowledge1 our certitude1 our belief1 whatever we prefer to call it1 is a construction not purely intellectual but involving elements of feeling and1 above all1 of will4 ,even the most logically incontrovertible truth are sometimes unconvincing4 ,this is because certitude is not purely intellectual2 it is une affaire passionnelle4#ca ,renouvier here not only approaches the pragmatist position1 but he recalls the attitude to will1 assumed by ,maine de ,biran4 ,for the ,cartesian formula ,de ,biran had suggested the substitution of ,volo1 ergo sum4 ,the inadequacy of the the ,cogito1 ergo sum is remarked upon by ,lequier1 whose treatment of the question of certainty ,renouvier follows4 ,as all demonstration is deductive in character and so requires existing premises1 we cannot expect the premire vrit to be demonstrable4 ,if1 from the or certainty1 we must turn to the will to create belief1 or certainty1 we must turn to the will to create beliefs1 for no evidence or previous truths exist for us4 ,the ,cogito1 ergo sum really does not give us a starting point1 as ,descartes claimed for it1 since there is no proper sequence from cogito to sum4 ,here we have merely two selves1 moi-pense and moi-objet4 ,we need a live spark to bridge this gap to unite the two into one complete living self2 this is found in moi-volont1 in a free act of will4 ,this free act of will affirms the existence of the self by uniting in a synthetic judgment the thinking-self to the object-self4 8,i refuse10 says ,renouvier1 quoting ,lequier1 8to follow the work of a knowledge which would not be mine4 ,i accept the certainty of which ,i am the author40 ,the premire vrit is a free personal act of faith4 ,certainty in philosophy or in science reposes ultimately upon freedom and the consciousness of freedom4 #cj ,jules ,lequier was born in #ahad and entered the ,ecole polytechnique in #ahcd1 leaving two years later for a military staff appointment4 ,this he abandoned in #ahch4 ,he died in #ahfb after having destroyed most of his writings4 ,three ,years after his death was published the volume1 ,la ,recherche d'une premire ,vrit1 fragments posthumes de ,jules ,lequier4 ,the reader should note the very interesting remarks by ,renouvier at the end of the first volume of his ,psychologie rationnelle1 #aiab ed41 pp4 #cfi-cic1 on ,lequier and his ,philosophy1 also the ,fragments reprinted by ,renouvier in that work1 ,comment trouver1 comment chercher1 vol4 i41 on ,subject and ,object 7vol4 ii471 and on ,freedom4 #ca ,lotze employs a similar phrase1 eine ,gemths-sache4 ,here again1 as in the philosophy of ,cournot1 we find the main emphasis falling upon the double problem of the period4 ,it is in reality one problem with two aspects--the relation of science to morality1 or1 in other words1 the place and significance of freedom4 ,the general influence of ,renouvier has led to the formation of a neo-critical 8school0 of thought1 prominent members of which may be cited3 ,pillon and ,prat1 his intimate friends1 ,sailles and ,darlu1 who have contributed monographs upon their master's teaching1 together with ,hamelin1 ,liard and ,brochard1 eminent disciples4 ,hamelin 7#ahef-aijg71 whose premature and accidental death deprived ,france of a keen thinker1 is known for his ,essai sur les ,elments principaux de la ,reprsentation 7#aijg71 supplementing the doctrines of ,renouvier by those of ,hegel4 ,in the work of ,liard 7#ahdf-aiag71 ,la ,science positive et la ,mtaphysique 7#ahgi71 we see a combination of the influence of ,vacherot1 ,renouvier and ,kant4 ,he was also perplexed by the problem of efficient and final causes as was ,lachelier1 whose famous thesis ,de l',induction appeared eight years earlier4 ,while ,lachelier was influenced by ,kant1 he1 none the less1 belongs to the current of the new spiritualism which we shall presently examine4 ,liard1 however1 by his adherence to many critical and neo-critical standpoints may be justly looked upon as belonging to that great current of which ,renouvier is the prominent thinker4 ,brochard 7#ahdh-aijg7 is mainly known by his treatise ,de l',erreur 7#ahgi7 and his volumes on ,ethics1 ,de la ,responsabilit morale 7#ahgf71 and ,de l',universalit des ,notions morales 7#ahgf71 in all of which the primacy of moral considerations is advocated in a tone inspired by ,renouvier's strong moral standpoint4 ,the work ,de l',erreur emphasises the importance of the problem of freedom as being the crux of the whole question involved in the relation of science and morality4 ,adhering to the neo-critical doctrines in general1 and particularly to the value of the practical reason1 ,brochard1 by his insistence upon action as a foundation for belief1 has marked affinities with the doctrines of ,blondel 7and ,olle-,laprune71 the significance of whose work will appear at the end of our next section4 ,the phenomenalism of ,renouvier was followed up by two thinkers1 who cannot1 however1 be regarded as belonging to his neo-critical school4 ,in #ahhh ,gourd published his work entitled ,le ,phnomne1 which was followed six years later by the slightly more coherent attempt of ,boirac to base a philosophy upon the phenomenalism which expresses itself so rigidly in ,hume4 ,in his book ,l',ide du ,phnomne 7#ahid71 he had1 however1 recourse to the ,leibnitzian doctrines1 which had finally exercised a considerable influence over ,renouvier himself4 ,,iii ,the reaction against positivism and against eclecticism took another form quite apart from that of the neocritical philosophy4 ,this was the triumphant spiritualist philosophy1 as we may call it1 to give it a general name1 represented by a series of great thinkers--,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,boutroux1 ,bergson and1 we may add1 ,blondel4 ,these men have all of them had an influence much greater than that of ,renouvier1 and this is true of each of them separately4 ,this is rather noteworthy for1 if we exclude ,fouillee1 whose writings are rather too numerous1 the works of all the other men together do not equal in quantity the work of ,renouvier4 ,there is another point which is worthy of notice4 ,while ,renouvier worked in comparative solitude and never taught philosophy in any college or university1 being1 in fact1 neglected by the ,university of ,paris1 all the company--,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,boutroux and ,bergson--had a connection with the ,university of ,paris in general1 being associated with the ,sorbonne1 the ,collge de ,france or the important ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure4 ,the initiator of the spiritualistic philosophy was ,ravaisson 7#ahae-aijj71 who himself drew inspiration from ,maine de ,biran1 to whose work he had called attention as early as #ahdj in a vigorous article contributed to the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 ,this roused the indignation of ,victor ,cousin and the eclectics1 who in revenge excluded ,ravaisson from the ,institute4 ,his independent spirit had been shown in his thesis ,de l',habitude 7#ahch7cb and his remarkable study of the metaphysics of ,aristotle 7#ahcg-ahdf74 #cb ,reproduced in #ahid in the ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,ravaisson's chief title to fame1 however1 lies in his famous philosophic manifesto of #ahfg1 for such1 in fact1 was his ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,,xix ,sicle4 ,this ,report1 prepared for the ,exposition universelle at the request of the ,ministry of ,education1 marks an epoch1 for with it began the current of thought which was to dominate the close of the century4 ,the 8manifesto0 was a call to free spirits to assert themselves in favour of a valid idealism4 ,it1 in itself1 laid the foundations of such a philosophy and dealt a blow to both the ,eclectic ,school of ,cousin and the followers of ,auguste ,comte4 ,ravaisson wrote little1 but his influence was powerful and made itself felt in the ,university1 where in his office of president of the agrgation en philosophie he exercised no little influence over the minds of younger men4 ,his pupils1 among whom are to be found ,lachelier1 ,boutroux and ,bergson1 have testified to the profound and inspiring influence which this thinker exercised4 ,a notable tribute to his memory is the address given by ,bergson when he was appointed to take ,ravaisson's place at the ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques in #aijd4 ,various influences meet in ,ravaisson and determine his general attitude to thought4 ,he reverts1 as we have said1 to ,maine de ,biran1 whose insistence upon the inner life he approves4 ,we must examine human consciousness and make it our basis4 ,we have in it powers of will1 of desire and of love4 ,ravaisson blends the ,aristotelian insistence upon ,thought with the ,christian insistence upon ,love4 ,in his method he manifests the influence of the ,german philosopher1 ,schelling1 whose lectures he attended at ,munich in company with the young ,swiss thinker1 ,secretan4#cc ,this influence is seen in his doctrine of synthesis and his intellectual intuition4 ,science continues to give us analyses ever more detailed1 but it cannot lead us to the absolute4 ,our highest1 most sublime knowledge is gained by a synthesis presented in and to our consciousness1 an intuition4 ,further1 he argues that efficient causes1 about which science has so much to say1 are really dependent upon final causes4 ,spiritual reality is anterior to material reality1 and is characterised by goodness and beauty4 ,himself an artist1 imbued with a passionate love of the beautiful 7he was guardian of sculptures at the ,louvre71 he constructs a philosophy in the manner of an artist4 ,like ,guyau1 he writes metaphysics like poetry1 and although he did not give us anything like ,vers d'un ,philosophe1 he would have endorsed the remarks which ,guyau made on the relation of poetry and philosophy if1 indeed1 it is not a fact that his influence inspired the younger man4 #cc ,charles ,secretan 7#ahae-ahie71 a ,swiss thinker with whom ,renouvier had interesting correspondence4 ,his ,philosophie de la ,libert appeared in #ahdh-ahdi1 followed by other works on religious philosophy4 ,pillon wrote a monograph upon him4 ,after surveying the currents of thought up to #ahfg ,ravaisson not only summed up in his concluding pages the elements of his own philosophy1 but he ventured to assume the role of prophet4 8,many signs permit us to foresee in the near future a philosophical epoch of which the general character will be the predominance of what may be called spiritualistic realism or positivism1 having as generating principle the consciousness which the mind has of itself as an existence recognised as being the source and support of every other existence1 being none other than its action40#cd ,his prophecy has been fulfilled in the work of ,lachelier1 ,guyau1 ,fouille1 ,boutroux1 ,bergson1 ,blondel and ,weber4 #ce ,rapport1 #bnd ed41 #ahhe1 p4 #bge4 ,after ,ravaisson the spiritualist philosophy found expression in the work of ,lachelier 7#ahcb-aiah71 a thinker whose importance and whose influence are both quite out of proportion to the small amount which he has written4#cf ,a brilliant thesis of only one hundred pages1 ,du ,fondement de l',induction1 sustained in #ahga1 together with a little study on the ,syllogism and a highly important article on ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique1 contributed to the ,revue philosophique in ,may of #ahhe1 constitute practically all his written work4#cg ,it was orally that he made his influence felt2 by his teaching at the ,ecole ,normale ,suprieure 7#ahfd-ahge7 he made a profound impression upon the youth of the ,university and the ,ecole by the dignity and richness of his thought1 as well as by its thoroughness4 #cf ,dr4 ,merz1 in his admirable ,history of ,european ,thought in the ,nineteenth ,century1 is wrong in regard to ,lachelier's dates2 he confuses his resignation of professorship 7#ahge7 with his death4 ,this1 however1 did not occur until as late as #aiah4 ,see the references in ,mertz1 vol4 iii41 p4 #fbj1 and vol4 iv41 p4 #bag4 #cg ,the thesis and the article have been published together by ,alcan1 accompanied by notes on ,pascal's ,wager4 ,the ,etude sur le ,syllogisme also forms a volume in ,alcan's ,bibliothque de ,philosophie contemporaine4 ,lachelier was a pupil of ,ravaisson1 and owes his initial inspiration to him4 ,he had1 however1 a much more rigorous and precise attitude to problems4 ,this is apparent in the concentration of thought contained in his thesis4 ,it is one of ,lachelier's merits that he recognised the significance of ,kant's work in a very profound manner4 ,until his thesis appeared the influence of ,leibnitz had been more noticeable in ,french thought than that of ,kant4 ,it was noticeable in ,ravaisson1 and ,renouvier1 in spite of his professed adherence to ,kant1 passed to a ,leibnitzian position in his ,nouvelle ,monadologie4 ,the valuable work ,du ,fondement de l',induction is concerned mainly with the problem of final causes1 which ,lachelier deduces from the necessity of totality judgments over and above those which concern merely efficient causes4 ,on the principle of final causes1 or a ideological conception of a rational unity and order1 he founds ,induction4 ,it cannot be founded1 he claims1 upon a mere empiricism4 ,this is a point which will concern us later in our examination of the problem of science4 ,lachelier was left1 however1 with the dualism of mechanism1 operating solely by efficient causes1 and teleology manifested in final causes1 a dualism from which ,kant did not manage to escape4 ,in his article ,psychologic et ,mtaphysique he endeavoured to interpret mechanism itself as a teleological activity of the spirit4#ch ,he indicates the absolute basis of our life and experience1 indeed of the universe itself1 to be the absolute spontaneity of spirit4 ,in spirit and in freedom we live and move and have our being4 ,we do not affirm ourselves to be what we are1 but rather we are what we affirm ourselves to be4 ,we must not say that our present depends upon our past1 for we really create all the moments of our life in one and the same act1 which is both present to each moment and above them all4#ci ,here psychology appears as the science of thought itself and resolves itself into metaphysics4 ,here1 too1 we find the significance of the new spiritualism2 we see its affinity with1 and its contrast to1 the doctrines of the older spiritualism as professed by ,cousin4 ,lachelier here strikes the note which is so clearly characteristic of this current of thought1 and is no less marked in his work than in that of ,bergson--namely1 a belief in the supremacy of spirit and in the reality of freedom4 #ch ,it is interesting to compare this with the attitude taken by ,lotze in ,germany4 #ci ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique1 p4 #aga4 ,the notion of freedom and of the spontaneity of the spirit became watchwords of the new spiritualist philosophers4 ,under the work and influence of ,boutroux 7#ahde-aiba7 these ideas were further emphasised and worked out more definitely to a position which assumes a critical attitude to the dogmatism of modern science and establishes a contingency in all things4 ,boutroux's thesis ,de la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature appeared in #ahgd and was dedicated to ,ravaisson4 ,his chief fame and his importance in the development of the spiritualist philosophy rest upon this book alone4 ,in #ahid he published a course of lectures given at the ,sorbonne in #ahib-c1 ,sur l',ide de ,loi naturelle1 which supplements the thesis4 ,outside his own country attention has been more readily bestowed upon his writings on the history of philosophy1 of which subject he was ,professor4 ,in his own country1 however1 great interest and value are attached to his work on ,the ,contingency of the ,laws of ,nature4 ,in this ,boutroux combines the attitude of ,ravaisson with that of ,lachelier4 ,the totality of the laws of the universe manifests1 according to him1 a contingency4 ,no explanation of these laws is possible apart from a free spiritual activity4 ,the stress laid upon contingency in the laws of nature culminates in the belief in the freedom of man4 ,the critique of science which marked ,boutroux's work has profoundly influenced thinkers like ,hannequin1 ,payot and ,milhaud1#dj and in the following century appears in the work of ,duhem and of ,henri ,poincar1 the noted mathematician1 whose books on ,la ,science et l',hypothse 7#aijb71 ,la ,valeur de la ,science 7#aije71 and ,science et ,mthode 7#aiji7 have confirmed many of ,boutroux's conclusions4#da #dj ,hannequin's notable work is the ,essai critique sur ,l',hypothse des ,atomes 7#ahif74 ,payot's chief book is ,la ,croyance 7#ahif74 ,milhaud's critique of science is contained in his ,essai sur les ,conditions et les ,limites de la ,certitude logique 7#ahid71 and in ,le ,rationnel 7#ahih74 ,duhem's book is ,la ,thorie physique 7#aijf74 #da ,it is interesting to note that ,boutroux married ,poincar's sister1 and that his son1 ,pierre ,boutroux1 whose education was guided by both his uncle and his father1 is now ,professor at the ,collge de ,france4 ,emile ,boutroux was a pupil of ,zeller1 whose lectures on ,greek philosophy he attended in ,heidelberg1 #ahfh4 ,he expressed to the writer his grief at the later prostitution of ,german thought to nationalist and materialist aims4 ,he was ,professor of the ,history of ,philosophy in ,paris from #ahhh1 then ,honorary ,professor of ,modern ,philosophy4 ,in #aiad he gave the ,hertz ,lecture to the ,british ,academy on ,certitude et ,vrit4 ,he was until his death ,directeur de la ,fondation ,thiers1 a college for post-graduate study1 literary1 philosophical and scientific4 ,while the new spiritualist current was thus tending to a position far removed from that of ,taine1 at the commencement of our period1 a wavering note was struck by the idealist ,fouille 7#ahch-aiab71 who1 while maintaining a general attitude in harmony with the new doctrines endeavoured to effect a reconciliation with the more positive attitude to science and philosophy4 ,in his philosophie des ides-forces#db he endeavoured to combine and reconcile the diverging attitudes of ,plato and of ,comte4 ,he shows a scorn of the neo-critical though of ,renouvier4 ,he wrote in his shorter life more books than did ,renouvier1 and he is conspicuous among this later group of thinkers for his mass-production of books1 which appeared steadily at the rate of one per annum to the extent of some thirty-seven volumes1 after he gave up his position as matre de confrence at the ,ecole ,normale owing to ill-health4#dc #db ,his ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces appeared in #ahij1 ,la ,psychologie des ,ides-forces three years later4 ,his ,morale des ,ides-forces belongs to the next century 7#aijg71 but its principles were contained already in his thesis ,libert et ,dterminisme4 #dc ,he only held this for three years1 #ahgb-ge4 ,fouille1 with the noblest intentions1 set himself to the solution of that problem which we have already indicated as being the central one of our period1 the relation of science and ethics1 or1 in brief1 the problem of freedom4 ,this was the subject of his thesis1 undoubtedly the best book he ever wrote1 ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme1 which he sustained in #ahgb4dd ,the attitude which he takes in that work is the keynote to his entire philosophy4 ,well grounded in a knowledge of the history of systems of philosophy1 ancient and modern1 he recognises elements of truth in each1 accompanied by errors due mainly to a one-sided perspective4#de ,he recalls a statement of ,leibnitz to the effect that most systems are right in their assertions and err in their denials4 ,fouille was convinced that there was reconciliation at the heart of things1 and that the contradictions we see are due to our point of view4 ,facing1 therefore1 in this spirit1 the problems of the hour1 he set himself 8to reconcile the findings of science with the reality of spirit1 to establish harmony between the determinism upheld by science and the liberty which the human spirit acclaims1 between the mechanism of nature and the aspirations of man's heart1 between the ,true which is the object of all science and the ,good which is the goal of morality40#df #dd ,this work created quite a stir in the intellectual and political world in ,france just after the war4 ,fouille's book led to an attack on the ministry1 which did not go so far as that occasioned by ,renouvier's volume in #ahdi4 7,see p4 #fa47 #de ,fouille stands in marked contrast to ,comte in his general acquaintance with the history of ideas4 ,comte1 like ,spencer1 knew little of any philosophy but his own4 ,fouille1 however1 was well schooled1 not only in ,plato and the ancients1 but had intimate knowledge of the work of ,kant1 ,comte1 ,spencer1 ,lotze1 ,renouvier1 ,lachelier1 ,boutroux and ,bergson4 #df ,this is also the idea expressed at length in his ,avenir de la ,mtaphysique1 #ahhi4 ,fouille had no desire to offer merely another eclecticism la mode de ,cousin2 he selects1 therefore1 his own principle of procedure4 ,this principle is found in his notion of ide-force4 ,following ancient usage1 he employs the term 8idea0 for any mental presentation4 ,for ,fouille1 however1 ideas are not ides-spectacles1 merely exercising a platonic influence 8remote as the stars shining above us40 ,they are not merely mental reproductions of an object1 real or hypothetical1 outside the mind4 ,ideas are in themselves forces which endeavour to work out their own realisation4 ,fouille opposes his doctrine to the evolutionary theory of ,spencer and ,huxley4 ,he disagrees with their mechanism and epiphenomenalism1 pointing out legitimately that our ideas1 far from being results of purely physical and independent causes1 are themselves factors1 and very vital factors1 in the process of evolution4 ,fouille looks upon the mechanistic arrangement of the world as an expression or symbol of idea or spirit in a manner not unlike that of ,lotze4 ,he bears out his view of ides-forces by showing how a state of consciousness tries to realise its object4 ,the idea of movement is closely bound up with the physiological and physical action1 and1 moreover1 tends to produce it4 ,this realisation is not a merely mechanistic process but is teleological and depends on the vital unity between the physical and the mental4 ,on this fundamental notion ,fouille constructs his psychology1 his ethic1 his sociology and his metaphysic4 ,he sees in the evolutionary process ideas at work which tend to realise themselves4 ,one of these is the idea of freedom1 in which idea he endeavours to find a true reconciliation of the problem of determinism in science and the demands of the human spirit which declares itself free4 ,the love of freedom arising from the idea of freedom creates in the long run this freedom4 ,this is ,fouille's method all through4 8,to conceive and to desire the ideal is already to begin its realisation40 ,he applies his method with much success in the realm of ethics and sociology where he opposes to the ,marxian doctrine of a materialist determination of history that of a spiritual and intellectual determination by ideas4 ,fouille's philosophy is at once intellectual and voluntarist4 ,he has himself described it as 8spiritualistic voluntarism40 ,it is a system of idealism which reflects almost all the elements of modern thought4 ,in places his doctrine of reconciliation appears to break down1 and the psychological law summed up in ides-forces is hardly sufficient to bear the vast erection which ,fouille builds upon it4 ,the idea is nevertheless a valuable and fruitful one4 ,fouille's respect for positive science is noteworthy1 as is also his great interest in social problems4#dg #dg ,at the end of the century these problems received highly specialised attention in the work of the sociologists inspired by ,comte's influence4 ,works of special merit in this direction are3 tspmas1 with his ,socit's animales 7#ahgf7 and ,tarde1 predecessor of ,bergson at the ,collge de ,france 7#ahdc-aijg71 with his ,criminalit compare 7#ahih7 and ,les ,lois de l',imitation 7#aijj71 also ,durkheim's work ,de la ,division du ,travail social 7#ahic7 and ,les ,rgles de la ,mthode sociologique 7#ahid71 and ,izoulet1 with his ,la ,cit moderne 7#ahid74 ,note those of ,levy-,bruhl1 ,bougl1 and ,le ,bon4 ,the importance of the sociological aspect of all problems was emphasised in a brilliant manner by ,guyau 7#ahed-ahhh71 the step-son of ,fouille4 ,guyau was a gifted young man1 whose death at the early age of thirty-four was a sore bereavement for ,fouille and undoubtedly a disaster for philosophy4 ,guyau was trained by his step-father1#dh and assisted him in his work4 ,when ill-health forced both men from their professorships1#di they lived in happy comradeship at ,mentone at the same time1 it is interesting to note1 that ,nietzsche was residing there4 ,equally interesting is it to observe that although ,guyau and ,fouille were unaware of the ,german thinker's presence or his work1 ,nietzsche was well acquainted with theirs1 particularly that of ,guyau4 ,doubtless he would have been pleased to meet the author of the ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction 7#ahhe7 and ,l',irreligion de l',avenir 7#ahhg74 ,editions of these books exist in the ,nietzsche-,archiv bearing ,nietzsche's notes and comments4 #dh ,some authorities are of opinion that ,fouille was actually the father of ,guyau4 ,fouille married ,guyau's mother4 #di ,guyau taught at the ,lyce ,condorcet 7#ahgd7 where young ,henri ,bergson was studying 7#ahfh-ahgh74 ,guyau himself has a certain affinity with ,nietzsche1 arising from his insistence upon ,life and its power2 but the author of the delightful little collection ,vers d'un ,philosophe 7#ahha7 is free from the egoism expressed in ,der ,wille zur ,macht4 ,guyau posits as his ide-directrice the conception of ,life1 both individual and social1 and in this concept he professes to find a basis more fundamental than that of force1 movement or existence4 ,life involves expansion and intension1 fecundity and creation4 ,it means also consciousness1 intelligence and feeling1 generosity and sociability4 8,he only lives well who lives for others40 ,life can only exist by extending4 ,it can never be purely egoistic and endure2 a certain giving of itself1 in generosity and in love1 is necessary for its continuance4 ,such is the view which the ,french philosopher-poet expresses in opposition to ,nietzsche1 starting1 however1 from the concept of ,life did ,nietzsche4 ,guyau worked out a doctrine of ethics and of religion based upon this concept which will demand our special attention in its proper place1 when we consider the moral and religious problem4 ,he strove to give an idealistic setting to the doctrines of evolution1 and this alone would give him a place among the great thinkers of the period4 ,in his doctrine of the relation of thought and action ,guyau followed the philosophie des ides-forces4 ,on the other hand there are very remarkable affinities between the thought of ,guyau and that of ,bergson4 ,guyau is not so severely intellectual as ,fouille2 his manner of thought and excellence of style are not unlike ,bergson4 ,more noticeably he has a conception of life not far removed from the lan vital4 ,his 8expansion of life0 has1 like ,bergson's volution cratrice1 no goal other than that of its own activity4 ,after ,guyau's death in #ahhh it was found that he had been exercised in mind about the problem of ,time1 for he left the manuscript of a book entitled ,la ,gense de l',ide de ,temps4#ej ,he therein set forth a belief in a psychological1 heterogeneous time other than mathematical time1 which is really spatial in character4 ,in this psychological time the spirit lives4 ,the year following ,guyau's death1 but before his posthumous work appeared1 ,bergson published his thesis ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,conscience 7#ahhi71 which is better described by its ,english title ,time and ,free ,will1 and in which this problem which had been present to ,guyau's mind is taken up and treated in an original and striking manner4 ,in ,guyau1 too1 is seen the rise of the conception of activity so marked in the work of ,bergson and of ,blondel4 8,it is action and the power of life10 he insists1 8which alone can solve1 if not entirely at least partially1 those problems to which abstract thought gives rise40#ea #ej ,this work was edited and published by ,fouille two years after ,guyau's death1 and reviewed by ,bergson in the ,revue philosophique in #ahia4 #ea ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #bej4 ,bergson1 born in #ahei1 ,professor at the ,collge de ,france from #aija to #aiba1 now retired1 has had a popularity to which none of the other thinkers of this group1 or indeed of our period1 has attained4 ,he is the only one of the new idealists or spiritualists who is well known outside his own country4 ,for this reason foreigners are apt to regard him as a thinker unrelated to any special current of thought1 an innovator4 ,although much is original and novel in his philosophy1 his thought marks the stage in the development to which the spiritualist current has attained in contemporary thought4 ,the movement of which he forms a part we can trace back as far as ,maine de ,biran1 to whom ,bergson owes much1 as he does also to ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,boutroux and ,guyau4 ,two important books by ,bergson came prior to #aijj1 his ,time and ,free ,will 7#ahhi7 and his ,matter and ,memory 7#ahif74 ,his famous ,creative ,evolution appeared in #aijg4 ,it is but his first work 8writ large10 for we have in ,time and ,free ,will the essentials of his philosophy4 ,he makes1 as did ,guyau1 a central point of ,change1 a universal becoming1 and attacks the ordinary notion of time1 which he regards as false because it is spatial4 ,we ourselves live and act in dure1 which is ,bergson's term for real time as opposed to that fictitious time of the mathematician or astronomer4 ,he thus lays stress upon the inward life of the spirit1 with its richness and novelty1 its eternal becoming1 its self-creation4 ,he has his own peculiar manner of approaching our central problem1 that of freedom1 of which he realises the importance4 ,for him the problem resolves itself into an application of his doctrine of la dure1 to which we shall turn in due course4 ,bergson insists with ,guyau and ,blondel upon the primary significance of action4 ,the importance attached to action colours his whole theory of knowledge4 ,his epistemology rests upon the thesis that 8the brain is an instrument of action and not of representation10 and that 8in the study of the problems of perception the starting- point should be action and not sensation40 ,this is a psychology far different from that of ,condillac and ,taine1 and it is largely upon his merit as a psychologist that ,bergson's fame rests4 ,he devoted his second work1 ,matter and ,memory1 to showing that memory is something other than a function of the brain4 ,his distinction between 8pure0 memory and mere memorising power1 which is habit1 recalls the mmoire of ,maine de ,biran and of ,ravaisson upon ,habit4 ,bergson sees in memory a manifestation of spirit1 which is a fundamental reality1 no mere epiphenomenon4 ,spirit is ever striving against matter1 but in spite of this dualism which he cannot escape1 he maintains that spirit is at the origin of things4 ,this is a difficulty which is more clearly seen in his later book1 ,creative ,evolution4 ,matter is our enemy and threatens our personality in its spiritual reality by a tendency to lead us into habit1 away from life1 freedom and creativeness4 ,further we must1 he claims1 endeavour to see things sub specie durationis in a dure1 in an eternal becoming4 ,we cannot expect to grasp all the varied reality of life in a formula or indeed in any purely intellectual manner4 ,this is the chief defect of science and of the so-called scientific point of view4 ,it tries to fix in concepts1 moulds and solid forms a reality which is living and moving eternally4 ,for ,bergson all is ,change1 and this eternal becoming we can only grasp by intuition4 ,intuition and intellect do not1 however1 oppose one another4 ,we are thus led to realise that ,life is more than logic4 ,the ,bergsonian philosophy concludes with intuitionism and contingency1 which drew upon it the severe criticisms of ,fouille1#eb who termed it a philosophy of scepticism and nihilism4 ,of all the spiritualist group ,fouille stands nearest the positive attitude to science1 and his strong intellectualism comes out in his criticism of ,bergson1 who well represents1 together with ,blondel1 the tendency towards non-intellectual attitudes inherent in the spiritualist development4 ,blondel has endeavoured to treat the great problems1 a task which ,bergson has not attempted as yet1 partly because he 7,bergson7 shares ,renan's belief that 8the day of philosophic systems has gone10 partly because he desires to lay the basis of a philosophy of the spirit to which others after him may contribute1 and so he devotes his attention to method and to those crucial points1 such as the problem of freedom upon which a larger doctrine must necessarily rest4#ec #eb ,particularly in his work ,le ,mouvement idaliste et la ,raction contre la ,science positive 7cf4 4#bjf71 #ahif1 and later in ,la ,pense et les nouvelles ,ecoles anti-intellectualistes1 #aiaj4 #ec ,for a fuller appreciation of the ,bergsonian doctrines than is possible in such a survey as this1 the reader is referred to the author's monograph1 ,bergson and ,his ,philosophy1 ,methuen and ,co41 #aibj4 ,the current of the new idealism or spiritualism reaches a culminating point in the work of ,blondel 7born about #ahgj71 whose remarkable and noteworthy book ,l',action appeared in l#hic4ed ,the fundamental thesis of the ,philosophy of ,action#ee is that man's life is primarily one of action1 consequently philosophy must concern itself with the active life and not merely with thought4 ,by its nature1 action is something unique and irreducible to other elements or factors4 ,it is not the result of any synthesis3 it is itself a living synthesis1 and cannot be dealt with as the scientist deals with his data4 ,blondel lays emphasis1 as did ,bergson1 upon 8the living0 being unique and inexpressible in formulae4 ,intellect cannot grasp action2 8one penetrates the living reality only by placing oneself at the dynamic point of view of the will40#ef ,his words recall ,bergson's attitude to the free act4 8,the principle of action eludes positive knowledge at the moment at which it makes it possible1 and1 in a word that needs to be better defined1 it is subjectivity40#eg #ed ,the same year in which the philosophic interest in ,france1 growing since #ahgj1 and keener in the eighties1 led to the foundation of the famous ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale by ,xavier ,lon4 ,in #ahgf 7the same year in which ,professor ,croom ,robertson in ,england established the periodical ,mind7 ,ribot had founded the ,revue philosophique de la ,france et de l',etranger4 ,these journals1 along with the teaching in the ,lyces1 have contributed to make the ,french people the best educated1 philosophically1 of any people4 #ee ,it is interesting to note that this designation has been used by its author to replace his original term 8pragmatisme10 which he employed in #ahhh and abandoned upon becoming acquainted with the theory of ,peirce and ,james1 and with their use of the term in another manner1 with which he did not agree4 ,see ,bulletin de la ,socit franaise de ,philosophie1 #aijb4 #ef ,l' ,action1 p4 #ajj4 #eg ,ibid41 p4 #hg4 ,blondel1 however1 leads us beyond this subjectivity1 for it is not the will which causes what is4 ,far from that1 he maintains that in so far as it wills it implies something which it does not and cannot create of itself2 it wills to be what it is not yet4 ,we do not act for the mere sake of acting1 but for some end1 something beyond the particular act4 ,action is not self-contained or self- sufficing3 it is a striving to further attainment or achievement4 ,it therefore pre-supposes some reality beyond itself4 ,here appear the elements of 8passion0 and 8suffering0 due to resistance1 for all action involves some opposition4 ,in particular moral action implies this resistance and a consciousness of power to overcome the resistance1 and it therefore involves a reality which transcends the sphere in which we act4 ,owing to this inequality between the power and the wish1 we are obliged to complete our actions or our activity in general by a belief in a ,reality beyond4 ,it is1 however1 8a beyond that is within10 a ,divine power immanent in man4 ,this view1 ,blondel claims1 unites the idea of ,god 8transcendent0 with the idea of ,god as 8immanent40 ,man's action partakes of both1 for in so far as it results from his own will it is immanent2 transcendence is1 however1 implied in the fact that the end of man's action as a whole is not 8given40 ,blondel leads us to a conception of a religious idealism in which every act of our ordinary existence leads ultimately to a religious faith4 ,every action is sacramental4 ,blondel and his follower ,laberthonnire1 who has taken up this idea from his master in his volume of ,essais de ,philosophie rligieuse 7#aija71 go beyond a purely pragmatist or voluntarist position by finding the supreme value of all action1 and of the universe1 not in will but in love4 ,for ,blondel this word is no mere sentiment or transient feeling1 but a concrete reality which is the perfection of will and of intellect alike1 of action and of knowledge4 ,the 8,philosophy of ,action10 asserts ,blondel1 includes the 8,philosophy of the ,idea40 ,in the fact of love1 he claims1 is found the perfect unity between the self and the non-self1 the ground of personality and its relation to the totality of persons1 producing a unity in which each is seen as an end to others as well as to himself4 8,love10 says ,laberthonnire1 8is the first and last word of all4 ,it is the principle1 the means and the end4 ,it is in loving that one gets away from self and raises oneself above one's temporal individuality4 ,it is in loving that one finds ,god and other beings1 and that one finds oneself40 ,it is1 in short1 these idealists claim1 the ,summum ,bonum2 in it is found the ,absolute which philosophers and religious mystics of all ages have ever sought4 ,the 8philosophy of action0 is intimately bound up with the 8philosophy of belief10 formulated by ,oll-,laprune1 and the movement in religious thought known generally as ,modernism1 which is itself due to the influence of modern philosophic thought upon the dogmas of the ,christian religion1 as these are stated by the ,roman ,church4 ,both the ,philosophy of ,belief and ,modernism are characterised by an intense spirituality and a moral earnestness which maintain the primacy of the practical reason over the theoretical reason4 ,life1 insists ,oll-,laprune in his book ,le ,prix de la ,vie 7l#hhe71eh is not contemplation but active creation4 ,he urges us to a creative evolution of the good1 to an employment of ides-forces4 8,there are things to be made whose measure is not determined2 there are things to be discovered1 to be invented1 new forms of the good1 ideas which have never yet been received--creations1 as it were1 of the spirit that loves the good40 ,this dynamism and power of will is essential4 ,we must not lose ourselves in abstractions2 action is the supreme thing3 it alone constitutes reality4 #eh ,this has been followed in the new century by ,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme1 #aijf4 ,as early as #ahhj1 however1 he issued his work ,la ,certitude morale1 which influenced ,blondel1 his pupil4 ,a similar note is sounded by the ,modernists or ,neo-,catholics1 particularly by the brilliant disciple and successor of ,bergson1 ,le ,roy1 who in ,dogme et ,critique 7#aijg7 has based the reality of religious dogma upon its practical significance4 ,we find ,pguy 7who fell on the field of battle in #aiad7 applying ,bergsonian ideas to a fervid religious faith4 ,wilbois unites these ideas to social ethics in his ,devoir et ,dure 7#aiab74 ,in quite different quarters the new spiritualism and philosophy of action have appeared as inspiring the ,syndicalism of ,sorel1 who endeavours to apply the doctrines of ,bergson1 ,oll-,laprune and ,blondel to the solution of social questions in his ,rflexions sur la ,violence 7#aijg7 and ,illusions du ,progrs 7#aiaa74 ,it would be erroneous to regard ,bergson's intuitional philosophy as typical of all contemporary ,french thought4 ,following ,renouvier1 ,fouille and ,boutroux1 there prevail currents of a more intellectualist or rationalist type1 to which we are1 perhaps1 too close to see in true and historical perspective4 ,the lan vital of ,french thought continues to manifest itself in a manner which combines the work of ,boutroux and ,bergson with ,blondel's idealism4 ,a keen interest is being taken in the works of ,spinoza1 ,kant and ,hegel1 and this is obviously influencing the trend of ,french philosophy at the moment1 without giving rise to a mere eclecticism4 ,french thought is too original and too energetic for that4 ,in addition to these classical studies we should note the great and growing influence of the work of ,durkheim and of ,hamelin1 both of whom we have already mentioned4 ,the former gave an immense impetus to sociological studies by his earlier work4 ,further interest arose with his ,formes lmentaires de la ,vie religieuse in #aiab4 ,hamelin indicated a turning-point from neo-criticisme through the new spiritualist doctrines to ,hegelian methods and ideas4 ,brunschwicg1 who produced a careful study of ,spinoza1 wrote as early as #ahig on ,la ,modalit du ,jugement1 a truly ,kantian topic4 ,this thinker's later works1 ,les ,etapes de la ,philosophie mathematique 7#aiab7 and the little volume ,la ,vie de l'esprit1 illustrate a tendency to carry out the line taken by ,boutroux--namely1 to arrive at the statement of a valid idealism disciplined by positivism4 ,the papers of ,berthelot in his ,evolutionnisme et ,platonisme are a further contribution to this great end4 ,in the work of ,evellin1 ,la ,raison pure et les ,antinomies 7#aijg71 the interest in ,kant and ,hegel is again seen4 ,nol1 who contributed an excellent monograph on ,lachelier to the ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale 7that journal which is an excellent witness in itself to the vitality of contemporary ,french philosophy71 produced a careful study of ,hegel's ,logik in #ahig4 ,since that date interest has grown along the lines of ,boutroux1 ,bergson and ,blondel in an attempt to reach a positive idealism1 which would combine the strictly positivist attitude so dear to ,french minds with the tendency to spiritualism or idealism which they also manifest4 ,this attempt1 which in some respects amounts to an effort to restate the principles of ,hegel in modern or contemporary terms1 was undertaken by ,weber in #aijc in his book entitled ,vers le ,positivisme absolu par l',idalisme4 ,philosophy in ,france realises to-day that the true course of spiritual development will be at once positive and idealistic4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,science ,,introduction3 ,the scientific outlook--,progress of the sciences--,the positivist spirit1 its action on science1 philosophy and literature--,the problem as presented to philosophy4 ,i4 ,comte's positivism--,work of prominent scientists--,position maintained by ,berthelot and ,bernard--,renan's confidence--,vacherot and ,taine--,insufficiency of sciences alone4 ,,ii4 ,cournot and ,renouvier attack the dogmatism of science4 ,,iii4 ,the neo-spiritualist group continue and develop this attack1 which becomes a marked feature in ,lachelier1 ,boutroux1 and ,bergson4 ,entire change of attitude in the development of the period4 ,the problem of freedom opened up in the process4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,science ,having thus surveyed the main currents of our period and indicated the general attitude adopted to knowledge by the various thinkers1 we approach more closely to the problem of the relation of science and philosophy4 ,the nineteenth century was a period in which this problem was keenly felt1 and ,france was the country in which it was tensely discussed by the most acute minds among the philosophers and among the scientists4 ,french thought and culture1 true to the tradition of the great geometrician and metaphysician ,descartes1 have produced men whose training has been highly scientific as well as philosophical4 ,her philosophers have been keenly versed in mathematics and physical science1 while her scientists have had considerable power as philosophical thinkers4 ,one of the very prominent tendencies of thought in the first half of the nineteenth century was the growing belief and confidence in the natural sciences4 ,in ,france this was in large measure due to the progress of those sciences themselves and to the influences of ,comte1 which was supported by the foreign influences of ,kant's teaching and that of the ,english ,school1 particularly ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,these three great streams of thought1 widely different in many respects1 had this in common--that they tended to confuse philosophy and science to such a degree that it seemed doubtful whether the former could be granted any existence by itself4 ,science1 somewhat intoxicated by the praise and worship bestowed upon her1 became proud1 arrogant and overbearing4 ,she scorned facts which could not be adapted to her own nature1 she ignored data which were not quantitative and materialistic1 and she regarded truth as a system of laws capable of expression by strict mathematical methods and formulae994 ,hence science became characterised by a firm belief in absolute determinism1 in laws of necessity operating after the manner of mathematical laws4 ,this 8universal mathematic0 endeavoured also to explain the complex by reference to the simple4 ,difficulties were encountered all along the line1 for experience1 it was found1 did not quite fit into rigid formulae991 8new0 elements of experience presented a unique character and distressing discrepancy4 ,confidence in science1 however1 was not shaken by this1 for the perfect science1 it was imagined1 was assured in a short time4 ,patience might be needed1 but no doubt was entertained of the possibility of such a construction4 ,doubters were told to look at the rising sciences of psychology and sociology1 which1 as ,auguste ,comte had himself prophesied1 were approaching gradually to the 8type0 venerated--namely1 an exact and mathematical character4 ,biology1 it was urged1 was merely a special branch of physico-chemistry4 ,as for beliefs in freedom1 in art1 morality and religion1 these1 like philosophy 7metaphysics7 itself1 belonged to the earlier stages 7the theological and metaphysical7 of ,comte's list1 stages rapidly to be replaced by the third and final 8positive0 era4 ,such1 briefly stated1 were the affirmations so confidently put forward on behalf of science by its devoted worshippers4 ,confidence in science was a marked feature of the work written by ,renan in the years #ahdh-ahdi1 ,l',avenir de la ,science4 ,yet1 paradoxical as it may seem1 ,renan himself played a large part in undermining this confidence4 ,yet the time of his writing this work is undoubtedly the period when the confidence in science was most marked4 ,by this it is not implied that an even greater confidence in science has not been professed since by many thinkers4 ,that is probably true1 but the important point is that at this time the confidence in science was less resisted than ever in its history4 ,it seemed to have a clear field and positivism seemed to be getting unto itself a mighty victory4 ,the cult of facts1 which is so marked a characteristic of the scientific or positivist temper1 penetrated1 it is interesting to note1 into the realm of literature1 where it assumed the form of 8realism40 ,in his ,intelligence we find ,taine remarking1 8de tout petits fails bien choisis1 importants1 significatifs1 amplement circonstancis et minutieusement nots1 voil aujourd'hui la matire de toute science40#a ,it was also1 in the opinion of several writers1 the matire de toute littrature4 ,the passion for minute details shows itself in the realism of ,flaubert and ,zola1 in the psychology of ,stendthal99 and the novels of the ,goncourts4 ,it was no accident that their works were so loved by ,taine4 ,a similar spirit of 8positivism0 or 8realism0 animated both them and him4 #a ,preface to ,intelligence4 ,with the turn of the half century1 however1 a change manifested itself by the fact that the positivist current began to turn against itself1 and our period is1 in some respects1 what ,fouille has called la raction centre la science positive4#b ,the function of philosophy is essentially criticism1 and although at that period the vitality of philosophy was low1 it nevertheless found enough energy to criticise the demands and credentials of ,science4 #b ,compare also ,aliotta's book1 ,the ,idealistic ,reaction against ,science1 ,eng4 trans41 #ail#d4 ,the publication of ,claude ,bernard's volume ,introduction la ,mdecine experimentale#c drew from the pen of ,paul ,janet1 the last of the ,eclectic ,school dominated by ,cousin1 an article of criticism which appeared in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 and was later published in his volume of essays entitled1 ,les ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 ,although ,janet's essay reveals all the deficiencies of the older spiritualism1 he makes a gallant attempt to combat the dogmatism and the assumed finality of ,bernard's point of view and that of the scientists in general4 ,janet regarded the sciences and their relation to philosophy as constituting an important problem for the century and in this judgment he was not mistaken4 #c ,cf4 ,livre ,,iii41 ,science1 chap1 i41 on 8,method in ,general02 chap1 ii41 on ,the ,experimental ,method in ,physiology10 pp4 #bac-bgi4 ,i ,we have1 in our ,introductory ,chapter1 reckoned ,auguste ,comte among the influential antecedents of our period4 ,here1 in approaching the study of the problem of science1 we may note that the tendency towards the strictly scientific attitude1 and to the promotion of the scientific spirit in general1 was partly due to the influence of his positivism4 ,comte's intended ,religion of ,humanity failed1 his system of positive philosophy has been neglected1 but the ,,spirit which he inculcated has abided and has borne fruit4 ,we would be wrong1 however1 if we attributed much to ,comte as the originator of that spirit4 ,his positive philosophy1 although it greatly stimulated and strengthened the positive attitude adopted by the natural sciences1 was itself in large measure inspired by and based upon these sciences4 ,consequently much of ,comte's glory was a reflected light1 his thought was a challenge to the old spiritualism1 an assertion of the rights of the sciences to proclaim their existence and to demand serious consideration4 ,although he succeeded in calling the attention of philosophy to the natural sciences1 yet owing to the mere fact that he based himself on the sciences of his day much of his thought has become obsolete by the progress and extension of those very sciences themselves4 ,he tended1 with a curious dogmatism1 to assign limits to the sciences by keeping them in separate compartments and in general by desiring knowledge to be limited to human needs4 ,although there is important truth in his doctrine of discontinuity or irreducible differences1 the subsequent development of the natural sciences has cleared away many barriers which he imagined to be impassable4 ,there still are1 and may always be1 gaps in our knowledge of the progress from inorganic to organic1 from the living creature to self-conscious personality1 but we have a greater conception of the unity of ,nature than had ,comte4 ,many new ideas and discoveries have transformed science since his day1 particularly the doctrines dealing with heat as a form of motion1 with light1 electricity1 and the radio-activity of matter1 the structure of the atom1 and the inter-relation of physics and chemistry4 ,comte's claim for different methods in the different departments of science is of considerable interest1 in view of present-day biological problems and the controversies of vitalists1 mechanists and neo-vitalists4#d ,although ,comte insisted upon discontinuity1 yet he urged the necessity for an esprit d'ensemble1 the consideration of things synthetically1 in their 8togetherness40 ,he feared that analysis1 the esprit de dtail or mathematisation1 was being carried out l'outrance4 ,this opinion he first stated in #ahbe in his tract entitled ,considrations sur les ,sciences et les ,savants4 ,on the social side he brought this point out further by insisting on the esprit d'ensemble as involving the social standpoint in opposition to a purely individualistic view of human life4 #d ,see1 for example1 ,the ,mechanism of ,life1 by ,dr4 ,johnstone1 ,professor of ,oceanography in the ,university of ,liverpool4 7,arnold1 #aiba47 ,comte was slow to realise the importance of ,ethics as an independent study4 ,psychology he never recognised as a separate discipline1 deeming it part of physiology4 ,he gave a curious appreciation to phrenology4 ,unfortunately he overlooked the important work done by the introspectionist psychologists in ,england and the important work of ,maine de ,biran in his own country4 ,one is struck by ,comte's inability to appreciate the immense place occupied by psychology in modern life and in particular its expression in the modern novel and in much modern poetry4 ,an acquaintance with the works of men like ,de ,regnier1 ,pierre ,loti and ,anatole ,france is sufficient to show how large a factor the psychological method is in ,french literature and life4 ,it is to be put down to ,comte's eternal discredit that he failed to appreciate psychology4 ,here lies the greatest defect in his work1 and it is in this connection that his work is now being supplemented4 ,positivism in ,france to-day is not a synonym for 8,comtism0 at all2 the term is now employed to denote the spirit and temper displayed in the methods of the exact sciences4 ,for ,comte1 we must never forget1 scientific investigation was a means and not an end in itself4 ,his main purpose was social and political regeneration4 ,positivism since ,comte differs from his philosophy by a keen attention bestowed upon psychology1 and many of ,comte's inadequate conceptions have been enriched by the introduction of a due recognition of psychological factors4 ,it is to be noted that ,comte died two years before ,darwin's chef-d'uvre appeared1 and that he opposed the doctrine of evolution as put forward by ,lamarck4 ,although ,comte's principle of discontinuity may in general have truth in it1 the problem is a far more complicated one than he imagined it to be4 ,again1 while ,comte's opposition to the subjectivism of ,cousin was a wholesome influence1 he did not accord to psychology its full rights1 and this alone has been gravely against the acceptance of his philosophy1 and explains partly the rise and progress of the new spiritualist doctrines4 ,his work served a useful purpose1 but ,comte never closed definitely with the problem of the precise significance of 8positivism0 or with its relation to a general conception of the universe2 in short1 he confined himself to increasing the scientific spirit in thought1 leaving aside the difficulty of relating science and philosophy4 ,comte stated in his ,philosophie positive#e that he regarded attempts to explain all phenomena by reference to one law as futile1 even when undertaken by the most competent minds well versed in the study of the sciences4 ,although he believed in discontinuity he tried to bridge some gaps1 notably by his endeavour to refer certain physiological phenomena to the law of gravitation4 #e ,vol4 i41 pp4 #ec-ef4 ,the chief work which this undoubtedly great mind accomplished was the organisation of the scientific spirit as it appeared in his time4 ,renan hardly does justice to him in his sarcastic remark in his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 8,i felt quite irritated at the idea of ,auguste ,comte being dignified with the title of a great man for having expressed in bad ,french what all scientific minds had seen for the last two hundred years as clearly as he had done40 ,his work merits more than dismissal in such a tone1 and we may here note1 as the essence of the spirit which he tried to express1 his definition of the positive or scientific attitude to the universe given at the commencement of his celebrated ,cours de ,philosophie positive4 ,there1 in defining the positive stage1 ,comte speaks of it as that period in which 8the human spirit1 recognising the impossibility of obtaining absolute conceptions1 abandons the search for the origin and the goal of the universe and the inner causes of things1 to set itself the task merely of discovering1 by reasoning and by experience combined1 the effective laws of phenomena--that is to say1 their invariable relations of succession and of similarity40#f ,this positive spirit ,comte strove to express rather than to originate1 for it was already there in the sciences4 ,undoubtedly his work made it more prominent1 more clear1 and so we have to note an interaction between positivism in the sciences and in philosophy4 #f ,leon i4 ,it is equally important for our purpose to notice that the period was one rich in scientific thought4 ,the work of ,lavoisier and ,bichat1 both of whom as contemporaries of ,maine de ,biran1 belong to the former century1 was now bearing fruit4 ,lavoisier's influence had been great over chemistry1 which he established on a modern basis1 by formulating the important theory of the conservation of mass and by clearing away false and fan- tastic conceptions regarding combustion4#g ,bichat1 the great anatomist and physiologist1 died in #ahjb1 but the publication of his works in a completed form was not accomplished until #ahed4 ,the work and influence of the ,acadmie des ,sciences are noteworthy features of ,french culture at this time4 ,there stands out prominently the highly important work of ,cuvier in anatomy1 zoology and palontology4#h ,the nineteenth century was a period of great scientists and of great scientific theories4 ,leverrier1 applying himself to the problem of the motions of ,uranus1 found a solution in the hypothesis of another planet1 ,neptune1 which was actually discovered from his calculations in #ahdf4 ,this was a notable victory for logical and scientific method4 ,in #ahji ,lamarck had outlined1 prior to ,spencer or ,darwin1 the scheme of the evolutionary theory 7,transformism74#i ,spencer's work1 which appeared from #ahej onwards1 has always commanded respect and attention in ,france even among its critics4#aj ,interest increased upon the publication of ,darwin's ,origin of ,species in #ahei1 and its translation into ,french in #ahfb4 ,these dates coincide with the rise of the ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris1 founded by ,broca in the same year that ,darwin's book appeared4 ,another translation from ,darwin's work followed in #ahgb1 ,descendance de l',homme1 which aroused further interest in the evolutionary theory4 ,at the same time the work of men such as ,pasteur1 ,bertrand1 ,berthelot and ,bernard gave an impetus and a power to science4 ,poincare belongs rather to the twentieth century4 ,pasteur 7#ahbb-ahie7 showed mankind how science could cure its ills by patient labour and careful investigation1 and earned the world's gratitude for his noble work4 ,his various ,discours and his volume1 ,le ,budget de la ,science 7#ahfh71 show his faith in this progressive power of science4 ,in ,bertrand 7#ahbb-aijj71 his contemporary who held the position of ,professor of ,mathematics at the ,college de ,france1 a similar attitude appears4 #g ,lavoisier perished at the guillotine in #agid1 and his death was a tragic loss to science4 #h ,cuvier's ,anatomie compare appeared in the years #ahjj-ahje1 following his ,histoire naturelle 7#agih-agii74 ,later came his ,rapport sur les ,sciences naturelles 7#ahaj7 and his work ,le ,regne animal 7#ahaf74;,he died in #ahcb4 ,we may note that ,cuvier opposed the speculative evolutionary doctrines of ,lamarck1 with whom he indulged in controversy4 #i ,in his work1 ,philosophie zoologique1 ou ,exposition des ,considrations relatives a l',histoire naturelle des ,animaux1 #b vols ,paris1 ,dentu1 #ahji4 #aj ,his ,social ,statics was published in #ahej1 and his ,psychology five years later4 ,his life work1 ,the ,synthetic ,philosophy1 extends over the period #ahfj-ahif4 ,one of the foremost scientific minds1 however1 was ,claude ,bernard 7#ahac-ahgh71 a friend of ,renan1 who held the ,chair of ,medicine at the ,college de ,france1 and was1 in addition1 the ,professor of ,physiology at the ,facult des ,sciences at the ,sorbonne4 ,science1 ,bernard maintained1 concerns itself only with phenomena and their laws4 ,he endeavoured in his celebrated ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdcine exprimentale1 published in #ahfe1 to establish the science of physiology upon a sound basis1 having respect only to fact1 not owning homage to theories of a metaphysical character or to the authority of persons or creeds4 ,he desired to obtain by such a rigorous and precise method1 objectivity4 8,the experimental method is10 he insists1 8the really scientific method1 which proclaims the freedom of the human spirit and its intelligence4 ,it not only shakes off the yoke of metaphysics and of theology1 in addition it refuses to admit personal considerations and subjective standpoints40#aa #aa ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdcine exprimentale1 chap4 ii1 sect4 #d4 ,bernard's attitude is distinctly that of a positivist1 and the general tone of his remarks as well as his attitude on many special points agrees with that of ,comte4 ,his conclusions regarding physiology are akin to those expressed by ,comte concerning biology4 ,bernard excludes any metaphysical hypothesis such as the operation of a vital principle1 and adheres strictly to physicochemical formulas4 ,he accepts1 however1 ,comte's warning about the reduction of the higher to terms of the lower1 or1 in ,spencerian phraseology1 the explanation of the more complex by the less complex4 ,consequently1 he carefully avoids the statement that he desires to 8reduce0 physiology to physics and chemistry4 ,he makes no facile and light-hearted transition as did ,spencer2 on the contrary1 he claims that the living has some specific quality which cannot be 8reduced0 to other terms1 and which cannot be summed up in the formulae of physics or chemistry4 ,the physiologist and the medical practitioner must never overlook the fact that every living being forms an organism and an individuality4 ,the physiologist1 continues ,bernard1 must take notice of this unity or harmony of the whole1 even while he penetrates the interior to know the mechanism of each of its parts4 ,the physicist and the chemist can ignore any notion of final causes in the facts they observe1 but the physiologist must admit a harmonious finality1 a harmony pre-established in the organism1 whose actions form and express a unity and solidarity1 since they generate one another4 ,life itself is creation2 it is not capable of expression merely in physico-chemical formulae4 ,the creative character1 which is its essence1 never can be so expressed4 ,bernard postulated an abstract1 ide directrice et cratrice1 presiding over the evolution of an organism4 8,dans tout germe vivant1 il y a une ide cratrice qui se dveloppe et se manifeste par l'organisation4 ,pendant toute sa dure l'tre vivant reste sous l'influence de cette mme force vitale1 cratrice1 et la mort arrive lorsqu'elle ne peut plus se raliser4 ,ici comme partout1 tout drive de l'ide1 qui1 seule1 cre et dirige40#ab #ab ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdcine exprimentale1 p4#aea ff4 ,the positivist spirit is again very marked in the doctrines of ,berthelot 7#ahbg-aijg71 another very great friend of ,renan1 who1 in addition to being a ,senator1 and ,minister of ,education and of ,foreign ,affairs1 held the ,chair of ,organic ,chemistry at the ,collge de ,france4 ,in #ahhf he published his volume1 ,science et ,philosophie1 which contains some interesting and illuminating observations upon ,la ,science idale et la ,science positive4 ,part of this1 it may be noted1 was written as early as #ahfc1 in correspondence with ,renan1 and as a reply to a letter of his of which we shall speak presently4#ac ,berthelot states his case with a clearness which merits quotation4 #ac ,see the ,fragments of ,renan1 published #ahgf1 pp #aic-bda4 ,reponse de ,m4 ,berthelot4 8,positive science10 he says1 8seeks neither first causes nor the ultimate goal of things4 ,in order to link together a multitude of phenomena by one single law1 general in character and conformable to the nature of things1 the human spirit has followed a simple and invariable method4 ,it has stated the facts in accordance with observation and experience1 compared them1 extracted their relations1 that is the general facts1 which have in turn been verified by observation and experience1 which verification constitutes their only guarantee of truth4 ,a progressive generalisation1 deduced from prior facts and verified unceasingly by new observations1 thus brings our knowledge from the plane of particular and popular facts to general laws of an abstract and universal character4 ,but1 in the construction of this pyramid of science1 everything from base to summit rests upon observation and experience4 ,it is one of the principles of positive science that no reality can be established by a process of reasoning4 ,the universe cannot be grasped by a priori methods40 ,like ,comte1 ,berthelot believed in the progress of all knowledge through a theological and metaphysical stage to a definitely scientific or positive era4 ,the sciences are as yet young1 and we cannot imagine the development and improvement1 social and moral1 which will accrue from their triumph in the future4 ,for ,berthelot1 as for ,renan1 the idea of progress was bound up essentially with the triumph of the scientific spirit4 ,in a ,discourse at the ,sorbonne given in commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of his being appointed ,professor at the ,collge de ,france1 we find this faith in science reiterated4 8,to-day10 he remarks1 8,science claims a triple direction of societies1 materially1 intellectually and morally4 ,by this fact the role of the men of science1 both as individuals and as a class1 has unceasingly come to play a great part in modern states40 ,these scientific men1 ,berthelot and ,bernard1 with whom ,renan was on terms of friendship1 had a large influence in the formation of his thought1 after he had quitted the seminary and the ,church4 ,as a young man ,renan possessed the positive spirit in a marked degree1 and did not fail to disclose his enthusiasm for 8,science0 and for the scientific method4 ,his book ,l',avenir de la ,science1 which we have already noted1 was written when he was only twenty-five1 and under the immediate influence of the events of #ahdh1 particularly the socialist spirit of ,saint-,simon and the 8organising0 attitude of ,auguste ,comte4 ,it did not1 however1 see publication until #ahij1 when the ,empire had produced a pessimistic temper in him1 later accentuated by the ,commune and the ,prussian ,war4 ,the dominant note of the whole work is the touching and almost pathetic belief in ,science1 which leads the young writer to an optimism both in thought and in politics4 8,science0 constitutes for him the all-in-all4 ,although he had just previously abandoned the seminary1 his priestly style remained with him to such a degree that even his treatment of science is characterised by a mixture of the unction of the cur and the subtilty of the dialectician4 ,levites were still to be necessary to the people of ,israel1 but they were to be the priests of the most ,high1 whose name1 according to ,renan1 was 8,science40 ,his ardour for ,science is not confined to this one book3 it runs through all his writings4 ,prospero1 a character who personifies rational thought in ,l',eau de ,jouvence1 one of ,renan's ,drames philosophiques1 expresses an ardent love for science continually4 ,in his preface to ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse we find ,renan upon the same theme4 ,quaintly enough he not only praises the objectivity which is characteristic of the scientific point of view1 but seems to delight in its abstraction4 ,the superiority of modern science consists1 he claims1 in this very abstraction4 ,but he is aware that the very indefatigability with which we fathom nature removes us1 in a sense1 further from her4 ,he recognises how science leads away from the immediacy of vital and close contact with nature herself4 8,this is1 however1 as it should be10 asserts ,renan1 8and let no one fear to prosecute his researches1 for out of this merciless dissection comes life40 ,he does not stay to assure us1 or to enlighten us1 as to how that life can be infused into the abstract facts which have resulted from the process of dissection4 ,fruitful and suggestive as many of his pages are1 they fail to approach the concrete difficulties which this passage mentions4 ,writing from ,dinant in ,brittany in #ahfc to his friend1 ,berthelot1 ,renan gives his view of the ,sciences of ,nature and the ,historical ,sciences4 ,this letter1 reprinted in his ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques1 in #ahgf1 expresses ,renan's4views in a clear and simple form upon the place of science in his mind and also upon the idea of progress1 as for him the two are intimately connected4 ,extreme confidence is expressed in the power of science4 ,renan at this time had written1 but not published1 his ,avenir de la ,science4 ,in a brief manner this letter summarises much contained in the larger work4 ,the point of view is similar4 ,science is to be the great reforming power4 ,the word 8,science0 is so constantly upon ,renan's lips that we can see that it has become an obsession with mm to employ it1 or a device4 ,certainly ,renan's extensive and ill-defined usage of it conceals grave difficulties4 ,one is tempted frequently to regard it as a synonym for philosophy or metaphysics1 a word which he dislikes4 ,that does not1 however1 add to clearness1 and ,renan's usage of 8,science0 as a term confuses both science and philosophy together4 ,even if this were not the case1 there is another important point to note-- namely1 that even on a stricter interpretation ,renan1 by his wide use of the term1 actually undermines the confidence in the natural sciences4 ,for he embraces within the term 8,science0 not merely those branches of investigation which we term in general the sciences of nature1 but also the critical study of language1 of history and literature4 ,he expressly endeavours to show in the letter to ,berthelot that true science must include the product of man's spirit and the record of the development of that spirit4 ,renan assumed quite definitely a positivist attitude to metaphysics4 8,philosophy10 he remarks1 8is not a separate science2 it is one side of every science4 ,in the great optic pencil of human knowledge it is the central region where the rays meet in one and the same light40 ,metaphysical speculation he scorned1 but he admitted the place for a criticism of the human mind such as had been given by ,kant in ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,kantian also1 in its professions at least1 was the philosophy of ,vacherot1 who stated that the aim of his work1 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,science1 was 8the reconciliation of metaphysics with science40#ad ,these dialogues between a philosopher and a man of science1 for of such discussions the book is composed1 never really help us to get close to the problem1 for ,vacherot's ,kantianism is a profession which merely covers an actual positivism4 ,his metaphysical doctrines are superimposed on a severe and rigid naturalism1 but are kept from conflict with them1 or even relation with them1 by being allotted to a distant limbo of pure ideals1 outside the world which science displays to us4 #ad ,see particularly his statements to this effect in his ,preface1 pp4 xxxvii-xl4 ,taine1 in spite of his severely positive attitude1 was a strong champion of metaphysics4 ,the sciences needed1 he claimed1 a science of first principles1 a metaphysic4 ,without it1 8the man of science is merely a manuvre and the artist a dilettante40 ,the positive sciences he re- garded as inferior types of analysis4 ,above them 8is a superior analysis which is metaphysics1 and which reduces or takes up these laws of the sciences into a universal formula40 ,this higher analysis1 however1 does not give the lie to the others3 it completes them4 ,it was indeed a belief and hope of ,taine that the sciences will be more and more perfected until they can each be expressed in a kind of generic formula1 which in turn may be capable of expression in some single formula4 ,this single law is being sought by science and metaphysic1 although it must belong to the latter rather than to the former4 ,from it1 as from a spring1 proceeds1 according to ,taine1 the eternal roll of events and the infinite sea of things4 ,taine's antagonism to the purely empirical schools centres round his conception of the law of causality4 ,he disagrees with the assertion that this law is a synthetic1 a posteriori judgment1 a habit1 as ,hume said1 or a mechanical attente1 as ,mill thought1 or a generalisation of the sensation of effort which we feel in ourselves1 as was suggested by ,maine de ,biran4 ,yet he also opposes ,kant's doctrine1 in which causality is regarded as a synthetic a priori judgment4 ,his own criticism of ,hume and ,kant was directed to denial of the elements of heterogeneity in experience1 which are so essential to ,hume's view1 and to a denial of the distinction maintained by ,kant between logical and causal relations4 ,taine considered that all might be explained by logical relations1 that all experience might some day be expressed in one law1 one formula4 ,the more geometrico of ,spinoza and the 8universal mathematic0 of ,descartes reappear in ,taine4 ,he even essays in ,l',intelligence to equate the principle of causality 7principe de raison explicative7 with that of identity4 ,his attempt to reduce the principle of causality to that of identity did not succeed very well1 and from the nature of the case this was to be expected4 ,as ,fouille well points out in his criticism of ,taine1 both in ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme and the concluding pages of his earlier work on ,plato1#ae the notion of difference and heterogeneity which arises in the action of cause and effect can never be reducible to a mere identity1 for the notion of identity has nothing in common with that of difference4 ,differences cannot be ignored2 variety and change are undeniable facts of experience4 ,fouille here touches the weak spot of ,taine's doctrine4 ,in spite of a seemingly great power of criticism there is an underlying dogmatism in his work1 and the chief of those dogmas1 which he does not submit to criticism1 is the assertion of the universal necessity of all things4 ,to this postulate he gives a false air of objectivity4 ,he avoids stating why we do objectify causality1 and he diverts discussion from the position that this postulate may itself be subjective4 #ae ,vol4 #d4 ,the particular bearing of ,taine's psychology upon the general problem of knowledge is interesting4 ,he defines perception in ,l',intelligence as une hallucination vraie4 ,his doctrine of the 8double aspect10 physical and mental1 recalls to mind the ,modes of ,spinoza4 ,in his attitude to the difficult problem of movement and thought he rests in the dualism of ,spinoza1 fluctuating and not enunciating his doctrine clearly4 ,the primacy of movement to thought he abandoned as too mechanical a doctrine1 and regarded the type of existence as mental in character4 ,taine thus passes from the materialism of ,hobbes to the idealism of ,leibnitz4 8,the physical world is reducible to a system of signs1 and no more is needed for its construction and conception than the materials of the moral world40 ,when we feel ourselves constrained to admit the necessity of certain truths1 if we are inclined to regard this as due to the character of our minds themselves 7notre structure mentale71 as ,kant maintained1 ,taine reminds us that we must admit that our mind adapts itself to its environment4 ,he here adopts the view of ,spencer1 a thinker who seems to have had far more influence upon the ,continent than in his own country4 ,although ,taine thus reposes his epistemology upon this basis1 he does not answer the question which the ,kantian can still put to him--namely1 8,how do we know the structure of things80 ,he is unable to escape from the difficulty of admitting either that it is from experience1 an admission which his anti-empirical attitude forbids him to make 7and which would damage his dogma of universal logical necessity71 or that our knowledge is obtained by analysing our own thoughts1 in which case he leaves us in a vicious circle of pure subjectivity from which there is no means of escape4 ,the truth is that ,taine vainly tried to establish a phenomenal doctrine1 not purely empirical in character like that of ,hume1 but a phenomenalism wedded to a necessity which is supposed to be self-explanatory4 ,such a notion of necessity1 however1 is formal and abstract4 ,rather than accept ,taine's view of a law1 a formula1 an 8eternal axiom0 at the basis of things1 we are obliged to postulate an activity1 creative in character1 of whose action universal laws are but expressions4 ,law1 formula1 axiom without action are mere abstractions which can of themselves produce nothing4 ,taine's positivism1 however1 was not so rigid as to exclude a belief in the value of metaphysics4 ,it is this which distinguishes him from the ,comtian ,school4 ,we see in him the confidence in science complemented by an admission of metaphysics1 equivalent to a turning of 8positivism0 in science and philosophy against itself4 ,much heavier onslaughts upon the sovereignty of science came1 however1 from the thinker who is the great logician and metaphysician of our period1 ,renouvier4 ,to him and to ,cournot we now turn4 ,,ii ,while ,taine had indeed maintained the necessity of a metaphysic1 he shared to a large degree the general confidence in science displayed by ,comte1 ,bernard1 ,berthelot and ,renan4 ,but the second and third groups of thinkers into which we have divided our period took up first a critical attitude to science and1 finally1 a rather hostile one4 ,cournot marks the transition between ,comte and ,renouvier4 ,his ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances et sur les ,caractres de la ,critique philosophique contains some very calm and careful thought on the relation of science and philosophy1 which is the product of a sincere and well-balanced mind4#af ,he inherits from the positivists an intense respect for scientific knowledge1 and remarks at the outset that he is hostile to any philosophy which would be so foolish as to attempt to ignore the work of the modern sciences4 #af ,see in particular the second chapter of vol4 #b1 ,du ,contraste de la ,science et de la ,philosophie et de la ,philosophie des ,sciences1 pp4 #baf-bee4 ,his work ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalisme is a striking example of this effort on ,cournot's part1 being devoted to a study of the use which can be made in philosophy of the data afforded by the sciences4 ,somewhat after the manner of ,comte1 ,cournot looks upon the various sciences as a hierarchy ranging from mathematics to sociology4 ,yet he reminds the scientists of the insufficiency of their point of view1 for the sciences1 rightly pursued1 lead on to philosophy4 ,he laments1 however1 the confusion of the two1 and thinks that such confusion is 8partly due to the fact that in the realm of speculations which are naturally within the domain of the philosopher1 there are to be found here and there certain theories which can actually be reduced to a scientific form0#ag ,he offers1 as an instance of this1 the theory of the syllogism1 which has affinities to algebraical equations--but this interpenetration should not cause us1 he argues1 to abandon or to lose sight of the distinction between science and philosophy4 #ag ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bbd4 ,this distinction1 according to ,cournot1 lies in the fact that science has for its object that which can be measured1 and that which can be reduced to a rigorous chain or connection4 ,in brief1 science is characterised by quantity4 ,philosophy1 on the other hand1 concerns itself with quality1 for it endeavours not so much to measure as to appreciate4 ,cournot reminds the apostles of science that quantity1 however intimately bound up with reality it may be1 is not the essence of that reality itself4 ,he is afraid1 too1 that the neglect of philosophy by science may cause the latter to develop along purely utilitarian lines4 ,as an investigation of reality1 science is not ultimate4 ,it has limits by the fact that it is concerned with measurement1 and thus is excluded from those things which are qualitative and incapable of quantitative expression4 ,science1 moreover1 has its roots in philosophy by virtue of the metaphysical postulates which it utilises as its basis4 ,physics and geometry1 ,cournot maintains1 both rest upon definitions which owe their origin to speculative thought rather than to experience1 yet these sciences claim an absolute value for themselves and for those postulates as being descriptions of reality in an ultimate sense4 ,following out his distinction between philosophy and the sciences1 ,cournot claims in a ,kantian manner that while the latter are products of the human understanding the former is due to the operation of reason4 ,this apparent dualism ,cournot does not shrink from maintaining2 indeed1 he makes it an argument for his doctrine of discontinuity4 ,the development of a science involves a certain breach with reality1 for the progress of the science involves abstraction1 which ever becomes more complicated4 ,cournot here brings out the point which we noticed was stressed by ,renan4#ah #ah ,see above1 p4 #aje4 ,reason produces in us the idea of order1 and this 8idea of order and of reason in things is the basis of philosophic probability1 of induction and analogy40#ai ,this has important bearings upon the unity of science and upon the conception of causality which it upholds4 ,in a careful examination of the problems of induction and analogy1 ,cournot emphasises the truth that there are facts which cannot be fitted into a measured or logical sequence of events4 ,reality cannot be fitted into a formula or into concepts1 for these fail to express the infinite variety and richness of the reality which displays itself to us4 ,science can never be adequate to life1 with its pulsing spontaneity and freedom4 ,it is philosophy with its vue d'ensemble which tries to grasp and to express this concreteness1 which the sciences1 bound to their systematic connection of events within separate compartments1 fail to reach or to show us4 ,referring to the ideas of beauty and of goodness1 ,cournot urges a 8transrationalism10 as he calls it1 which1 while loyal to the rational requirements of science1 will enable us to take the wider outlook assumed by philosophy4#bj #ai ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances1 p4 #chd4 #bj ,the parallelism of some of ,cournot's ideas here with those expressed by ,bergson1 although they have been enunciated by the later thinker in a more decided manner1 is so obvious as hardly to need to be indicated4 ,like ,cournot1 the author of the ,essais de ,critique gnrale was a keen antagonist of all those who sought to deify ,science4 ,it was indeed this which led ,renouvier to give this title to his great work1 the first part of which was published at a time when the confidence in ,science appeared to be comparatively unassailed4 ,we find him defending philosophy as against the scientists and others by an insistence upon its critical function4 ,in examining ,comte's positivism in his work ,histoire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques1 ,renouvier points out that its initial idea is a false one--namely1 that philosophy can be constituted by an assembling together of the sciences4#ba ,such an assembly does not1 he objects1 make a system4 ,each science has its own postulates1 its own data1 and ,science as a whole unity of thought or knowledge does not exist4 ,he attacks at the same time the calm presumption of the positivist who maintains that the scientific stage is the final and highest development4 ,renouvier is considerably annoyed at this unwarranted dogmatism and assumed air of finality4 #ba ,book ,x43 ,de l',etat actuel de la ,philosophie en ,france1 chap4 #a41 ,de l',aboutissement des ,esprits au ,positivisme1 pp4 #daf-dag4 ,owing to the excellent training he had received at the ,ecole ,polytechnique1 and by his own profound study1 ,renouvier was able on many technical points to meet the scientists on their own ground4 ,his third ,essai de ,critique gnrale is devoted to a study of 8the ,principles of ,nature10 in which he criticises many of the principles and assumptions of mechanism1 while many pages of his two previous ,essais are concerned with the discussion of questions intimately affecting the sciences4#bb #bb ,this is particularly noticeable in the matter printed as appendices to his chapters4 7,cf4 the ,logic1 vol #b47 ,an important section of his second ,essay1 ,psychologie rationnelle1 deals with the 8,classification of the ,sciences40#bc ,renouvier there points out that the attempt to classify the sciences in accordance with their degrees of certainty ends in failure4 ,all of them1 when loyal to their own principles1 endeavour to display equal certainty4 ,by loyalty ,renouvier shows that he means adherence to an examination of certain classes of phenomena1 the observation of facts and laws1 with the proposal of hypotheses1 put forward frankly as such4 ,he draws a line between the logical and the physical sciences--a division which he claims is not only a division according to the nature of their data1 but also according to method4 ,following another division1 we may draw a line between sciences which deal with objects which are organic1 living creatures1 and those which are not4 #bc ,vol4 #b1 chap4 xviii41 ,de la ,certitude des ,sciences et leur ,classification rationnelle1 pp4 #aci-ahf1 including later observations on ,spencer4 ,renouvier's line is not1 it must be remembered in this connection1 a purely imaginary one4 ,it is a real line1 an actual gap4 ,for him there is a real discontinuity in the universe4 ,taine's doctrine of a universal explanation1 of a rigid unity and continuity1 is1 for ,renouvier1 anathema1 c'est la mathmatisation a l'outrance4 ,this appears most markedly in the pages which he devotes to the consideration of la synthse totale4 ,an important section of his ,trait de ,logique 7the first ,essai de ,critique gnrale7 deals with the problem of this ,total ,synthesis of all phenomena4#bd ,this is a conception which ,renouvier affirms to be unwarrantable and1 indeed1 in the last analysis impossible4 ,a general synthesis1 an organisation or connected hierarchy of sciences1 is a fond hope1 an illusion only of a mind which can overlook the real discontinuity which exists between things and between groups of things4 #bd ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajg-aae1 and also vol4 #b1 pp4 #bjb-bde4 ,he sees in it the fetish of the ,absolute and the ,infinite and the lure of pantheism1 a doctrine to which he opposes his 8,personalism40 ,he reminds the scientists that personality is the great factor to which all knowledge is related1 and that all knowledge is relative4 ,a law is a law1 but the guarantee of its permanence is not a law4 ,it is no more easy1 claims ,renouvier1 to say why phenomena do not stop than it is to know why they have begun4 ,laws indeed abide1 but 8not apart from conscious personalities who affirm them40#be ,further1 attacking the self-confident and dogmatic attitude in the scientists1 ,renouvier reminds them that it is impossible to demonstrate every proposition2 and in an important note on 8,induction and the ,sciences0#bf he points out that induction always implies a certain croyance4 ,this is no peculiar1 mystical thing2 it is a fact1 he remarks1 which colours all the interesting acts of human personality4 ,he here approaches ,cournot in observing that all speculation is attended by a certain coefficient of doubt or uncertainty and so becomes really rational belief4 ,with ,cournot1 too1 ,renouvier senses the importance of analogy and probability in connection with hypotheses in the world of nature and of morals4 ,in short1 he recognises as central the problem of freedom4 #be ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cba4 #bf ,note ,b to chap4 xxxv4 of the ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ac4 ,renouvier attacks ,comte's classification or 8hierarchy0 of the sciences as mischievous and inexact4 ,it is not based1 he claims1 upon any distinction in method1 nor of data4 ,it is not true that the sciences are arranged by ,comte in an order where they successively imply one another1 nor in an order in which they have come to be constituted as 8positive04#bg #bg ,this outburst of attack is a sample of ,renouvier's usual attitude to ,positivism4 7,deuxime ,essai1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aff-agj47 ,he justifies to the scientist the formulation of hypothesis as a necessary working method of co-ordinating in a provisional manner varying phenomena4 ,many hypotheses and inductions of science are1 however1 unjustifiable from a strictly logical standpoint1 ,renouvier reminds us4 ,his chief objection1 however1 is that those hypotheses and inductions are put forward so frequently as certainties by a science which is dogmatic and surpasses its limits4 ,science1 ,renouvier claims1 does not give us a knowledge of the absolute1 but an understanding of the relative4 ,it is in the light of his doctrine of relativity and of the application of the law of number that he criticises many of the attitudes adopted by the scientists4 ,whatever savours of the ,absolute or the ,infinite he opposes1 and his view of cause depends on this4 ,he scorns the fiction of an infinite regress1 and affirms real beginnings to various classes of phenomena4 ,causality is not to be explained1 he urges in his ,nouvelle ,monadologie1 save by a harmony4 ,he differs from ,leibnitz1 however1 in claiming in the interests of freedom that this harmony is not pre-established4 ,in meeting the doctrine of the reduction of the complex to the simple1 ,renouvier cites the case of 8reducing0 sound1 heat1 light and electricity to movement4 ,this may be superficially correct as a generality1 but ,renouvier aptly points out that it overlooks the fact that1 although they may all be abstractly characterised as movement1 yet there are differences between them as movements which correspond to the differences of sensation they arouse in us4 ,renouvier upholds real differences1 real beginnings1 and1 it must be added1 a reality behind and beyond the appearances of nature4 ,his ,monadologie admits that 8we can continue to explain nature mathematically and mechanically1 provided we recognise that it is an external appearance--that thought1 mind or spirit is at the heart of it40 ,this links ,renouvier to the group of new spiritualists4 ,his attitude to science is akin to theirs4 ,he does not fear science when it confines itself to its proper limits and recognises these4 ,it has no quarrel with philosophy nor philosophy with it4 ,advance in science involves1 he believes1 an advance also in theology and in metaphysics4 ,the sciences are responsible for working out the laws determining the development of the ,universe4 ,but between ,science1 an ideal unachieved1 and the sciences which in themselves are so feeble1 imperfect and limited1 ,renouvier claims that ,general ,criticism1 or ,philosophy1 has its place4 8,in spite of the discredit into which philosophy has fallen in these days1 it can and ought to exist4 ,its object has been always the investigation of ,god1 man1 liberty1 immortality1 the fundamental laws of the sciences4 #8,all these intimately connected and interpenetrating problems comprise the domain of philosophy40 ,in those cases where no science is possible1 this seeming impossibility must itself be investigated1 and philosophy remains as a 8,general ,criticism0 7,critique gnrale7 of our knowledge4 8,it is this notion10 he says1 8which ,i desired to indicate by banishing the word #8,philosophy' from the title of my ,essays4 ,the name ought to change when the method changes40#bh ,thus ,renouvier seeks to establish a 8critique0 midway between scepticism and dogmatism1 and endeavours to found a philosophy which recognises at one and the same time the demands of science et conscience4 #bh ,logique1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ceb4 ,,iii ,on turning to the spiritualist current of thought we find it1 like the neo-criticism1 no less keen in its criticism of science4 ,the inadequacy of the purely scientific attitude is the recurring theme from ,ravaisson to ,boutroux1 ,bergson and ,le ,roy4 ,the attitude assumed by ,ravaisson coloured the whole of the subsequent development of the new spiritualist doctrines1 and not least their bearing upon the problem of science and its relation to metaphysics4 ,mechanism1 ,ravaisson pointed out1 quoting the classical author upon whom he had himself written so brilliantly 7,aristotle71 does not explain itself1 for it implies a 8prime mover10 not itself in motion1 but which produces movement by spiritual activity4 ,ravaisson also refers to the testimony of ,leibnitz1 who1 while agreeing that all is mechanical1 carefully added to this statement one to the effect that mechanism itself has a principle which must be looked for outside matter and which is the object of metaphysical research4 ,this spiritual reality is found only1 according to ,ravaisson1 in the power of goodness and beauty--that is to say1 in a reality which is not non-scientific but rather ultra-scientific4 ,there are realities1 he claims1 to which science does not attain4 ,the explanation of nature presupposes soul or spirit4 ,it is true1 ,ravaisson admits1 that the physical and chemical sciences consider themselves independent of metaphysics2 true also that the metaphysician in ignoring the study of those sciences omits much from his estimate of the spirit4 ,indeed1 he cannot well dispense with the results of the sciences4 ,that admission1 however1 does not do away with the possibility of a true 8apologia0 for metaphysics4 ,to ,newton's sarcastic remark1 8,physics beware of metaphysics10 ,hegel replied cogently that this was equivalent to saying1 8,physics1 keep away from thought40 ,spirit1 however1 cannot be omitted from the account2 it is the condition of all that is1 the light by which we see that there is such a thing as a material universe4 ,this is the central point of ,ravaisson's philosophy4 ,the sciences of nature may be allowed and encouraged to work diligently upon their own principles1 but the very fact that they are individual sciences compels them to admit that they view the whole 8piecemeal04 ,philosophy seeks to interpret the whole as a whole4 ,ravaisson quotes ,pascal's saying1 8,il faut avoir une pense de derrire la tte et juger de tout par l40 ,this pense de derrire la tte1 says ,ravaisson1 while not preventing the various sciences from speaking in their own tongue1 is just the metaphysical or philosophical idea of the whole4 ,it is claimed1 ,aristotle used to say1 that mathematics have absolutely nothing in common with the idea of the good4 8,but order1 proportion1 symmetry1 are not these great forms of beauty80 asks ,ravaisson4 ,for him there is spirit at the heart of things1 an activity1 un feu primitif qui est l'me1 which expresses itself in thought1 in will and in love4 ,it is a fire which does not burn itself out1 because it is enduring spirit1 an eternal cause1 the absolute substance is this spiritual reality4 ,where the sciences fall short is that they fail to show that nature is but the refraction of this spirit4 ,this is a fact1 however1 which both religion and philosophy grasp and uphold4 ,these criticisms were disturbing for those minds who found entire satisfaction in ,science or rather in the sciences1 but they were somewhat general4 ,ravaisson's work inculcated a spirit rather than sustained a dialectic4 ,its chief value lay in the inspiration which it imparted to subsequent thinkers who endeavoured to work out his general ideas with greater precision4 ,it was this task which ,lachelier set himself in his ,induction4 ,he had keenly felt the menace of science1 as had ,janet2#bi he had appreciated the challenge offered to it by ,ravaisson's ideas4 ,moreover1 ,lachelier's acute mind discovered the crucial points upon which the new spiritualism could base its attack upon the purely scientific dogmatism4 ,whatever ,leibnitz might have said1 creative spontaneity of the spirit1 as it was acclaimed by ,ravaisson1 could not easily be fitted into the mechanism and determinism upheld by the sciences4 ,ravaisson had admitted the action of efficient causes in so far as he admitted the action of mechanism1 which is but the outcome of these causes4 ,in this way he endeavoured to satisfy the essential demands of the scientific attitude to the universe4 ,but recognising the inadequacy of this attitude he had upheld the reality of final causes and thus opposed to the scientists a metaphysical doctrine akin to the religious attitude of ,hellenism and ,christianity4 #bi ,we refer here to the quotation from ,janet's ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 given above on p4 #ie4 ,janet himself wrote on ,final ,causes but not ,wlth the depth or penetration of ,lachelier4 ,lachelier saw that the important point of ,ravaisson's doctrine lay in the problem of these two types of causality4 ,his thesis is therefore devoted to the examination of efficient and final causes4 ,this little work of ,lachelier marks a highly important advance in the development of the spiritualist philosophy4 ,he clarifies and re-affirms more precisely the position indicated by ,ravaisson4 ,lacheher tears up the treaty of compromise which was drafted by ,leibnitz to meet the rival demands of science with its efficient causes and philosophy with its final causes4 ,the world of free creative spontaneity of the spirit cannot be regarded1 ,lachelier claims 7and this is his vital point71 as merely the complement of1 or the reflex from1 the world of mechanism and determinism4 ,he works out in his thesis the doctrine that efficient causes can be deduced from the formal laws of thought4 ,this was ,taine's position1 and it was the limit of ,taine's doctrine4 ,lachelier goes further and undermines ,taine's theories by upholding final causes1 which he shows depend upon the conception of a totality1 a whole which is capable of creating its parts4 ,this view of the whole is a philosophical conception to which the natural sciences never rise1 and which they cannot1 by the very nature of their data and their methods1 comprehend4 ,yet it is only such a conception which can supply any rational basis for the unity of phenomena and of experience4 ,only by seeing the variety of all phenomena in the light of such an organic unity can we find any meaning in the term universe1 and only thus1 continues ,lachelier1 only on the principle of a rational and universal order and on the reality of final causes1 can we base our inductions4 ,the 8uniformity of nature10 that fetish of the scientists which1 as ,lachelier well points out1 is merely the empirical regularity of phenomena1 offers no adequate basis for a single induction4 ,lachelier developed his doctrines further in the article1 ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique4 ,we can observe in it the marks which so profoundly distinguish the new spiritualism from the old1 as once taught by ,cousin4 ,the old spiritualism had no place between its psychology and its metaphysics for the natural sciences4 ,indeed it was quite incapable of dealing with the problem which their existence and success presented1 and so it chose to ignore them as far as possible4 ,the new spiritualism1 of which ,lachelier is perhaps the profoundest speculative mind1 not only is acquainted with the place and results of the sciences1 but it feels itself equal to a criticism of them1 an advance which marks a highly important development in philosophy4 ,in this article ,lachelier endeavours to pass beyond the standpoint of ,cousin1 and in so doing we see not only the influence of ,ravaisson's ideas of the creative activity of the spirit1 but also of the discipline of the ,kantian criticism1 with which ,lachelier1 unlike many of his contemporaries in ,france at that time1 was well acquainted4 ,he first shows that the study of psychology reveals to us the human powers of sensation1 feeling and will4 ,these are the immediate data of consciousness4 ,another element1 however1 enters into consciousness1 not as these three1 a definite content1 but as a colouring of the whole4 ,this other element is 8objectivity10 an awareness or belief that the world without exists and continues to exist independently of our observation of it4 ,lachelier combats1 however1 the ,kantian conception of the 8thing-in-itself40 ,if1 he argues1 the world around us appears as a reality which is independent of our perception1 it is not because it is a 8thing-in-itself10 but rather it appears as independent because we1 possessing conscious intelligence1 succeed in making it an object of our thought1 and thus save it from the mere subjectivity which characterises our sense-experience4 ,it is upon this fact1 ,lachelier rightly insists1 that all our science reposes4 ,a theory of knowledge as proposed by ,taine1 based solely on sensation and professing belief in hallucination vraie1 is itself a contradiction and an abuse of language4 8,if thought is an illusion10 remarks ,lachelier1 8we must suppress all the sciences40#cj #cj ,psychologie et ,mtaphisique1 p4#aea47,see especially the passages on pp4#aej-aeh47 ,he then proceeds to show that if we admit thought to be the basis of our knowledge of the world1 that is1 of our sciences1 then we admit that our sciences are themselves connstructions1 based upon a synthetic1 constructive1 creative activity of our mind or spirit4 ,for our thought is not merely another 8thing0 added to the world of things outside us4 ,our thought is not a given and predetermined datum1 it is 8a living dialectic10 a creative activity1 a self-creative process1 which is synthetic1 and not merely analytic in character4 8,thought10 he says1 8can rest upon itself1 while everything else can only rest upon it2 the ultimate point d'appui of all truth and of all existence is to be found in the absolute spontaneity of the spirit40#ca ,here1 ,lachelier maintains1 lies the real a priori2 here1 too1 is the very important passage from psychology to metaphysics4 #ca ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique1 p4 #aeh4 ,finally his treatment of the problems of knowledge and of the foundations of science leads him to reemphasise not only the reality of spirit but its spontaneity4 ,he recognises with ,cournot and ,renouvier that the vital problem for science and philosophy is that of freedom4 ,the nature of existence is for ,lachelier a manifestation of spirit1 and is seen in will1 in necessity and in freedom4 ,it is important to note that for him it is all these simultaneously4 8,being10 he remarks in concluding his brilliant essay1#cb 8is not first1 a blind necessity1 then a will which must be for ever bound down in advance to necessity and1 lastly1 a freedom which would merely be able to recognise such necessity and such a bound will2 being is entirely free1 in so far as it is self-creative2 it is entirely an expression of will1 in so far as it creates itself in the form of something concrete and real2 it is also entirely an expression of necessity1 in so far as its self-creation is intelligible and gives an account of itself40 #cb ,ibid41 p4 #agj4 ,at this stage something in the nature of a temporary 8set-back0 is given to the flow of the spiritualist current by ,fouillee's attitude1 which takes a different line from that of ,ravaisson and ,lachelier4 ,the attitude towards ,science1 which we find adopted by ,fouillee1 is determined by his two general principles1 that of reconcilation1 and his own doctrine of ides-forces4 ,his conciliatory spirit is well seen in the fact that1 although he has a great respect for science and inherits many of the qualities contained in ,taine's philosophy1 particularly the effort to maintain a regular continuity and solidarity in the development of reality1 nevertheless he is imbued with the spirit of idealism which characterises all this group of thinkers4 ,the result is a mixture of ,platonism and naturalism1 and to this he himself confesses in his work1 ,le ,mouvement idaliste et la ,raction contre la ,science positive1 where he expresses a desire 8to bring back ,plato's ideas from heaven to earth1 and so to make idealism consonant with naturalism40#cc #cc ,le ,mouvement idaliste el la ,raction contre la ,science positive1 p4 xxi4 ,fouille claims to take up a position midway between the materialists and the idealists4 ,neither standpoint is1 in his view1 adequate to describe reality4 ,he is particularly opposed to the materialistic and mechanistic thought of the ,english ,evolutionary ,school1 as presented by ,spencer and ,huxley1 with its pretensions to be scientific4 ,fouillee accepts1 with them1 the notion of evolution1 but he disagrees entirely with ,spencer's attempt to refer everything to mechanism1 the mechanism of matter in motion4 ,in any case1 ,fouille claims1 movement is a very slender and one-sided element of experience upon which to base our characterisation of all reality1 for the idea of motion arises only from our visual and tactual experience4 ,he revolts from the epiphenomenalism of ,huxley as from a dire heresy4 ,consciousness cannot be regarded as a mere 8flash in the pan40 ,even science must admit that all phenomena are to be defined by their relation to1 and action upon1 other phenomena4 ,consciousness1 so regarded1 will be seen1 he claims1 as a unique power1 possessing the property of acting upon matter and of initiating movement4 ,it is itself a factor1 and a very vital one1 in the evolutionary process4 ,it is no mere reflex or passive representation4 ,on this point of the irreducibility of the mental life and the validity of its action1 ,fouille parts company with ,taine4 ,on the other hand1 he disagrees with the idealistic school of thought1 which upholds a pure intellectualism and for whom thought is the accepted characterisation of reality4 ,this1 complains ,fouille1 is as much an abstraction and a one-sided view as that of ,spencer4 ,in this manner ,fouille endeavours to 8rectify the scientific conception of evolution0 by his doctrine of ides-forces4 8,there is10 he says1#cd 8in every idea a commencement of action1 and even of movement1 which tends to persist and to increase like an lan4 4 4 4 ,every idea is already a force40 ,psychologically it is seen in the active1 conative or appetitive aspect of consciousness4 ,to think of a thing involves already1 in some measure1 a tendency toward it1 to desire it4 ,physiologically considered1 ides-forces are found to operate1 not mechanically1 but by a vital solidarity which is much more than mere mechanism1 and which unites the inner consciousness to the outer physical fact of movement4 ,from a general philosophical point of view the doctrine of ides-forces establishes the irreducibility of the mental1 and the fact that1 so far from the mental being a kind of phosphorescence produced as a result of the evolutionary process1 it is a prime factor in that evolution1 of which mechanism is only a symbol4 ,here ,fouille rises almost to the spiritualism of ,ravaisson4 ,mechanism1 he declares1 is1 after all1 but a manner of representing to ourselves things in space and time4 ,scientists speak of forces1 but the real forces are ideas1 and other so-called 8forces0 are merely analogies which we have constructed1 based upon the inner mental feeling of effort1 tendency1 desire and will4#ce #cd ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme1 p4 #ig1 #d;e ed4 #ce ,this was a point upon which ,maine de ,biran had insisted4 7,see p4 #bj47 ,the scientists have too often1 as ,fouille well points in his work on ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces1 regarded the concept of ,evolution as all-sufficing1 as self-explanatory4 ,philosophy1 however1 cannot accept such dogmatism from science1 and asserts that evolution is itself a result and not in itself a cause4 ,with such a view ,fouille is found ultimately in the line of the general development of the spiritual philosophy continuing the hostility to science as ultimate or all-sufficing4 ,further developments of this attitude are seen in ,boutroux and in ,bergson4 ,in the work of ,boutroux we find a continuation of that type of criticism of science which was a feature in ,ravaisson and ,lachelier4 ,he has also affinities with ,renouvier 7and1 we may add1 with ,comte71 because of his insistence upon the discontinuity of the sciences2 upon the element of 8newness0 found in each which prevents the higher being deduced from the lower1 or the superior explained by reference to the inferior4 ,boutroux opposes ,spencer's doctrines and is a keen antagonist of ,taine and his claim to deduce all from one formula4 ,such a notion as that of ,taine is quite absurd1 according to ,boutroux1 for there is no necessary bond between one and another science4 ,this is ,boutroux's main point in ,la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature4 ,by a survey of laws of various types1 logical1 mathematical1 mechanical1 physical1 chemical1 biological1 psychological and sociological1 ,boutroux endeavours to show that they are constructions built up from facts4 ,just as nature offers to the scientist facts for data1 so the sciences themselves offer these natural laws as data to the philosopher1 for his constructed explanation of things which is metaphysics or philosophy4 8,in the actual condition of our knowledge10 he remarks1 8science is not one1 but multiple2 science1 conceived as embracing all the sciences1 is a mere abstraction40 ,this is a remark which recalls ,renouvier's witty saying1 8,i should very much like to meet this person ,i hear so much about1 called #8science4'0 ,we have only sciences1 each working after its own manner upon a small portion of reality4 ,man has a thirst for knowledge1 and he sees1 says ,boutroux1 in the world an 8ensemble0 of facts of infinite variety4 ,these facts man endeavours to observe1 analyse1 and describe with increasing exactness4 ,science1 he points out1 is just this description4 ,it is futile to attempt a resolution of all things into the principle of identity4 8,the world is full of a number of things10 and1 therefore1 argues ,boutroux1 the formula ,a ,b can never be strictly and absolutely true4 8,nature never offers to us identities1 but only resemblances40 ,this has important bearing upon the law of causality1 of which the sciences make so much4 ,for there is such a degree of heterogeneity in the things to which the most elementary and general laws of physics and chemistry are applied that it is impossible to say that the consequent is proportional to the antecedent--that is to say1 it is impossible to work out absolutely the statement that an effect is the unique result of a certain invariable cause4 ,the fundamental link escapes us and so1 for us1 there is a certain contingency in experience4 ,there is1 further1 a creativeness1 a newness1 which is unforeseeable4 ,the passage from the inorganic to the organic stresses this1 for the observation of the former would never lead us to the other1 for it is a creation1 a veritable 8new0 thing4 ,boutroux is here dealing hard blows at ,taine's conception4 ,he continues it by showing that in the conscious living being we are introduced to a new element which is again absolutely irreducible to physical factors4 ,life1 and consciousness too1 are both creators4 ,the life of the mind is absolutely sui generis2 it cannot be explained by physiology1 by reflex action1 or looked upon as merely an epiphenomenon4 ,already ,boutroux finds himself facing the central problem of ,freedom4 ,he recognises that as psychological phenomena appear to contain qualities not given in their immediate antecedents1 the law of proportion of cause to effect does not apply to the actions of the human mind4 ,the principle of causality and the principle of the conservation of energy are m themselves scientific 8shibboleths10 and neither of them1 asserts ,boutroux1 can be worked out so absolutely as to justify themselves as ultimate descriptions of the universe4 ,they are valuable as practical maxims for the scientist1 whose object is to follow the threads of action in this varied world of ours4 ,they are incomplete1 and have merely a relative value4 ,philosophy cannot permit their application to the totality of this living1 pulsing universe4 ,for cause1 we must remember1 does not in its strictly scientific meaning imply creative power4 ,the cause of a phenomenon is itself a phenomenon4 8,the positive sciences in vain pretend to seize the divine essence or reason behind things40#cf ,they arrive at descriptive formul and there they leave us4 ,but1 as ,boutroux well reminds us in concluding his thesis1 formulas never explain anything because they cannot even explain themselves4 ,they are simply constructions made by observation and abstraction and which themselves require explanation4 #cf ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature1 p #aed4 ,the laws of nature are not restrictions which have been1 as it were1 imposed upon her ,they are themselves products of freedom2 they are1 in her1 what habits are to the individual4 ,their constancy is like the stability of a river-bed which the freely running stream at some early time hollowed out4 ,the world is an assembly of beings1 and its vitality and nature cannot be expressed in a formula4 ,it comprises a hierarchy of creatures1 rising from inorganic to organic forms1 from matter to spirit1 and in man it displays an observing intelligence1 rising above mere sensibility and expressly modifying things by free will4 ,in this conception ,boutroux follows ,ravaisson1 and he is also influenced by that thinker's belief in a spiritual ,power of goodness and beauty4 ,he thus leads us to the sphere of religion and philosophy1 both of which endeavour1 in their own manner1 to complete the inadequacy of the purely scientific standpoint4 ,he thus stands linked up in the total development with ,cournot and ,renouvier1 and in his own group with ,lachelier1 in regard to this question of the relation of philosophy and the sciences4 ,the critique of science1 which is so prominent in ,boutroux1 was characteristic of a number of thinkers whom we cannot do more than mention here in passing1 for in general their work is not in line with the spiritualist development1 but is a sub-current running out and separated from the main stream4 ,this is shown prominently in the fact that1 while ,boutroux's critique is in the interests of idealism and the maintenance of some spiritual values1 much subsequent criticism of science is a mere empiricism and1 being divorced from the general principles of the spiritualist philosophy1 tends merely to accentuate a vein of uncertainty--indeed1 scepticism of knowledge4 ,such is the general standpoint taken by ,milhaud1 ,payot1 and ,duhem4 ,rather apart from these stands the works of acute minds like ,poincar1 ,durand de ,gros1 and ,hannequin1 whose discussion of the atomic doctrines is a work of considerable merit4 ,to these may be added ,lalande's criticism of the doctrine of evolution and integration by his opposing to it that of dissolution and disintegration4 ,passing references to these books must not1 however1 detain us from following the main development which1 from ,boutroux1 is carried on by ,bergson4 ,we find that ,bergson1 like ,boutroux1 holds no brief for science1 and in particular he opposes some of its doctrines which have been dogmatically and uncritically accepted4 ,his work1 ,matire et ,mmoire1 is a direct critique of the scientific postulate of psycho-physical parallelism which ,bergson regards as the crux of the problem at issue between science and philosophy--namely1 that of freedom4 ,he shows that this theory1 which has been adopted by science because of its convenience1 ought not to be accepted by philosophy without criticism4 ,in his opinion it cannot stand the criticism which he brings against it4 ,a relation between soul and body is undeniable1 but he does not agree that that relation is one of absolute parallelism4 ,to maintain parallelism is to settle at once and beforehand1 in an unwarrantably a priori manner1 the whole problem of freedom4 ,his intense spiritualism sees also in such a doctrine the deadly enemy ,epiphenomenalism1 the belief that the spiritual is only a product of the physical4 ,he maintains the unique and irreducible nature of consciousness1 and claims that the life of the soul or spirit is richer and wider than the mere physical activity of the brain1 which is really its instrument4 ,bergson asks us to imagine the revolution which might have been1 had our early scientists devoted themselves to the study of mind rather than matter1 and claims that we suffer from the dogmatism of materialistic science and the geometrical and mathematical conceptions of 8a universal science0 or 8mathematic0 which come from the seventeenth century1 and are seen later in ,taine4 ,the inadequacy of the scientific standpoint is a theme upon which ,bergson never tires of insisting4 ,not only does he regard a metaphysic as necessary to complete this inadequacy1 but he claims that our intellect is incapable of grasping reality in its flux and change4 ,the true instrument of metaphysics is1 according to him1 intuition4 ,bergson's doctrine of intuition does not1 however1 amount to a pure hostility to intellectual constructions4 ,these are valuable1 but they are not adequate to reality4 ,metaphysics cannot dispense with the natural sciences4 ,these sciences work with concepts1 abstractions1 and so suffer by being intellectual moulds4 ,we must not mistake them for the living1 pulsing1 throbbing reality of life itself which is far wider than any intellectual construction4 ,by his insistence upon this point1 in which he joins hands with several of his predecessors1 ,bergson claims to have got over the ,kantian difficulties of admitting the value and possibility of a metaphysic4 ,there is nothing irrational1 he insists1 in his doctrine of metaphysical intuition or 8intellectual sympathy02 it is rather super-rational1 akin to the spirit of the poet and the artist4 ,the various sciences can supply data and1 as such1 are to be respected1 for they have a relative value4 ,what ,bergson is eager to do is to combat their absolute value4 ,his metaphysic is1 however1 no mere 8philosophy of the sciences0 in the sense of being a mere summary of the results of the sciences4 ,his intuition is more than a mere generalisation of facts2 it is an 8integral experience10 a penetration of reality in its flux and change1 a looking upon the world sub specie durationis4 ,it is a vision1 but it is one which we cannot obtain without intellectual or scientific labour4 ,we can become better acquainted with reality only by the progressive development of science and philosophy4 ,we cannot live on the dry bread of the sciences alone1 an intuitional philosophy is necessary for our spiritual welfare4 ,science promises us well-being or pleasure1 but philosophy1 claims ,bergson1 can give us joy1 by its intuitions1 its super-intellectual vision1 that vital contact with life itself in its fulness1 which is far grander and truer than all the abstractions of science4 ,this is the culmination of much already indicated in ,cournot1 ,renouvier1 ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 and ,boutroux1 which ,bergson presents in a manner quite unique1 thus closing in our period the development of that criticism and hostility to the finality and absoluteness of the purely scientific attitude which is so marked a feature of both our second and third groups1 the neo-critical thinkers and the neo-spiritualists4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,beginning with a glowing confidence in the sciences as ultimate interpretations of reality1 we thus have witnessed a complete turn of the tide during the develop-99 since #ahea4 ,also1 in following out the changes in the attitude adopted to ,science1 we have been enabled to discover in a general manner that the central and vital problem which our period presents is that of ,freedom4 ,it will be interesting to find whether in regard to this problem1 too1 a similar change of front will be noticeable as the period is followed to its close4 ,,note4--,the reader may be interested to find that ,einstein has brought out some of ,boutroux's points very emphatically1 and has confirmed the view of geometry held by ,poincar4 ,compare the following statements3 ,boutroux3 8,mathematics cannot be applied with exactness to reality40 8,mathematics and experience can never be exactly fitted into each other40 ,poincar3 8,formul are not true1 they are convenient40 ,einstein3 8,if we deny the relation between the body of axiomatic ,euclidean geometry or the practically rigid body of reality1 we readily arrive at the view entertained by that acute and profound thinker1 ,h4 ,poincar 4 4 4 ,sub specie terni1 ,poincar1 in my opinion1 is right0 7,sidelights on ,relativity1 pp4 #cc-ce74 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,freedom ,,introductory3 ,the central problem of our period--,the reconciliation of science with man's beliefs centres around the question of ,freedom--,unsatisfactoriness of ,kant's solution felt4 ,i4 ,the positivist belief in universal and rigid determinism1 especially shown in ,taine4 ,renan's view4 ,,ii4 ,cournot and ,renouvier uphold ,freedom--,strong logical and moral case put forward for it4 ,,iii4 ,the new spiritualists1 ,ravaisson and ,lacheher1 set ,freedom in the forefront of their philosophy--,fouille attempts a reconciliation by the idea of ,freedom as a determining force--,guyau1 ,boutroux1 ,blondel and ,bergson insist on the reality of ,freedom--,they surpass ,cournot and ,renouvier by upholding contingency --,this is especially true of ,guyau1 ,boutroux and ,bergson4 ,belief in creativeness and spontaneity replace the older belief in determinism4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,freedom ,the discussions regarding the relation between science and philosophy led the thinkers of our period naturally to the crucial problem of freedom4 ,science has almost invariably stood for determinism1 and men were becoming impatient of a dogmatism which1 by its denial of freedom1 left little or no place for man1 his actions1 his beliefs1 his moral feelings4 8,la nature fatale offre la ,libert ,un problme40#a #a ,guyau1 in his ,vers d'un ,philosophe1 8,moments de ,foi--,i410 ,en lisant ,kant1 p4 #eg4 ,it was precisely this problem which was acutely felt in the philosophy of our period as it developed and approached the close of the century4 ,in a celebrated passage of his ,critique of ,judgment the philosopher ,kant had drawn attention to the necessity of bringing together the concept of freedom and the concept of nature as constructed by modern science1 for the two were1 he remarked1 separated by an abyss4 ,he himself felt that the realm of freedom should exercise an influence upon the realm of science1 but his own method prohibited his attempting to indicate with any preciseness what that influence might be4 ,the fatal error of his system1 the artificial division of noumena and phenomena1 led him to assign freedom only to the world of noumena4 ,among phenomena it had no place1 but reigned transcendent1 unknown and unknowable1 beyond the world we know4 ,the artificiality of such a solution was apparent to the thinkers who followed ,kant1 and particularly was this felt in ,france4 8,poor consolation is it10 remarked ,fouille1 in reply to ,kant's view1 8for a prisoner bound with chains to know that in some unknown realm afar he can walk freely devoid of his fetters40 ,the problem of freedom1 both in its narrow sphere of personal free-will and in its larger social significance1 is one which has merited the attention of all peoples in history4 ,france1 however1 has been pre-eminently a cradle for much acute thought on this matter4 ,it loomed increasingly large on the horizon as the ,revolution approached1 it shone brilliantly in ,rousseau4 ,since the ,revolution it has been equally discussed1 and is the first of the three watchwords of the republic1 whose philosophers1 no less than its politicians1 have found it one of their main themes4 ,the supreme importance of the problem of freedom in our period was due mainly to the need felt by all thinkers for attempting1 in a manner different from that of ,kant1 a reconciliation between science and morals 7science et conscience71 and to find amid the development of scientific thought a place for the personality of the thinker himself1 not merely as a passive spectator1 but as an agent1 a willing and acting being4 ,paul ,janet1 in his essays entitled ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1#b treating the question of science1 asks whether the growing precision of the natural sciences and 8the extension of their #8positive' methods1 which involve a doctrine or assumption of infallible necessity1 do not imperil gravely the freedom of the moral agent80 ,while himself believing that1 however closely the sciences may seem to encroach upon the free power of the human soul1 they will only approach in an indefinite 8asymptote10 never succeeding in annulling it1 he senses the importance of the problem4 ,science may endeavour to tie us down to a belief in universal and rigid determinism1 but the human spirit revolts from the acceptance of such a view1 and acclaims1 to some degree at least1 the reality of a freedom which cannot be easily reconciled with the determinist doctrines4 #b ,published in #ahgb4 ,in the period which we have under review the central problem is undoubtedly that of freedom4 ,practically all the great thinkers in ,france during this period occupied themselves with this problem1 and rightly so1 for they realised that most of the others with which philosophy concerns itself depend in a large degree upon the attitude adopted to freedom4 ,cournot1 ,renouvier1 ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,fouille1 ,boutroux1 ,blondel and ,bergson have played the chief part in the arena of discussion1 and although differing considerably in their methods of treatment and not a little in the form of their conclusions1 they are at one in asserting the vital importance of this problem and its primacy for philosophy4 ,the remark of ,fouille is by no means too strong3 8,the problem which we are going to discuss is not only a philosophical problem2 it is1 par excellence1 the problem for philosophy4 ,all the other questions are bound up with this40#c ,this truth will be apparent when1 after showing the development of the doctrines concerning freedom1 we come1 in our subsequent chapters1 to consider its application to the questions of progress1 of ethics and of the philosophy of religion4 #c ,in his preface to his ,thesis ,libert et ,dterminisme1 later editions1 p4 vii4 ,i ,we find in the thought of our period a very striking development or change in regard to the problem of freedom4 ,beginning with a strictly positivist and naturalist belief in determinism1 it concludes with a spiritualism or idealism which not only upholds freedom but goes further in its reaction against the determinist doctrines by maintaining contingency4 ,taine and ,renan both express the initial attitude1 a firm belief in determinism1 but it is most clear and rigid in the work of ,taine4 ,his whole philosophy is hostile to any belief in freedom4 ,the strictly positivist1 empiricist and naturalist tone of his thought combined with the powerful influence of ,spinoza's system to produce in him a firm belief in necessity--a necessity which1 as we have seen1 was severely rational and of the type seen in mathematics and in logic4 ,although it must also be admitted that in this view of change and development ,taine was partly influenced by the ,hegelian philosophy1 yet his formulations were far more precise and mathematical than those of the ,german thinker4 ,we have1 in considering his attitude to science1 seen the tenacious manner in which he clings to his dogma of causality or universal necessity4 ,all living things1 man included1 are held in the firm grip of 8the steel pincers of necessity40 ,every fact and every law in the universe has its raison explicative1 as ,taine styles it4 ,he quotes with approval1 in his treatment of this question at the close of his work ,de l',intelligence1 the words of the great scientist and positivist ,claude ,bernard3 8,il y a un dterminisme absolu1 dans les conditions d'existence des phnomnes naturels1 aussi bien pour les corps vivants que pour les corps bruts40#d ,in ,taine and the school of scientists like ,bernard1 whose opinions on this matter he voices1 no room is accorded to freedom4 #d ,de l',intelligence1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dhj1 the quotation from ,bernard is to be found in his ,introduction l',etude de la ,mdecine exprimentale1 p4 #aae4 ,taine's belief in universal necessity and his naturalistic outlook led him to regard man from the physical standpoint as a mechanism1 from the mental point of view a theorem4 ,vice and virtue are1 to quote his own words1 8products just as vitriol or sugar40 ,this remark having appeared to many thinkers a scandalous assertion1 ,taine explained in an article contributed to the ,journal des ,dbats#e that he did not mean to say that vice and virtue were1 like vitriol or sugar1 chemical but they are nevertheless products1 moral products1 which moral elements bring into being by their assemblage4 ,and1 he argues1 just as it is necessary in order to make vitriol to know the chemical elements which go to its composition1 so in order to create in man the hatred of a lie it is useful to search for the psychological elements which1 by their union1 produce truthfulness4 #e ,on ,december #aith1 #ahgb4 ,even this explanation of his position1 however1 did not prevent the assertion being made that such a view entirely does away with all question of moral responsibility4 ,to this criticism ,taine objected4 8,it does not involve moral indifference4 ,we do not excuse a wicked man because we have explained to ourselves the causes of his wickedness4 ,one can be determinist with ,leibnitz and nevertheless admit with ,leibnitz that man is responsible --that is to say1 that the dishonest man is worthy of blame1 of censure and punishment1 while the honest man is worthy of praise1 respect and reward40 ,in one of his ,essais ,taine further argued in defence of his doctrine of universal determination that since ,,we ourselves are determined--that is to say1 since there is a psychological determinism as well as a physical determinism--we do not feel the restriction which this determinism implies1 we have the illusion of freedom and act just as if we were free4 ,to this ,fouille replied that the value of ,taine's argument was equal to that of a man who might say1 8,because ,i am asleep1 all of me1 all my powers and faculties1 therefore ,i am in a state where ,i am perfectly free and responsible40 ,certainly ,taine's remark that we are determined had nothing in common with the belief in that true determinism1 which is equally true freedom1 since it is self-determination4 ,taine professed no such doctrine1 and rested in a purely naturalistic fatalism1 built upon formul of geometry and logic1 in abstraction from the actual living and acting of the soul1 and this dogma of determinism1 to which he clung so dearly1 colours his view of ethics and of history4 ,for ,taine1 8the ,world is a living geometry0 and 8man is a theorem that walks40 ,like ,taine1 ,renan set out from the belief in universal causation1 but he employed the conception not so much in a warfare against man's freedom of action as against the theologians' belief in miracle and the supernatural4 ,there is none of ,taine's rigour and preciseness in ,renan1 and it is difficult to grasp his real attitude to the problem of freedom4 ,if he ever had one1 may be doubted4 ,the blending of viewpoints1 the paradox so characteristic of him1 seems apparent even in this question4 ,his intense humanism prompted him to remarks in praise of freedom1 and he seems to have recognised in man a certain power of freedom2 but in view of his belief in universal cause he is careful to qualify this4 ,further1 his intensely religious mind remained in love with the doctrine of divine guidance which is characteristic of ,christian and most religious thought4 ,although ,renan left the ,church1 this belief never left ,renan4 ,he sees ,god working out an eternal purpose in history1 and this he never reconciled with the problem of man's free will4 ,the humanist in him could remark that the one object of life is the development of the mind1 and the first condition for this is freedom4 ,here he appears to have in view freedom from political and religious restrictions4 ,he is thinking of the educational problem4 ,his own attitude to the ultimate question of freedom in itself1 as opposed to determinism1 is best expressed in his ,examen d'une ,conscience philosophique4 ,he there shows that the universe is the result of a lengthy development1 the4 beginnings of which we do not know4 8,in the innumerable links of that chain10 says ,renan1 8we find not one free act before the appearance of man1 or1 if you like1 living beings40 ,with man1 however1 freedom comes into the scheme of things4 ,a free cause is seen employing the forces of nature for willed ends4 ,yet this is but nature itself blossoming to self-consciousness2 this free cause emanates from nature itself4 ,there is no rude break between man with his free power and unconscious nature4 ,both are interconnected4 ,freedom is indeed the appearance of something 8new10 but it is not1 insists ,renan1 something divorced from what has gone before4 ,we see in ,renan a rejection of the severely deterministic doctrine of ,taine1 but it is by no means a complete rejection or refutation of it4 ,renan adheres largely to the scientific and positivist attitude which is such a feature of ,taine's work4 ,his humanism1 however1 recognises the inadequacy of such doctrines and compels him to speak of freedom as a human factor1 and he thus brings us a step nearer to the development of the case for freedom put forward so strongly by ,cournot and ,renouvier and by the neo-spiritualists4 ,,ii ,a very powerful opposition to all doctrines based upon or upholding determinism shows itself in the work of ,cournot and the neo-critical philosophy4 ,the idea of freedom is a central one in the thought of both ,cournot and ,renouvier4 ,cournot devoted his early labours to a critical and highly technical examination of the question of probability1 considered in its mathematical form1 a task for which he was well equipped4#f ,being not only a man of science but also a metaphysician1 or rather a philosopher who approached metaphysical problems from the impulse and data accorded him by the sciences1 ,cournot was naturally led to the wider problem of probabilit philosophique4 ,he shows in his ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances that hazard or chance are not merely words which we use to cover our ignorance1 as ,taine would have claimed4 ,over against the doctrine of a universal determinism he asserts the reality of these factors4 ,the terms chance and hazard represent a real and vital element in our experience and in the nature of reality itself4 ,probability is a factor to be reckoned with1 and this is so because of the elements of contingency in nature and in life4 ,freedom is bound up essentially with the vitality which is nature itself4 #f ,see his ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances3 8,hazard10 chap4 iii42 8,probabilit ,philosophique10 chap1 iv41 pp4 #ga-aja2 and chap4 v41 8,de l',harmonie et de la ,finalit10 pp4 #aja-add4 ,the neo-critical philosopher1 ,renouvier1 is a notable champion of freedom4 ,we have already seen the importance he attaches to the category of personality4 ,for him1 personality represents a consciousness in possession of itself1 a free and rational harmony--in short1 freedom personified4 ,from a strictly demonstrative point of view ,renouvier thinks it is impossible to prove freedom as a fact4 ,however1 he lays before us with intense seriousness various4 considerations of a psychological and a moral character which have an important bearing upon the problem4 ,this problem1 he asserts1 not only concerns our actions but also our knowledge4 ,to bring out this point clearly1 ,renouvier develops some of the ideas of his friend1 ,jules ,lequier1 on the notion of the autonomy of the reason1 or rather of the reasonable will4 ,in this way he shows doubt and criticism to be themselves signs of freedom1 and asserts that we form our notions of truth freely1 or that at least they are creations of our free thought1 not laid upon us by an external authority4 ,more light is thrown on the problem by considering what ,renouvier calls vertige mental1 a psychopathological condition due to a disturbance of the rational harmony or self-possession which constitutes the essence of the personal consciousness4 ,this state is characterised by hallucination and error4 ,it is the extreme opposite of the self-conscious1 reflective personality in full possession of itself and exercising its will rationally4 ,renouvier shows that between these two extremes there are numerous planes of vertige mental in which the part played by our will is small or negligible1 and we are thus victims of habit or tendency4 ,is there1 then1 any place for freedom8 ,there most certainly is1 says ,renouvier1 for our freedom manifests itself whenever we inhibit an action to which we are excited by habit1 passion or imagination4 ,our freedom is the product of reflection4 ,we are at liberty to be free1 to determine ourselves in accordance with higher motives4 ,this power is just our personality asserting itself1 and it does not contradict our being1 more often than not1 victims of habit4 ,we have it in our power to make fresh beginnings4 ,renouvier's disbelief in strict continuity is here again apparent4 ,we must admit freedom of creation in the personality itself1 and not seek to explain our actions by trying to ascend some scale of causes to infinity4 ,there is no such thing as a sum to infinity of a series2 there is no such thing as the influence of an infinite series of causes upon the performance of a consciously willed act in which the personality asserts its initiative-- that is1 its power of initiation of a new series1 in short1 its freedom4 ,passing from these psychological considerations1 ,renouvier calls our attention to some of a moral nature1 no less important1 in his opinion1 for shedding light upon the nature of freedom4 ,if1 he argues1 all is necessary1 if all human actions are predetermined1 then popular language is guilty of a grave extravagance and appears ridiculous1 insinuating1 as it does1 that many acts might have been left undone and many events might have occurred differently1 and that a man might have done other than he did4 ,in the light of the hypothesis of rigorous necessity1 the mention of ambiguous futures and the notion of 8being otherwise0 7le pouvoir tre autrement7 seem foolish4 ,science may assert the docrine of necessity and preach it valiantly1 but the human conscience feels it to be untrue and will not be gainsaid4 ,the scientist himself is forced to admit that man does not accept his gospel of universal predestination or fatalism4 ,this ,renouvier recognises as an important point in the debate4 ,strange1 is it not1 he remarks1 that the mind of the philosopher himself1 a sanctuary or shrine for truth1 should appear as a rebellious citadel refusing to surrender to the truth of this universal necessity4 ,we believe ourselves to be free agents or1 at least beings who are capable of some free action4 ,however slight such action1 it would invalidate the hypothesis of universal necessity4 ,if all things are necessitated1 then moral judgments1 the notions of right and of duty1 have no foundation in the nature of things4 ,virtue and crime lose their character2 the sentiments and feelings1 such as regret1 hope1 fear1 desire1 change their meaning or become meaningless4 ,renouvier lays great stress upon these moral considerations4 ,again1 if everything be necessitated1 error is as necessary as truth4 ,the false is indeed true1 being necessary1 and the true may become false4 ,disputes rage over what is false or true1 but these disputes cannot be condemned1 for they themselves are1 by virtue of the hypothesis1 necessary1 and the disputes are necessarily absurd and ridiculous from this point of view4 ,where then is truth8 ,where is morality8 ,we have here no basis for either4 ,looking thus at history1 all its crimes and infamies are equally lawful1 for they are inevitable2 such is the result1 ,renouvier shows1 of viewing all human action as universally predetermined4 ,the objections thus put forward by ,renouvier against the doctrine of universal necessity are powerful ones4 ,they possess great weight and result in the admission1 even by its upholders1 that 8the judgment of freedom is a natural datum of consciousness and is bound up with our reflective judgments upon which we act1 being itself the foundation of these40 ,yet1 we have1 ,renouvier reminds us1 no logical proof of the reality of freedom4 ,we feel ourselves moved1 spontaneously and unconstrained4 ,the future1 in so far as it depends upon ourselves1 appears not as prearranged but ambiguous1 open4#g ,whether our judgment be true or false1 we in practical life act invariably on the belief in freedom4 ,that1 of course1 as ,renouvier admits at this stage of his discussion1 does not prove that our belief is not an illusion4 ,it is a feeling1 natural and spontaneous4 #g ,cf41 later1 ,bergson's remark3 8,the portals of the future stand wide open1 the future is being made40 ,one of the most current forms of the doctrine of freedom has been that known as the 8liberty of indifference40 ,the upholders of this theory regard the will as separated from motives and ends4 ,the operation of the will is regarded by them as indifferent to the claims or influence of reason or feeling4 ,will is superadded externally to motives1 where such exist1 or may be superimposed on intellectual views even to the extent of annulling these4 ,judgment and will are separated in this view1 and the will is a purely arbitrary or indifferent factor4 ,it can operate without reason against reason4 ,the opponents of freedom find little difficulty in assailing this view1 in which the will appears to operate like a dice or a roulette game1 absolutely at hazard1 reducing man to a non-rational creature4 ,such a type of will1 however1 ,renouvier declares to be non-existent1 for every man who has full consciousness of an act of his has at the same time a consciousness of an end or purpose for this act1 and he proposes to realise by this means a good which he regards as preferable to any other4 ,in so far as he has doubts of this preference the act and the judgment will be suspended4 ,he must1 however1 if he be an intelligent being1 pursue what he deems to be his good--that is to say1 what he deems to be good at the time of acting4 ,renouvier here agrees with ,socrates and ,plato in the view that no man deliberately and knowingly wills what he considers to be evil or to be bad for him4 ,virtue involves knowledge1 and although there is the almost proverbial phrase of ,ovid and of ,paul1 about seeing and approving the better1 yet nevertheless doing the worse1 it is a general statement which does not express an antithesis as present to consciousness at the time of action4 ,the agent may afterwards say 4 4 4 8,video meliora proboque deteriora sequor40 but at the time of action 8the worse0 must appear to him as a good1 at any rate then and in his own judgment4 ,further1 beyond these psychological considerations there are grave moral objections1 ,renouvier points out1 to admitting 8an indifferent will10 for the acts of such a will being purely arbitrary and haphazard1 the man will be no moral agent1 no responsible person4 ,a man who wills apart from the consideration of any motive whatever can never perform any meritorious action4 ,under the conception of an indifferent will the term 8merit0 ceases to have a meaning4 ,the theologians who have asserted the doctrine 7indeed1 it seems to have originated1 ,renouvier thinks1 with them7 have readily admitted this point1 for it opens up the way for their theory of divine grace or the good will of ,god acting directly upon or within the agent4 ,will and merit are for them quite separate1 the latter being due to the mystical operations of divine favour or grace1 in honour of which the indifference of the will has been postulated4 ,philosophers not given to appeals to divine grace1 who have upheld the doctrine of the indifferent will1 have really been less consistent than the theoloians and have fallen into grave error4 ,renouvier appeals to the testimony of the penal laws of all nations in favour of his criticism of an indifferent will4 ,motive is deemed a real factor1 for men are not deemed to have acted indifferently4 ,some deliberation1 indeed1 is implied in all action which is conscious and human1 some comparison of motives and a conscious1 decision4 ,the values of truth1 as well as those of morality are equally fatal to the indifferentist2 for1 asks ,renouvier1 is a man to be regarded as not determined to affirm as true what he judges to be true8 ,the doctrine of freedom as represented by that of an indifferent will is no less vicious1 ,renouvier affirms1 than the opposing doctrine of universal necessity4 ,the truth is that they both rest on fictions4 8,indifferentism0 imagines a will divorced from judgment1 separated from the rational man himself1 an unseizable power1 a mysterious absolute cause unconnected with reflection or deliberation1 a mere chimera4 ,for determinism the will is equally a fiction4 ,a way out of this difficulty is to be found1 according to ,renouvier1 in viewing the will in a manner different from that of the 8indifferentists40 ,let us suppose the will bound up with motive1 a motive drawn from the intellectual and moral equipment of the man4 ,this1 however1 gives rise to psychological determinism4 ,the will1 it is argued1 follows always the last determination of the understanding4 ,greater subtilty attends on this argument against freedom than those put forward on behalf of physical determinism4 ,renouvier sees that there is no escape from such a doctrine as psychological determinism unless we take a view of the will as bound up with the nature of man as a whole1 with his powers of intellect and feeling4 ,such a will cannot be characterised as indifferent or as the mere resultant of motives4 ,the ,kantian element in ,renouvier's thought is noticeable in the strong moral standpoint from which he discusses all problems1 and this is particularly true of his discussion of this very vital one of freedom4 ,he is by no means1 however1 a disciple of ,kant1 and he joins battle strongly with the ,kantian doctrine of freedom4 ,this is natural in view of his entire rejection of ,kant's 8thing-in-itself10 or noumena1 and it follows therefrom1 for ,kant attached freedom only to the noumenal world1 denying its operation in the world of phenomena4 ,the rejection of noumena leaves ,renouvier free to discuss freedom in a less remote or less artificial manner than that of ,kant4 ,if it be true1 argues ,renouvier1 that necessity rules supreme1 then the human spirit can find peace in absolute resignation2 and in looking back over the past history of humanity one need not have different feelings from those entertained by the geologist or paleontologist4 ,ethics1 politics and history thus become purely 8natural0 sciences 7if indeed ethics could here have meaning1 would it not be identical with anthropology8 ,at any rate1 it would be purely positive4 ,a normative view of ethics would be quite untenable in the face of universal necessity74 ,any inconvenience1 pain or injustice would have to be accepted and not even named 8evil10 much less could any effort be truly made to expel it from the scheme of things4 ,to these accusations the defenders of necessity object4 ,the practical man1 they say1 need not feel this1 in so far as he is under the illusion of freedom and unaware of the rigorous necessity of all things4 ,he need not refrain from action4 ,but this defence of necessity leads those who wish to maintain the case against it to continue the argument4 ,suppose that the agent does not forget that all is necessitated1 what then8 ,under no illusion of the idea of freedom1 he then acts at every moment of his existence in the knowledge that he cannot but do what he is doing1 he cannot but will what he wills1 he cannot but desire what he desires4 ,in time this must produce1 says ,renouvier1 insanity either of an idle type or a furious kind1 he will become an indifferent imbecile or a raving fanatic1 in either case a character quite abnormal and dangerous4 ,these are extreme results1 but between the two extremes all degrees of character are to be1 found4 ,the most common type of practical reason presents an antinomy in the system of universal necessity4 ,the case for necessity must reckon with this fact--namely1 that the operation of necessity has itself given rise to ethics which exists1 and1 according to the case1 its existence is a necessary one2 yet ethics constitutes itself in opposition to necessity1 and under the sway of necessity is quite meaningless4 ,here is a paradox which is not lessened if we suppose the ethical position to be an absurd and false one4 ,whether false or not1 morality in some form is practically as universal as human nature4 ,that nature1 ,renouvier insists1 can hardly with sincerity believe an hypothesis or a dogma which its own moral instincts belie continually4 ,if1 on the other hand1 truth lies with the upholders of freedom1 then man's action is seen to have great value and significance1 for man then appears as creating a new order of things in the world4 ,his new acts1 ,renouvier admits1 will not be without preceding ones1 without roots or reasons1 but they will be without necessary connection with the whole scheme of things4 ,he is thus creating a new order2 he is creating himself and making his own history4 ,conscious pride or bitter remorse can both alike be present to him4 ,the great revolutions of history will be regarded by him not as mystical sweepings of some unknown force external to himself1 but as results of the thought and work of humanity itself4 ,a philosophy which so regards freedom will thus be a truly 8human0 philosophy4 ,renouvier rightly recognises that the whole philosophy of history turns upon the attitude which we adopt to freedom4 ,in view of the many difficulties connected with the problem of freedom many thinkers would urge us to a compromise4 ,renouvier is aware of the dangers of this attitude1 and he brings into play against it his logical method of dealing with problems4 ,this does not contradict his statement about the indemonstrability of freedom1 nor does it minimise the weight and significance of the moral case for freedom3 it complements it4 ,between contradictories or incompatible propositions no middle course can be followed4 ,freedom and necessity cannot be both at the same time true1 or both at the same time false1 for of the two things one must be true--namely1 either human actions are all of them totally predetermined by their conditions or antecedents1 or they are not all of them totally predetermined4 ,it is to this pass that we are brought in the logical statement of the case4 ,now sceptics would here assert that doubt was the only solution4 ,this would not realh be a solution1 and however legitimate doubt is in front of conflicting theories1 it involves the death of the soul if it operates in practical affairs and in any circumstances where some belief is absolutely necessary to the conduct of life and to action4 ,the freedom in question1 as ,renouvier is careful to remind us1 does not involve our maintaining the total indetermination of things or denial of the operations of necessity within limits4 ,room is left for freedom when it is shown that this necessity is not universal4 ,many consequences of free acts may be necessitated4 ,for example1 says ,renouvier1 ,i have a stone in my hand4 ,i can freely will to hurl it north or south1 high or low1 but once thrown from my hand its path is strictly determined by the law of gravity4 ,the voluntary movement of a man on the earth may1 however slightly1 alter the course of a distant planet4 ,freedom1 we might say1 operates in a sphere to which necessity supplies the matter4 ,ultimately any free act is a choice between two alternatives1 equally possible1 but both necessitated as possibilities4 ,the points of free action may seem to take up a small amount of room in the world1 so to speak1 but we must realise how vital they are to any judgment regarding its character1 and how tremendously important they are from a moral point of view4 ,so far1 claims ,renouvier1 from the admittance of freedom being a destruction of the laws of the universe1 it really shows us a special law of that universe1 not otherwise to be explained--namely1 the moral law4 ,freedom is thus regarded by ,renouvier as a positive fact1 a moral certainty4 ,freedom is the pillar of the neo-critical philosophy2 it is the first truth involved at once in all action and in all knowledge4 ,truth and error are not well explained1 or1 indeed1 at all explained1 by a doctrine which1 embracing them both as equally necessary1 justifies them equally1 and so in a sense verifies both of them4 ,it was this point which ,brochard developed in his work ,l',erreur1 which has neo-critical affinities4 ,man is only capable of science because he is free2 it is also because he is free that he is subject to error4#h ,renouvier claims that 8we do not avoid error always1 but we always can avoid it40#i ,truth and error can only be explained1 he urges1 by belief in the ambiguity of futures1 movements of thought involving choice between opinions which conflict--in short1 by belief in freedom4 ,the calculation of probabilities and the law of the great numbers demonstrates1 ,renouvier claims1 the indetermination of futures1 and consciousness is aware of this ambiguity in practical life4 ,this belief in the ambiguity of futures is a condition1 he shows1 of the exercise of the human consciousness in its moral aspect1 and this consciousness in action regards itself as suspended before indetermination--that is1 it affirms freedom4 ,this affirmation of freedom ,renouvier asserts to be a necessary element of any rational belief whatever4 ,it alone gives moral dignity and supremacy to personality1 whose existence is the deepest and most radical of all existences4 ,the personal life in its highest sense and its noblest manifestation is precisely ,freedom4 ,renouvier assures us that there is nothing mysterious or mystical about this freedom4 ,it is not absolute liberty and contingency of all things2 it is an attribute of persons4 ,the part played thus freely by personality in the scheme or order of the universe proves to us that that order or scheme is not defined or formed in a predetermined manner2 it is only in process of being formed1 and our personal efforts are essential factors in its formation4 ,the world is an order which becomes and which is creating itself1 not a pre-established order which simply unrolls itself in time4 ,for a proper understanding of the nature of this problem 8we are obliged to turn to the practical reason4 ,it is a moral affirmation of freedom which we require2 indeed1 any other kind of affirmation would1 ,renouvier maintains1 presuppose this4 ,the practical reason must lay down its own basis and that of all true reason1 for reason is not divided against itself reason is not something apart from man2 it is man1 and man is never other than practical--i4e41 acting40#aj ,considered from this standpoint there are four cases which present themselves to the tribunal of our judgment--namely1 the case for freedom1 the case against freedom1 the case for necessity and the case against necessity4 #h ,de ,l',erreur1 p4 #dg4 #i ,psychologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #if4 #aj ,psychologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p #gh4 ,the position is tersely put in the ,dilemma presented by ,jules ,lequier1 the friend of ,renouvier1 quoted in the ,psychologie rationnelle4 ,there are four possibilities3 ,to affirm necessity1 necessarily4 ,to affirm necessity1 freely4 ,to affirm freedom1 necessarily4 ,to affirm freedom1 freely4 ,on examining these possibilities we find that to affirm necessity1 necessarily1 is valueless1 for its contradictory1 freedom1 is equally necessary4 ,to affirm necessity1 freely1 does not offer us a better position1 for here again it is necessity which is affirmed4 ,if we affirm freedom necessarily1 we are in little better case1 for necessity operates again 7although ,renouvier notes that this gives a certain basis for morality74 ,in the free affirmation of freedom1 however1 is to be found not only a basis for morals1 but also for knowledge and the search for truth4 ,indeed1 as we are thus forced 8to admit the truth of either necessity or freedom1 and to choose between the one and the other with the one or with the other10#aa we find that the affirmation of necessity involves contradiction1 for there are many persons who affirm freedom1 and this they do1 if the determinist be right1 necessarily4 ,the affirmation of freedom1 on the other hand1 is free from such an absurdity4 #aa ,ibid41 p4 #ach4 ,such is the conclusion to which ,renouvier brings us after his wealth of logical and moral considerations4 ,he combines both types of discussion and argument in order to undermine the belief in determinism and to uphold freedom1 which is1 in his view1 the essential attribute of personality and of the universe itself4 ,he thus succeeded in altering substantially the balance of thought in favour of freedom1 and further weight was added to the same side of the scales by the new spiritualist group who placed freedom in the forefront of their thought4 ,,iii ,the development of the treatment of this problem within the thought of the new spiritualists or idealists is extremely interesting1 and it proceeded finally to a definite doctrine of contingency as the century drew to its close4 ,the considerations set forth are usually psychological in tone1 and not so largely ethical as in the neo-critical philosophy4 ,ravaisson declared himself a champion of freedom4 ,he accepted the principle of ,leibnitz1 to the effect that everything has a reason1 from which it follows that everything is necessitated1 without which there could be no certitude and no science4 ,but1 says ,ravaisson1 there are two kinds of necessity--one absolute1 one relative4 ,the former is logical1 the type of the principle of identity1 and is found in syllogisms and in mathematics1 which is just logic applied to quantity4 ,the other type of necessity is moral1 and is1 unlike the former1 perfectly in accord with freedom4 ,it indeed implies freedom1 the freedom of self-determination4 ,the truly wise man can- not help doing what is right and good4 ,the slave of ,passion and caprice and evil has no freedom4 ,the wise man selecting the good chooses it infallibly1 but at the time with perfect free-will4 8,it is perhaps because the good or the beautiful is simply nothing other than love--that is1 the power of will in all its purity1 and so to will what is truly good is to will oneself 7c'est se vouloir soi-mme740#ab #ab ,la ,philosophie en ,france1 p4 #bfh4 ,nature is not1 as the materialists endeavour to maintain1 entirely geometrical--that is to say1 fatalistic in character4 ,morality enters into the scheme of things and1 with it1 ends freely striven for4 ,there is present a freedom which is a kind of necessity1 yet opposed to fatalism4 ,this freedom involves a determination by conceptions of perfection1 ideals of beauty and of good4 8,fatality is but an appearance2 spontaneity and freedom constitute reality40#ac ,so far1 continues ,ravaisson1 from all things operating by brute mechanism or by pure hazard1 things operate by the development of a tendency to perfection1 to goodness and beauty4 ,instead of everything submitting to a blind destiny1 everything obeys1 and obeys willingly1 a divine ,providence4 #ac ,ibid41 p4 #bgj4 ,ravaisson's fundamental spiritualism is clear in all this1 and it serves as the starting-point for the thinkers who follow him4 ,spiritualism is bound up with spontaneity1 creation1 freedom1 and this is his central point1 this insistence on freedom4 ,while resisting mechanical determination he endeavours to retain a determination of another kind--namely1 by ends1 a teleology or finalism4 ,this is extremely interesting when observed in relation to the subsequent development in ,lachelier1 ,boutroux1 ,blondel and ,bergson4 ,lachelier's treatment of freedom is an important landmark in the spiritualist development4 ,by his concentrated analysis of the problem of induction he brought out the significance of efficient and final causes respectively4 ,he appears as the pupil of ,ravaisson1 whose initial inspiration is apparent in his whole work1 especially in his treatment of freedom4 ,he dwells upon the fact of the spontaneity of the spirit--a point of view which ,ravaisson succeeded in imparting to the three thinkers1 ,lachelier1 ,boutroux and ,bergson4 ,besides the influence of ,ravaisson1 however1 that of ,kant and ,leibnitz appears in ,lachelier's attitude to freedom4 ,yet he passes beyond the ,kantian position1 and he rejects the double-aspect doctrine which ,leibnitz maintained with regard to efficient and final causes4 ,lachelier insists that the spontaneity of spirit stands above and underlies the whole of nature4 ,this is the point which ,boutroux1 under ,lachelier's influence1 took up in his ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature4 ,lachelier1 in attacking the purely mechanistic conception of the universe1 endeavoured1 as he himself put it1 8to substitute everywhere force for inertia1 life for death and freedom for fatalism40 ,rather than universal necessity it is universal contingence which is the real definition of existence4 ,we are free to determine ourselves in accordance with ends we set before us1 and to act in the manner necessary to accomplish those ends4 ,our life itself1 as he shows in the conclusion of his brilliant little article ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique1 is creative1 and we must beware of arguing that what we have been makes us what we are1 for that character which we look upon as determining us need not do so if we free ourselves from habit1 and1 further1 this character is1 in any case1 itself the result of our free actions over extended time1 the free creation of our own personality4 ,while with ,ravaisson and ,lachelier the concept of freedom was being rather fully developed in opposition to the determinist doctrines1 ,fouille1 in his brilliant and acute thesis on ,libert et ,dterminisme1 endeavoured to call a halt to this supremacy of ,freedom1 and to be true to the principles of reconciliation which he laid down for himself in his philosophy4 ,he confesses himself1 at the outset1 to be a pacifist rather than a belligerent in this classic dispute between determinists on the one hand and partisans of freedom on the other4 ,he believes that1 on intimate investigation pursued sufficiently far1 the two opposing doctrines will be seen to converge4 ,such a declaration would seem to be dangerously superficial in a warfare as bitter and as sharp as this4 ,it must be admitted that1 as is the case with many who profess to conciliate two conflicting views1 ,fouille leaves us at times without precise and definite indication of his own position4 ,in contrast to the attitude of ,ravaisson and ,lachelier ,fouille inclines in some respects to the attitude of ,taine and many passages of his book show him to be holding at least a temporary brief for the partisans of determinism4 ,he agrees notably with ,taine in his objecting to the contention that under the determinist theory moral values lose their significance4 ,fouille claims that it is both incorrect and unfair to argue that 8under the necessity-hypothesis a thing being all that it can be is thereby all that it should be40#ad4 #ad ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme1 p4 #ea 7fourth edition74 ,he goes on to point out that the consciousness of independence1 which is an essential of freedom1 may be nothing more than a lack of consciousness of our dependence4 ,motives he is inclined to speak of as determining the will itself1 while he looks upon the 8liberty of indifference0 or of hazard as merely a concession to the operations of mechanical necessity4 ,the 8liberty of indifference0 is often the mere play of instinct and of fatality1 while hazard1 so far from being an argument in the hands of the upholders of freedom1 is really a determination made previously by something other than one's own will4 ,this is a direct attack upon the doctrines put forward by both ,cournot and ,renouvier4 ,fouille is well aware of this1 and twenty pages of his thesis are devoted to a critical and hostile examination of the statements of both ,renouvier and his friend ,lequier4#ae ,fouille claims that these two thinkers have only disguised and misplaced the 8liberty of indifference02 they have not1 he thinks1 really suppressed it1 although both of them profess to reject it absolutely4 ,a keen discussion between ,fouille and ,renouvier arose from this and continued for some time1 being marked on both sides by powerful dialectic4 ,renouvier used his paper the ,critique philosophique as his medium1 while ,fouille continued in subsequent editions of his thesis1 in his ,ide moderne du ,droit and also in his acute study ,critique des ,systmes de ,morale contemporains4 ,fouille took ,renouvier to task particularly for his maintaining that if all be determined then truth and error are indistinguishable4 ,fouille claims that the distinction between truth and error is by no means parallel to that between necessity and freedom4 ,an error may1 he points out1 be necessitated1 and consequently we must look elsewhere for our doctrine of certitude than to the affirmation of freedom4 ,in the philosophy of ,renouvier1 as we have seen1 these two are intimately connected4 ,fouille criticises the neo-critical doctrine of freedom on the ground that ,renouvier mars his thought by a tendency to look upon the determinist as a passive and inert creature4 ,this1 he says1 is 8the argument of laziness0 applied to the intelligence4 8,one forgets10 says ,fouille1 8that if intelligence is a mirror1 it is not an immovable and powerless mirror3 it is a mirror always turning itself to reality40#af #ae ,ibid41 pp4 #aag-acg4 #af ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme1 p4 #abi4 ,on examining closely the difference between ,renouvier and ,fouille over this problem of freedom1 we may attribute it to the fact that while the one thinker is distinctly and rigorously an upholder of continuity1 the other believes in no such absolute continuity4 ,for ,fouille there is1 in a sense1 nothing new under the sun1 while ,renouvier in his thought1 which has been well described as a philosophy of discontinuity1 has a place for new things1 real beginnings1 and he is in this way linked up to the doctrine of creative development as set forth ultimately by ,bergson4 ,it will be seen also as we proceed that ,fouille1 for all he has to say on behalf of determinism1 is not so widely separated in his view of freedom from that worked out by ,bergson1 although at the first glance the gulf between them seems a wide one4 ,fouille1 while attacking ,renouvier1 did not spare that other acute thinker1 ,lachelier1 from the whip of his criticism4 ,he takes objection to a passage in that writer's ,induction where he advocates the doctrine that the production of ideas 8is free in the most rigorous sense of that word1 since each idea is in itself absolutely independent of that which precedes it1 and is born out of nothing1 as is a world40 ,to this view of the spontaneity of the spirit ,fouille opposes the remark that ,lachelier is considering only the new forms which are assumed by a mechanism which is always operating under the same laws of causality4 ,he asks us in this connection to imagine a kaleidoscope which is being turned round4 ,the images which succeed each other will be in this sense a formal creation1 a form independent of that which went before1 but1 as he is anxious to remind us1 the same mechanical and geometrical laws will be operating continually in producing these forms4 ,having had these encounters with the upholders of freedom1 and thus to some degree having conveyed the impression of being on the side of the determinists1 ,fouille proceeds to the task he had set himself--namely1 that of reconciliation4 ,he felt the unsatisfactoriness of ,kant's treatment of freedom1#ag and he endeavours to remedy the lack in ,kant of a real link between the determinism of the natural sciences and the human consciousness of freedom1 realised in the practical reason4 ,fouille proposes to find in his ides-forces a middle term and to offer us a solution of the problem at issue in the dispute4 #ag ,see above1 p4 #acf4 ,he begins by showing that there has been an unfortunate neglect of one important factor in the case--a factor whose reality is frankly admitted by both parties4 ,this central1 incontestable fact is the idea of freedom4 ,this idea1 according to ,fouille1 arises in us as the result ,of a combination of various psychological factors1 such as notions of diversity1 possibility1 with the tendency to action arising from the notion of action1 which thus shows itself as a force4 ,the combination of these results in the genesis of the idea of freedom4 ,now the stronger this idea of freedom is in our minds the more we make it become a reality4 ,it is an 8idea-force0 which by being thought tends to action and thus increases in power and fruitfulness4 ,the idea of freedom becomes1 by a kind of determinism1 more powerful in proportion to the degree with which it is acted upon4 ,determinism thus reflects upon itself and in a curious way turns to operate against itself4 ,this directing power of the idea of freedom cannot be denied even by the most rigorous upholders of determinism4 ,they at least are forced to find room in their doctrine for the idea of freedom and its practical action on the lives of men1 both individually and in societies4 ,the vice of the doctrines of determinism has been the refusal to admit the reality of the liberating idea of freedom1 which is tending always to realise itself4 ,the belief in freedom is1 therefore1 ,fouille claims1 a powerful force in the world4 ,nothing is a more sure redeemer of men and societies from evil ways than the realisation of this idea of freedom4 ,so largely is this the case that indeed the extinction of the belief in freedom would1 he argues1 not differ much in consequence from the finding that freedom was an illusion1 or1 if it be a fact1 its abolition4 ,having thus rectified the doctrine of determinism by including a place within it for the idea of freedom1 ,fouille proceeds by careful analysis to show the error of belief in freedom understood as that of an indifferent will4 ,this raises as many fallacious views as that of a determinism bereft of the idea of freedom4 ,the capricious and indifferent liberty he rejects1 and in so doing shows us the importance of the intelligent power of willing1 and also reaffirms the determinists' thesis of inability to do certain things4 ,the psychology of character shows us a determined freedom1 and in the intelligent personality a reconciliation of freedom and determinism is seen to be effected4 ,fouille shows that if it were not true that very largely what we have been makes us what we are1 and that what we are determines our future actions1 then education1 moral guidance1 laws and social sanctions would all be useless4 ,indifferentism in thought is the reversal of all thought4 ,fouille sees that the antithesis between ,freedom and ,necessity is not absolute1 and he modifies the warmth of ,renouvier's onslaughts upon the upholders of determinism4 ,but he believes we can construct a notion of moral freedom which will not be incompatible with the determinism of nature4 ,to effect this reconciliation1 however1 we must abandon the view of ,freedom as a decision indifferently made1 an action of sheer will unrelated to intelligence4 ,freedom is not caprice2 it is1 ,fouille claims1 a power of indefinite development4 ,yet1 in the long and penetrating ,introduction to his volume on the ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces1 ,fouille points out that however much science may feel itself called upon to uphold a doctrine of determinism for its own specific purposes1 we must remember that the sphere of science is not all-embracing4 ,there is the sphere of action1 and the practical life demands and1 to a degree demonstrates1 freedom4 ,fouillee admits in this connection the indetermination of the future1 pour notre esprit4 ,we act upon this idea of relative indeterminism1 combining with it the idea of our own action1 the part which we personally feel called upon to play4 ,he recognises in his analysis how important is this point for the solution of the problem4 ,we cannot overlook the contribution which our personality is capable of making to the whole unity of life and experience1 not only by its achievements in action1 but by its ideals1 by that which we feel both can and should be4 ,herein lies1 according to ,fouille's analysis1 the secret of duty and the ideal of our power to fulfil it1 based upon the central idea of our freedom4 ,by thus acting on these ideas1 and by the light and inspiration of these ideals1 we tend to realise them4 ,it is this which marks the point where a doctrine of pure determinism not only shows itself erroneous and inadequate1 but as ,fouillee puts it1 the human consciousness is the point where it is obliged to turn against itself 8as a serpent which bites its own tail40#ah ,fatalism is a speculative hypothesis and nothing else4 ,freedom is equally an hypothesis1 but1 adds ,fouille1 it is an hypothesis which is at work in the world4 #ah ,evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces1 ,introduction1 p4 lxxiv4 ,in the thought of ,guyau there is a further insistence upon freedom in spite of the fact that his spiritualism is super-added to much which reveals the naturalist and positive outlook4 ,he upholds freedom and1 indeed1 contingency1 urging1 as against ,ravaisson's teleology1 that there is no definite tendency towards truth1 beauty and goodness4 ,at all times1 too1 ,guyau is conscious of union with nature and with his fellows in a way which operates against a facile assertion of freedom4 ,in his ,vers d'un ,philosophe he remarks3 8,ce mot si doux au coeur et si cher1 ,libert1 ,j'en prfrs encore un3 c'est ,solidarit40#ai #ai ,vers d'un ,philosophe1 8,solidarit10 p4 #ch4 ,the maintenance of the doctrine of liberty1 which in view of the facts we are bound to maintain1 does away1 ,guyau insists1 with the doctrine of ,providence2 for him1 as for ,bergson1 there is no prvision but only nouveaut in the universe4 ,guyau indeed is not inclined to admit even that end which ,bergson seems to favour--namely1 8spontaneity of life itself40 ,the world does not find its end in us1 any more than we find our 8ends0 fixed for us in advance4 ,nothing is fixed1 arranged or predetermined2 there is not even a primitive adaptation of things to one another1 for such adaptation would involve the pre-existence of ideas prior to the material world1 together with a demiurge arranging things upon a plan in the manner of an architect4 ,in reality there is no plan2 every worker conceives his own4 ,the world is a superb example1 not of order1 such as we associate with the idea of ,providence in action1 but the reverse1 disorder1 the result of contingency and freedom4 ,the supreme emphasis upon the reality of freedom appears1 however1 in the work of ,boutroux and of ,bergson at the end of our period4 ,they arrive at a position diametrically opposed to that of the upholders of determinism1 by their doctrines of contingency as revealed both in the evolution of the universe and in the realm of personal life4 ,there is thus seen1 as was the case with the problem of science1 a complete 8turn of the tide0 in the development since ,comte4 ,boutroux1 summing up his thesis ,la contingence des ,lois de la ,nature1 indicates clearly in his concluding chapter his belief in contingency1 freedom and creativeness4 ,the old adage1 8nothing is lost1 nothing is created10 to which science seems inclined to attach itself1 has not an absolute value1 for in the hierarchy of creatures contingency1 freedom1 newness appear in the higher ranks4 ,there is at work no doubt a principle of conservation1 but this must not lead us to deny the existence and action of another principle1 that of creation4 ,the world rises from inorganic to organic forms1 from matter to spirit1 and in man himself from mere sensibility to intelligence1 with its capacity for criticising and observing1 and to will capable of acting upon things and modifying them by freedom4 ,boutroux inclines to a doctrine of finalism somewhat after the manner of ,ravaisson4 ,the world he conceives as attracted to an end2 the beautiful and the good are ideals seeking to be realised2 but this belief in finality does not1 he expressly maintains1 exclude contingency4 ,to illustrate this1 ,boutroux uses a metaphor from seamanship3 the sailors in a ship have a port to make for1 yet their adaptations to the weather and sea en route permit of contingency along with the finality involved in their making for port4 ,so it is with beings in nature4 ,they have not merely the one end1 to exist amid the obstacles and difficulties around them1 8they have an ideal to realise1 and this ideal consists in approaching to ,god1 to his likeness1 each after his kind4 ,the ideal varies with the creatures1 because each has his special nature1 and can only imitate ,god in and by his own nature40#bj #bj ,la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #aeh4 ,boutroux's doctrine of freedom and contingency is not opposed to a teleological conception of the universe1 and in this respect he stands in contrast to ,bergson1 who1 in the rigorous application of his theory of freedom1 rules out all question of teleology4 ,with ,renouvier and with ,bergson1 however1 ,boutroux agrees in maintaining that this freedom1 which is the basis of contingency in things1 is not and cannot be a datum of experience1 directly or indirectly1 because experience only seizes things which are actually realised1 whereas this freedom is a creative power1 anterior to the act4 ,heredity1 instinct1 character and habit are words by which we must not be misled or overawed into a disbelief in freedom4 ,they are not absolutely fatal and fully determined4 ,the same will1 insists ,boutroux1 which has created a habit can conquer it4 ,will must not be paralysed by bowing to the assumed supremacy of instincts or habits4 ,habit itself is not a contradiction of spontaneity2 it is itself a result of spontaneity1 a state of spontaneity itself1 and does not exclude contingency or freedom4 ,metaphysics can1 therefore1 according to ,boutroux1 construct a doctrine of freedom based on the conception of contingency4 ,the supreme principles according to this philosophy will be laws1 not those of the positive sciences1 but the laws of beauty and goodness1 expressing in some measure the divine life and supposing free agents4 ,in fact the triumph of the good and the beautiful will result in the replacement of laws of nature1 strictly so called1 by the free efforts of wills tending to perfection--that is1 to ,god4 ,further studies upon the problem of freedom are to be found in ,boutroux's lectures given at the ,sorbonne in #ahib-ic in the course entitled ,de l',ide de la ,loi naturelle dans la ,science et la ,philosophie contemporaines4 ,he there recognises in freedom the crucial question at issue between the scientists and the philosophers1 for he states the object of this course of lectures as being a critical examination of the notion we have of the laws of nature1 with a view to determining the situation of human personality1 particularly in regard to free action4#ba ,boutroux recognises that when the domain of science was less extensive and less rigorous than it is now it was much easier to believe in freedom4 ,the belief in ,destiny possessed by the ancients has faded1 but we may well ask ourselves1 says ,boutroux1 whether modern science has not replaced it by a yet more rigorous fatalism4#bb ,he considers that the modern doctrine of determinism rests upon two assumptions--namely1 that mathematics is a perfectly intelligible science1 and is the expression of absolute determinism2 also that mathematics can be applied with exactness to reality4 ,these assumptions the lecturer shows to be unjustifiable4 ,mathematics and experience can never be fitted exactly into each other1 for there are elements in our experience and in our own nature which cannot be mathematically expressed4 ,this ,boutroux well emphasises in his lecture upon sociological laws1 where he asserts that history cannot be regarded as the unrolling of a single law1 nor can the principle of causality1 strictly speaking1 be applied to it4#bc ,an antecedent certainly may be an influence but not a cause1 as properly understood4 ,he here agrees with ,renouvier s position and attitude to history1 and shows the vital bearing of the problem of freedom upon the philosophy of history1 to which we shall presently give our special attention4 #ba ,de l',ide de la ,loi naturelle1 ,lecture ,,iv41 p4 #bi4 #bb ,compare ,janet's remark1 given on p4 #acf4 #bc ,lecture ,,xiii4 ,instead of the ideal of science1 a mathematical unity1 experience shows us1 ,boutroux affirms1 a hierarchy of beings1 displaying variety and spontaneity--in short1 freedom4 ,so far1 therefore1 from modern science being an advocate of universal determinism1 it is really1 when rightly regarded1 a demonstration1 not of necessity1 but of freedom4 ,boutroux's treatment of the problem of freedom thus demonstrates very clearly its connection with that of science1 and also with that of progress4 ,it forms pre-eminently the central problem4 ,the idea of freedom is prominent in the 8philosophy of action0 and in the ,bergsonian philosophy2 indeed1 ,bergson's treatment of the problem is the culmination of the development of the idea in ,cournot1 ,renouvier and the neo-spiritualists4 ,in ,blondel the notion is not so clearly worked out1 as there are other considerations upon which he wishes to insist4 ,blondel is deeply concerned with the power of ideals over action1 and his thought of freedom has affinities to the psychology of the ides-forces4 ,this is apparent in his view of the will1 where he does not admit a purely voluntarist doctrine4 ,his insistence on the dynamic of the will in action is clear1 but he reminds us that the will does not cause or produce everything1 for the will wills to be what is not yet2 it strives for achievement1 to gain something beyond itself4 ,much of ,blondel's treatment of freedom is coloured by his religious and moral psychology1 factors with which ,bergson does not greatly concern himself in his writings4 ,blondel endeavours to maintain man's freedom of action and at the same time to remain loyal to the religious notion of a ,divine ,providence1 or something akin to that4 ,consequently he is led to the dilemma which always presents itself to the religious consciousness when it asserts its own freedom--namely1 how can that freedom be consistent with ,divine guidance or action8 ,christian theology has usually been determinist in character1 but ,blondel attempts to save freedom by looking upon ,god as a ,being immanent in man4 ,bergson makes ,freedom a very central point in his philosophy1 and his treatment of it bears signs of the influence of ,de ,biran1 ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier1 ,guyau and ,boutroux4 ,he rejects1 however1 the doctrine of finality as upheld by ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier and ,boutroux1 while he stresses the contingency which this last thinker had brought forward4 ,his solution of the problem is1 however1 peculiarly his own1 and is bound up with his fundamental idea of change1 or ,,la ,,dur,e4 ,in his work ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,conscience1 or ,time and ,free-,will1 he criticises the doctrine of physical determinism1 which is based on the principle of the conservation of energy1 and on a purely mechanistic conception of the universe4 ,he here points out1 and later stresses in his ,matiere et ,mmoire1 the fact that it has not been proved that a strictly determined psychical state corresponds to a definite cerebral state4 ,we have no warrant for concluding that because the physiological and the psychological series exhibit some corresponding terms that therefore the two series are absolutely parallel4 ,to do so is to settle the problem of freedom in an entirely a priori manner1 which is unjustifiable4 ,the more subtle and plausible case for psychological determinism ,bergson shows to be no more tenable than that offered for the physical4 ,it is due to adherence to the vicious ,association-psychology1 which is a psychology without a self4 ,to say the self is determined by motive will not suffice1 for in a sense it is true1 in another sense it is not1 and we must be careful of our words4 ,if we say the self acts in accordance with the strongest motive1 well and good1 but how do we know it is the strongest8 ,only because it has prevailed--that is1 only because the self acted upon it1 which is totally different from claiming that the self was determined by it externally4 ,to say the self is determined by certain tives is to say it is self-determined4 ,the essential thing in all this is the vitality of the self4 ,the whole difficulty1 ,bergson points out1 arises from the fact that all attempts to demonstrate freedom tend only to strengthen the artificial case for determinism1 because freedom is only characteristic of a self in action4 ,he is here in line on this point with ,renouvier and ,boutroux1 although the reasons he gives for it go beyond in psychological penetration those assigned by these thinkers4 ,when our action is over1 says ,bergson1 it seems plausible to argue a case for determinism because of our spatial conception of time and the relationships of events in time4 ,we have a habit of thinking in terms of space1 by mathematical time1 not in real time or la dure as ,bergson calls it1 the time in which the living soul acts4 ,bergson thus makes room in the universe for a freedom of the human will1 a creative activity1 and thus delivers us from the bonds of necessity and fatalism in which the physical sciences and the associationist psychology would bind us4 ,we perceive ourselves as centres of indetermination1 creative spirits4 ,we must guard our freedom1 for it is an essential attribute of spirit4 ,in so far as we tend to become dominated by matter1 which acts upon us in habit and convention1 we lose our freedom4 ,it is not absolute1 and many never achieve it1 for their personality never shines forth at all3 they live their lives in habit and routine1 victims of automatism4 ,we have1 however1 ,bergson urges1 great power of creation4 ,he stresses1 as did ,guyau1 the ,conception of ,life1 as free1 expanding1 and in several respects his view of freedom is closer to that of ,guyau than to that of ,boutroux1 in spite of the latter's contingency4 ,there is no finalism admitted by ,bergson1 for he sees in any teleology only 8a reversed mechanism40 ,obviously the maintenance of such a doctrine of freedom as that of ,bergson is of central importance in any philosophy which contains it4 ,our conceptions of ethics and of progress depend upon our view of freedom4 ,for ,bergson 8the portals of the future stand wide open1 the future is being made40 ,he is an apostle of a doctrine of absolute contingency which he applied to the evolution of the world1 in his famous volume ,l',evolution ,cratrice 7published in #aijg74 ,his philosophy has been termed pessimistic by some in view of his rejection of any teleological conception4 ,such a doctrine would conflict with his 8free0 universe and his absolute contingency4 ,on the other hand1 it leaves open an optimistic view1 because of its freedom1 its insistence upon the possibilities of development4 ,it is not only a reaction against the earlier doctrines of determinism1 it is a deliverance of the human soul which has always refused1 even when religious1 to abandon entirely the belief in its own freedom4 ,such is the doctrine of freedom which closes our period1 a striking contrast to the determinism which1 under the influence of modern science1 characterised its opening4 ,the critique of science and the assaults upon determinism proceeded upon parallel lines4 ,in many respects they were two aspects of the one problem1 and in themselves were sufficient to describe the essential development in the thought of our half century1 for the considerations of progress1 ethics and religion to which we now turn derive their significance largely from what has been set forth in these chapters on ,science and ,freedom4 ,,chapter ,v ,,progress ,,introductory 3 ,freedom and ,progress intimately connected--,confidence in ,progress1 a marked feature of the earlier half of the nineteenth century1 was bound up with confidence in ,science and ,reason1 and in a belief in determinism1 either natural or divine--,condorcet1 ,saint-,simon1 ,comte and others proclaim ,progress as a dogma4 ,i4 ,the idea of progress in ,vacherot1 ,tame and ,renan--,interesting reflections of ,renan based on belief in ,reason4 ,,ii4 ,cournot and ,renouvier regard ,progress in a different light1 owing to their ideas on ,freedom--,they look upon it as a possibility only1 but not assured1 not inevitable--,renouvier's study of history in relation to progress and his view of immortality as ,progress--,no law of progress exists4 ,,iii4 ,the new spiritualist group emphasise the lack of any law of progress1 by their insistence on the spontaneity of the spirit1 creativeness and contingency--,difficulties of finalsm or teleology in relation to progress as free--,no law or guarantee of progress4 ,,conclusion 3 ,complete change from earlier period regarding ,progress--,new view of it developed--,facile optimism rejected4 ,,chapter ,v ,,progress ,intimately bound up with the idea of freedom is that of progress4 ,for1 although our main approach to the discussion of freedom was made by way of the natural sciences1 by a critique of physical determinism1 and also by way of the problem of personal action1 involving a critique of psychological determinism1 it must be noted that there have appeared throughout the discussion very clear indications of the vital bearing of freedom upon the wide field of humanity's development considered as a whole--in short1 its history4 ,the philosopher must give some account of history1 if he is to leave no gap in his view of the universe4 ,the philosophy of history will obviously be vastly different if it be based on determinism rather than on freedom4 ,when the philosopher looks at history his thoughts must inevitably centre around the idea of progress4 ,he may believe in it or may reject it as an illusion1 but his attitude to it will be very largely a reflection of the doctrine which he has formed regarding freedom4 ,the notion of progress is probably the most characteristic feature which distinguishes modern civilisation from those of former times4 ,it would have seemed to the ,greeks foolishness4 ,we owe it to the people who1 in the modern world1 have been what ,greece was in the ancient world1 the glorious mother of ideas4 ,the eighteenth century was marked in ,france by a growing belief in progress1 which was encouraged by the ,encyclopaedists and rose to enthusiasm at the ,revolution4 ,its best expression was that given by ,condorcet1 himself an ,encyclopaedist1 and originally a supporter of the ,revolution4 ,his ,sketch of an ,historical ,picture of the ,progress of the ,human ,mind was written in #agic 7while its author was threatened with the guillotine#a71 published two years later1 and became1 in the early years of the nineteenth century1 a powerful stimulus to thought concerning progress4 ,much of the work is defective1 but it had a great influence upon ,saint-,simon1 the early socialists1 and upon the doctrines of ,auguste ,comte1 which themselves are immediate antecedents of our own period4 ,we may note briefly here1 that ,condorcet believed in a sure and infallible progress in knowledge and in social welfare4 ,this is the important doctrine which ,saint-,simon and ,comte both accepted from him4 ,his ideal of progress is contained in the three watchwords of the ,revolution1 ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit1 particularly the last two4 ,he forecasts an abandonment of militarism1 prophesies an era of universal peace1 and the reign of equality between the sexes4 ,equality is a point which he insists upon very keenly1 and1 although he did not speak of sociology as did ,comte1 nor of socialism as did ,saint-,simon1 he claimed that the true history of mankind is the history of the great mass of workers3 it is not diplomatic and military1 not the record of dazzling deeds of great men4 ,condorcet1 however1 was dogmatic in his belief in progress1 and he did not work out any 8law0 of progress1 although he believed progress to be a law of the universe1 in general1 and an undeniable truth in regard to the life-history of mankind4 #a ,he was ultimately imprisoned and driven to suicide4 ,later1 his friend ,cabanis upheld a similarly optimistic view1 and endeavoured to argue for it1 against the ,traditionalists1 who we may remember endeavoured to restate ,catholicism1 and to make an appeal to those whom the events of the ,revolution had disturbed and disillusioned4 ,the outcome of the ,terror had somewhat shaken the belief in a straightforward progress1 but enthusiastic exponents of the doctrine were neither lacking nor silent4 ,madame de ,stal continued the thought of ,condorcet1 thus forming a link between him and ,saint-,simon and ,comte4 ,the influence of the ,traditionalists and the general current of thought and literature known as ,romanticism1 helped also to solve a difficulty which distinguishes ,condorcet from ,comte4 ,this difficulty lay in the eighteenth-century attitude to the ,middle ,ages1 which ,condorcet had accepted1 and which seriously damaged his thesis of general progress1 for in the eighteenth century the ,middle ,ages were looked upon as a black1 dark regress1 for which no thinker had a good word to say4 ,the change of view is seen most markedly when we come to ,comte1 whose admiration of the ,middle ,ages is a conspicuous feature of his work4 ,while1 however1 ,saint-,simon and ,comte were working out their ideas1 great popularity was given to the belief in progress by the influence of ,cousin1 ,jouffroy1 ,guizot1 and by ,michelet's translation of the ,scienza nuova of the ,italian thinker ,vico1 a book then a century old but practically unknown in ,france4 ,for ,cousin1 the world process was a result of a necessary evolution of thought1 which he conceived in rather ,hegelian fashion4 ,jouffroy agreed with this fatal progress1 although he endeavoured to reconcile it with that of personal freedom4 ,guizot's main point was that progress and civilisation are the same thing1 or rather1 that civilisation is to be defined only by progress1 for that is its fundamental idea4 ,his definition of progress is not1 however1 strikingly clear1 and he calls attention to two types of progress--one involving an improvement in social welfare1 the other in the spiritual or intellectual life4 ,although ,guizot tried to show that progress in both these forms is a fact1 he did not touch ultimate questions1 nor did he successfully show that progress is the universal key to human history4 ,he did not really support his argument that civilisation is progress in any convincing way1 but he gave a stimulus to reflection on the question of the relationship of these two4 ,michelet's translation of ,vico came at an appropriate time1 and served a useful purpose4 ,it showed to ,france a thinker who1 while not denying a certain progress over short periods1 denied it over the long period1 and reverted rather to the old notion of an eternal recurrence4 ,for ,vico1 the course of human history was not rectilineal but rather spiral1 although he1 too1 refrained from indicating any law4 ,he claimed clearly enough that each civilisation must give way to barbarism and anarchy1 and the cycle be again begun4 ,such were the ideas upon progress which were current at the time when ,saint-,simon1 ,fourier and ,comte were busily thinking out their doctrines1 the main characteristics of which we have already noted in our ,introduction on the immediate antecedents of our period4 ,the thought given to the question of progress in modern ,france is almost unintelligible save in the light of the doctrines current from ,condorcet1 through ,saint-,simon to ,comte1 for the second half of the century is again characterised by a criticism and indeed a reaction against the idea professed in the first half4 ,this was true in regard to ,science and to ,freedom4 ,we shall see a similar type of development illustrated again respecting ,progress4 ,already we have noted the general aim and object which both ,saint-,simon and ,comte had in view4 ,the important fact for our discussion here is that ,saint-,simon1 by his respect for the ,middle ,ages1 and for the power of religion1 was able to rectify the defects which the ideas of the eighteenth century had left in ,condorcet's doctrine of progress4 ,moreover1 he claimed1 as ,condorcet had not done1 to indicate a 8law of progress10 which gives rise alternately to 8organic0 and to 8critical0 periods4 ,the ,middle ,ages were1 in the opinion of ,saint-,simon1 an admirable period1 displaying as they did an organic society1 where there was a temporal and spiritual authority4 ,with ,luther began an anarchical1 critical period4 ,according to ,saint-,simon s law of progress a new organic period will succeed this1 and the characteristic of that period will be socialism4 ,he advocated a gradual change1 not a violent revolutionary one1 but he saw in socialism the inevitable feature of the new era4 ,with its triumph would come a new world organisation and a league of peoples in which war would be no more1 and in which the lot of the proletariat would be free from oppression and misery4 ,the ,saint-,simonist ,school became practically a religious sect1 and the chief note in its gospel was 8,progress40 ,that the notion of progress was conspicuous in the thought of this time is very evident4 ,it was1 indeed1 in the foreground1 and a host of writers testify to this1 whom we cannot do much more than mention here4 ,a number of them figured in the events of #ahdh4 ,the social reformers all invoked 8,progress0 as justification for their theories being put into action4 ,bazard took up the ideas of ,saint-,simon and expounded them in his ,exposition de la ,doctrine saint-simonienne 7#ahcj74 ,buchez1 in his work on the philosophy of history1 assumed progress 7#ahcc74 ,the work of ,louis ,blanc on ,l',organisation du ,travail appeared in #ahci in a periodical calling itself ,revue des ,progrs4 ,the brochure from ,proudhon1 on property1 came in #ahdj1 and was followed later by ,la ,philosophie du ,progrs 7#ahea74 ,meanwhile ,fourier's ,thorie des ,quatre ,mouvements et des ,destines gnrales attempted in rather a fantastic manner to point the road to progress4 ,worthless as many of his quaint pages are1 they were a severe indictment of much in the existing order1 and helped to increase the interest and the faith in progress4 ,fourier's disciple1 ,considrant1 was a prominent figure in #ahdh4 ,the ,utopia proposed by ,cabet insisted upon fraternit as the keynote to progress1 while the volumes of ,pierre ,leroux1 ,de l',humanit1 which appeared in the same year as ,cabet's volume1 #ahdj1 emphasised galit as the essential factor4 ,his humanitarianism influenced the woman-novelist1 ,george ,sand4 ,this same watchword of the ,revolution had been eulogised by ,de ,tocqueville in his important study of the ,american ,republic in #ahcd1 and that writer had claimed galit as the goal of human progress4 ,all these men take progress as an undoubted fact2 they only vary by using a different one of the three watchwords1 ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit1 to denote the kind of progress they mean4 ,meanwhile1 ,michelet and his friend ,quinet combated the ,hegelian conception of history maintained by ,cousin1 and they claimed libert to be the watchword of progress4 ,the confidence of all in progress is almost pathetic in its unqualified optimism4 ,it is not remarkable that the events of #ahea proved a rude shock4 ,javary1 a writer who1 in #ahej1 published a little work1 ,de l',ide du ,progrs1 claimed that the idea is the supremely interesting question of the time in its relation to a general philosophy of history and to the ultimate destiny of mankind4 ,this is fairly evident from the writers we have cited1 without ,javary's remark1 but it is worth noting as being the observation of a contemporary4 ,with the mention of ,reynaud's ,philosophie religieuse1 upholding the principle of indefinite perfectability and ,pelletan's ,profession du ,foi du ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 wherein he maintained confidently and dogmatically that progress is the general law of the universe1 we must pass on from these minor people to consider one who had a profounder influence on the latter half of the century1 and who took over the notion of progress from ,saint-,simon4 ,this was ,comte1 whose attitude to progress in many respects resembles that of ,saint-,simon1 but he brought to his work a mental equipment lacking in the earlier writer and succeeded1 by the position he gave to it in his ,positive ,philosophy1 in making the idea of progress one which subsequent thinkers could not omit from consideration4 ,according to ,comte1 the central factor in progress is the mental4 ,ideas1 as ,fouille was later to assert1 are the real forces in humanity's history4 ,these ideas develop in accordance with the 8,law of the ,three ,stages10 already explained in our ,introduction4 ,in spite of the apparent clearness and simplicity of this law1 ,comte had to admit that as a general law of all development it was to some degree rendered difficult in its application by the lack of simultaneity in development in the different spheres of knowledge and social life4 ,while recognising the mental as the keynote to progress1 he also insisted upon the solidarity of the physical1 intellectual1 moral and social life of man1 and to this extent admitted a connection and interaction between material welfare and intellectual progress4 ,the importance of this admission lay in the fact that it led ,comte to qualify what first appears as a definite and confident belief in a rectilineal progress4 ,he admits that such a conception is not true1 for there is retrogression1 conflict1 wavering1 and not a steady development4 ,yet he claims that there is a general and ultimate progress about a mean line4 ,the causes which shake and retard the steady progress are not all-powerful1 they cannot upset the fundamental order of development4 ,these causes which do give rise to variations are1 we may note in passing1 the effects of race1 climate and political and military feats like those of ,napoleon1 for whom ,comte did not disguise his hatred1 styling him the man who had done most harm to humanity4 ,great men upset his sociological theories1 but ,comte was no democrat and strongly opposed ideas of ,liberty and ,equality4 ,we have remarked upon his general attitude to his own age1 as one of criticism and anarchy4 ,in this he was probably correct1 but he quite underestimated the extent and duration of that anarchy1 particularly by his estimate of the decline and fall of ,catholicism and of militarism1 which he regarded as the two evils of ,europe4 ,the events of the twentieth century would have been a rude shock to him1 particularly the international conflagration of #aiad-aiah4 ,it was to ,europe that ,comte confined his philosophy of history and consequently narrowed it4 ,he knew little outside this field4 ,he endeavoured1 however1 to apply his new science of sociology to the development of ,european history4 ,his work contains much which is good and instructive1 but fails ultimately to establish any law of progress4 ,it does not seem to have occurred to ,comte's mind that there might not be one4 ,this was the question which was presented to the thinkers after him1 and occupies the chief place in the subsequent discussion of progress4 ,i ,in the second half of the century the belief in a definite and inevitable progress appears in the work of those thinkers inspired by the positivist spirit1 ,vacherot1 ,taine and ,renan4 ,vacherot's views on the subject are given in one of his ,essais de ,philosophie critique1#b entitled 8,doctrine du ,progrs40 ,these pages1 in which sublime confidence shines undimmed1 were intended as part of a longer work on the ,philosophy of ,history4 ,many of ,renan's essays1 and especially the concluding chapters of his work ,l',avenir de la ,science1 likewise profess an extreme confidence in progressive development4 ,yet ,taine and ,renan are both free from the excessive and glowing confidence expressed by ,condorcet1 ,saint-,simon and ,comte4 ,undoubtedly the events of their own time reacted upon their doctrine of progress1 and we have already noted the pessimism and disappointment which coloured their thoughts regarding contemporary political events4 ,both1 however1 are rationalists1 and have unshaken faith in the ultimate triumph of reason4 #b ,published in #ahfd4 ,the attitude which ,taine adopts to history finds a parallel in the fatalism and determinism of ,spinoza1 for he looks upon the entire life of mankind as the unrolling of a rigidly predetermined series of events4 8,our preferences10 he remarks1 8are futile2 nature and history have determined things in advance2 we must accommodate ourselves to them1 for it is certain that they will not accommodate themselves to us40 ,taine's view of history reflects his rejection of freedom1 for he maintains that it is a vast regulated chain which operates independently of individuals4 ,fatalism colours it entirely4 ,it is precisely this attitude of ,taine which raises the wrath of ,renouvier1 and also that of both ,cournot and ,fouille1 whose discussions we shall examine presently4 ,they see in such a doctrine an untrue view of history and a theory vicious and detestable from a moral standpoint1 although it doubtless1 as ,fouille sarcastically remarks1 has been a very advantageous one for the exploiters of humanity in all ages to teach and to preach to the people4 ,in passing from ,taine's fatalistic view of history to note his views on progress we find him asserting that man's nature does not in itself inspire great optimism1 for that nature is largely animal1 and man is ever ready1 however 8civilised0 he may appear to be1 to return to his native primitive ferocity and barbarism4 ,man is not1 according to ,taine1 even a sane animal1 for he is by nature mad and foolish4 ,health and wisdom only occasionally reign1 and so we have no great ground for optimism when we examine closely the nature of man1 as it really is4 ,taine's treatment of the ,french ,revolution#c shows his hostility to democracy1 and he is sceptical about the value or meaning of the watchwords1 8,rights of ,man10 or ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit4 ,this last1 he claims1 is merely a verbal fiction useful for disguising the reality1 which is actual warfare of all against all4 #c 8,la ,rvolution10 in his large work1 ,les ,origines de la ,france contemporaine4 ,yet in spite of these considerations ,taine believes in a definitely guaranteed progress4 ,man's lower nature does not inspire optimism1 but his high power of reason does1 and it is on this faith in reason that ,taine confidently founds his assertions regarding progress4 ,he sees in reason the ultimate end and meaning of all else4 ,the triumph of reason is an ideal goal to which1 in spite of so many obstacles1 all the forces of the universe are striving4 ,in this intellectual progress1 this gradual rationalisation of mankind1 ,taine sees the essential element of progress upon which all other goods depend4 ,the betterment of social conditions will naturally follow2 it is the spiritual and mental factor which is the keynote of progress ,reason1 he contends1 will give us a new ethic1 a new politic and a new religion4 ,renan shares with ,taine the belief in reason and its ultimate triumph4 ,his views on progress are1 however1 more discursive1 and are extremely interesting and suggestive4 ,he was in his later years shrewd enough to discover the difficulties of his own doctrine4 ,thus although he believed in a 8guaranteed0 progress1 ,renan marks a stage midway between the idea of progress as held by ,comte and ,taine on the one hand1 and by ,cournot and ,renouvier on the other4 ,his early book1 ,l',avenir de la ,science1 glows with ardent belief in this assured progress1 which is bound up with his confidence in science and rationality4 8,our creed10 he there declares1 8is the reasonableness of progress40 ,this idea of progress is almost as central a point in ,renan's thought as it was in that of ,comte1 and he gave it a more metaphysical significance4 ,his general philosophy owes much to history1 and for him the philosophy of history is the explanation of progress4 ,by this term he means an ever-growing tendency to perfection1 to fuller consciousness and life1 to nobler1 better and more beautiful ends4 ,he thinks it necessary to conceive of a sort of inner spring1 urging all things on to fuller life4 ,he seems here to anticipate vaguely the central conception of ,guyau and of ,bergson4 ,but1 like ,taine1 ,renan founds his doctrine of progress on rationalism4 ,he well expresses this in one of his ,drames philosophiques 7,l',eau de ,jouvence71 through the mouth of ,prospero1 who represents rational thought4 ,this character declares that 8it is science which brings about social progress1 and not progress which gives rise to science4 ,science only asks from society to have granted to it the conditions necessary to its life and to produce a sufficient number of minds capable of understanding it40#d ,in the preface written for this drama he declares that science or reason will ultimately succeed in creating the power and force of government in humanity4 #d ,l',eau de ,jouvence1 ,act #d1 ,scene ,i41 ,conclusion4 ,these thoughts re-echo many of the sentiments voiced on behalf of progress by ,condorcet1 ,saint-,simon and ,comte4 ,it is interesting1 however1 to note an important point on which ,renan not only parts company with them1 but ranges himself in opposition to them4 ,this point is that of socialism or democracy1 call it what one will4 ,in the spring of #ahga ,renan was detained at ,versailles during the uproar of the ,commune in ,paris1 and there wrote his ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques1 which were published five years later4 ,in these pages certain doctrines of progress and history are set forth1 notably in the 8dialogues of three philosophers of that school whose ground-principles are the cult of the ideal1 the negation of the supernatural and the investigation of reality40 ,renan raises a discussion of the end of the world's development4 ,the universe1 he maintains1 is not devoid of purpose3 it pursues an ideal end4 ,this goal to which the evolutionary process moves is the reign of reason4 ,but there are striking limitations to this advance4 ,from this kingdom of reason on the earth the mass of men are shut out4 ,renan does not believe in a gradual improvement of the mass of mankind accompanied by a general rationalisation which is democratic4 ,the truth is that ,renan was an intellectual aristocrat and1 as such1 he abhorred ,demos4 ,his gospel of culture1 upon which he lays the greatest stress1 is for the few who are called and chosen1 while the many remain outside the pale1 beyond the power of the salvation he offers4 ,the development of the democratic idea he looks upon as thoroughly mischievous1 inasmuch as it involves1 in his opinion1 degeneration1 a levelling down to mediocrity4 ,in his philosophy of history he adopts an attitude somewhat akin to that of ,carlyle in his worship of ,great ,men4 ,the end of history is1 ,renan states1 the production of men of genius4 ,the great mass of men1 the common stuff of humanity1 he likens to the soil from which these ,great ,ones grow4 ,the majority of men have their existence justified only by the appearance upon the scene of 8,heroes of ,culture40 ,in this teaching the parallelism to the gospel of the ,superman is apparent1 yet it seems clear that although ,renan's man of culture despises the ignorance and vulgarity of the crowd1 he does so condescendingly as a benefactor1 and is free from the passionate hatred and scorn to which ,nietzsche's ,superman is addicted4 ,nevertheless1 ,renan's attitude of uncompromising hostility to democratic development is very marked4 ,he couples his confidence in ,science to his anti-democratic views1 and affirms the 8,herd0 to be incapable of culture4 ,although the process of rationalisation and the establishment of the kingdom of reason is applicable only to the patrician and not to the plebs1 this process is claimed by ,renan to be capable of great extension1 not in the number of its adherents but in the extent of culture4 ,in this final reign of reason1 instinctive action and impulse will be replaced by deliberation1 and science will succeed religion4 ,his famous letter to ,berthelot includes a brief statement of his views on progressive culture1 which1 for him1 constitutes the sign of progress4 8,one ought never10 he writes1 8to regret seeing clearer into the depths40 ,by endeavouring to increase the treasure of the truths which form the paid-up capital of humanity1 we shall be carrying on the work of our pious ancestors1 who loved the good and the true as it was understood in their time4 ,the true men of progress1 he claims1 are those who profess as their starting-point a profound respect for the past4 ,renan himself was a great lover of the past1 yet we find him remarking in his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse that he has no wish to be taken for an uncompromising reactionist4 8,i love the past1 but ,i envy the future10 and he thinks that it would be extremely pleasant to live upon this planet at as late a period as possible4 ,he appears jealous of the future and of the young1 whose fate it will be to know what will be the outcome of the activities of the ,german ,emperor1 what will be the climax of the conflict of ,european nationalities1 what development socialism will take4 ,his shrewd mind had alreadv foreseen in a measure the possible development of ,german militarism and of ,bolshevism4 ,he regards the world as moving towards a kind of 8,americanism10 by which he means a type of life in which culture and refinement shall have little place4 ,yet1 although he has a horror and a dread of democracy1 he feels also that the evils accompanying it may be1 after all1 no worse than those involved in the reactionary dominance of nobles and clergy4 ,humanity has not hitherto marched1 he thinks1 with much method4 ,order he considers to be desirable1 but only in view of progress4 ,revolutions are only absurd and odious1 he asserts in ,l',avenir de la ,science1 to those who do not believe in progress4 ,yet he claims that reaction has its place in the plan of ,providence1 for it works unwittingly for the general good4 8,there are10 to quote his metaphor1 8declivities down which the rle of the traction engine consists solely in holding back40 ,renan thinks that if democratic ideas should secure a clear triumph1 science and scientific teaching would soon find the modest subsidies now accorded them cut off4 ,he fears the approach of an era of mediocrity1 of vulgarity1 in fact1 which will persecute the intellectuals and deprive the world of liberty4 ,he is not thoughtlessly optimistic2 he was far too shrewd an intellect for that4 ,our age1 he suggests1 may be regarded in future as the turning point of humanity's history1 that point where its deterioration set in1 the prelude to its decline and fall4 ,but he asserts1 as against this1 that ,nature does not know the meaning of the word 8discouragement40 ,humanity1 proving itself incapable of progress1 but only capable of further deterioration1 would be replaced by other forms4 8,we must not1 because of our personal tastes1 our prejudices perhaps1 set ourselves to oppose the action of our time4 ,this action goes on without regard to us and probably is right40#e ,the future of science is assured4 ,with its progress1 ,renan points out1 we must reckon upon the decay of organised religion1 as professed by sects or churches4 ,the disappearance of this organised religion will1 however1 result most assuredly in a temporary moral degeneration1 since morality has been so conventionally bound up with the ,church4 ,an era of egoism1 military and economic in character1 will arise and for a time prevail4 #e ,preface to ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 ,yet we must not1 ,renan reminds us1 grumble at having too much unrest and conflict4 ,the great object in life is the development of the mind1 and this requires liberty or freedom4 ,the worst type of society is the theocratic state1 or the ancient pontifical dominion or any modern replica of these where dogma reigns supreme4 ,a humanity which could not be revolutionary1 which had lost the attraction of 8,utopias10 believing itself to have established the perfect form of existence would be intolerable4 ,this raises also the query that if progress be the main feature of our universe1 then we have a dilemma to face1 for either it leads us to a terminus ad quem1 and so finally contradicts itself1 or else it goes on for ever1 and it is doubtful then in what sense it can be a progress4 ,renan's own belief was essentially religious1 and was coloured by ,christian and ,hebrew conceptions4 ,it was a rationalised belief in a ,divine ,providence4 ,he professed a confidence in the final triumph of truth and goodness1 and has faith in a dim1 far-off divine event which he terms 8the complete advent of ,god40 ,the objections which are so frequently urged by learned men against finalism or teleology of any kind whatsoever ,renan deemed superficial and claimed1 rightly enough1 that they are not so much directed against teleology but against theology1 against obsolete ideas of ,god1 particularly against the dogma of a deliberate and omnipotent ,creator4 ,renan's own doctrine of the ,deity is by no means clear1 but he believed in a spiritual power capable of becoming some day conscious1 omniscient and omnipotent4 ,god will then have come to himself4 ,from this point of view the universe is a progress to ,god1 to an increasing realisation of the ,divinity in truth1 beauty and goodness4 ,the universe1 ,renan claims1 must be ultimately rooted and grounded in goodness2 there must be1 in spite of all existing 8evils10 a balance on the side of goodness1 otherwise the universe would1 like a vast banking-concern1 fail4 ,this balance of goodness is the raison d'tre of the world and the means of its existence4 ,the general life of the universe can be illustrated1 according to ,renan1 by that of the oyster1 and the formation within it of the pearl1 by a malady1 a process vague1 obscure and painful4 ,the pearl is the spirit which is the end1 the final cause and last result1 and assuredly the most brilliant outcome of this universe4 ,through suffering the pearl is formed2 and likewise1 through constant pain and conflict1 suffering and hardship1 the spirit of man moves intellectually and morally onward and upward1 to the completed realisation of justice1 beauty1 truth and infinite goodness and love1 to the complete and triumphant realisation of ,god4 ,we must have patience1 claims ,renan1 and have faith in these things1 and have hope and take courage4 8,one day virtue will prove itself to have been the better part40 ,such is his doctrine of progress4 ,,ii ,with ,cournot and ,renouvier our discussion takes a new form4 ,renan1 ,taine1 ,vacherot and the host of social and political writers1 together with ,august ,comte himself1 had accepted the fact of progress and clung to the idea of a law of progress4 ,with these two thinkers1 however1 there is a more careful consideration given to the problem of progress4 ,it was recognised as a problem and this was an immense advance upon the previous period1 whose thinkers accepted it as a dogma4 ,true to the philosophic spirit of criticism and examination which involves the rejection of dogma as such1 ,cournot and ,renouvier approach the idea of progress with reserve and free from the confidently optimistic assertions of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century4 ,scorning the rhetoric of political socialists1 positivists and rationalists1 they endeavour to view progress as the central problem of the philosophy of history1 to ascertain what it involves1 and to see whether such a phrase as 8law of progress0 has a meaning before they invoke it and repeat it in the overconfident manner which characterised their predecessors4 ,we have maintained throughout this work that the central problem of our period was that of freedom4 ,by surveying the general character of the thought of the time1 and in following this by an examination of the relation of science and philosophy1 we were able to show how vital and how central this problem was4 ,from another side we are again to emphasise this4 ,having seen the way in which the problem of freedom was dealt with1 we are in a position to observe how this coloured the solutions of other problems4 ,the illustration is vivid here1 for ,cournot and ,renouvier develop their philosophy of history from their consideration of freedom1 and base their doctrines of progress upon their maintenance of freedom4 ,it is obvious that the acceptance of such views as those expressed on freedom by both ,cournot and ,renouvier must have far-reaching effects upon their general attitude to history1 for how is the dogma of progress1 as it had been preached1 to be reconciled with free action8 ,it is much easier to believe in progress if one be a fatalist4 ,the difficulty here was apparent to ,comte when he admitted the influence of variations1 disturbing causes1 which resulted in the development of mankind assuming an oscillating character rather than that of a straight-forward progress4 ,he did not1 however1 come sufficiently close to this problem1 and left the difficulty of freedom on one side by asserting that the operation of freedom1 chance or contingency 7call it what we will71 issuing in non-predetermined actions1 was so limited as not to interfere with the general course of progress4 ,cournot and ,renouvier take up the problem where ,comte left it at this point4 ,each of them takes it a stage further onward in the development4 ,the fundamental ideas of ,cournot we have briefly noted as being those of order1 chance and probability4 ,the relation of these to progress he discusses1 not only in his ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances and the ,trait de l',enchanement d',ides1 but also in a most interesting manner in his two volumes entitled ,considrations sur la ,marche des ,ides et des ,evnements dans les ,temps modernes4 ,like ,comte1 he is faithful1 as far as his principles will allow1 to the idea of order4 ,there is order in the universe to a certain degree2 science shows it to us4 ,there is also1 he maintains1 freedom1 hazard or chance4 ,looking at history he sees1 as did ,comte1 phenomena which1 upon taking a long perspective1 appear as interferences4 ,pure reason is1 he claims1 really incapable of deciding the vital question whether these disturbances are due to a pure contingency1 chance or freedom1 or whether they mark the points of the influence of the supernatural upon mankind's development4 ,he refers to the enchanement de circonstances providentielles which helped the early ,jews and led to the propagation of their monotheism2 which helped also the development of the ,christian religion in the ,roman ,empire4 ,hazard itself1 he claims1#f may be the agent or minister of ,providence4 ,such a view claims to be loyal at once to freedom and to order4 #f ,essai sur les ,fondaments de nos ,connaissances1 vol4 i1 chap4 #e4 ,cournot continues his discussion further and submits many other considerations upon progress4 ,he claims that it is absurd to see in every single occurrence the operations of a divine providence or the work of a divine architect4 ,such a view would exalt his conception of order1 undoubtedly1 but only at the expense of his view of freedom4 ,he will not give up his belief in freedom1 and in consequence declares that there is no pre-arranged order or plan in the sense of a 8law40 ,he sets down many considerations which appear as dilemmas to the pure reason1 and which only action1 he thinks1 will solve4 ,he points out the difficulty of economic and social progress owing to our being unable to test theories until they are in action on a large field4 ,he shows too how conflicting various developments may be1 and how progress in one direction may involve degeneration in another4 ,equality may be good in some ways1 unnatural and evil in others4 ,increase of population may be applauded as a progress from a military standpoint1 but may be an economic evil with disastrous suffering as its consequence4 ,the 8progress0 to peace and stability in a society usually involves a decrease in vitality and initiative4 ,by much wealth of argument1 no less than by his general attitude1 ,cournot was able to apply the breaks to the excessive confidence in progress and to call a halt for sounder investigation of the matter4 ,renouvier did much more in this direction4 ,in his ,second ,essay of ,general ,criticism he touched upon the problem of progress in relation to freedom1 and his fourth and fifth essays constitute five large volumes dealing with the 8,philosophy of ,history40 ,he also devotes the last two chapters of ,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie to progress in relation to societies1 and brings out the central point of his social ethics1 that justice is the criterion of progress4 ,indeed1 all that ,renouvier says regarding history and progress leads up1 in a manner peculiarly his own1 to his treatment of ethics1 which will claim attention in our next chapter4 ,the ,analytic ,philosophy of ,history forms an important item in the philosophical repertoire of ,renouvier4 ,he claims it to be a necessary feature of the neo-critical1 and indeed of any serious1 philosophy4 ,it is1 he claims1 not a branch of knowledge which has an isolated place1 for it is as intimately connected to life as is any theory to the facts which it embraces4 ,that is not to say1 and ,renouvier is careful to make this clear1 that we approach history assuming that there are laws governing it1 or a single law or formula by which human development can be expressed4 ,the 8,philosophy of ,history0 assumes no such thing2 it is precisely this investigation which it undertakes1 loyal to the principles of ,general ,criticism of which it1 in a sense1 forms a part4 ,in a classification it strictly stands between ,general ,criticism or ,pure ,philosophy and ,history itself4 8,history10 says ,renouvier1 8is the experience which humanity has of itself10#g and his conclusions regarding progress depend on the views he holds regarding human personality and its essential attribute1 freedom4 ,the philosophy of history has to consider whether1 in observing the development of humanity on the earth1 one may assert the presence of any general law or laws4 ,can one say legitimately that there has been development8 ,is there really such a thing as progress8 ,if so1 what is our idea of progress8 ,what is the trend of humanity's history8 ,these are great questions4 #g ,introduction la ,philosophie de l',histoire1 ,prface4 ,the attitude which ,renouvier adopts to the whole course of human history is based upon his fundamental doctrines of discontinuity1 freedom and personality4 ,there are1 he claims1 real beginnings1 unpredicable occurrences1 happenings which cannot be explained as having been caused by preceding events4 ,we must not1 he urges1 allow ourselves to be hypnotised by the name 8,history10 as if it were in itself some great power1 sweeping all of us onward in its course1 or a vast ocean in which we are merely waves4 ,renouvier stands firm in his loyalty to personality1 and sees in history1 not a power of this sort1 but simply the total result of human actions4 ,history is the collective work of the human spirit or of free personalities4#h #h ,renouvier's great objection to ,comte's work was due to his disagreement with ,comte's conception of ,humanity4 ,to ,renouvier1 with his intense valuation of personality1 this ,comtian conception was too much of an abstraction4 ,it is erroneous to look upon it as either the fatalistic functioning of a law of things or as the results of the action of an all-powerful ,deity or ,providence4 ,neither the 8scientific0 view of determinism nor the theological conception of ,god playing with loaded dice1 says ,renouvier1 will explain history4 ,it is the outcome of human action1 of personal acts which have real worth and significance in its formation4 ,history is no mere display of marionettes1 no ,punch-and-,judy show with a divine operator pulling strings from his concealed position behind the curtain4 ,equally ,renouvier disagrees with the view that history is merely an unrolling in time of a plan conceived from eternity4 ,human society and civilisation 7of which history is the record7 are products of man's own thought and action1 and in consequence manifest discontinuity1 freedom and contingency4 ,renouvier thus opposes strongly all those thinkers1 such as the ,saint-,simonists1 ,hegelians and ,positivists1 who see in history only a fatalistic development4 ,he joins battle especially with those who claim that there is a fatalistic or necessitated progress4 ,history has no law1 he claims1 and there is not and cannot be any law of progress4 ,the idea of progress is certainly1 he admits1 one with which the philosopher is brought very vitally into contact in his survey of history4 ,indeed an elucidation of1 this notion might itself be a part of the historian's task4 ,if so1 the historians have sadly neglected part of their work4 ,renouvier calls attention to the fact that all those historians or philosophers who accept a comforting doctrine of humanity's assured progress make very plausible statements1 but they never seem able to state with any clearness or definiteness what constitutes progress1 or what significance lies in their oft-repeated phrase1 8the law of progress40 ,he rightly points out that this insistence upon a law1 coupled with a manifest inability to indicate what it is1 causes naturally a certain scepticism as to there being any such law at all4 ,renouvier brands the search for any law of progress a futile one1 since we cannot scientifically or logically define the goal of humanity or the course of its development because of the fact of freedom and because of our ignorance4 ,we must realise that we1 personally at firsthand1 see only an infinitesimal part of humanity's life on this planet alone1 not to speak of a destiny possible beyond this globe1 and that1 at second-hand1 we have only evidence of a portion of the great procession of human events4 ,we do not know humanity's beginning and primitive history1 nor do we know its goal1 if it has one4 ,these factors alone are grave hindrances to the formulation of any conception of progress4 ,reflection upon them might have saved men1 ,renouvier observes1 from the presumptuous belief in assured progress4 ,we cannot presume even to estimate the tendencies1 the direction of its course1 because of the enormous and ever-increasing complexity of free human activity4 ,by his large work on the 8,philosophy of ,history10 ,renouvier shows that the facts of history themselves are against the theory of a universal and continuous progress1 for the record shows us conflict1 advance1 retrogression1 peoples rising1 others degenerating1 empires establishing themselves and passing away by inward ruin or outer assaults1 or both1 and civilisations evolving and disintegrating in their turn4 ,the spectacle does not readily promote an optimistic view of human development at all1 much less support the doctrine of a sure and certain progress4 ,renouvier does not blind himself to the constant struggle and suffering4 ,the theatre1 or rather the arena1 of history presents a curious spectacle4 ,in politics and in religion he shows us that there are conflicts of authority and of free thought1 a warfare of majorities with minorities1 a method of fighting issues slightly less savage than the appeal to pure force1 but amounting to what he terms 8a pacific application of the principle of force40 ,history shows us the corruption1 tyranny and blindness of many majorities1 and the tragic and necessary resort to force as the only path to liberty for down-trodden minorities4 ,how1 ,renouvier asks1 can we fit this in with a doctrine of assured progress1 or1 indeed1 progress at all8 ,further1 he does not find it difficult to show that much unthinking utterance on the part of the optimists may be somewhat checked by calm reflection on even one or two questions4 ,for example1 ,was progress involved in the change from ancient slavery to the wage-slavery of modern industrialism8 ,was ,christianity1 as ,nietzsche and others have attempted to maintain1 a retrogression8 ,or1 again1 ,was the change from ,greek city life to the conditions of the ,middle ,ages in any way to be regarded as a progress8 ,renouvier considers it quite erroneous to assert1 as did ,comte1 that there is a steady and continuous development underlying the oscillations1 and that the variations1 as it were1 from the direct line of progress cancel one another or balance each other1 leaving1 as ,renan claimed1 a balance always and inevitably on the side of goodness4 ,such a confidence in the great world banking concern ,renouvier does not possess4 ,there is no guarantee that the account of goodness may not be overdrawn and found wanting4 ,he reminds us sternly and solemnly of the terrible solidarity which characterises evil4 ,deceit1 greed1 lust1 violence and war have an enormous power of breeding each other and of supporting one another increasingly4 ,the optimistic doctrines of progress are simply untrue statements of the facts of history1 and falsely coloured views of human nature4 ,it is an appalling error in 8social dynamics0 to overlook the clash of interest1 the greed of nation and of class1 the fundamental passionate hate and war4 ,with it is coupled an error in 8social statics10 in which faith is put in institutions1 in the mechanism of society4 ,these1 declares ,renouvier1 will not save humanity2 they will1 indeed1 ruin it if it allow itself1 through spiritual and moral lethargy1 to be dominated by them4 ,they have been serviceable creations of humanity at some time or other1 and they must serve men1 but men must not be bound down to serve them4 ,this servitude is evil1 and it has profoundly evil consequences4 ,having attacked ,comte's view of progress and of order in its static and dynamic point of view1 ,renouvier then brings up his heavy artillery of argument against ,comte's idealisation of the ,middle ,ages4 ,to assert that this period was an advance on the life of the ,greek city1 ,renouvier considers to be little short of impudence4 ,the art and science and philosophy of the ,greeks are our best heritage1 while the ,middle ,ages1 dominated by a vicious and intolerant ,church1 with its infallible theology and its crushing power of the clergy1 was a 8dead hand0 upon the human spirit4 ,while it provided an organic society1 it only succeeded in doing so by narrowing and crushing the human intellect4 ,the ,renascence and the ,reformation proved that there were essential elements of human life being crushed down4 ,they reached a point1 however1 where they exploded4 ,not only does ,renouvier thus declare the ,middle ,ages to be a regress1 but he goes the length of asserting that the development of ,european history could have been different4 ,this is his doctrine of freedom applied to history4 ,there is no reason at all for our regarding the ,middle ,ages or any such period as necessitated in the order of mankind's development4 ,there is no law governing that development2 consequently1 had mankind1 or even a few of its number1 willed and acted upon their freedom differently1 the whole trend of the period we call the ,dark ,ages might have been quite other than it was4 ,renouvier does not shirk the development of this point1 which is a central one for his purpose4 ,it may seem fantastic to the historians1 who must of course accept the past as given and consequently regard reflection on 8what might have been0 as wasted time4 ,certainly the past cannot be altered--that is not ,renouvier's point4 ,he intends to give a lesson to humanity1 a stern lesson to cure it of its belief in fatalism in regard to history4 ,this is the whole purpose of the curious volume he published in #ahgf1 entitled ,uchronie1 which had as its explanatory sub-title ,l',utopie dans l',histoire1 ,esquisse historique du ,dveloppement de la ,civilisation europenne1 tel qu'il n'a pas t1 tel qu'il avail pu tre4 ,the book1 consisting of two manuscripts supposed to be kept in the care of an old ,dutch monk1 is actually an imaginary construction by ,renouvier himself of ,european history in the period #ajj to #hjj ,a4,d41 written to show the real possibility that the sequence of events from the ,emperor ,nerva to the ,emperor ,charlemagne might have been radically different from what it actually was4 ,all this is intended by ,renouvier to combat the 8universal justification of the past40 ,he sees that the doctrine of progress as usually stated is not only a lie1 but that it is an extremely dangerous one1 for it justifies the past1 or at least condones it as inevitable1 and thus makes evil a condition of goodness1 demoralises history1 nullifies ethics and encourages the damnation of humanity itself4 ,this fatalistic doctrine1 asserts ,renouvier with great earnestness1 must be abandoned2 freedom must be recognised as operative1 and the human will as making history4,there is no law of progress1 and the sooner humanity can come to realise this the better it will be for it4 ,only by such a realisation can it work out its own salvation4 8,the real law lies01 declares ,renouvier10only in an equal possibility of progress or deterioration for both societies and individuals40 ,if there is to be progress it can only come because1 and when1 humanity recognises itself as collectively responsible for its own history1 and when each person feels his own responsibility regarding that action4 ,no acceptance of events will avail2 we must will progress and consciously set ourselves to realise it4 ,it is possible1 but it depends on us4 ,here ,renouvier's considerations lead him from history to ethics4 8,almost all the ,great ,men1 men of great will1 have been fatalists4 ,so slowly does humanity emerge from its shadows and beget for itself a just notion of its autonomy4 ,the phantom of necessity weighs heavily10 he laments1 8over the night of history40#i ,with freedom and a recognition of its freedom by humanity generally we may see the dawn of better things4 ,humanity will then consciously and deliberately make its history1 and not be led by the operations of herd-instinct and fatalistic beliefs which in the past have so disgraced and marred its record4 #i ,psychologie ralionnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ia4 ,the existing condition of human society can only be described frankly1 in ,renouvier's opinion1 as a state of war4 ,each individual1 each class1 each nation1 each race1 is actually at war with others4 ,it matters not whether a diplomatic state of peace1 as it is called1 exists or not2 that must not blind us to the facts4 ,by institutions1 customs1 laws1 hidden fraud1 diplomacy1 and open violence1 this conflict is kept up4 ,it is all war1 says ,renouvier4 ,modern society is based on war1 economic1 military or judicial4 ,indeed1 military and naval warfare is a clear issue1 but only a symbol of what always goes on4 ,might always has the upper hand1 hence ordinary life in modern society is just a state of war4 ,our civilisation does not rest on justice1 or on the conception of justice2 it rests on power and might4 ,until it is founded on justice1 peace1 he urges1 will not be possible2 humanity will be enslaved in further struggles disastrous o itself4 ,this doctrine of the tat de guerre1 as descriptive of modern society1 he makes a feature of his ethics1 upon which we must not here encroach1 but may point out that he insists upon justice as the ultimate social criterion1 and claims that this is higher than charity1 which is inadequate as a basis for society1 however much it may alleviate its ills4 ,one of the chief necessities1 he points out1 an essential to any progressive measure would be to moralise our modern notion of the state4#aj ,in the notes to his last chapter of the ,nouvelle ,monadologie ,renouvier attacks the ,marxian doctrine of the materialistic determination of history4 #aj ,this point was further emphasised by ,henri ,michel in his work1 ,l',ide de l',etat4 ,this same book1 however1 we must note1 marks a stage in ,renouvier's own thought different from his doctrines in the earlier ,essais de ,critique gnrale1 and this later philosophy1 of which the ,monadologie and ,personnalisme are the two most notable volumes1 displays an attempt to look upon progress from a more ultimate standpoint4 ,his thodice here involves the notion1 seen in ,ravaisson1 of an early perfection1 involving a subsequent 8fall10 the world now1 with its guerre universelle1 being an intermediate stage between a perfect or harmonious state in the past and one which lies in the future4 ,the march of humanity is an uncertain one because it is free4 ,the philosophy of history thus reiterates the central importance of freedom4 ,the actual end or purpose of this freedom is not simply1 says ,renouvier1 the attainment of perfection1 but rather the possibility of progress4 ,it was this thought which led him on in his reflections further than any of the thinkers of our period1 or at least more deliberately than any1 to indicate his views on the doctrine of a future life for humanity4 ,so far from this being a purely religious problem1 ,renouvier rightly looks upon it as merely a carrying further afield of the conception of progress4 ,for him1 and this is the significant point for us here1 any notion of a future life for humanity1 in the accepted sense of immortality1 is bound up with1 and indeed based upon1 the conception of progressive development4 ,it is true that ,renouvier1 like ,kant1 looks upon the problems of 8,god1 ,freedom and ,immortality0 as the central ones in philosophy1 true also that he recognises the significance of this belief in a ,future ,life as an extremely important one for religious teaching2 but his main attitude to the question is merely a continuation of his general doctrine of progress1 coupled with his appreciation of personality4 ,it is in this light only that ,renouvier reflects upon the problem of ,immortality4 ,he makes no appeal to a world beyond our experience--a fact which follows from his rejection of the ,kantian world of 8noumena02 nor does he wish the discussion to be based on the assertions of religious faith4 ,he admits that belief in a ,future ,life involves faith1 in a sense1 but it is a rational belief1 a philosophical hypothesis and1 more particularly1 according to ,renouvier1 a moral hypothesis4 ,he asserts against critics that the undertaking of such a discussion is a necessary part of any ,critical ,philosophy1 which would be incomplete without it1 as its omission would involve an inadequate account of human experience4 ,renouvier claims that1 in the first instance1 the question of a future existence arises naturally in the human mind from the discrepancy which is manifest in our experience between nature on the one hand and conscience on the other4 ,the course of events is not in accord with what we feel to be morally right1 and the demands of the moral law are1 to ,renouvier's mind1 supreme4 ,he realises how acutely this discrepancy is sometimes felt by the human mind1 and his remarks on this point recall those of the sensitive soul1 who1 feeling this acutely1 cried out3 8,ah1 ,love6 could thou and ,i with ,fate conspire ,to grasp this sorry ,scheme of ,things entire1 ,would we not shatter it to bits--and then ,re-mould it nearer to the heart's desire40 ,these lines well express the sharpness of ,renouvier's own feelings1 and he claims that1 such a conspiracy being impossible1 the belief in ,immortality becomes a necessary moral postulate or probability4 ,the grounds for such a postulate are to be found1 he claims1 even in the processes of nature itself4 ,the law of finality or teleology manifests itself throughout the universe3 purpose is to be seen at work in the ,cosmos4 ,it is true that in the lower stages of existence it seems obscure and uncertain1 but an observer cannot fail to see 8ends0 being achieved in the biological realm4 ,the functions of organisms1 more particularly those of the animal world1 show us a realm of ends and means at work for achieving those ends4 ,this development in the direction of an end1 this teleology1 implies1 says ,renouvier1 a destiny4 ,the whole of existence is a gradual procession of beings at higher and higher levels of development1 ends and means to each other1 and all inheriting an immense past1 which is itself a means to their existence as ends in themselves4 ,may one not then1 suggests ,renouvier1 make a valid induction from the destiny thus recognised and partially fulfilled of certain individual creatures1 to a destiny common to all these creatures indefinitely prolonged8#aa #aa ,psychologic rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bbj-bba4 ,the objection is here made that ,nature does not concern herself with individuals2 for her the individual is merely a means for the carrying on and propagation of the species4 ,individuals come into being1 live for a time and pass away1 the species lives on perpetually2 only species are in the plan of the universe1 individuals are of little or no worth4 ,to this ,renouvier replies that species live long but are not perpetual2 whole species have been wiped out by happenings on our planet1 many now are dying out4 ,the insinuation about the worthlessness of individuals rouses his wrath1 for it strikes at the very root of his philosophy1 of which personality is the keynote4 ,this1 he says1 is to lapse into ,pantheism1 into doctrines of ,buddhists and of ,spinoza4 ,pantheism and all kindred views are to be rejected4 ,it is not in the indefinable1 ,all-existing1 the eternal and infinite ,one1 that we find help with regard to the significance of ends in nature4 ,ends are to be sought in the individuals or the species4 ,but while it behoves us to look upon the world as existing for the species and not the species for the sake of the world1 we must remember that the species exists for the sake of the individuals in it4 ,it is false to look upon the individuals as existing merely for the sake of the species4 ,if we subordinate the individual to the species1 sacrificing his inherent worth and unique value1 and then subordinate species to genus and all genera to the ,all1 we lose ourselves in the ,infinite substance in which everything is swallowed up4 ,again1 ,pantheism tends to speak of the perfection of individuals1 and speaks loudly of progress from one generation to another4 ,but it tells only of a future which involves the entire sacrifice of all that has worth or value in the past4 ,it shows endless sacrifice1 improvement too1 but all for naught4 8,what does it matter to say that the best is yet to be1 if the best must perish as the good1 to give place to a yet better #8best' which will not have the virtue of enduring any more than the others8 ,do we offer any real consolation to ,sisyphus10 asks ,renouvier1 8by promising him annihilation1 which is coupled with the promise of successors capable of lifting his old rock higher and still higher up the fatal slope1 by offering him the eternal falling of this rock and successors who will continually be annihilated and endlessly be replaced by others80 ,the rock is the personal life4 ,on this theory1 however high the rock be pushed1 it always is destined to fall back to the same depth1 as low as if it had never been pushed up hill at all4 ,we refuse to reconcile a world containing real ends and purposes within it with such a game1 vast and miserable1 in which no actor plays for his own sake1 and all the false winners lose all their gains by being obliged to leave the party while the play goes on for ever4 ,this is to throw away all individual worth1 the value of all personal work and effort1 to declare individuality a sham1 and to embrace fatality4 ,it is this mischievous ,pantheism which is the curse of many religions and many philosophies4 ,against it ,renouvier wages a ceaseless warfare4 ,the individuals1 he asserts exist both for their own sake and worth1 also for the sake and welfare of others4 ,in the person1 the law of finality finds its highest expression4 ,personality is of supreme and unique value4 ,this being so1 it becomes a necessary postulate of our philosophy1 if we really believe in the significance of personalities and in progress 7which ,renouvier considers to have no meaning apart from them71 to conclude that death is but an event in the career of these personalities4 ,they are perpetuated beyond death4 ,for ,renouvier1 as for ,kant1 the chief arguments for survival are based on considerations of a moral character1 upon the demands of the moral ideal for self- realisation1 for the attainment of holiness or1 more properly1 8wholeness40 ,this progress can only be made possible by the continued existence after bodily death of the identical personality1 unique and of eternal worth in the scheme of things1 capable of further development than is possible amid the conditions of life as we know it4 ,we must1 however1 present to ourselves ,immortality as given by the development of appearances in this world of phenomena1 under the general laws with which we are acquainted to-day1 thus correcting the method of ,kant1 who placed ,immortality in a noumenal world4 ,the salvation of a philosopher should not be of such a kind4 ,we must treat ,immortality as a ,law1 not as a miracle4 ,the thinker who accepts the latter view quits the realm of science--that is1 of experience and reason--to establish a mystic order in contradiction with the laws of nature4 ,the appeal to the 8supernatural0 is the denial of nature1 and the appellant ruins his own case by his appeal4 ,if ,immortality is a fact1 it must be considered rationally4 ,is ,death--that is1 the destruction of individuals as such1 or the annihilation of personalities--a reality8 ,renouvier reminds those who jeer at the doctrine of ,immortality that 8the reality of death 7as so defined7 has not been1 and cannot be1 proved40 ,our considerations must of necessity be hypothetical1 but they can be worthy of rational beings4 ,we must then keep our hopes and investigations within the realm of the universe and not seek to place our hope of immortality in a region where nothing exists1 8not even an ether to support the wings of our hope40 ,renouvier's general considerations led him to view all individuals as having a destiny in which their individuality should be conserved and developed4 ,when we turn in particular to man1 these points are to be seen in fuller light4 ,the instinctive belief in ,immortality is bound up with his nature as a thinking being who is capable of setting up1 and of striving after1 ends4 ,this continual striving is a marked characteristic of all human life1 a counting oneself not to have attained1 a missing of the mark4 ,the human consciousness protests against annihilation4 ,at times this is very keenly expressed4 8,at the period of the great aspirations of the heart1 the ecstasy of noble passions is accompanied by the conviction of ,immortality4 ,life at its highest1 realising its richest personality1 protests1 in virtue of its own worth1 and in the name of the depths of power it still feels latent in itself1 against the menace of annihilation40#ab ,it cries out with its unconquerable soul3 8,give me the glory of going on and not to die60 #ab ,psychologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bdi4 ,renouvier finds a further witness in the testimony of ,love--that is to say1 in nature itself arrived at the consciousness of that passion in virtue of which it exists and assuring itself by this passion1 of the power to surmount all these short-comings and failures4 ,love casteth out fear1 the dread of annihilation1 and shows itself 8stronger than death40 ,hope and ,love unite in strengthening the initial belief in ,immortality and the 8will to survive40 ,renouvier admits that this is a priori reasoning1 and speedily a posteriori arguments can be brought up as mighty battering-rams against the fortress of immortal life1 but although they mav shake its walls1 they are unable to destroy the citadel4 ,nothing can demonstrate the impossibility of future existence1 whereas the whole weight of the moral law and the teleological elements at work in the universe are1 according to ,renouvier1 in favour of such a belief4 ,morality1 like every other science1 is entitled to1 nay obliged to1 employ the hypothesis of harmony4 ,now in this connection the hypothesis of harmony 7or1 as ,kant styled it1 the concurrence of happiness and virtue necessary to a conception of order7 finds reinforcement from the consideration of the meaning and significance of freedom4 ,for the actual end or purpose of freedom is not simply the attainment of perfection1 but rather the possibility of progress4 ,immortality becomes a necessary postulate1 reinforced by instinct1 reason1 morality1 by the fact of freedom1 and the notion of progress4 ,further1 ,renouvier feels that if we posit death as the end of all we thereby give an absolute victory to physical evil in the universe4 ,the postulate of ,immortality has a certain dignity and worth4 ,the discussion of future life must1 however1 be kept within the possibilities of law and phenomena4 ,religious views1 such as those of ,priestley1 by their appeal to the miraculous debase the notion of ,immortality itself4 ,talk of an immortal essence1 and a mortal essence is meaningless1 for unless the same identical person1 with his unique character and memory1 persists1 then our conception of immortality is of little or no value4 ,the idea of an indestructible spiritual substance is not any better or more acceptable4 ,our notion of a future life must be based upon the inherent and inalienable rights of the moral person to persistence and to chances of further development or progress4 ,although we must beware of losing ourselves in vain speculations1 which really empty our thought of all its content1 ,renouvier claims that we are quite entitled to lay down hypotheses4 ,the same general laws which we see in operation and which have brought the universe and the beings in it to the stage of development in which they now are may1 without contradiction1 be conceived as operating in further developments after the change we call bodily death4 ,there is no incongruity in conceiving the self-same personality continuing in a second and different organism4 ,renouvier cites the case of the grub and the butterfly and other metamorphoses4 ,in man himself he points to organic crises1 which give the organism a very different character and effect a radical change in its constitution4 ,for example1 there is the critical exit from the mother's womb1 involving the change from a being living in an enclosure to that of an independent creature4 ,when once the crisis of the first breath be passed the organism starts upon another life4 ,there are other crises1 as1 for instance1 the radical changes which operate in both sexes at the stage of puberty4 ,just as the personality persists in its identity through all these changes1 may it not pass through that of bodily death8 ,the ,stoics believed in a cosmic resurrection4 ,substituting the idea of progress for their view of a new beginning1 ,renouvier claims that we may attain the hypothesis that all human history is but a fragment in a development incomparably greater and grander4 ,again1 we may conceive of life in two worlds co-existing1 indeed interpenetrating1 so that the dead are not gone far from us into some remote heaven4 ,but1 whatever form we give to our hypothesis regarding progress into another existence beyond this present one1 ,renouvier does not easily allow us to forget that it must be based upon the significance of freedom1 progress and personality supported by moral considerations4 ,even this progress is not guaranteed1 and even if it should be the achievement of some spirits there is no proof that it is universal4 ,our destiny1 he finally reminds us1 lies in our own hands1 for progress here means an increased capacity for progress later1 while spiritual and moral indifference will result finally1 and indeed1 necessarily1 in annihilation4 ,here1 as so often in his work1 ,renouvier puts moral arguments and appeals in the forefront of his thought4 ,progress in relation to humanity's life on earth drew from him an appeal for the establishment of justice3 progress in a further world implies equally a moral appeal4 ,our duty is to keep the ideal of progress socially and individually ever before us1 and to be worthy of immortality if it be a fact1 rather than to lose ourselves in the mistaken piety of 8other- worldliness40 ,about neither progress can we be dogmatic2 it is not assured1 ,renouvier has shown1 and we must work for it by the right use of our freedom1 our intelligence and our will4 ,,iii ,no thinker discussed the problem of progress with greater energy or penetration than ,renouvier4 ,the new spiritualist group1 however1 developed certain views arising from the question of contingency1 or the relation of freedom to progress4 ,these thinkers were concerned more with psychological and metaphysical work1 and with the exception of ,fouille and ,guyau1 they wrote little which bore directly upon the problem of progress4 ,many of their ideas1 however1 have an indirect bearing upon important points at issue4 ,in ,ravaisson1 ,lachelier and ,boutroux1 we find the question of teleology presented1 and also that of the opposition of spirit and matter4 ,from the outset the new spiritualism had to wrestle with two difficulties inherent in the thought of ,ravaisson4 ,these were1 firstly1 the reconciliation of the freedom and spontaneity of the spirit with the operations of a ,divine ,providence or teleology of some kind2 and1 secondly1 the dualism assumed in the warfare of spirit and matter1 although spirit was held to be superior and anterior to matter4 ,this last involved a complication for any doctrine of progress1 as it required a primitive 8fall0 to account for matter1 even a fall of the ,deity himself4 ,this ,ravaisson himself admits1 and he thinks that in creating the world ,god had to sacrifice some of his own being4 ,in this case 8progress0 is set over against a transcendental existence1 and is but the reawakening of what once existed in ,god1 and in a sense now and eternally exists4 ,progress there is1 claims ,ravaisson1 towards truth and beauty and goodness4 ,this is the operation of a ,divine ,providence acting by attracting men freely to these ideals1 and as these are symbols of ,god himself1 progress is the return of the spirit through self-conscious personalities to the fuller realisation of harmony1 beauty and love--that is1 to the glory of ,god1 who has ever been1 now is1 and ever shall be1 perfect beauty1 goodness and love4 ,thus1 although from a temporal and finite standpoint ,ravaisson can speak of progress1 it is doubtful if he is justified in doing so ultimately1 sub specie ternitatis4 ,to solve the problem in the way he presents it1 one would need to know more about the ultimate value and significance of the personalities themselves1 and their destiny in relation to the ,divinity who is1 as he claims1 perfect harmony1 beauty and love4 ,it was this point1 so dear to an upholder of personality1 which had led ,renouvier to continue his discussion of progress in relation to history as generally understood1 until it embraced a wider field of eternal destiny1 and to consider the idea of a future life as arising from1 and based upon1 the conception of progress4 ,it is this same point which later perplexes ,bergson1 when he recognises this self-conscious personality as the ultimate development of the volution cratrice1 and so constituting in a sense the goal of the spirit1 although he is careful to state that there is no finalism involved at all4 ,ravaisson stands for this finalism1 however1 in claiming that there are ends4 ,he does not see how otherwise we could speak of progress1 as we should have no criterion1 no terminus ad quem2 all would be simply process1 not progress4 8,dtachement de ,dieu1 retour ,dieu1 clture du grand cercle cosmique1 restitution de l'universel quilibre1 telle est l'histoire du monde40 ,such is ,ravaisson's doctrine1 much of which is akin to1 and indeed re-echoes1 much in ,christian theology from ,st4 ,augustine1 with his idea of an eternal and restless movement of return to the divinity1 to the ,westminster divines in their answer to the important query about the chief end of man1 which they considered to be not only to glorify ,god but to enjoy ,him for ever4 ,this last and rather strange phrase only seems to have significance if we conceive1 in ,ravaisson's manner1 of beauty1 truth and goodness as expressions or manifestations of the ,divinity to whom the world-process may freely tend4 ,for ,lachelier the universal process presents a triple aspect1 mechanism which is coupled with finalism and with freedom4 ,these three principles are in action simultaneously in the world and in the individual4 ,each of us is at once matter1 living soul and personality--that is1 necessity1 finality and freedom4 ,the laws of the universe1 so far from being expressed entirely by mechanical formulae1 can only be expressed1 as ,ravaisson had claimed1 by an approach to harmony and beauty1 not in terms of logic or geometry4 ,all this involves a real progress1 a creativeness1 which differs from ,ravaisson's return1 as it were1 to the bosom of ,god4 ,boutroux combines the views of ,ravaisson and ,lachelier by insisting on freedom and contingency1 but maintaining at the same time a teleological doctrine4 ,already in discussing his conception of freedom we have referred to his metaphor of the sailors in the ship4 ,his doctrine of contingency is directly opposed to any rigid pre-ordained plan of reality or progress1 but it does not prevent the spirit from a creative teleology1 the formation of a plan as it advances4 ,this is precisely1 is it not1 the combination of free action and of teleology which we find in our own lives8 ,boutroux is thus able to side with ,ravaisson in his claim to see tendencies to beauty and truth and goodness1 the fruits of the spirit1 which it creates and to which it draws us1 while at the same time he maintains freedom in a manner quite as emphatic as ,lachelier4 ,he is careful to remind us that 8not all developments are towards perfection40#ac ,in particular he dislikes the type of social theory or of sociology which undervalues the personal life4#ad #ac ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #abg4 #ad ,thus he agrees with ,renouvier's objection to ,comte's view and to ,communism4 ,similar in many ways to the ideas of ,ravaisson and of ,boutroux are those expressed by ,blondel4 ,he is concerned deeply with the problem of ,god and progress1 which arises out of his view of the ,deity as immanent and as transcendent4 ,he is quite ,bergsonian in his statement that ,god creates ,himself in us1 but he qualifies this by asking the significant question1 8,if he does not ,,exist how can ,he create ,himself in us40 ,this brings us back to ,ravaisson's view4 ,other remarks of ,blondel1 however1 recall the doctrine of ,vacherot and of ,renan1 that ,god is the ideal to which we are ever striving4 8,it is a necessity that we should be moving on1 for ,he is always beyond40 ,all action is an advance1 a progress through the realm of materialistic determinism to the self-conscious personality in man1 but it is from a transcendent teleology1 a ,divine ,providence1 that this action proceeds4 ,this is the line of thought pursued by ,fouille1 who in many of his writings gives considerable attention to the doctrines of progress4 ,it may be doubted1 however if he ever surpassed the pages in his ,libert et ,dterminisme and ,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces1 which deal with this point4 ,these are the best expressions of his philosophy1 and ,fouille repeated himself a great deal4 ,we might add1 however1 his ,socialism and his book on ,l',avenir de la ,mtaphysique4 ,we have observed the importance attached by ,comte to his new science of sociology4 ,fouille endeavours to give to it a metaphysical significance with which ,comte did not concern himself4 ,he suggests in his volume on ,la ,science sociale contemporaine that as biology and sociology are closely related1 the laws common to them may have a cosmic significance4 ,is the universe1 he asks1 anything more than a vast society in process of formation1 a vast system of conscious1 striving atoms8 ,social science which ,fouille looks upon1 as did ,comte1 as constituting the crown of human knowledge1 may offer us1 he thinks1 the secret of universal life1 and show us the world as the great society in process of development1 erring here and blundering there in an effort to rise above the sphere of physical determinism and materialism to a sphere where justice shall be supreme1 and brotherhood take the place of antagonism1 greed and war4 ,the power at the heart of things1 which is always ready to manifest itself in the human consciousness when it can1 might be expressed1 says ,fouille1 in one word as 8sociability40 ,life in its social aspect displays a conspiration to a common end4 ,the life of a community resembles a highly evolved organism in many respects1 as ,fouille shows2 but although he thus partially adopts the biological and positivist view of the sociologists1 ,fouille does not overlook the idealistic conceptions of ,renouvier and his plea for social justice4 ,he rather emphasises this plea1 and takes the opportunity to point out that it represents the best political thought of his country1 being founded on the doctrine of the contrat social of ,rousseau1 of which social theory it is a clear and modern interpretation4 ,we may take the opportunity afforded here by ,fouille's mention of sociology1 in which he was so keenly interested1 to observe that the positivist tendency to emphasise an indefinite progress remained with most of the sociologists and some of the historians4 ,it is seen in the two famous sociological works of ,tarde and ,durkheim respectively1 ,les ,lois de l',imitation and ,la ,division du ,travail social4 ,two writers on history deserve mention as illustrating the same tendency3 ,lacombe1 whose work ,de l',histoire considre comme ,science 7#ahid7 was very positivist in outlook1 and ,xnopol4 ,this last writer1 treating history in #ahii in his ,principes fondamentaux de l',histoire1#ae distinguished cause in history from causality in science1 and showed that white the latter leads to the formation of general laws the former does not4 ,history has no laws1 for it is succession but never repetition4 ,much of his book1 however1 reflects the naturalism and positivism which is a feature of the sociological writers4#af #ae ,this work1 revised and considerably augmented1 was re-issued in #aije with the new title1 ,la ,thorie de l',histoire4 #af ,it was this which made ,enouvier criticise sociology4 ,he disagreed with its principles almost entirely4 ,on this1 see his notes to 8,la ,justice10 ,part ,,vii4 of ,la ,nouvelle ,monadogie1 pp4 #ebg-ecj4 ,it was his doctrine of ides-forces and its essential spiritualism or idealism which distinguished ,fouille's attitude from that of these sociologists who were his contemporaries4 ,it was the basis1 too1 of his trenchant criticisms of socialism1 particularly its ,marxian forms4 ,fouille agrees with ,comte's doctrine that speculation or thought is the chief factor and prime mover in social change4 ,for ,fouille the idea is always a force2 and it is1 in this connection1 the supreme force4 ,the history of action can only be understood1 he asserts1 in relation to the history of ideas4 ,this is the central gospel of the volutionnisme des ides-forces4 ,the mental or spiritual is the important factor4 ,this he opposes to the ,marxian doctrine of economic determinism4 ,will is1 he claims a greater reality than brute forces1 and in will lies the essence of the human spirit4 ,it is a will1 however1 which is bound up with reason and self-consciousness1 and which is progressive in character4 ,summing up his work1 ,histoire gnrale de la ,philosophie1 ,fouille refers in his ,conclusion to the idea of progress as having become the dominant note in philosophy4 ,he looks upon the history of philosophy as1 in some measure1 witness to this4 ,above the ebb and flow of the varied systems and ideas which the ages have produced he sees an advance accomplished in the direction to which humanity is tending--perfect knowledge of itself or collective self-consciousness and perfect self- possession4 ,this type of progress is not to be equated with scientific progress4 ,he points out that in the development of philosophy1 which is that of human reflection itself1 two characteristics appear4 ,the distinction of two kinds or aspects of truth is seen in philosophy2 one section1 dealing with logic1 psychology1 aesthetic and applied ethics1 or sociology1 approaches to a scientific character of demonstrability1 while the other section1 which constitutes philosophy in the strict sense of metaphysic1 deals with ultimate questions not capable of proof but demanding a rational faith4 ,obviously the same kind of progress cannot be found in each of these sections4 ,this must be realised when progress in knowledge is spoken about4 ,he suggests1 as illustrative of progress even in the speculative realm1 the fact that humanity is slowly purifying its conception of ,god--a point for further notice in our last chapter4 ,however much ,fouille is concerned with establishing2 a case for progress in knowledge1 it is clear that his main stress is on the progress in self-consciousness or that self- determination which is freedom4 ,this freedom can only grow as man consciously realises it himself4 ,it is an ide-force1 and has against it all the forces of fatalism and of egoism4 ,for ,fouille quite explicitly connects his doctrine of freedom with that of altruism4 ,the real freedom and the real progress are one1 he claims1 since they both are to be realised only in the increasing power of disinterestedness and love4 ,he believes in the possibility of a free progress4 ,fatality is really egoism1 or produces it4 ,fouille has a rather clear optimism1 for he finds in the development of real freedom a movement which will involve a moral and social union of mankind4 ,the good- will is more truly human nature than egoism and selfishness4 ,these vices1 he maintains in his ,ide moderne du ,droit1#ag are largely a product of unsatisfied physical wants4 ,the ideal of the good-will is not a contradiction of human nature1 because1 he asserts1 that nature desires and wills its good4 ,more strikingly1 he states that the human will tends ultimately not to conflict but to co-operation as it becomes enlightened and universalised4 ,he disagrees with the pessimists and upholds a comparatively cheerful view of human nature4 ,egoism is much less deeply rooted than sympathy1 and therefore1 he says1 war and strife are transitory features of human development4 ,one contrasts the views of ,taine and ,renouvier with this1 and feels that man's history has been1 as far as we know it1 entirely of this 8transitory0 nature1 and is long likely to be so4 #ag ,l',ide moderne du ,droit1 ,livre ,,iv4 ,fouille's optimism seems to be overdrawn mainly because of his doctrine of the ide-force4 ,he exaggerates the response which human nature is likely to make to the ideal good4 ,even if it be lifted up1 it is not likely to draw all men to it4 ,yet ,fouille's social and ethical doctrines stand entirely upon this foundation4 ,they are valuable views1 and ,fouille is never better than when he is exhorting his fellows to act upon the ideas of freedom1 of justice1 of love and brotherhood4 ,he is right in his insistence upon humanity's power to create good- will1 to develop a new order4 ,for the good man1 he says1 fatality and egoism are obstacles to be overcome ,believing in freedom and in sympathy1 he acts to others in a spirit of freedom and love4 ,by his very belief in universal good-will among men1 he assists largely in creating it and realising it in the world4#ah #ah ,conclusion to ,libert et ,dterminisme4 ,but did not ,fouille1 one asks1 overrate the number of good men 7as good in his sense71 or rather did he not exaggerate the capacities of human nature to respond to the ideal which he presents8 ,much of his confidence in moral and social progress finds its explanation here4 ,his step-son1 ,guyau1 was not quite so optimistic1 although he believed in a progress towards 8sociability0 and he adopted many of the doctrines of the philosphie des ides-forces4 ,he attacks cheerful optimism in his ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 where he remarks#ai that an absolute theory of optimism is really an immoral theory1 for it involves the negation of progress in the strict and true sense4 ,this is because1 when it dominates the mind1 it produces a feeling of entire satisfaction and contentment with the existing reality1 resulting in resignation and acceptance of1 if not an actual worship of1 the status quo4 ,in its utter obedience to all 8powers that be10 the notions of right and of duty are dimmed1 if not lost4 ,a definitely pessimistic view of the universe would1 he suggests1 be in many respects better and more productive of good than an outrageous optimism4 ,granting that it is a wretched state in which a man sees all things black1 it is preferable1 ,guyau thinks1 to that in which all things appear rosy or blue4 #ai ,esquisse d'une ,morale1 p4 #aj4 ,guyau concludes his ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction by remarking3 8,we are1 as it were1 on the ,leviathan1 from which a wave has torn the rudder and a blast of wind carried away the mainmast4 ,it is lost in the ocean as our earth is lost in space4 ,it floats thus at random1 driven by the tempest1 like a huge derelict1 yet with men upon it1 and yet it reaches port4 ,perhaps our earth1 perhaps humanity1 will also reach that unknown end which they will have created for themselves4 ,no hand directs us2 the rudder has long been broken1 or rather it has never existed2 we must make it3 it is a great task1 and it is our task40 ,this paragraph speaks for itself as regards ,guyau's attitude to the doctrine of an assured progress4 ,in his notable book ,l',irreligion de l',avenir1 the importance of which we shall note more fully when we deal with the religious problem in our last chapter1 ,guyau indicates the possibilities of general intellectual progress in the future4 ,the demand of life itself for fuller expression will involve the decay of cramping superstitions and ecclesiastical dogmas4 ,the aesthetic elements will be given a larger place1 and there will be intellectual freedom4 ,keen as ,guyau is upon maintaining the sociological standpoint1 he sees the central factor in progress to be the mental4 8,progress10 he remarks1#bj 8is not simply a sensible amelioration of life--it is also the achievement of a better intellectual formulation of life1 it is a triumph of logic4 ,to progress is to attain to a more complete consciousness of one's self and of the world1 and by that very fact to a more complete inner consistency of one's theory of the world40 ,guyau follows his stepfather in his view of 8sociability0 or fraternit 7to use the watchword of the ,revolution7 as the desirable end at which we should progressively aim--a conclusion which is but the social application of his central concept of ,life4 #bj ,introduction to ,l',irreligion de l',avenir4 ,the next step in human progress must be in the direction of human solidarity4 ,guyau thinks it will arise from collective1 co-operative energy 7synergie sociale74 ,further progress must involve simultaneously sympathie sociale1 a community of fellowship or comradeship1 promoted by education of a true kind1 not mere instruction1 but a proper development and valuation of the feelings4 ,here art will play its part and have its place beside science1 ethics and philosophy in furthering the ideal harmony in human society4 ,such ,progress involves1 therefore1 that the ,beautiful must be sought and appreciated no less than the ,true and the ,good1 for it is a revelation of the larger ,life of which we ourselves are part4 ,these ideals are in themselves but manifestations of the ,supreme ,vitality4 ,the same spontaneous vital activity of which ,guyau makes a central doctrine characterises ,bergson's view of reality4 ,he upholds1 like ,boutroux1 freedom and contingency1 but he will not admit finalism in any shape or form1 not even a teleology which is created in the process of development4 ,he refuses to admit as true of the universal process in nature and in human history what is certainly true of human life--the fact that we create ends as we go on living4 ,for ,bergson there is no end in the universe1 unless it be that of spontaneity of life such as ,guyau had maintained4 ,there is no guarantee of progress1 no law of development1 but endless possibility of progress4 ,such a view1 as we have already insisted1 is not pessimistic4 ,it is1 however1 a warning to facile optimism to realise that humanity1 being free1 may go 8dead wrong40 ,while ,boutroux maintains with ,ravaisson that there is at the heart of things a tendency to superior values such as beauty1 goodness and truth1 and while ,renan assures us that the balance of goodness in the world is a guarantee of its ultimate triumph1 ,bergson1 like ,renouvier1 gives us stern warning that there is no guarantee in the nature of things that humanity should not set its heart on other values1 on materialistic and egoistic conceptions1 and go down in ruin quarrelling and fighting for these things4 ,there is no power1 he reminds us1 keeping humanity right and in the line of desirable progress4 ,all is change1 but that is not to say that all changes are desirable or progressive4 ,here we arrive at a point far removed from the rosy optimism of the earlier thinkers4 ,progress as a comfortable doctrine1 confidently accepted and dogmatically asserted1 no longer holds ground2 it is seen to be quite untenable4 ,in ,bergson the difficulty which besets ,ravaisson reappears more markedly--namely1 the relation of spirit and matter to one another1 and to the power at the heart of things1 which1 according to ,bergson himself1 is a spiritual principle4 ,here we seem forced to admit ,ravaisson's view of a 8fall0 or1 as the theologians would say1 a 8,kenosis0 of the deity in order to create the material universe4 ,yet in the processes of nature we see spirit having to fight against matter1 and of this warfare ,bergson makes a great point4 ,these considerations lead to discussions which ,bergson has not touched upon as yet4 ,he does not follow ,ravaisson and ,boutroux into the realm of theological ideas4 ,if he did he might have to make admissions which would compromise1 or at least modify1 other doctrines expressed by him4 ,he will have none of ,hegel or of the ,absolute ,idealism which sees the world process as a development of a ,divine ,idea4 ,it is new and it is creation2 there is no repetition4 ,even ,god himself se fait in the process1 and it may be1 suggests ,bergson1 that love is the secret of the universe4 ,if so we may well ask with ,blondel1 8,if ,god se fait in the process1 then does he not already exist and1 in a sense1 the process with him80 ,instead1 however1 of reverting to ,ravaisson's view of the whole affair being a search for1 and return to ,god1 ,bergson claims that the development is a purely contingent one1 in which a super-consciousness develops by experiment and error4 ,bergson's ,god1 if he may be so-called1 is not so much a ,creator1 but a power creative of creators--that is1 human personalities capable of free action4 ,the ,deity is immanent in man1 and1 like man1 is ignorant of the trend of the whole process4 ,the universe1 according to ,bergson1 is a very haphazard affair1 in which the only permanence is change4 ,there is no goal1 and progress has little meaning if it be only and merely further change1 which may be equally regress rather than progress4 ,to live is not merely to change1 but to triumph over change to set up some values as of absolute worth1 and to aim at realising and furthering these4 ,apart from some philosophy of values the conception of progress has little meaning4 ,interesting discussions of various aspects of the problem are to be found in the writings of the sociologist we have mentioned1 ,durkheim1 particularly ,la ,division du ,travail sociale1 ,le ,suicide and ,les ,formes lmentaires de la ,vie religieuse4 ,there is an interesting volume by ,weber1 entitled ,le ,rythme du ,progres1 and there are the numerous books of ,dr4 ,gustave ,le ,bon4 ,although he is not strictly a philosopher in the academic or professional sense1 and his work belongs to literature rather than to the philosophy of the period1 we cannot help calling attention briefly here1 at the conclusion of this chapter1 to the genial pessimism of ,bergson's great literary contemporary1 ,anatole ,france1 the famous satirist of our age4 ,his irony on questions like that of progress is very marked in ,l',ile des ,penguins and in ,jrme ,coignard4 ,a remark from one of his works1 this latter1 will sufficiently illustrate his view on progress4 8,i take little interest10 remarks his character1 the ,abb ,coignard1 8in what is done in the ,king's ,cabinet1 for ,i notice that the course of life is in no way changed1 and after reforms men are as before1 selfish1 avaricious1 cowardly1 cruel1 stupid and furious by turns1 and there is always a nearly even number of births1 marriages1 cuckolds and gallows-birds1 in which is made manifest the beautiful ordering of our society4 ,this condition is stable1 sir1 and nothing could shake it1 for it is founded on human misery and imbecility1 and those are foundations which will never be wanting40 ,the genial old ,abb then goes on to remind socialist revolutionaries that new economic schemes will not radically change human nature4 ,we easily see the ills in history and blind ourselves with optimism for the future4 ,even in ,sorel1 the ,syndicalist1 who has added to his articles on ,violence 7which appeared in #aijg in the periodical ,le ,mouvement socialiste7 a work on ,les ,illusions du ,progrs1 we find the same doctrines about the vices of modern societies1 which he considers no better than ancient ones in their morality2 they are filled with more hypocrisy1 that is all4 ,france and ,sorel only add more testimony to the utter collapse of the old doctrine of assured and general progress4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,to such a final position do we come in following out the development of the idea of progress4 ,the early assurance and dogmatic confidence which marked the early years of the century are followed by a complete abandonment of the idea of a guaranteed or assured progress1 whether based on the operations of a ,divine ,providence1 or on faith in the ultimate triumph of reason1 or on merely a fatalistic determinism4 ,progress is only a possibility1 and its realisation depends on #8humanity's own actions4 ,further1 any mention of progress in future must not only present it as quite contingent1 but we have to reckon with the fact that the idea of progress may itself progress until it resolves itself into another conception less complicated and less paradoxical1 such as 8the attainment of a new equilibrium40 ,some effort must be devoted also to a valuation of criteria4 ,various values have in the past been confused together1 scientific1 materialistic1 hedonistic1 moral1 aesthetic4 ,ultimately it seems that we shall find difficulty in settling this apart from the solution offered by ,renouvier--namely1 that true progress is not merely intellectual1 but moral4 ,it involves not merely a conquest of material nature but of human nature--a self- mastery4 ,progress is to be measured not by the achievements of any aristocracy1 intellectual or other1 but by the general social status1 and our criterion of progress must be ultimately that of social justice4 ,this itself is a term needing interpretation1 and to this question of ethics we now turn4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,ethics ,,introduction 3 ,difficulties of the moral problem as presented in the nineteenth century--,recognised as a social problem--,influence of ,comte important in this connection--,other influences--,christianity--,kant--,the practical reason4 ,i4 ,taine and ,renan--,renan's critique of ,christian morality--,early socialistic views--,change in his later life--,prefers criterion of beauty to that of goodness4 ,,ii4 ,renouvier the great moralist of our period--,relation to ,kant --,his ,science de la ,morale--,personality in ,ethics--,justice4 ,,iii4 ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,oll-,laprune and ,rauh pass further from the ,kantian rigorism to an ethic in harmony with the philosophy of ides-forces of life and action--,humanitarianism of ,fouille and ,guyau--,ides-forces and ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction --,rauh's doctrines--,other thinkers4 ,,conclusion3 ,action and belief--,ethics and ,religion4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,ethics ,moral philosophy is probably the most difficult branch of those various disciplines of the human spirit summed up in the general conception of philosophy4 ,this difficulty is one which all the thinkers of our period recognised4 ,many of them1 occupied with other problems on the psychological or metaphysical side1 did not write explicitly upon ethics4 ,yet the problem of ethics1 its place1 significance and authority1 is but the other side of that problem of freedom which has appeared throughout this development as central and vital4 ,the ethical consciousness of man has never been content for long with the assertion that ethics is a purely positive science1 although it has obviously a positive side4 ,the essence of morality has been regarded as not merely a description of what exists1 but what might1 should or ought to exist4 ,ethics is normative1 it erects or endeavours to outline a standard which is an ideal standard4 ,this is the characteristic of ethics1 and so long as the moral conscience of humanity1 individually and collectively1 does not slumber nor die1 it will remain so4 ,this conflict between the ideal and the real1 the positive and normative is indeed the chief source of pain and conflict to man1 but without it he would cease to be human4 ,whatever the difficulties1 the philosopher who aspires to look upon human life as a whole must give some interpretation of this vital aspect of human consciousness4 ,it is in this connection that a solution of the problem of freedom is so valuable1 for under a purely determinist and positivist reading of life1 the moral sentiments become mere data for an anthropological survey1 the hope and tragedy of human life are replaced1 comfortably perhaps for some1 by an interpretation in which the true significance of ethics is lost4 ,one of the outstanding features of the discussion upon ethics in our period is the fact that the social standpoint colours most of the discussion4 ,this was largely due to the impulse given by ,comte and continued by the sociologists4 ,we have already remarked the importance which he attached to his new science of society or 8sociology40 ,however much the development of this branch of study may have disappointed the hopes of ,comte1 it has laid a powerful and necessary emphasis upon the solidarity of the problems of society4 ,as ,comte claimed that psychology could not be profitably studied in the isolated individual alone1 so he insisted that ethics could only be studied with profit from a social standpoint4 ,this was not forgotten by subsequent thinkers1 even by those who were not his followers1 and the main development of the ethical problem in our period is marked by an increasing insistence upon sociability and solidarity4 ,comte was able to turn the thoughts of philosophers away from pre-occupation with the isolated individual1 conceived as a cold and calculating intellectual machine1 a 8fiction0 which had engrossed the minds of thinkers of the previous century4 ,he was able also to indicate the enormous part played by instincts1 particularly 8herd-instincts10 by passion and feelings of social hatred and social sympathy4 ,it was the extension of social sympathy upon which ,comte insisted as the chief good4 ,the great defect of ,christianity from an ethical standpoint was1 ,comte pointed out1 due to its individualistic ethic4 ,to the doctrine of 8saving one's own soul0 ,comte opposed that of the salvation of humanity4 ,the social unit is not the individual man or woman1 it is the family4 ,in that society which is not a mere association but a union1 arising from common interests and sympathy1 the individual realises himself as part of society4 ,the highest ethical conception1 however1 arises when the individual1 transcending himself and his family1 feels and acts as a member of humanity itself1 not only in his public1 but also in his private life4 ,in the idea of humanity ,comte finds the concrete form of that universal which in the ethic of ,kant was the symbol of duty itself4 ,it was by this insistence on human social solidarity that ,comte left his mark upon the ethical problem4 ,many of the details of social ethics given in the last three large volumes of his work are extremely thoughtful and interesting1 in spite of their excessive optimism1 but we can only here indicate what is sufficient for our purpose1 his influence over subsequent thought4 ,that is summed up in the words 8solidarity0 and 8social standpoint40 ,we may observe that the supreme problems in social ethics ,comte regarded as being those of education or mental development and the 8right to work40#a ,he foresaw1 as did ,renan1 that ,culture and ,economic ,justice were the two foci around which the ethical problems were to be ranged in the immediate future4 ,he regretted that the proletariat in their cry for justice had not sufficient culture to observe that they themselves are not a class apart1 however class-conscious they be4 ,they stand solid with the community1 and ,comte prophesied that1 finding this out sooner or later1 they would have to realise the folly of violent revolution4 ,only a positive culture or education of the democracy could1 he believed1 solve this social problem1 which is there precisely because the proletariat are not sufficiently1 and do not feel themselves to be1 incorporated in the life of the community or of humanity4 ,only when they realise this will work be ennobled by a feeling of service4 ,the ,church has a moral advantage here1 in that she has her organisation complete for furthering the conception of service to ,god4 ,comte realised this advantage of religious morality1 but he thought it would come also to 8positive0 morality when men came to a conception of service for humanity ,to this great end1 he urged1 our education should be directed1 and it should aim1 he thought1 at the decline and elimination of militarism which1 in ,comte's view corresponds to the second stage of development 7marked also by theology71 a stage to be superseded in man's development1 by an era in which the war-spirit will be replaced by that of productive service performed not only pour la patrie1 but pour l'humanit4 #a ,comte criticised the teaching given to the young in ,france as being 8instruction0 rather than 8education40 ,this has frequently been insisted upon since his time4 ,in viewing the general influences which bore upon the study of the ethical problem in our period this stress upon the social character of morality is supreme1 and is the most distinctly marked4 ,but in addition to the sociological influence there are others which it is both interesting and important to note briefly4 ,there is the influence of traditional religious morality1 bound up with ,christianity as presented by the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the deficiencies of this are frequently brought out in the discussion1 but in certain of the thinkers1 chiefly the 8modernists10 it appears as an influence contributing to a religious morality and as offering1 indeed1 the basis of a religion4 ,other writers1 however1 while rejecting the traditional morality of the ,church1 lay stress upon a humanitarian ethic which has an affinity to the idealistic morality preached by the founder of ,christianity1 a morality which manifests a spirit different from that which his ,church has usually shown4 ,indeed1 the general tendency of the ethical development in our period is one of opposition to the ecclesiastical and traditional standpoint in ethics4 ,then there is the influence of ,kant's ethics1 and here again1 although ,renouvier owed much to ,kant1 the general tendency is to get away from the formalism and rigorism of his 8categorical imperative40 ,the current of ,english ,utilitarian ethics appears as rather a negative influence1 and is rather scorned when mentioned4 ,the common feature is that of the social standpoint1 issuing in conceptions of social justice or humanitarianism and finding in action and life a concrete morality which is but the reflection of the living conscience of mankind creating itself and finding in the claims of the practical reason that ,absolute or ,ideal to which the pure reason feels it cannot alone attain4 ,i ,taine and ,renan were influenced by the outlook adopted by ,comte4 ,it might well be said that ,taine was more strictly positivist than ,comte4 ,in his view of ethics1 ,taine1 as might be expected from the general character of his work and his philosophical attitude1 adheres to a rigidly positivist and naturalist conception4 ,he looks upon ethics as purely positive1 since it merely states the scientific conditions of virtue and vice1 and he despairs of altering human nature or conduct4 ,this is due almost entirely to his doctrine of rigid determinism which reacts with disastrous consequences upon his ethical outlook4 ,this only further confirms our contention that the problem of freedom is the central and vital one of the period4 ,we have already pointed out the criticism which ,fouille brought against ,taine's dogmatic belief in determinism1 as an incomplete doctrine1 a half-truth1 which involves mischievous consequences and permits of no valuable discussion of the ethical problem4 ,more interesting and useful1 if we are to follow at all closely the ethical thought of our period1 is it to observe the attitude adopted to ethics by ,taine's contemporary1 ,renan4 ,the extreme confidence which ,renan professed to have in 8science10 and indeed in all intellectual pursuits1 led him to accord to morality rather a secondary place4 8,there are three great things10 he remarks in his ,discours et ,confrences1#b 8goodness1 beauty and truth1 and the greatest of these is truth40 ,neither virtue1 he continues1 nor art is able to exclude illusions4 ,truth is the representation of reality1 and in this world the search for truth is the most serious occupation of all4 ,one of his main charges against the ,christian ,church in general is that it has insisted upon moral good to such an extent as to undervalue and depreciate the other goods1 expressed in beauty and in truth4 ,it has looked upon life from one point of view only--namely1 the moral--and has judged all action by ethical values alone1 despising in this way philosophy1 science1 literature1 poetry1 painting and music4 ,in its more ascetic moods it has claimed that these things are 8of the devil40 ,thus ,christianity has introduced a vicious distinction which has done much to mutilate human nature and to cramp the wholesome expression of the life of the human spirit4 ,whatever is an expression of spirit is1 claims ,renan1 to be looked upon as sacred4 ,if such a distinction as that of sacred and profane were to be drawn it should be between what appertains to the soul and what does not4 ,the distinction1 when made between the ethical and the beautiful or true1 is disastrous4 #b ,discours1 dated ,november #bfth1 #ahhe4 ,renan considers that of the two1 the ethical and the beautiful1 the latter may be the finer and grander distinction1 the former merely a species of it4 ,the moral1 he thinks1 will give place to the beautiful4 8,before any action10 he himself says in ,l',avenir de la ,science1 8,i prefer to ask myself1 not whether it be good or bad1 but whether it be beautiful or ugly1 and ,i feel that ,i have in this an excellent criterion40 ,morality1 he further insists1 has been conceived up to now in far too rigid a manner as obedience to a law1 as a warfare and strife between opposing laws4 ,but the really virtuous man is an artist who is creating beauty1 the beauty of character1 and is fashioning it out of his human nature1 as the sculptor fashions a statue out of marble or a musician composes a melody from sounds4 ,neither the sculptor nor the musician feels that he is obeying a law4 ,he is expressing and creating beauty4 ,another criticism which ,renan brings against the ethic of ,christianity is its insistence upon humility as a virtue4 ,he sees nothing virtuous in it as it is generally interpreted3 quite rightly he suspects it of hypocritically covering a gross pride1 after the manner of the ,pharisees4 ,he gives a place to honest asceticism which has its nobility1 even although it be a narrow1 misconceived ideal4 ,much nobler is it1 he thinks1 than the type of life which has only one object1 getting a fortune4 ,this leads him to another remark on the moral hypocrisy of so many professedly religious folk4 ,having an easy substance and possessing already a decent share of this world's goods1 they devote all their energies to the pursuit of pleasure or of further superfluous wealth4 ,from this position they criticise the worker who endeavours to improve his lot1 and have the audacity to tell him in pious fashion that he must not be materialistic1 and must not set his heart on this world's goods4 ,it would be laughable were it not so tragic4 ,the whole question of the relativity of the two positions is overlooked1 the whole ethic of the business ignored4 ,material welfare is good and valuable1 says ,renan1 in so far as it frees man's spirit from mean and wretched dependence and a cramped life which injures development1 physical and spiritual4 ,these goods are a means to an end4 ,when1 therefore1 a man1 already comfortably endowed1 amasses more and more for its own sake1 he commits both a profane and immoral act4 ,but when a worker endeavours to augment his recompense for his labour1 he is but demanding 8what is the condition of his redemption4 ,he is performing a virtuous action40#c #c ,l',avenir de la ,science1 p4 #hc4 ,sound as many of these considerations undoubtedly are1 they come from the ,renan1 who wrote in the years #ahdh-i ,l',avenir de la ,science4 ,he lived long enough to see that these truths had complements1 that there might be1 even ethically1 another side4 ,in speaking of ,progress this has been noted3 in his later years he forecasted the coming of an era of egoism1 of national and industrial selfishness1 working itself out in policies of military imperialism among the nations1 and of economic greed and tyranny among the proletariat4 ,his remarks about the virtuous action of the worker bettering his lot were inspired by the socialism of ,saint-,simon4 ,renan did not at that time raise in his own mind the question of the workers themselves carrying their reaction so far1 that it1 although just at first1 might reach a point where it became a dictatorship decreed by self-interest alone4 ,it is in ,renouvier that we find this danger more clearly indicated4 ,in so far as ,renan felt it1 his solution was that which he suggested for the elimination of all social wickedness-- namely1 the increase of education4 ,he looked upon wickedness as a symptom of a lack of culture1 particularly the lack of any moral teaching4 ,it was precisely this point1 the education of the democracy1 morally no less than intellectually1 which presented a certain difficulty to the ,french ,republic when1 after several unsuccessful attempts1 the plan for state education of a compulsory1 gratuitous and secular character was carried in #ahhb1 largely through the efforts of ,jules ,ferry4#d #d ,in #ahdh ,hippolyle ,carnot had this plan ready4 ,the fall of the ,ministry1 in which he was ,minister of ,education1 was due partly to the discussion raised by ,renouvier's book 7see p4 #fa of the present work74 ,with the fall of the ,ministry1 and in #ahea1 of the ,republic1 the scheme went too4 ,france had to wait eleven years longer than ,england for free1 compulsory education4 ,her educational problem has always been complicated by the attitude of the ,roman ,catholic ,church to religious education and its hostility to 8lay0 schools4 ,brilliant as ,france is intellectually1 there are numbers of her people who do not read or write owing to the delay of compulsory state education4 ,the latest census1 that of #aiba1 asked the question1 8,savez-vous la fois lire et crire80 in order to estimate this number4 ,,ii ,the great moralist of our period was ,renouvier4 ,not only1 as we have already seen1 did ethical considerations mark and colour his whole thought1 but he set forth those considerations themselves with a remarkable power4 ,his treatise in two volumes on ,the ,science of ,ethics is one of the most noteworthy contributions to ethical thought which has been made in modern times4 ,although half a century has elapsed since its publication on the eve of the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 its intense pre-occupation with the problems which beset our modern industrial civilisation1 its profound judgments and discussions concerning subjects so vital to the world of to-day 7such as the relations of the sexes1 marriage1 sex-ethics1 civil liberty1 property1 communism1 state intervention1 socialist ideals1 nationalism1 war1 the modern idea of the ,state1 and international law71 give to it a value1 which very few works upon the subject possess4 ,long as the work is1 it has the merit of thoroughness1 and difficulties are not slurred over1 but stated frankly1 and some endeavours are made to overcome them4 ,consequently1 it is a work which amply repays careful study4 ,it is almost presumption to attempt in a few pages to summarise ,renouvier's important treatise4 ,some estimate of its significance is1 however1 vital to our history4 ,the title itself is noteworthy and must at that date have appeared more striking than it does to us now by its claim that there is a science of ethics4#e ,we are accustomed to regard physics1 mathematics and even logic as entitled to the name ,sciences4 ,can we legitimately speak of a ,science of ,ethics8 #e ,it is interesting for comparative study to note that ,leslie ,stephen's ,science of ,ethics was a much later production than ,renouvier's treatise1 appearing thirteen years later4 ,renouvier insists that we can4 ,morality deals with facts1 although they are not embraced by the categories of number1 extension1 duration or becoming 7as mathematical and physical data71 but rather by those of causality1 finality and consciousness4 ,the facts 8are not the natural being of things1 but the devoir-tre of the human will1 the devoir-faire of persons1 and the devoir-tre of things in so far as they depend upon persons40#f ,personal effort1 initiative and responsibility lie at the basis of all ethics4 ,morality is a construction1 like every science1 partly individual and partly collective2 it must lay down postulates1 and if it is to justify the claim to be a science1 these postulates must be such as to command a consensus gentium4 ,further1 if ethics is to be scientifically based it must be independent4 ,in the past this has unfortunately not been the case1 for history shows us ethics bound up with some system of religion or metaphysics4 ,if ethics is to be established as a science1 ,renouvier points out that it must be free from all hypothesis of an irrelevant character1 such as cosmological speculations and theological dogmas4 ,renouvier's insistence upon the independence of ethics was followed up in an even clearer and more trenchant manner by ,guyau in his famous ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 #f ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #aj4 ,although1 generally1 ethics has suffered by reason of its alliance to theological and metaphysical systems1 ,renouvier affirms that1 in this connection1 there is one philosophy which is not open to objection--namely1 the ,critical ,philosophy of ,kant4 ,this is because it subordinates all the unknown to phenomena1 all phenomena to consciousness1 and1 within the sphere of consciousness itself1 subordinates the speculative reason 7reinen ,vernunft7 to the practical reason 7praktischen ,vernunft74 ,its chief value1 according to ,renouvier1 lies precisely in this maintenance of the primacy of moral considerations4 ,two standpoints or lines of thought which are characteristic of ,renouvier1 and whose presence we have already noted in our first chapter1 operate also in his ethics and govern his whole treatment of the nature of morality and the problems of the moral life4 ,briefly stated these are1 firstly1 his regard for the ,critical ,philosophy of ,kant2 secondly1 his view of man as 8an order1 a harmony of functions reciprocally conditioned1 and1 by this fact1 inseparable40#g ,as in his treatment of ,certitude1 ,renouvier showed this to be a psychological complex into which entered elements not only of cognition1 but of feeling and will1 the same insistence upon this unity of human nature meets us again in his ethics4 8,any ethical doctrine which definitely splits up the elements of human nature is erroneous40#h ,abstraction is necessary and useful for any science1 even the science of ethics1 but however far we may carry our scientific analysis1 we must never lose sight of the fact that we are dealing with abstractions4 ,to lose sight of the relationship of the data under observation or discussion is1 indeed1 working away from the goal of scientific knowledge4 #g ,science de la ,morale 7first edition1 #ahfi71 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahi4 #h ,ibid4 8,nothing10 remarks ,renouvier in this connection1 8has done more to hinder the spread of ,kant's doctrines in the world than his assertion that the morally good act must be performed absolutely without feeling40 ,in view of man as he is1 and in so far as we understand human nature at all1 it seems a vain and foolish statement4 ,for ,kant1 ,duty was supreme1 and the sole criterion of a good act was1 for him1 its being done from a consciousness of ,duty4 ,he himself had to confess that he did not know of any act which quite fulfilled this ideal of moral action4 ,with this view of morality ,renouvier so heartily disagrees that he is inclined to think that1 so far from a purely rational act 7if we suppose such an act possible7 being praiseworthy1 he would almost give greater moral worth to an act purely emotional1 whose 8motive0 lay1 not in the idea of cold and stern ,duty1 but in the warm impulses of the human heart1 springing from emotion or feeling alone4 ,emotion is a part of our nature--it has its role to play2 the rational element enters as a guide or controlling power4 ,it is desirable that all acts should be so guided1 but that is far from stating1 as does ,kant1 that they should proceed solely from rational considerations4 ,ultimately reason and sentiment unite in furthering the same ends4 ,no adequate conception of justice can be arrived at which is not accompanied by1 and determined by1 correlatively1 love of humanity4 ,kant rigorously excluded from operation even the most noble feelings1 whose intrusion should dim the worth and glory of his moral act1 devoid of feeling4 ,but 8without good-will and mutual sympathy of persons1 no society could ever have established itself beyond the family1 and scarcely the family itself40#i #i ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ahd4 ,renouvier confesses that in most of this treatment of the problem of ethics he follows ,kant#aj and although his admiration for ,kant's work is not concealed1 nevertheless he is not altogether satisfied with it1 and does not refrain from criticism4 ,indeed this reconstruction of the ,critical ,philosophy in a revised version is the main effort of the neo-critical philosopher1 and it is constantly manifest4 #aj ,on p4 #ajh 7vol4 ,i7 he refers to 8le philosophie que je suis1 et que j'aimerais de pouvoir suivre toujours40 ,he complains that ,kant did not adhere rigorously to his own principles1 but vainly strove to give an objectivity to the laws of the practical reason by connecting them to metaphysics4 ,but1 he says1 8on the other hand ,i maintain that the errors of ,kant can be corrected in accordance with the actual principles of his own philosophy4 ,i continue my serious attachment to this great reformer in spite of the very serious modifications ,i am endeavouring to make in his work40#aa #aa ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 no4 #aaj4 ,in the opinion of ,renouvier1 ,kant's work1 the ,metaphysic of ,morals1 is marred by its neglect of history in its relation to ethics1 by a disfigured picture of right which does not make it any more applicable to existing human conditions1 also by the rather artificial and complicated nature of its doctrines4 ,he further reproaches ,kant for excessive rigorism and formalism1 accompanied by a vagueness which prevents the application of much of his teaching4 ,this1 it seems to us1 is a reproach which can be hurled easily at most of the ethical teachers whom the world has seen4 ,the incessant vagueness of paradoxical elements in the utterances of such teachers has inevitably compelled their disciples to find refuge in insisting upon a 8right spirit0 of action1 being devoid of any clear teaching as to what might constitute right action in any particular case4 ,the rudiments of morality1 according to ,renouvier1 are found in the general notion of 8obligation10 the sense of ought 7devoir-faire7 which the human consciousness cannot escape4 ,any end of action is conceived as a good for the agent himself2 and because of liberty of choice between actions or ends1 or between both1 certain of these are deemed morally preferable4 ,there are certain obligations which are purely personal1 elementary virtues demanded from any rational being4 ,it is his interest to preserve his body by abstaining from excesses2 it is his interest also to conserve and develop the faculties of his nature4 ,this is the point upon which ,guyau makes such insistence in common with ,nietzsche--the development1 expansion and intensification of life4 ,there are1 ,renouvier points out1 duties towards oneself1 involving constant watchfulness and intelligence1 so that the agent may be truly self-possessed under all circumstances1 maintaining an empire over himself and not falling a constant victim to passion4 8,greater is he that ruleth himself than he that taketh a city10 are not vain words4 ,this is the rudimentary but essential virtue which ,renouvier calls 8virtue militant0--moral courage4 ,intellectually it issues in ,prudence or ,wisdom2 on the side of sense and passion it is represented by ,temperance4 ,these duties are present to conscience1 which itself arises from a doubling of consciousness4 8,we have the empirical person with his experience of the past1 and we have the ideal person--that is to say1 that which we wish to be10#ab our ideal character4 ,in so far as we are conscientious we endeavour to bring 8what we are0 into line with 8what we conceive we should be40 ,the moral agent thus has duties towards himself1 obligations apart from any relation to or with others of his kind4 #ab ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #be4 ,this elementary morality is 8essentially subjective10#ac but this only shows us that the most thorough-going individualism does not by its neglect of others1 its denial of altruism1 thereby escape entirely from moral obligations4 ,there are always duties to one's higher self1 even for a ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,frequently it is stated that duties and rights are co-relative2 but ,renouvier regards ,duty as more fundamental than ,right1 which he uses only of man in association with his fellows4 ,between persons1 right and duty are in a synthesis1 but the person himself has no rights as distinct from duties to himself2 he has no right not to do what it is his duty to perform4 ,from this it follows that if his personal notion of obligation changes1 he has no right whatever to carry out actions in accordance with his judgments made prior to his change of conscience1 merely for the sake of consistency4 ,he is in this respect a law to him- self1 for no man can act as a conscience for another4 ,the notion of rights only arises when others are in question1 and only too often the word has been abused by being employed where simply power is meant1 as1 for example1 in many views of 8natural right40 ,this procedure both sullies the usage of the term ,right and lowers the status of personality4 ,it is always1 ,renouvier claims1 to 8the inherent worth and force of personality1 with its powers of reflection1 deliberation1 liberty1 self-possession and self-direction1 that one must return in order to understand each and every virtue40 #ac ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ha4 ,renouvier's insistence upon the inherent worth1 the dignity and moral value of personality becomes clearer as he proceeds from his treatment of the lonely individual 7who1 it may be objected1 is to such an extent an abstraction1 as to resemble a fiction7 to associated persons4 ,the reciprocal relation of two persons brings out the essential meaning of ,justice4 ,two personalities co-operating for a common end find themselves each possessed of duties and1 inversely therefore1 of rights which are simply duties regarded from the point of view not of the agent1 but of the other party4 ,the neo-critical ethic here brings itself definitely into line with the principle of practical reason of the ,critical ,philosophy4 ,this1 says ,renouvier1#ad is the profound meaning of ,justice1 which consists in the fact that the moral agent1 instead of subordinating the ends of other people to his own1 considers the personalities#ae of others as similar to his own and possessing their own ends which he must respect4 ,this principle is that which ,kant formulated under the name of 8practical obligation0 or 8supreme principle40#af 8,recognise the personality of others as equal in nature and dignity1 as being an end in itself1 and consequently refrain from employing the personality of others merely as a means to achieve your own ends40 #ad ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hb-hc4 #ae ,personality is a better translation1 as it avoids the rather legal and technical meaning of 8person0 in ,english4 #af ,in a footnote to this passage1 ,renouvier states his own preference for 8moral obligation0 rather than 8imperative of conscience40 ,this doctrine of ,personalism is an assertion not only of ,libert1 ,egalit1 ,fraternit as necessary and fundamental principles1 but also of the value of personality in general and the relativity of 8things40 ,it constitutes an ethical challenge to the existing state of society which is not only inclined1 in its headlong pursuit of wealth1 its fanatical worship of ,mammon1 to treat its workers as purely 8means0 to the attainment of its end1 but further minimises personality by its legal codes and social conventions1 which both operate far more readily and efficiently in the defence of property than in the defence or protection of personality4 ,from the ethical standpoint the world is a realm of ends or persons and all other values must be adjusted in relation to these4 ,we have been told by religious ethical teachers that we must love our neighbour as ourself1 and have been reminded by moralists continually of the conflict between ,egoism and ,altruism4 ,renouvier points out that ultimately obligation towards others is reducible to a duty to oneself4 ,he does not do this from the point of view of ,hobbes1 who regarded all actions1 however altruistic they appeared to be1 as founded purely upon self-interest1 but rather from the opposite standpoint4 8,we should make our duty to others rank foremost among our duties to ourselves40#ag ,this is the transcendent duty through the performance of which we achieve a realisation of the solidarity of persons1 demonstrate an objective value for our own existence1 and gain a fuller and richer life4 #ag ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #he4 ,the idea of personal and moral reciprocity was formulated by the ,chinese and the ,greeks2 at a later date it reappeared in the teaching of ,jesus4 ,this ancient and almost universal maxim has been stated both positively and negatively3 8,do not to others what you would not have them do unto you10 8,do as you would be done by40 ,the maxim itself1 however1 beyond a statement of the principle of reciprocity rather vaguely put1 has no great value for the science of ethics4 ,renouvier regards it not as a principle of morality but a rule-of-thumb1 and he considers the negative statement of it to be more in harmony with what was intended by the early ethical teachers--namely1 to give a practical warning against the committing of evil actions rather than to establish a scientific principle of right action4 ,renouvier has shown the origin of the notion of ,justice as arising primarily from an association of two persons4 8,reason established a kind of community and moral solidarity in this reciprocity40#ah ,this right and duty unite to constitute ,justice4 ,it is truly said that it is just to fulfil one's duty1 just to demand one's right1 and ,justice is formed by a union of these two in such a manner that they always complement one another4 ,bearing in mind the doctrine of personality as an end1 we get a general law of action which may be stated in these terms3 8,always act in such a way that the maxim applicable to your act can be erected by your conscience into a law common to you and your associate40 ,now to apply this to an association of any number of persons--e g41 human society as a whole--we need only generalise it and state it in these terms3 8,act always in such a way that the maxim of your conduct can be erected by your conscience into a universal law or formulated in an article of legislation which you can look upon as expressing the will of every rational being40 ,this 8categorical obligation0 is the basis of ethics4 ,it stands clear of hypothetical cases as a general law of action1 and 8there is no such thing really as practical morality10 remarks ,renouvier1 8except by voluntary obedience to a law40#ai #ah ,ibid41 pp4 #gi-hj4 #ai ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ajj4 ,the fulfilment of our duties to ourselves generally tends to fit us for fulfilling our duties to others1 and the neglect of the former will lead inevitably to inability to perform these latter4 ,our duty to others thus involves our duty to ourselves4#bj #bj ,the notion of self-sacrifice itself involves also1 to a degree1 the maintenance of self1 without which there could be no self to sacrifice4 ,history has frequently given examples of men of all types refusing to sacrifice their lives for a certain cause because they wished to preserve them for some other 7and possibly better--in their minds at any rate1 better7 form of self-sacrifice4 ,personality which lies at the root of the moral problem demands ,truth and ,liberty1 and it has a right to these two1 for without them it is injured4 ,they are essential to a society of persons4 ,another vital element in society is ,work1 the neglect of which is a grave immoral act1 for as there is in any society a certain amount of necessary work to be performed1 a 8slacker0 dumps his share upon his fellows to perform in addition to their own share4 ,with industrial or general laziness1 and the parasitism of those whose riches enable them to live without working1 is to be condemned also the shirking of intellectual work by all4 ,quite apart from those who are 8intellectuals0 as such1 a solemn duty of work1 of thought1 reflection and reasoning lies on each person in a society4 ,apathy among citizens is really a form of culpable negligence4 ,the duty of work and thought is so vital and of such ethical1 political and social importance that ,renouvier suggests that the two words1 work and duty1 be regarded as synonyms4 ,it might1 he thinks1 make clearer to many the obligation involved4 ,justice has been made clear in the foregoing remarks1 but in view of ,kant's distinction of 8large0 and 8strict0 duties1 ,renouvier raises the question of the relation of ,justice and ,goodness4 ,he concludes that acts proceeding from the latter are to be distinguished from ,justice4 ,they proceed not from considerations of persons as such1 but from their 8nature0 or common humanity1 and are near to being 8duties to oneself40 ,they are of the heart rather than of the head1 proceeding from sentiments of humanity1 and sentiment is not1 strictly speaking1 the foundation of justice1 which is based on the notions of duties and rights4 ,there can be1 therefore1 an opposition of ,justice and of ,goodness 7,kindness or ,love71 and the sphere of the latter is often limited by considering the former4 ,renouvier recognises the fact that ,justice in the moral sense of recognition and respect for personality is itself often 8constitutionally and legally0 violated in societies by custom1 laws and institutions as well as by members of society in their actions1 and he notes that this 8legal0 injustice makes the problem of the relation of ,justice and ,charity excessively difficult4 ,the science of ethics is faced with a double task owing to the nature of man's evolution and history4 ,human societies have been built upon a basis which is not that of justice and right1 but upon the basis of force and tyranny--in short1 upon war4 ,there is1 therefore1 for the moralist the twin duty of constructing laws and principles for the true society founded upon an ethical basis1 that is to say on conceptions of ,justice1 while at the same time he must give practical advice to his fellows living and striving in present society1 where a continual state of war exists owing to the operation of force and tyranny in place of justice1 and he must so apply his principles that they may be capable of moving this unjust existing society progressively towards the ideal society4 ,in our account of ,renouvier's 8,philosophy of ,history0 we brought out his insistence upon war as the essential feature of man's life on this planet1 as the basis of our present 8civilisation40 ,here he proclaims it again in his ethics4#ba ,war reigns everywhere3 it is around us and within us--individuals1 families1 tribes1 classes1 nations and races4 ,he includes in the term much more than open fighting with guns4 ,the distribution of wealth1 of property 7especially of land71 wages1 custom duties1 diplomacy1 fraud1 violence1 bigotry1 orthodoxy1 and persecution1 lies themselves1 are all1 to him1 forms of war4 ,its most ludicrous stronghold is among men who pride themselves on being at peace with all men1 while they force their idea of ,god upon other men's consciences4 ,religious intolerance is one1 and a very absurd kind of warfare4#bb #ba ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #ccb4 #bb ,renouvier sums up its spirit in the words3 8,crois ce que je crois moi1 o je te tue0 7,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie74 ,the principle of justice confers upon the person a certain 8right of defence0 in the midst of all this existing varied warfare of mankind4 ,it involves1 according to ,renouvier1 resistance4 ,the just man cannot stand by and see the unjust man oppress his fellow so that the victim is 8obliged to give up his waistcoat after having had his coat torn from him40 ,otherwise we must confuse the just with the saintly man who only admits one law--namely1 that of sacrifice4 ,but ,renouvier will have us be clear as to the price involved in all this violent resistance4 ,it means calling up powers of evil1 emissaries of injustice4 ,he does not found his 8right of defence0 on rational right2 it is to misconceive it so to found it4 ,we must recognise the use of violence and force1 even in self-defence1 as in itself evil1 an evil necessitated by facts which do not conform to the rules of peace and justice themselves4 ,it is to a large degree necessary1 unfortunately1 but is none the less evil and to be frankly regarded as evil1 and likely to multiply evil in the world1 owing to the tremendous solidarity of wickedness of which ,renouvier has already spoken in history4 ,it is the absence of the reign of justice which necessitates these conflicts1 and we have to content ourselves with a conception of actual 8right10 a conception already based on war1 not with one of 8rational right0 or justice4 ,right in the true sense1 ,renouvier insists1 belongs to a state of peace2 in a state of war1 such as our civilisation is perpetually in1 it cannot be realised4 ,the objection may be made that ,renouvier is then justifying the means by the end4 ,he emphatically denies this4 ,by no means is this the case1 for 8the evil10 he remarks1 8which corrects another evil does not therefore become good2 it may be useful1 but it is none the less evil1 immoral1 or unjust1 and what is not just is not justifiable4 ,wars1 rebellions1 revolutions may lessen certain evils1 but they do not thereby cease to be any the less evils themselves4 ,morally we are obliged to avoid all violence2 a revolution is only justified if its success gives an indication of its absolute necessity4 ,we must lament1 from the standpoint of ethics or justice1 the evil state of affairs which gives rise to it4#bc #bc ,on this point1 it is interesting to compare with the above the views of ,spinoza in his ,tractatus ,theologico-politicus and ,tractatus-politicus1 and those of ,t4 ,h4 ,green in his ,lectures on ,political ,obligation4 ,renouvier devotes a considerable portion of his treatise to problems of domestic morals1 economic questions and problems of a political and international character4 ,in all these discussions1 however1 he maintains as central his thesis of the supremacy of personality4 ,under droit domestique he defends very warmly the right of the woman and the wife to treatment as a personality4 ,he laments particularly the injustice which usually rules in marriage1 where1 under a cloak of legality1 the married man denies to his wife a personal control of her own body and the freedom of self-determination in matters of sexual intercourse4 ,so unjust and loathsome in its violation of the personality of woman is the modern view of marriage that ,renouvier considers it little better than polygamy 7which is often a better state for women than monogamy7 or prostitution4 ,it is less just than either1 owing to its degradation of the personality of the wife4 ,he remarked too in his ,nouvelle ,monadologie that love 7in the popular sense71 being so largely an affair of passion and physical attraction1 is usually unjust1 and that friendship is a better basis for the relationship of marriage1 which should be1 while it lasts among mankind1 one of justice4#bd ,consequently1 it should involve neither the idea of possession nor of obedience1 but of mutual comradeship4 #bd ,see particularly the notes in ,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie appended to the fourth part1 8,passion10 pp4 #baf-bbb4 ,in the economic sphere ,renouvier endeavours to uphold freedom1 and for this reason he is an enemy of communism4 ,hostile to the communistic doctrine of property1 he is a definite defender of property which he considers to be a necessity of personality4 ,he considers each person in the community entitled to property as a guarantee of his own liberty and development4 ,while disagreeing with communism1 ,renouvier is sympathetic to the socialist view that property might be1 and should be1 more justly distributed1 and he advocates means to limit excessive possession by private persons and to 8generalise0 the distribution of the goods of the community among its members4 ,progressive taxation1 a guarantee of the 8right to work0 and a complete system of insurance are among his suggestions4 ,he is careful1 however1 to avoid giving to the state too much power4 ,renouvier was no lover of the state4 ,while regarding it as necessary under present conditions1 he agrees with the anarchist idealists1 to whom government is an evil4 ,he admits its use1 however1 as a guarantor of personal liberty1 but is against any semblance of state- worship4 ,the state is not a person1 nor is it1 as it exists at present1 a moral institution4 ,one of the needs of modern times is1 he points out1 the moralising of the conception of the state1 and of the state itself4 ,although1 therefore1 he has no a priori objection to state interference in the economic sphere1 and would not advocate a mere laissez-faire policy1 with its vicious consequences1 yet he does not look with approval upon such interference unless it be 8the collective expression of the personalities forming the community40 ,the fact of living in a society1 highly organised although it be1 does not diminish at all the moral significance of personality4 ,rights and duties belong essentially to persons and to them only4 ,we must beware of the political philosophy which regards the citizens as existing only for the state4 ,rather the state exists1 or should exist1 for the welfare of the citizens4 ,in the past this was a grave defect of military despotisms1 and was well illustrated by the view of the state taken1 or rather inculcated1 by ,german political philosophy4 ,in the future the danger of the violation of personality may lie1 ,renouvier thinks1 in another direction--namely1 in the establishment of ,communistic states4 ,the basic principle of his ethic is the person as an end in himself1 and the treatment of persons as ends4 ,if this be so1 a ,communistic ,republic which has as its motto 8,each for all10 without also 8,all for each10 may gravely violate personality and the moral law if1 by constraint1 it treats all its citizens and their efforts not as ends in themselves1 but merely means to the collective ends of all4 ,the moral ideal demands that personality must not be obliterated4 ,personality bound up with 8autonomy of reason0 is the fundamental ethical fact4#be ,in the last resort1 responsibility rests upon the individuals of the society for the evils of the system of social organisation under which they live4 ,the state itself cannot be regarded as a moral person4 ,renouvier opposes strongly any doctrine which tends to the personalisation or the deification of the state4 #be ,note that ,renouvier prefers this term to ,kant's 8autonomy of will10 which he thinks confuses moral obligation and free-will4 ,he combats also the modern doctrines of 8nationality10 and claims that even the idea of the state is a higher one1 for it at any rate involves co-operating personalities1 while a nation is a fiction1 of which no satisfactory definition can be given4 ,he laughs at the 8unity of language1 race1 culture and religion10 and asks where we can find a nation8#bf ,war and death have long since destroyed such united and harmonious groups as were found in ancient times4 #bg ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 #b1 chap4 xcvi1 8,ides de la ,nationalit et d',etat10 pp4 #daf-dbg4 ,in approaching the questions of international morality ,renouvier makes clear that there is only one morality1 one code of justice4 ,morality cannot be divided against itself1 and there cannot be an admission that things which are immoral in the individual are justifiable1 or permissible1 between different states4 ,morality has not been applied to these relationships1 which are governed by aggressive militarism and diplomacy1 the negation of all conceptions of justice4 ,ethical obligation has only a meaning and significance for personalities1 and our states do but reflect the morality of those who constitute them2 our world reflects the relationships and immorality of the states4 ,war characterises our whole civilisation1 domestic1 economic and international4 ,to have inter- national peace1 internal peace is essential1 and this pre- supposes the reign of justice within states4 ,war we shall have with us1 ,renouvier reminds us1 in all its forms1 in our institutions1 our laws and customs1 until it has disappeared from our hearts4 ,treaties of 8peace0 and federations or leagues of nations are themselves based on injustice and on force1 and in this he sees but another instance of the 8terrible solidarity of evil40#bh ,better it is to recognise this1 thinks ,renouvier1 than to consider ourselves in1 or even near1 a ,utopia1 whence human greed and passion have fled4 #bh ,science de la ,morale1 vol4 #b1 p4 #dgd4 ,we find in ,renouvier's ethics a notable reversion to the individualism which characterised the previous century4 ,much of the individualistic tone of his work is1 however1 due to his finding himself in opposition to the doctrines preached by communists1 positivists1 sociologists1 pessimistic and fatalistic historians1 and supporters of the deified state4 ,renouvier acclaims the freedom of the individual1 but his individualism is 8personalism40 ,in proclaiming that the basis of justice and of all morality is respect for personality1 as such1 he has no desire to set up a standard of selfish individualism2 he wishes only to combat those heretical doctrines which would minimise and crush personality4 ,for him the moral 8person0 is not an isolated individual--he is a social human being1 free and responsible1 who lives with his fellows in society4 ,only upon a recognition of personality as a supreme value can justice or peace ever be attained in human society2 and it is to this end that all moral education1 ,renouvier advocates1 should tend4 ,the moral ideal should be1 in practice1 the constant effort to free man from the terrible solidarity of evil which characterises the civilisation into which he is born1 and to establish a community or association of personalities4 ,such an ideal does not lie necessarily at the end of a determined evolution2 ,renouvier's views on history and progress have shown us that4 ,consequently it depends upon us2 it is our duty to believe in its possibility and to work1 each according to his or her power1 for its realisation4 ,the ideal or the idea1 will1 in so far as it is set before self-conscious personalities as an end1 become a force4 ,renouvier agrees on this point with ,fouille1 to whose ethic1 founded on the conception of ides-forces1 we now turn4 ,,iii ,the philosophy of ide-forces propounded by ,fouille assumes1 in its ethical aspect1 a role of reconciliation 7which is characteristic1 as we have noted1 of his whole method and his entire philosophy7 by attempting a synthesis of individualism and humanitarianism4 ,it is therefore another kind of personnalisme1 differing in type from that of ,renouvier4 ,fouille's full statement of his ethical doctrines was not written until the year #aijg1bi but long before the conclusion of the nineteenth century he had already indicated the essential points of his ethics4 ,the conclusion of his thesis ,la ,libert et le ,dterminisme 7#ahgb7 is very largely filled with his ethical views and with his optimism4 ,four years later appeared his study ,l',ide moderne du ,droit en ,allemagne1 en ,angleterre et en ,france1 which was followed in #ahhj by ,la ,science sociale contemporaine1 where the relation of the study of ethics to that of sociology was discussed4 ,a volume containing much acute criticism of current ethical theories was his ,critique des ,systmes de ,morale contemporains 7#ahhc71 which gave him a further opportunity of offering by way of contrast his application of the doctrine of ides-forces to the solution of moral problems4 ,to this he added in the following year a study upon ,la ,proprit sociale et la ,dmocratie1 where he discussed the ethical value and significance of various political and socialist doctrines4 ,ethical questions raised by the problems of education he discussed in his ,l',enseignement au ,point de ,vue national 7#ahia74 ,at the close of the century he issued his book on morality in his own country1 ,la ,france au ,point de ,vue morale 7#aijj74cj #bi ,his ,morale des ,ides-forces was then published4 #cj ,it is interesting to note the wealth of ,fouille's almost annual output on ethics alone in his later years4 ,we may cite1 in the twentieth century3 ,la ,rforme de l',enseignement par la ,philosophie1 #aija2 ,la ,conception morale et critique de l',enseignement2 ,nietzsche et l',immoralisme1 #aijd2 ,le ,moralisme de ,kant et l',amoralisme contemporaine1 #aije2 ,les ,elments sociologiques de la ,morale1 #aije2 ,la ,morale des ,ides-forces1 #aijg2 ,le ,socialisme1 #aiaj2 ,la ,dmocratie politique et sociale en ,france1 #aiaj2 and the posthumous volume1 ,humanitaires et ,libertaires au ,point de ,vue sociologique et morale1 #aiad4 ,fouille endeavours to unite the purely ideal aspect of ethics--that is to say1 its notion of what ought to be1 with the more positive view of ethics as dealing with what now is4 ,his ethic is1 therefore1 an attempt to relate more intimately the twin spheres of ,renouvier1 l'tat de guerre with l'tat de paix1 for it is concerned not only with what is1 but with that which tends to be and which can be by the simple fact that it is thought4 ,as1 however1 what can be is a matter of intense interest to us1 we are inevitably led from this to consider what ought to be--that is to say1 what is better1 or of more worth or value4 ,the ethical application of the philosophy of ides-forces is at once theoretical and practical1 that philosophy being concerned both with ideas and values4 ,as in his treatment of freedom we found ,fouille beginning with the idea of freedom1 so here in a parallel manner he lays down the idea of an end of action as an incontestable fact of experience1 although the existence of such an end is contested and is a separate question4 ,this idea operates in consciousness as a power of will 7volont de conscience74 ,intelligence1 power1 love and happiness-in short1 the highest conscious life--are involved in it1 not only for us1 but for all4 ,thus it comes about that the conscious subject1 just because he finds himself confronted by nature and by over-individual ends1 proposes to himself an ideal1 and imposes at the same time upon himself the obligation to act in conformity with this full consciousness which is in all1 as in him1 and thus he allows universal consciousness to operate in his own individual life4 ,here we have conscience1 the idea of duty or obligation1 accounted for1 and the principle of autonomy of the moral person laid down4 ,the ethical life is shown as the conscious will in action1 finding within itself its own end and rule of action1 finding also the conscious wills of others like itself4 ,morality is the indefinite extension of the conscious will which brings about the condition that others tend to become 8me40 ,through the increasing power of intellectual disinterestedness and social sympathy1 the old formula 8cogito1 conscius sum0 gives place to that of 8conscii sumus10 and this is no mere intellectual speculation1 but a concrete principle of action and feeling which is itself akin to the highest and best in all religions4 ,one of the features of this ethic is its insistence upon the primacy of self-consciousness4 ,indeed1 it has its central point in the doctrine of self-consciousness1 which1 according to ,fouille1 implies the consciousness of others and of the whole unity of mankind4 ,emphasising his gospel of ides-forces1 he outlines a morality in which the ideal shall attract men persuasively1 and not dominate them in what he regards as the arbitrary and rather despotic manner of ,kant4 ,by advocating the primacy of self-consciousness ,fouille claims to establish an ethic which towers above those founded upon pleasure1 happiness and feeling4 ,the morality of the ides-forces is not purely sentimental1 not purely intellectual1 not purely voluntarist2 it claims to rest on the totality of the functions of consciousness1 as revealed in the feelings1 in intellect and will1 acting in solidarity and in harmony4 ,he endeavours to unite the positive and evolutionary views of morality to those associated with theological or metaphysical doctrines1 concerning the deity or the morally perfect absolute4 ,he claims1 against the theologians and on behalf of the positivists1 that ethics can be an independent study1 that it is not necessarily bound up with theological dogmas4 ,there is no need to found the notion of duty upon that of the existence of ,god4 ,our own existence is sufficient2 the voice of conscience is within our human nature4 ,he objects1 as did ,nietzsche1 to the formality and rigour of ,kant's 8categorical imperative40 ,his method is free from the legalism of ,kant1 and in him and ,guyau is seen an attempt to relate morality itself to life1 expanding and showing itself creative of ideals and tending to their fulfilment4 ,from the primacy of self-consciousness which can be expressed in the notion1 ,je pense1 donc j'ai une valeur morale1 a transition is made to a conception of values4 ,je pense1 donc j'evalue des objets4 ,the essential element in the psychology of the idees-forces then comes into play by tending to the realisation of the ideals conceived and based on the valuation previously made4 ,finally1 ,fouille claims that on this ethical operation of the ides-forces can be founded the notion of a universal society of consciences4 ,this notion itself is a force operating to create that society4 ,the ideal is itself persuasive1 and ,fouillee's inherent optimism1 which we have observed in his doctrine of progress1 colours also his ethical theory4 ,he has faith in men's capacity to be attracted by the ideals of love and brotherhood1 and insists that in the extension of these lies the supreme duty1 and the ideal1 like the notion of duty itself1 is a creation of our own thought4 ,the realisation of the universality1 altruism1 love and brotherhood of which he speaks1 depends upon our action1 our power to foster ideas1 to create ideals1 particularly in the minds of the young1 and to strive ever for their realisation4 ,this is the great need of our time1 ,fouille rightly urges4#ca ,such a morality contains in a more concentrated form1 he thinks1 the best that has been said and thought in the world-religions2 it achieves also that union of the scientific spirit with the aspirations of man1 which ,fouille regards as so desirable1 and he claims for it a philosophical value by its success in uniting the subjective and personal factors of consciousness with those which are objective and universal4 #ca ,the work of ,benjamin ,kidd should be compared in this connection1 particularly his ,social ,evolution1 #ahid2 ,principles of ,western ,civilisation1 #aijb2 and ,the ,science of ,power1 #aiah 7chap1 v41 8,the ,emotion of the ,ideal074 ,similar in several respects to the ethical doctrines of ,fouille are those of his step-son4 ,guyau insists more profoundly1 however1 upon the 8free0 conception of morality1 as spontaneous and living1 thus marking a further reaction from ,kant's doctrine4 ,both ,fouille and ,guyau interacted upon one another in their mental relationship1 and both of them 7particularly ,guyau7 have affinities with ,nietzsche1 who knew their work4 ,while the three thinkers are in revolt against the ,kantian conception of ethics1 the two ,frenchmen use their conceptions to develop an ethic altruistic in character1 far removed from the egoism which characterises the ,german4#cb #cb ,we find the optimism and humanitarian idealism of the ,frenchmen surprising4 ,may not this be piecisely because the world has followed the gospel of ,nietzsche8 ,we may dislike him1 but he is a greater painter of the real state of world-morality than are the two ,frenchmen4 ,they1 with their watchword of fraternit1 are proclaiming a more excellent way they are standing for an ethical ideal of the highest type4 ,guyau1 after showing in his critique of ,english ,ethics 7,la ,morale anglaise contemporaine1 #ahgi7 the inadequacies of a purely utilitarian doctrine of morality1 endeavoured to set forth in a more constructive manner the principles of a scientific morality in his ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 ,he takes as his starting-point the position where ,john ,stuart ,mill fell foul of the word 8desirable40 ,what1 asks ,guyau1 is the supreme desire of every living creature8 ,the answer to this question is 8,life40 ,what we all of us desire most and constantly is ,life1 the most intensive and extensive in all its relationships1 physical and spiritual4 ,in the principle of ,life we find cause and end--a unity which is a synthesis of all desires and all desirables4 ,moreover1 the concept or the principle of ,life embraces all functions of our nature--those within consciousness and those which are subconscious or unconscious4 ,it thus relates intimately purely instinctive action and reflective acts1 both of which are manifestations of ,life and can enrich and increase its power4 ,the purely hedonistic views of the ,utilitarians he considers untrue4 ,doubtless1 he admits1 there is a degree of truth in the doctrine that consciousness tends to pursue the line of greatest pleasure or least resistance1 but then we must remember how slight a part this consciousness actually plays4 ,instincts and an intensive subconscious 8will-to-live0 are constantly operating4 ,a purely scientific ethic1 if it is to present a complete scheme1 must allow for this by admitting that the purely hedonistic search after pleasure is not in itself a cause of action1 but is an effect of a more fundamental or dominating factor4 ,this factor is precisely the effort of ,life to maintain itself1 to intensify itself and expand4 ,the chief motive power lies in the 8intensity of ,life40 8,the end which actually determines all conscious action is also the cause which produces every unconscious action2 it is ,life itself1 ,life at once the most intense and the most varied in its forms4 ,from the first thrill of the embryo in its mother's womb to the last convulsion of the old man1 every movement of the being has had as cause ,life in its evolution2 this universal cause of actions is1 from another point of view1 its constant effect and end40#cc #cc ,esquisse d'une ,morale1 p4 #hg4 ,a true ethic proceeding upon the recognition of these principles is scientific1 and constitutes a science having as its object all the means by which ,life1 material and spiritual1 may be conserved and expanded4 ,rising in the evolutionary development we find the variety and scope of action increased4 ,the highest beings find rest not in sleep merely1 but in variety and change of action4 ,the moral ideal lies in activity1 in all the variety of its manifestations4 ,for ,guyau1 as for ,bergson1 the worst vice is idleness1 inertia1 lack of lan vital1 decay of personal initiative1 and a consequent degeneration to merely automatic existence4 ,hedonism is quite untenable as a principle2 pleasure is merely a consequence1 and its being set in the van of ethics is due to a false psychology and false science4 ,granting that pleasure attends the satisfaction of a desire1 pain its repression1 recognising that a feeling of pleasure accompanies many actions which expand life1 we must live1 as ,guyau reminds us1 before we enjoy4 ,the activity of life surges within us1 and we do not act with a view to pleasure or with pleasure as a motive1 but life1 just because it is life1 seeks to expand4 ,man in acting has created his pleasures and his organs4 ,the pleasure and the organ alike proceed from function--that is1 life itself4 ,the pleasure of an action and even the consciousness of it are attributes1 not ends4 ,the action arises naturally from the inherent intensity of life4 ,the hedonists1 too1 says ,guyau1 have been negligent of the widest pleasures1 and have frequently confined their attention to those of eating and drinking and sexual intercourse1 purely sensitive1 and have neglected those of living1 willing and thinking1 which are more fundamental as being identical with the consciousness of life4 ,but ,guyau asserts that1 as the greatest intensity of life involves necessarily its widest expansion1 we must give special attention to thought and will and feeling1 which bring us into touch universally with our fellows and promote the widest life4 ,this expansiveness of life has great ethical importance4 ,with the change in the nature of reproduction1 involving the sexual union of two beings1 8a new moral phase began in the world40 ,it involved an expansion not merely physical1 but mental--a union1 however crude1 of soul4 ,it is in the extension of this feature of human life that ,guyau sees the ethical ideal4 ,the most perfect organism is the most sociable1 for the ideal of the individual life is the common or social life4 ,morality is for him almost synonymous with sociability1 disinterestedness1 love and brotherhood1 and in it we find1 he says1 8the flower of human life40 ,all our action should be referred to this moral ideal of sociability4 ,guyau sees in the phrase 8social service0 a conception which should not be confined to those who are endeavouring in some religious or philanthropic manner to alleviate the suffering caused by evil in human society1 but a conception to which the acts1 all acts1 of all members of society should be related4 ,like ,renouvier1 he gives to work an important ethical value4 8,to work is to produce--that is1 to be useful to oneself and to others40 ,in work he sees the economic and moral reconciliation of egoism and altruism4 ,it is a good and it is praiseworthy4 ,those who neglect and despise it are parasites1 and their existence in society is a negation of the moral ideal of sociability and social service4 ,in so far as the work of certain persons leads to the accumulation of excessive capital in individual hands1 it is likely to annul itself sooner or later in luxury and idleness4 ,such an immoral state of affairs1 it is the concern of society1 by its laws of inheritance and possession1 to prevent4 ,having made clear his principle of morality1 ,guyau then has to face the question of its relation to the notion of duty or obligation4 ,duty in itself is an idea which he rejects as vague1 and he disapproves of the external and artificial element present in the ,kantian 8rigorism40 ,for ,guyau the very power of action contained in life itself creates an impersonal duty4 ,while ,emerson could write3 8,duty says1 #8,i must1' ,the youth replies1 #8,i can1'0 the view of ,guyau is directly the converse2 for him 8,i can0 gives the 8,i must02 it is the power which precedes and creates the obligation4 ,life cannot maintain itself unless it grows and expands4 ,the soul that liveth to itself1 that liveth solely by habit and automatism1 is already dead4 ,morality is the unity of the personality expanding by action and by sympathy4 ,it is at this point that ,guyau's thought approaches closely to the philosophie des ides-forces of his step-father1 by his doctrine of thought and action4 ,immorality is really unsociability1 and ,guyau thinks this a better key-note than to regard it as disobedience4 ,if it is so to be spoken of1 it is disobedience to the social elements in one's own self--a mischievous duplication of personality1 egoistic in character and profoundly antisocial4 ,the sociological elements which characterise all ,guyau's work are here very marked4 ,in the notion of sociability we find an equivalent of the older and more artificial conception of ,duty--a conception which lacks concreteness and offers in itself so little guidance because it is abstract and empty4 ,the criterion of sociability1 ,guyau claims1 is much more concrete and useful4 ,he asks us to observe its spirituality1 for the more gross and materialistic pleasures fall short of the criterion by the very fact that they cannot be shared4 ,guyau's thought is here at its best4 ,the higher pleasures1 which are not those of bodily enjoyment and satisfaction1 but those of the spirit1 which thinks1 feels1 wills and loves1 are precisely those which come nearest to fulfilling the ideal of sociability1 for they tend less to divide men than to unite them and to urge them to a closer co-operation for their spiritual advancement4 ,guyau writes here with sarcasm regarding the lonely imbecile in the carriage drawn by four horses4 ,for his own part it is enough to have-- 84 4 4 a ,loaf of ,bread beneath the ,bough1 ,a ,flask of ,wine1 a ,book of ,verse--and ,thou ,beside me singing in the ,wilderness-- ,and ,wilderness is ,paradise enow40 ,he knows who really has chosen the better part4 ,one cannot rejoice much and rejoice alone4 ,companionship and love are supremely valuable 8goods10 and the pleasure of others he recognises as a very real part of his own4 ,the egoist's pleasure is1 on the other hand1 very largely an illusion4 ,he loses1 says ,guyau1 far more by his isolated enjoyment than he would gain by sharing4 ,life itself is the greatest of all goods1 as it is the condition of all others1 but life's value fades if we are not loved4 ,it is love1 comradeship and the fellowship of kindred souls which give to the humblest life a significance and a feeling of value4 ,this1 ,guyau points out with some tenderness1 is the tragedy of suicides4 ,these occurrences are a social no less than an individual tragedy4 ,the tragic element lies in the fact that they were persons who were unable to give their devotion to some object1 and the loss of personalities in this way is a real loss to society1 but it is mainly society itself which is to blame for them4 ,we need not fear1 says ,guyau1 that such a gospel will promote unduly the operation of mere animality or instinctive action1 for in the growth of the scientific spirit he sees the development of the great enemy of all instinct4 ,it is the dissolving force par excellence1 the revolutionary spirit which incessantly wages warfare within society against authority1 and in the individual it operates through reason against the instinctive impulses4 ,every instinct tends to lapse in so far as it is reflected upon by consciousness4 ,the old notion of duty or obligation must1 in ,guyau's opinion1 be abandoned4 ,the sole commandment which a scientific and positive ethic1 such as he endeavours to indicate1 can recognise1 is expressible only in the words1 8,develop your life in all directions1 be an individual as rich as possible in energy1 intensive and extensive0--in other words1 8,be the most social and sociable being you can40 ,it is this which replaces the 8categorical imperative40 ,he aptly points out the failure of modern society to offer scope for devotion1 which is really a superabundance of life1 and its proneness to crush out opportunities which offer a challenge to the human spirit4 ,there is a claim of life itself to adventure2 there is a pleasure in risk and in conflict2 and this pleasure in risk and adventure has been largely overlooked in its relation to the moral life4 ,such risk and adventure are not merely a pure negation of self or of personal life1 but rather1 he considers1 that life raised to its highest power1 reaching the sublime4 ,by virtue of such devotion our lives are enriched4 ,he draws a touching picture of the sacrifice upon which our modern social life and civilisation are based1 and draws an analogy between the blood of dead horses used by the ploughman in fertilising his field1 and the blood of the martyrs of humanity1 qui ont fcond l'avenir4 ,often they may have been mistaken2 later generations may wonder if their cause was worth fighting for2 yet1 although nothing truly is sadder than to die in vain1 that devotion was valuable in and for itself4 ,with the demand of life for risk in action is bound up the impetus to undertake risk in thought4 ,from this springs the moral need for faith1 for belief and acceptance of some hypotheses4 ,the very divergence or diversity of the world-religions is not discouraging but rather the reverse4 ,it is a sign of healthy moral life4 ,uniformity would be highly detrimental2 it would cease to express life1 for with conformity of belief would come spiritual decline and stagnation4 ,guyau anticipates here his doctrine of a religion of free thought1 a 8non-religion0 of the future1 which we shall discuss in our next chapter1 when we examine his book on that subject4 ,in the diversity of religious views ,guyau sees a moral good1 for these religions are themselves an expression of life in its richness1 and the conservation and expansion of this rich variety of life are precisely the moral ideal itself4 ,we must endeavour to realise how rich and varied the nature of human life really is4 ,revolutionaries1 ,guyau points out1 are always making the mistake of regarding life and truth as too simple4 ,life and truth are so complex that evolution is the key-note to what is desirable in the individual intellect and in society1 not a revolution which must inevitably express the extreme of one side or the other4 ,the search for truth is slow and needs faith and patience1 but the careful seekers of it are making the future of mankind4 ,but truth will be discovered only in relation to action and life and in proportion to the labour put into its realisation4 ,the search for truth must never be divorced from the active life1 ,guyau insists1 and1 indeed1 he approaches the view that the action will produce the knowledge1 8,he that doeth the will shall know of the doctrine40 ,moreover he rightly sees in action the wholesome cure for pessimism and that cynicism which all too frequently arises from an equal appreciation of opposing views4 8,even in doubt10 he exclaims1 8we can love2 even in the intellectual night1 which prevents our seeing any ultimate goal1 we can stretch out a hand to him who weeps at our feet40#cd ,in other words1 we must do the duty that lies nearest1 in the hope and faith that by that action itself light will come4 #cd ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #agh4 ,in the last part of his treatise ,guyau deals with the difficult problem of 8sanction10 so ultimately connected with ethics1 and1 it must be added1 with religion4 ,the ,providence who rewards and punishes us1 according to the orthodox religious creed of ,christendom1 is merely a personified 8sanction0 or distributive justice1 operating in a terrestrial and celestial court of assize4 ,guyau condemns this as an utterly immoral conception4 ,religious sanctions1 as he has not much difficulty in showing1 are more cruel than those which a man could imagine himself inflicting upon his mortal enemy4 ,the 8,heavenly ,father0 ought at least to be as good as earthly ones1 who do not cruelly punish their children4 ,guyau touches upon an important point here1 which will be further emphasised--namely1 the necessity for making our idea of ,god1 if we have one at all1 harmonious with our own ethical conceptions4 ,the old ideas of the divinity are profoundly immoral and are based on physical force4 ,this is natural because those views which have survived in modern times are those of primitive and savage people to whom the most holy was the most powerful and physically majestic4 ,but1 says ,guyau1 now that we see that 8all physical force represents moral weakness10 the idea of ,god the ,all-terrible1 with his hell-fire ready for the sinful soul1 must be condemned as immoral blasphemy itself4 8,god10 he remarks1 8in damning any soul might be said to damn himself40 ,virtue is really its own reward4 ,no one should be or do good in order to gain an entry into paradise or to escape the torments of hell4 ,that is to build morality on an immoral principle and on a belief1 not in goodness as valuable in and for itself1 but on a basis of material self-interest alone1 8the best policy40 ,it is true1 ,guyau admits1 that virtue involves happiness1 but it is not in this sense4 ,a conflict between 8pleasure0 and virtue is usually one of higher versus lower ideals4 ,virtue is not a precedent to sense-happiness1 and in this sense is not at all equivalent or bound up with happiness1 but1 as the facts of life reveal1 very often opposed to it4 ,guyau opposes the ordinary view of punishment in society and shows that it is both immoral and socially harmful in its application4 ,it adds evil to evil1 and legal murder is really more absurd than the illegal murder4 ,punishment1 capital or other1 is no 8compensation0 exacted for the crime committed1 and it never can be such4 ,attempts to treat and cure the guilty one would1 ,guyau suggests1 be far more rational1 humane and really beneficial to society itself1 which at present creates by its punishments1 especially those inflicted for first offences1 a 8criminal class40 ,one should convert the criminal before punishing him1 and then1 ,guvau asks1 if he is converted1 why punish him8 ,the appeal to justice denoted in the words 8,to everyone according to his works0 is frequently heard in the defence of punishment4 ,this is an excellent maxim in ,guyau's opinion1 but he is careful to point out that it is purely one of social economics4 ,it is a plea for a just distribution of the products of labour1 but does not apply at all to the problem of punishment4 ,in a manner which recalls the remarks of ,renan1 ,guyau sees in evil-doing a lack of culture1 or rather of that sociability1 which comes of social culture1 from consciousness of a membership of society and a solidarity with one's fellows4 ,in vice and in virtue alike the human will appears aspiring to better things according to its lights4 ,as virtue is its own reward1 so is evil2 and the moralist must say to the wicked3 8,verily they have their reward0 7,comme si ce n'tait pas assez pour eux d'tre mchants74 ,guyau comments upon the gradual modifications of punishment from a social point of view4 ,there was the day when the chastisement was infinitely worse than the crime itself4 ,then came the morality of reciprocity1 8an eye for an eye1 and a tooth for a tooth10 an ethic which represented a high ideal for primitive man to reach1 and one to which1 ,guyau thinks1 we have yet to reach to-day in some spheres of life4 ,yet a further moral development will show how foolish1 in a civilised society1 are wrath and hatred of the criminal and the cry for vengeance4 ,society must aim at ensuring protection for itself with the minimum of individual suffering4 ,punishment must be regarded as an example for the future rather than as revenge or compensation4 ,in the individual himself ,guyau observes how powerful can be the inner sanction of remorse1 the suffering caused by the unrealised ideal4 ,this is perhaps the only real moral punishment1 and it is one which society cannot itself directly enforce4 ,only by increasing 8sociability0 and social sensitiveness can this sanction be indirectly developed4 ,herein lies the highest ethical ideal1 far more concrete and living1 in ,guyau's opinion1 than the rigorism of a ,kant or the 8scholastic0#ce temper of a ,renouvier4 ,charity or love for all men1 whatever their value morally1 intellectually or physically1 must1 he claims1 8be the final end pursued even by public opinion40,in co-operation and sociability1 he finds the vital moral ideal2 in love and brotherhood1 he finds the real sanction which should operate40,love supposes mutuality of love10 he says2 and there is one idea superior to that of justice1 that is the idea of brotherhood1 and he remarks with a humane tenderness 8the guilty have probably more need for love than anyone else40 8,i have10 he cries1 8two hands--the one for gripping the hand of those with whom ,i march along in life1 the other to lift up the fallen4 ,indeed1 to these ,i should be able to stretch out both hands together40#cf #ce ,this is ,guyau's word to describe ,renouvier1 whom he regards as far too much under the influence of ,kant4 #cf ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction1 p4 #bbc4 ,while ,fouille and1 more especially1 ,guyau were thus outlining an ethic marked by a strong humanitarianism1 a more definitely religious ethic was being proclaimed by that current of philosophy of belief and of action which has profoundly associated itself in its later developments with 8,modernism0 in the ,roman ,church4 ,the tendency to stress action and the practical reason is noticeable in the work of ,brochard1 ,oll-,laprune and ,blondel1 also in ,rauh4 ,they agree with ,renouvier in advocating the primacy of the practical reason1 but their own reasons for this are different from his1 or at least in them the reasons are more clearly enunciated4 ,plainly these reasons lie in the difficulties of intellectualism and the quest of truth4 ,they propose the quest of the good in the hope of finding in that sphere some objectivity1 some absolute1 in fact1 which they cannot find out by intellectual searching4 ,they correspond in a somewhat parallel fashion to the philosophy of intuition with its rejection of intellectualism as offering a final solution4 ,these thinkers desire by action1 by doing the will1 to attain to a knowledge of the doctrine4 ,the first word in their gospel is-- 8,im ,anfang war die ,that40 ,it is for them the beginning and the end4 ,their certainty is an act of belief1 which grows out of action and life4 ,it is a curious mixture of insistence upon life and action1 such as we find in ,guyau and in ,bergson1 coupled with a religious ,platonism4 ,brochard's work is of this type4 ,he wrote as early as #ahgd on ,la ,responsabilit morale1 and in #ahgf on ,l',universalit des ,notions morales4 ,three years later appeared his work ,l',erreur4 ,oll-,laprune and ,blondel1 who best represent this tendency1 do not like ,guyau's ethics1 which lacks the religious idealism which they consider should be bound up with morality4 ,this was the thesis developed in the volume ,la ,certitude morale1 written by ,oll-,laprune in #ahha4 8,by what right10 says ,oll-,laprune in his subsequent book ,le ,prix de la ,vie 7#ahie71 8can ,guyau speak of a high exalted life1 of a moral ideal8 ,it is impossible to speak so when you have only a purely naturalistic ethic2 for merely to name these things is an implication that there is not only intensity in life1 but also quality4 ,you suppress duty because you can see in it only a falsely mystical view of life and of nature4 ,what you fail to realise is that between duty and life there is a profound agreement4 ,you reduce duty to life1 and in life itself you consider only its quantity and intensity1 and regard as illusion everything that is of a different order from the natural physical order in which you imprison yourself40#cg #cg ,le ,prix de la ,vie1 p4 #aci4 ,such a criticism is not altogether fair to ,guyau who1 as we noted1 proclaimed the superiority of the higher qualities of spiritual life4 ,it does1 however1 attack his abandonment of the idea of ,duty2 and we must now turn to examine a thinker1 who1 by his contribution to ethics1 endeavoured to satisfy the claims of life and of duty4 ,this was ,rauh1 whose ,essai sur le ,fondement mtaphysique de la ,morale appeared in #ahij4 ,it had been preceded by a study of the psychology of the feelings1 and was later followed by ,l',exprience morale 7#aijc74 ,in seeking a metaphysical foundation for morality1 ,rauh recalls ,kant's ,metaphysic of ,morals4 ,he1 indeed1 agrees with ,kant in the view that the essence of morality lies in the sentiment of obligation4 ,belief or faith in an ideal1 by which it behoves us to act1 imposes itself1 says ,rauh1 upon the mind of man as essential4 ,it is as positive a fact as the laws of the natural sciences4 ,man not only states facts and formulates general laws in a scientific manner1 he also conceives and believes in ideals1 which become bound up in his mind with the sentiment of obligation--that is1 the general feeling of duty4 ,but beyond a general agreement upon this point1 ,rauh does not follow ,kant4 ,he tends to look upon the ethical problem in the spirit which ,guyau1 ,bergson and ,blondel show in their general philosophic outlook4 ,in life1 action and immediacy alone can we find a solution4 ,nothing practical can be deduced from the abstract principle of obligation or duty in general4 ,the moral consciousness of man is1 in ,rauh's opinion1 akin to the intuitional perceptions of ,bergson's philosophy4 ,morality1 moreover1 is creating itself perpetually by the reflection of sensitive minds on action and on life itself4 8,morality1 or rather moral action1 is not merely the crown of metaphysical speculation1 but itself the true metaphysic1 which is learnt only in living1 as it is naught but life itself40#ch ,in concluding his thesis1 ,rauh reminds us that 8the essential and most certain factor in the midst of the uncertainties of life and of duty lies in the constant consciousness of the moral ideal40 ,in it he sees a spiritual reality which1 if we keep it ever before us1 may inspire the most insignificant of our actions and render them into a harmony1 a living harmony of character4 #ch ,essai sur le ,fondement mtaphysique de la ,morale1 p4 #bee4 ,rauh's doctrines1 we claim1 have affinities to the doctrines of action and intuition4 ,that does not imply1 however1 that the intelligence is to be minimised--far from this2 but the intelligence triumphs here in realising that it is not all-sufficing or supreme4 8,the heart hath reasons which the reason cannot know40 ,while ,fouille had remarked that morality is metaphysics in action1 ,rauh points out that 8metaphysics in action0 is the foundation of our knowledge4 ,we must1 he insists1 seek for certitude in an immediate and active adaptation to reality instead of deducing a rule or rules of action from abstract systems4 ,he separates himself from the sociologists#ci by pointing out that1 however largely social environment may determine our moral ideals and rules of conduct1 nevertheless the ethical decision is fundamentally an absolutely personal affair4 ,the human conscience1 in so far as active1 must never passively accept the existing social morality4 ,it finds itself sometimes in agreement1 sometimes obliged to give a newer interpretation to old conventions1 and at times is obliged to revolt against them4 ,in no case can the idea of duty be equated simply and calmly with acquiescence in the collective general will4 ,it must demand from social morality its credentials and hold itself free to criticise the current ethic of the community4 ,more often than not society acts1 ,rauh thinks1 as a break rather than a stimulus2 and social interest is not a measure of the moral ideal1 but rather a limitation of it4 #ci ,the relation of ethics and sociology is well discussed1 not only by ,durkheim 7who1 in his ,division du ,travail social1 speaks of the development of democracy and increasing respect for human personality71 but also by ,lvy-,bruhl1 who followed his thesis on ,l',ide de ,responsabilit1 #ahhc1 by the volume1 ,la ,morale el la ,science des ,moeurs4 ,although the moral ideal is one which must be personally worked out1 it is not a merely individualistic affair4 ,rauh does not abandon the guidance of reason1 but he objects equally to the following of instinct or a transcendent teaching divorced from the reality of life4 ,our guide must be reflection upon instinct1 and this is only possible by action and experience1 the unique experience of living itself4 ,reason itself is experience2 and it is our duty to face problems personally and sincerely1 in a manner which the rational element in us renders 8impersonal1 universal and disinterested40 ,any code of morality which is not directly in contact with life is worthless1 and all ethical ideas which are not those of our time are of little value4 ,only he is truly a man who lives the life of his time4 ,the truly moral man is he who is alive to this spirit and who does not unreflectingly deduce his rules of conduct from ancient books or teachers of a past age4 ,the art of living is the supreme art1 and it is this which the great moralists have endeavoured to show humanity4 ,neither ,socrates nor ,jesus wrote down their ethical ideas3 they lived them4 ,rauh thus reminds us partly of ,guyau in his insistence upon life4 ,he regards the ethical life at its highest1 as one sans obligation ni sanction4 ,rather than the ,kantian obligation of duty1 of constraint1 he favours in his second book1 ,l',exprience morale1 a state of spontaneity1 of passion and exaltation of the personal conscience which faces the issue in a disinterested manner4 ,the man who is morally honest himself selects his values1 his ideals1 his ends1 by the light which reason gives him4 ,ethics becomes thus an independent science1 a science of 8ends10 which ,reason1 as reflected in the personal conscience1 acclaims a science of the ideal ordering of life4 ,such was ,rauh's conception of rational moral experience1 one which he endeavoured to apply in his lectures to the two problems which he considered to be supreme in his time1 that of patriotism and of social justice4 ,these problems were further touched upon in #ahif1 when ,lon ,bourgeois 7since noted for his advocacy of the 8,league of ,nations07 published his little work ,solidarit1 which was also a further contribution to an independent1 positive and lay morality4 ,in the conception of the solidarity of humanity throughout the ages1 ,bourgeois accepted the teaching of the sociologists1 and urges that herein can be found an obligation1 for the present generation must repay their debt to their ancestors and be worthy of the social heritage which has made them what they are4 ,somewhat similar sentiments had ,been expressed by ,marion in his ,solidarit morale 7#ahhj74 ,ethical questions were kept in the forefront by the society known as ,l',union pour l',action morale1 founded by ,desjardins and supported by ,lagneau 7#ahea- #ahid74 ,after the excitement of the ,dreyfus case 7#ahid- #ahii7 this society took the name ,l',union pour la ,verit4 ,in #aijb ,lapie made an eloquent plea for a rational morality in his ,logique de la ,volont1 and in the following year ,sailles published his ,affirmations de la ,conscience moderne4 ,the little ,prcis of ,andr ,lalande1 written in the form of a catechism1 was a further contribution to the establishment of a rational and independent lay morality1 which the teaching of ethics as a subject in the lyces and lay schools rendered in some degree necessary4#dj ,this little work appeared in #aijg1 the same year in which ,paul ,bureau wrote his book ,la ,crise morale des ,temps nouveaux4 ,then ,parodi 7who in #aiai produced a fine study of ,french thought since #ahijda7 followed up the discussion of ethical problems by his work ,le ,problme morale et la ,pense contemporaine 7#aiji71 and in #aiab ,wilbois published his contribution entitled ,devoir et ,dure3 ,essai de ,morale sociale4 #dj ,the teaching of a lay morality is a vital and practical problem which the ,government of the ,republic is obliged to face4 ,the urgent need for such lay teaching will be more clearly demonstrated or evident when our next chapter1 dealing with the religious problem1 has been read4 #da ,la ,philosophie contemporaine en ,france4 ,thus concludes a period in which the discussion1 although not marked by a definite turning round of positions as was manifested in our discussions of science1 freedom and progress1 bears signs of a general development4 ,this development is shown by the greater insistence upon the social aspects of ethics and by a turning away from the formalism of ,kant to a more concrete conception of duty1 or an ethic in which the notion of duty itself has disappeared4 ,this is the general tendency from ,renan with his insistence upon the aesthetic element1 ,renouvier with his claim for justice in terms of personality1 to ,fouille1 ,guyau1 ,oll-,laprune and ,rauh with their insistence upon action1 upon love and life4 ,yet1 although the departure from an intense individualism in ethics is desirable1 we must beware of the danger which threatens from the other extreme4 ,we cannot close this chapter without insisting upon this point4 ,good must be personally realised in the inner life of individuals1 even if they form a community4 ,the collective life is indeed necessary1 but it is not collectively that the good is experienced4 ,it is personal4 ,in the neglect of this important aspect lies the error of much ,communistic philosophy and of that social science which looks on society as purely an organism4 ,this analogy is false1 for however largely a community exhibits a general likeness to an organism1 it is a superficial resemblance4 ,there is not a centre of consciousness1 but a multitude of such centres each living an inner life of personal experience which is peculiarly its own2 and these personalities1 we must remember1 are not simply a homogeneous mass of social matter1 they are capable of realising the good each in his or her own manner4 ,this is the only realisation of the good4 ,in this chapter we have traced the attempt to reconcile science et conscience1 after the way had been opened up by the maintenance of freedom4 ,it was recognised that reason is not entirely pure speculation3 it is also practical4 ,human nature seeks for goodness as well as for truth4 ,it is noticeable that while the insistence upon the primacy of the practical reason developed1 on the one hand1 into a philosophy of action 7anti-intellectual action in its extreme development as shown in ,syndicalism71 the same tendency1 operating in a different manner and upon different data1 essayed to find in action1 and in the belief which arises from action1 that ,absolute or ,ideal to which the pure reason feels it cannot alone attain--namely1 the realisation of ,god4 ,to this problem of religion we devote our next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,religion ,,introduction3 ,the religious situation in ,france in the nineteenth century--,the intellectual and political forces against the ,roman ,catholic ,church--,its claims1 its orthodoxy and tyranny--,the humanitarians--,the power of ,rome--,church and ,state--,the educational problem--,clericalism--,the cult of ,jeanne d',arc--,the lack of a via media between ,roman orthodoxy and libre pense--,protestantism negligible4 ,i4 ,comte's effort in his 8,religion of ,humanity0--,renan and the ,church--,freedom--,denial of supernatural elements in ,christianity--,vie de ,jsus--,renan not irreligious--,piety--,love and ,goodness reveal the ,divine--,god the 8ideal0--,vacherot and ,taine4 ,,ii4 ,renouvier's efforts1 with ,pillon1 in the ,critique philosophique and ,critique religieuse--,his republican theology--,freedom1 personality and ,god--,the deity as finite--,god as ,goodness and as a ,person4 ,,iii4 ,ravaisson's blend of ,hellenism and ,christian thought--,boutroux--,fouille on the ,idea of ,god--,the importance of ,guyau's ,l',irreligion de l',avenir--,the decay of dogma and ecclesiasticism--,the term 8irreligion0 misleading--,sociology and religion-,freedom--,religious education and tolerance--,modernism and the ,church--,loisy and others--,symbolism and ,fidisme4 ,,conclusion3 ,the personal factor in faith--,freedom vital to religion--,change of attitude since the eighteenth century--,value of religion--,tendency towards a free religion devoid of dogmas1 expressive of the best aspirations of man's mind4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,religion ,it is outside our purpose to embark upon discussions of the religious problem in ,france1 in so far as this became a problem of politics4 ,our intention is rather to examine the inner core of religious thought1 the philosophy of religion1 which forms an appropriate final chapter to our history of the development of ideas4 ,yet1 although our discussion bears mainly upon the general attitude to religion1 upon the development of central religious ideas such as the idea of ,god1 and upon the place of religion in the future--that is to say1 upon the philosophy of religion--it is practically impossible to understand the religious attitude of our thinkers without a brief notice of the religious situation in ,france during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries4 ,in our ,introduction we briefly called attention to the attempt of the ,traditionalists after the ,revolution to recall their countrymen to the ,christian faith as presented in and by the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,the efforts made by ,de ,bonald1 ,de ,maistre1 ,chateaubriand1 ,lamennais and ,lacordaire did not succeed as they had hoped1 but1 nevertheless1 a considerable current of loyalty to the ,church and the ,catholic religion set in4 ,much of this loyalty was bound up with sentimental affection for a monarchy1 and arose partly from anti-revolutionary sentiments4#a ,it cannot1 however1 be entirely explained by these political feelings4 ,there was the expression of a deeper and more spiritual reaction directed against the materialistic and sceptical teachings of the eighteenth century4 ,man's heart craved comfort1 consolation and warmth4 ,it had been starved in the previous century1 and revolution and war had only added to the cup of bitterness4 ,thus there came an epoch of ,romanticism in religion of which the sentimental and assumed orthodoxy of ,chateaubriand was a sign of the times4 ,his ,gnie du ,christianisme may now appear to us full of sentimentality1 but it was welcomed at the time1 since it expressed at least some of those aspirations which had for long been denied an expression4 ,it was this which marked the great difference between the two centuries in ,france4 ,the eighteenth was mainly concerned with scoffing at religion4 ,its rationalism was that of ,voltaire4 ,in the first half of the nineteenth century the pendulum swung in the opposite direction4 ,romanticism1 in poetry1 in literature1 in philosophy and in religion was la mode1 and it led frequently to sentimentality or morbidity4 ,lamartine1 ,victor ,hugo and ,de ,vigny professed the ,catholic faith for many years4 ,we may note1 and this is important1 that in ,france the only form of ,christianity which holds any sway over the people in general is the ,roman ,catholic faith4 ,outside the ,roman ,church there is no religious organisation which is of much account4 ,this explains why it is so rare to find a thinker who owns allegiance to any ,church or religion1 and yet it would be wrong to deem them irreligious4 ,there is no via media between ,catholicism and free personal thought4 ,this was a point which ,renan quite keenly felt1 and of which his own spiritual pilgrimage1 which took him out of the bounds of the ,church of his youth1 is a fine illustration4 ,many of ,france's noblest sons have been brought up in the religious atmosphere of the ,church and owe much of their education to her1 and ,rome believes in education4 ,the control of education has been throughout the century a problem severely contested by ,church and ,state4 ,more important for our purpose than the details of the quarrels of ,church and ,state is the intellectual condition of the ,church itself4 #a ,de ,maistre regarded the ,revolution as an infliction specially bestowed upon ,france for her national neglect of religion--his religion1 of course4 ,the same crude1 misleading1 and vicious arguments have since been put forward by the theologians in their efforts to push the cause of the ,church with the people4 ,this was very noticeable both in the war of #ahgj and that of #aiad4 ,in each case it was argued that the war was a punishment from ,god for ,france's frivolity and neglect of the ,church4 ,in #aiad1 in addition1 it was deemed a direct divine reply to 8,disestablishment40 ,this reveals a striking vitality1 a vigour and initiative at war with the central powers of the ,vatican1 a seething unrest which uniformity and authority find annoying4 ,how strong the power of the central authority was1 the affair of the ,concordat had shown1 when forty bishops were deposed for non-acceptance of the arrangement between ,napoleon and the ,pope4#b ,stronger still was the iron hand of the ,pope over intellectual freedom4 #b ,the ,revolution had separated ,church and ,state and suppressed clerical privilege by the 8,civil ,constitution of the ,clergy0 enactment of #agij4 ,napoleon1 alive to the patriotic value of a ,state ,church1 repealed this law and declared the divorce of ,church and ,state to be null and void4 ,his negotiations with the ,pope 7,pius ,,vii47 resulted1 in #ahja1 in the arrangement known as the ,concordat1 by which the ,roman ,catholic ,church was again made the established national ,church1 its clergy became civil servants paid by the ,state1 and its worship became a branch of public administration4 ,lamennais was not a 8modernist10 as this term is now understood1 for his theology was orthodox4 ,his fight with the ,vatican was for freedom in the relations of the ,church to society4 ,he pleaded in his ,essai sur ,l'indifference en ,matire de ,religion for the ,church to accept the principle of freedom1 to leave the cherished fondling of the royalist cause1 and to present to the world the principles of a ,christian democracy4 ,lamennais and other liberal-minded men desired the separation of ,church and ,state1 and were tolerant of those who were not ,catholic4 ,they claimed1 along with their own 8right to believe10 that of others 8not to believe40 ,his was a liberal ,catholicism1 but its proposals frightened his co-religionists1 and drew upon him in #ahcb an encyclical letter 7,mirari vos7 from the ,vatican4 ,the ,pope denounced liberalism absolutely as an absurd and an erroneous doctrine1 a piece of folly sprung from the 8fetid source of indifferentism40 ,lamennais found he could not argue1 as ,renan himself later put it1 8with a bar of iron40 ,it was the reactionary ,de ,maistre1 with his principle of papal authority1#c and not ,lamennais1 whom the ,vatican1 naturally enough1 chose to favour1 or rather to follow4 #c ,as stated in ,du ,pape1 #ahai4 ,thus ,lamennais found himself1 by an almost natural and inevitable process1 outside the ,church1 and this in spite of the fact that his theology was orthodox4 ,he endeavoured to present his case in his paper ,l',avenir and in an influential brochure1 ,the ,words of a ,believer1 which left its mark upon ,hugo1 ,michelet1 ,lamartine1 and ,george ,sand4 ,his views blended with the current of humanitarian and democratic doctrines which developed from the ,saint-,simonists1 ,pierre ,leroux and similar thinkers4 ,we have already noted that these social reformers held to their beliefs with the conviction that in them and not in the ,roman ,church lay salvation4 ,this brings us to a crucial point which is the clue to much of the subsequent thought upon religion4 ,this is the profound and seemingly irreconcilable difference between these two conceptions of religion4 ,the orthodox ,catholic faith believes in a supernatural revelation1 and is firmly convinced that man is inherently vile and corrupt1 born in sin from which he cannot be redeemed1 save by the mystical operations of divine grace1 working only through the holy sacraments and clergy of the one true ,church1 to whom all power was given1 according to its view1 by the historic ,jesus4 ,its methods are conservative1 its discipline rigid and based on tradition and authority4 ,its system of salvation is excessively individualistic4 ,it holds firmly to this pessimistic view of human nature1 based on the doctrine of original sin1 thus maintaining a creed which1 in the hands of a devoted clergy1 who are free from domestic ties1 works as a powerful moral force upon the individual believer4 ,his freedom of thought is restricted2 he can neither read nor think what he likes1 and the ,church1 having made the thirteenth-century doctrines of ,aquinas its official philosophy1 hurls anathema at ideas scientific1 political1 philosophical or theological which have appeared since4 ,no half-measures are allowed3 either one is a loyal ,catholic or one is not a ,catholic at all4 ,in this relentlessly uncompromising attitude lies the main strength of ,catholicism2 herein also is contained its weakness1 or at least that element which makes it manufacture its own greatest adversaries4 ,while claiming to be the one ,church of ,jesus ,christ1 it does not by any means put him in the foreground of its religion4 ,its hierarchy of saints is rather a survival of polytheism2 its worship of the ,virgin and cult of the ,sacr ,cur issue often in a religious sentimentality and sensuality promoted by the denial of a more healthy outlet for instincts which are an essential part of human nature4 ,tribute1 however1 must be paid--high tribute--to the devotion of individuals1 particularly to the work done by the religious orders of women1 whose devotion the ,church having won by its intense appeal to women keeps1 consecrates and organises in a manner which no other ,church has succeeded in doing4 ,this is largely the secret of the vigorous life of the ,church1 for as a power of charity the ,roman ,church is remarkable and deserves respect4 ,her educational efforts1 her missions1 hospitals1 her humbler clergy1 and her orders which offer opportunity of service or of sanctuary to all types of human nature--these constitute ,roman ,catholicism in a truer manner than the diplomacy of the ,jesuits or the councils of the ,vatican4 ,it is this pulsing human heart of hers which keeps her alive1 not the rigid intellectual dogmatism and antiquated theology which she expounds1 nor her loyalty to the established political order1 which1 siding with the rich and powerful1 frequently gives to this professedly spiritual power a debasing taint of materialism4 ,against all this1 and in vital opposition to this1 we have the humanitarians who1 rejecting the doctrine of corruption1 believe that human instincts and human reason themselves make for goodness and for ,god4 ,while ,catholicism looks to the past1 humanitarianism looks forward1 believes in freedom and in progress1 and regards the immanent ,christ-spirit as working in mankind4 ,its gospel is one of love and brotherhood1 a romantic doctrine issuing in love and pity for the oppressed and the sinful4 ,in the collective consciousness of mankind it sees the incarnation1 the growth of the immanent ,god4 ,therefore it claims that in democracy1 socialism and world brotherhood lies the true ,christianity4 ,this1 the humanitarians claim1 is the true religious idealism--that which was preached by the ,founder himself and which his ,church has betrayed4 ,the humanitarians make service to mankind the essence of religion1 and regard themselves as more truly ,christian than the ,church4 ,in those countries where ,protestantism has a large following1 the two doctrines of humanitarian optimism and of the orthodox pessimism regarding human nature are confused vaguely together4 ,the ,english mind in particular is able to compromise and to blend the two conflicting philosophies in varying degrees2 but in the ,french mind its clearer penetration and more logical acumen prevent this4 ,the ,frenchman is an idealist and tends to extremes1 either that of whole-hearted devotion to a dominating ,church or that of the abandonment of organised religion4 ,in ,protestantism he sees only a halfway house1 built upon the first principles of criticism1 and unwilling to pursue those principles to their conclusion--namely1 the rejection of all organised ,church religion1 the adoption of perfect freedom for the individual in all matters of belief1 a religion founded on freedom and on personal thought which alone is free4 ,such were the two dominant notes in religious thought in ,france at the opening of our period4 ,catholicism resisted the humanitarianism of #ahdh and strengthened its power after the coup d'tat4 ,the ,church and the ,vatican became more staunch in their opposition to all doctrines of modern thought4 ,the ,french clergy profited by the alliance with the aristocracy1 while religious orders1 particularly the ,jesuits1 increased in number and in power4 ,veuillot proclaimed the virtues of ,catholicism in his writings4 ,meanwhile the ,pope's temporal power decreased1 but his spiritual power was increasing in extent and in intensity4 ,centralisation went on within the ,church1 and ,rome 7i4e41 the ,pope and the ,vatican7 became all-powerful4 ,just after the half-century opens the ,pope 7,pius ,,ix471 in #ahed1 proclaimed his authority in announcing the dogma of the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,virgin ,mary4#d ,as ,france had heard the sentence1 ,l',etat1 c'est moi1 from the lips of one of its greatest monarchs1 it now heard from another quarter a similar principle enunciated1 ,l',eglise1 c'est moi4 ,as democracy and freedom cried out against the one1 they did so against the other4 ,undaunted1 the ,vatican continued in its absolutism1 even although it must have seen that in some quarters revolt would be the result4 ,ten years later the ,pope attacked the whole of modern thought1 to which he was diametrically opposed1 in his encyclical ,quanta ,cura and in his famous ,syllabus1 which constituted a catalogue of the modern errors and heresies which he condemned4 ,this famous challenge was quite clear and uncompromising in its attitude1 concluding with a curse upon 8him who should maintain that the ,roman ,pontiff can1 and must1 be reconciled and compromise with progress1 liberalism and modern civilisation60 ,to the doctrine of ,l',eglise1 c'est moi had now been added that of ,la ,science1 aussi1 c'est moi4 ,this was not all4 ,in #ahgj the dogma of ,papal ,infallibility was proclaimed4 ,by a strange irony of history1 however1 this declaration of spiritual absolutism was followed by an entire loss of temporal power4 ,the outbreak of the war in that same year between ,france and ,prussia led to the hasty withdrawal of ,french troops from the ,papal ,domain and the ,eternal ,city fell to the secular power of the ,italian national army under ,victor ,emmanuel4 #d ,this new dogma of the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,virgin must not1 of course1 be confused1 as it often is by those outside the ,catholic ,church1 with the quite different and more ancient proposition which asserts the ,virgin ,birth of ,jesus4 ,the defeat of ,france at the hands of ,prussia in #ahga issued in a revival of religious sentiment1 frequently seen in defeated nations4 ,a special mission or crusade of national repentance gathered in large subscriptions which built the enormous ,church of the ,sacr ,coeur overlooking ,paris from the heights of ,montmartre4#e #e ,the anti-,catholic element1 however1 have had the audacity1 and evidently the legal right1 to place a statue to a man who1 some centuries back1 was burned at the stake for failing to salute a religious procession1 in such a position immediately in front of this great church that the plan for the large staircase cannot be carried out4 ,seeking for religious consolation1 the ,french people found a ,catholicism which had become embittered and centralised for warfare upon liberal religion and humanitarianism4 ,they found that the only organised religion they knew was dominated by the might of ,rome and the powers of the clergy4 ,these even wished ,france1 demoralised as she was for the moment1 to undertake the restoration of the ,pope's temporal power in ,italy4 ,further1 they were definitely in favour of monarchy3 8the altar and the throne0 were intimately associated in the ecclesiastical mind4 ,it was the realisation of this which prompted ,gambetta to cry out to the ,third ,republic with stern warning1 8,clericalism is your enemy40 ,thus began the political fight for which ,rome had been strengthening herself4 ,with the defeat of the clerical-monarchy party in #ahgg the safety of the ,republic was assured4 ,from then until #aije the ,republic and the ,church fought each other4 ,educational questions were bitterly contested 7#ahhj74 ,the power of the ,jesuits1 especially1 was regarded as a constant menace to the ,state4 ,the ,dreyfus affair 7#ahid- #ahii7 did not improve relations1 with its intense anti-semitism and anti-clericalism4 ,the battle was only concluded by the legislation of ,waldeck-,rousseau in #aija and ,combes in #aijc1 expelling religious orders4 ,combes himself had studied for the priesthood and was violently anti-clerical4 ,the culmination came in the ,separation ,law of #aije carried by ,briand1 in the ,pope's protest against this1 followed by the ,republic's confiscation of much ,church property1 a step which might have been avoided if the ,french ,catholics had been allowed to have their way in an arrangement with the ,state regarding their churches4 ,this was prevented by the severance of diplomatic relations between ,france and the ,vatican and by the ,pope's disagreement with the ,french ,catholics whose wishes he ignored in his policy of definite hostility to the ,french ,government4#f #f ,relations with the ,vatican1 which were seen to be desirable during the ,great ,european ,war1 have since been resumed 7in #aiba7 by the ,republic4 ,during our period a popular semi-nationalist and semi-religious cult of ,jeanne d',arc1 8the ,maid of ,orleans10 appeared in ,france4 ,the clergy expressly encouraged this1 with the definite object of enlisting sentiments of nationality and patriotism on the side of the ,church4 ,ecclesiastical diplomacy at headquarters quickly realised the use which might be made of this patriotic figure whom1 centuries before1 the ,church had thought fit to burn as a witch4 ,the ,vatican saw a possibility of blending ,french patriotism with devotion to ,catholicism and thus possibly strengthening1 in the eyes of the populace at least1 the waning cause of the ,church4 ,the adoration of ,jeanne d',arc was approved as early as #ahid1 but when the ,church found itself in a worse plight with its relation to the ,state1 it made preparations in #aijc for her enrolment among the saints4#g ,she was honoured the following year with the title of 8,venerable10 but in #aijh1 after the break of ,church and ,state1 she was accorded the full status of a saint1 and her statue1 symbolic of patriotism militant1 stands in most ,french churches as conspicuous often as that of the ,virgin1 who1 in curious contrast1 fondles the young child1 and expresses the supreme loveliness of motherhood4#h ,the cult of ,jeanne d',arc flourished particularly in #aiad on the sentiments of patriotism1 militarism and religiosity then current4 ,this was natural because it is for these very sentiments that she stands as a symbol4 ,she is evidently a worthy goddess whose worship is worth while1 for we are assured that it was through her beneficent efforts that the ,german ,army retired from ,paris in #aiad and again in #aiah4 ,the saintly maid of ,orleans reappeared and beat them back6 ,such is the power of the 8culte0 which the ,church eagerly fosters4 ,the ,sacr ,coeur also has its patriotic and military uses1 figuring as it did as an emblem on some regimental flags on the battlefield4 ,meanwhile1 the celebrations of ,napoleon's centenary 7#aiba7 give rise to the conjecture that he1 too1 will in time rank with ,joan of ,arc as a saint4 ,his canonisation would achieve absolutely that union of patriotic and religious sentimentality to which the ,church in ,france directs its activities4 #g t is interesting to observe the literature on ,jeanne d',arc published at this time3 ,anatole ,france1 ,vie de ,jeanne d',arc 7#b vols41 #aijh72 ,durand1 ,jeanne d',arc et l',eglise 7#aijh74 ,these are noteworthy1 also ,andrew ,lang's work1 ,the ,maid of ,orleans 7also #aijh74 #h ,herein1 undoubtedly1 lies the strong appeal of the ,church to women4 ,the vast majority of the #ci1jjj1jjj ,french people are at least nominally ,catholic1 even if only from courtesy or from a utilitarian point of view4 ,only about one in sixty of the population are ,protestant4 ,although among cultured conservatives there is a real devotion to the ,church1 the creed of ,france is in general something far more broad and human than ,catholicism1 in spite of the tremendously human qualities which that ,church possesses4 ,the creed of ,france is summed up better in art1 nature1 beauty1 music1 science1 la patrie1 humanity1 in the worship of life itself4#i #i ,those who desire to study the religious psychology of ,france during our period cannot find a better revelation than that given in the wonderful novel by ,roger ,martin du ,card1 entitled ,jean ,barois4 ,i ,it was against such a background of ecclesiastical and political affairs that the play of ideas upon religion went on4 ,such was the environment1 the tradition which surrounded our thinkers1 and we may very firmly claim that only by a recognition that their religious and national milieu was of such a type as we have outlined1 can the real significance of their religious thought be understood4 ,only when we have grasped the essential attitude of authority and tradition of the ,roman ,church1 its ruthless attitude to modern thought of all kinds1 can we understand the religious attitude of men like ,renan1 ,renouvier and ,guyau4 ,we are also enabled to see why the appeal of the ,saint-,simonist group could present itself as a religious and1 indeed1 ,christian appeal outside the ,church4 ,it enables us to understand why ,cousin's spiritualism pleased neither the ,catholics nor their opponents1 and to realise why the 8,religion of ,humanity10 which ,auguste ,comte inaugurated1 made so little appeal4#aj ,this has been well styled an 8inverted ,catholicism10 since it endeavours to preserve the ritual of that religion and to embody the doctrines of humanitarianism4 ,naturally enough it drew upon itself the scorn of both these groups4 ,the ,catholic saw in it only blasphemy3 the humanitarian saw no way in which it might further his ends4 #aj ,littr1 his disciple1 as we have already noted1 rejected this part of his master's teaching4 ,littr was opposed by ,robinet1 who laid the stress upon the 8,religion of ,humanity0 as the crown of ,comte's work4 ,comte's attempt to base his new religion upon ,catholicism was quite deliberate1 for he strove to introduce analogies with 8everything great and deep which the ,catholic system of the ,middle ,ages effected or even projected40 ,he offered a new and fantastic trinity1 compiled a calendar of renowned historical personalities1 to replace that of unknown saints4 ,he proclaimed 8positive dogmas 8and aspired to all the authority and infallibility of the ,roman ,pontiff1 supported by a trained clergy1 whose word should be law4 ,curiously enough he1 too1 had his anathemas1 in that he had days set apart for the solemn cursing of the great enemies of the human race1 such as ,napoleon4 ,it was indeed a reversed ,catholicism1 offering a fairly good caricature of the methods of the ,roman ,church1 and it was equally obnoxious in its tyrannical attitude4#aa ,while it professed to express humanity and love as its central ideas it proceeded to outline a method which is the utter negation of these4 ,comte made the great mistake of not realising that loyalty to these ideals must involve spiritual freedom1 and that the religion of humanity must be a collective inspiration of free individuals1 who will in love and fellowship tolerate differences upon metaphysical questions4 ,uniformity can only be mischievous4 #aa ,guyau's criticisms of ,comte's 8,religion of ,humanity0 in his ,l',irreligion de l',avenir are interesting4 8,the marriage of positive science and blind sentiment cannot produce religion0 7p4 #cad2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #cff74 8,comtism1 which consists of the rites of religion and nothing else1 is an attempt to maintain life in the body after the departure of the soul0 7p4 #cjg2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #cei74 ,it was because he grasped this vital point that ,renan's discussion of the religious question is so instructive4 ,for him1 religion is essentially an affair of personal taste4 ,here we have another indication of the clear way in which ,renan was able to discern the tendencies of his time4 ,he published his ,etudes d',histoire religieuse in #aheg1 and his ,preface to the ,nouvelles ,etudes d',histoire religieuse was written in #ahhd4 ,he claims there that freedom is essential to religion1 and that it is absolutely necessary that the ,state should have no power whatever over it4 ,religion is as personal and private a matter as taste in literature or art4 ,there should be no ,state laws1 he claims1 relating to religion at all1 any more than dress is prescribed for citizens by law4 ,he well points out that only a ,state which is strictly neutral in religion can ever be absolutely free from playing the rle of persecutor4 ,the favouring of one sect will entail some persecution or hardship upon others4 ,further1 he sees the iniquity of taxing the community to pay the expenses of clergy to whose teachings they may object1 or whose doctrines are not theirs4 ,freedom1 ,renan believed1 would claim its own in the near future and1 denouncing the ,concordat1 he prophesied the abolition of the ,state ,church4 ,the worst type of organisation ,renan holds to be the theocratic state1 like ,islam1 or the ancient ,pontifical ,state in which dogma reigns supreme4 ,he condemns also the ,state whose religion is based upon the profession of a majority of its citizens4 ,there should be1 as ,spinoza was wont to style it1 8liberty of philosophising40 ,the days of the dominance of dogma are passing1 in many quarters gone by already1 8,religion has become for once and all a matter of personal taste40 ,renan himself was deeply religious in mind4 ,he was never an atheist and did not care for the term 8free-thinker0 because of its implied associations with the irreligion of the previous century4 ,he stands out1 however1 not only in our period of ,french thought1 but in the world development of the century as one of the greatest masters of religious criticism4 ,his historical work is important1 and he possessed a knowledge and equipment for that task4 ,his distinguished ,semitic scholarship led to his obtaining the chair of ,hebrew at the ,collge de ,france1 and enabled him to write his ,histories1 one of the ,jews and one of ,christianity4 ,it was as a volume of this ,histoire des ,origines du ,christianisme that his ,vie de ,jsus appeared in #ahfc4 ,this life of the ,founder of ,christianity produced a profound stir in the camps of religious orthodoxy1 and drew upon its author severe criticisms4 ,apart from the particular views set forth in that volume1 we must remember that the very fact of his writing upon 8a sacred subject10 which was looked upon as a close preserve1 reserved for the theologians or churchmen alone1 was deemed at that time an original and daring feat in ,france4 ,his particular views1 which created at the time such scandal1 were akin to those of ,baur and the ,tubingen ,school1 which ,strauss 7,renan's contemporary7 had already set forth in his ,leben ,jesu4#ab ,briefly1 they may be expressed as the rejection of the supernatural4 ,herein is seen the scientific or 8positive0 influence at work upon the dogmas of the ,christian religion1 a tendency which culminated in 8,modernism0 within the ,church1 only to be condemned violently by the ,pope in #aijg4 ,it was this temper1 produced by the study of documents1 by criticism and historical research which put ,renan out of the ,catholic ,church4 ,his rational mind could not accept the dogmas laid down4 ,lamennais 7who was conservative and orthodox in his theology1 and possessed no taint of 8modernism0 in the technical sense7 had declared that the starting-point should be faith and not reason4 ,renan aptly asks in reply to this1 8and what is to be the test1 in the last resort1 of the claims of faith is not reason80 #ab ,written in #ahce4 ,littr issued a ,french translation in #ahci1 a year previous to the appearance of the ,english version by ,george ,eliot4 ,strauss's life covers #ahjh-ahgd4 ,in ,renan we find a good illustration of the working of the spirit of modern thought upon a religious mind4 ,being a sincere and penetrating intellect he could not1 like so many people1 learned folk among them1 keep his religious ideas and his reason in separate watertight compartments4 ,this kind of people ,renan likens in his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse to mother-o'-pearl shells of ,francois de ,sales 8which are able to live in the sea without tasting a drop of salt water40 ,yet he realises the comfort of such an attitude4 8,i see around me10 he continues1 8men of pure and simple lives whom ,christianity has had the power to make virtuous and happy4 4 4 4 ,but ,i have noticed that none of them have the critical faculty1 for which let them bless ,god60 ,he well realises the contentment which1 springing sometimes from a dullness of mind or lack of sensitiveness1 excludes all doubt and all problems4 ,in ,catholicism he sees a bar of iron which will not reason or bend4 8,i can only return to it by amputation of my faculties1 by definitely stigmatising my reason and condemning it to perpetual silence40 ,writing of his exit from the ,seminary of ,saint ,sulpice1 where he was trained for the priesthood1 he remarks in his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse that 8there were times when ,i was sorry that ,i was not a ,protestant1 so that ,i might be a philosopher without ceasing to be a ,christian40 ,for ,renan1 as for so many minds in modern ,france1 severance from the ,roman ,church is equivalent to severance from ,christianity as an organised religion4 ,the practical dilemma is presented of unquestioning obedience to an infallible ,church on the one hand1 or the attitude of libre-penseur on the other4 ,there are not the accommodating varieties of the ,protestant presentation of the ,christian religion4 ,renan's spiritual pilgrimage is but an example of many4 ,in a measure this condition of affairs is a source of strength to the ,roman ,church for1 since a break with it so often means a break with ,christianity or indeed with all definite religion1 only the bolder and stronger thinkers make the break which their intellect makes imperative4 ,the mass of the people1 however dissatisfied they may be with the ,church1 nevertheless accept it1 for they see no alternative but the opposite extreme4 ,no half-way house of non-conformity presents itself as a rule4 ,yet1 as we have insisted1 ,renan had an essentially religious view of the universe1 and he expressly claimed that his break with the ,church and his criticism of her were due to a devotion to pure religion1 and he even adds1 to a loyalty to the spirit of her ,founder4 ,although1 as he remarks in his ,nouvelles ,etudes religieuses1 it is true that the most modest education tends to destroy the belief in the superstitious elements in religion1 it is none the less true that the very highest culture can never destroy religion in the highest sense4 8,dogmas pass1 but piety is eternal40 ,the external trappings of religion have suffered by the growth of the modern sciences of nature and of historical criticism4 ,the mind of cultivated persons does not now present the same attitude to evidence in regard to religious doctrines which were once accepted without question4 ,the sources of the origins of the ,christian religion are themselves questionable4 ,this1 ,renan says1 must not discourage the believers in true religion1 for that is not the kind of foundation upon which religion reposes4 ,dogmas in the past gave rise to divisions and quarrels1 only by feeling can religious persons be united in fellowship4 ,the most prophetic words of ,jesus were1 ,renan points out1 those in which he indicated a time when men 8would not worship ,god in this mountain nor in ,jerusalem1 but when the true worshippers would worship in spirit and in truth40 ,it was precisely this spirit which ,renan admired in ,jesus1 whom he considered more of a philosopher than the ,church1 and he reminds the 8,christians0#ac who railed against him as an unbeliever that ,jesus had had much more influence upon him than they gave him credit for1 and1 more particularly1 that his break with the ,church was due to loyalty to ,jesus4 ,by such loyalty ,renan meant not a blind worship1 but a reverence which endeavoured to appreciate and follow the ideals for which ,jesus himself stood4 ,it did not involve slavish acceptance of all he said1 even if that were intelligible1 and clear1 which it is not4 8,to be a ,platonist10 remarks ,renan1 8,i need not adore ,plato1 or believe all that he said40#ad #ac ,renan complains of the ignorance of the clergy of ,rome regarding his own work1 which they did not understand because they had not read it1 merely relying on the ,press and other sources for false and biassed accounts4 #ad ,cf4 ,renan's ,essay in ,questions contemporaines on 8,l',avenir religieux des ,socits modernes40 ,renan is in agreement with the central ideas of ,jesus' own faith1 and he rightly regards him as one of the greatest contributors to the world's religious thought4 ,renan's religion is free from supernaturalism and dogma4 ,he believes in infinite ,goodness or ,providence1 but he despises the vulgar and crude conceptions of ,god which so mar a truly religious outlook4 ,he points out how prayer1 in the sense of a request to ,heaven for a particular object1 is becoming recognised as foolish4 #8,as a 8meditation10 an interview with one's own conscience1 it has a deeply religious value4 ,the vulgar idea of prayer reposes on an immoral conception of ,god4 ,renan rightly sees the central importance for religion of possessing a sane view of the divinity1 not one which belongs to primitive tribal wargods and weather-gods4 ,he aptly says1 in this connection1 that the one who was defeated in #ahga was not only ,france but le bon ,dieu to which she in vain appealed4 ,in his place was to be found1 remarks ,renan with a little sarcasm1 8only a ,lord ,god of ,hosts who was unmoved by the moral #8dlicatesse' of the ,uhlans and the incontestable excellence of the ,prussian shells40#ae ,he rightly points to the immoral use made of the divinity by pious folk whose whole religion is utilitarian and materialistic4 ,they do good only in order to get to heaven or escape hell1#af and believe in ,god because it is necessary for them to have a confidant and sonsoler1 to whom they may cry in time of trouble1 and to whose will they may resignedly impute the evil chastisement which their own errors have brought upon them individually or collectively4 ,but1 he rightly claims1 it is only where utilitarian calculations and self-interest end1 that religion begins with the sense of the ,infinite and of the ,ideal ,goodness and ,beauty and ,love4 #ae ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques1 p4 ix4 #af ,one pious individual thought to convert ,renan himself by writing him every month1 quite briefly1 to this effect 8,there is a hell40 ,he endeavours in his ,examen de ,conscience philosophique 7#ahhh7 to sum up his attitude upon this question4 ,there he affirms that it is beyond dispute or doubt that we have no evidence whatever of the action in the universe of one or of several wills superior to that of man4 ,the actual state of this universe gives no sign of any external intervention1 and we know nothing of its beginning4 ,no beneficent interfering power1 a deus ex machin1 corrects or directs the operation of blind forces1 enlightens man or improves his lot4 ,no ,god appears miraculously to prevent evils1 to crush disease1 stop wars1 or save his children from peril4 ,no end or purpose is visible to us4 ,god in the popular sense1 living and acting as a ,divine ,providence1 is not to be seen in our universe4 ,the question is1 however1 whether this universe of ours is the totality of existence4 ,doubt comes into play here1 and if our universe is not this totality1 then ,god1 although absent from his world1 might still exist outside it4 ,our finite world is little in relation to the ,infinite1 it is a mere speck in the universe we know1 and its duration to a divine ,being might be only a day4 ,the ,infinite1 continues ,renan1 surrounds our finite world above and below4 ,it stretches on the one hand to the infinitely large concourse of worlds and systems1 and1 on the other1 to the infinitely little as atoms1 microbes and the germs by which human life itself is passed on from one generation to another4 ,the prospect of the world we know involves logically and fatally1 says ,renan1 atheism4 ,but this atheism1 he adds1 may be due to the fact that we cannot see far enough4 ,our universe is a phenomenon which has had a beginning and will have an end4 ,that which has had no beginning and will have no end is the ,absolute ,all1 or ,god4 ,metaphysics has always been a science proceeding upon this assumption1 8,something exists1 therefore something has existed from all eternity40 which is akin to the scientific principle1 8,no effect with- out a cause40#ag #ag ,examen de ,conscience philosophique1 p4 #dab of the volume ,feuilles dtaches4 ,we must not allow ourselves to be misled too far by the constructions or inductions about the uniformity and immutability of the laws of nature4 8,a ,god may reveal himself1 perhaps1 one day40 ,the infinite may dispose of our finite world1 use it for its own ends4 ,the expression1 8,nature and its author10 may not be so absurd as some seem to think it4 ,it is true that our experience presents no reason for forming such an hypothesis1 but we must keep our sense of the infinite4 8,everything is possible1 even ,god10 and ,renan adds1 8,if ,god exists1 he must be good1 and he will finish by being just40 ,it is as foolish to deny as to assert his existence in a dogmatic and thoughtless manner4 ,it is upon this sense of the infinite and upon the ideals of ,goodness1 ,beauty and ,love that true faith or piety reposes4 ,love1 declares ,renan1 is one of the principal revelations of the divine1 and he laments the neglect of it by philosophy4 ,it runs in a certain sense through all living beings1 and in man has been the school of gentleness and courtesy--nay more1 of morals and of religion4 ,love1 understood in the high sense1 is a sacred1 religious thing1 or rather is a part of religion itself4 ,in a tone which recalls that of the ,new ,testament and ,tolstoi1 ,renan beseeches us to remember that ,god is ,love1 and that where ,love is there ,god is4 ,in loving1 man is at his best2 he goes out of himself and feels himself in contact with the infinite4 ,the very act of love is veritably sacred and divine1 the union of body and soul with another is a holy communion with the infinite4 ,he remarks in his ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse1 doubtless remembering the simple purity and piety of his mother and sister1 that when reflection has brought us to doubt1 and even to a scepticism regarding goodness1 then the spontaneous affirmation of goodness and beauty which exists in a noble and virtuous woman saves us from cynicism and restores us to communication with the eternal spring in which ,god reflects himself4 ,love1 which ,renan with reason laments as having been neglected on its most serious side and looked upon as mere sentimentality1 offers the highest proof of ,god4 ,in it lies our umbilical link with nature1 but at the same time our communion with the infinite4 ,he recalls some of ,browning's views in his attitude to love as a redeeming power4 ,the most wretched criminal still has something good in him1 a divine spark1 if he be capable of loving4 ,it is the spirit of love and goodness which ,renan admires in the simple faith of those separated far from him in their theological ideas4 8,god forbid10 he says1#ah 8that ,i should speak slightingly of those who1 devoid of the critical sense1 and impelled by very pure and powerful religious motives1 are attached to one or other of the great established systems of faith4 ,i love the simple faith of the peasant1 the serious conviction of the priest40 #ah ,l',avenir de la ,science1 pp4 #dcf1 #dcg2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #daj4 8,supprimer ,dieu1 serait-ce amoindrir l'univers80 asks ,guyau in one of his ,vers d'un ,philosophe4'#ai ,renan observes that if we tell the simple to live by aspiration after truth and beauty1 these words would have no meaning for them4 8,tell them to love ,god1 not to offend ,god1 they will understand you perfectly4 ,god1 ,providence1 soul1 good old words1 rather heavy1 but expressive and respectable which science will explain1 but will never replace with advantage4 ,what is ,god for humanity if not the category of the ideal80#bj #ai 8,question10 ,vers d'un ,philosophe1 p4 #fe4 #bj ,l',avenir de la ,science10 p4 #dgf2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #dde4 ,this is the point upon which ,vacherot insisted in his treatment of religion4 ,he claimed that the conception of ,god arises in the human consciousness from a combination of two separate ideas4 ,the first is the notion of the ,infinite which ,science itself approves1 the second the notion of perfection which ,science is unable to show us anywhere unless it be found in the human consciousness and its thoughts1 where it abides as the magnetic force ever drawing us onward and acts at the same time as a dynamic1 giving power to every progressive movement1 being 8the ,ideal0 in the mind and heart of man4 ,similar was the doctrine of ,taine1 who saw in ,reason the ideal which would produce in mankind a new religion1 which would be that of ,science and ,philosophy demanding from art forms of expression in harmony with themselves4 ,this religion would be free in doctrine4 ,taine himself looked upon religion as 8a metaphysical poem accompanied by belief10 and he approached to the conception of ,spinoza of a contemplation which may well be called an 8intellectual love of ,god40 ,,ii ,like ,renan1 ,renouvier was keenly interested in religion and its problems2 he was also a keen opponent of the ,roman ,catholic ,church and faith1 against which he brought his influence into play in two ways--by his no-criticisme as expressed in his written volumes and by his energetic editing of the two periodicals ,la ,critique philosophique and ,la ,critique religieuse4 ,in undertaking the publication of these periodicals ,renouvier's confessed aim was that of a definite propaganda4 ,while the ,roman ,church profited by the feelings of disappointment and demoralisation which followed the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 and strove to shepherd wavering souls again into its fold1 to find there a peace which evidently the world could not give1 ,renouvier 7together with his friend ,pillon7 endeavoured to rally his countrymen by urging the importance1 and1 if possible1 the acceptance of his own political and religious convictions arising out of his philosophy4 ,the ,critique philosophique appeared weekly from its commencement in #ahgb until #ahhd1 thereafter as a monthly until #ahhi4 ,among its contributors1 whose names are of religious significance1 were ,a4 ,sabatier1 ,l4 ,dauriac1 ,r4 ,allier#ba and ,william ,james4 #ba ,now ,dean of the ,protestant ,faculty of ,theology in ,paris4 ,renouvier's great enthusiasm for his periodical is the main feature of this period of his life1 although1 owing to his tremendous energy1 it does not seem to have interfered with the publication of his more permanent works4 ,the political and general policy of this journal may be summed up in a sentence from the last year's issue1#bb where we find ,renouvier remarking that it had been his aim throughout 8to uphold strictly republican principles and to fight all that savoured of ,caesar1 or imperialism40 ,the declared foe of monarchy in politics1 he was equally the declared foe of the ,pope in the religious realm4 ,his attitude was one of very marked hostility to the power of the ,vatican1 which he realised to be increasing within the ,roman ,church1 and one of keen opposition to the general power of that ,church and her clergy in ,france4 ,renouvier's paper was quite definitely and aggressively anti-,catholic4 ,he urged all ,catholic readers of his paper who professed loyalty to the ,republic to quit the ,roman ,church and to affiliate themselves to the ,protestant body4 #bb ,la ,critique philosophique1 #ahhi1 tome ii41 p4 #djc4 ,it was with this precise object in view that1 in #ahgh1 he added to his ,critique philosophique a supplement which he entitled ,la ,critique religieuse1 a quarterly intended purely for propaganda purposes4 8,criticism10 he had said1 8is in philosophy what ,protestantism is in religion40#bc ,as certitude is1 according to ,renouvier's doctrines1 the fruit of intelligence1 heart and will1 it can never be obtained by the coercion of authority or by obedience such as the ,roman ,church demands4 ,he appealed to the testimony of history1 as a witness to the conflict between authority and the individual conscience4 ,jesus1 whom the ,church adores1 was himself a superb example of such revolt4 ,history1 however1 shows us1 says ,renouvier1 the gradual decay of authority in such matters4 ,thought1 if it is really to be thought in its sincerity1 must be free4 ,this ,renouvier realised1 and in this freedom he saw the characteristic of the future development of religion1 and shows himself1 in this connection1 in substantial agreement with ,renan and ,guyau4 #bc ,ibid41 #ahgc1 pp4 #ade-adf4 ,renouvier's interest in theology and religion1 and in the theological implications of all philosophical thought1 was not due merely to a purely speculative impulse1 but to a very practical desire to initiate a rational restatement of religious conceptions1 which he considered to be an urgent need of his time4 ,he lamented the influence of the ,roman ,church over the minds of the youth of his country1 and realised the vital importance of the controversy between ,church and ,state regarding secular education4 ,renouvier was a keen supporter of the secular schools 7coles laques74 ,in #ahgi1 when the educational controversy was at its height1 he issued a little book on ethics for these institutions 7,petit ,trait de ,morale pour les ,ecoles laques71 which was republished in an enlarged form in #ahhb1 when the secular party1 ably led by ,jules ,ferry1 triumphed in the establishment of compulsory1 free1 secular education4 ,that great achievement1 however1 did not solve all the difficulties presented by the ,church in its educational attitude1 and even now the influence of clericalism is dreaded4 ,renouvier realised all the dangers1 but he was forced also to realise that his enthusiastic and energetic campaign against the power of the ,church had failed to achieve what he had desired4 ,he complained of receiving insufficient support from quarters where he might well have expected it4 ,his failure is a fairly conclusive proof that ,protestantism has no future in ,france3 it is a stubborn survival1 rather than a growing influence4 ,with the decline in the power and appeal of the ,roman ,catholic ,church will come the decline of religion of a dogmatic and organised kind4 ,renouvier probably had an influence in hastening the day of the official severance of ,church and ,state1 an event which he did not live long enough to see4#bd #bd ,it occurred1 however1 only two years after his death4 ,having become somewhat discouraged1 ,renouvier stopped the publication of his religious quarterly in #ahhe and made the ,critique philosophique a monthly instead of a weekly ,journal4 ,it ceased in #ahhi1 but the following year ,renouvier's friend1 ,pillon1 began a new periodical1 which bore the same name as the one which had ceased with the outbreak of the war in #ahgj4 ,this was ,l',anne philosophique1 to which ,renouvier contributed articles from time to time on religious topics4 ,some writers are of the opinion that ,renouvier's attacks on the ,roman ,catholic ,church and faith1 so far from strengthening the ,protestant party in ,france1 tended rather to increase the hostility to the ,christian religion generally or1 indeed1 to any religious view of the universe4 ,renouvier's own statements in his philosophy1 in so far as these concern religion and theology1 are in harmony with his rejection of the ,absolute in philosophy and the ,absolute in politics4 ,his criticism of the idea of ,god1 the central point in any philosophy of religion1 is in terms similar to his critique of the worship of the ,absolute or the deification of the ,state4 ,in dealing with the question of a 8,total ,synthesis0 ,renouvier indicated his objections to the metaphysical doctrine of an ,absolute1 which is diametrically opposed to his general doctrine of relativity4 ,he is violently in conflict with all religious conceptions which savour of this ,absolute or have a pantheistic emphasis1 which would diminish the value and significance of relativity and of personality4 ,the 8,all-in-,all0 conception of ,god1 which represents the pantheistic elements in many theologies and religions1 both ,christian and other1 is not really a consciousness1 he shows1 for consciousness itself implies a relation1 a union of the self and non-self4 ,in such a conception actor1 play and theatre all blend into one1 ,god alone is real1 and he is unconscious1 for there is1 according to this hypothesis1 nothing outside himself which he can know4 ,renouvier realises that he is faced with the ancient problem of the ,one and the ,many1 with the alternative of unity or plurality4 ,with his usual logical decisiveness ,renouvier posits plurality4 ,he does not attempt to reconcile the two opposites1 and he deals with the problem in the manner in which he faced the antinomies of ,kant4 ,both cannot be true1 and the enemy of pantheism and absolutism acclaims pluralism1 both for logical reasons and in order to safeguard the significance of personality4 ,in particular he directly criticises the philosophy of ,spinoza in which he sees the supreme statement of this philosophy of the eternal1 the perfect1 necessary1 unchanging ,one1 who is the same yesterday1 to-day and forever4 ,he admits that the idea of law or a system of laws leads to the introduction of something approaching the hypothesis of unity1 but he is careful to show by his doctrine of freedom and personality that this is only a limited unity and that1 considered even from a scientific standpoint1 a ,total ,synthesis1 which is the logical outcome of such an hypothesis1 is ultimately untenable4 ,he overthrows the idols of ,spinoza and ,hegel4 ,such absolutes1 infinite and eternal1 whether described as an infinite love which loves itself or a thought thinking thought1 are nothing more to ,renouvier than vain words1 which it is absurd to offer as 8,the ,living ,god40 ,against these metaphysical erections ,renouvier opposes his doctrines of freedom1 of personality1 relativity and pluralism4 ,he offers in contrast the conception of ,god as a ,person1 not an ,absolute1 but relative1 not infinite1 but finite1 limited by man's freedom and by contingency in the world of creatures4 ,god1 in his view1 is not a ,being who is omnipotent1 or omniscient4 ,he is a ,person of whom man is a type1 certainly a degraded type1 but man is made in the image of the divine personality4 ,our notion of ,god1 ,renouvier reminds us1 must be consistent with the doctrine of freedom1 hence we must conceive of him not merely as a creator of creatures or subjects1 but of creative power itself in those creatures4 ,the relation of ,god to man is more complex than that of simple 8creation0 as this word is usually comprehended1 8,it is a creation of creation10 says ,renouvier1#be a remark which is parallel to the view expressed by ,bergson1 to the effect that1 we must conceive of ,god as a 8creator of creators40#bf ,the existence of this ,creative ,person must be conceived1 ,renouvier insists1 as indissolubly bound up with his work1 and it is unintelligible otherwise4 ,that work is one of creation and not emanation--it involves more than mere power and transcendence4 ,god is immanent in the universe4 #be ,psychologie ralionnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #ajd4 #bf ,in his address to the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,society1 #aiad4 ,theology has wavered between the two views--that of absolute transcendence and omnipotence and that of immanence based on freedom and limitation4 ,in the first1 every single thing depends upon the operation of ,god1 whose ,providence rules all4 ,this is pure determinism of a theological character4 ,in the other view man's free personality is recognised2 part of the creation is looked upon as partaking of freedom and contingency1 therefore the divinity is conceived as limited and finite4 ,renouvier insists that this view of ,god as finite is the only tenable one1 for it is the only one which gives a rational and moral explanation of evil4 ,in the first view ,god is responsible for all things1 evil included1 and man is therefore much superior to him from a moral standpoint4 ,the idea of ,god must be ethically acceptable1 and it is unfortunate that this idea1 so central to religion1 is the least susceptible to modification in harmony with man's ethical development4 ,we already have noticed ,guyau's stress upon this point in our discussion of ethics4 ,our conception of ,god must1 ,renouvier claims1 be the affirmation of our highest category1 ,personality1 and must express the best ethical ideals of mankind4 ,society suffers for its immoral and primitive view of ,god1 which gives to its religion a barbarous character which is disgraceful and revolting to finer or more thoughtful minds4 ,it is true that the acceptance of the second view1 which carries with it the complete rejection of the ideas of omnipotence and omniscience1 modifies profoundly many of the old and primitive views of ,god4 ,renouvier recognises this1 and wishes his readers also to grasp this point1 for only so is religion to be brought forward in a development harmonious with the growth of man's mind in other spheres4 ,man should not profess the results of elaborate culture in science while he professes at the same time doctrines of ,god which are not above those of a savage or primitive people4 ,this is the chief mischief which the influence of the ,hebrew writings of the ,old ,testament has had upon the ,christian religion4 ,the moral conscience now demands their rejection1 for to those who value religion they can only appear as being of pure blasphemy4 ,god is neither omnipotent nor omniscient1 consequently many things must be unknown to him until they happen4 ,foreknowledge and predetermination on his part are impossible1 according to ,renouvier4 ,god is not to be conceived as a consciousness enveloping the entire universe1 past1 present and future1 in a total synthesis4 ,such a belief is mischievous to humanity because of its fatalism1 in spite of the comfortable consolation it offers to pious souls4 ,moreover1 it presents the absurd view of ,god working often against himself4 ,the idea of ,god1 ,renouvier shows1 arises out of the discussions of the nature of the universal laws of the universe and from the progress of personalities4 ,the plausible conceptions of ,god based on causality and on 8necessary essence0 have not survived the onslaughts of ,criticism4 ,the personality of ,god seems to us1 says ,renouvier1 indicated as the conclusion and the almost necessary culmination of the consideration of the probabilities laid down by the practical reason or moral law4 ,the primary1 though not primitive1 evidence for the existence of ,god is contained in1 and results from1 the generalisation of the idea of 8ends0 in the universe4 ,we must not go bevond phenomena or seek evidence in some fictitious sphere outside of our experience4 ,in its most general and abstract sense the idea of ,god arises from the conception of moral order1 immortality1 or the accord of happiness and goodness4 ,we cannot deny the existence of a morality in the order and movements of the world1 a physical sanction to the moral laws of virtue and of progress1 an external reality of good1 a supremacy of good1 a witness of the ,good itself4 ,renouvier does not think that any man1 having sufficiently developed his thought1 would refuse to give the name ,god to the object of this supreme conception1 which at first may seem abstract because it is not in any way crude1 many of its intrinsic elements remaining undetermined in face of our ignorance1 but which1 nevertheless1 or just for that very reason1 is essentially practical and moral1 representing the most notable fact of all those included in our belief4 ,this method of approaching the problem of ,god is1 he thinks1 both simple and grand4 ,it is a noble contrast to the scholastic edifice built up on the metaphysical perfection of being1 called the ,absolute4 ,in this conception all attributes of personality are replaced by an accumulation of metaphysical properties1 contradictory in themselves and quite incompatible with one another4 ,this ,absolute is a pure chimerical abstraction2 its pure being and pure essence are equivalent to pure nothing or pure nonsense4 ,the fetish of pure substance1 substantial cause1 absolute being1 whatever it be called1 is vicious at all times1 but particularly when we are dealing with the fundamental problems of science4 ,it would be advisable here that the only method of investigation be that of atheism1 for scientific investigation should not be tainted by any prejudices or preconceived ideas upon the nature of the divinity4 ,what really is ,atheism8 ,the answer to this query1 says ,renouvier1 is clear4 ,the idea of ,god is essentially a product of the moral law or conscience4 ,an atheist is1 strictly speaking1 one who does not admit the reality of this moral order of ends and of persons as valuable in themselves4 ,verily1 he himself may personally lead a much more upright life than the loud champions of theism1 but he denies the general moral order1 which is ,god4 ,with the epithet of atheist as commonly used for those who merelv have a conception of ,god which differs from the orthodox view1 we are not here concerned4 ,that may be dismissed as a misuse of the word due to religious bigotry4 ,the fruits of true atheism are materialism1 pantheism and fatalism4 ,indeed any doctrine1 even a theological doctrine1 which debases and destroys the inherent value of the human consciousness and personality1 is rightly to be regarded1 whatever it may say about ,god1 however it may repeat his name 7and two of these doctrines are very fond of this repetition1 but this must not blind us to the real issue7--that doctrine is atheistic4 ,the most resolute materialists1 the most high-minded worshippers of ,providence and the great philosophers of the ,absolute1 find themselves united here in atheism4 ,god is not a mere totality of laws operating in the universe4 ,such a theism is but a form of real atheism4 ,we must1 insists ,renouvier1 abandon views of this type1 with all that savours of an ,absolute1 a ,perfect ,infinite1 and affirm our belief in the existence of an order of ,goodness which gives value to human personality and assures ultimate victory to ,justice4 ,this is to believe in ,god4 ,we arrive at this belief rationally and after consideration of the world and of the moral law of persons4 ,through these we come to ,god4 ,we do not begin with him and pretend to deduce these from his nature by some incomprehensible a priori propositions4 ,the methods of the old dogmatic theology are reversed4 ,instead of beginning with a ,being of whom we know nothing and can obviously deduce nothing1 let us proceed inductively1 and by careful consideration of the revelation we have before us in the world and in humanity let us build up our idea of ,god4 ,renouvier is anxious that we should examine the data upon which we may found 8rational hypotheses0 as to the nature of ,god4 ,the ,critical ,philosophy has upset the demonstrations of the existence of ,god1 which were based upon causality and upon necessary existence 7the cosmological and ontological proofs74 ,neo-criticism not only establishes the existence of ,god as a rational hypothesis1 but 8this point of view of the divine problem is the most favourable to the notion of the personality of ,god4 ,the personality of ,god seems to us to be indicated as the looked-for conclusion and almost necessary consummation of the probabilities of practical reason40#bg #bg ,psychologie rationnelle1 vol4 #b1 p4 #cjj4 ,the admission of ends1 of finality1 or purpose in the universe is frequently given as involving a supreme consciousness embracing this teleology4 ,also it is argued that ,good could not exist in its generality save in an external consciousness--that is1 a divine mind4 ,by recalling the objections to a total synthesis of phenomena1 ,renouvier refutes both these arguments which rest upon erroneous methods in ontology and in theology4 ,the explanation of the world by ,god1 as in the cosmological argument1 is fanciful1 while the ontological argument leads us to erect an unintelligible and illogical absolute4 ,renouvier regards ,god as existing as a general consciousness corresponding to the generality of ends which man himself finds before him1 finite1 limited in power and in knowledge4 ,but in avowing this ,god1 ,renouvier points him out to us as the first of all beings1 a being like them1 not an absolute1 but a personality1 possessing 7and this is important7 the perfection of morality1 goodness and justice4 ,he is the supreme personality in action1 and as a perfect person he respects the personality of others and operates on our world only in the degree which the freedom and individuality of persons who are not himself can permit him1 and within the limits of the general laws under which he represents to himself his own enveloped existence4 ,this is the hypothesis of unity rendered intelligible1 and as such ,renouvier claims that it bridges in a marvellous manner the gap always deemed to exist between monotheism and polytheism--the two great currents of religious thought in humanity4 ,the monotheists have appeared intolerant and fanatical in their religion and in their deity 7not in so far as it was manifest in the thoughts of the simple1 who professed a faith of the heart1 but as shown in the ambitious theology of books and of schools71 bearing on their banner the signs of a jealous deity1 wishing no other gods but himself1 declaring to his awed worshippers3 8,i am that ,i am2 have no other gods but me60 ,on the other hand1 the polytheistic peoples have been worshippers of beauty and goodness in all things1 and where they saw these things they created a deity4 ,they were more concerned with the immortality of good souls than the eternal existence of one supreme being2 they were free-thinkers1 creators of beauty and seekers after truth1 and believers in freedom4 ,the humanism of ,greece stands in contrast to the idolatrous theocracy of the ,hebrews4 ,the unity of ,god previously mentioned does not exclude the possibility of a plurality of divine persons4 ,god the one would be the first and foremost1 rex hominum deorumque4 ,some there may be that rise through saintliness to divinity1 ,sons of ,god1 persons surpassing man in intelligence1 power and morality4 ,to take sides in this matter is equivalent to professing a particular religion4 ,we must avoid the absolutist spirit in religion no less than in philosophy4 ,by this ,renouvier means that brutal fanaticism which prohibits the ,gods of other people by passion and hatred1 which aims at establishing and imposing its own ,god 7which is1 after all1 but its own idea of ,god7 as the imperialist plants his flag1 his kind and his customs in new territory1 in the spirit of war and conquest4 ,such a 8holy war0 is an outrage1 based not upon real religion1 but on intolerant fanaticism in which freedom and the inherent rights of personality to construct its own particular faith are denied4 ,renouvier finds a parallelism between the worship of the ,state in politics and of the ,one ,god in religion4 ,the systems in which unity or plurality of divine personality appears differ from one another in the same way in which monarchal and republican ideas differ4 ,monarchy in religion offers the same obstacles to progress as it has done in politics4 ,it involves a parallel enslavement of one's entire self and goods1 a conscription which is hateful to freedom and detrimental to personality4 ,to this supreme and regal ,providence all is due2 it alone in any real sense exists4 ,persons are shadows1 of no reality1 serfs less than the dust1 to whom a miserable dole is given called grace1 for which prayer and sacrifice are to be unceasingly made or chastisements from the ,almighty will follow4 ,this notion is the product of monarchy in politics1 and with monarchy it will perish4 ,the two are bound up1 for 8by the grace of ,god0 we are told monarchs hold their thrones1 by his favour their sceptre sways and their battalions move on to victory4 ,this monarchal ,god1 this ,king of kings and ,lord of hosts1 ruler of heaven and earth1 is the last refuge of monarchs on the earth4 ,confidence in both has been shaken1 and both1 ,renouvier asserts1 will disappear and give place to a real democracy1 not only to republics on earth1 but to the conception of the whole universe as a republic4 ,men raise up saints and intercessors to bridge the gulf between the divine ,monarch and his slaves4 ,they conceive angels as doing his work in heaven2 they tolerate priests to bring down grace to them here and now4 ,the doctrine of unity thus gives rise to fanatical religious devotion or philosophical belief in the absolute1 which stifles religion and perishes in its own turn4 ,the doctrine of immortality1 based on the belief in the value of human personality1 leads us away from monarchy to a republic of free spirits4 ,a democratic religion in this sense will display human nature raised to its highest dignity by virtue of an energetic affirmation of personal liberty1 tolerance1 mutual respect and liberty of faith--a free religion without priests or clericalism1 not in conflict with science and philosophy1 but encouraging these pursuits and in turn encouraged by them4#bh #bh ,the fullest treatment of this is the large section in the conclusion to the ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire 7tome iv474 ,cf4 also the discussion of the influence of religious beliefs on societies in the last chapter of ,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie4 ,,iii ,ravaisson1 in founding the new spiritual philosophy1 professed certain doctrines which were a blending of ,hellenism and ,christianity4 ,in the midst of thought which was dominated by positivism1 naturalism or materialism1 or by a shallow eclecticism1 wherein religious ideas were rather held in contempt1 he issued a challenge on behalf of spiritual values and ideals4 ,beauty1 love and goodness1 he declared1 were divine4 ,god himself is these things1 said ,ravaisson1 and the divinity is 8not far from any of us40 ,in so far as we manifest these qualities we approach the perfect personality of ,god himself4 ,in the infinite1 in ,god1 will is identical with love1 which itself is not distinguished from the absolutely good and the absolutely beautiful4 ,this love can govern our wills2 the love of the beautiful and the good can operate in our lives4 ,in so far as this is so1 we participate in the love and the life of ,god4 ,boutroux agrees substantially with ,ravaisson1 but he lays more stress upon the free creative power of the deity as immanent4 8,god10 he remarks in his thesis1 8is not only the creator of the world1 he is also its ,providence1 and watches over the details as well as over the whole40#bi ,god is thus an immanent and creative power in his world as well as the perfect being of supreme goodness and beauty4 ,boutroux here finds this problem of divine immanence and transcendence as important as does ,blondel1 and his attitude is like that of ,blondel1 midway between that of ,ravaisson and ,bergson4 #bi ,la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature1 p4 #aej4 ,religion1 ,boutroux urges1 must show man that the supreme ideal for him is to realise in his own nature this idea of ,god4 ,there is an obligation upon man to pursue after these things-goodness1 truth1 beauty and love--for they are his good1 they are the ,good2 they are1 indeed1 ,god4 ,in them is a harmony which satisfies his whole nature1 and which does not neglect or crush any aspect of character1 as narrow conceptions of religion inevitably do4 ,boutroux insists upon the necessity for intellectual satisfaction1 and opposes the 8philosophy of action0 in ils doctrine of 8faith for faith's sake40 ,at the same time he conceives ,reason as a harmony1 not merely a coldly logical thing4 ,feeling and will must be satisfied also4#cj #cj ,boutroux has in his volume1 ,science et ,religion dans la ,philosophie contemporaine1 contributed a luminous and penetrating discussion of various religious doctrines from ,comte to ,william ,james4 ,this was published in #aijh4 ,we have observed already how ,fouille claimed that the ethics of his ides-forces contained the gist of what was valuable in the world religions4 ,he claims that philosophy includes under the form of rational belief or thought what the religions include as instinctive belief4 ,in religion he sees a spontaneous type of metaphysic1 while metaphysic or philosophy is a rationalised religion4 ,nothing in this connection is more important than a rational and harmonious view of ,god4 ,this he insists upon in his thesis and in his ,sketch of the ,future of a ,metaphysic founded on ,experience4 ,the old idea of ,god was that of a monarch governing the world as a despot governs his subjects4 ,the government of the universe may still be held to be a monarchy1 but modern science is careful to assure us that it must be regarded as an absolutely constitutional monarchy4 ,the monarch1 if there be one1 acts in accordance with the laws and respects the established constitution4 ,reason obliges us to conceive of the sovereign3 experience enlightens us as to the constitution4 ,there can be little doubt that one of the world's greatest books upon religion is the work of ,guyau1 which appeared in #ahhf1 bearing the arresting title1 ,l',irreligion de l',avenir4 ,its sub-title describes it as an ,etude sociologique1 and it is this treatment of the subject from the standpoint of sociology which is such a distinctive feature of the book4 ,the notion of a social bond between man and the powers superior to him1 but resembling him1 is1 claims ,guyau1 a point of unity in which all religions are at one4 ,the foundation of the religious sentiment lies in sociality1 and the religious man is just the man who is disposed to be sociable1 not only with all living beings whom he meets1 but with those whom he imaginatively creates as gods4 ,guyau's thesis1 briefly put1 is that religion is a manifestation of life 7again he insists on 8,life10 as in his ,ethics1 as a central conception71 becoming self-conscious and seeking the explanation of things by analogies drawn from human society4 ,religion is 8sociomorphic0 rather than merely anthropomorphic2 it is1 indeed1 a universal sociological hypothesis1 mythical in form4 ,the religious sentiment expresses a consciousness of dependence1 and in addition1 adds ,guyau1 it expresses the need of affection1 tenderness and love--that is to say1 the 8social0 side of man's nature4 ,in the conception of the ,great ,companion or ,loving ,father1 humanity finds consolation and hope4 ,children and women readily turn to such an ideal1 and primitive peoples1 who are just like children1 conceive of the deity as severe and all- powerful4 ,to this conception moral attributes were subsequently added1 as man's own moral conscience developed1 and it now issues in a doctrine of ,god as ,love4 ,all this development is1 together with that of esthetics and ethics1 a manifestation of life in its individual and more especially social manifestations4 ,it is the purpose of ,guyau's book not only to present a study of the evolution of religion in this manner1 from a sociological point of view1 but to indicate a further development of which the beginnings are already manifest--namely1 a decomposition of all systems of dogmatic religion4 ,it is primarily the decay of dogma and ecclesiasticism which he intends to indicate by the ,french term irrligion4 ,the ,english translation of his work bears the title ,the ,non-religion of the ,future4 ,had ,guyau been writing and living in another country it is undoubtedly true that his work would probably have been entitled ,the ,religion of the ,future4 ,owing to the ,roman ,catholic environment and the conception of religion in his own land1 he was1 however1 obliged to abandon the use of the word religion altogether4 ,in order to avoid misunderstanding1 we must examine the sense he gives to this word1 and shall see then that his title is not meant to convey the impression of being anti-religious in the widest sense1 nor is it irreligious in the ,english meaning of that word4 ,guyau considers every positive and historical religion to present three distinct and essential elements3 ,an attempt at a mythical and non-scientific explanation of 7a7 natural phenomena--e4g41 intervention1 miracles1 efficacious prayer2 7b7 historical facts--e4g41 incarnation of ,buddha or ,jesus4 ,a system of dogmas--that is to say1 symbolic ideas or imaginative beliefs--forcibly imposed upon one's faith as absolute verities1 even though they are susceptible to no scientific demonstration or philosophical justification4 ,a cult and a system of rites or of worship1 made up of more or less immutable practices which are looked upon as possessing a marvellous efficacy upon the course of things1 a propitiatory virtue4#ca #ca ,l',irrligion de l',avenir1 p4 xiii2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #aj4 ,by these three different and really organic elements1 religion is clearly marked off from philosophy4 ,owing to the stability of these elements religion is apt to be centuries behind science and philosophy1 and consequently reconciliation is only effected by a subtle process which1 while maintaining the traditional dogmas and phrases1 evolves a new interpretation of them sufficiently modern to harmonise a little more with the advance in thought1 but which presents a false appearance of stability and consistency1 disguising the real change of meaning1 of view-point and of doctrine4 ,of this effort we shall see the most notable instance is that of the 8,modernists0 or ,neo-,catholics in ,france and ,italy1 and the ,liberal ,christians in ,england and ,america4 ,guyau claims that these newer interpretations1 subtle and useful as they are1 and frequently the assertions of minds who desire sincerely to adapt the ancient traditions to modern needs1 are in themselves hypocritical1 and the ,church in a sense does right to oppose them4 ,guyau cannot see any satisfactoriness in these compromises and adaptations which lack the clearness of the old teaching1 which they in a sense betray1 while they do not sufficiently satisfy the demands of modern thought4 ,with the decay of the dogmatic religion of ,christendom which is supremely stated in the faith of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 there must follow the non-religion of the future1 which may well preserve1 he points out1 all that is pure in the religious sentiment and carry with it an admiration for the cosmos and for the infinite powers which are there displayed4 ,it will be a search for1 and a belief in1 an ideal not only individual1 but social and even cosmic1 which shall pass the limits of actual reality4 ,hence it appears that 8non-religion0 or 8a-religion10 which is for ,guyau simply 8the negation of all dogma1 of all traditional and supernatural authority1 of all revelation1 of all miracle1 of all myth1 of all rite erected into a duty10 is most certainly not a synonym for irreligion or impiety1 nor does it involve any contempt for the moral and metaphysical doctrines expressed by the ancient religions of the world4 ,the non-religious man in ,guyau's sense of the term is simply the man without a religion1 as he has defined it above1 and he may quite well admire and sympathise with the great founders of religion1 not only in that they were thinkers1 metaphysicians1 moralists and philanthropists1 but in that they were reformers of established belief1 more or less avowed enemies of religious authority and of every affirmation laid down by an ecclesiastical body in order to bind the intellectual freedom of individuals4 ,guyau's remarks in this connection agree with the tone in which ,renan spoke of his leaving the ,church because of a feeling of respect and loyalty to its ,founder4 ,guyau points out that there exists in the bosom of every great religion a dissolving force--namely1 the very force which in the beginning served to constitute it and to establish its triumphant revolt over its predecessor4 ,that force is the absolute right of private judgment1 the free factor of the personal conscience1 which no external authority can succeed1 ultimately1 in coercing or silencing4 ,the ,roman ,church1 and almost every other organised branch of the ,christian religion1 forgets1 when faced with a spirit which will not conform1 that it is precisely to this spirit that it owes its own foundation and also the best years of its existence4 ,guyau has little difficulty in pressing the conclusions which follow from the recognition of this vital point4 ,briefly1 it follows that the hope of a world-religion is an illusion1 whether it be the dream of a perfect and world-wide ,judaism1 ,buddhism1 ,christianity1 or ,mohammedanism4 ,the sole authority in religious matters1 that of the individual conscience1 prevents any such consummation1 which1 even if it could be achieved1 would be mischievous4 ,the future will display a variety of beliefs and religions1 as it does now4 ,this need not discourage us1 for therein is a sign of vitality or spiritual life1 of which the world-religions are examples1 marred1 however1 by their profession of universality1 an ideal which they do not and never will realise4 ,the notion of a ,catholic ,church or a great world- religion is really contrary to the duty of personal thought and reflection1 which must inevitably 7unless they give way to mere lazy repetition of other people's thoughts7 lead to differences4 ,the tendency is for humanity to move away from dogmatic religion1 with its pretensions to universality1 catholicity1 and monarchy 7of which1 says ,guyau1 the most curious type has just recently been achieved in our own day1 by the ,pope's proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility71 towards religious individualism and to a plurality of religions4 ,there may1 of course1 be religious associations or federations1 but these will be free1 and will not demand the adherence to any dogma as such4 ,with the decay of dogmatic religion the best elements of religious life will have freer scope to develop themselves1 and will grow both in intensity and in extent4 8,he alone is religious1 in the philosophical sense of the word1 who researches for1 who thinks about1 who loves1 truth40 ,such inquiry or search involves freedom1 it involves conflict1 but the conflict of ideas1 which is perfectly compatible with toleration in a political sense1 and is the essence of the spirit of the great world teachers4 ,this is what ,jesus foresaw when he remarked3 8,i did not come to bring peace1 but a sword40 ,more fully1 he might have put it1 ,guyau suggests3 8,i came not to bring peace into human thought1 but an incessant battle of ideas2 not repose1 but movement and progress of spirit2 not universal dogma1 but liberty of belief1 which is the first condition of growth40 ,well might ,renan remark that it was loyalty to such a spirit which caused him to break with the ,church4 ,while attacking religious orthodoxy in this manner1 ,guyau is careful to point out that if religious fanaticism ls bad1 anti-religious fanaticism is equally mischievous1 wicked and foolish4#cb ,while the eighteenth century could only scoff at religion1 the nineteenth realised the absurdity of such raillery4 ,we have come to see that even although a belief may be irrational and even erroneous1 it may still survive1 and it may console multitudes whose minds would be lost on the stormy sea of life without such an anchor4 ,while dogmatic or positive religions do exist they will do so1 ,guyau reminds us1 for quite definite and adequate reasons1 chiefly because there are people who believe them1 to whom they mean something and often a great deal4 ,these reasons certainly do diminish daily1 and the number of adherents1 too1 but we must refrain from all that savours of anti- religious fanaticism4#cc ,he himself speaks with great respect of a ,christian missionary4 ,are we not1 he asks1 both brothers and humble collaborators in the work and advance of humanity8 ,he sees no real inconsistency between his own dislike of orthodoxy and dogma and the missionary's work of raising the ignorant to a better life by those very dogmas4 ,it is a case of relative advance and mental progress4 #cb ,he cites a curious case of anti-religious fanaticism at ,marseilles in #ahhe1 when all texts and scripture pictures were removed fromthe schools4 #cc ,guyau's book abounds in illustrations4 ,he mentions here ,huss's approval of the sincerity of one man who brought straw from his own house to burn him4 ,huss admired this act of a man in whom he saw a brother in sincerity4 ,it is with great wealth of discussion that ,guyau recounts the genesis of religions in primitive societies to indicate the sociological basis of religion4 ,more important are his chapters on the dissolution of religions in existing societies1 in which he shows the unsatisfactoriness of the dogmas of orthodox ,protestantism equally with those of the ,catholic ,church4 ,as mischievous as the notion of an infallible ,church is that of an infallible book1 literally--that is to say1 foolishly-interpreted4 ,he recognises that for a literal explanation of the ,bible must be substituted1 and is1 indeed1 being substituted1 a literary explanation4 ,like ,renan1 he criticises the vulgar conception of prayer and of religious morality which promotes goodness by promise of paradise or fear of hell4 ,he urges in this connection the futility of the effort made by ,michelet1 ,quinet and1 more especially1 by ,renouvier and ,pillon to 8,protestantise0 ,france4 ,while admitting a certain intellectual1 moral and political superiority to it1 ,guyau claims that for the promotion of morality there is little use in substituting ,protestantism for ,catholicism4 ,he forecasts the limitation of the power of priests and other religious teachers over the minds of young children4 ,protestant clergymen in ,england and ,america he considers to be no more tolerant in regard to the educational problem than the priests4 ,guyau urges the importance of an elementary education being free from religious propaganda4 ,he was writing in #ahhf1 some years after the secular education law had been carried4 ,there is1 however1 more to be done1 and he points out 8how strange it is that a society should not do its best to form those whose function it is to form it40#cd ,in higher education some attention should be given to the comparative study of religions4 8,even from the point of view of philosophy1 ,buddha and ,jesus are more important than ,anaximander or ,thales40#ce ,it is a pity1 he thinks1 that there is not a little more done to acquaint the young with the ideas for which the great world-teachers1 ,confucius1 ,zoroaster1 ,buddha1 ,socrates1 ,mohammed1 stood1 instead of cramming a few additional obscure names from early national history4 ,it would give children at least a notion that history had a wider range than their own country1 a realisation of the fact that humanity was already old when ,christ appeared1 and that there are great religions other than ,christianity1 religions whose followers are not poor ignorant savages or heathen1 but intelligent beings1 from whom even ,christians may learn much4 ,it is thoroughly mischievous1 he aptly adds1 to bring up children in such a narrow mental atmosphere that the rest of their life is one long disillusionment4 #cd ,l',irrligion de l',avenir1 p4 #bcb2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #bgh4 #ce ,ibid41 p4 #bcf2 ,eng4 trans41 p4 #bhc4 ,with particular reference to his own country1 ,guyau criticises the religious education of women1 the question of 8mixed marriages10 the celibacy of the ,roman ,catholic clergy1 and the influence of religious beliefs upon the limitation or increase of the family4 ,after having summed up the tendency of dogmatic religion to decay1 he asks if any unification of the great religions is to-day possible1 or whether any new religion may be expected8 ,the answer he gives to both these questions is negative1 and he produces a wealth of very valid reasons in support of his finding4 ,he is1 of course1 here using the term religion as he has himself defined it4 ,the claim to universality by all world-religions1 the insistence by each that it alone is the really best or true religion1 precludes any question of unity4 ,as well might we imagine unity between ,protestantism and the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,in the 8non-religious0 state1 dogma will be replaced by individual constructions4 ,religion will be a free1 personal affair1 in which the great philosophical hypotheses 7e4g41 ,theism and ,pantheism7 will be to a large extent utilised4 ,they will1 however1 be regarded as such by all1 as rational hypotheses1 which some individuals will accept1 others will reject4 ,certain doctrines will appeal to some1 not to others4 ,the evidence for a certain type of theism will seem adequate to some1 not to others4 ,there will be no endeavour to impose corporately or singly the acceptance of any creed upon others4 ,with ,guyau's conception of the future of religion or non-religion1 whichever we care to call it1 we may well close this survey of the religious ideas in modern ,france4 ,in the ,roman ,church on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 in the thought of ,renan1 ,renouvier and ,guyau1 together with the multitude of thinking men and women they represent1 may be seen the two tendencies--one conservative1 strengthening its internal organisation and authority1 in defiance of all the influences of modern thought1 the other a free and personal effort1 issuing in a genuine humanising of religion and freeing it from ecclesiasticism and dogma4 ,a word may be said here1 however1 with reference to the 8,modernists40 ,the ,modernist movement is a ,french product1 the result of the interaction of modern philosophical and scientific ideas upon the teaching of the ,roman ,church4 ,it has produced a philosophical religion which owes much to ,oll-,laprune and ,blondel1 and is in reality modern science with a veneer of religious idealism or platonism4 ,it is a theological compromise1 and has no affinities with the efforts of ,lamennais4 ,as a compromise it was really opposed to the traditions of the ,french1 to whose love of sharp and clear thinking such general and rather vague syntheses are unacceptable4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that there is a concreteness1 a nearness to reality and life1 which separates it profoundly from the highly abstract theology of ,germany1 as seen in ,ritschl and ,harnack4 ,the ,abb ,marat of the ,theological ,school at the ,sorbonne and ,father ,gratry of the ,ecole ,normale were the initiators of this movement1 as far back as the ,second ,empire4 8,modernism0 was never a school of thought1 philosophical or religious1 and it showed itself in a freedom and life1 a spirit rather than in any formula24 ,as ,sorel's syndicalism is an application of the ,bergsonian and kindred doctrines to the left wings1 and issues in a social theory of 8action10 so ,modernism is an attempt to apply them to the right and issues in a religion founded on action rather than theology4 ,the writings of the ,modernists are extensive1 but we mention the names of the chief thinkers4 ,there is the noted exegetist ,loisy1 who was dismissed in #ahid from the ,catholic ,institute of ,paris and now holds the chair of the ,history of ,religions at the ,college de ,france4 ,his friend1 the ,abb ,bourier1 maintained the doctrine1 8 ,where ,christ is there is the ,church10 with a view to insisting upon the importance of being a ,christian rather than a ,catholic or a ,protestant4 ,the importance of the ,catholic thinker1 ,blondel1 both for religion and for philosophy1 has already been indicated at an earlier stage in this book4 ,his work inspires most4,modernist thought4 ,blondel preaches1 with great wealth of philosophical and psychological argument1 the great ,catholic doctrine of the collaboration of ,god with man and of man with ,god4 ,man at one with himself realises his highest aspirations4 ,divine transcendence and divine immanence in man are reconciled4 ,god and man1 in this teaching1 are brought together1 and the stern realism of every-day life and the idealism of religion unite in a sacramental union4 ,the supreme principle in this union ,laberthonnire shows to be ,love4 ,he is at pains to make clear1 however1 that belief in ,love as the ultimate reality is no mere sentimentality1 no mere assertion of the will-to-believe4 ,for him the intellect must play its part in the religious life and in the expression of faith4 ,no profounder intellectual judgment exists than just the one which asserts 8,god is ,love10 when this statement is properly apprehended and its momentous significance clearly realised4 ,we cannot but lament1 with ,laberthonnire1 the abuse of this proposition and its subsequent loss of both appeal and meaning through a shallow familiarity4 ,the reiteration of great conceptions1 which is the method by which the great dogmas have been handed down from generations1 tends to blurr their real significance4 ,they become stereotyped and empty of life4 ,it is for this reason that ,le ,roy in ,dogme et ,critique 7#aijg7 insisted upon the advisability of regarding all dogmas as expressions of practical value in and for action1 rather than as intellectual propositions of a purely 8religious0 or ecclesiastical type1 belonging solely to the creeds4 ,to ,blondel1 ,laberthonnire1 and ,le ,roy can be added the names of ,fonsegrive1 ,sertillanges1 ,loyson and ,houtin1 the last two of whom ultimately left the ,church1 for the ,church made up its mind to crush ,modernism4 ,the ,pope had intimated in #ahgi that the thirteenth-century philosophy of ,aquinas was to be recognised as the only official philosophy4#cf ,finally1 ,modernism was condemned in a ,vatican encyclical 7,pascendi ,dominici ,gregis7 in #aijg1 as was also the social and educational effort1 ,le ,sillon4 #cf ,this led to revival of the study of the ,summa ,theologi and to the commencement of the review of ,catholic philosophy1 ,revue ,thomiste4 ,such has been ,rome's last word1 and it is not surprising1 therefore1 that ,france is the most ardent home of free thought upon religious matters1 that the ,french people display a spirit which is unable to stop at ,protestantism1 but which heralds the religion or the non-religion of the future to which ,guyau has so powerfully indicated the tendencies and has by so doing helped1 in conjunction with ,renan and ,renouvier1 to hasten its realisation4 ,a parallel to the 8modernist0 theology of the ,catholic thinkers was indicated on the ,protestant side by the theology of ,auguste ,sabatier1 whose ,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de la ,religion d'aprs la ,psychologie et l',histoire appeared in #ahigcg and of ,menegoz1#ch whose ,publications diverges sur le ,fidisme et son ,application a l',enseignement chrtien traditionnel were issued in #aijj4 ,sabatier assigns the beginning of religion to man's trouble and distress of heart caused by his aspirations1 his belief in ideals and higher values1 being at variance with his actual condition4 ,religion arises from this conflict of real and ideal in the soul of man4 ,this is the essence of religion which finds its expression in the life of faith rather than in the formation of beliefs which are themselves accidental and transitory1 arising from environment and education1 changing in form from aee to age both in the individual and the race4 ,while ,le,roy on the ,catholic side1 maintained that dogmas were valuable for their practical significance1 ,sabatier and ,mngoz claimed that all religious knowledge is symbolical4 ,dogmas are but symbols1 which inadequately attempt to reveal their object4 ,that object can only be grasped by 8faith0 as distinct from 8belief0--that is to say1 by an attitude in which passion1 instinct and intuition blend and not by an attitude which is purely one of intellectual conviction4 ,this doctrine of 8salvation by faith independently of beliefs0 has a marked relationship not only to pragmatism and the philosophy of action1 but to the philosophy of intuition4 ,a similar anti-intellectualism colours the 8symbolo-fidist0 currents within ,catholicism1 which manifest a more extreme character4 ,a plea voiced against all such tendencies is to be found in ,bois' book1 ,de la ,connaissance religieuse 7#ahid71 where an endeavour is made to retain a more intellectual attitude1 and it again found expression in the volume by ,boutroux1 written as late as #aijh1 which deals with the religious problem in our period4 #cg ,it was followed after his death in #aija by the volume ,les ,religions d',authorit et la ,religion de l',esprit1 #aijd4 #ch ,this is the late ,eugene ,mngoz1 ,professor of ,theology in ,paris1 not ,ferdinand ,mngoz1 his nephew1 who is also a ,professor of ,theology now at ,strasbourg4 ,quoting ,boehme in the interesting conclusion to this book on ,science and ,religion in ,contemporary ,philosophy 7#aijh7 ,boutroux sums up in the words of the old ,german mystic his attitude to the diversity of religious opinions4 8,consider the birds in our forests1 they praise ,god each in his own way1 in diverse tones and fashions4 ,think you ,god is vexed by this diversity and desires to silence discordant voices8 ,all the forms of being are dear to the infinite ,being himself60#ci #ci ,it is interesting to compare with the above the sentiments expressed in ,matthew ,arnold's poem1 entitled ,progress3 8,children of men6 the unseen ,power1 whose eye ,for ever doth accompany mankind1 ,hath look'd on no religion scornfully ,that men did ever find4 ,this survey of the general attitude adopted towards religion and the problems which it presents only serves to emphasise more clearly those tendencies which we have already denoted in previous chapters4 ,as the discussion of progress was radically altered by the admission of the principle of freedom1 and the discussion of ethics passes bevond rigid formulae to a freer conception of morality1 so here in religion the insistence upon freedom and that recognition of personality which accompanies it1 colours the whole religious outlook4 ,renan1 ,renouvier and ,guyau1 the three thinkers who have most fully discussed religion in our period1 join in proclaiming the importance of the personal factor in religious belief1 and in valiant opposition to that ,church which is the declared enemy of freedom1 they urge that in freedom of thought lies the course of all religious development in the future1 for only thus can be expressed the noblest and highest aspirations of man's spirit4 ,,conclusion ,the foregoing pages have been devoted to a history of ideas rather than to the maintenance of any special thesis or particular argument4 ,consequently it does not remain for us to draw any definitely logical conclusions from the preceding chapters4 ,the opportunity may be justly taken1 however1 of summing up the general features of the development4 ,few periods in the history of human thought can rival in interest that of the second half of the nineteenth century in ,france4 ,the discussion covers the principal problems with which man's mind is occupied in modern times and presents these in a manner which is distinctly human and not merely national4 ,this alone would give value to the study of such a period4 ,there is1 however1 to be added the more striking fact that there is a complete 8turning of the tide0 manifested during these fifty years in the attitude to most of the problems4 ,beginning with an overweening confidence in science and a belief in determinism and in a destined progress1 the century closed with a complete reversal of these conceptions4 ,materialism and naturalism are both recognised as inadequate1 a reaction sets in against positivism and culminates in the triumph of spiritualism or idealism4 ,this idealism is free from the cruder aspects of the ,kantian or ,hegelian philosophy4 ,the ,thing-in-itself and the ,absolute are abandoned2 relativity is proclaimed in knowledge1 and freedom in the world of action4 ,thoughts or ideas show themselves as forces operating in the evolution of history4 ,this is maintained in opposition to the ,marxian doctrine of the purely economic or materialistic determination of history4 ,a marked tendency1 however1 is manifested to regard all problems from a social stand point4 ,the dogmatic confidence in science gives way to a more philosophical attitude1 while the conflict of science and religion resolves itself into a decay of dogma and the conception of a free religion4 ,we have indicated the problem presented by 8science et conscience10 and in so far as we have laid down any thesis or argument in these pages1 as distinct from an historical account of the development1 that thesis has been1 that the central problem in the period was that of freedom4 ,it was to this point which the consideration of science1 or rather of the sciences1 led us4 ,we have observed the importance of the sciences for philosophy1 and it is clear that1 so far from presenting any real hostility to philosophy1 it can acclaim their autonomy and freedom1 without attempting by abstract methods to absorb them into itself4 ,they are equally a concrete part of human thought1 and in a deep and real sense a manifestation of the same spirit which animates philosophy4 ,by recognising the sciences philosophy can avoid the fallacy of ideology on the one hand and naturalism on the other4 ,unlike the old eclecticism1 the new thought is able to take account of science and to criticise its assertions4 ,we have seen how this has been accomplished1 and the rigidly mechanical view of the world abandoned for one into which human freedom enters as a real factor4 ,this transforms the view of history and shows us human beings creating that history and not merely being its blind puppets4 ,history offers no cheerful outlook for the easy-going optimist2 it is not any more to be regarded as mere data for pessimistic reflections1 but rather a record which prompts a feeling of responsibility4 ,the world is not ready-made1 and if there is to be progress it must be willed by us and achieved by our struggle and labour4 ,the doctrine of immanence upon which the modern tendency is to insist1 in place of the older idea of transcendence1 makes us feel1 not only that we are free1 but that our freedom is not in opposition to1 or in spite of1 the divine spirit1 but is precisely an expression of divine immanence4 ,instead of the gloomy conception of a whole which determines itself apart from us1 we feel ourselves part1 and a very responsible part1 of a reality which determines itself collectively and creatively by its own action1 by its own ideals1 which it has itself created4 ,this freedom must extend not only to our conceptions of history but also to those of ethics and of religion4 8,english philosophy ends in considering nature as an assemblage of facts2 ,german philosophy looks upon it chiefly as a system of laws4 ,if there is a place midway between the two nations it belongs to us ,frenchmen4 ,we applied the ,english ideas in the eighteenth century2 we can in the nineteenth give precision to the ,german ideas4 ,what we have to do is to temper1 amend and complete the two spirits1 one by the other1 to fuse them into one1 to express them in a style that shall be intelligible to everybody and thus to make of them the universal spirit40 ,such was ,taine's attitude1 and it indicates clearly the precise position of ,french thought4 ,we are apt to consider ,taine purely as an empiricist1 but we must remember that he disagreed with the radical empiricism of ,john ,stuart ,mill4 ,his own attitude was largely that of a reaction against the vague spiritualism of the ,eclectic ,school1 especially ,cousin's eclecticism1 a foreign growth on ,french soil1 due to ,german influence4 ,the purely a priori constructions of the older spiritualism could find no room1 and allowed none1 for the sciences4 ,this was sufficient to doom it1 and to lead naturally to a reaction of a positive kind1 revolting from all a priori constructions4 ,it was to combat the excessive positive reaction against metaphysics that ,renouvier devoted his energies1 but while professing to modernise ,kant and to follow out the general principles of his ,critical ,philosophy1 ,renouvier was further removed from the ,german thinker than he at times seems to have observed4 ,renouvier must undoubtedly share with ,comte the honours of the century in ,french ,philosophy4 ,many influences1 however1 prevented the general or speedy acceptance of ,renouvier's doctrines4 ,the ,university was closed against him1 as against ,comte4 ,he worked in isolation and his style of presentation1 which is heavy and laborious1 does not appeal to the esprit of the ,french mind4 ,probably1 too1 his countrymen's ignorance of ,kant at the time ,renouvier wrote his ,essais de ,critique gnrale prevented an understanding and appreciation of the neo-critical advance on ,criticism4 ,renouvier commands respect1 but he does not appear to be in the line of development which manifests so essentially the character of ,french thought4 ,this is to be found rather in that spiritualism1 which1 unlike the old1 does not exclude science1 but welcomes it1 finds a place for it1 although not by any means an exclusive place4 ,the new spiritualists did not draw their inspiration1 as did ,cousin1 from any ,german source1 their initial impulse is derived from a purely ,french thinker1 ,maine de ,biran1 who1 long neglected1 came to recognition in the work of ,ravaisson and those subsequent thinkers of this group1 right up to ,bergson4 ,this current of thought is marked by a vitality and a concreteness which are a striking contrast to the older eclectic spiritualism4 ,having submitted itself to the discipline of the sciences1 it is acquainted with their methods and data in a manner which enables it to oppose the dogmatism of science1 and to acclaim the reality of values other than those which are purely scientific4 ,ignoring a priori construction1 or eclectic applications of doctrines1 it investigates the outer world of nature and the inner life of the spirit4 ,we have said that these ideas are presented1 not merely from a national standpoint1 but from one which is deeply human and universal4 8,la ,science10 re-marked ,pasteur1 8n'a pas de patrie40 ,we may add that philosophy1 too1 owns no special fatherland4 ,there is not in philosophy1 any more than in religion1 8a chosen people10 even although the ,jews of old thought themselves such1 and among moderns the ,germans have had this conceit about their ,kultur4 ,in so far as philosophy aims at the elucidation of a true view of the universe1 it thereby tends inevitably to universality4 ,but just as a conception of internationalism1 which should fail to take into account the factors of nationality1 would be futile and disastrous1 so a conception of the evolution of thought must likewise estimate the characteristics which nationality produces even in the philosophical field4 ,such characteristics1 it will be found1 are not definite doctrines1 for these may be transferred1 as are scientific discoveries1 from one nation to another1 and absorbed in such a manner that they become part of the general consciousness of mankind4 ,they are rather differences of tone and colour1 form or expression1 which express the vital genius of the nation4 ,there are features which serve to distinguish ,french philosophy from the development which has occurred in ,germany1 ,italy1 ,england and ,america4 ,modern ,french thought does not deliberately profess to maintain allegiance to any past traditions1 for it realises that such a procedure would be inconsistent with that freedom of thought which is bound up with the spirit of philosophy4 ,it does1 however1 betray certain national features1 which are characteristic of the great ,french thinkers from ,descartes1 ,pascal and ,malebranche onwards4 ,one of the most remarkable points about these thinkers was their intimacy with the sciences4 ,descartes1 while founding modern philosophy1 also gave the world analytic geometry2 ,pascal made certain physical discoveries and was an eminent mathematician4 ,malebranche1 too1 was keenly interested in science4 ,in the following century the ,encyclopaedists displayed their wealth of scientific knowledge1 and in the nineteenth century we have seen the work of ,comte based on science1 the ability of ,cournot and ,renouvier in mathematics1 while men like ,boutroux1 ,hergson and ,le ,roy possess a thorough acquaintance with modern science4 ,these facts have marked results1 and distinguish ,french philosophy from that of ,germany1 where the majority of philosophers appear to haye been theological students in their youth and to have suffered from the effects of their subject for the remainder of their lives4 ,theological study does not produce clearness2 it does not tend to cultivate a spirit of precision1 but rather one of vagueness1 of which much ,german philosophy is the product4 ,on the other hand1 mathematics is a study which demands clearness and which in turn increases the spirit of clarity and precision4 ,there is to be seen in our period a strong tendency to adhere to this feature of clearness4 ,modern ,french philosophy is remarkably lucid4 ,indeed1 it is claimed that there is no notion1 however profound it may be1 or however based on technical research it may be1 which cannot be conveyed in the language of every day4 ,french philosophy does not invent a highly technical vocabulary in order to give itself airs in the eyes of the multitude1 on the plea that obscurity is a sign of erudition and learning4 ,on the contrary1 it remembers ,descartes' intimate association of clearness with truth1 remembers1 too1 his clear and simple ,french which he preferred to the scholastic ,latin4 ,it knows that to convince others of truth one must be at least clear to them and1 what is equally important1 one must be clear in one's own mind first4 ,clarity does not mean shallowness but rather the reverse1 because it is due to keen perceptive power1 to a seeing further into the heart of things1 involving an intimate contact with reality4 ,french thought has always remained true to a certain 8common sense40 ,this is a dangerous and ambiguous term4 ,in its true meaning it signifies the general and sane mind of man free from all that prejudice or dogma or tradition1 upon which1 of course1 8common sense0 in the popular meaning is usually based4 ,a genuine 8common sense0 is merely 8libert0 for the operation of that general reason which makes man what he is4 ,it must be admitted that1 owing to the fact that philosophy is taught in the lyces1 the ,french are the best educated of any nation in philosophical ideas and have a finer general sense of that spirit of criticism and appreciation which is the essence of philosophy1 than has any other modern nation4 ,philosophy in ,france is not written in order to appeal to any school or class4 ,not limited to an academic circle only1 it makes its pronouncements to humanity and thus embodies in a real form the principles of egalit and fraternit4 ,it makes a democratic appeal both by its clart and its belief that la raison commune is in some degree present in every human being4 ,not only was clearness a strong point in the philosophy of ,descartes1 but there was also an insistence upon method4 ,since the time of his famous ,discours de la ,mthode there has always been a unique value placed upon method in ,french thought1 and this again serves to distinguish it profoundly from ,german philosophy1 which is1 in general1 concerned with the conception and production of entire systems4 ,the idea of an individual and systematic construction is an ambitious conceit which is not in harmony with the principles of libert1 egalit1 fraternit4 ,such a view of philosophical work is not a sociable one1 from a human standpoint1 and tends to give rise to a spirit of authority and tradition4 ,apart from this aspect of it1 there is a more important consideration4 ,all those systems take one idea as their starting-point and build up an immense construction a priori4 ,but another idea may be taken and opposed to that4 ,there is thus an immense wastage of labour1 and the individual effort is never transcended4 ,yet an idea is only a portion of our intelligence1 and that intelligence itself is1 in turn1 only a portion of reality4 ,a wider conception of philosophy must be aimed at1 one in which the vue d'ensemble is not the effort of one mind1 but of many1 each contributing its share to a harmonious conception1 systematic in a sense1 but not in the ,german sense4 ,modern ,french thought has a dislike of system of the individualistic type2 it realises that reality is too rich and complex for such a rapid construction to grasp it4 ,it is opposed to systems1 for the ,french mind looks upon philosophy as a manifestation of life itself--life blossoming to self-consciousness1 striving ever to unfold itself more explicitly and more clearly1 endeavouring to become more harmonious1 more beautiful1 and more noble4 ,the real victories of philosophical thought are not indicated by the production of systems but by the discovery or creation of ideas4 ,often these ideas have been single and simple1 but they have become veritable forces1 in the life of mankind4 ,french thinkers prefer to work collectively at particular problems rather than at systems4 ,hence the aim and tone of their work is more universal and human1 and being more general is apt to be more generous4 ,this again is the expression of liberte1 galit and fraternit in a true sense4 ,the ,french prefer1 as it were1 in their philosophical campaign for the intellectual conquest of reality diverse batteries of soixante-quinze acting with precision and alertness to the clumsy production of a 8,big ,bertha40 ,the production of ambitious systems1 each professing to be the final word in the presentation of reality1 has not attracted the ,french spirit4 ,it looks at reality differently and prefers to deal with problems in a clear way1 thereby indicating a method which may be applied to the solution of others as they present themselves4 ,this is infinitely preferable to an ambitious unification1 which can only be obtained at the sacrifice of clearness or meaning1 and it arises from that keen contact with life1 which keeps the mind from dwelling too much in the slough of abstraction1 from which some of the ,german philosophers never succeed in escaping4 ,their pilgrimage to the ,celestial ,city ends there1 and consequently the account of their itinerary cannot be of much use to other pilgrims4 ,another feature of modern ,french thought is the intimacy of the connection between psychology and metaphysics1 and the intensive interest in psychology1 which is but the imestigation of the inner life of man4 ,while in the early beginnings of ancient ,greek philosophy some time was spent in examining the outer world before man gave his attention to the world within1 we find ,descartes1 at the beginning of modern philosophy1 making his own consciousness of his own existence his starting-point4 ,introspection has always played a prominent part in ,french philosophy4 ,pascal was equally interested in the outer and the inner world4 ,through ,maine de ,biran this feature has come down to the new spiritualists and culminates in ,bergson's thought1 in which psychological considerations hold first rank4 ,the social feature of modern ,french thought should not be omitted4 ,in ,germany subsequent thought has been coloured by the ,reformation and the particular aspects of that movement4 ,in ,france one may well say that subsequent thought has been marked by the ,revolution4 ,there is a theological flavour about most ,german philosophy1 while ,france1 a seething centre of political and social thought1 has given to her philosophy a more sociological trend4 ,the ,french spirit in philosophy stands for clearness1 concreteness and vitality4 ,consequently it presents a far greater brilliance1 richness and variety than ,german philosophy displays4#a ,this vitality and even exuberance1 which are those of the spirit of youth manifesting a joie de vivre or an lan vital1 have been very strongly marked since the year #ahhj1 and have placed ,french philosophy in the van of human thought4 #a ,it is1 therefore to be lamented that ,french thought has not received the attention which it deseives4 ,in ,england far more attention has been given to the nineteenth-century ,german philosophy1 while the history of thought in ,france1 especially in the period between ,comte and ,bergson1 has remained in sad neglect4 ,this can and should be speedily remedied4 ,it would be vain to ask whither its advance will lead4 ,even its own principles prevent any such forecast2 its creative richness may blossom forth to-morrow in forms entirely new1 for such is the characteristic of life itself1 especially the life of the spirit1 upon which so much stress is laid in modern ,french philosophy4 ,the ,new ,idealism lays great stress upon dynamism1 voluntarism or action4 ,freedom and creative activity are its keynotes1 and life1 ever fuller and richer1 is its aspiration4 ,la ,vie1 of which ,france 7and its centre1 ,paris7 is such an expression1 finds formulation in the philosophy of contemporary thinkers4#b #b ,the student of comparative thought will find it both interesting and profitable to compare the work done recently in ,italy by ,croce and ,gentile4 ,the intellectual kinship of ,croce and ,bergson has frequently been pointed out1 but ,gentile's work comes very close to the philosophy of action and to the whole positive-idealistic tendency of contemporary ,french thought4 ,this is particularly to be seen in ,l'atto del pensare come atto puro 7#aiab71 and in ,teoria generalo dello spirito come atto puro 7#aiaf74 ,professor ,carr1 the well-known exponent of ,bergson's philosophy1 remarks in his introduction to the ,english edition of ,gentile's book1 8,we may individualise the mind as a natural thing-object person4 4 4 4 ,yet our power to think the mind in this way would be impossible were not the mind with and by which we think it1 itself not a thing1 not a fact1 but act2 4 4 4 never factum1 but always fieri40 ,this quotation is from p4 xv of the ,theory of ,mind as ,pure ,act4 ,with one other quotation direct from ,gentile we must close this reference to ,italian neo-idealism4 8,in so far as the subject is constituted a subject by its own act it constitutes the object4 4 4 4 ,mind is the transcendental activity productive of the objective world of experience0 7pp4 #ah1 #dc74 ,compare with this our quotation from ,ravaisson1 given on p4 #ge of this work1 and the statement by ,lachelier on p4 #abb1 both essential principles of the ,french ,new ,idealism4 ,one word of warning must be uttered against those who declare that the tendency of ,french thought is in the direction of anti-intellectualism4 ,such a declaration rests on a misunderstanding1 which we have endeavoured in our pages to disclose ,it is based essentially upon a doctrine of ,reason which belongs to the eighteenth century4 ,the severe rationalism of that period was mischievous in that it rested upon a one-sided view of human nature1 on a narrow interpretation of 8,reason0 which gave it only a logical and almost mathematical significance4 ,to the ,greeks1 whom the ,french represent in the modern world1 the term 8,,nous0 meant more than this--it meant an intelligible harmony4 ,we would do wrong to look upon the most recent developments in ,france as being anti-rational1 they are but a revolt against the narrow view of ,reason1 and they constitute an attempt to present to the modern world a conception akin to that of the ,greeks4 ,human reason is much more than a purely logical faculty1 and it is this endeavour to relate all problems to life itself with its pulsing throb1 which represents the real attitude of the ,french mind4 ,there is a realisation expressed throughout that thought1 that life is more than logic4 ,the clearness of geometry showed ,descartes that geometry is not all-embracing4 ,pascal found that to the logic of geometry must be added a spirit of appreciation which is not logical in its nature1 but expresses another side of man's mind4 ,to-day ,france sees that1 although a philosophy must endeavour to satisfy the human intelligence1 a merely intellectual satisfaction is not enough4 ,the will and the feelings play their part1 and it was the gteat fault of the eighteenth century to misunderstand this ,the search to-day is for a system of values and of truth in action as well as a doctrine about things in their purely theoretical aspects4 ,this is a serious demand1 and it is one which philosophy must endeavour to appreciate ,salvation will not be found in a mere dilettantism which can only express ieal indifference1 nor in a dogmatism which results in bigotry and pride4 ,criticism is required1 but not a purely destructive criticism1 rather one which will offer some acceptable view of the universe4 ,such a view must combine true positivism or realism with a true idealism1 by uniting fact and spirit1 things and ideas4 ,its achievement can only be possible to minds possessing some creative and constructive power1 yet minds who have been schooled in the college of reality4 ,this is the task of philosophy in ,france and in other lands4 ,that task consists not only in finding values and in defining them but in expressing them actively1 and in endeavouring to realise them in the common life4 ,,bibliography ,i4 ,works of the ,period classified under ,authors4 7,the more important monographs are cited47 ,names of philosophical journals4 ,,ii4 ,books on the ,period4 ,,iii4 ,comparative ,table showing contemporary ,german and ,anglo-,american ,works from #ahea to #aiba4 ,i ,,works ,,of ,,the ,,period ,,classified ,,under ,,authors4 ,,bergson3 ,les ,donnes immdiates de la ,conscience4 #ahhi4 ,english ,translation--,time and ,free-,will4 #aiaj4 ,matire et ,mmoire4 #ahif4 7,e4,t4#a #aiaa47 ,le ,rire4 #aija4 7,e4,t4 #aiaa47 ,introduction a la ,mtaphysique4 #aijc4 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 7,e4,t4 #aiac47 ,l',evolution cratrice4 #aijg4 7,e4,t4 #aiaa47 ,l',energie spirituelle4 #aiai4 7,e4,t4 #aibj47 ,some monographs on ,bergson3 ,le ,roy 7#aiab71 ,maritain 7#aiad7 in ,france1 ,meckauer 7#aiag7 in ,germany1 and for the ,english reader ,lindsay 7#aiaa71 ,stewart 7#aiaa71 ,carr 7#aiab71 ,cunningham 7#aiaf71 and ,gunn 7#aibj74 ,,bernard3 ,introduction a l',etude de la ,mdecine exprimental4 #ahfe4 ,,berthelot3 ,science et ,philosophie4 #ahhf4 ,,binet3 ,magntisme animal4 #ahhf4 ,les ,altrations de la ,personnalit4 #ahib4 ,l',introduction la ,psychologie exprimental4 #ahid4 7,founded the ,anne psychologique in #ahie47 ,,blondel3 ,l',action1 ,essai d'une ,critique de la ,vie et d'une ,science de la ,pratique4 #ahic4 ,histoire et ,dogme4 #aijd4 ,,boirac3 ,l',ide du ,phnomne4 #ahid4 ,,bois3 ,de la ,connaissance religieuse4 #ahid4 ,,bourgeois3 ,solidarit4 #ahif4 ,,boutroux 7,,emile73 ,de la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature #ahgd4 7,e4,t4 #aiaf47 ,de l',ide de ,loi naturelle dans la ,science et la ,philosophie contemporaines4 #ahie4 7,e4,t4 #aiad47 ,questions de ,morale et d',education4 #ahie4 7,e4,t4 #aiac47 ,de l',influence de la ,philosophie cossaise sur la ,philosophie franaise4 #ahig4 ,la ,science et la ,religion dans la ,philosophie contemporaine4 #aijh4 7,e4,t4 #aiji47 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france depuis #ahfg4 ,paper read to ,third ,congress of ,philosophy at ,heidelberg in #aijh4 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,nov41 #aijh4 ,etudes d',histoire de la ,philosophie4 7,e4,t4 #aiab47 ,the ,beyond that is ,within4 ,e4,t4 #aiab4 7,addresses47 ,,brochard3 ,de la ,responsabilit morale4 #ahgd4 ,de l',universalit des ,notions morales4 #ahgf4 ,de ,l',erreur4 #ahgi4 ,,brunschwicg3 ,la ,modalit du jugement4 #ahig4 ,la ,vie de l',esprit4 #aijj4 ,les ,etapes de la ,philosophie mathmatique4 #aiab4 ,,bureau3 ,la ,crise morale des ,temps nouveau4 #aijg4 ,,caro3 ,le ,matrialisme et la ,science4 #ahfh4 ,problmes de ,morale sociale4 #ahgf4 ,,comte3 ,cours de ,philosophie positive4 #f vols4 #ahcj-db4 ,discours sur l',esprit positive4 #ahdd4 ,systme de ,politique positive4 #d vols4 #ahea-d4 ,catchisme positiviste4 ,synthse subjective 7vol4 i474 #ahef4 ,note4--,the ,free and ,condensed ,translation of ,comte's ,positive ,philosophy in ,english by ,miss ,martineau1 appeared in two volumes in #ahec4 ,monograph by ,lvy-,bruhl4 ,,cournot3 ,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances et sur les ,caractres de la ,critique philosophique 7#b vols474 #ahea4 ,trait de l',enchanement des ,ides fondamentales dans les ,sciences et dans l',histoire 7#b vols474 #ahfa4 ,considrations sur la ,marche des ,ides et des ,evnements dans les ,temps modernes 7#b vols474 #ahgb4 ,matrialisme1 ,vitalisme1 ,rationalisine3 ,etude sur l',emploi des ,donnes de la ,science en ,philosophie4 #ahge4 ,note4--,a number of the ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale was devoted to ,cournot in #aije4 ,see also the ,monograph by ,bottinelli and his ,souvenirs de ,cournot4 #aiac4 ,,couturat3 ,de l',infini mathmatique4 ,les ,principes des ,mathmatiques4 ,,cresson3 ,le ,malaise de la pense philosophique contemporaine4 #aije4 ,,dauriac3 ,croyance et ,realit4 #ahhi4 ,motions de ,matire et de ,force4 #ahgh4 ,,delbos3 ,l',esprit philosophique de l',allemagne et la ,pense franaise4 #aiae4 ,,duhem3 ,la ,thorie physique4 #aijf4 ,,dunan3 ,les deux ,idalismes4 #aiaa4 ,,durkheim3 ,de la ,division du ,travail social4 #ahic4 ,les ,regles de la ,mthode sociologique4 #ahid4 ,le ,suicide4 #ahig4 ,les ,formes lmentaires de la ,vie religieuse4 #aiab4 7,e4 ,t47 ,,espinas3 ,societs animales4 #ahgf4 ,e,v,e,l,ll,n3 ,la ,raison pure et les ,antinomies4 #aijg4 ,,fonsegrive3 ,morale et ,socit4 #aijg4 ,,fouill,e3 ,la ,philosophie de ,platon #b vols4 #ahfi4 ,prize for competition in #ahfg1 on the4 ,theory of ,ideas1 offered by the ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques4 8,crowned0 after publication by the ,acadmie franaise4 #ahga4 ,second ,edition1 revised1 and enlarged to four volumes4 #ahhh-i4 ,la ,libert et le ,determinisme4 #ahgb4 7,doctorate ,thesis7 ,la ,philosophie de ,socrate4 #b vols #ahgd4 ,prize in #ahfh1 ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques4 ,histoire gnrale de la ,philosophie4 #ahge4 ,new ,edition revised and augmented1 #aiaj4 ,extraits des grands ,philosophes4 #ahgg4 ,l',ide moderne du ,droit en ,allemagne1 en ,ingleterre et en ,france4 #ahgh4 ,la ,science sociale contemporaine4 #ahhj4 ,critique des ,systmes contemporains4 #ahhc4 ,la ,proprit sociale et la ,dmocratie4 #ahhd4 ,l',avenir de la ,mtaphysique fonde sur l',exprience4 #ahhi4 ,l',evolutionisme des ,ides-forces4 #ahij4 ,l',enseignement au ,point de ,vue national4 #ahia 7,e4 ,t4 #ahib47 ,la ,psychologie des ,ides-forces4 #b vols4 #ahic4 ,temprament et ,caractre selon les ,individus1 les ,sexes et les ,races4 #ahie4 ,le ,mouvement idaliste et la ,raction contre la ,science positive4 #ahie4 ,le ,mouvement positiviste et la ,conception sociologique du ,monde4 #ahif4 ,psychologie du ,peuple franais4 #ahih4 ,les ,etudes classiques et la ,dmocratie4 #ahih4 ,la ,france au ,point de ,vue moral4 #aijj4 ,la ,reforme de l',enseignement par la ,philosophie4 #aija4 ,la ,conception morale et civique de ,l',enseignement4 ,nietzsche et l',immoralisme4 #aijd4 ,esquisse psychologique des ,peuples europens4 #aijc4 ,le ,moralisme de ,kant et l',amoralisme contemporain4 #aije4 ,les ,elements sociologiques de la ,morale4 #aije4 ,la ,morale des ,ides-forces4 #aijg4 ,le ,socialisme et la ,sociologie rformiste4 #aiji4 ,la ,dmocratie politique et sociale en ,france4 #aiaa4 ,la ,pense et les nouvelles ,ecoles anti-intllectualistes4 #aiab4 ,posthumous3 ,esquisse d'une ,interprtation du ,monde4 ,humanitaires et ,libertaires4 #aiad4 ,equivalents philosophiques des ,religions4 ,on ,fouille1 monograph by ,augustin ,guyau1 son of ,j4 ,m4 ,guyau4 ,,goblot3 ,trait de ,logique4 #aiah4 ,,gourd3 ,le ,phnomne4 #ahhh4 ,la ,philosophie de la ,religion4 #aiaa4 ,,guyau3 ,la ,morale d',epicure et ses ,rapports avec les ,doctrines contemporaines4 #ahgh4 8,crowned0 four years before by the ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques4 ,la ,morale anglaise contemporaine4 #ahgi4 ,an extension of the ,prize ,essay 7,second ,part74 ,vers d'un ,philosophe4 #ahha4 ,problmes de l',esthtique contemporaine4 #ahhd4 ,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction4 #ahhe4 7,e4,t4 #ahih47 ,l',irrligion de l',avenir4 #ahhg4 7,e4,t4 #ahig47 ,posthumous3 ,education et ,hrdit4 7,e4,t4 #ahia47 ,l',art au ,point de ,vue sociologique4 ,la ,gense de l',ide de ,temps4 #ahij4 ,there is a monograph on ,guyau by ,fouille4 ,,hamelin3 ,essai sur les ,elments principaux de la ,reprsentation4 #aijg4 ,,hannequin3 ,essai critique sur l',hypothse des ,atomes4 #ahif4 ,,izoulet3 ,la ,cit moderne4 #ahid4 ,,janet 7,,paul73 ,la ,famille4 #ahee4 ,histoire de la ,philosophie morale et politique dans ,l',antiquit et dans les ,temps modernes4 #b vols4 #aheh4 ,republished as ,histoire de la ,science politique dans ses ,rapports avec la ,morale4 #ahgb4 ,la ,philosophie du ,bonheur4 #ahfb4 ,la ,crise philosophique4 #ahfe4 ,le ,cerveau et la ,pense4 #ahfg4 ,elments de ,morale4 #ahfi4 ,les ,problmes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahgb4 ,la ,morale4 #ahgd 7,e ,t4 #ahhd47 ,philosophie de la ,rvolution franaise4 #ahge4 ,les ,causes finales4 #ahgf4 7,e4,t4 #ahgh47 ,,janet 7,,pierre73 ,l',automatisme psychologique4 #ahhi ,l',etat mental des ,hystriques4 #ahid4 ,nvroses et ,ides-fixes4 #ahih4 7,janet founded the ,journal de ,psychologie4 #aijd74 ,,javary3 ,l',ide du ,progrs4 #ahej4 ,,laberthonni,,re4 ,le ,dogmatisme morale4 #ahih4 ,essais de ,philosophie religieuse4 #aija4 ,le ,ralisme chrtien et l',idalisme grec4 ,,lachelier3 ,du ,fondement de l',induction4 #ahga4 ,psychologie et ,mtaphysique4 #ahhe4 ,article in ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale1 now published with the above4 ,etude sur le ,syllogisme4 #aijg4 ,monograph by ,sailles1 article by ,nol4 ,,lacombe3 ,de l',histoire considre comme ,science4 #ahid4 ,,lalande3 ,la ,dissolution oppose l',evolution1 dans les ,sciences physiques et morales4 #ahii4 ,prcis raisonn de ,morale pratique par ,questions et ,rponses4 #aijg4 ,,lapie3 ,logique de la ,volont4 #aijb4 ,,le ,,bon3 ,lois psychologiques de l',evolution des ,peuples4 ,les ,opinions et les ,croyances4 #aiaa4 ,psychologie du ,socialisme4 #ahii4 ,psychologie des ,foules4 7,e4,t47 ,la ,vie des ,vrits4 #aiad4 ,,lequier3 ,la ,recherche d'une ,premire ,vrit 7,fragments posthumes74 #ahfe4 ,,le ,,roy3 ,dogme et ,critique4 #aijg4 ,,liard3 ,des ,dfinitions gometriques et des ,dfinitions empiriques4 #ahgc4 ,la ,science positive et la ,mtaphysique4 #ahgi4 ,morale et ,enseignement civique4 #ahhc4 ,l',enseignement suprieure en ,france1 #aghi #ahhi4 #ahhi4 ,,loisy3 ,l',evangile et l',eglise4 7,e4,t47 ,,marion3 ,la ,solidarit morale4 #ahhj4 ,m,n,,goz3 ,publications diverses sur le ,fidisme et son ,application l',enseignement chrtien traditionnel4 #aijj4 ,two additional volumes later4 ,,meyerson3 ,identit et ,ralit4 #aijg ,,michelet3 ,l',amour4 #aheh ,le ,prtre la ,femme et la ,famille4 #ahei4 ,la ,bible de l',humanit4 #ahfd ,,milhaud3 ,essai sur les ,conditions et les ,limites de la ,certitude logique4 #ahid ,le ,rationnel4 #ahih4 ,,oll-,,laprune3 ,la ,certitude morale4 #ahhj4 ,le ,prix de la ,vie4 #ahhe ,la ,philosophie et le ,temps prsent4 #ahie4 ,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme4 #aijf4 ,,parodi3 ,le ,problme morale et la ,pense contemporaine4 #aiaj4 ,,pasteur3 ,le ,budget de la ,science4 #ahfh ,,paulhan3 ,phnomnes affectifs4 ,l',activit mentale4 #ahhi ,,payot3 ,la ,croyance4 #ahif4 ,,pelletan3 ,profession da ,foi du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #aheb4 ,,poincair3 ,la ,science et l',hypothse4 #aijb4 7,e4,t4 #aije47 ,la ,valeur de la ,science4 #aije4 ,science et ,mthode4 #aiji ,dernires penses4 ,,proudhon3 ,qu'est-ce que la ,proprit8 #ahdj ,systme des ,contradictions conomiques4 #ahdf ,la ,philosophie du ,progrs4 #ahea4 ,de la ,justice4 #aheh4 ,,rauh3 ,psychologie applique la ,morale et l',education4 ,de la ,mthode dans la ,psychologie des ,sentiments4 ,essai sur le ,fondement mtaphysique de la ,morale4 #ahij4 ,l',exprience morale4 #aijc4 ,,ravaisson-,,mollien 7#ahac-aijj73 ,habitude4 #ahch4 7,thesis47 ,reprinted #ahid in ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,aristote4 #ahcg4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 in #ahdf4 ,development of work crowned by ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques in #ahcc1 when the author was twenty4 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahfg4 ,la ,philosophie de ,pascal 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #ahhg7 ,l',education 7,revue bleue4 #ahhg74 ,mtaphysique et ,morale 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #ahic74 ,le ,testament philosophique 7,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 #aija74 ,cf4 ,boutroux on ,ravaisson 7,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #aijj74 ,bergson 3 ,discours l',acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques4 #aijd4 ,,renan3 ,averros et l',averroisme4 #aheb4 ,etudes d',histoire religieuse4 #aheg4 ,essais de ,morale et de ,critique4 #ahea74 ,les ,origines du ,christianisme4 #ahfc-hc4 #h vols41 of which3 ,vie de ,jsus4 #ahfc4 7,e4,t47 ,questions contemporaines4 #ahfh4 ,la ,rforme intellectual et morale4 #ahga4 ,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques4 #ahgj4 7,e4,t4 #ahhc47 ,drames philosophiques4 ,souvenirs d',enfance et de ,jeunesse4 #ahhc4 7,e4,t4 #ahhc47 ,nouvelles ,etudes d',histoire religieuse4 #ahhd4 7,e4,t4 #ahhf47 ,histoire du ,peuple d',isral4 #e vols4 #ahhg-jd4 7,e4,t4 #ahhh-ia4 #c vols47 ,l',avenir de la ,science4 #ahij4 ,written #ahdh-i4 7,e4,t47 ,feuilles dtaches4 #ahjb4 ,for monographs on ,renan3 ,allier3 ,la ,philosophie de ,renan4 #ahie4 ,monod3 ,renan1 ,taine1 ,michelet4 #ahid4 ,sailles3 ,renan4 #ahid994 ,,renouvier3 ,manuel de ,philosophie moderne4 #ahdb4 ,manuel de ,philosophie ancienne4 #ahdd4 ,manuel rpublicaine de l',homme et du ,citoyen4 #ahdh4 ,gouvernement direct et ,organisation communale et centrale de la ,rpublique4 #ahea4 ,essais de ,critique gnrale4 #d vols4 #ahed1 #ahei1 #ahfd1 #ahfd4 7,on revision these four became thirteen vols47 ,la ,science de la ,morale4 #b vols4 #ahfi4 #a;er ,essai1 revised3 ,trait de ,logique gnral et de ,logique formelle4 #c vols4 #ahge4 #b;e ,essai1 revised3 ,trait de ,psychologie rationnelle4 #c vols4 #ahge4 ,uchronie 7,l',utopie dans l',histoire71 ,esquisse historique du ,dveloppement de la ,civilisation europenne1 tel qu'il n'a pas t1 tel qu'il aurait pu tre4 #ahgf4 ,petit ,trait de ,morale pour les ,ecoles laques4 #ahgi4 ,esquisse d'une ,classification systmatique des ,doctrines philosophiques4 #b vols4 #ahhf4 #c;e ,essai1 revised3 ,les ,principes de la ,nature4 #ahib4 ,victor ,hugo1 le ,pote4 #ahic4 #d;e ,essai1 revised3 ,l'lntroduction la ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire4 #ahif4 #e;e ,essai1 new3 ,la ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire4 #d vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #ahjf4 ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 #ahig4 7,this brought the ,essais up to thirteen volumes47 ,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie4 #ahia74 7,with ,l4 ,prat47 78,crowned0 by the ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques47 ,victor ,hugo1 le ,philosophe4 #aijj4 ,les ,dilemmes de la ,mtaphysique pure4 #aija4 ,histoire et ,solution des ,problmes mtaphysiques4 #aija4 ,le ,personnalisme1 suivi d'une ,etude sur la ,perception externe et sur la ,force #aijc4 ,posthumous3 ,derniers entretiens4 #aije4 ,doctrine de ,kant4 #aijf4 ,for his two journals1 see under 8,periodicals40 ,in the latest edition the complete ,essais de ,critique gnrale are only ten volumes1 as follows3 ,logic1 #b2 ,psychology1 #b2 ,principles of ,nature1 #a2 ,introduction to ,philosophy of ,history1 #a2 and the ,philosophy of ,history1 #d4 ,the best monograph is that of ,sailles1 #aije4 ,renouvier's ,correspondence with the ,swiss ,philosopher1 ,scretan1 has been published2 cf4 also ,the ,letters of ,william ,james4 ,,reynaud3 ,philosophie religieuse4 #aheh4 7,third ,edition47 ,,ribot3 ,la ,psychologie anglaise contemporaine4 #ahgj4 7,e4,t4 #ahgc47 ,hrdit1 ,etude psychologique4 #ahgc4 7,e4,t4 #ahge47 ,la ,psychologie allemande contemporaine4 #ahgi4 7,e4,t4 #ahhf47 ,les ,maladies de la ,mmoire1 ,essai dans la ,psychologie positive4 #ahha4 7,e4,t4 #ahhb47 ,les ,maladies de la ,volont4 #ahhc4 7,e4,t4 #ahhd47 ,les ,maladies de la ,personnalit4 #ahhe4 7,e4,t4 #ahie47 ,la ,psychologie de l',attention4 #ahhi4 7,e4,t4 #ahij47 ,la ,psychologie des ,sentiments4 #ahif4 7,e4,t4 #ahig47 ,l',evolution des ,ides gnrales4 #ahig4 7,e4,t4 #ahii47 ,essai sur l',imagination cratrice4 #aijj4 ,la ,logique des ,sentiments4 #aijd4 ,essai sur les ,passions4 #aijf4 ,la ,vie inconsciente et les ,mouvements4 ,,sabatier 7,,auguste73 ,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de ,religion d'aprs la ,psychologie et l',histoire4 #ahig4 ,les ,religions d',autorit et la ,religion de l',esprit4 #aijd4 7,e4,t47 ,,sabatier 7,,paul73 ,a propos de la ,sparation des ,eglises de l',etat4 #aije4 ,e4,t41 ,robert ,dell1 #aijf 7with ,text of the ,law74 ,s,,ailles3 ,affirmations de la ,conscience moderne4 #aijc4 ,,simon3 ,la ,libert de ,conscience4 #ahei4 ,dieu1 ,patrie1 ,libert4 #ahhc4 ,,sorel3 ,reflexions sur la ,violence4 #aijg4 7,e4,t #aiaf47 ,illusions du ,progrs4 #aiaa4 ,,taine3 ,les ,philosophes franais au ,x,i,xe ,siecle4 #aheg4 ,essais de ,critique et d',histoire4 #aheh4 ,philosophie de l',art4 #b vols4 #ahfe4 7,e4,t4 #ahfe47 ,nouveaux ,essais de ,critique et d',histoire4 #ahfe4 ,de l',intlligence4 #b vols4 #ahgj4 7,e ,t4 #ahga47 ,the work ,origines de la ,france contemporaine in #e vols1 #ahgf-ic4 ,histoire de la ,littrature anglaise4 #e vols4 #ahfc4 7,e4,t4 by ,van ,laun4 #ahhg47 ,monographs3 ,de ,margerie3 ,taine4 #ahid4 ,monod3 ,renan1 ,taine1 et ,michelet4 #ahid4 ,barzellotti3 ,la ,philosophie de ,taine4 ,boutmy3 ,h4 ,taine4 #ahig4 ,giraud3 ,essai sur ,taine4 #aija4 ,,tarde3 ,criminalit compare4 #ahih4 ,les ,lois de l',imitation4 #aijj4 ,,vacherot3 ,histoire de l',ecole d',alexandrie4 #ahdf-ea4 ,la ,mtaphysique et la ,science4 #c vols4 #aheh4 ,la ,dmocratie4 #ahfj4 ,essais de ,philosophie critique4 #ahfd4 ,la ,religion4 #ahfh4 ,la ,science et la ,conscience4 #ahgj4 ,le ,nouveau ,spiritualisme4 #ahhd4 ,cf4 ,parodi on ,vacherot1 ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #ahii4 ,,weber3 ,le ,rythme du ,progrs4 ,vers le ,positivisme absolu par l',idalisme4 #aijc4 ,wl,l,b,o,i,s3 ,devoir et ,dure3 ,essai de ,morale sociale4 #aiab4 ,x,,nopol3 ,principes fondamentaux de l',histoire4 #ahii4 ,revised and reissued in larger form in #aije as ,la ,thorie de l',histoire4 #a ,this abbreviation is used throughout for 8,english ,translation40 ,,periodicals 8,,la ,,critique ,,philosophique10 of ,renouvier and ,pillon1 #ahgb4 to #ahhd1 weekly2 monthly from #ahhe to #ahhi4 8,,la ,,critique ,,religieuse10 #ahgh-ahhd 7quarterly74 ,renouvier4 8,,revue ,,philosophique ,,de ,,la ,,france ,,et ,,de ,l',,tranger10 founded by ,ribot in #ahgf4 8,l',,ann,e ,,philosophique40 #ahfg-ahfi4 ,renouvier and ,pillon1 refounded in #ahij by ,pillon4 8,,revue ,,de ,m,,taphysique ,,et ,,de ,,morale10 founded by ,xavier ,leon in #ahic4 8,crowned0 by ,acadmie des ,sciences morales et politiques1 #aiba4 8,,ann,e ,,psychologique10 founded by ,beaunet and ,binet1 #ahie4 8,,revue ,,de ,,philosophie10 founded by ,peillaube1 #aijj4 8,,revue ,,thomiste40 8,,annales ,,de ,,philosophie ,,chr,,tienne40 ,laberthonnire4 8,,ann,e ,,sociologique40 #ahif-aiab4 ,durkheim4 8,,journal ,,de ,,psychologie ,,normale ,,et ,,pathologique40 ,founded #aijd by ,janet and ,dumas4 8,,bulletin ,,de ,,la ,,soci,t ,,fran,,aise ,,de ,,philosophie40 ,from #aija4 ,,ii ,,general ,,books ,,on ,,the ,,period4 ,,aliotta3 ,the ,idealistic ,reaction against ,science4 7,e4,t4 from ,italian4 #aiad47 ,,barth3 ,die ,philosophie der ,geschichte als ,sociologie4 #ahig4 ,,bergson3 ,la ,philosophie franaise4 #aiae4 ,,boutroux3 ,philosophie en ,france depuis #ahfg4 ,report to ,congress of ,philosophy given in the ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 #aijh4 ,la ,philosophie3 an ,essay in the volume of collected ,essays entitled3 ,un ,demi-,sicle de la ,civilisation franaise4 #ahgj- #aiae4 ,pp4 #be-dh4 7,paris3 ,hachette4 #aiaf47 ,,dwelshauvers3 ,la ,psychologie franaise contemporaine4 #aibj4 ,,faguet3 ,dix-,neuvime ,sicle4 #ahhg4 ,politiques et ,moralistes du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahha4 ,,ferraz3 ,etudes sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #c vols4 #ahhb-i4 ,it is interesting to notice the triple division adopted by ,ferraz3 ,socialism 7under which heading he also groups ,naturalism and ,positivism74 ,traditionalism 7,ultramontanism74 ,spiritualism 7together with ,liberalism74 ,,fischer3 ,geschichte der neuern ,philosophie4 #i vols4 ,,fouill,e3 ,histoire de la ,philosophie1 ,latest ,edition1 last ,chapter4 ,le ,mouvement idaliste et la ,raction contre la ,science positive4 #ahif4 ,la ,pense et les nouvelles ,ecoles anti-intellectualistes4 #aiab4 ,h,,ffding3 ,modern ,philosophers4 7,e4,t4 from ,danish4 #aiae47 ,l,,vy-,,bruhl3 ,modern ,philosophy in ,france4 ,chicago1 #ahii4 ,,merz3 ,history of ,european ,thought in the ,nineteenth ,century4 #d vols4 ,a great work4 ,very comprehensive1 particularly for ,german and ,british thought4 ,,parodi3 ,la ,philosophie contemporaine en ,france4 #aiai4 ,an excellent treatment of the development from #ahij onwards by a ,french thinker4 78,crowned0 by ,acadmie47 ,,ravaisson3 ,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #ahfg4 7,second ,edition1 #ahhi47 ,this has become an acknowledged classic4 ,,renouvier3 ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 latest sections47 #ahig4 ,,ruggiero3 ,modern ,philosophy4 #aiab4 7,e4,t4 from ,italian4 #aiba47 ,gives a stimulating account of ,german1 ,french1 ,anglo- ,american and ,italian thought4 ,,stebbing3 ,pragmatism and ,french ,voluntarism4 #aiad4 ,,taine3 ,les ,philosophes franais du ,x,i,xe ,sicle4 #aheg4 ,,turquet-,,milnes1 ,g43 ,some ,modern ,french ,writers3 ,a ,study in ,bergsonism4 #aiba4 ,deals mainly with literary figures-e4g41 ,barres1 ,pguy1 ,france1 ,bourget1 ,claudel4 ,,villa3 ,contemporary ,psychology4 7,e4,t4 from ,italian4 #aijc47 ,l',idealismo moderno4 #aije4 ,,weber3 ,histoire de la ,philosophie europenne4 7,eighth ,edition1 #aiad47 99 99 99 99 99 ,the article contributed by ,ribot to ,mind in #ahgg is worthy of notice1 while much light is thrown on the historical development by articles in the current periodicals cited on p4 #cch1 especially in the ,revue philosophique and the ,revue de ,mtaphysique et de ,morale4 ,,iiii ,,comparative ,,table ,,the ,,chief ,,philosophical ,,works ,,in ,,france1 ,,germany1 ,,england ,,and ,,america ,,from #ahea ,,to #aiba4 ,,france4 ,,germany4 ,,england ,,and ,,america4 l#hea ,,cournot3 8,essai sur les ,fondements de nos ,connaissances40 #ahea ,,fechner3 8,zend ,avesta40 #ahea ,,mansel3 8,prolegomena to ,logic40 ,,renouvier3 8,gouvernement direct et ,organisation communale40 ,,proudhon3 8,la ,philosophie du ,progrs40 #aheb ,,moleschott3 8,der ,kreislauf des ,lebens40 ,,lotze3 8,medizinische ,psychologie oder ,physiologie der ,seele40 #ahed ,,renouvier3 8,essai de ,critique gnrale07,ier ,essai74 #ahed ,,ferrier3 8,institutes of ,metaphysic40 ,,comte completes 8,systeme de ,politique positive40 #ahee ,b,,chner3 8,kraft und ,stoff40 #ahee ,,bain3 8,the ,senses and the ,intellect40 ,,fechner3 8,uber die physikalische und die philosophische ,atomlehre40 ,,spencer3 8,principles of ,psychology40 ,,czolbe3 8,neue ,darstellung des ,sensualismus40 #ahef ,,comte3 8,synthse subjective10 vol4 i4 #ahef ,,lotze3 8,mikrokosmos0 7#ahef-ahfd74 ,,czolbe3 8,die ,enstehung des ,selbstbewusstseins40 #aheg ,,taine3 8,philosophes ranais du ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 #aheg ,,buckle3 8,history of ,civilization in ,england0 7vol4 i474 ,,renan3 8,etudes d',histoire religieuse40 ,,mansel3 8,the ,limits of ,religious ,thought40 #aheh ,,vacherot3 8,la ,mtaphysique et la ,science40 #aheh ,,hamilton3 8,lectures0 7#aheh-ahfj74 #ahei ,,renouvier3 8,deuxime ,essai de ,critique generale40 ,i#hei ,,darwin3 8,origin of ,species40 #ahfj ,,fechner3 8,elemente der ,psychophysik40 #ahfa ,,cournot3 8,trait de l',enchanement des ,idees40 #ahfa ,,fechner3 8,uber die ,seelenfrage40 #ahfb ,h,,ckel3 8,generalle ,morphologie0 7#ahfb-ahff74 #ahfb ,,spencer3 8,first ,principles40 #ahfc ,,renan3 8,vie de ,jsus40 #ahfc ,,vogt3 8,vorlesungen iiber den ,menschen40 #ahfc ,,mill 7,j4 ,s473 8,utilitarianism40 ,,fechner3 8,die ,drei ,motive des ,glaubens40 #ahfd ,,renouvier3 8,troisime ,essai de ,critique gnrale02 8,quatrime ,essai de ,critique gnrale40 #ahfe ,,bernard3 8,introduction l',etude de la ,mdecine exprimentale40 #ahfe ,d,,hring3 8,der ,wert des ,lebens40 #ahfe ,,hodgson3 8,time and ,space40 ,,czolbe3 8,die ,grenzen und der ,ursprung der ,menschlichen ,erkenntnis40 ,,mill 7,j4 ,s73 8,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy40 ,,hamilton3 8,lectures on ,metaphysics40 ,,stirling3 8,secret of ,hegel40 #ahff ,,lange3 8,geschichte des ,materialismus40 #ahfg ,,ravaisson3 8,rapport sur la ,philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 #ahfg ,,marx3 8,das ,kapital40 #ahfg ,,buckle3 8,history of ,civilization in ,england0 7 vol4 ii474 #ahfh ,,renan3 8,questions contemporaines40 #ahfh ,,lotze3 8,geschichte der ,asthetik in ,deutschland40 ,h,,ckel3 8,natrliche ,schpftungsgeschichte #ahfi ,,renouvier3 8,science de,u ,morale40 #ahfi ,,hartmann3 8,philosophic des ,unbewussten40 #ahgj ,,taine3 8,de l',intelligence40 #ahgj ,,ritschl3 8,lehre von der ,rechfertigung07#ahgj-ahgd74 #ahga ,,lachelier3 8,du ,fondement de l',induction40 #ahgb ,,fouill,e3 8,la ,libertc,s et la ,determinisme10 #ahgb ,,strauss3 8,der ,alte und der neue ,glaube40 #ahgb ,,maurice3 8,moral and ,metaphysical ,philosophy40 ,,janet3 8,problemes du ,x,i,xe ,siecle40 ,,nietzsche3 8,die ,geburt der ,tragdie0 ,,wallace3 8,logic of ,hegel40 ,,cournot3 8,considerations sur la ,marche des ,idees40 #ahgc ,,ribot3 8,i,wredite40 #ahgc #aigc ,,sigwart3 8,logik0 7#ahgc-ahgh74 #ahgc #aigc ,,stephen 7,j4 ,f473 8,liberty1 ,equality1,fraternity40 #ahgd ,,boutroux3 8,la ,contingence des ,lois de la ,nature40 #ahgd ,,lotze3 8,drei ,bucher der ,logik40 #ahgd ,,sidgwick3 8,method of ,ethics40 ,,wundt3 8,physiologische ,psychologie40 ,,brentano3 8,psychologie vom empirischen ,standpunkt40 #ahge ,,cournot3 8,materialisme1 ,vitalisme1,rationalisme40 ,,renouvier3 ,revises first and second 8,essais40 #ahgf ,,renan3 8,dialogues et ,fragments philosophiques40 #ahgf ,,fechner3 8,vorschule der ,asthetik40 #ahgf ,,bradley3 8,ethical ,studies40 ,,janet3 8,les ,causes finales40 ,,grote3 8,moral ,ideals40 #ahgg ,,flint3 8,theism40 #ahgh ,,fouillee3 8,l',idee du ,droit40 #ahgh ,,nietzsche3 8,menschliches ,allzumenschhches 87#ahgh-ahhj74 #ahgh ,,hodgson3 8,philosophy of ,reflection40 #ahgi ,,brochard3 8,de l',erreur40 #ahgi ,,lotze3 8,drei ,bucher der ,metaphysik40 #ahgi ,,spencer3 8,data of ,ethics40 ,,hartmann3 8,phanomenologie des sittlichen ,bewusstseins40 ,,balfour3 8,defence of ,philosophic ,doubt40 #ahhj ,,avenarius3 8,kritik der reinen ,erfahrung07#ahhj-ahij7 #ahhj ,,caird3 8,philosophy ol ,religion40 #ahha ,,guyau3 8,vers d'un ,philosophe40 #ahha ,,nietzsche3 8,morgenrote40 #ahhb ,,nietzsche3 8,die frohliche ,wissenschaft40 #ahhb ,,stephen 7,l473 8,science of ,ethics40 #ahhc ,,nietzsche3 8,also sprach ,zarathustra07#ahhc-ahia7 #ahhc ,,green3 8,prolegomena to ,ethics40 ,,duhring3 8,der ,ersatz der ,religion40 ,,bradley3 8,principles of ,logic40 ,,wundt3 8,logik40 ,,mach3 8,die ,mechanik in ihrer ,entwicklung40 #ahhe ,,guyau3 8,esquisse d'une ,morale sans ,obligation ni ,sanction40 #ahhe ,,martineau3 8,types o4 ,ethical ,theory40 ,,lachelier3 8,psychologic et ,mtaphysique40 ,,bosanquet3 8,knowledge and ,reality40 #ahhf ,,guyau3 8,l',irreligion de l',avenir40 #ahhf ,,mach3 8,analyse der ,empfindungen40 #ahhf ,,ward3 8,psychology0 7article74 ,,wundt3 8,ethik40 ,,nietzsche3 8,jenseits von ,gut und ,bse40 #ahhg ,,nietzsche3 8,zur ,genealogie der ,moral40 #ahhg ,,seth 7,pringle-,pattison73 8,hegelianism and ,personality40 #ahhh ,,eucken3 8,die ,einheit des ,geisteslebens40 #ahhh ,,bosanqukt3 8,logic40 #ahhi ,,bergson3 8,les ,donnees immediates de la ,conscience40 #ahhi ,,wundt3 8,system der ,philosophie40 #ahhi ,,martineau3 8,study of ,religion40 ,,fouillee3 8,l',avenir de la ,metaphysique40 ,,lipps3 8,grundthatsachen des ,seelenlebens40 ,,alexander3 8,moral ,order and ,progress40 ,,janet 7,pierre73 8,l',automatisme psychologique40 ,,paulhan3 8,l',activit mentale40 #ahij ,,renan3 8,l',avenir de la ,science40 #ahij ,,james3 8,principles of ,psychology40 ,,fouill,e3 8,l',evolutionnisme des ,ides-forces40 ,,rauh3 8,le ,fondement mtaphysique de la ,morale0 #ahia ,,simmel3 8,moralwissenschaft40 ,,avenarius3 8,der menschliche ,weltbegriff40 #ahib ,,renouvier ,revises third 8,essai40 #ahib ,,pearson3 8,grammar ,of ,science40 ,,renan 8,feuilles dtaches40 #ahic ,,durkheim3 8,de la ,division du ,travail social40 #ahic ,,huxley3 8,evolution and ,ethics40 ,,blondel3 8,l',action40 ,,caird3 8,evolution of ,religion0 ,,fouill,e3 8,psychologie des ,ides-forces40 ,,bradley3 8,appearance and ,reality40 #ahid ,,meinong3 8,werththeorie0 7,psychologisch-ethische ,untersuchungen74 #ahid ,,fraser3 8,philosophy of ,theism0 ,,hertz3 8,prinzipien der ,mechanik40 #ahie ,,fouill,e3 8,le ,mouvement idaliste40 #ahie ,,balfour3 8,foundations of ,belief40 #ahif ,,bergson3 8,matire et ,mmoire0 #ahif ,,eucken3 8,der ,kampf um einen geistigen ,lebensinhalt40 #ahif ,,stout3 8,analytic ,psychology40 ,,renouvier3 ,revises fourth 8,essai40 ,,hobhouse3 8,theory of ,knowledge40 ,,renouvier3 ,publishes fifth 8,essai0 7,la ,philosophie analytique de l',histoire71 vols4 #a and #b4 ,,merz3 8,history of ,thought in the ,nineteenth ,century0 7#ahif-aiad74 ,,mactaggart3 8,hegelian ,dialectic40 #ahig ,,renouvier3 ,ditto1 vols4 #c and #d4 #ahig ,,hartmann3 8,kategorienlehre40 #ahig ,,james3 8,the ,will to ,believe ,,sabatier3 8,esquisse d'une ,philosophie de ,religion40 ,,drews3 8,das ,ich als ,grundproblem der ,metaphysik40 ,,ehrenfels3 8,system der ,werttheorie0 7#ahig-ahih74 #ahih ,,wallace3 8,natural ,theology and ,ethics40 #ahii ,,renouvier 7and ,prat73 8,la ,nouvelle ,monadologie40 #ahii ,,meinong3 8,uber gegenstnde hheren ,ordnung40 #ahii ,,ward3 8,naturalism and ,agnosticism40 ,,bosanquet3 8,philosophical ,theory of the ,state40 ,,hodgson3 8,metaphysic of ,experience40 #aijj ,,tarde3 8,les ,lois de l',imitation40 #aijj ,,petzoldt3 8,die ,philosophie der reinen ,erfahrung40 #aijj ,,royce3 8,the ,world and the ,individual40 ,,brunschwicg3 8,la ,vie de l',esprit40 #aija ,,eucken3 8,das ,wesen der ,religion40 ,,eucken3 8,das ,wahrheitsgehalt der ,religion40 #aijb ,,poincar #aijb ,,cohen3 8,system der ,philosophie3 ,logik40 #aijb ,,james3 8,varieties of ,religious ,experience40 ,,clifford3 8,essays and ,lectures40 #aijc ,,weber3 8,vers le ,positivisme absolu par l',idalisme40 #aijc ,,bergmann3 8,system des objectiven ,idealismus40 #aijc ,,russell3 8,principles of ,mathematics40 ,,rauh3 8,l',exprience morale40 ,,schiller3 8,humanism40 ,,renouvier3 8,le ,personnalisme40 #aijd ,,cohen3 8,system der ,philosophie3 ,ethik40 #aijd ,,mactaggart3 8,hegelian ,cosmology40 #aije ,,poincar3 8,valeur de la ,science40 #aije ,,mach3 ,erkenntnis und ,irrtum40 #aijf ,,oll-,,laprune3 8,la ,raison et le ,rationalisme40 #aijf ,,meinong3 8,die ,stellung der ,gegenstandtheorie ein ,system der ,wissenschaften40 #aijf ,,baillie3 8,idealistic ,construction of ,experience40 ,,duhem3 8,la ,thorie physique40 ,,baldwin3 8,thought and ,things40 #aijg ,,hamelin3 8,les ,elments principaux de la ,rpresentation40 #aijg ,,eucken3 8,grundlinien einer neuen ,lebensauschauung40 #aijg ,,schiller3 8,studies in ,humanism40 ,,bergson3 8,l',evolution cratrice40 ,,eucken3 8,hauptprobleme der ,religionsphilosophie40 ,,evellin3 8,la ,raison pure et les ,antinomies40 ,,lalandel 8,prcis de ,morale40 ,,fouill,e3 8,morale des ,ides-forces40 #aijh ,,boutroux3 8,science et ,religion40 #aijh ,,eucken3 8,sinn und ,wertdes ,lebens40 ,,eucken3 8,philosophie des ,geisteslebens40 ,m,,nsterberg3 8,philosophie der ,werte40 #aiji ,,poincar3 8,science et ,mthode40 #aiji ,,dewey3 8,logical ,theory40 #aiaj ,,remkhe3 8,philosophie als ,grundwissenschaft0 #aiaa ,,dunan3 8,les ,deux ,idalismes40 #aiaa ,,eucken3 8,konnen wir noch ,christen sein80 #aiaa ,,ward3 8,realm of ,ends40 #aiab ,,fouill,e3 8,la ,pense40 #aiab ,,cohen3 8,system der ,philosophie3 sthetik40 #aiab ,,bosanquet3 8,value and ,destiny of the ,individual0 ,,durkheim3 8,formes lmentaires de la ,vie religieuse40 ,,eucken3 8,erkennen und ,leben40 #aiac ,,bosanquet3 8,value and ,destiny of the ,individual40 #aiad ,,fouill,e3 8,humanitaires et ,libertaires40 #aiae ,,sorley3 8,moral ,values and the ,idea of ,god40 #aiag ,,loisy3 8,la ,religion40 #aiah ,,goblot3 8,trait de ,logique40 #aiai ,,bergson3 8,l',energie spirituelle40 #aibj ,,alexander3 8,space1 ,time and ,deity40 #aiba ,,russell3 8,analysis of ,mind40 ,,mactaggart3 8,nature of ,existence40