,transcriber's ,note3 ,italic text is enclosed in underscores2 superscripts are indicated by carets3 #d;e4 ,,cave ,,hunting4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #g4 ,fig4 #h4 ,c4 ,f4 ,kell ,lath4 ,london ,f4,c4 ,,enamels ,,from ,,the ,,victoria ,,cave4 p#ih4 ,london2 ,macmillan ,co4 #ahgd4 ,,cave ,,hunting1 ,,researches ,,on ,,the ,,evidence ,,of ,,caves ,,respecting ,,the ,,early ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,europe ,,by ,w4 ,,boyd ,,dawkins1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,curator of the ,museum and ,lecturer in ,geology in ,the ,owens ,college1 ,manchester4 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,coloured ,,plate ,,and ,,woodcuts4 ,london3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 #ahgd4 ,the ,right of ,translation and ,reproduction is reserved4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,to ,,the ,,baroness ,,burdett ,,coutts1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,the ,,scholarships ,,for ,,the ,,encouragement ,,of ,,geological ,,science ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,oxford1 ,this ,work is ,dedicated1 ,,as ,a ,,slight ,,acknowledgment ,,from ,,her ,,first ,,scholar4 ,,preface4 ,the exploration of caves is rapidly becoming an important field of inquiry1 and their contributions to our knowledge of the early history of the sojourn of men in ,europe are daily increasing in value and in number4 ,since the year #ahbc1 when ,dr4 ,buckland published his famous work1 the 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 no attempt has been made to correlate1 and bring into the compass of one work1 the crude mass of facts which have been recorded in nearly every country in ,europe4 ,in this volume ,i have attempted to bring the history of cave-exploration down to the knowledge of to-day1 and to put its main conclusions before my readers in one connected and continuous narrative4 ,since ,dr4 ,buckland wrote1 the momentous discovery of human relics along with the extinct animals in caves and river deposits has revolutionised the current ideas as to the antiquity and condition of man2 and works of art of a high order1 showing a familiarity with nature and an aptitude for the delineation of the forms of animals by no means despicable1 have been discovered in the caves of ,britain1 ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,switzerland1 that were the dwellings of the primeval ,european hunters of reindeer and mammoths4 ,the discoveries in ,kent's ,hole and in the caves of ,belgium led to those in the caves of ,brixham and ,wookey ,hole1 and finally to those of ,auvergne and the south of ,france1 as well as of ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,archology1 also1 by the use of strictly inductive methods1 has grown from a mere antiquarian speculation into a science2 and its students have proved the truth of the three divisions of human progress familiar to the ,greek and ,roman philosopher1 and expressed in the pages of ,hesiod and ,lucretius--the ,ages of ,stone1 ,bronze and ,iron4 ,the subdivision of the first of these into the older1 or palolithic1 and newer1 or neolithic1 by ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 is the only refinement which has been made in this classification4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell has discussed the various problems offered by the general consideration of the first of these divisions in 8,the ,antiquity of ,man20 while ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 in 8,prehistoric ,man10 has followed ,dr4 ,keller and others in working out the past history of mankind by a comparison of the habitations1 tombs1 implements and weapons found in ,europe1 with those of modern savages4 ,this work is intended to be to a considerable extent supplementary to theirs1--to treat of the formation of caves1 and of the light thrown by their contents on the sojourn of man in ,europe1 on the wild animals1 and on the changes in climate and geography4 ,in treating of the caves of the historic period1 ,i have given considerable prominence to the exploration of the ,victoria ,cave1 near ,settle1 which has led to the discovery that many caverns were inhabited in this country during the fifth and sixth centuries1 and that they contain works of art of a high order4 ,in the difficult task of bringing them into relation with ,british history and art1 ,i have to acknowledge the kind assistance of ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,franks4 ,in the neolithic division of the prehistoric period1 ,i have published at length my recent discoveries in the sepulchral caves of ,denbighshire1 and am allowed by my friend1 ,professor ,busk1 to reprint his description of the human bones4 ,to his suggestive essay on the ,gibraltar caves1 as well as to the works of the late ,dr4 ,thurnam1 and of ,professors ,broca and ,huxley1 ,i am indebted for the clue to the identification of the neolithic dwellers in caves with the ancient ,iberians or ,modern ,basques4 ,that portion of the evidence which relates to ,france ,i have verified by a personal examination of the human remains from caves and tombs in the ,museums of ,bordeaux1 ,toulouse1 ,lyons and ,paris4 ,the results of the exploration of the ,hyna-den of ,wookey ,hole have been given in greater detail in the portion of the work devoted to the palolithic age than they would have been1 had they been before fully recorded4 ,and in this division of the subject ,i have largely made use of the 8,reliqui ,aquitanic10 which embodies the discoveries in ,auvergne of my late friends ,professor ,e4 ,lartet and ,mr4 ,christy4 ,to the editors of that work ,i am indebted for permission to use some of the plates and letterpress4 ,the history of the pleistocene mammalia1 in which palolithic man forms the central figure1 has been my especial study for many years4 ,and the evidence which is offered by the animals as to the geography and climate of ,europe1 which ,i have published from time to time in the works of the ,palontographical ,society1 the ,geological ,journal1 and in the ,popular ,science1 ,british ,quarterly1 and ,edinburgh ,reviews1 is collected together in this work1 and brought into relation with the inquiry into the extension of ice over ,europe in the glacial period1 and into the soundings of the ,european seas4 ,in approaching these and the like problems1 ,i have done my best to arrive at the truth by visiting as far as possible the foreign localities and collections1 and by correspondence with the discoverers of new facts4 ,in addition to those names which ,i have already mentioned1 ,i have to express my thanks to the ,councils of the ,society of ,antiquaries1 the ,geological ,society1 and of the ,anthropological ,institute and to ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 for the use of woodcuts2 to ,mr4 ,rooke ,pennington for looking over some of the proof sheets2 and to ,professors ,gaudry1 ,rtimeyer1 ,lortet1 ,nilsson1 and ,steenstrp1 and the ,rev4 ,canon ,greenwell for aid of various kinds4 ,but especially do ,i feel grateful to my old friend and master1 the late lamented ,professor ,phillips1 for frequent help and prudent counsel4 ,in laying this book before my readers ,i would merely further remark1 that it is a faint outline of a new and vast field of research1 in which ,i have attempted to give prominence to the more important points1 rather than a finished and detailed history of cave-exploration4 ,w4 ,b4 ,d4 ,,the ,,owens ,,college1 ,,manchester1 #bjth ,july1 #ahgd4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,page ,legends and ,superstitions connected with ,caves #a-e ,the ,physical ,division of the ,subject #e1 #f ,the ,biological ,division #f ,men and ,animals #f ,ethnological1 ,archological1 and ,geographical ,bearings #g-i ,the ,three ,classes of ,bone-,caves #aj1 #aa ,history of ,cave-,exploration in ,europe #aa 0 0 ,germany #aa1 #ab 0 0 ,great ,britain #ac-ah 0 0 ,france #ah-bj 0 0 ,belgium #bj1 #ba 0 0 ,southern ,europe #ba1 #bb ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,history ,,of ,,caves4 ,caves formed by the ,sea and by ,volcanic ,action #bc ,caves in ,arenaceous ,rocks #bd ,caves in ,calcareous ,rocks of various ages #be-bg ,their ,relation to ,pot-holes1 8,cirques10 and ,ravines #bg1 #bh ,water-,cave of ,wookey ,hole #bi-ca ,goatchurch ,cave #ca-cd ,water-,caves of ,derbyshire #cd ,water-,caves of ,yorkshire--,ingleborough #ce-ci ,rate of ,deposit of ,stalagmite #ci-da ,descent into ,helln ,pot #da-dg ,caves and ,pots round ,weathercote #dg-ej ,formation of ,caves1 ,pot-holes1 and ,ravines #ej-eg ,caverns not generally formed in line of ,faults #eg ,various ,ages of ,caves #eh-fa ,filling up of ,caves #fa ,cave of ,caldy #fb-fh ,black-,rock ,cave1 ,tenby #fh ,carbonate of ,lime dissolved by ,atmospheric ,water #fi-gj ,circulation of ,carbonate of ,lime #ga ,temperature of ,caves #ga-gb ,conclusion #gc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,historic ,,caves ,,in ,,britain4 ,definition of ,historic ,period #gd ,wild ,animals in ,britain during the ,historic ,period #ge-gg ,animals living under the care of ,man #gg ,classificatory ,value of ,historic ,animals #gh-ha ,the ,victoria ,cave1 ,settle1 ,yorkshire--,history of ,discovery #ha-he ,the ,romano-,celtic or ,brit-,welsh ,stratum #hf-hh ,bones of the ,animals #hh-ij ,miscellaneous ,articles #ij-ib ,the ,coins #ic ,the ,jewellery1 and its relation to ,irish ,art #id-aja ,similar remains in other ,caves in ,yorkshire #aja ,caves used as places of ,refuge #ajb ,the evidence of ,history as to ,date #ajc-aaa ,britain under the ,romans #ajc-aje ,the inroads of the ,picts and ,scots #aje ,the ,english ,conquest #ajg ,the ,neolithic ,stratum #aaa-aae ,approximate ,date of the ,neolithic ,occupation #aae ,the ,grey ,clays #aaf-aah ,the ,pleistocene ,occupation by ,hynas #aah-aba ,probable ,pre-glacial ,age of the ,pleistocene ,stratum #aba-abe ,the ,kirkhead ,cave #abe ,poole's ,cavern1 ,buxton #abf ,thor's ,cave1 near ,ashbourne #abg-abi ,historic ,value of ,brit-,welsh group of ,caves #abi ,principal ,animals and ,articles in ,brit-,welsh ,caves #acj-acb ,the ,use of ,horse-flesh #acb ,cave of ,longberry ,bank1 ,pembrokeshire #acc ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,caves ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,bronze4 ,difference between ,historic and ,prehistoric ,time #acd-acf ,the ,prehistoric ,fauna #acf-ach ,archological ,classification #ach-adj ,caves of the ,iron ,age #adj ,caves of the ,bronze ,age in ,britain #ada-ade ,the ,caves of the ,csareda in ,portugal probably occupied by ,cannibals #ade-adg ,cave of ,reggio in ,modena #adh ,,chapter ,v4 ,,caves ,,of ,,the ,,neolithic ,,age4 ,neolithic ,caves in ,great ,britain--,perthi-,chwareu #adi-aef ,rhosdigre #aef-aeh ,neolithic ,caves in the neighbourhood of ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph #aei-afa ,chambered ,tomb near ,cefn #afa-afd ,correlation of ,chambered ,tomb with the ,caves of ,perthi-,chwareu and ,cefn #afd ,contents of ,caves and ,tombs1 tabulated #afe-aff ,description of ,human ,remains by ,professor ,busk #aff-ahg ,general conclusions as to ,human ,remains #aig-ahh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,range ,,of ,,neolithic ,,dolicho-,,cephali ,,and ,,brachy-,,cephali4 ,cranial ,terminology #ahi-aij ,dolicho-cephali and ,brachy-cephali #aia-aid ,range of the ,dolicho-cephali in ,britain and ,ireland #aid-aig ,range of the ,brachy-cephali #aig ,their ,range in ,france #aih ,caverne de l'homme ,mort #aih-bjb ,sepulchral ,cave of ,orrouy #bjb ,skulls from ,french ,tumuli #bjc ,the ,dolicho-cephali of ,iberian ,peninsula--,gibraltar #bjd-bjh ,spain--,cueva de los ,murcilagos #bjh-baj ,the ,woman's ,cave near ,alhama #baj ,the ,guanches of the ,canary ,isles #baa ,iberic ,dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of ,britain #bab ,dolicho-cephali cognate with the ,basque #bac-bae ,sepulchral ,cave of ,chauvaux #bae-bah ,cave of ,sclaigneaux #bah-bbj ,evidence of ,history as to the ,peoples of ,gaul and ,spain #bbj-bbc ,the ,basque ,population the oldest #bbc ,population of ,britain #bbd ,basque ,characters in ,british and ,french ,populations present #bbe-bbg ,whence come the ,basques8 #bbg ,the ,celtic and ,belgic ,brachy-cephali #bbh-bcj ,the ,ancient ,german ,race #bcj ,general conclusions #bca ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,caves ,,containing ,,human ,,remains ,,of ,,doubtful ,,age4 ,the ,paviland ,cave #bcb-bcd ,cave of ,engis #bcd1 #bce ,trou du ,frontal #bcf-bci ,cave of ,gendron #bci 0 ,gailenreuth #bdj 0 ,neanderthal #bdj-bda 0 ,aurignac #bdb-bdg 0 ,bruniquel #bdg1 #bdh 0 ,cro-,magnon #bdi-bef 0 ,lombrive #bef 0 ,cavillon1 near ,mentone #beg ,grotta dei ,colombi1 ,palmaria1 inhabited by ,cannibals #beh-bfa ,general conclusions as to ,prehistoric ,caves #bfa-bfc ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,caves ,,of ,,germany ,,and ,,great ,,britain4 ,relation of ,pleistocene to ,prehistoric ,period #bfd ,magnitude of ,interval #bfe ,animals #bfe1 #bff ,physical ,changes--,excavation and filling up of ,valleys #bfg-bgb ,fisherton1 near ,salisbury #bfg ,freshford1 near ,bath #bfi ,comparison of ,deposits in ,valleys with those in ,caves #bgb ,difference of ,mineral ,condition #bgc ,pleistocene ,caves of ,germany--,gailenreuth #bgc-bgf ,khloch #bgf-bgh ,pleistocene ,caves of ,great ,britain #bgh 0 0 ,yorkshire--,kirkdale #bgi-bhd 0 0 ,derbyshire--,dream ,cave #bhd1 #bhe 0 0 ,north ,wales1 near ,st4 ,asaph #bhf1 #bhg ,caves of ,south ,wales in ,glamorgan and ,carmarthen #bhh 0 ,pembrokeshire #bhi 0 ,monmouth #bij 0 ,gloucestershire and ,somersetshire #bia 0 the ,mendip ,hills--,hutton #bib ,banwell #bic ,uphill #bid ,hyna ,den1 ,wookey ,hole #bie-cad ,the district of the ,mendip higher in ,pleistocene ,age than now #cad ,the condition of ,bones gnawed by ,hynas #cad-cag ,the ,caves of ,devonshire--,oreston #cag1 #cah ,caves at ,brixham #cai-cbd ,kent's ,hole #cbd-ccj ,probable ,age of the ,machairodus in ,kent's ,hole #ccj-cce ,caves of ,ireland--,shandon #cce ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,caves ,,of ,,north-,,western ,,europe1 ,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,of ,,the ,,fauna ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,atlantic ,,coast-,,line4 ,the ,caves of ,france #ccf ,cave of ,baume #ccg ,caves of ,prigord #ccg-cdg 0 ,belgium #cdg1 #cdh ,trou de ,naulette #cdi ,caves of ,switzerland #cej ,cave-dwellers and ,palolithic ,men of the ,river-gravels #cea ,classification of ,palolithic ,caves #cea-cec ,relation of ,cave-dwellers to ,eskimos #cec-cei ,pleistocene ,animals living north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees #cei ,relation of ,cave to ,river-bed ,fauna #cfb ,the ,atlantic ,coast-line #cfb-cff ,distribution of ,palolithic ,implements #cff1 #cfg ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,fauna ,,of ,,the ,,caves ,,of ,,southern ,,europe1 ,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,coast-,,line ,,in ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,age4 ,changes of ,level in ,mediterranean ,area in ,meiocene and ,pleiocene ,ages #cfi ,bone-caves of ,southern ,europe #cgj ,caves of ,gibraltar #cga1 #cgb ,bone-caves of ,provence and ,mentone #cgc-cge 0 ,sicily #cge-cgg 0 ,malta #cgg ,range of ,pigmy ,hippopotamus #cgh ,fossil ,mammalia in ,algeria #cgi ,living ,species common to ,europe and ,africa #cgi ,evidence of ,soundings #chj-chb ,the ,glaciers of ,lebanon #chb ,glaciers of ,anatolia #chc-chf 0 of the ,atlas ,mountains #chf 0 probably produced by elevation above the ,sea #chg-chi ,mediterranean ,coast-line comparatively modern #chi ,changes of ,level in the ,sahara #cij ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,european ,,climate ,,in ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,age4 ,evidence of the ,mammalia as to ,climate #cib ,southern ,group of ,animals #cic-cie ,northern ,group #cie-cig ,probable cause of ,association of ,northern and ,southern ,groups #cig1 #cih ,the ,temperate ,group #cii ,species common to ,cold and ,tropical ,climates #djj ,extinct ,species #djj ,two ,periods of ,glaciation in ,britain #dja-djc ,three ,climatal ,changes on the ,continent #djc ,europe invaded by ,pleistocene ,animals before the ,glacial ,period #djd-djf ,mammalia lived in ,europe during the second ,glacial ,period #djf ,the ,glacial ,period does not separate one ,life-era from another #djg ,bone-caves inhabited before and after the ,glacial ,period #djh ,relation of ,palolithic ,man to ,glacial ,period #dji ,age of ,contents of ,caves in ,glacial ,districts #daj ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,conclusion4 ,classification of ,pleistocene ,strata by the ,mammalia #dab-dad ,late ,pleistocene ,division #dad ,middle ,pleistocene ,division #dae-dag ,early ,pleistocene ,mammalia #dag-dbj ,the ,pleiocene ,mammalia #dbj-dbc ,summary of ,characteristic ,pleistocene and ,pleiocene ,species #dbc1 #dbd ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe #dbd-dbf ,man lived in ,india in the ,pleistocene ,age #dbf-dbh ,are the ,palolithic ,aborigines of ,india related to those of ,europe8 #dbh ,palolithic ,man in ,palestine #dbi ,conclusion #dcj ,,appendix ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,instruments ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,cave-,,hunting4 ,instruments used in ,cave-hunting #dce ,search after ,bone-caves #dcg ,three modes of ,cave-digging #dch ,stalagmitic floors to be broken up #ddj ,the ,preservation of ,fossil ,remains #ddj ,,appendix ,,ii4 ,observations on the ,accumulation of ,stalagmite in the ,ingleborough ,cave #ddb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page ,coloured ,enamels from ,victoria ,cave ,front4 #a ,diagram of ,wookey ,hole1 ,cave and ,ravine #cj #b ,diagram of ,helln ,pot and the ,long ,churn ,cavern #da #c ,diagram of ,helln ,pot #db #d ,diagram of ,helln ,pot1 showing ,waterfall at the bottom #de #e ,waterfall in ,pot-hole1 at ,weathercote #dh #f ,diagram of ,subterranean ,course of ,dalebeck #di #g ,diagram of an acid-worn joint1 ,doveholes1 ,derbyshire #eb #h ,diagram of the ,source of the ,aire at ,malham #ee #i ,a ,view in the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy #fc #aj ,stalagmites in the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy #fc #aa ,the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy #fd #ab ,pools in ,fairy ,chamber #fe #ac ,pool in ,fairy ,chamber #fe #ad ,edge of ,pool in ,fairy ,chamber #fe #ae ,cone with ,straw-column #fe #af ,basin containing ,cave-pearls #fg #ag ,fungoid ,structures1 magnified #fg #ah ,fungoid ,structure1 ,black-rock ,cave #fh #ai ,view of ,king's ,scar1 ,settle1 showing the ,entrances of the ,victoria and ,albert ,caves #hb #bj ,longitudinal ,section of ,victoria ,cave #hf #ba ,vertical ,section at the ,entrance to the ,victoria ,cave #hg #bb ,spoon-brooch #ia #bc ,ornamented ,bone ,fastener #ib #bd ,two ,bone ,links #ib #be ,bronze ,brooch #ie #bf ,bone ,harpoon #aab #bg ,bone ,bead #aac #bh ,stone ,adze of doubtful origin #aad #bi ,section below ,grey ,clay1 at ,entrance to ,victoria ,cave #aag #cj ,skull of ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 showing the part which is not eaten by ,hynas #aai #ca ,bronze ,bracelet from ,thor's ,cave #abi #cb ,bronze ,knife1 ,heathery ,burn #adb #cc ,bronze ,armlet1 ,heathery ,burn #adc #cd ,bronze ,spear-head1 ,heathery ,burn #adc #ce ,bronze ,mould for casting a socketed ,celt #adc #cf ,section of ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu #aeb #cg ,plan of ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu #aed #ch ,greenstone ,celt1 ,rhosdigre ,cave #aeg #ci ,plan of ,chambered ,tomb at ,cefn #afb #dj1 #da1 #db ,skull from ,sepulchral ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu #afh #dc1 #dd1 #de ,skull from ,sepulchral ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu #afi #df ,section of ,femur #agb #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ea ,section of ,tibi #agf #eb1 #ec1 #ed ,platyenemic ,tibi #agg #ee1 #ef1 #eg1 #eh ,human ,femora #ahb #ei1 #fj1 #fa ,skull from ,cave at ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph #ahe #fb1 #fc1 #fd ,skull from ,genista ,cave #bjg #fe1 #ff ,skull from ,cave of ,sclaigneaux #bai #fg ,platyenemic ,tibia from ,sclaigneaux #bai #fh ,map of the ,distribution of ,iberic1 ,celtic1 and ,belgic ,peoples at dawn of ,history #bba #fi ,section of the ,trou du ,frontal #bcg #gj ,diagram of the ,cave of ,aurignac #bde #ga ,section across the valley of the ,vezre and rock of ,cro-,magnon #bdi #gb ,detailed ,section of the ,cave of ,cro-,magnon #bea #gc ,thigh-bone of ,child from ,grotta dei ,colombi #bfj #gd ,section of ,valley-gravels at ,fisherton #bfh #ge ,section of ,valley-gravels at ,freshford1 ,bath #bgj #gf ,section of ,gailenreuth ,cave #bgd #gg ,plan of ,kirkdale ,cave #bgi #gh ,sections of ,kirkdale ,cave #bhj #gi ,molar of ,hippopotamus #bha #hj ,leg-bones gnawed by ,hynas #bhb #ha ,the ,dream-cave1 ,wirksworth #bhe #hb ,left ,lower ,jaw of ,glutton1 ,plas ,heaton ,cave #bhg #hc ,plan of ,hyna ,den1 ,wookey ,hole #big #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg ,four ,views of ,flint ,implements from ,wookey ,hole #bii #hh ,section showing ,contents of ,hyna ,den #cjd #hi ,transverse section of ditto #cje #ij ,longitudinal section #cjf #ia ,longitudinal section #caa #ib ,gnawed ,jaw of ,hyna from ,wookey #cac #ic ,upper and ,lower ,jaws of ,hyna ,whelp1 ,wookey #cae #id ,thigh-bone of ,woolly ,rhinoceros gnawed by ,hynas1 ,wookey #caf #ie ,diagram of deposits in ,brixham ,cave #cbj #if ,lanceolate ,implement from ,kent's ,hole #cbf #ig ,oval ,implements from ,kent's ,hole #cbf #ih ,harpoon from ,kent's ,hole #cbg #ii ,harpoon-head from ,kent's ,hole #cbg #ajj ,hammer-stone #cbh #aja1 #ajb ,upper ,canine of ,machairodus1 ,kent's ,hole #cca #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje ,incisors of ,machairodus1 ,kent's ,hole #ccc #ajf ,flint-flake1 ,les ,eyzies #cci #ajg ,flint ,scraper1 ,les ,eyzies #cci #ajh ,flint ,javelin-head1 ,laugerie ,haute #cci #aji ,flint ,arrow-head1 ,laugerie ,haute #cdj #aaj ,bone needle1 ,la ,madelaine #cdj #aaa1 #aab ,harpoons of ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine #cdb #aac1 #aad ,arrow-heads1 ,gorge d',enfer #cdb #aae ,bone ,awl1 ,gorge d',enfer #cdb #aaf ,carved ,handle of ,reindeer ,antler #cdc #aag ,two sides of ,reindeer ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine #cdd #aah ,horses engraved on ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine #cdd #aai ,group of ,reindeer1 ,dordogne #cde #abj ,mammoth engraved on ,ivory1 ,la ,madelaine #cdf #aba ,carved ,implement of ,reindeer ,antler1 ,goyet #cdh #abb ,eskimos ,spear-head1 bone #cec #abc ,eskimos ,arrow-straightener of ,walrus-tooth #ced #abd ,eskimos ,plane1 or ,scraper #cee #abe ,eskimos ,hunting ,scene #ceg #abf ,map of the ,physiography of ,great ,britain in ,late ,pleistocene ,age #cfc #abg ,molar of ,hippopotamus ,pentlandi #cgg #abh ,molar of ,elephas ,melitensis #cgh #abi ,map of the ,physiography of the ,mediterranean in the ,pleistocene ,age #cha ,,lists ,,of ,,species ,,and ,,tables ,,of ,,measurements4 ,,page ,list of ,animals extinct during the ,historic ,age #gh 0 ,animals introduced during the ,historic ,age #gi 0 ,coins found in the ,victoria ,cave #ic 0 ,principal ,animals and ,objects found in ,brit-,welsh ,strata in ,caves #aca 0 ,animals found in the ,refuse-heap1 ,perthi-,chwareu #aej 0 ,contents in ,neolithic ,caves and ,cairn1 ,north ,wales #aff ,dimensions of ,perthi-,chwareu ,skulls #aga ,dimensions of ,perthi ,chwareu ,tibi #agc ,proportions of ordinary ,tibi #agd ,comparative ,measurements of ,skulls #agi ,table of ,long ,skulls from ,britain and ,ireland #aig 0 ,measurements of ,british ,brachy-cephali1 and ,gaulish and ,belgic ,brachy-cephali and ,dolicho-cephali #aii ,measurements of various ,skulls #bac ,measurements of ,skulls of doubtful antiquity #bcf ,list of ,late ,pleistocene ,animals unknown in ,britain in the ,prehistoric ,age #bff 0 ,remains found in ,wookey ,hyna ,den #caj ,late ,pleistocene ,fauna north of ,alps and ,pyrenees #cfj1 #cfa ,list of ,animals from the ,caves of ,gibraltar #cgb ,fauna from the ,caves of ,mentone #cgc 0 ,bone-caves of ,sicily #cgf ,list of ,animals from the ,middle ,pleistocene #dae 0 0 0 ,early ,pleistocene #dah 0 ,pleistocene ,mammalia #dbj1 #dbb 0 ,characteristic ,animals of the ,pleistocene ,period #dbc 0 0 0 0 ,pleiocene ,period #dbd ,,additions ,,and ,,corrections4 ,page #a1 line #g1 for 8,cythron0 read 8,cithron40 ,page #h1 line #d1 for 8that0 read 8who40 ,page #ag1 line #e1 for 8,seine0 read 8,somme40 ,page #fj1 lines #bi1 #cj1 for 8non-ossiferous0 read 8no ossiferous40 ,page #hb1 fig4 #ai1 for 8,a1 ,b1 ,albert1 ,c1 ,victoria0 read 8,a1 ,b1 ,victoria1 ,c1 ,albert40 ,page #ie1 fig4 #be4--,this design is to be seen in the chalice discovered in #ahfh1 in a rath at ,ardagh1 ,limerick1 and described by the ,earl of ,dunraven 7,trans4 ,royal ,irish ,acad4 xxiv4 ,antiquities74 ,the chalice is made of gold1 silver1 bronze1 brass1 copper1 and lead1 and from the identity of its inscription and ornament with those of ,irish ,,mss4 of ascertained age1 may be referred to a date ranging from the #eth to the #ith centuries4 ,it is also adorned with squares of blue and red enamel of the same kind as that of the brooches from the ,victoria ,cave1 figured in the coloured plate4 ,the same design is also presented by the 8bronze head-ring0 found in #agdg at ,stitchel1 in ,roxburgh1 7,wilson 8,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland10 ii4 #adf7 as well as by one of the silver articles known as 8,the ,norrie ,law ,relics10 found in a tumulus on the shore of the ,bay of ,largo1 ,firth of ,forth4 ,of the coins found at the same place1 the latest1 belonging to ,tiberius ,constantine 7d4 #fhb71 fixes the date as not earlier than the #gth century4 ,some of the sculptured stones of ,scotland1 such as the ,dunnichen stone1 are ornamented also in the same style1 and1 according to ,professor ,wilson1 belong to 8the transition period from the #dth to the #hth centuries1 when pagan and ,christian rites were obscurely mingled10 7ii4 #bei74 ,in ,scotland1 therefore1 as well as ,ireland1 this style of ornamentation is of the same age1 corresponding in the main with that of ,brit-,welsh articles in the ,victoria ,cave1 proved by the associated coins to be later than the #dth century4 ,page #abj1 line #d4--,these teeth are considered by ,dr4 ,leith ,adams to belong to ,elephas antiquus1 which has been discovered in other places in ,yorkshire4 ,they may possibly belong to that animal2 but they may1 with equal justice1 be identified with the wide-plated variety of the teeth of the ,mammoth4 ,the great variation in the width of the component plates of the fossil teeth of ,mammoth observable in the large series from ,crayford and the caves of the ,mendip ,hills1 and in those in the magnificent ,museum of ,lyons1 causes me to hesitate in considering them to belong to the rarer species4 ,page #acj1 line #b4--,this has been verified while these sheets were passing through the press by the discovery of ,brit-,welsh articles in a cave in ,kirkcudbrightshire by ,messrs4 ,a4 ,r4 ,hunt and ,a4 ,j4 ,corrie1 among which are bone fasteners similar in outline to that from the ,victoria ,cave 7,fig4 #bc74 ,page #aij4--;,in using this classification of crania1 ,i have purposely attached higher value to the two extremes of skull form1 or the long and the broad1 than to the intermediate oval forms1 which cannot be viewed as distinctive of race1 because they may be the results either of the intermarriage of a long-headed with a short-headed people1 or of variation from the type of one or other of them4 ,page #aif1 heading1 for 8,dolicho-cepha0 read 8,dolicho-cephali40 ,page #bja1 heading1 dele 8,a04 ,page #bac1 note #b4--,the 8tte annulaire10 or annular depression1 is also visible on some of the broad as well as the long skulls from a 8,merovingian0 cemetery at ,chelles in the same collection4 ,the association in this cemetery of the two skull-forms is probably due to the ,merovingians being the masters1 and the ,celts the servants1 and the conquerors and the vanquished being buried in the same spot4 ,page #bbj1 line #bd1 for 8,volsc0 read 8,volc40 ,page #bbc1 line #be1 for 8east0 read 8west40 ,page #bbh1 line #c1 dele 8that40 ,page #bbi1 line #c1 for 8set foot0 read 8settled40 ,the statement in the text is too strong4 ,the conquest of ,gaul by the ,huns under ,attila was averted by his defeat in the famous battle of ,chalons4 ,page #bge1 line #ba1 for 8are0 read 8is40 ,page #bgi4--,since this was written a new ossiferous deposit has been found in a fissure at ,lothorsdale1 near ,skipton1 from which the remains of the ,elephas antiquus and ,hippopotamus amphibius have been obtained4 ,page #bhd4--,the ossiferous fissure at ,windy ,knoll1 near ,castleton1 recently explored by ,messrs4 ,tym1 ,pennington1 ,plant1 ,walker and others1 has added several animals to the pleistocene fauna of that district--the bison1 roe1 reindeer1 bear1 wolf1 fox1 and hyna1 the first of these species being remarkably abundant1 and of all ages4 ,the remains were probably introduced by a stream from a higher level4 ,page #ccg1 note #b1 line #b1 for 8the ,revue0 and 8les ,matriaux0 read 8in the ,revue0 and 8in the ,matriaux40 ,page #ccg1 note #e1 for 8,aquitainic0 read 8,aquitanic40 ,page #cdg1 line #f1 for 8mind0 read 8minds40 ,page #cef1 line #ae1 for 8,port0 read 8,fort40 ,page #cfa4--,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford adds the ,felis ,caffer to the list from ,bleadon1 and the ,gulo borealis to that of the animals from ,kent's ,hole4 ,page #chf1 line #aj1 dele inverted commas4 ,page #chf1 line #ag1 for 8or from #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet lower than the glacial covering0 read 8thus differing by a line of from #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet from the glacial covering0 7,palgrave74 ,,cave-,,hunting4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,legends and ,superstitions connected with ,caves4--,the ,physical ,division of the ,subject4--,the ,biological4--,the ,inhabitants of ,caves4--,men and ,animals4--,ethnological1 ,archological1 and ,geographical ,bearings4--,the three ,classes of ,bone-,caves3 ,historic1 ,prehistoric1 ,pleistocene4--,history of ,cave ,exploration in ,europe3 ,germany1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,southern ,europe4 ,caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in all ages1 and have figured largely in many legends and superstitions4 ,in the ,roman ,mythology1 they were the abode of the ,sibyls1 and of the nymphs1 and in ,greece they were the places where ,pan1 ,bacchus1 ,pluto1 and the ,moon were worshipped1 and where the oracles were delivered1 as at ,delphi1 ,corinth1 and ,mount ,cithron2 in ,persia they were connected with the obscure worship of ,mithras4 ,their names1 in many cases1 are survivals of the superstitious ideas of antiquity4 ,in ,france and ,germany they are frequently termed 8,fairy1 ,dragons'1 or ,devils' ,caves10 and1 according to ,m4 ,desnoyers1 they are mentioned in the invocation of certain canonized anchorites1 who dwelt in them after having dispossessed and destroyed the dragons and serpents1 the pagan superstition appearing in a ,christian dress4 ,in the ,middle ,ages they were looked upon as the dwellings of evil spirits1 into the unfathomable abysses of which the intruder was lured to his own destruction4 ,long after the fairies and little men had forsaken the forests and glens of ,northern ,germany1 they dwelt in their palaces deep in the hearts of the mountains1--in 8the dwarf holes10 as they were called--whence they came1 from time to time1 into the upper air4 ,near ,elbingrode1 for example1 in the ,hartz1 the legend was current in the middle of the last century1 that when a wedding-dinner was being prepared the near relations of the bride and bridegroom went to the caves1 and asked the dwarfs for copper and brass kettles1 pewter dishes and plates1 and other kitchen utensils4#a 8,then they retired a little1 and when they came back1 found everything they desired set ready for them at the mouth of the cave4 ,when the wedding was over they returned what they had borrowed1 and in token of gratitude1 offered some meat to their benefactors40 ,allusions1 such as this1 to dwarfs1 according to ,professor ,nilsson1 point back to the remote time when a small primeval race1 inhabiting ,northern ,germany1 was driven by invaders to take refuge in caverns1--a view that derives support from the fact that in ,scandinavia the tall ,northmen were accustomed to consider the smaller ,lapps and ,finns as dwarfs1 and to invest them with magic power1 just as in ,palestine the smaller invading peoples considered their tall enemies giants4 ,the cave of ,bauman's hole1 also in the ,hartz district1 was said1 in the middle of the last century1 to have been haunted by divers apparitions1 and to contain a treasure guarded by black mastiffs2 and in ,burrington ,combe1 in ,somersetshire1 some twenty years ago1 a cave was dug out by a working man1 under the impression that it contained gold4 ,the hills of ,granada are still believed1 by the ,moorish children1 to contain the great ,boabdil and his sleeping host1 who will awake when an adventurous mortal invades their repose1 and will issue forth to restore the glory of the ,moorish kings4 ,it is1 indeed1 no wonder that legends and poetical fancies such as these should cluster round caves1 for the gloom of their recesses1 and the shrill drip of the water from the roof1 or the roar of the subterranean water-falls echoing through the passages1 and the white bosses of stalagmite looming like statues through the darkness1 offer ample materials for the use of a vivid imagination4 ,the fact that often their length was unknown1 naturally led to the inference that they were passages into another world4 ,and this is equally true of the story of ,boabdil1 of that of the ,purgatory of ,st4 ,patrick1 in the north of ,ireland1 and of the course of the river ,styx1 which sinks into the rocks and flows through a series of caverns that are the dark entrance-halls of ,hades4 ,the same idea is evident in the remarkable story1 related by lian 7,lib4 xvi4 #af74 8,among the ,indians of ,areia there is an abyss sacred to ,pluto1 and beneath it vast galleries1 and hidden passages and depths1 that have never been fathomed4 ,how these are formed the ,indians tell not1 nor shall ,i attempt to relate4 ,the ,indians drive thither 7every year7 more than #c1jjj different animals--sheep1 goats1 oxen1 and horses--and each acting either from dread of the dreadful abyss1 or to avert an evil omen in proportion to his means1 seeks his own and his family's safety by causing the animals to tumble in2 and these1 neither bound with chains nor driven1 of their own accord finish their journey as if led on by some charm2 and after they have come to the mouth of the abyss they willingly leap down1 and are never more seen by mortal eyes4 ,the lowing1 however1 of the cattle1 the bleating of the sheep and of the goats1 and the whinnying of the horses are heard above ground1 and if anyone listen at the mouth1 he will hear sounds of this kind lasting for a long time4 ,nor do they ever cease1 because beasts are driven thither every day4 ,but whether the sound is made by those recently driven in1 or by some of those driven in some time before1 ,i do not express an opinion40 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church took advantage of this feeling of superstitious awe1 as late as the ,middle ,ages4 ,at the time of the ,reformation it was believed that a cave at ,bishofferode would prove the death of some person in the course of the year1 unless a public yearly atonement were made4 ,accordingly a priest came1 on a certain day1 to the chapel on the hill opposite1 whence he passed in solemn procession to the cave1 8and let down into it a crucifix1 which he pulled up again1 and took this occasion to remind them of hell1 and to avoid the punishment due to their sins40 ,the beauty of the interiors of some of the caves could not fail to give rise to more graceful fancies than these4 ,the fantastic shapes of the dripstone1 with which they are adorned1 now resembling ,gothic pillars supporting a crystalline arcade1 or jutting out in little spires and minarets1 and very generally covering the floor with a marble-like pavement1 and in some cases lining the pools of water with a fretwork of crystals that shine like the facets of a diamond1 were fitting ornaments for the houses of unearthly beings1 such as fairies4 ,the ,physical ,division of the ,subject4 ,it is by no means my intention in this work to give a history of legends such as these1 but to take my readers with me into some of the more important and more beautiful caves in this country4 ,the exploration of the chambers and passages of which they are composed1 the fording of the subterranean streams by which they are frequently traversed1 or the descent into deep chasms which open in their floors1 have the peculiar charm of mountaineering1 not without a certain pleasurable amount of risk4 ,but to physicist and geologist they offer far more than this4 ,they give an insight into the wonderful chemistry by which changes are being wrought1 at the present time1 in the solid rock4 ,nor are the conclusions to which we are led by the investigation of these chemical changes merely confined to the interior of caves4 ,they enable us to understand how some of the most beautiful scenery in ,europe has been formed1 and to realize the mode by which all precipices and gorges have been carved out of the calcareous rock4 ,in the next chapter we shall see why it is that the combination of hill and valley1 ravine and precipice1 present the same general features in all limestone districts--why1 for instance1 the ravines of ,palestine are the same as those of ,greece1 and both are identical with those in ,yorkshire4 ,the origin and the history of caves will be examined1 as well as their relation to the general physical geography of the calcareous strata4 ,all these subjects are comprehended in the first or the physical division of cave-hunting4 ,the ,biological ,division4 ,we must now proceed to the definition of the scope and object of the second1 or ,biological1 division of the subject4 ,caves have been used by man1 and the domestic animals living under his protection1 from the earliest times recorded by history down to the present day4 ,those penetrating the rugged precipices of ,palestine1 we read in the ,old ,testament1 served both for habitation and for burial1 and1 from the notices which are scattered through the early ,greek writers1 we may conclude that those of ,greece were used for dwelling-places4 ,the story of the ,cyclops proves that they were also used as folds for goats4 ,the name of ,troglodytes1 given to many peoples of the most remote antiquity1 implies that there was a time in the history of mankind when ,pliny's statement 8specus erat pro domibus0 was strictly true 78,hist4 ,nat40 ,i4 v4 c4 #ef74 ,the caves of ,africa have been places of retreat from the remotest antiquity down to the ,french conquest of ,algeria1 and in #ahde several hundred ,arabs were suffocated in those of ,dahra by the smoke of a fire kindled at the entrance by ,marshal 7then ,colonel7 ,pelissier4 ,dr4 ,livingstone alludes in his recent letters to the vast caves of ,central ,africa1 which offer refuge to whole tribes with their cattle and household stuff4 ,in ,france1 according to ,m4 ,desnoyers1 there are at the present time whole villages1 including the church1 to be found in the rock1 which are merely caves modified1 extended1 and altered by the hand of man4 ,the caves of the ,dordogne were inhabited in the middle ages4 ,floras writes that the ,aquitani1 8callidum genus in speluncas se recipiebant1 ,csar jussit includi10#b and the same caves afforded shelter to the inhabitants of the same region in the wars of ,king ,pepin against the last ,duke of ,aquitaine4 ,in this country a small cave in ,cheddar ,pass was occupied till within the last few years4 ,the caves in the northern counties are stated by ,gildas to have offered a refuge to the ,brit-,welsh inhabitants of ,britain during the raids of the ,picts and ,scots2 and in the year #agde those of ,yorkshire were turned to the same purpose during the invasion of the ,pretender4 ,we might reasonably expect to find in caves turned to these uses objects left behind1 which would tell us something of the manners and customs of their possessors1 and light up the catalogue of battles and intrigues of which history generally consists4 ,the results obtained from the ,brit-,welsh group of caves1 treated in the third chapter1 show that this hitherto neglected branch of the inquiry is not without value to the historian4 ,caves containing remains of this kind may be conveniently termed historic1 because they may be brought into relation with history4 ,it must1 however1 be carefully remarked that the term does not relate to history in general1 but to that in particular of each country which happens to be under investigation4 ,the misapprehension of this has caused great confusion1 and many mistakes in archological classification and reasoning4 ,again1 our experience of the habits of rude and uncivilized peoples would naturally lead us to look to caves1 as the places in which we should be likely to meet with the remains of the men who lived in ,europe before the dawn of history4 ,such remains we do find that1 placed side by side with others from the tombs and dwellings1 enable us to discover some1 at least1 of the races who lived in ,europe in long-forgotten times1 and to ascertain roughly the sequence of events in the remote past1 far away from the historical border4 ,it may1 indeed1 seem a hopeless quest to recover what has been buried in oblivion so long1 and it is successful merely through the careful comparison of the human skeletons in the caves and tombs of ,britain1 ,france1 and ,spain1 with those of existing races1 and of the implements and weapons with those which are now used among savage tribes4 ,by this means we shall see that there are good grounds for extending the range of the ,iberian people over a considerable area in ,europe1 and for the belief that the ,eskimos once lived as far south as ,auvergne4 ,in discussing both these problems it will be impossible to shut our eyes to the continuity that exists between geology1 archology1 biology1 and history--sciences which at first sight appear isolated from each other4 ,the bones of the domestic animals in the caves will necessarily lead to the further examination of the appearance and disappearance of breeds under the care of man4 ,and this complicated question has an important bearing not merely on the ethnology1 but also on the history1 of some of the ,european peoples4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that this branch of the subject is1 as yet1 known merely in outline1 and we can only hope to ascertain a few facts which may form a basis for future investigation4 ,from another point of view the contents of caves are peculiarly valuable4 ,they have been used as places of shelter1 not merely by man1 but by wild animals1 from the time they first became accessible to the present day4 ,in the same way1 therefore1 as now they contain1 in their superficial layers1 the bones of sheep1 oxen1 and horses1 foxes1 rabbits1 and badgers1 so in their deeper strata lie buried the remains of the animals which were living in ,europe long before the historic times4 ,in other words1 they enable us to make out the groups of animals inhabiting the neighbouring districts1 and which in many cases have either forsaken their original abodes or have become extinct4 ,and since those which are extinct1 or which have migrated1 could not have lived where their remains are found under the present conditions of life1 an inquiry into their history leads us into the general question of the ancient ,european climate and geography4 ,it is obvious1 for example1 that the spotted hyna1 which formerly inhabited the caves of ,sicily1 could not have crossed over to that island after it was separated from ,africa and ,italy2 and it would be impossible for the musk-sheep1 the most arctic of the herbivora1 to live as far south as ,auvergne under the present climatal conditions4 ,the presence1 therefore1 of these animals in these districts is proof in the one case of a geographical1 and in the other of a climatal1 change4 ,the discussion of all these questions is comprehended under the second1 or biological1 division of cave-hunting1 which may be defined as an inquiry into the remains of man and animals found in the caves1 and into the conditions under which they lived in ,europe4 ,the three ,classes of ,bone-caves4 ,in the biological branch of the subject the caves will be treated first which are comprehended within the limits of history2 then we shall pass on to the investigation of ,prehistoric caves1 or those which have been inhabited in the interval that separates history from the remote geological era1 which is characterized by the existence of the extinct mammalia in ,europe4 ,and1 lastly1 those will be examined which have furnished the remains of the extinct animals1 and which are termed by the geologists ,pleistocene1 from the fact that a larger percentage of existing species were then living than in the preceding ,pleio-1 ,meio-1 and ,eocene periods4 ,the equivalent terms 8,quaternary10 used by many ,french geologists1 and the 8,post-pleiocene division of the ,post-tertiary ,formation10 used by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 are not adopted in this work1 because they imply a break in the continuity of life1 which does not exist4 8,pleistocene0 was invented and subsequently discarded by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1#c and is at present used by many eminent writers1 such as ,forbes1 ,phillips1 ,gervais1 and others4 ,the ossiferous caves will therefore be divided into the ,historic1 ,prehistoric1 and ,pleistocene groups4 ,and it will be more convenient to work backwards in time from the basis offered by history1 than to begin with the ,pleistocene1 or oldest division1 and bring the narrative down to the present day4 ,this classification1 founded in part on the principle of change in the animal world1 and partly on the basis offered by history1 coincides1 only in part1 with that of the archologists based on the remains of man's handiwork4 ,the ,pleistocene age is the equivalent of the ,palolithic1 or that of rude unpolished stone2 the ,prehistoric represents the ages of polished stone1 bronze1 and iron in part1 or those stages in human progress when the use of these materials became general for the purposes of every-day life2 while the ,historic covers merely the later portion of that of iron4 ,history of ,cave-,exploration in ,europe4 ,germany4--,the rest of this chapter must be devoted to an outline of the history of cave-exploration during the last two centuries4 ,the dread of the supernatural1 which preserved the ,european caves from disturbance1 was destroyed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the search after 8ebur fossile10 or unicorn's horn1 which ranked high in the materia medica of those days as a specific for many diseases1 and which was obtained1 in great abundance1 in the caverns of the ,hartz1 and in those of ,hungary and ,franconia4 ,as the true nature of the drug gradually revealed itself1 the ,german caves became famous for the remains of the lions1 hynas1 fossil elephants1 and other strange animals1 which had been used for medicine4 ,we owe the first philosophical discussion on the point to ,dr4 ,gesner1#d who1 although he maintained that the fossil unicorn consisted1 in some cases1 of elephant's teeth and tusks1 and in others of its fossil bones1 did not altogether give up the idea of its medicinal value4 ,it is a singular fact1 that fossil remains of a similar kind are1 at the present time1 used by the ,chinese for the same purpose1 and sold in their druggists' shops4#e ,the cave which was most famous at the end of the seventeenth century was that of ,bauman's ,hole1 in the ,hartz1 in the district of ,blankenbourg4 ,it is noticed in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the year #affb1 and was subsequently described by ,dr4 ,behrens1#f ,leibnitz1 ,de ,luc1 and ,cuvier1 along with others in the neighbourhood4 ,those of ,hungary come next in point of discovery1 the first notice of them being due to ,patterson ,hayne in #afgb4 ,they penetrate the southern slopes of the ,carpathian ranges1 and are known by the name of dragons' caves1 because the bones which they contain had been considered from time immemorial to belong to those animals by the country people4 ,these remains were identified by ,baron ,cuvier as belonging to the cave-bear4#g ,it was not1 however1 until the close of the eighteenth century that the exploring of caves was carried on systematically1 or their contents examined with any scientific precision4 ,the caves of ,franconia1 in the neighbourhood of ,muggendorf1 were described by ,esper in #aggd1 by ,rosenmuller in #ahjd1 and six years later by ,dr4 ,goldfuss4 ,the most important was that of ,gailenreuth1 both from the vast quantity of remains which it was proved to contain1 and the investigations to which it led4 ,the bones of the hyna1 lion1 wolf1 fox1 glutton1 and red deer were identified by ,baron ,cuvier2 while some of the skulls which ,dr4 ,goldfuss obtained have been recently proved1 by ,professor ,busk1 to belong to the grizzly bear4 ,they were associated with the bones of the reindeer1 horse and bison4 ,rosenmuller was of opinion that the cave had been inhabited by bears for a long series of generations2 and he thus realized that these remains proved that the animals found in the cave had once lived in that district1 and had not been swept from the tropics by the deluge4 ,the interest in these discoveries was at its height in the year #ahaf1 when ,dr4 ,buckland visited the cave1 and acquired that knowledge of cave-exploring which he was subsequently to use with such good effect in this country4#h ,from this time down to the present day1 no new fact of importance has been added to our knowledge of caves by explorations in ,germany4 ,great ,britain4--,the first bone-cave systematically explored in this country was that discovered by ,mr4 ,whidbey1#i in the ,devonian limestone at ,oreston1 near ,plymouth1 in #ahaf2 and the remains obtained from it were identified by ,sir ,everard ,home as implying the existence of the rhinoceros in that region4 ,this discovery followed close upon the researches in ,gailenreuth1 and was due in some degree to the request which ,sir ,joseph ,banks made1 that ,mr4 ,whidbey1 in quarrying the stone for the ,plymouth breakwater1 should examine the contents of any caverns that he might happen to meet with4 ,it preceded ,dr4 ,buckland's exploration of ,kirkdale by about four years4 ,in the summer of #ahba a cave was discovered1 in a limestone quarry at ,kirkdale1 in ,yorkshire1 which was found to contain bones and teeth of animals4 ,on hearing of the discovery1 ,dr4 ,buckland posted at once from ,south ,wales to the spot1 and published the result of the explorations in the ,philosophical ,transactions for the next year4 ,he brought forward evidence that the cave had been inhabited by hynas1 and that the broken and gnawed bones of the rhinoceros1 mammoth1 stag1 bison1 and horse belonged to animals which had been dragged in for food4 ,he also established the fact that all these animals had lived in ,yorkshire in ancient times1 and that it was impossible for the carcases of the hyna1 rhinoceros1 and mammoth to have been floated from those regions where they are now living into the position where he found their bones4 ,he subsequently followed up the subject by investigating bone-caves in ,derbyshire1 ,south ,wales1 and ,somerset1 as well as in ,germany1 and published his great work1 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 in #ahbb1 which laid the foundations of the new science of cave-hunting in this country4 ,the exploration of ,kirkdale followed closely upon that of ,gailenreuth1 and was merely the application of those principles of research which had been discovered in ,germany to caves in a new district4 ,from this time forward bone-caves were discovered in ,great ,britain in increasing numbers1 and explored by many independent observers4 ,the famous cavern of ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay1 furnished the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mc,enery1 between #ahbe and the year #ahda1 in which he died1 with the first flint implements ever discovered in a cave along with the bones of extinct animals4 ,he recognized the fact that they may be proof of the existence of man during the time that those animals were alive2 but the scientific world was not then sufficiently educated to accept the antiquity of the human race on the evidence brought forward1 and ,dr4 ,buckland himself was so influenced by the opinions of his times1 that he refused even to entertain the idea4 ,although the discovery was verified by the independent researches of ,mr4 ,godwin ,austin in #ahdj1 and by the ,torquay ,natural ,history ,society in #ahdf1 the force of prejudice was so strong1 that the matter was not thought even worthy of investigation4 ,mr4 ,mc,enery's manuscripts were lost until the year #ahei1 when an abstract of them was published by ,mr4 ,vivian1 and subsequently they were printed in full by ,mr4 ,pengelly1 the able superintendent of the exploration which has been carried on by a committee of the ,british ,association since #ahfe1 by whom several thousand flint implements have been obtained1 under the conditions pointed out by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mc,enery and ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen4#aj ,while the important question of the antiquity of man was being passed by as of no account1 other caves were being examined in this country4 ,those of ,banwell1 ,burrington1 ,sandford ,hill1 ,bleadon1 and ,hutton1 in the mountain limestone of the ,mendip hills1 were being worked by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,williams and ,mr4 ,beard1 and furnished the magnificent collection of mammalian bones now in the museum at ,taunton4 ,in ,north ,wales1 also1 ,mr4 ,lloyd discovered a similar suite of bones in the limestone caves in the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,asaph at ,cefn1 and in ,south ,wales numerous remains were obtained by many explorers in those of ,pembrokeshire and ,gower4 ,the result of these discoveries was the proof that certain extinct animals1 such as the woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth1 had lived in this country in ancient times1 along with two other groups of species which are at present known only to live in hot and cold climates--the spotted hyna and hippopotamus of ,africa1 with the reindeer and the marmot of the colder regions of the earth4 ,the discovery in #aheh1 and the exploration1 of the now famous cave of ,brixham1 by the ,royal and ,geological ,societies1 marked the dawn of a new era in cave-hunting4 ,under the careful supervision of ,mr4 ,pengelly1 flint implements were discovered underneath stalagmite1 and in association with the remains of the hyna and woolly rhinoceros and mammoth1 in undisturbed red loam1 under conditions that prove man to have been living in ,devonshire at the same time as those animals4 ,this singularly opportune discovery destroyed for ever the doubts that had overhung the question of the antiquity of man1 and of his co-existence in ,europe in company with the animals whose remains occur both in the caverns and river-deposits4 ,in #ahdg ,m4 ,boucher de ,perthes described certain rude flint implements that he obtained from the fluviatile gravels of ,abbeville 78,antiquits ,celtiques10 vol4 i471 along with the bones of extinct animals2 and his discovery was treated with the same scepticism in ,france as that of the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mc,enery in ,england1 although it was verified by flint implements being discovered1 under exactly the same conditions1 in the gravels of ,amiens1 some forty miles away1 by ,dr4 ,rigollot4#aa ,in the autumn of #aheh1 ,dr4 ,falconer1 who had been superintending the work in the ,brixham cave1 visited the collection made by ,m4 de ,perthes1 while on his way to examine the caves of ,sicily1 and recognizing man's handiwork in the implements1 he asked his friend ,mr4 ,prestwich to explore the ,valley of the ,somme4 ,this he accordingly did1 and in company with ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 dug out with his own hands an implement from the undisturbed strata1#ab and thus finally settled the disputed question4 ,it is undoubtedly true1 that scientific opinion was tending towards the acceptance of the evidence in favour of man having lived in ,europe in the ,pleistocene age2 but the researches in ,brixham cave established the fact on the highest possible authority1 and confirmed the long-neglected discoveries in the valley of the ,somme4 ,by the end of #ahei it was fully accepted by the scientific world1 and caused the exploration of caves to be carried on with increased vigour4 ,in ,december #ahei1ac ,i began the exploration of the hyna-den of ,wookey ,hole1 near ,wells1 ,somerset1 in company with the ,rev4 ,j4 ,williamson1 and obtained flint instruments along with the remains of the mammoth1 hyna1 woolly rhinoceros1 and other animals1 under conditions that proved the contemporaneity of man with the extinct mammalia4 ,and from that time down to the present date ,i have carried on researches in caves in various parts of ,great ,britain4 ,in the district of ,gower also1 many ossiferous caverns were investigated1 in #aheh-i-fj-a by ,colonel ,wood and ,dr4 ,falconer1 and in one of them flint implements were obtained along with the bones of the extinct mammalia4#ad ,kent's ,hole1 begun in #ahfe by the ,british ,association1 and still being worked1 furnishes annually a vast number of bones and teeth of hynas1 rhinoceroses1 cave-bears1 and horses1 and other animals1 along with flint and bone implements4#ae ,in #ahfi ,i had the good fortune to discover1 and subsequently to explore1 a group of sepulchral caves in ,denbighshire1 which had been used by an ,iberian or ,basque race in the ,neolithic age 7,chapter ,v472 and in the following year the ,settle ,cave ,committee began their work in ,yorkshire under my advice4 ,and this has led to the important conclusion1 that a group of caves1 extending over a wide area in the centre and north of ,england1 was occupied by the ,brit-,welsh in the obscure interval which elapsed between the departure of the ,roman legions and the ,english conquest4 ,france4--,the researches of ,buckland into the caves of ,great ,britain1 and of ,goldfuss and others into those of ,germany1 and more especially the publication of the 8,ossemens ,fossiles10 by ,cuvier1 gave an impetus to cave-exploration in ,france which yielded the same results as in our own country4 ,the mammalia obtained from the cave of ,fouvent 7,haut ,saone7 in #ahjj were described in the 8,ossemens10 as well as those from ,gondenans4 ,in the ,gironde1 the ,cave of ,avison was explored by ,m4 ,billaudel in #ahbf-bg4 ,in the south1 ,marcel de ,serres1 aided by ,,mm4 ,dubrueil and ,jeanjean1 examined the important ,cave of ,lunel-viel in #ahbd1 and published their results in a work that holds the same position in ,france as the 8,reliqui ,diluvian0 in ,england4 ,the caverns of ,pondres1 ,souvignargues1 and of ,bize were explored1 the two first by ,m4 ,christol in #ahbi1 the last by ,m4 ,tournal in #ahcc1 and those of ,villefranche 7,pyrnes-orient71 ,mialet 7,gard71 and ,nabrigas 7,lozre7 were described by ,de ,serres in #ahci1 who subsequently added those of ,carcas-sonne to the list in #ahdb4 ,in this year ,,mm4 ,prevost and ,j4 ,desnoyers explored the caves of ,montmorency in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 and described the remains discovered in those of ,bictre4 ,the ,cave of ,pontil 7,hrault7 described by ,m4 de ,serres in #ahdg1 was proved in #ahfd1 by ,professor ,gervais1 to contain two distinct strata1 the neolithic lying over the palolithic1 as in ,kent's ,hole4#af ,in #ahfj1ag the famous ,cave of ,aurignac was proved1 by the investigations of ,professor ,lartet1 to have been inhabited by man in the life-time of the extinct mammalia4 ,three years later the caves of ,prigord were explored by that gentleman1 along with ,mr4 ,christy1 and yielded results which mark a new era in the history of man in the remote past4 ,from the remarkable collection of implements and weapons1 the habits and mode of life of the occupants can be ascertained with tolerable certainty1 and from their comparison with the like articles now in use among savage tribes1 it may be reasonably inferred that they were closely related in blood to the ,eskimos4 ,this most important question will be investigated in its proper place1 in the chapter relating to the palolithic caves of ,france4 ,professor ,lartet1 ,m4 ,louis ,lartet1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 and other eminent observers believe further1 that the interments that have been discovered in ,aurignac and in ,cro ,magnon1#ah in ,prigord1 are to be assigned to the same relative age as the occupation of the caves by man4 ,from the fact1 however1 that the skeletons in both these cases were above the strata accumulated by the palolithic cave-dwellers1 it may be concluded that they were deposited after those strata were formed1 in other words1 that they are of a later age4 ,from #ahfc down to the present time very many caves have been explored in ,france without any further addition to our knowledge1 excepting the verification of the facts1 afforded by the caves of ,brixham and of ,prigord1 as to the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia1 and his probable identity in race with the ,eskimos4 ,belgium4--,the caves of ,belgium#ai have afforded evidence of precisely the same nature as those of ,england and ,france4 ,dr4 ,schmerling1 of ,lige1 published the results of his researches1 begun in #ahbi1 into the bone-caves on the banks of the ,meuse and its tributaries1 in #ahcc-d1 and proved that the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 cave-bear1 and hyna formerly lived in that district4 ,he also arrived at the conclusion that man was living at that remote time1 from the discovery of flint-flakes and human bones along with the remains of those animals in the caves of ,engis and ,engihoul4 ,in #ahec1bj ,professor ,spring discovered a quantity of burned1 broken1 and cut bones belonging to women and children1 in the ,cave of ,chauvaux1 which he considered to imply that it had been inhabited by a family of cannibals4 ,axes of polished stone were also met with1 that indicated the relative age to be neolithic4 ,to pass over the human skeleton found in the ,neanderthal ,cave in #aheg by ,dr4 ,fuhlroth1 which is of doubtful antiquity1 the next discoveries of importance are those made by ,m4 ,dupont in the years #ahfd-gj1 in the province of ,namur1 that established the fact that the same race of men who inhabited ,auvergne in the palolithic age had also lived in ,belgium4 ,m4 ,dupont considers that the interments in the ,trou de ,frontal#ba belong also to the palolithic age1 and that therefore man at that remote time was possessed of religious ideas4 ,before1 however1 this view can be accepted1 it will be necessary to show the exact relation of the bones of the reindeer1 chamois1 mammoth1 and other animals found outside the slab of stone1 at the mouth of the sepulchral chamber1 to the human remains within4 ,in this case1 as in ,aurignac and ,cro ,magnon1 the evidence seems to me insufficient to establish so important a conclusion4 ,southern ,europe4--,in southern ,europe the bone-caves of ,sicily1 worked in #ahbi for the sake of the animal remains to be used in sugar refining1 were scientifically examined by ,dr4 ,falconer in #ahei2 those of ,malta by ,captain ,spratt in the same year2 and those of ,gibraltar by ,captain ,broome in the years #ahfb-h4 ,they established the existence of the serval and the ,african elephant1 and other characteristic ,african species1 in ,europe1 and offer as we shall see in this work1 important testimony as to the geography of the ,mediterranean area in the ,pleistocene age4 ,in this outline of the history of cave-exploration it will be seen1 that the additions to our knowledge of the past have been neither few nor insignificant1 nor in one line of inquiry4 ,and if the attention which is now being directed to the subject be due to the general development of scientific thought1 it is equally true1 that the results have reacted on scientific thought in general1 and have especially benefited the sciences of geology1 archology1 and history4 ,a rich field of investigation lies before the cave-hunter1 in ,greece1 ,palestine1 ,lycia1 ,persia1 and the limestone plateaux of central ,asia2 and since these discoveries have been so valuable in central and north-western ,europe1 what may we not recover from the grasp of oblivion1 of the infancy and early culture of mankind in the very birth-place and 8pathway of the nations08 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,physical ,,history ,,of ,,caves4 ,caves formed by the ,sea and by ,volcanic ,action4--,caves in ,arenaceous ,rocks4--,caves in ,calcareous ,rocks of various ages4 --,their ,relation to ,pot-holes1 8,cirques10 and ,ravines4-- ,the ,water-cave of ,wookey ,hole4--,the ,goatchurch ,cave4--,the ,water-caves of ,derbyshire4--,of ,yorkshire4--,the ,ingleborough ,cave4--,the ,rate of ,deposit of ,stalagmite4--,the ,descent into ,helln ,pot4--,the ,caves and ,pots round ,weathercote4--,the ,formation of ,caves1 ,pot-holes1 and ,ravines4--,caverns not generally formed in line of ,faults4--,of various ,ages4--,their ,filling-up4-- ,the ,cave of ,caldy4--,the ,blackrock ,cave4--,great quantity of ,carbonate of ,lime dissolved by ,atmospheric ,water4--,the ,circulation of ,carbonate of ,lime4--,the ,temperature of ,caves4-- ,conclusion4 ,caves formed by the ,sea and by ,volcanic ,action4 ,in this chapter we shall treat of the origin of caves and of their place in physical geography4 ,the most obvious agent in hollowing out caves is the sea4 ,the set of the current1 the tremendous force of the breakers1 and the grinding of the shingle1 inevitably discover the weak places in the cliff1 and leave caves as the results of their work1 modified in each case by the local conditions of the rock4 ,caves formed in this manner have certain characters which are easily recognized4 ,their floors are very rarely much out of the horizontal1 their outlook is over the sea1 and they very seldom penetrate far into the cliff4 ,a general parallelism is also to be observed in a group in the same district1 and their entrances are all in the same horizontal plane1 or in a succession of horizontal and parallel planes4 ,in some cases they are elevated above the present reach of the waves1 and mark the line at which the sea formerly stood4 ,from their generally inaccessible position sea-caves have very rarely been occupied by man1 and the history of their formation is so obvious that it requires no further notice4 ,among them the famous ,fingal's ,cave1 off the north coast of ,ireland1 and that of ,staffa1 on the opposite shore of ,scotland1 hollowed out of columnar basalt1 are perhaps the most remarkable in ,europe4 ,in volcanic regions also there are caves formed by the passage of lava to the surface of the ground1 or by the imprisoned steam and gases in the lava while it was in a molten state3 but these are of comparatively little importance so far as relates to the general question of caves1 from the very small areas which are occupied by active volcanoes in ,europe4 ,they have been observed in ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,iceland1 and ,teneriffe4 ,caves in ,arenaceous ,rocks4 ,caves also occur sometimes in sandstones1 in which case they are the result of the erosion of the lines of the joints by the passage of subarial water1 and if the joints happen to traverse a stratum less compacted than the rest1 the weak point is discovered1 and a hollow is formed extending laterally from the original fissure4 ,the massive millstone grit of ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire present many examples of this1 as for instance in ,kinderscout in the former county4 ,the rocks at ,tunbridge ,wells also show to what extent the joints in the ,wealden sandstones may become open fissures1 more or less connected with caves1 on a small scale1 by the mere mechanical action of water4 ,m4 ,desnoyers gives instances of the same kind in the ,tertiary sandstones of the ,paris basin1 which have furnished remains of rhinoceros1 reindeer1 hyna1 and bear4 ,caverns1 however1 in the sandstone are rarely of great extent1 and may be passed over as being of small importance in comparison with those in the calcareous rocks4 ,caves in ,calcareous ,rocks of various ages4 ,it has long been known that wherever the calcareous strata are sufficiently hard and compact to support a roof1 caves are to be found in greater or less abundance4 ,those of ,devonshire occur in the ,devonian limestone2 those of ,somerset1 ,nottinghamshire1 ,yorkshire1 ,derbyshire1 and ,northumberland1 as well as of ,belgium and ,westphalia1 in that of the carboniferous age4 ,in ,france also1 those of ,maine and ,anjou1 and most of those of the ,pyrenees and in the department of ,aude1 are hollowed in carboniferous limestone1 as well as the greater part of those in ,north ,america1 in ,virginia1 and ,kentucky4 ,the cave of ,kirkdale in ,yorkshire1 and most of those in ,franconia and in ,bavaria penetrate ,jurassic limestones1 which have received the name of ,hohlenkalkstein from the abundance of caverns which they contain4 ,they are developed on a large scale in the ,swiss and ,french ,jura1 and in some cases afford passage to powerful streams1 and in others are more or less filled with ice1 thus constituting the singular 8glacires0 that have been so ably explored by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,browne4#bb ,the compact ,neocomian and ,cretaceous limestones contain most of the caverns of ,prigord1 ,quercy1 and ,angoumois1 and some of those in ,provence and ,languedoc1 those of ,northern ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,greece1 ,dalmatia1 ,carniola1 and ,turkey in ,europe1 of ,asia ,minor and ,palestine4 ,the tertiary limestones1 writes ,m4 ,desnoyers1#bc offer sometimes1 but very rarely1 caves that have become celebrated for the bones which they contain1 such as those of ,lunel-,viel1 near ,montpelier1 those of ,pondres and ,souvignargues1 near ,sommires 7,gard71 and of ,saint ,macaire 7,gironde74 ,the same may also be said of the calcaire grossier of the basin of ,paris4 ,certain rocks composed of gypsum also contain caverns of the same sort as those in the limestones4 ,in ,thuringia1 for example1 near ,eisleben1 they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata of the zechstein1 and are connected with large gulfs and cirques on the surface1 which are sometimes filled with water4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 and especially at ,montmorency1 they contain numerous bones of the extinct mammalia4 ,m4 ,desnoyers points out their identity1 in all essentials1 with those in calcareous strata1 and infers that they have been produced in the same way4 ,some of them may have been formed by the removal of the salt1 which is very frequently interbedded with the gypsum1 by the passage of water4 ,in ,cheshire the pumping of the brine from the saliferous and gypseous strata produces subterranean hollows1 which sometimes fall in and eventually cause depressions on the surface1 such as those which are now destroying the town of ,northwich1 and causing the neighbouring tidal estuary to extend over what was formerly meadow land4 ,this explanation1 however1 will not apply to those in the neighbourhood of ,paris1 because there is no trace of their ever having contained salt4 ,the ,relation of ,caves to ,pot-holes1 8,cirques10 and ,ravines4 ,the caverns hollowed in calcareous rocks present features by which they are distinguished from any others4 ,they open1 for the most part1 on the abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels1 being arranged round the main axis of erosion just as branches are arranged round the trunk of a tree--as1 for example1 in ,cheddar ,pass4 ,the transition in some cases from the valley to the ravine1 and from the ravine to the cave1 is so gradual1 that it is impossible to deny that all three are due to the same cause4 ,the caves themselves ramify in the same irregular fashion as the valleys1 and are to be viewed merely as the capillaries in the general valley system1 through which the rainfall passes to join the main channels4 ,very frequently1 however1 the drainage has found an outlet at a lower level1 and its ancient passage is left dry2 but in all cases unmistakeable proof of the erosive action of water is to be seen in the sand1 gravel1 and clay which compose the floor1 as well as in the worn surfaces of the sides and the bottom4 ,in all districts in which caves occur are funnel-shaped cavities of various sizes1 known as 8pot-holes0 or 8swallow-holes0 in ,britain1 as 8betoires10 8chaldrons du diable10 8marmites de gants10 in ,france1 and as 8kata-vothra0 in ,greece1 in which the rainfall is collected before it finally disappears in the subterranean passages4 ,they are to be seen in all stages2 sometimes being mere shallow funnels1 that only contain water after excessive rain1 and at others as profound vertical shafts1 into which the water is continually falling1 as in ,helln ,pot1 in ,yorkshire4 ,the cirques1 also1 described by ,m4 ,desnoyers1 belong to the same class of cavities1 although all those which are mentioned by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,g4 ,bonney1#bd at the head of valleys1 and in some cases hollowed in shale and igneous rocks1 are most probably to be referred to the vertical1 chisel-like action of streams flowing under physical conditions1 that resemble those under which the caons of the ,colorado1 or of the ,zambesi1 are being excavated1 and in which frost1 ice1 and snow have played a very subordinate part4 ,the intimate relation between pot-holes1 caves1 ravines1 and valleys will be discussed in the rest of this chapter1 and illustrated by ,english examples2 and then we shall proceed to show that the chemical action of the carbonic acid in the rain-water1 and the mechanical friction of the sand and gravel1 set in motion by the water1 by which ,professor ,phillips explains the origin of caves1 will equally explain the pot-holes and ravines by which they are invariably accompanied4 ,the ,water-,cave of ,wookey ,hole1 near ,wells1 ,somerset4 ,caves may be divided into two classes3 those which are now mere passages for water1 in which the history of their formation may be studied1 and those which are dry1 and capable of affording shelter to man and the lower animals4 ,among the water-caves1 that of ,wookey ,hole#be is to be noticed first1 since its very name implies that it was known to the ,celtic inhabitants of the south of ,england1 and since it was among the first1 if not the first1 of those examined with any care in this country1 ,mr4 ,john ,beaumont#bf having brought it before the notice of the ,royal ,society in the year #afhj4 ,the hamlet of ,wookey ,hole nestles in a valley1 through which flows the river ,axe1 and the valley passes insensibly1 at its upper end1 into a ravine1 which is closed abruptly by a wall of rock 7,fig4 #a71 about two hundred feet high1 covered with long streamers and festoons of ivy1 and affording scanty hold1 on its ledges and in its fissures1 to ferns1 brambles1 and ash saplings4 ,at its base the river ,axe issues1 in full current1 out of the cave1 the lower entrance of which it completely blocks up1 since the water has been kept back by a weir1 for the use of a paper-mill a little distance away4 ,a narrow path through the wood1 on the north side of the ravine1 leads to the only entrance now open4#bg ,thence a narrow passage leads downward into the rock1 until1 suddenly1 you find yourself in a large chamber1 at the water level4 ,then you pass over a ridge1 covered with a delicate fretwork of dripstone1 with each tiny hollow full of water1 and ornamented with brilliant lime crystals4 ,one shapeless mass of dripstone is known in local tradition as the ,witch of ,wookey1 turned into stone by the prayers of a ,glastonbury monk4 ,beyond this the chamber expands considerably1 being some seventy or eighty feet high1 and adorned with beautiful stalactites1 far out of the reach of visitors4 ,the water1 which bars further entrance1 forms a deep pool1 which ,mr4 ,james ,parker managed to cross on a raft 7see ,appendix ,i47 into another chamber1 which was apparently easy of access before the construction of the weir4 ,it was in this further chamber that ,dr4 ,buckland found human remains and pottery4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,diagram of ,wookey ,hole ,cave and ,ravine4 ,the cave has been proved to extend as far as the village of ,priddy1 about two miles off1 on the ,mendip hills1 by the fact observed by ,mr4 ,beaumont1 that the water used in washing the lead ore at that spot1 in his time1 found its way into the river ,axe1 and poisoned cattle in the valley of ,wookey4 ,and this observation has been verified during the last few years by throwing in colour and chopped straw4 ,the stream at ,priddy sinks into a swallow-hole 7,fig4 #a71 and has its subterranean course determined by the southerly dip of the rock1 by which the joints running north and south afford a more free passage to the water than those running east and west4 ,the cave is merely a subterranean extension of the ravine in the same line1 as far as the swallow-hole1 and all three have been hollowed1 as we shall see presently1 by the action of the stream and of carbonic acid in the water4 ,the ,goatchurch ,cave4 ,the largest cavern in the ,mendip hills is that locally known as the ,goatchurch1 which opens on the eastern side of the lower of the two ravines that branch from the magnificent defile of ,burrington ,combe1 about two miles from the village of ,wrington1 at the height of about #abj feet from the bottom of the ravine4 ,after creeping along a narrow1 muddy passage1 with a steep descent to the west1 at an angle of about #cj1 you suddenly pass into a stalactitic chamber of considerable height and size4 ,from it two small vertical shafts lead into the lower set of chambers and passages2 the first being blocked up1 and the second being close to a large barrel-shaped stalagmite1 to which ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford1 ,mr4 ,james ,parker1 and myself fastened our ropes when we explored the cave in #ahfd4 ,the latter affords access into a passage1 beautifully arched1 and passing horizontally east and west1 and just large enough to admit a man walking upright4 ,at the further end numerous open fissures1 caused by the erosion of the joints in the limestone1 cross it at right angles1 and pass into several ill-defined chambers1 partially stalactitic1 but for the most part filled with loose1 bare1 cubical masses of limestone4 ,two of the transverse fissures lead into a large chamber1 at a lower level4 ,at its lower end1 on crawling along a narrow passage1 we came into a second chamber1 also of considerable height and depth1 at the bottom of which the noise of flowing water can be heard through two vertical holes1 just large enough to admit of access4 ,on sliding down one of these we found ourselves in a third chamber1 which was traversed by a subterranean stream1 doubtless in part the same which disappears in the ravine1 at a point eighty feet above by aneroid measurement4 ,the temperature of the water1 as compared with that of the stream outside 7#di 3 #ei71 renders it very probable that1 between the point of disappearance in the ravine and reappearance in the cave1 it is joined by a stream of considerable subterranean length1 since the water could not have lost ten degrees in the short interval which it had to traverse1 were it supplied only from the stream in the ravine4 ,from the point of its disappearance in the cave1 the water passes downwards to join the main current flowing underneath ,burrington ,combe1 that gushes forth in great volume at ,rickford4 ,the lowest portion of the cave was eighteen or twenty feet below the stream1 and #bbj feet below the entrance of the cavern4 ,on examining the floors of the chambers and passages1 we discovered that they were composed of the same kind of sediment as that which is now being deposited by the water in ,wookey ,hole1 and there could be no doubt but that they had been originally traversed by water4 ,for this to have taken place it is necessary to suppose that1 while the ,goatchurch was a water cave1 the ravine on which it opens was not deeper than the entrance--in other words1 that in the interval between the formation and excavation of the chambers and passages1 to the present time1 the ravine has been excavated in the limestone to a depth of a hundred and twenty feet1 and the water which originally passed through the entrance has found its way1 by a new series of passages1 to the point where it appears at the bottom of the cave4 ,we obtained evidence that the horizontal passage1 immediately below the first vertical descent1 had been inhabited at a very remote period4 ,at the spot where ,mr4 ,beard1 of ,banwell1 obtained a fine tusk of mammoth1 we found a molar of bear1 and a fragment of flint1 which were imbedded in red earth1 and were underneath a crust of stalagmite of about two inches in thickness4 ,it would follow from this1 that the date of the formation of this part of the cave was before the time when the traces of elephants1 bears1 and of man were introduced4 ,the cave is the resort of numerous badgers4 ,on hiding ourselves in one of the transverse fissures1 and throwing our light across the horizontal passage1 these animals ran to and fro across the lighted field with extraordinary swiftness1 and had it not been for the white streaks on the sides of their heads1 which flashed back the light1 they would not have been observed4 ,though they are rarely caught1 they must be abundant in the district4 ,like all the other large caverns in the district1 it has its legends4 ,the dwellers in the neighbourhood1 who have never cared to explore its recesses1 relate that a certain dog put in here found its way out1 after many days1 at ,wookey ,hole1 having lost all its hair in scrambling through the narrow passages4 ,at ,cheddar the same legend is appropriated to the ,cheddar cave4 ,at ,wookey the dog is said to have travelled back to ,cheddar4 ,some eighteen years ago1 while exploring the limestone caves at ,llanamynech1 on the ,english border of ,montgomeryshire1 ,i met with a similar story4 ,a man playing the bagpipes is said to have entered one of the caves1 well provisioned with ,welsh mutton1 and after he had been in for some time his bagpipes were heard two miles from the entrance1 underneath the small town of ,llanamynech4 ,he never returned to tell his tale4 ,the few bones found in the cave are supposed to be those which he had picked on the way4 ,this is doubtless another form of the story of the dog2 both owe their origin to the vague impression1 which most people have1 of the great extent of caverns1 and both versions are equally current in ,france and ,germany4 ,the ,water-caves of ,derbyshire4 ,the celebrated cavern of the ,peak1 at ,castleton in ,derbyshire1 presents the same essential character as that of ,wookey ,hole4 ,it runs into the hill-side at the end of the ravine1 and is traversed by a powerful stream of water1 which has been met with in driving an horizontal adit in lead-mining at a considerable distance from the entrance1 and finally traced to a distant swallow-hole4 ,at a little distance from ,buxton a smaller cave1 known as ,poole's ,cavern1 is in part traversed by water1 which has found an outlet at a lower level1 and allowed of the present entrance being used by the ,brit-,welsh 7,romano-,celtic7 inhabitants of the district as a habitation in the fifth and sixth centuries4#bh ,there are1 besides these1 very many others1 some known1 others unknown1 that debouch on the sides of the dales in ,derbyshire and ,staffordshire1 and are all well worthy of examination1 since they illustrate not merely the history of the formation of caves1 but also have been proved to contain works of art1 pottery and flint implements1 and the remains of animals1 such as the mammoth and rhinoceros4 ,the ,water-caves of ,yorkshire4 ,the caves in the mountain limestone of ,yorkshire rival in size those of ,carniola1 or those of ,greece1 and they are to be seen in all stages of formation4 ,in their gloomy recesses all the higher qualities of a mountaineer may be exercised1 and there is sufficient danger to give a keen zest to their exploration4 ,the mountain streams sometimes plunge into a yawning chasm1 locally known as a pot1 and at others emerge from the dark portals of a cave in full current4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no place in the world where the subterranean circulation of water may be studied with better advantage4 ,ingleborough forms a centre from which the rainfall on every side finds its way into the dales1 through a system of caves more or less complicated1 which during the last forty years have been thoroughly explored by ,mr4 ,farrer1 ,mr4 ,birkbeck1 and ,mr4 ,metcalfe4 ,on the south it collects in a ravine1 and then leaps into a deep bottle-shaped hole called 8,gaping ,gill10 into which ,mr4 ,birkbeck unsuccessfully attempted to descend1 the sharp edges of the rock cutting the rope1 and very nearly causing a serious accident4 ,in depth it is about three hundred feet4 ,the stream thence finds its way through a series of chambers and passages until it reappears in the famous ,ingleborough cave1 that was explored by ,mr4 ,farrer in the year #ahcg1 and proved to pass into the rock between seven and eight hundred yards4 ,the present entrance of the ,ingleborough cave#bi is dry1 except after heavy rains1 when the current reverts to its old passage4 ,the following admirable account of the interior is given by ,professor ,phillips3--#cj 8,from ,mr4 ,farrer's plan and description1 as given in the #8,proceedings of the ,geological ,society1' ,june #ad1 #ahdh1 and from information obligingly communicated to me1 a clear notion of the history of this most instructive spar grotto may be formed4 ,for about eighty yards from the entrance the cave has been known immemorially4 ,at this point ,josiah ,harrison1 a gardener in ,mr4 ,farrer's service1 broke through a stalagmitical barrier which the water had formed1 and obtained access to a series of expanded cavities and contracted passages1 stretching first to the ,n41 then to the ,n4,w42 afterwards to the ,n4 and ,n4,e41 and finally to the ,e41 till after two years spent in the interesting toil of discovery1 at a distance of #gjb yards from the mouth1 the explorers rested from their labours in a large and lofty irregular grotto1 in which they heard the sound of water falling in a still more advanced subterranean recess4 ,it has been ascertained1 at no inconsiderable personal risk1 that this water falls into a deep pool or linn at a lower level1 beyond which further progress appears to be impracticable4 ,in fact ,mr4 ,farrer explored this dark lake by swimming--a candle in his cap and a rope round his body4 8,in this long and winding gallery1 fashioned by nature in the marble heart of the mountain1 floor1 roof1 and sides are everywhere intersected by fissures which were formed in the consolidation of the stone4 ,to these fissures and the water which has passed down them1 we owe the formation of the cave and its rich furniture of stalactites4 ,the direction of the most marked fissures is almost invariably ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e41 and when certain of these 7which in my geological work ,i have called master fissures7 occur1 the roof of the cave is usually more elevated1 the sides spread out right and left1 and often ribs and pendants of brilliant stalactite1 placed at regular distances1 convert the rude fissure into a beautiful aisle of primval architecture4 ,below most of the smaller fissures hang multitudes of delicate translucent tubules1 each giving passage to drops of water4 ,splitting the rock above1 these fissures admit1 or formerly admitted1 dropping water3 continued through the floor1 the larger rifts permit1 or formerly permitted1 water to enter or flow out of the cave4 ,by this passage of water1 continued for ages on ages1 the original fissure was in the first instance enlarged1 through the corrosive action of streams of acidulated water2 by the withdrawal of the streams to other fissures1 a different process was called into operation4 ,the fissure was bathed by drops instead of streams of water1 and these drops1 exposed to air currents and evaporation1 yielded up the free carbonic acid to the air and the salt of lime to the rock4 ,every line of drip became the axis of a stalactitical pipe from the roof2 every surface bathed by thin films of liquid became a sheet of sparry deposit4 ,the floor grew up under the droppings into fantastic heaps of stalagmite1 which1 sometimes reaching the pipes1 united roof and floor by pillars of exquisite beauty40 ,at the time of its exploration1 the water stood at a considerably higher level inside than at the present time1 and formed deep pools4 ,the barrier of dripstone has been cut through1 and the water level lowered1 and a passage made for a considerable distance4 ,inside1 the old water line1 which separated the subarial from the subaqueous dripstone1 is very distinct1 the former being deposited in thick bosses1 crumpled curtains1 drops1 straws1 pyramids1 and other fantastic drip-structures1 while the latter is honeycombed1 and composed of rounded1 grape-like masses4 ,between them an ice-like coating of stalagmite forms a dividing line1 now supported in mid air1 but that formerly shot across the surface of the pools that have been drained1 or rested on the mud and stones which had been brought down by the stream in ancient times4 ,in some places it still rests on the surface of the pools4 ,a stalactitic curtain on the right-hand side presents a very singular appearance1 its surface being covered with an abundant crop of tiny club-like bodies about one-tenth of an inch in length1 and consisting each of a shining drop of water1 enclosing a minute fungus4 ,these may possibly explain in some degree the peculiar fungoid-appearance of certain small bosses of dripstone which ,i have met with in the caves of ,pembrokeshire3 for an accumulation of carbonate of lime on such a nucleus would produce the forms which they assume 7see ,fig4 #ag74 ,there are also magnificent groups of dripstone1 and each joint in the rock is adorned with lines1 and pipes1 and fringes of calc spar1 or widened out into roof-shaped hollows1 and traversed by deep1 vertical grooves1 caused by the passage of water laden with carbonic acid4 ,the general surface of the roof1 where the rock is bare1 has had its fossils etched out by the acidulated water4 ,in one place you may stand under a branching coral1 with its sides and base distinctly marked1 and in another fossil shells stand out almost in their original beauty4 ,rate of the ,accumulation of ,stalagmite4 ,the rate at which the calcareous matter is being deposited at the present time is very easy to be estimated1 for that accumulated since the passage was cleared out is white1 and contrasts with the dirty1 grey-red colour of the older kind4 ,in one case a thickness of #jbd had been formed in thirty-five years1 by the water flowing down the side of the passage excavated by ,mr4 ,farrer1 while in another1 in about the same time1 #jje inch had been formed4 ,this would give an annual accumulation of #jjjfh in the one case1 and in the other about one-fifth of that amount4 ,this rate does not agree with the rate of increase noted by ,mr4 ,farrer and ,professor ,phillips in the case of a large stalagmite called the ,jockey ,cap1 on which a line of drops is continually falling from one point in the roof4 ,its circumference in #ahci measured #aah inches1 in #ahde1 #abj inches1 and in #ahgc1 ,i found it to be #abh inches4 ,the annual rate of increase from #ahde to #ahgc is #bida inch1 and that from #ahci to #ahde is #bheg4 ,i found1 however1 that the most remarkable increase was that in height4 ,in #ahde its apex was #iebe inches from the roof1 in #ahgc1 #hg inches1 which would imply an annual deposit of not less than #bidf4 7,see ,appendix ,,ii47 ,at this rate it will arrive at the roof in about #bie years4 ,but even this comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the growth of a pendant stalactite above1 that is now being formed in place of that which measured #aj inches in #ahde1 and has since been accidentally destroyed4 ,it is very possible that the ,jockey ,cap may be the result1 not of the continuous1 but of the intermittent drip of water containing carbonate of lime1 and that therefore the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past or future condition4 ,its age in #ahde was estimated by ,professor ,phillips at #bei years1 on the supposition that all or nearly all of the carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited4 ,if1 however1 it grew at its present rate1 it may be not more than #ajj years old2 and if it be taken as a measure of the rate generally1 all the stalagmites and stalactites in the cave may not date further back than the time of ,edward ,,iii4 ,it is evident1 from this instance of rapid accumulation1 that the value of a layer of stalagmite in measuring the antiquity of deposits below it1 is comparatively little4 ,the layers1 for instance1 in ,kent's ,hole1 which are generally believed to have demanded a considerable lapse of time1 may possibly have been formed at the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum1 and the human bones which lie buried under the stalagmite in the cave of ,bruniquel1 are not for that reason to be taken to be of vast antiquity4 ,it may be fairly concluded1 that the thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an argument in support of the remote age of the strata below4 ,at the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum1 twenty feet of stalagmite might be formed in #a1jjj years4 ,the ,descent into ,helln ,pot4 ,the subterranean passages grouped round ,helln ,pot1 a tremendous chasm near ,selside1 on the east of ,simon's ,fell in ,ribblesdale1 illustrate in a remarkable degree the mode in which the water is at present wearing away the rock4 ,those which have been explored constitute the ,long ,churn ,cavern1 which is comparatively easy of access through a hole known as ,diccan ,pot 7,fig4 #b1 a74 ,on descending into it1 the visitor finds himself in the bed of a stream that now roars in a waterfall1 now gurgles over the large fallen blocks from the roof1 and that here and there has worn for itself deep pools by the mechanical friction of the sand and pebbles brought down by the current4 ,if it be followed down after passing over a waterfall1 the light of day is seen streaming upwards beneath the feet from the point where the water leaps into the great chasm of ,helln ,pot 7,figs4 #b1 b4 #c1 a74 ,above the entrance there is a complicated network of passages1 some dry1 and some containing streams which have not yet been fully explored4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,diagram of ,helln ,pot and the ,long ,churn ,cavern4 ,the two actions by which caves are hewn out of the calcareous rock are seen here in operation side by side4 ,below the level of the stream the rock is seen to be smoothed and polished by the mechanical action of the materials swept down by the current4 ,above the water-level the sides of the cave are honeycombed and eaten into the most fantastic and complex shapes1 the resultant surface 7see ,fig4 #g7 bearing small points and keen knife-edges of stone1 that stand out in relief and mark the less soluble portions of the rock4 ,this is due to the chemical effect of the carbonic acid in the water percolating through the strata4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,diagram of ,helln ,pot4 ,the ,helln ,pot1 into which the stream flowing through the ,long ,churn ,cave falls1 is a fissure 7,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d7 a hundred feet long by thirty feet wide1 that engulfs the waters of a little stream on the surface1 which are dissipated in spray long before they reach the bottom4 ,from the top you look down on a series of ledges1 green with ferns and mosses1 and1 about a hundred feet from the surface1 an enormous fragment of rock forms a natural bridge across the chasm from one ledge to another4 ,a little above this is the debouchement of the stream flowing through the ,long ,churn ,cave 7,fig4 #c1 a71 through which ,mr4 ,birkbeck and ,mr4 ,metcalfe made the first perilous descent in #ahdg4 ,the party1 consisting of ten persons1 ventured into this awful chasm with no other apparatus than ropes1 planks1 a turn-tree1 and a fire-escape belt4 ,on emerging from the ,long ,churn ,cave they stood on a ledge of rock about twelve feet wide1 and which gave them free access to the 8bridge0 7,fig4 #b1 b74 ,this was a rock ten feet long1 which rested obliquely on the ledges4 ,having crossed over this1 they crept behind the waterfall which descended from the top1 and fixed their pulley1 five being let down while the rest of the party remained behind to hoist them up again4 ,in this way they reached the bottom of the pot1 which before had never been trod by the foot of man4 ,thence they followed the stream downwards as far as the first great waterfall1 down which ,mr4 ,metcalfe was venturesome enough to let himself with a rope1 and to push onwards until daylight failed4 ,he was within a very little of arriving at the end of the cave into which the stream flows1 but was obliged to turn back to the daylight without having accomplished his purpose4 ,the whole party eventually1 after considerable danger and trouble1 returned safely from this most bold adventure4 ,a second descent was made in #ahdh from the surface1 and a third in the spring of #ahgj1 in both of which ,mr4 ,birkbeck took the lead4 ,the apparatus employed consisted of a windlass 7,fig4 #c71 supported on two baulks of timber1 and a bucket1 covered with a shield1 sufficiently large to hold two people1 and two guiding ropes to prevent the revolution of the bucket in mid air4 ,there was also a party of navvies to look after the mechanical contrivances1 and two ladders about eight feet long to provide for contingencies at the bottom4 ,thirteen of us went down1 including three ladies4 ,as we descended1 the fissure gradually narrowed1 until at the bottom it was not more than ten feet wide4 ,the actual vertical descent was a hundred and ninety-eight feet4 ,after running the gauntlet of the waterfall we landed in the bed of the stream1 which hurried downwards over large boulders of limestone and lost itself in the darkness of a large cave1 about seventy feet high4 ,we traced it downwards1 through pools and rapids to the first waterfall1 of about twenty feet4 ,this obstacle prevented most of the party going further1 for the ladders were too short to reach to the bottom4 ,by lashing them together1 however1 and letting them down1 we were able to reach the first round with the aid of a rope1 and to cross over the deep pool at the bottom4 ,thence we went on downwards through smaller waterfalls and rapids1 until we arrived at a descent into a chamber1 where the roar of water was deafening4 ,down to this point the daylight glimmered feebly1 but here our torches made but little impression on the darkness4 ,one of the party volunteered to go down with a rope1 and was suddenly immersed in a deep pool2 the rest1 profiting by his misadventure1 managed to cling on to small points of rock1 and eventually to reach the floor of the chamber4 ,we stood at last on the lowest accessible point of the cave1 about #cjj feet from the surface4 ,it was indeed one of the most remarkable sights that could possibly be imagined4 ,besides the waterfall down which we came1 a powerful stream poured out of a cave too high up for the torches to penetrate the darkness1 and fell into a deep pool in the middle of the floor1 causing such a powerful current of air that all our torches were blown out except one4 ,the two streams eventually united and disappeared in a small black circling pool1 which completely barred further ingress4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,diagram of ,helln ,pot1 showing ,waterfall at the ,bottom4 ,the floor of the pot and the cave was strewn with masses of limestone rounded by the action of the streams2 and the water-channels were smoothed and grooved and polished1 in a most extraordinary way1 by the silt and stones carried along by the current4 ,some of the layers of limestone were jet black1 and others were of a light fawn-colour1 and as the strata were nearly horizontal1 the alternation of colours gave a peculiarly striking effect to the walls4 ,beneath each waterfall was a pool more or less deep1 and here and there in the bed of the stream were holes1 drilled in the rock by stones whirled round by the force of the water4 ,high up1 out of the present reach of the water1 were old channels1 which had evidently been watercourses before the pot and cave had been cut down to their present level4 ,in the sides of the pot there are two vertical grooves reaching very nearly from the top to the bottom1 which are unmistakeably the work of ancient waterfalls4 ,there was no stalactite1 but everywhere the water was wearing away the rock and enlarging the cave4 ,we found our way back without any difficulty1 a small passage on the right-hand side enabling us to avoid the very unpleasant task of scrambling up two of the waterfalls4 ,we arrived finally at the top1 after about five hours' work in the cave1 wet to the skin4 ,we had very little trouble in making this descent1 because of the completeness of ,mr4 ,birkbeck's preparations2 but we could fully realize what a dangerous feat the first explorers performed when they ventured into an unknown chasm1 comparatively unprepared4 ,the very name 8,helln ,pot10 llan ,pot1 or ,mouth of ,hell1 testifies to the awe with which the ,angles looked down into its recesses4#ca ,such is the interior of one of those great natural laboratories in which water is wearing away the solid rock1 either hollowing it into caves or cutting it into ravines4 ,at the bottom of ,helln ,pot it was impossible not to realize1 that the enormous chasm had been formed by the same action as that by which it was being deepened before our eyes4 ,it was merely a portion of the vast cave into which it led1 which had been deprived of its roof1 and opened out to the light of heaven4 ,the bridge was but a fragment of the roof which happened to fall upon the two ledges4 ,the rounded masses of rock at the bottom are fragments that have fallen probably within comparatively modern times4 ,the absence of stalactites and of stalagmites proves that the destructive action is rapidly going on4 ,the water-course at the bottom contained pebbles and boulders of limestone1 and gritstone rounded by friction against one another and the rocky floor4 ,the gritstone has probably been derived from the wreck of the boulder clay on the surface above the ,helln ,pot1 and ultimately torn from the millstone grit of the higher hills in the district4 ,caves and ,pots at ,weathercote4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,waterfall in ,pot-hole at ,weathercote4 ,on the north side of ,ingleborough the series of caves and pots round the little ,church of ,chapel-en-le-,dale are especially worthy of attention4 ,the chasm at ,weathercote opens suddenly in the hill-side1 and is perfectly accessible to visitors4 ,you come suddenly upon a cleft a hundred feet deep1 with its ledges covered with mosses1 ferns1 and brambles2 at one end a body of water rushes from a cave1 and under a great bridge of rock1 and falls seventy-five feet1 a mass of snow-white foam filling the bottom with spray 7,fig4 #e74 ,the large masses of rock piled in wild confusion at the bottom1 the dark shadows of the overhanging ledges1 and the thick covering of green moss1 to which the spray clings in tiny glittering drops1 form a picture which cannot easily be forgotten4 ,in the sunshine an almost circular rainbow is to be seen from the bottom4 ,the stream passes from the bottom into a cave1 and thence downwards to two large pots 7,fig4 #f71 about two hundred yards away4 ,in flood-time the channel has been known to become blocked up1 and ,weathercote has been filled to the brim4 ,usually after heavy rains the current is said to flow so violently into the first of the pot-holes1 that it throws up stones at least thirty or forty feet from the bottom1 with a peculiar rattling noise4 ,from this strange phenomenon it is known as ,jingle ,pot1 while the lower of the two is termed ,hurtle ,pot1 because in flood-time the water whirls so fast round1 that it is 8hurtled0 out at the top4 ,the water flowing through ,weathercote is derived from the little stream of ,ellerbeck1 which disappears in the limestone hills about a mile to the north1 and runs at right angles to ,dalebeck1 or the stream flowing down to ,ingleton1 which it has been proved to join at a spot below ,jingle ,pot1 by ,mr4 ,metcalfe1 who made his way down into it from the chasm of ,weathercote4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,diagram of ,subterranean ,course of ,dalebeck4 ,the course of ,dalebeck1 as you pass up the valley of ,chapel-en-le-,dale1 affords a striking instance of the dependence of scenery upon the nature of the rock4 ,in its lower portion it has cut out for itself a deep ravine in the hard ,silurian strata1 in which you come upon the waterfalls1 deep pools1 and trees1 that look as if they had been transported bodily from the district of ,cader ,idris1 and inserted into the limestone scenery of the dales4 ,the ,silurian rocks are very much contorted1 and on their waterworn edges lie the nearly horizontal limestone strata1 in which the upper part of the valley has been scooped4 ,as we rise the ravine opens into a valley 7,fig4 #f71 along which the beck flows1 until suddenly it is lost in a fissure1 at a place called ,godsbridge4 ,its subterranean course is marked1 first of all1 by a small depression known as ,sandpot1 and still higher by ,hurtle ,pot4 ,it ultimately reappears at the surface1 above ,weathercote1 and after passing through a picturesque cavern1 known as the ,gatekirk1 its fountainhead is reached4 ,the subterranean portions of its course are in the same right line as the open valley1 and the pot-holes have been formed in the same manner as ,helln ,pot1 by the passage of water at a time when the drainage found its way down the valley at a higher level than at present1 very much as it does now in times of extraordinary floods4 ,water-caves such as these are by no means uncommon in ,yorkshire4 ,in the dales there is scarcely a mass of limestone without its subterranean water system1 as well as channels deserted by water1 which are now dry caves situated at higher levels4 ,these are always arranged on the line of the natural drainage1 and generally open on the sides of the valleys and precipices4 ,if you look northward from the flat crown of ,ingleborough1 you can see the ravines which radiate from it on the surface of the shale below1 abruptly ending in pot-holes when they reach the limestone4 ,in each case the streams reappear1 issuing out of the caves at the points in ,chapel-en-le-,dale1 where the horizontal beds of limestone rest on the upturned edges of the impermeable ,silurian rocks4 ,the ,formation of ,caves and their ,relation to ,pot-holes and ,ravines4 ,the general conditions under which caves occur in limestone rocks1 and the phenomena which they present1 may be gathered from the above examples4 ,universally the pot-holes1 ravines1 and caverns are so associated together1 that there can be but little doubt that they are due to the operation of the same causes4 ,it requires but a cursory glance to see at once that running water was the main agent4 ,the limestone is so traversed by joints and lines of shrinkage1 that the water rapidly sinks down into its mass1 and collects in small streams1 which owe their direction to the dip of the strata and the position of the fissures4 ,these channels are being continually deepened and widened by the mere mechanical action of the passage of stones and silt4 ,but this is not the only way in which the rock is gradually eroded4 ,the limestone is composed in great part of pure carbonate of lime1 which is insoluble in water4 ,it is1 however1 readily dissolved in any liquid containing carbonic acid1 which is an essential part of our atmosphere1 is invariably present in the rain-water1 and is given off by all organic bodies4 ,by this invisible agent the hard crystalline rock is always being attacked in some form or another4 ,the very snails that take refuge in its crannies leave an enduring mark of their presence in a surface fretted with their acid exhalations1 which sometimes pass current among geologists for the borings of pholades1 and are the innocent cause of much speculation as to the depression of the mountain-tops beneath the sea in comparatively modern times4 ,the carbonic acid taken up by the rain is derived1 in the main1 from the decomposing vegetable matter which generally forms the surface soil on the limestone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,diagram of an acid-worn joint1 ,doveholes1 ,derbyshire4 ,the view from the ancient camp on the top of ,ingleborough offers a striking example of the effect of rain-water in eroding the surface of the limestone4 ,as you look down over the dark crags of millstone grit1 great1 grey1 pavement-like masses of limestone strike the eye1 standing above the heather1 perfectly bare1 and in the distance resembling clearings1 and in rainy weather sheets of snow4 ,on approaching them the surface of erosion becomes more and more apparent1 and the shapes due to the mere accident of varying hardness in the rock1 or the varying quantity of water passing over it1 present a most astonishing variety4 ,there are1 however1 general principles underlying the confusion4 ,the lines of joints in the strata being lines of weakness1 searched out by the acid-laden water1 have been widened into chasms1 sometimes of considerable depth2 and as they cross at right angles1 the whole surface is formed of rectangular masses1 each insulated from its fellow1 and some of them detached from the strata beneath so as to form rocking-stones4 ,the mode in which the acid has attacked one of these joints in the limestone of ,doveholes in ,derbyshire is represented in ,figure #g1 the surface being honeycombed and worn into sharp points1 solely by chemical action4 ,the minute fossil-shells also1 and fragments of crinoid standing out in bold relief1 lead to the same conclusion--that the denuding agent is chemical and not mechanical4 ,each of the upper surfaces of the blocks is traversed by small depressions1 which are valley systems in miniature1 in which the tiny valleys converge into a main trunk leading into the nearest chasm4 ,there are also tiny caves and hollows1 that are sometimes mistaken for borings made by pholas4 ,in the chasms the vegetation is most luxuriant1 and the dark green fronds of harts-tongue1 the delicate ,lady-fern1 and the graceful ,asplenium nigrum1 grow with a rare luxuriance4 ,in these pavements every feature of limestone scenery is represented on a minute scale4 ,there are the valley systems on the surface1 determined by the direction of the drainage2 the long chasms represent the open valleys and ravines1 and the caves and hollows1 for the most part1 run in the line of the joints4 ,the carbonic acid has left precisely the same kind of proof of its work within the caves as we find above-ground2 and it would necessarily follow1 that to it1 as well as to the mechanical power of the waters flowing through them1 their formation and enlargement must be due1 as ,professor ,phillips has pointed out in his 8,rivers1 ,mountains1 and ,sea ,coast of ,yorkshire10 pp4 #cj-a4 ,from the preceding pages it will be seen that caves in calcareous rocks are merely passages hollowed out by water1 which has sought out the lines of weakness1 or the joints formed by the shrinkage of the strata during their consolidation4 ,the work of the carbonic acid is proved1 not merely by the acid-worn surfaces of the interior of the caves1 but also by the large quantity of carbonate of lime which is carried away by the water in solution4 ,that1 on the other hand1 of the mechanical friction of the stones and sand against the sides and bottom of the water-courses1 is sufficiently demonstrated by their grooved1 scratched1 and polished surfaces1 and by the sand1 silt1 and gravel carried along by the currents4 ,the generally received hypothesis1 that they have been the result of a subterranean convulsion1 is disproved by the floor and roof being formed1 in very nearly every case1 of solid rock2 for it would be unreasonable to hold that any subterranean force could act from below1 in such a manner as to hollow out the complicated and branching passages1 at different levels1 without affecting the whole mass of the rock4 ,nor is there cause for holding the view put forth by ,m4 ,desnoyers#cb or ,m4 ,dupont1#cc that they are the result of the passage of hydrothermal waters4 ,the causes at present at work1 operating through long periods of time1 offer a reasonable explanation of their existence in every limestone district2 and those which are no longer watercourses can generally be proved to have been formerly traversed by running water1 by the silt1 sand1 and rounded pebbles which they contain4 ,in their case1 either the drainage of the district has been changed by the upheaval or depression of the rock1 or the streams have searched out for themselves a passage at a lower level4 ,but if caves have been thus excavated1 it is obvious that ravines and valleys in limestone districts are due to the operation of the same causes4 ,if1 for instance1 we refer to ,figures #a and #f1 we shall see that the open valley passes insensibly into a ravine1 and that into a cave4 ,the ravine is merely a cave which has lost its roof1 and the valley is merely the result of the weathering of the sides of the ravine4 ,there can be no manner of doubt but that1 in both these cases1 the ravine is gradually encroaching on the cave1 and the valley on the ravine2 and if the strata be exposed to atmospheric agencies long enough1 the valley of the ,axe will extend as far as ,priddy 7,fig4 #a71 and that of ,dalebeck to the watershed above the ,gatekirk cave 7,fig4 #f74 ,in the same manner the lofty precipice of ,malham ,cove1 near ,settle1 in ,yorkshire 7,fig4 #h71 is slowly falling away and uncovering the subterranean course of the ,aire4 ,eventually the ravine thus formed will extend as far as ,malham ,tarn1 and the ,aire flow exposed to the light of day from its source to the sea4#cd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,diagram of ,source of the ,aire at ,malham4 ,this view is applicable to many if not to all ravines and valleys in calcareous rocks1 such as the ,pass at ,cheddar1 or the gorge of the ,avon at ,clifton1 and those of ,derbyshire1 ,yorkshire1 and ,wales4 ,and since the agents by which the work is done are universal1 and calcareous rock for the most part of the same chemical composition1 the results are the same1 and the calcareous scenery everywhere of the same type4 ,in the lapse of past time1 so enormous as to be incapable of being grasped by the human intellect1 these agents are fully capable of producing the deepest ravines1 the widest valleys1 and the largest caves4 ,this view of the relation of caves to ravines was so strongly held by ,m4 ,desnoyers1 that he terms the latter 8cavernes ciel ouvert40 ,i arrived independently at the same conclusion after the study of the scenery of limestone for many years4 ,in many cases1 however1 in northern latitudes and in high altitudes1 the ravine or valley so formed has been subsequently widened and deepened by glacial action4 ,that1 for instance1 of ,chapel-en-le-,dale bears unmistakeable evidence of the former flow of a glacier1 in the roches moutonnes and travelled blocks that it contains4 ,to this is due the flowing contour and even slope of its lower portion4 ,the pot-holes and 8cirques0 in calcareous rocks with no outlet at the surface1 may also be accounted for by the operation of the same causes as those which have produced caves4 ,each represents the weak point towards which the rainfall has converged1 caused very generally by the intersection of the joints4 ,this has gradually been widened out1 because the upper portions of the rock would be the first to seize the atoms of carbonic acid1 and thus be dissolved more quickly than the lower portions4 ,hence the funnel shape which they generally assume1 and which can be studied equally in the compact limestone or in the soft upper chalk4 ,they are to be seen on a small scale also in all limestone 8pavements40 ,sometimes1 however1 the first chance which the upper portions of the funnels have of being eroded by the acidulated water1 is more than counter-balanced by the increased quantity converging at the bottom1 and the funnel ends in a vertical shaft4 ,if the area in the rock thus excavated be sufficiently large to allow of the development of a current of water1 the mechanical action of the fragments swept along its course will have an important share in the work1 as we have seen to be the case in ,helln ,pot4 ,caves not generally found in ,line of ,faults4 ,in some few cases the lines of weakness which have been worn into caves1 pot-holes1 ravines1 and valleys1 may have been produced1 as ,m4 ,desnoyers believes1 by subterranean movements of elevation and depression2 but in all those which ,i have investigated the faults do not determine the direction of the caverns4 ,the mountain limestone of ,castleton1 in ,derbyshire1 offers an example of caves intersecting faults without any definite relation being traceable between them4 ,the ramifications of the ,peak cavern traverse the ,speedwell ,mine nearly at right angles1 and the water flowing through it has been traced1 ,mr4 ,pennington informs me1 to a swallow-hole near ,chapel-en-le-,frith1 running across two1 if not three faults1 which are laid down in the geological map4 ,as a general rule caverns are as little affected by disturbance of the rock as ravines and valleys which have been formed in the main irrespective of the lines of fault4 ,m4 ,desnoyers points out the close analogy between caverns and mineral veins1 and infers that both are due to the same causes4 ,this1 undoubtedly1 exists in that class of veins which are known to miners as 8pipe0 and 8flat veins20 and there is clear proof1 in the majority of cases1 that the cavities in which the minerals occur have been formed by the action of running water1 and have subsequently been more or less filled with their mineral contents2 and these have been deposited on the sides of the cavity by the same 8incretionary#ce0 action1 as that by which dripstone is now being formed in the present caves from the solution of carbonate of lime4 ,such veins present every conceivable form of irregularity1 and frequently contain silt1 sand1 and gravel1 which have been left behind by their streams1 and their history is identical with that of the caverns4 ,it is not so1 however1 with the second class of veins1 the 8rake10 8right running10 and 8cross courses10 as the miners term them1 or those which occupy lines of fault4 ,the fissures which contain the ore are proved very frequently1 by their scratched and grooved sides1 and polished surfaces or slicken-sides1 to have been the result of subterranean movements by which the rock has been broken by mechanical force4 ,they have been subsequently modified1 in various ways1 by the passage of water1 and filled with minerals1 in the same manner as the preceding class4 ,with this exception they present no analogy to the caverns1 with which they contrast strongly in their rectilinear direction1 as well as in their purely mechanical origin4 ,the various ,ages of ,caves4 ,it is very probable that caves were formed in calcareous rocks from the time that they were raised to the level of the sea1 since they abound in the ,coral ,islands4 8,caverns10 writes ,prof4 ,dana1#cf 8are still more remarkable on the ,island of ,atiu1 on which the coral-reef stands at about the same height above the sea as on ,oahu4 ,the ,rev4 ,john ,williams states--that there are seven or eight of large extent on the ,island of ,tuto2 one he entered by a descent of twenty feet1 and wandered a mile in one only of its branches1 without finding an end to #8its interminable windings4' ,he says--#8,innumerable openings presented themselves on all sides as we passed along1 many of which appeared to be equal in height1 beauty1 and extent to the one we were following4 ,the roof1 a stratum of coral-rock fifteen feet thick1 was supported by massy and superb stalactitic columns1 besides being thickly hung with stalactites from an inch to many feet in length4 ,some of these pendants were just ready to unite themselves to the floor1 or to a stalagmitic column rising from it4 ,many chambers were passed through whose fret-work ceilings and columns of stalactites sparkled brilliantly1 amid the darkness1 with the reflected light of our torches4 ,the effect was produced not so much by single objects1 or groups of them1 as by the amplitude1 the depth1 and the complications of this subterranean world4'0 ,calcareous rocks might1 therefore1 be expected to contain fissures and caves of various ages4 ,in the ,mendip ,hills they have been proved by ,mr4 ,charles ,moore to contain fossils of ,rhtic age1 the characteristic dog-fishes1 ,acrodus minimus1 and ,hybodus reticulatus1 the elegant sculptured ,ganoid fish1 ,gryrolepis tenuistriatus1 and the tiny marsupials1 ,microlestes and its allies4 ,this singular association of terrestrial with marine creatures is due to the fact1 that while that area was being slowly depressed beneath the ,rhtic and ,liassic seas1 the remains were mingled together on the coast-line1 and washed into the crevices and holes in the rock4 ,the older caves and fissures have very generally been blocked up by accumulations of calc-spar or other minerals1 and they are arranged on a plan altogether independent of the existing systems of drainage4 ,it is a singular fact that no fissures or caves should1 with the above exception1 contain the remains of animals of a date before the ,pleistocene age4 ,there can be but little doubt that they were used as places of shelter in all ages1 and they must have entombed the remains of the animals that fell into them1 or were swept into them by the streams4 ,caves there must have been long before1 and the ,eocene ,palotheres1 and ,anoplotheres met their death in the open pit-falls1 just as the sheep and cattle do at the present time4 ,the ,hynodon of the ,meiocene had1 probably1 the same cave-haunting tastes as his descendant1 the living ,hyna1 and the marsupials of the ,mesozoic age might be expected to be preserved in caves1 like the fossil marsupials of ,australia4 ,the chances of preservation of the remains when once cemented into a fine breccia1 or sealed down with a crystalline covering of stalagmite1 are very nearly the same as those under which the ,pleistocene animals have been handed down to us4 ,the only reasonable explanation of the non-discovery of such remains seems to be1 that the ancient suites of caves and fissures containing them1 and for the most part near the then surface of the rock1 have been completely swept away by denudation1 while the present caverns were either then not excavated or inaccessible4 ,such an hypothesis will explain the fact that the no ossiferous caverns are older than the ,pleistocene age1 not merely in ,europe1 but in ,north and ,south ,america1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand4 ,the effect of denudation in rendering the geological record imperfect1 may be gathered from the estimate1 which ,mr4 ,prestwich has formed1 of the amount of rock removed from the crests of the ,mendips and the ,ardennes1 which is in the one case a thickness 8of two miles and more10 and in the other as much as 8three or four miles40#cg ,under these conditions we could not expect to find a series of bone caves reaching far back into the remote geological past1 since the caves and their contents would inevitably be destroyed4 ,the ,filling up of ,caves4 ,we must now consider the condition under which caves become filled up with various deposits4 ,if the velocity of the stream in a water-cave be lessened1 the silt1 sand1 or pebbles it was hurrying along will be dropped1 and may ultimately block up the entire watercourse4 ,in bringing this to pass1 however1 the carbonate of lime in the water plays a most important part4 ,if the excess of carbonic acid by which it is held in solution be lost by evaporation1 it immediately reassumes its crystalline form1 and shoots over the surface of the pool like plates of ice1 or is deposited in loose botryoidal masses at their sides and on their bottoms2 and1 since the atmospheric water very generally percolates through the crannies in the rock1 the sides and roof of the channel1 above the level of the water1 are adorned with a stony drapery of every conceivable shape4 ,the rate at which this accumulation takes place depends upon the free access of air necessary for evaporation1 and is therefore variable1--as in the case of the ,ingleborough cave4 ,in all the caves which ,i have examined there is a free current of air4 ,if a water-channel becomes blocked up by either or both these causes1 the joints and fissures in the rock offer an outlet to the drainage1 more or less free1 at a lower level1 as in the ,ingleborough cave1 ,poole's cave1 near ,buxton1 and many others4 ,sometimes1 however1 owing to the increased rain-fall1 or to the obstruction of the lower channels1 the water re-excavates the old passages1 as we shall see to have been the case with the famous caverns of ,kent's ,hole and ,brixham4 ,in the summer of #ahgb1 a sudden rain-fall not merely opened out for itself a new passage into a swallow-hole close to ,gaping ,gill1 on the flanks of ,ingleborough1 but forced its way out through the old entrance of the ,ingleborough cave1 breaking up the calcareous breccia1 and removing the large stones in its course4 ,a cave obviously may become dry1 either by the drainage passing along a lower level1 or by the elevation of the district by subterranean energy4 ,after it has been forsaken by the stream1 the particles brought down by the atmospheric water percolating through the joints1 tend to fill it up on the surface1 and these may be either of clay1 loam1 or sand4 ,these actions may be studied in this country in the well-known caves of ,ingleborough1 ,buxton1 ,cheddar1 ,wookey ,hole1 and a great many others in ,derbyshire1 ,yorkshire1 ,staffordshire1 ,durham1 ,cumberland1 and ,wales4 ,the ,cave of ,caldy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,a ,view in the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,stalagmites in the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,fairy ,chamber1 ,caldy4 ,among the most beautiful stalactite caverns in this country is that on the island of ,caldy1 immediately opposite to ,tenby in ,pembrokeshire1 discovered some years ago in the limestone cliff1 and explored by ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,winwood1 in #ahff1 and subsequently by the writer in #ahga and #ahgb4 ,on creeping through a narrow entrance with an outlook to the sea on a precipitous side of a quarry1 a passage leads to a chamber of considerable horizontal extent1 the bottom being covered with silt1 on which stand pedestals of dripstone from an inch to two feet in length1 each rising from a thin calcareous crust which does not altogether conceal the silt below4 ,from it a low entrance leads into a fairy-like chamber1 the floor consisting of a rich red1 crystalline pavement1 perfectly horizontal1 and studded here and there with round bosses 7,figs4 #i1 #aj1 #aa71 either red or snow-white4 ,from the roof hang stalactites offering the same beautiful contrast of colours1 forming a delicate canopy of tassels1 or passing downwards to the floor and constituting slender shafts about three feet long1 and about the diameter of straws4 ,each of these is hollow1 translucent1 and more or less traversed by water1 and in some places each stood next its fellow1 almost as close as the straws in a cornfield4 ,sometimes the shaft stands on a cone 7,fig4 #aa7 of dripstone1 more or less raised above the floor4 ,small pools of water occupy hollows in the pavement1 each lined with glittering crystals of calcite 7,fig4 #ab71 which are slowly shooting over the surface1 and converting some of the open hollows into bottle-shaped cavities 7,fig4 #ac74 ,their sides and bottoms are covered with a crystalline growth of singular beauty1 of which an idea may be formed by woodcut #ad1 which represents the edge4 ,where the drip happened to fall into a shallow pool1 it gradually built up for itself a cone1 on the lower portion of which the varying water-level is marked by horizontal rings of crystals 7,fig4 #ae71 and the normal waterline by the upper horizontal plate4 ,sometimes these were united to the roof by a slender straw-shaft4 ,in ,figure #aa the original shaft has been broken away1 and as the direction of the drip has slightly shifted1 a new one gradually descended1 until finally it became cemented to the side of the cone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,pools in ,fairy ,chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,pool in ,fairy ,chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,edge of ,pool in ,fairy ,chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,cone with ,straw-column4 ,the history of these structures is very evident4 ,the straw-like stalactites were formed by the evaporation of the carbonic acid from the surface of each drop of water1 as it accumulated in one spot1 and the consequent deposit of carbonate of lime around its circumference4 ,it could not be formed in the centre1 because of the continual movement of the successive drops in falling4 ,by a circumferential growth of this kind a small crystal tube1 of the diameter of a drop1 is slowly developed1 which continues to lengthen until the result is one of the straw-columns1 with a hole in the centre for the passage of the water1 which cannot readily part with its carbonic acid till it arrives at the end of the tube4 ,sometimes the hole has been subsequently blocked up by calc-spar1 or the general surface been covered over with successive layers1 until it becomes a mass of considerable diameter4 ,if the drop fell into a deep pool1 the straw-column was continued down to the water-line2 if in shallow water1 or on the floor1 a pedestal was built up1 as is represented in the preceding figures4 ,the crystallization going on in the pools is greater at the surface than below1 because of the greater evaporation1 and consequently the stalagmitic film is gradually extending over it on every side from the edges 7,figs4 #ab1 #ac74 ,as ,i broke my way into some of the unexplored recesses1 through the thickly planted straw-shafts1 and scene after scene of fairy beauty1 unsullied by man1 opened upon my eyes1 the ringing of the fragments on the crystalline floor that accompanied almost every movement made me feel an intruder1 and sorry for the destruction4 ,in some places1 where the drip was continuous1 and the calcareous basin which it had built up for itself shallow1 small spherical bodies of calcite were so beautifully polished by friction in the agitated water1 that they deserve the name of cave-pearls from their lustre4 ,in ,fig4 #af ,i have represented a tiny basin with its pearly contents4 ,where the drip had ceased to be continuous each of these formed a nucleus for the deposit of calcite crystals1 by which they were united to the bottom of the basin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,basin containing ,cave-pearls4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,fungoid ,structures1 magnified4 ,in the principal chamber in the cave1 which is very nearly free from drip1 the upper surfaces of the stones and stalagmites on the floor are covered with a peculiar fungoid-like deposit of calcite1 consisting of rounded bosses1 attached to the general surface by a pedicle 7see ,figs4 #ag1 #ah7 sometimes not much thicker than a hair4 ,they stood close together at various levels1 following the inequalities of the surface of attachment1 and being on an average about #jb inch long4 ,several microscopical sections 7,fig4 #ag7 showed that each was formed originally on a slight elevation of the general surface1 which would cause a greater evaporation of water than the surrounding portions1 and therefore be covered with a greater deposit of calcite4 ,this process would go on until the height was reached to which the water slowly passing over the general surface would no longer rise4 ,hence the remarkable uniformity of the height of the bosses4 ,the evaporation is greater at the point furthest removed from the general surface1 and therefore the apex is larger than the base 7see ,fig4 #ag74 ,in ,figure #ah they stand as thickly together as trees in a virgin forest1 and are developed in greatest vigour where the small eminences cause a greater evaporation than the small depressions1 and are stoutest and strongest at the free edges4 ,some of the pedicles1 as in the figure1 present traces of erosion1 the outer layers having been eaten away by acid-laden water4 ,some of these singular little bosses may have been moulded on minute fungi1 such as those in the cave of ,ingleborough1 but their presence is not revealed by the microscope4 ,the ,black-rock ,cave1 near ,tenby4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,fungoid ,structure1 ,black-rock ,cave4 ,i met with this remarkable kind of calcareous deposition in a second cave in the neighbourhood of ,tenby4 ,when examining the ,black-rock quarries in #ahga1 the workmen pointed out a small opening which they believed to be the entrance of a cave1 but which was too small for them to enter4 ,by knocking off1 however1 a few sharp angles1 ,i got into a small chamber about five feet high1 with sides1 roof1 and bottom covered with massive dripstone4 ,a few loose stones rested on the bottom4 ,the whole surface1 even including the stones upon the floor1 one of which is figured 7,fig4 #ah71 was so completely covered with these peculiar fungoid bodies1 that it was impossible to move without destroying hundreds of them4 ,all were about the same height1 #jb inches1 snow-white1 or of a rich reddish brown1 and conformed to the unequal surface on which they stood4 ,it is quite impossible to describe the effect of a whole chamber bristling with these peculiar structures4 ,the only author by whom they are mentioned1 ,mr4 ,john ,beaumont--who described the caves of ,mendip in #afhj1 considered them to be veritable plants of stone4#ch ,the beautiful forms assumed by the dripstone in the caves of ,caldy and ,black-rock are by no means uncommon1 but ,i have never met with them anywhere else in such perfection4 ,they may be studied in all stalactitic caverns4 ,great ,quantity of ,carbonate of ,lime dissolved by ,atmospheric ,water4 ,a small portion only of the carbonate of lime is deposited as tufa or dripstone in the neighbourhood of the rock from which it has been derived1 as compared with that carried by the streams into the rivers1 and the rivers into the sea4 ,an idea of this quantity may be formed from the calculation of the solid matter conveyed down by the ,thames1 given by ,mr4 ,prestwich in his ,presidential ,address to the ,geological ,society in #ahga1 p4 lxvii4 8,taking the mean daily discharge of the ,thames at ,kingston at #a1bej1jjj1jjj gallons1 and the salts in solution at nineteen grains per gallon1 the mean quantity of dissolved mineral matter there carried down by the ,thames every twenty-four hours is equal to #c1cfd1bhf lbs41 or #aej tons1 which is equal to #edh1bcj tons in the year4 ,of this daily quantity about two-thirds1 or say #a1jjj tons1 consist of carbonate of lime and #bch tons of sulphate of lime1 while limited proportions of carbonate of magnesia1 chlorides of sodium and potassium1 sulphates of soda and potash1 silica and traces of iron1 alumina1 and phosphates1 constitute the rest4 ,if we refer a small portion of the carbonates and the sulphates and chlorides chiefly to the impermeable argillaceous formations washed by the rain-water1 we shall still have at least ten grains per gallon of carbonate of lime1 due to the chalk1 upper greensand1 oolitic strata1 and marlstone1 the superficial area of which1 in the ,thames basin above ,kingston1 is estimated by ,mr4 ,harrison at #b1jgb square miles4 ,therefore the quantity of carbonate of lime carried away from this area by the ,thames is equal to #gig tons daily1 or #bij1ije tons annually1 which gives #adj tons removed yearly from each square mile2 or1 extending the calculation to a century1 we have a total removal of #bi1jij1ejj tons1 or of #ad1jjj tons from each square mile of surface4 ,taking a ton of chalk1 as a mean1 as equal to fifteen cubic feet1 this is equal to the removal of #baj1jjj cubic feet per century for each square mile1 or of #i_/ajj of an inch from the whole surface in the course of a century1 so that in the course of #ac1bjj years a quantity equal to a thickness of about one foot would be removed from our chalk and oolitic districts40 ,this destructive action1 operating through long periods of time1 destroys not merely the general surface of the limestone1 but1 where it is localized by the convergence of water1 is capable of excavating the deepest gorges and the longest caves4 ,the quantity of material carried away in solution is a measure of the power of carbonic acid in the general work of denudation4 ,the ,circulation of ,carbonate of ,lime4 ,the circulation of carbonate of lime in nature presents us with a never-ending cycle of change4 ,it is conveyed into the sea to be built up into the tissues of the animal and vegetable inhabitants4 ,it appears in the gorgeous corallines1 nullipores1 calcareous sea-weeds1 sea-shells1 and in the armour of crustaceans4 ,in the tissues of the coral-zoophytes it assumes the form of stony groves1 of which each tree is a colony of animals1 and in the wave-defying reef it reverts to its original state of limestone4 ,or1 again1 it is seized upon by tiny masses of structureless protoplasm1 and fashioned into chambers of endless variety and of infinite beauty1 and accumulated at the bottom of the deeper seas1 forming a deposit analogous to our chalk4 ,in the revolution of ages the bottom of the sea becomes dry land1 the calcareous dbris of animal and vegetable life is more or less compacted together by pressure and by the infiltration of acid-laden rain-water1 and appears as limestone of various hardness and constitution4 ,then the destruction begins again1 and caves1 pot-holes1 and ravines are again carved out of the solid rock4 ,the ,temperature of ,caves4 ,the air in caves is generally of the same temperature as the mean annual temperature of the district in which they occur1 and therefore cold in summer and warm in winter4 ,this would be a sufficient reason why they should be chosen by uncivilized peoples as habitations4 ,the very remarkable glacires1 or caves containing ice instead of water1 in the ,jura1 ,pyrenees1 in ,teneriffe1 ,iceland1 and other districts of high altitude and low temperature1 in which the temperature even in summer does not rise much above freezing-point1 may be explained by the theory advanced independently by ,de ,luc and the ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,browne4 8,the heavy cold air of winter10 writes the latter1 8sinks down into the glacires1 and the lighter1 warm air of summer cannot on ordinary principles dislodge it1 so that heat is very slowly spread in the caves2 and even when some amount of heat does reach the ice1 the latter melts but slowly1 since a kilogramme of ice absorbs #gi ,c4 of heat in melting2 and thus when ice is once formed1 it becomes a material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave4 ,for this explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the ice is found should be below the level of the entrance to the cave2 otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived40 ,it is also necessary that the cave should be protected from direct radiation and from the action of wind4 ,these conditions are satisfied by all the glacires explored by ,mr4 ,browne4#ci ,the apparent anomaly that one only out of a group of caves exposed to the same temperatures should be a glacire1 may be explained by the fact that these conditions are found in combination but rarely1 and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of perpetual ice4 ,it is very probable that the store of cold laid up in these caves1 as in an ice-house1 has been ultimately derived from the great refrigeration of climate in ,europe in the ,glacial ,period4 ,conclusion4 ,in this chapter we have examined the physical history of caves1 their formation1 and their relation to pot-holes1 cirques1 and ravines2 and we have seen that they are not the result of subterranean disturbance1 but of the mechanical action of rain-water and the chemical action of carbonic acid1 both operating from above4 ,we have seen that cave-hunting is not merely an adventurous amusement1 but also a quest that brings us into a great laboratory1 so to speak1 in which we can see the natural agents at work that have carved out the valleys and gorges1 and shaped the hills wherever the calcareous rocks are to be found4 ,the rest of this treatise will be devoted to the evidence which they offer as to the former inhabitants1 both men and animals1 of ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,historic ,,caves ,,in ,,britain4 ,definition of ,historic ,period4--,wild ,animals in ,britain during the ,historic ,period4--,animals living under the care of ,man4-- ,classificatory value of ,historic ,animals4--,the ,victoria ,cave1 ,settle1 ,yorkshire4--,history of ,discovery4--,the ,romano-,celtic or ,brit-,welsh ,stratum4--,the ,bones of the ,animals4--,miscellaneous ,articles4--,the ,coins4--,the ,jewelry1 and its ,relation to ,irish ,art4--,similar ,remains in other ,caves in ,yorkshire4--,these ,caves used as ,places of ,refuge4--,the evidence of ,history as to ,date4--,britain under the ,romans4--,the ,inroads of the ,picts and ,scots4--,the ,english ,conquest4--,the ,neolithic ,stratum4--,the approximate ,date of the ,neolithic ,occupation4--,the ,grey ,clays4 --,the ,pleistocene ,occupation by the ,hynas4--,the probable ,preglacial ,age of the ,pleistocene ,stratum4--,the ,kirkhead ,cave4 --,poole's ,cave1 near ,buxton4--,thor's ,cave1 near ,ashbourne4-- ,historic value of ,brit-,welsh ,group of ,caves4--,principal ,animals and ,articles4--,the use of ,horse-flesh4--,the ,cave of ,long-berry ,bank4 ,definition of ,historic ,period4 ,in the preceding chapter the origin of caves has been discussed1 as well as their relation to the physical geography of the districts in which they are found4 ,we must now pass on to the biological division of the subject1 which relates to the animals that they contain and the inferences that may be drawn from their occurrence4 ,the caves will be divided into historic1 prehistoric1 and pleistocene1 according to the principles laid down in the first chapter4 ,it is extremely difficult1 if not impossible1 to define with precision the point where legend ends and history begins2 but the line may be drawn with convenience at the first beginning of a connected and continuous narrative1 rather than at the first isolated notice of a country4 ,if we accept this definition1 the historic period in ,great ,britain cannot be extended further back than the temporary invasion of ,julius ,csar1 ,b4,c4 #ee1 even if so far1 since of the interval that elapsed between that event and the subjugation under ,claudius1 in the year ,a4,d4 #dc1 we know scarcely anything4 ,of the events which happened in this country before ,csar's invasion there is no documentary evidence1 although1 by the modern method of scientific research1 we are able to extend the narrative away from the borders of history far back into the archological and geological past4 ,wild ,animals in ,britain during the ,historic ,period4 ,during the historic period great changes have taken place in the animals inhabiting ,great ,britain4 ,the wild animals have been diminished in number1 and their area of occupation has been narrowed by the increase of population and the improvement in weapons of destruction4 ,the brown bear1 inhabiting ,britain during the time of the ,roman occupation1 was extirpated probably before the tenth century4 ,the current belief that it was destroyed in ,scotland by the founder of the ,gordon family in #ajeg is unsupported by any documentary evidence which ,i have been able to discover2 the crest of the ,gordons1 which is supposed to have been derived from the last of those animals slain in the island1 consisting of three boars'1 not bears'1 heads4 ,the last wolf is said to have been destroyed in ,scotland in #afhj1 while in ,ireland the animal lingered thirty years later to be a terror to the defenceless beggars4 ,it was deemed worthy of a special decree for its destruction in the reign of ,edward ,i4 ,the wild boar was extinct before the reign of ,charles ,i41 while the beaver1 which was hunted for its fur on the banks of the ,teivi in ,cardiganshire during the time of the first ,crusade1 became extinct shortly afterwards4 ,the stag was so abundant in the south of ,england as recently as the reign of ,queen ,anne1 that she saw a herd of no less than five hundred between ,london and ,portsmouth4 ,at present the animal lives only in a half-wild condition1 in the forest of ,exmoor and the ,highlands of ,scotland2 while the roedeer is now only found wild in ,scotland1 although it formerly ranged throughout the length and breadth of the country4 ,the reindeer is proved to have been living in ,caithness as late as the year #aaei1 by a passage in the ,orkneyinga ,saga4 ,the common rat1 ,mus decumanus1 is the only wild or semi-wild animal that has migrated into this country during the historic period contrary to the will of man4 ,in #agbg it 7,pallas1 ,glires7 had begun to invade ,southern ,russia from the regions of ,persia and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,thence it swiftly spread over ,asia ,minor1 and while it was advancing to the west overland1 it was carried by ships to nearly all the ports in the world4 ,it arrived in ,britain certainly before the year #agcj1 and has since nearly exterminated the black indigenous species4 ,it is the only wild animal which is known to have invaded ,europe since the pleistocene age1 with the exception1 perhaps1 of the true elk4 ,animals living under the care of ,man4 ,the fallow-deer1 indigenous in the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 was probably introduced by the ,romans1 since its remains occur in refuse-heaps of ,roman age1 such as that of ,london ,wall1 and of ,colchester1 while it has not been met with in older deposits4 ,to them1 also1 we probably owe the introduction of the pheasant1 which was sufficiently abundant in the neighbourhood of ,london in the time of ,harold to be mentioned as one of the articles of food eaten on feast-days by the households of the ,canons at ,waltham ,abbey in #ajei4 ,the domestic fowl has left the first traces of its presence in this country in the ,roman refuse-heaps1 although it was known to the ,belg1 according to the testimony of ,csar1 before the first ,roman invasion4 ,the earliest mention of the domestic cat in this country is to be found in the laws of ,howel ,dha1#dj that were probably codified at the end of the tenth or in the eleventh century1 although many of the enactments may be of a much earlier date4 ,the king's cat is assessed at eightpence1 or twice as much as that belonging to any subject4 ,the ass#da was certainly known in ,britain in the days of thelred 7,a4,d4 #hff-hga71 when1 according to ,professor ,bell1 its price was fixed at the large sum of twelve shillings4 ,the larger breed of cattle represented by the ,chillingham ox1 and descended from the great ,urus1 first appears in this country about the time of the ,english invasion4 ,it gradually spread over those districts conquered by the ,english1 until the small aboriginal dark-coloured1 short-horn ,bos longifrons1 which was the only domestic breed in the prehistoric and ,roman times1 is now only to be met with in the hill country of ,wales and of ,scotland1 in which the ,brit-,welsh or ,romano-,celtic inhabitants still survive4 ,classificatory value of ,historic ,animals4 ,the principal changes in the fauna of ,great ,britain during the historic age are the extinction of the bear1 wolf1 beaver1 reindeer1 and wild boar1 and the introduction of the domestic fowl1 the pheasant1 fallow-deer1 ass1 the domestic cat1 the larger breed of oxen1 and the common rat2 and as this took place at different times1 it is obvious that these animals enable us to ascertain the approximate date of the deposit in which their remains happen to occur4 ,and for this purpose the following table#db may be consulted3-- ,,animals ,,extinct4 ,a4,d4 ,brown bear circa #ejj-ajjj ,reindeer 0 #abjj ,beaver 0 #aa-abjj ,wolf 0 #afhj ,wild boar 0 #afbj ,,animals ,,introduced4 ,domestic fowl before #ee ,b4,c4 ,fallow-deer circa 0 ,pheasant 0 0 ,domestic ox of ,urus type 0 #ddi ,a4,d4 ,ass 0 #hjj-hej ,cat 0 #hjj-ajjj ,common rat 0 #agbg-cj ,some or other of these animals are met with in the peat-bogs and alluvia1 and in caves1 but far more abundantly in the refuse-heaps left behind by man1 by whom they have here been used either for service or for food4 ,the disappearance of certain wild species1 from the areas in which they lived on the continent1 in historic times1 has not been ascertained so accurately as in this country1 and many animals1 which have become extinct in our restricted and highly-cultivated island1 are still to be found in the continental forests1 morasses1 and mountains4 ,the brown bear is still to be met with in the ,pyrenees1 the ,vosges1 and in the wilder and more inaccessible portions of northern1 middle1 and southern ,europe4 ,the wolf still survives in ,france1 and during the late ,german war preyed upon the slain after some of the battles4 ,it1 as well as the wild boar1 ranges throughout the uncultivated regions of the continent4 ,the beaver still lives in the waters of the ,rhone1 as well as in the rivers of ,lithuania and of ,scandinavia1 and the reindeer1 now restricted to the regions north of a line passing east and west through the ,baltic1 extended further south1 in sufficient numbers to be remarked by ,csar1 among the more noteworthy animals living in the great ,hercynian forest1 which overshadowed northern ,germany in his days4 ,this forest also afforded shelter to the true elk and the bison1 both of which still live in ,lithuania1 as well as to the ,urus1 which was hunted by ,charles the ,great1 near ,aachen1 and probably became extinct in the fifteenth or sixteenth century4 ,the lion inhabited the mountains of southern ,thrace in the days of ,herodotus and of ,aristotle1 and became extinct in ,europe between #ccj ,b4,c4 and the days of ,dio ,chrysostom ,rhetor 7,a4,d4 #ajj71 who expressly says that there were no lions in ,greece in his time4 ,the panther also inhabited the same district when ,xenophon wrote his 8,treatise on ,hunting40 ,the fallow-deer was believed by the late ,professor ,edouard ,lartet to have been introduced into ,france by the ,romans4 ,on a visit1 however1 to ,paris in ,september #ahgc1 ,professor ,gervais called my attention to an antler of the animal in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 said to have been found in a refuse-heap along with axes of polished stone4 ,it must therefore have lived in ,france in the ,neolithic age1 if it were obtained from an undisturbed deposit4 ,it gradually spread into ,germany and ,switzerland1 until in the eleventh century it was sufficiently abundant to be mentioned among the articles of food in a metrical grace of the monks of ,st4 ,gall4 8,imbellem damam faciat benedictio summam40#dc ,the domestic fowl is to be recognized on ,gallic coins before the ,roman invasion1 and therefore was probably known at the very dawn of ,gallic history4 ,the larger breed of oxen1 descended from the ,urus type1 has been known in ,france1 ,germany1 ,lombardy1 ,scandinavia1 and ,switzerland1 in the remote division of the prehistoric age known as the ,neolithic4#dd ,the buffalo1 on the other hand1 of the ,roman ,campagna1 was introduced into ,italy1 according to ,paulus ,diaconus1 in the year #eif1 and the domestic cat1#de known to the ,greeks from their intercourse with ,egypt1 became familiar to the eyes of the inhabitants of ,rome and ,constantinople as early as the fourth century after ,christ4 ,it is evident from the survival of the wolf1 the bear1 beaver1 reindeer1 and the wild boar on the continent at the present time1 that the chronological table which ,i have constructed for ,britain is inapplicable to ,europe in general4 ,in the present state of our knowledge of the varying ranges of the animals1 it seems impossible to form any similar scheme4 ,the historic caves are characterized by the presence of some of these animals1 as well as of coins and pottery1 and other articles by which the date of their occupation may be ascertained4 ,the ,victoria ,cave1 ,settle1 ,yorkshire4 ,the most important historic cave in this country is that discovered by ,mr4 ,joseph ,jackson1 near ,settle1 in ,yorkshire1 on the coronation day of ,queen ,victoria1 in #ahch1 and which has therefore been called the ,victoria ,cave4 ,it runs horizontally into the precipitous side of a lonely ravine known as ,king's ,scar 7,fig4 #ai71 at a height of about #a1dej feet above the sea1 according to ,mr4 ,tiddeman1 and it consists of three large ill-defined chambers filled with dbris nearly up to the roof4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,view of ,king's ,scar1 ,settle1 showing the entrances of the ,victoria and ,albert ,caves 7from a photograph74 ,a1 ,b1 ,victoria2 ,c1 ,albert4 ,the entrances face to the south-west1 and open at the bottom of an overhanging cliff at the point where a scree1 or accumulation of fragments from the cliff above1 gradually slopes down to the bottom of the valley1 about one hundred feet below4 ,when ,mr4 ,jackson made his discovery1 he passed inwards through a small entrance1#df and was rewarded by finding in the earth on the floor a number of ,roman coins1 together with ornaments and implements of bronze1 and some brooches of singular taste and beauty1 with implements of bone1 and large quantities of broken bones and fragments of pottery4 ,the collection was very miscellaneous2 for besides iron spear-heads1 nails1 daggers1 spoon-brooches of bone1 spindle-whorls1 beads of amber and of glass1 there were bronze brooches1 finger-rings1 armlets1 bracelets1 buckles1 and studs4 ,all were lying ple-mle together1 side by side with the broken bones of the animals1 and the whole set of remains1 with the exception of some of the brooches1 was of the kind which is usually met with in the neighbourhood of ,roman camps1 cities1 and villas which have been sacked4 ,the fragments of ,samian ware and ,roman pottery scattered through the mass1 as well as coins of ,trajan and ,constantine1 proved further1 that the cave had been inhabited after the ,roman invasion1 and not earlier than the middle of the third century2 and the rude imitations of ,roman coins were1 according to ,mr4 ,roach ,smith1#dg probably in circulation for some centuries after the departure of the ,romans from ,britain4--8,and although some of these remains are indicative of sepulture1 yet from the evidence furnished there appears no positive proof of their having formed part of funereal deposits4 ,a more satisfactory conclusion seems to arise in considering that these caves 7i4e4 the group7 may have been used as places of refuge by the ,romanized ,britons during the troublous times at and after the close of the fourth century40 ,this conclusion we shall see fully borne out by the evidence subsequently obtained4 ,mr4 ,jackson gives the following account of the discovery3-- 8,the entrance was nearly filled up with rubbish1 and overgrown with nettles4 ,after removing these obstructions1 ,i was obliged to lie down at full length to get in4 ,the first appearance that struck me on entering was the large quantity of clay and earth1 which seemed as if washed in from without1 and presented to the view round pieces like balls of different sizes4 ,of this clay there must be several hundred waggon loads1 but abounding more in the first than in the branch caves4 ,in some parts a stalagmitic crust has formed1 mixed with bones1 broken pots1 c4 ,it was on this crust ,i found the principal part of the coins1 the other articles being mostly imbedded in the clay4 ,in the other caves very little has been found4 ,when we get through the clay1 which is very stiff and deep1 we generally find the rock covered with bones1 all broken and presenting the appearance of having been gnawed4 ,the entrance into the inner cave has been walled up at the sides4 ,in the inside were several large stones lying near the hole1 any one of which would have completely blocked it up by merely turning the stone over4 ,i pulled the wall down1 and the aperture was now about a yard wide1 and two feet high4 ,on digging up the clay at about nine or ten inches deep1 ,i found the original floor2 it was hard and gravelly1 and strewed with bones1 broken pots1 and other objects4 ,the roof of the cave was beautifully hung with stalactites in various fantastic forms and as white as snow40#dh ,the interest in these discoveries led ,mr4 ,denny1 ,mr4 ,farrer1 and other gentlemen to examine the superficial stratum from time to time1 until1 in #ahgj1 ,sir ,james ,kay-,shuttleworth1 ,mr4 ,walter ,morrison1 ,mr4 ,birkbeck1 and other gentlemen in the neighbourhood formed a committee for the investigation of the contents of the cave1 which had been placed at their disposal by the courtesy of the owner1 the late ,mr4 ,stackhouse4 ,they were aided by the assistance of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 ,sir4 ,j4 ,lubbock1 and ,mr4 ,darwin1 ,professor ,phillips1 ,mr4 ,franks1 and others1 and by a grant obtained from the ,british ,association1 and have carried on the work since that time with comparatively little interruption4 ,mr4 ,jackson1 the original discoverer1 superintended the workmen2 while ,i identified the works of art and the mammalian remains that were discovered1 and drew up for the committee the reports brought before the ,british ,association in #ahgj1 #ahga1 and #ahgb1 and before the ,anthropological ,institute in #ahga4 ,mr4 ,tiddeman also contributed a report on the physical history of the cave1 which is printed in the ,british ,association ,report for #ahgb1 and subsequently in the ,geological ,magazine1 ,january #ahgc4di ,the ,romano-,celtic or ,brit-,welsh ,stratum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,longitudinal ,section of ,victoria ,cave4 ,the committee resolved not to begin at the entrance which ,mr4 ,jackson discovered in #ahch 7,fig4 #ai ,a71 but to make a new passage1 at a point where daylight could be seen through the chinks of the broken dbris1 which there prevented access4 ,ground was broken on a small plateau in front of this 7,figs4 #ai ,b1 #bj71 which1 from the sunny aspect and commanding view1 would naturally be chosen by the dwellers in the cave as their more usual place for eating and lounging1 and in which we might therefore expect to find the remains of whatever they had dropped or lost4 ,the gloomy recesses of a cave1 indeed1 even if lit up by large fires or by torches1 are not fitted for any other purpose than for sleeping or concealment2 and if we add in this case the damp cold clay under foot and the constant drip of the water overhead1 it was only reasonable to infer that most of their life was spent out of doors1 and that the cave was used merely as a place of retirement for shelter4 ,as the trench progressed we dug first of all through a thickness of two feet 7,figs4 #bj1 #ba7 of angular blocks of limestone1 that had fallen from the cliff above1 and that rested on a black layer 7,no4 #d7 containing the kind of remains which we had expected4 ,the layer was composed of fragments of bone and charcoal1 surrounding the burnt stones which had formed the ancient hearths1 and contained large quantities of the broken bones of animals which had been used for food1 and coins and articles of luxury1 as well as those instruments which were more naturally suited for the half-savage life of dwellers in caves4 ,as we opened out the new mouth1 the angular fragments disappeared and the black layer rose to the surface1 composing the floor1 and lying in some places beneath enormous blocks of limestone which had fallen from the roof since its accumulation1 and being continuous with the layer in which ,mr4 ,jackson first made his discoveries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,vertical ,section at the ,entrance to the ,victoria ,cave4 ,it was evident that this stratum had been formed during the sojourn of man in the cave1 and we shall find1 in the examination of the remains which it furnished1 proof that it is connected with the obscure history of ,britain during the fifth and sixth centuries4 ,we will take each group of objects in its proper class1 beginning with what at first sight seems the least promising1 the broken bones of the animals that supplied the inhabitants with food4 ,the ,bones of the ,animals4 ,the bones of the ,celtic short-horn 7,bos longifrons7 were very abundant1 and proved that a variety of ox1 indistinguishable from the small dark mountain cattle of ,wales and ,scotland1 was the chief food of the inhabitants4 ,a variety of the goat with simple recurved horns1 which is commonly met with in the ,yorkshire tumuli explored by ,canon ,greenwell1 and in the deposits round ,roman villas in ,great ,britain1 furnished the mutton2 while the pork was supplied by a domestic breed of pigs with small canines2 and since the bones of the last animal belong for the most part to young individuals1 it is clear that the young porker was preferred to the older animal4 ,the bill of fare was occasionally varied by the use of horse-flesh1 which formed a common article of food in this country down to the ninth century4 ,to this list must be added the venison of the roedeer and stag1 but the remains of these two animals were singularly rare4 ,two spurs of the domestic fowl1 and a few bones of wild duck and grouse1 complete the list of animals which can with certainty be affirmed to have been eaten by the dwellers in the cave4 ,the numerous unbroken bones1 some very gigantic1 of the badger1 and those of the fox1 wildcat1 hare1 and water-vole1 commonly called water-rat1 have probably been introduced subsequently1 from those animals having used the cave as a place of shelter4 ,there were also bones of the dog1 which from their unbroken condition proved that the animal had not been used for food1 as it certainly was used by the men who lived in the caves of ,denbighshire in the ,neolithic age4 ,the whole group of remains implies that the dwellers in the ,victoria ,cave lived upon their flocks and herds1 rather than by the chase4 ,and since the domestic fowl was not known in ,britain until about the time of the ,roman invasion1 the presence of its remains fixes the date of the occupation as not earlier than that time4 ,on the other hand1 since the small ,celtic short-horn 7,bos longifrons7 was the only domestic ox in use known in ,roman ,britain1 and since it disappeared from those portions of the country which were conquered by the ,english1 along with its ,celtic possessors1 the date is fixed in the other direction as being not much later than the ,northumbrian conquest of that portion of ,yorkshire4 ,i shall return to this part of the subject presently2 here ,i will only remark1 that the present distribution of the lineal descendants of the ,celtic short-horn1 the small1 dark-coloured ,scotch and ,welsh cattle1 corresponds with those regions on which the ,celtic population fell back before the ,english4 ,and its survival in ,wales1 and until comparatively recently in ,cornwall1 ,cumberland1 and ,westmoreland1 may be accounted for by the fact1 that in those districts the ,celtic populations of ,roman ,britain were not displaced by the ,english invaders4#ej ,the larger breed of cattle known in its purity as the white ox of ,chillingham1 from which all our purely ,english breeds have been derived1 was imported originally by the ,english1 and spread over the whole country which they occupied1 until at last the smaller and more ancient oxen survived only in a few isolated areas in the north and west of ,britain4 ,this displacement of the ,celtic short-horn by the ,english oxen of the ,urus type corroborates1 in a striking degree1 the truth of ,mr4 ,freeman's view of the ruthless destruction of everything ,roman and ,celtic at the hands of the ,english4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that from the examination of the bones we may infer that the cave was occupied before the ,celtic short-horn was supplanted in this district by the larger domestic breed of oxen1 and after the introduction of the domestic fowl1 that is to say1 in the interval which elapsed between the ,roman and ,english invasions4 ,we must now treat of the remains of man's handiwork in the cave4 ,miscellaneous ,articles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,spoon-brooch 7natural size74 ,the ornaments and implements of bone consist of carefully smoothed pins1 and points intended to be fitted to a handle1 knife-handles made of bone and antler2 three spindle-whorls made of the perforated head of a femur2 a stud2 a perfect spoon-shaped fibula 7,fig4 #bb71 which corresponds with one of those in the ,museum of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 as well as several fragments1 and which when in use was passed through holes in the clothes1 in such a manner that the two ends alone were visible4 ,these are ornamented1 and the shaft and the whole back is more or less polished by wear4 ,eight articles bear a close resemblance to the handles of gimlets 7,figs4 #bc1 #bd71 and most probably have been used as studs1 or links1 for fastening together clothing4 ,the fact1 indeed1 that some have the central hole worn by the friction of a thong or string of some kind1 coupled with the worn state of some of their surfaces1 renders this guess very likely to be true4 ,in ,fig4 #bd1 a1 the ornament in right lines1 which once covered the surface as in ,fig4 #bd1 b1 is very nearly obliterated by friction against some soft body such as clothing4 ,a reference to the figures will give a better idea of their shape and ornamentation than a mere description4 ,two perforated discs may have been used as studs4 ,there are also many nondescript articles1 consisting of sockets made of antler of stag1 and bone rods carefully rounded1 together with cut bones of uncertain use4 ,for the identification of the ivory boss of a sword-hilt ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,franks4 ,besides the ornaments in bone and antler1 there were seven glass beads1 five transparent and two of a bluish tint1 and one of jet turned in a lathe2 as well as a fragment of a jet bracelet4 ,among the articles of daily use were many rounded pebbles1 with marks of fire upon them1 which had probably been heated for the purpose of boiling water4 ,pot-boilers1 as they are called1 of this kind are used by many savage peoples at the present day1 and if we wished to heat water in a vessel that would not stand the fire1 we should be obliged to employ a similar method4 ,other stones formed parts of ancient hearths1 and two or three grooved slabs of sandstone had evidently been used for rounding and sharpening bone pins4 ,the fragments of pottery were very abundant1 and were all of the type usually found round ,roman villas4 ,one fragment of ,samian ware was ornamented with the representation of a hunt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,ornamented ,bone-fastener 7natural size74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,two ,bone-links2 a worn1 b unworn 7natural size74 ,this group of articles throws but little light on the date of the occupation of the cave4 ,the ,samian ware1 and the ivory boss of a ,roman sword1 merely imply that it was either ,roman or post-,roman4 ,the ,coins4 ,if we turn now to the coins1 we shall find the date to lie within narrower limits than those fixed by the animals4 ,they consist of3-- ,two silver of ,trajan1 d4 #aag4 ,four bronze of ,tetricus ,i41 #bfg-bgd4 ,one bronze of ,tetricus ,,ii41 #bfg-bgd4 ,one bronze of ,gallienus1 d4 #bfh4 ,one bronze of ,constantine ,,ii41 d4 #cdc4 ,one bronze of ,constans1 d4 #cec4 ,three barbarous imitations in bronze of coins of ,tetricus1 circa #djj-ejj ,a4,d4 ,in a group of coins such as this the latest only give a clue to the date1 since the earlier may have remained in circulation long after they were struck4 ,in ,india1 for example1 those of ,alexander the ,great have not yet disappeared from the country1 and in ,spain1 in the shops of ,malaga1 ,moorish1 ,roman1 and even ,phnician coins were current in #ahfc1 as well as all those which have been struck since4#ea ,we may therefore disregard the earliest coins1 and fix our attention more particularly on those of the ,constantine family1 and the bronze minimi mentioned last in the list4 ,the presence of the coin of ,constans implies that the cave was occupied either during or after #ccg ,a4,d41 when he ascended the throne2 while the date of the minimi has not been ascertained with accuracy4 8,they abound upon all ,roman sites1 such as ,verulam and ,richborough4 ,in size they come nearest to those struck under ,arcadius and his successors1 and ,i think that you will not be far wrong in assigning them to the first half of the fifth century4 ,the latest of the genuine ,roman coins found in this country are those of ,arcadius and ,honorius2 at least1 the finding of any of later date is quite exceptional4 ,what the currency was between that time and the commencement of the ,saxon coinage it is hard to say4 ,it seems probable1 however1 that gold and silver had nearly disappeared1 and that the needs of a small local commerce were supplied by the ,roman copper coins of which abundance remained in the country1 and by small pieces struck after their model1 not improbably by private speculators40 ,this opinion1 which ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 has been kind enough to write me1 coincides with that of ,mr4 ,newton1 as well as that of ,mr4 ,roach ,smith2 and we may therefore assume1 with tolerable certainty1 that the cave was inhabited during the first half of the fifth century or afterwards1 at a time when the withdrawal of the ,roman ,legions had left the colony of ,britain1 whose youth and vigour had been consumed in the fierce struggle of the rivals for the throne of the ,west1 a prey to the barbarian invaders4 ,it is of course conceivable that some of these coins may have been dropped at one time1 and some at another1 but nevertheless it seems very probable that the whole accumulation belongs to the same relative age4 ,but whether this be accepted or not1 it is certain the cave was inhabited during the time that the minimi were in circulation1--that is to say1 during the first half of the fifth century1 or from that time forwards4 ,the ,jewellery1 and its ,relation to ,irish ,art4 ,this conclusion as to the date1 derived from the coins1 is confirmed in a remarkable degree by the examination of the articles of luxury4 ,besides two bronze brooches of the ,roman pattern1 known by archologists as harp-shaped 7,coloured ,plate1 fig4 #e71 was one of the split-ring type1 with a moveable pin1 which is generally assigned to the later period of the ,roman occupation of this country4 ,one type of brooch was composed of two circular plates of bronze1 soldered together1 the front being very thin and bearing flamboyant and spiral patterns in relief 7,fig4 #be71 of admirable design and execution4 ,the original of the figure was discovered by ,mr4 ,jackson1 and is more perfect than any of those which we obtained in our excavations4 ,it is altogether unlike any ,roman brooch properly so called1 both in its composite make and style of ornament4 ,a similar brooch has been discovered at ,brough ,castle1 in ,westmoreland1 and was figured in the ,proceedings of the ,antiquarian ,society 7vol4 iv4 #abi71 by ,sir ,james ,musgrave1 and a second is preserved in the ,museum of the ,royal ,irish ,academy 7#dib74 ,the style corresponds with that of a medallion on a ,runic casket of silver-bronze1 figured by ,prof4 ,stevens1 and stated to have been obtained from ,northumbrian ,britain1 as well as that of a brooch in the ,museum at ,mainz1 assigned by the same authority to the third or fourth century4 ,it is also to be met with in the illuminations of one of the ,anglo-,saxon ,gospels at ,stockholm1 as well as in those of the ,gospels of ,s4 ,columban1 preserved in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and in the 8,book of ,kells0 7#h-ijj74eb ,in all these cases it cannot be affirmed to be ,roman1 and it is not presented by ornaments of either purely ,english or ,teutonic origin4 ,it is most closely allied to that work which is termed by ,mr4 ,franks 8late ,celtic40 ,from its localization in ,britain and ,ireland1 it seems to be probable that it is of ,celtic derivation2 and if this view be accepted1 there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being recognized in the illuminated ,irish ,gospels4 ,ireland1 in the sixth and seventh centuries1 was the great centre of art1 civilization1 and literature2 and it is only reasonable to suppose that there would be intercourse between the ,irish ,christians and those of the west of ,britain during the time that the ,romano-,celts1 or ,brit-,welsh1 were being slowly pushed to the westward by the heathen ,english invader4 ,proof of such an intercourse we find in the brief notice in the 8,annales ,cambri10 in which ,gildas1 the ,brit-,welsh historian1 is stated to have sailed over to ,ireland in the year ,a4,d4 #efe4 ,it is by no means improbable that about this time there was a ,brit-,welsh migration into ,ireland1 as well as into ,brittany4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,bronze ,brooch 7natural size74 ,nor is it at all strange that the same style of ornament should occur in some few cases in ,north ,germany4 8,the conquest of ,britain10 writes the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green 78,history of the ,english ,people10 p4 #afec71 8had thrust a wedge of heathendom into the heart of the ,western ,church4 ,on the one side lay ,italy and ,gaul1 whose ,churches owned obedience to the see of ,rome1 on the other the free ,celtic ,church of ,ireland4 ,but the condition of the two portions of ,western ,christendom was very different4 ,while the vigour of ,latin ,christianity was exhausted in a bare struggle for life1 ,ireland as yet unscourged by invaders had drawn from its conversion an energy such as it has never known since4 ,christianity had been received there with a burst of popular enthusiasm4 ,letters and arts sprang up rapidly in its train2 the science and ,biblical knowledge which had fled from the continent took refuge in famous schools which made ,durrow and ,armagh the universities of the ,west4 ,the new life soon beat too strongly to brook confinement within insular bounds4 ,patrick1 the first missionary of ,ireland1 had not been half a century dead1 when ,celtic ,christianity flung itself with a fiery zeal into battle with the mass of heathenism which had rolled in upon the ,christian world4 ,irish missionaries laboured among the ,picts of the ,highlands1 among the ,frisians of the northern seas2 ,columban founded monasteries in ,burgundy and the ,apennines2 the canton of ,st4 ,gall still commemorates in its name the missionary before whom the spirits of flood and fell fled wailing over the waters of the ,lake of ,constance4 ,for a time it seemed as if the course of the world's history was to be changed1 as if the older race that ,roman and ,teuton had swept before them had turned to the moral conquest of its conquerors1 as if ,celtic and not ,latin ,christianity was to mould the destinies of the ,churches of the ,west40 ,it is impossible that ,irish-,celtic art should not have made itself felt wherever the ,irish missionaries penetrated1 and especially in the gorgeous illuminated ,gospels1 which it was the pride of ,s4 ,columban and his school to have made1 and which now excite our wonder and admiration4 ,the early ,christian art in ,ireland grew out of the late ,celtic1 and was1 to a great extent1 free from the influence of ,rome1 which is stamped on the ,brit-,welsh art of the same age in this country4 ,the style1 therefore1 of these circular brooches1 from its correspondence with that of the ,irish illuminated gospels1 affords reasonable grounds for the belief that the ,victoria ,cave was inhabited in the sixth century1 or possibly later1 but before the ,english invaders had swept the ,brit-,welsh away from the district4 ,two other brooches were also discovered in the black layer1 which are even of greater interest than those which have just been described4 ,the one represents a dragon 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #c71 with its eye made of red enamel2 the other 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #g7 shaped1 like the letter ,s1 has its front composed of an elaborate cloissonne pattern in red1 blue1 and yellow enamels1 and is of the same design as two brooches in the ,british ,museum1 discovered1 one near ,whittington ,hill1 in ,gloucestershire1 and the other near ,malton1 in ,yorkshire4 ,all three were1 undoubtedly1 turned out of the same artistic school1 and they may have been made by one workman4 ,the enamel1 in all these examples1 seems to have been inserted into hollows in the bronze1 and then to have been heated so as to form a close union with them1 and in some cases where it has been broken1 as in colored ,plate1 fig4 #g1 small fragments still remain to attest the completeness of the fusion with the bronze4 ,the style of workmanship is neither ,roman nor ,teutonic4 ,an enamelled fibula with spirals in relief1 found at ,reichenbach#ed 7,soleure7 in a post-,roman sepulchre1 and figured by ,bonstettin1 is of a similar design1 and it may be traced also in two brooches obtained by the ,abb ,cochet1 from the ,merovingian ,cemetery of ,envermeu1#ee although they are of more massive and square construction than those of ,yorkshire4 ,one harp-shaped brooch 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #a7 is ornamented with diamonds of blue enamel1 separated by small triangles of red1 and shows in its ,roman design and ,celtic ornamentation the union between ,celtic and ,roman art4 ,a similar specimen from ,brough ,castle1 ,westmoreland1 is preserved in the ,british ,museum1 and may have been turned out of the same workshop4 ,we also met with an enamelled disk 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #f71 and a finger-ring 7fig4 #d7 of bronze-gilt1 ornamented with blue enamel4 ,several enamelled fibul in the ,british ,museum1 obtained by ,sir ,james ,musgrave1 at ,kirby ,thore1 ,westmoreland1 belong to the same style of art as those of the ,victoria cave1 and were associated with the same class of remains4 ,shields1#ef scabbards1 horse trappings1 and other articles have also been discovered in this county1 decorated in the same fashion with coloured enamels1 and especially a bronze vase from the late ,roman tumuli1 called the ,bartlow ,hills4 ,they all belong to the class termed 8late ,celtic0 by ,mr4 ,franks1 and are considered by him to be of ,british manufacture4 ,this view is supported by the only reference to the art of enamelling which is furnished by the classical writers4 ,philostratus1 a ,greek sophist1 who left ,athens in the beginning of the third century to join the ,court of ,julia ,domna1 the wife of the ,emperor ,severus1 writes3--8,it is said that the barbarians living in or by the ocean1 pour these colors 7those of the horse trappings7 on heated bronze1 that these adhere1 grow as hard as stone1 and preserve the designs that are made in them40#eg ,mr4 ,franks' opinion that this passage relates to ,britain1 seems to be more probable than that of the eminent ,french archologist1 ,m4 de ,laborde1 who holds that it relates to ,gaul and especially to 8,belgica40#eh ,when we consider the variety of enamelled objects which have been discovered in the north of ,england1 it seems to be by no means improbable that the principal centre of the art enamelling was here rather than in the south2 and this conclusion is considerably strengthened by the fact that under the ,romans political power centered in the district between the ,humber and the ,tyne1 and that ,york1 and not ,london1 was the capital of ,britain and the seat of the ,roman ,prefect4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that since the ,emperor ,severus built the wall which bears his name1 marched in person against the ,caledonians1 and died at ,york1 the account of the enamels may have been brought to the court of the ,empress ,julia from this very region1 and thus come to be recorded by ,philostratus4 ,two harp-shaped fibul1 obtained by ,mr4 ,jackson from the ,victoria cave1 and ornamented with enamel1 are coated with silver1 and in one of them two small blocks of that metal still remain firmly imbedded in the bronze4 ,it is very probable that most of the ornaments were plated either with silver or gold1 traces of which1 in some cases1 still remain4 ,among the miscellaneous objects in metal are a bronze wire brooch 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #h71 two bracelets1 composed of twisted bronze-gilt wire2 and one fragment in solid bronze1 ornamented with right lines2 one plain bronze finger-ring2 two small buckles1 respectively of bronze and of iron1 and a small bronze flattened pin 7colored ,plate1 fig4 #b71 ending in two points to which1 at first1 we were unable to assign a use4 ,when1 however1 the two points were compared with the circles on the ornaments of bone 7,fig4 #bb71 there was but little doubt that this curious object was employed as a pair of fixed compasses4 ,there were also iron articles which were too much corroded to admit of a guess at their probable use1 besides a ,roman key1 knife-blades1 and a spear-head discovered by ,mr4 ,jackson4 ,the number of ornaments found in the ,victoria ,cave from time to time by various explorers is very considerable4 ,they are scattered in the private collections of ,messrs4 ,jackson and ,eckroyd ,smith1 and in the ,museums of ,giggleswick ,grammar-school1 and of ,leeds1 and the ,british ,museum4 ,similar remains in other ,caves in ,yorkshire4 ,the ,victoria cave is by no means the only one in the district that has furnished works of art and the remains of animals4 ,the ,albert cave 7,fig4 #ai1 c47 close by is1 as yet1 only explored sufficiently to prove that it contains the same kind of objects2 and from that of ,kelko1 overlooking ,giggleswick1 they have been obtained by ,mr4 ,jackson2#ei as well as from that of ,dowker-bottom between ,arncliffe and ,kilnsay1 by ,mr4 ,james ,farrer and ,mr4 ,denny4#fj ,from the last1 seven spoon-shaped brooches of bone1 and two spindle-whorls of ,samian ware of the bottom of a vase1 are preserved in the ,british ,museum1 as well as a bronze needle1 and brooches both harp-shaped and discoid1 and fragments of pottery4 ,three coins in bronze1 according to ,mr4 ,farrer1#fa prove that the date of the accumulation is late or post-,roman1 one being of ,claudius ,gothicus1 whose reign ended ,a4,d4 #bgj1 and two belonging to the ,tetrici1 ,a4,d4 #bfg-bgc1 since they would remain in circulation for some time after they were struck4 ,a bronze pin1 in the possession of ,mr4 ,jackson1 from ,dowker-bottom1 is remarkable for the head being plated with silver4 ,the fragment of flattened antler from this cave1 referred by ,mr4 ,denny to the elk1 most probably belongs to the crown of an old antler of the stag1 and the remains of the 8,canis primvus0 of that author cannot be distinguished from those of a large dog4 ,the bones of the wolf1 and an enormous stag in the ,museum of the ,philosophical ,society at ,leeds1 are probably much older than the ,brit-,welsh stratum4 ,these ,caves used as ,places of ,refuge4 ,the presence of these works of art1 in association with the remains of the domestic animals used for food1 is only to be satisfactorily accounted for in the way proposed by ,mr4 ,dixon4 ,men accustomed to luxury and refinement were compelled1 by the pressure of some great calamity1 to flee for refuge1 and to lead a half-savage life in these inclement caves1 with whatever they could transport thither of their property4 ,they were also accompanied by their families1 for the number of personal ornaments and the spindle-whorls imply the presence of the female sex4 ,we may also infer that they were cut off from the civilization to which they had been accustomed1 since they were compelled to extemporize spindle-whorls out of the pieces of the vessels that they brought with them1 instead of using those which had been manufactured for the purpose4 ,the evidence of ,history as to the ,date4 ,we have already seen from the examination of the coins1 that the ,victoria cave was occupied during or after the first half of the fifth century1 and from the works of art that it may have been1 and probably was1 occupied at a later time4 ,to fix the latest possible limit to the occupation of the group of caves to which it belongs1 we must appeal to contemporary history4 ,during the first four centuries of ,roman dominion in ,britain1 the spread of the manners and arts of the great mistress of the world followed close upon her success in arms2 and the policy of one of the greatest of her generals1 ,agricola1 bore fruit in the adoption of her civilization by the ,british provincials4 ,the population clustered round the ,roman stations1 and cities sprang up1 such as ,chester1 ,bath1 ,york1 and ,lincoln1 between which a ready communication was maintained by the roads that still remain as monuments of engineering skill1 and which1 in many cases1 have been used uninterruptedly from that time to the present day4 ,agriculture was carried on to such an extent1 that ,britain became one of the principal corn-producing regions of the ,roman ,empire2 and a commerce with foreign countries was carried on from the ports on the banks of the ,thames and the ,severn 7,gildas1 i474 ,the mineral sources were also fully explored2 tin was sought in the mines of ,cornwall1 lead in those of ,derbyshire and ,somersetshire1 and iron in the forest of ,dean1 ,sussex1 and ,northumberland4 ,nor was this material prosperity unaccompanied by the signs of luxury and culture4 ,numerous villas were dotted throughout the province1 resembling in size and plan the quadrangle of a medival college at ,oxford or ,cambridge1 and even in ruins astonishing us by their magnitude and the beauty of their tessellated pavements4 ,york was the capital of the province and the centre of government1 and consequently ,yorkshire must have been1 if anything1 more completely penetrated with the ,roman arts and civilization than any other part of ,britain4 ,the relation of the ,roman conquerors to the conquered ,celtic inhabitants was somewhat analogous to that which now exists between the ,english and the subject nations in ,india4 ,latin was the language spoken by the higher classes in the cities1 of the army1 and probably of the courts of law2 while in the country the ,celtic tongue held its ground1 and still survives in the language of ,wales4 ,christianity was probably professed in this country about the time of ,constantine1 and became the dominant religion by the middle of the fifth century1 if not before4 ,underneath all the outward signs of prosperity during the ,roman rule in ,britain1 there were causes at work which ensured the ruin of the province4 ,the policy of centralization1 and the very perfection of the machinery for government on autocratic principles1 which brought about the destruction of the ,roman ,empire1 as in our own days they have nearly ruined ,france1 bore fruit in ,britain in the helpless apathy of the provincials when the machinery was broken up4 ,it is therefore no wonder that when the ,roman garrison was finally withdrawn from this country1 in the year #dji1 the provincials were left an easy prey to their enemies4 ,nor need we wonder that they set up isolated centres of government1 which we may term communes1 in the year #daj1 in which each city stood out for itself1 instead of combining together for the common weal4 ,from this time forward the inhabitants of the ,roman province of ,britain1 severed from the ,roman ,empire1 became a prey to the many tyrants who sprang up1 and the anarchy followed so pathetically described by ,gildas4 ,it was at this time that the coinage became debased1 and ,roman coins afforded the patterns for the small bronze minimi of the ,settle cave1#fb which are so abundant among the ruins of ,roman cities in this country1 such as ,st4 ,alban's4 ,the invaders of ,britain must now be considered4 ,the ,picts and ,scots had secured a rude liberty under the protection of their mountains and morasses1 rather than by their success in arms against the ,roman legions1 and their raids into the ,roman province had been curbed by the walls and lines of forts1 extending1 the one from the ,firth of ,forth to the ,firth of ,clyde1 the other from the ,solway ,firth to the ,tyne4 ,in spite of these1 however1 from time to time1 in the fourth century1 they carried desolation into ,northumberland and ,yorkshire1 even if they did not penetrate farther into the south4 ,and on the withdrawal of the ,roman legions1 at the beginning of the fifth century1 their raids were organized on a much larger scale4 ,in the pages of ,gildas we have a melancholy picture of their results4 ,in the letter written to tius1 the ,roman commander in ,gaul1 in #ddf1 the ,britains are described as sheep1 and the ,picts and ,scots as wolves4 8,the barbarians drive us back to the sea2 the sea drives us back again to perish at the hands of the barbarians10 are the words put into the mouth of the embassy4#fc ,one plea for aid1 which they advanced1 is especially interesting1 because it shows incidentally that the ,roman civilization did not disappear with the withdrawal of the legions--the plea that unless they were succoured the name of ,rome would be dishonoured4 ,nerved by despair1 the ,british in the following year take up arms1 and1 according to ,gildas1 leave their houses and lands1 and taking shelter in mountains and forests1 and in caves1#fd succeed in driving back their ,pictish and ,scottish enemies4 ,it is very significant that caves should be mentioned in this account2 for the region of ,craven is one of the very few in the country in which they are sufficiently abundant to allow of their being used as places of shelter on a scale sufficiently large to be recorded in history2 and when we consider that one of the natural highways from ,scotland into central ,england lies through that district1 it seems to me extremely probable that the group of caves of which ,victoria is one is that referred to4 ,on this point it is worthy of record1 that in the year #agde1 when the younger ,pretender was at ,shap1 and it was doubtful whether he would take the route through ,ribblesdale or by way of ,preston1 the eldest son of one of the landowners near ,settle1 was hidden1 along with the family plate1 in a ,cave close to the ,victoria1 in the belief that the ,highlanders were in the habit of eating children as well as of laying hands on the precious metals4 ,the historical notice tallies exactly with the geographical position1 and is not inconsistent with the evidence offered by the coins and other remains4 ,the date1 therefore1 of the occupation may probably be assigned as about the middle of the fifth century4 ,this1 however1 is not the latest date that can be assigned4 ,in the year #ddi1 the three ships which contained ,hengist and his warriors1 landed at ,ebbsfleet1 in ,thanet1 and the first ,english colony was founded among a people who were known to the strangers as 8,brit-,welsh40#fe ,from that time a steady immigration of ,angle1 ,jute1 ,saxon1 and ,frisian set in towards the eastern coast of ,britain1 as far north as the ,firth of ,forth1 until1 in the first half of the sixth century1 the whole of the eastern part of our island was taken possession of by various tribes1#ff whose names1 for the most part1 still survive in the names of our counties4 ,the principal rivers also afforded them a free passage into the heart of the country1 and the kingdom of ,mercia gradually expanded until it embraced1 not only the basin of the ,trent1 but reached as far as the line of the ,severn4 ,the river ,humber afforded a base of operations for the ,anglian freebooters1 who founded the kingdom of ,deira or modern ,yorkshire2 while the camp of ,bamborough was the centre from which ,ida1 who landed with fifty ships in the year #edg1 conquered ,bernicia1 or the region extending from the river ,tees to ,edinburgh4 ,the tide of ,english colonization rolled steadily westward1 until1 at the close of the sixth century1 the hilly and impassable districts culminating in the ,pennine ,chain1 and extending southwards from ,cumberland and ,westmoreland1 through ,yorkshire and ,derbyshire1 formed the barrier between the ,brit-,welsh kingdoms of ,elmet and ,strathclyde on the east1 and the ,english on the west4 ,to the south of this the ,brit-,welsh dominion was bounded by the river ,severn1 and included ,chester and the whole of the basin of the ,dee2 while ,somerset1 ,devon1 and ,cornwall1 and the district round ,bradford and ,malmesbury formed the kingdom of ,west ,wales4#fg ,the long war by which the borders of ,england were gradually pushed to the west1 at the expense of the ,brit-,welsh1 was one of the most fearful of which we have any record4 ,the ,english invaders came over1 with their wives and children and household stuff1 in such force that the country which they left behind was left desolate for several centuries4 ,worshippers of ,thor and ,odin1 and living a free life1 equally divided between farming1 hunting1 and war1 they were mortal foes to ,christianity and to ,roman civilization4 ,they destroyed the ,brit-,welsh cities with fire and sword2 and the ashes of the ,roman villas1 which are to be found in nearly every part of the ,roman province of ,britain1 testify to the keenness of their hate to everything which was at once ,christian1 ,roman1 and ,celtic4 ,gildas forcibly describes the destruction which they wrought among his countrymen1 by the metaphor that 8the flame kindled in the east1 raged over nearly all the land1 until it flared red over the western ocean40#fh ,in the conquered districts the ,brit-,welsh were either exterminated or enslaved1 and their civilization was wholly replaced by the rude culture of the ,english4 ,it follows1 from the nature of this conquest1 that any group of remains1 such as those in the caves under consideration1 must be assigned to the time before the ,english had possession of the district1 and we must therefore see what historical proof is to be found on the point4 ,at the close of the sixth century the ,brit-,welsh kingdom of ,elmet 7in the basin of the river ,aire7--a name which still survives in ,barwick-in-,elmet1 a little village about seven miles to the north-east of ,leeds--extended over the country round ,leeds and ,bradford1 passing westwards towards1 if not into1 ,lancashire1 and northwards probably so as to embrace ,ribblesdale1 and forming a barrier to the westward advance of the ,english possessors of eastern ,yorkshire4 ,its downfall will give us the latest possible limit which we are seeking for the ,brit-,welsh occupation of the ,victoria ,cave4 ,the two kingdoms of ,deira and ,bernicia had united to form the powerful state of ,northumbria1 at the beginning of the seventh century1 under thelfrith1 who carried on the war against the ,brit-,welsh with greater vigour than his predecessors4 ,in #fjgfi he marched along the line of the ,trent1 through ,staffordshire1 avoiding thereby the difficult and easily-defended hilly country of ,derbyshire and ,east ,lancashire1 to the battle near ,chester1 famous for the destruction of the power of ,strathclyde1 and the death of the monks of ,bangor1 who fought against him with their prayers4 ,by this decisive blow1 the ,english first set foot on the coast of the ,irish ,channel1 and ,strathclyde and ,elmet1 on the one hand1 were cut asunder from ,wales4 ,on the other ,chester was so thoroughly destroyed that it remained in ruins for nearly three centuries1 to be rebuilt by thelfld1 8the ,lady of the ,mercians10 in #ijg1 and the plains of ,lancashire lay open to the invader4#gj ,this western advance of the ,northumbrians was completed by the conquest of ,elmet1 in #faf1 by ,eadwine1 and the whole district from ,edinburgh1 as far south as the ,humber1 and as far west as ,chester1 became subject to his rule4#ga ,the latest possible date1 therefore1 that can be assigned for the occupation of these caves by the ,brit-,welsh is determined by that event4 ,it cannot be later than the first quarter of the seventh century1 or the time when what remained of ,roman art and civilization in that district was swept away by the ancestors of the present dalesmen4 ,the relics in the caves must have been accumulated in the two centuries which elapsed between the recall of the legions in the days of ,honorius and the ,english conquest4 ,they are traces of the anarchy which existed in those times1 and they tell a tale of woe1 wrought on the ,brit-,welsh1 by ,pict1 ,scot1 or ,englishman1 as eloquently as the lament of ,gildas1 or the mournful verses of ,talliesin4 ,they complete the picture of the desolation of those times revealed by the ashes of the villas and cities which were burned by the invaders4 ,we have now examined the evidence as to date offered by the contents of these caves1 and we have seen that it agrees with the contemporary history4 ,it may therefore be concluded that it lies in the fifth and sixth centuries1 possibly the first quarter of the seventh4 ,the ,neolithic ,stratum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,bone ,harpoon 7natural size74 ,this occupation of the ,victoria ,cave by the ,brit-,welsh is a mere episode in its history4 ,it was inhabited by man in the neolithic age1 at a time so remote that the interval between it and the historical period can only be measured by the rude method by which geologists estimate the relative age of the rocks4 ,at the entrance the dark ,romano-,celtic or ,brit-,welsh stratum 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #d2 ,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #d7 lay buried1 as we have seen1 under an accumulation of angular fragments of stone which had fallen from the cliff4 ,it rested on a similar accumulation 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #c2 ,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #c7 which was no less than six feet thick1 and at the bottom of this1 at the point where it was based on a stiff grey clay1 a bone harpoon 7,fig4 #bf7 was discovered1 as well as charcoal2 a bone bead 7,fig4 #bg71 three rude flint flakes1 and the broken bones of the brown bear1 stag1 horse1 and ,celtic shorthorn 7,bos longifrons74 ,the harpoon is a little more than three inches long1 with the head armed with two barbs on each side1 and the base presenting a mode of securing attachment to the handle which has not before been discovered in ,britain4 ,instead of a mere projection to catch the ligatures by which it was bound to the shaft1 there is a well-cut barb on either side1 pointing in a contrary direction to those which form the head4 ,ample use for such an instrument would be found in ,malham tarn1 some three miles off1 and very probably also in that which formerly existed close by at ,attermire1 but which has been choked up by peat1 and is now turned into grass-land by drainage4 ,the remains of the brown bear consist of numerous hollow bones and teeth1 and the shaft of a femur with its articular ends broken off1 has been polished by friction against some soft substance1 so that its surface has a lustre like that of glass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,bone-bead 7natural size47 ,the question naturally arises1 who were the ancient inhabitants of the cave whose rude implements occur in this lower stratum8 ,from the few remains which we discovered1 they were hunters and fishermen1 and the possessors of domestic oxen1 and possibly horses1 and in a much lower state of civilization than the ,brit-,welsh inhabitants who succeeded them in the cave after a long interval4 ,there is no proof that they used a coinage1 or that they were acquainted with metal4 ,the conclusion that they were neolithic is based on the following evidence3--,in #ahga the ,exploration ,committee examined a small cave about #bjj yards off1 in ,king's ,scar1 and obtained the broken bones of the stag1 ,celtic short-horn 7,bos longifrons71 goat1 and horse1 a whetstone1 and a rudely chipped scraper1 to which1 subsequently1 ,mr4 ,john ,birkbeck1 jun41 made the important addition of part of a human thigh-bone4 ,this set of remains1 the human thigh-bone excepted1 agrees with those in the lower stratum in the ,victoria ,cave1 not merely in the absence of metal1 but also in affording signs of a comparatively rude civilization2 and we might reasonably expect that the two caves so close to each other1 would have been occupied by the same people at approximately the same time4 ,if this be allowed1 the thigh-bone may be assigned to one of these earlier inhabitants1 the place of habitation being1 as is frequently the case1 subsequently used for purposes of burial4 ,the thigh-bone itself is characterized by the great development of the muscular ridge known to anatomists as the linea aspera1 implying the peculiar flatness of shin which is termed by ,professor ,busk platycnemism4 ,this peculiar form has been met with in the neolithic tumuli of ,yorkshire1 explored by the ,rev4 ,canon ,greenwell1 as well as in the human remains which ,i have discovered in the neolithic caves and chambered tombs of ,denbighshire2 and since it has not been observed in any human skeletons in this country which are not of that age1 it may be fairly taken to prove that a neolithic people formerly lived in ,ribblesdale4 ,and further1 since the traces of rude culture met with in these two caves are the same as those which characterize neolithic burial and dwelling places throughout ,europe1 they may be assigned to that remote age4 ,similar human remains were obtained by ,mr4 ,farrer from the ,dowker-bottom ,cave1 and imply that that cave also was used as a neolithic burial-place4 ,the identification of this race with the ,basque or ,iberian stock1 from which are descended the small1 dark peoples of ,derbyshire1 ,wales1 and certain parts of ,ireland1 must be referred to the chapters on the ,neolithic ,caves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,stone ,adze3 a1 side view2 b1 edge 7natural size74 ,the reputed discovery of an adze 7,fig4 #bh71 of a variety of greenstone which ,mr4 ,wyndham identifies with melaphyr1 many years ago in the ,victoria ,cave1 may offer additional evidence as to its having been occupied by a neolithic tribe4 ,it was presented to the ,museum of the ,philosophical ,society at ,leeds by ,mr4 ,jackson1 and figured by ,mr4 ,denny among the remains from the ,caves of ,craven1 and presents characters that have not1 to my knowledge1 been met with in any other neolithic implement found in ,great ,britain3 one end being roughly chipped for insertion into a socket1 while the other is carefully ground into a chisel edge4 ,in these respects1 as ,mr4 ,o',callaghan and ,mr4 ,denny have observed1 it bears a striking resemblance to the stone adzes used by the ,south ,sea ,islanders1 and especially in ,tahiti2--a resemblance so strong that1 unless it had been traced from the hands of the discoverer into the ,museum at ,leeds1 it would be considered by many archologists as an implement actually obtained from the ,south ,seas4 ,it may have been derived from the lower stratum1 which furnished the equally peculiar harpoon1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,the ,approximate ,date of the ,neolithic ,occupation4 ,from the position in which these remains occurred1 it is obvious that a neolithic tribe occupied the cave before the accumulation of the angular fragments1 six feet in thickness 7,fig4 #bj1 ,no4 #c2 ,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #c71 just as the date of the ,brit-,welsh occupation is fixed as being after this1 and before the accumulation of the two feet of dbris above 7,no4 #e74 ,and in this we have a means of roughly estimating the interval of time between them4 ,it is clear that the accumulation of two feet of angular fragments1 torn away by the action of the weather from the cliff1 has been formed in about #a1bjj years1 i4e4 between the ,brit-,welsh occupation and the present time4 ,if it be admitted that equal quantities of the cliff have been weathered away in equal times1 it will follow that the thickness of six feet between the ,brit-,welsh stratum and that under examination was formed during a time thrice as long1 or #c1fjj years2 and that consequently the date of the earlier occupation of the cave by man is fixed as being about #d1hjj1 or #e1jjj years ago4 ,it is perfectly true1 that in ancient times the frosts may have been more intense than they are now1 and therefore that the rate of weathering may have been faster4 ,to the objection that possibly a large mass of cliff may have tumbled down at one time1 and subsequently been disintegrated1 it may be answered1 that at the point at the entrance where the section was taken there was no evidence of any such fall2 the angular blocks1 both above and below the ,brit-,welsh stratum1 being as nearly as possible of the same size1 and not lying with their faces parallel to each other1 as would have been the case had they been disintegrated fallen blocks4 ,nevertheless this attempt to fix a date cannot lay claim to scientific precision1 and in that respect is neither better1 nor worse1 than any other similar attempt founded on the rate at which a valley is being excavated1 or alluvium being deposited1 or on the retrocession of a waterfall1 such1 for example1 as ,niagara4 ,it is merely valuable as enabling us to form some sort of idea of the high antiquity of the neolithic men who left these remains behind in the cave4 ,as the trench 7see ,figs4 #bj1 #ba7 begun on the outside passed into the entrance of the cave1 the accumulation of stones above the neolithic stratum disappeared1 and the latter became intermingled with the ,brit-,welsh layer above1 so that it would have been impossible to distinguish the one from the other had not the talus marked the interval in the plateau outside4 ,the talus also above the ,brit-,welsh stratum ceased at the entrance1 although here and there large blocks of stone1 fallen from time to time from the roof1 rested on its upper surface4 ,the ,grey ,clays4 ,immediately below the neolithic stratum1 a deposit of stiff grey clay of unknown depth occupies both the entrance and the inside of the cave 7,figs4 #bj1 #ba71 containing fragments of limestone and large angular blocks which had fallen from the roof4 ,a shaft sunk to a depth of twenty-five feet near the entrance failed to arrive at the bottom1 but presented the following section in descending order3 stiff grey clay with layer of stalagmite six feet thick2 a finely laminated calcareous clay twelve feet thick2 and below1 a similar bed of clay to that on the surface4 ,in a second shaft sunk to the depth of twelve feet farther within the cave1 the base of the grey clay was not reached4#gb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,section below ,grey ,clay at entrance4 ,a third shaft1 at the entrance1 however1 penetrated the clay1 ,no4 #a of ,figs4 #bj1 #ba1 #bi1 at a depth of about five feet1 and revealed the existence below of a reddish-grey loamy cave-earth 7,fig4 #bi1 ,a71 containing bones and teeth of the same animals as those from the caverns of ,kent's ,hole1 ,wookey ,hole1 and others1 which belonged to a group that invaded ,europe before the glacial period1 and that inhabited the region north of the ,alps and the ,pyrenees in pre- and post-glacial times4#gc ,we subsequently discovered the cave-earth to be from three to four feet thick1 and that it rested on an accumulation 7,fig4 #bi1 ,b7 of large blocks of limestone1 the interstices between which were filled with clay1 sometimes laminated and at others homogeneous1 as well as with coarse sand4 ,below this we broke into an empty passage1 one side of which was formed by the solid rock1 and the other of blocks of stone imbedded in the clay4 ,as we opened out a horizontal passage towards the cave-earth1 ,a1 from the outside1 the talus 7,fig4 #bi1 ,c7 of angular dbris was cut through first1 which gradually became more and more clayey in its lower portions3 at one point1 ,d1 there were several glaciated blocks1 some imbedded in clay and others perfectly free4 ,it rested obliquely on the edges of the cave-earth1 and passed gradually at the entrance into the clay occupying the interior of the cave4 ,the ,pleistocene ,occupation by ,hynas4 ,the remains of the spelan variety of the spotted hyna were very abundant in the cave-earth1 consisting of fragments of skulls1 jaws1 and bones1 and especially of coprolites1 which formed irregular floors1 accumulated during successive occupations of the cave by that animal4 ,all the bones were gnawed and scored by teeth1 the lower jaws were without the angle and coronoid process 7see ,fig4 #ib71 and the hollow bones which contain marrow were broken1 while those which were solid and marrowless were for the most part perfect3 and this held good1 not merely of the remains of the hyna1 but of those of all the animals which constituted their prey4 ,the bones1 for example1 of the woolly rhinoceros are represented merely by the hard distal portion of the shaft of the humerus1 and of the solid bones of the ulna and radius1 while the only portions of skull are the solid pedestal offered by the nasal bones on which the front horn was supported1 and a few smaller fragments4 ,the pedestal in question is depicted by the dark shaded portion of ,fig4 #cj1 the outline of the skull and lower jaw being taken from one of ,professor ,brandt's plates of the ,woolly ,rhinoceros found in ,siberia4#gd ,the teeth which imply the presence of the mammoth 7milk molars #c and #d7 were those of a young individual1 as is very generally the case in caves which have been occupied by hynas4 ,the young would naturally be more exposed to the attack of those cowardly beasts of prey than the adult1 armed with its long curved tusks1 and defended1 not merely by its thick skin1 but also by the covering of wool and long hair which is peculiar to the species4 ,besides these animals1 the reindeer1 red-deer1 bison1 horse1 the brown1 grizzly1 and great cave bears1 were preyed upon by the hynas and dragged into the cave4 ,all these species were discovered within an area of a few square yards of cave-earth1 which passes into the interior of the cave under the grey clay4 ,they belong to that well-defined group known as pleistocene1 quaternary1 or post-pleiocene1 which was proved to have inhabited ,yorkshire#ge in ancient times from ,dr4 ,buckland's discoveries in ,kirkdale1 and ,mr4 ,denny's examination of the river-deposit at ,leeds1 in which the remains of the hippopotamus were obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,skull of ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 showing the part which is not eaten by the hynas4 ,the last and most important addition to this fauna is that of man1 a fragment of fibula in the same mineral condition as the rest of the pleistocene bones1 having been identified by ,professor ,busk with an unusually massive recent human fibula4 ,although the fragment is very small1 its comparison with the abnormal specimen in ,professor ,busk's possession removes all doubt from my mind1 as to its having belonged to a man1 who was contemporary with the cave-hyna and the other pleistocene animals found in the cave4 ,the probable ,pre-glacial ,age of the ,pleistocene ,stratum4 ,is this occupation of the ,victoria ,cave by the pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial or post-glacial8--before1 or after1 the great lowering of the temperature in northern ,europe8 ,this difficult question can only be answered by an appeal to the physical history of the clay and cave-loam1 and to the evidence as to glacial action in the district1 and to the distribution of the mammalia in ,great ,britain during the pleistocene period4 ,glaciers have left their marks in nearly every part of ,lancashire and ,yorkshire1 and especially in the neighbourhood of the ,victoria ,cave4 ,the hill-sides around are studded with large ice-borne ,silurian rocks2 boulder-clay occupies nearly every hollow on the elevated plateaux2 and moraines are to be observed in nearly every valley4 ,at the entrance of the cave itself1 ice-scratched ,silurian grit-stones are imbedded in the clay1 which abuts directly on the cave-loam1 and passes insensibly into the clay1 with angular blocks of limestone within the cave4 ,they may possibly be the constituents of a lateral moraine in situ1 as ,mr4 ,tiddeman suggests1 or they may merely be derived from the waste of boulder-clay which has dropped from a higher level4 ,the latter view seems to me to be most likely to be true1 because some of the boulders have been deprived of the clay in which they were imbedded1 and are piled on each other with empty space between them1 the clay being carried down to a lower level and re-deposited4 ,their position1 however1 on the edges of the cave-earth implies1 in any case1 that they had been dropped after its accumulation4 ,there is another point to be considered in the physical evidence4 ,the deposits above the cave-earth1 occupying the interior and entrance of the cave1 have been introduced by the rains1 either through the entrance1 or through the crevices which penetrate the roof1 and consist of a finer detritus washed out of the boulder-clay on the surface at a higher level4 ,the cave-earth1 however1 although it has been introduced in the same way1 cannot be accounted for on the supposition that it was derived from the boulder-clay1 with which it contrasts in the fact that it is a loam1 of a reddish grey colour1 containing a large percentage of carbonate and phosphate of lime4 ,similar deposits1 characterized by their red colour1 are to be found in nearly all the caves of the south of ,england1 in ,france1 and southern ,europe1 not complicated1 as here1 by the glacial phenomena of the district4 ,had the layer been formed in the ,victoria ,cave1 from the destruction of the boulder-clay1 it would have been identical in composition with the deposits above4 ,the laminated portions of the grey clay are considered by ,mr4 ,tiddeman to have been formed by the flow of water through the entrance1 derived from the daily melting of the glacier which occupied the valley in ancient times1 and he compares it with a similar lamination in the boulder-clay at ,ingleton1 which has been described by ,mr4 ,binney in the neighbourhood of ,clifton1 near ,manchester1 under the expressive name of 8book-leaves40 ,since1 however1 similar accumulations are being formed at the present time at the bottom of pools in many caves1 as1 for example1 in that of ,ingleborough1 they cannot be taken to imply a glacial origin4 ,they are not found merely in one spot in the ,victoria ,cave1 but are scattered1 more or less1 through the general mass of the clay1 and occur abundantly even below the cave-earth1 having been deposited in the interstices between the large blocks of limestone4 ,in these positions they are of uncertain age1 and there is no reason why some of the hollows which we discovered below the cave-earth 7,fig4 #bi1 ,b7 should not be filled with them at the present time by the heavy rains4 ,they dip at all angles1 and are conformable to the surfaces on which they have been dropped4 ,the most important argument in favour of the pre-glacial age of the mammaliferous cave-earth is afforded by the range of the animals in ,great ,britain during the time that certain areas were occupied by glaciers4 ,in a paper read before the ,geological ,society in #ahfi1 ,i showed that those areas in ,great ,britain in which the marks of glaciers were the freshest and most abundant coincided with those which were barren of the remains of the pleistocene mammalia1 and ,i therefore inferred that this was due to the fact1 that the areas in question were covered by ice at the time that pleistocene animals were so numerous in the caves1 and river-deposits of southern and eastern ,england1 and on the continent4 ,in a map published in #ahga1 ,cumberland1 ,westmoreland1 ,lancashire1 and the greater portion of ,yorkshire are represented as being one of these barren areas1 in which no pleistocene mammalia have been observed4 ,it is obvious that the hynas1 bears1 mammoths1 and other creatures found in the pleistocene stratum1 could not have occupied the district when it was covered by ice2 and had they lived soon after the retreat of the ice-sheet1 their remains would occur in the river-gravels1 from which they are absent throughout a large area to the north of a line drawn between ,chester and ,york1 whilst they occur abundantly in the glacial river deposits south of that line4 ,on the other hand1 they belong to a fauna1 that overran ,europe1 and must have occupied this very region before the glacial period1 since their remains have been found in pre-glacial strata to the north in ,scotland1 to the south at ,selsea1 and to the east in ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,it may1 therefore1 reasonably be concluded that they occupied the cave in pre-glacial times1 and that the stratum in which their remains lie buried1 was protected from the grinding of the ice-sheet1 which destroyed nearly all the surface accumulations in the river-valleys1 by the walls and roof of rock1 which has since1 to a great extent1 been weathered away4#gf ,this view is also held by ,mr4 ,tiddeman4 ,the exploration of the ,victoria ,cave1 which has hitherto yielded such interesting evidence of three distinct occupations--first by hynas1 then by neolithic men1 and lastly by the ,brit-,welsh1 is by no means complete4 ,the cave itself is of unknown depth and extent1 and the mere removal of so much earth and clay as it is at present known to contain will be a labour of years4 ,the results of the exploration1 up to the present time1 are of almost equal value to the archologist1 to the historian1 and the geologist1 and prove how close is the bond of union between three branches of human thought which at first sight appear remote from each other4 ,the discussion of the problems connected with the neolithic and pleistocene strata must be referred to the fifth and following chapters4 ,the ,kirkhead ,cave4 ,other caves in this country1 besides the group under consideration in ,yorkshire1 have been occupied by the ,brit-,welsh4 ,that known as the ,kirkhead ,cave1 on the eastern shore of the ,promontory of ,cartmell1 on the northern shore of ,morecambe ,bay1 explored by ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,morris1#gg and a ,committee of the ,anthropological ,society in #ahfd-e1 contained remains of the same type as those of the ,brit-,welsh stratum in the ,victoria ,cave4 ,in the dbris which formed the floor and extended to an unknown depth below1 a coin of ,domitian1 8a trefoil-shaped ,roman fibula10 a pin1 ornamented with green enamel1 and a bronze ring were discovered in association with broken remains of domestic animals--,bos longifrons1 pig and goat1 dog and horse1 as well as stag1 roe1 wild goose1 and many human bones4 ,a bronze celt and a spear-head were also found1 at a depth respectively of five and six feet1 and a flint flake at a depth of seven feet2 and fragments of pottery1 a bead of amber1 cut bones1 the perforated head of the femur1 and other articles4 ,from this group of remains it may be inferred that the cave was occupied by the ,brit-,welsh1 and before them by the users of bronze1 and possibly by a neolithic people1 and that it had at some time or another been used as a place of burial4 ,just inside the entrance1 which overlooked the sea at a height of #de feet1 a semi-circular breastwork of large stones rendered the cave habitable1 and capable of easy defence4 ,mr4 ,morris's view that the discovery of a bronze celt1 flint flakes1 and coins in this cave proves that all three were in use at the same time1 and by the same people1 is not borne out by the published account of the excavation4 ,there is no proof that the deposit had not been disturbed1 or that the articles were not dropped at different times4 ,and in support of this conclusion1 it may be advanced1 that there is no case on record of the discovery of bronze celts or swords along with any ,roman coins under conditions which would prove that they were in use at the same time4 ,had such been the case the ruins of the many ,roman villas and cities1 destroyed by the ,english1 would have furnished some examples4 ,at ,silchester1 even such a rare article as a ,roman eagle has been met with4 ,there is every reason to believe with ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,mr4 ,evans1 and other eminent archologists1 that the use of bronze for weapons had been superseded by that of iron before the dawn of history in this country4 ,it is otherwise with the flint flakes2 since my discovery of several inside a ,roman coffin at ,hardham1 near ,pulborough1 in ,sussex1 in a cemetery that belongs to the later portion of the ,roman dominion in ,britain1 proves that they were used for some purpose at that time4#gh ,poole's ,cave1 near ,buxton4 ,in the collection of articles obtained from ,poole's ,cave1 in ,buxton1 in ,derbyshire1 ,i identified1 in #ahga1 in company with ,mr4 ,pennington1 bronze ,roman coins1 minimi1 ,samian and other ware1 and large quantities of broken bones of the same animals as those from the ,victoria ,cave4 ,a bronze harp-shaped fibula of the type of ,fig4 #e of the coloured ,plate is inlaid with silver1 and is so perfect that it might still be used4 ,thor's ,cave1 near ,ashbourne4 ,a cave also1 in ,staffordshire1 four miles from ,ilam1 explored by the ,midland ,scientific ,association in #ahfd1gi under the supervision of ,mr4 ,carrington1 has furnished articles of the same kind as those of ,yorkshire4 ,it is known as ,thor's cave1 and penetrates the lofty cliff of limestone1 on the south side of the river ,manifold1 at a height of about #bed feet from the bottom of the valley1 and about #ijj feet above the sea1 running horizontally inwards1 and being divided inside by a row of buttressed columns into two noble gothic aisles4 ,its bottom was occupied by clay1 in which1 near the entrance1 there were thick layers of charcoal at depths of two1 three1 and four feet below the surface1 mingled with broken bones and pottery1 that indicated the spots where fires had been kindled4 ,the articles discovered were as follows3-- 8,bronze4--,armlet1 two fibul of harp pattern 7see coloured ,plate1 ,fig4 #e71 two plain breast-pins and rings1 a curious wheel-shaped instrument4 8,iron4--,large triangular fork1 arrow-heads1 lance-heads1 several knives and a chopper1 of singular shapes1 reaping hook 7871 adze1 pins1 two girdle hooks 7871 c4 8,bone4--,seven snags of deer's horns1 variously cut and perforated1 several others not perforated1 curious bone comb ornamented with circles1 flat bone perforated with four holes1 two leg-bones carved at the ends1 pin1 a large quantity of bones of animals that had been consumed for food4 8,stone4--,greenstone pounder1 fragments of querns1 perforated disk1 c4 8,pottery4--,a large collection of fragments of various periods1 among the rest several pieces of true ,samian ware40 ,mr4 ,edwin ,brown1 from whose report this list is taken1 concludes that ,thor's cave was occupied during 8the late ,celtic and ,romano-,celtic periods40 ,the harp-fibul are of a pattern identical with several of those discovered in the ,victoria ,cave1 and the holes at their upper ends were probably intended for the reception of enamel4 ,the bronze instrument1 consisting of a disk cut out into a flamboyant pattern like that of the round brooch from the ,victoria ,cave 7,fig4 #be71 and joined to a central stem ornamented with waved lines1 was intended for suspension2 possibly1 as ,mr4 ,carrington suggests1 it may have been used for spinning4 ,it is a remarkably fine example of ,brit-,welsh or late ,celtic art4 ,the bone comb is of the same type as those from the ,brit-,welsh caves of ,yorkshire4 ,it is evident1 from ,mr4 ,brown's account1 that there were distinct layers of occupation2 but1 unfortunately1 the articles found in each were not separated from the rest4 ,one armlet 7,fig4 #ca71 composed of a thin plate of bronze1 and ornamented with a dotted-line pattern1 is of the peculiar type which is characteristic of the bronze age4 ,the cave had also been used as a place of sepulture1 for near 8the pulpit rock10 and at a depth of five feet from the surface1 a skeleton rested in the sitting posture which is so characteristic of neolithic interments in ,europe4 ,it had also been entered by man even before any of these accumulations4 8,in the south recess1 behind and below any traces of man's occupation1 the diggers came upon a kind of flooring of tabular masses of breccia stretching almost across the cave1 and on one side attached firmly to the wall10 beneath which rested1 in the undisturbed clay1 a deer's horn1 rudely sawn across and perforated by two holes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,bronze ,bracelet from ,thor's ,cave4 ,thor's ,cave1 therefore1 like the ,victoria1 has been occupied by man in the ,brit-,welsh stage of the historic period1 as well as in the bronze1 and possibly in the neolithic ages4 ,historic ,value of ,brit-,welsh ,group of ,caves4 ,the discovery that caves were used as habitations by men accustomed to the elegance of civilized life1 not merely in ,yorkshire1 but in districts so far removed from each other as ,staffordshire and the extreme north of ,lancashire1 during the fifth and sixth centuries1 implies the pressure of a far-reaching calamity by which they were driven from their homes4 ,it completes and rounds off the story of the social condition of the country during these troubled times1 which is revealed in the sacked and burned ,brit-,welsh cities and villas1 as well as in the scanty records of the ,english invasion4 ,subsequent investigation will probably show that caves were occupied at this time in every part of the country which was conquered by the ,english4 ,in the upper stratum of ,kent's ,hole1 for example1 near ,torquay1 similar articles1 with the exception of the enamels1 have been discovered4 ,there1 however1 the occupation may have been considerably later than in the caves of ,yorkshire1 because the ,roman civilization was not supplanted in ,devonshire by the ,english until the beginning of the ninth century4 ,the river ,tamar then marked the frontier between the ,english1 and the ,brit-,welsh of the promontory of ,cornwall1 which represented the dominion of ,west ,wales in the days of ,ecgberht4#hj ,in the numerous caves of ,wales1 on the other hand1 which ,i have explored1 there is no trace of inhabitants of the fifth and sixth centuries1 a circumstance that is easily accounted for by the fact that ,wales was not invaded at that time by the ,english4 ,there would therefore be no reason for the civilized ,brit-,welsh to fly to caves for refuge4 ,principal ,animals and ,articles in ,brit-,welsh ,caves4 ,the following are the more important animals and articles found in the group of caves under consideration4 ,the species are identical with those which ,i have tabulated from refuse-heaps of ,roman age4#ha ,list of ,principal ,animals and ,objects found in ,brit-,welsh ,strata in ,caves4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,animals4 ,victoria,kelko,dowker ,kirk ,poole's,thor's ,bottom4head4,cavern4,cave4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,domestic4 ,canis familiaris--,dog ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x 8 ,sus scrofa--,pig ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x 8 ,equus caballus--,horse ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x 8 ,bos longifrons--,celtic ,short-horn ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x 8 ,capra hircus--,goat ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x 8 ,,wild4 ,canis vulpes--,fox ,x 444 ,x ,x ,x 8 ,meles taxus--,badger ,x 444 ,x 444 444 x ,cervus elaphus--,stag ,x 444 ,x ,x ,x 8 ,cervus capreolus--,roe ,x 444 ,x ,x 444 8 ,roman coins or imitations ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,enamelled ornaments in bronze ,x ,x ,x ,x 444 444 ,bronze ornaments inlaid with silver ,x ,x ,x 444 ,x 444 ,iron articles ,x ,x ,x 444 ,x ,x ,samian ware ,x 444 ,x 444 ,x ,x ,black ware ,x ,x ,x 444 ,x ,x ,bone-spoon fibul 7,fig4 #bb7 ,x ,x ,x 444 444 444 ,bone combs ,x ,x ,x 444 444 ,x ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,all the less important animals and articles are omitted from this list4 ,it will be observed that the brown bear1 the wolf1 and the fallow-deer are absent4 ,the brown bear was probably at this time very rare in ,britain1 since its remains have been met with in but two out of the many ,roman refuse-heaps in the country1 at ,london and ,colchester4 ,the well-known lines of ,martial1 however1 imply that it was imported from ,britain to ,rome at this time-- 8,nuda ,caledonio sic pectora prbuit urso1 ,haud falsa pendens in cruce ,laureolus40 ,it probably became extinct about the ninth or tenth century4 ,the wolf obviously would not be likely to be used for food1 although it probably was abundant in the district4 ,the fallow-deer also had not penetrated into the hilly districts1 although it had become naturalized in this country by the ,romans1 so as to have been frequently used as an article of food before the ,english invasion4 ,i have seen its characteristic antlers in refuse-heaps1 both in ,london and ,colchester1 which have furnished ,roman coins and pottery4 ,the beaver was probably very rare in the fifth and sixth centuries1 and has been met with in no cave-deposit1 either historic or prehistoric1 in this country4 ,it was1 however1 known to the ,anglian conquerors of ,yorkshire 7,northumbria71 who called ,beverley 7lea1 leag-7 after its name4 ,the ,use of ,horseflesh4 ,the broken bones of the horse1 in all the caves above mentioned1 leave no room to doubt that horseflesh was a common article of food at that time4 ,it was so1 indeed1 throughout ,roman ,britain1 and after the ,english invasion was used as late as the ,council of ,celchyth1#hb in the year #ghg4 ,it was forbidden by the ,church because it was eaten by the ,scandinavian peoples in honour of ,odin4 ,in ,norway1#hc ,hacon1 the foster-son of thelstan1 was compelled to eat it by the bonders1 in #ief1 and the revolt of the bonders which ended in the bloody battle of ,stikklestadt1 in which ,olaf met his death1 in #ajcj1 was caused by his cruelties to the eaters of horseflesh4 ,as ,christianity prevailed over the worship of ,thor and ,odin1 it was banished from the table4 ,the present prejudice against its use is a remarkable instance of the change in taste1 which has been brought about by an ecclesiastical rule aimed against a long-forgotten faith4 ,the rule was not1 however1 always obeyed1 for the ,monks of ,st4 ,gall1 in the eleventh century1 not only ate horseflesh1 but returned thanks for it1 in a metrical grace1 written by ,ekkehard the ,younger 7died #ajcf73-- 8,sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce ,christi40#hd ,the ,cave of ,longberry ,bank4 ,the cave of ,longberry ,bank1 near ,penally1 in ,pembrokeshire1 may also be classed with those which were inhabited in historic times1 since it contained red fine-grained pottery of a kind commonly found in the ruins of ,roman villas4 ,it was explored by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,winwood1 in #ahff1 in whose collection are the remains of the ,bos longifrons1 goat1 badger1 dog1 as well as shells of oyster1 large limpets and mussel from the neighbouring shore4 ,some of the bones are burned4 ,several human vertebr and a metacarpal were probably the traces of an interment of unknown date2 and the two flint flakes are of uncertain age4 ,the results obtained by the exploration of the caves described in this chapter are to be taken merely as the first-fruits of a new line of inquiry1 which is likely to throw light on many points relating to art1 history1 and the range of the animals1 and not as being perfect or final4 ,on the continent1 no historic caves of importance have as yet been explored4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,caves ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,of ,,bronze4 ,the ,difference between ,historic and ,prehistoric ,time4--,the ,prehistoric ,fauna4--,the ,archological ,classification4--,caves of the ,iron ,age4--,caves of the ,bronze ,age in ,britain4--,the ,caves of ,csareda in ,portugal probably occupied by ,cannibals4--,the ,cave of ,reggio in ,apulia4 ,the ,difference between ,historic and ,prehistoric ,time4 ,it will be necessary before we examine the group of caves used by man in prehistoric times1 to point out the important difference in the measurement of time within and beyond the borders of history4 ,when we speak1 for example1 of the date of the ,norman ,conquest1 we imply that we can ascertain by historical records1 not merely that it succeeded the invasion of ,britain by the ,english or ,danes1 and happened before our own time1 but that the interval which separates it from those events can be accurately measured by the unit of years4 ,if1 however1 we attempt to ascertain the date of any event which happened outside the historical limit1 we shall find that it is a question solely of relation4 ,when we speak1 for example1 of the neolithic age1 we merely mean a certain stage of human progress which succeeded the palolithic1 and preceded the bronze age1 but we have no proof of the length of the interval dividing it from the one or the other4 ,the historic 8when80 implies 8how long ago80 the prehistoric 8when80 merely implies a definition before and after certain events1 without any idea of the measurement of the intervals4 ,an attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric events must of necessity fail1 since it is based on the improbable assumption that the physical agents have acted uniformly1 and that therefore the results may be used as a natural chronometer4 ,the present rate of the accumulation of dbris1 as at the ,victoria ,cave of the preceding chapter1 or of that of silt in the deltas of rivers1 such as the ,nile1 or the ,tinire1 may convey a rough idea of the high antiquity of prehistoric deposits2 but a slight change either of the climate1 or of the rainfall1 would invalidate the conclusion4 ,when the greater part of ,europe lay buried under forest1 when ,palestine supported a large population1 and when glaciers crowned some of the higher mountains of ,africa1 such as the ,atlas1 the ,european and ,egyptian climates were probably moister than at the present time1 and the rainfall and the floods greater1 and consequently the accumulation of sediment quicker than the observed rate under the present conditions4 ,and in the same way all estimates of the lapse of past time1 based upon the excavation of a river valley1 or the retrocession of a waterfall1 such as ,niagara1 lie open to the same kind of objection4 ,it is not at all reasonable to suppose that the complex conditions which regulate the present rate of erosion1 have been the same during the time the work has been done1 and it therefore follows that the work done is a measure of the power employed1 and not of the length of time during which it has been in operation4 ,we must1 therefore1 give up the idea of measuring the past beyond the memory of man1 as represented in historical documents1 by the historic unit of years4 ,we can merely trace a definite sequence of events1 separated one from another by uncertain intervals4 ,and for that series of events which extends from the borders of history back to the remote age where the geologist1 descending the stream of time1 meets the archologist1 ,i have adopted the term prehistoric4#he ,the ,prehistoric ,fauna4 ,the prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival of the domestic animals in ,europe1 under the care of man4 ,the dog1 swine1 horse1 horned-sheep1 goat1 ,bos longifrons1 and the larger ox descended from an ancestor1 according to ,professor ,rtimeyer1 of the type of the great ,urus1 make their appearance together1 in association with the remains of man1 in the neolithic stage of civilization4#hf ,subsequently they spread over the whole of our continent1 for the most part under the care of man4 ,the ,bos longifrons1 however1 and possibly also the ,urus1 reverted to feral conditions1 just as the horses and oxen1 in the ,americas and ,australia1 have done at the present time1 and their remains are therefore frequently found in association with animals undoubtedly wild4 ,the domestic horse1 the variety of hog descended from the wild boar1 and the domestic cattle derived from the ,urus1 may possibly have passed under the yoke of man1 in ,europe1 since their wild stocks were to be found in that area1 both in the prehistoric and pleistocene times4 ,this1 however1 cannot be affirmed of the swine descended from the southern variety of ,sus ,indica1 or of the ,celtic shorthorn1 of the sheep1 or goat1 since their wild ancestors were not indigenous in ,europe4 ,these animals must have been domesticated in some area outside ,europe2 and since central ,asia is the region where the wild stocks still exist1 from which all the domestic animals are descended1 it is reasonable to suppose that they were domesticated in that region1 and thence introduced1 by a race of shepherds and herdsmen1 into our quarter of the world4 ,this conclusion is considerably strengthened by the evidence which ,professor ,heer has advanced1 as to the vegetables used by the dwellers on piles in the ,swiss lakes1 among which some1 such as the two kinds of millet1 the six-rowed barley 7hordeum hexastichon71 the ,egyptian wheat 7triticum turgidum71 and a weed 7,silene cretica71 accidentally brought along with them1 are distinctively of southern derivation4 ,the most important wild animals living in this country during the prehistoric period are the urus1 the gigantic skulls of which occur in the peat bogs of ,england and ,scotland1 the ,irish elk1 the moose 7,cervus alces71 and the reindeer4 ,the two last are far more abundant in the north than in the south of ,britain2 their remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood of ,london1 those of both animals at ,walthamstow1 and those of the latter at ,crossness in ,kent1 on the banks of the ,thames4 ,the remains of the bison have not been recorded from any prehistoric deposit in this country4 ,the ,irish elk is the only animal which has become extinct2 while the moose1 or true elk1 is the only wild species which has not been proved to have been living in the preceding age4 ,the stag was very abundant4 ,the prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the pleistocene not merely by the appearance of the animals above mentioned1 which were hitherto unknown1 but by the absence of many species which were living during the latter period4 ,the cave bear1 woolly rhinoceros1 and mammoth1 for example1 became extinct1 the musk-sheep and lemming were banished from a temperate latitude to take refuge in the regions of the north1 while the spotted hyna1 the hippopotamus1 and ,felis caffer1 retired to the warm regions of ,africa1 where they are still living4 ,the ,archological ,classification4 ,the prehistoric period has been classified by the archologists according to the stages of human progress which it presents4 ,at the frontier of history1 in each country1 we find that the dwellers were acquainted with the use of iron1 and had found it to be the most convenient material for the manufacture of cutting weapons and implements4 ,before this the voice of tradition points out that bronze was the only material used for these purposes1 and stone before bronze4 ,these three stages of human culture1 or the ages of iron1 bronze1 and stone1 have been fully verified by investigations which have been made in various parts of ,europe1 into the prehistoric habitations and burial-places of man4 ,this classification by no means implies an exact chronology1 or that any one of these ages1 with the exception perhaps of the first1 covered the whole of ,europe at the same point of time1 but that the order in which they followed each other is the same in each country which has been explored4 ,there is good reason for the belief1 that at the time the ,egyptian and ,assyrian empires were in the height of their glory1 ,northern ,europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-using races4 ,and it is a well-ascertained fact1 that while the inhabitants of ,britain and ,scandinavia were in their bronze age1 the ,etruscans and ,phnicians were in their full power in the south4 ,it is obvious again1 that1 even in the same country1 the poorer classes must have been long content to use the ruder and more common materials for their daily needs1 while the richer and more powerful used the rarer and more costly4 ,these three ages must therefore necessarily overlap4 8,like the three principal colours of the rainbow10 writes ,mr4 ,evans1#hg 8these three stages of civilization overlap1 intermingle1 and shade off the one into the other2 and yet their succession1 as far as ,western ,europe is concerned1 appears to be equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours1 though the proportions of the spectrum may vary in different countries40 ,they cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast lines of division1 mapping off successive quantities of time4 ,the age of stone is subdivided by ,sir ,john ,lubbock into the neolithic periods1 or that in which polished stone was the only material used for cutting1 and the palolithic1 in which mankind had not learnt to grind and polish his implements4 ,the latter belongs to the pleistocene1 or quaternary period1 since the palolithic implements are found in association with the remains of the animals characteristic of that age4 ,the prehistoric caves1 therefore1 may be divided into three classes if the archological method of analysis be employed3 #a1 into those containing evidence of the use of iron2 #b1 those containing proof of the knowledge of bronze2 #c1 and lastly1 those in which traces of polished stone weapons have been discovered unassociated with metals4 ,by the animal remains which they contain they may be distinguished from those of the pleistocene age1 both by the absence1 as well as the presence of certain species which have been enumerated4 ,from the archological point of view1 two out of the four ages are still represented4 ,stone is1 at the present time1 the only material used in the more remote regions of ,australia1 although it is fast being replaced by iron1 which has superseded bronze1 and is spreading rapidly over the whole earth4 ,the group of historic caves described in the preceding chapter may be said to belong to the iron age1 that is to say1 to that later portion of it in which the events are recorded in history4 ,the traces of the occupation of caves by man in the iron and bronze ages are so extremely scarce1 that it is certain that they were but rarely used as habitations4 ,man had sufficiently advanced in civilization in those times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs for himself1 instead of using the natural shelters which were so very generally occupied in ,europe by his ruder neolithic predecessors4 ,cave of the ,iron ,age4 ,in the course of the systematic exploration of caves in the ,mendip ,hills1 carried on by ,messrs4 ,ayshford ,sanford1 ,parker1 and myself1 a cave was examined in ,burrington ,combe1 near ,wrington1 in ,somerset1 which may be referred to the iron age1 and which we named ,whitcombe's ,hole4 ,it opened upon the side of that magnificent combe1 at a height of about #ace feet from the bottom and fifteen from the top1 and ran horizontally inwards1 the floor being formed of an accumulation of earth mingled with charcoal1 and containing numerous broken bones and teeth4 ,the latter belonged to the wolf1 fox1 badger1 rabbit1 hare1 stag1 goat1 and ,celtic shorthorn4 ,in the lower portion were the fragments of a rude1 unornamented urn of a coarse black ware1 with the rim turned at right angles1 along with a bent piece of iron1 which bears a strong resemblance to those found strengthening the corners of wooden coffins in the ,gallo-,roman graves on the banks of the ,somme4 ,the fractures of the bones1 with one exception1 were caused by the hand of man1 and not by the teeth of the carnivora4 ,the position renders the cave eminently fitted for concealment1 for while commanding an extensive view down the ,combe1 it is invisible both from above and below1 and opening on the face of an almost vertical cliff1 it is easily defended4 ,if the urn be sepulchral1 the interment must be of a later date than the occupation1 because it is made in the dbris which resulted from the latter4#hh ,caves of the ,bronze ,age in ,britain4 ,the cave of ,heathery ,burn1#hi near ,stanhope1 in ,weardale1 co4 ,durham1 is the only one in this country that has furnished a large series of articles of the bronze age4 ,it is described by ,mr4 ,elliott as running into the precipitous side of a ravine1 at a height of about #aj to #ab feet above the level of the ,stanhope ,burn1 and as being partially traversed by water4 ,since its discovery in #ahfa1 it has been altogether destroyed by the removal of the stone to be used as a flux in smelting the ore of the ,weardale ,iron ,company1 and an admirable section of its contents was therefore visible from time to time4 ,a stratum of sand at the bottom1 two feet nine inches thick1 deposited by the stream1 and containing angular masses of limestone that had dropped from the roof1 was covered by a sheet of stalagmite three inches in thickness4 ,on this rested a mass of bones and implements imbedded in silt or sand1 and sealed over by a thickness of stalagmite of from two to eight inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,bronze ,knife1 ,heathery ,burn 7natural size74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,bronze ,armlet1 ,heathery ,burn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,bronze ,spearhead1 ,heathery ,burn 7 size74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,bronze ,mould for casting a socketed celt4 ,on removing the upper of these two stalagmitic floors a perfect human skull was discovered1 along with broken bones of animals1 charcoal1 limpet shells1 bone pins1 an instrument of bone like a paper-knife1 coarse pottery with fragments of chert imbedded in its mass1 a portion of a jet armlet1 as well as several boars' tusks4 ,the same stratum at another place furnished a singular bronze knife with a socket for the handle 7,fig4 #cb71ij bronze pins1 celts1 an armlet of twisted wire 7,fig4 #cc71 along with shells of limpet1 mussel1 and oyster1 and charcoal1 and at a third1 on the other side of the watercourse1 a bronze spear-head4 ,subsequently1 many articles were added to the above list1 seven pins1 three rings1 two split-rings1 a 8razor10 disk1 three socketed celts1 one chisel1 two gouges1 and four spear-heads of bronze1 and a fine bracelet1 and two ornaments of the horse-shoe1 or split-ring type1 made of thin plates of gold4 ,one of the spear-heads1 in the collection of the ,rev4 ,canon ,greenwell1 is represented in ,fig4 #cd4 ,there were also waste pieces of bronze1 and the half of a bronze mould for casting celts1 ,fig4 #ce1 in which one of the associated celts had actually been cast1 since it is of the same pattern4 ,these articles were probably concealed in the cavern by workers in bronze1 who were prevented1 by some unforeseen accident1 from obtaining them again4 ,the charcoal and the broken bones of the ,bos longifrons1 badger1 and dog1 imply that the cave had been used as a habitation2 and possibly the two human skulls1 which have been described by ,professor ,huxley and ,mr4 ,carter ,blake1 may have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of bronze and gold4 ,both were discovered in the same stratum and below the floor of stalagmite4 ,the more perfect of the two skulls is considered by ,professor ,huxley to belong to the same long-headed race of men as that found at ,muskham1 in the valley of the ,trent1--to a form which he terms the ,river-bed type1 and that cannot be separated from those obtained from the long tumuli of the ,south of ,england1 and considered by ,dr4 ,thurnam to belong to a ,neolithic ,basque1 or ,iberian population4 ,articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already noticed as having been met with in the caves of ,kirkhead1 in ,cartmell1 and in ,thor's ,cave1 in ,staffordshire4 ,from the latter the bracelet of thin bronze1 ,fig4 #ca1 was obtained by ,mr4 ,carrington1 of ,wetton4 ,the rarity of bronze implements in caves in ,britain and the ,continent is probably1 to a large extent1 due to the value of the material1 and to the fact that it could be re-melted4 ,if a bronze article happened to be broken1 the pieces would naturally be kept for future use1 and not thrown away1 as in the case of a fractured stone implement4 ,the former1 therefore1 are rare1 the latter comparatively abundant4 ,the cave called the ,cat-,hole1 in ,gower 7,glamorgan71 explored by ,colonel ,wood in #ahfd1 contained several human skeletons1 flint flakes1 fragments of red pottery marked with a string1 cut bones1 a stone muller1 and a bronze socketed celt4 ,the last is of the same pattern as some of those in the collection of the ,rev4 ,canon ,greenwell1 from ,heathery ,burn1 and has been cast in a mould similar in size and ornamentation to that figured in woodcut #ce4 ,the ,caves of ,csareda probably occupied by ,cannibals4 ,the contents of three caves#ia in the ,iberian peninsula1 referable to the dawn of the bronze age1 render it very probable that the use of human flesh was not unknown in those times4 ,in #ahfg ,senhor ,j4 ,l4 ,delgado described his researches in the caverns of ,csareda1 in the valley of the ,tagus1 in the ,casa da ,maura1 ,lapa ,furada1 and ,cova da ,maura4 ,the first of these contained two distinct strata4 ,the lower1 consisting of sand mixed with fragments of rock1 rested on the stalagmite1 and contained fragments of charcoal1 one implement of bone1 and many of flint1 a scraper1 a flake1 and an arrow-head4 ,the broken bones and teeth belonged to the following animals3--,the lynx1 fox1 brown-bear1 dog and wolf1 a species of deer1 the water-vole1 and the rabbit4 ,none of the remains of the carnivora had been subjected to the action of fire1 or had been used for food4 ,a human skull with lower jaw was dug out of the deepest part1 but1 since the matrix had been disturbed1 it had probably been interred after the accumulation of the deposit4 ,it is recognized by ,professor ,busk#ib as belonging to the same long type as the skulls of the caves of ,gibraltar and the ,basque graveyard1 measuring in length #fg inches1 in breadth #ec1 in height #ee1 and therefore possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of #ghe and #hbj4ic ,the upper stratum1 a sandy loam1 contained a large quantity of stones1 and numerous articles fabricated by man3 polished-stone axes1 flakes1 and other instruments of flint1 bone1 and antler1 fragments of coarse black pottery1 with bits of calcareous spar imbedded in its substance1 and two plates of schist ornamented with a rude design1 which may have been used as amulets4 ,fragments of charcoal were scattered throughout the matrix1 and adhered to some of the pottery and to the burnt pebbles4 ,the most abundant remains were those of man4 ,they were to be counted by thousands1 and were so fragmentary and scattered that it was impossible to put together one perfect skeleton4 ,the teeth1 belonging for the most part to children or fully-grown adults1 were particularly abundant4 ,the long bones had lost1 very generally1 their articular ends1 had been fractured longitudinally1 and some of them had been cut and scraped4 ,it is therefore probable that this accumulation was formed by a tribe of cannibals3 the evidence that human flesh formed their principal food being precisely of the same nature as that by which the flint-folk of the ,prigord are proved to have subsisted on the flesh of the reindeer4 ,professor ,busk1#id however1 is inclined to believe the facts in support of cannibalism insufficient4 ,the associated animals consisted of the bat1 dormouse1 rabbit1 horse1 a small ox1 allied to ,bos longifrons1 sheep or goat1 wild cat1 wolf1 fox1 and dog4 ,the contents of the other two caves were precisely of the same nature1 and had been accumulated under the same conditions4 ,a bronze arrow-head1 discovered in the upper stratum1 and the ornamentation of the stone amulet1 consisting of alternate triangles and zigzag ladders1 as remarked by ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 indicate that the upper deposit belongs to the age of bronze1 and probably to an early stage1 when stone was being superseded by bronze1 since many stone celts were found in the same spot4 ,the ancient burial-places of ,ultz1 in ,westphalia1 furnish a second case of the practice of cannibalism1 according to ,m4 ,schaaffhausen of ,bonn#ie4 ,they are probably of the age of bronze4 ,the ,cave of ,reggio1 in ,modena4 ,the human remains in a cave in the province of ,reggio1#if on the northern flank of the ,apennines1 brought before the ,prehistoric ,congress at ,bologna by ,m4 l',abb ,chierici1 and considered by him to be proofs of cannibalism1 are probably merely the result of interment in a refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated4 ,they were associated with bronze pins1 rivets1 polished-stone axes1 and various implements of bone1 fragments of pottery and of charcoal1 bones of pig1 sheep1 and dog1 and belong therefore to the period of transition from the neolithic to the bronze age4 ,the caves have contributed but very little to our knowledge of the bronze-folk in any part of ,europe4 ,examples1 such as those given above1 are scattered through ,france and ,spain1 but they are not sufficiently important to require notice4 ,we could not expect that men1 in the high state of civilization implied by the beautiful jewellery and ornaments which are distinctive of the bronze-folk1 would have chosen the wild1 half-savage life which is involved in cave-habitation4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,caves ,,of ,,the ,,neolithic ,,age4 ,neolithic ,caves in ,great ,britain4--,the ,refuse-heap at ,perthi-,chwareu4--,the ,sepulchral ,caves4--,the ,neolithic ,caves in the neighbourhood of ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph4--,the ,chambered ,tomb near ,cefn4--,interments in ,tomb and ,caves of the same age4--,contents of ,tomb and ,caves4--,description of ,human ,remains by ,professor ,busk--,from ,cave ,no4 #a at ,perthi-,chwareu--from ,cairn at ,cefn--from ,cave at ,cefn4--,general ,conclusions as to ,human ,remains4 ,it is evident1 from the scanty remains found in caves1 that they were not the normal habitations of men in the ,bronze or ,iron stages of culture4 ,we shall1 however1 find that they were used by the neolithic peoples1 both for shelter and for burial1 in nearly every portion of ,europe which has been explored4 ,neolithic ,caves in ,great ,britain4--,perthi-,chwareu4 ,the most remarkable examples of caves1 turned to both these uses1 in ,britain1 are offered by the group clustering round a refuse-heap at ,perthi-,chwareu1 a farm high up in the ,welsh hills1 about ten miles to the east of ,corwen1 and a mile to the west of the little village of ,llandegla1 in ,denbighshire4 ,the ,refuse-heap4 ,the first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that locality was afforded by a small box of bones forwarded to me by ,mr4 ,darwin1 in #ahfi2 and this ,i was able to follow up1 through the kind assistance of ,mrs4 ,lloyd1 the owner of the property on which they were found1 from time to time1 during #ahfi-gj-ga-b4 ,the mountain limestone1 which there forms hill and valley1 consists of thick masses of hard rock1 separated by soft beds of shale1 and contains large quantities of producti1 crinoids and corals4 ,the strata dip to the south1 at an angle of about #a in #be1 and form two parallel ridges1 with abrupt faces to the north1 and separated from each other by a narrow valley1 passing east and west along the strike4 ,the remains sent by ,mr4 ,darwin were obtained from a space between two strata near the top of the northern ridge1 whence the intervening softer material had been carried away by water4 ,its maximum height was #f inches1 and its width #bj feet or more2 and it extended in a direction parallel to the bed of the rocks4 ,the bones1 which had evidently been washed in by the rain1 and not carried in by any carnivora1 belong to the following species3-- ,canis familiaris--,the ,dog4 ,canis vulpes--,the ,fox4 ,meles taxus--,the ,badger4 ,sus scrofa--,the ,pig4 ,cervus capreolus--,the ,roe-deer4 ,cervus elaphus--,the ,red-deer4 ,capra hircus--,the ,goat4 ,bos longifrons--,the ,celtic ,short-horn4 ,equus caballus--,the ,horse4 ,arvicola amphibius--,the ,water-rat4 ,lepus timidus--,the ,hare4 ,lepus cuniculus--,the ,rabbit4 ,the ,eagle4 ,nearly all the bones were broken1 and belonged to young animals4 ,those of the ,celtic short-horn1 of the sheep or goat1 and of the young pig1 were very abundant2 while those of the roe and stag1 hare and horse1 were comparatively rare4 ,the remains of the domestic dog were rather abundant1 and the percentage of young puppies implies also that they1 like the other animals1 had been used for food4 ,possibly the hare may also have been eaten1 but its remains were scarce1 and belonged to adults4 ,some of the bones had been gnawed by dogs4 ,the only reasonable cause that can be assigned for the accumulation of the remains of these animals is1 that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral habits1 but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase1 and that the relics of their food were thrown out to form a refuse-heap4 ,the latter had altogether disappeared from the surface of the ground1 from the action of the rain and other atmospheric causes1 while those portions of it which chanced to be washed into the narrow interspace between the strata were preserved1 to mark the spot which it once occupied4 ,there was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date of its accumulation4 ,it may have been of the stone1 bronze1 or iron age2 but from the presence of the goat1 short-horned ox1 and dog1 it certainly does not date so far back as the epoch of the reindeer1 mammoth1 rhinoceros1 and cave-hyna4 ,the presence of the ,celtic short-horn throws no light upon the antiquity1 because for centuries after it had ceased to be the domestic breed in ,england it remained in ,wales1 and still lives in the small black ,welsh cattle1 that are lineal descendants of those which furnished beef to the ,roman provincials in ,britain4 ,the ,sepulchral ,caves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,section of ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,scale #ab feet to #a inch4 ,while the refuse-heap was being explored1 ,i chose a small depression 7,fig4 #cf ,a7 in the precipitous side of the southern ridge1 that formed a kind of rock shelter overlooking the valley1 and that seemed to be a likely place for the abode of man1 or of wild animals4 ,on setting the men to work1 in a few minutes we began to discover the remains of dog1 marten-cat1 fox1 badger1 goat1 ,celtic short-horn1 roe-deer and stag1 horse1 and large birds4 ,mixed with these1 as we proceeded1 we began to find human bones1 between and underneath large masses of rock1 that were completely covered up with red silt and sand4 ,as these were cleared away1 we gradually realized that we were on the threshold of a sepulchral cave4 ,in the small space then excavated1 human remains1 belonging to no fewer than five individuals1 were found4 ,subsequently the work was carried on by ,mrs4 ,lloyd1 under the careful supervision of her agent ,mr4 ,reid4 ,the rock-shelter narrowed into a 8tunnel cave10 that penetrated the rocks in a line parallel to the bedding1 and1 roughly speaking1 at right angles to the valley1 having a width varying from #c feet #d inches to #e feet #f inches1 and a height from #c feet #d inches to #d feet #f inches4 ,the entrance was completely blocked up with red earth and loose stones1 the latter1 apparently1 having been placed there by design 7,figs4 #cf1 #cg74 ,the inside of the cave was filled with red earth and sand to within about a foot of the roof4 ,the remains were found1 for the most part1 on or near the top2 but in some cases they were deep down4 ,one human skull1 for example1 was found six inches only above the rocky floor4 ,the human bones were associated with those of the animals of which a list has been given1 and occurred in little confused heaps4 ,one human femur was in a perpendicular position4 ,the account of the continuation of the digging is given almost in the words of ,mrs4 ,lloyd4 ,on the second day1 after an hour's work1 a human skull was found near the roof of the cave1 resting on a femur2 then eleven feet explored brought to light a large quantity of human bones1 including nine femurs4 ,the third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out the cave 7,fig4 #cf-g ,b7 up to this point1 and to excavating about four feet further in1 or fifteen from the entrance4 ,during the work two teeth of a horse were found1 resting on the floor near the entrance1 and nine more about ten feet within the cave2 also a boar's tusk of remarkable size1 and close by a mussel and cockle-shell1 and valve of ,mya truncata1 along with a quantity of human and other bones2 including five skulls1 more or less perfect1 and many fragments4 ,all these skulls were found between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the entrance4 ,during the fifth and sixth days1 the work was superintended by ,mr4 ,reid1 who entirely cleared the cave for about thirteen feet further3 the first eight feet yielded a small quantity of human and other bones1 including the perfect skull of a marten-cat and the incisor of a wild boar4 ,the only implement found in the cave1 a broken flint flake1 occurred here1 and a nearly perfect human skull1 lying face downwards1 with the pelvis adhering to one side4 ,the last five feet furnished only two bones1 both of the short-horned ox4 ,the end of the cave was composed of unproductive grey clay4 7,figs4 #cf-g ,c47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,plan of ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the cave1 and a great many rounded pebbles from the boulder clay of the neighbourhood4 ,the human remains belong for the most part to very young or adolescent individuals1 from the small infant to youths of twenty-one4 ,some1 however1 belong to men in the prime of life4 ,all the teeth that had been used were ground perfectly flat4 ,the skulls belong to that type which ,professor ,huxley terms the 8river-bed skull40 ,some of the tibi present the peculiar flattening parallel to the median line1 which ,professor ,busk denotes by the term platycnemic1 and some of the femora were traversed by a largely developed and prominent linea aspera2 but these peculiarities were not seen on all the femora and tibi1 and cannot therefore be considered characteristic of race1 but most probably of sex4 ,they were not presented by any of the younger bones4 ,all the human remains had undoubtedly been buried in the cave1 since the bones were in the main perfect1 or only broken by the large stones which had subsequently fallen from the roof4 ,from the juxtaposition of one skull to a pelvis1 and the vertical position of one of the femora1 as well as the fact that the bones lay in confused heaps1 it is clear that the corpses had been buried in the contracted posture1 as is usually the case in neolithic interments4 ,and since the area was insufficient for the accommodation of so many bodies at one time1 it is certain that the cave had been used as a cemetery at different times4 ,the stones blocking up the entrance were probably placed as a barrier against the inroads of wild beasts4 ,these remains are the first in this country which present the peculiar character of platycnemism1 noticed by ,professor ,busk and ,dr4 ,falconer in human remains in the caves of ,gibraltar1 and by ,dr4 ,broca in some of those from the dolmens of ,france1 and subsequently in the celebrated skeletons found in the cave of ,cro-magnon4 ,i have also observed the same peculiar flattening of the tibia in the only fragment of human bone obtained by ,mr4 ,foote1 in the ,lateritic deposits of the eastern coast of ,southern ,india1 along with the stone implements figured in the ,norwich ,volume of the ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology 7#ahfh1 p4 #bbd74 ,the remains of the animals associated with the human bones belong to the same species as those mentioned above from the dbris of a refuse-heap1 and are in a similar broken and split condition4 ,they may have been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons1 but1 from the fact that some of them are gnawed by dogs1 it is most probable that they were accumulated while the cave was used as a dwelling4 ,if the bodies were placed on an old floor of occupation1 and afterwards disturbed by rabbits and badgers1 the remains would be mingled together as they were found to be mingled4 ,the contents had evidently been disturbed by the burrowing of all these animals4 ,subsequently we discovered and explored no less than four other sepulchral caves1 within a few hundred yards of the refuse-heap1 in which the corpses had been buried in the same crouching posture4 ,from one on the farm of ,rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished greenstone which had never been used 7,fig4 #ch71 together with several flint flakes1 and numerous fragments of pottery1 rude1 black inside1 hand-made1 and containing in their substance small fragments of limestone4 ,similar potsherds are preserved in the ,oxford ,museum1 from the superficial deposits of the caves of ,gailenreuth and ,kuhlock1 and ,i have observed them also among the remains from ,kent's ,hole4 ,the celt was most probably1 from its unworn condition1 buried with the dead1 and it stamps the neolithic age of the interments of the whole group4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,greenstone ,celt1 ,rhosdigre ,cave4 7,nat4 size47 ,among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth of the brown bear1 and the lower jaw of a wolf2 and the fractured bones of the dog implied that that animal ministered to the appetite1 as well as obeyed the commands1 of the neolithic inhabitants4 ,i have met with similar evidence of the use of dog's flesh for food among the broken bones which ,canon ,greenwell obtained from the neolithic tumuli of the ,yorkshire ,wolds4 ,on the other hand1 the marks of the teeth of dogs1 or wolves1 on some of the human femora1 implied that those animals made their way into this cave and feasted on the corpses4 ,the neolithic age of these interments is proved1 not merely by the presence of the stone axe1 or of the flint flakes1 but by the burial in a contracted posture1#ig and the fact that the skulls are identical with those obtained from chambered tombs in the south of ,england proved to be neolithic by ,dr4 ,thurnam4 ,the number of skeletons of all ages1 and of both sexes1 buried in these caves was very considerable2 and they had been placed on the old floor of occupation at successive times4 ,in that of ,rhosdigre the accumulation of charcoal1 broken bones1 and fragments of pottery below some of the human skeletons1 proved that it had been used for a habitation before it was used for a burial-place4 ,it is very probable that originally the head of a family1 or a clan1 or a tribe1 was buried in his own cave-dwelling1 and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery for his blood relations and followers4 ,the ,neolithic ,caves in the neighbourhood of ,cefn1 near ,st4 ,asaph4 ,the same class of remains1 referable to the neolithic age1 have been met with in the caves in the limestone cliffs of the beautiful valleys of the ,clwyd and the ,elwy1 near ,st4 ,asaph4 ,in the collection of fossil bones in the possession of ,mrs4 ,williams ,wynn1 discovered in #ahcc1 in a cave at ,cefn1 by ,mr4 ,edward ,lloyd1#ih is a human skull and lower jaw1 along with platycnemic limb-bones4 ,they were found mingled with the bones of goat1 pig1 fox1 and badger1 and cut antlers of the red-deer1 inside the lower entrance of the cave1 in which the extinct pleistocene animals were found in the valley of the ,elwy4 ,four flint flakes also were discovered along with them4 ,the skull in its general features strongly resembles those found in the group of caves at ,perthi-,chwareu1 and presents a cephalic index#ii of #ggj1 which comes within the limits of the extreme forms from that locality4 ,professor ,busk1 however1 as will be seen in his account of this skull1 because of its low altitudinal index--#gjb1 as compared with #gaj of the lowest ,perthi-,chwareu skull--is inclined to view it as of a different type4 ,the conditions1 on the other hand1 under which it was found appear to me to be circumstantial evidence that the interment is of the same relative age as that of ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,both were in caves3 in both the remains of the same domestic and wild animals were found in the same fragmentary condition4 ,flint flakes also occurred in both2 and what is more important1 the platycnemic limb-bones in both imply a somewhat similar mode of life in the people to whom they belonged4 ,this body of evidence1 in favour of the interments having been made by the same race of men who lived some time in ,denbighshire1 seems to me of greater weight than that to the contrary afforded by the difference of #jjh in the altitudinal indices of the skulls4 ,after a comparison of the carefully prepared measurements of the crania published in the 8,crania ,britannica0 with those published elsewhere1 ,i cannot resist the conviction1 that if similar modes of life and of burial in ,britain imply an identity of race1 cranial variation within the limits of that race is by no means very small4 ,absolute purity of blood in an island so near the ,continent as ,britain cannot be looked for2 and unity of type resulting from isolation from other races1 such as that presented by the ,australians1 is not likely to be met with4 ,it is therefore very probable that some of the variations may be accounted for by the blending of different ethnical elements in one race4 ,i am consequently inclined to view the interments in these two caves as having been made by the same people1 in spite of the small cranial difference manifested by the ,cefn skull4 ,the cave in ,brysgill1 a small ravine leading into the valley of the ,elwy1 explored by ,mr4 ,mainwaring and ,mrs4 ,williams ,wynn in #ahga1 furnished evidence of the occupation of man1 probably of the neolithic age4 ,from a dark layer composed of loam1 black with fragments of charcoal1 a flint arrow-head1 a core1 a flake1 and broken bones of the horse1 ,bos longifrons1 goat1 and dog1 were obtained1 as well as a few human bones which had not been broken by design4 ,the excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave of ,plas-,heaton1 by ,mr4 ,heaton and ,professor ,hughes1 have shown that it was inhabited at two different ages4 ,in the upper or prehistoric stratum were broken bones of the dog1 badger1 goat1 ,bos longifrons1 and stag2 while in the lower1 or pleistocene1 were the remains of the hyna1 reindeer1 cave-bear1 and the lower jaw of the glutton4 ,the ,chambered ,tomb near ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph4 ,while the caves at ,perthi-,chwareu were being explored1 the accidental discovery of human remains in the cairn of ,tyddyn ,bleiddyn1 near ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph1 in #ahfi1 led to a systematic examination of its contents by ,mrs4 ,williams ,wynn1 under the superintendence of the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 myself1 and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,winwood1 which has resulted in the proof1 that the people who buried their dead in caves used stone-chambered tombs for the same purpose4 ,the cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been removed for road-mending before the cap-stones of the stone chamber were exposed1 and these were broken before any scientific observation was made4 ,the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 however1 rescued many of the human remains from destruction1 and began the exploration which defined the extent of the chamber ,a 7,fig4 #ci74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,plain of ,chambered ,tomb at ,cefn4 ,subsequently it was resumed in my presence1 and the chamber ,a 7,fig4 #ci7 fully cleared out4 ,at the point c it was partially shut off from the passage ,b by a slab of stone #ah inches high4 ,the passage led from the chamber in a northern direction1 and was #f feet long by #b wide4 ,the chamber gradually narrowed towards the passage1 being #e feet wide at its broad end1 and #i feet long4 ,in the passage1 as well as in the chamber1 there were human bones belonging to individuals who had been buried in a crouching posture4 ,unfortunately1 as the remains have been scattered1 it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of the burials4 ,i have1 however1 restored one skull and examined seven frontal bones1 and other remains1 which indicate that there were at least twelve persons1 varying in age from infancy to full prime1 buried in this tomb4 ,in addition to these1 there is a large box of bones in the possession of the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 as well as other remains in other hands4 ,but although the exact number of bodies interred cannot be made out1 there is full proof that there were too many to have been deposited at one time in so small a cubic area2 and therefore they must have been deposited at different times1 as in the caves at ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,there were no remains of either wild or domestic animals2 and the only foreign object was a small slightly chipped flint pebble4 ,from the remarkable conformation of the nasal bones of some of the skulls1 it would seem likely that the burial-place belonged to one family2 but1 for a reason 7see ,notes on ,human ,remains1 p4 #ahc7 stated by ,professor ,busk1 this is by no means a certain inference4 ,the plan of the chamber and passage corresponds with that of the long barrow of ,west ,kennet1 figured in the 8,crania ,britannica10 and with that of the cromlech of ,le ,creux des ,fes1 ,guernsey1 described by ,lieutenant ,oliver4#ajj ,in the former of these the corpses were buried in a contracted posture1 along with flint scrapers and fragments of rude pottery4 ,in the latter the original contents have disappeared4 ,to speak in general terms1 the chamber and passage belong to the class of tombs which ,dr4 ,thurnam names 8,long ,barrows10 and ,professor ,nilsson 8,ganggrben10 and which are found in ,scandinavia and ,france1 as well as in ,britain4 ,and it is worthy of note that the partial insulation of the chamber ,a 7,fig4 #ci7 from the passage ,b by a slab 7c71 which does not reach up to the height of the walls1 is to be seen in similar tombs both in ,guernsey and in ,brittany4 ,a second and larger chamber1 composed of cave slabs of limestone1 was discovered in the same cairn in #ahga by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 and completely excavated by him along with myself and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,winwood4 ,it was of a rudely triangular form1 #aj feet long by #f wide1 traversed by a partition of slabs1 and provided with a narrow passage #aj feet long by #b feet #f in width1 opening to the north1 and fenced off completely from the chamber by a slab1 as in the preceding case4 ,both the chamber and the passage were full of human remains of all ages1 buried in a contracted posture2 the number of interments being far too great to have allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time4 ,from the former ,i identified the broken jaw of a roebuck and remains of goat1 a broken flint1 and round pebbles of quartz1 while in the latter there were the teeth and bones of the dog and the pig4 ,some of the tibi from both the chambers were platycnemic1 but that character was only to be recognized in the older bones4 ,the skulls1 from the second of the two chambers1 agree so exactly with those from the caves1 that it is not necessary to add to the table of measurements which ,professor ,busk has drawn up 7p4 #aga74 ,correlation of ,chambered ,tomb with ,interments in the ,caves of ,perthi-,chwareu and ,cefn4 ,nor are we without evidence that the builders of this cairn belonged to the same race as those who buried their dead in the caves of ,perthi-,chwareu and of ,cefn4 ,the crania and the limb-bones are identical1 and in both the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a contracted posture4 ,why then1 it may be asked1 were the remains of animals so rare in the one and so abundant in the other8 ,in my opinion this difference may be explained by the hypothesis1 invented by ,professor ,nilsson1 of the origin of chambered tombs4#aja ,the idea of the 8gallery graves10 according to that high authority1 was derived from the subterranean house in which the deceased lived1 and in which he was buried after his death1 after the fashion of the ,eskimos at the present day4 ,the plan of the houses1 like that of the ancient ,lycian dwellings described by ,sir ,charles ,fellowes1 was preserved in the tombs1 and probably for many ages after houses were no longer made in that fashion2 since the principle of conservatism and the force of custom are more deeply rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the changes of every-day life4 ,the rarity of the remains of the animals may be explained by the fact of these tombs never having been used as dwellings1 while their abundance in the caves may be accounted for by the latter having been inhabited by man1 and thus the idea of the dead resting in his own house would be the cause of burial both in caves and chambered tombs4 ,it is not at all strange that the same race should have used both for sepulture1 when we consider that a 8gallery grave0 is an artificial cave1 and that natural caves are few in number4 ,this ancient race is proved by the remains to have been pastoral1 rather than dependent on the chase1 their principal food being the domestic goat1 the short-horn 7,bos longifrons71 the horse1 and hog4 ,they are also proved to have been neolithic1 not merely by the discovery of a polished stone axe in one of the caves1 but also by the shape of the 8gallery graves10 which ,professor ,nilsson and ,dr4 ,thurnam agree in referring to that stage of culture4 ,table of ,contents of ,caves and ,chambered ,tomb4 ,the contents of the caves and the stone chambers may be gathered from the ,table which we give on the next page4 ,the broken bones of the hare prove that there was no prejudice against its flesh1 as was the case among the neolithic dwellers in the ,swiss ,pfahlbauten4 ,we shall see in the next chapter that the animal was also eaten by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of ,france and ,belgium4 ,list of ,objects in ,neolithic ,caves and ,cairn in ,north ,wales4 ,column-heading ,key3 ,a ,refuse-heap1 ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,b ,cave ,no4 #a4 ,c ,cave ,no4 #b4 ,d ,cave ,rhosdigre ,no4 #a4 ,e ,cave ,rhosdigre ,no4 #b4 ,f ,cave ,rhosdigre ,no4 #c4 ,g ,the ,cefn ,cave4 ,h ,cairn of ,tyddyn ,bleiddyn1 near ,cefn4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,animals4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,domestic4 ,canis familiaris--,dog ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,sus scrofa--,pig ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,equus caballus--,horse ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,bos longifrons--,celtic ,short-horn ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,capra hircus--,goat ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,,wild4 ,canis lupus--,wolf ,x ,canis vulpes--,fox ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,meles taxus--,badger ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,ursus arctos--,bear ,x ,sus scrofa--,wild ,boar ,x ,cervus elaphus--,stag ,x ,x ,x ,cervus capreolus--,roe ,x ,x ,x ,lepus cuniculus--,rabbit ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,lepus timidus--,hare ,x ,x ,x ,x ,polished ,celts ,x ,flint ,flakes or ,chips ,x ,x ,x ,x ,pottery ,x ,x ,x ,x ,human ,skeletons ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,platycnemic bones ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ,x ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,description of the ,human ,remains by ,professor ,busk4 ,for the following account of the human remains1 reprinted from the 8,journal of the ,ethnological ,society10 ,january #ahga1 ,i am indebted to the kindness of my friend ,professor ,busk1 to whom examples of all the forms were forwarded3-- ,notes on the ,human ,remains4 ,by ,professor ,,busk1 ,f4,r4,s4 #a4 ,,introduction4 ,the remains discovered in the sepulchral cave at ,perthi-,chwareu1 according to a list furnished by ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins1 are as under2 but ,i believe this catalogue does not include all that were found in the locality4#ajb #a4 ,eleven more or less perfect skulls1 some1 however1 represented by mere fragments4 #b4 ,twelve mandibles4 #c4 ,seven arm-bones or humeri--four right and three left4 #d4 ,six uln4 #e4 ,twenty-two thigh-bones1 including five pairs1 five odd ones of the right side1 and seven of the left2 and amongst them are three of very young children4 #f4 ,seventeen tibi or leg-bones1 nine of the right and eight of the left side1 and apparently none of them in pairs2 so that there must probably have been a good many more4 #g4 ,eight astragali4 #h4 ,nine calcanea1 or heel-bones4 ,the number of individuals1 therefore1 whose relics were deposited in this cavern could not have been less than sixteen1 and may have been many more4 ,they appear to have been of all ages and of both sexes4 ,of the other bones of the skeleton1 of which there must have been abundance1 ,i have received no information4 ,in the ,cefn ,cave there were discovered3-- #a4 ,one mandible4 #b4 ,one humerus4 #c4 ,two uln4 #d4 ,a pair of thigh-bones4 #e4 ,a pair of leg-bones4 and in the tumulus3-- #a4 ,portions of seven skulls4 #b4 ,two right humeri4 #c4 ,a pair of uln4 #d4 ,a right femur4 ,from ,st4 ,asaph the only bone that has come under my observation is a single calvaria4 #b4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,bones ,,from ,,the ,,cavern ,,at ,,perthi-,,chwareu4 7a47 ,general ,condition4--,in general condition1 as regards colour and texture1 these bones present some1 but no very striking1 differences2 on the whole they are much alike1 though it might be supposed that some have lain longer in the ground than the others4 ,one or two among them 7but these are apparently the younger bones7 are fragile2 the majority1 however1 are as firm as common churchyard bones1 and some have quite the natural degree of hardness4 ,they are of a lightish-yellow colour1 do not adhere to the tongue1 and afford scarcely any earthy smell when breathed upon or moistened3 only one among them presents any staining from oxide of manganese2 and this exists in diffuse blotches1 and is not at all of the dendritic form4 ,many are partially covered with a very thin film of crystalline carbonate of lime4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #dj1 #da1 #db4--,skull from ,sepulchral ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu4 7b47 ,the ,skulls4--,of these only three of the more perfect have come under my observation4 ,these alone will form the subject of what ,i have to remark on this portion of the skeleton4 ,but in the subjoined ,table ,i4 7p4 #aga7 ,i have given1 together with the dimensions of these three1 those of five others which have been furnished to me by ,mr4 ,dawkins4 ,in the specimen ,no4 #a 7,figs #dj1 #da1 #db7 the entire facial part is wanting1 together with the whole of the base and a great part of one side of the calvaria4 ,the skull is of an oval form1 symmetrical1 with a rather prominent occiput4 ,the region of the vertex is slightly and evenly arched2 and the forehead1 though not high1 is vertical1 and slightly compressed on the sides4 ,the sutures are all open and finely serrated4 ,the frontal sinuses are distinct though small4 ,the supra-orbital ridge is thin1 but rather prominent towards the external angular process4 ,the mastoid processes are very large1 and the digastric fossa remarkably deep4 ,the occipital spine is very prominent1 as are the lateral ridges4 ,the temporal ridges1 also1 and1 in short1 all the muscular impressions1 are very strongly marked4 ,the skull is evidently that of a powerful1 muscular man1 in the prime of life1 and apparently of robust1 but not coarse build4#ajc ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #dc1 #dd1 #de4--,skull from ,sepulchral ,cave at ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,skull ,no4 #b 7,figs4 #dc1 #dd1 #de7 is that of an adult male1 presenting as nearly as possible the same dimensions1 form1 and other characters as that above described1 except that the bone is somewhat thicker and heavier4 ,the muscular ridges and impressions are even more strongly developed than in the former1 and especially the temporal ridges immediately above the external angular processes4 ,the left maxilla remains loosely attached1 containing the two bicuspid teeth1 which are of small size1 and worn quite flat1 and to such an extent as to render it probable that the man was somewhat advanced in years1 although none of the sutures are closed4 ,the face is strictly orthognathous1 and the skull dolichocephalic and aphanozygous4#ajd ,skull ,no4 #c is the entire calvaria of a very young individual4 ,the two milk-molars remain on either side2 and behind them the first true molar is fully out1 but not in the least worn4 ,the incisors and canines have fallen out4 ,the former1 from the size of the alveoli1 were of the permanent set1 but not the latter4 ,the age of the individual1 therefore1 may be estimated as about seven or eight4 ,the only point worthy of notice in this calvaria is the existence of a well-marked depression across the middle of the occipital bone1 which appears exactly as if it had been caused by the constriction of a bandage4 ,the depression barely extends beyond the lambdoidal suture into the parietals4 ,it requires1 perhaps1 some imagination to perceive the slight traces of a corresponding depression in the forepart of the skull2 but ,i think a faint depression may be there perceived on careful inspection4 ,the effect of the occipital constriction1 if it be such1 reminds one of some of the deformed ,french skulls described by ,m4 ,foville#aje and by ,m4 ,gosse4#ajf ,in all other respects the skull is well formed and symmetrical4 ,it is strictly orthognathous1 and of a broad oval shape4 ,if deformed artificially1 it would come under the head of 8tte annulaire0 of ,m4 ,gosse2 and ,dr4 ,foville shows that this kind of deformation arises from the popular custom of applying a kind of bandage round the head of the new-born infant1 which1 passing over the anterior fontanelle1 descends obliquely1 and is crossed behind the occiput and brought back and tied in front4 ,this band1 or 8serre-tte10 he states1 is worn during the first year1 and for a longer period by female children than by males4 ,dr4 ,lunier gives pretty nearly the same account1 adding1 however1 further particulars4#ajg ,it may be remarked1 also1 that the ,berbers1 who formed great part of the ,moorish forces that invaded ,europe in the eighth1 ninth1 and tenth centuries1 used to elongate the skull posteriorly and flatten the forehead4 ,,table ,i4--,dimensions of ,perthi-,chwareu ,skulls4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,least ,greatest frontal frontal ,parietal ,no4 ,length4,breadth4,height4breadth4breadth 4breadth4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a4 #ge #eg -- #dj #ej #ee #b4 #gf #eg #ed #dj #di #ee #c4 #fe #eb #ee #cd #de #ea #d4 #gd #eh #eh #ci #ej #eh #e4 #fg #ej -- #ce #dd #ed #f4 #fh #ed -- #cf #dc #ec #g4 -- #ee -- -- -- #ec #h4 #gj #eb -- #cf #dd #eb ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,mean,a #gjg #ee #ef #ch #dfd #ed ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,cefn ,cave #gd #eg #eb #ch #dg #ee ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,cefn ,tumulus #gch #efe -- #cf #de #eee ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,ditto #gb #ef #eg #cf #dce #ee ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #ge #ed #ei #dj #df #ece ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,genista ,cave1 #gie #ee #eg #ci #ej #ed ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,ditto #gce #ef #fa #ch #di #ed ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,occipital,zygomatic,frontal,vertical,pa rietal ,no4 breadth4 breadth4 radius4radius4 radius4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- #a4 #df -- -- -- -- #b4 #dh -- #di #ej #eb #c4 #da #ci #db #de #dg #d4 #dd #dg #dd #df #dg #e4 #da -- #dj #dc #df #f4 #dj -- #dc #de #dh #g4 -- -- -- -- #df #h4 #da -- #da #dc #de ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,mean,a #dc -- #dc #de #dg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,cefn ,cave #dh -- #df #df #dg ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,cefn ,tumulus -- -- #de #df #di ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ditto #dce #df #dde #dh #di ---------------------------------------- --------------- #dce #di #ej #ej #eje ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,genista ,cave1 #dde #eb #dg #dh #di ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,ditto #de #eb #dge #di #ea ---------------------------------------- --------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,fronto- ,occipital,maxillary nasal ,no4 radius4 radius4 radius4,circumference4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- #a4 -- -- -- #bab #b4 #dd -- #cg #baf #c4 #da #cb #cj #aij #d4 #dc #ci #cf #bce #e4 #dj -- -- #ahe #f4 #db -- -- #aih #g4 #dj -- -- -- #h4 #da -- #cd #aie ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,mean,a #db #ce #cdb #bjj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cefn ,cave #dj -- #ch #ba4j ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cefn ,tumulus #de -- #cf -- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,ditto #dc -- #cg #bja ---------------------------------------- ------------- #dce #db #db #bji ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,genista ,cave1 #dbe #da #cge #bjf ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,ditto #di #dj #cfe #bjh ---------------------------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,longitudinal 7a7 7b7 ,no4 ,circumference4 arc4 ,frontal4,parietal4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #a4 #bab -- #ej #ee #b4 #baf #aei #ee #ef #c4 #aij #adg #di #ec #d4 #bce #afi #ej #ej #e4 #ahe -- #dd #eb #f4 #aih #adf #dh #ec #g4 -- -- -- -- #h4 #aie -- #de #di ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,mean,a #bjj #aec #di #eb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,cefn ,cave #ba4j #aea #ej #ee ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,cefn ,tumulus -- -- #eb #eb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,ditto #bja -- #ej #ej ---------------------------------------- ----------------- #bji -- #di #ef ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,genista ,cave1 #bjf #adj #eb #dh ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,ditto #bjh #aec #dh #ef ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,frontal ,vertical ,parietal 7c7 transversetransversetransverse ,no4 ,occipital4 arc4 arc4 arc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- #a4 -- #abj #acj #adj #b4 #dh #acj #ace #ach #c4 #de #aaf #abde #acd #d4 #f8 #aaj #acj #adj #e4 -- #aaj #abe #acd #f4 #de #adj #abj #acj #g4 -- -- -- -- #h4 #dh #aaj #aae #acj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,mean,a #ej #abj #abe #ace ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,cefn ,cave #df #abb #abh #ach ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,cefn ,tumulus -- #abd #abd #abh ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,ditto #di #abj #aca #acbe ---------------------------------------- -------------- #df #abh #acbe #acbe ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,genista ,cave1 #dj #abe #acb #acc ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,ditto #di #abc #acb #acc ---------------------------------------- -------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,occipital ,latitudinal transverseor cephalic,altitudinal ,no4 arc4 index4 index4 ---------------------------------------- ------ #a4 #abj #gfj -- #b4 #abd #gej #gaj #c4 #aab #hjj #hdf #d4 #abj #gig #gig #e4 -- #gdf -- #f4 #aaj #gid -- #g4 -- -- -- #h4 #abj #gdc -- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,mean,a #aah #gfe;,a -- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,cefn ,cave #abj #ggj #gjb ---------------------------------------- ------ ,cefn ,tumulus #aji #gfe -- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,ditto #aae -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------ #aje -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,genista ,cave1 #aad #gdh #gad ,gibraltar ---------------------------------------- ------ ,ditto #aaf #gfa #hhi ---------------------------------------- ------ ,a ,in taking this mean1 the cephalic index of the young skull1 ,no4 #c1 is omitted2 if included1 the mean would be #ghe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 7c47 ,thigh-bones4--,i have had an opportunity of examining only a single perfect specimen of the thigh-bones4 ,this is an entire bone1 #ahb inches long1 with a least circumference of #ce4 ,its perimetral index#ajh consequently is #aib1 which is about the normal standard4 ,the linea aspera1 at the middle of the bone more especially1 is very prominent1 so that the bone may be termed1 in some degree1 carinated 7,fig4 #df74 ,the shaft is straight2 and the chief peculiarities1 besides the prominent linea aspera1 which it presents1 are 7#a7 an unusual compression in the antero-posterior direction in the upper part1 for the extent of about three inches below the trochanter minor4 ,at about two inches below that process1 or at a point corresponding with the lower part of the insertion of the pectineus muscle1 the shaft measures #i #ade1 whilst in three other ordinary femora with which ,i have compared it1 the bone at the corresponding part measures #i #abj1 #i #aaj1 #i #aae1 showing that the ,perthi-,chwareu femur is unusually expanded laterally in the upper part of the shaft4 ,the consequence is to give the bone at that part a peculiar aspect1 which is especially seen in an acute internal angle1 and one rather less acute externally1 instead of the usually rounded internal and external borders4 7#b7 ,the distal extremity appears to be rather disproportionately large as compared with a recent well-formed bone of the same length1 the condyles measuring #be #cc instead of #bd #cje2 and the lower part of the shaft is also somewhat expanded4 ,but the chief peculiarity1 as above remarked1 is the compression of the shaft in the upper part4 ,besides the linea aspera1 all the muscular impressions are strongly marked1 and especially those for the insertion of the gluteus maximus and the trochanter minor4 ,the neck is long and very oblique1 and the head1 upon which only a small portion of the articular surface is left1 must have had a diameter of about #ai4 ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins has furnished me with the principal dimensions of several other femora1 varying in length from #af to #ah inches1 and affording an average length of about #ag1 corresponding to a mean height of the individuals of about #e ft4 #d in4 to #e ft4 #e in41 the tallest being perhaps #e ft4 #f in41 and the shortest about #e ft4 #b in41 no doubt a woman4 ,the mean perimetral index of the eight femora is #ahf1 which shows1 in comparison with the usual thickness of well-formed male thigh-bones of the present day1 a certain degree of slenderness4 ,that this is not altogether owing to the circumstance that the bones include those of perhaps more than one female is proved by the fact that in no instance does the perimetral index exceed #aib1 and in one thigh-bone1 #ahb long1 it is not more1 if the circumference is correctly given1 than #agh1 the normal perimetral index for the adult male femur in this country being taken as about #aid4 7d47 ,tibi4--,of the leg-bones brought under my notice1 five are entire and five more or less defective4 ,the principal dimensions and proportions of these bones1 so far as they could be taken1 are given in the subjoined ,table4 ,,table ,,ii4--,dimensions1 c41 of ,perthi-,chwareu ,tibi4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,antero- ,transverse posterior diameter1 ,least diameter ,perimetral,latitudinal ,no4 ,length4 proximal circum- and index4 index4 end4 ference4transverse diameter of shaft4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a4 #adi #bh #cb #adj #hj #bad #ega #b4 #acg #bg #bi #abj - #ge #baa #fbe #c4 #acb #cj #cj #ace #hj #bbg #eib #d4 #abi #be #be #abe #gj #aic #eda #e4 #abi #be #bge #ajj #gj #baa #gjj #f4 -- -- -- #ace #ij -- #fff #g4 -- -- -- #adj #ij -- #fdb #h4 -- -- -- #acj - #gj -- #ech #i4 -- -- -- #ace #he -- #fbi ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mean4 #ace #bg #bhf #abi #gi #baa #faa ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,in this ,table the length means the extreme length of the bone as measured from the summit of the spinous process to the point of the internal malleolus2 and the numbers in the fifth column represent the antero-posterior and the transverse diameter of the shaft at the point where the popliteal line terminates at the inner border of the bone1 which is usually about an inch and a half below the nutritive foramen4 ,the latitudinal index represents the relation that the transverse diameter bears to the antero posterior1 and it is employed to indicate1 with some degree of precision1 the actual amount of compression or flattening of the shaft as compared with the normal form1 which may1 so far as my observations show1 be taken for the ordinary ,english tibi as from #gjj or #hjj1 or in the mean at #gcj1 as will be seen in the subjoined ,table1 which contains the proportions of thirteen leg-bones taken indiscriminately from a drawer in the ,college of ,surgeons4 ,,table ,,iii4--,proportions1 c41 of ordinary ,tibi4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,antero- ,transverse posterior diameter1 ,least diameter ,perimetral,latitudinal ,no4 ,length4 proximal circum- and index4 index4 end4 ference4transverse diameter of shaft4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- #a4 #afg #cae #cd #acj #ajj #bjb #gfi #b4 #afd #cb #ce #aej #aae #bac #gff #c4 #aeh #bie #cj #abj #ij #ahi #gej #d4 #aee #bie #bi #adj #ij #abb #fdb #e4 #aec #bi #bh #acj #ij #aej #fib #f4 #aeb #cj #cb #adj #ij #bac #fdb #g4 #aej #bh #bh #adj #ij #ahg #fdb #h4 #aej #bf #bh #abj #he #ahg #gji #i4 #aej #bf #bh #abj #ij #ahg #ghb #aj4 #aee #cj #bi #abj #ie #aic #gia #aa4 #ace #bh #bi #abj #ij #bad #gej #ab4 #acd #bge #bg #abj #he #bja #gjh #ac4 #abh #be #bd #ajj #he #ahg #hej ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mean4 #aea #bhh #bi #abf #ia #ahh #gcj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,comparison of the mean proportions given in the two ,tables shows3-- 7#a7 ,that the ,perthi-,chwareu leg-bones are1 on the whole1 shorter1 and absolutely smaller in all dimensions but one1 viz4 in the antero-posterior diameter of the shaft1 which1 notwithstanding the smaller size generally of the bones1 is rather greater 7that is to say1 in the proportion of #abi to #abf7 than in the ordinary run of ,english tibi4 7#b7 ,that their perimetral index is greater1 showing that1 in proportion to their length1 the ,welsh bones are somewhat thicker1 or in the proportion of #baa to #ahh4 7#c7 ,but the most marked difference is seen in the latitudinal index1 which in the ,perthi-,chwareu bones is #faa1 and in those of the ordinary type #gcj1 varying in the former case from #ech to #gjj1 and in the latter from #fdb to #hej2 but the last is probably an exceptional case4 ,in accordance with this1 we find that the mean transverse diameter of the shaft at the point above indicated is greatly under the usual mark1 viz4 as #gi to #ia4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that the ,perthi-,chwareu tibi are more compressed or flattened than the usual run of modern ,european tibi2 in other words1 they belong to the platycnemic type4 ,as this is1 ,i believe1 the first instance in which the occurrence of tibi of this peculiar conformation has been observed in this country1 the circumstance is of some interest1 especially with relation to the occurrence of priscan bones of the same type elsewhere4 ,this peculiar conformation of the tibia1 to which we gave the name of 8platycnemic10 was1 ,i believe1 first noticed by ,dr4 ,falconer and myself1 in #ahfc1 in the human remains procured by ,captain ,brome from the ,genista ,cave1 on ,windmill ,hill1 ,gibraltar1 of which an account will be found in the ,transactions of the ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology for the year #ahfh 7p4 #afa72 and about the same time1 or in ,may #ahfd1 ,m4 ,broca#aji independently observed the same condition in tibi procured from the dolmen of ,chamant 7,oise71 and afterwards in bones from the dolmen of ,maintenon 7,eure-et-,loire74 ,similar bones have since been noticed in other localities on the ,continent1 as1 for instance1 in the diluvium of ,montmartre1 by ,m4 ,eugne ,bertrand4 ,but that the peculiarity in question is not common in all the varieties of priscan man belonging to the reindeer period is shown by the fact that it has not been observed in any of the tibi exhumed by ,m4 ,dupont in the ,belgian caves4 ,m4 ,broca's almost exhaustive remarks upon the anatomical1 physiological1 and pathological relations of this form of tibia leave but little to be said under those heads4 ,i would1 however1 venture to add a few words as to its ethnological significance4 ,but before doing so ,i would remark that there appear to be two forms of platycnemism1 apparently indicative of some difference in the cause or nature of this aberration from the more usual shape of the bone4 ,to save many words1 ,i subjoin outlines of several well-marked instances of platycnemic bones1 all drawn of the natural size and in the same position1 the letter 7a7 in each corresponding to the interosseous ridge1 and 7b7 to the crista or shin4 ,the line b c1 drawn through the crista and the middle of the posterior surface of the bone1 is bisected by another 7a d71 drawn at right angles to it1 at the level of the interosseous ridge4 ,in ,fig4 #dg1 which represents what may be regarded as a normal tibia1 the length of that portion of the antero-posterior line which is behind the transverse line is to that of the anterior as #bgd to #a1jjj1 whilst in ,fig4 #dh1 taken from ,m4 ,broca's outline of the ,cro-magnon tibia1 which would seem to represent the extremest degree of platycnemism as yet observed1 the proportion in question is as #fbc to #a1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #dg1 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea4 ,figs4 #di1 #ej1 #ea1 are taken from as many of the ,gibraltar tibi1#aaj in which the proportion varies from #fjj to #ebc1 whilst it will be observed that in ,figs4 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 taken from the most platycnemic of the ,perthi-,chwareu tibi1 the proportion in one only differs in any considerable degree from the extreme normal proportion shown in ,fig4 #dg2 and in this it is as #eab to #a1jjj1 whilst in ,fig4 #ec1 which is nevertheless undoubtedly platycnemic1 the proportion is exactly the same as in the most triangular form of bone4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that platycnemism may arise from an unusual antero-posterior expansion of the bone1 either in front or behind the level of the interosseous ridge4 ,what this difference may indicate1 or of what importance it may be in the consideration of questions relating to platycnemism1 ,i am not prepared to discuss2 but as in all probability it is connected with a difference in the cause of the deformation 7if it be deformation71 ,i have thought that the observation should be recorded1 and would merely1 in addition1 remark that1 so far as ,i have noticed1 the occasional and not infrequent platycnemism observed in the shin-bones of negroes is what may be termed anterior4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #eb1 #ec1 #ed4 ,with respect to the ethnological value of the platycnemic tibia1 ,i conceive we are as yet very much in the dark4 ,that it is a race-character would seem to me in the highest degree improbable1 seeing that it would be difficult to find any other points of resemblance between the ,cro-magnon platycnemic men and those whose remains were met with in the ,gibraltar caves1 although the platycnemism is of the same kind in each2 and still less could the former gigantic race be identified with the occupants of the ,perthi-,chwareu sepulchre1 from whom they differ not only in stature1 but even more remarkably in cranial conformation4 ,if1 then1 platycnemism cannot be regarded as of any value as a race-character1 it can a fortiori be still less looked upon as indicative of simian tendencies1 a notion that ,m4 ,broca seems somewhat inclined to favour4 ,it is quite true that the tibi of the gorilla and of the chimpanzee are1 to a certain extent1 platycnemic2 but it is by no means so much so as the human platycnemic bone4 ,the tibia of a male gorilla in the ,college of ,surgeons has a latitudinal index of #fha1 and that of a female of #fej1 whilst that of the chimpanzee is #faa1 or exactly the mean of the ,perthi-,chwareu bones4 ,it is needless to insist upon the other marked distinctions between the simian and the human tibia2 but as regards platycnemism it will be obvious1 if we are disposed to trace it to any genetic descent1 that the descendant has1 in this respect1 at one time far out-simianized the ,simi4 ,but this comparison with the anthropoid apes may1 perhaps1 afford ground for a suggestion respecting some possible connection between this peculiar form of the tibia and the habits of the people amongst whom it has been observed4 ,one great distinction between the human and the simian foot consists in their respective adaptations to totally distinct functions4 ,in the one case it is simply an organ of support and progression2 in the other1 for the most part1 of prehension4 ,this necessarily involves a considerable difference in the proportions1 c41 of the muscles by which the greater mobility and adaptability of the foot1 and more particularly of the digits1 are ensured4 ,would it not1 then1 be admissible to inquire how far1 at any rate1 posterior platycnemism may be connected with the greater freedom of motion and general adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples whose feet have not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other coverings1 and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an active existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded country1 where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost agility in climbing and otherwise8 ,some common cause of this kind would seem to be not improbable2 and it would not1 perhaps1 be difficult to ascertain whether it is a vera causa or not4 ,but1 with respect to this1 observations are at present wanting4 ,from the foregoing data we may conclude3-- 7#a7 ,that the ,perthi-,chwareu bones belonged to a race characterized by the proportionally rather large dimensions of the cranium1 whose form presents nothing very remarkable1 and is pretty nearly conformable to several of those found by ,mr4 ,laing in the ancient shell-mounds in ,shetland4#aaa 7#b7 ,that this form is distinctly different from that of the ,mewslade skull1 in which the vertical region is somewhat flattened1 as is the case also with several ,anglesey crania1 which1 however1 appear to pass1 by gradual transition1 into the ,keiss and ,perthi-,chwareu shape1 through such a form as that of the ,towyn-y-capel skull figured by ,professor ,huxley2#aab and the whole of them consequently may be regarded as belonging to the so-called 8,river-bed skulls0 of that author1 excepting the ,borris cranium1 which appears to belong to a different type altogether4 7#c7 ,that the people whose remains were found in this locality were of low stature 7the mean height1 deduced from the lengths of the long bones1 being little more than #e feet71 the tallest being #e ft4 #f in41 and the shortest adult not more than #d ft4 #aj in41 the intermediate ones being #e ft4 #a in4 and #e ft4 #b in4 7#d7 ,that the proportions of the long bones are rather thick1 and the muscular impressions in all are very strongly marked4 7#e7 ,that the tibi are1 for the most part1 of a much more compressed form than those of the modern ,english1 but that this platycnemism does not appear to be exactly of the same kind as that which is exhibited in the ,gibraltar bones and in those from ,cro-magnon 7as figured by ,m4 ,broca71 the difference consisting in the fact that in the two latter instances the bone is expanded backwards behind the transverse plane at the interosseous ridge as much as it is in front of that plane1 whilst in the ,welsh tibi it is the anterior portion of the shaft only which is expanded2 or1 in other words1 the platycnemism in them is due simply to an absolute compression of the shaft4 #c4 ,,human ,,remains ,,from ,,the ,,cefn ,,tumulus4 ,these remains1 as submitted to my inspection1 consist of3-- 7#a7 ,portions of three frontal bones1 two of which are nearly complete1 and one constituted of little more than the superciliary region4 7#b7 ,two parietals and a left temporal1 probably belonging to the same skull as the more mutilated frontal4 7#c7 ,portions of four thigh-bones1 two left and two right1 one of the latter wanting the proximal1 the other both extremities4 ,we have thus the remains of three individuals from this interment4 ,i4 ,the ,frontal ,bones4--,no4 #a4 ,the least transverse diameter1 immediately behind the external angular processes1 is #cf1 and its greatest 7at the coronal suture7 about #dc4 ,longitudinal arc1 #da4 ,the profile outline of the forehead is slightly receding2 the frontal sinuses moderately developed2 and the supraorbital border thin and acute1 whilst the glabellar eminence is large and prominent4 ,the bone is a good deal compressed on the sides1 so as to have almost the appearance of having formed part of a cymbecephalic skull4 ,the bone itself is thin1 and probably without any diplo4 ,no4 #b presents exactly the same characters1 except that the longitudinal arc is greater1 being #ec4 ,the postorbital or least transverse diameter is #cd1 and the coronal or greatest #dd4 ,the frontal sinuses are well developed2 the supraorbital ridge rather prominent1 but thin and sharp2 the external angular process prominent and thick4 ,glabellar eminence large and prominent4 ,the nasals remain in situ1 and project almost1 if not quite1 horizontally forwards1 with a rapid curve at first1 and then straight out4 ,the general contour of the bone is exactly like that of ,no4 #a1 in which also1 although the nasals are wanting1 the position of the surface by which they were attached shows that they must in all probability have resembled those of ,no4 #b4 ,the crista galli of the ethmoid1 which is left in situ1 is remarkably thick and high4 ,no4 #c is a portion of a larger and wider bone1 the postorbital diameter being at least #dj4 ,the frontal sinuses are very large1 but distinctly defined1 as the remainder of the supraorbital border is not thickened4 ,owing perhaps to the greater prominence of the sinuses1 the glabella does not appear so protuberant as in the other instances4 ,the nasal bones remain and project forwards in the same curious fashion as in ,no4 #b4 ,the frontal crest on the inner surface is remarkably developed1 being at least half an inch high1 though it is separated by a wide notch from the equally strongly developed crista galli of the ethmoid4 ,no4 #d1 when the three bones of which it is composed are put together1 consists of the greater part of the parietal region of the skull1 to which1 as before said1 the last-described frontal may have belonged4 ,the left parietal is quite perfect2 and a considerable portion of the right also remains1 together with the entire left temporal2 so that a very sufficient estimate of the proportions of the parietal region of the skull can be obtained4 ,as well as can be estimated1 the parietal longitudinal arc1 or length of the sagittal suture1 is #eb4 ,the vertical transverse arc1 or that drawn from one auditory foramen to the other1 over the point of junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures1 is #abb1 the parietal #ac1 and the occipital #abb4 ,in the temporal bone1 the external auditory foramen is large1 the mastoid process of moderate size1 but the digastric fossa is wide and deep4 ,the channels for the middle meningeal artery and its branches are large and deep2 and very deep depressions on the sides of the sagittal suture show that the glandul ,pacchioni must have been greatly developed4 ,the bone is very thin1 and with scarcely a trace of diplo where its structure is visible4 ,none of the sutures1 however1 which are strongly serrated1 are in the slightest degree closed1 although1 as ,i should imagine1 the skull must have been that of a man beyond the middle period of life4 ,,ii4 ,the ,thigh-bones4--,two of these bones1 which1 though much alike1 differ sufficiently to show that they did not belong to the same individual1 are decidedly carinate4 ,no4 #a wants the upper and lower ends4 ,the least circumference of the shaft1 which is at a point about #c inches below the trochanter minor1 is #cb4 ,that process1 as well as all the other muscular impressions1 is strongly developed2 and that for the insertion of the gluteus maximus is peculiar in presenting the form of a deep elongated pit instead of a roughened elevation as usual4 ,the antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the shaft1 about #a inches below the trochanter minor1 are #he #ad2 and the shaft at this part1 like that of the above-described from ,perthi-,chwareu1 presents a rather acute or narrow external and internal border instead of the usual more rounded form4 ,lower down1 the shaft becomes strongly carinate2 and1 owing to the flattened form of the anterior surface1 its transverse section affords a subtriangular figure 7fig4 #ee74 ,the walls1 or cortical substance1 are rather thicker than usual1 and the substance of the bone is dense and hard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,no4 #b is very similar in character to the foregoing1 but is not quite so much compressed in the upper part1 measuring #h #ab4 ,nevertheless the inner border is very acute1 and the outer more so than in the common form of femur4 ,the shaft lower down is not so strongly carinate as it is in the former instance1 but is still so in some degree 7,fig4 #ef72 and the walls 7or cortical substance7 are still thicker in proportion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,no4 #c4 ,a third specimen consists of the lower half1 or rather more1 of the right femur4 ,the least circumference is #cb4 ,the bone exhibits no special external characters1 and is in no degree carinated4 ,the shaft1 at about the middle of its length1 is somewhat angular in front2 and the pit for the origin of the popliteus muscle is deeper and perhaps larger than in most bones of the same size4 ,the texture of the cortical substance is quite eburneous2 and it is extremely thick1 so that the medullary canal is reduced to a calibre of little more than #jbe in its longest diameter4 ,the shaft1 however1 is straight1 and exhibits no other sign whatever of having been affected with rachitis4 ,it is1 however1 a curious circumstance that many of the ,gibraltar thigh-bones1 most of which are carinate1 present the same thickening of the cortical substance 7,fig4 #eg74 ,no4 #d4 ,a fourth specimen is constituted of merely a portion of the shaft1 about #ab inches long1 and without either extremity4 ,its least diameter is #cc1 and its antero-posterior and transverse diameters1 at the same point as in the other bones1 #a #abe1 or pretty nearly in the usual proportions4 ,nevertheless the bone1 throughout its whole remaining extent1 is less rounded on the inner side of the shaft than is usual4 ,the trochanter minor is of gigantic size2 and the shaft of the bone1 about and below the middle1 exhibits a subtriangular aspect 7,fig4 #eh71 though scarcely to be called carinate4 ,the cortical substance is of the normal thickness4 ,,iii4 ,tibi4--,no4 #a consists of the greater portion of the left tibia1 wanting only the lower extremity4 ,the proximal end measures #bi #ai2 and the diameters of the shaft1 about the middle1 are #ab #ge1 giving a latitudinal index of #fbj4 ,the shin is remarkably sharp and prominent1 and rather curved over to the outer side2 and the apparent compression or tendency to platycnemism may in some measure be referred more to the production in front of the anterior part of the bone than to actual narrowing of the posterior side of the triangle1 which is nevertheless rather more rounded than in most cases4 ,the axis of the shaft is quite straight2 and the bone has not the least rickety appearance4 ,no4 #b is also a portion of the left tibia4 ,both extremities are wanting1 and the bone offers nothing worthy of remark4 ,its least circumference is #bfe2 and the shaft1 at the middle1 measures #aa #fe2 so that the latitudinal index is about #fdj1 showing a slight degree of compression4 ,the entire length of the bone may be estimated as rather more than #ac inches1 corresponding to a height of about #e ft4 #d in4 or #e ft4 #e in41 so that the subject may be supposed to have been a female4 ,these remains represent at least four individuals--one probably somewhat aged1 another of strong and robust make1 and one1 in all probability1 a woman--in fact1 a family group4 ,no correct idea can be formed of the cranial conformation of these persons4 ,in general shape it would seem to correspond with that of the ,perthi-,chwareu skulls2 but two of them at any rate are of smaller size1 if we may judge from the least frontal diameter4 ,the forehead also is perhaps a little more reclined4 ,the most striking feature in two of the specimens1 and which appears also to have existed in a third1 is the extraordinary projection forwards of the nasal bones4 ,in the present case this may probably be regarded as a family peculiarity2 but with reference to it1 it should be remembered that ,m4 ,broca#aac has described a very similar condition in the skull of the 8,old man0 of ,cro-magnon1 in whom1 he says1 8the ridge of the nose1 slightly depressed at its base1 rises again almost immediately1 and advances boldly forward1 making a rapid curve1 with the concavity directed rather forward and especially upward1 so that the lower ends of the ossa nasi are placed #ah mm4 7#g inch7 in front of a line dropped vertically from the fronto-nasal suture40 ,the condition of the bones from the ,cefn tumulus differs very considerably from that of the remains from ,perthi-,chwareu4 ,they all have an appearance of much greater antiquity4 ,with the exception of the very dense femur1 they adhere to the tongue2 and they are all deeply stained with manganous oxide1 by which the substance even of the hardest portions is stained to a depth of more than one-eighth of an inch4 ,that this discoloration1 which for the most part does not assume the dendritic appearance1 is due to manganese and not to any vegetable stain1 is quite certain4 ,the form of the skull1 so far as it can be ascertained from such imperfect remains1 and the rather platycnemic shape of the tibi1 may perhaps justify our supposing that the ,cefn bones belong to a cognate race to those whose remains were deposited at ,perthi-,chwareu1 or to one which had lived under similar conditions4 ,but the cranial data are hardly sufficient to allow of any satisfactory inference being drawn from them3 and as regards the tibi1 it has already been pointed out that platycnemism cannot1 in the present state of our knowledge1 be regarded as an important ethnological character amongst priscan peoples1 though it may undoubtedly be considered a character betokening remote antiquity4 #d4 ,,skull ,,from ,,the ,,cefn ,,cave1 ,,near ,,st4 ,,asaph4 ,the only specimen of human remains from this locality is a nearly entire calvaria1 wanting the whole of the face below the superciliary border4 ,in the middle of the left parietal bone is a small irregular opening1 with short radiating lines of fracture proceeding from it2 but this appears to have been recently caused1 and from the inside4 ,the bone generally is of a brown colour1 and1 as regards firmness1 in a natural condition2 and it does not adhere to the tongue4 ,judging from its aspect alone1 it would not appear to be of any very great antiquity2 but as it has lain in a dry soil1 and sheltered from rain or moisture1 this appearance may be deceptive4 ,its dimensions are given in ,table ,i4 7supra71 from which it will be seen that the cephalic or latitudinal index is #ggj1 and the altitudinal #gjb4 ,it belongs1 therefore1 to the category of subbrachy-cephalic skulls of ,thurnam and ,professor ,huxley4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ei1 #fj1 #fa4--,skull from ,cave at ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph4 ,in the side view 7norma lateralis--,plate #g1 ,fig4 #ei71 it so closely resembles1 except in one respect1 that described and figured by ,professor ,huxley 7loc4 cit4 p4 #abe1 ,figs4 #fj1 #fa7 from the bed of the ,nore1 at ,borris1 in ,ireland1 that we can scarcely refuse to recognize a common character between them1 which1 since in the present case it cannot be looked upon as denoting a mere family relationship1 may reasonably be regarded as indicative of some affinity of race4 ,the chief difference observable in this view of the two skulls is the greater development of the frontal sinuses in the ,borris calvaria4 ,the occipital view 7norma occipitalis1 ,fig4 #h7 is also very similar1 except that in the ,borris skull the greatest width appears to be in the temporal1 and in the other the parietal region4 ,in the ,borris skull1 also1 there is a shallow groove in the course of the sagittal suture1 which does not exist in that from ,st4 ,asaph4 ,the ,borris skull is said to be of the extraordinary length of #h inches2 and this may account for the much lower cephalic index of the skull1 whose absolute width in reality somewhat exceeds the ,cefn specimen 7#ei and #eg71 whilst the altitudinal as compared with the latitudinal is but very little greater than it would be were the skulls reduced to the same breadth4 ,they may both1 therefore1 be regarded as 8low10 or1 as this class of skull might be termed1 in the euphonious language of craniologists1 8tapinocephalic40 ,one great peculiarity of the ,cefn cranium 7which exists also1 but apparently not to quite so great a degree1 in the other7 is the absolute horizontality of the plane of the subinial portion of the occipital bone4 ,and it is to this flattening that the comparative lowness may perhaps be chiefly attributed4 ,the sutures1 where visible1 appear to be open4 ,the mastoid processes and all other muscular impressions are strongly marked4 ,a third skull of very similar character1 except that it is not so much depressed1 has come under my observation4 ,it was discovered in a submarine or1 rather1 subterranean peat-bed or ancient forest1 #cj feet below the sea-level1 at ,sennen1 near the ,land's ,end1 in ,cornwall2 and a brief notice and outline figure of it will be found in the 8,natural ,history ,review0 for #ahfa4aad ,the ,sennen skull has the same elongated form2 but it is higher than either the ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph1 or ,borris crania1 having an altitudinal index of #gcj4 ,on the whole1 these three skulls 7i4e4 those from ,borris1 ,sennen1 and ,st4 ,asaph7 would appear to have a common character1 and to be of a different type from either the ,perthi-,chwareu or the ,mewslade form4 ,as a rule it may1 ,i think1 be stated that in all brachy-cephalic skulls the breadth exceeds the height1 whilst the reverse is the case in the dolicho-cephalic4 ,individual exceptions are of course not unfrequently met with1 more especially among very mixed races1 such as the modern ,english2 but ,i am myself acquainted with only two dolicho-cephalic races1 properly so termed1 in which the rule does not hold good4 ,these are the ,tasmanian 7not ,australian7 and the ,bushman4 ,any exceptions1 therefore1 to either rule among ancient and1 consequently1 less mixed races are worthy of being noted4 ,as regards modern brachy-cephalic skulls the law holds almost universally1 the only marked exception1 except in an individual here and there1 being in two ,karn skulls1 in which1 although both decidedly brachy-cephalic1 the respective indices stand as #hdh to #ibd1 and as #gij to #hdb4 ,among priscan brachy-cephalic skulls the most remarkable and important exceptions ,i have met with occur among the neolithic crania in the ,copenhagen ,museum1 more than half of which are brachy-cephalic1 and most of the others nearly so1 the mean cephalic index of #ba skulls being #gij1 whilst the mean altitudinal is as high as #haj4 ,in fact1 out of #ab skulls whose indices vary from #gie to #hch1 no fewer than #aj have the latitudinal index less than the altitudinal4 ,the exceptions to the rule as applied to dolicho-cephalic skulls also appear to be far more common among the ancient than among the modern1 excepting the two races ,i have above referred to4 ,in a long list of ancient and priscan skulls1 ,i find the following having the tapino-cephalic character3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,l4 ,ind4 ,alt4 ,ind4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a4 ,from the ,thames alluvium at ,old ,ford #gib #gec #b4 ,from the same deposit at ,east ,ham #ggd #fij #c4 ,from the same deposit at ,battersea #gfc #gde #d4 ,from the same deposit at ,london ,bridge #gfb #faa #e4 ,from tumulus at ,stanshope #gfc #fhd #f4 ,a ,guanche skull #gge #gcg #g4 ,a ,guanche skull #gfc #fhd #h4 ,cefn1 ,st4 ,asaph's #ggj #gjb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the number is but small1 it must be confessed1 and perhaps hardly sufficient to do more than prove the rule2 but still ,i think it will be found worth inquiry whether a departure from the rule in question was more frequent among the unmixed or little-mixed races of ancient times than it is amongst similarly unmixed races of the present day2 and whether consequently its infraction in a considerable number of instances may or may not be indicative of a lower type1 as which we are accustomed to regard the ,tasmanian and ,bushman races4 ,general ,conclusions as to ,human ,remains4 ,the human remains in the caves of ,perthi-,chwareu and ,cefn1 and in the cairn near the latter place1 imply that the men to which they belonged were a short race1 the tallest being about #e feet #f inches1 and the shortest #d feet #aj inches4#aae ,their skulls are orthognathic1#aaf or not presenting a lower jaw advancing beyond the vertical line dropped from the forehead2 in shape ortho-cephalic1 or subbrachy-cephalous1 and of fair average capacity4 ,the face was oval and the cheek-bones were not prominent4 ,some of the individuals were characterised by the peculiar flattening of shin 7platycnemism71 which probably stood in relation to the free action of the foot that was not impeded by the use of a rigid sole or sandal4 ,this character1 however1 is neither peculiar to race1 nor to be viewed as a tendency towards the simian type of leg4 ,these conclusions1 which ,professor ,busk has arrived at from the examination of the remains which were submitted to him1 have been fully borne out by the numerous skeletons which have been subsequently discovered1 both in the sepulchral caves at ,rhosdigre and in a second chamber in the cairn of ,tyddyn ,bleiddyn near ,cefn4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,range ,,of ,,neolithic ,,dolicho-,,cephali ,,and ,,brachy-,,cephali4 ,relation of ,human ,remains to those found in ,tumuli in ,britain4 --,the ,dolicho-cephali and ,brachy-cephali4--,their ,range in ,britain and ,ireland--in ,france4--,the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort4 --,the ,sepulchral ,cave of ,orrouy4--,the ,tumuli4--,in ,belgium4 --,the ,sepulchral ,caves of ,chauvaux and ,sclaigneaux4--,the ,dolicho-cephali of the ,iberian ,peninsula--,gibraltar--,spain4 --,cueva de los ,murcilagos4--,the ,woman's ,cave near ,alhama in ,granada4--,the ,guanches of the ,canary ,isles4--,iberic ,dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of ,britain1 ,france1 and ,belgium--,cognate or ,identical with the ,basque ,race4--,evidence of ,history as to the ,peoples of ,gaul and ,spain4--,the ,basque ,populations the ,oldest4--,the ,population of ,britain4--,basque characters in ,present ,population of ,britain and ,france4--,whence came the ,basques8--,the ,celtic and ,belgic ,brachy-cephali4--,the ,ancient ,german ,race4--,general ,conclusions4 ,the ,relation of the ,human ,remains to those found in ,british ,tumuli4 ,before we examine the relation of this ancient neolithic race of men to those who have left their remains in tumuli and caves in other regions1 it is necessary to define the cranial terminology1 as adopted by ,professors ,busk1 ,huxley1 ,dr4 ,thurnam1 and other high authorities4 ,the term 8cephalic index0 indicates 8the ratio of the extreme transverse to the extreme longitudinal diameter of the skull1 the latter measurement being taken as unity0 7,huxley74 ,the most convenient classification of crania is that adopted by ,dr4 ,thurnam and ,professor ,huxley1#aag and based on the cephalic index4 ,i4 ,dolicho-cephali1 or long skulls with cephalic index at or below #gc ,subdolicho-cephali 0 0 from #gj to #gc ,,ii4 ,ortho-cephali1 or oval skulls 0 #gd to #gi ,subbrachy-cephali 0 #gg to #gi ,,iii4 ,brachy-cephali or broad skulls at or above #hj ,it has been objected that skull form is of no value in determining race1 because it varies so much at the present time among the same peoples1 presenting the extremes of dolicho- and brachy-cephalism as well as every kind of asymmetry4 ,this1 however1 is due to our very abnormal conditions of life1 and to the mixture of different races brought about by the needs of commerce1 as in ,manchester and ,vienna1 as is pointed out by ,mr4 ,bradley4#aah ,in prehistoric times1 neither of these causes of variation made themselves seriously felt4 ,there was little1 if any1 peaceful movement of races1 but war was the normal condition1 and society was not sufficiently advanced to remove man from the influence of his natural environment4 ,the objection may therefore be dismissed as not applicable to the skulls in question4 ,the extent to which abnormal conditions of life are capable of modifying the shape of skulls may be gathered from the comparison of the skull of an ,irish hog with that of its ancestor the wild-boar1 or even that of a hyna kept in confinement with that of a wild animal of the same species4 7,see ,osteol4 ,series1 ,brit4 ,mus47 ,the ,british ,dolicho-cephali and ,brachy-cephali4 ,the materials for working out the craniology of ,europe1 in prehistoric times1 do not justify any sweeping conclusion as to the distribution of the various races1 but those which ,dr4 ,thurnam 7op4 cit47 has collected in ,britain offer a firm basis for such an inquiry4 ,in the numerous long barrows and chambered 8gallery graves0 of our island1 which from the invariable absence of bronze1 and the frequent presence of polished stone implements1 may be referred to the neolithic age1 the crania belong1 with scarcely an exception1 to the first two of these divisions4 ,in the round barrows1 on the other hand1 in which bronze articles are found1 they belong mainly to the third division1 although some are ortho-cephalous4 ,sometimes1 as in the case of ,tilshead1 the crania in the primary interment1 over which the long barrow was raised1 are long1 while those in the secondary1 which have been made after the heaping up of the barrow1 are broad4 ,on evidence of this kind ,dr4 ,thurnam concludes1 that ,britain was inhabited in the neolithic age by a long-headed people1 and that towards its close it was invaded by a bronze-using race1 who were dominant during the bronze age4 ,this important conclusion has been verified by nearly every discovery which has been made in this country since its publication4 ,the long skulls graduate into the broad1 the oval skulls being the intermediate forms2 and this would naturally result from the intermingling of the blood of the two races4 ,there may1 however1 have been a tendency towards ortho-cephalism in the dolicho-cephali1 without any admixture of foreign blood1 since absolute unity of form could not be expected4 ,the skull of the primary interment in the barrow of ,winterbourne ,stoke is taken by ,dr4 ,thurnam as typical of the dolicho-cephalic class4 8,the greatest length is #gc inches 7the glabello-inial diameter #ga inches72 the greatest breadth is #ee inches1 being in the proportion of #ge to the length taken as #ajj4 ,the forehead is narrow and receding1 and moderately high in the coronal region1 behind which is a trace of transverse depression4 ,the parietal tubers are somewhat full1 and add materially to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull4 ,the posterior borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards1 to join a complex chain of ,wormian bones in the line of the lambdoid suture4 ,the superior scale of the occiput is full1 rounded1 and prominent2 the inion more pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho-cephalic skulls4 ,the superciliaries are well marked1 the orbits rather small and long2 the nasals prominent1 the facial bones short and small2 the molars flat and almost vertical2 the alveolars short1 but rather projecting4 ,the mandible is comparatively small1 but angular2 the chin square1 narrow1 and prominent40#aai ,dolicho-cephalic skulls in general 7and in part ortho-cephalic7 are possessed1 according to ,dr4 ,thurnam1 of the following characters 7,vol4 iii4 p4 #fi73--8,the supraciliary ridges are less strongly marked than in the brachy-cephalic4 ,there is none of the prognathism1 exaggerated malar breadth or great width of the nasal openings1 which give such an air of savageness and ferocity to the ,new ,caledonians and ,caroline ,islanders2 but the very reverse of all these4 ,they are indeed more orthognathic even than many ,europeans1 and the facial characters generally are mild1 and without exaggerated development in any one direction40 ,their faces are oval4 ,the upper jaw is small1 and the sockets of the incisors and canine almost vertical4 ,the supra-occipital region is full and rounded1 and there is a post-coronal annular depression on the skull1 termed by ,dr4 ,gosse 8tte annulaire40 ,the length is mainly due to the development of the occiput1 a condition that is termed by ,m4 ,broca 8dolicho-cephalie occipitale10 as distinguished from the 8dolicho-cephalie frontale0 of other races4 ,the teeth are worn flat4 ,the bones associated with the skulls of this character show that the stature of the race was short1 #e feet #e inches being the average height4 ,in the brachy-cephalic1 or broad skulls1 on the other hand1 the supraciliary ridges are more strongly marked than in the preceding group2 the cheek-bones are high and broad1 the sockets for the front teeth are oblique1 and the mouth projects beyond the vertical dropped from the forehead1 presenting the character of prognathism4 ,the face1 instead of being oval1 is angular or lozenge-shaped4 ,on the back of the head the occipital tuberosity1 or probole1 is the most prominent feature1 and there is also generally an occipital flattening1 which may have been caused by the use of an unyielding cradle-board in infancy4 ,the entire maxillary apparatus is so largely developed1 that the term 8macrognathic10 introduced by ,professor ,huxley1 is particularly applicable to them4 ,the 8type mongoloide0 of ,dr4 ,pruner-,bey is closely allied to1 if not identical with1 this form of skull4 ,the stature of the ,british brachy-cephali is much greater than that of the dolicho-cephali1 the average for the adult male being #e feet #hd inches1 according to ,dr4 ,thurnam4 ,the human remains from the caves and chambered-tombs of ,denbighshire belong to the first of these divisions1 in the possession of every one of the characters assigned to it by ,dr4 ,thurnam1 although the crania belong to the ortho-cephalous portion of the series1 that is1 tending towards broad-headedness4 ,it may therefore be inferred that they belong to the same race as the neolithic raisers of the long-barrows1 a race which we shall presently see to be identical with the ancient ,iberians and modern ,basques4 ,the ,range of the ,dolicho-cephali in ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the same class of human remains has been obtained from caves in other districts in ,great ,britain4 ,in the ,oxford ,museum a human skull1 from the cave of ,llandebie1 possesses cephalic index of #gb2 while a second1 from the cave of ,uphill in ,somersetshire1 explored by ,mr4 ,james ,parker in #ahfc1 measures #gbc4 7,see p4 #aig47 ,the latter was associated with rude pottery1 charcoal1 and the remains of the following animals3 the wild-cat1 dog1 fox1 badger1 pig1 stag1 ,bos longifrons1 goat1 and water-rat4 ,most of the remains belong to young individuals1 and some have been gnawed by dogs1 wolves1 or foxes4 ,in ,yorkshire a human femur presenting an enormous development of the linea aspera1 which implies the possession of the platycnemic character1 has been met with in a cave in ,king's ,scar1 near ,settle 7see p4 #aac71 and fragments of a long skull are preserved in the ,museum at ,leeds from that of ,dowkerbottom4 ,professor ,turner has described#abj the remains found in a cave in the ,old ,red sandstone on the shore of the bay of ,oban in #ahfi by ,mr4 ,mackay4 ,there were two human skeletons1 along with the broken and burnt bones of the roe and stag1 limpet-shells1 flint nodules1 and flint flakes4 ,one of the leg-bones is platycnemic1 and the fragments of skull may probably be referred to the dolicho-cephalic type4 ,the same type of skull has also been obtained by the ,rev4 ,canon ,greenwell1 from the neolithic tumuli of ,yorkshire1 along with the same group of animals as in the caves at ,perthi-,chwareu1 the ,bos longifrons1 goat1 horse1 dog1 and stag2 and ,professor ,rolleston1 ,f4,r4,s41 informs me that some of the associated human leg-bones are platycnemic4 ,it is also recognized by ,professor ,huxley as identical with his river-bed type of skulls from alluvial deposits near ,muskham in the valley of the ,trent1 ,ledbury ,hall in the valley of the ,dove1 and in ,ireland from the bed of the ,nore in ,queen's ,county1 and from that of the river ,blackwater4 ,to it also ,professor ,huxley refers#aba five or six out of the seven skulls obtained by ,mr4 ,laing from the stone cists in the burial mound at ,keiss in ,caithness1 and associated with rude weapons and implements of bone and stone4 ,they probably belonged to the inhabitants of the neighbouring burgh1 or circular stone dwelling1 in and around which were the broken bones of the following animal remains3 the ,bos longifrons1 goat1 stag1 hog1 horse1 dog1 fox1 grampus or small whale1 dolphin or some other small cetacean1 great auk 7,alca impennis1 now extinct in ,europe71 lesser auk1 cormorant1 shag1 solan goose1 cod1 lobster1 and shell-fish4 ,a lower jaw also of a child1 broken after the same manner as other refuse bones1 is considered by ,professor ,owen and ,mr4 ,laing to prove that human flesh was sometimes used for food4 ,the reindeer was living in the district at this time1 since its remains have been identified by ,dr4 ,campbell from the ,harbour mound1 one of the many refuse-heaps in the neighbourhood4 ,the same kind of skull is also described by ,professor ,wilson under the name of 8boat-shaped0 or 8kumbe-cephalic10 from the ancient stone chambers and tumuli of ,scotland4#abb ,in the ,table on the next page1 showing the relative size and shape of the more important long skulls of ,britain and ,ireland1 it will be seen that the extreme long-headedness of those from the long barrows is not possessed by those either of the caves and tombs of ,denbighshire or of the river-bed type of ,huxley1 represented by the skulls from ,muskham1 ,ledbury1 ,blackwater 7,ireland71 and ,keiss4 ,the greater breadth of the skulls from the caves and tombs of ,denbighshire1 as compared with those of the typical long skulls from the long barrows1 may possibly be due to a mixture with the broad-headed race4 ,in that case1 however1 none of the tallness1 or prognathism1 of the latter has been handed down4 ,it is most probably a mere variation within the limits of one race1 and is unaccompanied by the fusion of dolicho-cephalic with brachy-cephalic characters1 such as ,m4 ,broca and ,dr4 ,thurnam have observed in the skulls from tombs and caves in ,france4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,latitud4 ,,skulls4 ,length4,breadth4,height4,circum- or ,ceph4 ,alt4 ference4 ,index4 ,index4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,mean of #dh males1 ,brit41 ,thurnam1 #gg #ee #efb #bac #gae #gcj long barrows ,mean of #ai females1 ,brit41 ,thurnam #gde #ec #ec #bjf #gaj #gcj long barrows ,mean of #aj skulls1 ,perthi-,chwareu ,cave #gjg #ee #ef #bjj #gfe -- ,skull from ,llandebie ,cave #gc #ec -- -- #gbj -- 0 ,uphill #gcf #edc -- -- #gbc -- ,mean of #f skulls from ,keiss4 7,huxley7 #gbb #ede #eai -- #gee #gaf ,skull from ,muskham 0 #gj #ed -- -- #ggj -- 0 ,ledbury ,hall 0 #gae #ee -- -- #ggj -- 0 ,blackwater1 ,ireland 0 #gb #efe -- -- #ghj -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,from the examples given in the preceding pages it is evident that1 in ancient times1 long-headed men of small stature inhabited the whole of ,britain and ,ireland1 burying their dead in caves1 but more generally in chambered tombs4 ,they were farmers and shepherds1 and in this country in the neolithic stage of culture4 ,in the solitary case offered by the ,harbour mound at ,keiss they were cannibals4#abc ,the ,range of the ,brachy-cephali4 ,no human remains of the brachy-cephalic1 or broad type1 as defined by ,dr4 ,thurnam have been obtained from the caves in ,britain4 ,the evidence1 however1 is decisive that1 in the ,bronze age1 a tall1 round-headed1 rugged-featured race occupied all those parts of ,britain and ,ireland that were worth conquering1 and drove away to the west or absorbed the smaller neolithic inhabitants4 ,and the identity of their skull-form1 in the series of interments in the round and bowl-shaped barrows1 extending from the ,bronze age down to the date of the ,roman occupation of ,britain1 shows that1 both in the ,north and the ,south1 this large-sized coarse-featured people was in possession at the time of the ,roman conquest4 ,the size and shape of the typical broad crania may be gathered from the first two columns of the following ,table1 which is an abstract of those published by ,dr4 ,thurnam in 8,crania ,britannica10 and the 8,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society40 ,measurements of ,british ,brachy-cephali1 and ,gaulish and ,belgic ,brachy-cephali and ,dolicho-cephali4 ,column-heading ,key3 ,a ,date4,b ,b ,length4 ,c ,breadth4 ,d ,height4 ,e ,circumference4 ,f ,latitudinal or ,cephalic index4 ,g ,altitudinal index4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,skull4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,typical ,,broad ,,skulls4--,,britain4 ,mean of #ef males1 ,brit4 ,round ,n4 #gbhei #ef #baa #ha #gg ,barrows ,b4 ,mean of #ad females1 ,brit4 ,round ,i4 #fi #ef #ec #bj #ha #gg ,barrows ,,long ,,and ,,short ,,skulls4--,,france4 ----------------------------------- ,tumulus1 ,noyelles-sur-mer-,somme ,n4 #fi #efp #ee #bjc #ha #gi 8,grotto10 ,nogent les ,virges1 ,oise ,n4 #gb #ehp #ee #ba #hj #gf 0 0 0 0 #gc #ebp #eb #bja #ga #ga 0 0 0 0 #ga #egp #eb #bjh #hj #gc 0 0 0 0 #fi #eip #ee #bji #he #gi 0 0 0 0 #gc #edp #ee #bjf #gd #ge 0 0 0 0 #gd #ebp #ef #bjh #gj #ge ,dolmen ,du ,val1 ,senlis1 ,oise ,n4 #ff #efp #ed #aig #hd #ha 0 0 0 0 #ga #eep #ef #bjb #gg #gh 0 0 0 0 #gb #ee #eh #bjh #gf #hj 0 0 0 0 #gb #eh -- -- #hj -- 0 ,chamant 0 0 ,n4 #gd #ec -- -- #ga -- 0 0 0 0 #ga #ee -- -- #gh -- 0 0 0 0 #gd #ee #ed -- #gd #gb ,cave1 ,orrouy1 ,oise ,n4,b4787#gd #eh #ec #bab #gh #gb 0 0 0 #ga #ehp #ec -- #gg #gd 0 0 0 #gb #edp #eg #bja #ge #ha 0 0 0 #ga #eip #ef #bjg #hc #gh 0 0 0 #fg #eep #ed #aib #hb #hj 0 0 0 #ff #efp #ee #aii #he #hc 0 0 0 #gb #ei #ed #bji #ha #ge 0 0 0 #fh #ege #ea #bjd #hd #ge 0 0 0 ,n4 #gd #eh #eg -- #gh #gg 0 0 0 #gb #ei -- #bjh #ha -- ,lombrive1 ,arige ,n4 #fg #ee #ee #aib #hb #hb ,dolmen1 ,meudon1 ,seine et ,oise #g #eiep#ei #bjg #he #hd 0 0 0 0 #gb #eg #ee #bjh #gi #gf ,lozerres #gc #ehp #eg #ba #gi #gh ,tomb1 ,maintenon2 ,eure et ,loire #gbeee -- #bjc #ge -- 0 0 0 0 #gg #ee -- #bjh #ga -- ,tumulus1 ,bougon1 ,deux ,svres #fg #edp -- #bj #hj -- ,dolmen1 ,meloisy1 ,cte d',or ,n4 #gc #ee -- #bji #ge -- ,avignon7871 ,vaucleuse #fi #eh -- #bjg #hd -- 0 0 #gh #eep -- #bah #gj -- ,genthod1 ,geneva ,i4 #gd #efp #ee #baa #ge #gd 0 0 #fi #efp #ed #bje #ha #gh ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,mean #ga #ef #ee #bje #gh #gg ,judge's ,cave1 ,gibraltar 7,busk7 787 #fi #ed #ed #aie #gib -- ,chauvaux ,cave 7,virchow7 ,n #gceec #ec -- #gah #ah ,sclaigneaux ,cave4 ,skull #a4 7,arnould7 ,n #gcefe #ed -- #haa #gcg 0 0 0 #b4 #gbefbe #ebe -- #haf #gjf 0 0 0 #c4 #fi #ege -- -- -- -- 0 0 0 #d4 #fie -- -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #abd ,n1 ,neolithic2 ,b1 ,bronze2 ,i1 ,iron4 ,the ,range of the ,dolicho-cephali and ,brachy-cephali in ,france in the ,neolithic ,age4--,the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort4 ,the researches of ,m4 ,broca and ,dr4 ,thurnam into the caves and tombs of ,france prove that the small dolicho-cephali and the tall brachy-cephali lived in that country in the neolithic age4 ,we are indebted to the former for a most important account of the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort1 which reproduces all the essential points which we have observed in the sepulchral caves of ,denbighshire4 ,the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort#abd is situated in a lonely ravine that penetrates the wild limestone plateau1 in the south-west of the department of ,lozre1 near the hamlet of ,vialle1 in the commune of ,st4 ,pierre des ,tripis4 ,it was discovered by the peasants1 and its contents were partially disturbed by their search after hidden treasure before it was explored by ,dr4 ,prunires4 ,in front of the cave was a platform1 composed of earth mingled with fragments of charcoal1 forming a layer about forty centimetres thick1 in which were the stones of seven hearths1 flint-flakes and scrapers1 lance-heads1 broken bones of the hare1 fallow-deer1 roe1 pig 7or wild-boar74 ,all the flints were worked1 and one lance-head had been chipped out of the stump of a celt and presented portions of the polished surface1 thus fixing the neolithic age of the accumulation4 ,coarse pottery was also met with4 ,the bones of the hare were very abundant1 and proved that there was no prejudice against the use of its flesh4 ,in the caves of ,perthi-,chwareu we have also seen that this was the case4 ,the refuse-heaps ceased abruptly at the entrance of the cave1 at a point where the traces of a wall1 composed of large stones1 was visible4 ,immediately behind this were human bones1 in a thick layer of dry sand1 scattered about in the wildest confusion1 which was probably the result of successive interments1 as well as of subsequent disturbance by burrowing animals and treasure-seekers4 ,two bone-points and a flint arrow-head were the only implements discovered within the sepulchral chamber4 ,two small human bones1 bearing undoubted marks of having been burnt1 were discovered in the refuse-heap2 but they do not1 as ,m4 ,broca justly observes1 imply the practice of cannibalism1 since they may have fallen out of the burial-place1 and subsequently have come into contact with the fire on one of the hearths4 ,it is impossible to estimate the number of interments in this cave4 ,exclusive of the many skulls which have been destroyed or lost1 ,m4 ,prunires obtained nineteen very nearly perfect1 which are described by ,m4 ,broca as seven male1 six female1 three of uncertain sex1 and three children4 ,they are remarkable for the softness of their contours1 the delicacy of their features1 and the orthognathism of their faces4 ,the forehead is wide and high1 and the vertex and the occipital region of the skull well rounded4 ,the cephalic index varies between #fhj and #gh1 the mean of the whole series being #gcb4 ,m4 ,broca remarks1 that these crania contrast strongly with those of the present broad-headed inhabitants of the district1 and that they differ from those found in the dolmens by ,m4 ,prunires in their greater length1 in the smallness of their features1 and the weakness of their muscular impressions4 ,the study of the bones of the skeleton confirms these differences4 ,the men who buried their dead in the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort were smaller than the dolmen builders1 their bones were more slender1 and they were altogether a less muscular race4 ,they are considered by ,m4 ,broca to represent the neolithic aborigines2 and if his description and measurements be compared with those of the dolicho-cephali of ,britain1 given by ,dr4 ,thurnam 7p4 #aia et seq471 it will be seen that they are identical with the latter1 which is the oldest race yet known to have occupied ,great ,britain since the close of the pleistocene period4 ,at a little distance from the sepulchral cave1 and in the same ravine1 ,m4 ,broca explored a large cavern1 which had been occupied1 probably by the same people1 since the same kind of instruments were discovered as in the refuse-heap4 ,so that we have here1 side by side1 the abode and the sepulchre of the same ancient tribe4 ,the ,sepulchral ,cave of ,orrouy4 ,the sepulchral cave of ,orrouy 7,oise7 described by ,m4 ,broca1 in which the remains of about fifty individuals were interred1 furnished both types of skull1 united1 according to ,dr4 ,thurnam and ,m4 ,broca1#abe by a series of intermediate forms1 that prove a fusion of blood between the broad- and the long-headed peoples4 ,on referring to the preceding ,table 7p4 #aii7 it will be seen that the cephalic index varies from #ge to #hh4 ,eight out of the series of twenty-one skulls united the characteristic dolicho-cephalous fore-head with the brachy-cephalous middle and hind-head4 8,we have here10 writes ,dr4 ,thurnam1 8a veritable hybrid form of cranium1 resulting from the mixture or crossing1 under certain circumstances unknown to us1 of a dolicho-cephalous with a brachy-cephalous race40 8444 ,in the ,orrouy skulls of hybrid form1 two encephalic growth-tendencies appear to me distinguishable2 one1 the longitudinal or fronto-occipital2 the other a transverse1 or bi-parietal and temporal one4 ,now the remarkable supramastoid depressions1 visible in the hindhead of these skulls1 seem to be well explained by the idea of an intersection or crossing of these two tendencies in the brain-growth2 corresponding1 as they must have done1 to the angles formed by the posterior surfaces of the middle1 the lower surfaces of the posterior and temporal lobes of the cerebrum1 and the upper surface of the cerebellum40#abf ,in eight out of thirty-four humeri the fossa of the olecranon is perforated4 ,the human remains occurred in the same confusion as at ,perthi-,chwareu1 and were associated with fragments of coarse pottery1 flint flakes1 and bones of ruminants4 ,the occurrence of polished stone celts indicates the neolithic age of the interment4 ,skulls from ,french ,tumuli4 ,both long and broad skulls also occur in the chambered tombs of ,france1 although the latter by far predominate4 ,those from the ,long ,barrow at ,chamant are dolicho-cephalic and ortho-cephalic1 with cephalic index ranging from #ga to #gh 7,broca71 and other similar cases are quoted by ,dr4 ,thurnam from ,noyelles-sur-,mer1 ,fontenay1 and other tumuli4 ,in the large sepulchral chamber at ,meudon1 that contained #bjj skeletons1 the majority of the skulls were brachy-cephalic1 although twenty of them were of the ortho-cephalic type4 ,this mixture may be accounted for1 most probably1 by the two races1 which are clearly defined from each other in ,britain1 being intermingled in ,france4 ,dr4 ,thurnam1 summing up the whole evidence as regards the distribution of races in the tombs of ,gaul1 concludes that the two races came into contact in ,gaul at an earlier period in the neolithic age than in ,britain4 ,and this must necessarily have been the case from the geographical position of our island1 which could only be invaded1 in those times1 by the races in possession of the contiguous mainland of ,france and ,belgium4 ,both these regions must have been conquered before an invasion could have taken place4 ,the ,dolicho-cephali of the ,iberian ,peninsula1 ,gibraltar4 ,the researches carried on from #ahfc to #ahfh1 by ,captain ,brome1 aided by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,professor ,busk1#abg into the caves of ,gibraltar1 have resulted in the proof that1 in the neolithic age1 that barren rock was inhabited by a race of men identical with that which is found in the long barrows and caves of ,great ,britain4 ,the enlargement of the military prison on the top of ,windmill ,hill revealed the existence of a deep fissure1 containing dark earth1 mingled with charcoal and broken bones1 which led into a series of chambers4 ,the upper of these is described by ,captain ,brome as being completely choked up to the roof with earth1 charcoal1 and decomposed bones of mammals1 birds1 and fishes1 flint flakes1 and pottery4 ,below were two floors of stalagmite1 filled with loose stones and earth1 through which a shaft penetrated into a fissure at a lower level1 leading into a lower chamber that had a free communication with the surface1 since the current of air was so strong as to extinguish the lamps4 ,in this also human remains and works of art were met with4 ,the passages were very complicated1 and in some of them a red breccia contained the remains of the pleistocene mammals1 the spotted hyna1 the ,rhinoceros hemitchus1 and others4 ,this series of passages and chambers is described by ,captain ,brome and ,professor ,busk as 8,genista ,cave ,no4 #a40 ,a second1 or 8,genista1 ,no4 #b10 was discovered by ,captain ,brome opening on the surface near the ,west ,cliff1 with its floor covered with stalagmite1 under which was the same class of remains as that above mentioned4 ,subsequently a third and fourth1 8,genista1 #c and #d10 were explored with the same results1 of which the latter1 opening on the face of a vertical cliff #dj feet below the summit1 from its difficulty of access must have been used as a place of refuge rather than of habitation or burial4 ,with this exception1 the whole group of ,genista ,caves contained human bones1 resting in the greatest confusion1 and proving that since the bodies had been interred the contents had been disturbed1 either by the burrowing of animals or by the action of water1 pools of which were present in some of the chambers4 ,evidence of the former presence of water was to be seen in the sheets of stalagmite on most of the floors4 ,the same confusion would result1 as is suggested by ,professor ,busk1 by interments at successive times4 ,the intimate association of the fractured bones of the animals1 and the charcoal1 broken pottery1 and other traces of occupation1 with the human bones1 may be accounted for in the same manner as the similar mixture of remains in the caves of ,denbighshire4 ,if the caves had been inhabited at one time1 and subsequently set apart for burials1 the human bones would become intermingled with the accumulation of refuse on the floors by the causes above mentioned4 ,the bones of the animals associated with the human remains belong1 according to ,professor ,busk1 to the domestic ox of various sizes1 goat1 ibex1 hog1 arvicola1 hare1 rabbit1 badger1 dog1 and a species of phocna1 fish1 birds1 and marine and land molluscs4 ,the pottery is for the most part hand-made1 coarse and imperfectly burnt2 and the vessels in some cases had singular perforated spouts1 similar to those still in use by the ,kabyles of ,algeria1 and some of the ,berber tribes4 ,some of it1 however1 is of a fine red ware turned in the lathe1 and probably introduced at a later period1 even1 as remarked by ,mr4 ,franks1 after the ,roman occupation of ,spain1 to which he refers a bronze fish-hook1 the only metallic article found in the group of caves4 ,the implements of bone consist of a needle1 and rounded pins and spikes4 ,one cannon-bone of a small ox bears marks of sharp cuts with an edge of metal1 inflicted probably1 as ,professor ,busk suggests1 8in an attempt to hamstring the animal1 as is sometimes done at the present day in the ,spanish bull-ring40 ,it may possibly be more modern than the stone implements found in the same cave4 ,the associated stone articles are celts of polished greenstone1 similar to that found in the neolithic cave at ,perthi-,chwareu 7,fig4 #ch71 flakes1 a greenstone chisel1 querns and rubbing-stones1 a whetstone perforated for suspension1 and a fragment of an armlet made of alabaster4 ,a small lump of coarse plumbago may have been used for personal ornament4 ,the human remains examined by ,professor ,busk belonged to a large number of individuals of all ages1 and are for the most part in a fragmentary condition4 ,some of the thigh-bones are carinate1 and remarkable for the enormous development of the linea aspera and the thickness of their walls 7,fig4 #eg71 the medullary cavity being reduced to a small size1 as in those figured from the tumulus at ,cefn4 ,some of the tibi are platycnemic1 presenting the peculiar lateral flattening which first attracted the attention of ,dr4 ,falconer and ,professor ,busk 7,figs4 #di1 #ej1 and #ea71 but which ,m4 ,broca has since determined in the tumuli and caves of ,france1 and ,i have discovered in those of ,denbighshire 7p4 #agg74 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #fb1 #fc1 #fd4--;,cranium from ,genista ,cave 7,busk74 ,the only two crania sufficiently perfect to allow of a comparison being made1 from ,genista ,cave ,no4 #c1 are perfectly symmetrical1 and belong to a high type 7,figs4 #fb1 #fc1 and #fd74 8,they are dolicho-cephalic1 quite orthognathous1 and wholly aphanozygous4 ,in one the frontal sinuses are considerably more developed than they are in the other1 but in neither is there any thickening of the supra-orbital border0 7,busk74 ,the teeth are worn flat4 ,they both belonged to men in the prime of life4 ,a third skull1 from ,genista ,cave ,no4 #a1 belongs to the same type4 ,the measurements of the two most perfect skulls are given in the same table as those from ,north ,wales 7p4 #aga74 ,gibraltar has also been occupied in ancient times by broad-headed men1 similar1 in ,m4 ,broca's opinion1 to those interred in the cave of ,orrouy4 ,in #ahfd human bones1 together with a skull 7for measurements see p4 #aii71 were dug out of the ,judge's ,cave by ,sir ,james ,cochrane4 ,the tibi are platycnemic1 and the skull is described by ,professor ,busk as being 8perfectly symmetrical1 brachy-cephalic1 slightly prognathous1 but with vertical teeth1 aphanozygous4 ,the forehead is well arched1 and the supra-orbital border slightly elevated1 the orbits being square1 and the nasal opening elongated and pyriform40 ,the cephalic index is #gib4 ,the age of these skeletons is uncertain4 ,spain4--,cueva de los ,murcilagos4 ,professor ,busk#abh calls attention to the fact1 that a long skull similar to that from ,gibraltar has been found in ,spain1 in an ancient copper-mine of the ,asturias1 together with hammers made of antler1 and that it bears 8the closest possible resemblance0 to the ,basque skulls1 described by ,m4 ,broca1 from ,guipuscoa on the ,spanish and ,st4 ,jean de ,luz on the ,french side of the ,pyrenees4 ,he points out1 also1 the resemblance which exists between the crania figured by ,don ,gongora y ,martinez1 from the caverns and dolmens of ,andalusia and those under consideration2 finally arriving at the conclusion that 8a pretty uniform priscan race at one time pervaded the peninsula from one end to the other1 and that this race is at the present day represented by1 at any rate1 a part of the population now inhabiting the ,basque provinces40 ,in the work of ,don ,manuel ,gongora y ,martinez#abi referred to1 there is a most interesting account of the prehistoric antiquities of ,andalusia4 ,several interments are described in the ,cueva de los ,murcilagos1 a cave running into the limestone rock1 out of which the grand scenery of the southern part of the ,sierra ,nevada has been1 to a great extent1 carved4 ,in one spot1 a group of three skeletons was met with1 one of which was adorned with a plain coronet of gold1 and clad in a tunic made of esparto-grass1 finely plaited1 so as to form a pattern which resembles some of the designs on gold ornaments from ,etruscan tombs4 ,at a spot further within1 a second group of twelve skeletons lay in a semicircle1 around one considered by ,don ,manuel to have belonged to a woman1 covered with a tunic of skin1 and wearing a necklace of esparto-grass1 a marine shell pierced for suspension1 the carved tusk of a wild boar1 and earrings of black stone4 ,there were other articles of plaited esparto-grass1 such as baskets and sandals2 flint flakes1 pieces of a white marble armlet1 polished axes of the type of fig4 #ch1 bone awls1 and a wooden spoon1 together with pottery of the same type as that from ,gibraltar1 fragments of charcoal1 and bones of animals4 ,although1 in this cave1 there were no traces of metal1 except gold1 in a second1 in the same neighbourhood1 similar interments were met with in association with copper 7bronze7 implements1 and with pottery of the same kind4 ,these interments in caves are of the same order as those from ,gibraltar2 and since the skulls agree with those from the latter1 there can be little doubt but that1 in the neolithic age1 the long-headed small race under discussion had possession of the southern provinces4 ,the ,woman's ,cave1 near ,alhama4 ,this conclusion derives additional support from the discoveries subsequently made by ,mr4 ,mc,pherson#acj in the ,woman's ,cave1 near ,alhama1 in ,grenada1 of implements of bone1 flint1 and greenstone of the neolithic age1 mingled with charcoal1 pottery1 and human skeletons of the same type as those from ,gibraltar4 ,the human skull1 figured by ,mr4 ,mc,pherson1 is dolicho-cephalic1 and the thigh-bone is remarkable for the extreme development of the linea aspera1 which assumes the form of a stout ridge sweeping from one extremity of the shaft to the other4 ,this long-headed race1 burying their dead in caves1 also erected dolmens in ,andalusia4 ,in the dolmen of ,de los ,eriales#aca human remains were discovered along with bronze 7copper87 lance-heads1 and pottery of the same sort as that of the caves4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that the practice of burial in caves1 and of erecting dolmens1 was carried on by the same people in ,britain1 in ,france1 and in ,spain4 ,the ,guanches of the ,canary ,isles4 ,the ,guanches1#acb the ancient inhabitants of the ,canary ,isles1 are considered by ,berthollet1 ,glas1 and other high authorities1 to be allied to the ,berbers of ,north ,africa in language4 ,at the time of their discovery and conquest by the ,spaniards1 they are described by ,miss ,haigh as being unacquainted with the use of any metal1 and as fashioning their weapons out of a black1 hard stone4 ,the ,guanches of ,teneriffe lived principally in caves1 preferring for their winter residence those near the coast1 and 8in the summer those in the higher parts in the interior of the island1 whence they could enjoy the fresh air of the hills40 ,some of these caves have been excavated by the hand of man1 and are divided into square chambers1 containing rock-hewn benches1 8and deep niches made to contain vessels of milk or water40 ,they had also stone houses1 thatched with straw or fern4 ,they also buried their dead in sepulchral caves1 belonging each to a family or clan1 entrances to which are carefully concealed1 and are now discovered only by accident4 ,in them the dead were placed either upright1 or lying side by side on wooden scaffolds1 after having been prepared with salt and butter and thoroughly dried and wrapped in the tanned skins of sheep or goat4 ,in some cases the prepared body was placed in the sitting posture4 ,they were possessed of a settled government by 8,menceys10 or chiefs subordinate to one head1 and were divided into 8nobles and common people1 and had a code of punishment for the robber1 murderer1 and adulterer40 ,their food consisted of sheep and goats1 roasted barley ground between two stones1 and the fruit of the arbutus1 date-palm and fig1 as well as fish and rabbits4 ,their fences were made of reed1 their ropes and nets of rushes1 and their baskets1 mats1 and bags1 of palm-leaves4 ,they manufactured vessels out of clay or hard wood1 needles of fishbones1 beads of clay1 and they especially excelled in the art of tanning4 ,the civilization of this very interesting people may fairly be taken to be a fragment of that of ,north ,africa and of ,europe in the neolithic age1 protected by insulation from the influences by which it was swept away from the countries bordering on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 just as the old ,norse customs and legends are preserved by the present inhabitants of ,iceland in greater purity than in ,norway4 ,the ,berbers are viewed by ,professor ,busk as of the same non-,aryan stock as the ,basque1 and the civilization of the ,guanches may therefore be taken to represent that of the ,iberic peoples of ,spain1 among whom caves were used in like manner for habitation and burial4 ,iberic ,dolicho-cephali of the same ,race as those of ,britain4 ,if this group of ,iberic skulls be compared with those from the caves and tumuli of ,great ,britain 7see ,table1 p4 #aig and that below7 it will be seen1 that what ,professor ,busk observes of the ancient population of ,spain is equally true of that of our country in the neolithic age4 ,and the identity of form is especially remarkable in the crania from the sepulchral caves at ,perthi-,chwareu1 the difference between them being so small as to be of little account3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,circum- ,ceph4 ,length4 ,brdth4 ,height4ference4index4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,mean of #aj skulls from ,perthi-,chwareu #gjg #ee #ef #bjj #gfe ,mean of #b skulls from ,genista ,cave1 ,no4 #c 7,busk7 #gce #eee #ei #bjg #gee ,mean of #dj male ,basque skulls from ,guipuscoa 7,thurnam7 #gb #ee #ed -- #gfj ,mean of #bj female1 ditto #fi #ec #ej -- #gfj ,mean of #ai skulls1 chiefly male #gd #ef #ed -- #gfj ,mean of #eg female ditto1 ,st4 ,jean de ,luz #gjb #ef -- -- #gii ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the ,dolicho-cephali cognate with the ,basque4 ,nor can the truth of ,professor ,busk's conclusion1 that the group of skulls in question belong to a people akin in blood to the modern ,basques1 be disputed4 ,we are indebted to ,m4 ,broca#acc for the elaborate description of seventy-eight ,basque crania from a village cemetery in ,guipuscoa1 and of fifty-eight from an ossuary at ,st4 ,jean de ,luz1 in which they had been collected in the reign of ,francis ,i41 #aecb4 ,in both these groups the long and oval types predominated1 the broad type being represented by #fd 7,thurnam7 per cent4 in the one1 and #cgcf per cent4 7,broca7 in the other2 a difference that is doubtless caused by the greater mixture of blood in the south-west of ,france than in the north-west of ,spain1 shut off from the broad-headed ,gallic tribes by the ,pyrenees4#acd ,six skulls1 obtained by ,professor ,virchow from ,bilbao1 agree in all particulars with those from ,guipuscoa4 ,m4 ,broca has further shown1 that this group of ,spanish skulls offers all the characters of the black-haired1 swarthy1 oval-faced1 ,basque population of the surrounding region1 and it therefore follows1 that they may be taken as standards of comparison1 as typical of the ancient ,basque crania1 modified1 it may be1 to some extent1 by the infusion of other blood4 ,their agreement1 therefore1 with the skulls from ,gibraltar implies that the latter are also ,basque4 ,and since they agree also with those from the cave of ,perthi-,chwareu1 as may be seen in the preceding ,table1 the men who buried their dead in the caves of ,north ,wales in the neolithic age1 are proved to belong to the same stock4 ,the same long-headed1 small race also inhabited ,france1 side by side with the broad-headed ,gallic tribes2 and since to it belong the skeletons in the ,cave de l',homme ,mort1 which ,m4 ,broca refers to the neolithic aborigines1 it may reasonably be concluded that in ,gaul1 as in ,britain1 it was the older of the two races4 ,the two have also been met with in the caves of ,belgium4 ,if we allow that an aboriginal ,basque population spread over the whole of ,britain1 ,france1 and ,belgium1 and that it was subsequently dispossessed by broad-headed invaders1 the two extremes of skull-form and of stature1 and of the gradations between them1 may be satisfactorily explained4 ,and this view coincides with the well-ascertained facts of history4 ,dr4 ,thurnam was the first to recognize that the long skulls1 out of the long barrows of ,britain and ,ireland1 were of the ,basque or ,iberian type1 and ,professor ,huxley holds that the river-bed skulls belong to the same race4#ace 7,compare ,table p4 #aig with the preceding47 ,we have therefore proof1 that an ,iberian or ,basque population spread over the whole of ,britain and ,ireland in the neolithic age1 inhabiting caves1 and burying their dead in caves and chambered tombs1 just as in the ,iberian ,peninsula also in the neolithic age4 ,dolicho-cephali and ,brachy-cephali in ,neolithic ,caves of ,belgium4--,chauvaux4 ,both these forms of skull have been met with in ,belgium1 the one in the famous cave of ,chauvaux1 the other in that of ,sclaigneaux4 ,the first of these is a rock-shelter passing into a small cave1 at the base of the limestone cliff on the ,meuse1 opposite the little village of ,rivire1 between ,dinant and ,namur4 ,it was known to contain human remains in #ahcg-h1 and was partially explored in #ahdb by ,dr4 ,spring1 who published his account of the discoveries in #ahec1 and subsequently in #ahfd and #ahff4 ,below a thin layer of loam was a floor of stalagmite1 concealing a vast number of broken human bones mixed ple-mle with those of wild and domestic animals1 and associated with charcoal and coarse pottery4 ,two polished stone celts indicated the neolithic age of the accumulation2 one of them resting close to a skull which had been fractured by a blow from a blunt instrument1 such as it may have inflicted4 ,the human bones belonged to infants and young adults4 ,from the fractured and burnt bones of the animals it is clear that they had been accumulated in the cave daring the time that it was inhabited by man4 ,dr4 ,spring#acf inferred that the broken human bones proved that human beings1 as well as the animals1 formed the food of the cave-dwellers1 and further1 since all the human remains belong to young individuals1 that the cannibalism was not accidental1 or caused by famine1 but the result of a deliberate selection4 ,the facts which induced ,dr4 ,spring to come to this conclusion are interpreted by ,m4 ,dupont#acg in a different manner4 ,he holds1 that the proportion of young individuals is not greater in ,chauvaux than that which he has observed in other sepulchral caves in ,belgium1 and that there is nothing which forbids the supposition that this also was used as a place of interment4 ,the human bones may have been broken by the foxes and badgers1 which are so abundant in the district1 and have been mixed1 by their continual burrowing1 with the remains of the animals in the old refuse-heap accumulated on the floor during the habitation of man4 ,such a mixture of remains we have already observed in the caves of ,north ,wales and ,gibraltar4 ,the recent researches of ,m4 ,soreil#ach leave no room for doubting the truth of ,m4 ,dupont's interpretation4 ,two perfect human skeletons were discovered along with flint flakes1 pottery1 a barbed arrow-head1 and many scattered human bones not broken by design1 while the long bones of the associated animals bore unmistakeable traces of having been split for the sake of the marrow4 ,on one long bone1 for example1 of the ox1 there were cuts made by a flint implement1 as well as the mark of the blow by which it had been split longitudinally2 and another ox-bone1 and the canine of a boar1 bore marks of burning4 ,the bones of the animals were very abundant1 and belonged to the following species3 beaver1 hamster1 and other small rodents1 hare1 badger1 fox1 boar1 stag1 roe1 ox1 and goat4 ,in this case1 as in the caves of ,perthi-,chwareu1 and of l',homme ,mort1 the inhabitants had used the hare for food1 as well as the other animals1 and did not share the prejudice against the use of its flesh for food1 which ,csar remarks of the inhabitants of ,britain 7,comm4 #a1 xii474 ,the cave must1 therefore1 be viewed as a place of sepulture for a neolithic people1 whose implements abound in the neighbourhood1 and not as having been inhabited by a race of cannibals4 ,the bodies had been interred in the crouching posture1 with their thighs bent1 their heads resting on their arms1 and their faces turned towards the valley4 ,they rested side by side in two small holes1 which had been dug in the deposit containing the bones of the animals1 and the skeletons were cemented to the rock by stalagmite1 and surrounded by large stones4 ,they belonged to individuals far past the prime of life4 ,both skulls were dolicho-cephalic1 and the most perfect of them is described by ,professor ,virchow as presenting a parietal flattening1 which is probably analogous to the 8tte annulaire10 so commonly present in the long skulls of the neolithic age4 ,it possesses a cephalic index of #gb 7#gah ,virchow74 ,the sutures in both the skulls were very nearly obliterated4 ,the measurements are given in the ,table in page #aii4 ,the crania1 in all these characters1 are to be classified with the long skulls from the caves and chambered tombs of ,france1 ,britain1 and ,spain4 ,they belong to people in the same stage of culture1 and practising the same mode of burial in a crouching posture4 ,chauvaux is the furthest cave to the east on the continent of ,europe1 in which traces of this long-headed race have been observed4 ,the ,cave of ,sclaigneaux4 ,the cave of ,sclaigneaux1#aci explored by ,m4 ,arnould1 near the hamlet of that name1 fourteen miles from ,namur1 has been proved to contain human bones1 lying mixed with those of the animals in the refuse-heap on the floor1 as in the cave of ,chauvaux4 ,the animals belonged to existing species3-- ,hedgehog4 ,badger4 ,beech-marten4 ,weazel4 ,fox4 ,dog4 ,wild ,cat4 ,hare4 ,rabbit4 ,ox4 ,goat4 ,stag4 ,boar4 ,horse4 ,rodents4 ,bones of birds1 frogs1 and fishes were also met with4 ,intermingled with these were human skeletons1 disposed in a rude sort of order1 and belonging to bodies which had been interred at different times4 ,from the lower jaws ,m4 ,arnould calculates that the number of bodies interred was not less than sixty-two1 of which twelve belonged to aged individuals1 twenty-one to those in the prime of life1 sixteen to young adults1 and thirteen to children4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #fe1 #ff4--,skull from ,cave of ,sclaigneaux4 7,arnould47 ,the crania 7,figs4 #fe1 #ff7 are brachy-cephalic 7see ,table1 p4 #aii71 and are possessed1 according to ,m4 ,arnould1 of the following characters4 ,the apex of the cranial vault is flattened1 probably artificially1 and the parietal bosses are largely developed1 to which is due the great width of the skull4 ,the surciliary ridges are strongly marked1 and the malar bones are prominent4 ,in all these particulars they agree with the broad skulls1 as defined by ,dr4 ,thurnam1 discovered in the round tumuli of ,britain and the sepulchral caves of ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,platycnemic tibia1 from ,sclaigneaux4 ,some of the leg-bones presented the antero-posterior flattening1 or platycnemism1 observed in the skeletons from the caves of ,gibraltar1 and in ,france and ,great ,britain 7,fig4 #fg74 ,it is due1 as in those from ,north ,wales1 to the anterior expansion of the bone1 and not to the posterior1 as is the case with those from the cave of ,cro-,magnon4 ,a beautifully chipped arrow-head1 with barbs and central tongue for insertion into the shaft1 of the same type as one from ,chauvaux1 implies that these remains belong to the neolithic age4 ,implements of bone1 and a shell perforated for suspension1 were also found4 ,the ,evidence of ,history as to the ,peoples of ,gaul and ,spain4 ,the extension of this non-,aryan race through ,france1 ,spain1 and ,britain1 in ancient times1 based solely on the evidence of the human remains1 is confirmed by an appeal to the ethnology of ,europe within the historic period4 ,in the ,iberian peninsula the ,basque populations of the west are defined from the ,celtic of the east by the ,celtiberi inhabiting the modern ,castille 7see ,map1 ,fig4 #fh74 ,in ,gaul the province of ,aquitania extended as far north1 in ,csar's time1#adj as the river ,garonne1 constituting the modern ,gascony1 to which was added1 in the days of ,augustus1 the district between that river and the ,loire2 a change of frontier that was probably due to the predominance of ,basque blood in a mixed race in that area similar to the ,celtiberi of ,castille4 ,the ,aquitani were surrounded on every side1 except the south1 by the ,celt1 extending as far north as the ,seine1 as far to the east as ,switzerland and the plains of ,lombardy1 and southwards1 through the valley of the ,rhone and the region of the ,volc1 over the ,eastern ,pyrenees into ,spain4 ,the district round the ,phocan colony of ,marseilles was inhabited by ,ligurian tribes1 who held the region between the river ,po and the ,gulf of ,genoa1 as far as the western boundary of ,etruria1 and who probably extended to the west along the coast of ,southern ,gaul as far as the ,pyrenees4#ada ,they were distinguished from the ,celt1 not merely by their manners and customs1 but by their small stature and dark hair and eyes1 and are stated by ,pliny and ,strabo to have inhabited ,spain4 ,they have also left marks of their presence in ,central ,gaul in the name of the ,loire 7,ligur71 and possibly in ,britain in the obscure name of the ,lloegrians4 ,they invaded ,sicily#adb as the ,sikelians1 and if the latter be identified with the ,sikanians considered by ,thucydides#adc and other writers to be of ,iberian stock1 it will follow that they are a cognate race4 ,their stature and swarthy complexion1 as well as the ancient geographical position conterminous with the ,iberic population of ,gaul and ,spain1 confirm this conclusion4 ,the non-,aryan and probably ,basque population of ,gaul was therefore cut into two portions by a broad band of ,celts1 which crosses the ,eastern ,pyrenees1 and marks the route by which the ,iberian peninsula was invaded4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--;,distribution of ,basque1 ,celtic1 and ,belgic ,peoples1 at dawn of ,history4 ,the ancient population of ,sardinia is stated by ,pausanias to be of ,libyan extraction1 and to bear a strong resemblance to the ,iberians in physique and in habits of life1 while that of ,corsica is described by ,seneca as ,ligurian and ,iberian4 ,the ancient ,libyans are represented at the present day by the ,berber and ,kabyle tribes which are1 if not identical with1 at all events cognate with the ,basques4 ,we may therefore infer that these two islands were formerly occupied by this non-,aryan race1 as well as the adjacent continents of ,northern ,africa and ,southern ,europe4 ,the ,basque ,population the ,oldest4 ,the relative antiquity of these two races in ,europe may be arrived at by this distribution4 ,the ,basques1 ,sikani or ,ligurian1 are the oldest inhabitants1 in their respective districts1 known to the historian2 while the ,celts appear as invaders1 pressing southwards and westwards on the populations already in possession1 flooding over the ,alps and under ,brennus sacking ,rome1 and by their union with the vanquished in ,spain constituting the ,celtiberi4 ,we may therefore be tolerably certain that the ,basques held ,france and ,spain before the invasion of the ,celts1 and that the non-,aryan peoples were cut asunder1 and certain parts of them left--,ligurians1 ,sikani1 and in part ,sardinians and ,corsicans--as ethnological islands1 marking1 so to speak1 an ancient ,basque non-,aryan continent which had been submerged by the ,celtic populations advancing steadily westwards4 ,at the time of the ,roman conquest of ,gaul1 the ,belg were pressing on the ,celts1 just as the latter pressed the ,basques1 the ,seine and the ,marne forming their southern boundary1 and in their turn being pushed to the west by the advance of the ,germans in the ,rhine provinces4 ,thus we have the oldest population1 or ,basque1 invaded by the ,celts1 the ,celts by the ,belg1 and these again by the ,germans2 their relative positions stamping their relative antiquity in ,europe4 ,the ,population of ,britain4 ,the ,celtic and ,belgic invasion of ,gaul repeated itself1 as might be expected1 in ,britain4 ,just as the ,celts pushed back the ,iberian population of ,gaul as far south as ,aquitania1 and swept round it into ,spain1 so they crossed over the ,channel and overran the greater portion of ,britain1 until the ,silures1 identified by ,tacitus#add with the ,iberians1 were left only in those fastnesses that formed subsequently a bulwark for the ,brit-,welsh against the ,english invaders4 ,and just as the ,belg pressed on the rear of the ,celts as far as the ,seine1 so they followed them into ,britain1 and took possession of the 8,pars ,maritima10#ade or southern counties4 ,the unsettled condition of the country at the time of ,csar's invasion was1 probably1 due to the struggle then going on between ,celts and ,belg4 ,the evidence offered by history as to the distribution of these races confirms that which has been arrived at by the examination of the caves and tumuli4 ,in the one case the ,basque peoples are merely known in a fragmentary condition in ,britain1 ,gaul1 and ,sicily1 while in the other those fragments are joined together in such a way as to show that1 in the neolithic age1 they extended uninterrupedly through ,western ,europe1 from the ,pillars of ,hercules in the south to ,scotland in the north1 before they were dispossessed by their broad-headed enemies4 ,it is impossible to define with precision their ethnological relation to the non-,aryan inhabitants of ,italy and the coasts of the ,mediterranean1 such as the ,etruscans and ,tyrrhenians4 ,i am1 however1 inclined to hold that they are all branches of the same race of 8,melanochroi10 differing far less from each other than the ,celtic from the ,scandinavian branch of the ,aryan family4#adf ,basque ,element in present ,british and ,french ,populations4 ,this non-,aryan blood is still to be traced in the dark-haired1 black-eyed1 small1 oval-featured peoples in our own country in the region of the ,silures1 where the hills have afforded shelter to the ,basque populations from the invaders4#adg ,the small swarthy ,welshman of ,denbighshire is in every respect1 except dress and language1 identical with the ,basque inhabitant of the ,western ,pyrenees1 at ,bagnres de ,bigorre4 ,the small dark-haired people of ,ireland1#adh and especially those to the west of the ,shannon1 according to ,dr4 ,thurnam and ,professor ,huxley1 are also of ,iberian derivation1 and singularly enough there is a legendary connection between that island and ,spain4 ,the human remains from the chambered tombs as well as the riverbeds prove that the non-,aryan population spread over the whole of ,ireland as well as the whole of ,britain4 ,the main mass of the ,irish population is undoubtedly ,celtic1 crossed with ,danish1 ,norse1 and ,english blood4 ,the ,basque element in the population of ,france is at the present time centered in the old province of ,aquitaine1 in which the jet-black hair and eyes1 and swarthy complexion1 strike the eye of the traveller1 now as in the days of ,strabo1#adi and form a vivid contrast with the brown hair and grey eyes of the inhabitants of ,celtica and ,belgica 7see ,map1 ,fig4 #fh74 ,if ,fig4 #fh be compared with the map published by ,dr4 ,broca 78,mmoires d',anthropologie10 t4 i4 p4 #ccj71 which shows at a glance the average complexion prevailing in each department1 and the relative number of exemptions per #a1jjj conscripts1 on account of their not coming up to the standard of height 7#aef metre #e feet #a inches71 it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside the boundary of ,aquitaine constitute five ethnological islands4 ,of these ,brittany is by far the largest1 probably because its fastnesses afforded a shelter to the ,basques1 who were being driven to the south-west4 ,the department of the ,meuse1 in the north1 and those of ,tarn and ,arrige1 in the south1 are also sundered from the main body1 while those of the ,upper and ,lower ,alps present us with the descendants of the ancient ,ligurian tribes4 ,the people with dark-brown hair1 considered by ,dr4 ,broca to be the result of the intermingling of a dark with a fair race1 are scattered about through ,aquitaine1 and occur only in two departments in northern ,celtica4 ,the fair people1 on the other hand1 are massed in northern ,celtica and ,belgica4 ,the relation of complexion to stature may be gathered from the following table of exemptions per #a1jjj for each department3-- ,dpartements noirs #ihe to #ahi 0 gris-foncs #fd 0 #ig 0 gris-clairs #dhh 0 #fch 0 blancs-clairs #bc 0 #dhe ,from this table it is evident that the swarthy people are the smallest and the fair the tallest1 the intermediate shades being the result of fusion between the two extremes4 ,the distribution therefore of the small swarthy ,basque1 and tall fair ,celtic and ,belgic races in ,france at the present time1 corresponds essentially with that which we might have expected from the evidence both of history and of the neolithic caves and tombs4#aej ,when we consider the many invasions of ,france1 and the oscillations to and fro of peoples1 the persistence of the ,basque population is very remarkable4 ,it is not a little strange that the type should be so slightly altered by intermarriage with the conquering races4 ,whence came the ,basques8 ,from what region did the ,basques invade ,europe8 ,m4 ,broca1 from their identity with the ,kabyles and ,berbers1 holds that they entered ,europe from northern ,africa1 spreading over ,spain1 and passing over the ,pyrenees into southern ,france4 ,it seems1 however1 to me1 from their range as far north as ,scotland1 and at least as far to the east as ,belgium1 that they travelled by the same route that the ,celtic1 ,belgic1 and ,germanic tribes travelled long ages afterwards1 coming from the east and pushing their way to the west3 and that while one section chose this route1 another mastered northern ,africa1 following the same westward direction as the ,saracens4 ,on this hypothesis this great pre-,aryan migration would start from the central plateau of ,asia1 from which all the successive invaders of ,europe have swarmed off4 ,this view of the eastern derivation of the ,basque peoples is confirmed by the examination of the breeds of domestic animals which they possessed4 ,the ,bos longifrons1 the sheep1 and the goat are derived from wild stocks that are now to be found only in central ,asia2 and the dog and breed of swine with small canines were also probably imported after they had become the servants of man in the east4#aea ,the ,celtic and ,belgic ,brachy-cephali4 ,the occurrence of broad-skulls in the tumuli in this country1 and in caves and tumuli in ,france1 proves that the ,basque peoples were invaded during the neolithic age4 ,and since ,dr4 ,thurnam has shown that they are identical in form with ,celtic and ,belgic skulls1#aeb it follows that one or the other of these1 probably the ,celtic or the older1 was in possession of portions of ,britain1 ,ireland1 and ,gaul at that remote time4 ,it is of course conceivable that non-,celtic races1 physically allied to the ,celts or ,belg1 are represented by the human remains in question2 but in that case they have left no mark behind by which they can be identified4 ,and the supposition is rendered improbable to the last degree by the fact1 that the older or conquered race--the ,basque--still survives1 in the area under consideration1 the invasions and vicissitudes which it has undergone4 ,a fortiori1 would their conquerors have had a still greater chance of survival1 in the fastnesses which are offered by these countries4 ,it is therefore reasonable to presume that the broad-headed peoples in the neolithic caves and tombs are represented by the ,celts1 and possibly1 though not probably1 in part by the ,belg1 rather than by the equally broad-headed ,wends1 ,sclavonians1 and ,fins1 which are not known by the historian to have settled in ,gaul or in ,britain4 ,the successive invasions of ,europe have been invariably from the east to the west1 so far as we have any certain knowledge2 and it is most improbable that ,wends1 ,fins1 or ,sclaves should have occupied these countries and subsequently have retreated eastwards against the current of the ,celtic1 ,belgic1 and ,germanic invasions4 ,the ,celt may1 therefore1 be inferred to have occupied ,gaul and ,britain in the ages of polished stone1 bronze1 and of iron1 their encroachment on the non-,aryan peoples being regulated by their strength1 and the amount of pressure on their rear4 ,the ,belg probably were not known in ,gaul until the later portion of the iron age1 and were of small importance as compared with the ,celts1 whose arms were felt alike in ,greece1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,celts were a tall1 fair-haired1 blue-eyed race 7,xanthochroi71 contrasting strongly with the ,basque 8,melanochroi01 and in those particulars agreeing with the ,germans4#aec ,the ,ancient ,german ,race4 ,the ,germans1 in the days of ,csar1 were advancing on the ,belg in the ,rhine provinces1 and on the ,helvetii in ,switzerland1 and are recognized by ,tacitus1#aed in ,britain as the red-haired1 tall inhabitants of ,caledonia4 ,subsequently they spread over the west and south of ,europe1 as ,goths1 ,franks1 ,scandinavians1 ,english and ,normans2 in this country sweeping the ,brit-,welsh into the hilly fastnesses of ,wales1 making settlements on many points of the coasts of ,ireland1 and leaving behind them1 to this day1 a considerable infusion of ,german blood in the ,celtic and ,basque populations4 ,they were1 unlike the present inhabitants of ,north ,prussia and southern and middle ,germany1 a dolicho-cephalic people1 their length of head being due1 according to ,gratiolet1 to a frontal instead of an occipital development1 which causes the long-headedness of the ,basques4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon skull is defined by ,dr4 ,thurnam as prognathous1 with large facial bones1 and with a cephalic index averaging #ge4 ,and these characters are equally to be found in the ,gothic1 ,frankish1 and ,scandinavian crania4 ,general ,conclusions4 ,in this outline of the ethnology of ,gaul and ,britain1 it will be seen that two out of the three ethnical elements 7if the ,belgic be classed with the ,celtic71 of which the present population is composed1 can be recognized in the neolithic users of caves and builders of chambered tombs4 ,a non-,aryan race either identical or cognate with the ,basque is the earliest traceable in these areas in the neolithic age1 and it probably arrived in ,europe by the same route as the ,celtic and ,germanic1 passing westwards from the plains of central ,asia4 ,there is no evidence of ,spain having been peopled from northern ,africa1 the identity of the ,berber and ,kabyle with the ,basque being due to their being descended from the same non-,aryan stock in possession of southern and western ,europe1 and northern ,africa4 ,they are to be looked upon as cousins rather than as connected by descent in a right line4 ,the ,basque race was probably in possession of ,europe for a long series of ages1 before hordes either identical or cognate with the ,celts gradually crept westward over ,germany into ,gaul1 ,spain1 and ,britain1 driving away1 or absorbing1 the inhabitants of the regions which they conquered4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,caves ,,containing ,,human ,,remains ,,of ,,doubtful ,,age4 ,the ,caves of ,paviland4--,engis4--,trou du ,frontal4--,gendron4 --,neanderthal4--,gailenreuth4--,aurigna c4--,bruniquel4-- ,cro-,magnon4-- ,lombrive4--,cavillon1 near ,mentone4--,grotta dei ,colombi in ,island of ,palmaria1 inhabited by ,cannibals4--,general ,conclusions4 ,there are many prehistoric caves in ,britain and on the ,continent which do not contain remains sufficiently characteristic to fix the date of their use1 either for occupation or burial1 unless the term neolithic be understood to cover the wide interval between the palolithic stage of the pleistocene on the one hand1 and the bronze age on the other4 ,the ,paviland ,cave4 ,the ,cave of ,goat's ,hole#aee at ,paviland1 in ,glamorganshire1 explored by ,dr4 ,buckland in #ahbc1 offers an instance of an interment having been made in a pre-existent deposit of the pleistocene age4 ,it consists of a chamber facing to the sea1 in a cliff of limestone #ajj feet high1 at a level of from #cj to #dj feet above the high-water mark4 ,its floor was composed of red loam1 containing the remains of the woolly-rhinoceros1 hyna1 cave-bear1 and mammoth4 ,close to a skull with tusks of the last animal a human skeleton 7equalling in size the largest male skeleton in the ,oxford ,museum7 was discovered2 and in the soil1 8which had apparently been disturbed by ancient diggings10 were fragments of charcoal1 a small chipped flint1 and the sea-shells of the neighbouring shore4 ,certain small ivory ornaments1 found close to the skeleton1 are considered by ,dr4 ,buckland to have been carved out of the tusks of the mammoth near which they rested2 and he justly remarks that1 8as they must have been cut to their present shape at a time when the ivory was hard1 and not crumbling to pieces1 as it is at present at the slightest touch1 we may from this circumstance assume for them a high antiquity40 ,may we not also infer1 from the fact of the manufactured ivory and the tusks from which it was cut being in precisely the same state of decomposition1 that the tusks were preserved from decay1 during the pleistocene times1 by precisely the same agency as those now found perfect in the polar regions--namely1 the intense cold2 that after the skull of the mammoth had been buried in the cave1 the tusks1 thus preserved1 were used for the manufacture of ornaments2 and that1 at some time subsequent to the interment of the ornaments with the corpse1 a climatal change has taken place1 by which the temperature in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany has been raised1 and the ivory became decomposed that up to that time had preserved its gelatine8 ,on this point it is worthy of remark that fossil tusks have been discovered in ,scotland sufficiently perfect to be used as ivory4 ,the ornaments may1 however1 not have been made from the fossil tusks4 ,the presence of the bones of sheep underneath the remains of mammoth1 bear1 and other animals1 coupled with the state of the cave earth1 which had been disturbed before ,dr4 ,buckland's examination of the cave1 would prove that the interment is not of pleistocene date4 ,no traces of sheep or goat have as yet been afforded by any pleistocene deposit in ,britain1 ,france1 or ,germany4 ,dr4 ,buckland's conclusion1 that the interment is relatively more modern than the accumulation with remains of the extinct mammalia1 must be accepted as the true interpretation of the facts4 ,the intimate association of the two sets of remains1 of widely diverse ages1 in this cave show that extreme care is necessary in cave exploration4 ,the ,cave of ,engis4 ,human remains have been obtained from some of the caves of ,belgium under circumstances which are generally considered to indicate that they are of the same antiquity as the skeletons of the animals with which they are associated4 ,the possibility1 however1 of the contents of caves of different ages being mixed by the action of water1 or by the burrowing of animals1 or by subsequent interments1 renders such an association of little value1 unless the evidence be very decided4 ,the famous human skull discovered by ,dr4 ,schmerling#aef in the cave of ,engis1 near ,lige1 in #ahcc1 is a case in point4 ,it was obtained from a mass of breccia1 along with bones and teeth of mammoth1 rhinoceros1 horse1 hyna1 and bear2 and subsequently ,m4 ,dupont#aeg found in the same spot a human ulna1 other human bones1 worked flints1 and a small fragment of coarse earthenware4 ,the discovery of this last is an argument in favour of the human remains being of a later date than the extinct mammalia1 since pottery has not yet been proved to have been known to the palolithic races who co-existed with them1 while it is very abundant in neolithic burial-places and tombs4 ,the fact of all the objects being cemented together by calcareous infiltration is no test of relative age1 which cannot be ascertained without distinct stratification1 such as that in the caves of ,wookey and ,kent's ,hole4 ,it seems therefore to me1 that the conditions of the discovery are too doubtful to admit of the conclusion of ,sir ,charles ,lyell and other eminent writers1 that the human remains are of palolithic age4 ,the skull is described by ,professor ,huxley#aeh as being of average size1 its contour agreeing equally well with some ,australian and ,european skulls2 it presents no marks of degradation1 8and is in fact a fair average human skull1 which might have belonged to a philosopher1 or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage40 ,its measurements fall within the limits of the long-skulls described in the preceding chapter1 and it certainly belongs to the same class4 ,the following ,table will show the variation in size and form of the skulls mentioned in this chapter3 ,measurements of ,skulls of doubtful antiquity4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,circum- ,cephalic,altitu- ,length4,breadth4,height4ference4 index4 dinal index4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,engis 7,huxley7 #gg #ed -- #bje #gjj -- ,trou du ,frontal 7,pruner-,bey7 #fi #ef -- #baee #haa #gjd ,gailenreuth 7,dawkins7 #fhb #ee -- #baee #hac #hac ,neanderthal 7,schaaffhausen7 #abj #ege -- #bc #gbj -- ,cro-,magnon1 ,no4 #a 7,broca7 #gie #ehf -- #bbcf #gcj -- 0 0 #b 0 #geb #eci -- #babf #ga -- 0 0 #c 0 #gid #eid -- #bbbd #gd -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,trou du ,frontal4 ,the human skeletons in the ,trou du ,frontal1 situated in a picturesque limestone cliff on the banks of the ,lesse1 near ,furfooz1 are considered by ,m4 ,dupont to be of the same age as the contents of the caves close by the ,trou des ,nutons and ,trou ,rosette1 which have been inhabited by palolithic savages4 ,the following is the section 7,fig4 #fi7 which he gives of the deposits4 ,close to the river ,lesse is the alluvium 7,no4 #a71 below which is a clay 7,no4 #b71 with angular blocks passing upwards under the rock shelter1 and filling the cave4 ,under this is a stratum of loam 7,no4 #c71 resting on gravel 7,no4 #d74 ,sixteen human skeletons were discovered in the sepulchral cavity 7,s71 at the mouth of which was a large slab of rock 7,d71 by which it was originally blocked up4 ,a singular urn1 with a round bottom and with the handles perforated for suspension1 was found at the entrance1 together with flint flakes1 ornaments in fluorine1 and eocene shells perforated for suspension4 ,outside1 at the points ,h ,h1 was an accumulation of broken bones1 belonging to the lemming1 tailless hare 7,lagomys71 beaver1 wild cat1 boar1 horse1 stag1 urus1 chamois1 goat1 and other animals1 birds and fishes4 ,from the occurrence of fragments belonging to two reindeer1 it is considered by ,m4 ,dupont to belong to the reindeer age4 ,the old hearth was close by1 at ,f 7,fig4 #fi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,section of the ,trou du ,frontal4 7,dupont47 ,from this section we may infer1 that the rock-shelter was used by man at the points ,h ,h and ,f before the formation of the stratum ,no4 #b1 which is probably merely subaerial rain-wash1 due to the disintegration of the adjacent rocks1 and that the sepulchral cavity was a place of burial either before1 or while ,no4 #b was accumulated4 ,can we further conclude that there is any necessary connection between the refuse-heap and the sepulchre in point of time8 ,m4 ,dupont holds that the contents of all the caves in the cliff are palolithic1 and that the sepulchral cavity is therefore of that age4#aei ,it seems to me1 however1 that the evidence in favour of this view is not conclusive4 ,the burial place may have belonged to one people1 and the refuse-heaps in the neighbouring caves and outside the slab in the rock-shelter of the ,trou du ,frontal to another4 ,the form of the urn is remarkably like some of those which have been obtained from the neolithic pile-dwellings of ,switzerland1 and therefore may possibly imply that the interment is of that age4 ,the human remains were mixed ple mle with stones and yellow clay within the chamber4 ,two skulls1 sufficiently perfect to allow of measurement1 show that their possessors were broad-headed 7brachy-cephalic71 and of the same type as those of ,sclaigneaux4 ,they are considered by the late ,dr4 ,pruner-,bey to belong to the 8type ,mongoloide10 and are believed by ,m4 ,dupont to prove that the palolithic inhabitants of ,belgium were a ,mongoloid race4 ,they seem1 however1 to be of the same general order as the broad-skulls from the neolithic caves and tombs of ,france1 and from the round barrows of ,great ,britain1 as well as those from the neolithic tombs of ,borreby and ,mon in ,scandinavia4 ,and they are looked upon by ,,mm4 de ,quatrefages1 ,virchow1 and ,lagneaux1#afj as presenting the same type as that which is to be recognized in the present population of ,belgium1 in the neighbourhood1 for example1 of ,antwerp4 ,these affinities may be explained by the view advanced by ,dr4 ,thurnam1 that the broad-heads of the ,british1 ,french1 and ,scandinavian tombs are cognate with the modern ,fin2 or by the higher generalisation of ,prof4 ,huxley1 that the ,swiss 8,dissentis0 skull1 the ,south ,german1 the ,sclavonian1 and the ,finnish1 belong to one great race of fair-haired1 broad-headed1 ,xanthochroi 8who have extended across ,europe from ,britain to ,sarmatia1 and we know not how much further to the east and south40#afa ,besides these broad crania1 ,m4 ,lagneaux#afb calls attention to a fragment1 sufficiently perfect to indicate a skull of the long type 7trs dolicho-cphale71 and that differed from them in many other particulars4 ,in the ,trou du ,frontal1 therefore1 there is proof that a long and a short-headed race lived in ,belgium side by side1 just as a similar association in the cave of ,orrouy establishes the same conclusion as to the neolithic dwellers in ,france4 ,and since skulls of both these types have been discovered in the neolithic caves of ,sclaigneaux and ,chauvaux1 the interment in the ,trou du ,frontal may probably be referred to that date4 ,the ,cave of ,gendron4 ,the sepulchral cave of ,gendron#afc on the ,lesse1 in which fourteen skeletons were discovered lying at full length1 and in regular order1 along with one flake and some fragments of pottery1 is of uncertain age1 since those articles were found at the entrance1 and have no necessary connection with the interments4 ,and if they were deposited at the same time1 ,m4 ,dupont's view that they stamp the neolithic age is rendered untenable by the fact that flakes and rude pottery were in use as late as the date of the ,roman conquest of ,britain1 and are frequently met with in association with articles of bronze and of iron4 ,and for the same reasons the neolithic age of the human bones in the ,trou de ,sureau and of the ,trou de ,pont--,lesse is open to considerable doubt4 ,the contents1 however1 prove these caves to be post-pleistocene4 ,cave of ,gailenreuth4 ,the same uncertainty overhangs the age of the interments in the cave of ,gailenreuth1 in ,franconia1 from which ,dr4 ,buckland#afd obtained a human skull of the same broad type as that from ,sclaigneaux1 along with fragments of black coarse pottery1 one of which is ornamented with a line of finger-impressions4 ,the skull is remarkable for the great width of the parietal protuberances1 and the flattening of the upper and posterior region of the parietal bone4 ,its measurements are given in the ,table1 p4 #bcf1 from which it will be seen that it belongs to the same class of skulls as those from the neolithic caves and tumuli of ,france4 ,cave of ,neanderthal4 ,the extraordinary skull found in #aheg in the cave of ,neanderthal1#afe by ,dr4 ,fuhlrott1 with some of the other bones of the skeleton1 was not associated with any other animals from which its age could be inferred4 8,under whatever aspect10 writes ,professor ,huxley1 8we view this cranium1 whether we regard its vertical depression1 the enormous thickness of its supraciliary ridges1 its sloping occiput1 or its long and straight squamosal suture1 we meet with ape-like characters1 stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet discovered4 ,but ,prof4 ,schaaffhausen states that the cranium1 in its present condition1 holds #ajccbd cubic centimetres of water1 or about #fc cubic inches1 and as the entire skull could hardly have held less than an additional #ab cubic inches1 its capacity may be estimated at about #ge cubic inches1 which is the average capacity given by ,morton for ,polynesian and ,hottentot skulls4 ,so large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest that the pithecoid tendencies1 indicated by this skull1 did not extend deep into the organization1 and this conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of the other bones of the skeleton1 given by ,prof4 ,schaaffhausen1 which show that the absolute height and relative proportions of the limbs were quite those of a ,european of middle stature4 ,the bones are indeed stouter1 but this1 and the great development of the muscular ridges noted by ,dr4 ,schaaffhausen1 are characters to be expected in savages4 ,the ,patagonians1 exposed without shelter or protection to a climate possibly not very dissimilar from that of ,europe at the time during which the ,neanderthal man lived1 are remarkable for the stoutness of their limb-bones4 ,in no sense1 then1 can the ,neanderthal bones be regarded as the remains of a human being intermediate between men and apes2 at most they demonstrate the existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert somewhat towards the pithecoid type--just as a carrier1 or a poulter1 or a tumbler may sometimes put on the plumage of its primitive stock1 the ,columba livia40 ,this skull1 like the preceding1 belongs to the dolicho-cephalic division1 reaching the enormous length of twelve inches1 with a parietal breadth of #ege4 ,a long-skull found near ,ledbury ,hill in ,derbyshire1 and belonging to the river-bed type of ,prof4 ,huxley1 comes so close to this one of ,neanderthal1 that were it flattened a little and elongated1 and possessed of larger supraciliary ridges1 it would be converted into the nearest likeness which has yet been discovered4#aff ,the ,caves of ,france4--,aurignac4 ,in the cave of ,neanderthal1 the question of the antiquity of the human remains is not complicated by the juxtaposition of extinct pleistocene animals or of palolithic implements4 ,those caves1 however1 in ,france which claim especial attention1 ,aurignac1 ,bruniquel1 and ,cro-,magnon1 are equally famous for their interments1 and the palolithic implements which they have furnished1 along with the remains of the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 and other extinct animals4 ,they have both been inhabited by palolithic man1 and been used some time for burial4 ,does the period of habitation coincide with that of the burial8 ,this important question has been answered almost universally in the affirmative1 and the interments are viewed as evidence of a belief in the supra-natural among the most ancient inhabitants of ,europe1 as well as offering examples of their physique4 ,the famous cave of ,aurignac1 near the town of that name1 in the department of the ,haute ,garonne1 was explored and described by the late ,m4 ,ed4 ,lartet1 and his conclusions were adopted by ,sir ,charles ,lyell in the first three editions of the 8,antiquity of ,man40 ,in the fourth edition1#afg however1 the latter author1 after a reconsideration of all the circumstances1 qualifies his acceptance of the palolithic age of the interments1 and shares the doubts which have been expressed by ,sir ,john ,lubbock and ,mr4 ,john ,evans4 ,the evidence is as follows3-- ,m4 ,lartet's account falls naturally into two parts3 first1 the story which he was told by the original discoverer of the cave2 and1 secondly1 that in which the results of his own discoveries are described4 ,we will begin with the first4 ,in the year #aheb1 a labourer1 named ,bonnemaison1 employed in mending the roads1 put his hand into a rabbit-hole 7,fig4 #gj1 f71 and drew out a human bone1 and having his curiosity excited1 he dug down until1 as his story goes1 he came to a great slab of rock4 ,having removed this1 he discovered on the other side a cavity seven or eight feet in height1 ten in width1 and seven in depth1 almost full of human bones1 which ,dr4 ,amiel1 the ,mayor of ,aurignac1 who was a surgeon1 believed to represent at least seventeen individuals4 ,all these human remains were collected1 and finally committed to the parish cemetery1 where they rest to the present day1 undisturbed by sacrilegious hands4 ,fortunately1 however1 ,bonnemaison in digging his way into the grotto1 had met with the remains of extinct animals1 and works of art2 and these were preserved until1 in #ahfj1 ,m4 ,lartet accidentally heard of the discovery1 and investigated the circumstances on the spot4 ,he found that ,bonnemaison1 and the sexton who had buried the human remains1 had taken so little note of the place where they were interred1 that it could not be identified1 and on examining the cave he found that the interior had been ransacked1 and the original stratification to a great extent disturbed4 ,m4 ,lartet's exploration showed that a stratum containing the remains of the cave-bear1 lion1 rhinoceros1 hyna1 mammoth1 bison1 horse1 and other animals1 and palolithic implements1 like those of ,prigord1 extended from the plateau 7d7 outside into 7b7 the cave4 ,on the outside he met with ashes1 and burnt and split bones1 which proved that it had been used as a feasting-place by the palolithic hunters2 within he detected no traces of charcoal1 and no traces of the hynas1 which were abundant outside4 ,inside he met with a few human bones in the earth which ,bonnemaison had disturbed1 which were in the same mineral condition as those of the extinct animals1 and he1 therefore1 inferred that they were of the same age4 ,such is the summary of the facts which ,m4 ,lartet discovered4 ,he has1 of his own personal knowledge1 only proved that ,aurignac was occupied by a tribe of hunters during the palolithic age1 and that it had been used as a burial-place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,diagram of the ,cave of ,aurignac4 ,is he further justified in concluding that the period of palolithic occupation coincides with that in which the burial took place8 ,bonnemaison's recollections may be estimated at their proper value by the significant fact1 that1 in the short space of eight years intervening between the discovery and the exploration1 he had forgotten where the skeletons had been buried4 ,and even if his account be true in the minutest detail1 it does not afford a shadow of evidence in favour of the cave having been a place of sepulchre in palolithic times1 but merely that it had been so used at some time or another4 ,if we turn to the diagram constructed by ,m4 ,lartet to illustrate his views 78,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat4 ,zool410 #d;e sr41 t4 xv41 pl4 #aj71 and made for the most part from ,bonnemaison's recollections2 or to the amended diagram 7,fig4 #gj7 given by ,sir ,charles ,lyell 78,antiquity of ,man10 #ast ed41 ,fig4 #be71 we shall see that the skeletons are depicted above the stratum 7b7 containing the palolithic implements and pleistocene mammalia2 and therefore1 according to the laws of geological evidence1 they must have been buried after the subjacent deposit was accumulated4 ,the previous disturbance of the cave-earth does away with the conclusion1 that the few human bones found by ,m4 ,lartet are of the same age as the extinct mammalia in the deposit4 ,the absence of charcoal inside was quite as likely to be due to the fact that a fire kindled inside would fill the grotto with smoke1 while outside the palolithic savage could feast in comfort1 as to the view that the ashes are those of funereal feasts in honour of the dead within1 held after the slab had been placed at the entrance4 ,the absence of the remains of hynas from the interior is also negative evidence1 disproved by subsequent examination4 ,the researches of the ,rev4 ,s4 ,w4 ,king1 in #ahfe1 complete the case against the current view of the palolithic character of the interments1 since they show that ,m4 ,lartet did not fully explore the cave1 and that he consequently wrote without being in possession of all the facts4 ,the entrance was blocked up1 according to ,bonnemaison1 by a slab of stone1 which1 if the measurements of the entrance be correct1 must have been at least nine feet long and seven feet high1 placed1 according to ,m4 ,lartet1 to keep the hynas from the corpses of the dead4 ,it need hardly be remarked1 that the access of these bone-eating animals to the cave would be altogether incompatible with the preservation of the human skeletons1 had they been buried at the same time4 ,the enormous slab was never seen by ,m4 ,lartet1 and it did not keep out the hynas4 ,in the collection made by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,w4 ,king from the interior there are two hynas' teeth1 and nearly all the antlers and bones bear the traces of the gnawing of these animals4 ,the cave1 moreover1 has two entrances instead of one1 as ,m4 ,lartet supposed when his paper in the 8,annales0 was published4 ,the bones of the sheep1 or goat1 also obtained from the inside1 and preserved in the ,christy ,museum1 afford strong evidence that the interment is not palolithic2 and a fragment of pottery1 agreeing exactly with that used in the neolithic age1 probably indicates its relative antiquity4 ,this conclusion has also been arrived at by the two most recent explorers1 ,,mm4 ,cartaillac and ,gautier4 ,the skeletons1 therefore1 in the ,aurignac cave cannot be taken to be of the same age as the stratum on which they rested2 but1 so far as there is any evidence1 may probably be referred to the neolithic age1 in which the custom of burial in caves prevailed throughout ,europe4 ,cavern of ,bruniquel4 ,the famous cavern of ,bruniquel1 explored by the ,vicomte de ,lastic in #ahfc-d1afh and described by ,professor ,owen1 is also one of the class which has furnished human bones1 along with the remains of the extinct mammalia4 ,it penetrates a cliff in the ,jurassic limestone1 opposite the little village of ,bruniquel 7,tarn and ,garonne71 about forty feet above the level of the river ,aveyron4 ,the bottom was covered with a sheet of stalagmite1 resting on earth and blocks of stone1 for the most part finely cemented into a breccia1 that is black with the particles of carbon constituting the 8limon noir0 of the workmen1 four or five feet thick1 beneath which is the 8limon rouge10 or red earth without charcoal1 from three to four feet thick4 ,every part of the breccia is charged with the broken remains of the wolf1 rhinoceros1 horse1 reindeer1 stag1 ,irish elk and bison1 and palolithic implements of flint and bone2 some of the latter having well-executed designs of the heads of horses and reindeer1 which prove that the cave had been used as a place of habitation by the hunters of those animals4 ,imbedded in the breccia at a depth of from three to five feet human bones were met with1 and in two recesses several individuals1 including a child1 were found1 one of which ,professor ,owen and the ,vicomte de ,lastic disinterred with sufficient care to prove that the body had been buried in the crouching posture4 ,the only calvarium sufficiently perfect to allow of a comparison belonged to the dolicho-cephalic type1 and was very fairly developed4 ,professor ,owen infers1 from the intimate association of the human bones with the palolithic implements and mammalia1 that the cave of ,bruniquel was used as a burial-place by the same people who had used it for habitation1 and advances1 in support of this1 that the bones of man and of the animals are exactly in the same state of preservation1 having lost the same amount of gelatine4 ,the evidence1 however1 does not seem to be altogether conclusive4 ,if the interment had been made after the palolithic inhabitants had forsaken the cave1 the association of the human bones with the refuse bones in their old refuse-heap must inevitably have taken place4 ,and if1 further1 water charged with carbonate of lime percolated the mass1 it would be converted into a hard breccia1 and ultimately covered with a sheet of stalagmite4 ,this calcification may have taken place in modern times4 ,a modern bone1 as ,mr4 ,evans has observed in the case of ,aurignac1 may lose its gelatine in a comparatively short time1 and become chemically identical with those which have been imbedded in the same matrix for long ages4 ,the mineral condition1 therefore1 is an uncertain test of relative antiquity4 ,for these reasons it seems to be doubtful whether the interment is of the same age as the occupation4 ,the skull-shape1 and the burial in the crouching posture1 point rather in the direction of the long-headed race1 that buried their dead in caves1 in the neolithic age1 in ,france1 ,spain1 ,belgium1 and ,great ,britain4 ,the ,cave of ,cro-,magnon4 ,the human skeletons in the cave of ,cro-,magnon1 at ,les ,eyzies1 a little village on the banks of the ,vezre in ,prigord1 fall into the same doubtful category as those of ,aurignac4 ,the cave 7,fig4 #ga1 f71 situated at the base of a low cliff1 was completely concealed by a talus of loose dbris1 four metres thick1 which had fallen from above4 7,fig4 #ga1 b47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,section across the ,valley of the ,vezre1 and through the rock of ,cro-,magnon4 ,level of the ,vezre at low water1 #ehbe metres above the sea4 ,height of cave above the ,vezre1 #ae metres2 above the sea-level1 #gcbe metres4 ,distance from the cave to the river1 #agg metres4 a ,railroad4 b ,talus4 c ,great block of stone4 d ,ledge of rock4 ,p ,limestone4 ,m ,detritus of the slopes and alluvium of the ,valley4 e ,rock of ,cro-,magnon4 f ,cave4 g ,chteau and ,village of ,les ,eyzies1 in the ,valley of the ,beaune4 h ,gatekeeper's house4 i ,railway bridge over the ,vezre4 j ,caves of ,le ,cingle4 ,it forms one of a group of caves at various heights above the ,vezre1 which are very well represented in the preceding figure1 which ,i am kindly allowed to borrow from the 8,reliqui ,aquitanic0 7,fig4 #ci74 ,at the time of its discovery in #ahfh1 in the course of making an embankment for the railway close by1 and of obtaining material for mending the roads1 it was completely blocked up4 ,on the removal of this 7b71 by the contractors ,,mm4 ,berto-,meyro and ,delmars1 the entrance was exposed1 and human remains and worked flints revealed1 which were carefully exhumed in the presence of ,,mm4 ,laganne1 ,galy1 and ,simon4 ,at this stage of the exploration ,m4 ,louis ,lartet was deputed1 by the ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 to superintend the work1 and from his report the following account is taken 7,lartet and ,christy1 8,rel4 ,aq410 p4 #ff7 by the courtesy of the editors4 8,the cave of ,cro-,magnon is formed by a projecting ledge of cretaceous limestone 7rich with fossil corals and polyzoans71 having a thickness of #h metres and a length of #ag metres 7,fig4 #gb1 ,p74 ,the bed which it overlies1 and the destruction of which has given rise to the cave1 abounds with ,rhynchonella vespertilio1 which is a type fossil1 fixing the geological horizon4 ,the dbris of this marly and micaceous limestone had accumulated on the original floor of the cavern to a great thickness1 at least for #jgj metres 7see ,fig4 #gb1 ,a71 when the hunters of the reindeer stopped here for the first time1 leaving as a trace of their short stay a blackish layer 7,fig4 #gb1 ,b71 from #jje to #jae metre thick1 containing worked flints1 bits of charcoal1 broken or calcined bones1 and in its upper portion the elephant tusk before alluded to 7,fig4 #gb1 a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,detailed ,section of the ,cave of ,cro-,magnon1 near ,les ,eyzies4 ,scale #a_/ajj 7#a centimetre to #a metre74 ,a ,dbris of soft limestone4 ,b ,first layer of ashes1 c4 ,c ,calcareous dbris4 ,d ,second layer of ashes1 c4 ,e ,calcareous dbris1 reddened by fire under the next layer of ashes1 c4 ,f ,third layer of ashes1 c4 ,g ,red earth1 with bones1 c4 ,h ,thickest layer of ashes1 bones1 c4 ,i ,yellowish earth1 with bones1 flints1 c4 ,j ,thin bed of hearth-stuff4 ,k ,calcareous dbris4 ,l ,rubbish of the ,talus4 ,n ,crack in the projecting ledge of rock4 ,p ,projecting shelf of hard limestone4 ,y ,place of the pillar made to support the roof4 a ,tusk of an elephant4 b ,bones of an old man4 c ,block of gneiss4 d ,human bones4 e ,slabs of stone fallen from the roof at different times4 8,this first hearth is covered by a layer 7,c71 #jbe metre thick1 of calcareous dbris1 detached bit by bit from the roof1 during the temporary disuse of the shelter4 ,then follows another thin layer of hearth-stuff 7,d71 #jaj metre thick1 also containing pieces of charcoal1 bones1 and worked flints4 ,this bed is in its turn overlain by a layer of fallen limestone rubbish 7,e71 #jej metre thick4 ,lastly1 there is over these a series of more important layers1 all of them containing1 in different proportions1 charcoal1 bones 7broken1 burnt1 and worked71 worked flints 7of different types1 but chiefly scrapers71 flint cores1 and pebbles of quartz1 granites1 c4 from the bed of the ,vezre1 and bearing numerous marks of hammering4 ,altogether these layers seem to have reference to a period during which the cave was inhabited1 if not continuously1 at least at intervals so short as not to admit of intercalations of dbris falling from the roof between the different hearth-layers which correspond with the successive phases of this 7the third7 period of habitation4 ,the first 7lowest7 of these layers 7,f7 is full of charcoal1 and has a thickness of #jbj metre2 it does not touch the back of the cave1 but extends a little further than the earlier layers4 ,at its line of contact with the calcareous dbris beneath1 the latter is strongly reddened with the action of fire4 8,on the last-mentioned hearth-layer is a bed of unctuous reddish earth 7,g71 #jcj metre thick1 containing similar objects1 though in less quantities4 ,last in succession is a carbonaceous bed 7,h71 the widest and thickest of all1 having an average thickness of #jcj metre2 at the edges it is only #jaj metre thick2 but in the centre1 where it cuts into the subjacent deposits1 which were excavated by the inhabitants in making the principal hearth1 it attains a depth of #afj metre4 ,this bed1 being by far the richest in pieces of charcoal1 in bones1 pebbles of quartz1 worked flints1 flint cores1 and bone implements1 such as points or dart-heads1 arrowheads1 c41 may be regarded as indicative of a far more prolonged habitation than the previous4 8,above this thick hearth-layer is a bed of yellowish earth 7,i71 rather argillaceous1 also containing bones1 flints1 and implements of bone1 as well as amulets or pendants4 ,this appears to be limited upwards by a carbonaceous bed 7,j71 very thin1 and of little extent1 #jje metre thick1 which ,m4 ,laganne observed before my arrival1 but of which only slight traces remained afterwards4 8,it was on the upper part of this yellow band 7,i71 and at the back of the cave1 that the human skeletons and the accessories of the sepulture were met with2 and all of them were found in the calcareous dbris 7,k71 except in a small space in the furthest hollow at the back of the cave4 ,this last deposit also contains some worked flints1 mixed up with broken bones1 and with some uninjured bones referable to small rodents and to a peculiar kind of fox4 8,lastly1 above these different layers1 and all over the shelter itself1 lay the rubbish of the talus 7four to six metres thick71 sufficient in itself1 according to what we have said above about its mode of formation1 to carry back the date of the sepulture to a very distant period in the prehistoric age4 8,as for the human remains1 and the position they occupied in bed ,i1 the following are the results of my careful inquiries in the matter4 ,at the back of the cave was found an old man's skull 7b71 which alone was on a level with the surface1 in the cavity not filled up in the back of the cave1 and was therefore exposed to the calcareous drip from the roof1 as is shown by its having a stalagmitic coating on some parts4 ,the other human bones1 referable to four other skeletons1 were found around the first1 within a radius of about #aej metre4 ,among these bones were found1 on the left of the old man1 the skeleton of a woman1 whose skull presents in front a deep wound1 made by a cutting instrument1 but which did not kill her at once1 as the bone has been partly repaired within2 indeed our physicians think that she survived several weeks4 ,by the side of the woman's skeleton was that of an infant which had not arrived at its full time of ftal development4 ,the other skeletons 7,fig4 #gj1 d7 seem to have been those of men4 8,amidst the human remains lay a multitude of marine shells 7about #cjj71 each pierced with a hole1 and nearly all belonging to the species ,littorina littorea so common on our ,atlantic coasts4 ,some other species1 such as ,purpura lapillus1 ,turritella communis1 c41 occur1 but in small numbers4 ,these are also perforated1 and1 like the others1 have been used for necklaces1 bracelets1 or other ornamental attire4 ,not far from the skeletons1 ,i found a pendant or amulet of ivory1 oval1 flat1 and pierced with two holes4 ,m4 ,laganne had already discovered a smaller specimen2 and ,m4 ,ch4 ,grenier1 schoolmaster at ,les ,eyzies1 has kindly given me another1 quite similar1 which he had received from one of his pupils4 ,there were also found near the skeletons several perforated teeth1 a large block of gneiss1 split and presenting a large smoothed surface2 also worked antlers of reindeer1 and chipped flints1 of the same types as those found in the hearth-layers underneath4 8444 ,the presence1 at all levels1 of the same kind of flint scrapers1 as finely chipped as those of the ,gorge d',enfer1 and of the same animals as in that classic station1 evidently shows them to be relics of the successive habitation of the ,cro-,magnon shelter by the same race of nomadic hunters1 who at first could use it merely as a rendezvous1 where they came to share the spoils of the chase taken in the neighbourhood2 but coming again1 they made a more permanent occupation1 until their accumulated refuse and the dbris gradually raised the floor of the cave1 leaving the inconvenient height of only #abj metre between it and the roof2 and then they abandoned it by degrees1 returning once more at last to conceal their dead there4 ,no longer accessible1 except perhaps to the foxes above noticed1 this shelter1 and its strange sepulture1 were slowly and completely hidden from sight by atmospheric degradation bringing down the earthy covering1 which1 by its thickness1 alone proves the great antiquity of the burial in the cave40 ,these conclusions as to the age of the burial do not seem to me to be supported by the facts of the case4 ,that the cave was inhabited by a tribe of palolithic hunters there can be no doubt1 but no evidence has been brought forward that it was used by them for the burial of their dead4 ,they 8abandoned it by degrees10 but what proof is there that they 8returned once more to conceal their dead08 ,the interments are at a higher horizon than the strata of occupation1 and therefore later1 and although palolithic implements have been found 8near0 them1 the value of the latter1 in indicating the date1 is destroyed by their occurrence throughout the old floors below4 ,if we suppose that long after the cave had been inhabited by the hunters of the reindeer1 it was chosen by a family as a burial-place1 all the conditions of the discovery will be satisfied4 ,the pre-existent strata would be disturbed in the process of burial1 and the burrowing of foxes1 and possibly of rabbits1 might bring the palolithic implements into close association with the human bones4 ,taking the whole evidence into account1 ,i should feel inclined to assign the interment to the neolithic age1 in which cave-burial was so common2 but whatever view be held1 the facts do not warrant the human skeletons being taken as proving the physique of the palolithic hunters of the ,dordogne1 or as a basis for an inquiry into the ethnology of the palolithic races4 ,the largest cranium 7see ,table1 p4 #bcf71 belonging to an old man1 had the frontal region well developed1 is orthognathic1 with upturned nasals1 and dolicho-cephalic4 ,the occipital protuberance1 or probole1 is small4 ,the bones of the extremity imply a stature of not less than five foot eleven inches for the man2 the femur is carinate1 and the tibi platycnemic 7see ,fig4 #dh74 ,the ,cave of ,lombrive4 ,the human bones1 obtained by ,,mm4 ,garrigou1 ,filhol1 and ,rames1 from the cave of ,lombrive#afi in the ,department of ,arige1 are1 equally with those cited above1 of doubtful antiquity4 ,they were discovered on the superficial sandy loam1 passing in places into a calcareous breccia1 which rests at various levels in the chambers1 passages1 and fissures1 along with bones of the brown-bear1 urus1 small ox1 reindeer1 stag1 horse1 and dog4 ,from the occurrence of the reindeer the deposit is assigned to the palolithic age4 ,but since this animal has been proved to have been eaten in ,scotland by the neolithic men of ,caithness1 and to have inhabited ,britain in the prehistoric age1 it is by no means improbable that it may also have lived in the region of the ,pyrenees in post-pleistocene times4 ,the presence of the dog and the small domestic ox 7,bos longifrons87 fixes the date of the accumulation as not being earlier than prehistoric2 for both those animals were introduced into ,europe by neolithic peoples4 ,the two human skulls1 described by ,professor ,vogt1 from this deposit confirm this conclusion1 since they are of the broad type1 and differ in no important character 7,thurnam7 from those of the neolithic brachy-cephali of ,france and ,belgium4 ,the ,cave of ,cavillon1 near ,mentone4 ,the cave of ,cavillon1 explored by ,m4 ,rivire1 in #ahgb1 in the neighbourhood of ,mentone1 a few hundred yards on the ,italian side of the frontier of ,france1 is another case of the occurrence of human remains in association with those of the extinct animals4 ,the floor is composed of dark earth1 full of charcoal and fragments of bones1 mingled with blocks of stone which have dropped from the roof4 ,below it1 at a depth of six and a half metres1 a skeleton was met with1 as well as flint-flakes1 rude instruments of bone1 and a number of shells perforated for suspension4 ,the skull was covered with a head-dress of more than #bjj perforated sea-shells4 ,it rested in an attitude of repose1 with the legs and arms bent1#agj as may be seen in the admirable photo-lithograph given by ,m4 ,rivire in the volume of the 8,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology10 published at ,brussels1 pl4 #f4 ,the teeth and bones of hyna1 lion1 woolly rhinoceros1 mammoth1 and other pleistocene animals occurred both in the soil above and below1 and for that reason both the discoverer and ,sir ,charles ,lyell believe that the interment dates back to the time when those animals were living4 ,if1 however1 neolithic savages1 or those of a later age1 had buried the skeleton in the earth containing the extinct animals1 all the circumstances which have been noticed1 either by ,mr4 ,pengelly or ,mr4 ,moggridge1#aga may be satisfactorily explained4 ,there are no stalagmites to divide one stratum from another1 and were an interment made in the cave at the present time1 the discoverer two or three centuries hence might assert1 with equal justice1 that it took place in the pleistocene age1 because of the association with the animals characteristic of that remote period4 ,the superficial portions of the cave-earth had certainly been disturbed1 and there is no evidence that the disturbance did not extend down to the horizon where the skeleton rested4 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,pengelly concludes that the interment is of palolithic age from its analogy with that of ,cro-,magnon and ,paviland1 which we have seen to be of equally doubtful antiquity4 ,it seems to me that this conclusion1 which is almost universally accepted1 is not warranted by the facts1 and that it cannot be used in support of any speculation as to the condition of man in the pleistocene age4 ,the skull is described by ,m4 ,rivire as long1 the thigh-bones are strongly carinate1 and the tibi are platycnemic as in the case of those from ,cro-,magnon1 ,gibraltar1 ,sclaigneaux1 and ,north ,wales4 ,grotta dei ,colombi in ,island of ,palmaria1 inhabited by ,cannibals4 ,we are indebted to ,professor ,capellini for an account of the exploration of the ,grotta dei ,colombi1 a cave in a vertical cliff in the island of ,palmaria1#agb overlooking to the south the ,gulf of ,spezzia4 ,in the red loam1 composing the floor1 were numerous flakes and scrapers1 a rounded 8striker0 of ,saussurite1 quartz1 pebbles1 fragments of pottery1 a bone needle1 a whistle made of the first phalange of a goat's foot1 shells perforated for suspension1 ,natica mille-punctata1 ,pectunculus glycimeris1 and ,patella crulea1 together with bones of goat1 hog1 ox1 wolf1 wild cat1 and broken and cut human bones belonging to children and young adults4 ,among the remains ,professor ,capellini draws attention in particular to the thigh-bones1 scorched by fire1 one of which bears incisions on its posterior face made by a flint implement in cutting away the flesh 7,pl4 #gc1 a71 and is also marked by scraping4 ,he considers that they belong to an ape1 closely allied to the ,macacus innuus of ,gibraltar and ,north ,africa1 and concludes1 therefore1 that the animal was living in ,palmaria at the time that the cave was inhabited4 ,this identification is forbidden by the spongy texture1 the rounded contour1 and the absence of epiphyses that imply that the bone was very young1 and that in the adult it would be far larger than any thigh-bone of the apes4 ,on comparing his figures with eight femora belonging to young children1 from the cairn at ,cefn1 and the caves at ,perthi-,chwareu1 ,i find that they agree in every particular with two1 the flattening of the inferior extremity1 considered by ,prof4 ,calori to be a non-human character1 being equally met with in all1 and being relatively greater in the younger than the older4 ,they offer1 therefore1 unmistakeable proof that the inhabitants of the cave were cannibals 7,fig4 #gc74 ,i am informed by my friend1 ,prof4 ,busk1 that the bone figured belonged to a child about eight years old4 ,the outline b in the figure represents the contour of one of the femora from the cavern at ,cefn1 described in the fifth chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,thigh-bone of child from ,grotta dei ,colombi 7,capellini74 a1 ,cuts2 b1 ,outline of corresponding thigh-bone from cavern at ,cefn4 ,in this cave1 as in those quoted above1 there are no polished stone implements1 or works of art1 that establish that these feasts were carried on in the cave by neolithic cannibals1 for the rude flint-flakes and bone articles1 taken by ,professor ,capellini to fix its date1 are common both to the palolithic and the bronze ages4 ,nevertheless1 since the inhabitants have left behind no trace of any metal1 and since their food was wholly supplied by the existing animals1 they were probably in the neolithic stage of culture1 if this be taken to cover the wide interval extending from the pleistocene to the age of bronze4 ,they are proved1 by the rudeness of their implements1 to have been savages of a very low order4 ,we may gather from various allusions1 and stories scattered through the classical writers1 such for example as that of the ,cyclops1 that the caves on the shores of the ,mediterranean were inhabited by cannibals in ancient times4 ,in the island of ,palmaria we meet with unmistakeable proof that it was no mere idle tale or poetical dream4 ,but we have no proof that cannibalism was universally practised at any stage in the history of man4 ,all the caves of ,europe1 explored up to the present time1 merely afford some three or four examples in the neolithic and bronze ages4 ,in the pleistocene there is no instance which is devoid of doubt4 ,this atrocious practice is therefore to be viewed as abnormal1 and it probably became ingrafted into the religious ideas of the nations of antiquity from the horror by which it was surrounded1 ultimately surviving in the form of human sacrifices to the offended gods4 ,general ,conclusions as to ,prehistoric ,caves4 ,we have seen in the fifth and sixth chapters that the prehistoric caves which are so unimportant in the ages of bronze and iron1 were used in the neolithic age throughout western ,europe both for habitation and burial1 and that they therefore offer us most valuable materials for working out the ethnology of ,europe at that remote time4 ,the two races of men1 the remains of which they contain1 are represented by the modern ,basque and ,berber on the one hand1 and on the other by the ,celt1 and in ,russia and ,germany by the cognate ,finn1 ,sclave1 and ,wend4 ,and since all the human remains described in the present chapter1 those of ,cro-,magnon and possibly of the ,grotta dei ,colombi being exempted1 belong to one of other of these types1 they may be referred to the neolithic age with a high degree of probability4 ,in the present stage of the inquiry1 it is much safer to put them into a distinct class1 apart from those to which we can assign a relative age with tolerable certainty4 ,in the long ages which elapsed between the close of the pleistocene period and the dawn of history other races than these may have occupied ,europe1 and have passed away without leaving any clue as to their identity4 ,but in the present state of our knowledge we are justified only in concluding1 that the oldest population in prehistoric times was non-,aryan1 the traces of which are left behind not merely in the caves and tombs1 but in language1#agc and in the small dark-haired inhabitants of western and southern ,europe4 ,the prehistoric peoples lived under physical conditions very different from those of central and western ,europe at the present time2 the surface of the country being covered with rock1 forest1 and morass1 which afforded shelter to the elk1 bison1 urus1 stag1 megaceros1 and wild boar1 as well as to innumerable wolves4 ,they arrived from the east with cereals and domestic animals1 some of which1 such as the ,bos longifrons and ,sus palustris1 reverted to their original wild state4 ,from the very exigencies of their position they lived partly by hunting1 and they gradually pushed their way westward1 carrying with them the rudiments of that civilization which we ourselves possess4 ,it is an open question whether they came into contact with the palolithic races which preceded them4 ,the climate which they enjoyed was sufficiently severe to allow the reindeer to inhabit the district on which now stands the city of ,london1 and its severity may also be inferred from the thickness of the bark of the ,scotch firs1 observed by ,mr4 ,godwin-,austen in the submarine forests of the south of ,england1 and by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie in those of ,scotland4 ,the area of ,great ,britain was greater then1 than now1 since a plain extended seawards from the coast-line1 nearly everywhere1 supporting a dense forest of ,scotch fir1 oak1 birch1 and alder1 the relics of which are to be seen in the beds of peat1 and the stumps of the trees1 near low-water mark on most of our shores4 ,and it may be inferred that the forest extended a considerable distance from the present sea margin1 from the large size of the trunks of the trees4#agd ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,caves ,,of ,,germany ,,and ,,great ,,britain4 ,relation of ,pleistocene to ,prehistoric ,period4--,magnitude of the ,interval4--,animals4--,physical changes4--,excavation and filling up of ,valleys3 ,fisherton2 ,freshford4--,comparison of ,deposits in ,valleys with those of ,caves4--,differences of ,mineral ,condition4--,the ,pleistocene ,caves of ,germany3 ,gailenreuth2 ,khloch4--,of ,great ,britain4--,the ,caves of ,yorkshire3 ,kirkdale4--,of ,derbyshire3 ,the ,dream ,cave4--,of ,north ,wales1 near ,st4 ,asaph4--,of ,south ,wales1 in counties of ,glamorgan1 ,caermarthen1 ,pembroke4--,of ,monmouth4--,of ,gloucestershire4-- ,of ,somersetshire3 ,uphill1 ,banwell1 ,bleadon1 ,sandford ,hill1 ,wookey ,hole4--,the ,district of ,mendip higher in ,pleistocene age than now4--,the condition of bones gnawed by ,hynas4--,the ,caves of ,devonshire3 ,oreston2 ,brixham2 ,kent's ,hole4--,the probable age of the ,machairodus of ,kent's ,hole4--,those of ,ireland1 ,shandon4 ,relation of ,pleistocene to ,prehistoric ,period4 ,we have seen1 in the fifth and sixth chapters1 that the caves offer valuable information as to the prehistoric ethnology of ,europe1 and that they prove the ancient neolithic population to stand directly related to the ,basque and ,celtic elements in the present inhabitants of ,britain1 ,france1 and ,spain4 ,we shall discover in the course of this and the following chapters that no such continuity can be made out between the palolithic man of the pleistocene age and any of the races now living in our quarter of the world2 and we shall see that he is separated from his neolithic successor by an interval of time1 the length of which cannot be measured in terms of years4 ,before the pleistocene group of caves be examined1 it will be necessary to define the relation that exists between the prehistoric and the pleistocene periods4 ,the ,animals--,magnitude of ,interval4 ,the prehistoric mammalia consist1 as we have seen 7p4 #acf71 with the solitary exception of the ,irish elk1 of the wild animals at present living in ,europe1 together with the domestic species and varieties introduced by man1 probably from central ,asia4 ,in the rest of this work we shall have to deal1 not merely with the wild animals at present inhabiting ,europe1 but also with those which have either become extinct1 or have migrated to ,asia1 ,america1 or ,africa4 ,besides this addition to the ,european fauna in the pleistocene age1 the total absence of the domestic animals is a most important feature4 ,the dog1 goat1 sheep1 ,celtic short-horn1 and domestic swine are conspicuous by their absence3 the reputed association of their remains with those of the pleistocene mammals being due1 in all the cases which ,i have examined in ,france and ,britain1 to a confusion between distinct strata in the same cave or river-deposit1 which are respectively of pleistocene and prehistoric or historic ages4 ,thus in the excavations in the gravel underneath ,london1 the ,celtic short-horn and goat of the superficial strata are very generally mixed with the reindeer and mammoth of the pleistocene gravels below1 by the collectors1 and the names of the domestic animals have crept into the pleistocene lists4 ,none of the domestic animals have been recorded from any carefully explored strata of that age in any part of ,europe4 ,the following late pleistocene species were unknown in ,britain in the prehistoric age3-- ,glutton4 ,spotted hyna4 ,panther4 ,lion4 ,lynx4 ,felis ,caffer4 ,musk-sheep4 ,bison4 ,hippopotamus4 ,lemming4 ,pouched marmot4 ,tailless hare4 ,lepus diluvianus4 ,arvicola ,gulielmi4 ,cave-bear4 ,rhinoceros hemitchus4 ,r4 tichorhinus4 ,elephas antiquus4 ,mammoth4 ,the glutton1 lynx1 bison1 and lemming1 still live in ,europe1 the spotted hyna1 ,felis ,caffer1 and hippopotamus are peculiar to ,africa1 the lion to ,africa and ,asia1 and the last seven species are extinct4 ,the ,machairodus cultridens and ,rhinoceros megarhinus probably disappeared in an early stage of the pleistocene4 ,it may reasonably be inferred1 from the migration and extinction of so many species between the close of the pleistocene and beginning of the historic period1 that the interval was of considerable length2 for it would be impossible for such changes to have taken place in a short time4 ,the same sharp line of demarcation exists between the two faunas on the continent4 ,the panther1 ,felis ,caffer1 lynx1 spotted hyna1 musk-sheep1 hippopotamus1 and the extinct group disappeared4 ,the ,african elephant forsook ,spain and ,sicily1 the striped hyna the south of ,france1 before the prehistoric period2 while the ,elephas meridionalis and pigmy hippopotamus of ,sicily1 and the pigmy elephant and gigantic dormouse of ,malta1 became extinct4 ,speaking in general terms1 the wild fauna of ,europe1 as we have it now1 dates from the beginning of the prehistoric age1 and consists merely of those animals which were able to survive the changes by which their pleistocene congeners were banished or destroyed4 ,the arrival of the domestic animals under the care of man in the neolithic age1 and their extension over the whole of ,europe in a wild or semi-wild state1 coupled with the disappearance of the wild species mentioned above1 constitutes a change in the mammal life at least as important as any of those which define the meiocene from the pleiocene1 or the pleiocene from the pleistocene periods4 ,physical changes--,the excavation and filling up of ,valleys4 ,the magnitude of the interval between the two periods may also be gathered from the great changes which have taken place in physical geography4 ,in nearly every valley in ,great ,britain1 certain areas to be mentioned presently excepted1 are strata of sand and gravel1 proved to be of pleistocene age by their fossil mammals1 and by their fluviatile shells to have been deposited by rivers4 ,they occur at various heights1 forming sometimes terraces1 and at others isolated patches1 which were accumulated when the river flowed at their level1 and before the valleys were cut down to their present depth4 ,those at ,fisherton near ,salisbury1 described by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,mr4 ,prestwich1 ,mr4 ,john ,evans1#age and others1 may be taken as an example4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,section of ,valley-gravels at ,fisherton4 7,evans47 ,the valley through which the river ,wily flows is excavated in the chalk 7,fig4 #gd71 and on its northern side fluviatile deposits occur at two levels1 represented in the accompanying section4 ,one patch of gravel1 about twelve feet thick1 a1 lies about eighty feet above the present level of the ,wily2 while a second1 b1 consisting of clayey brickearth or loam1 with seams of gravel1 and fluviatile shells1 sweeps down from a lower point to the bottom of the valley1 and passes under the river4 ,from the deposit a1 ,dr4 ,blackmore obtained many rudely-chipped implements1 of the same palolithic type as those found with the extinct mammalia in the gravel beds at ,amiens and ,abbeville in the valley of the ,somme4 ,in the deposit b1 fossil mammalia were met with belonging to the following animals3-- ,spotted hyna4 ,lion4 ,reindeer4 ,stag4 ,bison4 ,urus4 ,musk-sheep4 ,wild boar4 ,horse4 ,woolly rhinoceros4 ,mammoth4 ,lemming4 ,pouched marmot4 ,hare4 ,dr4 ,blackmore subsequently discovered a flint implement along with these animals1 of the same type as those previously met with in the deposit a4 ,a horizontal stretch of alluvium1 c1 deposited by the floods1 occupies the present bottom of the valley4 ,in this section it is plain that the gravels and brickearth at a and b were deposited by a river1 which formerly flowed at those levels4 ,in other words1 the valley of the ,wily was excavated during the time that the pleistocene strata a and b were being formed1 while palolithic man and the extinct animals were living in the neighbourhood4 ,the position also of b below the present bottom of the valley proves that the latter then was deeper than it is now4 ,the prehistoric alluvium1 c1 represents the last stage in the history of the valley in which it is beginning to be filled with the deposits of floods4 ,while it was being accumulated none of the animals of a and b were living in the district except the hare1 urus1 stag1 horse1 and wild boar4 ,a somewhat similar section is exposed in the valley of the ,avon at ,freshford1 near ,bath1 in a railway cutting1 at a height of about thirty-five feet above the river4 ,a thick mass of gravel abuts directly against a cleft of inferior oolite 7,fig4 #ge71 and gradually dies down to the alluvium4 ,in it ,mr4 ,charles ,moore discovered the remains of the musk-sheep1 and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,winwood those of the mammoth1 bison1 horse1 and reindeer4 ,in this case the pleistocene strata occupied the side of one of the valleys which had been deepened since the time of their deposit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,section of ,valley-gravels at ,freshford1 ,bath4 #d1 ,red loam1 #e;ft4 #f;in42 #c1 ,oolitic wash1 #a;ft42 #b1 ,clay with flints1 #d;ft4 #aj;in42 #a1 ,gravel with fossil mammals1 #h;ft4 ,the alluvium in the neighbourhood of ,bath contains in its lower portion a layer of peat1 with bones of the ,celtic short-horn 7,bos longifrons71 stag1 roe1 horse1 goat1 and pig2 and in its upper part are old refuse heaps1 proved to be ,roman by the coins and ware1 which are also met with at various points underneath the surface soil1 and sometimes at considerable depths4 ,it is1 therefore1 of prehistoric and historic age1 and since it is found only in the valley bottoms1 we may conclude that the present courses of the rivers along the sides of which it is found date back from the prehistoric age2 while their ancient courses are marked by the fluviatile deposits with the extinct mammalia standing at various levels1 the higher being the older4 ,in the section at ,fisherton we have evidence that the river flowed at a lower level in the pleistocene age than in the prehistoric1 and in that at ,freshford that the lower portion of the valley had been excavated after the pleistocene strata had been formed4 ,one or other of these physical changes is to be traced in nearly all river valleys4#agf ,we may conclude that both imply a considerable lapse of time1 because similar changes are now produced with extreme slowness4 ,in the pleistocene river deposits1 which lie scattered about at various heights on the valley sides1 we seek in vain for neolithic implements1 or domestic animals4 ,in the low-lying alluvia1 and accumulations of peat1 we seek equally in vain for traces of palolithic man1 or of the extinct mammalia1 except the ,irish elk4 ,we may also gather1 from the localization of the prehistoric alluvia close to the present streams1 that the time represented by its accumulation is insignificant in comparison with the long lapse of ages implied by the pleistocene gravels and brickearths1 that were deposited at various heights during the excavation of the valleys4 ,the general surface of the valleys has undergone but little change since history began1 and the excavation by the rivers has been so small as to have escaped accurate measurement4 ,the alluvia represent the principal work done since the close of the pleistocene period4 ,the most important testimony that the interval between the two periods was very long1 is offered by the climatal change1 and the severance of ,britain from the continent4 ,the arctic severity of the pleistocene winter in these latitudes had passed away before the prehistoric age1 and the pleistocene valleys of the ,north ,sea1 ,st4 ,george's ,channel1 the ,british1 and ,irish ,channels had been depressed beneath the waves of the sea before any prehistoric strata yet known had been deposited4 ,the evidence that these changes actually took place must be referred to the two following chapters4 ,comparison of ,deposits in ,valleys with those in ,caves4 ,if these valley deposits be compared with the contents of some of the bone caves1 such1 for example1 as those of the ,victoria ,cave 7compare ,figs4 #gd and #ge with ,figs4 #bj1 #ba1 #bi71 it will be seen that they present the same section4 ,the pleistocene gravels and brick-earths of the one correspond with the lower strata of the other1 and contain the same extinct animals4 ,the prehistoric alluvium of the one is represented by the layer containing neolithic bronze or iron implements1 as well as the same animals2 while the historic strata are represented in both by the superficial accumulations4 ,the only difference indeed between the one and the other is1 that in the former the strata of the three periods are spread over a wide area1 while in the latter they are super-imposed in vertical order1 the pleistocene below1 the prehistoric in the middle1 and the historic on the surface4 ,difference in ,mineral ,condition of ,deposits in ,caves4 ,the prehistoric1 and the historic strata in caves differ from the pleistocene in their physical constitution4 ,they are darker in colour1 and more loosely stratified1 and contain bones in a more friable and less mineralized condition1 and are more free from stalagmite4 ,the ,caves of ,germany3 ,gailenreuth4 ,the use of fossil bones for medicinal purposes led1 as ,i have already mentioned in the first chapter1 to the exploration of caves1 which were first scientifically examined in ,germany towards the close of the eighteenth century4 ,they abound in all the limestone plateaux1 especially in the region of ,franconia1 and in that of the ,hartz4 ,among them the most interesting1 perhaps1 is that of ,gailenreuth1 explored by ,esper1 ,rosenmller1 ,goldfuss1 ,buckland1 ,lord ,enniskillen1 and ,sir ,philip ,egerton4 ,it penetrates a lofty cliff1 that forms a side of the deep gorge which the river ,weissent has cut in the rock1 at a point about three hundred feet above the water level4 ,the entrance1 ,dr4 ,buckland#agg writes1 is about seven feet high and twelve feet broad1 and within it a short passage leads into two chambers 7,fig4 #gf1 ,a and ,b71#agh hung with stalactites1 and with the floors covered by a dense stalagmitic pavement1 that has been more or less broken up by repeated diggings4 ,these floors are perfectly horizontal1 the level of that of ,b being considerably below that of ,a4 ,they rest on an accumulation of reddish grey loam1 containing pebbles1 and angular limestone blocks1 and vast quantities of the bones and teeth of the animals formerly living in the district4 ,the depth of this ossiferous deposit has not been ascertained1 but in the further end of the chamber ,b1 it has been proved to be more than twenty-five feet thick4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,section of ,gailenreuth ,cave4 7,buckland47 ,the remains of the animals lie scattered in the wildest confusion2 sometimes being completely matted together1 but more generally each bone is enveloped in earth4 ,they belong to the lion1 the cave variety of the spotted hyna1 the cave-bear1 grizzly bear1 mammoth1 ,irish elk1 and reindeer1 as well as to those species which are still to be found in ,germany1 such as the glutton1 brown bear1 wolf1 fox1 and stag4 ,it is very difficult to account for such an accumulation as this1 but it was probably introduced through the present entrance1 and thence into the chamber ,b1 passing from the higher to the lower levels4 ,the teeth-marks on the bones show that some of the animals had formed the prey of the hynas1 but had they introduced all the bones there would have been distinct strata marking the floors of occupation1 as in ,wookey ,hole 7,fig4 #hh74 ,moreover1 no perfect skulls1 such as those of the bears1 would have escaped their powerful teeth4 ,the pebbles in the loam bear testimony to the passage of a current of water4 ,and if we suppose that the cave was subject to floods1 such as those in the water-caves described in the second chapter1 the scattering of the bones through the loam may be explained4 ,this1 however1 could not have happened had the cave then opened on the face of a nearly vertical cliff1 and the only condition under which it would have been possible is1 that the present entrance should have been directly connected with a stream flowing from the surface1 that is to say1 over the space now occupied by the gorge of the ,weissent4 ,if this view1 advanced by ,dr4 ,buckland1 be accepted1 the remoteness of the date of the filling up of the cave may be measured by the fact1 that since that time the gorge has been cut down by the ,weissent to a depth of more than #cjj feet4 ,the stream by which the contents of the cave were introduced had a course probably analogous to that of ,dalebeck 7,fig4 #f7 and the remains of the animals were caught up from the surface1 and accumulated in the subterranean chambers which it traversed4 ,their abundance offers no obstacle to this view1 since wild animals frequent their drinking places in vast numbers1 and fall a prey to the carnivora which lurk near the streams1 and very many tumble into the natural pitfalls1 or swallow-holes1 so universal in limestone districts4 ,the ,cave of ,khloch4 ,very many other caves occur in the neighbourhood1 most of them1 such as those of ,zahnloch1 celebrated for the abundance of fossil teeth1 ,mokas1 ,rabenstein1 and others1 of which the cave of ,khloch alone demands notice4 ,the cave of ,khloch is situated opposite to the castle of ,rabenstein1 in the gorge of the ,esbach1 at about thirty feet from the bottom4 ,its exterior presents a lofty arch in a nearly perpendicular cliff1 about thirty feet wide and twenty feet high1 and the entrance gradually leads into two large chambers 8both of which terminate in a close round end1 or cul-de-sac1 at the distance of about #ajj feet from the entrance4 ,it is intersected by no fissures1 and has no lateral communications connecting it with any other caverns1 except one small hole close to its mouth1 and which opens also to the valley40 ,the first thirty feet present a steep slope towards the entrance4 ,dr4 ,buckland describes the contents of the chambers in the following words3#agi-- 8,it is literally true that in this single cavern 7the size and proportions of which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a large church7 there are hundreds of cart-loads of black animal dust entirely covering the whole floor1 to a depth which must average at least six feet1 and which1 if we multiply this depth by the length and breadth of the cavern1 will be found to exceed #e1jjj cubic feet4 ,the whole of this mass has been again and again dug over in search of teeth and bones1 which it still contains abundantly1 though in broken fragments4 ,the state of these is very different from that of the bones we find in any of the other caverns1 being of a black1 or1 more properly speaking1 dark umber colour throughout1 like the bones of mummies1 and many of them readily crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powder resembling mummy powder1 and being of the same nature with the black earth in which they are embedded4 ,the quantity of animal matter accumulated on this floor is the most surprising1 and the only thing of the kind ,i ever witnessed2 and many hundred--,i may say thousand--individuals must have contributed their remains to make up this appalling mass of the dust of death4 ,it seems in great part to be derived from comminuted and pulverized bone2 for the fleshy parts of animal bodies produce by their decomposition so small a quantity of permanent earthy residuum1 that we must seek for the origin of this mass principally in decayed bones4 ,the cave is so dry1 that the black earth lies in the state of loose powder1 and rises in dust under the feet2 it also retains so large a proportion of its original animal matter that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching manure for the adjacent meadows4 ,i have stated that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within this cavern cannot be computed at less than #e1jjj cubic feet2 now allowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for each individual animal1 we shall have in this single vault the remains of at least #b1ejj bears1 a number which may have been supplied in the space of #a1jjj years by a mortality at the rate of two and a half per annum40 ,dr4 ,buckland's explanation1 that the cave was inhabited by bears for long generations1 is probably true4 ,the absence of pebbles and silt show that water had no share in the introduction of the remains2 their preservation is due to the dryness of the cave1 and to its proximity to the outer atmosphere4 ,the famous caves of ,sundwig1 ,schartsfeld1 and ,bauman's ,hole1 belong to the same class as ,gailenreuth1 and offer no differences which need be described4 ,these explorations establish the fact that1 in the antediluvian age which we now term pleistocene1 the lion1 the cave-bear and grizzly bear1 and cave-hyna abounded in ,germany1 and that they sought as their prey not merely the wild animals now living in that region1 but the reindeer1 mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 and ,irish elk4 ,all the discoveries in the ,german caves from the date of the exploration of ,gailenreuth have merely verified this conclusion without adding any new fact of importance4 ,the ,caves of ,great ,britain4 ,these discoveries in the ,german caves led to the exploration of those in our country4 ,dr4 ,buckland visited ,gailenreuth in #ahaf1 and in #ahba applied the result of his knowledge gained in ,germany to the investigation of the famous cavern of ,kirkdale4#ahj ,the ,hyna-den at ,kirkdale4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,plan of ,kirkdale ,cave4 7,taylor47 ,the cave of ,kirkdale 7,figs4 #gg1 #gh7 was discovered in a quarry in the vale of ,pickering1 about twenty-five miles to the ,,nn4,e4 of ,york1 at a point where the dale of ,holmbeck joins ,kirkdale4 ,the entrance1 eighty feet above the valley bottom and twenty feet from the surface of the plateau above1 was about three feet high and six feet wide1 and led into a passage from five to ten feet wide1 which ran nearly horizontally into the rock1 and branched off into smaller ramifications4 ,its general form and size may be gathered from the examination of the accompanying woodcuts1 which were published by ,mr4 ,taylor in 8,macmillan's ,magazine10 in ,september #ahfb4 ,the roof was for the most part free from stalactite1 and there was no continuous coating of stalagmite on the floor1 but merely here and there a few calcareous bosses termed 8cows' paps0 by the workmen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,sections of ,kirkdale ,cave4 7,taylor47 ,a layer of fine red loam covered the bottom1 in the lower portions of which were large numbers of gnawed and broken bones1 and teeth1 for the most part of the same species as those formed in the ,german caves4 ,in some places they were lying in little confused heaps1 and in others1 where the loam was thin1 were exposed to the calcareous drip and cemented into a mass1 their upper portions projecting through the stalagmite 8like the legs of pigeons through pie-crust10 and their irregular distribution resembling that of the fragments scattered on the floor of a dog-kennel4 ,the remains of the animals were incredibly abundant1 when the small space in which they were packed was taken into consideration4 ,those of the hyna are estimated by ,dr4 ,buckland as belonging to between two or three hundred individuals of all ages4 ,the lion and the cave-bear1 the wild boar1 the hippopotamus 7,fig4 #gi7 an extinct kind of elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 and the rhinoceros named by ,dr4 ,falconer ,r4 hemitchus1 the reindeer1 and ,irish elk are also represented1 but the species of most common occurrence are the bison and the horse4 ,with a few exceptions all the bones with marrow were broken1 and scarred by teeth1 while the solid and marrowless were more or less perfect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,molar of ,hippopotamus4 7,buckland47 ,dr4 ,buckland's method of solving the problem of the introduction of remains of so many and different animals into so small a space1 is a model of scientific analysis4 ,he argues from the abundance of the remains of the hyna1 and from the correspondence of their teeth with the marks on the bones1 and from the quantity of their coprolites1 that the cave was inhabited by many generations of those animals1 and that the gnawed fragments were relics of their prey4 ,the hynas of the present day inhabit caves strewn with the bones of their prey1 which are crushed by their powerful jaws into the same form as those of ,kirkdale4 ,he further demonstrated the truth of his conclusion by the crucial experiment of subjecting the leg-bone of an ox to a spotted hyna from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,wombwell's ,menagerie4 8,i was able10 he writes1#aha 8to observe the animal's mode of proceeding in the destruction of bones3 the shin-bone of an ox being presented to this hyna1 he began to bite off with his molar teeth large fragments from its upper extremity1 and swallowed them whole as fast as they were broken off4 ,on his reaching the medullary cavity1 the bone split into angular fragments1 many of which he caught up greedily and swallowed entire3 he went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow1 licking out the lowest portion of it with his tongue3 this done1 he left untouched the lower condyle1 which contains no marrow1 and is very hard4 ,the state and form of this residuary fragment are precisely like those of similar bones at ,kirkdale2 the marks of teeth on it are very few1 as the bone usually gave off a splinter before the large conical teeth had forced a hole through it2 these few1 however1 entirely resemble the impressions we find on the bones at ,kirkdale2 the small splinters also in form and size1 and manner of fracture1 are not distinguishable from the fossil ones4 ,i preserve all the fragments and the gnawed portions of this bone1 for the sake of comparison by the side of those ,i have from the antediluvian den in ,yorkshire3 there is absolutely no difference between them1 except in point of age4 ,the animal left untouched the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus1 and such parts of the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at ,kirkdale1 and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are there deficient4 ,the keeper1 pursuing this experiment to its final result1 presented me the next morning with a large quantity of album grcum1 disposed in balls1 that agree entirely in size1 shape1 and substance with those that were found in the den at ,kirkdale4 ,the power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind ,i ever saw exerted1 and reminded me of nothing so much as of a miner's crushing mill1 or the scissors with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the metal foundries40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,leg-bones gnawed by ,hynas--#a1 of ,ox in ,menagerie2 #b1 of ,bison in ,kirkdale4 7,buckland47 ,the exact correspondence of one of the fragments of the tibia of an ox1 gnawed by the ,cape hyna1 with the corresponding bone of the bison from ,kirkdale1 may be gathered from a comparison of the two figured in ,fig4 #hj1 in which the teeth-marks a1 b1 and c1 are very distinct4 ,the same kind of identity runs through the whole series of bones gnawed by the living and fossil hynas4 ,dr4 ,buckland's conclusion1 that the ,kirkdale cave was the den of the spotted hynas 7,h4 crouta7 that preyed upon the animals of ,yorkshire in ancient times1 and that it was undisturbed down to the time of its exploration1 cannot be disputed4 ,the tread of the hynas in their passage to and fro had polished some of the bones and jaws scattered on the floor1 and the polished surfaces were uppermost1 the rest of the fragments being rough4 ,and ,prof4 ,phillips informs me that the leg-bone of a ruminant was discovered wedged into a small fissure in the floor1 with that portion which was within reach of the hyna's teeth gnawed away1 while the rest was uninjured4 ,the hyna had lost his bone in the fissure1 and was only able to nibble the end which projected4 ,in these incidents we have a vivid picture of an hyna's den in ,yorkshire during the pleistocene age1 with the contents left in their natural order and not rearranged by the passage of water4 ,the ,victoria cave near ,settle1 in ,yorkshire1 described in the third chapter1 has also been occupied by hynas4 ,caves of ,derbyshire3 the ,dream-cave near ,wirksworth4 ,the ,dream-cave1 near ,wirksworth1#ahb in ,derbyshire1 contrasts with that of ,kirkdale in the perfect state of the bones which it contains4 ,it was discovered in #ahbb1 in following a vein of lead 7,fig4 #ha74 ,the miners suddenly broke into a hollow1 c1 filled with red earth and stones1 and as they continued their shaft downwards the sides continually closed upon them until the roof of a cave was revealed4 ,a nearly perfect skeleton of the rhinoceros was discovered in the earth1 as well as bones of the horse1 reindeer1 and urus4 ,after a large quantity of the earth had been removed1 the surface soil1 i1 at a little distance began to sink1 and ultimately a vertical shaft was found to connect the cave with the surface4 ,into this the animals had fallen1 just as at the present time sheep and oxen frequently perish in similar natural pitfalls in the limestone strata4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,the ,dream-cave1 ,wirksworth4 7,buckland47 ,a ,shaft following lead-vein4 ,b ,supposed continuation of lead-vein4 ,c ,cave4 ,d ,swallow-hole4 ,e ,ossiferous loam4 ,f ,antler of deer4 ,g ,rhinoceros4 ,h ,limestone4 ,i ,natural entrance4 ,other caves and fissures in ,derbyshire have yielded remains of the extinct animals3 those of ,balleye1 near ,wirksworth1 and of ,doveholes1 near ,chaple-en-le-,frith1 the mammoth1 and a small cave in ,hartle ,dale1 near ,castleton1 explored by ,mr4 ,pennington and myself in #ahgb1 the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros4 ,the ,caves of ,north ,wales1 near ,st4 ,asaph4 ,the ossiferous caves and fissures at ,cefn1 near ,st4 ,asaph1 in the mountain limestone that forms the south side of the ,vale of ,clwyd1 were first described in #ahcc1ahc by the ,rev4 ,edward ,stanley1 afterwards ,bishop of ,norwich1 who explored that which ,mr4 ,e4 ,lloyd had discovered about half-way down the vertical cliff1 in the grounds of ,cefn ,hall4 ,it consists of a narrow passage1 turning on itself1 and communicating with the surface of the cliff by two entrances1 which were completely blocked up with red silt1 containing a vast quantity of bones in very bad preservation4 ,the bottom has not yet been reached4 ,in one portion ,i found1 in #ahgb1 a deposit of comminuted bone with scarcely any mixture of loam1 that rose in clouds of dust as it was disturbed4 ,the animals belonged to the same class as those of ,germany1 the cave-bear1 spotted hyna1 and reindeer1 as well as the hippopotamus1 ,elephas antiquus and ,rhinoceros hemitchus of the ,kirkdale cave4 ,pebbles derived from the boulder clay1 and rounded waterworn fragments of bone1 showed that the contents had been introduced into this cave by a stream4 ,some of the remains1 which were marked with teeth1 may have been introduced by the hynas4 ,the flint-flakes found with the human skull and cut antlers of stag1 already referred to in the fifth chapter1 were discovered in the lower entrance4 ,the same group of animals has been obtained by ,mrs4 ,williams ,wynn1 the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 and myself out of a horizontal cave at the head of the defile leading down from ,cefn to ,pont ,newydd1 in which the remains are embedded in a stiff clay1 consisting of rearranged boulder clay1 and are in the condition of waterworn pebbles4 ,from it ,i have identified the brown1 grizzly1 and cave-bear4 ,a further examination by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,r4 ,thomas1 and ,prof4 ,hughes1 has recently resulted in the discovery of rude implements of felstone1 and a tooth which has been identified by ,prof4 ,busk as a human molar of unusual size4#ahd ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,left ,lower ,jaw of ,glutton1 ,plas ,heaton ,cave4 ,a third cave in the neighbourhood at ,plas ,heaton1 explored in #ahgj by ,mr4 ,heaton and ,prof4 ,hughes1 furnished the remains of the cave-bear1 spotted hyna1 bison1 and reindeer1 and a remarkably fine specimen of the lower jaw of a glutton 7,fig4 #hb71 which ,i have described in the 8,geological ,journal0 7vol4 xxvii4 p4 #djf74 ,in a fourth cave1 at ,gallfaenan1 the bear and reindeer were discovered4 ,it is evident from the presence of numerous bones gnawed by hynas in these caves1 that the valleys of the ,clwyd and the ,elwy were the favourite haunts of that animal in the pleistocene age4 ,caves of ,south ,wales in the counties of ,glamorgan and ,caermarthen4 ,the earliest cavern explored in ,south ,wales is that of ,crawley ,rocks1#ahe ,oxwich ,bay1 about twelve miles from ,swansea4 ,it was discovered in quarrying the mountain limestone in #agib1 and contained the remains of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 ox1 stag1 and hyna4 ,it was completely destroyed before ,dr4 ,buckland identified these animals in the collection of ,miss ,talbot of ,penrice ,castle4#ahf ,the line of cliffs1 bounding the rocky peninsula of ,gower1 contains the cave of ,paviland1 described in the seventh chapter 7p4 #bcb71 as well as the group explored by ,colonel ,wood of ,start ,hall1 from the year #ahdhahg to the present time1 ,bacon ,hole1 ,minchin ,hole1 ,bosco's ,den1 ,devil's ,hole1 ,crow ,hole1 ,raven's ,cliff1 ,spritsail ,tor1 and ,long ,hole1 which are described by the late ,dr4 ,falconer4 ,the ,rhinoceros hemitchus was met with in comparative abundance1 and in association with the woolly rhinoceros1 mammoth1 and ,e4 antiquus4 ,in ,bosco's ,den there were no less than #gej shed antlers of reindeer2 and in ,long ,hole1 many flint-flakes were discovered in #ahfj underneath the stalagmite1 and in association with the extinct mammalia1 which prove1 as ,dr4 ,falconer points out1 that man inhabited that district in the pleistocene age4 ,these caves and fissures were at all levels in the cliff1 and in some the bottoms were covered with a stratum of marine sand with sea shells1 which showed that they had been washed by the sea before they had been filled by the ossiferous dbris4 ,most of them had probably been filled by streams in the same manner as ,gailenreuth and ,wirksworth4 ,they abound on the coast merely because a clear section has been worn by the waves4 ,a straight cut through the rocks in any part of the district would probably show them to occur in equal abundance inland4 ,caves in ,pembrokeshire4 ,the patches of limestone on the opposite side of ,caermarthen ,bay1 in the neighbourhood of ,tenby1 also contain ossiferous caverns4 ,the ,rev4 ,g4 ,n4 ,smith1#ahh of ,gumfriston1 has made a fine collection of bones and teeth of mammoth and hyna1 from a fissure in the ,blackrock ,quarry1 close to ,tenby1 from a fissure in the cliff on ,caldy ,island1 and from the ,coygan cave in an outlier of limestone1 near ,pendine1 and has discovered flakes of flint and of a peculiar hornstone in the 8tunnel cave0 termed the ,hoyle1 underneath stalagmite1 in a stratum containing bones of the bear and reindeer4 ,with the exception of the fissure in the ,blackrock ,quarry none of these have been fully explored4 ,on a visit to ,tenby1 in #ahgb1 ,i obtained many flint flakes1 and bones broken by man1 from the breccia in the ,hoyle2 and from a fissure on ,caldy ,island1 numerous bones and teeth of young wolves1 which represented a whole litter1 and two metatarsals of bison1 cemented together into a compact mass4 ,the discovery of mammoth1 rhinoceros1 horse1 ,irish elk1 bison1 wolf1 lion1 and bear1 on so small an island as ,caldy1 indicates that a considerable change has taken place in the relation of the land to the sea in that district since those animals were alive4 ,it would have been impossible for so many and so large animals to have obtained food on so small an island4 ,it may therefore be reasonably concluded that1 when they perished in the fissures1 ,caldy was not an island1 but a precipitous hill1 overlooking the broad valley now covered by the waters of the ,bristol ,channel1 but then affording abundant pasture4 ,the same inference may also be drawn from the vast numbers of animals found in the ,gower caves1 which could not have been supported by the scant herbage of the limestone hills of that district4 ,we must1 therefore1 picture to ourselves a fertile plain occupying the whole of the ,bristol ,channel1 and supporting herds of reindeer1 horses1 and bisons1 many elephants and rhinoceroses1 and now and then being traversed by a stray hippopotamus1 which would afford abundant prey to the lions1 bears1 and hynas inhabiting all the accessible caves1 as well as to their great enemy and destroyer man4 ,we shall see in the ninth chapter that the elevation of the whole district above its present level is part of the general elevation of north-western ,europe1 and no mere small or local phenomenon4 ,cave in ,monmouthshire4 ,king ,arthur's cave1#ahi on the side of a beautifully wooded knoll1 overlooking the valley of the ,wye1 near ,whitchurch1 in ,monmouthshire1 explored by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,s4 ,symonds in #ahga1 is a hyna den1 like that of ,kirkdale1 containing the gnawed remains of the lion1 ,irish elk1 mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 and reindeer4 ,flint flakes1 however1 occurred in the undisturbed strata1 which prove that it was also the resort of man4 ,mr4 ,symonds believes that the sand and gravel inside were deposited by the ,wye1 at a time when it flowed #cjj feet above its present course1 or before the valley was cut down to that depth4 ,if this conclusion be true1 the date of the occupation must be separated from the present day by a vast interval1 which is only to be measured by the subsequent erosion of the valley by the slow operation of the subaerial agents1 running water1 ice1 snow1 and carbonic acid4 ,the only remains of the mammoth which ,i have examined belong to young individuals1 and consist of the second and third milk-molars1 a fact which ,i have very generally observed in hynas' dens4 ,the older mammoths would not fall an easy prey to so cowardly an animal4 ,the cave had also been inhabited by man after the pleistocene age1 for coarse pottery of the neolithic kind1 and flint flakes1 were dug out of an upper stratum1 while ,i was watching the excavation1 in company with the ,rev4 ,w4 ,s4 ,symonds1 and the 8,wanderers0 field club4 ,caves of ,gloucestershire and ,somersetshire4 ,the outliers of mountain limestone1 on the southern side of the ,bristol ,channel1 have long been known for their ossiferous caverns and fissures4 ,from a fissure in ,durdham ,down1#aij near ,bristol1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,miller obtained fragments of bones1 about the year #ahbj1 and among them ,dr4 ,buckland notices the fossil joint of the hind-leg of a horse1 the astragalus being held in natural position1 between the tibia and the calcaneum1 by stalagmite4 ,subsequently a large series of animals of the same species as those of ,gower were discovered in it by ,mr4 ,stutchbury1 and are preserved in the ,bristol ,museum4 ,caves of the ,mendip ,hills4 ,the caves of the ,mendip ,hills were known to contain bones as early as the middle of the eighteenth century1 when that of ,hutton1#aia near ,weston-super-,mare1 was discovered in working the ochre and calamine which fills some of the fissures4 ,the miners having opened an ochre pit1 south of the little village of ,hutton1 discovered a fissure in the limestone full of good ochre1 which they followed to a depth of eight yards1 until it led into a cavern1 the floor of which was formed of ochre1 with large quantities of white bones on the surface1 and scattered through its mass4 ,dr4 ,calcott describes the bones as projecting from the sides1 roof1 and floor of the excavation in such quantities as to resemble the contents of a charnel-house4 ,subsequently it was fully explored by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,williams1 and ,mr4 ,beard1 of ,banwell4 ,we owe the exploration of the neighbouring caves of ,banwell1 ,sandford ,hill1 ,bleadon1 ,goat's ,hole1 in ,burrington ,combe1 and ,uphill1#aib to the joint labours of the two above-mentioned gentlemen1 extending over the period which elapsed between #ahba and #ahfj4 ,the vast quantity of remains which they obtained can only be realized by a visit to the ,museum of the ,somerset ,archological and ,natural ,history ,society1 at ,taunton4#aic ,they belong to the same species as those already mentioned from the caves of ,south ,wales4 ,the fauna of the ,mendip is1 however1 characterized by the great number of lions1 and by a few fragments of the glutton4 ,of the former animal1 ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford and myself have met with sufficient remains to figure nearly every portion of the skeleton1 and the skulls prove that it was not a tiger1 as it is considered to be by some naturalists1 but a true lion1 differing in no respect1 except in its large size1 from those now living in ,asia and ,africa4 ,all these caverns consist of chambers at various levels more or less connected with fissures1 and1 from the perfect condition of the bones they must have been inaccessible to the bone-destroying hyna4 ,their contents were introduced1 as is suggested by ,dr4 ,buckland1 from the surface by streams falling into swallow-holes 7see ,fig4 #ha71 which have now1 under the changed physical conditions1 ceased to flow4 ,the extraordinary quantity of remains preserved in one cave may be1 to some extent1 verified by a visit to that at ,banwell4 ,it consists of two large chambers1 the upper one filled with thousands of bones of bison1 horse1 and reindeer1 taken out of the red silt which originally filled it to the roof2 the lower one full of the undisturbed contents1 from which the bones project in the wildest confusion4 ,this accumulation has been introduced by water1 through a vertical fissure which opened on the surface4 ,it is evident1 from the very nearly perfect skulls of wolf and bear which were discovered1 that the cave was not used as a den by the hynas4 ,they are1 however1 proved to have been living close by at the time1 since their skulls1 and the gnawed antlers of reindeer1 have been discovered inside4 ,they were probably swept in by the stream along with the other bones4 ,the ,uphill ,cave4 ,the ,cave of ,uphill1#aid discovered in #ahbf1 by some workmen1 and explored by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,williams1 merits especial notice1 from the peculiar conditions under which the remains of the extinct animals occurred4 ,like the other caves of the ,mendips1 it consists of fissures opening into chambers4 ,in the upper part of one of these fissures were the remains of rhinoceros1 hyna1 bear1 horse1 bison1 and wild boar1 imbedded in loam which rested on two large masses of limestone that had fallen so as to block up the fissure4 ,below this were no remains of the extinct animals1 and the fissure ultimately led into a cave opening upon the line of cliffs4 ,this latter had been inhabited within historic times1 since many bones of sheep1 or goat1 and pieces of pottery1 were met with1 as well as a coin of the ,emperor ,julian4 ,in this case1 owing to the extraordinary accident of the fissure being blocked up by a fall of stone1 the pleistocene accumulation is vertically above the historic2 and had the barrier given way1 ,mr4 ,williams would undoubtedly have discovered the remains of the extinct mammalia1 lying in a heap above the comparatively modern historic stratum4 ,it seems to me very probable that some such accident may have caused the occurrence of the pleiocene machairodus in the ,kent's ,hole cavern1 in association with the pleistocene mammalia4 ,in the long lapse of ages between the pleistocene and the present day1 such accidents would be likely to occur in some few caverns1 and we might expect to find remains of widely different ages1 in certain exceptional cases1 lying side by side1 or even the older resting vertically over the newer4 ,at all events we must conclude1 that superposition1 or association1 cannot be rigidly enforced as tests of relative age in all ossiferous caverns4 ,the ,hyna-den of ,wookey ,hole4 ,the ,hyna-den of ,wookey ,hole1#aie near ,wells1 on the south side of the ,mendips1 which ,i explored with the ,rev4 ,j4 ,williamson in #ahei1 and in the following years with ,messrs4 ,willett1 ,parker1 and ,ayshford ,sanford1 is worthy of a more detailed notice1 because it was among the first caverns in this country in which works of art were found under conditions that proved the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia4 ,the ravine in which it was discovered1 in #aheb1 is one of the many which pierce the dolomitic conglomerate1 or petrified sea-beach1 of the ,triassic age1 resting at the foot of the cliffs from which it was torn by the waves1 and overlying the lower slopes of the ,mendips 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,open to the south1 it runs almost horizontally into the mountain-side1 until closed abruptly northwards by a perpendicular wall of rock1 #bjj feet or more in height1 ivy-covered1 and affording a dwelling-place to innumerable jackdaws4 ,out of a cave at its base1 in which ,dr4 ,buckland discovered pottery and human teeth1 flows the river ,axe1 in a canal cut in the rock4 ,in cutting this passage1 that the water might be conveyed to a large paper-mill close by1 the mouth of the hyna-den was intersected in #aheb1 and from that time up to ,december #ahei it was undisturbed save by rabbits and badgers1 and even they did not penetrate far into the interior1 or make deep burrows4 ,close to the mouth of the cave the workmen 7employed in making this canal7 found more than #cjj ,roman coins1 among which were those of ,allectus and of ,commodus4 ,when the ,rev4 ,j4 ,williamson and myself began our exploration1 about twelve feet of the entrance of the cave had been cut away1 and large quantities of the earth1 stones1 and animal remains had been used in the formation of an embankment for the stream which runs past the present entrance of the cave4 ,according to the testimony of the workmen1 the bones and teeth formed a layer about twelve inches in thickness1 which rested immediately upon the conglomerate-floor1 while they were comparatively scarce in the overlying mass of stones and red earth4 ,the workmen state also that at the time of the discovery of the cave the hillside presented no concavity to mark its presence4 ,so completely was the cave filled with dbris up to the very roof1 that we were compelled to cut our way into it4 ,of the stones scattered irregularly through the matrix of red earth1 some were angular1 others water-worn2 all are derived from the decomposition of the dolomitic conglomerate in which the cave is hollowed4 ,near the entrance1 and at a depth of five feet from the roof1 were three layers of peroxide of manganese1 full of bony splinters1 and1 passing obliquely up towards the southern side of the cave and over a ledge of rock that rises abruptly from the floor3 further inwards they became interblended one with another1 and at a distance of fifteen feet from the entrance were barely visible4 ,in and between these the animal remains were found in the greatest abundance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,plan of ,hyna-den at ,wookey ,hole4 ,right lines sections2 dotted areas bone-beds2 shaded areas ashes and implements4 ,while cutting our way inwards 7,figs4 #hc and #hh71 we found an angular piece of flint1 which had evidently been chipped by human agency1 and a water-worn fragment of a belemnite1 which probably had been derived from the neighbouring marlstone rocks4 ,bones and teeth of the woolly rhinoceros1 reindeer1 stag1 ,irish elk1 mammoth1 hyna1 cave-bear1 lion1 wolf1 fox1 and horse rewarded our labours2 and frogs' remains1 cemented together by stalagmite1 were abundant at the mouth4 ,the teeth preponderated greatly over the bones1 and the great bulk were those of the horse4 ,the hyna-teeth also were very numerous1 and in all stages of growth1 from the young unworn to the old tooth worn down to the very gums4 ,those of the mammoth had belonged to a young animal1 and one had not been used at all4 ,the hollow bones were completely smashed and splintered1 and scored with tooth-marks1 while the solid carpal1 tarsal1 and sesamoid bones were uninjured1 as in the ,kirkdale ,cave4 ,the organic remains were in all stages of decay1 some crumbling to dust at the touch1 while others were perfectly preserved and had lost very little of their gelatine4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg4--;,four ,views of ,flint ,implements found in the ,hyna-den at ,wookey ,hole1 near ,wells4 ,in #ahfj we resumed our excavations2 and1 in addition to the above remains1 found satisfactory evidence of the former presence of man in the cave4 ,our search was rewarded by one oval implement of white flint1 of rude workmanship 7,figs4 #hd1 #he1 #hf1 #hg71 one chert arrow-head1 a roughly-chipped and a round flattened piece of chert1 together with various splinters of flint1 which had apparently been knocked off in the manufacture of some implement4 ,two rudely-fashioned bone arrow-heads were also found1 which unfortunately were subsequently lost by the photographer to whom they were sent2 they resembled in shape an equilateral triangle with the angles at the base bevelled off4 ,all were found in and around the same spot1 in contact with some hyna-teeth1 between the dark bands of manganese1 at a depth of four feet from the roof1 and at a distance of twelve feet from the present entrance 7,fig4 #hc1 a74 ,that there might be no mistake about the accuracy of the observations1 ,i examined every shovelful of dbris as it was thrown out by the workman2 while the exact spot where they were excavating was watched by my colleague4 ,the figured implement was picked out of the undisturbed matrix by him2 the rest were found by me in the earth thrown out from the same place4 ,the lines of peroxide of manganese must have been accumulated on the old floors of the cave1 because they were associated with numerous splinters and gnawed animal remains2 and there can be no doubt that the latter were introduced by the hynas4 ,those animals have a peculiar habit1 as ,dr4 ,buckland proved by experiment1 of gnawing similar bones in precisely the same way2 and a comparison of the relics of the meals of the hynas in the ,zoological ,gardens with those in the cave1 shows that the latter have passed between the jaws of a like animal that once inhabited ,somersetshire4 ,coprolites of the same animal were very abundant1 and in some places formed a greyish-white layer of phosphate of lime4 ,there were also other equally unmistakeable traces of the animal in fragments of bone1 polished by their tread1 as in the ,kirkdale cave4 ,it is1 therefore1 only reasonable to suppose that these remains of animals were brought into the cave from time to time by hynas1 and left on the floors4 ,that they were not introduced by water is proved by the preservation of the delicate processes and points of bone1 which would certainly have been broken in transitu4 ,since1 then1 the implements1 which1 beyond doubt1 had been fashioned by man1 were underneath one of these old floors1 it was certain that man was contemporary in the district with the hyna and the animals on which it preyed1 and the fact that they were found only on one spot implies that they were deposited by the hand of man4 ,to suppose that a savage would take the trouble to excavate a trench twenty-four feet long--for twelve feet of the former mouth of the cave had been cut away--with miserable implements1 and consequently with great labour1 and having excavated it again to fill it up to the very roof1 is little less than absurd4 ,nor could such an operation take place in such a deposit1 without the stratification of the layers being destroyed4 ,the absence of pottery and human bones precludes the idea of the cave ever having been a place of sepulture1 such as ,aurignac or ,bruniquel4 ,this discovery1 therefore1 of itself stamps the contemporaneity of man with the extinct mammalia1 and following close on the similar discoveries in ,brixham cave1 to be mentioned presently1 puts the question beyond all doubt4 ,in ,april #ahfa we resumed our excavations2 and1 as we made our way inwards1 found that the cave began to narrow1 and ultimately to bifurcate1 one branch extending vertically upwards1 while the other appeared to extend almost horizontally to the right hand4 ,as we reached the middle constricted passage1 the teeth became fewer1 while the stones were of larger size than any that we had hitherto discovered4 ,the great majority of the gnawed antlers of deer were found at this part1 also the posterior half of a cervine skull1 the right upper jaw of wolf1 and1 what is more remarkable1 a stone with one of its surfaces coated with a deposit apparently of stalagmite3 this1 however1 was much lighter than stalagmite1 and not so good a conductor of heat2 and1 on analysis1 ,i found that it consisted of phosphate of lime1 with a little carbonate1 and a very small portion of peroxide of manganese4 ,doubtless the surface of the stone1 covered with phosphate of lime1 formed part of the ancient floor of the cave1 and hence was coated with album grcum2 while the lower part1 being imbedded in the earth on the floor1 was not so coated4 ,this deposit may1 perhaps1 explain the absence of round balls of coprolite1 which1 assuming that the cave at the time was more damp than that at ,kirkdale1 would be trodden down on the floor by the hynas1 instead of presenting a rounded form4 ,the stone also itself exhibits tooth-marks underneath the coating of album grcum1 and probably was gnawed by the hynas1 like the antlers1 for amusement4 ,this discovery proves that violent watery action had but small share1 if any1 in filling the cave2 for in that case the soft covering would have been removed from the stone4 ,similar evidence is offered by the wonderful preservation of some of the more delicate fragments of bone1 such as the palatine process of the maxilla of the wolf4 ,the section made in cutting this passage presented irregular layers of peroxide of manganese1 full of bony splinters1 and each more or less covered by a layer of bones in various stages of decay4 ,these layers were absent from the upper portion of the passage4 ,there were masses of prisms of calc-spar scattered confusedly through the matrix4 ,after excavating the vertical branch as far as we dared 7for the large stones in it made the task dangerous71 we were compelled to leave off1 having penetrated altogether only thirty-four feet from the entrance4 ,no flint implements rewarded our search this year4 ,teeth were far more numerous than bones1 probably because they are more durable as well as because of their rejection by the hynas4 ,one jaw was bitten in two1 and the fragments found about a foot apart in the undisturbed matrix1 just as they had been dropped from the mouth of the hyna4 ,in the spring of #ahfb ,mr4 ,parker1 ,mr4 ,willett1 and myself resolved to verify the association of articles of man's handiwork along with the extinct mammalia1 by cleaning out the cave1 which was courteously placed at our disposal by the owner1 ,mr4 ,hodgekinson4 ,our first task was to clear the contents out of the portion of the cave nearest the mouth1 or the antrum 7,fig4 #hc1 ,a71 and as we excavated onwards many traces of the presence of man were met with4 ,a wide area on the left-hand side 7b71 where the roof and floor of the cave gradually met together1 furnished innumerable fragments of charcoal1 and many flint implements associated with the remains of the horse1 rhinoceros1 and hyna4 ,one fragment of bone in particular1 belonging to the rhinoceros1 had been calcined1 and its carbonized condition bore unmistakeable testimony that it had been burnt while the animal juices were present4 ,there were many other bones also burnt1 which indicated the place where fires had been kindled1 and food cooked4 ,as we dug our way forward we met with a third area 7c71 that furnished flint and chert implements under the same conditions of deposit as that which tempted us to carry on our excavations4 ,its relation to the old floors of hyna-occupation is shown by the dark lines over the area c in ,fig4 #hh4 ,at last the large open chamber 7,a7 was cleared2 it measured about thirty feet wide by six feet high1 and it extended forty feet inwards4 ,on the left there was a small upward-turning passage1 very nearly blocked up with a mass of stalagmite2 at the farther end a vertical fissure extended upwards 7,f71 to the surface4 ,this fissure has subsequently been proved to extend downwards to the right1 and will doubtless furnish large quantities of animal remains to future explorers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,section through ,a of ,fig4 #hc1 showing contents of ,hyna-den4 c flint implements2 thick lines above old floors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,transverse ,section through ,b of ,fig4 #hc4 #a red earth2 #b bone-bed2 #c dark earth4 ,the large chamber now turned abruptly to the left1 and we gradually worked our way into a small horizontal passage about four feet high4 ,here there was an interval of from three to four inches between the roof and contents1 traversed by stalactites1 which in some places formed a smooth undulating drapery with stony tassels1 and in others tiny pillars extending down to the dbris1 and1 as it were1 propping up the roof4 ,these pedestals 7see ,fig4 #ae7 gradually expanded into round plates of stalagmite1 which sometimes met and formed a continuous crust4 ,in some places an infiltration of carbonate of lime had cemented organic remains1 stones1 and earth into a hard mass1 which had to be broken up with gunpowder before it could be removed out of the cave4 ,the excitement of extracting from these blocks their treasures was of the very keenest1 for we could not tell what a stroke of the hammer would reveal4 ,sometimes an elephant's tooth suddenly came to light1 at others a hyna's jaw1 or a rhinoceros' tooth1 or the antler of a reindeer1 or the canine of a bear4 ,the bones were so numerous that they scarcely attracted attention4 ,in one fragment of this breccia1 now in the ,brighton ,museum1 are a tusk and carpal of mammoth1 the right ulna of the woolly rhinoceros1 and an antler of reindeer4 ,in a second1 two shoulder-blades and two haunch bones of the woolly rhinoceros1 with a coprolite and lower jaw of cave hyna4 ,as the men removed the large blocks they were brought to the mouth of the cave to be broken up by our smaller instruments4 ,presently the passage narrowed to about six feet1 and presented the following section 7,fig4 #hi74 ,on the floor of the cave there was a layer of red earth two feet in thickness1 and1 as usual1 containing a few organic remains and many stones 7,fig4 #hi1 #a74 ,upon this rested a most remarkable accumulation of bones1 and teeth1 matted and compacted together1 from three to four inches thick1 and extending horizontally from one side of the passage to the other 7,fig4 #hi1 #b74 ,next came a layer of dark red earth 7,fig4 #hi1 #c71 loose and friable1 three to four inches thick1 supporting in its surface a few rounded stalagmites1 and a few stalactitic pillars1 that spanned the interval of from three to four inches between it and the roof4 ,this bone-bed was about seven feet wide and fourteen feet long1 affording1 therefore1 a square area of ninety-eight feet 7see dotted area ,b ,fig4 #hc1 and in ,fig4 #ij74 ,the enormous quantity of the remains of animals present cannot fairly be estimated even by the large number preserved1 because most of the bones were as soft as wet mortar4 ,the five hundred and fifty specimens obtained must be looked upon merely as a small fraction of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,longitudinal ,section through ,b and ,c of ,fig4 #hc1 showing bone-beds4 ,dotted area bone-bed4 ,we presently passed beyond the bone-bed1 and found that the passage bifurcated 7,fig4 #hc1 ,c and ,d71 the smaller branch going straight forwards and gently upwards 7,fig4 #ij71 while the larger stretched at right angles from it and passed gently downwards4 ,in the former there was a second bone-bed similar in every respect to that already described1 which continued undiminished in thickness until it rested directly on the floor4 ,it afforded a square area of about fifteen feet4 ,the passage was about sixteen inches high and three feet wide1 and gradually narrowed until at a distance of twelve feet from the bifurcation a stalactite six inches long reached the floor and formed a vertical bar1 as if to forbid another ingress4 ,when this had been explored as far as we could crawl1 the larger branch 7,fig4 #hc1 ,d1 and ,fig4 #ia7 engaged our attention1 and we soon discovered a third layer of bones of the same character as the others1 and in the same position1 excepting that in some places it was in immediate contact with the roof4 ,in width it was six1 in length fourteen1 and in square area eighty-four feet4 ,from its further end to the termination of the passage there was not the slightest vestige of bones or teeth1 and a stiff grey clay rested on a horizontal layer of sand on the floor4 ,here the passage suddenly turned upwards until it became so small and barren that it was not worth our while to pursue it farther4 ,it doubtless rises to the surface1 like the large fissure opposite the entrance of the cave shown in ,fig4 #hh4aif ,the exploration was resumed the following year by ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford and myself1 and yielded vast quantities of fossil remains4 ,we cleared out the space marked #ahfc in the plan1 and discovered a flint implement at the point marked d1 in ,fig4 #hc4 ,my friend the late ,mr4 ,wickham ,flower has also worked the cave1 more particularly at the right-hand side of the entrance chamber4 ,the ashes and implements were found in positions1 near the mouth of the cave1 where man himself may have placed them 7see ,figs4 #hc1 #hh71 with the exception of the flint implement at d1 and an ash of bone imbedded in the earthy matrix between the canine tooth and a coprolite of the hyna1 and cemented to a fragment of dolomitic conglomerate4 ,this was found far in the cave1 either at the entrance of the passage ,b1 or in the middle of the passage ,d4 ,the latter passage yielded the only rolled flint without traces of man's handiwork4 ,the materials out of which the implements were made were used pretty equally4 ,all those1 like ,fig4 #hd1 were of flint2 all those chipped into a rounded form and flat-oval in section of chert from the ,upper ,greensand2 while the flakes consisted of both used indifferently4 ,besides these three typical forms1 which were most abundant1 is a fourth1 in form roughly pyramidal1 with a smooth and flat base1 and a cutting edge all round4 ,of these we found but two examples1 both consisting of chert4 ,in form they are exactly similar to several hundreds found in a ,british village at ,stanlake1 in ,berkshire1 and to those ,i discovered in a cemetery of the same age at ,yarnton1 near ,oxford4 ,they strongly resemble a cast ,i have of one found by ,m4 ,lartet in the cave of ,aurignac4 ,were it not for this similarity1 ,i should look upon them as cores from which flakes had been struck4 ,the rest are mere splinters1 irregular in form1 and probably made in the manufacture of the various flint and chert implements4 ,all the flint implements have been altered in colour and structure1 either by heat or1 as is more probable1 by some chemical action4 ,without exception1 the old surfaces present a waxy lustre 7by the absence of which forgeries are easily detected71 the colour is of a uniform milk-white1 and the ordinary conchoidal fracture is replaced by that of porcelain4 ,some are not harder than chalk4 ,i have met with weathered and calcined flints in ,sussex in which similar changes are observable1 and in which the difference in the results of chemical action and heat can hardly be detected4 ,the chert implements1 on the other hand1 show no traces of any such changes1 but are similar in colour and structure to the rocks from which they came--the ,upper ,greensand of the ,blackdown ,hills4 ,all the fragments of calcined bone1 with the exception of one already mentioned1 were found near the entrance 7see ,fig4 #hc1 b71 and in a place more suitable for a fire than any other in the cave4 ,i can identify none of them as human4 ,the coarse texture1 the structure1 and the thickness of one indicate a fragment of a long bone of the rhinoceros4#aig ,all resemble many splinters strewn about in other parts of the cave1 which are not calcined1 but were evidently introduced by the hynas4 ,the calcination may therefore be due to the accident of their lying upon the surface at the time the fire was kindled4 ,the remains obtained in #ahfb-c from three to four thousand in number1 afford a vivid picture of the animal life of the time in ,somerset4 ,they belong to the following animals1 the numbers representing the jaws and teeth only1 and the implements3-- ,man #ce ,cave-,hyna #dfg ,cave-,lion #ae ,cave-,bear #bg ,grizzly ,bear #aa ,brown ,bear #aa ,wolf #g ,fox #h ,mammoth #cj ,woolly ,rhinoceros #bcc ,rhinoceros hemitchus #b ,horse #dja ,the ,great ,urus #af ,bison #cj ,the ,irish ,elk #ce ,reindeer #cj ,red ,deer #b ,lemming #a ,the remains of these animals were so intermingled that they must have been living together at the same time4 ,they lie large with small1 the more with the less dense1 and are not in the least degree sorted by water4 ,there is no evidence of the hyna succeeding to the cave-bear1 or the reindeer to the urus1 or that the bears came here to die1 as in some of the ,german caves1 or that the herbivores fell1 or were swept into open fissures1 and left their remains1 as in the caves of ,hutton and ,plymouth4 ,on the contrary1 the numerous jaws and teeth of hyna1 and the marks of those teeth upon nearly every one of the specimens1 show that they alone introduced the remains that were found in such abundance4 ,and they preyed not merely upon horses1 uri1 and other herbivores1 but upon one another 7,figs4 #ib1 #ic71 and they even overcame the cave-bear and lion in their full prime4 ,some of the bones of the larger animals1 and in particular a leg-bone of a gigantic urus1 have been broken short across and not bitten through--a circumstance which points towards one of the causes of the vast accumulation of bones in so small a cave4 ,it is well known that wolves and hynas at the present day are in the habit of hunting in packs1 and of forcing their prey over precipices4 ,the ,wookey ravine is admirably situated for this mode of hunting1 and would not fail to destroy any animal forced into it from the hill-side4 ,it is therefore very probable that the hynas sometimes caught their prey in this manner4 ,they would not have dared to attack the bears and lions unless these had been disabled4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,longitudinal ,section through ,d of ,fig4 #hc4 ,dotted area bone-bed4 ,but if all the remains of the animals were introduced by the hynas1 they certainly in some cases do not occupy the exact position in which they were left by those animals4 ,one of the bone layers 7,fig4 #ia7 for instance1 actually touched the roof4 ,this1 indeed1 has been used as an argument in favour of their having been introduced by water1 from some unknown repository4 ,but if this hypothesis be admitted1 we are landed in the following dilemma3 either the introducing current of water must have passed down the vertical passages1 or upwards through the horizontal mouth of the cave4 ,in the former case the three bone layers would not have been found in the narrow passages1 but would have been swept out into the wide chamber1 where the force of the hypothetical current must have abated4 ,in the latter case the great bulk of the remains would have been found in the chamber1 and not in the smaller passages4 ,moreover1 the absence of marks of transport by water1 and especially of that sorting action which water as a conveying agent always manifests1 renders the view of their being so introduced untenable4 ,on the other hand1 the horizontality of the layers of bone1 and the presence of sand and of red earth1 imply that water was an agent in re-arranging the bones and in introducing some of the contents of the cave4 ,the only solution of the difficulty that ,i can hazard is the occurrence of floods from time to time1 during the occupation of the hynas1 similar to those which now take place in the caverns of the neighbourhood4 ,a few years ago1 the outlet of the ,axe in the great cave was partially blocked up1 and the water rose to a height of upwards of sixteen feet1 leaving a horizontal deposit of red earth of the same nature as that in the hyna-den4 ,now if we suppose that similar floods were caused by an obstruction in the ravine below the hyna-den1 it may have been flooded1 just as the upper galleries of the great cave1 and the water laden with sediment might have elevated the layers of matted bone1 and some of the scattered remains on the surface1 while the current was insufficient to disturb the stones1 or to affect to any extent the deposits of former floods4 ,the buoyancy of the organic remains is not required to be greater1 on this hypothesis1 than in that of their having been introduced by a current through the vertical passages4 ,some of the wet bones taken straight from the cave were sufficiently light to be carried down by the current of the ,axe4 ,all these facts taken together enable us to form a clear idea of the condition of things at the time the hyna-den was inhabited4 ,the hynas were the normal occupants of the cave1 and thither they brought their prey4 ,we can realize those animals pursuing elephants and rhinoceroses along the slopes of the ,mendip1 till they scared them into the precipitous ravine1 or watching until the strength of a disabled bear or lion ebbed away sufficiently to allow of its being overcome by their cowardly strength4 ,man appeared from time to time on the scene1 a miserable savage armed with bow and spear1 unacquainted with metals1 but defended from the cold by coats of skin4#aih ,sometimes he took possession of the den and drove out the hynas2 for it is impossible for both to have lived in the same cave at the same time4 ,he kindled his fires at the entrance1 to cook his food1 and to keep away the wild animals2 then he went away1 and the hynas came to their old abode4 ,while all this was taking place there were floods from time to time until eventually the cave was completely blocked up with their deposits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,gnawed jaw of ,hyna1 from ,hyna-den at ,wookey 7#a_/b74 ,dotted outline portion eaten4 ,the winter cold at the time must have been very severe to admit of the presence of the reindeer and lemming4 ,the district of the ,mendip ,hills at a higher level than now4 ,when we reflect on the vast quantities of the remains of the animals buried in the caves of so limited an area as the ,mendip ,hills1 it is evident that there must have been abundance of food to have enabled them to live in the district4 ,the great marsh now extending from ,wells to the sea1 and cutting off the ,mendips from the fertile region to the south1 was probably a rich valley at a higher level than at present1 joining the westward plains now submerged under the ,bristol ,channel4 ,an elevation of from #ajj to #cjj feet would produce the physical conditions necessary for the sustenance of the herbivora found in the caves both in ,south ,wales and ,somersetshire4 ,the characters of a ,hyna-den4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,a and ,b1 upper and lower jaws of ,hyna-whelp1 ,wookey4 ,the remains of the animals which have been eaten by the cave-hyna1 may be recognized by the following characters4 ,all are more or less scored by teeth1 and the only perfect bones are those which are solid1 or of very dense texture4 ,the skulls are represented merely by the harder portions4 ,that of the woolly rhinoceros1 for example1 by the hard pedestal which supports the anterior horn 7see ,fig4 #cj74 ,several of these pedestals occurred in the ,wookey hyna-den4 ,the lower jaws also have lost their angle and coronoid process1 and are gnawed to the pattern of the shaded portion of ,fig4 #ib1 the less succulent part bearing the teeth being rejected4 ,this holds good of the jaws of all the animals so persistently1 that out of more than two hundred from ,wookey there was only one exception4 ,the jaw of the glutton 7,fig4 #hb71 from ,plas ,heaton1 is also gnawed to the same shape1 and one of those of the cave-bear from the cavern of ,lherm1 considered by ,m4 ,garrigou to have been fashioned by the hand of man into an implement1 seems to me1 after a careful comparison in company with ,dr4 ,falconer1 referable solely to the gnawing of the hyna4 ,in ,fig4 #ib1 the lower jaw of an adult hyna is represented1 and in ,fig4 #ic 7#a7 the upper and lower jaws of a hyna-whelp4 ,in the latter the teeth marks a and b are remarkably distinct4#aii ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,left ,thigh-bone of ,woolly ,rhinoceros gnawed by ,hynas2 ,shaded parts left4 7,wookey ,hole47 ,the marrow-containing bones are also universally splintered away1 until either the articular ends alone are left1 as in ,fig4 #hj1 or in some cases1 as in that of the femur of woolly rhinoceros 7,fig4 #id71 the dense central portion bearing the third trochanter is preserved4 ,this fragment is extremely abundant in nearly all the hyna-caves in this country4 ,from the invariable habit of the hyna leaving the bones of its prey in fragments of this kind1 their dens are characterized by the absence of perfect long-bones and skulls1 and consequently1 when these occur in a cave it is certain proof that it was not occupied by these animals4 ,in a great many caves1 however1 the gnawed fragments are associated with the perfect bones1 as1 for example1 at ,banwell1 a circumstance that may be accounted for by the untouched carcases and the gnawed fragments being swept in from the surface by a stream falling into a swallow-hole4 ,in all hyna-dens also are large quantities of album grcum1 as well as fragments of bone more or less polished by the friction of the hyna's feet4 ,the ,caves of ,devonshire4 ,the ossiferous caves on the south coast of ,devonshire1 explored during the last fifty years1 are by far the most important in this country1 since they were the first which were scientifically examined1 and the first which established the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia4 ,we owe the full details of their history to the labours of the distinguished cave-hunter ,mr4 ,pengelly1 ,f4,r4,s41#bjj whose writings are freely used in the following account4 ,the ,oreston ,caves4 ,the first intimation of the presence of fossil bones in the district was furnished by ,mr4 ,whidbey1 the engineer in charge of the construction of the ,plymouth breakwater1 who discovered numerous bones and teeth1 imbedded in clayey loam1 in some cavernous fissures at ,oreston1 which were brought before the ,royal ,society by ,sir ,everard ,home in #ahag4 ,thus ,dr4 ,buckland's researches in ,kirkdale were anticipated by four years4 ,from time to time1 since that date1 several other fissures and caves close by have furnished remains of rhinoceros1 mammoth1 hyna1 lion1 and other animals4 ,among the bones and teeth originally sent up by ,mr4 ,whidbey are several which were identified by ,prof4 ,busk1#bja as belonging to the ,rhinoceros megarhinus1 a species that is vastly abundant in the pleiocene strata of northern ,italy and is also represented in the early pleistocene forest-bed of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 and in the lower brickearths of the valley of the ,thames at ,grays and ,crayford4 ,this is the only case on record of the discovery of the animal in a cavern deposit4 ,the cavernous fissures in the neighbourhood of ,yealmpton1#bjb about seven miles east-south-east from ,plymouth1 explored by ,mr4 ,bellamy and ,colonel ,mudge1 ,r4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahce-f1 contained the remains of the hyna and rhinoceros1 and the other animals more usually associated with them4 ,they were probably filled1 as in the case of ,oreston1 mainly by the streams which introduced the pebbles4 ,they may1 however1 from time to time have been inhabited by the hynas1 although the presence of three skulls of that animal forbids the supposition that they dragged in all the fossil bones4 ,the ,caves at ,brixham4 ,the series of fissures accidentally discovered in #aheh1 in quarrying the rock which overlooks the little fishing town of ,brixham1 known as the ,windmill cave1 was selected by the late ,dr4 ,falconer1#bjc as a spot in which thorough investigation would be likely to decide the then doubtful question of the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia4 ,kent's ,hole had been disturbed by repeated diggings1 and the results might be viewed with suspicion4 ,he1 therefore1 urged the importance of a systematic examination of this virgin cave with such effect1 that it was undertaken by the ,royal and ,geological ,societies1 and a committee was appointed1 comprising1 amongst others1 ,dr4 ,falconer1 ,prof4 ,ramsay1 ,mr4 ,prestwich1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,prof4 ,owen1 ,mr4 ,godwin-,austen1 and ,mr4 ,pengelly4 ,to the superintendence of the last is mainly due the minute care with which the exploration was conducted4 ,the remains have been identified by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,prof4 ,busk4 ,the work was commenced in ,july #aheh1 and completed in the summer of #ahei4bjd ,the cave consists of three principal galleries1 with diverging passages1 running in the direction of the joints from north to south1 and from east to west1 communicating with the surface at four points4 ,the following is the general section 7,fig4 #ie7 of the deposits in descending order4 7,a47 ,on the floor was a layer of stalagmite1 varying from a few inches to upwards of a foot in thickness1 and containing only twenty-five bones1 among which were the humerus of a bear1 and the antler of a reindeer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,diagram of ,deposits in ,brixham ,cave4 7,pengelly47 7,b47 ,reddish cave-earth with fragments and blocks of limestone1 and of stalagmite1 generally averaging from two to four feet4 ,in it #a1ajb bones were discovered irregularly scattered through its mass1 and belonging to mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 lion1 cave1 grizzly1 and brown bears1 reindeer1 and others4 ,they varied in state of preservation1 and some were scored and marked by teeth4 ,associated with these1 thirty-six rude flint implements were met with1 of indisputable human workmanship1 and of the same general order as those figured by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery from ,kent's ,hole4 ,among them was one lanceolate implement with rounded point and unworked butt end1 considered by ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 of the type of those usually found in the valley gravels4#bje ,there was1 therefore1 the most conclusive evidence that man inhabited the neighbourhood1 either before or during the time of the accumulation of ,b1 and before those physical changes took place by which the red silt ceased to be deposited1 or the stalagmite above began to be formed4 7,c47 ,at the bottom of the cave-earth was a deposit of gravel1 principally of rounded pebbles and devoid of fossils4 ,the early history of the cave1 as shown by these deposits1 is given by ,mr4 ,prestwich1 in the report presented to the ,royal ,society1 as follows3-- 8,looking at all the phenomena of ,brixham cave1 the conclusion your reporter has arrived at is1 that the formation of the cave commenced and was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley2 that the small streams flowing down the upper tributary branches of the valley entered the western openings of the cave and1 traversing the fissures in the limestone1 escaped by lower openings in the chief valley1 just as the ,grotto d',arcy was formed by an overflow from the cave taking a short cut through the limestone hills1 round which the river winds4 ,these tributary streams brought in the shingle bed 7,fig4 #ie1 ,c71 which fills the bottom of the fissure4 ,it was only during occasional droughts1 when the streams were dry1 that the cave seems to have been frequented by animals1 their remains being very scarce in that bed1 while indications of man are comparatively numerous4 ,as the excavation of the valley proceeded1 the level of the stream was lowered and became more restricted to the valley-channel4 ,the cave consequently became drier1 and was more resorted to by predatory animals1 who carried in their prey to devour1 and was less frequented by man4 ,at the same time with the periodical floods1 which there is every reason to believe1 from other investigations1 were so great during the quaternary period1 the cave would long continue to be subject to inundations1 the muddy waters of which deposited the silt forming the cave-earth1 burying progressively the bones left from season to season by succeeding generations of beasts of prey4 ,by the repetition at distant intervals of these inundations1 and by the accumulation during the intervening periods of fresh crops of bones1 the bone-bearing cave-earth1 ,b1 was gradually formed4 ,during this time the occasional visits of man are indicated by the rare occurrence of a flint implement1 lost1 probably1 as he groped his way through the dark passages of the cave4 ,as the valley became deeper1 and as with the change of climate at the close of the 7pleistocene7 quaternary period the floods became less1 so did the cave become drier and more resorted to by animals4 ,at last it seems to have become a place for permanent resort for bears2 their remains in all stages of growth1 including even sucking cubs1 were met with in the upper part of the cave-earth1 in greater numbers than were the bones of any other animals4 ,these animals resorted especially to the darker and more secluded flint-knife gallery1 where #bba out of #cff of their determinable bones were found1 whereas only twenty-six were met with in the reindeer gallery4 8,finally1 as the cave became out of the reach of the flood waters1 the drippings from the roof1 which up to this period had1 with the single exception before mentioned1 been lost in the accumulating cave-earth1 or deposited in thin calcareous incrustations on the exposed bones1 now commenced that deposit of stalagmite which sealed up and preserved undisturbed the shingle and cave-earth deposited under former and different conditions4 ,the cave1 however1 still continued to be the occasional resort of beasts of prey2 for sparse remains of the reindeer1 together with those of the bear and rhinoceros1 were found in the stalagmite floor4 ,after a time the falling in of the roof at places 7and any earthquake movement may have detached blocks from it71 and the external surface weathering1 stopped up some parts of the cave1 and closed its entrances with an accumulation of dbris4 ,from that time it ceased to be accessible1 except to the smaller rodents and burrowing animals1 and so remained unused and untrodden until its recent discovery and exploration40#bjf ,mr4 ,pengelly points out#bjg an episode in the history of the cave1 between the formation and the filling up with its present contents1 which is of considerable importance1 viewed in relation to the deposits in ,kent's ,hole4 ,over the empty space in ,d1 of ,fig4 #ie1 is an ancient stalagmite floor1 ,e1 constituting the present ceiling1 and shutting off ,d from the true roof above1 ,e4 ,at the time this was formed1 the cave must have been filled up to that level with dbris1 fragments of which are set in the inferior portion of the calcareous sheet4 ,subsequently1 and before the present contents1 ,a and ,b1 were introduced1 the whole of this material has been swept away1 probably by an unusual flood similar to that alluded to in the second chapter in the ,clapham cave4 ,the pieces of stalagmite in the cave-earth are1 probably1 some of the relics of the older floor4 ,this filling up1 re-excavating1 and re-filling with its present contents1 are phenomena which considerably complicate the problems offered not merely by ,brixham cave1 but also by those of ,kent's ,hole4 ,two other caverns in the neighbourhood of ,brixham1 the 8,ash ,hole0 and 8,bench10 have also yielded the remains of the reindeer1 hyna1 and several other pleistocene species1 and are fully described by ,mr4 ,pengelly1 in his essays contributed to the ,devonshire ,association4#bjh ,kent's ,hole4 ,the celebrated cave of ,kent's ,hole1#bji known from time immemorial1 was first found to contain fossil bones by ,mr4 ,northmore1 and ,sir ,w4 ,c4 ,trevelyan in #ahbd1 and was subsequently explored by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery in the five following years1 during which he met with flint implements in association with the extinct animals in the undisturbed strata1 and obtained the teeth of the sabre-toothed feline1 named by ,prof4 ,owen ,machairodus latidens1 which has never before or since been discovered in any other cavern in ,britain4 ,his manuscripts unfortunately were not used until they passed into the hands of ,mr4 ,vivian1 of ,torquay1 who published an abstract in #ahei4 ,subsequently they were published in full by ,mr4 ,pengelly1 in #ahfi4 ,the discovery of the flint implements1 verified by ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen in #ahdj1 and six years later also by a committee of the ,torquay ,natural ,history ,society1 was received with incredulity by the scientific world1 until the result of the exploration of the ,brixham cave had placed the fact of the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia beyond all doubt4 ,in #ahfd a committee#baj was appointed by the ,british ,association for the carrying on the investigation1 which from that time to the present has been conducted under the careful supervision of ,mr4 ,pengelly4 ,the cave consists of two parallel series of chambers and galleries1 an eastern and a western1 which penetrate the low cliff of ,devonian limestone in the direction of the joints1 with a northern and southern entrance1 very nearly at the same level1 8about fifty feet apart1 from #ahj to #aij feet above the level of mean tide1 and about seventy feet above the bottom of the valley immediately adjacent40 ,the largest chamber of the eastern series is sixty-two feet from east to west1 and fifty-three from north to south4 ,the extent of the cave has not yet been ascertained4 ,the contents1 examined with the minutest care 7on ,mr4 ,pengelly's method1 see ,appendix ,i471 were found to be arranged in the following order4 7,a47 ,the surface was composed of dark earth varying in thickness from a few inches to a foot1 on which rested large blocks of limestone1 fallen from the roof4 ,it contained medival remains1 ,roman pottery1 and combs fashioned out of bone1 similar to those discovered in the ,victoria and ,dowkerbottom caves in ,yorkshire1 which prove that the cave was frequented during the historic period4 ,a barbed iron spear-head1 a bronze spear-head1 other bronze articles1 and polished stone celts1 establish the fact that it was also used during the iron1 bronze1 and neolithic ages4 ,this stratum contained the broken bones of the short-horn 7,bos longifrons71 goat1 and horse1 large quantities of charcoal1 and was to a great extent a refuse-heap like that in the ,victoria cave4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,lanceolate ,implement from ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a74 7,evans47#baa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,oval ,implement from ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a7 7,evans47 7,b47 ,below this was a stalagmite floor1 varying in thickness from one to three feet1 covering 7,c47 ,the red earth1 with stones1 bones of the extinct animals1 and flint implements1 associated together in the greatest confusion1 as well as large lumps of stalagmite and of breccia1 which had been torn out of a pre-existent floor4 ,in the 8vestibule10 near one of the entrances1 a black layer beneath the stalagmite1 composed1 to a great extent1 of charcoal1 indicated the position of the fire-places1 and contained a vast number of rude unpolished palolithic implements4 ,there were also local stalagmitic bands4 ,the flint implements were met with at various depths1 and consist of three distinct types3 the lanceolate1 ,fig4 #if1 the oval1 with edge carefully chipped for cutting1 ,fig4 #ig1 and the flake 7see ,fig4 #ajf74 ,besides these a few implements have been discovered of the same shape as those found in the gravel beds2 in outline and section roughly triangular1 and tapering to a point from a blunt base1 which was probably intended to be held in the hand4#bab ,several articles of bone and antler were also met with1 comprising an awl1 or piercer1 a needle with the eye large enough to admit small packthread1 and three harpoon-heads1 one of which is barbed on both sides 7,fig4 #ih71 the others being merely barbed on one side 7,fig4 #ii74 ,a rounded pebble of coarse red sandstone1 battered into a cheese-like form1 by being used as a hammer 7,fig4 #ajj71 was also found4 ,all these articles bring the palolithic inhabitants of ,kent's ,hole into relation with those of the caves and rock-shelters of the south of ,france1 to be described in the next chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,harpoon from ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a74 7,evans47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,harpoon-head from ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a74 7,evans47 7,d47 ,the cave-earth rested on a compact1 dark red breccia composed of angular fragments of limestone and pebbles of sandstone embedded in a sandy calcareous paste1 identical in constitution with the fragments of the older breccia discovered in the cave-earth4 ,it has furnished bones of bears1 and four flint implements4 ,the cave-earth1 ,c1 and the breccia1 ,e1 seem to stand to one another in an inverse ratio as regards thickness3 where the former was thin1 the latter was sometimes as much as twelve feet thick4 ,from this relation1 as well as from the imbedded fragments of the latter1 it may be concluded that the former is the more modern1 and that in the interval between their accumulation the latter had been1 to a considerable extent1 broken up4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,hammer-stone 7#a_/b74 7,evans47 ,there is very good reason for the belief1 that before any of the present cave-earth was introduced1 ,kent's ,hole had been filled nearly to the roof by an older cave accumulation1 now represented by the undisturbed breccia and the included fragments4 ,in a portion of the cave termed the 8gallery10 there is a sheet of stalagmite1 extending overhead from wall to wall1 and constituting a ceiling that reaches from wall to wall1 without further support than that offered by its own cohesion4 ,above it1 in the limestone rock1 there is a considerable alcove4 ,this branch of the cavern1 therefore1 is divided into three stories or flats1 that below the floor occupied with cave-earth1 that between the floor and the ceiling entirely unoccupied1 and that above the ceiling also without a deposit of any kind4 ,for such a sheet of stalagmite to have been formed it is absolutely necessary for the cave to have been filled up to its level with materials of some kind1 just as it is necessary for the formation of a film of ice that it should be crystallized from the surface of water4 ,we may1 therefore1 infer that ,kent's ,hole1 like ,brixham1 was originally filled up to the level of the ceiling 7see ,fig4 #ie1 ,e71 then that the contents were swept out1 with the exception of the breccia1 and lastly1 that the present cave-earth was introduced4 ,the occurrence of the remains of bear1 and of flint implements1 in this breccia also proves that man and bears were living in the district1 while it was being accumulated1 probably by the action of the floods to which1 from time to time1 the cave was subjected4 ,all the flint implements in the breccia are of the ruder and larger form which is presented by those from the pleistocene deposits of the ,somme1 ,seine1 and the rivers of the south and east of ,england4 ,while engaged in the identification of the mammals in #ahfi1 with ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,sanford1 ,i detected splinters of bears' canines1 from the cave-earth1 remarkable for their density1 crystalline structure1 and semi-conchoidal fracture1 which were in the same mineral state as those from the older breccia4 ,one of these had been fashioned into a flake after its mineralization1 and presented an edge chipped by use4 ,the tooth from which it was struck was1 probably1 imbedded and mineralized in the older breccia1 then washed out of it1 and afterwards chosen for the manufacture of an implement4 ,it was already fossil and altered in structure in the palolithic age4 ,the probable ,age of the ,machairodus of ,kent's ,hole4 ,the most remarkable animal discovered in the cave1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery1 is the ,machairodus latidens1#bac or large lion-like animal1 armed with double-edged canines1 in shape like the blade of a sabre1 and with two serrated edges4 ,five canines and two incisors were dug out of the cave-earth1 ,c1 in the ,wolf's ,passage1 along with vast quantities of bones and teeth of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 ,irish elk1 horse1 and hyna4 ,one of the canines is represented in ,figs4 #aja1 #ajb1 which are taken from one of the original plates drawn for ,dr4 ,buckland1 and now in the ,museum of the ,torquay ,natural ,history ,society4 ,the two incisors1 ,figs4 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 are also characterised by their serrated edges4 ,a third was discovered by the exploration committee in the same spot1 in #ahgb1 scarcely to be distinguished from that in ,figs4 #ajc1 #ajd1 which finally dispelled the scepticism of some eminent naturalists as to whether any of these teeth had been obtained in the cave by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aja1 #ajb4--,upper ,canine of ,machairodus1 ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a74 7,mac,enery47 ,the ,machairodus latidens has been found in pleistocene strata in two localities in ,france3 in a deposit of diluvium1 near ,puy1 by ,m4 ,aymard1 and in the cavern of ,baume in the ,jura1 considered by ,m4 ,lartet to be of preglacial age4#bad ,in the latter it was associated with the horse1 ox1 wild-boar1 elephant1 a non-tichorine species of rhinoceros1 the cave-bear1 and the spotted hyna4 ,in the autumn of #ahgc1 ,i met with proof that the animal also lived in ,france in the pleiocene period4 ,m4 ,lortet1 the ,director of the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 at ,lyons1 called my attention to a canine1 in the ,palais des ,beaux ,arts1 which coincides exactly in all its dimensions with one of those from ,kent's ,hole4 ,it was found at ,chagny 7,sane et ,loire7 near ,dijon1 along with ,mastodon arvernensis1 the ,etruscan or megarhine species of rhinoceros1 horse1 beaver and hyna1 somewhat resembling that from the ,crag 7,hyna antiqua7 of ,suffolk described by ,mr4 ,lankester4 ,the species1 therefore1 is pleiocene1 and it belongs to a genus which is widely distributed in the meiocene strata of ,europe and ,north ,america1 as well as in the pleiocene of ,europe4 ,to what era in the complicated history of ,kent's ,hole is this animal to be assigned8 ,the more ancient1 or the more modern8 ,the evidence on this point is1 to a certain extent1 contradictory4 ,on the one hand it is a pleiocene species1 belonging to a group of animals that inhabited ,europe before the lowering of the temperature caused the invasion of the arctic mammalia from the north and the east3 it is moreover of a distinctly southern type4 ,in the teeth marks on the incisors1 ,figs4 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 as well as on the canines1 we have unmistakeable traces of the presence of the hyna2 and since the spotted hyna abounds in the cave1 to its teeth the marks in question may probably be referred4 ,it seems1 therefore1 probable that the animal inhabited ,devonshire during an early stage of the pleistocene period1 before the arctic invaders had taken full possession of the valley of the ,english ,channel1 and of the low grounds which now lie within the #ajj-;fathom line off the ,atlantic shore of ,western ,france4 ,there must necessarily have been a swinging to and fro of animal life over the great1 fertile low-lying region1 which is now submerged 7see ,map1 ,fig4 #abf72 and before the temperature of ,france had been sufficiently lowered to exterminate or drive out the southern forms1 it is most natural to suppose that in warm seasons some of the southern mammalia would find their way northwards1 and especially a formidable carnivore such as the machairodus4 ,the extreme rarity of its remains forbids the hypothesis that it was a regular inhabitant of ,britain during the pleistocene age4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje4--;,incisors of ,machairodus1 ,kent's ,hole 7#a_/a74 7,mac,enery47#bae ,on the other hand1 the recent discovery of a second incisor in the uppermost portion of the cave-earth1 in ,july #ahgb1 in the same condition as the remains usually found1 and associated with the bones and teeth of hyna1 horse1 and bear1 is considered by ,sir ,charles ,lyell and ,mr4 ,pengelly proof of the animal having lived during the deposition of the later cave-earth1 or in the later stage of the pleistocene4 ,the condition of a bone1 however1 is a very fallacious guide to its antiquity1 and although the fragments of the older contents of the cave are in a different mineral state1 it is improbable that the ossiferous contents of so large a cave should have been mineralized exactly in the same way4 ,nor is an appeal to its perfect state conclusive1 since several teeth of bear1 which ,i have examined from the breccia1 are equally perfect4 ,the view of the high antiquity of machairodus in ,kent's ,hole derives support from the discovery of ,rhinoceros megarhinus at ,oreston1 a species which is very abundant in the ,italian pleiocene strata1 and not uncommon in those of ,france1--a species with its headquarters in the south1 but ranging as far north as ,norfolk in the early stage of the pleistocene age1 represented by the forest bed of ,cromer1 and that lived in the valley of the ,thames1 while the gravel-beds of ,crayford and ,grays ,thurrock were being deposited by the ancient river4 ,the occurrence of either of these animals in a cave is exceptional1 and the presence of both in caves on the edge of the great plain extending southwards from the present coastline of ,devon1 seems to me to imply that both were open during the early stage of the pleistocene1 while the pleiocene mammalia were retreating before the southward advance of the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 spotted hyna1 reindeer1 and their congeners1 at a time anterior to the lowering of the temperature that culminated in the glacial period4 ,for these reasons it seems to me probable that the machairodus belongs to an early rather than a late stage in the history of ,kent's ,hole4 ,there is an important point of resemblance between the mode of the occurrence of the machairodus in ,kent's ,hole1 and of the megarhine rhinoceros at ,oreston4 ,the remains of both were met with only in one spot1 and were not scattered through the chambers and passages4 ,it may have happened that in the physical changes which those caves have undergone1 both were preserved in a fissure like that described in the ,uphill cave 7p4 #bid71 and that subsequently they dropped down and became imbedded in a newer deposit4 ,in fixing the age of strata in caves it seems to me that the zoological evidence is of far greater weight than that of mere position1 which may be the result of accidental circumstances4 ,the ,caves of ,ireland4 ,the caves of ,ireland would probably afford as rich a fauna as those of ,britain1 had they been explored with equal care4 ,in one at ,shandon1 near ,dungarvan1 ,waterford1 remains of the brown bear 7,u4 arctos7 reindeer1 horse1 and mammoth were discovered in #ahei1 by ,mr4 ,brenan4#baf ,the first of these animals became extinct in ,ireland before the historic period1 while it survived in ,britain at least as late as the ,roman occupation4 ,the cave-bear is also recorded by ,dr4 ,carte1#bag from the same place1 but the thigh bone assigned to it seems to me to belong to the brown1 or common species4 ,the mammoth1 so abundant in ,britain1 has only been discovered in two other localities in ,ireland1 at ,whitechurch near ,dungarvan1 and at ,magherry near ,belturbet4#bah ,the range of these animals over ,great ,britain and ,ireland in the pleistocene age enables us to realize the ancient physical geography1 which will be treated in the next and following chapters as part of the general question of the physical condition of north-western ,europe at that time4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,caves ,,of ,,north-,,western ,,europe1 ,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,of ,,the ,,fauna ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,atlantic ,,coastline4 ,the ,caves of ,france1 ,baume1 of ,prigord4--,caves and ,rock-shelters of ,belgium1 ,trou de ,naulette4--,caves of ,switzerland4-- ,cave-dwellers and ,palolithic ,men of ,river-deposits4-- ,classification of ,palolithic ,caves4--,relation of ,cave-dwellers to ,eskimos4--,pleistocene animals living north of ,alps and ,pyrenees4--,relation of ,cave to ,river-bed ,fauna4--,the ,atlantic ,coastline4--,distribution of ,palolithic ,implements4 ,the ,caves of ,france4 ,the caves of ,france have been proved1 by the explorations carried on during the course of the present century1 to contain the same animals1 introduced under the same conditions as those which we have already described4 ,some species1 however1 have been met with which have not been discovered in this country4 ,in the cave of ,lunel-viel1 for example1 the common striped hyna of ,africa 7,hyna striata7 has been found by ,marcel de ,serres1 to whom belongs the credit of being the first systematic explorer of caverns in ,france4 ,in that of ,bruniquel1 the ibex1 now found only in the higher mountains in ,europe1 the chamois and the ,antelope saiga1 an animal inhabiting the plains of the region of the ,volga and of southern ,siberia1 have been identified by ,prof4 ,owen2 while in the collection obtained by ,mr4 ,moggridge from the caves of ,mentone1 ,prof4 ,busk has recognized the marmot4 ,with these exceptions there is no distinction between the faunas of the bone-caves of this country and of ,france4#bai ,the ,cave of ,baume4 ,the ,machairodus latidens1#bbj or great sabre-toothed feline of ,kent's ,hole1 has been discovered in the cave of ,baume in the ,jura1 according to ,m4 ,gervais1#bba along with the horse1 ox1 wild-boar1 elephant1 a non-tichorhine species of rhinoceros1 the spotted hyna1 and the cave-bear1 or the same group of animals as that with which it is found in ,kent's ,hole4 ,the cave is considered by ,m4 ,lartet#bbb to be of preglacial age4 ,the ,caves of ,prigord4 ,the caves and rock-shelters of ,prigord1 explored by the late ,m4 ,lartet and our countryman1 ,mr4 ,christy1#bbc #ahfc-d1 have not only afforded cumulative proof of the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia1 but have given us a clue as to the race to which he belonged4 ,they penetrate the sides of the valleys of the ,dordogne and ,vezre at various levels1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #ga1 and are full of the remains left behind by their ancient inhabitants1 which give as vivid a picture of the human life of the period1 as that revealed of ,italian manners in the first century by the buried cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,the old floors of human occupation consist of broken bones of animals killed in the chase1 mingled with rude implements1 weapons of bone1 and unpolished stone1 and charcoal and burnt stones which point out the position of the hearths4 ,flakes 7,fig4 #ajf7 without number1 rude stone-cutters1 awls1 lance-heads1 hammers1 saws made of flint or of chert1 rest ple-mle with bone needles1 sculptured reindeer antlers1 engraved stones1 arrow-heads1 harpoons1 and pointed bones1 and with the broken remains of the animals which had been used as food1 the reindeer1 bison1 horse1 the ibex1 the saiga antelope1 and the musk sheep4 ,in some cases the whole is compacted by a calcareous cement into a hard mass1 fragments of which are to be seen in the principal museums of ,europe4 ,this strange accumulation of dbris marks1 beyond all doubt1 the place where ancient hunters had feasted1 and the broken bones and implements are merely the refuse cast aside4 ,the reindeer formed by far the larger portion of the food1 and must have lived in enormous herds at that time in the centre of ,france4 ,the severity of the climate at the time may be inferred by the presence of this animal1 as well as by the accumulation of bones on the spots on which man had fixed his habitation4 ,indeed1 had not this been the case1 the decomposition of so much animal matter would have rendered the place uninhabitable even by the lowest savage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,flint-flake1 ,les ,eyzies 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,flint ,scraper1 ,les ,eyzies 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,flint ,javelin-head1 ,laugerie ,haute 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,besides the animals mentioned above1 the cave-bear and lion have been met with in one1 and the mammoth in five localities1 and their remains bear marks of cutting or scraping1 which show that they fell a prey to hunters4 ,the ,irish elk1 also1 and the hyna occur respectively in the cave of ,laugerie ,basse1 and of ,moustier1 but the latter certainly did not gain access to the refuse-heaps1 because the vertebr are intact which it is in the habit of eating4 ,for the same reason also1 ,m4 ,lartet infers that the hunters were not aided in the chase by the dog4 ,there is no evidence that they were possessed of any domestic animal4 ,there were no spindle wheels to indicate a knowledge of spinning1 nor potsherds to show an acquaintance with the potter's art4 ,in both these respects they resemble the ,fuegians1 ,eskimos1 and ,australians1 and contrast strongly with the neolithic races4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,flint ,arrow-head1 ,laugerie ,haute 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,bone needle1 ,la ,madelaine 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,the broken bones show that the reindeer furnished the more usual food1 and next to that the horse1 and then the bison4 ,and from the absence of the vertebr and pelvic bones of the two latter animals1 ,m4 ,lartet concludes that they were cut up where they were killed1 and the meat stripped from the backbone and the pelvis4 ,their food was probably cooked by boiling1 the number of round stones used for heating water and bearing marks of fire1 like the 8pot boilers0 of some of the ,american ,indians1 being very considerable4 ,among the stone implements flint flakes were incredibly numerous1 and the number of chips scattered about as well as the blocks of flint from which they had been struck1 proved that they had been made on the spot2 most of these flakes were notched by use 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,instruments with the ends carefully rounded off 7,fig4 #ajg7 were also abundant1 and from their analogy with similar instruments used by the ,eskimos1 there can be but little doubt that they were intended for the preparation of skins 7compare ,fig4 #ajg with ,fig4 #abd74 ,the ends of some were chipped to a point for insertion into a handle1 while others rounded at both ends were probably used freely in the hand4 ,in the cave of ,moustier oval implements were met with1 resembling those figured from the caverns of ,kent's ,hole and ,wookey 7,figs4 #hd and #ig74 ,the spear1 javelin1 and arrow-heads of flint presented two modes of attachment to the shaft1 the base of some being squared off with a notch above for the ligature 7as in ,fig4 #ajh71 while in others 7,fig4 #aji7 it tapered off into a point intended for insertion4 ,this latter form has been obtained also in ,kent's ,hole4 ,the bone needles are carefully smoothed1 and were pierced with a neatly-made eye 7,fig4 #aaj7 by means of pointed flakes which were found along with them1 and the use of which ,m4 ,lartet demonstrated by experiment4 ,they had been sawn out of the compact metacarpals and tarsals of the reindeer#bbd and the horse1 and subsequently rounded on fragments of sandstone1 the grooves of which fitted them4 ,in this1 therefore1 we have not merely the evidence that the hunters were in the habit of sewing1 but also we have vividly brought before us the very method by which their needles were manufactured4 ,they were probably used for sewing skins together1 the tendon of a reindeer forming the thread1 as among the modern ,eskimos4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #aaa1 #aab4--;,harpoons of ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine4 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,,figs4 #aac1 #aad4--;,arrow-heads1 ,gorge d',enfer4 7,broca47 ,,fig4 #aae4--;,bone ,awl1 ,gorge d',enfer 7#a_/a74 7,broca47 ,the heads of arrows and lances are made principally out of reindeer antler1 and are barbed1 the barbs generally being grooved1 and carved on both sides of the axis 7,figs4 #aaa1 #aab1 #aac72 but in some cases1 as in ,fig4 #aad1 the barbs are only on one side4 ,many bones and antlers are variously carved into shapes for which it is impossible to assign a definite use4 ,fig4 #aae is a bone awl4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,carved ,handle of ,reindeer ,antler 7#a_/b74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,two sides of ,reindeer ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,horses engraved on ,antler1 ,la ,madelaine 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,the most remarkable remains left behind by man in these refuse-heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers1 and the figures engraved on fragments of schist and on ivory4 ,a well-defined outline of an ox stands out boldly from one piece of antler4 ,a second presents us with a most elegant design3 a reindeer is kneeling down in an easy attitude with its head thrown up in the air1 so that the antlers rest on the shoulders1 and the back of the animal forms an even surface for a handle1 which is too small to be grasped in an ordinary ,european hand 7,fig4 #aaf74 ,in a third a man stands close to a horse's head1 and hard by is a fish like an eel2 and on the other side of the same cylinder are two heads of bison1 drawn with sufficient clearness to ensure recognition by anyone who had ever seen that animal 7,fig4 #aag74 ,on a fourth the natural curvature of one of the tines has been taken advantage of by the artist to engrave the head1 and the characteristic recurved horns of the ibex2 and on a fifth are figures of horses 7,fig4 #aah71 in which the upright disheveled mane and shaggy ungroomed tail are represented with admirable spirit4 ,at first sight it would appear that the artist had drawn the heads out of all proportion to the bodies4 ,a horse's skeleton1 however1 from the palolithic 8station0 at ,solutr1 lately set up in the ,museum at ,lyons1 proves that this is not the case1 since1 as ,m4 ,lortet pointed out to me1 it is remarkable for its massive head1 and small body4 ,in ,fig4 #aai a group of reindeer are seen1 two on their backs1 and two in the act of walking4 ,the ,irish elk1 red-deer1 and probably rhinoceros1 are also depicted1 the figures upon the hard schist being feebly and uncertainly drawn1 as might be expected from the character of the tools4 ,the most clever sculptor of modern times would1 probably1 not succeed very much better if his graver was a splinter of flint1 and stone and bone were the materials to be engraved4 ,one peculiarity runs through the figures of animals4 ,with but two exceptions none of the feet are represented1 a circumstance which is probably due1 as ,mr4 ,franks has suggested to me1 to the fact that the hunters merely represented what they saw of the animal1 of which the feet would be concealed by the herbage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,group of ,reindeer1 ,dordogne4 7,broca47 ,the most striking figure that has been discovered is that of the mammoth1#bbe ,fig4 #abj1 engraved on a fragment of its own tusk1 the peculiar spiral curvature of the tusk and the long mane1 which are not now to be found in any living elephant1 proving that the original was familiar to the eye of the artist4 ,the discovery of whole carcases of the animal in northern ,siberia1 preserved from decay in the frozen cliffs and morasses1 has made us acquainted with the existence of the long hairy mane4 ,had not it thus been handed down to our eyes1 we should probably have treated this most accurate drawing as a mere artist's freak4 ,its peculiarities are so faithfully depicted that it is quite impossible for the animal to be confounded with either of the two living species4 ,these drawings probably employed the idle hours of the hunter1 and perpetuate the scenes which he witnessed in the chase4 ,they are full of artistic feeling1 and are evidently drawn from life4 ,the mammoth is engraved on its own ivory1 the reindeer generally on reindeer antler1 and the stag on stag antler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,mammoth engraved on ,ivory1 ,la ,madelaine 7#a_/b74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,from all these facts we must picture to our minds1 that these ancient dwellers in the caves of ,aquitaine lived by hunting and fishing1 that they were acquainted with fire1 and that they were clad with skins sewn together with sinews or strips of intestines4 ,that they did not possess the dog is shown1 not merely by the negative evidence of its not having been discovered1 but also by the fact that the bones which it invariably eats1 such as the vertebr1 are preserved4 ,they did not possess any domestic animals1 and there is no evidence that they were acquainted with the potter's art4 ,m4 de ,mortillet's view1 that the art of making pottery was unknown in the palolithic age1 seems to me to be probably true1 the reputed cases of the discovery of potsherds being always connected with suspicious circumstances1 which render it probable that they were subsequently introduced4 ,besides the remains of the animals in the refuse-heaps were fragmentary portions of human skeletons1 which1 however1 were not scraped or broken so as to imply the practice of cannibalism4 ,caves of ,belgium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,carved ,implement of ,reindeer ,antler1 ,goyet 7#a_/b74 7,dupont47 ,the researches of ,dr4 ,schmerling#bbf into the caves of ,belgium1 in #ahbi-cj1 revealed the fact that the animals so abundant in the caves of ,germany1 were equally numerous in those in the neighbourhood of ,lige1 and the flint flakes1 and the fragments of human bones1 which he found may possibly be of palolithic age4 ,he also discovered the remains of the porcupine1 a species no longer living north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,the systematic exploration1 however1 of the palolithic caves in that district was not carried out until1 in the year #ahfd1 ,m4 ,dupont#bbg began the investigation of those in the neighbourhood of ,dinant-sur-,meuse1 on behalf of the ,belgian ,government4 ,his results1 based upon the examination of upwards of twenty caves and rock-shelters1 are published in a series of papers read before the ,royal ,academy of ,belgium and subsequently in a separate work4 ,besides the remains of the animals living in ,belgium within the historic period1 he met with the ibex1 chamois1 and marmot1 which are now to be found only in the mountainous districts of ,europe1 the tailless hare1 lemming1 and arctic fox1 of the northern regions1 the ,antelope saiga1 grizzly bear1 lion1 hyna1 and others4 ,most of these species occurred in refuse accumulations1 their remains being in the fragmentary condition of those of the ,french caves4 ,the associated implements are of the same type as those of ,prigord1 and some of them are ornamented in the same manner as1 for example1 that from the cavern of ,goyet1 ,fig4 #aba1 termed a 8bton de commandement10 but which1 from its analogy with similar articles in the ,british ,museum1 is most probably an arrow-straightener4 ,those of flint are also of the same kind1 and in several of the caves there was the same association of fragmentary human remains with the relics of the feasts as in the ,french refuse-heaps4 ,trou de ,naulette4 ,the human remains consisting of a lower jaw1 ulna and metatarsal1 discovered in the large cavern of ,naulette1#bbh on the left bank of the ,lesse1 in association with the broken remains of the rhinoceros1 mammoth1 reindeer1 chamois1 and marmot1 are undoubtedly of palolithic age1 since they rested in an undisturbed stratum4 ,m4 ,dupont gives the following section in descending order4 ,,metres4 #a4 ,sandy grey and yellow clay #bij #b4 ,yellow grey clay with stones and bones of ruminants #jde #c4 ,stalagmite4 #d4 ,tufa4 #e4 ,three bands of clay alternating with stalagmite4 #f4 ,sandy clay with human bones at the depth of four metres4 #g4 ,stalagmite4 #h4 ,cave-earth with bones gnawed by hynas4 ,the human jaw is remarkable for its prognathism1 which1 according to ,dr4 ,hamy1 is greater than that which has been observed in any living races4 ,the cave had afforded shelter to the hynas before it had been used by man4 ,the ,caves of ,switzerland4 ,the caves of ,switzerland also contain the same class of rude implements and carvings4 ,prof4 ,rupert ,jones has called my attention to a recent discovery of carved reindeer antlers1 and harpoon-heads1 similar to those figured from the ,dordogne1 in a cave in the ,canton of ,schaaffhausen1#bbi along with the bones of hyna1 reindeer1 and mammoth4 ,in that of ,veyrier1#bcj carved implements were found along with the remains of the ox1 horse1 chamois1 and ibex1 some of which1 shown to me by ,dr4 ,gosse1 at the meeting of the ,french ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 at ,lyons in #ahgc1 are of the same form and size as the arrow-straightener from the cave of ,goyet 7,fig4 #aba74 ,we may1 therefore1 infer that the same palolithic race of men once ranged over the whole region from the ,pyrenees and ,switzerland1 as far to the north as ,belgium4 ,and since ,prof4 ,fraas has obtained similar implements from a refuse-heap at ,schussenreid in ,wrtemberg1 they wandered as far to the east as that district1 while the discoveries in ,kent's ,hole and ,wookey ,hole prove that they extended as far to the west as ,somersetshire and ,devonshire4 ,cave-dwellers and ,palolithic ,men of the ,river-gravels4 ,these palolithic cave-dwellers are considered by ,mr4 ,evans#bca to belong to the same race as those who have left their rude flint implements in the river-gravels in the valleys of the ,thames1 the ,somme1 the ,seine1 and in the eastern counties1 as far to the north as ,peterborough4 ,we must1 however1 allow that a marked difference is to be observed between a series of flint implements found in the caves1 as compared with a series found in the river-strata1 although some forms are common to the two2 as for instance some of those found in ,brixham and ,kent's ,hole4 ,this difference can scarcely be explained on the supposition that the small things would be less likely to be preserved in the fluviatile deposits1 because it leaves the rarity in the caves of the larger fluviatile forms unaccounted for4 ,it is perhaps safer1 in the present state of our knowledge1 to consider the two sets to be distinct from each other4 ,the direct superposition in ,kent's ,hole of the stratum with the ordinary cave-type of implement1 over that with the ordinary fluviatile type1 may perhaps prove that the latter is the older4 ,classification of ,palolithic ,caves4 ,the palolithic caves are divided by ,m4 ,lartet#bcb into four groups1 according to the species of animals which they contain2 into those of the age of the cave-bear1 of the age of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros1 of the age of the reindeer1 and of the age of bison4 ,dr4 ,hamy follows ,sir ,john ,lubbock1#bcc in considering the age of the cave-bear to be co-extensive with that of the mammoth1 and in the classification of caves he adopts a series of transitions4 ,m4 ,dupont divides the caves of ,belgium into those belonging to the age of the mammoth1 and to that of the reindeer4 ,it is easy to refer a given cave to the age of the reindeer or of the mammoth because it contains the remains of those animals1 but the division has been rendered worthless for chronological purposes1 by the fact that both these animals inhabited the region north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees at the same time1 and are to be found together in nearly every bone-cave explored in that area4 ,the difference between the contents of one palolithic cave and another1 is probably largely due to the fact that man could more easily catch some animals than others1 as well as to the preference for one kind of food before another4 ,and the abundance of the reindeer1 which is supposed to characterise the reindeer period1 may reasonably be accounted for by the fact1 that it would be more easily captured by a savage hunter1 than the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 cave-bear1 lion1 or hyna4 ,the classification will apply1 as ,i have shown in my essay on the pleistocene mammalia1#bcd neither to the caves of this country1 of ,belgium1 nor of ,france1 and my views are shared by ,m4 de ,mortillet1#bce after a careful and independent examination of the whole evidence4 ,the division of the caves also into ages1 according to the various types of implements found in them1 proposed by ,m4 de ,mortillet1 seems to be equally unsatisfactory2 for there is no greater difference in the implements of any two of the palolithic caves1 than is to be observed between those of two different tribes of ,eskimos1 while the general resemblance is most striking4 ,the principle of classification by the relative rudeness1 assumes that the progress of man has been gradual1 and that the ruder implements are therefore the older4 ,the difference1 however1 may have been due to different tribes1 or families1 having co-existed without intercourse with each other1 as is now generally the case with savage communities2 or to the supply of flint1 chert1 and other materials for cutting instruments1 being greater in one region than in another4 ,relation of ,cave-dwellers to ,eskimos4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,eskimos ,spear-head1 bone 7#a_/b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--;,eskimos ,arrow-straightener of ,walrus ,tooth 7#a_/a74 7,brit4 ,mus47 ,can these cave-dwellers be identified with any people now living on the face of the earth8 or are they as completely without representatives as their extinct contemporaries1 the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros8 ,absolute certainty we cannot hope to obtain on the point1 but the cumulative evidence enables an answer to be given which is probably true4 ,along the ,american shore of the great ,arctic ,ocean1 in the region of everlasting snow1 dwell the ,eskimos1 living by hunting and fishing1 speaking the same language1 and using the same implements from the ,straits of ,behring on the west1 to ,greenland on the east4 ,their implements and weapons1 brought home by the arctic explorers1 enable us to institute a comparison with those found in the palolithic caves4 ,the harpoons in the ,ashmolean collection at ,oxford1 brought over by ,captain ,beechey and ,lieut4 ,harding from ,west ,georgia1 as well as those in the ,british ,museum1 are almost identical in shape and design with those from the caves of ,aquitaine and ,kent's ,hole2 the only difference being that some of the latter have grooved barbs4 ,the heads of the fowling and fishing spears1 darts1 and arrows1 as well as the form of their bases for insertion into the shafts1 are also identical 7,fig4 #abb71 as may be seen from a comparison of ,fig4 #abb with ,figs4 #ii and #aad4 ,the curiously carved instrument1 ,fig4 #abc1 which the ,eskimos use for straightening their arrows is variously ornamented with designs of animals1 analogous to those cut on the reindeer antlers in ,aquitaine2 and if it be compared with the so-called 8bton de commandement10 ,fig4 #aba1 it will be seen1 that the latter also was probably intended for the same purpose2 the difference in the shape of the hole in the two figured specimens being also observable in the series of ,eskimos arrow-straighteners in the ,british ,museum1 and being largely due to friction by use4 ,many of the implements are the same in form4 ,an ,eskimos stone scraper for preparing skins1 or plane for smoothing wood1 is represented in ,fig4 #abd1 which is inserted in a handle of fossil mammoth ivory1 obtained from the frozen ice-cliffs on the shores of the ,arctic sea4 ,if it be compared with ,fig4 #ajg from the caves1 it will be seen to be of the same pattern4 ,it is indeed not a little singular1 that the handle in which it is imbedded should have been formed out of the tusks of the same species of elephant as that which was depicted by the palolithic hunter 7see ,fig4 #abj71 in the south of ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--;,eskimos ,plane or ,scraper 7#a_/a74 7,lartet and ,christy47 ,some of the ,eskimos lance-heads of stone in the ,british ,museum are of the same type as that figured from the caves of the ,dordogne 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,the most remarkable objects brought home from the northern regions are the implements of bone and antler which are ornamented with the figures of animals hunted by the ,eskimos on sea or land4 ,on the side of one bow in the ,ashmolean ,museum1 used for drilling holes1 you see them harpooning the whale from their skin boats1 and catching birds4 ,on a second they are harpooning walrus and catching seals2 on a third the seals are being dragged home4 ,the huts in which they live1 the tethered dogs1 the boat supported on its platform1 and their daily occupations are faithfully represented4 ,one bow is ornamented with a large number of porpoises1 while on another is a reindeer hunt in which the animals are being attacked while they are crossing a ford4 ,on a bone implement in the ,british ,museum from ,fort ,clarence1 the reindeer are being shot down by archers 7,fig4 #abe74 ,the arrow straightener1 ,fig4 #abc1 is adorned with a reindeer hunting scene1 in which the animals are seen browsing and unsuspicious of the approach of the hunters1 who are advancing1 clad in reindeer skins and wearing antlers on their heads4 ,a comparison of these various designs with those from the caves of ,france and ,belgium shows an identity of plan and workmanship1 with this difference only1 that the hunting scenes familiar to the palolithic cave-dweller were not the same as those familiar to the ,eskimos on the shores of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,each sculptured the animals he knew1 and the whale1 walrus1 and seal were unknown to the inland dwellers in ,aquitaine1 just as the mammoth1 bison1 and wild horse are unknown to the ,eskimos4 ,the reindeer1 which they both knew1 is represented in the same way by both4 ,the ,west ,georgians made their dirks of walrus tooth1 and ornamented them with carvings of the backbones of fishes2 the people of ,aquitaine used for the same purpose reindeer antlers1 and ornamented them with figures of that animal 7see ,fig4 #aaf74 ,and it is worthy of remark that the latter had sufficient artistic feeling to depict the mammoth on mammoth ivory1 the reindeer generally on reindeer antler1 and the stag on its own antler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--;,eskimos ,hunting-scene 7#a_/a74 7,fort ,clarence47 ,an appeal to the habits of these two peoples1 now separated by so wide an interval of space and time1 tends also to show that they are descended from the same stock4 ,the method of accumulating large quantities of the bones of animals around their dwelling-places1 and the habit of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow1 is the same in both4 ,their hides were prepared by the same sort of instruments and in the same manner1 and the needles with which they were sewn together are of the same pattern4 ,the few remains of man among the relics of feasts in the caves of ,belgium and ,france1 show the same disregard of sepulture as that implied by the human skulls lying about along with numerous bones of walrus1 seal1 dog1 bear1 and fox1 in an ,eskimos camp in ,igloolik1 which were carried away by ,captain ,lyon1 without the slightest objection on the part of the relatives of the dead4 ,all these facts can hardly be mere coincidences1 caused by both peoples leading a savage life under similar circumstances3 they afford reasons for the belief that the ,eskimos of ,north ,america are connected by blood with the palolithic cave-dwellers of ,europe4 ,to the objection that savage tribes living under similar conditions use similar instruments1 and that1 therefore1 the correspondence of those of the ,eskimos with those of the reindeer folk does not prove that they belong to the same race1 the answer may be made1 that there are no two savage tribes now living which use the same set of implements1 without being connected by blood4 ,the agreement of one or two of the more common and ruder instruments may be perhaps of no value in classification1 but if a whole set agree1 fitted for various uses1 and some of them rising above the most common wants of savage life1 we must admit that the argument as to race is of very great value4 ,the implements found in ,belgium1 ,france1 or ,britain differ scarcely more from those now used in ,west ,georgia1 than the latter do from those now in use in ,greenland or ,melville ,peninsula4 ,the conclusion1 therefore1 seems inevitable1 that so far as we have any evidence of the race to which the dwellers in the ,dordogne belong1 that evidence points only in the direction of the ,eskimos4 ,this conclusion is to a great extent confirmed by a consideration of the animals found in the caves4 ,the reindeer and the musk sheep afford food to the ,eskimos now1 just as they afforded it to the palolithic hunters in ,europe4 ,no naturalist would deny that the pleistocene musk sheep is of the same species as that of ,north ,america1 and although the animal is extinct in ,europe and ,asia1 its remains1 scattered through ,germany1 ,russia in ,europe1 and ,siberia1 show that it formerly ranged in the whole of that area4 ,the enormous distance1 therefore1 of southern ,france from the northern shores of ,america1 cannot be considered as an obstacle to this view1 for1 to say the least1 palolithic man would have had the same chance of retreating to the north-east as the musk sheep4 ,the mammoth and bison have also been tracked by their remains in the frozen river gravels and morasses through ,siberia1 as far to the north-east as the ,american side of the ,straits of ,behring4 ,palolithic man appeared in ,europe with the arctic mammalia1 lived in ,europe along with them1 and disappeared with them4 ,and since his implements are of the same kind as those of the ,eskimos1 it may reasonably be concluded that he is represented at the present time by the ,eskimos1 for it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological1 and zoological evidence should be an accident4 ,these views1#bcf which ,i advanced in #ahff1 have been to a great extent accepted by ,sir ,john ,lubbock in his last edition of ,prehistoric ,man4 ,pleistocene ,animals living to the ,north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,the principal mammalia inhabiting ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany during the pleistocene age1 and contemporary with man in ,europe1 are given in the following table1 which shows that the fauna of the region to the north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees was remarkably uniform4 ,the cave-fauna of ,provence1 ,italy1 and ,spain1 will be treated of in the next chapter4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,king ,arthur's ,cave ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,hoyle ,cave ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,coygan ,cave ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,caldy ,fissure ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,blackrock ,fissure ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,long ,hole ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,spritsail ,tor ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,ravenscliff ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,crow ,hole ---------------------------------------- --------- ,bosco's ,den ---------------------------------------- ------- ,minchin ,hole ---------------------------------------- ----- ,bacon's ,hole ---------------------------------------- --- ,paviland ---------------------------------------- - ,gallfaenan --------------------------------------- ,plas ,heaton ------------------------------------- ,plas-newydd ----------------------------------- ,cefn --------------------------------- ,victoria ------------------------------- ,kirkdale ----------------------------- ,gailenreuth ,cave --------------------------- ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,homo palolithicus-- ,palolithic ,man x x x x xx ,spermophilus citillus-- ,pouched ,marmot ,arctomys marmotta-- ,common ,marmot ,castor fiber--,beaver ,lepus timidus--,hare x xx ,lepus variabilis-- ,alpine ,hare ,lepus cuniculus--,rabbit xx x ,lepus diluvianus-- ,extinct ,hare ,lagomys pusillus-- ,tailless ,hare ,mus lemmus--,lemming ,hystrix dorsata-- ,porcupine x ,felis leo 7var4 spela7--,lion x x xxx x ,felis pardus--,leopard ,felis ,lynx--,lynx ,felis caffer--,caffir ,cat ,felis catus--,wild ,cat x x x ,machairodus latidens ,gulo borealis--,glutton x x ,hyna crocuta 7var4 spela7--,spotted ,hyna xxxx xxxxx xxxxxxxxx ,hyna striata--,striped ,hyna ,mustela martes--,marten xxx ,mustela putorius-- ,polecat x xx ,mustela erminea--,weasel x x ,lutra vulgaris--,otter x ,ursus arctos--,brown ,bear xxx 8 x x ,ursus ferox--,grizzly ,bearxxxxx xx x ,ursus spelus--,cave-,bear xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx x ,canis lupus--,wolf xxxxxx xxxxxxxxx ,canis vulpes--,fox xxxxxx xxxxxxxx ,canis lagopus--,arctic ,fox ,elephas primigenius-- ,mammoth x x x xxxxxx x ,elephas antiquus x xx xx xxxx ,elephas ,africanus-- ,african ,elephant ,equus caballus--,horse xxxx x x xxx xx x ,rhinoceros tichorhinus-- ,woolly ,rhinoceros x xx xxxxx ,rhinoceros hemitchus x xx xx xx x ,rhinoceros megarhinus ,bos urus--,urus ,bos bison--,bison xxxxxx xxxxxxxx xx x ,ovibos moschatus-- ,musk ,sheep ,capra ibex--,ibex ,capella rupicapra-- ,chamois ,antilope saiga--,saiga ,sus scrofa--,wild ,boar xx x xxxxxxxx ,cervus elaphus--,stag xxxxx x xx x ,cervus capreolus--,roe x x x x ,cervus megaceros-- ,irish ,elk xxxxx xx x ,cervus tarandus-- ,reindeer xxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx x ,hippopotamus amphibius 7var4 major7-- x xx x ,hippopotamus ---------------------------------------- ------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,river ,deposits1 ,france ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,river ,deposits1 ,britain ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,belgian ,caves ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,lunel ,viel ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,les ,eyzies ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,cro ,magnon ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,gorge d',enfer ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,laugerie ,basse ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,laugerie ,haute ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,la ,madelaine ---------------------------------------- --------- ,moustier ---------------------------------------- ------- ,kent's ,hole ---------------------------------------- --- ,brixham ---------------------------------------- - ,wookey ,hole --------------------------------------- ,sandford ,hill ------------------------------------- ,uphill ----------------------------------- ,bleadon --------------------------------- ,banwell ------------------------------- ,hutton ----------------------------- ,durdham --------------------------- ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,homo palolithicus-- ,palolithic ,man xx x xxx x xxx xx x ,spermophilus citillus-- ,pouched ,marmot xx xx xx ,arctomys marmotta-- ,common ,marmot x ,castor fiber--,beaver x xxx x ,lepus timidus--,hare xx x xxx8x8 xx xx x ,lepus variabilis-- ,alpine ,hare x ,lepus cuniculus--,rabbit x x x x x ,lepus diluvianus-- ,extinct ,hare x xx x ,lagomys pusillus-- ,tailless ,hare x x x x ,mus lemmus--,lemming x x x xx ,hystrix dorsata-- ,porcupine x ,felis leo 7var4 spela7--,lion xxxxxxxx x xxxxxx x ,felis pardus--,leopard xxx x x ,felis ,lynx--,lynx x x x ,felis caffer--,caffir ,cat xx ,felis catus--,wild ,cat x8 x xxx x ,machairodus latidens x ,gulo borealis--,glutton xx x ,hyna crocuta 7var4 spela7--,spotted ,hyna xxxxxxxx x x xxx x ,hyna striata--,striped ,hyna x ,mustela martes--,marten x x ,mustela putorius-- ,polecat x ,mustela erminea--,weasel x xx ,lutra vulgaris--,otter x x x xx ,ursus arctos--,brown ,bear x x xxx x xx x ,ursus ferox--,grizzly ,bear x xx x xx x ,ursus spelus--,cave-,bear xxx xxx x x xx xx 787 ,canis lupus--,wolf x xxxxx x xx x xxxxxx x ,canis vulpes--,fox x xxxxx x xx x xxxxxx x ,canis lagopus--,arctic ,fox x ,elephas primigenius-- ,mammoth xxxx xxx x xxx x xx xx x ,elephas antiquus x x xx x ,elephas ,africanus-- ,african ,elephant ,equus caballus--,horse xxxxxxxx x xxx x xxxxx x ,rhinoceros tichorhinus-- ,woolly ,rhinoceros x xxx x xx x ,rhinoceros hemitchus x x x x ,rhinoceros megarhinus x x ,bos urus--,urus xx xxx x xxx x ,bos bison--,bison xxxxxx 8 xxx x xxx xx x ,ovibos moschatus-- ,musk ,sheep x x x x ,capra ibex--,ibex xx x xxx x x ,capella rupicapra-- ,chamois x x x x x ,antilope saiga--,saiga x x x ,sus scrofa--,wild ,boar x xx x x x x xxx x ,cervus elaphus--,stag xx xx x xxx x xxxxx x ,cervus capreolus--,roe x x xx x ,cervus megaceros-- ,irish ,elk xxx x x x xx x ,cervus tarandus-- ,reindeer xxxxx xx x xx x xx xx x ,hippopotamus amphibius 7var4 major7-- x 787 x x ,hippopotamus ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,cave ,fauna the same as ,river-bed ,fauna4 ,if this list#bcg of animals from the caves be compared with that of the river-deposits of ,britain and the continent1 it will be seen that the same fauna is present in both1 and that they are therefore of the same geological age4#bch ,this was the conclusion to which ,dr4 ,falconer was led by the examination of the caves of ,gower1 and it has been confirmed by every subsequent discovery4 ,the ,pleistocene ,coast-line of ,north-,western ,europe4 ,the identity of the ,british pleistocene fauna with that of the continent1 leads to the conclusion that in the pleistocene age ,britain was connected with the adjacent countries by a bridge of land1 over which the wild animals had free means of migration4 ,and this might be brought about by a comparatively small elevation of the area4 ,the soundings show that ,britain and ,ireland constitute merely the uplands of a plateau now submerged to the extent of about #ajj fathoms1 on the side of the ,atlantic4 ,on the east it extends at a depth of from twenty to fifty fathoms1 in the direction of ,belgium2 and on the south it is only sunk from twenty to forty fathoms below the sea-level4 ,immediately to the westward of this line the sea deepens so suddenly1 that there is scarcely any difference between the lines of #ajj and of #bjj fathoms1 and the depth rapidly increases to #b1jjj4 ,were this plateau elevated above the sea to an extent of #ajj fathoms1 the tract shaded in the map 7,fig4 #abf7 would unite the ,british ,isles to the continent1 and the ,thames and other rivers on the eastern coast would unite with the ,elbe and the ,rhine to form a river debouching on the ,north ,sea1 somewhat after the manner which ,i have represented by taking the deepest line of soundings4 ,the ,straits of ,dover would then be the watershed between this valley of the ,german ,ocean1 as it may be termed1 and that of the ,english ,channel1 in which the ,seine and the ,somme and other ,french rivers joined those of the south coast1 and ultimately reached the ,atlantic4 ,evidence that the latter river flowed in the course assigned to it in the map is afforded by the discovery of the fresh-water mussel 7,unio pictorum71 recorded by ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen#bci to have been dredged up by ,captain ,white from a depth of from #ej to #ajj fathoms1 not very far from what ,i have taken to be its mouth4 ,we are also indebted to ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen for the discovery near this spot of banks of shingle and littoral shells1 which indicate the position of the ancient coast-line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,physiography of ,great ,britain in ,late ,pleistocene ,age4 ,shaded area land now submerged2 dotted area region occupied by animals2 plain area region occupied by glaciers4 ,the view that the #ajj-;fathom line marks the limit of the pleistocene land surface to the west1 is held by ,sir ,h4 de la ,bche1 ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 and other eminent geologists1 and it is supported by many facts that can be explained in no other manner4 ,to pass over the discovery of a fresh-water shell at the bottom of the ,english ,channel1 quoted above1 the distribution of fossil mammalia at the bottom of the ,german ,ocean 7represented in ,fig4 #abf by the dotted area7 is analogous to that which we find in the river gravels and brick-earths on the land4 ,the quantity of teeth and bones belonging to the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 horse1 reindeer1 and spotted hyna1 and other animals1 dredged up by the fishermen in the ,german ,ocean is almost incredible4 ,mr4 ,owles1 of ,yarmouth1 informed me in #ahfh that off that place there is a bank on which the fishing nets are rarely cast without bringing up fossil remains4 ,it seems most probable1 that these accumulations have been formed under subaerial conditions near the drinking places1 or below the fords1 which were used for ages by the pleistocene animals4 ,i might quote as an example of a similar deposit of fossils on the land1 that discovered in #ahff by ,captain ,luard1 ,r4,e41 in digging the foundations of the new cavalry barracks at ,windsor1 which consisted mainly of bones and antlers of reindeer1 with a few carnivores1 such as the brown bear and wolf1 that usually follow reindeer in their migrations in ,siberia4#bdj ,were this submerged it would be a case precisely similar to that off ,yarmouth4 ,the ancient forest1 exposed at low water under the cliffs on the ,norfolk and ,suffolk shores1 flourished when the land stood higher than it does now4 ,traces of a similar forest1 also at1 and below1 low-water mark1 have been met with on the shore at ,selsea1 near ,chichester1 in ,sussex2 and remains of the mammoth have been dredged up in several places off the coast1 as for example in ,torbay and in ,holyhead harbour1 or found in gravel beds near low-water mark1 as in the ,isle of ,wight1 and on the north coast of ,somerset at ,st4 ,audries1 near ,watchet1 where a skull with gigantic tusks rested in the gravel4 ,in all these facts we have ample proof that ,britain stood at a higher level in the pleistocene age than at the present day4 ,the vast abundance also of the mammalia in the caves of ,south ,wales and ,somerset1 and their presence in the ,island of ,caldy1 and it may be added in ,ireland1 can only be accounted for by the elevation of the present sea-bottom1 so as to allow of their migration over plains covered with abundant pasture4 ,it seems1 therefore1 to me that the accompanying map1 ,fig4 #abf1 represents with tolerable accuracy the ancient coast-line of ,britain1 and of the adjacent parts of the continent in the pleistocene age4 ,the fertile valleys of the ,english ,channel1 ,bristol ,channel1 and the ,german ,ocean1 would afford sustenance to a large and varied fauna1 and numerous herbivores1 such as the reindeer1 bison1 and horse1 would supply food to the palolithic hunters1 who followed them in their annual migrations4 ,and it must be remarked on this hypothesis1 that the valley of the ,garonne would offer a free passage both to the animals and to the hunters of ,auvergne down to the prairie1 extending as far as the #ajj-;fathom line off the ,french coast1 and that the hunting grounds would reach to ,devonshire and ,somerset without any barrier except that offered by the rivers4 ,it is therefore no wonder that the implements in the caves of ,kent's ,hole1 ,wookey ,hole1 and the ,south of ,france1 should be of the same type4 ,distribution of ,palolithic ,implements in this ,area4 ,this geographical configuration in pleistocene times may perhaps account for the distribution of the palolithic implements in the river gravels4 ,the ,seine and the ,somme debouch into the same valley as the rivers of the south of ,england1 and the ,straits of ,dover mark the position of a low watershed leading into the valley of the ,german ,ocean1 on the sides of which1 in the eastern counties1 river-bed implements are so numerous4 ,these are of the same type in northern ,france1 ,sussex1 ,hampshire1 ,kent1 and as far north as the ,wash2 and were therefore used by the same race of men4 ,the difference between them and those of the cave-dwellers in the south and west1 may be due to their possessors occupying different hunting grounds4 ,each tribe of ,american ,indians at the present time has its own territory for hunting1 which is jealously guarded against encroachment1 and in which the articles peculiar to the tribe are being accumulated in the refuse-heaps1 while other sets are being accumulated in other districts4 ,if we suppose that the palolithic savages divided up their hunting grounds in this manner1 the difference which exists between the implements of the river-beds and caves may be readily explained1 as well as their being found for the most part in different areas4 ,the pleistocene climate in the area north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees will be treated in the eleventh chapter1 after the examination of the cave-fauna of southern ,europe4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,fauna ,,of ,,the ,,caves ,,of ,,southern ,,europe ,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,mediterranean ,,coast-,,line ,,in ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,age4 ,changes of ,level in the ,mediterranean area in ,meiocene and ,pleiocene ,ages4--,bone-caves of ,southern ,europe4--,of ,gibraltar4--,of ,provence and ,mentone4--,of ,sicily4--,of ,malta4--,range of ,pigmy ,hippopotamus4--,fossil ,mammalia in ,algeria4--,living ,species common to ,europe and ,africa4--,evidence of ,soundings4--,the ,glaciers of ,lebanon4--,of ,anatolia4--,of ,atlas4--,glaciers probably produced by elevation above the ,sea4--,mediterranean ,coast-line comparatively modern4 ,in the preceding chapter we have seen that north-western ,europe was elevated1 during the pleistocene age1 to an extent of at least #fjj feet above its present level2 so that ,ireland was united to ,britain1 and ,britain was joined to the mainland of ,europe1 proof of this elevation being dependent upon the soundings on one hand1 and the distribution of the fossil mammalia on the other4 ,such a change must necessarily have affected the whole physical conditions of the area1 since the substitution of a mass of land for a stretch of sea1 and the higher altitude of the land1 would tend to produce climatal extremes of considerable severity4 ,it is indeed no wonder that during this time of continental elevation1 the hills of ,wales1 ,yorkshire1 ,derbyshire1 ,cumbria1 and ,scotland should be crowned with glaciers1 or that there should have been a migration to and fro of animals1 comparable to that which is now going on in ,siberia and the northern portions of ,north ,america4 ,the condition of southern ,europe at that time has a most important bearing on any conclusion which may be drawn as to the pleistocene climate in ,france1 ,germany1 or ,britain4 ,for if it be proved that the ,mediterranean ,sea was then smaller than it is now1 the greater land-surface would increase both the heat of the summer and the cold of the winter in central and north-western ,europe4 ,changes of ,level in ,mediterranean area in ,meiocene and ,pleiocene ,ages4 ,the geological evidence that the ,mediterranean region has been subjected to oscillations of level during the tertiary period1 is clear and decisive4 ,prof4 ,gaudry#bda has proved1 in his work on the fossil remains found at ,pikermi1 that the plains of ,marathon1 now so restricted1 must have extended in the meiocene age far south into the ,mediterranean1 so as to afford pasture to the enormous troops of hipparions and herds of antelopes1 the mastodons and large edentata1 revealed by his enterprise4 ,the rocky area of ,attica1 as now constituted1 could not have supported such a large and varied group of animals1 nor could the broken hills and limestone plateaux have been inhabited by hipparions and antelopes1 if their habits at all resembled those of their descendants living at the present time4 ,it may1 therefore1 reasonably be concluded that ,greece1 in those times1 was prolonged southwards1 and united to the islands of the ,archipelago by a stretch of land4 ,if ,africa were then as now the head-quarters of the antelopes1 it is very probable that one of the lines by which they passed over into ,europe1 and spread over ,france and ,germany1 was in this direction4 ,nevertheless1 it must be admitted that the changes of level1 which have taken place since the meiocene age in those regions1 are so complicated as to render it almost impossible to restore the meiocene geography4 ,in the succeeding1 or the pleiocene age1 the presence of the ,african hippopotamus in ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany1 can only be accounted for by a more direct connection with the ,african mainland than is offered by a route through ,asia ,minor4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the ,mediterranean ,sea could not then have formed the same barrier to the northern migration of the animals which it does now4 ,in many regions1 however1 the present land was then sunk beneath the sea1 and marine strata1 of pleiocene age1 were accumulated in the ,val d',arno1 ,sicily1 and southern ,france4 ,the physical geography#bdb of the ,mediterranean in the pleistocene age may be ascertained with considerable accuracy by the distribution of the animals1 coupled with the evidence of the soundings4 ,bone-caves of ,southern ,europe4 ,the mammalia in the bone-caves of southern ,europe differ from those of the region north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees in the absence of the arctic species1 and the presence of some which are of a more strictly southern type4 ,nevertheless1 the influence of the mountains in lowering the temperature in their neighbourhood is to be traced in the presence of the remains of certain animals4 ,thus1 in the caves of ,gibraltar we find an ibex1 which cannot be distinguished from those of the ,spanish sierras1 and in ,mentone and ,provence1 a marmot1 specifically identical with that of the ,alps4 ,the bone-caves in the neighbourhood of the ,mediterranean afford most important testimony as to the geographical changes which have taken place1 since the animals found in them lived in that region4 ,we will take those of the ,iberian peninsula first4 ,caves of ,gibraltar4 ,ossiferous caverns have long been known to occur in the fortified rock of ,gibraltar1#bdc but were not examined scientifically until the year #ahfc1 when the researches of ,captain ,brome1 ,prof4 ,busk1 and ,dr4 ,falconer1 proved that pleistocene species were buried in considerable numbers in its cavities and fissures4 ,of these the most important is the great perpendicular fissure in ,windmill ,hill1 called the ,genista cave1 which has been traced down to more than a depth of #bjj feet4 ,from the upper portion were obtained the polished stone implements1 human skulls1 and other neolithic remains described in the sixth chapter1 p4 #bjd1 which prove that ,gibraltar was inhabited by the ,basques in the neolithic age1 while the remains from the lower revealed the presence of a singularly mixed group of animals4 ,the fossil bones have been referred by ,prof4 ,busk and ,dr4 ,falconer to the following species3-- ,lepus cuniculus1 rabbit4 ,felis leo1 lion4 ,f4 pardus1 panther4 ,f4 caffer4 ,f4 pardina1 lynx4 ,f4 serval1 serval4 ,ursus ferox1 grizzly bear4 ,canis lupus1 wolf4 ,equus caballus1 horse4 ,rhinoceros hemitchus4 ,capra ibex1 ibex4 ,sus scrofa1 wild-boar4 ,cervus elaphus1 red deer4 ,c4 capreolus1 roe4 ,c4 dama1 fallow deer4 ,the spotted hyna1 the serval1 and ,felis caffer1 are species now peculiar to ,africa1 and it is obvious that they could not have found their way into ,gibraltar under the present physical conditions of the ,mediterranean4 ,elephants and rhinoceroses could not have lived on so barren and treeless a rock1 unless it had overlooked a fertile plain1 nor would the carnivora have chosen it for their dens1 had it then been cut off from the feeding-grounds of the herbivores4 ,their presence1 therefore1 as ,dr4 ,falconer justly remarks1 implies the existence of land now sunk beneath the waves1 but then extending southwards to join ,africa4 ,to the ,african animals1 mentioned above as inhabiting the ,iberian peninsula in the pleistocene age1 ,m4 ,lartet has added the ,african elephant 7,e4 ,africanus7 and the striped hyna 7,,ii4 striata71 which have been found in a stratum of gravel near ,madrid along with flint implements4#bdd ,none of the purely arctic mammalia1 such as the reindeer1 musk sheep1 or woolly rhinoceros1 so abundant in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,britain1 have been met with south of the ,pyrenees4 ,bone-caves of ,provence and ,mentone4 ,the arctic animals are also absent from the numerous bone-caves and bone breccias of ,provence and ,mentone4 ,the pleistocene fauna of ,provence consists1 according to ,m4 ,marion1#bde of the spotted hyna1 and lion1 ,elephas antiquus or straight-tusked elephant1 ,rhinoceros hemitchus1 wild-boar1 urus1 stag1 horse1 and rabbit4 ,the breccias in the island of ,ratonneau have also furnished the porcupine1 brown bear1 and tailless hare4 ,man is proved to have been living in the district at the time by the discovery of perforated and cut bones1 in the cave of ,rians4 ,the fissures and caves of ,mentone1 explored by ,mr4 ,moggridge#bdf in #ahga1 and subsequently by ,m4 ,rivire1 contained a fauna composed1 according to ,prof4 ,busk1 of the following species3-- ,marmot4 ,field-vole4 ,lion4 ,panther4 ,lynx4 ,wild-cat4 ,spotted hyna4 ,wolf4 ,fox4 ,brown bear4 ,cave-bear4 ,roe4 ,stag4 ,ibex4 ,urus4 ,horse4 ,wild-boar4 ,rhinoceros hemitchus4 ,along with these were large quantities of charcoal and flint flakes1 which proved that man had inhabited the district while the deposits were being formed4 ,mr4 ,moggridge gives the following account of the results of his exploration3--#bdg 8,the caves of the red rocks1 half a mile out of ,mentone1 are in lofty rocks of jurassic limestone on the shore of the ,mediterranean1 and at an average height of #ajj feet above that sea1 the rocks themselves attaining an elevation of #bfj feet4 ,they have now been repeatedly rifled by the learned or the curious2 but when the principal cave 7,cavillon7 was nearly intact1 the author made a section of it from the modern or highest floor1 down to the solid rock4 ,there were five floors formed in the earth by long-continued trampling2 on each1 and near the centre1 were marks of fire1 around which broken bones and flints were abundant1 except upon the lowest1 where but few bones occurred1 and no flints4 ,the bones were those of animals still existing4 ,few implements were found1 but many chips of flint1 some cores and stones used as hammers4 ,perhaps this cave was used as a place for manufacturing flints1 which must have been carried from their native bed1 distant about one mile4 8,there is nothing to evince the action of water2 on the contrary1 the numerous stones that occur are all angular4444 ,below these caves a slope of about #ahj feet descends to the edge of the sea4 ,through the upper part of this slope1 at distances from the cave of from #j to ten feet1 is a railway cutting #fjj feet long1 fifty-four feet deep1 and sixty feet above the sea4 ,the mass removed in making this cutting was composed of angular stones not waterworn4 ,loose at the surface1 it soon became a more or less mature breccia1 for the most part so hard that it was blasted with gunpowder40 ,in this breccia1 and at various depths1 some of more than thirty feet1 the author has taken out teeth of the bear 7,ursus spelus7 and of the hyna 7,hyna spela7 while with and below those teeth he found flints worked by man4 ,the subsequent exploration by ,m4 ,rivire#bdh has resulted in no important addition to the fauna3 the famous human skeleton having been1 as ,i have already remarked in the seventh chapter1 interred in the pleistocene strata1 and probably not palolithic4 ,it may possibly be of the era of the upper floors described by ,mr4 ,moggridge1 in which all the remains belong to living species4#bdi ,this cave-fauna is more closely related to that of southern ,europe than to that north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,the striped hyna found in the cave of ,lunel-viel1 ,hrault1 by ,marcel de ,serres1 along with the reindeer and other animals1 probably belongs to the same southern group4 ,bone-caves of ,sicily4 ,certain members of the ,african fauna are also proved to have ranged northwards over ,europe in the direction of ,sicily1 by the discoveries in the caves of that island4 ,the ,sicilian bone-caves have been worked for the sake of the bones since the year #ahbi2 and of these many shiploads were sent to ,marseilles from ,san ,ciro1 belonging1 according to ,m4 de ,christol1 principally to the hippopotamus4 ,in #ahei1bej ,dr4 ,falconer examined the collections made from this cave1 as well as those which remained in situ1 and carried on further researches into a second in the neighbourhood1 known as the ,grotto di ,maccagnone1 and in the following year two others were discovered and explored in northern ,sicily by ,baron ,anca4 ,the species were as follows3-- ,homo1 man4 ,felis leo1 lion4 ,hyna crocuta1 spotted hyna4 ,ursus ferox1#bea grizzly bear4 ,canis4 ,cervus1 deer4 ,bos1 ox4 ,equus1 horse4 ,sus scrofa1 boar4 ,elephas antiquus4 ,elephas ,africanus1 ,african elephant4 ,hippopotamus major1 hippopotamus4 ,hippopotamus ,pentlandi4 ,lepus4 ,the presence of man was indicated by charcoal and flint flakes4 ,the ,african elephant was obtained from three caves3 from that of ,san ,teodoro1 by ,baron ,anca2 from ,grotta ,santa1 near ,syracuse1 by the ,canon ,alessi2 and from a cave near ,palermo1 by ,m4 ,charles ,gaudin4 ,it is obvious that the presence of this animal1 as well as of the spotted hyna1 in ,sicily can only be accounted for on the hypothesis that a bridge of land formerly existed1 by which they could pass from their head-quarters1 that is to say ,africa4 ,on the other hand the presence of the grizzly bear1 and of the ,elephas antiquus implies that they passed over into ,sicily1 from their ,european headquarters1 before the existence of the ,straits of ,messina1 since both animals are abundant on the mainland of ,europe4 ,the larger species of hippopotamus1 doubtfully referred by ,dr4 ,falconer to the ,h4 major 7 ,h4 amphibius71 may have crossed over either from ,italy1 where its remains are very abundant in the pleiocene and pleistocene strata1 or from ,africa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,molar of ,hippopotamus ,pentlandi 7#a_/a74 7,sicily47 ,a small species of hippopotamus1 ,h4 ,pentlandi1 ,fig4 #abg1 occurs in incredible abundance in the ,sicilian caves4 ,it bears the same relation1 in point of size1 to the fossil variety of the ,african hippopotamus1 as the living ,h4 liberiensis does to the latter4 ,bone-caves of ,malta4 ,the bone-caves of ,malta were first scientifically explored by ,admiral ,spratt1 in #aheh1 and subsequently by ,dr4 ,leith ,adams1 and others4 ,the ,maghlak ,cave near the town of ,crendi1 contained large quantities of the ,hippopotamus ,pentlandi1 together with the gigantic dormouse1 named ,myoxus ,melitensis4 ,a short distance off a second cavern1 explored by ,dr4 ,leith ,adams1 contained numerous remains of at least two species of pigmy elephant about the height of a small horse4 ,its small size may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut 7,fig4 #abh7 of the last lower true molar1 taken from the lithograph published in ,dr4 ,falconer's 8,palontographical ,memoirs10 vol4 ii4 pl4 xii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,molar of ,elephas ,melitensis1 ,malta 7#b_/c74 7,falconer47 ,range of ,pigmy ,hippopotamus4 ,the pigmy hippopotamus has lived also in other districts in the ,mediterranean region4 ,one of its teeth1 now preserved in the ,british ,museum1 was discovered by ,dr4 ,leith ,adams1 in ,candia4 ,in #ahgb ,i identified in the ,oxford ,museum a last lower true molar1 which extends the range of this species to the mainland of ,europe4 ,it was obtained by ,dr4 ,rolleston from a ,greek tomb at ,megalopolis1 in the ,peloponese1 and was probably derived from one of the many caves in the limestone of that district4 ,for this extinct animal to have spread from ,sicily to ,malta1 from ,malta to ,candia1 and from ,candia to the ,peloponese1 or vice vers1 these three islands must have been united to the ,peloponese and have been the higher grounds of land1 now submerged beneath the waves of the ,mediterranean4 ,the view therefore1 advanced by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,admiral ,spratt1 that ,europe was connected with ,africa by a bridge of land1 extending northwards from ,sicily1 is fully borne out by an examination of the fossil remains both of that island and of ,malta 7see ,fig4 #abi74beb ,fossil ,mammalia in ,algeria4 ,if the ,african mainland extended to ,europe in the direction of the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 and of ,malta and ,sicily1 so as to afford passage for the ,african mammalia into ,europe1 it would equally afford passage for the southern advance into ,africa of some of the ,european mammalia4 ,evidence of this we meet with in a stratum of clay at ,mansourah1 near ,constantine1 in ,algeria1 described by ,m4 ,bayle in #ahed4bec ,the animals which he obtained1 consisting of the ox1 antelope1 hippopotamus1 and elephant1 have been described by ,prof4 ,gervais4 ,an examination of his figure of a fragment of a molar tooth leaves no room for doubt1 that the ,elephas meridionalis was living in north ,africa during the pleistocene age2 that is to say an extinct animal1 the head-quarters of which are to be found in ,italy1 ranged as far south as northern ,africa4 ,living ,species common to ,europe and ,africa4 ,the former continuity of ,africa by way of the ,iberian peninsula and ,sicily1 may also be inferred by the distribution of the mammalia at the present time4 ,prof4 ,gervais#bed observes that most of the insectivora are the same in ,europe and north ,africa4 ,the genette and ferret 7,ftorius furo71 the ,mangousta ,widdringtoni 7,gray71 and the fallow deer1 are common to ,spain and ,africa4 ,the porcupine of ,algeria belongs to the same species as that of ,italy and ,sicily1 and the wild boar does not present any characters of importance by which it can be separated from that of ,europe4 ,from the present range1 therefore1 of the mammalia the same conclusion may be drawn as to the continuity of ,africa with ,europe as is afforded by their distribution in the pleistocene age4 ,evidence of ,soundings4 ,these conclusions derived from the study of the mammalia1 are corroborated and supplemented by the evidence of the soundings4 ,as we enter the ,straits of ,gibraltar 7,fig4 #abi7 the ,atlantic ,ocean shallows1 until between ,tangiers and ,tarifa it is not more than from #bgj to #cjj fathoms4 ,between ,tarifa and ,ceuta the sea measures from #cjj to #djj fathoms1 and thence1 in passing eastwards1 suddenly deepens to the extent of over #a1ejj fathoms4 ,an elevation of #djj fathoms would be quite sufficient to raise a barrier of land between ,morocco and ,spain1 and to insulate the deep ,mediterranean basin from the ,atlantic4 ,the soundings between ,sicily and ,tunis are #bfj fathoms2 between the former place and ,malta1 #ee fathoms2 between ,malta and the ,african mainland1 #cdd fathoms4 ,an elevation of #djj fathoms would suffice therefore to connect ,africa with ,sicily1 and to insulate the eastern from the western ,mediterranean depths4 ,to the east of ,sicily the soundings reveal a depth of over #b1jjj fathoms1 and this deep basin extends as far to the east as ,cyprus and ,asia ,minor4 ,between ,candia and the ,peloponese1 the sea is #dfj fathoms deep4 ,an elevation therefore from #djj to #ejj fathoms would allow of the passage of ,hippopotamus ,pentlandi from ,candia to the ,peloponese1 and thence by southern ,italy into ,sicily and ,malta4 ,i have therefore represented in the map what would be the necessary result of the elevation of the bottom of the ,mediterranean to that extent4 ,two great barriers of land would unite ,africa with ,spain and ,italy1 and enable the ,african mammalia to find their way into the regions north of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the shallowness of the sea at those two points indicates the existence of the sunken barriers4 ,the ,african elephant however did not pass far northwards1 since it has only been met with in ,spain and ,sicily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,physiography of ,mediterranean in ,pleistocene ,age4 ,such a change in level as this would convert the ,adriatic into dry land1 and cause the islands of the ,grecian ,archipelago to rise high above the surrounding plains4 ,the #ejj-;fathom line is therefore taken to represent the probable sea margin of the pleistocene age1 although in centres of volcanic activity1 such as ,sicily and the ,archipelago1 local changes of level1 even of greater magnitude1 may have taken place4 ,this view of the former elevation of the ,mediterranean area to a height of from two to three thousand feet above the present level will go far to explain the remarkable traces of glaciers discovered in ,syria1 ,anatolia1 and ,morocco4 ,the ,glaciers of ,lebanon4 ,dr4 ,hooker1 in his journey to ,syria in #ahfj1 discovered that the cedars of ,lebanon grew principally on one spot1 on old moraines which traverse the head of the ,kedisha valley4 ,this valley terminates in broad1 shallow1 open basins at a height of about #f1jjj feet above the sea1 resembling the corries of the ,highlands2 and one of these1 in which the cedars grew1 was divided into two distinct flats by a transverse range of ancient moraines from #hj to #ajj feet high and with perfectly defined boundaries4 8,the rills from the surrounding heights collect in the upper flat1 and form one stream1 which winds among the moraines on its way down to the lower flat1 whence it is precipitated into the gorge of the ,kedisha4 ,the cedars grow on that portion of the moraine which immediately borders this stream1 and nowhere else2 they form one group about #djj yards in diameter1 with an outstanding tree or two not far from the rest1 and appear as a black speck in the great area of the corry and its moraines1 which contain no other arborious vegetation1 nor any shrubs1 but a few berberry and rose bushes that form no feature in the landscape40#bee ,in ancient times1 therefore1 the glaciers descended to a height of about #f1jjj feet above the sea1 and were fed by the perennial snow-fields of the crest of ,lebanon4 ,the ,glaciers of ,anatolia4 ,the former presence of glaciers at nearly the same altitude has also been proved by the travels of ,mr4 ,gifford ,palgrave in ,anatolia1#bef especially in the valley through which the ,chorok flows1 and in the mountainous country to the north-east1 between ,georgia and the ,black ,sea4 ,the river ,chorok runs about #abj miles in a north-easterly direction1 and is separated from the ,euxine by a mountain chain reaching a height of #aa1jjj feet1 thus forming a long strip of land1 which is called ,lazistan after its inhabitants1 a tribe of ,lazes4 ,it then turns suddenly to the north1 where it falls into the sea4 ,the southern side is determined by mountains of ,cretaceous1 ,jurassic1 and ,plutonic rocks1 which form the watershed between the tributaries of the ,black ,sea and ,persian ,gulf4 ,three large moraines are to be found on the southern side of the valley1 their lower extremity about #e1jjj1 their upper origin nearly #h1jjj feet above the sea4 ,no moraines are seen where the chain does not reach an altitude of #g1jjj feet1 though angular boulders are not uncommon4 ,the upper mountain contours are invariably rounded1 and smoothed off1 and the sides are scooped too widely for the depressions to have been caused by water4 ,low down in the valley the slopes terminate in rifted precipices4 ,that these moraines were posterior to the volcanic eruptions in the district1 is evident from the examination of a broad stone ridge1 near the highest point to the east of ,erzeroum1 where at a height of #g1jjj feet the ,jurassic limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of several miles in extent4 ,traces of a crater were visible4 ,above1 the granite peaks rose to a height of #i1jjj feet2 below1 a wide moraine crossed the road1 composed of volcanic fragments mixed with granite4 ,consequently1 it must have been formed after the volcano had become extinct4 ,similar traces are to be found at ,keskeem ,boughaz4 ,mr4 ,palgrave concludes 8that the ice-cap of the north-eastern ,anatolian watershed1 in post-pleiocene 7pleistocene7 times1 must have reached downwards1 on the northern side of the range1 to #g1jjj feet above the present sea-level1 while some of the glaciers issuing from it descended to about #d1ejj of the same measurement40 ,striated and ice-worn boulders1 especially of granite1 were very abundant4 ,this region1 it must be observed1 is within sight of the lofty granite range of ,tortoom1 which is 8streaked with perpetual snow40 ,after leaving the ,chorok valley and getting on to the watershed1 at a distance of fifty miles to the north-east1 ,mr4 ,palgrave reached the main ridge or backbone of the land4 ,here1 among the limestone ledges1 about #f1djj feet above the sea1 is a colossal moraine1 formed of worn granite blocks1 partly overgrown with forest1 and descending from a height of over #h1jjj feet4 ,it is divided1 by a valley1 from a lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped out here and there into deep oval lakes1 always full of blue water4 ,the sides of the plateau are strewn with boulders of granite1 brought from the higher peaks about five miles off4 ,these boulders occur in greater or less abundance down to the basin of the ,ardahan1 near the sources of the ,kur or ,cyras1 which joins the ,araxes before flowing into the ,caspian4 ,the height of this ,ardahan basin is about #f1ejj feet2 it is1 but for a slight easterly slope1 a water level4 ,the bottom consists of deep alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders2 the sides are rounded and smoothed1 and bear every mark of long ice-covering4 ,these plateaux1 studded with lakes1 stretch east to ,russo-,georgia1 till their greatest height is gained at ,kel ,dagh1 a mountain about #aa1jjj feet high3 thence they descend to the plains of ,georgia and the ,black ,sea4 ,no glacial marks have been observed on the seaward side of the range1 except at ,hamshun in the ,lazistan mountains1 between the ,river ,riom and ,trebizond4 ,here1 at #f1ijj feet1 is a granite-strewn plateau1 thinly green with grass1 sheltered from the sea by lofty peaks on the north-west1 and backed to the south-east by tremendous jagged granite cliffs1 the highest #ab1ejj feet above the sea4 ,the plateau itself is about forty miles in length1 irregular in breadth1 its surface rounded and jotted over with boulders4 ,but just as my track led near under the base of ,verehembek1 at an altitude of #h1cjj feet1 it crossed a large broad moraine1 descending from the higher slopes1 and having its base in a broad bare valley not far below1 which showed that here1 at the highest and widest part of the ,lazistan chain1 perpetual ice had once existed in sufficient quantity to furnish at least one glacier4 ,from this case it seems that the limited ice-cap of the ,hamshun highlands extended no further down than #h1ejj or #i1jjj feet1 thus differing by a line of from #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet from the glacial covering of the inland range4 ,the ,glaciers of the ,atlas ,mountains4 ,similar traces of glaciers have been observed in the ,atlas mountains by ,mr4 ,george ,maw1#beg in his travels in ,morocco with ,dr4 ,hooker and ,mr4 ,ball in #ahga4 8,after four hours' continued ascent10 he writes 7p4 #ai71 8the termination of the glen comes into full view1 and we observe with great interest that it is closed by a group of moraines1 proving the former existence of glaciers in the ,atlas1 and confirming my opinion that the great boulder beds flanking the chain are also of glacial origin4 ,two villages1 probably the highest in the ,atlas1 are built on the principal moraine2 ,eitmasan1 at its base1 at a height of #f1jjj feet1 and ,arroond1 near its summit1 at a height of #f1hjj feet2 the terminal angle of the larger moraine having a vertical height of #hjj feet4 ,it is composed of immense blocks of porphyry1 lying at a steep angle of repose1 up which it takes us nearly an hour to climb4 ,the existence of these moraines in latitude #cj ,n4 7the latitude of ,alexandria7 is perhaps the most interesting fact we noticed during our journey1 for this is the most southerly point at which the evidence of extinct glaciers has been observed1 and tends to confirm the opinion entertained by many geologists1 that the refrigeration during the glacial period was almost ,universal40 ,glaciers probably the result of elevation above the ,sea4 ,the elevation of the ,african moraines above the sea1 of about #f1jjj feet and upwards1 is nearly the same as those of ,asia ,minor4 ,if the mountains of the ,atlas1 ,lazistan1 and ,lebanon shared in the upward movement of the ,mediterranean area1 the addition of #c1jjj feet to the height could not fail to leave marks behind of the low temperature thereby caused4 ,it is very probable1 that during the time the ,mediterranean was reduced to two land-locked seas1 these mountains were covered with snow-fields1 and constituted the ice-sheds of glaciers4 ,from the range of the mammalia we have inferred the existence of land barriers1 extending across from ,africa to ,spain and ,italy1 and from ,candia to ,greece1 and their actual existence beneath the sea has been proved by soundings1 which necessitate an elevation of from #djj to #ejj fathoms to bring them above the sea-level4 ,we have also seen that the higher mountains1 which most probably participated in this upward movement1 bear traces of a lower temperature in the moraines of the ,atlas and ,lazistan4 ,the hypothesis of such an elevation during the pleistocene age may therefore be taken to be proved so far as it explains two widely different classes of facts1 the distribution of the mammals and the existence of glaciers where they are now unknown4 ,the physical condition of the ,mediterranean area1 in the pleistocene age1 may be summed up as follows4 ,the mainland of ,africa extended northwards to join ,europe1 in the direction of ,gibraltar and ,italy4 ,the islands of ,malta and ,sicily were hilly plateaux1 overlooking an undulatory plain4 ,corsica and ,sardinia were joined to ,italy1 ,majorca and ,minorca to ,spain1 ,candia to ,peloponese1 and ,cyprus to ,asia ,minor4 ,the area now occupied by the ,adriatic ,sea constituted the lower valley of the ,po1 and the ,archipelago was a plain studded with volcanic cones2 and at the same time glaciers crowned the higher mountains of northern ,africa and of ,asia ,minor4 ,the substitution of land for a stretch of sea1 in the ,mediterranean1 could not fail to cause the summer heat to be more intense in the region to the north than at the present time1 while the increased elevation would produce a greater severity of winter cold1 as ,mr4 ,godwin ,austen has pointed out in the case of the hills of ,devonshire4 ,when1 indeed1 we consider that the pleistocene land surface extended from the snowy heights of ,atlas1 as far north as the #ajj-;fathom line off the coast of ,ireland1 we might expect to find ,african animals1 such as the spotted hyna and ,felis caffer1 ranging as far north as ,yorkshire1 for the only barrier to their migration would be that offered by the severity of a pleistocene winter4 ,mediterranean ,coast-line comparatively modern4 ,the submergence of the barriers1 and the constitution of the ,mediterranean as we find it now1 have probably taken place but a short time ago1 from the geological point of view1 though we know that for the last #c1jjj years the coast-line has been on the whole unchanged1 except from the silting out of the sea by the sediment of rivers1 such as the ,po1 and the elevation and depression of small areas by volcanic energy1 as at ,santorin4 ,the physical character of the shores testifies to the truth of this view4 8,on entering the ,straits of ,gibraltar10 ,mr4 ,maw writes1 8from the ,atlantic1 a notable change takes place in the aspect of the coast4 ,cape ,st4 ,vincent1 on the ,atlantic coast1 presents a bold line of cliffs to the sea1 and bluff cliffs extend many miles towards the ,straits2 but as soon as these are passed1 a change of coast-form takes place1 which must be noticeable to every observer4 ,cliffs on the sea-board become the exception1 and the general line of the coast is merely a shelving under the sea of the general hill-and-valley system of the land1 the sea running up all the depressions1 and the land elevations spreading out into the sea with scarcely any abrupt cliff-line of demarcation4 ,the uneven sea-bottom of the ,straits seems to be a continuation of the contour of the adjacent land1 consisting of rolling alternations of hill and valley1 which must have received its conformation by subaerial agencies40 8,corsica1 and the adjacent islands of ,elba1 ,capraja1 and ,monte ,christo1 are also remarkable for the absence of cliffs1 and are wanting in those abrupt escarpements separating land and water which are so abundant on our own coasts4 ,their aspect is that of mountain-tops rising out of the sea1 suggesting to the eye the seaward prolongation of their subaerial contour of sloping hillsides and river-cut valleys1 as though the sea had not stood sufficiently long at its present level to excavate an escarpement4 ,the deep intersecting bays that occur along the coast from ,marseilles to the ,riviera suggest the same conclusion1 the undulating land surface spreading down to the water's edge1 and the deep bays running up the intervening valleys1 which must have had an origin common with that of their landward prolongations40 ,it is impossible to shut our eyes to the full force of this reasoning4 ,the present aspect of the ,mediterranean is1 geologically speaking1 a thing of yesterday4 ,changes of ,level in the ,sahara coincident with those in the ,mediterranean4 ,but if the ,mediterranean area has been depressed to an amount of from #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet since the pleistocene age1 we have proof that the region to the south has been elevated to that extent in comparatively modern times4 ,mr4 ,maw1#beh in his journey in #ahgc to the ,northern ,sahara1 observed raised beaches at a height of #b1jjj feet1 and loam and shingle-beds as high as #b1gjj feet4 ,he therefore concludes that the part of the ,sahara which he explored had been raised at least #c1jjj feet above the sea4 ,these changes of level1 the same in amount1 but in opposite directions1 were probably compensatory and simultaneous4 ,northern ,africa may have been cut off from the central and southern portions of the continent by the sea extending over the ,sahara1 during the time that the ,mediterranean was represented by the two inland salt lakes figured in the accompanying map 7,fig4 #abi74 ,and while the region of the ,sahara was being elevated1 that of the ,mediterranean was probably being depressed4 ,these changes in the relation of sea to land1 and the greater elevation of the mountains in the neighbouring countries1 must have affected not merely the climate of southern1 but also of north-western ,europe1 and ought not to be left out of account in any theory relating to pleistocene climate4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,european ,,climate ,,in ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,age4 ,the evidence of the ,mammalia as to ,climate4--,the ,southern ,group4-- ,the ,northern ,group4--,probable cause of ,association of ,northern and ,southern ,groups4--,the ,temperate ,group4--,species common to ,cold and ,tropical ,climates4--,extinct ,species4--,two ,periods of ,glaciation in ,britain4--,three ,climatal ,changes represented on the ,continent4--,europe invaded by ,pleistocene ,mammals before the ,glacial ,period4--,mammals lived in ,britain during the ,second ,ice or ,glacial ,stage4--,the ,glacial ,period does not separate one ,life-era from another4--,relation of ,palolithic ,man to ,glacial ,period4--,age of ,contents of ,caves in ,glaciated ,districts4 ,the ,evidence of the ,mammalia as to ,climate4 ,in the last three chapters we have seen that the cave-mammalia throw great light on the pleistocene geography of ,europe1 and that there is reason for the belief that the land surface then extended northwards and westwards1 so as to include ,ireland2 and southwards to join ,africa1 in the direction of ,sicily1 ,malta1 and ,gibraltar4 ,we must now pass on to the consideration of the climate on this great continental area1 which would allow of so large and varied a fauna existing in our quarter of the world4 ,the ,southern ,group of ,animals4 ,the pleistocene fauna is remarkable for the mixture of species4 ,it consists of forms now banished to ,south ,africa1 ,northern ,asia1 and ,america1 or to the severe climate of high mountains1 mingled with those which lived in ,europe in the historic age1 and those which have wholly disappeared from the face of the earth4 ,we will take the living species first4 ,the southern group consists of the following animals3-- ,lion4 ,caffir ,cat4 ,spotted ,hyna4 ,striped ,hyna4 ,serval4 ,hippopotamus4 ,african ,elephant4 ,porcupine4 ,at the present day the lion ranges over the whole of ,africa1 with the exception of ,egypt and the ,cape ,colony1 whence it has been driven out by the hand of man4 ,in ,asia1 the maneless variety inhabits the valley of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 and the districts bordering on the ,persian ,gulf2 and in ,india1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 the province of ,kattywar in ,guzerat4 ,although now only found in these hot regions1 it is proved1 by the concurrent testimony of ,herodotus1 ,aristotle1 ,xenophon1 lian1 and ,pausanias1 to have inhabited the mountains of ,thrace1 and of ,asia ,minor1 and it probably became extinct in ,europe before the end of the first century after ,christ4#bei ,we may therefore infer that it possessed a sufficient elasticity of constitution to endure a considerable degree of cold1 although its present distribution implies that it is better fitted to thrive in a tropical than in a cold climate4 ,the ,caffir cat 7,felis caffer of ,desmarest7 is an ,african species1 which has been discovered by ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford and myself1 in ,somersetshire2 it also occurs in the caves of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,gibraltar4 ,the spotted hyna now lives only in ,south ,africa1 while the striped species ranges through ,africa and the warmer regions of ,asia4 ,it was extremely rare in ,europe in the pleistocene age1 and has not been identified in any deposit further north than ,lunelviel1 in southern ,france4 ,the hippopotamus1 now found only in middle and southern ,africa1 is proved by its fossil remains to have formerly dwelt in the region of the ,lower ,nile1 as well as in ,algeria4 ,the serval and ,african elephant have been found in the ,iberian peninsula1 and the latter in ,sicily4 ,the evidence afforded by the animals1 as to the pleistocene climate of those portions of ,europe which they inhabited1 differs considerably in point of value1 but on the whole indicates that it was temperate1 or comparatively hot2 for although the elasticity of constitution which we know to have been possessed by the lion1 was probably shared by the spotted hyna1 it is very unlikely that so aquatic an animal as the hippopotamus could have ranged from southern ,europe1 as far north as ,yorkshire1 under any other than temperate conditions4 ,it could not have endured a winter sufficiently severe to cover the rivers with a thick coating of ice1 without having its present habits profoundly modified2 and such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its mark1 in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than those minute differences which have been observed1 when it is compared with that of the living ,hippopotamus amphibius4 ,the porcupine of southern ,europe has been found as far north as the caves of ,belgium 7,schmerling74 ,the ,northern ,group4 ,the northern group consists of those animals which are now only to be met with in the colder regions of the northern hemisphere1 either in low latitudes or at great altitudes4 ,marmot4 ,pouched ,marmot4 ,lemming4 ,alpine ,hare4 ,tailless ,hare4 ,glutton4 ,arctic ,fox4 ,musk-sheep4 ,reindeer4 ,ibex4 ,chamois4 ,to this list the palolithic man of the caves must be added1 since he is probably related by blood to the ,eskimos1 and appeared in ,europe simultaneously with the arctic group of animals4 ,the testimony of these animals as to climate is directly opposed to that of the preceding group1 since they now only flourish in the arctic regions1 or in mountainous districts in which the climate is severe4 ,the marmot1 in the pleistocene age1 lived in ,belgium1 and descended from the ,alpine heights as far as the shores of the ,mediterranean1 where it has been met with in the caverns near ,nice4 ,the pouched marmot1 ,spermophilus citillus of the ,don and ,volga1 penetrated as far to the west as ,somersetshire4 ,the ,alpine hare1 now found only in the colder climates of northern ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america 7with the solitary exception of ,ireland71 ranged as far down the valley of the ,rhine as ,schussenreid1 in ,suabia4 ,the two carnivores now dwelling in the colder regions of the north1 the glutton or wolverine1 and the arctic fox1 have been discovered1 the one as far south as ,france1 the other as far as ,schussenreid1 and both probably occupied the whole of ,germany1 and of northern ,russia1 in the pleistocene age4 ,the musk-sheep1#bfj the most arctic in its habit of all the herbivores1 is1 at the present time1 restricted to the high latitudes of ,north ,america1 where it thrives in the desolate1 treeless1 barren grounds1 not even being driven from its haunts by the extreme severity of the winter4 ,it has been traced1 by its fossil remains1 from its present abode1 across ,behring's ,straits1 and through the vast ,siberian steppes1 into ,russia in ,europe1 ,germany1 ,britain1 and as far south and west as the barrier offered by the ,pyrenees4 ,throughout this large area its remains occur in association with the reindeer1 and both these animals1 as ,i have remarked above1 were hunted by the palolithic dwellers in the caves of ,aquitaine1 just as they are now hunted by the ,eskimos on the shores of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,if the present habits of these animals be any index to their mode of life in the pleistocene age1 their presence in the area north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees implies that the climate in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,britain was severe1 or analogous to that which they now enjoy on the tops of lofty mountains1 or in the northern ,asiatic steppes1 or the high northern latitudes of ,america4 ,but this conclusion is diametrically opposed to that which is based on the evidence of the southern group of animals4#bfa ,and the remains of the two groups of animals are so associated together in the caves1 and river-deposits of ,europe1 north of the ,pyrenees1 that it is impossible to deny the fact that it was the common feeding-ground of both during the same era4#bfb ,probable ,cause of ,association of ,northern and ,southern ,groups4 ,must we then infer that in the pleistocene age the present habits of the musk-sheep1 the reindeer1 chamois1 or ibex1 were so changed as to allow them to flourish side by side with the hippopotamus1 or vice vers8 ,was the climate colder than it is now in ,europe1 or was it hotter8 ,how was this singular association of northern and southern species brought about8 ,the problem may be solved if we refer to the present distribution of animals in northern ,asia and ,north ,america4 ,as the winter comes on the arctic species gradually retreat southwards1 and occupy the summer feeding-grounds of the elk1 red-deer1 and other creatures which are unable to endure the extreme severity of an arctic winter4 ,in the spring the latter pass northwards1 to enjoy the summer herbage of that area1 which had been the winter-quarters of the arctic group of animals4 ,thus there is a continued swinging to and fro1 over the same region1 of the arctic and the temperate animals1 and their remains must necessarily become more or less associated in the river-deposits1 as well as in caves1 where these last happen to occur4 ,in northern ,asia1 and in ,america1 the only boundary between the northern and temperate zoological provinces is that constituted by the fluctuating annual temperature1 and there are no great hilly barriers running east and west1 to prevent free migration to the north or south4 ,if reference be made to the map1 ,fig4 #abf1 it will be seen that these conditions were amply satisfied in the pleistocene age4 ,there were no physical barriers to migration1 from the shores of the ,mediterranean1 as far north as ,ireland4 ,if the winter cold were severe1 the reindeer and musk-sheep might advance as far south as the ,pyrenees1 and if the summer heat were intense there would be nothing to forbid the hippopotamus and the ,african carnivores advancing northwards4 ,it seems to me that this is the only hypothesis which will satisfy all the facts of the case4 ,the traces of glaciers and snow-fields where they are no longer found prove that the winter was severe2 while the warmth of the summer seems to be sufficiently demonstrated by the presence of ,african species4 ,such extremes of temperature are presented1 more or less1 by all continents extending from high to low latitudes4 ,they are modified in ,europe at the present time by the warm current of the ,gulf ,stream1 by the large area now occupied by the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and by the submergence of the pleistocene lowlands on the ,atlantic border4 ,the ,temperate ,group4 ,the third group of pleistocene mammalia consists of those still living in the temperate zones of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america3 ,beaver4 ,hare4 ,rabbit4 ,wild ,cat4 ,martin4 ,stoat4 ,weasel4 ,otter4 ,brown ,bear4 ,grizzly ,bear4 ,wolf4 ,fox4 ,horse4 ,urus4 ,bison4 ,antelope saiga4 ,wild ,boar4 ,stag4 ,roe4 ,the range of many of these animals has been profoundly modified since the pleistocene age4 ,the ,antelope saiga of the ,don and ,volga lived as far to the west as ,aquitaine4 ,the grizzly bear1 instead of being restricted to its ,american habitat in the ,rocky ,mountains1 ranged over the whole of ,siberia into ,europe1 as far to the south as the ,mediterranean1 and westwards as far as ,gibraltar4 ,the urus#bfc still lives in the larger domestic cattle1 and the bison is represented in ,europe by those which are protected by the forest laws of ,lithuania1 and in ,north ,america by the vast herds which are rapidly being exterminated1 like the red ,indian1 by the rifles of the settlers4 ,the horse was as abundant1 and as widely spread over ,europe1 as the urus and the bison2 according to ,prof4 ,brandt it now no longer lives in ,siberia in a wild state4 ,species common to ,cold and ,tropical ,climates4 ,the panther or leopard1 which has been found alike in ,britain1 ,france1 and ,germany1 has at the present day a most extended range through ,africa1 from ,barbary to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and throughout ,persia into ,siberia4 ,in this latter country ,dr4 ,gothelf ,fischer describes it as living in the same districts in the ,altai ,mountains1 and in ,soongaria1 as the tiger4 ,the fox and wolf are like instances of carnivores being able to endure great variations in temperature without being specifically modified4 ,these three animals1 therefore1 tell us nothing as to the pleistocene climate4 ,extinct ,species4 ,the extinct pleistocene species may also be divided into the same classes as the living1 by an appeal to their geographical distribution4 ,two out of the three species of rhinoceros found in the caves 7,r4 megarhinus and ,r4 hemitchus71 and an elephant with slightly curved tusks 7,e4 antiquus71 had their head-quarters south of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 whence they wandered northward as far as the latitude of ,yorkshire4 ,the pigmy elephant and the dwarf hippopotamus are peculiar to the south1 and the ,machairodus latidens1 or large sabre-toothed felis1 is a survival1 from the pleiocene age1 of a peculiarly southern type4 ,the woolly rhinoceros1 on the other hand1 may be viewed as a northern form1 since it is met with in vast abundance in the arctic regions of ,siberia1 as well as in ,europe1 and has not been found south of the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,the cave-bear has not been discovered either in the extreme north or in the south of ,europe1 and may therefore be considered of temperate range2 and the ,irish elk1 identified by ,prof4 ,brandt1 from the caves of the ,altai ,mountains1 had a similar range in middle ,europe4 ,the mammoth1 endowed with an elastic constitution1 was able to endure the severity of an arctic climate in ,siberia and ,north ,america1 and the temperature of the latitude of ,rome and the ,gulf of ,mexico1#bfd and consequently tells us as little of the pleistocene climate as the panther1 fox1 or wolf4 ,the evidence1 therefore1 as to climate1 offered by the extinct animals in the caves is of the same nature as that of the living4 ,there is the same mixture of northern and southern forms1 which can only be accounted for satisfactorily by seasonal migrations1 according to the summer heat and winter cold1 such as those which are now observed to take place in ,siberia and ,north ,america4 ,before we consider the relation of the pleistocene animals buried in the caves and river deposits to the glacial period1 it is necessary to define what is meant by the term glacial4 ,two ,periods of ,glaciation in ,britain4 ,at the close of the pleistocene period the climate gradually became colder1 until ultimately it was arctic in severity in northern ,europe4 ,the researches of many eminent observers prove that an enormous sheet of ice1 like that under which ,greenland now lies buried1 extended over ,north ,britain1 ,wales1 and ,ireland1 leaving its mark in the far-travelled blocks of stone1 the moraines1 and the grooves which pass over the surface irrespective of the minor contours4 ,the land then1 most probably1 as ,prof4 ,ramsay and ,sir ,charles ,lyell believe1 stood higher than it does now4 ,to this succeeded a period of depression1 during which the mountains of ,wales were submerged to a height of at least #a1cjj feet2 and the waves of the sea washed out of the pre-existing glacial detritus the shingle and sand1 termed the 8middle drift10 which occurs also in ,scotland and ,ireland4#bfe ,then the land was re-elevated above the waves1 and a second period of glaciers set in1 traces of which occur abundantly in ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 in the white areas in ,fig4 #abf4 ,they were1 however1 of far less extent than those which preceded them1 occupying isolated areas instead of forming one continuous icy covering to the country4 ,the glacial phenomena may be briefly summed up as follows3 #a4 ,as the pleiocene temperature was lowered1 the glaciers crept down from the tops of the mountains1 until at last they united to form one continuous ice sheet1 moving resistlessly over the smaller hills and valleys to the lower grounds1 and the first ice or glacial period set in4 #b4 ,then followed the era of depression beneath the sea4 #c4 ,and1 lastly1 on the land re-emerging from the sea the second ice or glacial period began4 ,the climate during the marine depression must obviously have been milder than that of either of the glacial periods1 because of the moderating effect of the wide extent of sea4 ,the exact relation of the boulder clays with marine shells1 in the centre and south of ,britain1 to the detritus left behind by the ice-sheet in the north1 has not as yet been satisfactorily ascertained4 ,it is very probable that the elevation of land in the north was simultaneous with a southern depression1 which allowed of icebergs depositing their burdens in the eastern counties1 in the valley of the ,thames1 and as far south as ,selsea1 on the coast of ,sussex4 ,three ,climatal ,changes represented on the ,continent4 ,these changes of climate have also been observed on the continent of ,europe4 ,the ,swiss geologists have shown that the ,alpine glaciers extended farther than they do at the present time1 and that they present two stages of extension1 the first of which is of greater magnitude than the second4 ,the ,alpine blocks and moraines have been traced far down into the plains of ,lombardy1 northwards into the valley of the ,rhine1 and in ,france as far south in the valley of the ,rhone as ,valence4 ,the admirable essay and map brought by ,,mm4 ,falsan and ,chantre1 before the meeting of the ,french ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at ,lyons1 in #ahgc1 show that there were two periods of glaciation in the valley of the ,rhone1 the one being due to the movement of an ice-sheet irrespective of the lower hills1 the other being merely the work of the glaciers localized in the valleys4 ,these in all probability correspond in point of time with the like stages of the complicated glacial phenomena in ,britain4 ,at this time the glaciers of the ,pyrenees1 now so small1 extended at least from thirty to forty miles from their present position down into the plains1 leaving behind most astounding evidences of their presence in the valley of the ,garonne and elsewhere4 ,on the ,spanish frontier1 for example1 one of the precipitous sides of the valley1 near the ,pont du ,roy1 is so smoothed and polished that it is bare of vegetation except in the deep grooves1 which offer a precarious support to the roots of ferns and of dwarf beeches4 ,the hills of ,dauphiny also and ,auvergne were crowned with glaciers1 and those of the latter have been shown by ,,mm4 ,falsan and ,chantre to have been conterminous with those of the ,alps4 ,the interglacial period of marine depression in ,britain is represented in ,switzerland by the lignite beds of ,drnten1 ,utznach1 and ,pfaffikon1 the last of which rests upon and is covered by the boulder drift4 ,the fossil remains from ,drnten1 identified by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,prof4 ,rtimeyer1 prove that two southern animals1 ,elephas antiquus and ,rhinoceros megarhinus1 inhabited the district in the interval between the retreat of one set of glaciers and the advance of another4 ,they probably migrated from the plains of ,lombardy1 where they abounded in the pleistocene age4 ,europe invaded by ,pleistocene ,mammals before the ,glacial ,period4 ,what is the precise relation of the pleistocene mammals to these two periods of cold8 ,did they invade northern and central ,europe during the first or the second1 before or after1 the marine submergence indicated by the 8middle drift80 ,we might expect1 priori1 that as the temperature became lowered1 the northern mammalia would gradually invade the region occupied before by the pleiocene forms1 and that the reindeer1 the mammoth1 and woolly rhinoceros would gradually supplant the southern ,rhinoceros ,etruscus and ,elephas meridionalis4 ,traces of such an occupation would necessarily be very rare1 since they would be exposed to the grinding action both of the advancing glacial sheet1 and subsequently to that of the waves on the littoral zone during the depression and re-elevation of the land4 ,at the time also that the greater part of ,great ,britain was buried under an ice-sheet1 it could not have been occupied by animals1 although they may have been1 and most probably were1 living in the districts farther to the south1 which were not covered by ice4 ,the labours1 however1 of ,dr4 ,bryce1 ,prof4 ,archibald ,geikie1 and others prove that one at least of the characteristic pleistocene mammalia--the mammoth--lived in ,scotland along with the reindeer before the deposit of the lower boulder-clay2 while ,mr4 ,jamieson has pointed out that it could not have occupied that area at the same time as the ice1 and therefore must be referred to a still earlier date4#bff ,the teeth and bones discovered in the ancient land surface at ,selsea1 under the boulder drift1 also very probably indicate that the mammoth lived in ,sussex before the glacial submergence1 although they were never admitted by ,dr4 ,falconer to be of the same age as the remains of ,elephas antiquus from the same preglacial horizon4 ,the animal also occurs in the preglacial forest-bed of ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,on a careful examination of the whole evidence1 ,i am compelled to believe1 with ,mr4 ,godwin-,austen and ,prof4 ,phillips1 that the priori belief that the pleistocene mammalia occupied ,great ,britain before the period of the ice-sheet and submergence is fully borne out by the few incontestable proofs that have been brought forward of the remains being found in preglacial deposits4 ,and the scanty evidence on the point is just what might be expected from the rare accidents under which the bones in superficial deposits could have withstood the grinding of the ice-sheet1 and the subsequent erosive action of the waves on the coast-line4 ,it may therefore be concluded1 that the pleistocene mammalia arrived in ,europe before the temperature had reached its minimum in the glacial period4 ,on the other hand1 the occurrence of mammaliferous river strata1 either in hollows of the boulder-clay as at ,hoxne1 or in valleys excavated after its deposition as at ,bedford1 prove that the characteristic animals occupied ,britain after the retreat of the ice-sheet1 and after the re-emergence of the land from beneath the glacial sea4 ,mammalia lived in ,britain during the ,second ,ice or ,glacial ,period4 ,the distribution of the animals in the river deposits gives us a clue to the physical geography during the second ice period4 ,in an essay read before the ,geological ,society in #ahfi1 and in a second printed in the 8,popular ,science ,review0 in #ahgb1 ,i showed that there was a singular irregularity in the contents of the river strata1 and that while the fossil mammalia were abundant throughout the area 7marked with dots in the map1 ,fig4 #abf71 there were certain districts in which they had not been met with4 ,one of these barren areas comprises 7plain in the map1 ,fig4 #abf71 nearly the whole of ,wales4 ,a second includes a large portion of ,lancashire1 ,yorkshire1 ,cumberland1 ,westmoreland1 and the whole of ,scotland 7if the preglacial mammals in the low district between the ,frith of ,forth and ,frith of ,clyde in the map be omitted71 and a third is represented by nearly the whole of ,ireland4 ,these areas are remarkable for the absence of the mammalia from the river deposits4 ,they are also characterised by the freshness of the ice marks which they present4 ,nearly every valley has its own system of grooves and its own set of moraines2 and the mounds of clay and marl left behind by the local glacier1 as it slowly retreated to higher levels till it finally disappeared1 are to be observed in great abundance4 ,if we bring these facts into relation1 the barrenness of the areas may be reasonably explained by the presence of glaciers1 while the pleistocene mammals were living in the south and east 7see map1 ,fig4 #abf74 ,a barrier of some kind may reasonably be inferred to have prevented their range over those districts1 and its nature is indicated by the ice marks4 ,it is very probable that these glaciers had not passed away before the close of the pleistocene age3 for in that case the characteristic animals would be discovered in the river gravels1 which are later than the deposits of local glaciers in those districts4 ,the ,glacial ,period does not separate one ,life-era from another4 ,the lowering of the temperature which culminated in the glacial period has left palpable traces behind in the changes which it caused in the ,european fauna4 ,as the pleiocene climate became colder1 the animals unfitted to endure the cold1 such as the deer of the ,indian types of ,axis and ,rusa1 either migrated to the south or became extinct1 while their feeding-grounds were invaded by the dwellers in the temperate zone1 the stag1 roe1 bison1 and other animals4 ,these in their turn were pushed forward by the arctic group of animals1 the musk-sheep1 lemming1 reindeer1 and others1 the progress being in the main steadily to the south while the cold was increasing1 and the retreat being steadily to the north while it was decreasing4 ,it will follow from this1 that the same district in central or north-western ,europe would be traversed by these migratory bodies of animals1 both in their southern advance in preglacial and glacial times and their northern retreat in postglacial times1 and that1 therefore1 their fossil remains cannot afford a means of fixing the preglacial1 glacial1 or postglacial1 age of the deposit in which they are found1 where it is not marked by traces of glaciation4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell's view1 that the glacial period cannot be taken as a landmark in the classification of the ,european pleistocene deposits1 is fully borne out by the facts1 and still less can it be taken as a hard and fast line between one fauna and another4 ,it cannot be considered a life-era like the eocene1 meiocene1 pleiocene1 or prehistoric divisions of the tertiary period4 ,bone-caves inhabited before and after ,ice ,period4 ,if we allow that the lowering of the temperature was the principal cause of the presence of temperate and arctic animals1 in a region before inhabited by species fitted to live in a comparatively warm climate1 it will follow that bone-caves cannot be said to be either pre- or postglacial1 by an appeal to their fossil mammalia4 ,if they were open before the minimum of temperature was reached1 they would afford shelter to the animals then in the neighbourhood1 and they would continue to be occupied in the south during the vast period of time represented by the enormous physical changes in the region north of the line of the ,thames1 during the development of the ice-sheet1 the submergence and the re-elevation of nearly the whole of ,britain and ,ireland4 ,as1 however1 the cold increased1 the percentage of arctic animals would also increase1 and the more temperate species be weeded out4 ,for these reasons it has seemed to me1 that the machairodus of ,kent's ,hole1 and the ,rhinoceros megarhinus of ,oreston1 represent an early stage of the pleistocene period1 before the arctic mammalia were present in full force in the caves4 ,it is very probable that vast herds of reindeer lived in the south of ,france1 while northern ,britain lay buried under the ice-sheet1 as well as during the two succeeding physical changes4 ,relation of ,palolithic ,man to ,glacial ,period4 ,what then is the relation of the palolithic hunter of reindeer in ,france and ,britain to the glacial period8 ,is he pre- or postglacial8 ,the only evidence on the point is that offered by the associated mammalia which occupied ,france1 ,germany1 and ,britain before and after the point of minimum temperature was reached in these latitudes4 ,man may have inhabited the caves not merely of ,france1 but of ,devonshire and ,somerset1 at any time during that long period4 ,the position of the palolithic refuse-heap discovered by ,prof4 ,fraas at ,schussenreid1 resting on a moraine of the extinct glacier of the ,rhine1 proves that the palolithic ,eskimos lived in ,suabia after the retreat of the glacier when the temperature became warmer1 towards the close of the pleistocene age or in the later glacial stage4 ,the same conclusion has been arrived at by ,mr4 ,prestwich as to the sojourn of palolithic man 7of the river-bed type7 in ,bedfordshire and ,suffolk1 the gravels in which the implements are found being of a later age than the boulder-clay of those districts4 ,we have therefore proof that man lived in ,germany and ,britain after the maximum glacial cold had passed away1 and we may also infer with a high degree of probability that he migrated into ,europe along with the pleistocene mammalia in the preglacial age4 ,test of age of contents of caves in ,glaciated ,districts4 ,the probable date of the introduction of the contents into ossiferous caves in glaciated areas may be ascertained by an examination of the river deposits4 ,if the animals found in the caves inhabited the surrounding country after the melting of the ice1 their remains will occur in the postglacial gravels4 ,if they are not found1 it may be inferred that they had retreated from the district1 before the latter were deposited4 ,it is obvious that they could not have lived in any district while it was covered with ice or by the sea4 ,it may therefore be concluded that their remains in the caves were most probably introduced before the glacial conditions had set in4 ,preglacial deposits in a cavern would be protected from the grinding of the ice-sheet1 the action of the waves in the depression1 and re-elevation of the land1 and the subsequent glacial erosion which would inevitably destroy nearly all the fluviatile ossiferous strata4 ,by this test the pleistocene strata in the ,victoria ,cave1 near ,settle1 may be considered preglacial1 as well as the hyna-den at ,kirkdale1 which has always been referred by ,prof4 ,phillips to that age4 ,if this be allowed1 the small fragment of human bone found by the ,settle ,cave ,exploration ,committee in the former cave in #ahgb establishes the fact that man lived in ,yorkshire before the glacial period4 ,the man to whom it belonged was probably devoured by the hynas which dragged into their den the woolly rhinoceros1 reindeer1 and other creatures whose gnawed bones were strewn on the floors4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,conclusion4 ,classification of ,pleistocene ,strata by means of the ,mammalia4--,the late1 middle1 and early ,pleistocene ,divisions4--,the ,pleiocene ,mammalia4--,summary of characteristic ,pleiocene and ,pleistocene ,species4--,antiquity of ,man in ,europe4--,man lived in ,india in ,pleistocene ,age4--,are the ,palolithic ,aborigines of ,india related to those of ,europe8--,palolithic ,man lived in ,palestine4-- ,conclusion4 ,the animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated in the last three chapters1 and we have discussed the inferences drawn from their distribution as to the pleistocene climate and geography of ,europe4 ,it remains for us now1 in conclusion1 to define the pleistocene1 and to see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period4 ,classification of ,pleistocene ,strata by means of the ,mammalia4 ,the pleistocene period was one of very long duration1 and embraced changes of great magnitude in the geography of ,europe1 as we have seen in the ninth and tenth chapters4 ,the climate1 which in the preceding pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle ,europe1 at the beginning of the pleistocene gradually passed into the extreme arctic severity of the glacial period4 ,this change caused a corresponding change of the forms of animal life2 the pleiocene species1 whose constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates1 yielding place to those which were better adapted to the new conditions4 ,and since there is reason for the belief that it was not continuous in one direction1 but that there were pauses or even reversions towards the old temperate state1 it follows that the two groups of animals would at times overlap1 and their remains be intermingled with each other4 ,the frontiers also of each of the geographical provinces must naturally have varied with the season2 and the competition for the same feeding-grounds between the invading and retreating forms must have been long1 fluctuating1 and severe4 ,the passage1 therefore1 from the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might be expected to have been extremely gradual in each area4 ,the lines of definition between the two are to a great extent arbitrary1 instead of being marked with sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the tertiary and post-tertiary groups of life of ,lyell1 or between the tertiary and quaternary of ,french geologists4 ,the principle of classification which ,i have proposed#bfg is that offered by the gradual lowering of the temperature1 which has left its mark in the advent of animals before unknown in ,europe2 and according to it ,i have divided the pleistocene deposits into three groups4 #a4 ,those in which the pleistocene immigrants had begun to disturb the pleiocene mammalia1 but had not yet supplanted the more southern animals4 ,no arctic mammalia had as yet arrived4 ,to this group belongs the forest-bed of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 and the deposit at ,st4 ,prest1 near ,chartres4 #b4 ,that in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had disappeared4 ,the even-toed ruminants are principally represented by the stag1 the ,irish elk1 the roe1 bison1 and urus4 ,elephas meridionalis and ,rhinoceros etruscus had retreated to the south4 ,to this group belong the brick-earths of the lower valley of the ,thames1 the river-deposit at ,clacton1 the cave of ,baume in the ,jura1 and a river-deposit in ,auvergne4 #c4 ,the third division is that in which the true arctic mammalia were among the chief inhabitants of the region2 and to it belong most of the ossiferous caves and river-deposits in middle and northern ,europe4 ,these three do not correspond with the preglacial1 glacial1 and postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata1 in central and north ,britain2 since there is reason to believe that all the animals which occupied ,britain after the maximum cold had passed away1 had arrived here in their southern advance before that maximum cold had been reached2 or1 in other words1 were both pre- and postglacial4 ,this classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata south of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 into which the arctic mammalia never penetrated4 ,the ,late ,pleistocene ,division4 ,the late pleistocene division corresponds in part with the reindeer period of ,m4 ,lartet2 but it comprehends also his other three periods2 for the spotted hyna1 the lion1 the cave-bear1 the mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the bison1 the reindeer1 and the urus are so associated together in the caves and river deposits of ,great ,britain and the continent that they do not afford a means of classification4 ,the arctic division of the mammalia1 defined in the preceding chapter1 was then in full possession of the area north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 and the ,rhinoceros megarhinus and ,elephas meridionalis had disappeared4 ,with three exceptions1 to be noticed presently1 all the ossiferous caverns of ,france1 ,germany1 and ,britain1 belong to this division of the pleistocene4 ,the ,middle ,pleistocene ,division4 ,the middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may now be examined1 or that from which the characteristic pleiocene deer had vanished1 and were replaced by the invading forms from the temperate zones of northern ,asia4 ,it is represented in ,britain by the mammalia obtained from the lower brick-earths of the ,thames valley1 at ,crayford1 ,erith1 ,ilford1 and ,gray's ,thurrock1 by those from the deposit at ,clacton1 and most probably by those of the older deposit in ,kent's ,hole1 and by the ,rhinoceros megarhinus of ,oreston4#bfh ,they consist of-- ,man1 ,homo4 ,lion1 ,felis leo spela4 ,wild ,cat1 ,f4 catus4 ,spotted ,hyna1 ,hyna crocuta var4 spela4 ,grizzly ,bear1 ,ursus ferox4 ,brown ,bear1 ,u4 arctos4 ,wolf1 ,canis lupus4 ,fox1 ,c4 vulpes4 ,otter1 ,lutra vulgaris4 ,urus1 ,bos primigenius4 ,bison1 ,bison priscus4 ,irish ,elk1 ,cervus megaceros4 ,stag1 ,c4 elaphus4 ,brown's ,fallow ,deer1 ,c4 ,browni4 ,roedeer1 ,c4 capreolus4 ,musk ,sheep1 ,ovibos moschatus4 ,elephas antiquus4 ,mammoth1 ,e4 primigenius4 ,horse1 ,equus caballus4 ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 ,rhinoceros tichorhinus4 ,r4 hemitchus4 ,r4 megarhinus4 ,wild-boar1 ,sus scrofa4 ,hippopotamus1 ,hippopotamus amphibius4 ,beaver1 ,castor fiber4 ,water-,rat1 ,arvicola amphibia4 ,the discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower brick-earths of ,crayford1 by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,fisher1 in the presence of the writer1 in ,april #ahgb1 proves that man was living while these fluviatile strata were being deposited4 ,if these mammalia be compared with those of the forest-bed or the pleiocene age on the one hand1 and with the late pleistocene on the other1 it will be seen that they are linked to the former by ,rhinoceros megarhinus1 and to the latter by the musk sheep4 ,the presence of the latter1 the most arctic of the herbivores1 in such strange company is most abnormal1 and suggests the idea that the remains belong to two distinct eras4 ,the skull1 however1 which ,i found at ,crayford in #ahfg1 and presented to the ,museum of the ,geological ,survey1 rested in intimate association with the bones of other species1 is in the same mineral state1 and bears no marks of being a 8derived fossil40 ,it is the only trace of the animal as yet obtained from the lower brick-earths4 ,the absence of the reindeer1 so numerous in the valley of the ,thames1 while the late pleistocene strata were being accumulated by the river1 and the abundance of remains of the stag1 seem to me to point backwards rather than forwards in time1 and to imply that the lower brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age2 just as the absence of the characteristic early pleistocene species shows that they are not of that age4 ,the evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a stage intermediate between the two4 ,nevertheless1 it is sufficiently conflicting to cause ,dr4 ,falconer to come to the conclusion that these strata are of pleiocene date1 and ,mr4 ,prestwich to believe that they belong to a late stage in the pleistocene4 ,during the middle pleistocene1 in the ,thames valley1 and at ,clacton1 the woolly rhinoceros1 elephant1 and mammoth competed for the same feeding-grounds with ,rhinoceros hemitchus1 ,r4 megarhinus1 hippopotamus1 and ,elephas antiquus4 ,although all the characteristic pleiocene deer had retreated1 the reindeer had not yet invaded that area3 it was occupied by the stag1 roe1 the ,irish elk1 and ,brown's fallow deer4 ,the whole assemblage of animals1 the musk sheep being excepted1 implies that the climate was less severe at this time1 than when the reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene age1 and was far more numerous than the stag4 ,it may1 indeed1 be objected that the classificatory value of the musk sheep is quite as great as that of ,rhinoceros megarhinus2 but in the case of the lower brick-earths1 the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with that of the whole assemblage of animals1 while that of the former is altogether discordant4 ,there are no caves either in ,britain or on the continent which can be referred with certainty to this middle division4 ,the machairodus1 however1 of ,kent's ,hole1 and of the cavern of ,baume in the ,jura 7see p4 #ccg71 and the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of ,oreston1 probably inhabited those regions1 while the temperate group of animals held possession of the valley of the ,thames1 and of that now sunk beneath the ,north ,sea4 ,the ,early ,pleistocene ,mammalia4 ,the fossil mammalia must now be examined1 which inhabited ,great ,britain during the early pleistocene period1 and before the maximum severity of glacial cold had as yet been reached4 ,the fossil bones from the forest-bed1 which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores of ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 have for many years attracted the attention of naturalists and geologists4 ,the magnificent collections of the ,rev4 ,john ,gunn1 and the late ,rev4 ,s4 ,w4 ,king1 gave ,dr4 ,falconer the means of proving that the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed from that of any geological period which we have hitherto discussed3 and the careful diagnosis of all the fossils from this horizon which ,i have been able to meet with1 shows that it was of a very peculiar character1 being closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of ,france and of ,italy1 and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly pleistocene4 ,the following list is necessarily very imperfect1 since the fragmentary nature of the fossils renders a specific identification very hazardous2 and it only includes those which ,i have been able to identify with any degree of certainty4 ,sorex moschatus4 ,s4 vulgaris4 ,talpa ,europa4 ,trogontherium ,cuvieri4 ,castor fiber4 ,ursus spelus4 ,u4 arvernensis4 ,canis lupus4 ,c4 vulpes4 ,machairodus4 ,cervus megaceros4 ,c4 capreolus4 ,c4 elaphus4 ,cervus ,polignacus4 ,c4 carnutorum4 ,c4 verticornis4 ,c4 ,sedgwickii4 ,bos primigenius4 ,hippopotamus major4 ,sus scrofa4 ,equus caballus4 ,rhinoceros etruscus4 ,r4 megarhinus4 ,elephas meridionalis4 ,e4 antiquus4 ,e4 primigenius4 ,from the examination of this list1 the peculiar mixture of pleiocene and pleistocene species is evident4 ,the ,ursus arvernensis1 ,cervus ,polignacus1 ,hippopotamus major1 ,rhinoceros etruscus1 and ,r4 megarhinus1 the horse1 ,elephas meridionalis1 and ,e4 antiquus were living in the pleiocene age in ,france and ,italy1 and probably in ,norfolk4 ,the cave-bear1 the wolf1 fox1 mole1 beaver1 ,irish elk1 roe1 stag1 urus1 wild-boar1 and the mammoth have not as yet been discovered in the continental pleiocenes1 as judged by the standards offered by the ,val d',arno and ,southern ,france4 ,they are more or less abundant in the late pleistocene age4 ,this singular association seems to me to imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate between the two1 and1 from the fact that only three out of the whole series1 viz4 ,ursus arvernensis1 ,rhinoceros etruscus1 and ,cervus ,polignacus1 are peculiar to the continental pleiocene1 that it is more closely allied to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene4 ,it is also very probable that this early pleistocene age was of considerable duration2 for in it we find at least two forms 7and the number will probably be very largely increased7 which are unknown in continental ,europe1 although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have been diligently examined in ,france and ,germany4 ,the very presence of the ,cervus ,sedgwickii and ,c4 verticornis implies that the lapse of time was sufficiently great to allow of the evolution of forms of animal life hitherto unknown1 and which disappeared before the middle and late pleistocene stages4 ,the ,trogontherium also1 as well as the ,cervus carnutorum1 both of which occur in the forest-bed and in the gravel-beds of ,st4 ,prest1 near ,chartres1 and which are peculiar to this horizon1 point to the same conclusion4 ,the deer of the forest-bed1 in this list1 do not represent approximately the number of species3 there are at least five1 and perhaps six1 represented by a series of antlers1 which ,i do not venture to quote1 because ,i have not been able to compare them with those of the pleiocenes of the ,val d',arno1 of ,marseilles1 or of ,auvergne4 ,dr4 ,falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar characters of the fauna of the forest-bed is the presence of the mammoth2 and the evidence on which he considered the animal to be of preglacial age in ,europe has been fully verified by the molars from ,bacton1 which are now in the ,manchester ,museum4 ,they are associated with ,elephas meridionalis and ,e4 antiquus1 and are incrusted with precisely the same matrix as the teeth and bones of those species4 ,no caves have been discovered containing this peculiar assemblage of fossil animals4 ,the ,pleiocene ,mammalia4 ,the relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna is a question of very great difficulty1 because the latter has not yet been satisfactorily defined1 although ,prof4 ,gervais and ,dr4 ,falconer have given the more important species from ,auvergne1 ,montpellier1 and the ,val d',arno4 ,the following list is taken from ,prof4 ,gervais's great work 8,zoologie et ,palontologie ,franaises10 p4 #cdi1 the term pseudo-pleiocene merely implying that the fauna differs from that of the marine deposit of ,montpellier1 which he takes as his standard4 ,pseudo-pleiocene of ,issoire4 ,hystrix refossa4 ,castor issiodorensis4 ,arctomys antiqua4 ,arvicola robustus4 ,cervus pardinensis4 ,c4 arvernensis4 ,c4 causanus4 ,sus arvernensis4 ,lepus ,lacosti4 ,mastodon arvernensis4 ,tapirus arvernensis4 ,rhinoceros elatus8 ,bos elatus4 ,cervus polycladus4 ,c4 ardens4 ,c4 cladocerus4 ,c4 issiodorensis4 ,c4 ,perrieri4 ,c4 etueriarum4 ,ursus arvernensis4 ,canis borbonidus4 ,felis pardinensis4 ,f4 arvernensis4 ,f4 brevirostris4 ,f4 issiodorensis4 ,machairodus cultridens4 ,hyna arvernensis4 ,h4 ,perrieri4 ,lutra ,bravardi4 ,to these animals ,dr4 ,falconer#bfi adds ,hippopotamus major1 ,elephas antiquus1 and ,rhinoceros megarhinus1 and he identifies ,rhinoceros elatus with his new species ,rhinoceros etruscus4 ,prof4 ,gaudry agrees with me in the belief that ,hyna ,perrieri is identical with ,h4 striata or the striped species4 ,prof4 ,gervais also identifies the ,equus robustus of ,m4 ,pomel1 from the same locality1 with the common ,horse1 ,equus fossilis4 ,the fauna of ,montpellier is certainly very different from that of ,issoire2 but since it is neither meiocene nor pleistocene1 it must belong to one of the intermediate stages of the pleiocene4 ,it includes ,semnopithecus monspessulanus4 ,macacus priscus4 ,chalicomys sigmodus4 ,lagomys loxodus4 ,mastodon brevirostris4 ,rhinoceros megarhinus4 ,tapirus minor4 ,antilope ,cordieri4 ,a4 hastata4 ,cervus ,cuvieri4 ,c4 australis4 ,sus provincialis4 ,hynodon insignis4 ,hyna ----8 ,machairodus4 ,felis ,christolii4 ,lutra affinis4 ,the ,mastodon brevirostris of this list is considered by ,dr4 ,falconer to be identical with ,m4 arvernensis of ,,mm4 ,croiset and ,jobert4 ,the fauna of the ,val d',arno differs from that of ,montpellier and of ,auvergne1 and yet is considered by ,dr4 ,falconer to be eminently typical of the ,european pleiocene4#bgj ,the animals identified by him in the museums of ,italy are as follow3-- ,felis4 ,hyna4 ,machairodus cultridens4 ,mastodon arvernensis4 ,m4 ,borsoni4 ,elephas antiquus4 ,elephas meridionalis4 ,rhinoceros etruscus4 ,r4 megarhinus4 ,r4 hemitchus4 ,hippopotamus major4 ,all these animals1 with the exception of ,rhinoceros hemitchus1 have been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene of ,issoire1 while the megarhine rhinoceros and ,mastodon arvernensis are the only two which have been obtained from the marine sands of ,montpellier4 ,the pleiocene animals1 therefore1 inhabiting ,northern ,italy are more closely allied to those of ,auvergne than to those of ,montpellier4 ,if these three localities be taken as typical of the pleiocene strata1 we shall find that several of the species range as far north as ,britain1 and occur in deposits which from the evidence of the mollusca1 have been assigned to that age4 ,mastodon arvernensis1 ,elephas meridionalis1 and ,ursus arvernensis1 have been obtained from the old land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the ,norfolk ,crag1 in company with many forms of deer and antelopes which have not yet been identified1 while the ,hipparion is found in the marine crags of ,suffolk4 ,the animals which especially characterize the pleiocene strata of ,europe are ,machairodus cultridens1 ,mastodon arvernensis and ,m4 ,borsoni1 besides the genus ,tapir4 ,if this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial forest-bed1 it will be seen that the difference between them is very great4 ,the pleiocene mastodon1 tapir1 the majority of the deer1 and the antelopes are replaced by forms such as the roe and the red-deer1 unknown up to that time4 ,nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals were able to hold their ground against the pleistocene invaders1 although1 subsequently1 as ,i have already shown1 they disappeared one by one1 being ultimately beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers4 ,the progress of this struggle has been used in the preceding pages as a means of classification4 ,this fauna has not been discovered in any cave4 ,summary of ,characteristic ,pleistocene and ,pleiocene ,species4 ,the following are the salient points of the pleistocene age offered by the study of the land mammalia in the area north of the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,period4 ,a4--,the latest stage4 ,palolithic ,man4 ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 abundant4 ,mammoth1 abundant4 ,reindeer1 abundant4 ,stag1 comparatively rare4 ,northern forms of life in full possession of area north of ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,b4--,the middle stage4 ,palolithic ,man4 ,machairodus latidens4 ,stag1 abundant4 ,northern forms of life present1 but not in force4 ,rhinoceros megarhinus1 still living4 ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 present4 ,c4--,the early stage4 ,the following are animals peculiar to this stage3-- ,trogontherium ,cuvieri4 ,cerus verticornis4 ,cervus ,sedgwickii4 ,c4 carnutorum4 ,the following make their appearance3--,the beaver1 musk-shrew1 cave-bear1 roe1 stag1 ,irish elk1 urus1 and bison1 wild-boar1 horse1 7#b71 mammoth1 wolf1 and fox4 ,the pleiocene ,ursus arvernensis1 ,cervus ,polignacus1 ,rhinoceros etruscus1 and ,elephas meridionalis still living4 ,,the ,,pleiocene4 ,mastodon arvernensis4 ,m4 ,borsoni4 ,hipparion gracile4 ,no living species of ,european ,deer4 ,the three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply to the region south of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 because the northern group of animals did not pass into ,spain and ,italy4 ,in these two countries we find southern and pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age1 which in ,france and ,britain lived only in the two earlier stages4 ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe4 ,no remains have been discovered up to the present time in any part of ,europe which can be referred with certainty to a higher antiquity than the pleistocene age4 ,the palolithic people or peoples arrived in ,europe along with the peculiar fauna of that age1 and after dwelling here for a length of time1 which is to be measured by the vast physical and climatal changes1 described in the last three chapters1 finally disappeared1 leaving behind as their representatives the ,eskimos tribes of arctic ,america4 ,there is no evidence that they were inferior in intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the present time1 or more closely linked to the lower animals4 ,the traces which they have left behind tell us nothing as to the truth or falsehood of the doctrine of evolution1 for if it be maintained on the one hand1 that the first appearance of man as a man1 and not as a man-like brute1 is inconsistent with that doctrine1 it may be answered that the lapse of time between his appearance in the pleistocene age and the present day1 is too small to have produced appreciable physical or intellectual change4 ,also1 it must not be forgotten1 that we have merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man in ,europe1 and not the general question of his first appearance on the earth1 with which it is very generally confounded4 ,dr4 ,falconer well remarked that the origines of mankind are to be sought1 not in ,europe1 but in the tropical regions1 probably of ,asia4 ,to these we have no clue in the present stage of the inquiry4 ,the higher apes are represented in the ,european meiocene and pleiocene strata1 by extinct forms uniting in some cases the characters of different living species1 but they do not show any tendency to assume human characters4 ,it must indeed be allowed1 that the study of fossil remains throws as little light as the documents of history on the relation of man to the lower animals4 ,the historian commences his labours with the high civilization of ,assyria and ,egypt1 and can merely guess at the steps by which it was achieved2 the palontologist meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene strata1 and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by which man arrived even at that culture which is implied by the implements4 ,the latter has proved that the antiquity of man is greater than the former had supposed4 ,neither has contributed anything towards the solution of the problem of his origin4 ,man lived in ,india in ,pleistocene ,age4 ,the researches of the ,geological ,surveyors has shown that in ancient times man1 in the same stage of civilization as the palolithic man of ,europe1 lived in ,southern ,india and in the valley of the ,narbad4 ,in #ahfhbga ,mr4 ,bruce ,foote described the flint implements which were discovered over a large area in the districts of ,madras1 either in the red clayey deposit known as ,laterite1 or in such positions as implied that they had been washed out of it4 ,they all belong to the same rude types as those of the pleistocene strata of ,north-western ,europe4 ,a small fragment of bone was the only fossil which had up to that time been discovered in the ,laterite1 and this ,i was able to identify in #ahfi as a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic variety1 which has been described in the fifth chapter of this work1 from the ,european caves and tombs4 ,the ,lateritic deposits themselves are strictly analogous to our river-strata and brick-earths in their constitution1 and in their resting at various levels above the sea1 and were1 as ,mr4 ,foote remarks1 formed under conditions different to those which are now going on in that district4 ,they prove that the period of the sojourn of palolithic man in ,southern ,india is divided from the present day by considerable geographical changes1 such as the elevation of land1 and the erosion and breaking up of accumulations which were once continuous4 ,we have seen that somewhat similar changes have happened in ,europe1 in the interval which separates the palolithic period from our own time4 ,the discovery of a rudely chipped implement of quartzite1 of the pointed oval shape common in the gravels of ,britain and ,france1 published by ,mr4 ,medlicott in #ahgc1 in the 8,records of the ,geological ,survey of ,india10 proves further that man was a member of the remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the ,narbad in ancient times4 ,it was dug out of reddish unstratified clay by ,mr4 ,hacket at a depth of three feet from the upper surface1 which was covered by twenty feet of ossiferous gravel1 on the left bank of the ,narbad near the valley of ,bhutra4 ,the clay belongs to the same fluviatile series as that from which the mammalia were obtained and named by ,dr4 ,falconer in #ahbh4 ,both clay and gravel are shown to be of fluviatile origin1 by the presence of fresh-water mussels of the varieties still living in the adjacent river4 ,the fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals4 ,among the former are two kinds of elephant 7,e4 namadicus7 and 7,e4 stegodon insignis71 one of which is closely allied to the ,european ,e4 antiquus1 two species of hippopotamus1 one 7,h4 palindicus7 with four incisors in front of the jaws like the ,african1 and a second with six incisors belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon1 a large ox 7,bos namadicus71 a deer and a bear4 ,the living forms are represented by the buffalo 7,bubalus namadicus71 which is identical with the wild arnee from which the ,indian domestic buffaloes have descended1 and the gavial1 or long-snouted ,gangetic crocodile4 ,this imperfect list1 borrowed from ,dr4 ,falconer1#bgb shows that there is the same mixture of extinct with living forms in the valley of the ,ganges1 while the clays and gravels were being accumulated1 as we have observed in the pleistocene deposits of ,europe1 and the fauna may therefore be referred to the pleistocene age1 and probably1 as ,mr4 ,medlicott proposes1 to the late division of that age4 ,the exact correspondence of the quartzite implements with those which are so abundant in the ,european river-strata of the same age1 adds additional weight to this conclusion4 ,are the ,palolithic ,aborigines of ,india related to those of ,europe8 ,it is not a little remarkable that ,dr4 ,falconer1 writing in #ahfe of the peculiar fauna of the ,narbad1 should have held the view that man was living in ,india at that time1 and that the memory of the hippopotamus was handed down in ,aryan traditions1 under the striking name of the water elephant4 8,after reflecting10 he writes1 8on the question during many years in its palontological and ethnological bearings1 my leaning is to the view that ,hippopotamus namadicus was extinct in ,india long before the ,aryan invasion1 but that it was familiar to the earlier indigenous races40 7ii4 p4 #fdd47 ,this inference is proved to be literally true by the discovery of the palolithic implements in the ossiferous strata of the ,narbad1 which must have required long ages for their accumulation and subsequent erosion4 ,we may1 therefore1 conclude that palolithic man inhabited both ,europe and ,india in the pleistocene age4 ,and possibly the identity of the implements1 in these two remote regions1 may be accounted for in the same manner as the identity of ,aryan root-words1 by the view that their fabricators may have come from the same centre of dispersal1 by the same routes as those which were subsequently used by the pre-,aryan1 and ,aryan1 invaders of ,europe and ,india4 ,but whether this be accepted or not1 it cannot be denied that the man who inhabited both these regions was in the same rude stage of human progress1 and played his part in the same life-era4 ,palolithic ,man lived in ,palestine4 ,the discovery1 by the ,abb ,richard1#bgc of a palolithic flint implement1 of the ordinary river-bed type1 on the surface of a stratum of gravel between ,mount ,tabor and the lake of ,tiberias1 lends great weight to the view that the ,aborigines of ,india and ,europe1 whose implements are found in the deposits of rivers1 migrated from the same centre1 since it bridges over the great interval of space by which they were isolated4 ,it is very probable1 that future discoveries may reveal the presence of a tolerably uniform priscan population1 in the pleistocene age1 throughout this vast area3 which as yet has only been explored by archologists in a few isolated points1 with the important results recorded in the preceding pages4 ,conclusion4 ,it now remains for us to sum up the results of the exploration of ,european caves1 of which an imperfect outline has been given in this work4 ,their formation1 and filling up1 have an important bearing on the physical geography of the districts in which they occur1 and reveal the great changes which are going on1 in the calcareous rocks1 at the present time4 ,the study of the remains which they contain has led to the recognition of the fact1 that the climate and geography of ,europe1 in ancient times1 were altogether different from those of the present day4 ,it has also made large additions to the history of the sojourn of man in ,europe4 ,we find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers1 in the remote pleistocene age1 in possession of ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 and ,britain1 probably of the same stock as the ,eskimos1 living and forming part of a fauna1 in which northern and southern1 living and extinct1 species are strangely mingled with those now living in ,europe4 ,in the neolithic age caves were inhabited1 and used for tombs1 by men of the ,iberian or ,basque race1 which is still represented by the small1 dark-haired1 peoples of western ,europe4 ,they were rarely used in the bronze age4 ,when we arrive within the borders of history in ,britain1 we find them offering shelter to the ,brit-,welsh flying from their enemies after the ruin of the ,roman empire1 and throwing great light on the fragmentary records of those obscure times4 ,in treating of these questions1 it has been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied interest to the ethnologist1 physicist1 and historian1 some of which have been partially solved1 while others await the light of the higher knowledge which will be the fruit of a wider experience4 ,,appendices4 ,,appendix ,i4--,p4 #cj4 ,,on ,,the ,,instruments ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,cave-,,hunting4 ,instruments used in ,cave-hunting4--,the ,search after ,bone-caves4-- ,the three modes of ,cave-digging4--,stalagmitic ,floors to be broken up4--,preservation of ,fossil ,bones4 ,instruments used in ,cave-hunting4 ,the instruments which ,mr4 ,james ,parker1 ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford and myself have found most valuable in cave-hunting1 apart from the tools of the workman1 are as follow3-- #a4 ,a hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long1 inserted into a square head of best steel1 ending in a chisel edge in the same plane as the handle1 weighing almost eight ounces1 and seven inches in length4 #b4 ,a steel chisel ten inches long4 #c4 ,a prismatic compass4 #d4 ,a thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and water4 #e4 ,an aneroid4 #f4 ,a steel measuring tape4 #g4 ,abney's patent level which is used for laying down datum-line for plan1 as well as for taking the dips and angles4 ,in making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line by a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work proceeds1 indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points of measurement1 with paint or wooden pegs4 #h4 ,a stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse's girth at the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures1 so that the explorer may be let down without any great danger4 ,no large unknown caves should be explored without a rope1 or by a party less than three in number4 ,in exploring the caves of ,burrington ,combe we used a rope sixty feet long4 ,the descent into ,helln ,pot1 described in the second chapter1 p4 #da1 was effected in the following manner4 ,a strong platform of timber was made over the open fissure1 and from it a square 8cage0 or 8basket0 of the ordinary kind used in mining was let down for the first drop of #aih feet4 ,it was prevented from twisting round by two guide ropes4 ,for the rest of the falls we had two ladders eight feet long1 and a rope1 without which we should have been unable to reach the bottom4 ,illustration3 a ---------------------------- g 444 444 g b e c d c e b g 444 444 g ---------------------------- a #i4 ,in the exploration of water-caves1 in which there are sometimes sheets of water of considerable size and depth1 a raft may be used1 such as that devised by ,mr4 ,james ,parker for the navigation of the great cave of ,wookey ,hole4 ,it consisted of a platform supported on barrels and built as follows3 ,a frame of stout poles was made2 two1 a a1 being eight feet long1 with four others1 b1 c1 lashed firmly across1 each four feet in length4 ,the space d was converted into a platform by nailing boards across1 and this was buoyed up by a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace e4 ,the barrels were attached to the raft by two loops of rope g1 passing over from b to c1 and thus kept in place1 although they freely twisted and turned in actual use4 ,the ropes had an advantage over iron hoops for the attachment of the barrels1 because when they were tightened the platform was raised above the water1 when they were loosened it was lowered1 and thus the raft could be adjusted to the weight to be carried1 to the depth of the water1 and the distance of the water-line from the roof4 ,a raft of this kind will bear three persons1 and is sufficiently light to be carried over the shallows4 ,with it ,mr4 ,parker made his way for a considerable distance in the ,wookey ,hole cavern1 and subsequently ,i penetrated as far as the water-line would allow me to get4 ,a long pole is also necessary for punting4 ,mr4 ,parker found by experience that a raft made of boards nailed on the top of two beer-barrels was too unstable to be of any use4 ,in making his way across subterranean pools the cave-hunter ought to be prepared for accidents1 for the depth is very uncertain1 and the water sufficiently cold to cause cramp4 ,for the exploration of ordinary water-caves a raft is unnecessary1 but no attempt should be made without a rope4 ,in ,yorkshire and ,derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in the subterranean water-courses4 #aj4 ,the most convenient lights for use in caves are the common composite candles4 ,paraffin candles are open to the objection that they gutter1 lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused light1 and the smoke of paraffin torches1 or flambeaux dipped in turpentine or tar is intolerable4 ,magnesium wire reveals the beauties of the higher roofs4 ,the ,search after ,ossiferous ,caves4 ,many of the ossiferous caves1 and especially those of the neolithic and pleistocene ages1 have their entrances masked by dbris which has been accumulated from the surface above during the long lapse of ages4 ,in their discovery ,i have found rabbits1 foxes1 and badgers of the greatest service1 since these animals generally make their burrows in such places4 ,and where their earths are met with at the base of a vertical wall of rock1 ,i have very generally found a cave4 ,they were my sole guides to the discovery of the five sepulchral caves at ,perthi ,chwareu1 described in the fifth chapter1 in a district in which up to that time caves were not known to exist4 ,the dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations the sunny side of the ravines and valleys1 and the spots which commanded a wide view1 and1 therefore1 their remains are to be looked for in those places1 rather than on the cold and sunless sides1 or where an enemy might approach without observation4 ,the ,scientific ,methods of ,cave-digging4 ,the exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy to be of scientific value1 may be carried out in all tunnel caves1 or those extending horizontally into the rock1 by one of the three following methods which may be adapted to the local conditions3-- ,the first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance1 and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance1 so as to obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata4 ,in the hyna-den at ,wookey ,hole1 we first of all cut a passage through the cave-earth which extended from the roof to the floor1 and then removed the earth on either side in blocks1 until ultimately the chamber and passages described in the eighth chapter were cleared of their contents4 ,our work was measured every evening1 and each bone and object found was labelled with the date which was recorded on the ground plan4 ,vertical sections were also taken from time to time4 ,this mode1 supplemented by constant supervision of the workmen1 was sufficiently accurate to satisfy the demands of scientific research4 ,the ,victoria ,cave1 where the demarcation between the strata was very distinct1 was explored1 while the work was under my direction up to ,september #ahgc1 in a somewhat similar fashion4 ,it was1 however1 impossible on account of the great depth of the deposits to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance4 ,we therefore examined the superficial strata throughout the cave1 merely gauging the thickness of those below by sinking three shafts4 ,where a cave is sufficiently high to allow of the work being carried on1 it is better to clear out one stratum before another is disturbed4 ,the most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is that which has been used by the committee in ,kent's ,hole1 under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,pengelly1 who writes as follows3#bgd-- 8,the following is the method of exploration which has been observed from the commencement1 and which it is believed affords a simple and correct method of determining the exact position of every object which has been found4 8#a4 ,the black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the surface was carefully examined and removed4 8#b4 ,the limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were blasted and otherwise broken up1 and taken out of the cavern4 8#c4 ,a line termed the #8datum-line1' is stretched horizontally from a fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber4 8#d4 ,lines1 one foot apart1 are drawn at right angles to the datum-line1 and therefore parallel to one another1 across the chamber so as to divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed #8parallels4' 8#e4 ,in each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had covered is first examined and removed1 and then the stalagmite breccia1 so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth4 8#f4 ,horizontal lines1 a foot apart1 are then drawn from side to side across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel into four layers or #8levels1' each a foot deep4 8,finally each level is divided into lengths called #8yards1' each three feet long1 and measured right and left from the datum-line as an axis of absciss4 8,in fine1 the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels four feet high1 one foot thick1 and as long as the chamber is broad1 where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet4 ,each parallel is taken out in levels one foot high1 and in each level in horizontal prisms three feet long and a foot square in the section1 so that each contains three cubic feet of material4 8,this material1 after being carefully examined in situ by candlelight1 is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight1 after which it is at once removed without the cavern4 ,a box is appropriated to each yard exclusively1 and in it are placed all the objects of interest which the prism yields4 ,the boxes1 each having a label containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its contents1 are daily sent to the honorary secretary of the committee1 by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes4 ,the labels are numbered and packed with the specimens to which they respectively belong1 and a record of the day's work is entered in a diary4 8,the same method is followed in the examination of the black mould1 and also of the stalagmitic breccia1 with the single exception that in these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards40 ,a careful record of the work1 and minute sections should be taken daily on the spot4 ,the ,stalagmitic ,floor to be broken up4 ,in all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic breccias which often occur1 should be broken up1 or1 if necessary1 blasted with gunpowder4 ,the former very frequently conceals the pleistocene remains1 and the latter1 which is in ,kent's ,hole many feet thick1 often contains the traces of man and wild animals4 ,sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish the breccia from the rocky floor4 ,where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be worked on the same plan as in ochre-mining1 by sinking a shaft4 ,to dig into it from below 7where this is possible7 is very dangerous1 because of the large imbedded stones which fall sometimes without any warning4 ,the ,preservation of ,fossil ,remains4 ,the fossil bones and teeth1 which have very generally lost their gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces in drying1 should be gradually dried1 and from time to time saturated with a weak hot solution of gelatine or glue4 ,silicate of soda1 sometimes called 8liquid glass10 or melted paraffin 7not the oil71 may also be used for the same purpose4 ,if the bones are extremely soft1 they may be rescued from destruction by letting them dry in the matrix1 saturating them and the matrix with a solution of gelatine1 and then clearing off the latter4 ,in this manner ,i preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is now in the ,museum of the ,geological ,survey in ,jermyn ,street1 ,london4 ,,appendix ,,ii4--,p4 #dj4 ,observations on the ,rate at which ,stalagmite is being accumulated in the ,ingleborough ,cave4 ,proceed4 ,lit4 and ,phil4 ,soc4 ,manch4 ,april #ahgc4 ,the only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns1 in this country1 is that made by ,mr4 ,james ,farrer in the ,ingleborough ,cave1 in the years #ahci and #ahde1 and published by ,prof4 ,phillips in the 8,rivers1 ,mountains1 and ,sea ,coast of ,yorkshire0 7second edition1 #ahee1 pp4 #cd-ce74 ,the stalagmite of which the measurements were taken is that termed1 from its shape1 the ,jockey ,cap4 ,it rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about two and a half feet1 and is the result of a deposit of carbonate of lime1 brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin at its top1 and flow over the general surface4 ,on ,march #acth1 #ahgc1 in company with ,mr4 ,john ,birkbeck and ,mr4 ,walker1 ,i was enabled by the kindness of ,mr4 ,farrer to take a set of measurements1 to be recorded for use in after years4 ,for the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations1 three holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite1 and three gauges of brass wire1 gilt1 inserted2 gauge ,no4 #a in the following table being that on the ,s4,s4,e41 ,no4 #b on ,n4,n4,e41 ,no4 #c on the ,west side4 ,the curvilinear dimensions were taken with fine iron wire1 or with a steel measure2 and the circumferential around the base along a line marked by the three gauges4 ,the measurements #b1 #c1 and #d of the table were taken on the #aeth of ,march1 by ,mr4 ,walker1 and their accuracy may be tested by the fact that they coincide exactly with ,no4 #a1 which ,i took two days before4 ,the lengths of wire1 properly labelled1 are deposited in the ,manchester ,museum1 the ,owens ,college1 for future observers4 ,in the following table ,i have given my own measurements and compared them with those taken by ,mr4 ,farrer4 ,,table ,,of ,,measurements4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- #acth ,rate of ,mar4 #cj ,oct4 ,increase ,increase #ahgc4 #ahci4 #ahde4 since per ,inches4,inches4,inches4#ahci4ahde4 annum4 ,inches ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a ,basal circumference at #bida- ,gauges #abh #aah #abj #aj #h #bheg #b ,gauge ,no4 #a to ,gauge ,no4 #b #ebfbe #c 0 #b 0 #c #cej #d 0 #c 0 #a #djcge #e ,gauge ,no4 #a to hole in centre of basin at apex #cj #f 0 #b 0 0 #bie #g 0 #c 0 0 #cad #h ,height from ,gauge ,no4 #a #bji #i 0 0 #b min #bjd #aj ,maximum #big #aa ,tape measurement on slope ,gauge ,no4 #a to edge of apex #bfg #ab 0 ,no4 #b 0 0 #bff #baj #ef #ac 0 0 maximum 0 #cfj #cbj #cej #dj #aj #ad ,roof to apex of ,jockey ,cap #hg #iebe #hbebidf #ae ,roof to tip of stalactite #aj #af ,stalactite to apex of ,jockey ,cap #hebe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,unfortunately ,i have been unable to identify the exact spots where the stalagmite was measured by ,mr4 ,farrer1 so that the only measurement which affords any trustworthy data for estimating the rate of increase is number #ad4 ,with regard to this1 the only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone1 of which the roof is composed1 by carbonic acid1 since the year #ahde1 and this is so small as to be practically inappreciable4 ,we have1 therefore1 evidence that the ,jockey's ,cap is growing at the rate of #bidf of an inch per annum1 and that if the present rate of growth be continued it will finally arrive at the roof in about #bie years4 ,but even this comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the growth of a pendent stalactite above1 that is now being formed in place of that which measured ten inches in #ahde1 and has since been accidentally destroyed4 ,it is very possible that the ,jockey ,cap may be the result not of the continuous but of the intermittent drip of water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime1 and that1 therefore1 the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past or future condition4 ,its possible age in #ahde was estimated by ,prof4 ,phillips at #bei years1 on the supposition that the grain of carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited4 ,if1 however1 it grew at its present rate it may be not more than #ajj years old4 ,all the stalagmites and stalactites in the ,ingleborough ,cave may not date further back than the time of ,edward ,,iii4 if the ,jockey ,cap be taken as a measure of the rate of deposition4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abbeville1 flint implements of1 #af4 ,aborigines 7palolithic7 of ,india1 #dbh1 #dbi4 ,acid-worn joint1 ,doveholes1 ,derbyshire1 #eb4 ,adams1 ,dr4 ,leith1 explores bone-caves of ,malta1 #cgg2 finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in ,candia1 #cgh4 ,adriatic ,sea1 the1 #chh4 ,africa1 mainland of1 #cgi2 moraines in1 #chg2 physical geography of1 in pleistocene age1 #cgj2 species of ,european mammalia found in1 #chj4 ,african animals in the ,iberian peninsula1 #cgb2 elephant1 the1 #cgb1 #cgf4 ,age of cavern deposits1 test of1 #daj4 ,albert ,cave1 the1 ,settle1 #aja4 ,alessi1 ,canon1 cited1 #cgf4 ,algeria1 fossil mammalia in1 #cgi4 ,alps1 the1 animals living to the ,north of1 #cei1 #cfj2 glaciers of1 #djc4 ,altai mountains1 the1 ,irish elk in1 #dja2 panther in1 #djc4 ,america1 animals in1 #cif-cii4 ,amiens1 flint implements in the gravels of1 #af4 ,anatolia1 the glaciers of1 #chc-che4 ,anca1 ,baron1 on caves of northern ,sicily1 #cgf4 ,andalusia1 prehistoric antiquities in1 #bji4 ,animals in ,brit-,welsh caves1 #acj1 #aca2 classificatory value of1 #gh2 domestic1 derived from ,asia1 #acg2 evidence of1 as to climate1 #cib2 extinct species of1 #djj2 historic1 #ge1 #gf2 living under the care of man1 #gg2 migration of1 #cff2 northern group of1 #cie2 pleistocene1 living to the north of the ,alps1 #cei-cfa2 unknown in ,britain in the prehistoric age1 #bff2 prehistoric1 #bfe2 probable cause of association of species1 #cig2 southern group of1 #cic2 temperate group of1 #cii4 ,antelope saiga1 the1 #ccf1 #cdh1 #cii4 ,antelopes1 spread of1 into ,europe1 #cgj4 ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe1 #dbd4 ,aquitaine1 implements in the caves of1 #ced1 #cee2 palolithic hunters in1 #cdg2 the people of1 #cef1 #ceg4 ,ardennes1 rock denuded from the1 #fa4 ,arenaceous rocks1 caves in1 #bd4 ,arnould1 ,m41 on the cave of ,sclaigneaux1 #bah4 ,arrows used by palolithic hunters1 #cdb4 ,art of the ,eskimos1 #cef4 ,arthur's cave1 ,king1 #bij4 ,ashmolean ,museum1 harpoons in the1 #ced1 #cef4 ,asia1 domestic animals of ,europe derived from1 #acg2 the lion in1 #cic4 ,ass1 the1 #gg4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 the1 #chj2 shore1 the1 at one hundred fathom line1 #cfe4 ,atlas mountains1 glaciers of the1 #chf4 ,aurignac1 the cave of1 #ai2 bones found in1 #bdf2 discovery of1 #bdc2 interment in1 #bdb2 skeletons of man above palolithic stratum of1 #bde4 ,austen1 ,mr4 ,godwin- 7see ,godwin-,austen74 ,auvergne1 palolithic men in1 #ba4 ,avison1 cave of1 #ah4 ,axe1 the river1 #bi4 ,aymard1 ,m41 cited1 #ccj4 ,b4 ,badger1 the 7see ,meles taxus74 ,banwell1 cave at1 #bic4 ,basques1 the1 eastern derivation of1 #bbg1 #bbh2 elements of1 in ,british and ,french populations1 #bbe2 in ,britain and ,ireland in the neolithic age1 #bae2 the ,dolicho-cephali cognate with1 #bac2 the oldest neolithic population1 #bbc4 ,baumann's ,hole1 #ab4 ,baume1 the cave of1 animals found in1 #ccg4 ,bayle1 ,m41 on animals from ,mansourah1 #cgi4 ,bear1 the1 #ge1 #gi1 #aca1 #adf2 in ,germany1 #bgh2 in the care of ,khloch1 #bg2 the cave1 #ach1 #bgh1 #dja2 the grizzly1 #bgh1 #cdh1 #cgf1 #cii4 ,beard1 ,mr41 of ,banwell1 cited1 #ae1 #cc2 explorations of1 #bib4 ,beaumont1 ,mr4 ,john1 describes ,wookey ,hole1 #bi2 on fungoid structures1 #fi4 ,beaver1 the1 #gf1 #gi1 #acb4 ,behrens1 ,dr41 cited1 #ab4 ,belgium1 brachy-cephalic skulls found in1 #bbh2 caves in1 #bj1 #cdg2 dolicho-cephalic skulls in1 #bae4 ,bell1 ,professor1 on the ass1 #gg4 ,bertrand1 ,m4 ,eugne1 cited1 #age4 ,billaudel1 ,m41 cited1 #ah4 ,birkbeck1 ,mr41 cited1 #ce2 descends into ,helln ,pot1 #dc4 ,bishofferode1 cave at1 #d4 ,bison1 the1 #hj1 #bff1 #cei4 ,blackmore1 ,dr41 cited1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,black-,rock ,cave1 the1 near ,tenby1 #fh4 ,blake1 ,mr4 ,carter1 cited1 #add4 ,blyth1 ,mr41 cited1 #cic4 ,boar1 the wild1 #gf1 #gi4 ,bone-beds1 the1 in ,wookey ,hole ,hyna-den1 #cje-cjg4 ,bone-caves1 before and after the ice-period1 #djh2 exploration of1 in ,great ,britain1 #ac2 in ,southern ,europe1 #ba1 #cgj1 #cgc1 #cge1 #cgg2 the three classes of1 #aj4 ,bone harpoon1 found in ,victoria ,cave1 #aaa4 ,bones gnawed by hynas1 #bhb4 ,bonney1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,g41 cited1 #bh4 ,bos longifrons1 #gh1 #hh1 #abe1 #aca1 #acc1 #acf1 #add1 #aej1 #aff1 #aid1 #bef1 #bfb1 #bfi4 ,bos namadicus1 #dbh4 ,bosco's ,den1 #bhh4 ,boulder clays1 #djc4 ,brachy-cephali1 the ,belgian1 #aii1 #bai2 ,british1 #aic1 #aii2 ,french1 #aii1 #bjb1 #bjc2 represented by ,celts1 #bbi4 ,bradley1 ,mr41 cited1 #aij4 ,brandt1 ,professor1 cited1 #cii2 on the ,irish ,elk1 #dja4 ,brenan1 ,mr41 discoveries of1 in ,ireland1 #cce4 ,bristol ,channel1 the1 #bij4 ,britain1 cave exploration in1 #ac2 during the second ice age1 #djf2 historic caves in1 #ha2 historic period in1 #ge2 inhabitants of1 in the neolithic age1 #aia2 in the pleistocene age1 #cff2 mammalia in1 during the second ice age1 #djf2 population of in time of ,csar1 #bbd2 raids of ,picts and ,scots in1 #aje2 range of dolicho-cephali in1 and ,ireland1 #aid2 ,roman dominion in1 #ajc2 two periods of glaciation in1 #dja2 wild animals in1 #ge4 ,british brachy-cephali1 #aih1 #aii4 ,brit-,welsh caves1 #abi1 #acj4 ,brixham1 caves at1 #af1 #cai2 implements and animals in1 #cbj2 history of deposits in1 #cba4 ,broca1 ,m41 cited1 #aef2 on ,basque crania1 #bac2 on the ,caverne de l',homme ,mort1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bja2 derivation of the ,basques from ,africa1 #bbg1 #bbh2 on platycnemic tibi1 #age2 sepulchral cave of ,orrouy1 #bjb4 ,brome1 ,captain1 researches of1 #ba1 #bjd4 ,bronze age in ,britain1 caves of the1 #ada2 armlet from ,thor's cave1 #abh2 articles from ,heathery ,burn1 #adb4 ,brooches found in the ,victoria cave1 #ih4 ,brown1 ,mr4 ,edwin1 on ,thor's cave1 #abh4 ,browne1 the ,rev4 ,g4 ,f41 explorations of1 #bf2 on the temperature of caves1 #gb4 ,bruniquel1 cave of1 #dj2 description of1 #bdg2 interments of doubtful age in1 #bdh4 ,bryce1 ,dr41 cited1 #dje4 ,brysgill1 cave of1 #afj4 ,bubalus namadicus1 #dbh4 ,buckland1 ,dr41 cited1 #ac1 #ah1 #cj1 #abj1 #bdj1 #bic1 #bie1 #cjj2 on ,gailenreuth cave1 #bgc1 #bgd2 ,kirkdale1 #ad1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhc2 ,khloch1 #bgf2 ,paviland1 #bcd4 ,buffalo in ,italy1 #ha4 ,busk1 ,professor1 cited1 #ac1 #abj1 #aee1 #afb1 #ahi1 #bei2 on fossil bones in the ,iberian peninsula1 #cgb2 human bones from ,perthi-,chwareu caves1 #aff-agi2 human remains from ,cefn tumulus1 #ahj-ahf2 human skull from caves of ,csaroda1 #adf1 #adg2 skulls found in ,spain1 #bjh1 #bji2 the ,berbers1 #bab2 the fauna of ,mentone1 #cgc2 researches of1 in caves of ,gibraltar1 #bjd-bjh1 #cga4 ,c4 ,calcareous rocks1 caves in1 #be4 ,caldy1 cave of1 #fb1 #fc2 cave-pearls in1 #ff2 fungoid stalagmites in1 #fg2 island of1 #bhi4 ,campbell1 ,dr41 cited1 #aif4 ,canis familiaris1 #aca1 #add1 #aej1 #aeg1 #aff1 #bef2 lupus1 #aff2 vulpes1 #aca1 #aej1 #aff4 ,capellini1 ,professor1 cited1 #beh2 on the ,grotta dei ,colombi1 #bei4 ,capra hircus1 #aca1 #aej1 #aff4 ,carbonate of lime1 circulation of1 #ga2 in ,thames water1 #gj2 removed by streams1 #fi4 ,cartaillac1 ,m41 cited1 #bdg4 ,carte1 ,dr41 cited1 #cce4 ,cat1 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,belgium1 #cdg2 ,bishofferode1 #d2 ,black ,rock1 #fh2 ,bosco's ,den1 #bhh2 ,britain1 #bgh2 ,brit-,welsh1 #acj2 ,brixham1 #cai2 ,bruniquel1 #bdg2 ,brysgill1 #afj2 ,caldy1 #fb2 ,canary ,isles1 #baa2 ,cat-,hole1 #ade2 ,cavillon1 #beg2 ,cefn1 #afd1 #aff1 #bhf2 ,csareda1 #ade2 ,chauvaux1 #bae2 ,colombi1 #beh2 ,crawley ,rocks1 #bhh2 ,cro-,magnon1 #bdi2 ,denbighshire1 #ah2 ,derbyshire1 #bhd2 ,devonshire1 #cag2 ,dowkerbottom1 #aja2 ,dream1 the1 #bhd2 ,engis1 #bcd2 ,fingal1 #bd2 ,france1 #ccf2 ,franconia1 #ab2 ,gailenreuth1 #bgc2 ,gatekirk1 #ej2 ,gendron1 #bci2 ,genista1 #bje1 #cga2 ,gibraltar1 #bjd1 #cga2 ,goatchurch1 #ca-cd2 ,gower1 #bhh2 ,heathery ,burn1 #ada2 ,hutton1 #bib2 ,ingleborough1 #cf2 ,ireland1 #cfe2 ,kelko1 #aja2 ,kent's-,hole1 #cbd2 ,king ,arthur1 #bij2 ,king's ,scar1 #aab2 ,kirkdale1 #bhj2 ,kirkhead1 #abe2 ,khloch1 #bgf2 ,laugerie ,basse1 #cci2 ,l',homme ,mort1 #aih1 #bjj2 ,llandebie1 #aid2 ,llanamynech1 #cd2 ,lombrive1 #bef2 ,longberry ,bank1 #acc2 ,long ,churn1 #da2 ,lunel-viel1 #ccf1 #cge2 ,maccagnone1 #cgf2 ,maghlak1 #cgg2 ,malta1 #cgg2 ,moustier1 #cda2 ,naulette1 #cdi2 ,neanderthal1 #bdj2 ,north ,wales1 #bhf2 ,oban1 #aie2 ,orrouy1 #bjb2 ,paviland1 #bcb2 ,peak1 #cd2 ,pembrokeshire1 #bhi2 ,prigord1 #ccg2 ,perthi-,chwareu1 #aeb1 #aeg1 #afg2 ,plas ,heaton1 #afj1 #bhg2 ,poole1 #cd1 #abf2 ,provence and ,mentone1 #cgc2 ,reggio1 #adh2 ,rians1 #cgc2 ,rhosdigre1 #aef1 #aff1 #ahh2 ,san ,ciro1 #cgf2 ,sclaigneaux1 #bah2 ,sicily1 #cge2 ,south ,wales1 #bhh2 ,thor's1 #abg2 ,uphill1 #bid2 ,victoria1 #ha1 #aaj1 #aah1 #aba1 #bhd1 #daa2 ,weathercote1 #dg2 ,whitcombe1 #adj2 ,woman's1 #baj2 ,wookey1 #ag1 #bi2 ,yorkshire1 #aja1 #bgh4 ,caverne de l',homme ,mort1 #aih1 #bjj4 ,cavillon1 cave of1 #beg2 palolithic skeletons in1 #beg2 strata in1 #cgd4 ,cedars of ,lebanon1 the1 ,dr4 ,hooker on1 #chb4 ,cefn1 caves at1 #bhf2 chambered tomb near1 #afa2 discovery of bones at1 #ae1 #aei2 ,professor ,busk on human remains from tumulus at1 #ahj-ahd2 on skull from1 #ahd-afg4 ,celts1 brachy-cephali represented by1 #bbi4 ,cervus alcis1 #acg2 capreolus1 #aca1 #aej1 #aff2 carnutorum1 #dai1 #dbd2 elaphus1 #aca1 #aej1 #aff2 ,polignacus1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbd2 ,sedgwickii1 #dai1 #dbd2 verticornis1 #dai1 #dbd4 ,csareda1 caves of1 #ade2 evidence of cannibalism in1 #adg4 ,chautre1 ,m41 cited1 #djc4 ,chapel-en-le-,dale1 valley of1 #di1 #ef4 ,chauvaux1 cave of1 #bj1 #bae4 ,chester1 sack of1 #aaj4 ,chierici1 l',abb1 on remains from the cave of ,reggio1 #adh4 ,chillingham ox1 the1 #gg1 #ij4 ,christol1 ,m4 de1 cited1 #cgf4 ,christy1 ,mr41 cited1 #ai2 on the caves of ,prigord1 #ccg4 8,cirques0 in calcareous rocks1 #ef4 ,classification of pleistocene strata1 #dab-dad4 ,classificatory value of historic animals1 #gh4 ,close1 ,rev4 ,h4 ,m41 cited1 #djb4 ,climate1 evidence of animals as to1 #cib1 #dja2 pleistocene1 #cih4 ,coast line of ,north-,western ,europe in pleistocene age1 #cfb4 ,cochrane1 ,sir ,james1 cited1 #bjh4 ,coins in the ,victoria cave1 ,settle1 #ic4 ,corsica1 absence of cliffs in1 #cij4 ,crania from ,genista cave1 #bjg4 ,cranial terms1 definition of1 #aij4 ,craven1 caves near1 #ajf4 ,crawley ,rocks1 the cavern of1 #bhh4 ,crayford1 discovery of a flint-flake at1 #daf4 ,cro-,magnon1 cave of1 #bdi2 ornaments found in1 #bed2 position of human skeletons in1 #bec2 section of deposits in1 #bej2 the human tibi of1 #agf2 traces of occupation in1 #bea4 ,cuvier1 ,baron1 cited1 #ab1 #ac1 #ah4 ,d4 ,dalebeck1 the1 course of1 #di4 ,dana1 ,professor1 on caverns1 #eh4 ,darbishire1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,d41 reference to1 #ic4 ,dauphiny1 the hills of1 #djd4 ,delgado1 ,senhor ,j4 ,l41 on researches in the caves of ,csareda1 #ade1 #adf4 ,de ,luc1 ,m41 cited1 #ab4 ,denbighshire1 sepulchral caves in1 #ah4 ,denny1 ,mr41 cited1 #abj4 ,derbyshire1 caves of1 #bhd4 ,desnoyers1 ,m41 cited1 #be1 #bf1 #bh2 on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins1 #eg2 relation of caves to ravines1 #ee4 ,devonshire1 caves of1 #cag4 ,dio ,chrysostom ,rhetor on the lion1 #hj4 ,dog1 the 7see ,canis familiaris74 ,dolicho-cephali1 ,british1 #aia1 #aib2 their range in ,britain and ,ireland1 #aid-aig2 cognate with the ,basque1 #bah2 of ,gibraltar1 #bjd-bjg4 ,dormouse of ,malta1 the1 #bfg4 ,dowkerbottom cave1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,dream-cave1 near ,wirksworth1 #bhd4 ,dubrueil1 ,m41 cited1 #ah4 ,dupont1 ,m41 cited1 #baf1 #bcg1 #bci2 discoveries of1 #ba1 #bce2 investigations of1 in ,dinant-sur-,meuse1 #cdh2 on the ,trou de ,naulette1 #cdi4 ,durdham ,down1 fissures of1 #bia4 ,drnten1 the lignite bed of1 #djd4 ,e4 ,eagle1 the1 #aej4 8,ebur fossile10 #aa4 ,egerton1 ,sir ,philip1 cited1 #bgc4 ,elephant1 the ,african1 #ba2 found near ,madrid1 #cgb2 in ,sicily1 #cgf1 #cid4 ,elephas antiquus1 #bff1 #bha1 #cgc1 #cgf1 #djj1 #djd1 #dag2 melitensis1 #cgh1 #djj2 meridionalis1 #bff1 #cgi1 #dai1 #dbb1 #dbd2 namadicus1 #dbg2 primigenius 7see ,mammoth72 7stegodon7 insignis1 #dbg4 ,elk1 the1 #gi1 #acg4 ,elmet1 conquest of1 #aji4 ,enamels in the north of ,england1 #ajj2 mentioned by ,philostratus1 #aja4 ,engis1 cave of1 #bcd4 ,english invasion1 the1 #ajg4 ,enniskillen1 ,lord1 cited1 #bgc4 ,equus fossilis of pleiocene age1 #dba4 ,eskimos1 art of the1 #cef2 implements of the1 #ced2 in ,europe1 #dbe2 probably the representatives of cave-dwellers1 #ceh2 relation of cave-dwellers to1 #cec4 ,esper1 cited1 #bgc4 ,europe1 ,antiquity of man in1 #dbd2 climatal changes on the continent of1 #djc2 pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in1 #djd2 species of mammalia in ,africa1 and1 #chj2 ,southern1 bone-caves of1 #cgj2 fauna in caves of1 #cfh4 ,evans1 ,mr4 ,john1 cited1 #ag1 #adg1 #aeh1 #bdc1 #bdh1 #bfg2 on coins1 #id2 on the iron1 bronze1 and stone ages1 #aci2 on the palolithic cave-dwellers1 #cea4 ,evidence of soundings in ,southern ,europe1 #chj4 ,f4 ,fairy ,chamber1 the1 ,caldy1 #fc1 #fd4 ,falconer1 ,dr41 cited1 #ag1 #ba1 #aef1 #age1 #bha1 #bhh1 #caf1 #cfb1 #djd1 #daf1 #dah1 #dba1 #dbe1 #dbg2 on bones from ,san ,ciro1 #cgf2 on mammals in the ,iberian peninsula1 #cgb2 on the fauna of the forest bed1 #dbj2 on the hippopotamus1 #cgg2 on the ,hippopotamus namadicus1 #dbh1 #dbi2 researches of1 in caves of ,gibraltar1 #bjd-bjg4 ,fallow deer1 the1 #gg2 in ,britain1 #aca2 in ,france1 #hj2 in ,spain and ,africa1 #chj4 ,falsan1 ,m41 cited1 #djc4 ,farrer1 ,mr41 explorations of1 #cf2 on coins1 #ajb2 on remains from ,dowkerbottom cave1 #aac2 stalagmite1 #ci4 ,fauna1 cave1 identical with river-bed1 #cfb2 changes in the1 of ,great ,britain1 #gh2 of ,montpellier1 #dba2 of ,southern ,europe1 #cfh1 #cgc2 the pleiocene1 #dbj2 the pleistocene1 #cic1 #dag2 the prehistoric1 #acf1 #acg4 ,felis caffer1 the1 #ach1 #bff1 #chh2 in ,iberian peninsula1 #cgb2 in ,somerset1 #cid4 ,fellowes1 ,sir ,charles1 cited1 #afd4 ,fibul1 enamelled1 #ii4 ,fingal's cave1 #bd4 ,fischer1 ,dr4 ,gothelf1 on the panther1 #djj4 ,fisher1 ,rev4 ,o41 discovers a flint-flake at ,crayford1 #daf4 ,fisherton1 valley-gravels at1 #bfh4 ,fissures1 #cg1 #eh2 of ,durdham ,down1 #bia2 of ,mentone1 #cgc2 of ,windmill ,hill1 #cga4 ,flint flakes and scrapers in caves of ,prigord1 #cci2 in caves of ,mentone1 #cgc2 in ,perthi-,chwareu1 #aff2 ,wookey ,hole1 #bih4 ,florus on the ,aquitani1 #g4 ,foote1 ,mr4 ,bruce1 cited1 #aef2 on flint implements from ,madras1 #dbf4 ,fossil mammalia from the ,german ,ocean1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,foville1 ,m41 cited1 #agj4 ,fowl1 the domestic1 #gg1 #hj4 ,fox1 the ,arctic1 #cdh1 #cif1 #djj4 ,fraas1 ,professor1 cited1 #cej1 #dji4 ,france1 ,basque peoples in1 #bbf2 caves in1 #ah1 #bdb1 #ccf2 skulls from tumuli in1 #bjc2 the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in1 #aih4 ,franconia1 caves of1 #ab4 ,franks1 ,mr41 cited1 #bjf2 on drawings of palolithic hunters1 #cde2 on enamelling1 #ajj2 on 8late ,celtic0 art1 #if1 #ii4 ,freeman1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a41 on the dominion of ,west ,wales in the days of ,ecgberht1 #acj2 on the ,norman ,conquest1 #ajh4 ,freshford1 pleistocene deposits at1 #bfi4 ,fuhlrott1 ,dr41 skull found by1 #bdj4 ,g4 ,gailenreuth1 cave of1 #ab1 #bdj1 #bgc2 filled by a stream1 #bge4 ,garonne1 valley of the1 #cff4 ,garrigou1 ,m41 cited1 #caf4 ,gatekirk cavern1 #ej4 ,gaudin1 ,m4 ,charles1 cited1 #cgf4 ,gaudry1 ,professor1 cited1 #dba2 on fossil remains at ,pickermi1 #cfi4 ,gaul and ,spain1 the peoples of1 #bbj4 ,gautier1 ,m41 cited1 #bdg4 ,geikie1 ,mr4 ,james1 cited1 #bfc4 ,geikie1 ,professor ,a41 cited1 #dje4 ,gendron1 cave of1 #bci4 ,genista1 caves1 the1 #bje2 articles in1 #bjf2 human remains in1 #bjg1 #cga4 ,geography1 pleistocene1 #cih4 ,german ,ocean1 fossil mammalia in1 #cfd4 ,german race1 the ancient1 #bcj4 ,germany1 bears in1 #bgh2 cave-exploration in1 #aa1 #ab4 ,gervais1 ,m41 cited1 #ai2 list of pleiocene mammalia by1 #dbj2 on ,equus robustus1 #dba2 on mammalia from ,algeria1 #cgi4 ,gesner1 ,dr41 cited1 #aa4 ,gibraltar1 the neolithic caves of1 #bjd1 #cga2 the ,straits of1 #chi4 ,gildas on the character of the ,english conquest1 #ajd1 #ajh4 ,glacial period1 the1 #djg2 the relation of palolithic man to1 #dji4 ,glaciation in ,britain1 two periods of1 #dja4 ,glaciers of ,alps1 #djc2 of ,anatolia1 #chc2 of ,lebanon1 #chb2 in ,mediterranean area caused partly by elevation1 #chg2 of ,pyrenees1 #djd4 ,glutton1 the1 #bjf1 #bge1 #cif2 jaw of1 from ,plas ,heaton cave1 #bhg4 ,goat1 the 7see ,capra hircus74 ,goatchurch cave1 #ca1 #cb2 legend of the dog at1 #cd4 ,goldfuss cited1 #ah1 #bgc4 ,godwin-,austen1 ,mr41 cited1 #bfc1 #chh1 #dje2 on the fresh-water mussel1 #cfd2 researches of1 #ae4 ,gosse1 ,m41 cited1 #agj1 #aic1 #cej4 ,gower1 caves of1 #bhh4 ,great ,britain1 cave-exploration in1 #ac2 historic period in1 #ge4 ,green1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,r41 on the conquest of ,britain1 #if4 ,greenwell1 ,rev4 ,canon1 discoveries of1 in tumuli1 #aie4 ,grey clays in ,victoria cave1 #aaf4 ,grotto di ,maccagnone1 #cgf2 dei ,colombi inhabited by cannibals1 #beh2 thigh-bone of child from1 #bfj4 ,guanches of the ,canary ,isles1 the1 #baa4 ,gunn1 ,rev4 ,john1 cited1 #dah4 ,h4 ,harkness1 ,professor1 cited1 #djb4 ,hamy1 ,dr41 cited1 #cdi1 #ceb2 on the cave-bear1 #ceb4 ,hare1 the1 at ,perthi-,chwareu1 #aej1 #aff2 in ,suabia1 #cie2 mentioned1 #bff1 #cdh2 used for food in neolithic times1 #afe1 #bag1 #cgc4 ,harpoons used by palolithic hunters1 #cdb4 ,heathery ,burn1 cave of1 #ada2 bronze articles in1 #add4 ,heaton1 ,mr41 cited1 #bhg4 ,heer1 ,professor1 on vegetables used in ,swiss lake dwellings1 #acg4 ,helln ,pot1 descent into1 #da2 description of1 #de2 exploration of1 #dc4 ,hipparion found in ,suffolk1 #dbb2 gracile1 #dbd4 ,hippopotamus1 #bff2 amphibius1 #ach1 #cgj1 #cid1 #cie1 #dag2 liberiensis1 #cgg2 major1 #cgg1 #dah2 namadicus1 #dbh2 palindicus1 #dbg2 ,pentlandi 7pigmy71 #bfg1 #cgg1 #cgh1 #djj4 ,historic animals1 #ge1 #gh2 period1 definition of1 #ge2 period1 difference between1 and prehistoric1 #acd4 ,history1 the evidence of1 as to the peoples of ,gaul and ,spain1 #bbj4 ,hooker1 ,dr41 cited1 #chf2 on the cedars of ,lebanon1 #chb1 #chc4 ,horse1 the1 #acf1 #aej1 #aff1 #cii1 #dah4 ,horseflesh1 the use of1 #acb4 ,howel ,dha1 the laws of1 #gg4 ,hughes1 ,professor1 cited1 #bhg4 ,hull1 ,professor1 cited1 #djb4 ,hunting grounds of palolithic tribes1 #cfg4 ,hutton1 cave of1 #bib4 ,huxley1 ,professor1 cited1 #add1 #aee1 #agi2 on brachy-cephalic skulls1 #aic2 on dolicho-cephalic skulls1 #aie2 on the classification of crania1 #aij2 on the skull from ,engis cave1 #bce2 on the skull from ,neanderthal cave1 #bda4 ,hyna1 the1 animals at ,wookey ,hole introduced by1 #caj2 bones gnawed by1 #bhb1 #caf2 gnawed jaw of1 from ,wookey1 #cac2 man coeval with1 in ,somerset1 #cjj2 ,perrieri1 #dba2 the1 pleistocene occupation of1 in ,victoria cave1 #aah2 spela 7spotted71 #ach1 #bff1 #cgb1 #cge1 #cid2 striped1 #bff1 #ccf1 #cid4 ,hyna-den1 characters of a1 #cad2 ,kirkdale1 #bgi4 ,i4 ,iberian peoples1 #bbe2 peninsula1 the mammals in1 #cgb4 ,iberic dolicho-cephali1 the1 #bab4 ,ice period in ,britain1 #djb1 #djf1 #djh4 ,implements used by palolithic hunters1 #cdj1 #cff4 ,india1 man in1 in pleistocene age1 #dbf4 ,ingleborough cave1 #cf1 #cg4 ,ireland1 caves in1 #cce2 dolicho-cephalic skulls in1 #aid-aig4 ,irish-,celtic art1 #ig4 ,irish ,elk1 the1 #gi1 #acg1 #bgh1 #dja4 ,iron age1 the1 cave of1 #adj1 #ada4 ,issoire1 pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of1 #dbj4 ,italy1 animals in the museums of1 #dbb4 ,j4 ,jackson1 ,mr4 ,joseph1 discovers the ,victoria cave1 #ha1 #hd4 ,jamieson1 ,mr41 cited1 #dje4 ,jeanjean1 ,m41 cited1 #ah4 ,jewellery in ,victoria cave1 #ie4 ,jones1 ,professor ,rupert1 cited1 #cej4 ,k4 ,kelko cave1 #aja4 ,kent's ,hole cavern1 #ad1 #ag1 #cbd1 #cbe2 age of machairodus of1 #ccj2 deposits in1 #cbf1 #cbg2 the breccia in1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,king1 ,rev4 ,s4 ,w41 researches of1 #bdf4 ,king's ,scar1 cave in1 carinate human femur in1 #aab1 #aie4 ,kirkdale cave1 #ad1 #bgi4 ,kirkhead cave1 #abe4 ,khloch cave1 #bgf1 #bgg4 ,l4 ,laing1 ,mr41 cited1 #agh2 skulls obtained by1 #aie1 #aif4 ,lagneaux1 ,m41 cited1 #bch1 #bci4 ,lances used by palolithic hunters1 #cdb4 ,laugerie ,basse1 cave at1 #cci4 ,lartet1 ,professor ,e41 cited1 #ai1 #cdj1 #dad2 explorations of1 #bdd2 on fossil remains found near ,madrid1 #cgb2 on the cave of ,aurignac1 #bdc2 on the cave of ,prigord1 #ccg2 on palolithic caves1 #cea4 ,lartet1 ,professor ,louis1 on the cave of ,cro-,magnon1 #bej-beb4 ,lastic1 ,vicomte de1 cited1 #bdg4 ,lebanon1 the glaciers of1 #chb1 #chc4 ,ledbury ,hill1 skull found near1 #bdb4 ,leibnitz1 cited1 #ab4 ,lemming1 the1 #ach1 #bcg1 #bff1 #cdh4 ,lepus cuniculus1 #adf1 #aej1 #aff1 #cgc2 timidus 7see ,hare74 ,ligurian tribes1 the1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,limestone1 caverns in1 #bf2 composition of1 #ea2 erosion of1 #eb4 ,lion1 the1 #bff1 #cdh1 #cgc2 extinct in ,europe1 #hj2 range of1 #cic4 ,littorina littorea found in ,cro-,magnon cave1 #bed4 ,llanamynech1 caves at1 #cd4 ,llandebie1 cave of1 #aid4 ,lloyd1 ,mr41 cited1 #ae1 #bhf4 ,lombrive1 cave of1 #bef4 ,longberry ,bank1 cave of1 #acc4 ,long ,churn cavern1 the1 #da4 ,lortet1 ,m41 cited1 #cdd4 ,luard1 ,captain1 discovers fossil mammals at ,windsor1 #cfe4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 cited1 #bdc1 #cei2 on the stone age1 #aci4 ,lunel-viel1 cave of1 #ccf1 #cge4 ,lunier1 ,dr41 cited1 #agj4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 cited1 #ai1 #bce1 #beg1 #bfg1 #ccc1 #djb2 on the cave of ,aurignac1 #bdc1 #bde2 on the glacial period1 #djh4 ,lynx1 the1 #adf1 #bff4 ,m4 ,maccagnone1 ,grotto di1 #cgf4 ,machairodus cultridens1 #bff2 latidens1 #djj1 #dag2 a pleiocene species1 #ccb2 at ,kent's ,hole1 #cbd1 #ccd2 in the cave at ,baume1 #ccg2 probable age of1 #ccj4 ,mackay1 ,mr41 cited1 #aie4 ,madras1 flint implements found near1 #dbf4 ,madrid1 fossil animals near1 #cgb4 ,maghlak cave1 #cgg4 ,malham ,cove1 #ee4 ,malta1 bone-caves of1 #cgg4 ,mammalia1 classification of pleistocene strata by means of1 #dab-dae2 early pleistocene1 #dag2 evidence of1 as to climate1 #cib2 in ,algeria1 #cgi2 in ,britain during the second ice-age1 #djf2 in the ,iberian peninsula1 #cgb2 the pleiocene1 #dbj4 ,mammoth1 the1 #bff1 #bgh1 #cei1 #dja2 figure of1 #cdf4 ,man1 antiquity of1 in ,europe1 #dbd2 coeval with hynas in ,somerset1 #cjj2 in ,india in pleistocene age1 #dbf2 in ,palestine1 #dbi4 ,manchester ,museum1 mammoth from ,bacton in the1 #dbj4 ,mangousta ,widdringtoni1 the1 in ,spain and ,africa1 #chj4 ,marcel de ,serres1 cited1 #ah1 #ccf1 #cge4 ,marmot1 the1 #ccg1 #cie2 the pouched1 #cie4 ,marion1 ,m41 cited1 #cgc4 ,martinez1 ,don ,manuel ,gongaray1 on the prehistoric antiquities of ,andalusia1 #bji4 ,mastodon arvernensis1 #cca1 #ccb1 #dbb-dbd2 ,borsoni1 #dbc1 #dbd2 brevirostris1 #dbb4 ,maw1 ,mr4 ,george1 on coast of ,mediterranean1 #chi2 on glaciers of the ,atlas1 #chf2 on level in the ,sahara1 #cij4 ,mc,enery1 ,rev4 ,j41 discovers the ,machairodus latidens in ,kent's ,hole cavern1 #ccj2 manuscripts of1 #ae4 ,mc,pherson1 ,mr41 cited1 #baj4 ,mediterranean area in meiocene age1 changes of level in1 #cfi1 #cij4 ,mediterranean1 the1 physical condition of1 in pleistocene age1 #cha1 #chh2 the shores of1 #chb4 ,medlicott1 ,mr41 cited1 #dbg4 ,meles taxus1 #aca1 #add1 #aej1 #aff4 ,mendip ,hills1 the1 #ei2 the caves of1 #bib2 the district of1 #cad4 ,mentone1 bone-caves of1 #cgc4 ,metcalfe1 ,mr41 cited1 #ce2 descends into ,helln ,pot1 #dc4 ,mineral condition of deposits in caves1 #bgc4 ,moggridge1 ,mr41 cited1 #cgc2 on the exploration of ,mentone1 #cgd4 ,montpellier1 the fauna of1 #dba4 ,moraines in ,anatolia1 #chd4 ,morris1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p41 explores ,kirkhead cave1 #abe4 ,mortillet1 ,m4 de1 on palolithic caves1 #cec2 on pottery in the palolithic age1 #cdg4 ,moustier1 cave of1 #cda4 ,murcilagos1 ,cueva de los1 description of1 #bji4 ,musk sheep1 the1 #ach1 #bff2 at ,crayford1 #daf2 range of1 #cif4 ,myoxus ,melitensis1 #cgg4 ,n4 ,naulette1 ,trou de1 remains found in the1 #cdi4 ,neanderthal cave1 the1 #ba2 human skull found in1 #bdj4 ,neolithic age1 interments of1 #aeh4 ,neolithic caves of ,france1 #aih2 of ,gibraltar1 #bjd2 of ,spain1 #bjh2 of ,wales1 #aei1 #aff4 ,neolithic races1 range of1 #ahi4 ,nilsson1 ,professor1 cited1 #afc2 on dwarfs1 #b2 on origin of chambered tombs1 #afd1 #afe4 ,north ,wales1 the caves of1 #bhf4 ,o4 ,oban1 remains in a cave at1 #aie4 ,oreston cave1 #ac1 #cag2 ,rhinoceros megarhinus of1 #dae4 ,orrouy1 the sepulchral cave of1 #bjb4 ,owen1 ,professor1 cited1 #aif1 #cbd2 on the cave of ,bruniquel1 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,oxford ,museum1 the1 human skull from cave of ,llandebie in1 #aid2 molar of pigmy hippopotamus in1 #cgh4 ,p4 ,palolithic art1 #beg2 caves1 classification of1 #cea1 #ceb2 hunters1 instruments used by1 #cdj2 hunters1 not cannibals1 #cdg2 implements1 #ced1 #cff2 man in ,europe1 #cie1 #dbi2 man1 relation of1 to glacial period1 #dji2 man in ,india1 #dbf2 man in ,palestine1 #dbi2 man of the river-gravels1 #cea2 tribes1 hunting grounds of1 #cfg4 ,palestine1 palolithic man in1 #dbi4 ,palgrave1 ,mr4 ,gifford1 on glaciers of ,anatolia1 #chc-che4 ,panther1 the1 #bff1 #djj4 ,parker1 ,mr4 ,james1 cited1 #cj1 #ada1 #aid4 ,paviland cave1 #bcb4 ,peak1 cavern of the1 #cd4 ,pembrokeshire1 caves in1 #bhi4 ,pengelly1 ,mr41 cited1 #ccc2 on ,brixham cave1 #af1 #cbc2 on ,cavillon cave1 #beh2 on ,devonshire caves1 #cag4 ,pennington1 ,mr41 cited1 #abf1 #bhe4 ,prigord1 caves of1 #ai2 articles found in the1 #ccg-cci4 ,perthes1 ,m4 ,boucher de1 on flint implements1 #af1 #ag4 ,perthi-,chwareu1 pottery and implements from1 #aeg2 ,professor ,busk on human bones from1 #afg-agi2 refuse heap at1 #adi2 remains of animals at1 #aea1 #aec-aee1 #ahg2 remains of man at1 #aec-aee2 sepulchral caves at1 #aeb4 ,phahlbauten1 the ,swiss1 #afe4 ,phillips1 ,professor1 cited1 #bhd1 #dje1 #daa2 on formation of caves1 #ec2 on stalagmite1 #ci1 #dj2 on the ,ingleborough cave1 #cf2 on the origin of caves1 #bf4 ,physiography of ,great ,britain in late pleistocene age1 #cfc2 of ,mediterranean in pleistocene age1 #cha4 ,picts and ,scots1 raids of1 in ,britain1 #aje4 ,pickermi1 fossil remains at1 #cfi4 ,plas ,heaton1 the tunnel-cave of1 #afj1 #bhg4 ,platycnemic leg-bones1 #agc-agf4 ,platycnemism1 ,professor ,busk on1 #agg-agi4 ,pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals1 #dbc2 species in ,europe1 mixture of1 #dah4 ,pleiocene mammalia1 the1 #dbj2 period1 the1 #dbd2 species1 machairodus a1 #ccb1 #ccc4 ,pleistocene age1 the1 #aj2 animals living in1 #cei-cfa2 physiography of ,mediterranean in1 #cha1 #chh2 remains of animals before the1 #fj2 climate and geography1 #cie2 coast-line of ,north-,western ,europe1 #cfb2 divisions1 early1 #dag2 divisions1 late1 #dad2 divisions1 middle1 #dae2 relation of1 to prehistoric period1 #bfd1 #bfe2 strata1 classification of1 #dab4 ,po1 the river1 #chi4 ,poole's cavern1 #cd1 #abf4 ,pot-holes and 8cirques0 in calcareous rocks1 #ef4 ,porcupine1 in ,spain and ,africa1 #chj2 found in ,belgium1 #cie4 ,prehistoric period1 the1 archological classification of1 #ach2 conditions of life in1 #bfb2 difference between the historic and1 #acd2 relation of pleistocene to1 #bfd4 ,prestwich1 ,mr41 cited1 #bfg1 #bga1 #daf2 on ,brixham cave1 #cba1 #cbb2 on carbonate of lime in ,thames water1 #fi2 on the discoveries in the valley of the ,somme1 #ag2 on the denudation of the ,mendips and ,ardennes1 #fa2 on palolithic man1 #daj4 ,provence1 bone-caves of1 #cgc4 ,pruner-,bey1 ,dr41 cited1 #aic4 ,prunires1 ,dr41 cited1 #bjj4 ,purpura lapillus in cave of ,cro-,magnon1 #bed4 ,pyrenees1 the1 animals living to the ,north of the ,alps and1 #cei-cfa2 glaciers of1 #djc4 ,q4 ,quatrefages1 ,m4 de1 cited1 #bch4 ,r4 ,rabbit1 the 7see lepus cuniculus74 ,ramsay1 ,professor1 cited1 #djb4 ,rat1 the common1 migrations of1 #gf4 ,rattonneau1 island of1 #cgc4 ,ravines1 #ed4 ,reggio1 cave of1 in ,modena1 #adh4 ,reindeer1 the1 #gf1 #gi1 #bgh2 absence of1 in middle pleistocene division1 #daf2 engraving of1 #cde1 #cef2 in the cave of ,lombrive1 #bef2 in the caves of ,prigord1 #cch2 in the ,trou du ,frontal1 #bcg2 --period of ,m4 ,lartet1 #dad2 range of1 #cif4 ,rhtic age1 fossils of1 #ei4 ,rhinoceros etruscus1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbd2 hemitchus1 #bha1 #bhh1 #cgb1 #djj1 #dag2 megarhinus1 #bff1 #ccd1 #djj1 #djd1 #dae1 #daf-dah2 tichorhinus 7woolly71 #aai1 #ach1 #bgh1 #djj4 ,rhosdigre cave1 #ahh2 contents of1 #aff2 greenstone celt from1 #aef4 ,rians1 cave of1 #cgc4 ,richard1 the ,abb1 cited1 #dbi4 ,rivire1 ,m41 explorations of1 #beg1 #cgc1 #cge4 ,roedeer1 the1 #gf4 ,rolleston1 ,dr41 cited1 #aie2 discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by1 #cgh4 ,roman dominion in ,britain1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,rosenmller1 cited1 #ab1 #ac1 #bgc4 ,rtimeyer1 ,professor1 cited1 #acf1 #djd4 ,s4 ,sahara1 the1 changes of level in1 #cji4 ,samian ware in the ,victoria cave1 #ib2 in the ,dowkerbottom cave1 #ajb4 ,san ,ciro1 cave of1 #cgf4 ,schaaffhausen1 ,m41 cited1 #adg2 on the skull from ,neanderthal1 #bda4 ,schmerling1 ,dr41 cited1 #cie2 researches of1 #bj1 #bcd1 #cdg4 ,sclaigneaux1 cave of1 #bah2 platycnemic tibia from1 #bai4 ,sanford1 ,mr41 ,ayshford1 cited1 #ca1 #fc1 #adj1 #bic1 #cjg1 #cid4 ,second ice or glacial period1 #djf4 ,selsea1 remains found at1 #dje4 ,serres1 ,m4 de1 cited1 #ai4 ,serval1 the1 #ba1 #cgb1 #cid4 ,sicily1 bone-caves of1 #ba2 the ,iberians in1 #bbb2 species from1 #cgf4 ,skulls1 measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic1 #aii2 from ,perthi-,chwareu1 #aga2 of doubtful antiquity1 #bcf2 table of dolicho-cephalic1 found in ,britain and ,ireland1 #aig4 ,smith1 ,mr4 ,roach1 on ,roman coins1 #hc4 ,smith1 ,rev4 ,g4 ,n41 on ,tenby bone-caves1 #bhi4 ,solutr1 horse's skeleton from1 #cdd4 ,somerset1 hynas in1 #cja2 mammalia in the caves of1 #cff4 ,soreil1 ,m41 on the cave of ,chauvaux1 #baf4 ,soundings1 evidence of1 in ,southern ,europe1 #chj4 ,south ,wales1 caves of1 #bhh2 mammalia in1 #cff4 ,southern ,europe1 bone-caves of1 #ba4 ,spain1 articles found in a copper-mine in1 #bjh2 historical evidence as to the peoples of ,gaul and1 #bbj-bbb4 ,spratt1 ,admiral1 explorations of1 #ba1 #cgg4 ,spring1 ,dr41 discoveries of1 #bj2 on the cave of ,chauvaux1 #bae1 #baf4 ,stag1 the1 #gf1 #ach4 ,stalagmite1 rate of the accumulation of1 #ci4 ,stanley1 ,rev4 ,e41 cited1 #bhf4 ,sus ,indica1 the1 #acg4 ,sus palustris1 #bfb4 ,sus scrofa1 #aca1 #aej1 #aff4 ,switzerland1 caves of1 #cej4 ,symonds1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,s41 explores ,king ,arthur's cave1 #bij1 #bia4 ,t4 ,tapir1 the #dbc4 ,temperature of caves1 #ga4 ,tenby1 cave of ,caldy near1 #fb2 the ,black ,rock near1 #fh4 ,thames water1 carbonate of lime in1 #fi1 #gj4 ,thomas1 ,rev4 ,d4 ,r41 on chambered tomb at ,cefn1 #afc4 ,thor's cave1 near ,ashbourne1 #abg2 occupied by ,brit-,welsh1 #abi4 ,thurnam1 ,dr41 cited1 #add2 on classification of crania1 #aij2 on craniology of ,britain in neolithic age1 #aia2 on dolicho-cephalic skulls1 #aib2 on skulls from cave of ,orrouy1 #bjb4 ,tiddeman1 ,mr41 on the ,victoria cave1 #he1 #abb4 ,troglodytes1 name of1 #f4 ,trogontherium cuvieri1 #dai1 #dbd4 ,tropical and cold climates1 animals common to1 #djj4 ,trou du ,frontal1 #bcf2 crania in1 #bch4 ,tunbridge ,wells1 rocks at1 #be4 ,turner1 ,professor1 on remains in a cave at ,oban1 #aie4 ,turritella communis in cave of ,cro-,magnon1 #bed4 ,tuto1 islands of1 caves in1 #ei4 ,tyddyn ,bleiddyn1 cairn of1 #ahh4 ,u4 ,ultz1 burial-places of1 in ,westphalia1 #adg4 ,unio pictorum dredged from bottom of ,english ,channel1 #cfd4 ,uphill1 cave of1 #bid2 skull from1 #aid4 ,urus1 the1 #gg1 #hj1 #acf1 #cgc1 #cii4 ,ursus arctos1 #aff1 #cce4 ,ursus arvernensis1 #dah1 #dai1 #dbb1 #dbd4 ,ursus spelus1 #cge4 ,v4 ,val d',arno1 fauna of the1 #dbb4 ,valleys1 change in physical conditions of1 #bga2 deposits in caves and1 #bgb2 in limestone districts1 #ed2 strata of sand and gravel in1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,victoria cave1 the1 bones of animals in1 #hh2 ,brit-,welsh stratum in1 #hg2 bronze articles in1 #ij2 coins in1 #ic2 date of neolithic occupation in1 #aae2 discovery of1 #ha2 exploration of1 #he2 grey clays in1 #aaf2 human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in1 #daa2 implements and ornaments in1 #hc1 #ie2 miscellaneous articles in1 #ij2 period of ,brit-,welsh occupation in1 #aaj2 pleistocene occupation by hynas in1 #aah1 #bhd2 pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in1 #aba-abc1 #daa4 ,vivian1 ,mr41 cited1 #ae4 ,virchow1 ,professor1 cited1 #bch2 on dolicho-cephalic skulls1 #bag4 ,vogt1 ,professor1 cited1 #beg4 ,w4 ,water1 action of1 in caves1 #fb4 ,water caves of ,derbyshire1 #cd2 of ,somersetshire1 #bi2 of ,yorkshire1 #ce1 #ej4 ,weathercote1 caves at1 #dg4 ,whidbey1 ,mr41 cited1 #ac4 ,whitcombe's ,hole1 a cave of the ,iron ,age1 #adj1 #ada4 ,willett1 ,mr41 cited1 #bie1 #cjc4 ,williams1 ,rev4 ,d41 explorations of1 #bib4 ,williams1 ,rev ,john1 on caverns in island of ,tuto1 #ei4 ,williamson1 ,rev4 ,j41 cited1 #bie1 #bif4 ,wilson1 ,professor1 cited1 #aif4 ,winterbourne ,stoke1 the barrow of1 #aib4 ,winwood1 ,rev4 ,h4 ,h41 cited1 #afc2 discovers remains of animals at ,freshford1 #bfi2 explores the cave at ,longberry ,bank1 #acc4 ,wolf1 the1 #djj2 in ,britain1 #aca2 in ,spain1 #adf2 last1 in ,scotland1 #gf4 ,woman's cave1 the1 near ,alhama1 #baj4 ,wood1 ,colonel1 cited1 #ag4 ,wookey ,hole1 hyna den of1 #ag1 #bie1 #cja1 #cjb2 ashes and implements found at1 #cjh2 bone-beds at1 #cje2 flint implements found at1 #bih2 hyna den of1 inhabited by man1 #cac2 legend of the dog at1 #cd2 the water cave of1 #bi4 ,x4 ,xenophon on the panther1 #hj4 ,y4 ,yorkshire1 caves in1 #aja1 #bgh4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,sons1 ,,and ,,taylor1 ,,printers4 ,,footnotes #a ,the ,natural ,history of the ,hartz ,forest 7,hercynia ,curiosa71 translated from the ,german of ,h4 ,behrens1 ,m4,d41 by ,john ,andree1 #afgj1 p4 #da4 #b ,florus1 lib4 iii4 c4 x4 ,delphin4 #dto4 #agad1 p4 #aab4 #c ,since this was written1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell has withdrawn his term 8,post-pleiocene0 in favour of ,pleistocene4 78,antiquity of ,man10 #dth edition1 #ahgc47 #d ,hist4 ,anim4 vol4 i4 ,folio1 #afjc4 ,article 8,monoceras40 #e ,described by ,professor ,owen1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 p4 #dag4 ,see ,hanbury on 8,chinese ,materia ,medica10 #ahfb1 #hvo4 p4 #dj4 ,some of the dragons' teeth were found in caves by ,mr4 ,swinhoe4 #f ,hercynia ,curiosa4 #g ,see ,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 vol4 iv4 pp4 #bij et seq4 #h ,the references are to be found in ,cuvier1 top4 cit4 and in ,buckland1 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 #dto4 #ahbb4 ,most of them ,i have verified4 #i ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahag1 p4 #agf4 #aj ,pengelly1 8,literature of ,kent's ,cavern10 ,devonshire ,association4 #ahfh-i4 8,kent's ,hole10 ,lecture1 delivered in ,hulme ,town ,hall1 #ahgb4 #aa ,comptes ,rendus1 #ahdg1 pp4 #fdi-ej1 et #ahfd1 p4 #bcj4 #ab ,prestwich1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahfj4 ,proceed4 ,royal ,soc4 #ahei4 #ac ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 ,jan4 #ahfa4 #ad ,falconer1 ,palont4 ,mem4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dih4 #ae ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahfe-gb4 #af ,the authorities for this paragraph are ,cuvier 7,oss4 ,foss471 ,desnoyers 7,article 8,grottes10 ,dictionnaire ,univ4 d',histoire ,naturelle71 ,marcel de ,serres 7,cavernes ,oss4 ,foss4 du ,dpartement de l',aude1 #ahci71 ,gervais 7,palontologie ,franaise1 #ahei1 and ,nouvelles ,recherches sur les ,animaux ,vertbrs1 ,vivants et ,fossiles1 #ahfh-i-gj74 #ag ,an4 des ,sc43 ,nat4 ,zool4 iv4 sr4 t4 xv4 #ah ,reliqui ,aquitanic4 #ai ,recherches sur les ,oss4 ,foss4 dcouverts dans les ,cavernes de la ,province de ,lige1 #dto4 atlas folio4 #bj ,bull4 de l',acadmie ,royale de ,belgique1 #a sr4 t4 xx4 p4 #dbg1 #ahec2 #b sr4 t4 xviii4 p4 #dgi1 #ahfd2 xxii4 p4 #ahg1 #ahff4 #ba ,l',homme pendant les ,ages de la ,pierre dans les ,environs de ,dinant sur ,meuse4 ,bruxelles1 #ahga4 #bnd edit41 #ahgb4 #bb ,ice-caves1 #hvo4 #ahfe1 ,longmans4 #bc ,d',orbigny1 ,dictionnaire ,universel d',histoire ,naturelle1 ,article 8,grottes40 #bd ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 xxvii4 #cab4 #be ,when the ,english conquered ,somerset from the ,brit-,welsh1 they translated the ,celtic ,ogo into ,hole1 whence the cave and village of ,wookey ,hole were named1 just as they translated a neighbouring hill1 called ,pen1 into ,knowle1 the generic ,celtic term in each case being used to specify a particular object4 ,there are many other instances of the like use of a ,celtic name by the ,english conquerors of the ,celts4 ,in the ,limestone plateau of ,llanamynech1 near ,oswestry1 there is a cave called 8,the ,ogo40 #bf ,phil4 ,trans4 #afhj1 p4 #a4 #bg ,the cave is accessible1 and can be examined without any climbing4 #bh ,both of these caves are kept in excellent order1 and the latter is lighted with gas4 #bi ,the cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner1 ,j4 ,farrer1 ,esq41 and may be visited without any difficulty4 #cj ,rivers1 ,mountains1 and ,sea-coast of ,yorkshire1 #hvo4 #ahed1 p4 #cd4 #ca ,on the ,ordnance ,maps it is wrongly printed ,alum ,pot4 #cb ,op4 cit4 ,article ,grottes4 #cc ,l',homme pendant les ,ages de la ,pierre dans les ,environs de ,dinant sur ,meuse1 ,bruxelles1 #ahga4 #cd ,the bare pavements above ,malham ,cove are worthy of a careful examination4 #ce ,i have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre1 as in the case of an agate4 ,concretionary action1 with which it is generally confused1 ought to be defined as the deposition of successive layers of matter round a nucleus or centre4 ,the one action operates from the circumference to the centre1 the other from the centre to the circumference4 #cf ,corals and ,coral ,islands1 #ahgb1 p4 #cfa4 #cg ,prestwich1 ,ann4 ,address ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahgb1 p4 #hd4 #ch ,phil4 ,trans4 ,april #gth1 #afhj1 p4 #gca4 #ci 8,ice-,caves in ,france and ,switzerland40 ,longmans1 #ahfe1 p4 #bif4 #dj ,leges ,walli4 #da ,bell1 8,british ,quadrupeds10 #hvo4 p4 #chf4 #db ,the authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found in ,chapter ,,ii4 of my ,preliminary ,treatise on the 8,relation of the ,pleistocene ,mammalia to those now living in ,europe0 7,palont4 ,soc4 #ahgd74 #dc ,benedict4 ad ,mensas ,ekkehardi ,monachi ,sangallensis1 l4 #abi4 #dd ,buffon1 ,quadrupeds1 l4 v4 p4 #eb2 l4 x4 p4 #fg4 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis1 8,notes and ,queries10 #bnd series1 l4 ix4 pp4 #d1 #e4 #de ,see ,rolleston1 ,journ4 ,anat4 and ,phys41 #ahfh1 pp4 #ea-b4 ,lenz1 8,zoologie der ,alten40 #df ,fig4 #ai1 ,a4 #dg ,roach ,smith1 8,collectanea ,antiqua10 vol4 i4 ,no4 #e1 p4 #gb1 #ahdd4 ,it is noticed by ,eckroyd ,smith1 ,trans4 ,historic ,society of ,lancashire and ,cheshire1 ,may #aa1 #ahfe2 and by ,mr4 ,denny1 ,trans4 ,geol4 and ,polytechnic ,soc4 of ,west ,riding1 #ahei4 #dh 8,collectanea ,antiqua10 vol4 i4 ,no4 #e1 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 #di ,the ,victoria ,cave has engaged the attention of the following writers3--,farrer1 ,proceed4 ,soc4 ,antiquaries1 vol4 iv42--,roach ,smith and ,jackson1 8,collectanea ,antiqua10 vol4 i4 ,no4 #e1 #ahdd2--;,denny1 ,proceed4 ,geol4 and ,polytechnic ,society of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 #ahei2--;,eckroyd ,smith1 ,trans4 ,historic ,society of ,cheshire1 ,may #aa1 #ahfe2--;,boyd ,dawkins1 8,nature10 ,april #ba1 #ahgj2 ,british ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahgj2 ,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,sept4 #ahga2 ,journ4 ,anthrop4 ,institute1 #ahga2--,tiddeman1 8,nature10 #ahgb2--;,boyd ,dawkins and ,tiddeman1 ,british ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahgb2--,tiddeman1 ,geol4 ,mag41 ,jan4 #ahgc2--;,boyd ,dawkins1 ,proceed4 ,manch4 ,philosophical ,soc41 ,feb4 #ahgc2--;,brockbank1 ,proceed4 ,manch4 ,philosophical ,soc41 ,march #ahgc4 #ej ,see ,palont4 ,society1 #ahgd--;,boyd ,dawkins' ,preliminary ,treatise1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #ea ,r4 ,d4 ,darbishire1 ,proceed4 ,manchester ,numismatic ,society1 ,part ,,ii4 #ahfe3 8,on some ,autonomous ,coins of ,ancient ,spain40 #eb ,vetusta ,monumenta1 vol4 vi4 #ec ,i have to thank the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green for allowing me to quote this passage from his work1 which is now in the press4 #ed ,antiquits ,suisses1 ,second ,supplement2 ,lausanne1 #ahfg1 p4 #ae1 ,pl4 xii4 figs4 #c1 #d4 #ee ,la ,seine ,infrieure1 #dto41 #ahfg1 p4 #bjc4 #ef ,see ,kemble1 8,hor ,ferales10 #dto42 ,description of ,plates by ,a4 ,w4 ,franks1 p4 #fd4 #eg 1 1 7,icon4 lib4 i4 c4 #bh74 ,the art was evidently unknown in ,rome at this time4 #eh ,notice des maux du ,muse du ,louvre1 #aheg1 pp4 #be1 #bf4 #ei ,eckroyd ,smith1 ,trans4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,lancashire and ,cheshire1 #ahff4 ,limestone ,caves of ,craven4 #fj ,proc4 ,geol4 and ,polytechnic ,soc4 of ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 #ahei1 p4 #de et seq4 #fa ,denny and ,farrer1 op4 cit4 #ahfd-e1 #dad et seq42 ,farrer1 ,proc4 ,soc4 ,antiq4 vol4 iv4 #fb ,the authorities for this paragraph are ,gildas1 ,nennius1 and others1 printed in 8,monumenta ,historica ,britannica10 folio1 ,rolls ,publication4 #fc 8,repellunt nos ,barbari ad mare1 repellit nos mare ad ,barbaros2 inter hc oriuntur duo genera funerum2 aut jugulamur aut mergimur40 ,,gildas1 xvii4 #fd 8,britones de ipsis montibus1 speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis continue rebellabant40 ,,gildas1 xvii4 ,bda1 ,hist4 ,eccles4 lib4 i4 cxiv4 #fe ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 passim4 #ff ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 ,a4,d4 #ddi4 8,from ,anglia1 which has ever since remained waste between the ,jutes and ,saxons1 came the men of ,east ,anglia1 ,middle ,anglia1 ,mercia1 and all ,north-humbria40 ,the ,,ms4 ,a1 from which this was taken1 ends in ,a4,d4 #ige4 ,the passage was taken from ,bda who lived in the #hth century4 #fg ,see ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 8,norman ,conquest10 vol4 i4 #fh 8,confovebatur 444 de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus1 et finitimas quasque civitates populans1 qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insul superficiem1 rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum lingu delamberet40--xxiv4 #fi ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle4 #gj ,on the date of the conquest of ,lancashire see 8,manchester ,phil4 and ,lit4 ,soc4 ,proc40 #ahgc1 p4 #be4 ,in working out this somewhat difficult question1 ,i am indebted to the ,rev4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green for most valuable aid4 #ga ,gildas1 ,nennius1 the ,annales ,cambri1 ,bda1 and the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle are the authorities for these statements4 #gb ,the section of the ,victoria ,cave published by ,mr4 ,tiddeman in the ,geological ,magazine expresses the relation of the clay with boulders to the cave-earth with greater clearness than ,i could observe on the ground4 ,the laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy such a large area in the cave1 or to be so regularly deposited1 or so clearly defined4 ,it occurs at various levels in the mass of the grey clay in the section 7to be seen on ,may #ba1 #ahgc71 above and below the cave-earth4--8,the ,older ,deposits in the ,victoria ,cave10 ,geol4 ,mag4 x4 p4 #aa4 #gc ,see ,essays by the writer in 8,pop4 ,sci4 ,rev40 ,oct4 #ahga3 8,on the relation of the ,pleistocene ,mammalia to the ,glacial period40 8,on the ,classification of the ,pleistocene ,strata of ,europe by means of the ,mammalia20 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 ,june #ahgb4 #gd ,mm4 de l',acad4 ,imp4 des ,sciences de ,st4 ,ptersbourg1 #f;e ,sr4 tome v4 #ahdi1 ,pl4 xiii4 ,fig4 #a4 #ge ,see my 8,pleistocene ,mammals of ,yorkshire10 ,geol4 and ,polytechnic ,soc4 of ,west ,riding of ,yorks4 ,leeds1 ,aug4 #fth1 #ahff4 #gf ,see ,brit4 ,ass4 ,reports1 ,bradford1 #ahgc4 #gg ,mem4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ceh4 #gh ,sussex ,archol4 ,coll41 #ahfc4 #gi ,trans4 ,midland ,sci4 ,ass41 ,sess4 #ahfd-e1 pp4 #a-f1 #ai1 #bi1 ,plates #a-ae1 8,report on the ,exploration of ,thor's ,cave10 by ,e4 ,brown1 ,esq4 #hj ,see ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman1 8,norman ,conquest10 vol4 i4 p4 #dc4 #ha ,preliminary ,treatise on the ,relation of the ,pleistocene ,mammalia to those now living in ,europe4 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ahgd1 chap4 ii4 #hb 8,equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt1 quod nullus ,christianorum in orientalibus facit40 ,haddan and ,stubbs1 8,councils and ,ecclesiastical ,documents relating to ,great ,britain and ,ireland10 vol4 ii4 p4 #dei4 #hc ,laing1 8,norway10 p4 #caf4 ,mr4 ,laing justly argues that the habit of eating horseflesh in ,norway1 where pasturage is scant1 must have been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of ,central ,asia by the ancestors of the ,scandinavians4 #hd ,benedict4 ad ,mensas ,ekkehardi ,monachi ,sangallensis1 ,pertz4 ,mon4 ,germ41 vol4 vi4 p4 #aag4 #he 8,pleistocene ,mammalia40 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ahff4 ,introd4 ,internat4 ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology1 ,paris1 and ,norwich volumes4 #hf ,these questions are treated in detail in my ,preliminary ,treatise1 8,brit4 ,pleist4 ,mammalia40 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ahgd4 #hg 8,ancient ,stone ,implements of ,great ,britain10 p4 #b4 #hh ,somerset ,archol4 and ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc4 #ahfd4 8,on the ,caverns of ,burrington ,combe40 #hi ,elliott1 8,geologist10 #ahfb1 p4 #cd1 ditto p4 #afg4 ,huxley1 ditto1 p4 #bje4 ,carter ,blake1 ditto1 p4 #cab4 ,mackie1 8,proceed4 ,soc4 ,antiq40 #bnd ,series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agg4 #ij ,this woodcut1 as well as ,figs4 #cc and #ce1 have been kindly lent by the ,council of the ,society of ,antiquaries4 #ia ,commissao ,geologica de ,portugal4 ,estudos ,geoligicos4 ,da ,existencia do homen no nosso solo em ,tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudos des cavernas4 ,primeiro opusculo4 ,noticea cerca das ,grutas da ,csareda4 ,por ,j4 ,f4 ,n4 ,delgado com a versao em ,francez por ,m4 ,dalhunty4 #ib ,ethnol4 ,journ4 ,n4,s4 #g1 p4 #dc4 #ic ,for definition of these terms1 see p4 #aij4 #id ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology1 ,norwich ,volume1 p4 #hd4 #ie ,international ,congress1 ,paris ,volume1 p4 #aei4 #if ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,brussels ,volume1 #ahgb1 p4 #cfc4 #ig ,burial in the contracted posture1 which is so characteristic of the neolithic age1 was probably due1 as is suggested by my friend ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not at full length on a bed4 ,the body was not laid out after death1 but may have been folded together1 as in the case of the ancient ,peruvian mummies4 ,no regularity1 however1 in the contracted posture could be observed in the many tumuli and caves which ,i have explored1 although very generally the corpse had been interred on its side4 #ih ,edinburgh ,new ,phil4 ,soc4 7#ahcc71 ,no4 #bg1 p4 #dj4 #ii ,for the definition of the term1 see p4 #aij4 #ajj ,journal of the ,ethnological ,society of ,london1 vol4 ii4 ,new ,series1 ,no4 #a1 ,april #ahgj1 p4 #de1 pl4 vii4 fig4 #c4 #aja ,nilsson's 8,stone ,age10 translated by ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock4 #ajb ,these are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and bones which were discovered4 #ajc ,amongst the ,keiss crania described by ,prof4 ,huxley1 this most closely resembles his ,no4 #e2 but it is of the same type as ,no4 #c and ,no4 #g1 and not very far from that of the ,towyn-y-capel cranium1 through which the transition to the ,mewslade form 78,nat4 ,hist4 ,rev40 vol4 i4 p4 #agd1 pl4 v47 is very easy4 #ajd ,the forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from ,keiss are ,nos4 #c and #g4 #aje ,dformation du crne resultant de la mthode la plus gnrale de couvrir la tte des enfans4 ,paris1 #ahcd4 #ajf ,essai sur les dformations artificielles du crne1 par ,l4 ,a4 ,gosse1 de ,genve4 ,paris1 #ahee4 #ajg ,recherches sur quelques dformations du crne observes dans le ,dpartement des ,deux-,svres 78,ann4 ,mdico-psychologique074 ,paris1 #aheb4 #ajh ,this index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the length of the bone4 #aji 8,mmoires sur les ossemens des ,eyzies40 ,paris1 #ahfh4 8,on the ,human ,skulls and ,bones found in the ,cave of ,cro-magnon10 ,reliqui ,aquitanic1 p4 #ig4 #aaj ,but these are by no means extreme instances of the ,gibraltar tibi4 #aaa ,as regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls1 it would seem that the ,welsh crania stand high in the scale--quite as high as any of the existing races of mankind4 ,i have made the comparison in a rough way in the following manner3-- ,if the numbers representing the length1 breadth1 and height of the skull are added together1 a number is obtained which will1 of course1 in some measure1 indicate the gross dimensions of the skull4 ,from the rather numerous data furnished by my own ,tables of ,measurements ,i obtained the results stated in the subjoined list1 in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania are contrasted4 #a4 ,scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch #ahhh #b4 ,esquimaux and ,greenlanders #ahha #c4 ,perthi-,chwareu skulls #ahfe #d4 ,modern ,european #aheh #e4 ,various ancient and priscan skulls #ahee #f4 ,burmese #ahee #g4 ,caffres and ,zooloos 7extratropical negroes7 #ahde #h4 ,derbyshire tumuli #ahdb #i4 ,tasmanian #agie #aj4 ,hottentot #aghj #aa4 ,negroes 7intertropical7 #agfg #ab4 ,australian #ageh #ac4 ,bushmen #agdh #ad4 ,veddahs #agji #ae4 ,andamanese #agjj #aab 8,notes on the ,human ,remains from ,keiss10 p4 #he4 #aac ,loc4 cit4 p4 #aad4 #aad ,vol4 i4 p4 #agd1 pl4 v4 #aae ,the stature is obtained1 according to ,prof4 ,humphry's method1 from the length of the femur1 which is #bge of stature taken as #ajj4 #aaf straight1 jaw1 with profile vertical1 as opposed to 1 with projecting jaws1 or 8snouty40 #aag 8,anthropological ,memoirs10 vols4 i4 and iii42 ,huxley and ,laing1 8,prehistoric ,remains in ,caithness40 #aah 8,mem4 ,lit4 and ,phil4 ,soc4 ,manchester10 vol4 v4 p4 #bac4 #aai 8,anthrop4 ,mem40 vol4 i4 p4 #add4 #abj ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahga1 p4 #afj1 8,on ,human and ,animal ,bones and ,flints1 from a ,cave at ,oban1 ,argyleshire10 by ,prof4 ,turner4 #aba ,huxley and ,laing1 8,prehistoric ,remains of ,caithness10 p4 #aai et seq4 #abb 8,prehistoric ,annals of ,scotland40 #abc ,the evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems to me to be doubtful4 #abd ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,brussels ,volume1 #ahgb1 p4 #ahb4 #abe ,bull4 ,soc4 ,anthrop4 iv4 #abf ,anthrop4 ,mem4 i4 #dij4 #abg ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,norwich ,volume1 #ahfi4 #abh ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,norwich ,volume1 #ahfi4 #abi ,don ,manuel ,gongora y ,martinez1 8,antiguedades ,prehistoricas de ,andalucia40 ,madrid1 #ahfh4 #hvo4 #acj 8,the ,woman's ,cave10 #dto4 ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 #ahgj-a4 ,cadiz1 ,federico ,joly y ,velasco4 #aca ,don ,manuel ,gongora y ,martinez1 op4 cit4 #acb ,ethnological ,journ4 ,n4,s4 vii4 p4 #ajg4 #acc ,broca1 8,bull4 ,soc4 ,anthrop40 s4s4 t4 i4 p4 #dgj2 t4 ii4 p4 #aj-cj2 s4s4 t4 iii4 p4 #dc-aja4 ,the cephalic index in the preceding ,table differs slightly from that given by ,m4 ,broca4 ,thurnam1 8,anthrop4 ,mem40 iii4 p4 #fd et seq4 #acd ,these skulls are preserved in the ,museum of the ,anthropological ,society at ,paris1 where by the kindness of ,dr4 ,broca ,i was allowed to study them in the autumn of #ahgc4 ,some were marked with the 8tte annulaire40 #ace ,laing and ,huxley1 8,prehistoric ,remains of ,caithness40 #acf ,spring1 8,bull4 ,acad4 ,roy4 de ,belgique10 #a sr4 l4 xx4 p4 #dbg2 #b sr4 l4 xviii4 p4 #dgi2 l4 xxii4 p4 #ahg4 #acg ,dupont1 8,l',homme pendant les ges de la ,pierre dans les environs de ,dinant sur ,meuse10 #b;d edit4 p4 #bbb4 #ach ,soreil1 8,sur ,nouvelle ,exploration de la ,caverne de ,chauvau10 ,congrs ,intern4 ,anthropologie et d',archologie ,prehistoriques1 p4 #cha et seq4 ,bruxelles1 #ahgb4 #aci ,international ,congress1 ,bruxelles1 #ahgb1 p4 #cgj4 #adj ,csar1 i4 #ej4 #ada 8,bull4 ,soc4 ,anthrop de ,paris10 #b sr4 t4 #aaa41 p4 #aah4 #adb 8,diodorus ,siculus10 iv4 #f2 v4 #ci4 ,steur1 8,ethnographie des ,peuples de l',europe10 p4 #ca et seq42 ,donaldson1 8,varronianw40 p4 #gj et seq4 ,dion4 ,hal4 i #bb4 ,see also ,niebuhr and ,mommsen4 ,the documentary evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the ,ligurians that scarcely any two writers agree4 8,quot homines tot sententi40 #adc ,thucydides1 vi4 #b4 #add ,tacitus1 8,agricola10 xi4 #ade ,csar1 i4 #ab4 #adf ,prof4 ,huxley brings them into relation with the ancient ,egyptians1 the 8,melanochroi0 of ,india1 and the ,australians1 8,critiques and ,addresses10 p4 #acd2 ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,norwich ,volume1 p4 #ib et seq4 #adg ,see ,prof4 ,huxley's 8,critiques and ,addresses10 p4 #afg4 #adh ,for a masterly account of the varying stature in ,britain and ,ireland1 see ,dr4 ,beddoe's ,essay1 8,anthrop4 ,soc4 ,mem40 iii4 p4 #chd-egc4 #adi 8 1 1 ' 1 ' 40--,lib4 iv4 c4 #a1 #a4 #aej ,the correspondence of my map1 ,fig4 #fh1 with that of ,m4 ,broca1 is one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in arriving at truth1 for his most admirable essay on the ,ethnology of ,france did not come into my hands until my own map was engraved4 ,m4 ,broca takes a different point of view to that advanced in these pages1 holding that the ,celts were dark and the ,belgic were blue-eyed tall ,kymri or ,cimbri4 ,the ,celts known to history were undoubtedly a tall fair race4 #aea ,in treating this difficult subject1 ,i have purposely omitted to use the uncertain light of philology4 ,we may expect to derive as much knowledge as to the relations between ,tyrrhenian1 ,ligurian1 ,basque1 and other obscure non-,aryan peoples from the study of languages1 as we have already obtained of the ,aryans by the same means4 ,it is very probable that1 like the ,sanscrit1 the ,basque roots will be found widely spread both in ,asia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,europe1 and ,n4 ,africa4 #aeb 8,anthrop4 ,mem40 ,vols4 i4 and iii4 7,crania ,britannica47 #aec ,see ,huxley's 8,critiques and ,addresses10 p4 #afg et seq4 #aed 8,rutil ,caledoniam habitantium com1 magni artus ,germanicam originem asseverant40 ,agricola1 c4 xi4 #aee 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 p4 #hb et seq4 #aef ,schmerling1 8,recherches sur les ,ossements ,fossiles dcouverts dans les ,cavernes de la province de ,lige40 #dto4 #ahcc-d1 p4 #bi et seq4 #aeg ,dupont1 8,l',homme pendant les ges de la ,pierre1 dans les environs de ,dinant-sur-,meuse10 p4 ix4 ,the implements are palolithic 7see p4 #bb71 but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as the human remains4 ,they may be1 and probably are1 much older4 #aeh 8,man's ,place in ,nature10 chap4 iii4 ,lyell's 8,antiquity of ,man10 #ast edition1 p4 #fc4 #aei ,dupont1 op4 cit4 p4 #ef4 #afj ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,brussels1 #ahgb1 p4 #edi et seq4 #afa ,huxley and ,laing1 8,prehistoric ,remains of ,caithness40 #afb ,intern4 ,congress1 ,brussels ,volume1 p4 #edi4 #afc ,dupont1 op4 cit4 p4 #adj4 #afd ,buckland1 8,reliqui ,diluvian10 p4 #ace4 ,these specimens are in the ,oxford ,museum1 and are identified by ,lord ,enniskillen as having been derived from ,gailenreuth4 #afe ,schaaffhausen1 translated by ,busk1 8,nat4 ,hist4 ,review10 ,april #ahfa4 ,huxley1 8,man's ,place in ,nature10 iii4 p4 #aef-aga4 ,lyell's 8,antiquity of ,man10 #ast edition1 p4 #ge4 #aff ,huxley and ,laing1 8,prehistoric ,remains of ,caithness10 p4 #aae4 #afg ,compare ,lyell1 #ast edition1 p4 #ahb et seq41 with #dth edition1 p4 #abb et seq4 #afh ,phil4 ,trans4 #aei1 p4 #eag4 #afi ,vogt1 8,lectures on ,man10 pp4 #cbi-chj4 ,thurnam1 8,anthrop4 ,mem40 i4 #eja4 #agj ,it has been dug out in its natural position1 and is now to be seen in the ,jardin des ,plantes1 in ,paris1 where ,i studied it in the summer of #ahgc4 #aga ,pengelly1 8,the ,cave ,man of ,mentone10 ,trans4 ,devon ,ass4 #ahgc4 ,moggridge1 ,brit4 ,ass4 ,edinburgh1 #ahgc4 #agb ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,bologna ,volume1 p4 #cia1 #ahgc4 #agc ,see on this point a valuable essay by ,mr4 ,hyde ,clark1 8,palestine ,exploration ,fund ,quarterly ,statement10 ,n4,s4 ,april #ahga1 p4 #ig et seq4 #agd ,the authorities for these facts will be found in my 8,preliminary ,treatise10 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ahgd4 ,the prehistoric age of the forest is to be fixed by the presence of the goat and ,bos longifrons1 both of which were unknown in ,europe in the pleistocene age4 #age 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xx4 p4 #ahh et seq4 #agf ,see ,prestwich1 8,phil4 ,trans40 #ahfj1 p4 #bgg1 and #ahfd1 p4 #bdg1 and 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 passim #ahei-gj4 #agg 8,reliqui ,diluvian40 #dto4 #ahbd1 p4 #acc4 #agh ,i am indebted to ,lord ,enniskillen1 who explored ,gailenreuth along with ,sir ,philip ,egerton1 for several corrections in ,buckland's section4 #agi ,op4 cit4 p4 #acg4 #ahj ,op4 cit4 p4 #a4 et seq4 #aha ,op4 cit4 p4 #ch4 #ahb ,buckland1 op4 cit4 p4 #fa4 #ahc 8,edinburgh ,new ,phil4 ,soc40 ,no4 #bg1 p4 #dj4 ,falconer1 8,palont4 ,mem40 ii4 p4 #eda4 ,i have examined nearly all the contents of these caves4 #ahd ,anthrop4 ,institute ,meeting1 #i ,dec4 #ahgc4 #ahe ,buckland1 op4 cit4 #hj4 #ahf ,op4 cit4 p4 #hj4 #ahg ,falconer 8,palont4 ,mem40 ii4 #dih4 #ahh 8,on the ,tenby ,bone ,caves10 by a ,pembrokeshire ,rector4 ,london3 ,kent and ,co4 #ahi ,see 8,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep40 #ahga4 8,geol4 ,mag40 viii4 #dcc4 #aij ,buckland1 op4 cit4 p4 #fj4 #aia ,buckland1 op4 cit4 ,rutter1 8,delineations of ,somerset10 p4 #ajj4 #aib ,see ,buckland1 op4 cit4 ,rutter1 op4 cit4 #aic ,see 8,catalogue of ,mammalia1 in ,taunton ,museum10 by ,w4 ,a4 ,sanford1 ,esq4 ,som4 ,archol4 ,soc4 #aid ,rutter gives a very good section of this cave 7op4 cit4 p4 #gh74 #aie 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 #ahfb3 ,on a ,hyna-den at ,wookey ,hole4 ,also 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 #ahfc4 #aif ,an incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger4 ,in our lodging at ,wells there was a beautiful ,scotch deerhound1 named 8,luna10 whose master was away at the time4 ,luna persisted in being with us day and night4 ,in the morning she walked with us to the cave1 and lay watching at the entrance till we came out1 for she was afraid to venture into the darkness4 ,in the evening she returned home with us4 ,she continued to do this the whole time of that year's excavations4 ,it was only natural to suppose that when we left she would1 like other dogs1 pick up new friends4 ,but she did nothing of the kind4 ,when we inquired the next year upon our return1 we were told that poor ,luna refused food the day we left1 and gradually pined away and died4 #aig ,possibly it may have belonged to ,elephas1 but its more compact texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros4 #aih ,bone needles were found in ,kent's ,hole and in many foreign caves of this age4 #aii ,these woodblocks were used in my essay on ,hynas in the 8,natural ,history ,review10 and have been lent by the kindness of ,messrs4 ,williams and ,norgate4 #bjj ,pengelly1 8,literature of the ,oreston ,caverns10 ,trans4 ,dev4 ,ass4 #ahgb4 ,buckland1 op4 cit4 #bja 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xxvi4 #deg1 et seq4 #bjb 8,the ,literature of the ,caverns near ,yealmpton1 ,south ,devon10 by ,w4 ,pengelly1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,trans4 ,devon ,ass41 #ahgj4 #bjc ,falconer1 8,palont4 ,mem40 ii4 #dhf1 #eia4 #bjd ,proceed4 ,royal ,soc4 xx4 p4 #ead4 8,report on the ,exploration of ,brixham ,cave10 by ,w4 ,pengelly1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,g4 ,bush1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,john ,evans1 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,joseph ,prestwich1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,this report was delayed by the death of ,dr4 ,falconer4 #bje 8,ancient ,stone ,implements10 p4 #df-h4 #bjf 8,proceed4 ,royal ,soc40 #ahgb1 vol4 xxii4 p4 #ebc-d4 #bjg 8,trans4 ,devon ,ass40 ,on the ,introduction of ,cavern ,accumulations4 #bjh 8,trans4 ,devon ,ass40 #ahgj4 #bji ,pengelly1 8,literature of ,kent's ,hole30 ,trans4 ,ass4 ,devon4 #ahfh #i-gj4 ,godwin ,austen1 8,proceed4 ,geol4 ,soc40 iii4 #bhf-g4 8,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc40 vi4 p4 #dcc1 et seq4 ,vivian1 8,brit4 ,ass4 ,rep40 #ahdg1 p4 #gc4 #baj ,the committee consisted of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 ,prof4 ,phillips1 ,sir ,john ,lubbock1 ,mr4 ,john ,evans1 ,mr4 ,edward ,vivian1 ,mr4 ,william ,pengelly1 to which subsequently ,mr4 ,george ,busk1 ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins1 and ,mr4 ,ayshford ,sanford were added4 #baa ,for ,figs4 #if to #ajj ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,evans4 #bab ,see ,evans' 8,ancient ,stone ,implements10 ,fig4 #chh4 ,it is unnecessary to describe the implements4 #bac ,for an account of ,machairodus1 see 8,brit4 ,pleistocene ,mammalia10 ,palont4 ,soc41 ,felid1 cxxii4 p4 #ahd4 #bad ,gervais1 8,zool4 et ,palont4 ,franaises10 #ahei1 p4 #bea4 8,animaux ,vertbrs1 ,vivants et ,fossiles10 #ahfg-i1 p4 #gh1 pl4 xviii4 ,lartet1 ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,paris ,volume1 #ahfh1 p4 #bfi4 #bae ,these figures have been kindly lent by the ,palontographical ,society4 #baf 8,journ4 ,royal ,dublin ,soc40 ii4 p4 #cdd4 #bag 8,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,dublin10 x4 p4 #adg4 8,journ4 ,royal ,dublin ,soc40 ii4 p4 #ceb4 #bah ,scott1 8,geol4 ,soc4 ,dublin10 ,feb4 #aj1 #ahfd4 #bai ,an account of the numerous caves of ,france will be found in the works of ,m4 de ,serres1 8,revue ,archologique0 and in the 8,matriaux pour l',histoire de l',homme40 #bbj ,boyd ,dawkins1 8,brit4 ,pleist4 ,mam4 ,palont4 ,soc40 #ahgb1 p4 #ahi4 #bba ,gervais1 8,animaux ,vertbrs10 p4 #gh1 pl4 xviii4 #bbb ,lartet1 ,international ,congress1 ,paris ,volume1 p4 #bfi4 #bbc 8,cavernes du ,prigord10 8,revue ,archologique10 #hvo4 #ahfd4 8,reliqui ,aquitanic10 #dto4 #ahfe-gd4 ,this magnificent history of the researches1 in the prosecution of which ,mr4 ,christy lost his life1 was published at his expense under the editorship of ,prof4 ,rupert ,jones1 ,f4,r4,s41 to whom ,i am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress and engravings quoted in this book4 #bbd ,the same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into ,britain from ,south ,america for the manufacture of buttons4 #bbe ,boyd ,dawkins1 8,range of the ,mammoth10 ,pop4 ,sc4 ,rev4 ,july1 #ahfh4 #bbf 8,recherches sur les oss4 foss4 dcouverts dans les ,cavernes de ,lige40 #dto4 #bbg ,dupont1 8,l',homme pendant les ,ages de la ,pierre dans les ,environs de ,dinant-sur-,meuse40 #bnd edit4 p4 #ahg4 #bbh ,dupont1 op4 cit4 8,bull4 ,acad4 ,roy4 de ,belgique10 xxii4 p4 #bj4 ,hamy1 8,palontologie ,humaine10 p4 #bca4 #bbi ,the discovery will shortly be published by ,prof4 ,heine1 of ,zurich4 #bcj 8,matriaux pour l',histoire de l',homme10 ,may #ahfi1 p4 #bgb4 #bca 8,ancient ,stone ,implements40 #bcb 8,ann4 des ,sc4 ,nat40 #dth sr4 t4 #ae1 p4 #bca4 #bcc ,hamy1 op4 cit4 ,lubbock1 8,prehistoric ,man40 #bcd 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 ,june #e1 #ahgb4 #bce ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,brussels ,volume1 #ahgb1 p4 #dcb4 8,mm4 ,anthrop4 ,soc4 de ,paris10 #bnd sr4 t4 #f1 p4 #agj4 #bcf 8,eskimos in the ,south of ,gaul40 ,saturday ,review1 ,december #hth1 #ahff4 ,edinburgh ,review1 8,prehistoric ,times40 ,october #ahgj4 #bcg ,the authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in the 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 #ahgb1 p4 #dbd4 ,the ,british animals have been determined principally by myself and ,dr4 ,falconer4 #bch 8,classification of the ,pleistocene ,strata10 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 ,nov4 #ahgb1 p4 #daj4 #bci ,godwin ,austen1 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 vol4 i4 p4 #fi4 ,de la ,bche1 8,theoretical ,researches10 p4 #aij4 ,lyell1 8,antiquity of ,man10 #dth edit4 p4 #cbh4 #bdj ,the accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area of the excavation was enormous4 #bda 8,les ,oss4 ,foss4 de ,pikermi10 #dto4 #bdb ,some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the 8,popular ,science ,review10 ,march #ahgc4 #bdc 8,palontographical ,memoirs10 vol4 ii4 p4 #eed4 ,busk1 ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,norwich volume1 #ahfi4 #bdd 8,comptes ,rendus10 xlvi4 #aheh4 #bde ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,paris volume1 p4 #if4 #bdf 8,brit4 ,ass4 ,reports10 ,edinburgh1 #ahga4 #bdg 8,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep40 #ahga4 #bdh ,dcouverte d'une ,squelette ,humaine de l'poque ,palolithique dans les ,cavernes de ,baouss-,rouss1 dites ,grottes de ,menton1 #ahgc2 also ,prehistoric ,congress1 ,brussels volume4 ,m4 ,rivire adds the ,wapiti1 or large variety1 and the ,cervus ,corsicanus1 or small variety of the stag1 the chamois1 and the woolly rhinoceros 7the two last of which may be perhaps identical with the ibex and ,r4 hemitchus1 determined by ,prof4 ,busk1 as neither is mentioned by ,m4 ,rivire71 and the ,capra primigenia of ,gervais1 a large goat commonly found in neolithic caves4 #bdi ,the depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute1 the estimates varying from seven feet 7,pengelly7 to 7#fee m47 #badi feet 7,rivire74 ,pengelly1 ,cave man of ,mentone1 8,trans4 ,devon ,ass40 #ahgc1 pp4 #aj and #ac4 #bej 8,palont4 ,mem40 ii4 p4 #edc4 #bea ,it is of the same species as the bear from ,grays ,thurrock4 #beb ,falconer1 8,palont4 ,mem40 vol4 ii4 p4 #eeb4 ,spratt1 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xxiii4 p4 #bic4 #bec 8,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 ,fr40 #b;e sr4 t4 xi4 p4 #cdj4 #bed ,gervais1 8,animaux ,vertbrs ,vivants et ,fossiles10 #dto4 p4 #hh4 #bee ,hooker1 8,nat4 ,hist4 ,review10 ,,ii4 p4 #ab1 #ahfa4 #bef ,nature1 vol4 v4 p4 #ddd2 vol4 vi4 #ecf4 #beg 8,a ,journey to ,morocco1 and the ,ascent of the ,great ,atlas10 #hvo4 ,slater1 ,troubridge1 ,salop4 #beh 8,geological ,notes on a ,journey from ,algiers to ,morocco40 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,feb4 #be1 #ahgd4 #bei ,see 8,british ,pleistocene ,mammalia10 ,palont4 ,soc4 ,felis spela1 c4 xviii4 #bfj 8,ovibos moschatus10 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ahgb1 p4 #bg1 et seq4 #bfa ,this is treated at greater length in my 8,essay on ,classification10 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 ,nov4 #ahgb1 and in the 8,introduction to ,british ,pleistocene ,mammalia10 ,palont4 ,soc4 #bfb ,mr4 ,james ,geikie's view 78,the ,great ,ice-,age10 #hvo4 #ahgd7 that the mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the destruction of ossiferous strata by streams1 which subsequently deposited remains of widely different ages together1 is rendered untenable by the fact that they are generally preserved in the same mineral state4 ,it would have been impossible for this to have taken place without leaving decided traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition of the older series1 such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and meiocene fossils in the ,red ,crag of ,suffolk4 #bfc 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xxii4 #cia4 #bfd ,see ,falconer1 8,palont4 ,mem40 #bfe ,i have to acknowledge the kind assistance of ,professors ,hull and ,harkness1 ,mr4 ,kinahan1 and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,m4 ,close1 in correlating the ,irish with the ,english glacial deposits4 ,the reader will find the glacial period most ably treated in ,lyell's 8,antiquity of ,man40 #bff 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xxi4 #afa4 #bfg 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 #ahgb1 p4 #daj4 #bfh 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xx4 p4 #deg4 #bfi 8,palont4 ,mem40 vol4 ii4 p4 #di4 #bgj 8,palont4 ,mem40 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ahi1 #aij4 #bga 8,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ40 xxiv4 p4 #dhd4 8,international ,congress10 ,norwich volume4 ,see also 8,evans' ,ancient ,stone ,implements10 p4 #egj4 #bgb 8,palont4 ,mem40 ii4 #fdb1 et passim4 #bgc ,this implement was exhibited before the ,meeting of the ,british ,association at ,edinburgh1 in #ahga4 #bgd ,brit4 ,ass4 ,reports1 #ahfe1 p4 #ah4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained4 ,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained4 ,the corrections listed in 8,additions and ,corrections0 at the beginning of the book have been made to the main text of this e,book4 ,the additions have not been added4 ,the errors listed for pages #aif and #bja were not found in the text1 and both the opening and closing inverted commas 7quotation marks7 have been removed on page #chf4 ,unlike the printed book1 all illustrations in this e,book appear between paragraphs1 so the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations do not necessarily match their actual positions4 ,however1 links1 in versions of this e,book that support them1 do lead directly to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the ,index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,text has many references to 8,lartet0 and just a few to 8,lortet04 ,they seem to refer to the same person1 but both are listed in the ,index1 so both spellings have been retained4 ,text refers to 8,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery01 8,rev4 ,j4 ,mc,enery0 and 8,mc,enery04 ,these all refer to the same person1 but the correct spelling is uncertain1 so both variations have been retained4 ,some of the fractional numbers 7e4g41 #a_/a1 #a_/b7 in illustration captions were unclear and may have been incorrectly transcribed4 ,most tables wider than #ge characters have been made narrower1 either by using ,keys to their column headings or1 in the table on page #agb1 by segmenting it and repeating the first column in each segment4 ,a few tables remain wider than #ge characters as they otherwise became unreadable4 ,page #b3 8dwellings of evil spirits0 was misprinted as 8swellings04 ,page #adg3 ,footnote #ie 7originally #b7 was not referenced in the text4 ,transcriber has arbitrarily placed a reference to it4 ,page #aii3 8,valcleuse0 currently is spelled 8,valcluse04 ,page #caj3 ,the reference to 8,figs4 #ib1 #ic0 was misprinted as 8,figs4 #ib1 #cc0 and has been corrected here4 ,page #cci3 ,identifications of the three illustrations were added by ,transcriber4 ,page #cha3 ,the top of the map was close to the physical book's binding and was distorted during scanning4 ,the ,transcriber attempted to remedy this distortion4 ,page #dcf3 ,the letters in the diagram were printed in italics4 ,for readability1 the ,plain ,text version of this e,book omits the underscores that indicate italics4 ,the ,,html and mobile versions use an image of the diagram4 ,page #ddi 7,index73 8,caves1 used as places of refuge0 gave no page reference4 ,the ,table of ,contents refers to page #ajb1 and the ,transcriber added that to the index entry4