,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee    ,,of 
,,fifteen ,,by    ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris1     
,,ll4 ,d41 ,a4 ,s4    ,,draper1 ,,ll4   
,d41 ,,and ,h4 ,s4    ,,tarbell ,,read  
,,at ,,the    ,,cleveland ,,meeting ,,of
    ,,the ,,department ,,of             
,,superintendence1    ,,february        
#ai-ba1 #ahie1 ,,with    ,,the ,,debate 
,illustration        ,,published ,,by   
,,the ,,new ,,england ,,publishing      
,,company ,,boston    ,,mdcccxcv        
,,correlation ,,of ,,studies ,,in       
,,elementary ,,schools4    ,,by ,w4 ,t4 
,,harris1 ,,ll4 ,d4      ,the           
undersigned ,committee agrees upon the  
following report1 each member  reserving
 for himself the expression of his      
individual divergence from  the opinion 
of the majority1 by a statement appended
 to his signature1  enumerating the     
points to which exception is taken and  
the grounds for  them4      ,i4         
,,correlation ,,of ,,studies4    ,your  
,committee understands by correlation of
 studies3--      #a4 ,logical order of  

topics and branches4    ,first1 the     
arrangement of topics in proper sequence
 in the course of  study1 in such a     
manner that each branch develops in an  
order suited  to the natural and easy   
progress of the child1 and so that each 
step  is taken at the proper time to    
help his advance to the next step in    
the same branch1 or to the next steps in
 other related branches of the  course  
of study4      #b4 ,symmetrical whole of
 studies in the world of human learning4
    ,second1 the adjustment of the      
branches of study in such a manner that 
the whole course at any given time      
represents all the great divisions  of  
human learning1 as far as is possible at
 the stage of maturity at  which the    
pupil has arrived1 and that each allied 
group of studies  is represented by some
 one of its branches best adapted for   
the epoch  in question2 it being implied
 that there is an equivalence of studies
  to a greater or less degree within    
each group1 and that each branch  of    

human learning should be represented by 
some equivalent study2 so  that1 while  
no great division is left unrepresented1
 no group shall  have superfluous       
representatives1 and thereby debar other
 groups from a  proper representation4  
#c4 ,psychological symmetry--the whole  
mind4    ,third1 the selection and      
arrangement of the branches and topics  
within  each branch1 considered         
psychologically1 with a view to afford  
the best  exercise of the faculties of  
the mind1 and to secure the unfolding of
  those faculties in their natural      
order1 so that no one faculty is so     
overcultivated or so neglected as to    
produce abnormal or one-sided  mental   
development4      #d4 ,correlation of   
pupil's course of study with the world  
in which he  lives--his spiritual and   
natural environment4    ,fourth and     
chiefly1 your ,committee understands by 
correlation of  studies the selection   
and arrangement in orderly sequence of  
such  objects of study as shall give the

 child an insight into the world  that  
he lives in1 and a command over its     
resources such as is obtained  by a     
helpful co-operation with one's fellows4
 ,in a word1 the chief  consideration to
 which all others are to be             
subordinated1 in the  opinion of your   
,committee1 is this requirement of the  
civilization  into which the child is   
born1 as determining not only what he   
shall  study in school1 but what habits 
and customs he shall be taught in  the  
family before the school age arrives2 as
 well as that he shall  acquire a       
skilled acquaintance with some one of a 
definite series of  trades1 professions1
 or vocations in the years that follow  
school2  and1 furthermore1 that this    
question of the relation of the pupil to
  his civilization determines what      
political duties he shall assume and    
what religious faith and spiritual      
aspirations shall be adopted for the    
conduct of his life4    ,to make more   
clear their reasons for the preference  

here expressed  for the objective and   
practical basis of selection of topics  
for the  course of study rather than the
 subjective basis so long favored by    
educational writers1 your ,committee    
would describe the psychological  basis1
 already mentioned1 as being merely     
formal in its character1  relating only 
to the exercise of the so-called mental 
faculties4    ,it would furnish a       
training of spiritual powers analogous  
to the  gymnastic training of the       
muscles of the body4 ,gymnastics may    
develop  strength and agility without   
leading to any skill in trades or useful
  employment4 ,so an abstract           
psychological training may develop the  
will1  the intellect1 the imagination1  
or the memory1 but without leading to   
an exercise of acquired power in the    
interests of civilization4 ,the  game of
 chess would furnish a good course of   
study for the discipline  of the powers 
of attention and calculation of abstract
 combinations1  but it would give its   

possessor little or no knowledge of man 
or  nature4 ,the psychological ideal    
which has prevailed to a large extent   
in education has1 in the old phrenology1
 and in the recent studies  in          
physiological psychology1 sometimes     
given place to a biological  ideal4     
,instead of the view of mind as made up 
of faculties like will1  intellect1     
imagination1 and emotion1 conceived to  
be all necessary to  the soul1 if       
developed in harmony with one another1  
the concept of  nerves or brain-tracts  
is used as the ultimate regulative      
principle  to determine the selection   
and arrangement of studies4 ,each part  
of the brain is supposed to have its    
claim on the attention of the  educator1
 and that study is thought to be the    
most valuable which  employs normally   
the larger number of brain-tracts4 ,this
 view reaches  an extreme in the        
direction of formal1 as opposed to      
objective or  practical grounds for     
selecting a course of study4 ,while the 

old  psychology with its mental         
faculties concentrated its attention on 
the mental processes and neglected the  
world of existing objects and  relations
 upon which those processes were        
directed1 physiological  psychology     
tends to confine its attention to the   
physical part of the  process1 the      
organic changes in the brain cells and  
their functions4    ,your ,committee is 
of the opinion that psychology of both  
kinds1  physiological and introspective1
 can hold only a subordinate place in   
the settlement of questions relating to 
the correlation of studies4 ,the        
branches to be studied1 and the extent  
to which they are studied1 will  be     
determined mainly by the demands of     
one's civilization4 ,these will         
prescribe what is most useful to make   
the individual acquainted with  physical
 nature and with human nature so as to  
fit him as an individual  to perform his
 duties in the several                  
institutions--family1 civil  society1   

the state1 and the ,church4 ,but next   
after this1 psychology  will furnish    
important considerations that will      
largely determine the  methods of       
instruction1 the order of taking up the 
several topics so as  to adapt the      
school work to the growth of the pupil's
 capacity1 and the  amount of work so as
 not to overtax his powers by too much1 
or arrest  the development of strength  
by too little4 ,a vast number of        
subordinate  details belonging to the   
pathology of education1 such as the     
hygienic  features of school            
architecture and furniture1 programmes1 
the length  of study hours and of class 
exercises1 recreation1 and bodily       
reactions against mental effort1 will be
 finally settled by scientific          
experiment in the department of         
physiological psychology4    ,inasmuch  
as your ,committee is limited to the    
consideration of the  correlation of    
studies in the elementary school1 it has
 considered  the question of the course 

of study in general only in so far as   
this  has been found necessary in       
discussing the grounds for the selection
  of studies for the period of school   
education occupying the eight  years    
from six to fourteen years1 or the      
school period between the  kindergarten 
on the one hand and the secondary school
 on the other4 ,it  has not been        
possible to avoid some inquiry into the 
true distinction  between secondary and 
elementary studies1 since one of the    
most  important questions forced upon   
the attention of your ,committee is     
that of the abridgment of the elementary
 course of study from eight or  more    
years to seven or even six years1 and   
the corresponding increase  of the time 
devoted to studies usually assigned to  
the high school and  supposed to belong 
to the secondary course of study for    
some intrinsic  reason4      ,,ii4 ,,the
 ,,course ,,of ,,study--,,educational   
,,values4    ,your ,committee would     
report that it has discussed in detail  

the several  branches of study that have
 found a place in the curriculum of the 
elementary school1 with a view to       
discover their educational value for    
developing and training the faculties of
 the mind1 and more especially  for     
correlating the pupil with his spiritual
 and natural environment in  the world  
in which he lives4      ,a4 ,language   
studies4    ,there is first to be noted 
the prominent place of language study   
that takes the form of reading1         
penmanship1 and grammar in the first    
eight years' work of the school4 ,it is 
claimed for the partiality  shown to    
these studies that it is justified by   
the fact that language  is the          
instrument that makes possible human    
social organization4 ,it  enables each  
person to communicate his individual    
experience to his  fellows and thus     
permits each to profit by the experience
 of all4 ,the  written and printed forms
 of speech preserve human knowledge and 
make  progress in civilization possible4

 ,the conclusion is reached that        
learning to read and write should be the
 leading study of the pupil in  his     
first four years of school4 ,reading and
 writing are not so much  ends in       
themselves as means for the acquirement 
of all other human  learning4 ,this     
consideration alone would be sufficient 
to justify their  actual place in the   
work of the elementary school4 ,but     
these branches  require of the learner a
 difficult process of analysis4 ,the    
pupil must  identify the separate words 
in the sentence he uses1 and in the next
  place must recognize the separate     
sounds in each word4 ,it requires a     
considerable effort for the child or the
 savage to analyze his sentence  into   
its constituent words1 and a still      
greater effort to discriminate  its     
elementary sounds4 ,reading1 writing1   
and spelling in their most  elementary  
form1 therefore1 constitute a severe    
training in mental  analysis for the    
child of six to ten years of age4 ,we   

are told that it  is far more           
disciplinary to the mind than any       
species of observation of  differences  
among material things1 because of the   
fact that the word  has a twofold       
character--addressed to external sense  
as spoken sound to  the ear1 or as      
written and printed words to the        
eye--but containing a  meaning or sense 
addressed to the understanding and only 
to be seized  by introspection4 ,the    
pupil must call up the corresponding    
idea by  thought1 memory1 and           
imagination1 or else the word will cease
 to be a  word and remain only a sound  
or character4    ,on the other hand1    
observation of things and movements does
 not  necessarily involve this twofold  
act of analysis1 introspective  and     
objective1 but only the latter--the     
objective analysis4 ,it is  granted that
 we all have frequent occasion to       
condemn poor methods of  instruction as 
teaching words rather than things4 ,but 
we admit that we  mean empty sounds or  

characters rather than true words4 ,our 
suggestions  for the correct method of  
teaching amount in this case simply to  
laying  stress on the meaning of the    
word1 and to setting the teaching       
process  on the road of analysis of     
content rather than form4 ,in the case  
of  words used to store up external     
observation the teacher is told to      
repeat and make alive again the act of  
observation by which the word  obtained 
its original meaning4 ,in the case of a 
word expressing a  relation between     
facts or events1 the pupil is to be     
taken step by  step through the process 
of reflection by which the idea was     
built up4  ,since the word1 spoken and  
written1 is the sole instrument by which
  reason can fix1 preserve1 and         
communicate both the data of sense and  
the relations discovered between them by
 reflection1 no new method  in education
 has been able to supplant in the school
 the branches1  reading and penmanship4 
,but the real improvements in method    

have led  teachers to lay greater and   
greater stress on the internal factor of
  the word1 on its meaning1 and have in 
manifold ways shown how to repeat  the  
original experiences that gave the      
meaning to concrete words1 and  the     
original comparisons and logical        
deductions by which the ideas of        
relations and causal processes arose in 
the mind and required abstract  words to
 preserve and communicate them4    ,it  
has been claimed that it would be better
 to have first a basis of  knowledge of 
things1 and secondarily and subsequently
 a knowledge of  words4 ,but it has been
 replied to this1 that the progress of  
the  child in learning to talk indicates
 his ascent out of mere impressions     
into the possession of true knowledge4  
,for he names objects only after  he has
 made some synthesis of his impressions 
and has formed general  ideas4 ,he      
recognizes the same object under        
different circumstances of  time and    
place1 and also recognizes other objects

 belonging to the same  class by and    
with names4 ,hence the use of the word  
indicates a higher  degree of           
self-activity--the stage of mere        
impressions without words  or signs     
being a comparatively passive state of  
mind4 ,what we mean by  things first and
 words afterward1 is1 therefore1 not the
 apprehension  of objects by passive    
impressions so much as the active       
investigation  and experimenting which  
come after words are used1 and the      
higher forms  of analysis are called    
into being by that invention of reason  
known as  language1 which1 as before    
said1 is a synthesis of thing and       
thought1  of outward sign and inward    
signification4    ,rational             
investigation cannot precede the        
invention of language any  more than    
blacksmithing can precede the invention 
of hammers1 anvils1  and pincers4 ,for  
language is the necessary tool of       
thought used in the  conduct of the     
analysis and synthesis of investigation4

    ,your ,committee would sum up these 
considerations by saying that  language 
rightfully forms the centre of          
instruction in the elementary  school1  
but that progress in methods of teaching
 is to be made1 as  hitherto1 chiefly by
 laying more stress on the internal side
 of the  word1 its meaning2 using better
 graded steps to build up the chain of  
experience or the train of thought that 
the word expresses4    ,the first three 
years' work of the child is occupied    
mainly with the  mastery of the printed 
and written forms of the words of his   
colloquial  vocabulary2 words that he is
 already familiar enough with as sounds 
addressed to the ear4 ,he has to become 
familiar with the new forms  addressed  
to the eye1 and it would be an unwise   
method to require  him to learn many new
 words at the same time that he is      
learning to  recognize his old words in 
their new shape4 ,but as soon as he has 
acquired some facility in reading what  
is printed in the colloquial  style1 he 

may go on to selections from standard   
authors4 ,the literary  selections      
should be graded1 and are graded in     
almost all series of  readers used in   
our elementary schools1 in such a way as
 to bring those  containing the fewest  
words outside of the colloquial         
vocabulary into  the lower books of the 
series1 and increasing the difficulties1
 step by  step1 as the pupil grows in   
maturity4 ,the selections are literary  
works  of art possessing the required   
organic unity and a proper reflection   
of this unity in the details1 as good   
works of art must do4 ,but they  portray
 situations of the soul1 or scenes of   
life1 or elaborated  reflections1 of    
which the child can obtain some grasp   
through his  capacity to feel and think1
 although in scope and compass they far 
surpass his range4 ,they are adapted1   
therefore1 to lead him out of and       
beyond himself1 as spiritual guides4    
,literary style employs1 besides words  
common to the colloquial  vocabulary1   

words used in a semi-technical sense    
expressive of fine  shades of thought   
and emotion4 ,the literary work of art  
furnishes a  happy expression for some  
situation of the soul1 or some train of 
reflection hitherto unutterable in an   
adequate manner4 ,if the pupil  learns  
this literary production1 he finds      
himself powerfully helped  to understand
 both himself and his fellow-men4 ,the  
most practical  knowledge of all1 it    
will be admitted1 is a knowledge of     
human  nature--a knowledge that enables 
one to combine with his fellow-men1  and
 to share with them the physical and    
spiritual wealth of the race4  ,of this 
high character as humanizing or         
civilizing1 are the favorite  works of  
literature found in the school readers1 
about one hundred and  fifty ,english   
and ,american writers being drawn upon  
for the material4  ,such are            
,shakespeare's speeches of ,brutus and  
,mark ,antony1 ,hamlet's  and ,macbeth's
 soliloquies1 ,milton's ,l',allegro and 

,il ,penseroso1 ,gray's  ,elegy1        
,tennyson's ,charge of the ,light       
,brigade and ,ode on the ,death of  the 
,duke of ,wellington1 ,byron's          
,waterloo1 ,irving's ,rip ,van ,winkle1 
,webster's ,reply to ,hayne1 ,the ,trial
 of ,knapp1 and ,bunker ,hill oration1  
,scott's ,lochinvar1 ,marmion1 and      
,roderick ,dhu1 ,bryant's ,thanatopsis1 
,longfellow's ,psalm of ,life1 ,paul    
,revere1 and the ,bridge1 ,o',hara's    
,bivouac of the ,dead1 ,campbell's      
,hohenlinden1 ,collins' ,how ,sleep the 
,brave1 ,wolfe's ,burial of ,sir ,john  
,moore1 and other fine prose and  poetry
 from ,addison1 ,emerson1 ,franklin1    
,the ,bible1 ,hawthorne1 ,walter        
,scott1 ,goldsmith1 ,wordsworth1 ,swift1
 ,milton1 ,cooper1 ,whittier1 ,lowell1  
and the rest4 ,the reading and study of 
fine selections in prose and  verse     
furnish the chief sthetic training of   
the elementary school4  ,but this should
 be re-enforced by some study of        
photographic or other  reproductions of 

the world's great masterpieces of       
architecture1  sculpture1 and painting4 
,the frequent sight of these            
reproductions is  good2 the attempt to  
copy or sketch them with the pencil is  
better2  best of all is an sthetic      
lesson on their composition1 attempting 
to  describe in words the idea of the   
whole that gives the work its organic   
unity1 and the devices adopted by the   
artist to reflect this idea in  the     
details and re-enforce its strength4    
,the sthetic taste of teacher  and pupil
 can be cultivated by such exercises1   
and once set on the road  of            
development1 this taste may improve     
through life4    ,a third phase of      
language study in the elementary school 
is formal  grammar4 ,the works of       
literary art in the readers1 re-enforced
 as they  ought to be by supplementary  
reading at home of the whole works from 
which the selections for the school     
readers are made1 will educate  the     
child in the use of a higher and better 

,english style4 ,technical  grammar     
never can do this4 ,only familiarity    
with fine ,english works  will insure   
one a good and correct style4 ,but      
grammar is the science of  language1 and
 as the first of the seven liberal arts 
it has long held  sway in school as the 
disciplinary study par excellence4 ,a   
survey  of its educational value1       
subjective and objective1 usually       
produces  the conviction that it is to  
retain the first place in the future4   
,its  chief objective advantage is1 that
 it shows the structure of language1    
and the logical forms of subject1       
predicate1 and modifier1 thus  revealing
 the essential nature of thought itself1
 the most important  of all objects1    
because it is self-object4 ,on the      
subjective or  psychological side1      
grammar demonstrates its title to the   
first place  by its use as a discipline 
in subtle analysis1 in logical division 
and classification1 in the art of       
questioning1 and in the mental          

accomplishment of making exact          
definitions4 ,nor is this an empty1     
formal discipline1 for its              
subject-matter1 language1 is a product  
of  the reason of a people1 not as      
individuals1 but as a social whole1 and 
the vocabulary holds in its store of    
words the generalized experience  of    
that people1 including sensuous         
observation and reflection1 feeling  and
 emotion1 instinct and volition4    ,no 
formal labor on a great objective field 
is ever lost wholly1  since at the very 
least it has the merit of familiarizing 
the pupil  with the contents of some one
 extensive province that borders on  his
 life1 and with which he must come into 
correlation2 but it is  easy for any    
special formal discipline1 when         
continued too long1 to  paralyze or     
arrest growth at that stage4 ,the       
overcultivation of the  verbal memory   
tends to arrest the growth of critical  
attention and  reflection4 ,memory of   
accessory details too1 so much prized in

 the  school1 is also cultivated often  
at the expense of an insight into the   
organizing principle of the whole and   
the casual nexus that binds the  parts4 
,so1 too1 the study of quantity1 if     
carried to excess1 may warp  the mind   
into a habit of neglecting quality in   
its observation and  reflection4 ,as    
there is no subsumption in the          
quantitative judgment1  but only dead   
equality or inequality 7,a is equal to  
or greater or less  than ,b71 there is a
 tendency to atrophy in the faculty of  
concrete  syllogistic reasoning on the  
part of the person devoted exclusively  
to mathematics4 ,for the normal         
syllogism uses judgments wherein the    
subject is subsumed under the predicate 
7,this is a rose--the individual  rose  
is subsumed under the class rose2       
,socrates is a man1 etc474 ,such        
reasoning concerns individuals in two   
aspects1 first as concrete wholes  and  
secondly as members of higher totalities
 or classes--species and  genera4 ,thus1

 too1 grammar1 rich as it is in its     
contents1 is only a  formal discipline  
as respects the scientific1 historic1 or
 literary  contents of language1 and is 
indifferent to them4 ,a training for    
four  or five years in parsing and      
grammatical analysis practiced on       
literary  works of art 7,milton1        
,shakespeare1 ,tennyson1 ,scott7 is a   
training of  the pupil into habits of   
indifference toward and neglect of the  
genius  displayed in the literary work  
of art1 and into habits of impertinent  
and trifling attention to elements      
employed as material or texture1  and a 
corresponding neglect of the structural 
form1 which alone is  the work of the   
artist4 ,a parallel to this would be the
 mason's habit  of noticing only the    
brick and mortar1 or the stone and      
cement1 in  his inspection of the       
architecture1 say of ,sir ,christopher  
,wren4 ,a  child overtrained to analyze 
and classify shades of color--examples  
of  this one finds occasionally in a    

primary school whose specialty is       
8objective teaching0--might in later    
life visit an art gallery and make  an  
inventory of colors without getting even
 a glimpse of a painting as  a work of  
art4 ,such overstudy and misuse of      
grammar as one finds in the  elementary 
school1 it is feared1 exists to some    
extent in secondary  schools and even in
 colleges1 in the work of mastering the 
classic  authors4    ,your ,committee is
 unanimous in the conviction that formal
 grammar  should not be allowed to usurp
 the place of a study of the literary   
work of art in accordance with literary 
method4 ,the child can be  gradually    
trained to see the technical 8motives0  
of a poem or prose  work of art and to  
enjoy the sthetic inventions of the     
artist4 ,the  analysis of a work of art 
should discover the idea that gives it  
organic unity2 the collision and the    
complication resulting2 the  solution   
and dnouement4 ,of course these things  
must be reached  in the elementary      

school without even a mention of their  
technical  terms4 ,the subject of the   
piece is brought out2 its reflection in 
the  conditions of the time and place to
 heighten interest by showing its       
importance2 its second and stronger     
reflection in the several details  of   
its conflict and struggle2 its          
reflection in the dnouement  wherein its
 struggle ends in victory or defeat and 
the ethical or  rational interests are  
vindicated1--and the results move       
outward1  returning to the environment  
again in ever-widening                  
circles1--something  resembling this is 
to be found in every work of art1 and   
there are  salient features which can be
 briefly but profitably made subject of 
comment in familiar language with even  
the youngest pupils4 ,there  is an      
ethical and an sthetical content to each
 work of art4 ,it is  profitable to     
point out both of these in the interest 
of the child's  growing insight into    
human nature4 ,the ethical should1      

however1 be kept  in subordination to   
the sthetical1 but for the sake of the  
supreme  interests of the ethical       
itself4 ,otherwise the study of a work  
of art  degenerates into a goody goody  
performance1 and its effects on the     
child are to cause a reaction against   
the moral4 ,the child protects  his     
inner individuality against effacement  
through external authority  by taking an
 attitude of rebellion against stories  
with an appended  moral4 ,herein the    
superiority of the sthetical in literary
 art is  to be seen4 ,for the ethical   
motive is concealed by the poet1 and the
  hero is painted with all his brittle  
individualism and self-seeking4  ,his   
passions and his selfishness1 gilded by 
fine traits of bravery and  noble       
manners1 interest the youth1 interest us
 all4 ,the established  social and moral
 order seems to the ambitious hero to be
 an obstacle  to the unfolding of the   
charms of individuality4 ,the deed of   
violence  gets done1 and the ,nemesis is

 aroused4 ,now his deed comes back on   
the individual doer1 and our sympathy   
turns against him and we  rejoice in his
 fall4 ,thus the sthetical unity        
contains within it the  ethical unity4  
,the lesson of the great poet or        
novelist is taken to  heart1 whereas the
 ethical announcement by itself might   
have failed1  especially with the most  
self-active and aspiring of the pupils4 
,aristotle pointed out in his ,poetics  
this advantage of the sthetic  unity1   
which ,plato in his ,republic seems to  
have missed4 ,tragedy purges  us of our 
passions1 to use ,aristotle's           
expression1 because we identify  our own
 wrong inclinations with those of the   
hero1 and by sympathy we  suffer with   
him and see our intended deed returned  
upon us with tragic  effect1 and are    
thereby cured4    ,your ,committee has  
dwelt upon the sthetic side of          
literature in this  explicit manner     
because they believe that the general   
tendency in  elementary schools is to   

neglect the literary art for the        
literary  formalities which concern the 
mechanical material rather than the     
spiritual form4 ,those formal studies   
should not be discontinued1 but         
subordinated to the higher study of     
literature4    ,your ,committee reserves
 the subject of language lessons1       
composition  writing1 and what relates  
to the child's expression of ideas in   
writing1 for consideration under ,part  
#c of this ,report1 treating of         
programme4      ,b4 ,arithmetic4        
,side by side with language study is the
 study of mathematics in the  schools1  
claiming the second place in importance 
of all studies4 ,it  has been pointed   
out that mathematics concerns the laws  
of time and  space--their structural    
form1 so to speak--and hence that it    
formulates  the logical conditions of   
all matter both in rest and in motion4  
,be  this as it may1 the high position  
of mathematics as the science of  all   
quantity is universally acknowledged4   

,the elementary branch of  mathematics  
is arithmetic1 and this is studied in   
the primary and  grammar schools from   
six to eight years1 or even longer4 ,the
 relation  of arithmetic to the whole   
field of mathematics has been stated 7by
  ,comte1 ,howison1 and others7 to be   
that of the final step in a process  of 
calculation1 in which results are stated
 numerically4 ,there are  branches that 
develop or derive quantitative          
functions3 say geometry  for spatial    
forms1 and mechanics for movement and   
rest and the forces  producing them4    
,other branches transform these         
quantitative functions  into such forms 
as may be calculated in actual numbers2 
namely1  algebra in its common or lower 
form1 and in its higher form as the     
differential and integral calculus1 and 
the calculus of variations4  ,arithmetic
 evaluates or finds the numerical value 
for the functions  thus deduced and     
transformed4 ,the educational value of  
arithmetic  is thus indicated both as   

concerns its psychological side and  its
 objective practical uses in correlating
 man with the world of  nature4 ,in this
 latter respect as furnishing the key to
 the outer  world in so far as the      
objects of the latter are a matter of   
direct  enumeration1--capable of being  
counted1--it is the first great step  in
 the conquest of nature4 ,it is the     
first tool of thought that man  invents 
in the work of emancipating himself from
 thraldom to external  forces4 ,for by  
the command of number he learns to      
divide and conquer4  ,he can proportion 
one force to another1 and concentrate   
against an  obstacle precisely what is  
needed to overcome it4 ,number also     
makes  possible all the other sciences  
of nature which depend on exact         
measurement and exact record of         
phenomena as to the following items3    
order of succession1 date1 duration1    
locality1 environment1 extent  of sphere
 of influence1 number of manifestations1
 number of cases of  intermittence4 ,all

 these can be defined accurately only by
 means of  number4 ,the educational     
value of a branch of study that         
furnishes the  indispensable first step 
toward all science of nature is obvious4
 ,but  psychologically its importance   
further appears in this1 that it begins 
with an important step in analysis2     
namely1 the detachment of the idea  of  
quantity from the concrete whole1 which 
includes quality as well as  quantity4  
,to count1 one drops the qualitative and
 considers only the  quantitative       
aspect4 ,so long as the individual      
differences 7which are  qualitative in  
so far as they distinguish one object   
from another7 are  considered1 the      
objects cannot be counted together4     
,when counted1 the  distinctions are    
dropped out of sight as indifferent4 ,as
 counting is  the fundamental operation 
of arithmetic1 and all other            
arithmetical  operations are simply     
devices for speed by using remembered   
countings  instead of going through the 

detailed work again each time1 the hint 
is furnished the teacher for the first  
lessons in arithmetic4 ,this  hint has  
been generally followed out and the     
child set at work at  first upon the    
counting of objects so much alike that  
the qualitative  difference is not      
suggested to him4 ,he constructs        
gradually his tables  of addition1      
subtraction1 and multiplication1 and    
fixes them in his  memory4 ,then he     
takes his next higher step2 namely1 the 
apprehension  of the fraction4 ,this is 
an expressed ratio of two numbers1 and  
therefore a much more complex thought   
than he has met with in dealing  with   
the simple numbers4 ,in thinking        
five-sixths1 he first thinks five  and  
then six1 and holding these two in mind 
thinks the result of the  first modified
 by the second4 ,here are three steps   
instead of one1  and the result is not a
 simple number1 but an inference resting
 on an  unperformed operation4 ,this    
psychological analysis shows the reason 

for the embarrassment of the child on   
his entrance upon the study of          
fractions and the other operations that 
imply ratio4 ,the teacher finds  all his
 resources in the way of method drawn   
upon to invent steps and  half steps1 to
 aid the pupil to make continuous       
progress here4 ,all  these devices of   
method consist in steps by which the    
pupil descends  to the simple number and
 returns to the complex4 ,he turns one  
of the  terms into a qualitative unit1  
and thus is enabled to use the other  as
 a simple number4 ,the pupil takes the  
denominator1 for example1 and  makes    
clear his conception of one-sixth as his
 qualitative unit1 then  five-sixths is 
as clear to him as five oxen4 ,but he   
has to repeat  this return from ratio to
 simple numbers in each of the          
elementary  operations--addition1       
subtraction1 multiplication1 and        
division1 and  in the reduction of      
fractions--and finds the road long and  
tedious at  best4 ,in the case of       

decimal fractions the psychological     
process is  more complex still2 for the 
pupil has given him one of the terms1   
the  numerator1 from which he must      
mentally deduce the denominator from    
the position of the decimal point4 ,this
 doubles the work of reading  and       
recognizing the fractional number4 ,but 
it makes addition and  subtraction of   
fractions nearly as easy as that of     
simple numbers and  assists also in     
multiplication of fractions4 ,but       
division of decimals  is a much more    
complex operation than that of common   
fractions4    ,the want of a            
psychological analysis of these         
processes has led many  good teachers to
 attempt decimal fractions with their   
pupils before  taking up common         
fractions4 ,in the end they have been   
forced to make  introductory steps to   
aid the pupil1 and in these steps to    
introduce  the theory of the common     
fraction4 ,they have by this refuted    
their own  theory4    ,besides 7a7      

simple numbers and the four operations  
with them1 7b7  fractions common and    
decimal1 there is 7c7 a third step in   
number2  namely1 the theory of powers   
and roots4 ,it is a further step in     
ratio2  namely1 the relation of a simple
 number to itself as power and root4    
,the mass of material which fills the   
arithmetic used in the elementary       
school consists of two kinds of         
examples3 first1 those wherein there  is
 a direct application of simple numbers1
 fractions1 and powers2  and secondly1  
the class of examples involving         
operations in reaching  numerical       
solutions through indirect data and     
consequently involving  more or less    
transformation of functions4 ,of this   
character is most  of the so-called     
higher arithmetic and such problems in  
the text-book  used in the elementary   
schools as have1 not inappropriately1   
been  called 7by ,general ,francis ,a4  
,walker in his criticism on             
common-school  arithmetic7 numerical    

8conundrums40 ,their difficulty is not  
found in  the strictly arithmetical part
 of the process of the solution 7the    
third phase above described71 but rather
 in the transformation of  the          
quantitative function given into the    
function that can readily  be calculated
 numerically4 ,the transformation of    
functions belongs  strictly to algebra4 
,teachers who love arithmetic1 and who  
have  themselves success in working out 
the so-called numerical conundrums1     
defend with much earnestness the current
 practice which uses so much  time for  
arithmetic4 ,they see in it a valuable  
training for ingenuity  and logical     
analysis1 and believe that the industry 
which discovers  arithmetical ways of   
transforming the functions given in such
 problems  into plain numerical         
operations of adding1 subtracting1      
multiplying1  or dividing is well       
bestowed4 ,on the other hand1 the       
critics of this  practice contend that  
there should be no merely formal drill  

in school  for its own sake1 and that   
there should be1 always1 a substantial  
content to be gained4 ,they contend that
 the work of the pupil in  transforming 
quantitative functions by arithmetical  
methods is wasted1  because the pupil   
needs a more adequate expression than   
number for  this purpose2 that this has 
been discovered in algebra1 which       
enables  him to perform with ease such  
quantitative transformations as puzzle  
the pupil in arithmetic4 ,they hold1    
therefore1 that arithmetic pure  and    
simple should be abridged and elementary
 algebra introduced after  the numerical
 operations in powers1 fractions1 and   
simple numbers  have been mastered1     
together with their applications to the 
tables of  weights and measures and to  
percentage and interest4 ,in the seventh
  year of the elementary course there   
would be taught equations of the  first 
degree and the solution of arithmetical 
problems that fall under  proportion1 or
 the so-called 8rule of three10 together

 with other  problems containing        
complicated conditions--those in        
partnership1 for  example4 ,in the      
eighth year quadratic equations could be
 learned1 and  other problems of higher 
arithmetic solved in a more satisfactory
  manner than by numerical methods4 ,it 
is contended that this earlier          
introduction of algebra1 with a sparing 
use of letters for known  quantities1   
would secure far more mathematical      
progress than is  obtained at present on
 the part of all pupils1 and that it    
would enable  many pupils to go on into 
secondary and higher education who are  
now  kept back on the plea of lack of   
preparation in arithmetic1 the real     
difficulty in many cases being a lack of
 ability to solve algebraic  problems by
 an inferior method4    ,your ,committee
 would report that the practice of      
teaching two lessons  daily in          
arithmetic1 one styled 8mental10 or     
8intellectual10 and the  other 8written0
 arithmetic 7because its exercises are  

written out with  pencil or pen71 is    
still continued in many schools4 ,by    
this device the  pupil is made to give  
twice as much time to arithmetic as to  
any other  branch4 ,it is contended by  
the opponents of this practice1 with    
some  show of reason1 that two lessons a
 day in the study of quantity have a    
tendency to give the mind a bent or set 
in the direction of thinking            
quantitatively1 with a corresponding    
neglect of the power to observe1  and to
 reflect upon1 qualitative and causal   
aspects4 ,for mathematics  does not take
 account of causes1 but only of equality
 and difference in  magnitude4 ,it is   
further objected that the attempt to    
secure what is  called thoroughness in  
the branches taught in the elementary   
schools  is often carried too far2 in   
fact1 to such an extent as to produce   
arrested development 7a sort of mental  
paralysis7 in the mechanical and  formal
 stages of growth4 ,the mind1 in that   
case1 loses its appetite for  higher    

methods and wider generalizations4 ,the 
law of apperception1 we  are told1      
proves that temporary methods of solving
 problems should not  be so thoroughly  
mastered as to be used involuntarily1 or
 as a matter  of unconscious habit1 for 
the reason that a higher and more       
adequate  method of solution will then  
be found more difficult to acquire4 ,the
  more thoroughly a method is learned1  
the more it becomes part of the  mind1  
and the greater the repugnance of the   
mind toward a new method4  ,for this    
reason1 parents and teachers discourage 
young children from  the practice of    
counting on the fingers1 believing that 
it will cause  much trouble later to    
root out this vicious habit and replace 
it  by purely mental processes4         
,teachers should be careful1 especially 
with precocious children1 not to        
continue too long in the use of a       
process that is becoming mechanical2 for
 it is already growing into  a second   
nature1 and becoming a part of the      

unconscious apperceptive  process by    
which the mind reacts against the       
environment1 recognizes  its presence1  
and explains it to itself4 ,the child   
that has been  overtrained in arithmetic
 reacts apperceptively against his      
environment  chiefly by noticing its    
numerical relations--he counts and adds2
 his  other apperceptive reactions being
 feeble1 he neglects qualities and      
causal relations4 ,another child who has
 been drilled in recognizing  colors    
apperceives the shades of color to the  
neglect of all else4 ,a  third child1   
excessively trained in form studies by  
the constant use  of geometric solids1  
and much practice in looking for the    
fundamental  geometric forms lying at   
the basis of the multifarious objects   
that  exist in the world1 will1 as a    
matter of course1 apperceive geometric  
forms1 ignoring the other phases of     
objects4    ,it is1 certainly1 an       
advance on immediate sense-perception to
 be able  to separate or analyze the    

concrete1 whole impression1 and consider
 the  quantity apart by itself4 ,but if 
arrested mental growth takes place      
here1 the result is deplorable4 ,that   
such arrest may be caused by too        
exclusive training in recognizing       
numerical relations is beyond a  doubt4 
,your ,committee believes that1 with the
 right methods1 and a wise use  of time 
in preparing the arithmetic lesson in   
and out of school1 five  years are      
sufficient for the study of mere        
arithmetic--the five years  beginning   
with the second school year and ending  
with the close of  the sixth year2 and  
that the seventh and eighth years should
 be given  to the algebraic method of   
dealing with those problems that involve
  difficulties in the transformation of 
quantitative indirect functions  into   
numerical or direct quantitative data4  
,your ,committee1 however1 does not wish
 to be understood as recommending  the  
transfer of algebra1 as it is understood
 and taught in most  secondary schools1 

to the seventh year1 or even to the     
eighth year of  the elementary school4  
,the algebra course in the secondary    
school1 as  taught to the pupils in     
their fifteenth year of age1 very       
properly  begins with severe exercises1 
with a view to discipline the pupil  in 
analyzing complex literate expressions  
at sight1 and to make him  able to      
recognize at once the factors that are  
contained in such  combinations of      
quantities4 ,the proposed seventh-grade 
algebra must  use letters for the       
unknown quantities and retain the       
numerical form  of the known quantities1
 using letters for these very rarely1   
except  to exhibit the general form of  
solution1 or what1 if stated in words1  
becomes a so-called 8rule0 in           
arithmetic4 ,this species of algebra    
has the character of an introduction or 
transitional step to algebra  proper4   
,the latter should be taught thoroughly 
in the secondary school4  ,formerly it  
was a common practice to teach          

elementary algebra of  this sort in the 
preparatory schools1 and reserve for the
 college a  study of algebra proper4    
,but in this case there was often a     
neglect  of sufficient practice in      
factoring literate quantities1 and1 as a
  consequence1 the pupil suffered       
embarrassment in his more advanced      
mathematics2 for example1 in analytical 
geometry1 the differential  calculus1   
and mechanics4 ,the proposition of your 
,committee is intended  to remedy the   
two evils already named3 first1 to aid  
the pupils in the  elementary school to 
solve1 by a higher method1 the more     
difficult  problems that now find place 
in advanced arithmetic2 and secondly1   
to prepare the pupil for a thorough     
course in pure algebra in the  secondary
 school4    ,your ,committee is of the  
opinion that the so-called mental       
arithmetic  should be made to alternate 
with written arithmetic for two years1  
and  that there should not be two daily 
lessons in this subject4      ,c4       

,geography4    ,the leading branch of   
the seven liberal arts was grammar1     
being the  first of the ,trivium        
7grammar1 rhetoric1 and logic74         
,arithmetic1  however1 led the second   
division1 the ,quadrivium 7arithmetic1  
geometry1 music1 and astronomy74 ,we    
have glanced at the reasons for  the    
place of grammar as leading the humane  
studies1 as well as for  the place of   
arithmetic as leading the nature        
studies4 ,following  arithmetic1 as the 
second study in importance among the    
branches that  correlate man to nature1 
is geography4 ,it is interesting to note
  that the old quadrivium of the ,middle
 ,ages included geography1 under  the   
title of geometry1 as the branch        
following arithmetic in the             
enumeration2 the subject-matter of their
 so-called 8geometry0 being  chiefly an 
abridgment of ,pliny's geography1 to    
which were added a few  definitions of  
geometric forms1 something like the     
primary course in  geometric solids in  

our elementary schools4 ,so long as     
there has been  elementary education    
there has been something of geography   
included4  ,the ,greek education laid   
stress on teaching the second book of   
,homer1  containing the ,catalogue of   
the ,ships and a brief mention of the   
geography and history of all the ,greek 
tribes that took part in the  ,trojan   
,war4 ,history remains unseparated from 
geography and geometry  in the ,middle  
,ages4 ,geography has preserved this    
comprehensiveness of  meaning as a      
branch of the study in the elementary   
schools down to the  present day4 ,after
 arithmetic1 which treats of the        
abstract or general  conditions of      
material existence1 comes geography with
 a practical  study of man's material   
habitat1 and its relations to him4 ,it  
is not  a simple science by itself1 like
 botany1 or geology1 or astronomy1  but 
a collection of sciences levied upon to 
describe the earth as the               
dwelling-place of man and to explain    

something of its more prominent         
features4 ,about one-fourth of the      
material relates strictly to the        
geography1 about one-half to the        
inhabitants1 their manners1 customs1    
institutions1 industries1 productions1  
and the remaining one-fourth  to items  
drawn from the sciences of mineralogy1  
meteorology1 botany1  zology1 and       
astronomy4 ,this predominance of the    
human feature in a  study ostensibly    
relating to physical nature1 your       
,committee considers  necessary and     
entirely justifiable4 ,the child        
commences with what  is nearest to his  
interests1 and proceeds gradually toward
 what is  remote and to be studied for  
its own sake4 ,it is1 therefore1 a      
mistake  to suppose that the first phase
 of geography presented to the child    
should be the process of continent      
formation4 ,he must begin with the      
natural difference of climate1 and      
lands1 and waters1 and obstacles  that  
separate peoples1 and study the methods 

by which man strives to  equalize or    
overcome these differences by industry  
and commerce1 to  unite all places and  
all people1 and make it possible for    
each to  share in the productions of    
all4 ,the industrial and commercial idea
  is1 therefore1 the first central idea 
in the study of geography in  the       
elementary schools4 ,it leads directly  
to the natural elements of  difference  
in climate1 soil1 and productions1 and  
also to those in  race1 religion1       
political status1 and occupations of the
 inhabitants1  with a view to explain   
the grounds and reasons for this        
counter-process  of civilization which  
struggles to overcome the differences4  
,next  comes the deeper inquiry into the
 process of continent formation1  the   
physical struggle between the process of
 upheaving or upbuilding  of continents 
and that of their obliteration by air   
and water2 the  explanation of the      
mountains1 valleys1 and plains1 the     
islands1  volcanic action1 the winds1   

the rain-distribution4 ,but the study   
of cities1 their location1 the purposes 
they serve as collecting1               
manufacturing1 and distributing centres1
 leads most directly to the  immediate  
purpose of geography in the elementary  
school4 ,from this  beginning1 and      
holding to it as a permanent interest1  
the inquiry into  causes and conditions 
proceeds concentrically to the sources  
of the raw  materials1 the methods of   
their production1 and the climatic1     
geologic1  and other reasons that       
explain their location and their growth4
    ,in recent years1 especially through
 the scientific study of physical       
geography1 the processes that go to the 
formation of climate1 soil1 and  general
 configuration of land masses have been 
accurately determined1  and the methods 
of teaching so simplified that it is    
possible to lead  out from the central  
idea mentioned to the physical          
explanations of the  elements of        
geographical difference quite early in  

the course of study4  ,setting out from 
the idea of the use made of the earth by
 civilization1  the pupil in the fifth  
and sixth years of his schooling 7at the
 age of  eleven or twelve7 may extend   
his inquiries quite profitably as far as
  the physical explanations of          
land-shapes and climates4 ,in the       
seventh  and eighth year of school much 
more may be done in this direction4     
,but it is believed that the            
distinctively human interest connected  
with geography in the first years of its
 study should not yield to the  purely  
scientific one of physical processes    
until the pupil has taken  up the study 
of history4    ,the educational value of
 geography1 as it is and has been in    
elementary  schools1 is obviously very  
great4 ,it makes possible something like
  accuracy in the picturing of distant  
places and events1 and removes  a large 
tract of mere superstition from the     
mind4 ,in the days of  newspaper reading
 one's stock of geographical information

 is in  constant requisition4 ,a war on 
the opposite side of the globe is       
followed with more interest in this year
 than a war near our own  borders before
 the era of the telegraph4 ,the general 
knowledge of the  locations and         
boundaries of nations1 of their status  
in civilization1  and their natural     
advantages for contributing to the world
 market1 is  of great use to the citizen
 in forming correct ideas from his daily
  reading4    ,the educational value of 
geography is even more apparent if we   
admit  the claims of those who argue    
that the present epoch is the beginning 
of an era in which public opinion is    
organized into a ruling force by  the   
agency of periodicals and books4        
,certainly neither the newspaper  nor   
the book can influence an illiterate    
people2 they can do little to  form     
opinions where the readers have no      
knowledge of geography4    ,as to the   
psychological value of geography little 
need be said4 ,it  exercises in manifold

 ways the memory of forms and the       
imagination2 it  brings into exercise   
the thinking power1 in tracing back     
toward unity  the various series of     
causes4 ,what educative value there is  
in geology1  meteorology1 zology1       
ethnology1 economics1 history1 and      
politics  is to be found in the more    
profound study of geography1 and1 to a  
proportionate extent1 in the study of   
its merest elements4    ,your ,committee
 is of the opinion that there has been a
 vast  improvement in the methods of    
instruction in this branch in recent    
years1 due1 in large measure1 to the    
geographical societies of this  and     
other countries4 ,at first there        
prevailed what might be named  sailor   
geography4 ,the pupil was compelled to  
memorize all the capes  and headlands1  
bays and harbors1 mouths of rivers1     
islands1 sounds1  and straits around the
 world4 ,he enlivened this1 to some     
extent1 by  brief mention of the        
curiosities and oddities in the way of  

cataracts1  water-gaps1 caves1 strange  
animals1 public buildings1 picturesque  
costumes1 national exaggerations1 and   
such matters as would furnish  good     
themes for sailors' yarns4 ,little or   
nothing was taught to give  unity to the
 isolated details furnished in endless  
number4 ,it was  an improvement on this 
when the method of memorizing capital   
cities  and political boundaries        
succeeded4 ,with this came the era of   
map  drawing4 ,the study of watersheds  
and commercial routes1 of industrial    
productions and centres of manufacture  
and commerce1 has been adopted  in the  
better class of schools4 ,instruction in
 geography is growing  better by the    
constant introduction of new devices to 
make plain and  intelligible the        
determining influence of physical causes
 in producing  the elements of          
difference and the counter-process of   
industry and  commerce by which each    
difference is rendered of use to the    
whole  world1 and each locality made a  

participator in the productions of all4 
,d4 ,history4    ,the next study1 ranked
 in order of value1 for the elementary  
school is  history4 ,but1 as will be    
seen1 the value of history1 both        
practically  and psychologically1 is    
less in the beginning and greater at the
  end than geography4 ,for it relates to
 the institutions of men1 and           
especially to the political state and   
its evolution4 ,while biography         
narrates the career of the individual1  
civil history records the  careers of   
nations4 ,the nation has been compared  
to the individual  by persons interested
 in the educational value of history4   
,man has  two selves1 they say1 the     
individual self1 and the collective self
  of the organized state or nation4 ,the
 study of history is1 then1 the  study  
of this larger1 corporate1 social and   
civil self4 ,the importance  of this    
idea is thus brought out more clearly in
 its educational  significance4 ,for to 
learn this civil self is to learn the   

substantial  condition which makes      
possible the existence of civilized man 
in all  his other social                
combinations--the family1 the ,church1  
and the manifold  associated activities 
of civil society4 ,for the state        
protects these  combinations from       
destruction by violence4 ,it defines the
 limits  of individual and associated   
effort1 within which each endeavor      
re-enforces the endeavors of all1 and it
 uses the strength of the whole  nation 
to prevent such actions as pass beyond  
these safe limits and  tend to collision
 with the normal action of the other    
individuals and  social units4 ,hobbes  
called the state a ,leviathan1 to       
emphasize its  stupendous individuality 
and organized self-activity4 ,without   
this1  he said1 man lives in a state of 
8constant war1 fear1 poverty1 filth1    
ignorance1 and wretchedness2 within the 
state dwell peace1 security1  riches1   
science1 and happiness40 ,the state is  
the collective man who  8makes possible 

the rational development of the         
individual man1 like a  mortal ,god1    
subduing his caprice and passion and    
compelling obedience  to law1 developing
 the ideas of justice1 virtue1 and      
religion1 creating  property and        
ownership1 nurture and education40 ,the 
education of the  child into a knowledge
 of this higher self begins early within
 the  nurture of the family4 ,the child 
sees a policeman or some town officer1  
some public building1 a court house or a
 jail2 he sees or hears of an  act of   
violence1 a case of robbery or murder   
followed by arrest of the  guilty4 ,the 
omnipresent higher self1 which has been 
invisible hitherto1  now becomes visible
 to him in its symbols and still more in
 its acts4    ,history in school1 it is 
contended1 should be the special branch 
for  education in the duties of         
citizenship4 ,there is ground for this  
claim4  ,history gives a sense of       
belonging to a higher social unity which
  possesses the right of absolute       

control over person and property in  the
 interest of the safety of the whole4   
,this1 of course1 is the basis  of      
citizenship2 the individual must feel   
this or see this solidarity  of the     
state and recognize its supreme         
authority4 ,but history shows  the      
collisions of nations1 and the victory  
of one political ideal  accompanied by  
the defeat of another4 ,history reveals 
an evolution  of forms of government    
that are better and better adapted to   
permit  individual freedom1 and the     
participation of all citizens in the    
administration of the government itself4
    ,people who make their own          
government have a special interest in   
the  spectacle of political evolution as
 exhibited in history4 ,but it  must be 
admitted that this evolution has not    
been well presented  by popular         
historians4 ,take1 for instance1 the    
familiar example of  old-time pedagogy1 
wherein the ,roman republic was         
conceived as a  freer government than   

the ,roman empire that followed it1 by  
persons  apparently misled by the ideas 
of representative self-government       
associated with the word republic4 ,it  
was the beginning of a new  epoch when  
this illusion was dispelled1 and the    
college student became  aware of the    
true ,roman meaning of republic1 namely1
 the supremacy  of an oligarchy on the  
,tiber that ruled distant provinces in  
,spain1  ,gaul1 ,asia ,minor1 ,germany1 
and ,africa1 for its selfish ends and   
with  an ever-increasing arrogance4 ,the
 people at home in ,rome1 not having  a 
share in the campaigns on the           
borderland1 did not appreciate the      
qualities of the great leaders who1 like
 ,csar1 subdued the nations by          
forbearance1 magnanimity1 trust1 and the
 recognition of a sphere of  freedom    
secured to the conquered by the ,roman  
civil laws1 which were  rigidly enforced
 by the conqueror1 as much as by the    
violence of arms4  ,the change from     
republic to empire meant the final      

subordination of  this tyrannical ,roman
 oligarchy1 and the recognition of the  
rights of  the provinces to ,roman      
freedom4 ,this illustration shows how   
easily a  poor teaching of history may  
pervert its good influence or purpose   
into  a bad one4 ,for the ,roman        
monarchy under the empire secured a     
degree  of freedom never before attained
 under the republic1 in spite of the    
election of such tyrants as ,nero and   
,caligula to the imperial purple4  ,the 
civil service went on as usual          
administering the affairs of distant    
countries1 educating them in ,roman     
jurisprudence1 and cultivating a  love  
for accumulating private property4      
,those countries had before  lived      
communistically after the style of the  
tribe or at best of the  village        
community4 ,roman private property in   
land gave an impulse  to the development
 of free individuality such as had      
always been  impossible under the social
 stage of development known as the      

village  community4    ,to teach history
 properly is to dispel this shallow     
illusion which  flatters individualism1 
and to open the eyes of the pupil to the
 true  nature of freedom1 namely1 the   
freedom through obedience to just laws  
enforced by a strong government4        
,your ,committee has made this apparent 
digression for the sake of a more       
explicit statement of its conviction of 
the importance of teaching  history in a
 different spirit from that of abstract 
freedom1 which  sometimes means anarchy1
 although they admit the possibility of 
an  opposite extreme1 the danger of too 
little stress on the progressive        
element in the growth of nations1 and   
its manifestation in new and  better    
political devices for representing all  
citizens without  weakening the central 
power4    ,that the history of one's own
 nation is to be taught in the          
elementary  school seems fixed by common
 consent4 ,united ,states history       
includes  first a sketch of the epoch of

 discoveries and next of the epoch of   
colonization4 ,this1 fortunately1 suits 
the pedagogic requirements4 ,for  the   
child loves to approach the stern       
realities of a firmly established       
civilization through its stages of      
growth by means of individual           
enterprise4 ,here is the use of         
biography as introduction to history4   
,it treats of exceptional individuals   
whose lives bring them in one  way or   
another into national or even           
world-historical relations4 ,they  throw
 light on the nature and necessity of   
governments1 and are in turn            
illuminated by the light thrown back on 
them by the institutions which  they    
promote or hinder4 ,the era of          
semi-private adventure with which       
,american history begins is admirably   
adapted for study by the pupil  in the  
elementary stage of his education4 ,so1 
too1 the next epoch1  that of           
colonization4 ,the pioneer is a degree  
nearer to civilization  than is the     

explorer and discoverer4 ,in the        
colonial history the pupil  interests   
himself in the enterprise of aspiring   
individualities1 in  their conquest over
 obstacles of climate and soil2 their   
conflicts with  the aboriginal          
population2 their choice of land for    
settlement2 the  growth of their cities2
 above all1 their several attempts and  
final  success in forming a constitution
 securing local self-government4 ,an    
epoch of growing interrelation of the   
colonies succeeds1 a tendency  to union 
on a large scale due to the effect of   
,european wars which  involved ,england1
 ,france1 and other countries1 and      
affected the  relations of their        
colonies in ,america4 ,this epoch1 too1 
abounds  in heroic personalities1 like  
,wolfe1 ,montcalm1 and ,washington1 and 
perilous adventures1 especially in the  
,indian warfare4    ,the fourth epoch is
 the ,revolution1 by which the colonies 
through  joint effort secured their     
independence and afterward their union  

as  a nation4 ,the subject grows rapidly
 more complex1 and tasks severely  the  
powers of the pupils in the eighth year 
of the elementary school4  ,the         
formation of the ,constitution1 and a   
brief study of the salient  features of 
the ,constitution itself1 conclude the  
study of the portion  of the history of 
the ,united ,states that is sufficiently
 remote to  be treated after the manner 
of an educational classic4 ,everything  
up to this point stands out in strong   
individual outlines1 and is  admirably  
fitted for that elementary course of    
study4 ,beyond this  point1 the ,war of 
#ahab and the ,war of the ,rebellion1   
together with the  political events that
 led to it1 are matters of memory with  
the present  generation of parents and  
grandparents1 and are1 consequently1 not
 so  well fitted for intensive study in 
school as the already classic period  of
 our history4 ,but these later and      
latest epochs may be1 and will be1  read
 at home not only in the text-book on   

history used in the schools1  but also  
in the numerous sketches that appear in 
newspapers1 magazines1  and in more     
pretentious shapes4 ,in the intensive   
study which should  be undertaken of the
 classic period of our history1 the     
pupil may be  taught the method         
appropriate to historical investigation1
 the many  points of view from which    
each event ought to be considered4 ,he  
should  learn to discriminate between   
the theatrical show of events and the   
solid influences that move underneath as
 ethical causes4 ,although he  is too   
immature for very far-reaching          
reflections1 he must be helped  to see  
the causal processes of history4 ,armed 
with this discipline in  historic       
methods1 the pupil will do all of his   
miscellaneous reading  and thinking in  
this province with more adequate        
intellectual reaction  than was possible
 before the intensive study carried on  
in school4    ,the study of the outlines
 of the ,constitution1 for ten or       

fifteen weeks  in the final year of the 
elementary school1 has been found of    
great  educational value4 ,properly     
taught1 it fixes the idea of the        
essential  three-foldness of the        
constitution of a free government and   
the  necessary independence of each     
constituent power1 whether legislative1 
judicial1 or executive4 ,this and some  
idea of the manner and mode of  filling 
the official places in these three      
departments1 and of the  character of   
the duties with which each department is
 charged1 lay  foundations for an       
intelligent citizenship4    ,besides    
this intensive study of the history of  
the ,united ,states in the  seventh and 
eighth years1 your ,committee would     
recommend oral lessons  on the salient  
points of general history1 taking a full
 hour of sixty  minutes weekly--and     
preferably all at one time--for the sake
 of the  more systematic treatment of   
the subject of the lesson and the deeper
  impression made on the mind of the    

pupil4      ,e4 ,other branches4        
,your ,committee has reviewed the staple
 branches of the elementary  course of  
study in the light of their educational 
scope and  significance4 ,grammar1      
literature1 arithmetic1 geography1 and  
history  are the five branches upon     
which the disciplinary work of the      
elementary school is concentrated4      
,inasmuch as reading is the first  of   
the scholastic arts1 it is interesting  
to note that the whole  elementary      
course may be described as an extension 
of the process  of learning the art of  
reading4 ,first comes the mastering of  
the  colloquial vocabulary in printed   
and script forms4 ,next come five       
incursions into the special vocabularies
 required 7a7 in literature  to express 
the fine shades of emotion and the more 
subtle distinctions  of thought1 7b7 the
 technique of arithmetic1 7c7 of        
geography1  7d7 of grammar1 7e7 of      
history4    ,in the serious work of     
mastering these several technical       

vocabularies  the pupil is assigned     
daily tasks that he must prepare by     
independent  study4 ,the class exercise 
or recitation is taken up with examining
  and criticising the pupil's oral      
statements of what he has learned1      
especial care being taken to secure the 
pupil's explanation of it in  his own   
words4 ,this requires paraphrases and   
definitions of the new  words and       
phrases used in technical and literary  
senses1 with a view  to insure the      
addition to the mind of the new ideas   
corresponding  to the new words4 ,the   
misunderstandings are corrected and the 
pupil  set on the way to use more       
critical alertness in the preparation of
  his succeeding lessons4 ,the pupil    
learns as much by the recitations  of   
his fellow-pupils as he learns from the 
teacher1 but not the same  things4 ,he  
sees in the imperfect statements of his 
classmates that they  apprehended the   
lesson with different presuppositions   
and consequently  have seen some phases 

of the subject that escaped his         
observation1  while they in turn have   
missed points which he had noticed quite
  readily4 ,these different points of   
view become more or less his own1  and  
he may be said to grow by adding to his 
own mind the minds of  others4    ,it is
 clear that there are other branches of 
instruction that may lay  claim to a    
place in the course of study in the     
elementary school2 for  example1 the    
various branches of natural science1    
vocal music1 manual  training1 physical 
culture1 drawing1 etc4    ,here the     
question of another method of           
instruction is suggested4  ,there are   
lessons that require previous           
preparation by the pupil  himself--there
 are also lessons that may be taken up  
without such  preparation and conducted 
by the teacher1 who leads the exercise  
and  furnishes a large part of the      
information to be learned1 enlisting    
the aid of members of the class for the 
purpose of bringing home  the new       

material to their actual experience4    
,besides these1 there  are mechanical   
exercises for purposes of training1 such
 as drawing1  penmanship1 and           
calisthenics4    ,in the first place1   
there is industrial and sthetic drawing1
 which  should have a place in all      
elementary school work4 ,by it is       
secured the  training of the hand and   
eye4 ,then1 too1 drawing helps in all   
the other  branches that require        
illustration4 ,moreover1 if used in the 
study of  the great works of art in the 
way hereinbefore mentioned1 it helps to 
cultivate the taste and prepares the    
future workman for a more useful  and   
lucrative career1 inasmuch as superior  
taste commands higher wages  in the     
finishing of all goods4    ,natural     
science claims a place in the elementary
 school not so much  as a disciplinary  
study side by side with grammar1        
arithmetic1 and  history1 as a training 
in habits of observation and in the use 
of  the technique by which such sciences

 are expounded4 ,with a knowledge  of   
the technical terms and some training in
 the methods of original  investigation 
employed in the sciences1 the pupil     
broadens his views  of the world and    
greatly increases his capacity to       
acquire new  knowledge4 ,for the pupil  
who is unacquainted with the technique  
of  science has to pass without mental  
profit the numerous scientific          
allusions and items of information which
 more and more abound in all  our       
literature1 whether of an ephemeral or a
 permanent character4  ,in an age whose 
proudest boast is the progress of       
science in all  domains1 there should be
 in the elementary school1 from the     
first1 a  course in the elements of the 
sciences4 ,and this is quite possible2  
for  each science possesses some phases 
that lie very near to the child's  life4
 ,these familiar topics furnish the     
doors through which the child  enters   
the various special departments4        
,science1 it is claimed1 is  nothing if 

not systematic4 ,indeed1 science itself 
may be defined as  the interpretation of
 each fact through all other facts of a 
kindred  nature4 ,admitting that this is
 so1 it is no less true that pedagogic  
method begins with the fragmentary      
knowledge possessed by the pupil  and   
proceeds to organize it and build it out
 systematically in all  directions4     
,hence any science may be taken up best 
on the side nearest  the experience of  
the pupil and the investigation         
continued until the  other parts are    
reached4 ,thus the pedagogical order is 
not always  the logical or scientific   
order4 ,in this respect it agrees with  
the  order of discovery1 which is       
usually something quite different from  
the logical order2 for that is the last 
thing discovered4 ,the natural  sciences
 have two general divisions3 one        
relating to inorganic matter1  as       
physics and chemistry1 and one relating 
to organic1 as botany and  zology4      
,there should be a spiral course in     

natural science1 commencing  each branch
 with the most interesting phases to the
 child4 ,a first  course should be given
 in botany1 zology1 and physics1 so as  
to treat  of the structure and uses of  
familiar plants and animals1 and the    
explanation of physical phenomena as    
seen in the child's playthings1         
domestic machines1 etc4 ,a second       
course1 covering the same subjects1  but
 laying more stress on classification   
and functions1 will build on  to the    
knowledge already acquired from the     
former lessons and from  his recently   
acquired experience4 ,a third course of 
weekly lessons1  conducted by the       
teacher as before in a conversational   
style1 with  experiments and with a     
comparison of the facts of observation  
already  in the possession of the       
children1 will go far to helping them to
 an  acquisition of the results of      
natural science4 ,those of the children 
specially gifted for observation in some
 one or more departments of  nature will

 be stimulated and encouraged to make   
the most of their  gifts4    ,in the    
opinion of your committee1 there should 
be set apart a full hour  each week for 
drawing and the same amount for oral    
lessons in natural  science4    ,the    
oral lessons in history have already    
been mentioned4 ,the spiral  course1    
found useful in natural science because 
of the rapid change in  capacity of     
comprehension by the pupil from his     
sixth to his fourteenth  year1 will also
 be best for the history course1 which  
will begin with  biographical adventures
 of interest to the child1 and          
possessing an  important historical     
bearing4 ,these will proceed from the   
native  land first to ,england1 the     
parent country1 and then to the classic 
civilizations 7,greece and ,rome being1 
so to speak1 the grandparent  countries 
of the ,american colonies74 ,these      
successive courses of oral  lessons     
adapted respectively to the child's     
capacity will do much to  make the child

 well informed on this topic4 ,oral     
lessons should never  be mere lectures1 
but more like ,socratic dialogues1      
building up a  systematic knowledge     
partly from what is already known1      
partly by new  investigations1 and      
partly by comparison of authorities4    
,the best argument in favor of weekly   
oral lessons in natural science  and    
general history is the actual           
experiences of teachers who have for    
some time used the plan4 ,it has been   
found that the lessons in botany1       
zology1 and physics give the pupil much 
aid in learning his geography1  and     
other lessons relating to nature1 while 
the history lessons  assist very much   
his comprehension of literature1 and add
 interest to  geography4    ,it is      
understood by your ,committee that the  
lessons in physiology  and hygiene 7with
 special reference to the effects of    
stimulants and  narcotics7 required by  
,state laws should be included in this  
oral  course in natural science4 ,manual

 training1 so far as the theory and  use
 of the tools for working in wood and   
iron are concerned1 has just  claims on 
the elementary school for a reason      
similar to that which  admits natural   
science4 ,from science have proceeded   
useful inventions  for the aid of all   
manner of manufactures and              
transportation4 ,the child  of to-day   
lives in a world where machinery is     
constantly at his hand4 ,a  course of   
training in wood- and iron-work1        
together with experimental  knowledge of
 physics or natural philosophy1 makes it
 easy for him to  learn the management  
of such machines4 ,sewing and cookery   
have not  the same1 but stronger claims 
for a place in school4 ,one-half day in 
each week for one-half a year each in   
the seventh and eighth grades  will     
suffice for manual training1 the sewing 
and cookery being studied  by the girls1
 and the wood- and iron-work by the     
boys4 ,it should be  mentioned1 however1
 that the advocates of manual training  

in iron- and  wood-work recommend these 
branches for secondary schools1 because 
of  the greater maturity of body1 and   
the less likelihood to acquire wrong    
habits of manipulation1 in the third    
period of four years of school4         
,vocal music has long since obtained a  
well-established place in all           
elementary schools4 ,the labors of two  
generations of special teachers  have   
reduced the steps of instruction to such
 simplicity that whole  classes may make
 as regular progress in reading music as
 in reading  literature4    ,in regard  
to physical culture your ,committee is  
agreed that there  should be some form  
of special daily exercises amounting in 
the  aggregate to one hour each week1   
the same to include the main features   
of calisthenics1 and ,german1 ,swedish1 
or ,american systems of physical        
training1 but not to be regarded as a   
substitute for the old-fashioned        
recess1 established to permit the free  
exercise of the pupils in the  open air4

 ,systematic physical training has for  
its object rather the  will training    
than recreation1 and this must not be   
forgotten4 ,to go  from a hard lesson to
 a series of calisthenic exercises is to
 go from  one kind of will training to  
another4 ,exhaustion of the will should 
be  followed by the caprice and wild    
freedom of the recess4 ,but systematic  
physical exercise has its sufficient    
reason in its aid to a graceful  use of 
the limbs1 its development of muscles   
that are left unused or  rudimentary    
unless called forth by special training1
 and for the help  it gives to the      
teacher in the way of school discipline4
    ,your ,committee would mention in   
this connection instruction in  morals  
and manners1 which ought to be given in 
a brief series of  lessons each year    
with a view to build up in the mind a   
theory of the  conventionalities of     
polite and pure-minded society4 ,if     
these lessons  are made too long or too 
numerous1 they are apt to become        

offensive to  the child's mind4 ,it is  
of course understood by your ,committee 
that the  substantial moral training of 
the school is performed by the          
discipline  rather than by the          
instruction in ethical theory4 ,the     
child is trained  to be regular and     
punctual1 and to restrain his desire to 
talk and  whisper--in these things      
gaining self-control day by day4 ,the   
essence  of moral behavior is           
self-control4 ,the school teaches good  
behavior4  ,the intercourse of a pupil  
with his fellows without evil words or  
violent actions is insisted on and      
secured4 ,the higher moral qualities  of
 truth-telling and sincerity are taught 
in every class exercise that  lays      
stress on accuracy of statement4        
,your ,committee has already discussed  
the importance of teaching  something of
 algebraic processes in the seventh and 
eighth grades with  the view to         
obtaining better methods of solving     
problems in advanced  arithmetic2 a     

majority of your ,committee are of the  
opinion that formal  ,english grammar   
should be discontinued in the eighth    
year1 and the  study of some foreign    
language1 preferably that of ,latin1    
substituted4  ,the educational effect on
 an ,english-speaking pupil of taking up
 a  language which1 like ,latin1 uses   
inflections instead of prepositions1    
and which further differs from ,english 
by the order in which its words  are    
arranged in the sentence1 is quite      
marked1 and a year of ,latin  places a  
pupil by a wide interval out of the     
range of the pupil who has  continued   
,english grammar without taking up      
,latin4 ,but the effect of  the year's  
study of ,latin increases the youth's   
power of apperception  in very many     
directions by reason of the fact that so
 much of the  ,english vocabulary used  
in technical vocabularies1 like those of
  geography1 grammar1 history1 and      
literature1 is from a ,latin source1    
and besides there are so many traces in 

the form and substance of human         
learning of the hundreds of years when  
,latin was the only tongue in  which    
observation and reflection could be     
expressed4    ,your ,committee refers to
 the programme given later in this      
report for  the details of co-ordinating
 these several branches already         
recommended4      ,the difference       
between elementary and secondary        
studies4    ,in recommending the        
introduction of algebraic processes in  
the seventh  and eighth years--as well  
as in the recommendation just now made  
to  introduce ,latin in the eighth year 
of the elementary course--your          
,committee has come face to face with   
the question of the intrinsic           
difference between elementary and       
secondary studies4    ,custom has placed
 algebra1 geometry1 the history of      
,english literature1  and ,latin in the 
rank of secondary studies2 also general 
history1  physical geography1 and the   
elements of physics and chemistry4 ,in  

a secondary course of four years        
trigonometry may be added to the        
mathematics2 some of the sciences whose 
elements are used in physical  geography
 may be taken up separately in special  
treatises1 as geology1  botany1 and     
physiology4 ,there may be also a study  
of whole works of  ,english authors1 as 
,shakespeare1 ,milton1 and ,scott4      
,greek is also  begun in the second or  
third year of the secondary course4     
,this is the  custom in most public high
 schools4 ,but in private secondary     
schools  ,latin is begun earlier1 and   
so1 too1 ,greek1 algebra1 and geometry4 
,sometimes geometry is taken up before  
algebra1 as is the custom in  ,german   
schools4 ,these arrangements are based  
partly on tradition1  partly on the     
requirements of higher institutions for 
admission1 and  partly on the ground    
that the intrinsic difficulties in these
 studies  have fixed their places in the
 course of study4 ,of those who claim   
that there is an intrinsic reason for   

the selection and order of these        
studies1 some base their conclusions on 
experience in conducting pupils  through
 them1 others on psychological grounds4 
,the latter contend1 for  example1 that 
algebra deals with general forms of     
calculation1 while  arithmetic deals    
with the particular instances of        
calculation4 ,whatever  deals with the  
particular instance is relatively       
elementary1 whatever  deals with the    
general form is relatively secondary4   
,in the expression  a  b  c algebra     
indicates the form of all addition4     
,this arithmetic  cannot do1 except in  
the form of a verbal rule describing the
 steps  of the operation3 its examples  
are all special instances falling  under
 the general form given in algebra4 ,if1
 therefore1 arithmetic  is an elementary
 branch1 algebra is relatively to it a  
secondary  branch4 ,so1 too1 geometry1  
though not directly based on arithmetic1
  has to presuppose an acquaintance with
 it when it reduces spatial  functions  

into numerical forms1 as1 for example1  
in the measurement  of surfaces and     
solids1 and in ascertaining the ratio of
 the  circumference to the radius1 and  
of the hypothenuse to the two other     
sides of the right-angled triangle4     
,geometry1 moreover1 deals with         
necessary relations2 its demonstrations 
reach universal and necessary           
conclusions1 holding good not merely in 
such material shapes as we  have met    
with in actual experience1 but with all 
examples possible1  past1 present1 or   
future4 ,such knowledge transcending    
experience is  intrinsically secondary  
as compared with the first acquaintance 
with  geometric shapes in concrete      
examples4    ,in the case of geometry it
 is claimed by some that what is called 
8inventional geometry0 may be properly  
introduced into the elementary  grades4 
,by this some mean the practice with    
blocks in the shape of  geometric       
solids1 and the construction of         
different figures from the  same2 others

 mean the rediscovery by the pupil for  
himself of the  necessary relations     
demonstrated by ,euclid4 ,the           
former--exercises of  construction with 
blocks--are well enough in the          
kindergarten1 where  they assist in     
learning number1 as well as in the      
analysis of material  forms4 ,but its   
educational value is small for pupils   
advanced into  the use of books4 ,the   
original discovery of ,euclid's         
demonstrations1  on the other hand1     
belongs more properly to higher         
education than  to elementary4 ,in the  
geometrical text-books1 recently        
introduced  into secondary schools1     
there is so much of original            
demonstration  required that the teacher
 is greatly embarrassed on account of   
the  differences in native capacity for 
mathematics that develop among  the     
pupils of the same class in solving the 
problems of invention4 ,a  few gifted   
pupils delight in the inventions1 and   
develop rapidly in  power1 while the    

majority of the class use too much time 
over them1  and thus rob the other      
branches of the course of study1 or else
 fall  into the bad practice of getting 
help from others in the preparation  of 
their lessons4 ,a few in every class    
fall hopelessly behind and  are         
discouraged4 ,the result is an attempt  
on the part of the teacher  to correct  
the evil by requiring a more thorough   
training in the  mathematical studies   
preceding1 and the consequent delay of  
secondary  pupils in the lower grades of
 the course in order to bring up their  
8inventional geometry40 ,many1          
discouraged1 fail to go on2 many more   
fail to reach higher studies because    
unable to get over the barrier          
unnecessarily placed before them by     
teachers who desire that no pupils      
except natural geometricians shall enter
 into higher studies4    ,physical      
geography in its scientific form is very
 properly made a part  of the secondary 
course of study4 ,the pupil in his ninth

 year of work  can profitably acquire   
the scientific technique of geology1    
botany1  zology1 meteorology1 and       
ethnology1 and in the following years   
take  up those sciences separately and  
push them further1 using the method  of 
actual investigation4 ,the              
subject-matter of physical geography is 
of very high interest to the pupil who  
has studied geography in the  elementary
 grades after an approved method4 ,it   
takes up the proximate  grounds and     
causes for the elements of difference on
 the earth's  surface1 already become   
familiar to him through his elementary  
studies1  and pushes them back into     
deeper1 simpler1 and more satisfactory  
principles4 ,this study performs the    
work also of correlating the  sciences  
that relate to organic nature by showing
 their respective  uses to man4 ,from   
the glimpses which the pupil gets of    
mineralogy1  geology1 botany1 zology1   
ethnology1 and meteorology in their     
necessary  connection as geographic     

conditions he sees the scope and grand  
significance of those separate          
inquiries4 ,a thirst is aroused in him  
to  pursue his researches into their    
domains4 ,he sees1 too1 the borderlands 
in which new discoveries may be made by 
the enterprising explorer4    ,physics1 
including what was called until recently
 8natural  philosophy10 after ,newton's 
,principia 7,philosophi naturalis       
principia mathematica71 implies more    
knowledge of mathematics  for its       
thorough discussion than the secondary  
pupil is likely to  possess4 ,in fact1  
the study of this branch in college     
thirty years  ago was crippled by the   
same cause4 ,it should follow the       
completion  of analytical geometry4     
,notwithstanding this1 a very profitable
 study  of this subject may be made in  
the second year of the high school or   
preparatory school1 although the        
formulas can then be understood in  so  
far as they imply elementary algebra    
only4 ,the pupil does not get  the most 

exact notions of the quantitative laws  
that rule matter in  its states of      
motion and equilibrium1 but he does see 
the action of  forces as qualitative    
elements of phenomena1 and understand   
quite  well the mechanical inventions by
 which men subdue them for his use  and 
safety4 ,even in the elementary grades  
the pupil can seize very  many of these 
qualitative aspects and learn the       
explanation of the  mechanical phenomena
 of nature1 and other applications of   
the same  principles in invention1 as1  
for example1 gravitation in falling     
bodies3 its measurement by the scales2  
the part it plays in the pump1  the     
barometer1 the pendulum2 cohesion in    
mud1 clay1 glue1 paste1  mortar1 cement1
 etc42 capillary attraction in          
lamp-wicks1 sponges1  sugar1 the sap in 
plants2 the applications of lifting by  
the lever1  pulley1 inclined plane1     
wedge1 and screw2 heat in the sun1      
combustion1  friction1 steam1           
thermometer1 conduction1 clothing1      

cooking1 etc42  the phenomena of light1 
electricity1 magnetism1 and the         
explanation  of such mechanical devices 
as spectacles1 telescopes1 microscopes1 
prisms1 photographic cameras1 electric  
tension in bodies1 lightning1  mariner's
 compass1 horseshoe magnet1 the         
telegraph1 the dynamo4 ,this  partially 
qualitative study of forces and         
mechanical inventions has  the          
educational effect of enlightening the  
pupil1 and emancipating him  from the   
network of superstition that surrounds  
him in the child world1  partly of      
necessity and partly by reason of the   
illiterate adults  that he sometimes    
meets with in the persons of nurses1    
servants1 and  tradespeople1 whose      
occupations have more attraction for him
 than those  of cultured people4 ,the   
fairy world is a world of magic1 of     
immediate  interventions of supernatural
 spiritual beings1 and while this is    
proper enough for the child up to the   
time of the school1 and in a  lessening 

degree for some time after1 it is only  
negative and harmful  in adult manhood  
and womanhood4 ,it produces arrested    
development of  powers of observation   
and reflection in reference to          
phenomena1 and  stops the growth of the 
soul at the infantine stage of          
development4  ,neither is this infantine
 stage of wonder and magic more         
religious  than the stage of disillusion
 through the study of mathematics and   
physics4 ,it is the arrest of religious 
development1 also1 at the stage  of     
fetichism4 ,the highest religion1 that  
of pure ,christianity1 sees  in the     
world infinite mediations1 all for the  
purpose of developing  independent      
individuality2 the perfection of human  
souls not only in  one kind of piety1   
namely1 that of the heart1 but in the   
piety of the  intellect that beholds    
truth1 the piety of the will that does  
good  deeds wisely1 the piety of the    
senses that sees the beautiful and      
realizes it in works of art4 ,this is   

the ,christian idea of divine           
,providence as contrasted with the      
heathen idea of that ,providence1  and  
the study of natural philosophy is an   
essential educational  requisite in its 
attainment1 although a negative means4  
,of course  there is danger of replacing
 the spiritual idea of the divine by the
  dynamical or mechanical idea1 and thus
 arresting the mind at the stage  of    
pantheism instead of fetichism4 ,but    
this danger can be avoided by  further  
education through secondary into higher 
education1 whose entire  spirit and     
method are comparative and philosophical
 in the best sense  of the term4 ,for   
higher education seems to have as its   
province the  correlation of the several
 branches of human learning in the unity
  of the spiritual view furnished by    
religion to our civilization4 ,by  it   
one learns to see each branch1 each     
science or art or discipline1  in the   
light of all the others4 ,this higher or
 comparative view is  essential to any  

completeness of education1 for it alone 
prevents  the one-sidedness of hobbies1 
or 8fads10 as they are called in the    
slang of the day4 ,it prevents also the 
bad effects that flow from the          
influence of what are termed            
8self-educated men10 who for the most   
part  carry up with them elementary     
methods of study1 or at best1 secondary 
methods1 which accentuate the facts and 
relations of natural and  spiritual     
phenomena1 but do not deal with their   
higher correlations4  ,the comparative  
method cannot1 in fact1 be well         
introduced until the  student is        
somewhat advanced1 and has already      
completed his elementary  course of     
study dealing with the immediate aspects
 of the world1 and  his secondary course
 dealing with the separate formal and   
dynamical  aspects that lie next in     
order behind the facts of first         
observation4  ,higher education in a    
measure unifies these separate formal   
and dynamic  aspects1 corrects their    

one-sidedness1 and prevents the danger  
of what  is so often noted in the       
self-educated men who unduly exaggerate 
some  one of the subordinate aspects of 
the world and make it a sort of first   
principle4    ,here your ,committee     
finds in its way the question of the use
 of the  full scientific method in the  
teaching of science in the elementary   
school4 ,the true method has been called
 the method of investigation1  but that 
method as used by the child is only a   
sad caricature of the  method used by   
the mature scientific man1 who has long 
since passed  through the fragmentary   
observation and reflection that prevail 
in the  period of childhood1 as well as 
the tendencies to exaggeration of the   
importance of one or another branch of  
knowledge at the expense of  the higher 
unity that correlates all2 an           
exaggeration that manifests  itself in  
the possession and use of a hobby4 ,the 
ideal scientific man  has freed himself 
from obstacles of this kind1 whether    

psychological  or objective4 ,what      
astronomical observers call the         
subjective  coefficient must be         
ascertained and eliminated from the     
record that  shows beginnings1 endings1 
and rates4 ,there is a possibility of   
perfect  specialization in a scientific 
observer only after the elementary and  
secondary attitudes of mind have been   
outgrown4 ,an attempt to force the      
child into the full scientific method by
 specialization would cause  an arrest  
of his development in the other branches
 of human learning  outside of his      
specialty4 ,he could not properly       
inventory the data of  his own special  
sphere unless he knew how to recognize  
the defining  limits or boundaries that 
separate his province from its          
neighbors4 ,the  early days of science  
abounded in examples of confusion of    
provinces  in the inventories of their  
data4 ,it is difficult1 even now1 to    
decide  where physics and chemistry     
leave off1 and biology begins4    ,your 

,committee does not attempt to state the
 exact proportion in which  the child1  
at his various degrees of advancement1  
may be able to  dispense with the       
guiding influence of teacher and        
text-book in his  investigations1 but   
they protest strongly against the       
illusion under  which certain zealous   
advocates of the early introduction of  
scientific  method seem to labor4 ,they 
ignore in their zeal the deduction that 
is  to be made for the guiding hand of  
the teacher1 who silently furnishes  to 
the child the experience that he lacks1 
and quietly directs his  special        
attention to this or to that phase1 and 
prevents him from  hasty or false       
generalization as well as from undue    
exaggeration of  single facts or        
principles4 ,here the teacher adds the  
needed scientific  outlook which the    
child lacks1 but which the mature       
scientist possesses  for himself4    ,it
 is contended by some that the          
scientific frame of mind is adapted     

only to science1 but not to art1        
literature1 and religion1 which  have   
something essential that science does   
not reach2 not because of  the          
incompleteness of the sciences          
themselves1 but because of the  attitude
 of the mind assumed in the observation 
of nature4 ,in analytic  investigation  
there is isolation of parts one from    
another1 with a view  to find the       
sources of the influences which produce 
the phenomena shown  in the object4 ,the
 mind brings everything to the test of  
this idea4  ,every phenomenon that      
exists comes from beyond itself1 and    
analysis  will be able to trace the     
source4    ,now1 this frame of mind1    
which insists on a foreign origin of all
  that goes to constitute an object1    
debars itself in advance from the       
province of religion1 art1 and          
literature as well as of philosophy4    
,for self-determination1 personal       
activity1 is the first principle        
assumed by religion1 and it is tacitly  

assumed by art and literature1  ,classic
 and ,christian4 ,the very definition of
 philosophy implies this1  for it is the
 attempt to explain the world by the    
assumption of a  first principle1 and to
 show that all classes of objects imply 
that  principle as ultimate             
presupposition4 ,according to this view 
it is  important not to attempt to      
hasten the use of a strictly scientific 
method on the part of the child4 ,in his
 first years he is acquiring  the       
results of civilization rather as an    
outfit of habits1 usages1 and           
traditions than as a scientific         
discovery4 ,he cannot be expected to    
stand over against the culture of his   
time1 and challenge one and all  of its 
conventionalities to justify themselves 
before his reason4 ,his  reason is too  
weak4 ,he is rather in the imitation    
stage of mind than in  that of          
criticism4 ,he will not reach the       
comparative or critical method  until   
the era of higher education4    ,however

 this may be1 it is clear that the      
educational value of science  and its   
method is a very important question1 and
 that on it depends the  settlement of  
the question where specialization may   
begin4 ,to commence  the use of the real
 scientific method would imply a radical
 change also  in methods from the       
beginning4 ,this may be realized by     
considering the  hold which even the    
kindergarten retains upon symbolism and 
upon art  and literature4 ,but in the   
opinion of a majority of your ,committee
  natural science itself should be      
approached1 in the earliest years of    
the elementary school1 rather in the    
form of results with glimpses into  the 
methods by which these results were     
reached4 ,in the last two years  7the   
seventh and eighth7 there may be some   
strictness of scientific  form and an   
exhibition of the method of discovery4  
,the pupil1 too1 may  to some extent put
 this method in practice himself4 ,in   
the secondary  school there should be   

some laboratory work4 ,but the pupil    
cannot  be expected to acquire for      
himself fully the scientific method of  
dealing with nature until the second    
part of higher education--its           
post-graduate work4 ,nevertheless this  
good should be kept in view from  the   
first year of the elementary school1 and
 there should be a gradual  and         
continual approach to it4    ,in the    
study of general history appears another
 branch of the secondary  course4       
,history of the native land is assumed  
to be an elementary  study4 ,history of 
the world is certainly a step further   
away from  the experience of the child4 
,it is held by some teachers to be in   
accordance with proper method to begin  
with the foreign relations  of one's    
native land and to work outward to the  
world-history4 ,the  ,european relations
 involved in the discovery and          
colonization of  ,america furnish the   
only explanation to a multitude of      
questions that  the pupil has started in

 the elementary school4 ,he should move 
outward  from what he has already       
learned1 by the study of a new          
concentric  circle of grounds and       
reasons1 according to this view4 ,this1 
however1  is not the usual course taken4
 ,on beginning secondary history the    
pupil is set back face to face with the 
period of tradition1 just  when historic
 traces first make their appearance4 ,he
 is1 by this  arrangement1 broken off   
from the part of history that he has    
become  acquainted with1 and made to    
grapple with that period which has no   
relation to his previous investigations4
 ,it is to be said1 however1  that      
general history lays stress on the      
religious thread of connection1  though 
less now than formerly4 ,the world      
history is a conception of the  great   
,christian thinker1 ,st4 ,augustine1 who
 held that the world and its  history is
 a sort of antiphonic hymn1 in which    
,god reads his counsels1  and the earth 
and man read the responses4 ,he induced 

,orosius1 his  pupil1 to sketch a       
general history in the spirit of his    
view4 ,it was  natural that the ,old    
,testament histories1 and especially the
 chapters  of ,genesis1 should furnish  
the most striking part of its contents4 
,this  general history was connected    
with religion1 and brought closer to    
the experience of the individual than   
the history of his own people4  ,to     
commence history with the ,garden of    
,eden1 the ,fall of ,man1 and the       
,noachian ,deluge was to begin with what
 was most familiar to all minds1  and   
most instructive1 because it concerned  
most nearly the conduct of  life4 ,thus 
religion furnished the apperceptive     
material by which the  early portions of
 history were recognized1 classified1   
and made a part  of experience4    ,now 
that studies in archology1 especially   
those in the ,nile and  ,euphrates      
valleys1 are changing the chronologies  
and the records of  early times and     
adding new records of the past1 bringing

 to light  national movements and       
collisions of peoples1 together with    
data  by which to determine the status  
of their industrial civilization1  their
 religious ideas1 and the form of their 
literature and art1 the  concentric     
arrangement of all this material around 
the history of the  chosen people as a  
nucleus is no longer possible4 ,the     
question has  arisen1 therefore1 whether
 general history should not be          
rearranged  for the secondary school1   
and made to connect with ,american      
history  for apperceptive material      
rather than with ,old ,testament        
history4 ,to  this it has been replied  
with force that the idea of a world     
history1  as ,st4 ,augustine conceived  
it1 is the noblest educative ideal ever 
connected with the subject of history4  
,future versions of general  history    
will not desert this standpoint1 we are 
told1 even if they take  as their basis 
that of ethnology and anthropology1 for 
these1 too1 will  exhibit a plan in     

human history--an educative principle   
that leads  nations toward freedom and  
science1 because the ,creator of nature 
has  made it1 in its fundamental        
constitution1 an evolution or           
progressive  development of             
individuality4 ,thus the idea of divine 
,providence is  retained1 though made   
more comprehensive by bringing the whole
 content  of natural laws within his    
will as his method of work4    ,these   
considerations1 we are reminded by the  
partisans of humanity  studies1 point   
back to the educative value of history  
as corrective of  the one-sidedness of  
the method of science4 ,science seeks   
explanation  in the mechanical          
conditions of1 and impulses received    
from1 the  environment1 while history   
keeps its gaze fixed on human purposes1 
and  studies the genesis of national    
actions through the previous stages of  
feelings1 convictions1 and conscious    
ideas4 ,in history the pupil has  for   
his object self-activity1 reaction      

against environment1 instead of         
mechanism1 or activity through another4 
,the history of ,english literature is  
another study of the secondary  school4 
,it is very properly placed beyond the  
elementary school1 for  as taught it    
consists largely of the biographies of  
men of letters4  ,the pupils who have   
not yet learned any great work of       
literature  should not be pestered with 
literary biography1 for at that stage   
the greatness of the men of letters     
cannot be seen4 ,plutarch makes  great  
biographies because he shows heroic     
struggles and great deeds4  ,the heroism
 of artists and poets consists in       
sacrificing all for  the sake of their  
creations4 ,the majority of them come   
off sadly  at the hands of the          
biographer1 for the reason that the very
 sides  of their lives are described    
which they had slighted and neglected   
for the sake of the ,muses4 ,the        
prophets of ,israel did not live in     
city palaces1 but in caves2 they did not

 wear fine raiment1 nor feed            
sumptuously1 nor conform to the codes of
 polite society4 ,they were no          
courtiers when they approached the king4
 ,they neglected all the other          
institutions--family1 productive        
industry1 and state--for the sake of    
one1 the ,church1 and even that not the 
established ceremonial of the  people1  
but a higher and more direct communing  
with ,jehovah4 ,so with  artists and men
 of letters1 it is more or less the     
case1 that the  institutional side of   
their lives is neglected1 or            
unsymmetrical1 or if  this is not the   
case1 it will be found prosaic and      
uneventful1 throwing  no light on their 
matchless productions4    ,for these    
reasons1 should not the present use of  
literary biography  as it exists in     
secondary schools1 and is gradually     
making its way  into elementary schools1
 be discouraged1 and the time now given 
to it  devoted to the study of literary 
works of art8 ,it will be admitted  that

 the exposure of the foibles of artists 
has an immoral tendency on  youth3 for  
example1 one affects to be a poet1 and  
justifies laxity and  self-indulgence   
through the example of ,byron4 ,those   
who support this  view hold that we     
should not dignify the immoral and      
defective side of  life by making it a  
branch of study in school4              
,correlation by synthesis of studies4   
,your ,committee would mention another  
sense in which the expression           
correlation of studies is sometimes     
used4 ,it is held by advocates of  an   
artificial centre of the course of      
study4 ,they use1 for example1  ,de     
,foe's ,robinson ,crusoe for a reading  
exercise1 and connect with  it the      
lessons in geography and arithmetic4 ,it
 has been pointed out  by critics of    
this method that there is always danger 
of covering  up the literary features of
 the reading matter under accessories of
  mathematics and natural science4 ,if  
the material for other branches  is to  

be sought for in connection with the    
literary exercise1 it will  distract the
 attention from the poetic unity4 ,on   
the other hand1  arithmetic and         
geography cannot be unfolded freely and 
comprehensively  if they are to wait on 
the opportunities afforded in a poem or 
novel  for their development4 ,a        
correlation of this kind1 instead of    
being  a deeper correlation1 such as is 
found in all parts of human learning  by
 the studies of the college and         
university1 is rather a shallow and     
uninteresting kind of correlation1 that 
reminds one of the system of  mnemonics1
 or artificial memory1 which neglects   
the association of  facts and events    
with their causes and the history of    
their evolution1  and looks for         
unessential quips1 puns1 or accidental  
suggestions with a  view to             
strengthening the memory4 ,the effect of
 this is to weaken the  power of        
systematic thinking which deals with    
essential relations1 and  substitute for

 it a chaotic memory that ties together 
things through  false and seeming       
relations1 not of the things and events1
 but of the  words that denote them4    
,the correlation of geography and       
arithmetic and history in and through   
the unity of a work of fiction is at    
best an artificial correlation1  which  
will stand in the way of the true       
objective correlation4 ,it is  a        
temporary scaffolding made for school   
purposes4 ,instruction should  avoid    
such temporary structures as much as    
possible1 and when used  they should be 
only used for the day1 and not for the  
year1 because of  the danger of building
 up an apperceptive centre in the       
child's mind  that will not harmonize   
with the true apperceptive centre       
required by  the civilization4 ,the     
story of ,robinson ,crusoe has intense  
interest  to the child as a lesson in   
sociology1 showing him the helplessness 
of isolated man and the re-enforcement  
that comes to him through  society4 ,it 

shows the importance of the division of 
labor4 ,all children  should read this  
book in the later years of the          
elementary course1  and a few profitable
 discussions may be had in school       
regarding its  significance4 ,but ,de   
,foe painted in it only the side of     
adventure that  he found in his         
countrymen in his epoch1 ,england after 
the defeat  of the ,armada having taken 
up a career of conquest on the seas1    
ending by colonization and a world      
commerce4 ,the liking for adventure     
continues to this day among all         
,anglo-,saxon peoples1 and beyond other 
nationalities there is in               
,english-speaking populations a delight 
in  building up civilization from the   
very foundation4 ,this is only1         
however1 one phase of the ,anglo-,saxon 
mind4 ,consequently the history of      
,crusoe is not a proper centre for a    
year's study in school4 ,it omits       
cities1 governments1 the world commerce1
 the international process1  the        

,church1 the newspaper and book from    
view1 and they are not even  reflected  
in it4    ,your ,committee would call   
attention in this connection to the     
importance of the pedagogical principle 
of analysis and isolation as  preceding 
synthesis and correlation4 ,there should
 be rigid isolation  of the elements of 
each branch for the purpose of getting a
 clear  conception of what is individual
 and peculiar in a special province  of 
learning4 ,otherwise one will not gain  
from each its special  contribution to  
the whole4 ,that there is some danger   
from the kind of  correlation that      
essays to teach all branches in each    
will be apparent  from this point of    
view4      ,,iii4 ,,the ,,school        
,,programme4    ,in order to find a     
place in the elementary school for the  
several  branches recommended in this   
report1 it will be necessary to use     
economically the time allotted for the  
school term1 which is about two  hundred
 days1 exclusive of vacations and       

holidays4 ,five days per week  and five 
hours of actual school work or a little 
less per day1 after  excluding recesses 
for recreation1 give about twenty-five  
hours per  week4 ,there should be1 as   
far as possible1 alternation of         
study-hours  and recitations 7the word  
recitation being used in the ,united    
,states  for class exercise or lesson   
conducted by the teacher and requiring  
the  critical attention of the entire   
class74 ,those studies requiring the    
clearest thought should be taken up1 as 
a usual thing1 in the morning  session1 
say arithmetic the second half hour of  
the morning and grammar  the half-hour  
next succeeding the morning recess for  
recreation in the  open air4 ,by some   
who are anxious to prevent study at     
home1 or at least  to control its amount
 it is thought advisable to place the   
arithmetic  lesson after the grammar    
lesson1 so that the study learned at    
home  will be grammar instead of        
arithmetic4 ,it is found by experience  

that  if mathematical problems are taken
 home for solution two bad habits       
arise2 namely1 in one case1 the pupil   
gets assistance from his parents  or    
others1 and thereby loses to some extent
 his own power of overcoming            
difficulties by brave and persistent    
attacks unaided by others2 the  other   
evil is a habit of consuming long hours 
in the preparation of a  lesson that    
should be prepared in thirty minutes1 if
 all the powers of  mind are fresh and  
at command4 ,an average child may spend 
three hours  in the preparation of an   
arithmetic lesson4 ,indeed1 in repeated 
efforts  to solve one of the so-called  
8conundrums10 a whole family may spend  
the entire evening4 ,one of the         
unpleasant results of the next day is   
that the teacher who conducts the lesson
 never knows the exact capacity  and    
rate of progress of his pupils2 in the  
recitation he probes the  knowledge and 
preparation of the pupil1 plus an       
unknown amount of  preparatory work     

borrowed from parents and others4 ,he   
even increases  the length of the       
lessons1 and requires more work at home1
 when the  amount already exceeds the   
unaided capacity of the pupil4    ,the  
lessons should be arranged so as to     
bring in such exercises as  furnish     
relief from intellectual tension between
 others that make  large demands on the 
thinking powers4 ,such exercises as     
singing and  calisthenics1 writing and  
drawing1 also reading1 are of the nature
 of a  relief from those recitations    
that tax the memory1 critical alertness1
  and introspection1 like arithmetic1   
grammar1 and history4    ,your          
,committee has not been able to agree on
 the question whether  pupils who leave 
school early should have a course of    
study different  from the course of     
those who are to continue on into       
secondary  and higher work4 ,it is      
contended1 on the one hand1 that those  
who  leave early should have a more     
practical course1 and that they  should 

dispense with those studies that seem to
 be in the nature of  preparatory work  
for secondary and higher education4     
,such studies as  algebra and ,latin1   
for example1 should not be taken up     
unless the  pupil expects to pursue the 
same for a sufficient time to complete  
the  secondary course4 ,it is replied1  
on the other hand1 that it is best to   
have one course for all1 because any    
school education is at best but an      
initiation for the pupil into the art of
 learning1 and that wherever  he leaves 
off in his school course he should      
continue1 by the aid of  the public     
library and home study1 in the work of  
mastering science  and literature4 ,it  
is further contended that a brief course
 in higher  studies1 like ,latin and    
algebra1 instead of being useless1 is of
 more  value than any elementary studies
 that might replace them4 ,the first    
ten lessons in algebra give the pupil   
the fundamental idea of the  general    
expression of arithmetical solutions by 

means of letters and  other symbols4    
,six months' study of it gives him the  
power to use the  method in stating the 
manifold conditions of a problem in     
partnership1  or in ascertaining a value
 that depends on several transformations
 of  the data given4 ,it is claimed1    
indeed1 that the first few lessons in   
any branch are relatively of more       
educational value than an equal  number 
of subsequent lessons1 because the      
fundamental ideas and  principles of the
 new study are placed at the beginning4 
,in ,latin1  for instance1 the pupil    
learns in his first week's study the1 to
 him1  strange phenomenon of a language 
that performs by inflections what  his  
own language performs by the use of     
prepositions and auxiliaries4  ,he is   
still more surprised to find that the   
order of words in a  sentence is        
altogether different in ,roman usage    
from that to which he  is accustomed4   
,he further begins to recognize in the  
,latin words many  roots or stems which 

are employed to denote immediate        
sensuous objects1  while they have been 
adopted into his ,english tongue to     
signify fine  shades of distinction in  
thought or feeling4 ,by these three     
things his  powers of observation in    
matters of language are armed1 as it    
were1  with new faculties4 ,nothing that
 he has hitherto learned in grammar  is 
so radical and far-reaching as what he  
learns in his first week's  study of    
,latin4 ,the ,latin arrangement of words
 in a sentence indicates  a different   
order of mental arrangement in the      
process of apprehension  and expression 
of thought4 ,this arrangement is        
rendered possible by  declensions4 ,this
 amounts to attaching prepositions to   
the ends of the  words1 which they thus 
convert into adjectival or adverbial    
modifiers2  whereas the separate        
prepositions of the ,english must       
indicate by  their position in the      
sentence their grammatical relation4    
,these  observations1 and the new       

insight into the etymology of ,english  
words  having a ,latin derivation1 are  
of the nature of mental seeds which will
  grow and bear fruit throughout life in
 the better command of one's  native    
tongue4 ,all this will come from a very 
brief time devoted to  ,latin in school4
      ,amount of time for each branch4  
,your ,committee recommends that an hour
 of sixty minutes each week be  assigned
 in the programme for each of the       
following subjects throughout  the eight
 years3 physical culture1 vocal music1  
oral lessons in natural  science        
7hygiene to be included among the topics
 under this head71 oral  lessons in     
biography and general history1 and that 
the same amount of  time each week shall
 be devoted to drawing from the second  
year to the  eighth inclusive2 to manual
 training during the seventh and eighth 
years so as to include sewing and       
cookery for the girls1 and work in  wood
 and iron for the boys4    ,your        
,committee recommends that reading be   

given at least one lesson  each day for 
the entire eight years1 it being        
understood1 however1  that there shall  
be two or more lessons each day in      
reading in the  first and second years1 
in which the recitation is necessarily  
very  short1 because of the inability of
 the pupil to give continued close      
attention1 and because he has little    
power of applying himself to  the work  
of preparing lessons by himself4 ,in the
 first three years  the reading should  
be limited to pieces in the colloquial  
style1 but  selections from the classics
 of the language in prose and in poetry 
shall be read to the pupil from time to 
time1 and discussions made  of such     
features of the selections read as may  
interest the pupils4  ,after the third  
year your ,committee believes that the  
reading lesson  should be given to      
selections from classic authors of      
,english1 and  that the work of the     
recitation should be divided between 7a7
 the  elocution1 7b7 the grammatical    

peculiarities of the language1          
including spelling1 definitions1        
syntactical construction1 punctuation1  
and figures of prosody1 and 7c7 the     
literary contents1 including the  main  
and accessory ideas1 the emotions       
painted1 the deeds described1  the      
devices of style to produce a strong    
impression on the reader4  ,your        
,committee wishes to lay emphasis on the
 importance of the last  item1--that of 
literary study1--which should consume   
more and more of  the time of the       
recitation from grade to grade in the   
period from the  fourth to the eighth   
year4 ,in the fourth year and previously
 the first  item--that of elocution1 to 
secure distinct enunciation and correct 
pronunciation--should be most prominent4
 ,in the fifth and sixth years  the     
second item--that of spelling1 defining1
 and punctuation--should  predominate   
slightly over the other two items4 ,in  
the years from the  fifth to the eighth 
there should be some reading of entire  

stories1  such as ,gulliver's ,travels1 
,robinson ,crusoe1 ,rip ,van ,winkle1   
,the  ,lady of the ,lake1 ,hiawatha1 and
 similar stories adapted in style and   
subject-matter to the capacity of the   
pupils4 ,an hour should be devoted  each
 week to conversations on the salient   
points of the story1 its  literary and  
ethical bearings4    ,your ,committee   
agrees in the opinion that in teaching  
language care  should be taken that the 
pupil practices much in writing         
exercises  and original compositions4   
,at first the pupil will use only his   
colloquial vocabulary1 but as he gains  
command of the technical  vocabularies  
of geography1 arithmetic1 and history1  
and learns the  higher literary         
vocabulary of his language1 he will     
extend his use of  words accordingly4   
,daily from the first year the child    
will prepare  some lesson or portion of 
a lesson in writing4 ,your ,committee   
has  included under the head of oral    
grammar 7from the first to the middle   

of the fifth year7 one phase of this    
written work devoted to the study  of   
the literary form and the technicalities
 of composition in such  exercises as   
letter writing1 written reviews of the  
several branches  studied1 reports of   
the oral lessons in natural science and 
history1  paraphrases of the poems and  
prose literature of the readers1 and    
finally compositions or written essays  
on suitable themes assigned  by the     
teacher1 but selected from the fields of
 knowledge studied in  school4 ,care    
should be taken to criticise all        
paraphrases of poetry in  respect to the
 good or bad taste shown in the choice  
of words2 parodies  should never be     
permitted4    ,it is thought by your    
,committee that the old style of        
composition  writing was too formal4 ,it
 was kept too far away from the other   
work of  the pupil4 ,instead of giving a
 written account of what he had learned 
in arithmetic1 geography1 grammar1      
history1 and natural science1  the pupil

 attempted artificial descriptions and  
reflections on such  subjects as        
8,spring10 8,happiness10                
8,perseverance10 8,friendship10 or      
something else outside of the line of   
his school studies4    ,your ,committee 
has already expressed its opinion that a
 good ,english  style is not to be      
acquired by the study of grammar so much
 as by  familiarity with great          
masterpieces of literature4 ,we         
especially  recommend that pupils who   
have taken up the fourth and fifth      
readers1  containing the selections from
 great authors1 should often be required
  to make written paraphrases of prose  
or poetic models of style1 using  their 
own vocabulary to express the thoughts  
so far as possible1 and  borrowing the  
recherch words and phrases of the       
author1 where their  own resources fail 
them4 ,in this way the pupil learns to  
see what the  great author has done to  
enrich the language and to furnish      
adequate  means of expression for what  

could not be presented in words before1 
or  at least not in so happy a manner4  
,your ,committee believes that every    
recitation is1 in one aspect of it1  an 
attempt to express the thoughts and     
information of the lesson in the        
pupil's own words1 and thus an initial  
exercise in composition4 ,the  regular  
weekly written review of the important  
topics in the several  branches studied 
is a more elaborate exercise in         
composition1 the pupil  endeavoring to  
collect what he knows and to state it   
systematically  and in proper language4 
,the punctuation1 spelling1 syntax1     
penmanship1  choice of words1 and style 
should not1 it is true1 be made a matter
  of criticism in connection with the   
other lessons1 but only in the  language
 lesson proper4 ,but the pupil will     
learn language1 all the  same1 by the   
written and oral recitations4 ,the oral 
grammar lessons1  from the first year to
 the middle of the fifth year1 should   
deal  chiefly with the use of language1 

gradually introducing the grammatical   
technique as it is needed to describe   
accurately the correct forms and  the   
usages violated4    ,your ,committee    
believes that there is some danger of   
wasting the time  of the pupil in these 
oral and written language lessons in the
 first  four years by confining the work
 of the pupil to the expression of      
ordinary commonplace ideas not related  
to the subjects of his other  lessons1  
especially when the expression is       
confined to the colloquial  vocabulary4 
,such training has been severely and    
justly condemned as  teaching what is   
called prating or gabbling1 rather than 
a noble use  of ,english speech4 ,it is 
clear that the pupil should have a      
dignified  and worthy subject of        
composition1 and what is so good for his
 purpose  as the themes he has tried to 
master in his regular lessons8 ,the     
reading lessons will give matter for    
literary style1 the geography for       
scientific style1 and the arithmetic for

 a business style2 for all  styles      
should be learned4    ,your ,committee  
recommends that selected lists of words 
difficult to  spell be made from the    
reading lessons and mastered by frequent
 writing  and oral spelling during the  
fourth1 fifth1 and sixth years4    ,your
 ,committee recommends that the use of a
 text-book in grammar  begin with the   
second half of the fifth year1 and      
continue until the  beginning of the    
study of ,latin in the eighth grade1 and
 that one daily  lesson of twenty-five  
or thirty minutes be devoted to it4     
,for ,latin we recommend one daily      
lesson of thirty minutes for the  eighth
 year4 ,for arithmetic we recommend     
number work from the first  year to the 
eighth1 one lesson each day1 but the use
 of the text-book  in number should not1
 in our opinion1 begin until the first  
quarter  of the third year4 ,we         
recommend that the applications of      
elementary  algebra to arithmetic1 as   
hereinbefore explained1 be substituted  

for  pure arithmetic in the seventh and 
eighth years1 a daily lesson being      
given4    ,your ,committee recommends   
that penmanship as a separate branch be 
taught in the first six years at least  
three lessons per week4    ,geography1  
in the opinion of your ,committee1      
should begin with oral  lessons in the  
second year1 and with a text-book in the
 third quarter  of the third year1 and  
be continued to the close of the sixth  
year with  one lesson each day1 and in  
the seventh and eighth years with three 
lessons per week4    ,history of the    
,united ,states with the use of a       
text-book1 your  ,committee recommends  
for the seventh and the first half of   
the eighth  year1 one lesson each day2  
the ,constitution of the ,united ,states
 for  the third quarter of the eighth   
year4    ,the following schedule will   
show the number of lessons per week for 
each quarter of each year3--            
,reading4 ,eight years1 with daily      
lessons4        ,penmanship4 ,six years1

 ten lessons per week for first two     
years1 five for third and fourth1 and   
three for fifth and sixth4              
,spelling ,lists4 ,fourth1 fifth1 and   
sixth years1 four lessons      per week4
        ,grammar4 ,oral1 with           
composition or dictation1 first year to 
middle of fifth year1 text-book from    
middle of fifth year to      close of   
seventh year1 five lessons per week4    
7,composition      writing should be    
included under this head4 ,but the      
written      examinations on the several
 branches should be counted under       
the head of composition work47          
,latin or ,french or ,german4 ,eighth   
year1 five lessons per week4            
,arithmetic4 ,oral first and second     
year1 text-book third to      sixth     
year1 five lessons per week4            
,algebra4 ,seventh and eighth years1    
five lessons per week4                  
,geography4 ,oral lessons second year to
 middle of third year1      text-book   
from middle of third year1 five lessons 

weekly to      seventh year1 and three  
lessons to close of eighth4             
,natural ,science and ,hygiene4 ,sixty  
minutes per week1 eight      years4     
,history of ,united ,states4 ,five hours
 per week seventh year and      first   
half of eighth year4                    
,constitution of ,united ,states4 ,third
 quarter in the eighth year4            
,general ,history and ,biography4 ,oral 
lessons1 sixty minutes a      week1     
eight years4        ,physical ,culture4 
,sixty minutes a week1 eight years4     
,vocal ,music4 ,sixty minutes a week1   
eight years4        ,drawing4 ,sixty    
minutes a week1 eight years4            
,manual ,training1 ,sewing1 and         
,cooking4 ,one-half day each week in    
seventh and eighth years4    ,your      
,committee recommends recitations of    
fifteen minutes in length in  the first 
and second years1 of twenty minutes in  
length in the third  and fourth years1  
of twenty-five minutes in the fifth and 
sixth years1  and of thirty minutes in  

the seventh and eighth4    ,the results 
of this programme show for the first and
 second years  twenty lessons a week of 
fifteen minutes each1 besides seven     
other  exercises occupying an average of
 twelve minutes apiece each day2 the    
total amount of time occupied in the    
continuous attention of the  recitation 
or class exercises being twelve hours1  
or an average of two  hours and         
twenty-four minutes per day4    ,for the
 third year twenty lessons a week of    
twenty minutes each1 and  five general  
exercises taking up five hours a week1  
or an average of  one hour per day1     
giving an average time per day of two   
hours and  twenty minutes for class     
recitations or exercises4    ,in the    
fourth the recitations increase to      
twenty-four 7by reason of  four extra   
lessons in spelling7 and the time       
occupied in recitations  and exercises  
to thirteen hours and an average per day
 of two hours  thirty-six minutes4      
----------------------------------------

----------------------------------------
    ,,branches4      #ast    #b;d       
#c;d     #dth    #eth    #fth    #gth   
#hth                   year   year      
year   year   year   year   year    year
                                        
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
    ,reading         #aj lessons a      
#e lessons a week                       
week    -                               
----------------------------            
----------------------------------------
---------------    ,writing         #aj 
lessons a      #e lessons a      #c     
lessons a                           week
             week             week      
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
--    ,spelling                         
#d lessons a week              lists    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-    ,english            ,oral1 with    
composition lessons       #e lessons a  

week         ,grammar                   
with text-book                          
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------  
,latin                                  
#e lessons                              
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
    ,arithmetic    ,oral1 #fj minutes   
#e lessons a week with text-book        
a week                                  
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-    ,algebra                           
#e lessons a                            
week                                    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
    ,geography      ,oral1 #fj minutes a
      #ae lessons a week with      #c   
lessons a                   week        
text-book                  week         
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-----    ,natural            ,science   

,sixty minutes a week       ,hygiene    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
    ,u4 ,s4                             
#e lessons a        ,history            
week                                    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
    ,u4 ,s4                             
#ae    ,constitution                    
ls                                      
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------- 
,general                                
,oral1 sixty minutes a week             
,history                                
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-------    ,physical                    
,sixty minutes a week       ,culture    
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-------    ,vocal ,music                
,sixty minutes a week                   
divided into #d lessons                 

----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-------    ,drawing                     
,sixty minutes a week                   
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
-    ,man'l ,train4                     
,one-half day      or ,sewing           
each week         ,cookery              
,number of      #bj  #g  #bj  #g  #bj   
#e  #bd  #e  #bg  #e  #bg  #e  #bc  #f  
#bc  #f        ,lessons     daily       
daily   daily   daily   daily   daily   
daily   daily                    exer4  
exer4   exer4   exer4   exer4   exer4   
exer4   exer4        ,total ,hours      
#ab      #ab    #aa       #ac    #af    
#af     #ag     #ag    of ,recitat'ns   
,length of      #ae min  #ae min  #bj   
min  #bj min  #be min  #be min  #cj min 
#cj min    ,recitations                 
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
      #a ,begins in second half year4   
,in the fifth and sixth years the number

 of recitations increases to            
twenty-seven per week1 owing to the     
addition of formal grammar1 and the     
total number of hours required for all  
is #af per week1 or an average  of #c   
per day4    ,in the seventh and eighth  
years the number of lessons decreases to
  twenty-three1 history being added1    
penmanship and special lessons in       
spelling discontinued1 the time devoted 
to geography reduced to three  lessons a
 week4 ,but the recitation is increased 
to thirty minutes in  length4 ,manual   
training occupies a half-day1 or #b     
hours1 each week4  ,the total is #ai    
hours per week1 or #c per day4    ,the  
foregoing tabular exhibit shows all of  
these particulars4      ,,iv4 ,,methods 
,,and ,,organization4    ,your          
,committee is agreed that the time      
devoted to the elementary school  work  
should not be reduced from eight years1 
but they have recommended1  as          
hereinbefore stated1 that in the seventh
 and eighth years a modified  form of   

algebra be introduced in place of       
advanced arithmetic1 and  that in the   
eighth year ,english grammar yield place
 to ,latin4 ,this  makes1 in their      
opinion1 a proper transition to the     
studies of the  secondary school and is 
calculated to assist the pupil          
materially in  his preparation for that 
work4 ,hitherto1 the change from the    
work of  the elementary school has been 
too abrupt1 the pupil beginning three   
formal studies at once1 namely1 algebra1
 physical geography1 and ,latin4        
,your ,committee has found it necessary 
to discuss the question of  methods of  
teaching in numerous instances1 while   
considering the  question of educational
 values and programmes1 because the     
value and  time of beginning of the     
several branches depend so largely on   
the  method of teaching4    ,the        
following recommendations1 however1     
remain for this part of their  report3--
    ,they would recommend that the      
specialization of teachers' work should 

not be attempted before the seventh or  
eighth year of the elementary  school   
and in not more than one or two studies 
then4 ,in the secondary  school it is   
expected that a teacher will teach one1 
or at most1 two  branches4 ,in the      
elementary school1 for at least six     
years1 it is  better1 on the whole1 to  
have each teacher instruct his pupils in
 all  the branches that they study1 for 
the reason that only in this way can  he
 hold an even pressure on the           
requirements of work1 correlating it in 
such a manner that no one study absorbs 
undue attention4 ,in this way  the      
pupils prepare all their lessons under  
the direct supervision of  the same     
teacher and by their recitations show   
what defects of methods  of study there 
have been in the preparation4    ,the   
ethical training is much more successful
 under this plan1 because  the personal 
influence of a teacher is much greater  
when he or she  knows minutely the      
entire scope of the school work4 ,in the

 case of the  special teacher the       
responsibility is divided and the       
opportunities of  special acquaintance  
with character and habits diminished4   
,with one teacher1 who supervises the   
study and hears all the  recitations1   
that there is a much better opportunity 
to cultivate  the two kinds of          
attention4 ,the teacher divides his     
pupils into two  classes and hears one  
recite while the other class prepares   
for the  next lesson4 ,the pupils       
reciting are required to pay strict     
attention  to the one of their number   
who is explaining the point assigned him
  by the teacher--they are to be on the 
alert to notice any mistakes of         
statement or omissions of important     
data1 they are at the same time  to pay 
close attention to the remarks of the   
teacher4 ,this is one kind  of          
attention1 which may be called          
associated critical attention4 ,the     
pupils engaged in the preparation of the
 next lesson are busy1 each  one by     

himself1 studying the book and mastering
 its facts and ideas1  and comparing    
them one with another1 and making the   
effort to become  oblivious of their    
fellow-pupils1 the recitation going on1 
and the  teacher4 ,this is another kind 
of attention1 which is not associated1  
but an individual effort to master for  
one's self without aid a  prescribed    
task and to resist all distracting      
influences4 ,these two  disciplines in  
attention are the best formal training  
that the school  affords4    ,your      
,committee has already mentioned a      
species of faulty correlation  wherein  
the attempt is made to study all        
branches in each1 misapplying           
,jacotot's maxim1 8all is in all0 7tout 
est dans tout74    ,a frequent error of 
this kind is the practice of making     
every  recitation a language lesson1 and
 interrupting the arithmetic1           
geography1 history1 literature1 or      
whatever it may be1 by calling the      
pupil's attention abruptly to something 

in his forms of expression1  his        
pronunciation1 or to some faulty use of 
,english2 thus turning  the entire      
system of school work into a series of  
grammar exercises  and weakening the    
power of continuous thought on the      
objective  contents of the several      
branches1 by creating a pernicious habit
 of  self-consciousness in the matter of
 verbal expression4 ,while your         
,committee would not venture to say that
 there should not be some degree  of    
attention to the verbal expression in   
all lessons1 it is of the  opinion that 
it should be limited to criticism of the
 recitation for  its want of technical  
accuracy4 ,the technical words in each  
branch  should be discussed until the   
pupil is familiar with their full force4
  ,the faulty ,english should be        
criticised as showing confusion of      
thought or memory1 and should be        
corrected in this sense4 ,but solecisms 
of speech should be silently noted by   
the teacher for discussion in the       

regular language lesson4    ,the        
question of promotion of pupils has     
occupied from time to time  very much   
attention4 ,your ,committee believes    
that in many systems  of elementary     
schools there is injury done by too much
 formality in  ascertaining whether the 
pupils of a given class have completed  
the  work up to a given arbitrarily     
fixed point1 and are ready to take up   
the next apportionment of the work4 ,in 
the early days of city school  systems1 
when the office of superintendent was   
first created1 it was  thought necessary
 to divide up the graded course of study
 into years  of work1 and to hold stated
 annual examinations to ascertain how   
many  pupils could be promoted to the   
next grade or year's work4 ,all that    
failed at this examination were set back
 at the beginning of the year's  work to
 spend another year in reviewing it4    
,this was to meet the  convenience of   
the superintendent1 who1 it was said1   
could not hold  examinations to suit the

 wants of individuals or particular     
classes4  ,from this arrangement there  
naturally resulted a great deal of what 
is  called 8marking time40 ,pupils who  
had nearly completed the work of the    
year were placed with pupils who had    
been till now a year's interval  below  
them4 ,discouragement and demoralization
 at the thought of taking  up again a   
course of lessons learned once before   
caused many pupils to  leave school     
prematurely4    ,this evil has been     
remedied in nearly one-half of the      
cities by  promoting pupils whenever    
they have completed the work of a grade4
 ,the  constant tendency of             
classification to become imperfect by   
reason of  the difference in rates of   
advancement of the several pupils owing 
to  disparity in ages1 degree of        
maturity1 temperament1 and health1 makes
  frequenter classification necessary4  
,this is easily accomplished by         
promoting the few pupils who distance   
the majority of their classmates  into  

the next class above1 separated as it   
is1 or ought to be1 by an  interval of  
less than half a year4 ,the bright      
pupils thus promoted have  to struggle  
to make up the ground covered in the    
interval between the  two classes1 but  
they are nearly always able to          
accomplish this1 and  generally will in 
two years' time need another promotion  
from class to  class4    ,the           
procrustean character of the old city   
systems has been removed by  this       
device4    ,there remain for mention    
some other evils besides bad systems of 
promotion due to defects of             
organization4 ,the school buildings are 
often with superstitious care kept apart
 exclusively for particular  grades of  
pupils4 ,the central building erected   
for high school  purposes1 though only  
half filled1 is not made to relieve the 
neighboring grammar school1 crowded to  
such a degree that it cannot  receive   
the classes which ought to be promoted  
from the primary  schools4 ,it has      

happened in such cases that this        
superstition prevailed  so far that the 
pupils in the primary school building   
were kept at work  on studies already   
finished1 because they could not be     
transferred to  the grammar school4     
,in all good school systems the pupils  
take up new work when they have         
completed the old1 and the bright pupils
 are transferred to higher  classes when
 they have so far distanced their       
fellows that the amount  of work fixed  
for the average ability of the class    
does not give them  enough to do4    ,in
 conclusion1 your ,committee would      
state1 by way of explanation1 that  it  
has been led into many digressions1 in  
illustrating the details of  its        
recommendations in this report1 through 
its desire to make clear  the grounds on
 which it has based its conclusions and 
through the hope  that such details will
 call out a still more thorough-going   
discussion  of the educational values of
 branches proposed for elementary       

schools1  and of the methods by which   
those branches may be successfully      
taught4    ,with a view to increase the 
interest in this subject1 your          
,committee  recommends the publication  
of selected passages from the papers    
sent  in by invited auxiliary committees
 and by volunteers1 many of these       
containing valuable suggestions not     
mentioned in this report4               
,organization for ,city ,school         
,systems4    ,,by ,,president ,,andrew  
,s4 ,,draper4        ,this is the report
 of a sub-committee of the ,fifteen1 of 
which      ,president ,draper of the    
,university of ,illinois is chairman4   
,it is understood that the committee is 
to treat of city school systems1  which 
are so large that persons chosen by the 
people to manage them1  and serving     
without pay1 cannot be expected to      
transact all the  business of the system
 in person1 nor to have personal        
knowledge of all  business transactions1
 and which are so large that one person 

employed  to supervise the instruction  
cannot be assumed to personally manage  
or  direct all of the details thereof1  
but must1 in each case1 act under  plans
 of organization and administration     
established by law and through          
assistants or representatives4    ,the  
end for which a school system exists is 
the instruction of the  children1       
attaching to the word instruction the   
meaning it attains  in the mind of a    
well-educated person1 if not in the mind
 of an  educational expert4    ,to      
secure this end1 no plan of organization
 alone will suffice4 ,nothing  can take 
the place of a sincere desire for good  
schools1 of a fair  knowledge of what   
good schools are1 and what will make    
them1 of a  public spirit and a moral   
sense on the part of the people1 which  
are  spontaneous1 or which can be       
appealed to with confidence4            
,fortunately1  the interest which the   
people have in their own children is so 
large1  and the anxiety of the community

 for public order and security is so    
great1 that public sentiment may        
ordinarily be relied upon1 or may be    
aroused to action1 to choose proper     
representatives and take proper         
measures for the administration of the  
schools4 ,if1 in any case1 this  is not 
so1 there is little hope of efficient   
schools4 ,wherever it is  so1 it alone  
will not suffice1 but proper            
organization may become the  instrument 
of public sentiment1 and develop schools
 which will be  equal to the needs of   
all1 and become the safeguards of       
citizenship4  ,efficient schools can be 
secured only by providing suitable      
buildings  and appliances1 and by       
keeping them in proper order on the one 
hand1  and1 on the other hand1 by       
employing1 organizing1 aiding1 and      
directing  teachers1 so that the        
instruction shall have life and power to
  accomplish the great end for which    
schools are maintained4    ,the         
circumstances of the case naturally and 

quickly separate the duties  of         
administration into two great           
departments1 one which manages the      
business affairs1 and the other which   
supervises the instruction4 ,the        
business affairs of the school system   
may be transacted by any citizens  of   
common honesty1 correct purposes1 and of
 good business experience  and sagacity4
 ,the instruction will be ineffective   
and abnormally  expensive unless put    
upon a scientific educational basis and 
supervised  by competent educational    
experts4    ,there will be a waste of   
money and effort and a lack of results1 
unless  the authorities of these two    
departments are sympathetic with each   
other2 that is1 unless1 on the one hand1
 the business management is  sound1 is  
appreciative of good teaching1 looks    
upon it as a scientific  and            
professional employment1 and is alert to
 sustain it2 and unless1 on  the other  
hand1 the instructors are competent and 
self-respecting1 know  what good        

business management is1 are glad to     
uphold it1 and are able  to respect     
those who are charged with              
responsibility for it4    ,to secure    
efficiency in these departments1 there  
must be adequate  authority and quick   
public accountability4 ,the problem is  
not merely  to secure some good         
schoolhouses1 but good schoolhouses     
wherever  needed1 and to avoid the use  
of all houses which are not suitable    
for use2 it is not to get some good     
teaching1 but to prevent all bad        
teaching1 and to advance all the        
teaching to the highest possible point  
of special training1 professional       
spirit1 and of life-giving power4 ,all  
of the business matters must be         
entrusted to competent business hands   
and managed upon sound business         
principles2 and all of the instruction  
must be put upon a professional basis4  
,to insure this1 there must be          
deliberation and wisdom in determining  
policy1 and then the power to do  what  

is determined upon must be present and  
capable of exercise1 and  the           
responsibility for the proper exercise  
of the power must1 in each  case1 be    
individual and immediate4    ,it is     
imperative that we discriminate between 
the legislative and  executive action in
 organizing and administering the       
schools4 ,the  influences which enter   
into legislative action1 looking to the 
general organization and work of the    
schools1 must necessarily and           
fundamentally flow directly from the    
people and be widely spread4 ,the       
greater the number of people1 in        
proportion to the entire population1    
who can be led to take a positive       
interest and an active part in  securing
 good schools1 the better will the      
schools be1 provided the  people can    
secure the complete execution of their  
purposes and plans4  ,but experience has
 clearly shown that many causes         
intervene to prevent  the complete      
execution of such plans1 that all the   

natural enemies  of sound administration
 scent plenty of plunder and are        
especially  active here1 that good      
school administration requires much     
strength of  character1 much business   
experience1 much technical knowledge1   
and can  be only measurably satisfactory
 when the responsibility is adequate1   
and the penalties for maladministration 
are severe4 ,decentralization in  making
 the plan and determining what shall be 
done1 and centralization  in executing  
the plan and in doing what is to be     
done1 are1 perhaps1  equally important4 
,it should be remembered that the       
character of the school work of a city  
is not merely a matter of local         
interest1 and that the maintenance of   
the schools does not rest merely or     
mainly upon local authority4 ,the       
people of the municipality1 acting1 and 
ordinarily glad to act1 but1 in  any    
event1 being obliged to act1 under and  
pursuant to the law which  has been     
ordained by the sovereign authority of  

the state1 establish  and maintain      
schools4 ,they must have the taxing     
power which the state  alone possesses  
in order to enable them to proceed at   
all4 ,they must  regard the directions  
which the state sees fit to give as to  
the  essential character of the schools1
 when it exercises in their behalf1  or 
when it delegates to them the power of  
taxation4    ,the plan should be        
flexible for good1 while inflexible for 
evil4  ,meeting essential requirements1 
the people of the municipality may well 
be empowered to proceed as much farther 
as they will in elaborating a  system of
 schools4 ,the higher the plane of      
average intelligence1 and  the more     
generally and the more directly the     
people act in deciding  what shall be   
done1 and the greater the facility and  
completeness  with which the            
intelligence of the city is able to     
secure the proper  execution of its     
plans by officers appointed for that    
purpose1 the more  elaborate and the    

more efficient will be the schools1 and 
this should1  of course1 be provided    
for4    ,it is idle to suggest that     
centering executive functions is        
unwisely  taking power away from the    
people4 ,the people cannot execute plans
  themselves4 ,the authority to do it   
must necessarily be delegated4 ,the     
question simply is1 8,shall it be given 
to a number of persons1 and if  so1 to  
how many8 ,or to only one80 ,this       
question is to be decided by            
experience1 and it is1 of course1 true  
that experience has not been  uniform4  
,but it is doubtless true that the      
general experience of  the communities  
of the country has shown that where     
purely executive  functions are         
conferred upon a number of persons      
jointly1 they yield  to antagonistic    
influences and shift the responsibility 
from one to  another2 and that centering
 the responsibility for the proper      
discharge  of executive duties upon a   
single person1 who gets the credit of   

good  work and must bear the disgrace or
 penalty of bad work1 and who can       
quickly be held accountable for misdeeds
 and inefficiency1 has secured  the     
fullest execution of public plans and   
the largest results4 ,to call  this     
8centralization10 with the meaning which
 commonly attaches to the  word1 is     
inaccurate4 ,instead of removing the    
power from the people1  it is keeping   
the power closer to the people1 and     
making it possible  for the citizen in  
his individual capacity and for         
organized bodies  of citizens to secure 
the execution of plans according to the 
purpose  and intent with which those    
plans were made4 ,indeed1 it is safe to 
say that experience has shown that this 
is the only way in which to  prevent the
 frequent thwarting of the popular will 
and the defiance of  individuals whose  
interests are ignored or whose rights   
are invaded4    ,but all the people of a
 city whose population is numbered by   
hundreds  of thousands or millions      

cannot meet in a legislative assemblage 
to  formulate plans4 ,they cannot gather
 in mass meetings1 and1 if they  could1 
mass meetings cannot deliberate4 ,even  
their legislative action  must flow1 not
 from a primary1 but from a             
representative assembly4    ,what shall 
such a representative legislative body  
be called8 ,how shall  it be chosen8 ,of
 how many members shall it be composed8 
,and what shall  be its powers8 ,these  
and other similar questions are all     
important  and must be determined by the
 law-making power of the state4 ,the    
sentiments of the city1 as expressed    
through the local organizations1  and   
particularly the newspapers1 must1 of   
course1 have much weight  with the      
legislature if there is anything like   
unanimity or any very  strong           
preponderance of opinion in the city1   
for the plan for which  a community     
expresses a preference will surely be   
likely to operate  most effectually in  
that community4 ,but the local sentiment

 is not  conclusive4 ,when divided1 it  
is no guide at all4 ,the legislature is 
to take all the circumstances into      
consideration1 take the world's         
experience for its guide1 and1 acting   
under its responsibilities1 it  must    
exercise its high powers in ways which  
will build up a system of  schools in   
the city likely to articulate with the  
state educational  system and become the
 effective instrument of developing the 
intelligence and training the character 
of the children of the city up  to the  
ideals of the state4    ,the name of the
 legislative branch of the school       
government is not  material1 and the one
 to which the people are accustomed may 
well  continue to be employed4 ,there is
 no name more appropriate than the      
8,board of ,education40    ,the manner  
of selecting or appointing the members  
of this legislative  body may turn      
somewhat upon the circumstances of the  
city4 ,we are  strongly of the opinion  
that in view of the well-known          

difficulty about  securing the          
attendance of the most interested and   
intelligent electors  at school         
elections1 as well as because of the    
apparent impossibility  of freeing      
school elections from political or      
municipal issues1 the  better manner of 
elections is by appointment4 ,if the    
members of the  board are appointed1 the
 mayor of the city is likely to be the  
official  to whom the power of          
appointment may most safely be          
entrusted4 ,the  mayor is not suggested 
because his office should sustain any   
relation  to the school system1 but in  
spite of the fact that it does not and  
should not4 ,the school system should be
 absolutely emancipated  from partisan  
politics1 and completely dissociated    
from municipal  business4 ,but we think 
the appointments should be made by some 
one  person1 rather than by a board4    
,the mayor is representative of the     
whole city and all its interests4 ,while
 not chosen with any reference  to the  

interests of the schools1 he may be     
assumed to have information  as to the  
fitness of citizens for particular      
responsibilities1 and  to be desirous of
 promoting the educational interests of 
the people4  ,if he is given the power  
of appointment1 he should be            
particularly  enjoined by law to        
consider the fitness of individuals     
alone and pay no  regard to party       
affiliations1 unless it be to           
particularly see to it  that no one     
political party has an overwhelming     
preponderance in the  board4 ,the mayor 
very commonly feels constrained1 under  
the pressure  of party expediency1 to   
make so many questionable appointments1 
that  he is only too glad1 and          
particularly so when enjoined by the    
law1 to  make very acceptable           
appointments of members of school       
boards1 in order  that he may gratify   
the better sentiment of the city4 ,we   
are confident  that the problem of      
getting a representative board of       

education is  not so difficult as many  
think1 if the board is not permitted to 
make patronage of work and salaried     
positions at the disposal of the        
public-school system4 ,under such       
circumstances1 and more and more so  as 
we have approached such circumstances1  
appointment in the way we  suggest has  
produced the best school boards in the  
larger cities of the  country4    ,the  
members of school boards should be      
representative of the whole  population 
and of all their common educational     
interests1 and should  not be chosen to 
represent any ward or subdivision of the
 territory1  or any party or element in 
the political1 religious1 or social life
  thereof4 ,where this principle is not 
enforced1 the members will feel  bound  
to gain what advantage they can for the 
district or interests  they represent2  
bitter contests will ensue1 and the     
common interests  will suffer4          
,attempts to eliminate partisanship from
 school administration1  by arraying an 

equal number of partisans against each  
other in  school boards1 do not1 at     
best1 lead to an ideal organization4 ,in
  some instances they have proved fairly
 successful2 in others1 very            
mischievous4 ,the true course is to     
insist that all who have any  share in  
the management of the schools shall     
divest themselves of  partisanship1     
whether political or religious1 in such 
management1 and  give themselves wholly 
to the high interests entrusted to them4
 ,if  it be said that this cannot be    
realized1 it may be answered1 without   
admitting it1 that even if that were so1
 it would be no reason why  the friends 
of the schools should not assert the    
sound principle and  secure its         
enforcement as far as possible4 ,we must
 certainly give no  countenance to      
make-shifts1 which experience has shown 
to be misleading  and expensive4 ,the   
right must prevail in the end1 and the  
earlier and  more strongly it is        
contended for1 the sooner it will       

prevail4    ,relatively small boards are
 preferable to large ones4 ,in a city of
 less  than a half-million of           
inhabitants1 the number should not      
exceed nine1  and might well not exceed 
five4 ,in the very largest cities it    
might be  enlarged to fifteen4    ,the  
term for which members are appointed    
should be a reasonably long  one1 say1  
five years4    ,we think it an excellent
 plan to provide for two branches and   
sets of  powers in the board of         
education2 the one to have the veto     
power1 or1  at least1 to act as a check 
upon the acts of the other4 ,this may be
  accomplished by creating the office of
 school director and charging  the      
incumbent with executive duties on the  
business side of the  administration1   
and by giving him the veto power over   
the acts of the  other branch of the    
board1 which may be called the 8,school 
,council40  ,beyond the care and        
conservation which is ensured by two    
sets of powers  acting against each     

other1 it has the advantage of giving   
the chief  executive officer of the     
system just as high and good a title as 
that  of members of the board1 it is    
likely to secure a more representative  
man1 and gives him larger prerogatives  
in the discharge of his  executive      
duties and better standing among the    
people1 particularly  among the         
employees and teachers associated with  
the public-school  system4    ,if this  
plan is adopted1 the school director    
should be required to  give his entire  
time to the duties of his position1 and 
be properly  compensated therefor4 ,he  
should be the custodian of all property 
and  should appoint all assistants1     
janitors1 and workmen1 authorized by the
  board1 for the care of the same4 ,he  
should give bond1 with sufficient       
sureties and penalties1 for the faithful
 and proper discharge of all  his       
duties4 ,he should be authorized by law 
to expend funds1 within a  fixed limit1 
for repairs1 appliances1 and help1      

without the action of  the board4 ,all  
contracts should be made by him1 and    
should run in his  name1 and he should  
be charged with the responsibility of   
seeing that  they are faithfully and    
completely executed4 ,all contracts     
involving  more than a limited and fixed
 sum of money should be let upon bids   
to be advertised for and opened in      
public4 ,he should have a seat in  the  
board of education2 should not vote1 but
 should have the power to  veto1 either 
absolutely or conditionally1 any of the 
acts of the board1  through a written   
communication4 ,this officer and the    
school council  should together         
constitute the board of education4      
,the board of education should be vested
 with legislative functions  only1 and  
be required to act wholly through formal
 and recorded  resolutions4 ,it should  
determine and direct the general policy 
of the  school system4 ,within          
reasonable limits1 as to amount1 it     
should be  given power1 in its          

discretion1 to levy whatever moneys may 
be needed  for school purposes4 ,it     
should control the expenditure of all   
moneys  beyond a fixed and limited      
amount1 which may safely and            
advantageously  be left to the          
discretion of the chief executive       
business officer4  ,it should authorize1
 by general resolutions1 the appointment
 of  necessary officers and employees in
 the business department1 and  the      
superintendent1 assistants1 and teachers
 in the department of  instruction1 but 
it should be allowed to make no         
appointments other  than its own clerk4 
,with this necessary exception1 single  
officers  should be charged with        
responsibility for all appointments4    
,this plan1 not in all1 but in essential
 particulars1 has been on trial  in the 
city of ,cleveland for nearly three     
years1 and has worked with  very general
 acceptability4    ,if this plan is     
adopted1 the chief executive officer of 
the system  is already provided for and 

his duties have already been indicated4 
,otherwise it will be necessary for the 
board to appoint such an  officer4 ,in  
that event1 the law should declare him  
independent1 confer  upon him adequate  
authority for the performance of        
executive duties1  and charge him with  
responsibility4 ,but we know of no      
statutory  language capable of making an
 officer appointed by a board1 and      
dependent upon the same board for       
supplies1 independent in fact of the    
personal wishes of the members of that  
board4 ,and right here is where  the    
troubles rush in to discredit and damage
 the school system4    ,we now come to  
the subject of paramount importance in  
making a plan  for the school government
 in a great city1 namely1 the character 
of  the teaching force and the quality  
of the instruction4 ,a city school      
system may be able to withstand some    
abuses on the business side of its      
administration and continue to perform  
its functions with measurable  success1 

but wrongs against the instruction must1
 in a little time1  prove fatal4 ,the   
strongest language is none too strong   
here4 ,the  safety of the republic1 the 
security of ,american citizenship1 are  
at  stake4 ,government by the people has
 no more dangerous pitfall in its  road 
than this1 that in the mighty cities of 
the land the comfortable  and           
intelligent masses1 who are             
discriminating more and more closely    
about the education of their children1  
shall become dissatisfied with  the     
social status of the teachers and the   
quality of the teaching in  the common  
schools4 ,in that event they will       
educate their children at  their own    
expense1 and the public schools will    
become only good enough  for those who  
can afford no better4 ,the only way to  
avert this is by  maintaining the       
instruction upon a purely scientific and
 professional  footing4 ,this is        
entirely practicable1 but it involves   
much care and  expense in training      

teachers1 the absolute elimination of   
favoritism  from appointments1 the      
security of the right to advancement    
after  appointment1 on the basis of     
merit1 and a general leadership which   
is kindly1 helpful1 and stimulating to  
individuals1 which can secure           
harmonious coperation from all the      
members1 and lends energy and           
inspiration to the whole body4    ,this 
cannot be secured if there is any lack  
of authority1 and  experience amply     
proves that it will not be secured if   
there is any  division of               
responsibility4 ,the whole matter of    
instruction must  be placed in the hands
 of a superintendent of instruction1    
with  independent powers and adequate   
authority1 who is charged with full     
responsibility4    ,the danger of       
inconsiderate or improper action by one 
vested with  such powers is1 of course1 
possible1 but it is remote4 ,regardless 
of  the legal powers with which he may  
be individually vested1 he is in  fact  

and in law a part of a large system4 ,he
 must act through others1  and in the   
presence of multitudes4 ,there is great 
publicity about all  he does4 ,when a   
single officer carries such             
responsibility1 he is at  the focus of  
all eyes4 ,there are the strongest      
incentives to right  action4 ,he cannot 
act wrongfully without it is known1 at  
least to many  persons4 ,if he is       
required to act under and pursuant to a 
plan1 the  details of which have been   
announced1 and of which we shall speak  
in  a moment1 a wrongful act will be    
known to the world1 and he must bear    
the responsibility of it1 and the danger
 of maladministration is almost         
eliminated4    ,moreover1 we must       
consider the alternative4 ,it is not in 
doubt4 ,all  who have had any contact   
with the subject are familiar with it4  
,it is  administration by boards or     
committees1 the members of which are not
  competent to manage professional      
matters and develop an expert teaching  

force4 ,though necessarily              
inexperienced1 they frequently assume   
the  knowledge of the most experienced4 
,they over-ride and degrade a           
superintendent1 when they have the power
 to do so1 until he becomes  their mere 
factotum4 ,for the sake of harmony and  
the continuance of  his position1 he    
concedes1 surrenders1 and acquiesces in 
their acts1  while the continually      
increasing teaching force becomes weaker
 and  weaker1 and the work poorer and   
poorer4 ,if he refuses to do this1 they 
precipitate an open rupture1 and turn   
him out of his position4 ,then  they    
cloud the issues and shift the          
responsibility from one to another4     
,there are exceptions1 of course1 but   
they do not change the rule4    ,it will
 be unprofitable to mince words about   
this all-important matter4  ,if the     
course of study for the public schools  
of a great city is to  be determined by 
laymen1 it will not be suited to the    
needs of a  community4 ,if teachers are 

to be appointed by boards or committees1
  the members of which are particularly 
sensitive to the desires of  people who 
have votes or influence1 looseness of   
action is inevitable1  and unworthy     
considerations will frequently prevail4 
,if the action  of a board or committee 
be conditioned upon the recommendation  
of a  superintendent1 the plan will not 
suffice4 ,no one person is stronger     
than the system of which he is a part4  
,such a plan results in contests        
between the board and the               
superintendents1 and such a contest is  
obviously an unequal one4 ,there is     
little doubt of the outcome4 ,in        
recommending for the appointment of     
teachers1 the personal wishes of        
members of the board1 in particular     
cases1 will have to be acquiesced  in4  
,if a teacher1 no matter how unfit1     
cannot be dropped from the list  without
 the approval of a board or committee   
after they have heard  from her friends 
and sympathizers1 she will remain       

indefinitely in the  service4 ,this     
means a low tone in the teaching force  
and desolation in  the work of the      
schools4 ,if the superintendent accepts 
the situation1  he becomes less and less
 capable of developing a professional   
teaching  service4 ,if he refuses to    
accept it1 he is very likely to meet    
humiliation2 dismissal is practically   
inevitable4    ,the superintendent of   
instruction should be charged with no   
duty save  the supervision of the       
instruction1 but should be charged with 
the  responsibility of making that      
professional and scientific1 and should 
be given the position and authority to  
accomplish that end4    ,if the board of
 education is constituted upon the old  
plan1 he must  be chosen by the board4  
,if it is constituted upon the          
,cleveland plan1  he may be appointed by
 the school director1 with the approval 
of  two-thirds or three-fourths of the  
council4 ,the latter plan seems         
preferable1 for it centralizes the main 

responsibility of this  important       
appointment in a single individual4 ,in 
either case1 the law  and the sentiment 
of the city should direct that the      
appointee shall be  a person liberally  
educated1 professionally trained2 one   
who knows what  good teaching is1 but is
 also experienced in administration1 in 
touch  with public affairs1 and in      
sympathy with popular feeling4    ,the  
term of the superintendent of           
instruction should be from five  to ten 
years1 and until a successor is         
appointed4 ,in our judgment1  it should 
be determinate1 so that there may be a  
time of public  examination1 but it     
should be sufficiently long to enable   
one to lay  foundations and show        
results1 without being carried under by 
the  prejudices which always follow the 
first operation of efficient or  drastic
 plans4 ,the salary should be fixed by  
law1 and not subject to  change in the  
middle of a term or except by law4      
,for reasons already suggested1 the     

superintendent1 once appointed1  should 
have power to appoint1 from an eligible 
list1 all assistants and  teachers      
authorized by the board1 and unlimited  
authority to assign  them to their      
respective positions1 and reassign them 
or remove them  from the force at his   
discretion4    ,to secure a position    
upon the eligible list from which       
appointments  may be made1 a candidate1 
if without experience1 should be        
required  to complete the full four     
years' course of the city high schools1 
or its equivalent1 and in addition      
thereto pass the examination of  the    
board of examiners1 and complete at     
least a year's course of  professional  
training in a city normal training      
school under the  direction of the      
superintendent4 ,if the candidate has   
had1 say1 three  years of successful    
experience as a teacher1 he should be   
eligible  to appointment by passing an  
examination held by a general examining 
board4 ,this board may be appointed by  

the board of education1 but  should     
examine none but graduates of the high  
school and training  school1 unless     
specially requested so to do by the     
superintendent of  instruction4 ,the    
number admitted to the training schools 
should be  limited1 and the examinations
 should be gauged to the prospective    
needs  of the elementary schools for new
 teachers4 ,the supply of new teachers  
may well be largely1 but should not be  
wholly1 drawn from this local  source4  
,the force will gain fresh vitality by  
some appointments of good  and          
experienced teachers from outside4      
,the work of putting a large teaching   
force upon a professional basis1  of    
making the teaching scientific and      
capable of arousing mind to  action1 is 
so difficult that a layman can scarcely 
appreciate it4  ,it has hardly been     
commenced1 it has only been made        
possible1 when  the avenues of approach 
to the service have been closed against 
the  unqualified and unworthy4 ,after   

that the supervision must be close  and 
general1 as well as sympathetic and     
decisive4 ,the superintendent  must have
 expert assistants enough to learn the  
characteristics and  measure the work of
 every member of the force4 ,they must  
help and  encourage1 advise and direct1 
according to the circumstances of each  
case4 ,the work must be reduced to a    
system and the workers brought into     
harmonious relations4 ,each room must   
show neatness and life1 and the  whole  
force must show ardor and enthusiasm4   
,by directing the reading1  by          
encouraging an interchange of visits1 by
 organizing clubs for  self-improvement1
 by frequent class and grade and general
 meetings1 the  professional spirit may 
be aroused and the work energized4      
,those who show teaching power1         
versatility1 amiability1 reliability1   
steadiness1 and growth must be rewarded 
with the highest positions3  those who  
lack fibre1 who have no energy1 who are 
incapable of  enthusiasm1 who will not  

work agreeably with their associates1   
must  go upon the retired list4         
,directness and openness must be        
encouraged4  ,attempts to invoke social1
 political1 religious1 or other outside 
influences to secure preferment must    
operate to close the door to            
advancement4 ,in general and in         
particular1 bad teaching must be        
prevented4 ,in every room a firm and    
kindly management must prevail  and good
 teaching must be apparent4 ,all must   
work along common lines  which will     
ensure general and essential ends4      
,until a teacher can do  this and can be
 relied upon to do it1 she must be      
helped and directed3  when it is        
manifest that she cannot or will not do 
it1 she must be  dismissed2 when she    
does show that she can do it and wants  
to do  it1 she must be left to exercise 
her own judgment and originality  and do
 it in her own way4 ,in the schoolroom  
the teacher must be  secure against     
interference4 ,in all the affairs of the

 school her  judgment must be trusted to
 the utmost limit of safety4 ,then      
judgment  will strengthen1 and          
self-respect and public respect will    
grow4 ,the  qualities which develop in  
the teacher will develop in the school4 
,to develop these qualities with any    
degree of uniformity1 in a large        
teaching force1 requires steady and     
uniform treatment through a long  course
 of years under superintendence which is
 professional1 strong1  just1 and       
courageous1 which has ample assistance  
and authority1 which  is worthy of      
public confidence1 and knows how to     
marshal facts1  present arguments1 and  
appeal to the intelligence and integrity
 of the  community with success4    ,it 
is the business of the plan of          
organization to secure such             
superintendence4 ,it cannot be secured  
through an ordinary board  of education 
operating on the old plan4 ,it is well  
known what the  influences are which are
 everywhere prevalent and must          

inevitably  prevent it4 ,it may be      
secured in the law1 and it must be      
secured there1  or it will not be       
secured at all4    ,in concluding this  
portion of the report1 the committee    
indicates  briefly the principles which 
must necessarily be observed in framing 
a  plan of organization and government  
in a large city school system4          
,first4--,the affairs of the schools    
should not be mixed up with  partisan   
contents or municipal business4         
,second4--,there should be a sharp      
distinction between legislative         
functions and executive duties4         
,third4--,legislative functions should  
be clearly fixed by statute and  be     
exercised by a relatively small board1  
each member of which board  is          
representative of the whole city4 ,this 
board1 within statutory  limitations1   
should determine the policy of the      
system1 levy taxes1  and control the    
expenditures4 ,it should make no        
appointments4 ,every  act should be by a

 recorded resolution4 ,it is preferable 
that this  board be created by          
appointment rather than election1 and   
that it be  constituted of two branches 
acting against each other4              
,fourth4--,administration should be     
separated into two great  independent   
departments1 one of which manages the   
business interests  and the other of    
which supervises the instruction4 ,each 
of these should  be wholly directed by a
 single official1 who is vested with    
ample  authority and charged with full  
responsibility for sound administration4
    ,fifth4--,the chief executive       
officer on the business side should be  
charged with the care of all property1  
and with the duty of keeping  it in     
suitable condition2 he should provide   
all necessary furnishings  and          
appliances2 he should make all          
agreements and see that they are        
properly performed2 he should appoint   
all assistants1 janitors1 and  workmen4 
,in a word1 he should do all that the   

law contemplates1 and  all that the     
board authorizes1 concerning the        
business affairs of the  school system1 
and when anything goes wrong1 he should 
answer for it4  ,he may be appointed by 
the board1 but we think it preferable   
that he  be chosen in the same way the  
members of the board are chosen1 and be 
given a veto upon the acts of the board4
    ,sixth4--,the chief executive       
officer of the department of instruction
  should be given a long term1 and may  
be appointed by the board4 ,if  the     
board is constituted of two branches1 he
 should be nominated by  the business   
executive and confirmed by the          
legislative branch4 ,once  appointed1 he
 should be independent4 ,he should      
appoint all authorized  assistants and  
teachers from an eligible list1 to be   
constituted as  provided by law4 ,he    
should assign to duties and discontinue 
services  for cause at his discretion4  
,he should determine all matters        
relating  to instruction4 ,he should be 

charged with the responsibility of      
developing a professional and           
enthusiastic teaching force and of      
making all the teaching scientific and  
forceful4 ,he must perfect the          
organization of his department1 and make
 and carry out plans to  accomplish     
this4 ,if he cannot do this in a        
reasonable time1 he should  be          
superseded by one who can4    ,the      
government of a vast city school system 
comes to have an autonomy  which is     
largely its own1 and almost independent 
of direction or  restraint4 ,the volume 
of business which this government       
transacts is  represented only by       
millions of dollars2 it calls not only  
for the  highest sagacity and the ripest
 experience1 but also for much special  
information relating to school property 
and school affairs4 ,even  more         
important than this is the fact that    
this government controls  and determines
 the educational policy of the city and 
carries on the  instruction of tens or  

hundreds of thousands of children1 and  
this  instruction is of little value1   
and perhaps vicious1 unless it is       
professional and scientific4 ,this      
government is representative4 ,all      
citizens are compelled to support it1   
and all have large interests  which it  
is bound to promote4 ,every parent has  
rights which it is the  duty of this    
school government to protect and        
enforce4 ,when government  exacts our   
support of public education1 when it    
comes into our homes  and takes our     
children into its custody and instructs 
them according  to its will1 we acquire 
a right which is as exalted as any right
 of  property1 or of person1 or of      
conscience can be1 and that is the      
right to know that the environment is   
healthful1 that the management  is      
kindly and ennobling1 and that the      
instruction is rational and  scientific4
 ,it is needless to say to what extent  
these interests are  impeded or blocked1
 or how commonly these rights of        

citizenship and of  parentage are denied
 or defied1 or how helpless the         
individual is who  seeks their          
enforcement1 under the system of school 
government which  has heretofore        
obtained in some of the great cities of 
the country4  ,this is not surprising4  
,it is only the logical result of the   
rapid  growth of cities1 of a marvelous 
advance in knowledge of what is needed  
in the schools1 of the antagonism of    
selfish interests1 by which  all public 
administration1 and particularly school 
administration1  is encompassed1 and of 
the lack of plan and system1 the        
confusion of  powers1 the absence of    
individual responsibility1 in the       
government  of a system of schools4 ,by 
the census of #ahij there are seven     
cities  in the ,united ,states each with
 a population greater than any one of   
sixteen states4 ,the aggregate          
population of twelve cities exceeds  the
 aggregate population of twenty states4 
,government for education  certainly    

requires as strong and responsible an   
organization as  government for any     
other purpose4 ,these great centres of  
population1  with their vast and complex
 educational problems1 have passed the  
stage when government by the            
time-honored commission will suffice4   
,no  popular government ever determined 
the policy and administered the  affairs
 of such large bodies of people         
successfully1 ever transacted  such a   
vast volume of business satisfactorily1 
ever promoted high  and beneficent ends1
 ever afforded protection to the rights 
of each  individual of the great        
multitude1 unless in its plan of        
organization  there was an organic      
separation of executive1 legislative1   
and  judicial functions and powers4 ,all
 the circumstances of the case  and the 
uniform experience of the world forbid  
our expecting any  substantial solution 
of the problem we are considering until 
it is  well settled in the sentiments of
 the people that the school systems  of 

the greatest cities are only a part of  
the school systems of  the states of    
which these cities form a part1 and are 
subject to  the legislative authority   
thereof2 until there is a plan of school
  government in each city which         
differentiates executive acts from      
legislative functions2 which emancipates
 the legislative branch of  that        
government from the influence of        
pelf-seekers2 which fixes upon          
individuals the responsibility for      
executive acts1 either performed or     
omitted2 which gives to the intelligence
 of the community the power to          
influence legislation and exact perfect 
and complete execution2 which  gives    
every citizen whose interests are       
ignored1 or whose rights are  invaded1 a
 place for complaint and redress2 and   
which puts the business  interests upon 
a business footing1 the teaching upon an
 expert basis1  and gives to the        
instruction that protection and         
encouragement which is  vital to the    

development of all professional and     
scientific work4          ,on the       
,training of ,teachers4    ,,by         
,,superintendent ,h4 ,s4 ,,tarbell1     
,,providence4    ,report of the         
,fifteen4 ,read at the ,cleveland       
meeting of the ,department  of          
,superintendence1 ,february #ai1 #ahie4 
,this report treats of the training of  
elementary and secondary  teachers1     
considering first that training which   
should precede teaching  in elementary  
schools4 ,by elementary schools are     
meant the primary and  grammar          
departments of graded schools1 and      
ungraded or rural schools4    ,that     
teachers are 8born1 not made10 has been 
so fully the world's  thought until the 
present century that a study of         
subjects1 without  any study of         
principles or methods of teaching1 has  
been deemed quite  sufficient4 ,modern  
educational thought and modern practice1
 in all  sections where excellent       
schools are found1 confirm the belief   

that  there is a profound philosophy on 
which educational methods are based1    
and that careful study of this          
philosophy and its application under    
expert guidance are essential to making 
fit the man born to teach4              
,conditions for professional            
training--age and attainments4    ,it is
 a widely prevalent doctrine1 to which  
the customs of our best  schools        
conform1 that teachers of elementary    
schools should have a  secondary or high
 school education1 and that teachers of 
high schools  should have a collegiate  
education4 ,your committee believe that 
these  are the minimum acquirements that
 can generally be accepted1 that  the   
scholarship1 culture1 and power gained  
by four years of study in  advance of   
the pupils are not too much to be       
rightfully demanded1 and  that as a rule
 no one ought to become a teacher who   
has not the age  and attainments        
presupposed in the possessor of a       
high-school diploma4  ,there are        

differences in high schools1 it is true1
 and a high-school  diploma is not a    
fixed standard of attainment2 but in    
these ,united  ,states it is one of the 
most definite and uniform standards that
 we  possess1 and varies less than      
college degrees vary or than elementary 
schools and local standards of culture  
vary4    ,it is1 of course1 implied in  
the foregoing remarks that the high     
school  from which the candidate comes  
is known to be a reputable school1 and  
that its diploma is proof of the        
completion of a good four-years'  course
 in a creditable manner4 ,if these      
conditions do not exist1  careful       
examination is the only recourse4    ,if
 this condition1 high-school graduation 
or proof by examination of  equivalent  
scholarship1 be accepted1 the questions 
of the age and  attainment to be reached
 before entering upon professional study
 and  training are already settled4 ,but
 if a more definite statement be        
desired1 then it may be said that the   

candidate for admission to a  normal or 
training school should be eighteen years
 of age and should  have studied        
,english1 mathematics1 and science to   
the extent usually  pursued in high     
schools1 should be able to write        
readily1 correctly1  and methodically   
upon topics within the teacher's        
necessary range  of thought and         
conversation1 and should have studied1  
for two or  more years1 at least one    
language besides ,english4 ,skill in    
music  and drawing is desirable1        
particularly ability to sketch readily  
and  effectively4      ,training        
schools4    ,the training of teachers   
may be done in normal schools1 normal   
classes  in academies and high schools1 
and in city training schools4 ,to all   
these the general term 8training        
schools0 will be applied4 ,those        
instructed in these schools will be     
called pupils while engaged in          
professional study1 and pupil-teachers  
or teachers-in-training while  in       

practice-teaching preparatory to        
graduation4 ,teachers whose work  is to 
be observed by pupil-teachers will be   
called model-teachers2  teachers in     
charge of pupil-teachers during their   
practice work will  be called           
critic-teachers4 ,in some institutions  
model-teachers and  critic-teachers are 
the same persons4 ,the studies usually  
pursued  in academies and high schools  
will be termed academic1 and those      
post-academic studies to be pursued     
before or during practice-teaching  as a
 preparation therefor will be termed    
professional4      ,academic studies4   
,whether academic studies have any      
legitimate place in a normal or         
training school is a question much      
debated4 ,it cannot be supposed that    
your committee can settle in a paragraph
 a question upon which many  essays have
 been written1 many speeches delivered1 
and over which much  controversy has    
been waged4    ,if training schools are 
to be distinguished from other secondary

  schools1 they must do a work not done 
in other schools4 ,so far as they  teach
 common branches of study1 they are     
doing what other schools are  doing1 and
 have small excuse for existence2 but it
 may be granted that  methods can       
practically be taught only as to        
subjects1 that the study  done in       
professional schools may so treat of the
 subjects of study1  not as objects to  
be required1 but as objects to be       
presented1 that  their treatment shall  
be wholly professional4    ,one who is  
to teach a subject needs to know it as a
 whole1 made up of  related and         
subordinate parts1 and hence must study 
it by a method  that will give this     
knowledge4 ,it is not necessary to press
 the  argument that many pupils enter   
normal and training schools with such   
slight preparation as to require        
instruction in academic subjects4 ,the  
college with a preparatory department   
is1 as a rule1 an institution of        
distinctly lower grade than one without 

such a department4 ,academic  work in   
normal schools that is of the nature of 
preparation for  professional work      
lowers the standard and perhaps the     
usefulness of  such a school2 but       
academic work done as a means of        
illustrating or  enforcing professional 
truth has its place in a professional   
school as  in effect a part of the      
professional work4 ,professional study  
differs  widely from academic study4 ,in
 the one1 a science is studied in its   
relation to the studying mind2 in the   
other1 in reference to its  principles  
and applications4 ,the aim of one kind  
of study is power to  apply2 of the     
other1 power to present4 ,the tendency  
of the one is to  bring the learner into
 sympathy with the natural world1 of the
 other  with the child world4 ,how much 
broader becomes the teacher who takes   
both the academic and the professional  
view6 ,he who learns that he  may know  
and he who learns that he may teach are 
standing in quite  different mental     

attitudes4 ,one works for knowledge of  
subject-matter1  the other that his     
knowledge may have due organization1    
that he may  bring to consciousness the 
apperceiving ideas by means of which    
matter  and method may be suitably      
conjoined4    ,how to study is knowledge
 indispensable to knowing how to teach4 
,the  method of teaching can best be    
illustrated by teaching4 ,the attitude  
of a pupil in a training school must be 
that of a learner whose mental  stores  
are expanding1 who faces the great world
 of knowledge with the  purpose to      
survey a portion of it4 ,if we insist   
upon a sufficient  preparation for      
admission1 the question of what studies 
to pursue1 and  especially the          
controversy between professional and    
academic work1 will  be mainly settled4 
,professional work4    ,professional    
training comprises two parts3 7a7 ,the  
science of  teaching1 and 7b7 the art of
 teaching4    ,in the science of        
teaching are included3 7#a7 ,psychology 

as a basis  for principles and methods2 
7#b7 ,methodology as a guide to         
instruction2  7#c7 ,school economy1     
which adjusts the conditions of work2   
and 7#d7  ,history of education1 which  
gives breadth of view4    ,the art of   
teaching is best gained3 7#a7 by        
observation of good  teaching2 7#b7 by  
practice-teaching under criticism4      
,relative time4    ,the existence and   
importance of each of these elements in 
the training  of teachers are generally 
acknowledged4 ,their order and          
proportionate  treatment give rise to   
differences of opinion4 ,some would omit
 the  practice work entirely1 launching 
the young teacher upon independent  work
 directly from her pupilage in theory4  
,others1 and much the greater  number1  
advise some preparation in the form of  
guided experience before  the training  
be considered complete4 ,these vary     
greatly in their  estimate of the       
proportionate time to be given to       
practice during  training4 ,the answers 

to the question 8,what proportion80     
which your  committee has received range
 from one-sixteenth to two-thirds as    
the proportion of time to be given to   
practice4 ,the greater number1  however1
 advocate a division of time about equal
 between theory and  practice4    ,the  
normal schools incline to the smallest  
proportion for  practice-teaching1 the  
city training-schools to the largest4   
,it should  be borne in mind1 however1  
that city training-schools are a close  
continuation1 usually1 of high schools1 
and that the high-school  courses give a
 more uniform and probably a more       
adequate preparation  than the students 
entering normal schools have usually    
had4 ,their  facilities for             
practice-teaching are much greater than 
normal schools  can secure1 and for this
 reason also practice is made relatively
 more  important4 ,as to the relative   
merits of city training-schools and     
normal schools1 your committee does not 
desire to express an opinion2  the      

conditions of education demand the      
existence of both1 and both  are        
necessities of educational advancement4 
,it is important to add1  however1 that 
in the judgment of your committee not   
less than half of  the time spent under 
training by the apprentice-teacher      
should be given  to observation and     
practice1 and that this practice in its 
conditions  should be as similar as     
possible to the work she will later be  
required  to do independently4          
,science of teaching--psychology4       
,the laws of apperception teach that one
 is ready to apprehend new  truth most  
readily when he has already established 
a considerable and  well-arranged body  
of ideas thereon4    ,suggestion1       
observation1 and reflection are each    
most fruitful when  a foundation of     
antecedent knowledge has been provided4 
,hence your  committee recommends that  
early in their course of study teachers 
in training assume as true the          
well-known facts of psychology and  the 

essential principles of education1 and  
make their later study  and practice in 
the light of these principles4 ,these   
principles thus  become the norm of     
educational thought1 and their truth is 
continually  demonstrated by subsequent 
experience4 ,from this time theory and  
practice should proceed together in     
mutual aid and support4    ,most        
fundamental and important of the        
professional studies which  ought to be 
pursued by one intending to teach is    
psychology4 ,this  study should be      
pursued at two periods of the           
training-school course1  the beginning  
and the end1 and its principles should  
be appealed to  daily when not formally 
studied4 ,the method of study should be 
both  deductive and inductive4 ,the     
terminology should be early learned     
from a suitable text-book1 and          
significance given to the terms by      
introspection1 observation1 and         
analysis4 ,power of introspection should
  be gained1 guidance in observation    

should be given1 and confirmation  of   
psychological principles should be      
sought on every hand4 ,the habit  of    
thinking analytically and               
psychologically should be formed by     
every  teacher4 ,at the close of the    
course a more profound and more         
completely  inductive study of          
physiological psychology should be made4
 ,in this  way1 a tendency to           
investigate should be encouraged or     
created4      ,study of children4       
,modern educational thought emphasizes  
the opinion that the child1 not  the    
subject of study1 is the guide to the   
teacher's efforts4 ,to know  the child  
is of paramount importance4 ,how to know
 the child must be  an important item of
 instruction to the teacher in training4
 ,the child  must be studied as to his  
physical1 mental1 and moral condition4  
,is he  in good health8 ,are his senses 
of sight and hearing normal1 or in what 
degree abnormal8 ,what is his           
temperament8 ,which of his faculties    

seem  weak or dormant8 ,is he eye-minded
 or ear-minded8 ,what are his powers of 
attention8 ,what are his likes and      
dislikes8 ,how far is his moral nature  
developed1 and what are its tendencies8 
,by what tests can the degree of        
difference between bright and dull      
children be estimated8    ,to study     
effectively and observingly these and   
similar questions  respecting children  
is a high art4 ,no common-sense power of
 discerning  human nature is sufficient2
 though common sense and sympathy go a  
long way in such study4 ,weighing1      
measuring1 elaborate investigation      
requiring apparatus and laboratory      
methods1 are for experts1 not  teachers 
in training4 ,above all1 it must ever be
 remembered that the  child is to be    
studied as a personality and not as an  
object to be  weighed or analyzed4      
,methodology4    ,a part of the work    
under this head must be a study of the  
mental and  moral effects of different  
methods of teaching and examination1 the

  relative value of individual and class
 instruction at different periods  of   
school life and in the study of         
different branches4 ,the art of         
questioning is to be studied in its     
foundation principles and by the        
illustration of the best examples4 ,some
 review of the branches which  are to be
 taught may be made1 making the         
teacher's knowledge of them  ready and  
distinct as to the relations of the     
several parts of the  subject to one    
another and of the whole to kindred     
subjects4 ,these  and many such subjects
 should be discussed in the class in    
pedagogy1  investigation should be      
begun1 and the lines on which it can be 
followed should be distinctly laid down4
    ,the laws of psychology1 or the     
capabilities and methods of             
mind-activity1 are themselves the       
fundamental laws of teaching1 which  is 
the act of exciting normal and          
profitable mind-action4 ,beyond  these  
fundamental laws1 the principles of     

education are to be derived             
inductively4 ,these inductions when     
brought to test will be found to be     
rational inferences from psychological  
laws and thus founded upon and          
explained by them4      ,school economy4
    ,school economy1 though a factor of 
great importance in the teacher's       
training1 can be best studied by the    
teacher of some maturity and            
experience1 and is of more value in the 
equipment of secondary than  of         
elementary teachers4 ,only its outlines 
and fundamental principles  should be   
studied in the ordinary training-school4
      ,history of education4    ,breadth
 of mind consists in the power to view  
facts and opinions from  the standpoints
 of others4 ,it is this truth which     
makes the study of  history in a full1  
appreciative way so influential in      
giving mental  breadth4 ,this general   
advantage the history of education has  
in still  larger degree1 because our    
interest in the views and experiences of

  those engaged like us in training the 
young enables us to enter more  fully   
into their thoughts and purposes than we
 could into those of  the warrior or    
ruler4 ,from the efforts of the man we  
imagine his  surroundings1 which1 we    
contrast with our own4 ,to the abstract 
element  of theoretical truth is added  
the warm human interest we feel in the  
hero1 the generous partisan of truth4   
,the history of education is            
particularly full of examples of noble  
purpose1 advanced thought1 and  moral   
heroism4 ,it is inspiring to fill our   
minds with these human  ideals4 ,we read
 in the success of the unpractical      
,pestalozzi the award  made to          
self-sacrifice1 sympathy1 and enthusiasm
 expended in giving  application to a   
vital truth4    ,but with enthusiasm for
 ideals history gives us caution1 warns 
us  against the moving of the pendulum1 
and gives us points of departure  from  
which to measure progress4 ,it gives us 
courage to attack difficult  problems4  

,it shows which the abiding problems    
are--those that can be  solved only by  
waiting1 and not tossed aside by a      
supreme effort4 ,it  shows us the       
progress of the race1 the changing      
ideals of the perfect  man1 and the     
means by which men have sought to       
realize these ideals4  ,we can from its 
study better answer the question1 ,what 
is education1  what may it accomplish1  
and how may its ideals be realized8 ,it 
gives  the evolution of the present and 
explains anomalies in our work4 ,and    
yet the history of education is not a   
subject to be treated extensively  in a 
training school4 ,all but the outlines  
may better be reserved for  later       
professional reading4      ,training in 
teaching4    ,training to teach requires
 7#a7 schools for observation1 and 7#b7 
schools  for practice4    ,of necessity1
 these schools must be separate in      
purpose and in  organization4 ,a        
practice-school cannot be a model       
school4 ,the  pupil-teachers should have

 the opportunity to observe the best    
models of the teaching art2 and the     
manner1 methods1 and devices of  the    
model-teacher should be noted1          
discussed1 and referred to the          
foundation principles on which they     
rest4 ,allowable modifications of  this 
observed work may be suggested by the   
pupil-teacher and approved  by the      
teacher in charge4    ,there should be  
selected certain of the best teachers in
 regular  school work1 whom the         
pupil-teachers may be sent to observe4  
,the  pupil-teachers should take no part
 in the school work nor cause any       
change therein4 ,they should1 however1  
be told in advance by the  teacher what 
purpose she seeks to accomplish4 ,this  
excites expectation  and brings into    
consciousness the apperceiving ideas by 
which the  suggestions of the exercise1 
as they develop1 may be seized and      
assimilated4    ,at first these visits  
should be made in company with their    
teacher  of methods1 and the work of a  

single class in one subject should be   
first observed4 ,after such visits the  
teacher of methods in the given  subject
 should discuss with the pupil-teachers 
the work observed4  ,the pupil-teachers 
should first describe the work they have
 seen and  specify the excellences      
noted1 and tell why these thing are     
commendable  and upon what laws of      
teaching they are based4 ,next1 the     
pupil-teachers  should question the     
teacher of methods as to the cause1     
purpose1 or  influence of things noted1 
and matters of doubtful propriety--if   
there be such--should be considered4    
,then the teacher in turn should        
question her pupil-teachers as to       
matters that seem to have escaped  their
 notice1 as to the motive of the        
model-teacher1 as to the reason  for the
 order of treatment1 or form of         
question1 wherein lay the merit  of her 
method1 the secret of her power4 ,when  
pupil-teachers have made  such          
observations several times1 with several

 teachers1 and in several  subjects1 the
 broader investigation may be made as to
 the organization  of one of the model  
rooms1 its daily programme of           
recitations and of  study1 the methods  
of discipline1 the relations between    
pupils and  teacher1 the 8school        
spirit10 the school movements1 and class
 progress4  ,this work should be done   
before teaching groups or classes of    
pupils is  attempted1 and should form an
 occasional exercise during the period  
of  practice-teaching as a matter of    
relief and inspiration4 ,if an artist   
requires the suggestive help of a good  
example that stirs his own  originality1
 why should not a teacher8      ,the    
practice-school4    ,during the course  
in methodology certain steps preparatory
 to  practice-teaching may be taken4 #a4
 ,the pupil-teacher may analyze the     
topic to be taught1 noting essentials   
and incidentals1 seeking the            
connections of the subject with the     
mental possessions of the pupils  to be 

considered and the sequences from these 
points of contact to the  knowledge to  
be gained under instruction4 #b4 ,next1 
plans of lessons may  be prepared and   
series of questions for teaching the    
given subjects4  #c4 ,giving lessons to 
fellow pupil-teachers leads to          
familiarity with  the mechanism of class
 work1 such as calling1 directing1 and  
dismissing  classes1 gives the beginner 
ease and self-confidence1 leads to      
careful  preparation of lessons1 gives  
skill in asking questions1 and in the   
use  of apparatus4    ,the              
practice-teaching should be in another  
school1 preferably in a  different      
building1 and should commence with      
group-teaching in a  recitation-room    
apart from the schoolroom4 ,actual      
teaching of small  groups of children   
gives opportunity for the study of the  
child-mind  in its efforts at reception 
and assimilation of new ideas1 and      
shows the modifications in lesson plans 
that must be made to adapt  the         

subject-matter to the child's tastes and
 activities4 ,but the  independent      
charge for a considerable time of a     
schoolroom with a full  quota of pupils1
 the pupil-teacher and the children     
being much of  the time the sole        
occupants of the room1--in short1 the   
realization  of ordinary school         
conditions1 with the opportunity to go  
for advice  to a friendly critic1 is the
 most valuable practice2 and no practice
  short of this can be considered of    
great value except as preparation  for  
this chief form of preparatory practice4
 ,all this work should have  its due    
proportion only1 or evil may result4    
,for example1 lesson plans  tend to     
formalism1 to self-conceit1 to work in  
few and narrow lines1  to study of      
subjects rather than of pupils2 lessons 
to fellow-pupils  make one              
self-conscious1 hinder the growth of    
enthusiasm in work1 and  are entirely   
barren if carried beyond a very few     
exercises2 teaching  groups of children 

for considerable time unfits the teacher
 for the  double burden of discipline   
and instruction1 to bear both of which  
simultaneously and easily is the        
teacher's greatest difficulty and most  
essential power4    ,a critic-teacher   
should be appointed to the oversight of 
two such  pupil-teachers1 each in charge
 of a schoolroom4 ,the critic may also  
supervise one or more teachers          
practicing for brief periods daily with 
groups of children4    ,the             
pupil-teachers are now to emphasize     
practice rather than theory1  to work   
under the direction of one who regards  
the interests of the  children quite as 
much as those of the                    
teacher-in-training4 ,the critic  must  
admit the principles of education and   
general methods taught by  the teacher  
of methodology1 but she may have her own
 devices and even  special methods that 
need not be those of the teacher of     
methodology4  ,no harm will come to the 
teachers-in-training if they learn that 

principles must be assented to by all1  
but that methods may bear the  stamp of 
the personality of the teacher2 that all
 things must be  considered from the    
point of view of their effect upon the  
pupils2 the  critic maintaining the     
claims of the children1 the teacher of  
methods  conforming to the laws of mind 
and the science of the subjects taught4 
,the critics must teach for their       
pupil-teachers and show in action the   
justness of their suggestions4 ,in this 
sense they are model-teachers as  well  
as critics4    ,the critic should1 at   
the close of school1 meet her           
pupil-teachers  for a report of their   
experiences through the day3 ,what they 
have  attempted1 how they have tried to 
do it1 why they did so1 and  what       
success they gained4 ,advice as to      
overcoming difficulties1  encouragement 
under trial1 caution if need be1 help   
for the work of  to-morrow1 occupy the  
hour4 ,above all1 the critic should be a
 true  friend1 a womanly and cultivated 

woman1 and an inspiring companion1      
whose presence is helpful to work and   
improving to personality4      ,length  
of training-school course4    ,there are
 three elements which determine the time
 to be spent in a  training school--the 
time given to academic studies1 the time
 given  to professional studies1 and the
 time given to practice4 ,the sum of    
these periods will be the time required 
for the training course4 ,taking  these 
in the inverse order1 let us consider   
how much time is required  for practice 
work with pupils4 ,the time given to    
lesson outlines and  practice with      
fellow pupil-teachers may be considered 
a part of the  professional study rather
 than of practice-teaching4 ,the period 
of  practice with pupils must not be too
 short1 whether we consider the         
interests of the pupils or of the       
teachers-in-training4 ,an effort is     
usually made to counteract the effect   
upon the children of a succession  of   
crude efforts of teachers beginning     

practice by strengthening the  teaching 
and supervision through the employment  
of a considerable  number of model and  
supervisory teachers1 and by dividing   
the pupils  into small groups1 so that  
much individual work can be done4 ,these
  arrangements1 while useful for their  
purpose1 destroy to a considerable      
degree the usual conditions under which 
school work is to be done1 and  tend to 
render the teachers-in-training formal  
and imitative4    ,the practice room    
should be1 as far as may be1 the        
ordinary school1  with the difficulties 
and responsibilities that will be met   
later4  ,the responsibility for order1  
discipline1 progress1 records1 reports1 
communication with parents and school   
authorities1 must fall fully upon  the  
young teacher1 who has a friendly       
assistant to whom she can go for  advice
 in the person of a wise and experienced
 critic1 not constantly  at hand1 but   
constantly within reach4    ,between the
 critic and the teacher-in-training     

there should exist  the most cordial and
 familiar relations4 ,these relations   
are based  on the one hand upon an      
appreciation of wisdom and kindness1 on 
the  other1 upon an appreciation of     
sincerity and effort4 ,the growth of    
such relations1 and the fruitage which  
follows their growth1 require  time4 ,a 
half-year is not too long to be allotted
 for them4 ,during this  half-year      
experience1 self-confidence and growth  
in power have been  gained2 but the     
pupil-teacher is still not ready to be  
set aside to  work out her own destiny4 
,at this point she is just ready for    
marked  advance1 which should be helped 
and guided4 ,to remain longer with her  
critic friend may cause imitation rather
 than independence1 may lead to         
contentment and cessation of growth4    
,she should now be transferred to  the  
care of a second critic of a different  
personality1 but of equal  merit4 ,the  
new critic is bound by her duty and her 
ambition to see  that the first half    

year's advancement is maintained in the 
second4  ,the pupil-teacher finds that  
excellence is not all upon one model4   
,the value of individuality impresses   
her4 ,she gains a view of solid         
principles wrapped in diverse           
characteristics4 ,her own individuality 
rises to new importance1 and the        
elements of a growth not at once to be  
checked start up within her4 ,for the   
care of the second critic a second  half
 year must be allowed1 which extends the
 practice work with pupils  through an  
entire school year4 ,for the theoretical
 work a year is by  general experience  
proven sufficient4 ,the ideal training  
course is1  then1 one of two years'     
length4    ,provision for the extended  
practice which is here recommended can  
be made only by city training-schools   
and by normal schools having  connection
 with the schools of a city4 ,to set    
apart a building of  several rooms as a 
school of practice will answer the      
purpose only  when there are very few   

teachers in training4 ,in order to give 
each  pupil-teacher a year of practice  
the number of practice rooms must  equal
 the number of teachers to be graduated 
annually from the  training-school1 be  
the number ten1 fifty1 or five hundred4 
,in any  considerable city a school for 
practice will not suffice2 many schools 
for practice must be secured4 ,this can 
be done by selecting one  excellent     
teacher in each of a sufficient number  
of school buildings1  and making her a  
critic-teacher1 giving her charge of two
 schoolrooms1  in each of which is      
placed a pupil-teacher for training4    
,this insures that the training shall be
 done as nearly as may be under         
ordinary conditions1 brings the         
pupil-teachers at once into the general 
body of teachers1 makes the corps of    
critics a leaven of zeal1 and  good     
teaching scattered among the schools4   
,this body of critics will  uplift the  
schools4 ,more capable in the beginning 
than the average  teacher1 led to       

professional study1 ambitious for the   
best things1 they  make greater progress
 than they otherwise would do1 and are  
sufficient  in themselves to inspire the
 general body of teachers4 ,for the sake
  of the pupil-teachers1 and the        
children1 too1 this plan is best4 ,its  
economy also will readily be apparent4  
,this plan has been tried for  several  
years in the schools of ,providence1    
with results fully equal to  those      
herein claimed4      ,tests of success4 
,the tests of success in                
practice-teaching are in the main those 
to be  applied to all teaching4 ,do her 
pupils grow more honest1 industrious1   
polite8 ,do they admire their teacher8  
,does she secure obedience and  industry
 only while demanding it1 or has she    
influence that reaches  beyond her      
presence8 ,do her pupils think well and 
talk well8 ,as to  the teacher herself3 
,has she sympathy and tact1             
self-reliance and  originality1 breadth 
and intensity8 ,is she systematic1      

direct1 and  business-like8 ,is she     
courteous1 neat in person and in work8  
,has  she discernment of character and a
 just standard of requirement and       
attainment8    ,these are some of the   
questions one must answer before he     
pronounces  any teacher a success or a  
failure4    ,admission to a training    
school assumes that the pupil has good  
health1  good scholarship1 good sense1  
good ability1 and devotion to the work  
of teaching4 ,if all these continue to  
be exhibited in satisfactory  degree and
 the pupil goes through the prescribed  
course of study  and practice1 the      
diploma of the school should naturally  
mark the  completion of this work4 ,if  
it appears on acquaintance that a       
serious  mistake has been made in       
estimating any of these elements1 then1 
so  soon as the mistake is fairly       
apparent and is probably a permanent    
condition1 the pupil should be requested
 to withdraw from the work4  ,this is   
not a case where the wheat and the tares

 should grow together  until the harvest
 at graduation day or the examination   
preceding it4  ,with such a foundation  
continually maintained1 it is the duty  
of the  school to conquer success for   
each pupil4    ,teaching does not       
require genius4 ,indeed1 genius1 in the 
sense of  erratic ability1 is out of    
place in the teacher's chair4 ,most good
  teachers at this close of the         
nineteenth century are made1 not  born2 
made from good material well fashioned4 
,there is1 however1 a  possibility that 
some idiosyncrasy of character1 not     
readily discovered  until the test is   
made1 may rise between the prospective  
teacher and  her pupils1 making her     
influence over them small or harmful4   
,such a  defect1 if it exist1 will      
appear during the practice-teaching1 and
 the  critic will discover it4 ,this    
defect1 on its first discovery1 should  
be  plainly pointed out to the          
teacher-in-training and her efforts     
should  be joined with those of the     

critic in its removal4    ,if this      
effort be a failure and the defect be   
one likely to harm the  pupils hereafter
 to be taught1 then the                 
teacher-in-training should be  informed 
and requested to withdraw from the      
school4 ,there should be  no test at the
 close of the school course to determine
 fitness for  graduation4 ,graduation   
should find the teacher serious in view 
of her  responsibilities1 hopeful       
because she has learned how success is  
to be  attained1 inspired with the      
belief that growth in herself and in her
  pupils is the great demand and the    
great reward4      ,training of teachers
 for secondary schools4    ,perhaps     
one-sixth of the great body of public   
school teachers in the  ,united ,states 
are engaged in secondary work and in    
supervision4 ,these  are the leading    
teachers4 ,they give educational tone to
 communities1 as  well as inspiration to
 the body of teachers4    ,it is of     
great importance that they be imbued    

with the professional  spirit springing 
from sound professional culture4 ,the   
very difficult  and responsible         
positions that they fill demand ripe    
scholarship1 more  than ordinary        
ability1 and an intimate knowledge of   
the period of  adolescence1 which       
,rousseau so aptly styles the second    
birth4    ,the elementary schools       
provide for the education of the masses4
 ,our  secondary schools educate our    
social and business leaders4 ,the       
careers  of our college graduates1 who  
mainly fill the important places in     
professional and political life1 are    
determined largely by the years  of     
secondary training4 ,the college or     
university gives expansion and  finish1 
the secondary school gives character and
 direction4    ,it should not be        
forgotten that the superintendents of   
public schools  are largely taken from  
the ranks of secondary teachers1 and    
that the  scholarship1 qualities1 and   
training required for the one class are 

nearly equivalent to that demanded for  
the other4    ,our high schools1 too1   
are the source of supply for teachers in
  elementary schools4 ,hence the        
pedagogic influences exerted in the high
  school should lead to excellence in   
elementary teaching4    ,the            
superintendent who with long foresight  
looks to the improvement  of his schools
 will labor earnestly to improve and    
especially to  professionalize the      
teaching in his high school4 ,the       
management which  makes the high school 
an independent portion of the school    
system1  merely attached and loftily    
superior1 which limits the supervision  
and  influence of the superintendent to 
the primary and grammar grades1 is      
short-sighted and destructive4    ,there
 ought also to be a place and a plan for
 the training of teachers  for normal   
schools4 ,the great body of normal and  
training schools  in the ,united ,states
 are secondary schools4 ,those who are  
to teach  in these schools need broad   

scholarship1 thorough understanding of  
educational problems1 and trained       
experience4 ,to put into these schools  
teachers whose scholarship is that of   
the secondary school and whose  training
 is that of the elementary is to narrow 
and depress1 rather  than broaden and   
elevate4    ,if college graduates are   
put directly into teaching without      
special  study and training1 they will  
teach as they have been taught4 ,the    
methods of college professors are not in
 all cases the best1 and1 if  they were1
 high school pupils are not to be taught
 nor disciplined as  college students   
are4 ,high school teaching and          
discipline can be that  neither of the  
grammar school nor of the college1 but  
is sui generis4  ,to recognize this     
truth and the special differences is    
vital to  success4 ,this recognition    
comes only from much experience at great
 loss  and partial failure1 or by happy 
intuition not usually to be expected1   
or by definite instruction and directed 

practice4 ,success in teaching  depends 
upon conformity to principles1 and these
 principles are not a  part of the      
mental equipment of every educated      
person4    ,these considerations and    
others are the occasion of a growing    
conviction1 widespread in this land1    
that secondary teachers should be       
trained for their work even more        
carefully than elementary teachers are  
trained4 ,this conviction is manifested 
in the efforts to secure normal  schools
 adapted to training teachers for       
secondary schools1 notably  in          
,massachusetts and ,new ,york1 and in   
the numerous professorships of  pedagogy
 established in rapidly increasing      
numbers in our colleges and             
universities4    ,the training of       
teachers for secondary schools is in    
several essential  respects the same as 
that for teachers of elementary schools4
 ,both  demand scholarship1 theory1 and 
practice4 ,the degree of scholarship    
required for secondary teachers is by   

common consent fixed at a  collegiate   
education4 ,no one--with rare           
exceptions--should be employed  to teach
 in a high school who has not this      
fundamental preparation4    ,it is not  
necessary to enter in detail into the   
work of theoretical  instruction for    
secondary teachers4 ,the able men at the
 head of  institutions and departments  
designed for such work neither need nor 
desire advice upon this matter4 ,and yet
 for the purposes of this  report it may
 be allowable to point out a plan for   
the organization of  asecondary training
 school4    ,let it be supposed that two
 essentials have been found in one      
locality1  7#a7 a college or university 
having a department of pedagogy and a   
department of post-graduate work2 7#b7 a
 high school1 academy1 or  preparatory  
school whose managers are willing to    
employ and pay a  number of graduate    
students to teach under direction for a 
portion of  each day4 ,these two        
conditions being met1 we will suppose   

that pedagogy  is offered as an elective
 to the college seniors4    ,two years  
of instruction in the science and art of
 teaching are to be  provided2 one1     
mostly theory with some practice1       
elective during the  senior year2 the   
other1 mostly practice with some theory1
 elective for  one year as post-graduate
 work4    ,during the senior year is to 
be studied3--      ,the science of      
teaching4    ,the elements of this      
science are3--    ,i4 ,psychology in its
 physiological1 apperceptive1 and       
experimental  features4 ,the period of  
adolescence here assumes the prominence 
that  childhood has in the psychological
 study preparatory to teaching in  lower
 schools4 ,this is the period of        
beginnings1 the beginning of a  more    
ambitious and generous life1 a life     
having the future wrapped up  in it2 a  
transition period1 of mental storm and  
stress1 in which egoism  gives way to   
altruism1 romance has charm1 and the    
social1 moral1 and  religious feelings  

bud and bloom4 ,to guide youth at this  
formative  stage1 in which an active    
fermentation occurs that may give wine  
or  vinegar according to conditions1    
requires a deep and sympathetic  nature1
 and that knowledge of the changing life
 which supplies guidance  wise and      
adequate4    ,,ii4 ,methodology3 ,a     
discussion of the principles of         
education and of the  methods of        
teaching the studies of the secondary   
schools4    ,,iii4 ,school economy      
should be studied in a much wider and   
more thorough  way than is required for 
elementary teachers4 ,the school systems
 of  ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and   
the leading systems of the ,united      
,states  should also be studied4        
,,iv4 ,history of education1 the tracing
 of modern doctrine back to its         
sources2 those streams of influence now 
flowing and those that have  disappeared
 in the sands of the centuries4    ,v4  
,the philosophy of education as a       
division of an all-involving  philosophy

 of life and thought in which unity is  
found4      ,the art of teaching4       
,this includes observation and practice4
 ,the observation should include  the   
work of different grades and of         
different localities1 with minute  and  
searching comparison and reports upon   
special topics4 ,how does  excellent    
primary work differ from excellent      
grammar grade work8 ,how  do the        
standards of excellence differ between  
grammar grades and  high school grades8 
,between high school and college work8  
,what are  the arguments for and against
 co-education in secondary schools1 as  
determined by experience8 ,what are the 
upper and lower limits of  secondary    
education as determined by the nature of
 the pupil's efforts8    ,in the college
 class in pedagogy much more than in the
 elementary  normal school can the class
 itself be made to afford a means of    
practice to its members4 ,quizzes may be
 conducted by students upon the         
chapters of the books read or the       

lectures of the professors4 ,these      
exercises may have for their object     
review1 or improved statement1  or      
enlarged inference and application1 and 
they afford an ample  opportunity to    
cultivate the art of questioning1 skill 
in which is the  teacher's most         
essential accomplishment4    ,the head  
of the department of pedagogy will1 of  
course1 present the  essential methods  
of teaching1 and the heads of other     
departments may  lecture on methods     
pertaining to their subject of study2 or
 secondary  teachers of known success   
may still better present the methods now
  approved in the several departments of
 secondary work4      ,post-graduate    
year4    ,to those graduates who have   
elected pedagogy in their senior year   
may  be offered the opportunity of      
further study in this department1 with  
such other post-graduate work as taste  
and opportunity permit4 ,from  those    
selecting advanced work in pedagogy the 
board in charge of the  affiliated      

secondary school should elect as many   
teachers for its  school as are needed1 
employing them for two-thirds time at   
one-half  the usual pay for teachers    
without experience4 ,under the professor
 of  pedagogy of the college1 the       
principal1 and the heads of departments 
of the school these student-teachers    
should do their work1 receiving  advice1
 criticism1 and illustration as occasion
 requires4 ,the time  for which they are
 employed would provide for two hours of
 class work  and about one hour of      
clerical work or study while in charge  
of a  schoolroom4 ,these                
student-teachers should be given        
abundant opportunity  for the charge of 
pupils while reciting or studying1 at   
recess and  dismissals1 and should have 
all the responsibilities of members of  
the  faculty of this school4 ,their work
 should be inspected as frequently  as  
may be by the heads of the departments  
in which they teach1 by  the principal  
of the school1 and by the professor of  

pedagogy4 ,these  appointments would be 
virtually fellowships with an           
opportunity for  most profitable        
experience4    ,in the afternoon of each
 day these students should attend to    
college  work and especially to         
instruction from the professor in       
pedagogy1 who  could meet them          
occasionally with the heads of the      
departments under  whose direction they 
are working4    ,on ,saturdays a        
seminary of two hours' duration might be
 held1 conducted  by the professor of   
pedagogy and attended by the            
student-teachers  and the more ambitious
 teachers of experience in the vicinity4
 ,these  seminaries would1 doubtless1 be
 of great profit to both classes of     
participants1 and the greater to each   
because of the other4 7,such  a training
 school for secondary teachers in       
connection with ,brown  ,university and 
the ,providence high school is          
contemplated for the  coming year47     
,it will not be needful to specify      

further the advantages to the           
student-teachers4 ,the arrangement      
likewise affords advantage to the       
affiliated school1 especially in the    
breadth of view this work would  afford 
to the heads of departments1 the intense
 desire it would beget  in them for     
professional skill1 the number of       
perplexing problems which  it would     
force them to attempt the solution of4  
,the visits of the professor of         
pedagogy1 and the constant comparison   
he would make between actual and ideal  
conditions1 would lead him to  seek the 
improvement1 not only of the students in
 practice1 but of the  school as a      
whole4    ,when several earnest and     
capable people unite in a mutual effort 
to  improve themselves and their work1  
all the essential conditions of         
progress are present4                   
,,horace ,s4 ,,tarbell1 ,chairman1      
,superintendent of ,schools1            
,providence1 ,r4 ,i4            ,,edward
 ,,brooks1    ,superintendent of        

,schools1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4           
,,thomas ,m4 ,,balliet1                 
,superintendent of ,schools1            
,springfield1 ,mass4            ,,newton
 ,c4 ,,dougherty1    ,superintendent of 
,schools1 ,peoria1 ,ill4                
,,oscar ,h4 ,,cooper1    ,superintendent
 of ,schools1 ,galveston1 ,tex4         
,dissent from ,dr4 ,harris' ,report4    
,,by ,,james ,m4 ,,greenwood1 ,,of      
,,kansas ,,city4      ,i dissent from   
the majority report of the ,committee in
 regard to the  following points3--     
,arithmetic    #a4 ,,as ,,to            
,,fractions3 ,in teaching arithmetic    
there does not exist any  greater       
difficulty in getting small children to 
grasp the nature of  the fraction as    
such than in getting them to grasp the  
idea of the  simpler whole numbers4 ,it 
is true that the fractions 1 1 1 etc41  
as  symbols1 are a little more complex  
than are the single digits2 but as  to  
the real meaning1 when once the         
fractional idea has been properly       

developed by the teacher and the        
significance of the idea apprehended  by
 the pupil1 it is as easily understood  
as any other simple truth4  ,children   
get the idea of half1 third1 or quarter 
of many things long  before they enter  
school1 and they will as readily learn  
to add1  subtract1 multiply1 and divide 
fractions as they will whole numbers4   
,in  using fractions they will draw     
diagrams and pictures representing the  
processes of work as quickly and easily 
as they illustrate similar work  with   
integers4 ,it is1 of course1 assumed    
that the teacher knows how to  teach    
arithmetic to children1 or rather1 how  
to teach the children how  to teach     
themselves4 ,there is really no valid   
argument why children in  the second1   
third1 and fourth years in school should
 not master the  fundamental operations 
in fractions4 ,not only this1 they will 
put the  more common fractions into the 
technique of percentage1 and do this  as
 well in the second and third grades as 

at any other time in their  future      
progress4 ,there is only one new idea   
involved in this operation1  and that   
consists in giving an additional        
term--per cent4--to the  fractional     
symbol4 ,when one number is a part of   
another1 it may be  regarded as a       
fractional part or as such a per cent4  
of it4 ,a great  deal of percentage is  
thus learned by the pupils early in the 
course4  ,children are not hurt by      
learning4 ,standing still and lost      
motion kill4    ,every recitation should
 reach the full swing of the learner's  
mind1  including all his acquisitions on
 any given topic4 ,but if the teaching  
of fractions be deferred1 as it usually 
is in most schools1 the time  may be    
materially shortened by teaching        
addition and subtraction of  fractions  
together4 ,this is simple enough if     
different fractions having  common      
denominators are used at first1 such as 
#f_/b  #e_/b  81 and #f_/b -  #e_/b  8  
,then the next step1 after sufficient   

drill on this case1 is to  take two     
fractions 7simple7 of different units of
 value1 as     81  and  -   8           
,multiplication and division may be     
treated similarly4    ,in decimals1 the 
pupil is really confronted by a simpler 
form of  fractions than the varied forms
 of common fractions4    ,devices and   
illustrations of a material kind are    
necessary to build up  in the pupil's   
mind at the beginning a clear concept of
 a tenth1 etc41  etc41 and then to show 
that one-tenth written as a decimal is  
only a  shorthand way of writing #a_/aj 
as a common fraction1 and so on4 ,he    
sees  very soon that the decimal is only
 a shorthand common fraction1 and  this 
notion he must hold to4 ,this is the    
vital point in decimals4 ,the  idea that
 they can be changed into common        
fractions and the reverse  at will      
establishes the fact in the pupil's mind
 that they are common  fractions and not
 uncommon ones4 ,fixing the decimal     
point will1 in a  short time1 take care 

of itself4    ,in teaching arithmetic   
the steps are3 7#a7 developing the      
subject till  each pupil gets a clear   
conception of it2 7#b7 necessary drill  
to fix  the process2 7#c7 connecting the
 subject with all that has preceded it2 
7#d7 its applications2 7#e7 the pupil's 
ability to sum up clearly and  concisely
 what he has learned4    #b4 ,,as ,,to  
,,abridgment3 ,under this head1 ,i hold 
that a course in  arithmetic1 including 
simple numbers1 fractions1 tables of    
weights  and measures1 percentage1 and  
interest1 and numerical operations in   
powers1 does not fit a pupil to begin   
the study of algebra4 ,that while  he   
may carry the book under his arm to the 
schoolroom1 he is too poorly  equipped  
to make headway on this subject1 and    
instead of finishing up  algebra in a   
reasonable length of time1 he is kept   
too long at it1 with  a strong          
probability of his becoming disgusted   
with it4    ,there are subjects1        
however1 in the common school arithmetic

 that may  be dropped out with great    
advantage1 to wit1 all but the simplest 
exercises in compound interest1 foreign 
exchange1 all foreign  moneys 7except   
reference tables of values71 annuities1 
alligation1  progression2 and the entire
 subjects of percentage and interest    
should  be condensed into about twenty  
pages4    ,cancellation1 factoring1     
proportion1 evolution1 and involution   
should  be retained4 ,cancellation and  
factoring should be strongly emphasized1
  owing to their immense value in       
shortening work in arithmetic1 algebra1 
and in more advanced subjects4 ,some    
drill in the ,metric ,system should  not
 be omitted4    #c4 ,,as ,,to ,,mental  
,,arithmetic3 ,till the end of the      
fourth year the pupil  does not need a  
text-book of mental arithmetic4 ,so far 
his work  in arithmetic should be about 
equally divided between written and     
mental4 ,at the beginning of the fifth  
year1 in addition to his written        
arithmetic1 he should begin a mental    

arithmetic and continue it three  years1
 reciting at least four mental          
arithmetic lessons each week4 ,the      
length of the recitation should be      
twenty minutes4 ,a pupil well drilled   
in mental arithmetic at the end of the  
seventh year1 if the school age  begins 
at six1 is far better prepared to study 
algebra than the one who  has not had   
such a drill4 ,there are a few problems 
in arithmetic that  can be solved more  
easily by algebra than by the ordinary  
processes of  arithmetic1 but there are 
many numerical problems in equations of 
the  first degree that can be more      
easily handled by mental arithmetic than
  by algebra4 ,to attack arithmetical   
problems by algebra is very much  like  
using a tremendous lever to lift a      
feather4 ,those who have found a  great 
stumbling-block in arithmetical         
8conundrums0 have1 if the inside  facts 
were known1 been looking in the wrong   
direction4 ,a deficiency of             
8number-brain-cells0 will afford an     

adequate explanation4    #d4            
,,rearrangement ,,of ,,subjects3 ,there 
should be a rearrangement of the  topics
 in arithmetic so that one subject      
naturally leads up to the  next4 ,as an 
illustration1 it is easily seen that    
whole numbers and  fractions can be     
treated together1 and that with ,u4 ,s4 
money1 when the  dime is reached1 is the
 proper time to begin decimals1 and that
 when  a 8square0 in surface measure    
first comes up1 the next step is the    
square of a number as well as its square
 root1 and that solid measure  logically
 lands the learner among cubes and      
cube-roots4 ,when he learns  that #agbh 
cubic inches make one cubic foot he is  
prepared to find the  edge of the cube4 
,what is meant here is pointing the way 
to the next  above4 ,all depends upon   
the teacher's ability to lead the pupil 
to see  conditions and relations4 ,my   
contention is that truth1 so far as one 
is  capable of taking hold of it when it
 is properly presented1 is always a     

simple affair4    #e4 ,,as ,,to         
,,algebra3 ,if algebra be commenced at  
the middle of the seventh  year1 let the
 pupil go at it in earnest1 and keep at 
it till he has  mastered it4 ,here the  
best opportunities will be afforded him 
to  connect his algebraic knowledge to  
his arithmetical knowledge4 ,he  builds 
the one on top of the other4 ,the       
skillful teacher always insists  that   
the learner shall establish and maintain
 this relationship between  the two     
subjects4 ,to switch around the other   
way appears to me to be  the same as to 
omit certain exercises in the common    
algebra1 because  they are more briefly 
and elegantly treated in the calculus4  
,it is  admitted that a higher branch of
 mathematics often throws much light  on
 the lower branches1 but these          
side-lights should be employed for  the 
purpose of leading the learner onward to
 broader generalizations4  ,unless one  
sees the lower clearly1 the higher is   
obscure4 ,build solidly  the foundation 

on arithmetic--written and mental--and  
the higher  branches will be more easily
 mastered and time saved4      ,history 
of the ,united ,states4    ,in teaching 
this branch in the public schools1 there
 does not appear1  so far as ,i can see1
 any substantial reason why the pupils  
should not  study and recite the history
 of the ,rebellion in the same manner   
that  they do the ,revolutionary ,war4  
,the pupils discuss the late war and    
the causes that led to it with an       
impartiality of feeling that speaks     
more for their good sense and clear     
judgment than any other way by  which   
their knowledge can be tested4 ,they may
 not get hold of all the  causes        
involved in that conflict1 but they get 
enough to understand  the motives which 
caused the armies to fight so           
heroically1 and why  the people1 both   
,north and ,south1 staked everything on 
the issue4 ,just  as the men who faced  
each other for four years and met so    
often in a  death grapple will sit down 

now and quietly talk over their trials1 
sufferings1 and conflicts1 so do their  
children talk over these same  stirring 
scenes4 ,they1 too1 so far as my        
experience extends1 are  singularly free
 from bitterness and prejudice4 ,it is  
certainly a period  of history that they
 should study4      ,the spelling-book4 
,in addition to the 8spelling-lists10 ,i
 would supplement with a good           
spelling-book4 ,so far1 no 8word-list10 
however well selected1 has  supplied the
 place of a spelling-book4 ,all those   
schools that threw  out the             
spelling-book and undertook to teach    
spelling incidentally or  by word-lists 
failed1 and for the same reason that    
grammar1 arithmetic1  geography1 and    
other branches cannot be taught         
incidentally as the  pupil or the class 
reads ,robinson ,crusoe1 or any similar 
work4 ,it is an  independent study and  
as such should be pursued4      ,,by    
,,charles ,b4 ,,gilbert1 ,,of ,,st4     
,,paul4    ,while affixing my signature 

to the report of this ,committee1 as    
expressing substantial agreement with   
most of its leading propositions1  ,i   
beg leave also to indicate my dissent   
from certain of its  recommendations and
 to suggest certain additions which1 in 
my judgment1  the report requires4      
#a4 ,there are other forms of true      
correlation which should be included    
with the four mentioned in the first    
part of the report and which  should be 
as clearly and fully treated as are     
these four4    ,the first is that form  
of correlation which is popularly       
understood  by the name1 and which is   
also called by some writers             
concentration1  co-ordination1          
unification1 and alludes in general to a
 division of  studies into content and  
form2 by content meaning that upon which
 it is  fitting that the mind of the    
child should dwell1 and by form the     
means  or modes of expression by which  
thoughts are communicated4 ,or1 it may  
be thus expressed3 ,the true content of 

education is 7#a71 philosophy or  the   
knowledge of man as to his motives and  
hidden springs of action  indicated in  
history and literature1 and 7#b7        
science1 the knowledge  of nature1 and  
its manifestations and laws4 ,its form  
is art1 which  is the deliberate1       
purposeful1 and effective expression to 
others of  that which has been produced 
within man by contact with other men and
  with nature1 and is commonly referred 
to as divided into various arts1  such  
as reading1 writing1 drawing1 making1   
and modeling4 ,the relation  of content 
and form is that of principle and       
subordinate1 the latter  receiving its  
chief value from the former4 ,in a true 
education they  are so presented to the 
mind of the child that he instinctively 
and  unconsciously grasps this relation 
and is thereby lifted into a higher     
plane of thinking and living than if the
 various arts are taught1 as  they too  
commonly are1 without reference to a    
noble content4 ,this  relation of form  

to content is vaguely referred to in the
 report1 but  nowhere definitely        
treated4 ,it seems to me that it is a   
true form of  correlation1 and1 as such1
 deserves special and definite          
treatment4  ,moreover1 it is at present 
much in the minds of the teachers of    
this  country1 often in forms that are  
misleading and harmful4 ,the fact that  
it adds the important element of        
interest to the dry details of common   
school life makes it especially         
attractive to progressive and earnest   
teachers1 and this ,committee should    
recognize its importance and make  such 
an utterance upon it as will guide the  
average teacher to a clear              
comprehension of its meaning and to a   
wise use of it in the schoolroom4       
,second1 there is a still higher form of
 correlation which is definitely        
referred to later in the report as that 
8of the several branches of  human      
learning in the unity of the spiritual  
view furnished by religion  to our      

civilization40 ,this in the report is   
assigned absolutely to the  province of 
higher education4 ,while ,i do not wish 
to dissent wholly  from this view1 since
 it is doubtless true that this higher  
unity  cannot be comprehensively stated 
for the use of a child1 yet a wise      
teacher can so present subjects to even 
a young child that a sense of  the unity
 of all knowledge will1 to a certain    
degree1 be unconsciously  developed in  
his mind4 ,in regard to certain of the  
great divisions  of human knowledge1    
this relation is so evident that they   
cannot be  properly presented at all    
unless the relation be made clear4 ,such
  studies are history and geography4    
#b4 ,the recommendations upon the       
subject of language should be broadened 
to cover the production of good ,english
 by the child himself1 with the         
suggestion of suitable topics and proper
 methods4 ,this report confines  itself 
to the absorptive side of education and 
ignores that development  of power over 

nature1 man1 and self1 which comes from 
free exercise  of faculties and free    
expression of thought4 ,the study of    
language as  something for the child to 
use himself1 the great means by which he
 is  to assert his place in             
civilization1 and exert his influence   
for good1  is nowhere referred to except
 in the vaguest way4 ,this statement in 
regard to language applies almost       
equally well to drawing1 and here is    
made evident the importance of the form 
of correlation to which ,i have  just   
referred4 ,the proper material for the  
training of the child in  expression is 
that which is furnished by the study of 
man and nature4  ,his mind being filled 
with high themes1 he asserts his        
individuality1  expresses himself in    
regard to them1 and thereby gains at    
once both a  closer and clearer         
comprehension of what he has studied1   
and also the  power by which he may     
become a factor in his generation4      
#c4 ,i would wish to omit the word      

8weekly0 where it occurs in the         
discussion of the subjects of general   
history and science1 unless it be       
understood to mean that an amount of    
time in the school year equivalent  to  
sixty minutes weekly be given to each of
 these subjects4 ,it is often  better to
 condense these studies into certain    
portions of the year1  giving more time 
to them each week1 and using them as the
 basis1 to  a certain degree1 of        
language work4 ,i believe that1         
especially with  young children1 clearer
 concepts are produced by such connected
 study1  pursued for fewer weeks1 than  
by lessons seven days apart4    #d4 ,in 
my judgment manual training should not  
be limited to the seventh  and eighth   
grades1 but should begin in the         
kindergarten with the  simple study of  
form from objects and the reproduction  
in paper of the  objects presented1 and 
should extend1 in a series of carefully 
graded  lessons1 through all the grades1
 leaving1 however1 the heavier tools1   

such as the plane1 for the seventh and  
eighth grades4 ,by these means an       
interest is kept up in the various human
 industries1 sympathy for all  labor is 
created1 and a certain degree of skill  
is developed2 moreover1  the interest of
 the pupils in their school is greatly  
enhanced4 ,manual  training has often   
proved the magnet by which boys at the  
restless age  have been kept in school  
instead of leaving for some gainful     
occupation4    #e4 ,i desire to suggest 
that geometry may be so taught as to be 
a better  mathematical study than       
algebra to succeed or accompany         
arithmetic  in the seventh and eighth   
grades4 ,i do not refer particularly to 
inventional geometry1 to which the      
,committee accords a slighting          
attention1 but to constructive geometry 
and the simplest propositions  in       
demonstrative geometry1 thus involving  
the comprehension of the  elementary    
geometric forms and their more obvious  
relations4 ,this study  may be made of  

special interest in connection with     
manual training and  drawing1 while it  
presents fewer difficulties to the      
immature mind than  the abstractions of 
algebra1 since it connects more directly
 with the  concrete1 by which its       
presentation may often be aided4    #f4 
,while agreeing fully with the majority 
of the ,committee that the  full        
scientific method should not be applied 
to the study of elementary  science by  
young children1 yet ,i am compelled to  
favor more of  experimentation and      
observation by the child1 and less of   
telling by  the teacher than the report 
would seem to favor4    #g4 ,i would go 
farther than the majority of the        
,committee1 and insist  that1 except in 
rare cases1 there should be no          
specialization of the  teaching force   
below the high school1 and that even in 
the first years  of the high school1 so 
far as possible1 specialization should  
be  subordinated to a general care of   
the child's welfare and oversight of    

his methods of study1 which are         
impossible when a corps of teachers     
give instruction1 each in one subject1  
and see the student only during  the    
hour of recitation4    #h4 ,while in the
 main ,i agree with the bald statements 
under the head  8,correlation by        
synthesis of studies10 since reference  
is made to  only a very artificial mode 
of synthesis not at all in vogue in this
  country1 ,i must dissent emphatically 
from this portion of the report  as by  
inference condemning a most important   
department of correlation1  to which ,i 
have referred earlier4 ,the doctrine of 
concentration is not  necessarily       
artificial2 rather it refers to the     
higher unity1 of which  this ,committee 
has spoken in glowing terms as belonging
 to the province  of higher education4  
,it also includes the division of the   
school  curriculum into content and     
form1 which this ,committee             
inferentially  adopts in its treatment  
of language4 ,i do not believe1 any more

 than  do the majority of the           
,committee1 that the entire course of   
study can  be literally and exactly     
centred about a single subject1 nor do  
,i  believe in any artificial           
correlation2 but there is a natural     
relation  of all knowledges1 which this 
,committee admits in various places1 and
  which is the basis of a proper        
synthesis of studies1 according to the  
psychological principle of apperception4
    #i4 ,if by the term 8oral10 as      
applied to lessons in biography and in  
natural science1 the ,committee means1  
as the word would imply1 that  the      
instruction is to be given in the form  
of lectures by the teacher1  ,i cannot  
in full agree with the ,committee's     
conclusions4 ,as ,i have  already       
stated1 in natural science the work     
should be largely that of  observation1 
and in history and biography1 while in  
the very lowest  grades the teachers    
should tell the children stories1 as    
soon as it  is possible the desired     

information should be obtained by the   
student  through reading4 ,to this end  
the reading lesson in school should be  
properly correlated with his other      
studies1 and he should be advised  as to
 his home reading4 ,the information thus
 obtained should be the  subject of     
conversation in the class1 and should   
furnish the material  for much of the   
written language work of the children4  
#aj4 ,i must dissent emphatically and   
entirely from that portion of the       
report which recommends that a text-book
 in grammar be introduced into  the     
fifth year of the child's school life4  
,it is a question in my mind  whether it
 would not be better if the text-book   
were not introduced  into the grades    
below the high school at all4 ,certainly
 it should not  appear before the       
seventh year4 ,such knowledge of grammar
 as will  familiarize the child with the
 structure of the sentence1 the basis of
  all language and as will enable him to
 use correctly forms of speech  which   

the necessities of expression require1  
should be given orally by  the teacher  
in connection with the child's written  
work1 when needed2  but against the     
introduction of a text-book upon        
grammar1 the most  abstruse of all the  
subjects of the school curriculum1 when 
the pupil  is not more than ten years   
old1 ,i must protest4 ,instead of that1 
the  child should devote much time1 some
 every day1 to writing upon proper      
themes in the best ,english he can      
command1 furnishing occasion to the     
teacher to correct such errors as he may
 make1 and acquiring by use             
acquaintance with the correct forms of  
grammar4 ,if1 as will doubtless  be the 
case in most cities1 local conditions   
render the introduction of  ,latin into 
the eighth grade inadvisable1 this study
 of grammar may be  made in that grade  
somewhat more intensive4    #aa4 ,if by 
a text-book in geography is meant that  
which is commonly  understood by the    
term1 and not simply geographical       

reading matter1 in  my judgment1 it     
should not be introduced earlier than   
the fifth year4    ,these suggestions   
and expressions of dissent1 if approved 
by the  ,committee1 would necessitate   
some change in the programme submitted1 
the most important of which would be the
 making room for the production  of     
,english in the grades4 ,this could be  
provided in the first and  second grades
 by taking some of the time devoted to  
penmanship and  doing the work partly in
 connection with the reading classes4   
,in the  third and fourth grades it     
should take some of the time devoted to 
penmanship and should be studied also in
 connection with geography and  reading1
 and in the fifth and sixth grades it   
should take all of the  time given to   
grammar4    ,i regret to be compelled to
 express dissent upon so many points1   
but  as most of them appear to me vital 
and as the differences appear to be  not
 merely superficial but fundamental1    
affecting and affected by one's  entire 

educational creed1 ,i cannot do         
otherwise4 ,to most of the report  ,i   
most gladly give my assent and approval4
      ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,jones1 ,,of        
,,cleveland4    ,i agree most heartily  
with the main features of the foregoing 
report  of the sub-committee on         
correlation of studies4 ,it is so       
admirable in  its analysis of subjects  
and in its statement of comparative     
education  values1 and so suggestive in 
its practical applications to teaching1 
that ,i regret to find myself appearing 
in any way to dissent from its          
conclusions4 ,indeed1 my principal      
objection is not against anything       
contained in the report 7unless it be   
against a possible inference  which     
might be drawn at one point71 but it    
refers rather to what seems  to me to be
 an omission4    ,in addition to all the
 forms of correlation recommended in the
  report1 it seems to me possible to    
make a correlation of subjects in  a    
programme in such way that the selection

 of subject-matter may be  to some      
extent from all fields of knowledge4    
,these selections should  be such as are
 related to one another so as to be     
mutually helpful  in acquisition4 ,they 
should be the main features of knowledge
 in the  different departments4         
,these different departments from which 
the chosen subjects should be  taken    
must be fundamental ones and must be    
sufficiently numerous to  represent     
universal culture4 ,the report itself   
indicates conclusively  what these are4 
,reference is made in the report to     
various attempts that have been made  to
 correlate subjects of study4    ,a very
 just criticism is made upon that       
attempt at correlation by the  use of   
the story of ,robinson ,crusoe as a     
centre of correlation4 ,it is           
distinctly pointed out in the report    
that the experiences of ,robinson       
,crusoe are lacking in many of the      
elements of universal culture1 and  in  
many elements of education needed to    

adjust the individual properly  to the  
civilization of our time and country4   
,it is equally evident  that the attempt
 to make this story the centre of       
correlation leads  directly to trivial  
exercises in other subjects in order to 
make them  8correlate0 with ,robinson   
,crusoe4 ,it is also shown in the report
 that  it naturally leads to fragmentary
 knowledge of many subjects very much   
inferior to that clear1 logically       
connected knowledge of a subject  which 
may be had by pursuing it without       
reference to correlating it  with all   
others4    ,it is at this point that in 
my judgment a wrong inference is        
permitted  by the report4    ,it does   
not1 as it seems to me1 follow that     
because correlation based  on ,robinson 
,crusoe is a failure1 all correlations  
having the same  general purpose will   
necessarily prove failures4 ,for my own 
part1  ,i do not believe that           
correlation needs any 8centre10 outside 
the  child and its natural activities4  

,if1 however1 it seems wiser to give    
special prominence to any given field of
 acquisition1 it should1  in my         
judgment1 be accorded to language and   
its closely related  subjects--reading1 
spelling1 writing1 composing1 study of  
literature1  etc41 etc4 ,indeed1        
language as a mode of expression is     
organically  related to thinking1 in all
 fields of knowledge1 as form is related
 to  content4 ,a 8system0 or 8programme0
 of correlation on this basis would     
seek for fundamental ideas in all the   
leading branches and make them  themes  
of thought and occasions of language    
exercises4 ,the selections  would omit  
all trivialities in all subjects1 and   
would not attempt to  correlate for the 
mere sake of correlation2 but would seek
 to correlate  wherever by such         
correlation kindred themes may be made  
to illuminate  one another4 ,to         
illustrate1 concrete problems in        
arithmetic would be  sought that would  
clearly develop and illustrate          

mathematical ideas  and their           
application2 but in a secondary way     
these problems would be  sought for in  
the various departments of concrete     
knowledge--geography1  history1 physics1
 chemistry1 astronomy1 meteorology1     
political1  industrial1 or domestic     
economy4 ,but none of these themes would
 be so  relied upon for problems as to  
compel one to choose unreasonable or    
trivial relations on which to base them4
 ,the problems themselves should        
represent true and important facts and  
relations of the other subjects  as     
surely and rigidly as they should       
involve correct mathematical            
principles2 and all such exercises      
should be rightly related to the        
child's education in language4    ,in   
like manner1 when a child is engaged in 
nature study of any kind1  some valuable
 problems in mathematics may be found   
rightly related  both to the subject    
directly in hand and the child's natural
 progress  in arithmetic4 ,also many of 

the lessons in nature study are directly
  related to some of the finest         
literature ever produced1 in which      
analogies of nature are made the means  
of expression for the finest and  most  
delicate of the human experiences4 ,when
 the child has mastered  the physical   
facts on which the literary inspiration 
is based is the  true time to give him  
the advantage of the study of such      
literature4  ,these ideas are not only  
rightly related to one another1 but to  
the  mind itself4 ,it is1 so to speak1  
the nascent moment when the mind can    
easily and fully master what might else 
remain an impenetrable mystery2  and all
 because subjects and occasion have come
 into happy conjunction4    ,this is not
 the place in which to attempt any      
elaboration of such a  system of        
correlation4 ,but ,i feel that its      
absence from the report may  make many  
persons feel that the latter is so far  
incomplete4      ,,by ,,william ,h4     
,,maxwell1 ,,of ,,brooklyn4    ,with the

 main lines of thought in this report ,i
 find myself in  agreement4 ,with many  
of its details1 however1 ,i am not in   
accord4  ,i regret to have to express my
 dissent from its conclusions in the    
following particulars3--    #a4 ,the    
report makes too little of the uses of  
grammar as supplying  canons of         
criticism which enable the pupil to     
correct his own ,english1  and as       
furnishing a key 7grammatical analysis7 
that gives him the power  to see the    
meaning of obscure or involved          
sentences4    #b4 ,for the study of     
literature1 complete works are to be    
preferred to  the selections found in   
school readers4    #c4 ,that species of 
language exercise known as paraphrasing 
,i regard as  harmful4    #d4 ,the study
 of number should not be omitted from   
the first year in  school4 ,practice in 
the primary operations of arithmetic    
should not  be omitted from the seventh 
and eighth years4 ,the quadratic        
equation  should be reserved for the    

high school4    #e4 ,the foreign        
language introduced into the elementary 
school course  should be a modern       
language--,french or ,german4 ,latin    
should be reserved  for those who have  
time and opportunity to master its      
literature4    #f4 ,in the general      
programme of studies1 the school day is 
cut up into  too many short periods4    
,the tendency of such a programme as    
that in the  text would be to destroy   
repose of mind and render reflection    
almost an  impossibility4    #g4 ,i     
desire to express my agreement with the 
opinions stated in  ,sections #b1 #c1   
#f1 and #i of ,mr4 ,gilbert's dissenting
 opinion2 and1 in  the main1 with what  
,mr4 ,jones says on the correlation of  
studies4          ,dissent from ,dr4    
,draper's ,report4    ,,by ,,edwin ,p4  
,,seaver1 ,,boston4      ,i find myself 
in general accord with the doctrines of 
the report4 ,there  is only one feature 
of it from which ,i feel obliged to     
dissent1 and  that is an important      

though not necessarily a vital one4 ,i  
refer to the  office of school director4
 ,i see no need of such an officer      
elected  by the people1 and ,i do see   
the danger of his becoming a part of the
  political organization for the        
dispensation of patronage4    ,all power
 and authority in school affairs should 
reside ultimately  in the board of      
education1 consisting of not more than  
eight persons  appointed by the mayor of
 the city1 to hold office four years1   
two  members retiring annually and      
eligible for reappointment once and no  
more4 ,this board should appoint as its 
chief officer a superintendent  of      
instruction1 whose tenure should be     
during good behavior and  efficiency1   
and whose powers and duties should be to
 a large extent  defined by statute law1
 and not wholly or chiefly by the       
regulations  of the board of education4 
,the superintendent of instruction      
should  have a seat and voice but not a 
vote in the board of education4 ,the    

board of education should also appoint a
 business agent1 and define his  powers 
and duties in relation to all matters of
 buildings1 repairs1 and  supplies1     
substantially as set forth in the report
 in relation to the  school director4   
,all teachers should be appointed and   
annually reappointed or  recommended by 
the superintendent of instruction1 until
 after a  sufficient probation they are 
appointed on a tenure during good       
behavior and efficiency4    ,all matters
 relating to courses of study1          
text-books1 and examinations  should be 
left to the superintendent and his      
assistants1 constituting a  body of     
professional experts who should be      
regarded as alone competent  to deal    
with such matters1 and should be held   
accountable therefor to  the board of   
education only in a general way1 and not
 in particular  details4      ,,by      
,,albert ,g4 ,,lane1 ,,chicago4    ,i   
concur in the recommendations of the    
sub-committee on the  ,organization of  

,city ,school ,systems as summarized in 
the concluding  portion of the report1  
omitting in item ,,third the words1     
8,and that  it be constituted of two    
branches acting against each other40    
,omit  ,,fifth1 8,but we think it       
preferable that he be chosen in the same
 way  that members of the board are     
chosen and be given veto power upon the 
acts of the board40 ,i recommend that   
the veto power be given to the          
president of the board4                 
,discussion on ,report of ,dr4 ,harris4 
,,frank ,m4 ,,mcmurry1 ,franklin        
,school1 ,buffalo3 ,my remarks have no  
reference to the dissenting opinions1   
but will be confined to the  correlation
 in the main body of the report4 ,so    
far1 we have listened  to the definition
 of correlation2 my remarks refer to    
that1 and to its  influence on the      
course of study4    ,the address by     
,miss ,arnold last night referred to    
correlation4 ,that  lecture is not in   
accord with the report of five in regard

 to this  subject4 ,we have been using  
two synonyms for                        
correlation--cordination  and           
concentration4 ,many persons have gotten
 their definition through  their ideas  
of concentration4 ,people have in mind1 
as ,i understand it1  mainly the        
relation of studies to one another4 ,let
 me give one or two  samples in addition
 to last night's suggestions4 ,let me   
refer to ,egypt4  ,the geography will   
naturally take the ,nile1 the drawing   
will take up  cardboard work1 etc41 the 
pupil will deal with the pyramid and the
  triangle in mathematics1 and with     
language work in the whole subject4 ,i  
give that as a simple illustration of   
concentration4    ,i turn to the part of
 the report where they take up          
correlation by  synthesis of studies2   
that1 as ,i understand it1 was the      
thought in the  mind of ,miss ,arnold1  
and it is what is in my own mind4 ,they 
take up the  subject of ,robinson       
,crusoe4 ,i think they should look into 

it further1  but it is not my purpose to
 defend ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,they have   
taken  the story of ,robinson ,crusoe as
 a type and they have condemned that as 
a type4 ,we may think they aim mainly at
 the story of ,robinson ,crusoe  alone1 
but they say1 8,your committee would    
call attention in this  connection to   
the importance of the pedagogical       
principle of analysis  and isolation as 
preceding synthesis and correlation4    
,there should  be rigid isolation of the
 elements of each branch for the purpose
 of  getting a clear perception of what 
is individual and peculiar in a  special
 province of learning40    ,they warn us
 against having studies closely tied    
together4 ,they do  not realize1 as it  
seems to me1 that the chief fault of our
 present  studies is that they do not   
support each other4 ,the report is      
opposed  from principle to this kind of 
correlation4 ,they refer later to  this 
matter in these words3 8,your committee 
has already mentioned a  species of     

faulty correlation wherein the attempt  
is made to study  all the branches in   
each1 misapplying ,jacotot's maxim1     
#8all is in  all4'0 ,farther than that1 
they show a large lack of sympathy with 
this  point4 ,they have no allusion to  
the fact that the different sciences    
have a relationship with one another4   
,by their omissions1 as well as  their  
positive statements1 they show their    
opposing attitude toward  correlation4  
,they talk about having a proper        
sequence in the studies1--they do not   
insist upon it from principle4 ,they    
say1 8,the most practical knowledge  of 
all1 it will be admitted1 is a knowledge
 of human nature1--a  knowledge that    
enables one to combine with his         
fellow-men and to share  with them the  
physical and spiritual wealth of the    
race4 ,of this  high character as       
humanizing or civilizing are the        
favorite works of  literature found in  
the school readers1 about one hundred   
and fifty  ,english and ,american       

writers being drawn upon for the        
material40 ,in  other words1 they are in
 sympathy with the text-book readers4   
,in  enforcing that point further1 8,in 
the first three years the reading       
should be limited to pieces in the      
colloquial style1 but selections  from  
the classics of the language in prose   
and poetry shall be read  to the pupil  
from time to time40 8,in the years from 
the fifth to  the eighth there should be
 some reading of entire stories1 such as
  ,gulliver's ,travels1 ,robinson       
,crusoe10 and so forth4    ,as ,i       
understand it1 we should have wholes in 
literature from the  beginning4 ,there  
are sixty pages in this report1 only two
 of them refer  to the subject of       
concentration1 and they condemn that    
subject from  principle4 ,they show that
 they do not1 from principle1 favor the 
idea  of connected thought4 ,that is my 
first point--opposition to the whole    
matter4 ,applause4    ,the next point   
is1 ,what do they discuss8 ,laughter4   

,they have four  points in their        
definition of correlation4 ,the fourth  
point is the  chief subject4 8,your     
committee understands by correlation of 
studies  the selection and arrangement  
in order of sequence of such objects of 
study as shall give the child an insight
 into the world that he lives  in1 and a
 command over his resources such as is  
obtained by healthful  coperation with  
one's fellows4 ,in a word1 the chief    
consideration  to which all others are  
to be subordinated1 in the opinion of   
your  committee1 is this requirement of 
the civilization into which the  child  
is born as determining what he shall    
study in school40 ,there is  the old    
idea of study1 in which1 from the adult 
standpoint1 we decide  that what the    
child will use as a man shall constitute
 his course4 ,we  have had the three    
,r's and we have tended to kill the     
children4 ,the  new education is based  
on child study1 apperception1 and       
interest4 ,we  have reached the         

conclusion that knowledge is not        
primarily for the  sake of knowledge1   
but for use1 and the only condition     
under which the  ideas will be active is
 that they shall appeal to the child and
 shall  fit his nature4 ,child study1   
interest1 and apperception demand that  
the chief factor shall be the nature of 
the child--that is not the  attitude of 
this committee of five4 8,your committee
 is of the opinion  that psychology of  
both kinds1 physiological and           
introspective1 can  hold only a         
subordinate place in the settlement of  
questions relating  to the correlation  
of studies4 ,the branches to be studied 
and the  extent to which they are       
studied will be determined mainly by the
  demands of one's civilization40       
,psychology1 in a plain statement1 8will
  largely determine the methods of      
instruction1 the order of taking up  the
 several topics so as to adapt the      
school work to the growth of the        
pupil's capacity40 ,in other words1 the 

committee have failed to be  influenced 
as to a course of study by other        
considerations than the  demands of     
civilization4 ,they state plainly that  
psychology shall be a  subordinate      
matter in determining curriculum4 ,the  
fact is to be seen  in their course of  
study4 ,reading1 nature study1 and      
history are the  principal subjects1 but
 in the minds of the committee the      
principal  subjects are reading1        
writing1 etc41 for the first three      
years4 ,i do  not believe it4 ,in the   
first three years1 reading pieces2 in   
other  words1 the first three years do  
not deal primarily in rich ideas4  ,one 
objection to ,robinson ,crusoe--8,it    
omits cities1 governments1 the  world   
commerce1 the international process1 the
 church1 the newspaper1  and book from  
view40 ,they are not in sympathy with   
the child4 ,i would  choose ,robinson   
,crusoe because it does not deal with   
subjects which are  outside the child's 
interest4           99       99       99

       99       99    ,f4 ,w4 ,,parker1 
,cook ,county ,normal1 ,chicago3 ,when  
,i moved1 two years  ago1 the           
appointment of this committee1 ,i had in
 mind the careful  study of the whole   
matter of correlation that teachers in  
this country  should get from the       
highest sources the doctrine and the    
highest  criticism1--that a report      
should be presented which should follow 
the  greatest report upon education in  
this century1--the report of the        
,committee of ,ten4 ,i have not had time
 to study this report and can1          
therefore1 say very little upon it4     
,these subjects should be studied  with 
the greatest care4 ,it seems to me that 
there are some general  criticisms which
 may be made in the brief time at my    
command4    ,we cannot doubt that these 
gentlemen have made the most careful    
study  of the doctrine of ,herbert and  
of his disciples1--,ziller1 ,stoy1 and  
,rein2 they have also had their eye upon
 the distinguished students  of this    

doctrine in this country4 ,the failure  
of this report is that  they haven't    
even given us the fundamental doctrine  
of ,herbert4 ,there  is no doubt that   
the ,herbartian doctrine and all other  
doctrines of  concentration are ignored 
in their fundamental essentials4 ,that  
is what  this committee has left out--it
 is the old story1 the play of ,hamlet  
with ,hamlet left out1 or to put it a   
little more mildly1 ,hamlet kicked  out4
 ,it seems that this doctrine is the    
only doctrine which furnishes  a grand  
working hypothesis to the teachers of   
the world4 ,it should be  examined most 
carefully1 and what cannot bear the     
closest criticism  should be rejected4  
,the five1 with the dissent of the      
,western men1 have  not deemed it worthy
 of this attention and have rejected it 
in toto4    ,poor old ,robinson ,crusoe 
bears the brunt1 notwithstanding our    
esteemed  friends of the ,normal        
,university1 who wish to interest the   
children  in something4 ,sometimes we go

 into schools where there is not much   
interest1 especially in spelling and    
grammar4 ,i leave the defense of        
,robinson ,crusoe to ,mr4 ,mc,murry4    
,the other reference is to language4    
8,it is not wise to stop a child to     
correct his mistakes in grammar06 8,the 
development of language cannot  be      
organically related to the development  
of thought06 ,it is one of  the         
fundamental principles1 if ,i understand
 it1 that the development  of thought   
should have as a necessity the evolution
 of language4 ,this1  says the report1  
cannot be done2 grammar must be         
developed by itself  and language by    
itself4 ,if ,i am incorrect1 ,i beg to  
be excused4 ,i can  only refer to a few 
features of this report in the tabulated
 programme4  ,a course of study is      
absolutely necessary1 but it should be  
marked  8for this day only40 ,we take   
the subject of reading twice every day  
for the first two years1 once a day for 
the next six years4 ,reading  is        

thinking1 it should be educated         
thinking4 ,we cannot do thinking        
without the subjects to be learned--as  
geography and science4 ,science1        
according to the programme1 is to be    
taught by oral lessons4 ,the world  is  
round1 but children cannot reason4      
,would it not be well to go into  the   
laboratory to see whether the children  
cannot reason8 ,the child1  by force of 
his nature1 must reason--must find out  
these things4 ,i  am quoting from ,john 
,dewey4 ,but we are told in this report 
that the  subject of science1 at least a
 few things in these subjects1 must be  
told him first4 ,i never knew a case of 
the kind1 but it may be4    ,now1 ,i    
would say to this committee of five1    
have your reading the best              
literature1--there should be nothing but
 literature4 ,should we not  have       
literature from the beginning8 is the   
question we are asking4 ,it  seems to be
 the case that this report leaves very  
little to ask4 ,the  child spends all   

his time in reading--reading what8 ,can 
the child learn  to get thought in      
reading8 ,some of us think he can4 ,is  
it not well to  follow here the         
scientific method and find out whether  
the child can  learn to read beautifully
 and well8 ,the same of writing4 ,i see 
the  millions bowed down for years to   
the copy books4 ,is there no way out8   
,is there no relief8 ,is it possible for
 the child to learn to write as  he     
learns to talk1 or must he be bound to  
the desk8 ,time    ,i would simply say  
that this report should be entitled to  
the greatest  respect4 ,i shall go home 
and study it carefully and prayerfully4 
,i move  that a committee of fifteen be 
appointed to revise this report4 ,great 
applause           99       99       99 
99       99    ,,president ,,charles    
,,de ,,garmo1 ,swarthmore ,college1     
,pennsylvania3  ,fellow-teachers3 ,those
 who are to discuss this question this  
morning  are placed under a great       
embarrassment4 ,the report should have  

been  distributed before this meeting4  
,that it has not been1 ,i learn is not  
the fault of the officers of the        
department4 ,applause    ,we might infer
 from what we have heard that the report
 is valueless4  ,this is by no means the
 case4 ,it is an estimate of educational
 values4  ,under the subject of         
language1 ,i quote1 8,a survey of its   
educational  value1 subjective and      
objective1 usually produces the         
conviction that  it is to retain the    
first place40 ,under arithmetic1 8,side 
by side with  language study is the     
study of mathematics in the school1     
claiming the  second place in           
importance40 ,under geography1 8,the    
educational value of  geography1 as it  
is and has been in elementary schools1  
is obviously  very great4 ,the          
educational value of geography is even  
more apparent  if we admit the claims of
 those who argue that the present epoch 
is  the beginning of an era40 ,as a     
critique of educational values the      

report is a very important one4 ,i would
 like to call your attention  to the    
correlation of the pupil to his         
environment4 ,that1 ,i think1  is an    
important matter4 ,they have departed1  
at least in principle1  from that old   
formal discipline alone2 this individual
 to be fitted  for life must master his 
environment4 ,the committee have        
examined the  various studies as to     
their value1 and that1 ,i think1 is a   
grand thing4  ,i cannot see at all that 
it is a correlation of studies4 ,it has 
been  said in your hearing that the     
throwing of light by studies on each    
other was disregarded4 ,the report      
presents a very different idea of  the  
correlation of studies4 ,the second     
address of last evening--by ,miss       
,arnold--has been referred to as an     
illustration of bringing the studies    
together so that one throws light upon  
another4 ,i think the idea that  there  
is no need of reform will be reinforced 
by this report2 that the  report will   

have a reactionary effect upon those who
 think that way4  ,the committee have   
denied that we need any reform1 or have 
implied  that we have the reform        
already4 ,it seems that the name given  
to this  report should be taken off and 
the heading 8,an essay on educational   
values0 substituted instead4 ,it is true
 that this committee have1 at  the      
beginning1 laid down a principle that   
would make a correlation4 ,the  text is 
here1 but the discussion is lacking4 ,so
 far as ,i have read1  ,i have found but
 little in the report which shows what  
the sequence  of studies should be4     
,there is a hint in arithmetic where it 
says1  8,common fractions should come   
before decimals40 ,is this attempt at   
the  correlation of studies anything    
more than a series of tunnels through   
the educational fields with switch      
connections1 so that if we start  in at 
one end we are switched to this or that 
without any view of the  whole journey8 
,we may light these tunnels with        

electricity1 perhaps1  but1 after all1  
we are spending eight years underground1
 switching from  one tunnel to another4 
,now the other alternative is to go out 
into  the world1 out into the sunshine1 
and follow highways so clear that a     
child can examine all that is about     
them4 ,it is possible to relate one     
subject to the other so that when it is 
dark the child1 even if he has  not the 
sun to lighten his eyes1 can at least   
have some stars of hope  above him4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,president ,,of ,,the ,,department3    
,from the course the discussion has     
taken1  it has seemed to me that ,dr4   
,harris should say a word at this point 
and  read some additional parts of the  
report4    ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris1            
,commissioner of ,education3 ,i must set
 myself right  on ,herbart4 ,the report 
does not allude to ,herbart anywhere    
except in  respectful terms4 ,the       
criticism of the use of ,robinson       
,crusoe does  not attribute its mistakes

 to the ,herbartians4 ,perhaps they     
would not  recognize it as a true       
statement of their method4 ,to make     
,herbart  of use in pedagogy we must to 
some extent ignore his philosophy4  ,his
 usefulness in education is proportioned
 to his uselessness as a  philosopher4  
,what can we do with a philosopher who  
omits the will  from the three          
departments of the mind and retains only
 intellect and  feeling8 ,herbart was   
obliged to explain how man comes to act 
without  the will4 ,he explains that    
desire can be aroused by interest in    
such a way that action will follow4     
,with this great defect1 however1       
,herbart is valuable in education4 ,his 
doctrine of apperception does  not need 
any correction4 ,his doctrine of        
interest1 however1 needs some           
limitation1 because the idea of the will
 and the idea of duty are  omitted from 
his system4 ,he must make up by the idea
 of desire and  the idea of interest4 ,i
 am surprised that the claim is made    

here that  the report does not treat the
 subject assigned to it4 ,correlation of
  studies is assumed to mean            
concentration of studies4 ,there is no  
such  definition to the word            
8correlation0 in any dictionary2 only   
four or  five obscure books in the      
,english language give the word         
correlation  the meaning of             
concentration4 ,i was told of this sense
 of the word  correlation1 but did not  
believe for a moment that it had been   
the  intention of the department of     
superintendents1 in appointing a        
committee on this subject1 to have a    
report on the ,herbartian idea of       
concentration4           99       99    
99       99       99    ,,charles       
,,mcmurry1 ,state ,normal ,university1  
,normal1 ,ill43 ,in one of  your        
statements read3 8,your committee would 
call attention in this  connection to   
the importance of the pedagogical       
principle of analysis  and isolation as 
preceding synthesis and correlation40   

,now1 as ,i  understand it1 this is what
 this committee has attempted to report4
  ,now1 he says that this precedes      
synthesis or correlation4 ,i would like 
to know if there is any dictionary or   
number of dictionaries to make          
correlation mean what this says--the    
analysis and isolation of subjects  of  
study4    ,i have been very much afraid 
that ,dr4 ,harris would take refuge in  
the  discussion of the subject of the   
will in which he distinguishes ,herbart 
from others4 ,the exclusion of the will 
is held as far as ,herbart is  concerned
 of moral education4 ,now ,i wish to say
 that ,herbart has laid  down more and  
better educational principles than any  
other philosopher4    ,the more         
difficult thing is not exactly the best 
thing for the child in  the first and   
second grades4 ,there was an old theory 
among the ,latins  that if the child    
could be made to go through the         
difficulties of a  ,latin speech1 it    
would prepare him for the difficult     

things to follow4  ,now1 we wish to have
 life and not dead formalism4 ,i believe
 that a  thoughtful study of this report
 will convince any one who is interested
  in children that it is formal1 and is 
a production of this old idea1  based   
upon language as the foundation of all  
education4           99       99        
99       99       99    ,,president ,w4 
,h4 ,,hervey1 ,teachers' ,college1 ,new 
,york3 ,i find myself  drawn in two     
directions on this question4 ,i fain    
would cleave to  everything that has    
been said this morning as containing the
 truth4  ,i believe that1 so far as this
 report and these remarks confine       
themselves to educational principles1   
any one of us may agree most  heartily4 
,only where they descend to particular  
applications are  we at variance4 ,we   
always are at variance when we descend  
from the  clouds1 but that is no        
objection to the clouds4 ,now1 ,i take  
it there  are arrayed before us the two 
opposing camps1--the ,hegelian and the  

,herbartian4 ,what does the ,hegelian   
say8 ,in order that you may know the    
world you must turn your back upon      
yourself and lose yourself2 you  lose   
your life that you may save it4 ,yon    
leave your home plate1 go  to the second
 base1 then to the third base1 and you  
make a home run4  ,that is a true type  
of all development4 ,what1 on the other 
hand1 is  the standpoint of the         
,herbartian8 ,what we know depends upon 
what we  have known4 ,and that is true4 
,and what we can do1 according to this  
philosophy1 depends upon the interest1  
the kinetic energy4 ,about this  matter 
of will1 we have the ,calvinistic       
theology set over against the           
,unitarian4 ,hegel's ,lord was a man of 
war4 ,herbart brings us to view the     
,new ,jerusalem4 ,he shows us the       
church1 not militant1 but triumphant4   
,herbart distinguishes the good from the
 evil and makes it impossible  for a man
 to do a wrong deed or to think a wrong 
thought1 and that1  ,i take it1 is even 

a higher attainment than the ,hegelian  
philosophy  has thought of4 ,any one who
 develops the will by the man-of-war    
idea  will have a sorry will upon his   
hands4 ,there is1 with the young child1 
certainly1 a synthesis1 a correlation1 a
 development of taste where  the        
analysis is suppressed and unconscious2 
and yet1 my friends1 if  you attempt to 
educate a boy in the upper grammar      
grades or the high  school according to 
the same principles as the primary      
grades1 you make  a sorry muss of it4   
,if we would pass from the state of the 
child to the  state of the man1 it is   
necessary for us to go through the dry  
bones of  analysis4           99        
99       99       99       99    ,,dr4  
,b4 ,a4 ,,hinsdale1 ,university of      
,michigan1 ,ann ,arbor3 ,there are two  
things which ,i wish very briefly to    
touch4 ,first1 ,i do not understand     
,dr4 ,harris1 in speaking of ,herbart   
and the will1 to leave the subject  in  
the form in which ,dr4 ,mc,murry        

understood that matter4 ,i understand   
that ,herbart does not base morals open 
the will1 but rather upon the  feeling  
and the desires4 ,now1 whether the will 
or the desires furnish  a proper basis  
is a question ,i do not wish to discuss4
 ,certainly1 when  any one says that the
 ,doctor declared that ,herbart does not
 take the  question of morals into      
account he makes a mistake4 ,i          
understand him  to say that ,herbart    
does not place morals upon the proper   
foundation4  ,in regard to courses of   
study1 there is no such thing as        
considering  this question apart from   
criteria4 ,now1 what are our criteria to
 be8  ,that ,i do not propose to        
discuss1 but where are we to seek for   
our  criteria8 ,for myself1 ,i have been
 in the habit of discussing that        
subject in this way4 ,these are to be   
found1 in the first place1 in  the      
constitution of the human soul1 and     
second1 in the facts that  constitute   
the environment of men4 ,i do not say   

which is below the  other4 ,i do say    
that a serious mistake will be made by  
that pedagogist  who leaves out either  
of these or gives either a very inferior
  position4 ,as to how either           
presupposes the other1 that is a very   
important question1 but ,i cannot       
discuss it at more length4    ,now as to
 the process of isolation--the first    
process of knowledge is  to isolate     
things4 ,we have certainly been taught  
that the first process  of the mind is  
not a synthetic1 but an analytic        
process4 ,every person  coming into this
 hall took a view of it as a whole1 and 
then began to  isolate this thing from  
that1 and then this process1 after a    
time1  ceased4 ,but that there is to be 
no synthesis is a proposition which ,i  
do not understand to be in this report4 
,when a child comes to school you may   
divide the subjects which occupy  his   
attention into two groups4 ,the first   
are the elementary school  arts1--as the
 improving of speech1 the studies of    

reading1 writing1  drawing1 and         
numerical calculations1 if he has never 
entered upon  these4 ,they are not      
studies1 they are the arts of the       
elementary  school4 ,we teach them1 not 
for their own sake1 but that they may be
  used as instruments4 ,time called by  
the chairman1 and extended by vote  of  
the house4    ,i wish1 in the first     
instance1 to express my sense of        
gratification4 ,i  felt that ,i was     
leaving the matter in a very imperfect  
form4    ,now1 ,i had said all that ,i  
care to say about the arts in the       
elementary  schools4 ,there are the     
studies1 ,i mean the real studies1 those
 we study  for the purpose of getting   
out of them all that there is in them4  
,now1  there is a discussion as to the  
relation in which the two classes of    
studies shall stand at the beginning4   
,now1 the old idea was1 that  some of   
the first time in school should be      
devoted to these arts1 and  the studies 
were permitted to fall into the         

background1 or perhaps  fall clear out4 
,now1 if ,i understand some of the      
pedagogists1 their  idea is to put the  
beginner at the real thing1 or perhaps  
,i should  say to keep him at the real  
thing1 that the arts should be acquired 
during the studies4 ,now1 the question  
occurs to me1 whether1 in the           
elementary schools1 these arts can ever 
be successfully taught when we  are     
pretending to teach something else8 ,i  
must say that if the object  were to    
have a pupil advance the greatest       
distance for the first three  months or 
six months1 you had better say nothing  
about the arts at all4  ,but we put him 
at the arts1 knowing that when we put   
these gifts into  his hands we are      
giving him an instrument of power that  
he will be able  to use throughout his  
whole life4 ,applause4    ,now1 the     
question of concentration1 so-called1 is
 involved in this  matter4 ,i want to   
ask the question1 and ,i would discuss  
it if ,i had a  quarter of an hour1--,i 

want to ask the question1 how far it is 
possible  to do two things in an intense
 manner at the same time4 ,when ,i was  
superintendent of schools1 a gentleman  
picked off the table a so-called        
physiological reader1 and1 looking at   
the title page1 said1 8,for one1  ,i    
could never teach physiology as a       
subject and reading as an art at  the   
same time4 ,the physiology is not and it
 cannot be made a proper  material for a
 school reading book2 a proper school   
reading book cannot  be made a good     
physiology40 ,yet ,i believe in         
concentration1 if it  means letting one 
subject assist and enforce another4 ,i  
hope none of  the brethren will become  
so enthusiastic as to assume that the   
whole  round of information can be      
brought under the teaching of one       
subject4  ,applause4           99       
99       99       99       99    ,,dr4  
,e4 ,e4 ,,white1 ,columbus1 ,o43 ,i have
 a little hesitation in speaking  on    
this question1 where ,i am only a       

learner4 ,i am anxious to know what  my 
young friends mean4 ,i hope ,i shall get
 the correlation of their  ideas in     
time4 ,laughter4    ,as it seems to me1 
correlation1 as a distinctive method1   
assumes to do  more than it is possible 
for a method to accomplish4 ,in my      
judgment1  there is no one method of    
education1 whether it be ,herbartian or 
otherwise4 ,to assume that a human soul 
is to be exclusively educated  by the   
,herbartian method is a great           
assumption4 ,i do not believe that  we  
are to supplement and supplant now all  
that has been known in the  education of
 the young based on the psychology which
 the defenders of  this method are      
willing to discard4 ,there are many of  
its methods we  are willing to accept1  
but the ,herbartian pedagogy is based on
 the  ,herbartian psychology1 and if you
 discard that1 you have no system of    
pedagogy1 but you have many elements    
which you can utilize4 ,now1 we  make a 
mistake when we assume that there is    

only one method by which  the young man 
in college and the children can be      
educated4 ,the lady  who spoke last     
night1 ,miss ,arnold1 had not such an   
idea4 ,now there is  a blending in the  
primary grades which is not possible in 
the upper  grades4 ,that is emphasized  
completely in what we call the special  
courses in colleges4 ,that blending may 
be on mere surface relations  which will
 be discarded as soon as we pass above  
the primary grades4  ,while we may      
concede that this is possible in one    
exercise1 it is not  possible in higher 
instruction4 ,our methods change1 so let
 as not be  too sweeping1 too confident 
in our terms4 ,further1 ,i think that   
,dr4  ,harris is entirely right in the  
position he has taken as to the meaning 
of cordination or correlation4 ,he uses 
the term correlation1 not only  in its  
scientific1 but in its recognized       
pedagogic sense4 ,concentration  is a   
different process1 and should receive   
separate consideration4  ,may ,i add    

that the views ,i recently presented    
under what is called  concentration seem
 to make class instruction impossible4  
,they lead  clearly to the one          
conclusion1 that every child should be  
taught as an  individual1 by himself1   
and this means that all class           
instruction is  to be given up4         
,individual instruction can alone meet  
the conditions  assumed to be essential 
by concentration1 as explained4 ,what   
does this  involve8    ,there have been 
many scholars since the                 
,flood1--scholars who have  honored     
learning and widened its domain4 ,how   
were they produced8 ,not  by any one    
method1 and certainly not by            
8concentration40 ,these hosts  of       
scholars cannot be accounted for on any 
such assumption1 for they  were produced
 under very unlike systems of elementary
 training4 ,the  history of school      
education shows that we are not shut up 
to a diet of  pedagogic hash on the one 
hand1 or one of baked beans on the      

other4  ,there is clearly no one        
universal method or process in education
 by  which alone a human soul is to be  
brought to power4           99       99 
99       99       99    ,,dr4 ,,nicholas
 ,,murry ,,butler1 ,columbia ,college1  
,new ,york3 ,this is an  interesting and
 exciting field of battle2 it has not   
been a ,bull ,run1  and it is manifestly
 not an ,appomattox4 ,but let us be     
fair1 and let us  discuss the question  
that is presented by this report4 ,i    
shall spend no  time in eulogizing this 
report4 ,i do say that such a report1   
presented  at this time1 dealing with   
this specific topic in these words1 is  
little less than a misrepresentation4   
,such a document as this1 presented at  
this particular time in the  history of 
our educational development1 and        
supposed to deal with  the practical    
problem of the correlation of studies1  
is extremely  unfortunate4 ,this        
discussion has made it plain that there 
is among  us a difference of opinion as 

to what the term 8correlation of        
studies0 means4 ,this report interprets 
it to mean the correlation  between the 
studies of the school curriculum and the
 intellectual  environment of the pupil4
 ,certainly that is not what the term is
 taken  to mean in our current          
educational literature and in our       
current  educational discussions4 ,it   
has been claimed on this platform that  
those who use the phrase 8correlation of
 studies10 in reference to  the         
interdependence of school subjects one  
with another1 are making a  strained and
 improper use of the word4 ,this        
criticism is not correct4  ,the highest 
authority that we have1 the 8,century   
,dictionary10 gives  as a definition of 
correlation1 8the act of bringing into  
orderly  connection or reciprocal       
relation40 ,it recites a passage from   
the  great work of ,grove1 who first    
made this term familiar in ,english     
scientific literature1 in illustration  
of the meaning of correlation4  ,this is

 precisely the sense in which the word  
is used by ,dr4 ,mc,murry  and others1  
and it is precisely the sense in which  
we expect to find it  used in this      
report4 ,therefore1 ,i say ,i am        
disappointed1 and grievously            
disappointed1 that we have in these     
pages only a passing reference  to the  
real problem of correlation or          
concentration as it is before  ,american
 teachers at the present moment4    ,i  
can find no fault with the use of the   
word selected by the ,committee1  but ,i
 do complain that they have not treated 
the problem1 whatever  name they choose 
to give to it1 that we asked them to    
solve4 ,instead  of that1 they have     
given us a splendid and learned         
discussion  of educational values1 an   
analysis of the history of the school   
curriculum1 and an elaborate defence of 
the status quo4 ,it is  apparent to me1 
therefore1 that this report faces       
backward and forward4  ,i ,bay this     
despite the fact that it suggests and   

argues for more than  one important     
innovation in the curriculum4    ,for   
one hundred years1 ever since the time  
of ,pestalozzi1 we have been  trying to 
extract the curriculum from a           
philosophical discussion of  this sort1 
but we have not succeeded in satisfying 
ourselves wholly4  ,we have made great  
advance1 and for that advance we in     
,america are  indebted more largely to  
,dr4 ,harris than to any other single   
person1  living or dead4 ,he has taught 
us to understand why certain specific   
branches of knowledge are selected for a
 place in the curriculum1  and now we   
ask him to tell us how they are to be   
correlated1 or  cordinated1 or          
concentrated1 in practice1 to meet the  
new demands that  are made upon the     
school1 and we get no answer in this    
report4    ,the curriculum that this    
report recommends to us1 and the methods
 that  it outlines1 are arrived by an   
analysis made from the adult point of   
view4 ,are we1 then1 to understand that 

child study is to be given  no hearing8 
,are we shut up to formal analysis as   
the sole method in  evolving a practical
 school plan8 ,the newer education      
answers this  question directly in the  
negative4 ,it is putting the child in   
the place  of honor and asking him to   
tell us what his nature demands and in  
what  order it demands it4 ,dr4 ,white  
has said that the legitimate result  of 
this newer movement is individualism in 
teaching4 ,i agree with him  absolutely4
 ,we hope that the time will come when  
the individuality  of every child will  
be respected4 ,we want to rescue each   
child from  the thraldom to which the   
formalism of the schoolroom has         
subjected  him4 ,for the sake of system 
we are reducing fifty1 sixty1 or seventy
  individual children in a schoolroom to
 a common denominator4 ,it is  true that
 there is no universal educational      
method1 and that the  ,herbartians are  
as little likely as the ,hegelians to   
provide us with a  rule that shall know 

so exception4 ,but in the point of view 
that they  take1 based upon the doctrine
 of apperception and upon the doctrine  
oi  interest1 they are absolutely right1
 and it is not what we expected  from a 
committee of this kind to find this     
entire movement turned out  of court    
without a hearing4 ,personally ,i am a  
slavish adherent of no  school of       
thought and wear the badge of none1 but 
,i do say that we  should not be        
prevented from giving to this great     
,herbartian movement  prolonged and     
sympathetic examination4 ,why is it that
 we find the  question of the           
correlation or the concentration of     
studies forced upon  us at all8         
,certainly the normal child-mind sees   
the world about it as  a correlated and 
concentrated whole4 ,it is the adults   
and philosophers  who have made the     
analysis that has resulted in separating
 what to the  child is connected2 so    
that1 after all1 the advocates of       
correlation  are simply endeavoring to  

put the subjects of study back where    
they  found them and to treat the       
curriculum from the child's point of    
view4  ,the adult is able to distinguish
 a physical fact from a chemical fact1  
a geographical fact from an historical  
fact1 an arithmetical fact from  an     
algebraical fact1 but the child is not4 
,he views them all simply  as facts1 and
 originally they are all on the same    
plane with regard  to his intelligence4 
,we must1 therefore1 seek the real unity
 that  underlies the curriculum1 and not
 proceed by making first an artificial  
separation of studies1 and then a doubly
 artificial synthesis of them4    ,a    
preceding speaker has sharply criticised
 the psychology of ,herbart4  ,it is    
undoubtedly true that we cannot accept  
,herbart's psychology as  a satisfactory
 explanation of mental life4 ,but it is 
not necessary  that we should do so in  
order to secure the benefit of the      
educational  theory and the educational 
practice that bears ,herbart's name4    

99       99       99       99       99  
,,superintendent ,s4 ,t4 ,,dutton1      
,brookline1 ,mass43 ,about all has been 
said that needs to be said now4 ,it     
seems to me that the question takes     
this form--the same ,god that made the  
child made the world about him4  ,the   
purpose of those who mean to work out   
something better is to find  how the    
child should be taught4 ,my friends1 we 
do not recognize the  value of this     
report4 ,dr4 ,harris said very          
distinctly that the course  of study in 
point should include the whole round of 
human knowledge4  ,now1 there are two   
things that have helped me in this      
matter4 ,my view  is singularly         
different from ,dr4 ,white's4 ,if       
correlation makes the  kindergarten what
 it is1 it seems to me that it should go
 on4 ,it seems  to me that1 in a certain
 way1 this is true in the first year1 in
 the  second1 etc4    ,this cross       
section brings in so many things we find
 imposed upon the  schools that certain 

confusion and certain difficulties have 
been found  in working out the          
,herbartian plan4 ,the only way is the  
working out of  these principles4 ,if   
that is not done1 we shall have         
reaction4 ,i am not  afraid that this   
work shall be retarded because of this  
report4 ,every  teacher ought to        
understand this discussion of           
educational values4 ,it  ought to help  
us2 it will help us4 ,if this report is 
not complete1 it  will be completed in  
the good works of teachers in all this  
country4  ,the chair here announced that
 ,colonel ,parker and ,dr4 ,harris would
 be  asked to close the debate4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,colonel ,,parker3 ,shall we study this
 question with open and unprejudiced    
minds8 ,i am not a ,herbartian4 ,i      
simply ask the most careful study of    
all these questions and systems4 ,there 
was a time when method seemed  to be    
incarnated4 ,now1 in regard to this     
report and the eminent  philosopher who 

wrote it1 ,i would not say one word     
except of the  most profound respect4 ,i
 am never going even to make a pun      
before a  teachers' meeting hereafter4  
,when ,dr4 ,harris says ,i do not       
believe in  grammar1 he should say that 
,i do not believe in certain methods4 ,i
  respect butterflies and grubs1 but ,i 
respect language4 ,when ,dr4 ,white     
says that certain things are plain by   
concentration1 he says what ,i  know    
nothing about4 ,herbart said of         
,pestalozzi that his great merit  did   
not consist in his method and his means1
 but in his sublime zeal4  ,he who faces
 this question of education faces       
infinity4 ,i protest  against unfair    
statement as to discipleship1 following 
leader1 and so  forth1 ,i acknowledge   
that ,i make such statements myself1 but
 ,i hope  to do better4 ,when ,dr4      
,white speaks of the great giants1 we   
have but  to look at him and know it is 
true4 ,but do we ever question what has 
been lost8 ,we are facing the great     

problems of the twentieth century1  and 
the present methods of teaching are not 
equal to their solution4  ,under ,god1  
let us find the truth and follow it4    
,let us have the means  of knowing what 
each teacher and each superintendent is 
doing for the  child4 ,let us not lay   
down a great educational doctrine and   
say that  it is sufficient4 ,the ,sermon
 on the ,mount is sufficient for        
nineteen  centuries2 but what we want is
 an application of ,hegel1 of ,herbart1 
and  of the wisdom of all other         
philosophers to the problems of the     
future4  ,all hail the future6          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,dr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,,harris3 ,i wish to add  
one remark as to the meaning of         
correlation4 ,i would call attention to 
its etymology1 which makes it a         
bringing into relation of what is       
cordinate4 ,i knew of the ,herbartian   
idea of concentration of studies1 but ,i
 was not familiar with the use  of the  
word 8correlation0 in the same sense as 

concentration4 ,i have  given an example
 in discussing the methods of teaching  
geography of  the application of the    
deeper doctrine of concentration4 ,i    
have shown  that we should start with   
the child and proceed in two directions1
 one  towards the elements of difference
 in order to explain the obstacles      
which man has to overcome4 ,on the other
 side1 we should go towards the         
subjects of human industry1 invention1  
and commerce1 and learn the  method by  
which man overcomes the 8elements of    
difference40 ,geography  for the child  
should begin in the centre and move     
outward towards these  extremes1        
including at every step a human side and
 a natural side4 ,this  is not a        
philosophical study of correlation1     
,hegelian or otherwise1  although it has
 been called so in this debate1 but a   
scientific study  of the educational    
value of the branches of the course of  
study4 ,i  began it in #ahgj4 ,now1 in a
 scientific study one does not allow his

  feelings of attraction or repulsion to
 cloud his reason4 ,he assumes  an      
unprejudiced attitude towards the object
 that he studies4 ,child  study1 as it  
is pursued by ,dr4 ,stanley ,hall1 is   
pursued with this true  scientific      
spirit4 ,but child study is not the only
 thing in education1  nor can education 
be founded on child study alone4 ,the   
child is here  to be correlated with the
 world4 ,the educator must study the    
world and  study the child1 and         
correlate the one to the other4 ,that is
 to say1 he  must bring the child into a
 knowledge of the world and a mastery of
 its  appliances4 ,the report1 of       
course1 assumes the value of child      
study1  and in all the numerous places  
where attention is called to the danger 
of producing arrested development the   
results of child study are drawn  upon2 
but1 on the other hand1 if you have a   
knowledge of the child1  and do not have
 a knowledge of the significance of the 
branches of  study and the way in which 

they unlock the world of reality1 you   
cannot  correlate the child with the    
world4      ,transcriber's ,note3       
,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation  
are as in the original4