,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,freethought ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,by ,,john ,m4 ,,robertson ,,third ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,expanded ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,vol4 ,,ii 7,,issued ,,for ,,the ,,rationalist ,,press ,,association1 ,,limited7 ,london3 ,,watts ,,co41 ,,johnson',s ,,court1 ,,fleet ,,street1 ,e4,c4 #aiae ,,contents ,,volume ,,ii ,,page ,chap4 ,,xiii--,the ,rise of ,modern ,freethought 7continued7 #d4 ,england4 ,persecution and executions under ,henry ,,viii1 ,edward ,,vi1 ,mary1 and ,elizabeth4 ,charges of atheism4 ,lilly's polemic4 ,reginald ,scot on witchcraft4 ,the ,family of ,love4 ,hamond1 ,lewes1 ,kett4 ,apologetic literature4 ,influence of ,machiavelli4 ,nashe's polemic4 ,marlowe1 ,raleigh1 ,harriott1 ,kyd4 ,protests of ,pilkington and ,hooker4 ,polemic of ,bishop ,morton4 ,shakespeare4 ,the drama generally4 ,executions under ,james4 ,bacon4 ,suckling #a #e4 ,popular ,thought in ,europe4 ,callidius4 ,flade4 ,wier4 ,coornhert4 ,grotius4 ,gorlus4 ,zwicker4 ,koerbagh4 ,beverland4 ,socinianism4 ,the case of ,spain4 ,cervantes #cb #f4 ,scientific ,thought4 ,copernicus4 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,vanini4 ,galileo4 ,the ,aristotelian strife4 ,vives4 ,ramus4 ,descartes4 ,gassendi #da ,chap4 ,,xiv--,british ,freethought in the ,seventeenth ,century #a4 ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury4 ,hobbes4 ,selden #fi #b4 ,the popular ferment3 attempted suppression of heresy by ,parliament4 ,lawrence ,clarkson4 ,the ,levellers and ,toleration4 ,forms of unbelief4 ,the term rationalist4 ,propaganda against atheism4 ,culverwel4 ,the ,polemic of ,henry ,more4 ,freethought at the ,restoration4 ,the case of ,biddle4 ,the protests of ,howe1 ,stillingfleet1 and ,baxter4 ,freethought in ,scotland4 ,the argument of ,mackenzie4 ,english ,apologetics of ,casaubon1 ,ingelo1 ,temple1 ,wilkins1 ,tillotson1 ,cudworth1 ,boyle1 and others4 ,martin ,clifford4 ,emergence of ,deism4 ,avowals of ,archdeacon ,parker1 ,sherlock1 and ,south4 ,dryden4 ,discussion on miracles4 ,charles ,blount4 ,leslie's polemic4 ,growth of apologetic literature4 ,toland4 ,the ,licensing ,act #ge #c4 ,literary1 scientific1 and academic developments4 ,sir ,thomas ,browne4 ,jeremy ,taylor4 ,john ,spencer4 ,joseph ,glanvill4 ,cartesianism4 ,glisson4 ,influence of ,gassendi4 ,resistance to ,copernican theory4 ,lord ,falkland4 ,colonel ,fry4 ,locke4 ,bury4 ,temple4 ,the ,marquis of ,halifax4 ,newton4 ,unitarianism4 ,penn4 ,firmin4 ,latitudinarianism4 ,tillotson4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,burnet4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,connor4 ,john ,craig4 ,the rationalists #ajj ,chap4 ,,xv--,french and ,dutch ,freethought in the ,seventeenth ,century #a4 ,influence of ,montaigne and ,charron4 ,gui ,patin4 ,naud4 ,la ,mothe le ,vayer #aag #b4 ,catholic ,pyrrhonism #abj #c4 ,descartes's influence4 ,boileau4 ,jesuit and royal hostility #aba #d4 ,vogue of freethinking4 ,malherbe4 ,joan ,fontanier4 ,thophile de ,viau4 ,claude ,petit4 ,corneille4 ,molire #abb #e4 ,cyrano de ,bergerac #abc #f4 ,pascal's skepticism4 ,religious quarrels #abd #g4 ,huet's skepticism #abf #h4 ,cartesianism4 ,malebranche #abh #i4 ,buffier4 ,scientific movements #acj #aj4 ,richard ,simon4 ,la ,peyrre #aca #aa4 ,dutch thought4 ,louis ,meyer4 ,cartesian heresy #acb #ab4 ,spinoza #acc #ac4 ,biblical criticism4 ,spinozism4 ,deurhoff4 ,b4 ,bekker #acg #ad4 ,bayle #aci #ae4 ,developments in ,france4 ,the polemic of ,abbadie4 ,persecution of ,protestants4 ,fontenelle #ada #af4 ,st4 ,evremond4 ,regnard4 ,la ,bruyre4 ,spread of skepticism4 ,fanaticism at court #adc ,chap4 ,,xvi--,british ,freethought in the ,eighteenth ,century #a4 ,toland4 ,blasphemy ,law4 ,strifes among believers4 ,cudworth4 ,bishops ,browne and ,berkeley4 ,heresy in the ,church4 ,the ,schools of ,newton1 ,leibnitz1 and ,clarke4 ,hutchinson4 ,halley4 ,provincial deism4 ,saunderson4 ,simson4 ,literary orthodoxy4 ,addison4 ,steele4 ,berkeley4 ,swift4 ,new deism4 ,shaftesbury4 ,trenchard4 ,unitarianism4 ,asgill4 ,coward4 ,dodwell4 ,whiston #adg #b4 ,anthony ,collins4 ,bentley's attack4 ,mandeville4 ,woolston4 ,middleton4 ,deism at ,oxford4 ,tindal4 ,middleton and ,waterland #aed #c4 ,unitarianism3 its spread among ,presbyterians4 ,chubb4 ,hall4 ,elwall #aei #d4 ,berkeley's polemic4 ,lady ,mary ,montagu4 ,pope4 ,deism and ,atheism4 ,coward4 ,strutt #afb #e4 ,parvish4 ,influence of ,spinoza #afg #f4 ,william ,pitt4 ,morgan4 ,annet4 ,dodwell the ,younger #afi #g4 ,the work achieved by deism4 ,the social situation4 ,recent disparagements and ,german testimony #agj #h4 ,arrest of ,english science4 ,hale4 ,burnet4 ,whiston4 ,woodward4 ,effects of ,imperialism4 ,contrast with ,france4 ,the mathematicians #agf #i4 ,supposed decay of deism4 ,butler4 ,william ,law4 ,hume #agi #aj4 ,freethought in ,scotland4 ,execution of ,thomas ,aikenhead4 ,confiscation of innovating books4 ,legislation against deism4 ,anstruther's and ,halyburton's polemic4 ,strife over creeds4 ,john ,johnstone4 ,william ,dudgeon4 ,hutcheson4 ,leechman4 ,forbes4 ,miller4 ,kames4 ,smith4 ,ferguson4 ,church riots #aha #aa4 ,freethought in ,ireland4 ,lord ,molesworth4 ,archbishop ,synge4 ,bishop ,clayton #ahh #ab4 ,situation in ,england in #agej4 ,richardson's lament4 ,middleton4 ,deism among the clergy4 ,sykes4 ,the deistic evolution #aij #ac4 ,materialism4 ,la ,mettrie4 ,shifting of the social centre3 socio-political forces4 ,gray's avowal4 ,hume's estimate4 ,goldsmith's4 ,the later deism4 ,bolingbroke #aid #ad4 ,diderot's diagnosis4 ,influence of ,voltaire4 ,chatterton4 ,low state of popular culture4 ,prosecutions of poor freethinkers4 ,jacob ,ilive4 ,peter ,annet4 ,later deistic literature4 ,unitarianism4 ,evanson4 ,tomkyns4 ,watts4 ,lardner4 ,priestley4 ,toulmin4 ,d4 ,williams #aih #ae4 ,gibbon4 ,spread of unbelief4 ,the creed of the younger ,pitt4 ,fox4 ,geology4 ,hutton4 ,cowper's and ,paley's complaints4 ,erasmus ,darwin4 ,mary ,wollstonecraft #bjc #af4 ,burns and ,scotland #bjh #ag4 ,panic and reaction after the ,french ,revolution4 ,new aristocratic orthodoxy4 ,thomas ,paine4 ,new democratic freethought #bji ,chap4 ,,xvii--,french ,freethought in the ,eighteenth ,century #a4 ,boulainvilliers4 ,strifes in the ,church4 ,fnelon and ,ramsay4 ,fanaticism at court4 ,new freethinking4 ,gilbert4 ,tyssot de ,patot4 ,deslandes4 ,persecution of ,protestants #bac #b4 ,output of apologetics #bad #c4 ,the political situation #baf #d4 ,huard and ,huet #baf #e4 ,montesquieu #bag #f4 ,jean ,meslier #bai #g4 ,freethinking priests4 ,pleas for toleration4 ,boindin #bba #h4 ,voltaire #bbb #i4 ,errors as to the course of development #bbd #aj4 ,voltaire's character and influence #bbi #aa4 ,progress of tolerance4 ,marie ,huber4 ,resistance of bigotry4 ,de ,prades4 ,the ,encyclopdie4 ,fontenelle as censor #bcc #ab4 ,chronological outline of the literary movement #bcf #ac4 ,new politics4 ,the less famous freethinkers3 ,burigny2 ,fontenelle2 ,de ,brosses2 ,meister2 ,vauvenargues2 ,mirabaud2 ,frret #bdd #ad4 ,n4-,a4 ,boulanger4 ,dumarsais4 ,prmontval4 ,solidity of much of the ,french product #bdf #ae4 ,general anonymity of the freethinkers4 ,the orthodox defence #bej #af4 ,the prominent freethinkers4 ,rousseau #bec #ag4 ,astruc #bef #ah4 ,freethought in the ,acadmie4 ,beginnings in classical research4 ,emergence of anti-clericalism4 ,d',argenson's notes #beg #ai4 ,the affair of ,pompignan #beh #bj4 ,marmontel's ,blisaire #bei #ba4 ,the scientific movement3 ,la ,mettrie #bfj #bb4 ,study of ,nature4 ,fontenelle4 ,lenglet du ,fresnoy4 ,de ,maillet's ,telliamed4 ,mirabaud4 ,resistance of ,voltaire to the new ideas4 ,switzerland4 ,buffon and the ,church #bfb #bc4 ,maupertuis4 ,diderot4 ,condillac4 ,robinet4 ,helvtius #bfd #bd4 ,diderot's doctrines and influence #bfg #be4 ,d',alembert and d',holbach #bga #bf4 ,freethought and the ,revolution #bgc #bg4 ,the conventional myth and the facts4 ,necker4 ,abb ,grgoire4 ,the argument of ,michelet4 ,the legend of the ,goddess of ,reason4 ,sacrilege in the ,english and ,french ,revolutions4 ,hbert4 ,danton4 ,chaumette4 ,clootz4 ,the atheist ,salaville #bgd #bh4 ,religious and political forces of revolt4 ,the polemic of ,rivarol #bhj #bi4 ,the political causation4 ,rebellion in the ages of faith #bha #cj4 ,the polemic of ,mallet du ,pan4 ,saner views of ,barante4 ,freethinkers and orthodox in each political camp4 ,mably4 ,voltaire4 ,d',holbach4 ,rousseau4 ,diderot4 ,orthodoxy of the mass4 ,the thesis of ,chamfort #bhd #ca4 ,the reign of persecution #bhi #cb4 ,orthodox lovers of tolerance #bia #cc4 ,napoleon #bib ,chap4 ,,xviii--,german ,freethought in the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries #a4 ,moral ,decline under ,lutheranism4 ,freethought before the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,orthodox polemic4 ,the movement of ,matthias ,knutzen #bid #b4 ,influence of ,spinoza4 ,stosch4 ,output of apologetics #big #c4 ,leibnitz #bih #d4 ,pietism4 ,orthodox hostility4 ,spread of ,rationalism #cjj #e4 ,thomasius #cjb #f4 ,dippel #cjd #g4 ,t4 ,l4 ,lau #cje #h4 ,wolff #cje #i4 ,freemasonry and freethinking4 ,j4 ,l4 ,schmidt4 ,martin ,knutzen #cjf #aj4 ,j4 ,c4 ,edelmann #cjg #aa4 ,abbot ,jerusalem #cjh #ab4 ,english and ,french influences4 ,the scientific movement4 ,orthodox science4 ,haller4 ,rapid spread of rationalism #cji #ac4 ,frederick the ,great #cab #ad4 ,mauvillon4 ,nicolai4 ,riem4 ,schade4 ,basedow4 ,eberhard4 ,steinbart4 ,spalding4 ,teller #cae #ae4 ,semler4 ,tllner4 ,academic rationalism #cah #af4 ,bahrdt #cbj #ag4 ,moses ,mendelssohn4 ,lessing4 ,reimarus #cbb #ah4 ,vogue of deism4 ,wieland4 ,cases of ,isenbiehl and ,steinbuhler4 ,a secret society4 ,clerical rationalism4 ,schulz4 ,the edict of ,frederick ,william ,,ii4 ,persistence of skepticism4 ,the ,marokkanische ,briefe4 ,mauvillon4 ,herder #cbi #ai4 ,goethe #ccc #bj4 ,schiller #ccf #ba4 ,kant #ccg #bb4 ,influence of ,kant4 ,the sequel4 ,hamann4 ,chr4 ,a4 ,crusius4 ,platner4 ,beausobre the younger #cde #bc4 ,fichte4 ,philosophic strifes #cdi #bd4 ,rationalism and conservatism in both camps #cej #be4 ,austria4 ,jahn4 ,joseph ,,ii4 ,beethoven #cea ,chap4 ,,xix--,freethought in the ,remaining ,european ,states #a4 ,holland4 ,elizabeth ,wolff4 ,leenhof4 ,booms4 ,influence of ,bayle4 ,passerano4 ,lack of native freethought literature #ceb #b4 ,the ,scandinavian ,states4 #a4 ,course of the ,reformation4 ,subsequent wars4 ,retrogression in ,denmark #ced #b4 ,holberg's ,nicolas ,klimius #cee #c4 ,sweden4 ,queen ,christina #ceg #d4 ,swedenborg #ceh #e4 ,upper-class indifference4 ,gustavus ,,iii4 ,kjellgren and ,bellman4 ,torild4 ,retrogression in ,sweden #cei #f4 ,revival of thought in ,denmark4 ,struensee4 ,mary ,wollstonecraft's survey #cfa #c4 ,the ,slavonic ,states4 #a4 ,poland4 ,liszinski #cfb #b4 ,russia4 ,nikon4 ,peter the ,great4 ,kantemir4 ,catherine #cfc #d4 ,italy4 #a4 ,decline under ,spanish ,rule4 ,naples #cfe #b4 ,vico #cfe #c4 ,subsequent scientific thought4 ,general revival of freethought under ,french influence #cfg #d4 ,beccaria4 ,algarotti4 ,filangieri4 ,galiani4 ,genovesi4 ,alfieri4 ,bettinelli4 ,dandolo4 ,giannone4 ,algarotti and the ,popes4 ,the scientific revival4 ,progress and reaction in ,tuscany4 ,effects of the ,french ,revolution #cfh #e4 ,spain and ,portugal4 #a4 ,progress under ,bourbon rule in ,spain4 ,aranda4 ,d',alba #cgb #b4 ,tyranny of the ,inquisition4 ,aranda4 ,olavids #cgc #c4 ,duke of ,almodobar4 ,d',azara4 ,ricla #cgc #d4 ,the case of ,samaniego #cgd #e4 ,bails4 ,cagnuelo4 ,centeno #cge #f4 ,faxardo4 ,iriarte #cge #g4 ,ista4 ,salas #cgf #h4 ,reaction after ,charles ,,iii #cgf #i4 ,portugal4 ,pombal #cgg #f4 ,switzerland4 ,socinianism and its sequel4 ,the ,turrettini4 ,geneva and ,rousseau4 ,burlamaqui4 ,spread of deism #cgh ,chap4 ,,xx--,early ,freethought in the ,united ,states #a4 ,deism of the revolutionary statesmen #cha #b4 ,first traces of unbelief4 ,franklin #cha #c4 ,jefferson4 ,john ,adams4 ,washington #chb #d4 ,thomas ,paine #chc #e4 ,paine's treatment in ,america #chd #f4 ,palmer4 ,houston4 ,deism and ,unitarianism #che ,chap4 ,,xxi4--,freethought in the ,nineteenth ,century ,the ,reaction4 ,tone in ,england4 ,clericalism in ,italy and ,spain4 ,movement in ,france and ,germany #chf ,the ,forces of ,renascence4 ,international movement4 ,summary of critical forces4 ,developments of science4 ,lines of resistance #chi ,section #a4--,popular ,propaganda and ,culture #a4 ,democracy4 ,paine4 ,translations from the ,french #cia #b4 ,huttman4 ,houston4 ,wedderburn #cic #c4 ,pietist persecution4 ,richard ,carlile4 ,john ,clarke4 ,robert ,taylor4 ,charles ,southwell4 ,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake4 ,women helpers #cic #d4 ,hetherington4 ,operation of blasphemy law #cie #e4 ,robert ,owen #cie #f4 ,the reign of bigotry4 ,influence of ,gibbon #cih #g4 ,charles ,bradlaugh and ,secularism4 ,imprisonment of ,g4 ,w4 ,foote4 ,treatment of ,bradlaugh by ,parliament4 ,resultant energy of secularist attack #cii #h4 ,new literary developments4 ,lecky4 ,conway4 ,winwood ,reade4 ,spencer4 ,arnold4 ,mill4 ,clifford4 ,stephen4 ,amberley4 ,new apologetics #djb #i4 ,freethought in ,france4 ,social schemes4 ,fourier4 ,saint-,simon4 ,comte4 ,duruy and ,sainte-,beuve #djd #aj4 ,bigotry in ,spain4 ,popular freethought in ,catholic countries4 ,journalism #djf #aa4 ,fluctuations in ,germany4 ,persistence of religious liberalism4 ,marx and ,socialism4 ,official orthodoxy #dji #ab4 ,the ,scandinavian ,states and ,russia #dab #ac4 ,free-religious societies #dac #ad4 ,unitarianism in ,england and ,america #dad #ae4 ,clerical rationalism in ,protestant countries4 ,switzerland4 ,holland4 ,dutch ,south ,africa #dae #af4 ,developments in ,sweden #dag #ag4 ,the ,united ,states4 ,ingersoll4 ,lincoln4 ,stephen ,douglas4 ,frederick ,douglass4 ,academic persecution4 ,changes of front #dai ,section #b4--;,biblical ,criticism #a4 ,rationalism in ,germany4 ,the ,schleiermacher reaction3 its heretical character4 ,orthodox hostility #dbj #b4 ,progress in both camps4 ,strauss's critical syncretism #dbc #c4 ,criticism of the ,fourth ,gospel #dbe #d4 ,strauss's achievement #dbe #e4 ,official reaction #dbf #f4 ,fresh advance4 ,schwegler4 ,bruno ,bauer #dbf #g4 ,strauss's second ,life of ,jesus4 ,his politics4 ,his ,voltaire and ,old and ,new ,faith4 ,his total influence #dbh #h4 ,fluctuating progress of criticism4 ,important issues passed-by4 ,nork4 ,ghillany4 ,daumer4 ,ewerbeck4 ,colenso4 ,kuenen4 ,kalisch4 ,wellhausen #dca #i4 ,new ,testament criticism4 ,baur4 ,zeller4 ,van ,manen #dcd #aj4 ,falling-off in ,german candidates for the ministry as in congregations4 ,official orthodox pressures #dce #aa4 ,attack and defence in ,england4 ,the ,tractarian reaction4 ,progress of criticism4 ,hennell4 ,the ,united ,states3 ,parker4 ,english publicists3 ,f4 ,w4 ,newman2 ,r4 ,w4 ,mackay2 ,w4 ,r4 ,greg4 ,translations4 ,e4 ,p4 ,meredith2 ,thomas ,scott2 ,w4 ,r4 ,cassels #dcg #ab4 ,new ,testament criticism in ,france4 ,renan and ,havet #dci ,section #c4--,poetry and ,general ,literature #a4 ,the ,french literary reaction4 ,chateaubriand #ddj #b4 ,predominance of freethought in later belles lettres #dda #c4 ,branger4 ,de ,musset4 ,victor ,hugo4 ,leconte de ,lisle4 ,the critics4 ,the reactionists #ddb #d4 ,poetry in ,england4 ,shelley4 ,coleridge4 ,the romantic movement4 ,scott4 ,byron4 ,keats #ddc #e4 ,charles ,lamb #dde #f4 ,carlyle4 ,mill4 ,froude #ddg #g4 ,orthodoxy and conformity4 ,bain's view of ,carlyle1 ,macaulay1 and ,lyell #ddh #h4 ,the literary influence4 ,ruskin4 ,arnold4 ,intellectual preponderance of rationalism #dej #i4 ,english fiction from ,miss ,edgeworth to the present time #dea #aj4 ,richard ,jefferies #deb #aa4 ,poetry since ,shelley #deb #ab4 ,american belles lettres #dec #ac4 ,leopardi4 ,carducci4 ,kleist4 ,heine #ded #ad4 ,russian belles lettres #def #ae4 ,the ,scandinavian ,states #deg ,section #d4--,the ,natural ,sciences #a4 ,progress in cosmology4 ,laplace and modern astronomy4 ,orthodox resistance4 ,leslie #deg #b4 ,physiology in ,france4 ,cabanis #dei #c4 ,physiology in ,england4 ,lawrence4 ,morgan #dfa #d4 ,geology after ,hutton4 ,hugh ,miller4 ,baden ,powell #dfb #e4 ,darwin #dfd #f4 ,robert ,chambers #dfd #g4 ,orthodox resistance4 ,general advance #dfe #h4 ,triumph of evolutionism4 ,spencer4 ,clifford4 ,huxley #dff ,section #e4--,the ,sociological ,sciences #a4 ,eighteenth-century sociology4 ,salverte4 ,charles ,comte4 ,auguste ,comte #dfh #b4 ,progress in ,england4 ,orthodoxy of ,hallam4 ,carlyle4 ,grote4 ,thirlwall4 ,long #dfh #c4 ,sociology proper4 ,orthodox hostility #dfi #d4 ,mythology and anthropology4 ,tylor4 ,spencer4 ,avebury4 ,frazer #dgj ,section #f4--,philosophy and ,ethics #a4 ,fichte4 ,schelling4 ,hegel #dga #b4 ,germany after ,hegel4 ,schopenhauer4 ,hartmann #dgd #c4 ,feuerbach4 ,stirner #dge #d4 ,arnold ,ruge #dgh #e4 ,bchner #dgh #f4 ,philosophy in ,france4 ,maine de ,biran4 ,cousin4 ,jouffroy #dgi #g4 ,movement of ,lamennais #dhj #h4 ,comte and ,comtism #dhc #i4 ,philosophy in ,britain4 ,bentham4 ,james ,mill4 ,grote4 ,political rationalism #dhd #aj4 ,hamilton4 ,mansel4 ,spencer #dhe #aa4 ,semi-rationalism in the churches #dhg #ab4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill #dhi ,section #g4--,modern ,jewry ,jewish influence in philosophy since ,spinoza4 ,modern balance of tendencies #dhi ,section #h4--,the ,oriental ,civilizations ,asiatic intellectual life4 ,japan4 ,discussions on ,japanese psychosis4 ,fukuzawa4 ,the recent ,cult of the ,emperor4 ,china4 ,india4 ,turkey4 ,greece #dij ,conclusion #dii ,index #ejc ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,modern ,,freethought--7,continued7 #d4 ,england ,while ,france was thus passing from general fanaticism to a large measure of freethought1 ,england was passing by a less tempestuous path to a hardly less advanced stage of opinion4 ,it was indeed a bloody age2 and in #aece we have record of nineteen men and five women of ,holland1 apparently ,anabaptists1 who denied the humanity of ,christ and rejected infant baptism and transubstantiation1 being sentenced to be burned alive--two suffering at ,smithfield1 and the rest at other towns1 by way of example4 ,others in ,henry's reign suffered the same penalty for the same offence2 and in #aech a priest named ,nicholson or ,lambert1 refusing on the ,king's personal pressure to recant1 was brent in ,smithfield for denying the bodily presence in the eucharist4 #a ,the first decades of ,reformation in ,england truly saw the opening of new vials of blood4 ,more and ,fisher and scores of lesser men died as ,catholics for denying the ,king's supremacy in religion2 as many more for denying the ,catholic tenets which the ,king held to the last2 and not a few by the consent of ,more and ,fisher for translating or circulating the sacred books4 ,latimer1 martyred under ,mary1 had applauded the burning of the ,anabaptists4 ,one generation slew for denial of the humanity of ,christ2 the next for denial of his divinity4 ,under ,edward ,,vi there were burned no ,catholics1 but several heretics1 including ,joan ,bocher and a ,dutch ,unitarian1 ,george ,van ,pare1 described as a man of saintly life4 #b ,still the ,english evolution was less destructive than the ,french or the ,german1 and the comparative bloodlessness of the strife between ,protestant and ,catholic under ,mary #c and ,elizabeth1 the treatment of the ,jesuit propaganda under the latter queen as a political rather than a doctrinal question1 #d prevented any such vehemence of recoil from religious ideals as took place in ,france4 ,when in #aege the law ,de hretico comburendo1 which had slept for seventeen years1 was set to work anew under ,elizabeth1 the first victims were ,dutch ,anabaptists4 ,of a congregation of them at ,aldgate1 twenty-seven were imprisoned1 of whom ten were burned1 and the rest deported4 ,two others1 ,john ,wielmacker and ,hendrich ,ter ,woort1 were anti-,trinitarians1 and were burned accordingly4 ,foxe appealed to the ,queen to appoint any punishment short of death1 or even that of hanging1 rather than the horrible death by burning2 but in vain4 ,all parties at the time concurred in approving the course taken4 #e ,orthodoxy was rampant4 ,unbelief1 as we have seen1 however1 there certainly was2 and it is recorded that ,walter1 ,earl of ,essex1 on his deathbed at ,dublin in #aegf1 murmured that among his countrymen neither ,popery nor ,protestantism prevailed3 there was nothing but infidelity1 infidelity1 infidelity2 atheism1 atheism2 no religion1 no religion4 #f ,and when we turn aside from the beaten paths of ,elizabethan literature we see clearly what is partly visible from those paths--a number of freethinking variations from the norm of faith4 ,ascham1 as we saw1 found some semblance of atheism shockingly common among the travelled upper class of his day2 and the testimonies continue4 ,edward ,kirke1 writing his glosses to ,spenser's ,shepherd's ,calendar in #aegh1 observes that it was an old opinion1 and yet is continued in some men's conceit1 that men of years have no fear of ,god at all1 or not so much as younger folk1 experience having made them skeptical4 ,erasmus1 he notes1 in his ,adages makes the proverb ,nemo senex metuit ,jovem signify merely that old men are far from superstition and belief in false ,gods4 ,but ,kirke insists that1 his great learning notwithstanding1 it is too plain to be gainsaid that old men are much more inclined to such fond fooleries than younger men1 #g apparently meaning that elderly men in his day were commonly skeptical about divine providence4 ,other writers of the day do not limit unbelief to the aged4 ,lilly1 in his ,euphues 7#aegh71 referring to ,england in general or ,oxford in particular as ,athens1 asks3 ,be there not many in ,athens which think there is no ,god1 no redemption1 no resurrection8 ,further1 he complains that it was openly reported of an old man in ,naples that there was more lightness in ,athens than in all ,italy 444 more ,papists1 more ,atheists1 more sects1 more schisms1 than in all the monarchies in the world2 #h and he proceeds to frame an absurd dialogue of ,euphues and ,atheos1 in which the latter1 monstrous1 yet tractable to be persuaded1 #i is converted with a burlesque facility4 ,lilly1 who writes as a man-of-the-world believer1 is a poor witness as to the atheistic arguments current2 but those he cites are so much better than his own1 up to the point of terrified collapse on the atheist's part1 that he had doubtless heard them4 ,the atheist speaks as a pantheist1 identifying deity with the universe2 and readily meets a simple appeal to ,scripture with the reply that whosoever denieth a godhead denieth also the ,scriptures which testifie of him4 #aj ,but in one of his own plays1 played in #aehd1 ,lilly puts on the stage a glimpse of current controversy in a fashion which suggests that he had not remained so contemptuously confident of the self-evident character of theism4 ,in ,campaspe 7i1 #c7 he introduces1 undramatically enough1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,cleanthes1 ,crates1 and other philosophers1 who converse concerning natural causes and supernatural effects4 ,aristotle is made to confess that he cannot by natural reason give any reason of the ebbing and flowing of the sea2 and ,plato contends against ,cleanthes1 searching for things which are not to be found1 that there is no man so savage in whom resteth not this divine particle1 that there is an omnipotent1 eternal1 and divine mover1 which may be called ,god4 ,cleanthes replies that that first mover1 which you term ,god1 is the instrument of all the movings which we attribute to ,nature4 ,the earth 444 seasons 444 fruits 444 the whole firmament 444 and whatsoever else appeareth miraculous1 what man almost of mean capacity but can prove it natural4 ,nothing is concluded1 and the debate is adjourned4 ,anaxarchus declares3 ,i will take part with ,aristotle1 that there is ,natura naturans1 and yet not ,god2 while ,crates rejoins3 ,and ,i with ,plato1 that there is ,deus optimus maximus1 and not ,nature4 ,it is a curious dialogue to put upon the stage1 by the mouth of children-actors1 and the arbitrary ascription to ,aristotle of high theistic views1 in a scene in which he is expressly described by a fellow philosopher as a ,naturalist1 suggests that ,lilly felt the danger of giving offence by presenting the supreme philosopher as an atheist4 ,it is evident1 however1 both from ,euphues and from ,campaspe1 that naturalistic views were in some vogue1 else they had not been handled in the theatre and in a book essentially planned for the general reader4 ,but however firmly held1 they could not be directly published2 and a dozen years later1 over thirty years after the outburst of ,ascham1 we still find only a sporadic and unwritten freethought1 however abundant1 going at times in fear of its life4 ,private discussion1 indeed1 there must have been1 if there be any truth in ,bacon's phrase that atheists will ever be talking of that opinion1 as if they 444 would be glad to be strengthened by the consent of others #aa--;an argument which would make short work of the vast literature of apologetic theism--but even private talk had need be cautious1 and there could be no publication of atheistic opinions4 ,printed rationalism could go no further than such a protest against superstition as ,reginald ,scot's ,discoverie of ,witchcraft 7#aehd71 which1 however1 is a sufficiently remarkable expression of reason in an age in which a ,bodin held angrily by the delusion4 #ab ,elizabeth was herself substantially irreligious1 #ac and preferred to keep the clergy few in number and subordinate in influence2 #ad but her ,ministers regarded the ,church as part of the ,state system1 and punished all open or at least aggressive heresy in the manner of the ,inquisition4 ,yet the imported doctrine of the subjective character of hell and heaven1 #ae taken up by ,marlowe1 held its ground1 and is denounced by ,stubbes in his ,anatomie of ,abuses #af 7#aehc72 and other foreign philosophy of the same order found religious acceptance4 ,a sect called the ,family of ,love1 deriving from ,holland 7already a country fruitfull of heretics71 #ag went so far as to hold that ,christ doth not signify any one person1 but a quality whereof many are partakers--a doctrine which we have seen ascribed by ,calvin to the libertins of ,geneva a generation before2 #ah but it does not appear that they were persecuted4 #ai ,some isolated propagandists1 however1 paid the last penalty4 ,one ,matthew ,hamont or ,hamond1 a ploughwright1 of ,hetherset1 was in #aegi tried by the ,bishop and ,consistory of ,norwich for that he denyed ,christe1 and1 being found guilty1 was burned1 after having had his ears cut off1 because he spake wordes of blasphemie against the ,queen's ,maiistie and others of her ,counsell4 #bj ,the victim would thus seem to have been given to violence of speech2 but the record of his negations1 which suggest developments from the ,anabaptist movement1 is none the less notable4 ,in ,stow's wording1 #ba they run3-- ,that the newe ,testament and ,gospell of ,christe are but mere foolishnesse1 a storie of menne1 or rather a mere fable4 ,item1 that man is restored to grace by the meere mercy of ,god1 wythout the meane of ,christ's bloud1 death1 and passion4 ,item1 that ,christe is not ,god1 nor the ,saviour of the world1 but a meere man1 a sinfull man1 and an abhominable ,idoll4 ,item1 that al they that worshippe him are abhominable ,idolaters2 ,and that ,christe did not rise agayne from death to life by the power of his ,godhead1 neither1 that hee did ascende into ,heaven4 ,item1 that the holy ,ghoste is not ,god1 neither that there is any suche holy ,ghoste4 ,item1 that ,baptisme is not necessarie in the ,churche of ,god1 neither the use of the sacrament of the body and bloude of ,christ4 ,there is record also of a freethinker named ,john ,lewes burned at the same place in #aehc for denying the ,godhead of ,christ1 and holding other detestable heresies1 in the manner of ,hamond4 #bb ,in the same year ,elias ,thacker and ,john ,coping were hanged at ,st4 ,edmonsbury for spreading certaine bookes1 seditiously penned by one ,robert ,browne against the ,booke of ,common ,prayer2 and their bookes so many as could be found were burnt before them4 #bc ,further1 one ,peter ,cole1 an ,ipswich tanner1 was burned in #aehg 7also at ,norwich7 for similar doctrine2 and ,francis ,kett1 a young clergyman1 ex-fellow of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 was burned at the same place in #aehi for heresy of the ,unitarian order4 #bd ,hamond and ,cole seem1 however1 to have been in their own way religious men1 #be and ,kett a devout mystic1 with ideas of a ,second ,advent4 #bf ,all founded on the ,bible4 ,most surprising of all perhaps is the record of the trial of one ,john ,hilton1 clerk in holy orders1 before the ,upper ,house of ,convocation on ,december #bb1 #aehd1 on the charge of having said in a sermon at ,st4 ,martin's-in-the-,fields that the ,old and ,new ,testaments are but fables4 7,lansdowne ,,mss4 ,british ,museum1 ,no4 #ihb1 fol4 #df1 cited by ,prof4 ,storojenko1 ,life of ,robert ,greene1 ,eng4 tr4 in ,grosart's ,huth ,library ed4 of ,greene's ,works1 i1 #ci1 note47 ,as ,hilton confessed to the charge and made abjuration1 it may be surmised that he had spoken under the influence of liquor4 ,even on that view1 however1 such an episode tells of a considerable currency of unbelieving criticism4 ,apart from constructive heresy1 the perpetual religious dissensions of the time were sure to stimulate doubt2 and there appeared quite a number of treatises directed wholly or partly against explicit unbelief1 as3 ,the ,faith of the ,church ,militant1 translated from the ,latin of the ,danish divine ,hemming 7#aeha71 and addressed to the confutation of the ,jewes1 ,turks1 ,atheists1 ,papists1 ,hereticks1 and all other adversaries of the truth whatsoever2 ,the ,touchstone of ,true ,religion 444 against the impietie of ,atheists1 ,epicures1 ,libertines1 ,hippocrites1 and ,temporisours of these times 7#aeij72 ,an ,enemie to ,atheisme1 translated by ,t4 ,rogers from the ,latin of ,avenar 7#aeia72 the preacher ,henry ,smith's ,god's ,arrow against ,atheists 7#aeic1 rep4 #afaa72 an ,english translation of the second volume of ,la ,primaudaye's ,l',acadmie ,franaise1 containing a refutation of atheistic doctrine2 and no fewer than three ,treatises of the ,nature of ,god--all anonymous1 the third known to be by ,bishop ,thomas ,morton--all appearing in the year #aeii4 ,all this smoke--eight apologetic treatises in eighteen years--implies some fire2 and the translator of ,la ,primaudaye1 one ,t4 ,b41 declares in his dedication that there has been a general growth of atheism in ,england and on the continent1 which he traces to that ,monster ,machiavell4 ,among ,english atheists of that school he ranks the dramatist ,robert ,greene1 who had died in #aeib2 and it has been argued1 not quite convincingly1 that it was to ,machiavelli that ,greene had pointed1 in his death-bed recantation ,a ,groatsworth of ,wit 7#aeib71 as the atheistic instructor of his friend ,marlowe1 #bg who introduces ,machiavel as cynical prologist to his ,jew of ,malta4 ,greene's own atheism had been for the most part a matter of bluster and disorderly living2 and we find his zealously orthodox friend ,thomas ,nashe1 in his ,strange ,news 7#aeib71 calling the ,puritan zealot who used the pseudonym of ,martin ,marprelate a mighty platformer of atheism2 even as his own and ,greene's enemy1 ,gabriel ,harvey1 called ,nashe an atheist4 #bh ,but ,nashe in his ,christ's ,tears over ,jerusalem 7#aeib71 though he speaks characteristically of the atheistical ,julian1 discusses contemporary atheism in a fashion descriptive of an actual growth of the opinion1 concerning which he alleges that there is no sect now in ,england so scattered i4e41 so widely spread as atheisme4 ,the outward atheist1 he declares1 establishes reason as his ,god2 and he offers some sufficiently primitive arguments by way of confutation4 ,they follow the ,pironicks i4e41 ,pyrrhonists1 whose position and opinion it is that there is no hell or misery but opinion4 ,impudently they persist in it1 that the late discovered ,indians show antiquities thousands before ,adam4 ,for the rest1 they not only reject the miracles of ,moses as mere natural expedients misrepresented1 but treat the whole ,bible as some late writers of our side treat the ,apocrypha4 ,and ,nashe complains feelingly that while the atheists are special men of wit1 and that the ,romish seminaries have not allured unto them so many good wits as atheism1 the preachers who reply to them are men of dull understanding1 the product of a system under which preferment is given to graduates on the score not of capacity but of mere gravity and solemnity4 ,it is the superabundance of wit1 declares ,nashe1 that makes atheists3 will you then hope to beat them down with fusty brown-bread dorbellism8 #bi ,there had arisen1 in short1 a ferment of rationalism which was henceforth never to disappear from ,english life4 ,in #aeic1 indeed1 we find atheism formally charged against two famous men1 ,christopher ,marlowe and ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 of whom the first is documentarily connected with ,kett1 and the second in turn with ,marlowe4 ,an official document1 #cj preserved by some chance1 reveals that ,marlowe was given--whether or not over the wine-cup--to singularly audacious derision of the received beliefs2 and so explicit is the evidence that it is nearly certain he would have been executed for blasphemy had he not been privately killed 7#aeic7 while the proceedings were pending4 ,the atheism imputed to him is not made out in any detail2 but many of the other utterances are notably in keeping with ,marlowe's daring temper2 and they amount to unbelief of a stringent kind4 ,in ,doctor ,faustus #ca he makes ,mephistopheles affirm that ,hell hath no limits 444 but where we are is hell--a doctrine which we have seen to be current before his time2 and in his private talk he had gone much further4 ,nashe doubtless had him in mind when he spoke of men of superabundance of wit4 ,not only did he question1 with ,raleigh1 the ,biblical chronology3 he affirmed ,that ,moyses was but a juggler1 and that one ,heriots i4e41 ,thomas ,harriott1 or ,harriots1 the astronomer1 one of ,raleigh's circle can do more than he2 and concerning ,jesus he used language incomparably more offensive to orthodox feeling than that of ,hamond and ,kett4 ,there is more in all this than a mere assimilation of ,machiavelli2 though the further saying that the first beginning of religion was only to keep men in awe--put also by ,greene if not by ,marlowe1 with much force of versification1 in the mouth of a villain-hero in the anonymous play of ,selimus #cb--tells of that influence4 ,marlowe was indeed not the man to swear by any master without adding something of his own4 ,atheism1 however1 is not inferrible from any of his works3 on the contrary1 in the second part of his famous first play he makes his hero1 described by the repentant ,greene as the atheist ,tamburlaine1 declaim of deity with signal eloquence1 though with a pantheistic cast of phrase4 ,in another passage1 a ,moslem personage claims to be on the side of a ,christ who would punish perjury2 and in yet another the hero is made to trample under foot the pretensions of ,mohammed4 #cc ,it was probably his imputation of perjury to ,christian rulers in particular that earned for ,marlowe the malignant resentment which inspired the various edifying comments published after his unedifying death4 ,had he not perished as he did in a tavern brawl1 he might have had the nobler fate of a martyr4 ,concerning ,raleigh1 again1 there is no shadow of proof of atheism1 though his circle1 which included the ,earls of ,northumberland and ,oxford1 was called a school of atheism in a ,latin pamphlet by the ,jesuit ,parsons1 #cd published at ,rome in #aeic2 and this reputation clung to him4 ,it is matter of literary history1 however1 that he1 like ,montaigne1 had been influenced by the ,hypotyposes of ,sextus ,empiricus2 #ce his short essay ,the ,sceptick being a naf exposition of the thesis that the sceptick doth neither affirm neither deny any position2 but doubteth of it1 and applyeth his ,reason against that which is affirmed1 or denied1 to justifie his non-consenting4 #cf ,the essay itself1 nevertheless1 proceeds upon a set of wildly false propositions in natural history1 concerning which the adventurous reasoner has no doubts whatever2 and altogether we may be sure that his artificial skepticism did not carry him far in philosophy4 ,in the ,discovery of ,guiana 7#afjj7 he declares that he is resolved of the truth of the stories of men whose heads grow beneath their shoulders2 and in his ,history of the ,world 7#afjc-af7 he insists that the stars and other celestial bodies incline the will by mediation of the sensitive appetite4 #cg ,in other directions1 however1 he was less credulous4 ,in the same ,history he points out1 as ,marlowe had done in talk1 how incompatible was such a phenomenon as the mature civilization of ancient ,egypt in the days of ,abraham with the orthodox chronology4 #ch ,this1 indeed1 was heresy enough1 then and later1 seeing that not only did ,bishop ,pearson1 in #afei1 in a work on ,the ,creed which has been circulated down to the nineteenth century1 indignantly denounce all who departed from the figures in the margin of the ,bible2 but ,coleridge1 a century and a half later1 took the very instance of ,egyptian history as triumphantly establishing the accuracy of the ,bible record against the ,french atheists4 #ci ,as regards ,raleigh's philosophy1 the evidence goes to show only that he was ready to read a ,unitarian essay1 presumably that already mentioned1 supposed to be ,kett's2 and that he had intercourse with ,marlowe and others 7in particular his secretary1 ,harriott7 known to be freethinkers4 ,a prosecution begun against him on this score1 at the time of the inquiry concerning ,marlowe 7when ,raleigh was in disgrace with the ,queen71 came to nothing4 ,it had been led up to by a translation of ,parsons's pamphlet1 which affirmed that his private group was known as ,sir ,walter ,rawley's school of ,atheisme1 and that therein both ,moyses and our ,savior1 the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 are jested at1 and the scholars taught among other things to spell ,god backwards4 #dj ,this seems to have been idle gossip1 though it tells of unbelief somewhere2 and ,raleigh's own writings always indicate #da belief in the ,bible2 though his dying speech and epitaph are noticeably deistic4 ,that he was a deist1 given to free discussion1 seems the probable truth4 ,in passing sentence at the close of ,raleigh's trial for treason in #afjc1 in which his guilt is at least no clearer than the inequity of the proceedings1 ,lord ,chief ,justice ,popham unscrupulously taunted him with his reputation for heresy4 ,you have been taxed by the world with the defence of the most heathenish and blasphemous opinions1 which ,i list not to repeat1 because ,christian ears cannot endure to hear them1 nor the authors and maintainers of them be suffered to live in any ,christian commonwealth4 ,you know what men said of ,harpool4 #db ,if the preface to his ,history of the ,world1 written in the ,tower1 be authentic1 ,raleigh was at due pains to make clear his belief in deity1 and to repudiate alike atheism and pantheism4 ,i do also account it1 he declares1 an impiety monstrous1 to confound ,god and ,nature1 be it but in terms4 #dc ,and he is no more tolerant than his judge when he discusses the question of the eternity of the universe1 then the crucial issue as between orthodoxy and doubt4 ,whosoever will make choice rather to believe in eternal deformity want of form or in eternal dead matter1 than in eternal light and eternal life1 let eternal death be his reward4 ,for it is a madness of that kind1 as wanteth terms to express it4 #dd ,inasmuch as ,aristotle was the great authority for the denounced opinion1 ,raleigh is anti-,aristotelean4 ,i shall never be persuaded that ,god hath shut up all light of learning within the lantern of ,aristotle's brains4 #de ,but in the whole preface there is only one1 and that a conventional1 expression of belief in the ,christian dogma of salvation2 and as to that we may note his own words3 ,we are all in effect become comedians in religion4 #df ,still1 untruthful as he certainly was1 #dg we may take him as a convinced theist of the experiential school1 standing at the ordinary position of the deists of the next century4 ,notably enough1 he anticipates the critical position of ,hume as to reason and experience3 ,that these and these be the causes of these and these effects1 time hath taught us and not reason2 and so hath experience without art4 #dh ,such utterance1 if not connected with professions of piety1 might in those days give rise to such charges of unbelief as were so freely cast at him4 ,but the charges seem to have been in large part mere expressions of the malignity which religion so normally fosters1 and which can seldom have been more bitter than then4 ,raleigh is no admirable type of rectitude2 but he can hardly have been a worse man than his orthodox enemies4 ,and we must estimate such men in full view of the low standards of their age4 ,the belief about ,raleigh's atheism was so strong that we have ,archbishop ,abbot writing to ,sir ,thomas ,roe on ,feb4 #ai1 #afah-afai1 that ,raleigh's end was due to his questioning of ,god's being and omnipotence4 ,it is asserted by ,francis ,osborn1 who had known ,raleigh1 that he got his title of ,atheist from ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,see the preface 7,author to ,reader7 to ,osborn's ,miscellany of ,sundry ,essays1 etc41 in #gth ed4 of his ,works1 #afgc4 ,as to atheism at ,elizabeth's court see ,j4 ,j4 ,tayler1 ,retrospect of ,relig4 ,life of ,england1 #bnd ed4 p4 #aih1 and ref4 ,lilly makes one of his characters write of the ladies at court that they never jar about matters of religion1 because they never mean to reason of them 7,euphues1 ,arber's ed4 p4 #aid74 ,a curious use was made of ,raleigh's name and fame after his death for various purposes4 ,in #afbj or #afba appeared ,vox ,spiritus1 or ,sir ,walter ,rawleigh's ,ghost2 a ,conference between ,signr4 ,gondamier 444 and ,father ,bauldwine--a seditious tract by one ,captain ,gainsford4 ,it appears to have been reprinted in #afbb as ,prosopoeia4 ,sir ,walter ,rawleigh's ,ghost4 ,then in #afbf came a new treatise1 ,sir ,walter ,rawleigh's ,ghost1 or ,england's ,forewarner1 published in #afbf at ,utrecht by ,thomas ,scott1 an ,english minister there1 who was assassinated in the same year4 ,the title having thus had vogue1 there was published in #afca ,rawleigh's ,ghost1 or1 a ,feigned ,apparition of ,syr ,walter ,rawleigh to a friend of his1 for the translating into ,english the ,booke of ,leonard ,lessius 7that most learned man71 entituled ,de ,providentia ,numinis et animi immortalitate1 written against the ,atheists and ,polititians of these days4 ,the translation of a ,jesuit's treatise 7#afac7 thus accredited purports to be by ,a4 ,b4 ,in a reprint of #afea the feigned disappears from the title-page2 but ,sir ,walter ,rawleigh's ,ghost remains to attract readers2 and the translation1 now purporting to be by ,john ,holden1 who claims to have been a friend of ,raleigh's1 is dedicated to his son ,carew4 ,in the preface the ,ghost adjures the translator 7who professes to have heard him frequently praise the treatise of ,lessius7 to translate the work with ,raleigh's name on the title1 so as to clear his memory of a foul and most unjust aspersion of me for my presumed denial of a deity4 ,the latest documentary evidence as to the case of ,marlowe is produced by ,mr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,boas in his article1 ,new ,light on ,marlowe and ,kyd1 in the ,fortnightly ,review1 ,february1 #ahii1 reproduced in his edition of the works of ,thomas ,kyd 7,clarendon ,press1 #aija74 ,in addition to the formerly known data as to ,marlowe's atheism1 it is now established that ,thomas ,kyd1 his fellow dramatist1 was arrested on the same charge1 and that there was found among his papers one containing vile hereticall conceiptes denyinge the divinity of ,jhesus ,christe our ,saviour4 ,this ,kyd declared he had had from ,marlowe1 denying all sympathy with its view4 ,nevertheless1 he was put to the torture4 ,the paper1 however1 proves to be a vehement ,unitarian argument on ,scriptural grounds1 and is much more likely to have been written by ,francis ,kett than by ,marlowe4 ,in the ,,mss4 now brought to light1 one ,cholmeley1 who confessed that he was persuaded by ,marlowe's reasons to become an ,atheiste1 is represented by a spy as speaking all evil of the ,counsell1 saying that they are all ,atheistes and ,machiavillians1 especially my ,lord ,admirall4 ,the same atheist1 who imputes atheism to others as a vice1 is described as regretting he had not killed the ,lord ,treasurer1 sayenge that he could never have done ,god better service4 ,for the rest1 the same spy tells that ,cholmeley believed ,marlowe was able to shewe more sound reasons for ,atheisme than any devine in ,englande is able to geve to prove devinitie1 and that ,marloe told him that he hath read the ,atheist lecture to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh and others4 ,on the last point there is no further evidence1 save that ,sir ,walter1 his dependent ,thomas ,harriott1 and ,mr4 ,carewe ,rawley1 were on ,march #ba1 #aeic-aeid1 charged upon sworn testimonies with holding impious opinions concerning ,god and ,providence4 ,there was1 however1 no prosecution4 ,harriott had published in #aehh a work on his travels in ,virginia1 at the close of which is a passage in the devoutest vein telling of his missionary labours 7quoted by ,mr4 ,boas1 art4 cited1 p4 #bbe74 ,yet by #aeib he had1 with his master1 a reputation for atheism2 and that it was not wholly on the strength of his great scientific knowledge is suggested by the statement of ,anthony ,wood that he made a philosophical theology1 wherein he cast off the ,old ,testament4 ,of this no trace remains2 but it is established that he was a highly accomplished mathematician1 much admired by ,kepler2 and that he applied the telescope to celestial purposes almost simultaneously with ,galileo 7art4 ,harriott in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog42 cp4 art4 in ,encyc4 ,brit474 ,harriott 444 was the first who dared to say ,a,b in the form ,a - ,b #j1 one of the greatest sources of progress ever opened in algebra 7,prof4 ,a4 ,de ,morgan1 ,newton1 his ,friend and his ,niece1 #ahhe1 p4 #ia74 ,further1 he improved algebraic notation by the use of small italic letters in place of ,roman capitals1 and threw out the hypothesis of secondary planets as well as of stars invisible from their size and distance4 ,he was the first to verify the results of ,galileo4 ,rev4 ,baden ,powell1 ,hist4 of ,nat4 ,philos4 #ahcd1 pp4 #abf1 #afh4 ,cp4 ,rigaud1 as cited by ,powell2 ,ellis's notes on ,bacon1 in ,routledge's #a-vol4 ed4 #aije1 pp4 #fgd-gf2 and ,storojenko1 as above cited1 p4 #ch1 note4 ,against the aspersion of ,harriott at ,raleigh's trial may be cited the high panegyric of ,chapman1 who terms him my admired and soul-loved friend1 master of all essential and true knowledge1 #di and one whose judgment and knowledge1 in all kinds1 ,i know to be incomparable and bottomless1 yea1 to be admired as much as his most blameless life1 and the right sacred expense of his time1 is to be honoured and reverenced2 with a further affirmation of his clear unmatchedness in all manner of learning4 #ej ,the frequency of such traces of rationalism at this period is to be understood in the light of the financial and other scandals of the ,reformation2 the bitter strifes of ,church and dissent2 and the horrors of the wars of religion in ,france1 concerning which ,bacon remarks in his essay ,of ,unity in ,religion that the spectacle would have made ,lucretius seven times more ,epicure and atheist than he was4 ,the proceedings against ,raleigh and ,kyd1 accordingly1 did not check the spread of the private avowal of unbelief4 ,a few years later we find ,hooker1 in the ,fifth ,book of his ,ecclesiastical ,polity 7#aeig71 bitterly declaring that the unbelievers in the higher tenets of religion are much strengthened by the strifes of believers2 #ea as a dozen years earlier ,bishop ,pilkington told of young whelps who in corners make themselves merry with railing and scoffing at the holy scriptures4 #eb ,and in the ,treatise of the ,nature of ,god1 by ,bishop ,thomas ,morton 7#aeii71 a quasi-dialogue in which the arguing is all on one side1 the passive interlocutor indicates1 in the process of repudiating them1 a full acquaintance with the pleas of those who would openly profess themselves to be of that the atheistic judgment1 and as far as they might without danger defend it by argument against any whatever4 ,the pleas include the lack of moral control in the world1 the evidences of natural causation1 the varieties of religious belief1 and the contradictions of ,scripture4 ,and such atheists1 we are told1 make nature their ,god4 #ec ,from ,hooker's account also it is clear that1 at least with comparatively patient clerics like himself1 the freethinkers would at times deliberately press the question of theism1 and avow the conviction that belief in ,god was a kind of harmless error1 bred and confirmed by the sleights of wiser men4 ,he further notes with even greater bitterness that some--an execrable crew--who were themselves unbelievers1 would in the old pagan manner argue for the fostering of religion as a matter of ,state policy1 herein conning the lesson of ,machiavelli4 ,for his own part ,hooker was confessedly ill-prepared to debate with the atheists1 and his attitude was not fitted to shake their opinions4 ,his one resource is the inevitable plea that atheists are such for the sake of throwing off all moral restraint #ed--;a theorem which could hardly be taken seriously by those who knew the history of the ,english and ,french aristocracies1 ,protestant and ,catholic1 for the past hundred years4 ,hooker's own measure of rationalism1 though remarkable as compared with previous orthodoxy1 went no further than the application of the argument of ,pecock that reason must guide and control all resort to ,scripture and authority2 #ee and he came to it under stress of dispute1 as a principle of accommodation for warring believers1 not as an expression of any independent skepticism4 ,when his pious antagonist ,travers cited him as saying that his best author was his own reason #ef he was prompt to reply that he meant true1 sound1 divine reason2 444 reason proper to that science whereby the things of ,god are known2 theological reason1 which out of principles in ,scripture that are plain1 soundly deduceth more doubtful inferences4 #eg ,of the application of rational criticism to ,scriptural claims he had no idea4 ,the unbelievers of his day were for him a frightful portent1 menacing all his plans of orthodox toleration2 and he would have had them put down by force--a course which in some cases1 as we have seen1 had in that age been actually taken1 and was always apt to be resorted to4 ,but orthodoxy all the while had a sure support in the social and political conditions which made impossible the publication of rationalistic opinions4 ,while the whole machinery of public doctrine remained in religious hands or under ecclesiastical control1 the mass of men of all grades inevitably held by the traditional faith4 ,what is remarkable is the amount of unbelief1 either privately explicit or implicit in the higher literature1 of which we have trace4 ,above all there remains the great illustration of the rationalistic spirit of the ,english literary renascence of the sixteenth century--the drama of ,shakespeare4 ,of that it may confidently be said that every attempt to find for it a religious foundation has failed4 #eh ,gervinus1 while oddly suggesting that in not only not seeking a reference to religion in his works1 but in systematically avoiding it even when opportunity offered1 ,shakespeare was keeping clear of an embroilment with the clergy1 nevertheless pronounces the plays to be wholly secular in spirit4 ,while contending that in action the religious and divine in man is nothing else than the moral1 the ,german critic admits that ,shakespeare wholly discarded from his works 444 that which religion enjoins as to faith and opinion4 #ei ,and1 while refusing the inference of positive unbelief on the poet's part1 he pronounces that1 ,just as ,bacon banished religion from science1 so did ,shakespeare from art4444 ,from ,bacon's example it seems clear that ,shakespeare left religious matters unnoticed on the same grounds4 #fj ,the latest and weightiest criticism comes to the same conclusion2 and it is only on presupposition that any other can be reached4 ,one of the ablest of ,shakespearean critics sums up that the ,elizabethan drama was almost wholly secular2 and while ,shakespeare was writing he practically confined his view to the world of non-theological observation and thought1 so that he represents it in substantially one and the same way whether the period of the story is pre-,christian or ,christian4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,c4 ,bradley1 ,shakespearean ,tragedy1 #bnd ed4 p4 #be4 ,in the concluding pages of his lecture on ,hamlet1 ,professor ,bradley slightly modifies this statement1 suggesting that the ghost is made to appear as the representative of the hidden ultimate power1 the messenger of divine justice 7p4 #agd74 ,here1 it seems to the present writer1 ,professor ,bradley obtrudes the chief error of his admirable book--the constant implication that ,shakespeare planned his plays as moral wholes4 ,the fact is that he found the ghost an integral part of the old play which he rewrote2 and in making it1 in ,professor ,bradley's words1 so majestical a phantom1 he was simply heightening the character as he does others in the play1 and as was his habit in the presentment of a king4 ,in his volume of lectures entitled ,oxford ,lectures on ,poetry 7#aiji71 ,professor ,bradley goes more fully into the problem of ,shakespeare's religion4 ,here he somewhat needlessly obscures the issue by contending 7p4 #cdi7 that it is preposterous to suppose that ,shakespeare was an ardent and devoted atheist or ,brownist or ,roman ,catholic1 and makes the most of the poet's sympathetic treatment of religious types and religious sentiments2 but still sums up that he was not1 in the distinctive sense of the word1 a religious man1 and that all was1 for him1 in the end1 mystery 7p4 #cec74 ,this perhaps somewhat understates the case4 ,the ,elizabethan drama was not wholly secular2 #fa and certainly the dramatists individually were not4 ,peele's ,david and ,bethsabe is wholly ,biblical in theme1 and1 though sensual in sentiment1 substantially orthodox in spirit2 and elsewhere he has many passages of ,protestant and propagandist fervour4 #fb ,greene and ,lodge give a highly ,scriptural ring to their ,looking-,glass for ,london2 and ,lodge1 who uses religious expressions freely in his early treatise1 ,a ,defence of ,poetry1 ,music1 and ,stage ,plays1 #fc later translated ,josephus4 ,kyd in ,arden of ,feversham #fd accepts the ,christian view at the close1 though ,the ,spanish ,tragedy is pagan2 and the pre-,shakespearean ,king ,leir and his ,three ,daughters 7#aeid71 probably the work of ,kyd and ,lodge1 has long passages of specifically ,christian sentiment4 ,nashe1 again1 was a hot religious controversialist despite his ,bohemian habits and his indecorous vein2 ,greene on his repentant deathbed was profusedly censorious of atheism2 #fe ,lilly1 as we have seen1 is combatively theistic in his ,campaspe2 while ,jonson1 as we shall see1 girds at skeptics in ,volpone and ,the ,magnetick ,lady1 and further wrote a quantity of devotional verse4 ,even the atheist ,marlowe1 as we saw1 puts theistic sentiment into the mouth of his atheist ,tamburlaine2 and of ,doctor ,faustus1 despite incidental heresy1 the dnouement is religiously orthodox4 ,thomas ,heywood may even be pronounced a religious man1 #ff as he was certainly a strong ,protestant1 #fg though an anti-,puritan2 and his prose treatise ,the ,hierarchy of the ,blessed ,angels 7#afce7 exhibits a religious temperament4 ,the same may be said of ,dekker1 who is recorded to have written at least the prologue and the epilogue for a play on ,pontius ,pilate1 #fh and is believed to be the author of the best scenes in ,the ,virgin ,martyr1 in which he collaborated with ,massinger4 ,he too uses supererogatory religious expressions1 #fi and shows his warm ,protestantism in ,the ,whore of ,babylon1 as he does his general religious sentiment in his treatise ,the ,seven ,deadly ,sins4 ,chapman was certainly a devout theist1 and probably a ,christian4 ,in the domestic tragedy1 ,a ,warning for ,fair ,women 7#aeii71 which is conjecturally ascribed to ,lodge1 the conclusion is on ,christian lines1 as in ,arden2 and the same holds of ,the ,witch of ,edmonton1 by ,dekker and others4 ,of none of these dramatists could it be said1 on the mere strength of his work1 that he was agnostic1 though ,marlowe was certainly a freethinker4 ,the others were1 first or last1 avowedly religious4 ,shakespeare1 and ,shakespeare alone1 after ,marlowe1 is persistently non-religious in his handling of life4 ,lear1 his darkest tragedy1 is predominantly pagan2 and ,the ,tempest1 in its serener vein1 is no less so4 ,but indeed all the genuine plays alike ignore or tacitly negate the idea of immortality2 even the conventional religious phrases of ,macbeth being but incidental poetry4 ,in the words of a clerical historian1 the religious phrases which are thinly scattered over his work are little more than expressions of a distant and imaginative reverence4 ,and on the deeper grounds of religious faith his silence is significant4444 ,the riddle of life and death 444 he leaves 444 a riddle to the last1 without heeding the common theological solutions around him4 #gj ,the practical wisdom in which he rose above his rivals no less than in dramatic and poetic genius1 kept him prudently reticent on his opinions1 as it set him upon building his worldly fortunes while the others with hardly an exception lived in shallows and miseries4 ,as so often happens1 it was among the ill-balanced types that there was found the heedless courage to cry aloud what others thought2 but ,shakespeare's significant silence reminds us that the largest spirits of all could live in disregard of contemporary creeds4 ,for1 while there is no record of his having privately avowed unbelief1 and certainly no explicit utterance of it in his plays1 #ga in no genuine work of his is there any more than bare dramatic conformity to current habits of religious speech2 and there is often significantly less4 ,in ,measure for ,measure the ,duke1 counselling as a friar the condemned ,claudio1 discusses the ultimate issues of life and death without a hint of ,christian credence4 ,so silent is the dramatist on the ecclesiastical issues of his day that ,protestants and ,catholics are enabled to go on indefinitely claiming him as theirs2 the latter dwelling on his generally kindly treatment of friars2 the former citing the fact that some ,protestant preacher--evidently a protg of his daughter ,susannah--was allowed lodging at his house4 ,but the preacher was not very hospitably treated2 #gb and other clues fail4 ,there is good reason to think that ,shakespeare was much influenced by ,montaigne's ,essays1 read by him in ,florio's translation1 which was issued when he was recasting the old ,hamlet2 and the whole treatment of life in the great tragedies and serious comedies produced by him from that time forward is even more definitely untheological than ,montaigne's own doctrine4 #gc ,nor can he be supposed to have disregarded the current disputes as to fundamental beliefs1 implicating as they did his fellow-dramatists ,marlowe1 ,kyd1 and ,greene4 ,the treatise of ,de ,mornay1 of which ,sir ,philip ,sidney began and ,arthur ,golding finished the translation1 #gd was in his time widely circulated in ,england2 and its very inadequate argumentation might well strengthen in him the anti-theological leaning4 ,a serious misconception has been set up as to ,shakespeare's cast of mind by the persistence of editors in including among his works without discrimination plays which are certainly not his1 as the ,henry ,,vi group1 to which he contributed little1 and in particular the ,first ,part1 of which he wrote probably nothing4 ,it is on the assumption that that play is ,shakespeare's work that ,lecky 7,rationalism in ,europe1 ed4 #ahhg1 i1 #aje-ajf7 speaks of that melancholy picture of ,joan of ,arc which is perhaps the darkest blot upon his genius4 ,now1 whatever passages ,shakespeare may have contributed to the ,second and ,third ,parts1 it is certain that he has barely a scene in the ,first1 and that there is not a line from his hand in the ,la ,pucelle scenes4 ,many students think that ,dr4 ,furnivall has even gone too far in saying that the only part 444 to be put down to ,shakespeare is the ,temple ,garden scene of the red and white roses 7,introd4 to ,leopold ,shakespeare1 p4 xxxviii72 so little is there to suggest even the juvenile ,shakespeare there4 7,the high proportion of double-endings is a ground for reckoning it a late sample of ,marlowe1 who in his posthumously published translation of ,lucan had approached that proportion4 ,cp4 the author's vol4 on ,titus ,andronicus1 p4 #aij47 ,but that any critical and qualified reader can still hold him to have written the worst of the play is unintelligible4 ,the whole work would be a blot on his genius in respect of its literary weakness4 ,the doubt was raised long before ,lecky wrote1 and was made good a generation ago4 ,when ,lecky further proceeds1 with reference to the witches in ,macbeth1 to say 7id4 note7 that it is probable that ,shakespeare 444 believed with an unfaltering faith in the reality of witchcraft1 he strangely misreads that play4 ,nothing is clearer than that it grounds ,macbeth's action from the first in ,macbeth's own character and his wife's1 employing the witch machinery 7already used by ,middleton7 to meet the popular taste1 but never once making the witches really causal forces4 ,an unfaltering believer in witchcraft who wrote for the stage would surely have turned it to serious account in other tragedies4 ,this ,shakespeare never does4 ,on ,lecky's view1 he is to be held as having believed in the fairy magic of the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream and the ,tempest1 and in the actuality of such episodes as that of the ghost in ,macbeth4 ,but who for a moment supposes him to have had any such belief8 ,it is probable that the entire undertaking of ,macbeth 7#afje87 and later of the ,tempest 7#afaj87 was due to a wish on the part of the theatre management to please ,king ,james1 whose belief in witchcraft and magic was notorious4 ,even the use of the ,ghost in ,hamlet is an old stage expedient1 common to the pre-,shakespearean play and to others of ,kyd's and ,peele's4 ,shakespeare significantly altered the dying words of ,hamlet from the heaven receive my soul of the old version to the rest is silence4 ,the bequest of his soul to the ,deity in his will is merely the regulation testamentary formula of the time4 ,in his sonnets1 which hint his personal cast if anything does1 there is no real trace of religious creed or feeling4 ,and it is clearly the hand of ,fletcher1 a no less sensual writer than ,peele1 that penned the part of ,henry ,,viii in which occurs the ,protestant tag3 ,in her ,elizabeth's days 444 ,god shall be truly known4 #ge ,while1 however1 ,shakespeare is notably naturalistic as compared with the other ,elizabethan dramatists1 it remains true that their work in the mass tells little of a habitually religious way of thinking4 ,apart from the plays above named1 and from polemic passages and devotional utterances outside their plays1 they hint as little of ,christian dogma as of ,christian asceticism4 ,hence1 in fact1 the general and bitter hostility of the ,puritans to the stage4 ,even at and after ,shakespeare's death1 the drama is substantially graceless4 ,jonson1 who was for a time a ,catholic1 but reverted to the ,church of ,england1 disliked the ,puritans1 and in ,bartholomew ,fair derides them4 ,the age did not admit of a pietistic drama2 and when there was a powerful pietistic public1 it made an end of drama altogether4 ,to ,elizabeth's reign probably belongs the ,atheist's ,tragedy of ,cyril ,tourneur1 first published in #afaa1 but evidently written in its author's early youth--a coarse and worthless performance1 full of extremely bad imitations of ,shakespeare4 #gf ,but to the age of ,elizabeth also belongs1 perhaps1 the sententious tragedy of ,mustapha by ,fulke ,greville1 ,lord ,brooke1 first surreptitiously published in #afji4 ,a century and a half later the deists were fond of quoting #gg the concluding ,chorus ,sacerdotum1 beginning3 ,o wearisome condition of humanity1 ,born under one law1 to another bound2 ,vainly begot1 and yet forbidden vanity2 ,created sick1 commanded to be sound3 ,if nature did not take delight in blood1 ,she would have made more easy ways to good4 ,it is natural to suspect that the author of such lines was less orthodox than his own day had reputed him2 and yet the whole of his work shows him much pre-occupied with religion1 though perhaps in a deistic spirit4 ,but ,brooke's introspective and undramatic poetry is an exception3 the prevailing colour of the whole drama of the ,shakespearean period is pre-,puritan and semi-pagan2 and the theological spirit of the next generation1 intensified by ,king ,james1 was recognized by cultured foreigners as a change for the worse4 #gh ,the spirit of free learning for the time was gone1 expelled by theological rancours2 and when ,selden ventured in his ,history of ,tythes 7#afah7 to apply the method of dispassionate historical criticism to ecclesiastical matters he was compelled to make a formal retractation4 #gi ,early ,protestants had attacked1 as a papal superstition1 the doctrine that tithes were levied jure divino3 ,protestants had now come to regard as atheistic the hint that tithes were levied otherwise4 #hj ,not that rationalism became extinct4 ,the ,italianate incredulity as to a future state1 which ,sir ,john ,davies had sought to repel by his poem1 ,nosce ,teipsum 7#aeii71 can hardly have been overthrown even by that remarkable production1 which in the usual orthodox way pronounces all doubters to be light and vicious persons1 who1 though they would1 cannot quite be beasts4 #ha ,and there were other forms of doubt4 ,in #afjb appeared ,the ,unmasking of the ,politique ,atheist1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,john ,hull1 ,batchelor of ,divinitie1 which1 however1 is in the main a mere attempt to retort upon ,catholics the charge of atheism laid by them against ,protestants4 ,soon after1 in #afje1 we find ,dr4 ,john ,dove producing a ,confutation of ,atheisme in the manner of previous continental treatises1 making the word atheism cover many shades of theism2 and an essayist writing in #afjh asserts that1 on account of the self-seeking and corruption so common among churchmen1 prophane ,atheisme hath taken footing in the hearts of ignorant and simple men4 #hb ,the orthodox ,ben ,jonson1 in his ,volpone 7#afjg71 puts in the mouth of a fool #hc the lines3-- ,and then1 for your religion1 profess none1 ,but wonder at the diversity of all2 ,and1 for your part1 protest1 were there no other ,but simply the laws o' th' land1 you would content you4 ,nic ,machiavel and ,monsieur ,bodin both ,were of this mind4 ,but the testimony is not the less significant2 as is the account in ,the ,magnetick ,lady 7#afcb7 of ,a young physician to the family ,that1 letting ,god alone1 ascribes to ,nature ,more than her share2 licentious in discourse1 ,and in his life a profest voluptuary4 #hd ,such statements of course prove merely a frequent coolness towards religion1 not a vogue of reasoned unbelief4 ,but the existence of rationalizing heresy is attested by the burning of two men1 ,bartholomew ,legate and ,edward ,wightman1 for avowing ,unitarian views1 in #afab4 ,these1 the last executions for heresy in ,england1 were results of the theological zeal of ,king ,james1 stimulated by the ,calvinistic fanaticism of ,archbishop ,abbot1 the predecessor of ,laud4 ,james's career as a persecutor began characteristically in a meddlesome attack upon a professor in ,holland4 ,a ,german theologian of ,socinian leanings1 named ,conrad ,vorstius1 professor at ,steinfurth1 had produced in #afjf a somewhat heretical treatise1 ,de ,deo1 but had nevertheless been appointed in #afaj professor of theology at ,leyden1 in succession to ,arminius4 ,it was his acceptance of ,arminian views1 joined with his repute as a scholar1 #he that secured him the invitation1 which was given without the knowledge that at a previous period he had been offered a similar appointment by the ,socinians4 ,in his ,anti-,bellarminus contractus1 a brief refutation of the four tomes of ,bellarmin1 he had taken the ,arminian line1 repudiating the ,calvinist positions which1 in the opinion of ,arminius1 could not be defended against the ,catholic attack4 ,but he was too speculative and ratiocinative to be safe in an age in which the fear of spreading ,socinianism and the hate of ,calvinists towards ,arminianism had set up a reign of terror4 ,vorstius was both unsettling and heterodox4 ,his opinions were such as in our own day would certainly disqualify him from holding such an office in any ,christian ,university2 #hf and ,james1 worked upon by ,abbot1 went so far as to make the appointment of ,vorstius a diplomatic question4 ,the stadhouder ,maurice and the bulk of the ,dutch clergy being of his view1 the more tolerant statesmen of ,holland1 and the mercantile aristocracy1 yielded from motives of prudence1 and ,vorstius was dismissed in order to save the ,english alliance4 ,remaining thenceforth without employment1 he was further denounced in #afai by the ,synod of ,dort1 and banished by the ,states ,general4 ,thereafter he lived for two years in hiding2 and soon after obtaining a refuge in ,holstein1 died1 worn out by his troubles4 ,in ,england1 meantime1 ,james drew up with his own hands a catalogue of the heresies found by him in ,vorstius's treatise1 and caused the book to be burned in ,london and at the two ,universities4 #hg ,on the heels of this amazing episode came the cases of ,wightman and ,legate4 ,finding1 in a personal conversation1 that ,legate had ceased to pray to ,christ1 the ,king had him brought before the ,bishop of ,london's ,consistory ,court1 which sentenced the heretic to ,newgate4 ,being shortly released1 he had the imprudence to threaten an action for false imprisonment1 whereupon he was re-arrested4 ,chief ,justice ,coke held that1 technically1 the ,consistory ,court could not sentence to burning2 but ,hobart and ,bacon1 the law officers of the ,crown1 and other judges1 were of opinion that it could4 ,legate1 accordingly1 was duly tried1 sentenced1 and burned at ,smithfield2 and ,wightman a few days later was similarly disposed of at ,lichfield4 #hh ,bacon's share in this matter is obscure1 and has not been discussed by either his assailants or his vindicators4 ,as for the general public1 the historian records that not a word was uttered against this horrible cruelty4 ,as we read over the brief contemporary notices which have reached us1 we look in vain for the slightest intimation that the death of these two men was regarded with any other feelings than those with which the writers were accustomed to hear of the execution of an ordinary murderer4 ,if any remark was made1 it was in praise of ,james for the devotion which he showed to the cause of ,god4 #hi ,that might have been reckoned on4 ,it was not twenty years since ,hamond1 ,lewis1 ,cole1 and ,kett had been burned on similar grounds2 and there had been no outcry then4 ,for generations direness had been too familiar to men's thoughts to admit of their being shocked by a judicial murder or two the more4 ,catholic priests had been executed by the score3 why not a pair of ,unitarians8 #ij ,little had gone on in the average intellectual life in the interim save religious discussion and ,bibliolatry1 and not from such culture could there come any growth of human kindness or any clearer conception of the law of reciprocity4 ,but1 whether by force of recoil from a revival of the fires of ,smithfield or from a perception that mere cruelty did not avail to destroy heresy1 the theological ultima ratio was never again resorted to on ,english ground4 ,though no public protest was made1 the retrospective ,fuller testifies that such burning of heretics much startled common people1 pitying all in pain1 and prone to asperse justice itself with cruelty1 because of the novelty 767 and hideousness of the punishment4 #ia ,it is noteworthy that within a few years of the burning of ,legate and ,wightman there appeared quite a cluster of treatises explicitly contending for toleration4 ,in #afad came ,religion's ,peace3 or1 a ,plea for ,liberty of ,conscience1 by ,leonard ,busher1 the first ,english book of the kind4 ,in #afae came ,persecution for ,religion ,judged and ,condemned2 and in #afbj ,an ,humble ,supplication to the ,king's ,majesty1 pressing the same doctrine4 #ib ,there is no record of any outcry over these works1 though they are tolerably freespoken in their indictment of the coercive school2 and they had all to be reprinted a generation later1 their point having never been carried2 but it may be surmised that their appeal1 which is substantially well reasoned from a secular as well as from a theological point of view1 had something to do with the abandonment of persecution unto death4 ,even ,king ,james1 in opening the ,parliament of #afad1 professed to recognize that no religion or heresy was ever extirpated by violence4 ,that an age of cruel repression of heresy had promoted unbelief is clear from the ,atheomastix of ,bishop ,fotherby 7#afbb71 which notes among other things that as a result of constant disputing the ,scriptures 7with many7 have lost their authority1 and are thought onely fit for the ignorant and idiote4 #ic ,on this head the bishop attempts no answer2 and on his chosen theme he is perhaps the worst of all apologists4 ,his admission that there can be no priori proof of deity #id may be counted to him for candour2 but the childishness of his reasoning posteriori excludes the ascription of philosophic insight4 ,he does but use the old pseudo-arguments of universal consent and design1 with the simple device of translating polytheistic terms into monotheistic4 ,all the while he makes the usual suggestions that there are few or no atheists to convert1 and these not worth converting--this at a folio's length4 ,the book tells only of difficulties evaded by vociferation4 ,and while the growing stress of the strife between the ecclesiasticism of the ,crown and the forces of nonconformity more and more thrust to the front religio-political issues1 there began alongside of those strifes the new and powerful propaganda of deism1 which1 beginning with the ,latin treatise1 ,de ,veritate1 of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury 7#afbd71 was gradually to leaven ,english thought for over a century4 ,further1 there now came into play the manifold influence of ,francis ,bacon1 whose case illustrates perhaps more fully than any other the difficulties1 alike external and internal1 in the way of right thinking4 ,taken as a whole1 his work is on account of those difficulties divided against itself1 insisting as he does alternately on a strict critical method and on the subjection of reason to the authority of revelation4 ,he sounds a trumpet-call to a new and universal effort of free and circumspect intelligence2 and on the instant he stipulates for the prerogative of ,scripture4 ,though only one of many who assailed alike the methodic tyranny of ,aristotelianism #ie and the methodless empiricism of the ordinary scientific thought of the past1 he made his attack with a sustained and manifold force of insight and utterance which still entitles him to pre-eminence as the great critic of wrong methods and the herald of better4 ,yet he not only transgresses often his own principal precepts in his scientific reasoning2 he falls below several of his contemporaries and predecessors in respect of his formal insistence on the final supremacy of theology over reason1 alike in physics and in ethics4 ,where ,hooker is ostensibly seeking to widen the field of rational judgment on the side of creed1 ,bacon1 the very champion of mental emancipation in the abstract1 declares the boundary to be fixed4 ,of those lapses from critical good faith1 part of the explanation is to be found in the innate difficulty of vital innovation for all intelligences2 part in the special pressures of the religious environment4 ,on the latter head ,bacon makes such frequent and emphatic protest that we are bound to infer on his part a personal experience in his own day of the religious hostility which long followed his memory4 ,generally1 he wrote of himself in one fragment1 he perceived in men of devout simplicity this opinion1 that the secrets of nature were the secrets of ,god1 and part of that glory whereinto the mind of man if it seek to press shall be oppressed2444 and on the other side1 in men of a devout policy he noted an inclination to have the people depend upon ,god the more when they are less acquainted with second causes1 and to have no stirring in philosophy1 lest it may lead to innovation in divinity or else should discover matter of further contradiction to divinity #if--;a summary of the whole early history of the resistance to science4 #ig ,in the works which he wrote at the height of his powers1 especially in his masterpiece1 the ,novum ,organum 7#afbj71 where he comes closest to the problems of exact inquiry1 he specifies again and again both popular superstition and orthodox theology as hindrances to scientific research1 commenting on those who out of faith and veneration mix their philosophy with theology and traditions1 #ih and declaring that of the drawbacks science had to contend with the corruption of philosophy by superstition and an admixture of theology is far the more widely spread1 and does the greatest harm1 whether to entire systems or to their parts4 ,for the human understanding is obnoxious to the influence of the imagination no less than to the influence of common notions4 #ii ,in the same passage he exclaims at the extreme levity of those of the moderns who have attempted to found a system of natural philosophy on the first chapter of ,genesis1 on the book of ,job1 and other parts of the sacred writings2 #ajj and yet again1 coupling as obstinate adversaries of ,natural ,philosophy superstition1 and the blind and immoderate zeal of religion1 he roundly affirms that by the simpleness of certain divines access to any philosophy1 however pure1 is well nigh closed4 #aja ,these charges are repeatedly salved by such claims as that true religion puts no obstacles in the way of science2 #ajb that the book of ,job runs much to natural philosophy2 #ajc and1 in particular1 in the last book of the ,de ,augmentis ,scientiarum1 redacted after his disgrace1 by the declaration--more emphatic than those of the earlier ,advancement of ,learning--that ,sacred ,theology ought to be derived from the word and oracles of ,god1 and not from the light of nature or the dictates of reason4 #ajd ,in this mood he goes so far as to declare1 with the thorough-going obscurantists1 that the more discordant and incredible the divine mystery is1 the more honour is shown to ,god in believing it1 and the nobler is the victory of faith4 ,it was probably such deliverances as these that led to the ascription to ,bacon of ,the ,christian ,paradoxes1 first published 7surreptitiously71 without author's name1 in #afde4 ,as has been shown by ,dr4 ,grosart 7,lord ,bacon ,,not the ,author of ,the ,christian ,paradoxes1 #ahfe7 that treatise was really by ,herbert ,palmer1 ,b4,d41 who published it in full in part ii of his ,memorials of ,godliness and ,christianity1 #eth ed4 #afee4 ,the argument drawn from this treatise as to ,bacon's skepticism is a twofold mystification4 ,the ,paradoxes are the deliberate declaration of a pietist that he believes the dogmas of revelation without rational comprehension4 ,the style is plainly not ,bacon's2 but ,bacon had said the same thing in the sentence quoted above4 ,dr4 ,grosart's explosive defence against the criticism of ,ritter 7work cited1 p4 #ad7 is an illustration of the intellectual temper involved4 ,yet even in the calculated extravagance of this last pronouncement there is a ground for question whether the fallen ,chancellor1 hoping to retrieve himself1 and trying every device of his ripe sagacity to avert opposition1 was not straining his formal orthodoxy beyond his real intellectual habit4 ,as against such wholesale affirmation we have his declarations that certain it is that ,god worketh nothing in nature but by second causes1 and that any pretence to the contrary is mere imposture as it were in favour towards ,god1 and nothing else but to offer to the author of truth the unclean sacrifice of a lie2 #aje his repeated objection to the discussion of ,final ,causes2 #ajf his attack on ,plato and ,aristotle for rejecting the atheistic scientific method of ,democritus2 #ajg his peremptory assertion that motion is a property of matter2 #ajh and his almost ,democritean handling of the final problem1 in which he insists that primal matter is1 next to ,god1 the cause of causes1 itself only without a cause4 #aji ,further1 though he speaks of ,scriptural miracles in a conventional way1 #aaj he drily pronounces in one passage that1 as for narrations touching the prodigies and miracles of religions1 they are either not true or not natural1 and therefore impertinent for the story of nature4 #aaa ,finally1 as against the formal capitulation to theology at the close of the ,de ,augmentis1 he has left standing in the first book of the ,latin version the ringing doctrine of the original ,advancement of ,learning 7#afje71 that there is no power on earth which setteth up a throne or chair in the spirits and souls of men1 and in their cogitations1 imaginations1 opinions1 and beliefs1 but knowledge and learning2 #aab and in his ,wisdom of the ,ancients #aac he has contrived to turn a crude myth into a subtle allegory in behalf of toleration4 ,thus1 despite his many resorts to and prostrations before the ,scriptures1 the general effect of his writings in this regard is to set up in the minds of his readers the old semi-rationalistic equivoque of a two-fold truth2 reminding us as they do that he did in the beginning separate the divine testimony from the human4 ,when1 therefore1 he announces that we know by faith that matter was created from nothing1 #aad he has the air of juggling with his problem2 and his further suggestion as to the possibility of matter being endowed with a force of evolution1 however cautiously put1 is far removed from orthodoxy4 ,accordingly1 the charge of atheism--which he notes as commonly brought against all who dwell solely on second causes #aae--was actually cast at his memory in the next generation4 #aaf ,it was of course false3 on the issue of theism he is continually descanting with quite conventional unction2 as in the familiar essay on atheism4 #aag ,his dismissal of final causes as barren meant merely that the notion was barren of scientific result2 #aah and he refers the question to metaphysic4 #aai ,but if his theism was of a kind disturbing to believers in a controlling ,providence1 as little was it satisfactory to ,christian fervour3 and it can hardly be doubted that the main stream of his argument made for a non-,biblical deism1 if not for atheism2 his dogmatic orthodoxies being undermined by his own scientific teaching4 ,lechler 7,gesch4 des englischen ,deismus1 pp4 #bc-be7 notes that ,bacon involuntarily made for deism4 ,cp4 ,amand ,saintes1 ,hist4 de la philos4 de ,kant1 #ahdd1 p4 #fi2 and ,kuno ,fischer1 ,francis ,bacon1 ,eng4 tr4 #aheg1 ch4 xi1 pp4 #cda-dc4 ,dean ,church 7,bacon1 in ,men of ,letters series1 pp4 #agd1 #bje7 insists that ,bacon held by revelation and immortality2 and can of course cite his profession of such belief1 which is not to be disputed4 7,cp4 the careful judgment of ,prof4 ,fowler in his ,bacon1 pp4 #ahj-ia1 and his ed4 of the ,novum ,organum1 #ahgh1 pp4 #dc-ec47 ,but the tendency of the specific ,baconian teaching is none the less to put these beliefs aside1 and to overlay them with a naturalistic habit of mind4 ,at the first remove from ,bacon we have ,hobbes4 ,as regards his intellectual inconsistencies1 we can but say that they are such as meet us in men's thinking at every new turn4 ,though we can see that ,bacon's orthodoxy doth protest too much1 with an eye on king and commons and public opinion1 we are not led to suppose that he had ever in his heart cast off his inherited creed4 ,he shows frequent ,christian prejudice in his references to pagans2 and can write that ,to seek to extinguish anger utterly is but the bravery of the ,stoics1 #abj pretending that the ,christian books are more accommodating1 and ignoring the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,in arguing that the religion of the heathen set men upon ending all inquisition of nature in metaphysical or theological discourse1 and in charging the ,turks with a special tendency to ascribe ordinary effects to the immediate workings of ,god1 #aba he is playing not very scrupulously on the vanity of his co-religionists4 ,as he was only too well aware1 both tendencies ruled the ,christian thought of his own day1 and derive direct from the sacred books--not from abuse1 as he pretends4 ,and on the metaphysical as on the common-sense side of his thought he is self-contradictory1 even as most men have been before and since1 because judgment cannot easily fulfil the precepts it frames for itself in illuminated hours4 ,latter-day students have been impressed1 as was ,leibnitz1 by the original insight with which ,bacon negated the possibility of our forming any concrete conception of a primary form of matter1 and insisted on its necessary transcendence of our powers of knowledge4 #abb ,on the same principle he should have negated every modal conception of the still more recondite ,something which he put as antecedent to matter1 and called ,god4 #abc ,yet in his normal thinking he seems to have been content with the commonplace formula given in his essay on ,atheism--that we cannot suppose the totality of things to be without a mind4 ,he has here endorsed in its essentials what he elsewhere calls the heresy of the ,anthropomorphites1 #abd failing to apply his own law in his philosophy1 as elsewhere in his physics4 ,when1 however1 we realize that similar inconsistency is fallen into after him by ,spinoza1 and wholly escaped perhaps by no thinker1 we are in a way to understand that with all his deflections from his own higher law ,bacon may have profoundly and fruitfully influenced the thought of the next generation1 if not that of his own4 ,the fact of this influence has been somewhat obscured by the modern dispute as to whether he had any important influence on scientific progress4 #abe ,at first sight the old claim for him in that regard seems to be heavily discounted by the simple fact that he definitely rejected the ,copernican system of astronomy4 #abf ,though1 however1 this gravely emphasizes his fallibility1 it does not cancel his services as a stimulator of scientific thought4 ,at that time only a few were yet intelligently convinced ,copernicans2 and we have the record of how1 in ,bacon's day1 ,harvey lost heavily in credit and in his medical practice by propounding his discovery of the circulation of the blood1 #abg which1 it is said1 no physician over forty years old at that time believed in4 ,for the scientific men of that century--and only among them did ,copernicanism find the slightest acceptance--it was thus no fatal shortcoming in ,bacon to have failed to grasp the true scheme of sidereal motion1 any more than it was in ,galileo to be wrong about the tides and comets4 ,they could realize that it was precisely in astronomy1 for lack of special study and expert knowledge1 that ,bacon was least qualified to judge4 ,intellectual influence on science is not necessarily dependent on actual scientific achievement1 though that of course furthers and establishes it2 and the fact of ,bacon's impact on the mind of the next age is abundantly proved by testimonies4 ,for a time the explicit tributes came chiefly from abroad2 though at all times1 even in the first shock of his disgrace1 there were ,englishmen perfectly convinced of his greatness4 ,to the winning of foreign favour he had specially addressed himself in his adversity4 ,grown wary in act as well as wise in theory1 he deleted from the ,latin ,de ,augmentis a whole series of passages of the ,advancement of ,learning which disparaged ,catholics and ,catholicism2 #abh and he had his reward in being appreciated by many ,jesuit and other ,catholic scholars4 #abi ,but ,protestants such as ,comenius and ,leibnitz were ere long more emphatic than any ,catholics2 #acj and at the time of the ,restoration we find ,bacon enthusiastically praised among the more open-minded and scientifically biassed thinkers of ,england1 who included some zealous ,christians4 #aca ,it was not that his special method enabled them to reach important results with any new facility2 its impracticability is now insisted on by friends as well as foes4 #acb ,it was that he arraigned with extraordinary psychological insight and brilliance of phrase the mental vices which had made discoveries so rare2 the alternate self-complacency and despair of the average indolent mind2 the opinion of store which was cause of want2 the timid or superstitious evasion of research4 ,in all this he was using his own highest powers1 his comprehension of human character and his genius for speech4 ,and though his own scientific results were not to be compared with those of ,galileo and ,descartes1 the wonderful range of his observation and his curiosity1 the unwearying zest of his scrutiny of well-nigh all the known fields of ,nature1 must have been an inspiration to multitudes of students besides those who have recorded their debt to him4 ,it is probable that but for his literary genius1 which though little discussed is of a very rare order1 his influence would have been both narrower and less durable2 but1 being one of the great writers of the modern world1 he has swayed men down till our own day4 ,certain it is that alongside of his doctrine there persisted in ,england1 apart from all printed utterance1 a movement of deistic rationalism1 of which the eighteenth century saw only the fuller development4 ,sir ,john ,suckling 7#afji-afda71 rewriting about #afcg his letter to the ,earl of ,dorset1 ,an ,account of ,religion by ,reason1 tells how in a first sketch it had like to have made me an ,atheist at ,court1 and how the fear of ,socinianism at this time renders every man that offers to give an account of religion by reason1 suspected to have none at all2 #acc but he also mentions that he knows it still to be the opinion of good wits that the particular religion of ,christians has added little to the general religion of the world4 #acd ,himself a young man of talent1 he offers quasi-rational reconciliations of faith with reason which can have satisfied no real doubter1 and can hardly have failed to introduce doubt into the minds of some of his readers4 #e4 ,popular ,thought in ,europe ,of popular freethought in the rest of ,europe there is little to chronicle for a hundred and fifty years after the ,reformation4 ,the epoch-making work of ,copernicus1 published in #aedc1 had little or no immediate effect in ,germany1 where1 as we have seen1 physical and verbal strifes had begun with the ecclesiastical revolution1 and were to continue to waste the nation's energy for a century4 ,in #aedf1 all attempts at ecclesiastical reconciliation having failed1 the emperor ,charles ,v1 in whom ,melanchthon had seen a model monarch1 #ace decided to put down the ,protestant heresy by war4 ,luther had just died1 apprehensive for his cause4 ,civil war now raged till the peace of ,augsburg in #aeee2 whereafter ,charles abdicated in favour of his son ,philip4 ,here were in part the conditions which in ,france and elsewhere were later followed by a growth of rational unbelief2 and there are some traces even at this time of partial skepticism in high places in the ,german world1 notably in the case of the ,emperor ,maximilian ,,ii1 who1 grown up in the spirit of doubt1 #acf would never identify himself with either ,protestants or ,catholics4 #acg ,but in ,germany there was still too little intellectual light1 too little brooding over experience1 to permit of the spread of such a temper2 and the balance of forces amounted only to a deadlock between the ecclesiastical parties4 ,protestantism on the intellectual side1 as already noted1 had sunk into a bitter and barren polemic #ach among the reformers themselves2 and many who had joined the movement reverted to ,catholicism4 #aci ,meanwhile the teaching and preaching ,jesuits were zealously at work1 turning the dissensions of the enemy to account1 and contrasting its schism upon schism with the unity of the ,church4 ,but ,protestantism was well welded to the financial interest of the many princes and others who had acquired the ,church lands confiscated at the ,reformation2 since a return to ,catholicism would mean the surrender of these4 #adj ,thus there wrought on the one side the organized spirit of anti-heresy #ada and on the other the organized spirit of ,bibliolatry1 neither gaining ground2 and between the two1 intellectual life was paralysed4 ,protestantism saw no way of advance2 and the prevailing temper began to be that of the ,dark ,ages1 expectant of the end of the world4 #adb ,superstition abounded1 especially the belief in witchcraft1 now acted on with frightful cruelty throughout the whole ,christian world2 #adc and in the nature of the case ,catholicism counted for nothing on the opposite side4 ,the only element of rationalism that one historian of culture can detect is the tendency of the ,german moralists of the time to turn the devil into an abstraction by identifying him with the different aspects of human folly and vice4 #add ,there was1 as a matter of fact1 a somewhat higher manifestation of the spirit of reason in the shape of some new protests against the superstition of sorcery4 ,about #aefj a ,catholic priest named ,cornelius ,loos ,callidius was imprisoned by a papal nuncio for declaring that witches' confessions were merely the results of torture4 ,forced to retract1 he was released2 but again offended1 and was again imprisoned1 dying in time to escape the fate of a councillor of ,trves1 named ,flade1 who was burned alive for arguing1 on the basis of an old canon 7mistakenly named from the ,council of ,ancyra71 that sorcery is an imaginary crime4 #ade ,such an infamy explains a great deal of the stagnation of many ,christian generations4 ,but courage was not extinct2 and in #aefc there appeared the famous ,john ,wier's treatise on witchcraft1 #adf a work which1 though fully adhering to the belief in the devil and things demoniac1 argued against the notion that witches were conscious workers of evil4 ,wier #adg was a physician1 and saw the problem partly as one in pathology4 ,other laymen1 and even priests1 as we have seen1 had reacted still more strongly against the prevailing insanity2 but it had the authority of ,luther on its side1 and with the common people the earlier protests counted for little4 ,reactions against ,protestant bigotry in ,holland on other lines were not much more successful1 and indeed were not numerous4 ,one of the most interesting is that of ,dirk ,coornhert 7#aebb-aeij71 who by his manifold literary activities #adh became one of the founders of ,dutch prose4 ,in his youth ,coornhert had visited ,spain and ,portugal1 and had there1 it is said1 seen an execution of victims of the ,inquisition1 #adi deriving thence the aversion to intolerance which stamped his whole life's work4 ,it does not appear1 however1 that any such peninsular experience was required1 seeing that the ,dutch ,inquisition became abundantly active about the same period4 ,learning ,latin at thirty1 in order to read ,augustine1 he became a translator of ,cicero and--singularly enough--of ,boccaccio4 ,an engraver to trade1 he became first notary and later secretary to the burgomaster of ,haarlem2 and1 failing to steer clear of the strifes of the time1 was arrested and imprisoned at the ,hague in #aefg4 ,on his release he sought safety at ,kleef in ,santen1 whence he returned after the capture of ,brill to become secretary of the new national ,government at ,haarlem2 but he had again to take to flight1 and lived at ,kleef from #aegb to #aegg4 ,in #aegh he debated at ,leyden with two preachers of ,delft on predestination1 which he declared to be unscriptural2 and was officially ordered to keep silence4 ,thereupon he published a protest1 and got into fresh trouble by drawing up1 as notary1 an appeal to the ,prince of ,orange on behalf of his ,catholic fellow-countrymen for freedom of worship1 and by holding another debate at the ,hague4 #aej ,always his master-ideal was that of toleration1 in support of which he wrote strongly against ,beza and ,calvin 7this in a ,latin treatise published only after his death71 declaring the persecution of heretics to be a crime in the kingdom of ,god2 and it was as a moralist that he gave the lead to ,arminius on the question of predestination4 #aea ,against ,protestant and ,catholic sacerdotalism and scholastic he set forth humanist world-wisdom and ,biblical ethic1 #aeb to that end publishing a translation of ,bothius 7#aehe71 and composing his chief work on ,zedekunst 7,ethics74 ,christianity1 he insisted1 lay not in profession or creed1 but in practice4 ,by way of restraining the ever-increasing malignity of theological strifes1 he made the quaint proposal that the clergy should not be allowed to utter anything but the actual words of the ,scriptures1 and that all works of theology should be sequestrated4 ,for these and other heteroclite suggestions he was expelled from ,delft 7where he sought finally to settle1 #aehg7 by the magistrates1 at the instance of the preachers1 but was allowed to die in peace at ,gouda1 where he wrote to the last4 #aec ,all the while1 though he drew for doctrine on ,plutarch1 ,cicero1 ,seneca1 and ,marcus ,aurelius equally with the ,bible1 ,coornhert habitually founded on the latter as the final authority4 #aed ,on no other footing could any one in his age and country stand as a teacher4 ,it was not till after generations of furious intolerance that a larger outlook was possible in the ,netherlands2 and the first steps towards it were naturally taken independently of theology4 ,although ,grotius figured for a century as one of the chief exponents of ,christian evidences1 it is certain that his great work on the ,law of ,war and ,peace 7#afbe7 made for a rationalistic conception of society4 ,modern historians of jurisprudence1 like ,lerminier and ,bluntschli1 represent it as the distinctive merit of ,grotius that he freed the science from bondage to theology4 #aee ,the breach1 indeed1 is not direct1 as theistic sanctions are paraded in the ,prolegomena2 but along with these goes the avowal that natural ethic would be valid even were there no ,god1 and--as against the formula of ,horace1 ,utilitas justi mater--that the mother of natural right is human nature itself4 #aef ,where ,grotius1 defender of the faith1 figured as a heretic1 unbelief could not speak out1 though there are traces of its underground life4 ,the charge of atheism was brought against the ,excercitationes ,philosophic of ,gorlus1 published in #afbj2 but1 the book being posthumous1 conclusions could not be tried4 ,views far short of atheism1 however1 were dangerous to their holders2 for the merely ,socinian work of ,voelkel1 published at ,amsterdam in #afdb1 was burned by order of the authorities1 and a second impression shared the same fate4 #aeg ,in #afec the ,states of ,holland forbade the publication of all ,unitarian books and all ,socinian worship2 and though the veto as to books was soon evaded1 that on worship was enforced4 #aeh ,still1 ,holland was relatively tolerant as beside other countries2 and when the ,unitarian physician ,daniel ,zwicker 7#afab-afgh71 of ,dantzig1 found his own country too hot to hold him1 he came to ,holland 7about #afeb7 for security and convenience4 #aei ,he was able to publish at ,amsterdam in #afeh his ,latin ,irenicum ,irenicorum1 wherein he lays down three principles for the settlement of ,christian difficulties1 the first being the universal reason of mankind1 while ,scripture and tradition hold only the second and third places4 ,his book is a remarkable investigation of the rise of the doctrines of the ,logos and the ,trinity1 which he traced to polytheism1 making out that the first ,christians1 whom he identified with the ,nazarenes1 regarded ,jesus as a man4 ,the book evoked many answers1 and it is somewhat surprising that ,zwicker escaped serious persecution1 dying peacefully in ,amsterdam in #afgh1 whereas writers much less pronounced in their heresy incurred aggressive hostility4 ,descartes1 as we shall see1 during his stay in ,holland was menaced by clerical fanaticism4 ,some fared worse4 ,in the generation after ,grotius1 one ,koerbagh1 a doctor1 for publishing 7#affh7 a dictionary of definitions containing advanced ideas1 had to fly from ,amsterdam4 ,at ,culenberg he translated a ,unitarian work and began another2 but was betrayed1 tried for blasphemy1 and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment1 to be followed by ten years' banishment4 ,he compromised by dying in prison within the year4 ,even as late as #afgh the juri-consult ,hadrian ,beverland 7afterwards appointed1 through ,isaac ,vossius1 to a lay office under the ,church of ,england7 was imprisoned and struck off the rolls of ,leyden ,university for his ,peccatum ,originale1 in which he speculated erotically as to the nature of the sin of ,adam and ,eve4 ,the book was furiously answered1 and publicly burned4 #afj ,it was only after an age of such intolerance that ,holland1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 began to become for ,england a model of freedom in opinion1 as formerly in trade4 ,and it seems to have been through ,holland1 in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 that there came the fresh ,unitarian impulse which led to the considerable spread of the movement in ,england after the ,revolution of #afhh4 #afa ,unitarianism1 which we have seen thus invading ,holland somewhat persistently during half a century1 was then as now impotent beyond a certain point by reason of its divided allegiance1 though it has always had the support of some good minds4 ,its denial of the deity of ,jesus could not be made out without a certain superposing of reason on ,scripture2 and yet to ,scripture it always finally appealed4 ,the majority of men accepting such authority have always tended to believe more uncritically2 and the majority of men who are habitually critical will always repudiate the ,scriptural jurisdiction4 ,in ,poland1 accordingly1 the movement1 so flourishing in its earlier years1 was soon arrested1 as we have seen1 by the perception that it drove many ,protestants back to ,catholicism2 among these being presumably a number whose critical insight showed them that there was no firm standing-ground between ,catholicism and ,naturalism4 ,every new advance within the ,unitarian pale terrified the main body1 many of whom were mere ,arians1 holding by the term ,trinity1 and merely making the ,son subordinate to the ,father4 ,thus when one of their most learned ministers1 ,simon ,budny1 followed in the steps of ,ferencz ,davides 7whom we have seen dying in prison in ,transylvania in #aegi71 and represented ,jesus as a mere man1 he was condemned by a synod 7#aehb7 and deposed from his office 7#aehd74 ,he recanted1 and was reinstated1 #afb but his adherents seem to have been excommunicated4 ,the sect thus formed were termed ,semi-,judaizers by another heretic1 ,martin ,czechowicz1 who himself denied the pre-existence of ,jesus1 and made him only a species of demi-god2 #afc yet ,fausto ,sozzini1 better known as ,faustus ,socinus1 who also wrote against them1 and who had worked with ,biandrata to have ,davides imprisoned1 conceded that prayer to ,christ was optional4 #afd ,faustus1 who arrived in ,poland in #aegi1 seems to have been moved to his strenuously moderate policy1 which for a time unified the bulk of the party1 mainly by a desire to keep on tolerable terms with ,protestantism4 ,that1 however1 did not serve him with the ,catholics2 and when the reaction set in he suffered severely at their hands4 ,his treatise1 ,de ,jesu ,christu ,servatore1 created bitter resentment2 and in #aeih the ,catholic rabble of ,cracow1 led as usual by the students of the university1 dragged him from his house4 ,his life was saved only by the strenuous efforts of the rector and two professors of the university2 and his library was destroyed1 with his manuscripts1 whereof he particularly regretted a treatise which he had composed against the atheists2 #afe though it is not recorded that the atheists had ever menaced either his life or his property4 ,he seems to have been zealous against all heresy that outwent his own1 preaching passive obedience in politics as emphatically as any churchman1 and condemning alike the rising of the ,dutch against ,spanish rule and the resistance of the ,french ,protestants to their king4 #aff ,this attitude may have had something to do with the better side of the ethical doctrines of the sect1 which leant considerably to non-resistance4 ,czechowicz 7who was deposed by his fellow-,socinians for schism7 seems not only to have preached a patient endurance of injuries1 but to have meant it2 #afg and to the ,socinian sect belongs the main credit of setting up a humane compromise on the doctrine of eternal punishment4 #afh ,the time1 of course1 had not come for any favourable reception of such a compromise in ,christendom2 and it is noted of the ,german ,socinian1 ,ernst ,schoner 7,sonerus71 who wrote against the orthodox dogma1 that his works are exceedingly scarce4 #afi ,unitarianism as a whole1 indeed1 made little headway outside of ,poland and ,transylvania4 ,in ,spain1 meantime1 there was no recovery from the paralysis wrought by the combined tyranny of ,church and ,crown1 incarnate in the ,inquisition4 ,the monstrous multiplication of her clergy might alone have sufficed to set up stagnation in her mental life2 but1 not content with the turning of a vast multitude #agj of men and women away from the ordinary work of life1 her rulers set themselves to expatriate as many more on the score of heresy4 ,a century after the expulsion of the ,jews came the turn of the ,moors1 whose last hold in ,spain1 ,granada1 had been overthrown in #adib4 ,within a generation they had been deprived of all exterior practice of their religion2 #aga but that did not suffice1 and the ,inquisition never left them alone4 ,harried1 persecuted1 compulsorily baptized1 deprived of their ,arabic books1 they repeatedly revolted1 only to be beaten down4 ,at length1 in the opening years of the seventeenth century 7#afaj-afac71 under ,philip ,,iii1 on the score that the great ,armada had failed because heretics were tolerated at home1 it was decided to expel the whole race2 and now a million ,moriscoes1 among the most industrious inhabitants of ,spain1 were driven the way of the ,jews4 ,it is needless here to recall the ruinous effect upon the material life of ,spain3 #agb the aspect of the matter which specially concerns us is the consummation of the policy of killing out all intellectual variation4 ,the ,moriscoes may have counted for little in positive culture2 but they were one of the last and most important factors of variation in the country2 and when ,spain was thus successively denuded of precisely the most original and energetic types among the ,jewish1 the ,spanish1 and the ,moorish stocks1 her mental arrest was complete4 ,to modern freethought1 accordingly1 she has till our own age contributed practically nothing4 ,huarte seems to have had no ,spanish successors4 ,the brilliant dramatic literature of the reigns of the three ,philips1 which influenced the rising drama alike of ,france and ,england1 is notably unintellectual1 #agc dealing endlessly in plot and adventure1 but yielding no great study of character1 and certainly doing nothing to further ethics4 ,calderon was a thorough fanatic1 and became a priest2 #agd ,lope de ,vega found solace under bereavement in zealously performing the duties of an ,inquisitor2 and was so utterly swayed by the atrocious creed of persecution which was blighting ,spain that he joined in the general exultation over the expulsion of the ,moriscoes4 ,even the mind of ,cervantes had not on this side deepened beyond the average of his race and time2 #age his old wrongs at ,moorish hands perhaps warping his better judgment4 ,his humorous and otherwise kindly spirit1 so incongruously neighboured1 must indeed have counted for much in keeping life sweet in ,spain in the succeeding centuries of bigotry and ignorance4 ,but from the seventeenth century till the other day the brains were out1 in the sense that genius was lacking4 ,that species of variation had been too effectually extirpated during two centuries to assert itself until after a similar duration of normal conditions4 ,the immense advantage of religious unity1 which even a modern ,spanish historian #agf has described as a gain balancing the economic loss from the expulsion of the ,moriscoes1 was precisely the condition of minimum intellectual activity--the unity of stagnation4 ,no kind of ratiocinative thought was allowed to raise its head4 ,a ,latin translation of the ,hypotyposes of ,sextus ,empiricus had been permitted1 or at least published1 in ,catholic ,france2 but when ,martin ,martinez de ,cantatapiedra1 a learned orientalist and professor of theology1 ventured to do the same thing in ,spain--doubtless with the idea of promoting faith by discouraging reason--he was haled before the ,inquisition1 and the book proscribed 7#aehc74 ,he was further charged with ,lutheran leanings on the score that he had a preference for the actual text of ,scripture over that of the commentators4 #agg ,in such an atmosphere it was natural that works on mathematics1 astronomy1 and physics should be censured as favouring materialism and sometimes atheism4 #agh ,it has been held by one historian that at the death of ,philip ,,ii there arose some such sense of relief throughout ,spain as was felt later in ,france at the death of ,louis ,,xiv2 that the ,spaniards now ventured to sport with the chains which they had not the power to break2 and that ,cervantes profited by the change in conceiving and writing his ,don ,quixote4 #agi ,but the same historian had before seen that poetic freedom was circumscribed by the same shackles which fettered moral liberty4 ,thoughts which could not be expressed without fear of the dungeon and the stake were no longer materials for the poet to work on4 ,his imagination1 instead of improving them into poetic ideas 444 had to be taught to reject them4 ,but the eloquence of prose was more completely bowed down under the inquisitorial yoke than poetry1 because it was more closely allied to truth1 which of all things was the most dreaded4 #ahj ,cervantes1 ,lope de ,vega1 and ,calderon proved that within the iron wall of ,catholic orthodoxy1 in an age when conclusions were but slowly being tried between dogma and reason1 there could be a vigorous play of imaginative genius on the field of human nature2 even as in ,velasquez1 sheltered by royal favour1 the genius of colour and portraiture could become incarnate4 ,but after these have passed away1 the laws of social progress are revealed in the defect of all further ,spanish genius4 ,even of ,cervantes it is recorded--on very doubtful authority1 however--that he said ,i could have made ,don ,quixote much more amusing if it were not for the ,inquisition2 and it is matter of history that a passage in his book #aha disparaging perfunctory works of charity was in #afai ordered by the ,holy ,office to be expunged as impious and contrary to the faith4 ,see ,h4 ,e4 ,watts1 ,miguel de ,cervantes1 p4 #afg4 ,don ,quixote was always under suspicion of the orthodox4 ,id4 p4 #aff4 ,mr4 ,watts1 saying nothing of ,cervantes's approval of the expulsion of the ,moriscoes1 claims that his head was clear of the follies and extravagances of the reigning superstition 7id4 p4 #bca74 ,but the case is truly summed up by ,mr4 ,ormsby when he says3 ,for one passage capable of being tortured into covert satire against things ecclesiastical1 there are ten in ,don ,quixote and the novels that show--what indeed is very obvious from the little we know of his life and character--that ,cervantes was a faithful son of the ,church 7tr4 of ,don ,quixote1 #ahhe1 introd4 i1 #eg74 ,when the total intellectual life of a nation falls ever further in the rear of the world's movement1 even the imaginative arts are stunted4 ,turkey excepted1 the civilized nations of ,europe which for two centuries have contributed the fewest great names to the world's bead-roll have been ,spain1 ,austria1 ,portugal1 ,belgium1 and ,greece1 all noted for their religious unity4 ,and of all of these ,spain is the supreme instance of positive decadence1 she having exhibited in the first half of the sixteenth century a greater complex of energy than any of the others4 #ahb ,the lesson is monumental4 #f4 ,scientific ,thought ,it remains to trace briefly the movement of scientific and speculative thought which constituted the transition between the ,scholastic and the modern philosophy4 ,it may be compendiously noted under the names of ,copernicus1 ,bruno1 ,vanini1 ,galileo1 ,ramus1 ,gassendi1 ,bacon1 and ,descartes4 ,the great performance of ,copernicus 7,nicolaus ,koppernigk1 #adgc-aedc71 given to the world with an editor's treacherous preface as he lay paralysed on his deathbed1 did not become a general possession for over a hundred years4 ,the long reluctance of its author to let it be published1 despite the express invitation of a cardinal in the name of the pope1 was well founded in his knowledge of the strength of common prejudice2 and perhaps partly in a sense of the scientific imperfection of his own case4 #ahc ,only the special favour accorded to his first sketch at ,rome--a favour which he had further carefully planned for in his dedicatory epistle to ,pope ,paul--saved his main treatise from prohibition till long after its work was done4 #ahd ,it was in fact1 with all its burden of traditional error1 the most momentous challenge that had yet been offered in the modern world to established beliefs1 alike theological and lay1 for it seemed to flout common sense as completely as it did the cosmogony of the sacred books4 ,it was probably from scraps of ancient lore current in ,italy in his years of youthful study there that he first derived his idea2 and in ,italy none had dared publicly to propound the geocentric theory4 ,its gradual victory1 therefore1 is the first great modern instance of a triumph of reason over spontaneous and instilled prejudice2 and ,galileo's account of his reception of it should be a classic document in the history of rationalism4 ,it was when he was a student in his teens that there came to ,pisa one ,christianus ,urstitius of ,rostock1 a follower of ,copernicus1 to lecture on the new doctrine4 ,the young ,galileo1 being satisfied that that opinion could be no other than a solemn madness1 did not attend2 and those of his acquaintance who did made a jest of the matter1 all save one1 very intelligent and wary1 who told him that the business was not altogether to be laughed at4 ,thenceforth he began to inquire of ,copernicans1 with the result inevitable to such a mind as his4 ,of as many as ,i examined ,i found not so much as one who told me not that he had been a long time of the contrary opinion1 but to have changed it for this1 as convinced by the strength of the reasons proving the same2 and afterwards questioning them one by one1 to see whether they were well possessed of the reasons of the other side1 ,i found them all to be very ready and perfect in them1 so that ,i could not truly say that they took this opinion out of ignorance1 vanity1 or to show the acuteness of their wits4 ,on the other hand1 the opposing ,aristoteleans and ,ptolemeans had seldom even superficially studied the ,copernican system1 and had in no case been converted from it4 ,whereupon1 considering that there was no man who followed the opinion of ,copernicus that had not been first on the contrary side1 and that was not very well acquainted with the reasons of ,aristotle and ,ptolemy1 while1 on the contrary1 there was not one of the followers of ,ptolemy that had ever been of the judgment of ,copernicus1 and had left that to embrace this of ,aristotle1 he began to realize how strong must be the reasons that thus drew men away from beliefs imbibed with their milk4 #ahe ,we can divine how slow would be the progress of a doctrine which could only thus begin to find its way into one of the most gifted scientific minds of the modern world4 ,it was only a minority of the lite of the intellectual life who could receive it1 even after the lapse of a hundred years4 ,the doctrine of the earth's two-fold motion1 as we have seen1 had actually been taught in the fifteenth century by ,nicolaus of ,cusa 7#adja-adfd71 who1 instead of being prosecuted1 was made a cardinal1 so little was the question then considered 7,ueberweg1 ii1 #bc-bd74 ,see above1 vol4 i1 p4 #cfh1 as to ,pulci4 ,only very slowly did the work even of ,copernicus make its impression4 ,green 7,short ,history1 ed4 #ahha1 p4 #big7 makes first the mistake of stating that it influenced thought in the fifteenth century1 and then the further mistake of saying that it was brought home to the general intelligence by ,galileo and ,kepler in the later years of the sixteenth century 7id4 p4 #dab74 ,galileo's ,european notoriety dates from #afaf2 his ,dialogues of the ,two ,systems of the ,world appeared only in #afcb2 and his ,dialogues of the ,new ,sciences in #afch4 ,kepler's indecisive ,mysterium ,cosmographicum appeared only in #aeig2 his treatise on the motions of the planet ,mars not till #afji4 ,one of the first to bring the new cosmological conception to bear on philosophic thought was ,giordano ,bruno of ,nola 7#aedh-afjj71 whose life and death of lonely chivalry have won him his place as the typical martyr of modern freethought4 #ahf ,he may be conceived as a blending of the pantheistic and naturalistic lore of ancient ,greece1 #ahg assimilated through the ,florentine ,platonists1 with the spirit of modern science 7itself a revival of the ,greek7 as it first takes firm form in ,copernicus1 whose doctrine ,bruno early and ardently embraced4 ,baptized ,filippo1 he took ,giordano as his cloister-name when he entered the great convent of ,s4 ,domenico ,maggiore at ,naples in #aefc1 in his fifteenth year4 ,no human being was ever more unfitly placed among the ,dominicans1 punningly named the hounds of the ,lord 7domini canes7 for their work as the corps of the ,inquisition2 and very early in his cloister life he came near being formally proceeded against for showing disregard of sacred images1 and making light of the sanctity of the ,virgin4 #ahh ,he passed his novitiate1 however1 without further trouble1 and was fully ordained a priest in #aegb1 in his twenty-fourth year4 ,passing then through several ,neapolitan monasteries during a period of three years1 he seems to have become not a little of a freethinker on his return to his first cloister1 as he had already reached ,arian opinions in regard to ,christ1 and soon proceeded to substitute a mystical and ,pythagorean for the orthodox view of the ,trinity4 #ahi ,for the second time a process was begun against him1 and he took flight to ,rome 7#aegf71 presenting himself at a convent of his ,order4 ,news speedily came from ,naples of the process against him1 and of the discovery that he had possessed a volume of the works of ,chrysostom and ,jerome with the scholia of ,erasmus--a prohibited thing4 ,only a few months before ,bartolomeo ,carranza1 ,bishop of ,toledo1 who had won the praise of the ,council of ,trent for his index of prohibited books1 had been condemned to abjure for the doctrine that the worship of the relics of the saints is of human institution1 and had died in the same year at the convent to which ,bruno had now gone4 ,thus doubly warned1 he threw off his priestly habit1 and fled to the ,genoese territory1 #aij where1 in the commune of ,noli1 he taught grammar and astronomy4 ,in #aegh he visited successively ,turin1 ,venice1 ,padua1 ,bergamo1 and ,milan1 resuming at the last-named town his monk's habit4 ,thereafter he again returned to ,turin1 passing thence to ,chambry at the end of #aegh1 and thence to ,geneva early in #aegi4 #aia ,his wish1 he said1 was to live in liberty and security2 but for that he must first renounce his ,dominican habit2 other ,italian refugees1 of whom there were many at ,geneva1 helping him to a layman's suit4 ,becoming a corrector of the press1 he seems to have conformed externally to ,calvinism2 but after a stay of two and a-half months he published a short diatribe against one ,antonio de ,la ,faye1 who professed philosophy at the ,academy2 and for this he was arrested and sentenced to excommunication1 while his bookseller was subjected to one day's imprisonment and a fine4 #aib ,after three weeks the excommunication was raised2 but he nevertheless left ,geneva1 and afterwards spoke of ,calvinism as the deformed religion4 ,after a few weeks' sojourn at ,lyons he went to ,toulouse1 the very centre of inquisitional orthodoxy2 and there1 strangely enough1 he was able to stay for more than a year1 #aic taking his degree as ,master of ,arts and becoming professor of astronomy4 ,but the civil wars made ,toulouse unsafe2 and at length1 probably in #aeha or #aehb1 he reached ,paris1 where for a time he lectured as professor extraordinary4 #aid ,in #aehc he reached ,england1 where he remained till #aehe1 lecturing1 debating at ,oxford on the ,copernican theory1 and publishing a number of his works1 four of them dedicated to his patron ,castelnau de ,mauvissire1 the ,french ambassador4 ,oxford was then a stronghold of bigoted ,aristotelianism1 where bachelors and masters deviating from the master were fined1 or1 if openly hostile1 expelled4 #aie ,in that camp ,bruno was not welcome4 ,but he had other shelter1 at the ,french ,embassy in ,london1 and there he had notable acquaintances4 ,he had met ,sir ,philip ,sidney at ,milan in #aegh2 and his dialogue1 ,cena de le ,ceneri1 gives a vivid account of a discussion in which he took a leading part at a banquet given by ,sir ,fulke ,greville4 ,his picture of ,oxford ignorance and ,english ill-manners #aif is not lenient2 and there is no reason to suppose that his doctrine was then assimilated by many2 #aig but his stay in the household of ,castelnau was one of the happiest periods of his chequered life4 ,while in ,england he wrote no fewer than seven works1 four of them dedicated to ,castelnau1 and two--the ,heroic ,fervours and the ,expulsion of the ,triumphant ,beast--to ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,returning to ,paris on the recall of ,castelnau in #aehe1 he made an attempt to reconcile himself to the ,church1 but it was fruitless2 and thereafter he went his own way4 ,after a public disputation at the university in #aehf1 he set out on a new peregrination1 visiting first ,mayence1 ,marburg1 and ,wittemberg4 ,at ,marburg he was refused leave to debate2 and at ,wittemberg he seems to have been carefully conciliatory1 as he not only matriculated but taught for over a year 7#aehf-aehh71 till the ,calvinist party carried the day over the ,lutheran4 #aih ,thereafter he reached ,prague1 ,helmstadt1 ,frankfort1 and ,zurich4 ,at length1 on the fatal invitation of the ,venetian youth ,mocenigo1 he re-entered ,italian territory1 where1 in ,venice1 he was betrayed to the ,inquisition by his treacherous and worthless pupil4 #aii ,what had been done for freethought by ,bruno in his fourteen years of wandering1 debating1 and teaching through ,europe it is impossible to estimate2 but it is safe to say that he was one of the most powerful antagonists to orthodox unreason that had yet appeared4 ,of all men of his time he had perhaps the least affinity with the ,christian creed1 which was repellent to him alike in the ,catholic and the ,protestant versions4 ,the attempt to prove him a believer on the strength of a non-autograph manuscript #bjj is idle4 ,his approbation of a religion for the discipline of uncivilized peoples is put in terms of unbelief4 #bja ,in the ,spaccio della bestia trionfante he derides the notion of a union of divine and human natures1 and substantially proclaims a natural 7theistic7 religion1 negating all revealed religions alike4 ,where ,boccaccio had accredited all the three leading religions1 ,bruno disallows all with paganism1 though he puts that above ,christianity4 #bjb ,and his disbelief grew more stringent with his years4 ,among the heretical propositions charged against him by the ,inquisition were these3 that there is transmigration of souls2 that magic is right and proper2 that the ,holy ,spirit is the same thing as the soul of the world2 that the world is eternal2 that ,moses1 like the ,egyptians1 wrought miracles by magic2 that the sacred writings are but a romance 7sogno72 that the devil will be saved2 that only the ,hebrews are descended from ,adam1 other men having descended from progenitors created by ,god before ,adam2 that ,christ was not ,god1 but was a notorious sorcerer 7insigne mago71 who1 having deceived men1 was deservedly hanged1 not crucified2 that the prophets and the apostles were bad men and sorcerers1 and that many of them were hanged as such4 ,the cruder of these propositions rest solely on the allegation of ,mocenigo1 and were warmly repudiated by ,bruno3 others are professedly drawn1 always1 of course1 by forcing his language1 but not without some colourable pretext1 from his two poems1 ,de triplice1 minimo1 et mensura1 and ,de monade1 numero et figura1 published at ,frankfort in #aeia1 in the last year of his freedom4 #bjc ,but the allusions in the ,sigillus ,sigillorum #bjd to the weeping worship of a suffering ,adonis1 to the exhibition of suffering and miserable ,gods1 to transpierced divinities1 and to sham miracles1 were certainly intended to contemn the ,christian system4 ,alike in the details of his propaganda and in the temper of his utterance1 ,bruno expresses from first to last the spirit of freethought and free speech4 ,libertas philosophica #bje is the breath of his nostrils2 and by his life and his death alike he upholds the ideal for men as no other before him did4 ,the wariness of ,rabelais and the non-committal skepticism of ,montaigne are alike alien to him2 he is too lacking in reticence1 too explosive1 to give due heed even to the common-sense amenities of life1 much more to hedge his meaning with safeguarding qualifications4 ,and it was doubtless as much by the contagion of his mood as by his lore that he impressed men4 ,his personal and literary influence was probably most powerful in respect of his eager propaganda of the ,copernican doctrine1 which he of his own force vitally expanded and made part of a pantheistic conception of the universe4 #bjf ,where ,copernicus adhered by implication to the idea of an external and limitary sphere--the last of the eight of the ,ptolemaic theory--,bruno reverted boldly to the doctrine of ,anaximandros1 and declared firmly for the infinity of space and of the series of the worlds4 ,in regard to biology he makes an equivalent advance1 starting from the thought of ,empedocles and ,lucretius1 and substituting an idea of natural selection for that of creative providence4 #bjg ,the conception is definitely thought out1 and marks him as one of the renovators of scientific no less than of philosophic thought for the modern world2 though the special paralysis of science under ,christian theology kept his ideas on this side pretty much a dead letter for his own day4 ,and indeed it was to the universal and not the particular that his thought chiefly and most enthusiastically turned4 ,a philosophic poet rather than a philosopher or man of science1 he yet set abroad for the modern world that conception of the physical infinity of the universe which1 once psychologically assimilated1 makes an end of the medieval theory of things4 ,on this head he was eagerly affirmative2 and the merely ,pyrrhonic skeptics he assailed as he did the asinine orthodox1 though he insisted on doubt as the beginning of wisdom4 ,of his extensive literary output not much is stamped with lasting scientific fitness or literary charm2 and some of his treatises1 as those on mnemonics1 have no more value than the product of his didactic model1 ,raymond ,lully4 ,as a writer he is at his best in the sweeping expatiation of his more general philosophic treatises1 where he attains a lifting ardour of inspiration1 a fervour of soaring outlook1 that puts him in the front rank of the thinkers of his age4 ,and if his literary character is at times open to severe criticism in respect of his lack of balance1 sobriety1 and self-command1 his final courage atones for such shortcomings4 ,his case1 indeed1 serves to remind us that at certain junctures it is only the unbalanced types that aid humanity's advance4 ,the perfectly prudent and self-sufficing man does not achieve revolutions1 does not revolt against tyrannies2 he wisely adapts himself and subsists1 letting the evil prevail as it may4 ,it is the more impatient and unreticent1 the eager and hot-brained--in a word1 the faulty--who clash with oppression and break a way for quieter spirits through the hedges of enthroned authority4 ,the serenely contemplative spirit is rather a possession than a possessor for his fellows2 he may inform and enlighten1 but is not in himself a countering or inspiriting force3 a ,shelley avails more than a ,goethe against tyrannous power4 ,and it may be that the battling enthusiast in his own way wins liberation for himself from fear of fortune and death1 as he wins for others liberty of action4 #bjh ,even such a liberator1 bearing other men's griefs and taking stripes that they might be kept whole1 was ,bruno4 ,and though he quailed at the first shock of capture and torture1 when the end came he vindicated human nature as worthily as could any quietist4 ,it was a long-drawn test4 ,charged on the traitor's testimony with many blasphemies1 he denied them all1 #bji but stood to his published writings #baj and vividly expounded his theories1 #baa professing in the usual manner to believe in conformity with the ,church's teachings1 whatever he might write on philosophy4 ,it is impossible to trust the ,inquisition records as to his words of self-humiliation2 #bab though on the other hand no blame can rationally attach to anyone who1 in his place1 should try to deceive such enemies1 morally on a level with hostile savages4 ,it is certain that the ,inquisitors frequently wrung recantations by torture4 #bac ,what is historically certain is that ,bruno was not released1 but sent on to ,rome1 and was kept there in prison for seven years4 ,he was not the sort of heretic likely to be released2 though the fact of his being a ,dominican1 and the desire to maintain the ,church's intellectual credit1 delayed so long his execution4 ,certainly not an atheist 7he called himself in several of his book-titles ,philotheus2 he consigns insano ateismo to perdition2 #bad and his quasi-pantheism or monism often lapses into theistic modes71 #bae he yet was from first to last essentially though not professedly anti-,christian in his view of the universe4 ,if the ,church had cause to fear any philosophic teaching1 it was his1 preached with the ardour of a prophet and the eloquence of a poet4 ,his doctrine that the worlds in space are innumerable was as offensive to orthodox ears as his specific negations of ,christian dogma1 outgoing as it did the later idea of ,kepler and ,galileo4 ,he had1 moreover1 finally refused to make any fresh recantation2 and the only detailed document extant concerning his final trial describes him as saying to his judges3 ,with more fear1 perchance1 do you pass sentence on me than ,i receive it4 #baf ,according to all accessible records1 he was burned alive at ,rome in ,february1 #afjj1 in the ,field of ,flowers1 near where his statue now stands4 ,as was probably customary1 they tied his tongue before leading him to the stake1 lest he should speak to the people2 #bag and his martyrdom was an edifying spectacle for the vast multitude of pilgrims who had come from all parts of ,christendom for the jubilee of the pope4 #bah ,at the stake1 when he was at the point of death1 there was duly presented to him the crucifix1 and he duly put it aside4 ,an attempt has been made by ,professor ,desdouits in a pamphlet 7,la lgende tragique de ,jordano ,bruno2 ,paris1 #ahhe7 to show that there is no evidence that ,bruno was burned2 and an anonymous writer in the ,scottish ,review 7,october1 #ahhh1 ,art4 ,,ii71 rabidly hostile to ,bruno1 has maintained the same proposition4 ,doubt on the subject dates from ,bayle4 ,its main ground is the fewness of the documentary records1 of which1 further1 the genuineness is now called in question4 ,but no good reason is shown for doubting them4 ,they are three4 #a4 ,the ,latin letter of ,gaspar ,schopp 7,scioppius71 dated ,february #ag1 #afjj1 is an eye-witness's account of the sentencing and burning of ,bruno at that date4 7,see it in full1 in the original ,latin1 in ,berti1 p4 #dfa sq41 and in ,app4 ,v to ,frith1 ,life of ,bruno1 and partly translated in ,prof4 ,adamson's lectures1 as cited4 ,it was rep4 by ,struvius in his ,acta ,literaria1 tom4 v1 and by ,la ,croze in his ,entretiens sur divers sujets in #agaa1 p4 #bhg47 ,it was not printed till #afba1 but the grounds urged for its rejection are totally inadequate1 and involve assumptions1 which are themselves entirely unproved1 as to what ,scioppius was likely to do4 ,finally1 no intelligible reason is suggested for the forging of such a document4 ,the remarks of ,prof4 ,desdouits on this head have no force whatever4 ,the writer in the ,scottish ,review 7p4 #bfc1 and note7 suggests as at least as possible an hypothesis as any other that he ,bruno was the author of the forged accounts of his own death4 ,comment is unnecessary4 #b4 ,there are preserved two extracts from ,roman news-letters 7,avvisi7 of the time2 one1 dated ,february #ab1 #afjj1 commenting on the case2 the other1 dated ,february #ai1 relating the execution on the #agth4 7,see both in ,s4 ,r41 pp4 #bfd-fe4 ,they were first printed by ,berti in ,documenti intorno a ,giordano ,bruno1 ,rome1 #ahhj1 and are reprinted in his ,vita1 ed4 #ahhi1 cap4 xix2 also by ,levi1 as cited47 ,against these testimonies the sole plea is that they mis-state ,bruno's opinions and the duration of his imprisonment--a test which would reduce to mythology the contents of most newspapers in our own day4 ,the writer in the ,scottish ,review makes the suicidal suggestion that1 inasmuch as the errors as to dates occur in ,schopp's letter1 the so-called ,schopp was fabricated from these notices1 or they from ,schopp--thus admitting one to be historical4 #c4 ,there has been found1 by a ,catholic investigator1 a double entry in the books of the ,lay ,brotherhood of ,san ,giovanni ,decollato1 whose function was to minister to prisoners under capital sentence1 giving a circumstantial account of ,bruno's execution4 7,see it in ,s4 ,r41 pp4 #bff1 #bfi1 #bgj47 ,in this case1 the main entry being dated #afjj4 ,thursday4 ,february #afth1 the anonymous writer argues that the whole thing resolves itself into a make-up1 because ,february #af was the ,wednesday4 ,the entry refers to the procedure of the ,wednesday night and the ,thursday morning2 and such an error could easily occur in any case4 ,whatever may be one day proved1 the cavils thus far count for nothing4 ,all the while1 the records as to ,bruno remain in the hands of the ,catholic authorities2 but1 despite the discredit constantly cast on the ,church on the score of ,bruno's execution1 they offer no official denial of the common statement2 while they do officially admit 7,s4 ,r41 p4 #beb7 that on ,february #h ,bruno was sentenced as an obstinate heretic1 and given over to the ,secular ,court4 ,on the other hand1 the episode is well vouched2 and the argument from the silence of ambassadors' letters is so far void4 ,no pretence is made of tracing ,bruno anywhere after ,february1 #afjj4 ,since the foregoing note appeared in the first edition ,i have met with the essay of ,mr4 ,r4 ,copley ,christie1 ,was ,giordano ,bruno ,really ,burned8 7,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,october1 #ahhe2 rep4 in ,mr4 ,christie's ,selected ,essays and ,papers1 #aijb74 ,this is a crushing answer to the thesis of ,m4 ,desdouits1 showing as it does clear grounds not only for affirming the genuineness of the letter of ,scioppius1 but for doubting the diligence of ,m4 ,desdouits4 ,mr4 ,christie points out 7#a7 that in his book ,ecclesiasticus1 printed in #afab1 ,scioppius refers to the burning of ,bruno almost in the words of his letter of #afjj2 7#b7 that in #afjg ,kepler wrote to a correspondent of the burning of ,bruno1 giving as his authority ,j4 ,m4 ,wacker1 who in #afjj was living at ,rome as the imperial ambassador2 and 7#c7 that the tract ,machiavellizatio1 #afba1 in which the letter of ,scioppius was first printed1 was well known in its day1 being placed on the ,index1 and answered by two writers without eliciting any repudiation from ,scioppius1 who lived till #afdi4 ,as ,m4 ,desdouits staked his case on the absence of allusion to the subject before #affa 7overlooking even the allusion by ,mersenne1 in #afbd1 cited by ,bayle71 his theory may be taken as exploded4 ,bruno has been zealously blackened by ,catholic writers for the obscenity of some of his writing #bai and the alleged freedom of his life--piquant charges1 when we remember the life of the ,papal ,italy in which he was born4 ,lucilio ,vanini 7otherwise ,julius ,csar ,vanini71 the next martyr of freethought1 also an ,italian 7b4 at ,taurisano1 #aehe71 is open to the more relevant charges of an inordinate vanity and some duplicity4 ,figuring as a ,carmelite friar1 which he was not1 he came to ,england 7#afab7 and deceitfully professed to abjure ,catholicism1 #bbj gaining1 however1 nothing by the step1 and contriving to be reconciled to the ,church1 after being imprisoned for forty-nine days on an unrecorded charge4 ,previously he had figured1 like ,bruno1 as a wandering scholar at ,amsterdam1 ,brussels1 ,cologne1 ,geneva1 and ,lyons2 and afterwards he taught natural philosophy for a year at ,genoa4 ,his treatise1 ,amphitheatrum terna ,providenti 7,lyons1 #afae71 is professedly directed against ancient philosophers1 ,atheists1 ,epicureans1 ,peripatetics1 and ,stoics1 and is ostensibly quite orthodox4 #bba ,in one passage he untruthfully tells how1 when imprisoned in ,england1 he burned with the desire to shed his blood for the ,catholic ,church4 #bbb ,in another1 after declaring that some ,christian doctors have argued very weakly against the ,epicureans on immortality1 he avows that he1 ,christianus nomine cognomine ,catholicus1 could hardly have held the doctrine if he had not learned it from the ,church1 the most certain and infallible mistress of truth4 #bbc ,as usual1 the attack leaves us in doubt as to the amount of real atheism current at the time4 ,the preface asserts that ,atheotto autem secta pestilentissima quotidie1 latius et latius vires acquirit eundo1 and there are various hostile allusions to atheists in the text2 #bbd but the arguments cited from them are such as might be brought by deists against miracles and the ,christian doctrine of sin2 and there is an allusion of the customary kind to ,nicolaus ,machiavellus ,atheorum facile princeps1 #bbe which puts all in doubt4 ,the later published ,dialogues1 ,de ,admirandis ,natur ,arcanis1 #bbf while showing a freer critical spirit1 would seem to be in part earlier in composition1 if we can trust the printer's preface1 which represents them as collected from various quarters1 and published only with the reluctant consent of the author4 #bbg ,this1 of course1 may be a mystification2 in any case the ,dialogues twice mention the ,amphitheatrum2 and the fourth book1 in which this mention occurs1 may be taken on this and other grounds to set forth his later ideas4 ,even the ,dialogues1 however1 while discussing many questions of creed and science in a free fashion1 no less profess orthodoxy2 and1 while one passage is pantheistic1 #bbh they also denounce atheism4 #bbi ,and whereas one passage does avow that the author in his ,amphitheatrum had said many things he did not believe1 the context clearly suggests that the reference was not to the main argument1 but to some of its dubious facts4 #bcj ,in any case1 though the title--chosen by the editors--speaks daringly enough of ,nature1 the queen and goddess of mortals1 ,vanini cannot be shown to be an atheist2 #bca and the attacks upon him as an immoral writer are not any better supported4 #bcb ,the publication of the dialogues was in fact formally authorized by the ,sorbonne1 #bcc and it does not even appear that when he was charged with atheism and blasphemy at ,toulouse that work was founded on1 save in respect of its title4 #bcd ,the charges rested on the testimony of a treacherous associate as to his private conversation2 and1 if true1 it only amounted to proving his pantheism1 expressed in his use of the word ,nature4 ,at his trial he expressly avowed and argued for theism4 ,the judges1 by one account1 did not agree4 ,yet he was convicted1 by the voices of the majority1 and burned alive 7,february #i1 #afai7 on the day of his sentence4 ,drawn on a hurdle1 in his shirt1 with a placard on his shoulders inscribed ,atheist and ,blasphemer of the name of ,god1 he went to his death with a high heart1 rejoicing1 as he cried in ,italian1 to die like a philosopher4 #bce ,a ,catholic historian1 #bcf who was present1 says he hardily declared that ,jesus facing death sweated with fear3 ,i die undaunted4 ,but before burning him they tore out his tongue by the roots2 and the ,christian historian is humorous over the victim's long cry of agony4 #bcg ,no martyr ever faced death with a more dauntless courage than this ,lonely antagonist of ,destiny ,that went down scornful before many spears2 #bch and if the man had all the faults falsely imputed to him1 #bci his death might shame his accusers4 ,vanini1 like ,bruno1 can now be recognized and understood as an ,italian of vivacious temperament1 studious without the student's calm1 early learned1 alert in debate1 fluent1 imprudent1 and ill-balanced4 ,by his own account he studied theology under the ,carmelite ,bartolomeo ,argotti1 phoenix of the preachers of the time2 #bdj but from the ,english ,carmelite1 ,john ,bacon1 the prince of ,averrosts1 #bda he declares1 he learned to swear only by ,averros2 and of ,pomponazzi he speaks as his master1 and as prince of the philosophers of our age4 #bdb ,he has criticized both freely in his ,amphitheatrum2 but whereas that work is a professed vindication of orthodoxy1 we may infer from the ,de ,arcanis that the arguments of these skeptics1 like those of the contemporary atheists whom he had met in his travels1 had kept their hold on his thought even while he controverted them4 ,for it cannot be disputed that the long passages which he quotes from the atheist at ,amsterdam #bdc are put with a zest and cogency which are not infused into the professed rebuttals1 and are in themselves quite enough to arouse the anger and suspicion of a pious reader4 ,a writer who set forth so fully the acute arguments of unbelievers1 unprintable by their authors1 might well be suspected of writing at ,christianity when he confuted the creeds of the pagans4 ,as was noted later of ,fontenelle1 he put arguments against oracles which endangered prophecy2 his dismissal of sorcery as the dream of troubled brains appeals to reason and not to faith2 and his disparagement of pagan miracles logically bore upon the ,christian4 ,when he comes to the question of immortality he grows overtly irreverent4 ,asked by the interlocutor in the last dialogue to give his views on the immortality of the soul1 he begs to be excused1 protesting3 ,i have vowed to my ,god that that question shall not be handled by me till ,i become old1 rich1 and a ,german4 ,and without overt irreverence he is ever and again unserious4 ,perfectly transparent is the irony of the appeal1 ,let us give faith to the prescripts of the ,church1 and due honour to the sacrosanct ,gregorian apparitions1 #bdd and the protestation1 ,i will not invalidate the powers of holy water1 to which ,alexander1 ,doctor and ,pontifex of the ,christians1 and interpreter of the divine will1 accorded such countless privileges4 #bde ,and even in the ,amphitheatrum1 with all the parade of defending the faith1 there is a plain balance of cogency on the side of the case for the attack1 #bdf and a notable disposition to rely finally on lines of argument to which faith could never give real welcome4 ,the writer's mind1 it is clear1 was familiar with doubt4 ,in the malice of orthodoxy there is sometimes an instinctive perception of hostility2 and though ,vanini had written1 among other things1 #bdg an ,apologia pro lege mosac et christian1 to which he often refers1 and an ,apologia pro concilio ,tridentino1 he can be seen even in the hymn to deity with which he concludes his ,amphitheatrum to have no part in evangelical ,christianity4 ,he was in fact a deist with the inevitable leaning of the philosophic theist to pantheism2 and whatever he may have said to arouse priestly hatred at ,toulouse1 he was rather less of an atheist than ,spinoza or ,bruno or ,john ,scotus4 ,on his trial1 #bdh pressed as to his real beliefs by judges who had doubtless challenged his identification of ,god with ,nature1 he passed from a profession of orthodox faith in a trinity into a flowing discourse which could as well have availed for a vindication of pantheism as for the proposition of a personal ,god4 ,seeing a straw on the ground1 he picked it up and talked of its history2 and when brought back again from his affirmation of ,deity to his doctrine of ,nature1 he set forth the familiar orthodox theorem that1 while ,nature wrought the succession of seeds and fruits1 there must have been a first seed which was created4 ,it was the habitual standing ground of theism2 and they burned him all the same4 ,it remains an open question whether personal enmity on the part of the prosecuting official #bdi or a real belief that he had uttered blasphemies against ,jesus or ,mary was the determining force1 or whether even less motive sufficed4 ,a vituperative ,jesuit of that age sees intolerable freethinking in his suggestion of the unreality of demoniacal possession and the futility of exorcisms4 #bej ,and for that much they were not incapable of burning men in ,catholic ,toulouse in the days of ,mary de ,medici4 ,there are in fact reasons for surmizing that in the cases alike of ,bruno and of ,vanini it was the attitude of the speculator towards scientific problems that primarily or mainly aroused distrust and anger among the theologians4 ,vanini is careful to speak equivocally of the eternity of the universe2 and though he makes a passing mention of ,kepler1 #bea he does not name ,copernicus4 ,he had learned something from the fate of ,bruno4 ,yet in the ,dialogue ,de coeli forma et motore #beb he declares so explicitly for a naturalistic explanation of the movements of the heavenly bodies that he must have aroused in some orthodox readers such anger as was set up in ,plato by a physical theory of sun and stars4 ,after an priori discussion on ,aristotelian lines1 the querist in the dialogue asks what may fitly be held1 with an eye to religion1 concerning the movements of the spheres4 ,this1 answers ,vanini1 unless ,i am in error3 the mass of the heaven is moved in its proper gyratory way by the nature of its elements4 ,how then1 asks the querist1 are the heavens moved by certain and fixed laws1 unless divine minds1 participating in the primal motion1 there operate8 ,where is the wonder8 returns ,vanini4 ,does not a certain and fixed law of motion act in the most paltry clockwork machines1 made by a drunken ,german1 even as there works silently in a tertian and quartan fever a motion which comes and goes at fixed periods without transgressing its line by a moment8 ,the sea also at certain and fixed times1 by its nature1 as you peripatetics affirm1 is moved in progressions and regressions4 ,no less1 then1 ,i affirm the heaven to be forever carried by the same motion in virtue of its nature 7a sua pura forma7 and not to be moved by the will of intelligence4 ,and the disciple assents4 ,kepler had seen fit1 either in sincerity or of prudence1 to leave divine minds in the planets2 and ,vanini's negation1 though not accompanied by any assertion of the motion of the earth1 was enough to provoke the minds which had only three years before put ,copernicus on the ,index1 and challenged ,galileo for venting his doctrine4 ,it is at this stage that we begin to realize the full play of the ,counter-,reformation1 as against the spirit of science4 ,the movement of mere theological and ecclesiastical heresy had visibly begun to recede in the world of mind1 and in its stead1 alike in ,protestant and in ,catholic lands1 there was emerging a new activity of scientific research1 vaguely menacing to all theistic faith4 ,kepler represented it in ,germany1 ,harriott and ,harvey and ,gilbert and ,bacon in ,england2 from ,italy had come of late the portents of ,bruno and ,galileo2 even ,spain yielded the ,examen de ,ingenios of ,huarte 7#aege71 where with due protestation of theism the physicist insists upon natural causation2 and now ,vanini was exhibiting the same incorrigible zest for a naturalistic explanation of all things4 ,his dialogues are full of such questionings2 the mere metaphysic and theosophy of the ,amphitheatrum are being superseded by discussions on physical and physiological phenomena4 ,it was for this1 doubtless1 that the ,de ,arcanis won the special vogue over which the ,jesuit ,garasse was angrily exclaiming ten years later4 #bec ,not merely the doubts cast upon sorcery and diabolical possession1 but the whole drift1 often enough erratic1 of the inquiry as to how things in nature came about1 caught the curiosity of the time1 soon to be stimulated by more potent and better-governed minds than that of the ill-starred ,vanini4 ,and for every new inquirer there would be a hostile zealot in the ,church1 where the anti-intellectual instinct was now so much more potent than it had been in the days before ,luther1 when heresy was diagnosed only as a danger to revenue4 ,it was with ,galileo that there began the practical application of the ,copernican theory to astronomy1 and1 indeed1 the decisive demonstration of its truth4 ,with him1 accordingly1 began the positive rejection of the ,copernican theory by the ,church2 for thus far it had never been officially vetoed--having indeed been generally treated as a wild absurdity4 ,almost immediately after the publication of ,galileo's ,sidereus ,nuncius 7#afaj7 his name is found in the papers of the ,inquisition1 with that of ,cremonini of ,padua1 as a subject of investigation4 #bed ,the juxtaposition is noteworthy4 ,cremonini was an ,aristotelian1 with ,averrost leanings1 and reputed an atheist2 #bee and it was presumably on this score that the ,inquisition was looking into his case4 ,at the same time1 as an ,aristotelian he was strongly opposed to ,galileo1 and is said to have been one of those who refused to look through ,galileo's telescope4 #bef ,galileo1 on the other hand1 was ostensibly a good ,catholic2 but his discovery of the moons of ,jupiter was a signal confirmation of the ,copernican theory1 and the new status at once given to that made a corresponding commotion in the ,church4 ,thus he had against him both the unbelieving pedants of the schools and the typical priests4 ,in his book the great discoverer had said nothing explicitly on the subject of the ,copernican theory2 but in lectures and conversations he had freely avowed his belief in it2 and the implications of the published treatise were clear to all thinkers4 #beg ,and though1 when he visited ,rome in #afaa1 he was well received by ,pope ,paul ,v1 and his discoveries were favourably reported of by the four scientific experts nominated at the request of ,cardinal ,bellarmin to examine them1 #beh it only needed that the ,biblical cry should be raised to change the situation4 ,the ,church still contained men individually open to new scientific ideas2 but she was then more than ever dominated by the forces of tradition2 and as soon as those forces had been practically evoked his prosecution was bound to follow4 ,the cry of religion in danger silenced the saner men at ,rome4 ,the fashion in which ,galileo's sidereal discoveries were met is indeed typical of the whole history of freethought4 ,the clergy pointed to the story of ,joshua stopping the sun and moon2 the average layman scouted the new theory as plain folly2 and typical schoolmen insisted that the heavens are unchangeable1 and that there was no authority in ,aristotle for the new assertions4 ,with such minds the man of science had to argue1 and in deference to such he had at length to affect to doubt his own demonstrations4 #bei ,the ,catholic ,reaction had finally created as bitter a spirit of hostility to free science in the ,church as existed among the ,protestants2 and in ,italy even those who saw the moons of ,jupiter through his telescope dared not avow what they had seen4 #bfj ,it was therefore an unfortunate step on ,galileo's part to go from ,padua1 which was under the rule of ,venice1 then anti-papal1 #bfa to ,tuscany1 on the invitation of the ,grand ,duke4 ,when in #afac he published his treatise on the solar spots1 definitely upholding ,copernicus against ,jesuits and ,aristotelians1 trouble became inevitable2 and his letter #bfb to his pupil1 ,father ,castelli1 professor of mathematics at ,pisa1 discussing the ,biblical argument with which they had both been met1 at once evoked an explosion when circulated by ,castelli4 ,new trouble arose when ,galileo in #afae wrote his apology in the form of a letter to his patroness the ,dowager ,grand ,duchess ,cristina of ,tuscany1 extracts from which became current4 ,an outcry of ignorant ,dominican monks #bfc sufficed to set at work the machinery of the ,index1 #bfd the first result of which 7#afaf7 was to put on the list of condemned books the great treatise of ,copernicus1 published seventy-three years before4 ,galileo personally escaped for the present through the friendly intervention of the ,pope1 ,paul ,v1 on the appeal of his patron1 the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 apparently on the ground that he had not publicly taught the ,copernican theory4 ,it would seem as if some of the heads of the ,church were at heart ,copernicans2 #bfe but they were in any case obliged to disown a doctrine felt by so many others to be subversive of the ,church's authority4 ,see the details of the procedure in ,domenico ,berti1 ,il ,processo ,originale de ,galileo ,galilei1 ed4 #ahgh1 cap4 iv2 in ,fahie1 ch4 viii2 and in ,gebler1 ch4 vi4 ,the last-cited writer claims to show that1 of two records of the admonition to ,galileo1 one1 the more stringent in its terms1 was false1 though made at the date it bears1 to permit of subsequent proceedings against ,galileo4 ,but the whole thesis is otiose4 ,it is admitted 7,gebler1 p4 #hi7 that ,galileo was admonished not to defend or hold the ,copernican doctrine4 ,gebler contends1 however1 that this was not a command to keep entire silence1 and that therefore ,galileo is not justly to be charged with having disobeyed the injunction of the ,inquisition when1 in his ,dialogues on the ,two ,principal ,systems of the ,world1 the ,ptolemaic and ,copernican 7#afcb71 he dealt dialectically with the subject1 neither affirming nor denying1 but treating both theories as hypotheses4 ,but the real issue is not ,galileo's cautious disobedience 7see ,gebler's own admissions1 p4 #adi7 to an irrational decree1 but the crime of the ,church in silencing him4 ,it is not likely that the enemies of ,galileo1 as ,gebler supposes 7pp4 #ij1 #cch71 anticipated his later dialectical handling of the subject1 and so falsified the decision of the ,inquisition against him in #afaf4 ,gebler had at first adopted the ,german theory that the absolute command to silence was forged in #afcb2 and1 finding the document certainly belonged to #afaf1 framed the new theory1 quite unnecessarily1 to save ,galileo's credit4 ,the two records are quite in the spirit and manner of ,inquisitorial diplomacy4 ,as ,berti remarks1 the ,holy ,office proceeded with much heedlessness 7legerezza7 and much confusion in #afaf4 ,its first judgment1 in either form1 merely emphasizes the guilt of the second4 ,cp4 ,fahie1 pp4 #afg-fi4 ,thus officially admonished for his heresy1 but not punished1 in #afaf1 ,galileo kept silence for some years1 till in #afah he published his 7erroneous7 theory of the tides1 which he sent with an ironical epistle to the friendly ,archduke ,leopold of ,austria1 professing to be propounding a mere dream1 disallowed by the official veto on ,copernicus4 #bff ,this1 however1 did him less harm than his essay ,il ,saggiatore 7,the ,scales71 in which he opposed the ,jesuit ,grassi on the question of comets4 ,receiving the imprimatur in #afbc1 it was dedicated to the new pope1 ,urban ,,viii1 who1 as the ,cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini1 had been ,galileo's friend4 ,the latter could now hope for freedom of speech1 as he had all along had a number of friends at the papal court1 besides many priests1 among his admirers and disciples4 ,but the enmity of the ,jesuits countervailed all4 ,they did not succeed in procuring a censure of the ,saggiatore1 though that subtly vindicates the ,copernican system while professing to hold it disproved by the fiat of the ,church2 #bfg but when1 venturing further1 he after another lapse of years produced his ,dialogues on the ,two ,systems1 for which he obtained the papal imprimatur in #afcb1 they caught him in their net4 ,having constant access to the pope1 they contrived to make him believe that ,galileo had ridiculed him in one of the personages of his ,dialogues4 ,it was quite false2 but one of the pope's anti-,copernican arguments was there unconsciously made light of2 and his wounded vanity was probably a main factor in the impeachment which followed4 #bfh ,his ,holiness professed to have been deceived into granting the imprimatur2 #bfi a ,special ,commission was set on foot2 the proceedings of #afaf were raked up2 and ,galileo was again summoned to ,rome4 ,he was old and frail1 and sent medical certificates of his unfitness for such travel2 but it was insisted on1 and as under the papal tyranny there was no help1 he accordingly made the journey4 ,after many delays he was tried1 and1 on his formal abjuration1 sentenced to formal imprisonment 7#afcc7 for teaching the absurd and false doctrine of the motion of the earth and the non-motion of the sun from east to west4 ,in this case the pope1 whatever were his motives1 acted as a hot anti-,copernican1 expressing his personal opinion on the question again and again1 and always in an anti-,copernican sense4 ,in both cases1 however1 the popes1 while agreeing to the verdict1 abstained from officially ratifying it1 #bgj so that1 in proceeding to force ,galileo to abjure his doctrine1 the ,inquisition technically exceeded its powers--a circumstance in which some ,catholics appear to find comfort4 ,seeing that three of the ten cardinals named in the preamble to the sentence did not sign1 it has been inferred that they dissented2 but there is no good reason to suppose that either the pope or they wilfully abstained from signing4 ,they had gained their point--the humiliation of the great discoverer4 ,compare ,gebler1 p4 #bda2 ,private ,life1 p4 #beg1 quoting ,tiraboschi4 ,for an exposure of the many perversions of the facts as to ,galileo by ,catholic writers see ,parchappe1 ,galile1 sa vie1 etc41 #b;e ,partie4 ,to such straits has the ,catholic ,church been reduced in this matter that part of its defence of the treatment of ,galileo is the plea that he unwarrantably asserted that the fixity of the sun and the motion of the earth were taught in the ,scriptures4 ,sir ,robert ,inglis is quoted as having maintained this view in ,england in #ahbd 7,mendham1 ,the ,literary ,policy of the ,church of ,rome1 #bnd ed4 #ahcj1 p4 #agf71 and the same proposition was maintained in #ahej by a ,roman cardinal4 ,see ,galileo e l',inquisizione1 by ,monsignor ,marini1 ,roma1 #ahej1 pp4 #a1 #ec-ed1 etc4 ,had ,galileo really taught as is there asserted1 he would only have been assenting to what his priestly opponents constantly dinned in his ears4 ,but in point of fact he had not so assented2 for in his letter to ,castelli 7see ,gebler1 pp4 #df-ej7 he had earnestly deprecated the argument from the ,bible1 urging that1 though ,scripture could not err1 its interpreters might misunderstand it2 and even going so far as to argue1 with much ingenuity1 that the story of ,joshua1 literally interpreted1 could be made to harmonize with the ,copernican theory1 but not at all with the ,ptolemaic4 ,the thesis revived by ,monsignor ,marini deserves to rank as the highest flight of absurdity and effrontery in the entire discussion 7cp4 ,berti1 ,giordano ,bruno1 #ahhi1 p4 #cjf1 note74 ,every step in both procedures of the ,inquisition insists on the falsity and the anti-scriptural character of the doctrine that the earth moves round the sun 7see ,berti1 ,il ,processo1 p4 #aae sq42 ,gebler1 pp4 #gf-gg1 #bcj-cd72 and never once is it hinted that ,galileo's error lay in ascribing to the ,bible the doctrine of the earth's fixity4 ,in the ,roman ,index of #affd the works of ,galileo and ,copernicus are alike vetoed1 with all other writings affirming the movement of the earth and the stability of the sun2 and in the ,index of #agjd are included libri omnes docentes mobilitatem terrae et immobilitatem solis 7,putnam1 ,the ,censorship of the ,church of ,rome1 #aijf-aijg1 i1 #cjh1 #cab74 ,the stories of his being tortured and blinded1 and saying ,still it moves1 are indeed myths4 #bga ,the broken-spirited old man was in no mood so to speak2 he was1 moreover1 in all respects save his science1 an orthodox ,catholic1 #bgb and as such not likely to defy the ,church to its face4 ,in reality he was formally in the custody of the ,inquisition--and this not in a cell1 but in the house of an official--for only twenty-two days4 ,after the sentence he was again formally detained for some seventeen days in the ,villa ,medici1 but was then allowed to return to his own rural home at ,acatri1 #bgc on condition that he lived in solitude1 receiving no visitors4 ,he was thus much more truly a prisoner than the so-called prisoner of the ,vatican in our own day4 ,the worst part of the sentence1 however1 was the placing of all his works1 published and unpublished1 on the ,index ,expurgatorius1 and the gag thus laid on all utterance of rational scientific thought in ,italy--an evil of incalculable influence4 ,the lack of liberty and speculation1 writes a careful ,italian student1 was the cause of the death first of the ,accademia dei ,lincei1 an institution unique in its time2 then of the ,accademia del ,cimento4 ,thus ,italy1 after the marvellous period of vigorous native civilization in the thirteenth century1 after a second period of civilization less native but still its own1 as being ,latin1 saw itself arrested on the threshold of a third and not less splendid period4 ,vexations and prohibitions expelled courage1 spontaneity1 and universality from the national mind2 literary style became uncertain1 indeterminate2 and1 forbidden to treat of government1 science1 or religion1 turned to things frivolous and fruitless4 ,for the great academies1 instituted to renovate and further the study of natural philosophy1 were substituted small ones without any such aim4 ,intellectual energy1 the love of research and of objective truth1 greatness of feeling and nobility of character1 all suffered4 ,nothing so injures a people as the compulsion to express or conceal its thought solely from motives of fear4 ,the nation in which those conditions were set up became intellectually inferior to those in which it was possible to pass freely in the vast regions of knowledge4 ,her culture grew restricted1 devoid of originality1 vaporous1 umbratile2 there arose habits of servility and dissimulation2 great books1 great men1 great purposes were denaturalized4 #bgd ,it was thus in the other countries of ,europe that ,galileo's teaching bore its fruit1 for he speedily got his condemned ,dialogues published in ,latin by the ,elzevirs2 and in #afch1 also at the hands of the ,elzevirs1 appeared his ,dialogues of the ,new ,sciences i4e41 of mechanics and motion1 the foundation of mechanical physics4 ,by this time he was totally blind1 and then only1 when physicians could not help him save by prolonging his life1 was he allowed to live under strict surveillance in ,florence1 needing a special indulgence from the ,inquisition to permit him even to go to church at ,easter4 ,the desire of his last blind days1 to have with him his best-beloved pupil1 ,father ,castelli1 was granted only under rigid limitation and supervision1 though even the papacy could not keep from him the plaudits of the thinkers of ,europe4 ,finally he passed away in his rural prison--after five years of blindness--in #afdb1 the year of ,newton's birth4 ,at that time his doctrines were under anathema in ,italy1 and known elsewhere only to a few4 ,hobbes in #afcd tried in vain to procure for the ,earl of ,newcastle a copy of the earlier ,dialogues in ,london1 and wrote3 ,it is not possible to get it for money4444 ,i hear say it is called-in1 in ,italy1 as a book that will do more hurt to their religion than all the books of ,luther and ,calvin1 such opposition they think is between their religion and natural reason4 #bge ,not till #ageg did the papacy permit other books teaching the ,copernican system2 in #agfe ,galileo was still under ban2 not until #ahbb was permission given to treat the theory as true2 and not until #ahce was the work of ,copernicus withdrawn from the ,index4 #bgf ,while modern science was thus being placed on its special basis1 a continuous resistance was being made in the schools to the dogmatism which held the mutilated lore of ,aristotle as the sum of human wisdom4 ,like the ecclesiastical revolution1 this had been protracted through centuries4 ,aristotelianism1 whether theistic or pantheistic1 whether orthodox or heterodox1 #bgg had become a dogmatism like another1 a code that vetoed revision1 a fetter laid on the mind4 ,even as a negation of ,christian superstition it had become impotent1 for the ,peripatetics were not only ready to make common cause with the ,jesuits against ,galileo1 as we have seen2 some of them were content even to join in the appeal to the ,bible4 #bgh ,the result of such uncritical partisanship was that the immense service of ,aristotle to mental life--the comprehensive grasp which gave him his long supremacy as against rival system-makers1 and makes him still so much more important than any of the thinkers who in the sixteenth century revolted against him--was by opponents disregarded and denied1 though the range and depth of his influence are apparent in all the polemic against him1 notably in that of ,bacon1 who is constantly citing him1 and relates his reasoning to him1 however antagonistically1 at every turn4 ,naturally1 the less sacrosanct dogmatism was the more freely assailed2 and in the sixteenth century the attacks became numerous and vehement4 ,luther was a furious anti-,aristotelian1 #bgi as were also some ,calvinists2 but in #aegj we find ,beza declaring to ,ramus #bhj that the ,genevese have decreed1 once and for ever1 that they will never1 neither in logic nor in any other branch of learning1 turn away from the teaching of ,aristotle4 ,at ,oxford the same code held4 #bha ,in ,italy1 ,telesio1 who notably anticipates the tone of ,bacon as to natural science1 and is largely followed by him1 influenced ,bruno in the anti-,aristotelian direction1 #bhb though it was in a long line from ,aristotle that he got his principle of the eternity of the universe4 ,the ,spaniard ,ludovicus ,vives1 too 7#adib-aedj71 pronounced by ,lange one of the clearest heads of his age1 had insisted on progress beyond ,aristotle in the spirit of naturalist science4 #bhc ,but the typical anti-,aristotelian of the century was ,ramus 7,pierre de la ,rame1 #aeae-aegb71 whose long and strenuous battle against the ruling school at ,paris brought him to his death in the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew4 #bhd ,ramus hardily laid it down that there is no authority over reason1 but reason ought to be queen and ruler over authority4 #bhe ,such a message was of more value than his imperfect attempt to supersede the ,aristotelian logic4 ,bacon1 who carried on in ,england the warfare against the ,aristotelian tradition1 never ventured so to express himself as against the theological tyranny in particular1 though1 as we have seen1 the general energy and vividness of his argumentation gave him an influence which undermined the orthodoxies to which he professed to conform4 ,on the other hand1 he did no such service to exact science as was rendered in his day by ,kepler and ,galileo and their ,english emulators2 and his full didactic influence came much later into play4 ,like fallacies to ,bacon's may be found in ,descartes1 whose seventeenth-century reputation as a champion of theism proved mainly the eagerness of theists for a plausible defence4 ,already in his own day his arguments were logically confuted by both ,gassendi and ,hobbes2 and his partial success with theists was a success of partisanism4 ,it was primarily in respect of his habitual appeal to reason and argument1 in disregard of the assumptions of faith1 and secondarily in respect of his real scientific work1 that he counts for freethought4 ,ultimately his method undermined his creed2 and it is not too much to say of him that1 next to ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 and ,galileo1 #bhf he laid a good part of the foundation of modern philosophy and science1 #bhg ,gassendi largely aiding4 ,though he never does justice to ,galileo1 from his fear of provoking the ,church1 it can hardly be doubted that he owes to him in large part the early determination of his mind to scientific methods2 for it is difficult to believe that the account he gives of his mental development in the ,discours de la ,mthode 7#afcg7 is biographically true4 ,it is rather the schemed statement1 by a ripened mind1 of how it might best have been developed4 ,nor did ,descartes1 any more than ,bacon1 live up to the intellectual idea he had framed4 ,all through his life he anxiously sought to propitiate the ,church2 #bhh and his scientific as well as his philosophic work was hampered in consequence4 ,in ,england ,henry ,more1 who latterly recoiled from his philosophy1 still thought his physics had been spoiled by fear of the ,church1 declaring that the imprisonment of ,galileo frighted ,des ,cartes into such a distorted description of motion that no man's reason could make good sense of it1 nor modesty permit him to fancy anything nonsense in so excellent an author4 #bhi ,but nonetheless the unusual rationalism of ,descartes's method1 avowedly aiming at the uprooting of all his own prejudices #bij as a first step to truth1 displeased the ,jesuits1 and could not escape the hostile attention of the ,protestant theologians of ,holland1 where ,descartes passed so many years of his life4 ,despite his constant theism1 accordingly1 he had at length to withdraw4 #bia ,a ,jesuit1 ,pre ,bourdin1 sought to have the ,discours de la ,mthode at once condemned by the ,french clergy1 but the attempt failed for the time being4 ,france was just then1 in fact1 the most freethinking part of ,europe2 #bib and ,descartes1 though not so unsparing with his prejudices as he set out to be1 was the greatest innovator in philosophy that had arisen in the ,christian era4 ,he made real scientific discoveries1 too1 where ,bacon only inspired an approach and schemed a wandering road to them4 ,he first effectively applied algebra to geometry2 he first scientifically explained the rainbow2 he at once accepted and founded on ,harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood1 which most physiologists of the day derided2 and he welcomed ,aselli's discovery of the lacteals1 which was rejected by ,harvey4 #bic ,and though as regards religion his timorous conformities deprive him of any heroic status1 it is perhaps not too much to pronounce him the great reformer and liberator of the ,european intellect4 #bid ,one not given to warm sympathy with freethought has avowed that the common root of modern philosophy is the doubt which is alike ,baconian and ,cartesian4 #bie ,only less important1 in some regards1 was the influence of ,pierre ,gassend or ,gassendi 7#aeib-afee71 who1 living his life as a canon of the ,church1 reverted in his doctrine to the philosophy of ,epicurus1 alike in physics and ethics4 #bif ,it seems clear that he never had any religious leanings1 but simply entered the ,church on the advice of friends who pointed out to him how much better a provision it gave1 in income and leisure1 than the professorship he held in his youth at the university of ,aix4 #big ,professing like ,descartes a strict submission to the ,church1 he yet set forth a theory of things which had in all ages been recognized as fundamentally irreconcilable with the ,christian creed2 and his substantial exemption from penalties is to be set down to his position1 his prudence1 and his careful conformities4 ,the correspondent of ,galileo and ,kepler1 he was the friend of ,la ,mothe le ,vayer and ,naud2 and ,gui ,patin was his physician and intimate4 #bih ,strong as a physicist and astronomer where ,descartes was weak1 he divides with him and ,galileo the credit of practically renewing natural philosophy2 ,newton being ,gassendist rather than ,cartesian4 #bii ,indeed1 ,gassendi's youthful attack on the ,aristotelian physics 7#afbd7 makes him the predecessor of ,descartes2 and he expressly opposed his contemporary on points of physics and metaphysics on which he thought him chimerical1 and so promoted unbelief where ,descartes made for orthodoxy4 #cjj ,of the criticisms on his ,mditations to which ,descartes published replies1 those of ,gassendi are1 with the partial exception of those of ,hobbes1 distinctly the most searching and sustained4 ,the later position of ,hume1 indeed1 is explicitly taken up in the first objection of ,cratrus2 #cja but the persistent pressure of ,gassendi on the theistic and spiritistic assumptions of ,descartes reads like the reasoning of a modern atheist4 #cjb ,yet the works of ,descartes were in time placed on the ,index1 condemned by the king's council1 and even vetoed in the universities1 while those of ,gassendi were not1 though his early work on ,aristotelianism had to be stopped after the first volume because of the anger it aroused4 #cjc ,himself one of the most abstemious of men1 #cjd like his master ,epicurus 7of whom he wrote a ,life1 #afdg71 he attracted disciples of another temperamental cast as well as many of his own2 and as usual his system is associated with the former1 who are duly vilified by orthodoxy1 although certainly no worse than the average orthodox4 ,among his other practical services to rationalism was a curious experiment1 made in a village of the ,lower ,alps1 by way of investigating the doctrine of witchcraft4 ,a drug prepared by one sorcerer was administered to others of the craft in presence of witnesses4 ,it threw them into a deep sleep1 on awakening from which they declared that they had been at a witches' ,sabbath4 ,as they had never left their beds1 the experiment went far to discredit the superstition4 #cje ,one significant result of the experiment was seen in the course later taken by ,colbert in overriding a decision of the ,parlement of ,rouen as to witchcraft 7#afgj74 ,that ,parlement proposed to burn fourteen sorcerers4 ,colbert1 who had doubtless read ,montaigne as well as ,gassendi1 gave ,montaigne's prescription that the culprits should be dosed with hellebore--a medicine for brain disturbance4 #cjf ,in #afgb1 finally1 the king issued a declaration forbidding the tribunals to admit charges of mere sorcery2 #cjg and any future condemnations were on the score of blasphemy and poisoning4 ,yet further1 in the section of his posthumous ,syntagma ,philosophicum 7#afeh7 entitled ,de ,effectibus ,siderum1 #cjh ,gassendi dealt the first great blow on the rationalist side to the venerable creed of astrology1 assailed often1 but to little purpose1 from the side of faith2 bringing to his task1 indeed1 more asperity than he is commonly credited with1 but also a stringent scientific and logical method1 lacking in the polemic of the churchmen1 who had attacked astrology mainly because it ignored revelation4 ,it is sobering to remember1 however1 that he was one of those who could not assimilate ,harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood1 which ,descartes at once adopted and propounded4 ,such anomalies meet us many times in the history of scientific as of other lines of thought2 and the residual lesson is the recognition that progress is infinitely multiplex in its causation4 ,nothing is more vital in this regard than scientific truth1 which is as a light-house in seas of speculation2 and those who1 like ,galileo and ,descartes1 add to the world's exact knowledge1 perform a specific service not matched by that of the ,bacons1 who urge right method without applying it4 ,yet in that kind also an incalculable influence has been wielded4 ,many minds can accept scientific truths without being thereby led to scientific ways of thought2 and thus the reasoners and speculators1 the ,brunos and the ,vaninis1 play their fruitful part1 as do the mentors who turn men's eyes on their own vices of intellectual habit4 ,and in respect of creeds and philosophies1 finally1 it is not so much sheer soundness of result as educativeness of method1 effectual appeal to the thinking faculty and to the spirit of reason1 that determines a thinker's influence4 ,this kind of impact we shall find historically to be the service done by ,descartes to ,european thought for a hundred years4 ,from ,descartes1 then1 as regards philosophy1 more than from any professed thinker of his day1 but also from the other thinkers we have noted1 from the reactions of scientific discovery1 from the terrible experience of the potency of religion as a breeder of strife and its impotence as a curber of evil1 and from the practical freethinking of the more open-minded of that age in general1 derives the great rationalistic movement1 which1 taking clear literary form first in the seventeenth century1 has with some fluctuations broadened and deepened down to our own day4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,british ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #a ,the propagandist literature of deism begins with an ,english diplomatist1 ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 the friend of ,bacon1 who stood in the full stream of the current freethought of ,england and ,france #cji in the first quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,english deism1 as literature1 is thus at its very outset affiliated with ,french2 all of its elements1 critical and ethical1 are germinal in ,bodin1 ,montaigne1 and ,charron1 each and all of whom had a direct influence on ,english thought2 and we shall find later ,french thought1 as in the cases of ,gassendi1 ,bayle1 ,simon1 ,st4 ,evremond1 and ,voltaire1 alternately influenced by and reacting on ,english4 ,but1 apart from the undeveloped rationalism of the ,elizabethan period1 which never found literary expression1 the ,french ferment seems to have given the first effective impulse2 though it is to be remembered that about the same time the wars of religion in ,germany1 following on an age of theological uproar1 had developed a common temper of indifferentism which would react on the thinking of men of affairs in ,france4 ,we have seen the state of upper-class and middle-class opinion in ,france about #afbd4 ,it was in ,paris in that year that ,herbert published his ,de ,veritate1 after acting for five years as the ,english ambassador at the ,french court--an office from which he was recalled in the same year4 #caj ,by his own account the book had been begun by me in ,england1 and formed there in all its principal parts1 #caa but finished at ,paris4 ,he had1 however1 gone to ,france in #afjh1 and had served in various continental wars in the years following2 and it was presumably in these years1 not in his youth in ,england1 that he had formed the remarkable opinions set forth in his epoch-making book4 ,hitherto deism had been represented by unpublished arguments disingenuously dealt with in published answers2 henceforth there slowly grows up a deistic literature4 ,herbert was a powerful and audacious nobleman1 with a weak king2 and he could venture on a publication which would have cost an ordinary man dear4 ,yet even he saw fit to publish in ,latin2 and he avowed hesitations4 #cab ,the most puzzling thing about it is his declaration that ,grotius and the ,german theologian ,tielenus1 having read the book in ,,ms41 exhorted him earnestly to print and publish it4 ,it is difficult to believe that they had gathered its substance4 ,herbert's work has two aspects1 a philosophical and a political1 and in both it is remarkable4 #cac ,like the ,discours de la ,mthode of ,descartes1 which was to appear thirteen years later1 it is inspired by an original determination to get at the rational grounds of conviction2 and in ,herbert's case the overweening self-esteem which disfigures his ,autobiography seems to have been motive force for the production of a book signally recalcitrant to authority4 ,where ,bacon attacks ,aristotelianism and the habits of mind it had engendered1 ,herbert counters the whole conception of revelation in religion4 ,rejecting tacitly the theological basis of current philosophy1 he divides the human mind into four faculties--,natural ,instinct1 ,internal ,sense1 ,external ,sense1 and the ,discursive faculty--through one or other of which all our knowledge emerges4 ,of course1 like ,descartes1 he makes the first the verification of his idea of ,god1 pronouncing that to be primary1 independent1 and universally entertained1 and therefore not lawfully to be disputed 7already a contradiction in terms72 but1 inasmuch as scriptural revelation has no place in the process1 the position is conspicuously more advanced than that of ,bacon in the ,de ,augmentis1 published the year before1 and even than that of ,locke1 sixty years later4 ,on the question of concrete religion ,herbert is still more aggressive4 ,his argument #cad is1 in brief1 that no professed revelation can have a decisive claim to rational acceptance2 that none escapes sectarian dispute in its own field2 that1 as each one misses most of the human race1 none seems to be divine2 and that human reason can do for morals all that any one of them does4 ,the negative generalities of ,montaigne here pass into a positive anti-,christian argument2 for ,herbert goes on to pronounce the doctrine of forgiveness for faith immoral4 ,like all pioneers1 ,herbert falls into some inconsistencies on his own part2 the most flagrant being his claim to have had a sign from heaven--that is1 a private and special revelation--encouraging him to publish his book4 #cae ,but his criticism is nonetheless telling and persuasive so far as it goes1 and remains valid to this day4 ,nor do his later and posthumous works #caf add to it in essentials1 though they do much to construct the deistic case on historical lines4 ,the ,de religione gentilium in particular is a noteworthy study of pre-,christian religions1 apparently motived by doubt or challenge as to his theorem of the universality of the ,god-idea4 ,it proves only racial universality without agreement2 but it is so far a scholarly beginning of rational hierology4 ,the ,english ,dialogue between a ,teacher and his ,pupil1 which seems to have been the first form of the ,religio ,gentilium1 #cag is a characteristic expression of his whole way of thought1 and was doubtless left unpublished for the prudential reasons which led him to put all his published works in ,latin4 ,but the fact that the ,latin quotations are translated shows that the book had been planned for publication--a risk which he did wisely to shun4 ,the remarkable thing is that his ,latin books were so little debated1 the ,de ,veritate being nowhere discussed before ,culverwel4 #cah ,baxter in #afgb could say that ,herbert1 never having been answered1 might be thought unanswerable2 #cai and his own answer is merely theological4 ,the next great freethinking figure in ,england is ,thomas ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi71 the most important thinker of his age1 after ,descartes1 and hardly less influential4 ,but the purpose of ,hobbes being always substantially political and regulative1 his unfaith in the current religion is only incidentally revealed in the writings in which he seeks to show the need for keeping it under monarchic control4 #cbj ,hobbes is in fact the anti-,presbyterian or anti-,puritan philosopher2 and to discredit anarchic religion in the eyes of the majority he is obliged to speak as a judicial ,churchman4 ,yet nothing is more certain than that he was no orthodox ,christian2 and even his professed theism resolves itself somewhat easily into virtual agnosticism on logical pressure4 ,no thought of prudence could withhold him from showing1 in a discussion on words1 that he held the doctrine of the ,logos to be meaningless4 #cba ,of atheism he was repeatedly accused by both royalists and rebels2 and his answer was forensic rather than fervent1 alike as to his scripturalism1 his ,christianity1 and his impersonal conception of ,deity4 #cbb ,reviving as he did the ancient rationalistic doctrine of the eternity of the world1 #cbc he gave a clear footing for atheism as against the ,judo-,christian view4 ,in affirming one ,god eternal of whom men cannot have any idea in their mind1 answerable to his nature1 he was negating all creeds4 ,he expressly contends1 it is true1 for the principle of a ,providence2 but it is hard to believe that he laid any store by prayer1 public or private2 and it would appear that whatever thoughtful atheism there was in ,england in the latter part of the century looked to him as its philosopher1 insofar as it did not derive from ,spinoza4 #cbd ,nor could the ,naturalist school of that day desire a better1 terser1 or more drastic scientific definition of religion than ,hobbes gave them3 ,fear of power invisible1 feigned by the mind or imagined from tales publicly allowed1 ,religion2 not allowed1 ,superstition4 #cbe ,as the ,churchmen readily saw1 his insistence on identifying the religion of a country with its law plainly implied that no religion is any more revealed than another4 ,with him too begins 7#afea7 the public criticism of the ,bible on literary or documentary grounds2 #cbf though1 as we have seen1 this had already gone far in private2 #cbg and he gave a new lead1 partly as against ,descartes1 to a materialistic philosophy4 #cbh ,his replies to the theistic and spiritistic reasonings of ,descartes's ,mditations are1 like those of ,gassendi1 unrefuted and irrefutable2 and they are fundamentally materialistic in their drift4 #cbi ,he was1 in fact1 in a special and peculiar degree for his age1 a freethinker2 and so deep was his intellectual hostility to the clergy of all species that he could not forego enraging those of his own political side by his sarcasms4 #ccj ,here he is in marked contrast with ,descartes1 who dissembled his opinion about ,copernicus and ,galileo for peace' sake1 #cca and was the close friend of the apologist ,mersenne down to his death4 #ccb ,with the partial exception of the more refined and graceful ,pecock1 ,hobbes has of all ,english thinkers down to his period the clearest and hardest head for all purposes of reasoning1 save in the single field of mathematics1 where he meddled without mastery2 and against the theologians of his time his argumentation is as a two-edged sword4 ,that such a man should have been resolutely on the side of the king in the ,civil ,war is one of the proofs of the essential fanaticism and arbitrariness of the orthodox ,puritans1 who plotted more harm to the heresies they disliked than was ever wreaked on themselves4 ,hobbes came near enough being clerically ostracized among the royalists2 but among the earlier ,puritans1 or under an ,independent ,puritan ,parliament at any time1 he would have stood a fair chance of execution4 ,it was doubtless largely due to the anti-persecuting influence of ,cromwell1 as well as to his having ostensibly deserted the royalists1 that ,hobbes was allowed to settle quietly in ,england after making his submission to the ,rump ,parliament in #afea4 ,in #afff his ,leviathan and ,de ,cive were together condemned by the ,restoration ,parliament in its grotesque panic of piety after the ,great ,fire of ,london2 and it was actually proposed to revive against him the writ de heretico comburendo2 #ccc but ,charles ,,ii protected and pensioned him1 though he was forbidden to publish anything further on burning questions1 and ,leviathan was not permitted in his lifetime to be republished in ,english4 #ccd ,he was thus for his generation the typical infidel1 the royalist clergy being perhaps his bitterest enemies4 ,his spontaneous hostility to fanaticism shaped his literary career1 which began in #afbh with a translation of ,thucydides1 undertaken by way of showing the dangers of democracy4 ,next came the ,de ,cive 7,paris1 #afdb71 written when he was already an elderly man2 and thenceforth the ,civil ,war tinges his whole temper4 ,it is in fact by way of a revolt against all theological ethic1 as demonstrably a source of civil anarchy1 that ,hobbes formulates a strictly civic or legalist ethic1 denying the supremacy of an abstract or priori natural moral law 7though he founded on natural law71 as well as rejecting all supernatural illumination of the conscience4 #cce ,in the ,church of ,rome itself there had inevitably arisen the practice of ,casuistry1 in which to a certain extent ethics had to be rationally studied2 and early ,protestant ,casuistry1 repudiating the authority of the priest1 had to rely still more on reason4 ,compare ,whewell1 ,lectures on the ,history of ,moral ,philosophy1 ed4 #ahfb1 pp4 #be-ch1 where it is affirmed that1 after the ,reformation1 ,since the assertions of the teacher had no inherent authority1 he was obliged to give his proofs as well as his results1 and the determination of cases was replaced by the discipline of conscience 7p4 #bi74 ,there is an interesting progression in ,english ,protestant casuistry from ,w4 ,perkins 7#aeeh-afjb7 and ,w4 ,ames 7pub4 #afcj71 through ,bishops ,hall and ,sanderson1 to ,jeremy ,taylor4 ,mosheim 7#ag ,cent4 sec4 ii1 pt4 ii1 #i7 pronounces ,ames the first among the ,reformed who attempted to elucidate and arrange the science of morals as distinct from that of dogmatics4 ,see biog4 notes on ,perkins and ,ames in ,whewell1 pp4 #bg-bi1 and ,reid's ,mosheim1 p4 #fha4 ,but ,hobbes passed in two strides to the position that natural morality is a set of demonstrable inferences as to what adjustments promote general well-being2 and further that there is no practical code of right and wrong apart from positive social law4 #ccf ,he thus practically introduced once for all into modern ,christendom the fundamental dilemma of rationalistic ethics1 not only positing the problem for his age1 #ccg but anticipating it as handled in later times4 #cch ,how far his rationalism was ahead of that of his age may be realized by comparing his positions with those of ,john ,selden1 the most learned and1 outside of philosophy1 one of the shrewdest of the men of that generation4 ,selden was sometimes spoken of by the ,hobbists as a freethinker2 and his ,table ,talk contains some sallies which would startle the orthodox if publicly delivered2 #cci but not only is there explicit testimony by his associates as to his orthodoxy3 #cdj his own treatise1 ,de ,jure ,naturali et ,gentium juxta disciplinam ,ebrorum1 maintains the ground that the ,law of ,nature which underlies the variants of the ,laws of ,nations is limited to the precepts and traditions set forth in the ,talmud as delivered by ,noah to his posterity4 #cda ,le ,clerc said of the work1 justly enough1 that in it ,selden only copies the ,rabbins1 and scarcely ever reasons4 ,it is likely enough that the furious outcry against ,selden for his strictly historical investigation of tithes1 and the humiliation of apology forced upon him in that connection in #afah1 #cdb made him specially chary ever afterwards of any semblance of a denial of the plenary truth of theological tradition2 but there is no reason to think that he had ever really transcended the ,biblical view of the world's order4 ,he illustrates1 in fact1 the extent to which a scholar could in that day be anti-clerical without being rationalistic4 ,like the bulk of the ,parliamentarians1 though without their fanaticism1 he was thoroughly opposed to the political pretensions of the ,church1 #cdc desiring however to leave episcopacy alone1 as a matter outside of legislation1 when the ,house of ,commons abolished it4 ,yet he spoke of the name of ,puritan as one which he trusted he was not either mad enough or foolish enough to deserve4 #cdd ,there were thus in the ,parliamentary party men of very different shades of opinion4 ,the largest party1 perhaps1 was that of the fanatics who1 as ,mrs4 ,hutchinson--herself fanatical enough--tells concerning her husband1 would not allow him to be religious because his hair was not in their cut4 #cde ,next in strength were the more or less orthodox but anti-clerical and less pious ,scripturalists1 of whom ,selden was the most illustrious4 ,by far the smallest group of all were the freethinkers1 men of their type being as often repelled by the zealotry of the ,puritans as by the sacerdotalism of the ,state clergy4 ,the ,rebellion1 in short1 though it evoked rationalism1 was not evoked by it4 ,like all religious strifes--like the vaster ,thirty ,years' ,war in contemporary ,germany--it generated both doubt and indifferentism in men who would otherwise have remained undisturbed in orthodoxy4 #b ,when1 however1 we turn from the higher literary propaganda to the verbal and other transitory debates of the period of the ,rebellion1 we realize how much partial rationalism had hitherto subsisted without notice4 ,in that immense ferment some very advanced opinions1 such as quasi-,anarchism in politics #cdf and anti-,scripturalism in religion1 were more or less directly professed4 ,in ,january1 #afdf 7,n4,s471 the authorities of the ,city of ,london1 alarmed at the unheard-of amount of discussion1 petitioned ,parliament to put down all private meetings2 #cdg and on ,february #f1 #afdf 7,n4,s471 a solemn fast1 or day of publique humiliation1 was proclaimed on the score of the increase of errors1 heresies1 and blasphemies4 ,on the same grounds1 the ,presbyterian party in ,parliament pressed an ,ordinance for the suppression of ,blasphemies and ,heresies1 which1 long held back by ,vane and ,cromwell1 was carried in their despite in #afdh1 by large majorities1 when the royalists renewed hostilities4 ,it enacted the death penalty against all who should deny the doctrine of the ,trinity1 the divinity of ,christ1 the inspiration of the ,bible1 a day of judgment1 or a future state2 and prescribed imprisonment for ,arminianism1 rejection of infant baptism1 anti-,sabbatarianism1 anti-,presbyterianism1 or defence of the doctrine of ,purgatory or the use of images4 #cdh ,and of aggressive heresy there are some noteworthy traces4 ,in a pamphlet entitled ,hell ,broke ,loose3 a ,catalogue of the many spreading ,errors1 ,heresies1 and ,blasphemies of these ,times1 for which we are to be humbled 7,march #i1 #afdf1 ,n4,s471 the first entry--and in the similar ,catalogue in ,edwards's ,gangrna1 the second entry--is a citation of the notable thesis1 ,that the ,scripture1 whether a true manuscript or no1 whether ,hebrew1 ,greek1 or ,english1 is but humane1 and not able to discover a divine ,god4 #cdi ,this is cited from ,the ,pilgrimage of the ,saints1 by ,lawrence ,clarkson1 presumably the ,lawrence ,clarkson who for his book ,the ,single ,eye was sentenced by resolution of ,parliament on ,september #bg1 #afej1 to be imprisoned1 the book being burned by the common hangman4 #cej ,he is further cited as teaching that even unbaptized persons may preach and baptize4 ,of the other heresies cited the principal is the old denial of a future life1 and especially of a physical and future hell4 ,in general the heresy is pietistic or antinomian2 but we have also the declaration that right ,reason is the rule of ,faith1 and that we are to believe the ,scriptures and the doctrine of the ,trinity1 ,incarnation1 ,resurrection1 so far as we see them to be agreeable to reason and no further4 ,concerning ,jesus there are various heresies1 from simple ,unitarianism to contemptuous disparagement1 with the stipulation for a ,christ formed in us4 ,but though there are cases of unquotable or ribald blasphemy there is little trace of scholarly criticism of the ,bible1 of reasoning against miracles or the inconsistencies of ,scripture1 as apart from the doctrine of deity4 ,nonetheless1 it is very credible that multitudes1 unsettled 444 have changed their faith1 either to ,scepticisme1 to doubt of everything1 or ,atheisme1 to believe nothing4 #cea ,against the furious intolerance of the ,puritan legislature some pleaded with new zeal for tolerance all round2 arguing that certainty on articles of faith and points of religion was impossible--a doctrine promptly classed as a bad heresy4 #ceb ,the plea that toleration would mean concord was met by the confident and not unfounded retort that the sectaries would themselves persecute if they could4 #cec ,but this could hardly have been true of all4 ,notable among the new parties were the ,levellers1 who insisted that the ,state should leave religion entirely alone1 tolerating all creeds1 including even atheism2 and who put forward a new and striking ethic1 grounding on universal reason the right of all men to the soil4 #ced ,in the strictly theological field the most striking innovation1 apart from simple ,unitarianism1 is the denial of the eternity or even the existence of future torments--a position first taken up1 as we have seen1 either by the continental ,socinians or by the unnamed ,english heretics of the ,tudor period1 who passed on their heresy to the time of ,marlowe4 #cee ,in this connection the learned booklet #cef entitled ,of the ,torments of ,hell3 the foundations and pillars thereof discover'd1 search'd1 shaken1 and removed 7#afeh7 was rightly thought worth translating into ,french by d',holbach over a century later4 #ceg ,it is an argument on scriptural lines1 denying that the conception of a place of eternal torment is either scriptural or credible2 and pointing out that many had explained it in a spiritual sense4 ,humane feeling of this kind counted for much in the ferment2 but a contrary hate was no less abundant4 ,the ,presbyterian ,thomas ,edwards1 who in a vociferous passion of fear and zeal set himself to catalogue the host of heresies that threatened to overwhelm the times1 speaks of monsters unheard-of theretofore1 now common among us--as denying the ,scriptures1 pleading for a toleration of all religions and worships1 yea1 for blasphemy1 and denying there is a ,god4 #ceh ,a ,toleration1 he declares1 is the grand design of the ,devil1 his masterpiece and chief engine2 every day now brings forth books for a ,toleration4 #cei ,among the #ahj sects named by him #cfj there were ,libertines1 ,antiscripturists1 ,skeptics and ,questionists1 #cfa who held nothing save the doctrine of free speech and liberty of conscience2 #cfb as well as ,socinians1 ,arians1 and ,anti-trinitarians2 and he speaks of serious men who had not only abandoned their religious beliefs1 but sought to persuade others to do the same4 #cfc ,under the rule of ,cromwell1 tolerant as he was of ,christian sectarianism1 and even of ,unitarianism as represented by ,biddle1 the more advanced heresies would get small liberty2 though that of ,thomas ,muggleton and ,john ,reeve1 which took shape about #afea as the ,muggletonian sect1 does not seem to have been molested4 ,muggleton1 a mystic1 could teach that there was no devil or evil spirit1 save in man's spirit of unclean reason and cursed imagination2 #cfd but it was only privately that such men as ,henry ,marten and ,thomas ,chaloner1 the regicides1 could avow themselves to be of the natural religion4 ,the statement of ,bishop ,burnet1 following ,clarendon1 that many of the republicans began to profess deism1 cannot be taken literally1 though it is broadly intelligible that almost all of them were for destroying all clergymen 444 and for leaving religion free1 as they called it1 without either encouragement or restraint4 ,see ,burnet's ,history of ,his ,own ,time1 bk4 i1 ed4 #ahch1 p4 #dc4 ,the phrase1 ,they were for pulling down the churches1 again1 cannot be taken literally4 ,of those who pretended to little or no religion and acted only upon the principles of civil liberty1 ,burnet goes on to name ,sidney1 ,henry ,nevill1 ,marten1 ,wildman1 and ,harrington4 ,the last was certainly of ,hobbes's way of thinking in philosophy 7,croom ,robertson1 ,hobbes1 p4 #bbc1 note72 but ,wildman was one of the signers of the ,anabaptist petition to ,charles ,,ii in #afeh 7,clarendon1 ,hist4 of the ,rebellion1 bk4 xv1 ed4 #ahdc1 p4 #hee74 ,as to ,marten and ,chaloner1 see ,carlyle's ,cromwell1 iii1 #aid2 and articles in ,nat4 ,dict4 of ,biog4 ,vaughan 7,hist4 of ,england1 #ahdj1 ii1 #dgg1 note7 speaks of ,walwyn and ,overton as among the freethinkers of the times of the ,commonwealth4 ,they were1 however1 ,biblicists1 not unbelievers4 ,prof4 ,gardiner 7,hist4 of the ,commonwealth and ,protectorate1 ii1 #bec1 citing a ,news-letter in the ,clarendon ,,mss47 finds record in #afec of a man who preached flat atheism in ,westminster ,hall1 uninterrupted by the soldiers of the guard2 but this obviously counts for little4 ,between the advance in speculation forced on by the disputes themselves1 and the usual revolt against the theological spirit after a long and ferocious display of it1 there spread even under the ,commonwealth a new temper of secularity4 ,on the one hand1 the temperamental distaste for theology1 antinomian or other1 took form in the private associations for scientific research which were the antecedents of the ,royal ,society4 ,on the other hand1 the spirit of religious doubt spread widely in the middle and upper classes2 and between the dislike of the ,roundheads for the established clergy and the anger of the ,cavaliers against all ,puritanism there was fostered that contempt of the clergy which had become a clerical scandal at the ,restoration and was to remain so for about a century4 #cfe ,their social status was in general low1 and their financial position bad2 and these circumstances1 possible only in a time of weakened religious belief1 necessarily tended to further the process of mental change4 ,within the sphere of orthodoxy1 it operated openly4 ,it is noteworthy that the term rationalist emerges as the label of a sect of ,independents or ,presbyterians who declare that ,what their reason dictates to them in church or ,state stands for good1 until they be convinced with better4 #cff ,the rationalism1 so-called1 of that generation remained ostensibly scriptural2 but on other lines thought went further4 ,of atheism there are at this stage only dubious biographical and controversial traces1 such as ,mrs4 ,hutchinson's characterization of a ,nottingham physician1 possibly a deist1 as a horrible atheist1 #cfg and the ,rev4 ,john ,dove's ,confutation of ,atheism 7#afdj71 which does not bear out its title4 ,ephraim ,pagitt1 in his ,heresiography 7#afdd71 speaks loosely of an atheistical sect who affirm that men's soules sleep with them until the day of judgment2 and tells of some alleged atheist merely that he mocked and jeared at ,christ's ,incarnation4 #cfh ,similarly a work1 entitled ,dispute betwixt an ,atheist and a ,christian 7#afdf71 shows the existence not of atheists but of deists1 and the deist in the dialogue is a ,fleming4 ,more trustworthy is the allusion in ,nathaniel ,culverwel's ,discourse of the ,light of ,nature 7written in #afdf1 published posthumously in #afeb7 to those lumps and dunghills of all sects 444 that young and upstart generation of gross anti-scripturalists1 that have a powder-plot against the ,gospel1 that would very compendiously behead all ,christian religion at one blow1 a device which old and ordinary heretics were never acquainted withal4 #cfi ,the reference is presumably to the followers of ,lawrence ,clarkson4 ,yet even here we have no mention of atheism1 which is treated as something almost impossible4 ,indeed1 the very course of arguing in favour of a ,light of ,nature seems to have brought suspicion on ,culverwel himself1 who shows a noticeable liking for ,herbert of ,cherbury4 #cgj ,he is1 however1 as may be inferred from his angry tone towards anti-scripturalists1 substantially orthodox1 and not very important4 ,it is contended for ,culverwel by modern admirers 7ed4 cited1 p4 xxi7 that he deserves the praise given by ,hallam to the later ,bishop ,cumberland as the first ,christian writer who sought to establish systematically the principle of moral right independent of revelation4 ,see above1 p4 #gd1 the similar tribute of ,mosheim to ,ames4 ,but ,culverwel does not really make this attempt4 ,his proposition is that reason1 the candle of the ,lord1 discovers that all the moral law is founded in natural and common light1 in the light of reason1 and that there is nothing in the mysteries of the ,gospel contrary to the light of reason 7,introd4 end72 yet he contends not only that faith transcends reason1 but that ,abraham's attempt to slay his son was a dutiful obeying of the ,god of nature 7pp4 #bbe-bf74 ,he does not achieve the simple step of noting that the recognition of revelation as such must be performed by reason1 and thus makes no advance on the position of ,bacon1 much less on those of ,pecock and ,hooker4 ,his object1 indeed1 was not to justify orthodoxy by reason against rationalistic unbelief1 but to make a case for reason in theology against the ,lutherans and others who1 because ,socinus has burnt his wings at this candle of the ,lord1 scouted all use of it 7,introd474 ,culverwel1 however1 was one of the learned group in ,emanuel ,college1 ,cambridge1 whose tradition developed in the next generation into ,latitudinarianism2 and he may be taken as a learned type of a number of the clergy who were led by the abundant discussion all around them into professing and encouraging a ratiocinative habit of mind4 ,thus we find ,dean ,stuart1 ,clerk of the ,closet to ,charles ,i1 devoting one of his short homilies to ,jerome's text1 ,tentemus animas qu deficiunt a fide naturalibus rationibus adjurare4 ,it is not enough1 he writes1 for you to rest in an imaginary faith1 and easiness in beleeving1 except yee know also what and why and how you come to that beleef4 ,implicite beleevers1 ignorant beleevers1 the adversary may swallow1 but the understanding beleever hee must chaw1 and pick bones before hee come to assimilate him1 and make him like himself4 ,the implicite beleever stands in an open field1 and the enemy will ride over him easily3 the understanding beleever is in a fenced town4 7,catholique ,divinity1 #afeg1 pp4 #acc-cd--;a work written many years earlier47 ,the discourse on ,atheism1 again1 in the posthumous works of ,john ,smith of ,cambridge 7d4 #afeb71 is entirely retrospective2 but soon another note is sounded4 ,as early as #afeb1 the year after the issue of ,hobbes's ,leviathan1 the prolific ,walter ,charleton1 who had been physician to the king1 published a book entitled ,the ,darkness of ,atheism ,expelled by the ,light of ,nature1 wherein he asserted that ,england hath of late produced and doth 444 foster more swarms of atheistical monsters 444 than any age1 than any ,nation hath been infested withal4 ,in the following year ,henry ,more1 the ,cambridge ,platonist1 published his ,antidote against ,atheism4 ,the flamboyant dedication to ,viscountess ,conway affirms that the existence of ,god is as clearly demonstrable as any theorem in mathematicks2 but1 the reverend author adds1 considering the state of things as they are1 ,i cannot but pronounce that there is more necessity of this my ,antidote than ,i could wish there were4 ,at the close of the preface he pleasantly explains that he will use no ,biblical arguments1 but talk to the atheist as a mere ,naturalist2 inasmuch as he that converses with a barbarian must discourse to him in his own language1 and he that would gain upon the more weak and sunk minds of sensual mortals is to accommodate himself to their capacity1 who1 like the bat and owl1 can see nowhere so well as in the shady glimmerings of their twilight4 ,then1 after some elementary play with the design argument1 the entire ,third ,book of forty-six folio pages is devoted to a parade of old wives' tales of witches and witchcraft1 witches' sabbaths1 apparitions1 commotions by devils1 ghosts1 incubi1 polter-geists--the whole vulgar medley of the peasant superstitions of ,europe4 ,it is not that the ,platonist does violence to his own philosophic tastes by way of influencing the bats and owls of atheism4 ,this mass of superstition is his own special pabulum4 ,in the preface he has announced that1 while he may abstain from the use of the ,scriptures1 nothing shall restrain him from telling what he knows of spirits4 ,i am so cautious and circumspect1 he claims1 that ,i make use of no narrations that either the avarice of the priest or the credulity and fancifulness of the melancholist may render suspected4 ,as for the unbelievers1 their confident ignorance shall never dash me out of confidence with my well-grounded knowledge2 for ,i have been no careless inquirer into these things4 ,it is after a polter-geist tale of the crassest description that he announces that it was strictly investigated and attested by that excellently-learned and noble gentleman1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,boyle1 who avowed that all his settled indisposedness to believe strange things was overcome by this special conviction4 #cga ,and the section ends with the proposition3 ,assuredly that saying is not more true in politick1 ,no ,bishop1 no ,king1 than this in metaphysicks1 ,no ,spirit1 no ,god4 ,such was the mentality of some of the most eminent and scholarly ,christian apologists of the time4 ,it seems safe to conclude that the ,platonist made few converts4 ,more avowed that he wrote without having read previous apologists2 and others were similarly spontaneous in the defence of the faith4 ,in #afed there is noted #cgb a treatise called ,atheismus ,vapulans1 by ,william ,towers1 whose message can in part be inferred from his title2 #cgc and in #afeg ,charleton issued his ,immortality of the ,human ,soul demonstrated by the ,light of ,nature1 wherein the argument1 which says nothing of revelation1 is so singularly unconfident1 and so much broken in upon by excursus1 as to leave it doubtful whether the author was more lacking in dialectic skill or in conviction4 ,and still the traces of unbelief multiply4 ,baxter and ,howe were agreed1 in #afeh1 that there were both infidels and papists at work around them2 and in #afei ,howe writes3 ,i know some leading men are not ,christians4 #cgd ,seekers1 ,vanists1 and ,behmenists are specified as groups to which both infidels and papists attach themselves4 ,and ,howe1 recognizing how religious strifes promote unbelief1 bears witness ,what a cloudy1 wavering1 uncertain1 lank1 spiritless thing is the faith of ,christians in this age become6444 ,most content themselves to profess it only as the religion of their country4 #cge ,alongside of all this vindication of ,christianity there was going on constant and cruel persecution of heretic ,christians4 ,the ,unitarian ,john ,biddle1 master of the ,gloucester ,grammar ,school1 was dismissed for his denial of the ,trinity2 and in #afdg he was imprisoned1 and his book burned by the hangman4 ,in #afed he was again imprisoned2 and in #afee he was banished to the ,scilly ,islands4 ,returning to ,london after the ,restoration1 he was again arrested1 and died in gaol in #affb4 #cgf ,under the ,commonwealth 7#afef7 ,james ,naylor1 the ,quaker1 narrowly escaped death for blasphemy1 but was whipped through the streets1 pilloried1 bored through the tongue with a hot iron1 branded in the forehead1 and sent to hard labour in prison4 ,many hundreds of ,quakers were imprisoned and more or less cruelly handled4 ,from the ,origines ,sacr 7#affb7 of ,stillingfleet1 nevertheless1 it would appear that both deism and atheism were becoming more and more common4 #cgg ,he states that the most popular pretences of the atheists of our age have been the irreconcilableness of the account of times in ,scripture with that of the learned and ancient heathen nations1 the inconsistency of the belief of the ,scriptures with the principles of reason2 and the account which may be given of the origin of things from the principles of philosophy without the ,scriptures4 ,these positions are at least as natural to deists as to atheists2 and ,stillingfleet is later found protesting against the policy of some professed ,christians who give up the argument from miracles as valueless4 #cgh ,his whole treatise1 in short1 assumes the need for meeting a very widespread unbelief in the ,bible1 though it rarely deals with the atheism of which it so constantly speaks4 ,after the ,restoration1 naturally1 all the new tendencies were greatly reinforced1 #cgi alike by the attitude of the king and his companions1 all influenced by ,french culture1 and by the general reaction against ,puritanism4 ,whatever ways of thought had been characteristic of the ,puritans were now in more or less complete disfavour2 the belief in witchcraft was scouted as much on this ground as on any other2 #chj and the deistic doctrines found a ready audience among royalists1 whose enemies had been above all things ,bibliolaters4 ,there is evidence that ,charles ,,ii1 at least up to the time of his becoming a ,catholic1 and probably even to the end1 was at heart a deist4 ,see ,burnet's ,history of his ,own ,time1 ed4 #ahch1 pp4 #fa1 #age1 and notes2 and cp4 refs4 in ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 i1 #cfb1 note2 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #bje4 ,st4 ,evremond1 who knew him and many of his associates1 affirmed expressly that ,charles's creed toit seulement ce qui passe vulgairement1 quoiqu' injustement1 pour une extinction totale de ,religion3 je veux dire le ,disme 7,o,euvres mles3 t4 viii of ,o,euvres1 ed4 #agad1 p4 #ced74 ,his opinion1 ,st4 ,evremond admits1 was the result of simple recognition of the actualities of religious life1 not of reading1 or of much reflection4 ,and his adoption of ,catholicism1 in ,st4 ,evremond's opinion1 was purely political4 ,he saw that ,catholicism made much more than ,protestantism for kingly power1 and that his ,catholic subjects were the most subservient4 ,we gather this1 however1 still from the apologetic treatises and the historians1 not from new deistic literature2 for in virtue of the ,press ,licensing ,act1 passed on behalf of the ,church in #affb1 no heretical book could be printed2 so that ,herbert was thus far the only professed deistic writer in the field1 and ,hobbes the only other of similar influence4 ,baxter1 writing in #afee on ,the ,unreasonableness of ,infidelity1 handles chiefly ,anabaptists2 and in his ,reformed ,pastor 7#afef71 though he avows that the common ignorant people1 seeing the endless strifes of the clergy1 are hardened by us against all religion1 the only specific unbelief he mentions is that of the devil's own agents1 the unhappy ,socinians1 who had written so many treatises for 444 unity and peace4 #cha ,but in his ,reasons of the ,christian ,religion1 issued in #affg1 he thinks fit to prove the existence of ,god and a future state1 and the truth and the supernatural character of the ,christian religion4 ,any deist or atheist who took the trouble to read through it would have been rewarded by the discovery that the learned author has annihilated his own case4 ,in his first part he affirms3 ,if there were no life of ,retribution after this1 ,obedience to ,god would be finally men's loss and ruine3 ,but ,obedience to ,god shall not be finally men's loss and ruine3 ,ergo1 there is another life4 #chb ,in the second part he writes that ,man's personal interest is an unfit rule and measure of ,god's goodness2 #chc and1 going on to meet the new argument against ,christianity based on the inference that an infinity of stars are inhabited1 he writes3-- ,ask any man who knoweth these things whether all this earth be any more in comparison of the whole creation than one ,prison is to a ,kingdom or ,empire1 or the paring of one nail 444 in comparison of the whole body4 ,and if ,god should cast off all this earth1 and use all the sinners in it as they deserve1 it is no more sign of a want of benignity or mercy in him than it is for a ,king to cast one subject of a million into a jail 444 or than it is to pare a man's nails1 or cut off a wart1 or a hair1 or to pull out a rotten aking tooth4 #chd ,thus the second part absolutely destroys one of the fundamental positions of the first4 ,no semblance of levity on the part of the freethinkers could compare with the profound intellectual insincerity of such a propaganda as this2 and that deism and atheism continued to gain ground is proved by the multitude of apologetic treatises4 ,even in church-ridden ,scotland they were found necessary2 at least the young advocate ,george ,mackenzie1 afterwards to be famous as the bluidy ,mackenzie of the time of persecution1 thought it expedient to make his first appearance in literature with a ,religio ,stoici 7#affc71 wherein he sets out with a refutation of atheism4 ,it is difficult to believe that his counsel to ,christians to watch the horror-creating beds of dying atheists #che--;a false pretence as it stands--represented any knowledge whatever of professed atheism in his own country2 and his discussion of the subject is wholly on the conventional lines--notably so when he uses the customary plea1 later associated with ,pascal1 that the theist runs no risk even if there is no future life1 whereas the atheist runs a tremendous risk if there is one2 #chf but when he writes of that mystery why the greatest wits are most frequently the greatest atheists1 #chg he must be presumed to refer at least to deists4 ,and other passages show that he had listened to freethinking arguments4 ,thus he speaks #chh of those who detract from ,scripture by attributing the production of miracles to natural causes2 and again #chi of those who contend that the ,scriptures are written in a mean and low style2 are in some places too mysterious1 in others too obscure2 contain many things incredible1 many repetitions1 and many contradictions4 ,his own answers are conspicuously weak4 ,in the latter passage he continues3 ,but those miscreants should consider that much of the ,scripture's native splendour is impaired by its translators2 and as to miracles he makes the inept answer that if secondary causes were in operation they acted by ,god's will2 going on later to suggest on his own part that prophecy may be not a miraculous gift1 but a natural 7though the highest7 perfection of our human nature4 #cij ,apart from his weak dialectic1 he writes in general with cleverness and literary finish1 but without any note of sincerity2 and his profession of concern that reason should be respected in theology #cia is as little acted on in his later life as his protest against persecution4 #cib ,the inference from the whole essay is that in ,scotland1 as in ,england1 the civil war had brought up a considerable crop of reasoned unbelief2 and that ,mackenzie1 professed defender of the faith as he was at twenty-five1 and official persecutor of nonconformists as he afterwards became1 met with a good deal of it in his cultured circle4 ,in his later booklet1 ,reason3 an ,essay 7#afij71 he speaks of the ridiculous and impudent extravagance of some who 444 take pains to persuade themselves and others that there is not a ,god4 #cic ,he further coarsely asperses all atheists as debauchees1 #cid though he avows that ,infidelity is not the cause of false reasoning1 because such as are not atheists reason falsely4 ,when anti-theistic thought could subsist in the ecclesiastical climate of ,puritan ,scotland1 it must have flourished somewhat in ,england4 ,in #affg appeared ,a ,philosophicall ,essay towards an eviction of the ,being and ,attributes of ,god1 etc41 of which the preface proclaims the bold and horrid pride of ,atheists and ,epicures who have laboured to introduce into the world a general ,atheism1 or at least a doubtful ,skepticisme in matters of ,religion4 ,in #affh was published ,meric ,casaubon's treatise1 ,of ,credulity and ,incredulity in things ,natural1 ,civil1 and ,divine1 assailing not only the ,sadducism of these times in denying spirits1 witches1 etc41 but ,epicurus 444 and the juggling and false dealing lately used to bring ,atheism into ,credit--a thrust at ,gassendi4 ,a similar polemic is entombed in a ponderous folio romance entitled ,bentivolio and ,urania1 by ,nathaniel ,ingelo1 ,d4,d41 a fellow first of ,emanuel ,college1 and afterwards of ,queen's ,college1 ,cambridge 7#affj2 #dth ed4 amended1 #afhb74 ,the second part1 edifyingly dedicated to the ,earl of ,lauderdale1 one of the worst men of his day1 undertakes to handle the ,atheists1 ,epicureans1 and ,skepticks2 and in the preface the atheists are duly vituperated2 while ,epicurus is described as a gross sensualist1 in terms of the legend1 and the skeptics as resigned to the slavery of vice4 ,in the sixth book the atheists are allowed a momentary hearing in defence of their horrid absurdities1 from which it appears that there were current arguments alike anthropological and metaphysical against theism4 ,the most competent part of the author's own argument1 which is unlimited as to space1 is that which controverts the thesis of the invention of religious beliefs by politicians #cie--;a notion first put in currency1 as we have seen1 by those who insisted on the expediency and value of such inventions2 as1 ,polybius among the ancients1 and ,machiavelli among the moderns2 and further by ,christian priests1 who described all non-,christian religions as human inventions4 ,dr4 ,ingelo's folio seems to have had many readers2 but he avowedly did not look for converts2 and defences of the faith on a less formidable scale were multiplied4 ,a ,person of ,honour 7,sir ,charles ,wolseley7 produced in #affi an essay on ,the ,unreasonableness of ,atheism made ,manifest1 which1 without supplying any valid arguments1 gives some explanation of the growth of unbelief in terms of the political and other antecedents2 #cif and in #afgj appeared ,richard ,barthogge's ,divine ,goodness ,explicated and ,vindicated from the ,exceptions of the ,atheists4 ,baxter in #afga #cig complains that infidels are grown so numerous and so audacious1 and look so big and talk so loud2 and still the process continues4 ,in #afgb ,sir ,william ,temple writes indignantly of those who would pass for wits in our age by saying things which1 ,david tells us1 the fool said in his heart4 #cih ,in the same year appeared ,the ,reasonableness of ,scripture-,belief1 by ,sir ,charles ,wolseley1 and ,the ,atheist ,silenced1 by one ,j4 ,m42 in #afgd1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,good's ,firmianus et ,dubitantius1 or ,dialogues concerning ,atheism1 ,infidelity1 and ,popery2 in #afge1 the posthumous treatise of ,bishop ,wilkins 7d4 #afgb71 ,of the ,principles and ,duties of ,natural ,religion1 with a preface by ,tillotson2 and a ,brevis ,demonstratio1 with the modest sub-title1 ,the ,truth of ,christian ,religion ,demonstrated by ,reasons the best that have yet been out in ,english2 in #afgg1 ,bishop ,stillingfleet's ,letter to a ,deist2 and in #afgh the massive work of ,cudworth on ,the ,true ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe attacking atheism 7not deism7 on philosophic lines which sadly compromised the learned author4 #cii ,english dialectic being found insufficient1 there was even produced in #afgi a translation by the ,rev4 ,joshua ,bonhome of the ,french ,l',athisme ,convaincu of ,david ,dersdon1 published twenty years before4 ,all of these works explicitly avow the abundance of unbelief2 ,tillotson1 himself accused of it1 pronounces the age miserably overrun with ,skepticism and ,infidelity2 and ,wilkins1 avowing that these tendencies are common not only among sensual men of the vulgar sort1 but even among those who pretend to a more than ordinary measure of wit and learning1 attempts to meet them by a purely deistic argument1 with a claim for ,christianity appended1 as if he were concerned chiefly to rebut atheism1 and held his own ,christianity on a very rationalistic tenure4 ,the fact was that the orthodox clergy were as hard put to it to repel religious antinomianism on the one hand as to repel atheism on the other2 and no small part of the deistic movement seems to have been set up by the reaction against pious lawlessness4 #djj ,thus we have ,tillotson1 writing as ,dean of ,canterbury1 driven to plead in his preface to the work of ,wilkins that it is a great mistake to think the obligation of moral duties doth solely depend upon the revelation of ,god's will made to us in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,it was such reasoning that brought upon him the charge of freethinking4 ,if it be now possible to form any accurate picture of the state of belief in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 it may perhaps be done by recognizing three categories of temperament or mental proclivity4 ,first we have to reckon with the great mass of people held to religious observance by hebetude1 #dja devoid of the deeper mystical impulse or psychic bias which exhibited itself on the one hand among the dissenters who partly preserved the enthusiasms of the ,commonwealth period1 and on the other among the more cultured pietists of the ,church who1 banning enthusiasm in its stronger forms1 cultivated a certain enthusiasm of their own4 ,religionists of the latter type were ministered to by superstitious mystics like ,henry ,more1 who1 even when undertaking to prove the existence of ,god and the separate existence of the soul by argument and by demonology1 taught them to cultivate a warranted enthusiasm1 and to endeavour after a certain principle more noble and inward than reason itself1 and without which reason will falter1 or at least reach but to mean and frivolous things 444 something in me while ,i thus speak1 which ,i must confess is of so retruse a nature that ,i want a name for it1 unless ,i should adventure to term it divine sagacity1 which is the first rise of successful reason1 especially in matters of great comprehension and moment4 #djb ,there was small psychic difference between this dubiously draped affirmation of the inner light and the more orotund proclamations of it by the dissenters who1 for a considerable section of the people1 still carried on the tradition of rapturous pietism2 and the dissenters were not always at a disadvantage in that faculty for rhetoric which has generally been a main factor in doctrinal religion4 #djc ,from the popular and the eclectic pietist alike the generality of the ,anglican clergy stood aloof2 and among them1 in turn1 a rationalistic and anti-mythical habit of mind in a manner joined men who were divided in their beliefs4 ,the clergymen who wrote lawyer-like treatises against schism were akin in psychosis to those who1 in their distaste for the parade of inspiration1 veered towards deism4 ,tillotson was not the only man reputed to have done so3 fervid dissenters declared that many of the established clergy paid more respect to the light of reason than to the light of the ,scriptures1 and further left ,christ out of their religion1 disowned imputed righteousness1 derided the operations of the holy spirit as the empty pretences of enthusiasts4 #djd ,of men of this temperament1 some would open dialectic batteries against dissent2 while others1 of a more searching proclivity1 would tend to construct for themselves a rationalistic creed out of the current medley of theological and philosophic doctrine4 ,the great mass of course maintained an allegiance of habit to the main formulas of the faith1 putting quasi-rational aspects on the trinity1 providence1 redemption1 and the future life1 very much as the adherents of political parties normally vindicate their supposed principles2 and there was a good deal of surviving temperamental piety even in the ,restoration period4 #dje ,but the outstanding feature of the age1 as contrasted with previous periods1 was the increasing commonness of the skeptical or rationalistic attitude in general society4 ,sir ,charles ,wolseley protests #djf that ,irreligion1 'tis true1 in its practice hath still been the companion of every age1 but its open and public defence seems the peculiar of this2 adding that most of the bad principles of this age are of no earlier a date than one very ill book1 and indeed but the spawn of the ,leviathan4 ,this1 as we have seen1 is a delusion2 but the influence of ,hobbes was a potent factor4 ,all the while1 the censorship of the press1 which was one of the means by which the clerical party under ,charles combated heresy1 prevented any new and outspoken writing on the deistic side4 ,the ,treatise of ,humane i4e4 ,human ,reason 7#afgd7 #djg of ,martin ,clifford1 a scholarly man-about-town1 #djh who was made ,master of the ,charterhouse1 went indeed to the bottom of the question of authority by showing1 as ,spinoza had done shortly before1 #dji that the acceptance of authority is itself in the last resort grounded in reason4 ,the author makes no overt attack on religion1 and professes ,christian belief1 but points out that many modern wars had been on subjects of religion1 and elaborates a skilful argument on the gain to be derived from toleration4 ,reason alone1 fairly used1 will bring a man to the ,christian faith3 he who denies this cannot be a ,christian4 ,as for schism1 it is created not by variation in belief1 but by the refusal to tolerate it4 ,this ingenious and well-written treatise speedily elicited three replies1 all pronouncing it a pernicious work4 ,dr4 ,laney1 ,bishop of ,ely1 is reported to have declared that book and author might fitly be burned together2 #daj and ,dr4 ,isaac ,watts1 while praising it for many useful notions1 found it exalt reason as the rule of religion as well as the guide1 to a degree very dangerous4 #daa ,its actual effect seems to have been to restrain the persecution of dissenters4 #dab ,in #afhj1 three years after ,clifford's death1 there appeared ,an ,apology for a ,treatise of ,humane ,reason1 by ,albertus ,warren1 wherein one of the attacks1 entitled ,plain ,dealing1 by a ,cambridge scholar1 is specially answered4 #dac ,this helped to evoke the anonymous ,discourse of ,things above ,reason 7#afha71 by ,robert ,boyle1 the distinguished author of ,the ,sceptical ,chemist1 whom we have seen backing up ,henry ,more in acceptance of the grossest of ignorant superstitions4 ,the most notable thing about the ,discourse is that it anticipates ,berkeley's argument against freethinking mathematicians4 #dad ,the stress of new discussion is further to be gathered from the work of ,howe1 ,on the ,reconcilableness of ,god's ,prescience of the ,sins of ,men with the ,wisdom and ,sincerity of his ,counsels and ,exhortations1 produced in #afgg at ,boyle's request4 ,as a modern admirer admits that the thesis was a hopeless one1 #dae it is not to be supposed that it did much to lessen doubt in its own day4 ,the preface to ,stillingfleet's ,letter to a ,deist 7#afgg71 which for the first time brings that appellation into prominence in ,english controversy1 tacitly abandoning the usual ascription of atheism to all unbelievers1 avows that a mean esteem of the ,scriptures and the ,christian ,religion has become very common among the ,skepticks of this ,age1 and complains very much1 as ,butler did sixty years later1 of the spirit of ,raillery and ,buffoonery in which the matter was too commonly approached4 ,the ,letter shows that a multitude of the inconsistencies and other blemishes of the ,old ,testament were being keenly discussed2 and it cannot be said that the ,bishop's vindication was well calculated to check the tendency4 ,indeed1 we have the angry and reiterated declaration of ,archdeacon ,parker1 writing in #afha1 that the ignorant and the unlearned among ourselves are become the greatest pretenders to skepticism2 and it is the common people that nowadays set up for ,skepticism and ,infidelity2 that ,atheism and ,irreligion are at length become as common as ,vice and ,debauchery2 and that ,plebeans and ,mechanicks have philosophized themselves into ,principles of ,impiety1 and read their ,lectures of ,atheism in the ,streets and ,highways4 ,and they are able to demonstrate out of the ,leviathan that there is no ,god nor ,providence1 and so on4 #daf ,as the ,archdeacon's method of refutation consists mainly in abuse1 he doubtless had the usual measure of success4 ,a similar order of dialectic is employed by ,dr4 ,sherlock in his ,practical ,discourse of ,religious ,assemblies 7#afha74 ,the opening section is addressed to the speculative atheists1 here described as receding from the principles of their great ,master1 ,mr4 ,hobbs1 who1 though he had no great opinion of religion in itself1 yet thought it something considerable when it became the law of the nation4 ,such atheists1 the reverend writer notes1 when it is urged on them that all mankind worship some ,god or other1 reply that such an argument is as good for polytheism and idolatry as for monotheism2 so1 after formally inviting them to cure their souls of that fatal and mortal disease1 which makes them beasts here and devils hereafter1 and lamenting that he is not dealing with reasonable men1 he bethinks him that the laws of conversation require us to treat all men with just respects1 and admits that there have been some few wise and cautious atheists4 ,to such1 accordingly1 he suggests that the atheist has already a great advantage in a world morally restrained by religion1 where he is under no such restraint1 and that1 if he should by his wit and learning proselyte a whole nation to atheism1 ,hell would break loose on ,earth1 and he might soon find himself exposed to all those violences and injuries which he now securely practises4 ,for the rest1 they had better not affront ,god1 who may after all exist1 and be able to revenge himself4 #dag ,and so forth4 ,of deists as such1 ,sherlock has nothing to say beyond treating as practical atheists men who admit the existence of ,god1 yet never go to church1 though religious worship is nothing else but a public acknowledgment of ,god4 ,their non-attendance is as great1 if not a greater affront to ,god1 and contempt of him1 than atheism itself4 #dah ,but the reverend writer's strongest resentment is aroused by the spectacle of freethinkers asking for liberty of thought4 ,it is a fulsome and nauseous thing1 he breathlessly protests1 to see the atheists and infidels of our days to turn great reformers of religion1 to set up a mighty cry for liberty of conscience4 ,for whatever reformation of religion may be needful at this time1 whatever liberty of conscience may be fit to be granted1 yet what have these men to do to meddle with it2 those who think religion a mere fable1 and ,god to be an ,utopian prince1 and conscience a man of clouts set up for a scarecrow to fright such silly creatures from their beloved enjoyments1 and hell and heaven to be forged in the same mint with the poet's ,styx and ,acheron and ,elysian ,fields8 ,we are like to see blessed times1 if such men had but the reforming of religion4 #dai ,dr ,sherlock was not going to do good if the devil bade him4 ,the faith had a wittier champion in ,south2 but he1 in a ,westminster ,abbey sermon of #afhd-e1 #dbj mournfully declares that ,the weakness of our church discipline since its restoration1 whereby it has been scarce able to get any hold on men's consciences1 and much less able to keep it2 and the great prevalence of that atheistical doctrine of the ,leviathan2 and the unhappy propagation of ,erastianism2 these things 7,i say7 with some others have been the sad and fatal causes that have loosed the bands of conscience and eaten out the very heart and sense of ,christianity among us1 to that degree1 that there is now scarce any religious tye or restraint upon persons1 but merely from those faint remainders of natural conscience1 which ,god will be sure to keep alive upon the hearts of men1 as long as they are men1 for the great ends of his own providence1 whether they will or no4 ,so that1 were it not for this sole obstacle1 religion is not now so much in danger of being divided and torn piecemeal by sects and factions1 as of being at once devoured by atheism4 ,which being so1 let none wonder that irreligion is accounted policy when it is grown even to a fashion2 and passes for wit1 with some1 as well as for wisdom with others4 ,how general was the ferment of discussion may be gathered from ,dryden's ,religio ,laici 7#afhb71 addressed to the youthful ,henry ,dickinson1 translator of ,pre ,richard ,simon's ,critical ,history of the ,old ,testament 7,fr4 #afgh74 ,the ,french scholar was suspect to begin with2 and ,bishop ,burnet tells that ,richard ,hampden 7grandson of the patriot71 who was connected with the ,rye ,house ,plot and committed suicide in the reign of ,william and ,mary1 had been much corrupted in his religious principles by ,simon's conversation at ,paris4 ,in the poem1 ,dryden recognizes the upsetting tendency of the treatise1 albeit he terms it matchless3-- ,for some1 who have his secret meaning guessed1 ,have found our author not too much a priest2 and his flowing disquisition1 which starts from poetic contempt of reason and ends in prosaic advice to keep quiet about its findings1 leaves the matter at that4 ,the hopelessly confused but musical passage3 ,dim as the borrowed beams of moon and stars1 ,to lonely1 weary1 wandering travellers1 ,is ,reason to the soul1 begins the poem2 but the poet thinks it necessary both in his preface and in his piece to argue with the deists in a fashion which must have entertained them as much as it embarrassed the more thoughtful orthodox1 his simple thesis being that all ideas of deity were dbris from the primeval revelation to ,noah1 and that natural reason could never have attained to a ,god-idea at all4 ,and even at that1 as regards the ,herbertian argument3 ,no supernatural worship can be true1 ,because a general law is that alone ,which must to all and everywhere be known3 he confesses that ,of all objections this indeed is chief ,to startle reason1 stagger frail belief2 and feebly proceeds to argue away the worst meaning of the creed of the good old man ,athanasius4 ,finally1 we have a fatherly appeal for peace and quietness among the sects3-- ,and after hearing what our ,church can say1 ,if still our reason runs another way1 ,that private reason 'tis more just to curb ,than by disputes the public peace disturb2 ,for points obscure are of small use to learn1 ,but common quiet is mankind's concern4 ,it must have been the general disbelief in ,dryden's sincerity on religious matters that caused the ascription to him of various freethinking treatises1 for there is no decisive evidence that he was ever pronouncedly heterodox4 ,his attitude to rationalism in the ,religio ,laici is indeed that of one who either could not see the scope of the problem or was determined not to indicate his recognition of it2 and on the latter view the insincerity of both poem and preface would be exorbitant4 ,by his nominal hostility to deism1 however1 ,dryden did freethought a service of some importance4 ,after his antagonism had been proclaimed1 no one could plausibly associate freethinking with licentiousness1 in which ,dryden so far exceeded nearly every poet and dramatist of his age that the non-juror ,jeremy ,collier was free to single him out as the representative of theatrical lubricity4 ,but in simple justice it must also be avowed that of all the opponents of deism in that day he is one of the least embittered1 and that his amiable superficiality of argument must have tended to stimulate the claims of reason4 ,the late ,dr4 ,verrall1 a keen but unprejudiced critic1 sums up as regards ,dryden's religious poetry in general that ,what is clear is that he had a marked dislike of clergy of all sorts1 as such2 that the main points of ,deism are noted in ,religio ,laici 7#df-fa72 and that his creed was presumably some sort of ,deism 7,lectures on ,dryden1 #aiad1 pp4 #adh-ej74 ,further1 ,the ,state of ,innocence is really deistic and not ,christian in tone3 in his play of ,tyrannic ,love1 the religion of ,st4 ,catharine may be mere philosophy2 and though the poet in his preface to that play protests that his outward conversation shall never be justly taxed with the note of atheism or profaneness1 the disclaimer proves nothing as to his positive belief3 ,deism is not profane4 ,in ,absalom and ,achitophel1 again1 the coarse satire on ,transubstantiation 7#aah ff47 shows rather religious insensibility than hostile theology1 though the poem shows his dislike of liberty and private judgment 7#di-ej74 ,of the ,religio ,laici the critic asks3 ,now in all this1 is there any religion at all8 ,the poem might well be dismissed as mere politics but for its astounding commencement 7p4 #aee74 ,the critic unexpectedly fails to note that the admired commencement is an insoluble confusion of metaphors4 ,how far the process of reasoning had gone among quiet thinking people before the ,revolution may be gathered from the essay entitled ,miracles no ,violations of the ,laws of ,nature1 published in #afhc4 #dba ,its thesis is that put explicitly by ,montaigne and implicitly by ,bacon1 that ,ignorance is the only worker of miracles2 in other words1 that the power of ,god and the power of ,nature are one and the same--a simple and straightforward way of putting a conception which ,cudworth had put circuitously and less courageously a few years before4 ,no ,scriptural miracle is challenged qua event4 ,among the many miracles related to be done in favour of the ,israelites1 says the writer1 there is 7,i think7 no one that can be apodictically demonstrated to be repugnant to th' establisht ,order of ,nature2 #dbb and he calmly accepts the ,biblical account of the first rainbow1 explaining it as passing for a miracle merely because it was the first4 ,he takes his motto from ,pliny3 ,quid non miraculo est1 cum primum in notitiam venit8 #dbc ,this is1 however1 a preliminary strategy2 as is the opening reminder that most of the ancient ,fathers 444 and of the most learned ,theologues among the moderns hold that the ,scriptures as regards natural things do not design to instruct men in physics but aim only to excite pious affections in their breasts4 ,we accordingly reach the position that the ,scripture many times speaks of natural things1 yea even of ,god himself1 very improperly1 as aiming to affect and occupy the imagination of men1 not to convince their reason4 ,many ,scriptural narratives1 therefore1 are either delivered poetically or related according to the preconceived opinions and prejudices of the writer4 ,wherefore we here absolutely conclude that all the events that are truly related in the ,scripture to have come to pass1 proceeded necessarily 444 according to the immutable ,laws of ,nature2 and that if anything be found which can be apodictically demonstrated to be repugnant to those laws 444 we may safely and piously believe the same not to have been dictated by divine inspiration1 but impiously added to the sacred volume by sacrilegious men2 for whatever is against ,nature is against ,reason2 and whatever is against ,reason is absurd1 and therefore also to be rejected and refuted4 #dbd ,lest this should be found too hard a doctrine there is added1 propos of ,joshua's staying of the sun and moon1 a literary solution which has often done duty in later times4 ,to interpret ,scripture-miracles1 and to understand from the narrations of them how they really happened1 'tis necessary to know the opinions of those who first reported them 444 otherwise we shall confound 444 things which have really happen'd with things purely imaginary1 and which were only prophetic representations4 ,for in ,scripture many things are related as real1 and which were also believ'd to be real even by the relators themselves1 that notwithstanding were only representations form'd in the brain1 and merely imaginary--as that ,god1 the ,supreme ,being1 descended from heaven 444 upon ,mount ,sinai4442 that ,elias ascended to heaven in a fiery chariot 444 which were only representations accommodated to their opinions who deliver'd them down to us4 #dbe ,such argumentation had to prepare the way for ,hume's ,essay ,of ,miracles1 half a century later2 and concerning both reasoners it is to be remembered that their thought was to be infidelity for centuries after them4 ,it needed real freethinking1 then1 to produce such doctrine in the days of the ,rye ,house ,plot4 ,meanwhile1 during an accidental lapse of the press laws1 the deist ,charles ,blount #dbf 7#afed-afic7 had produced with his father's help his ,anima ,mundi 7#afgi71 in which there is set forth a measure of cautious unbelief2 following it up 7#afhj7 by his much more pronounced essay1 ,great is ,diana of the ,ephesians1 a keen attack on the principle of revelation and clericalism in general1 and his translation from the ,latin version of ,philostratus's ,life of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 so annotated #dbg as to be an ingenious counterblast to the ,christian claims1 and so prefaced as to be an open challenge to orthodoxy4 ,the book was condemned to be burnt2 and only the influence of ,blount's family1 #dbh probably1 prevented his being prosecuted4 ,the propaganda1 however1 was resumed by ,blount and his friends in small tracts1 and after his suicide #dbi in #afic these were collected as the ,oracles of ,reason 7#afic71 his collected works 7without the ,apollonius7 appearing in #afie4 ,by this time the political tension of the ,revolution of #afhh was over2 ,le ,clerc's work on the inspiration of the ,old ,testament1 raising many doubts as to the authorship of the ,pentateuch1 had been translated in #afij2 ,spinoza's ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus 7#afgj7 had been translated into ,english in #afhi1 and had impressed in a similar sense a number of scholars2 his ,ethica had given a new direction to the theistic controversy2 the ,boyle ,lecture had been established for the confutation of unbelievers2 and after the political convulsion of #afhh has subsided it rains refutations4 ,atheism is now so fiercely attacked1 and with such specific arguments--as in ,bentley's ,boyle ,lectures 7#afib71 ,edwards's ,thoughts concerning the ,causes of ,atheism 7#afie71 and many other treatises--that there can be no question as to the private vogue of atheistic or agnostic opinions4 ,if we are to judge solely from the apologetic literature1 it was more common than deism4 ,yet it seems impossible to doubt that there were ten deists for one atheist4 ,bentley's admission that he never met an explicit atheist #dcj suggests that much of the atheism warred against was tentative4 ,it was only the deists who could venture on open avowals2 and the replies to them were most discussed4 ,much account was made of one of the most compendious1 the ,short and ,easy ,method with the ,deists 7#afig71 by the nonjuror ,charles ,leslie2 but this handy argument 7which is really adopted without acknowledgment from an apologetic treatise by a ,french ,protestant refugee1 published in #afhh #dca7 was not only much bantered by deists1 but was sharply censured as incompetent by the ,french ,protestant ,le ,clerc2 #dcb and many other disputants had to come to the rescue4 ,a partial list will suffice to show the rate of increase of the ferment3-- #afhc4 ,dr4 ,rust1 ,discourse on the ,use of ,reason in 444 ,religion1 against ,enthusiasts and ,deists4 #afhe4 ,duke of ,buckingham1 ,a ,short ,discourse upon the ,reasonableness of men's having a religion or worship of ,god4 #afhe4 ,the ,atheist ,unmask'd4 ,by a ,person of ,honour4 #afhh4 ,peter ,allix1 ,d4,d4 ,reflexions1 etc41 as above cited4 #afia4 ,archbishop ,tenison1 ,the ,folly of ,atheism4 #afia4 ,discourse of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion4 #afia4 ,john ,ray1 ,wisdom of ,god manifested in the ,works of the ,creation4 7,many reprints47 #afib4 ,c4 ,ellis1 ,the ,folly of ,atheism ,demonstrated4 #afib4 ,bentley's ,sermons on ,atheism4 7,first ,boyle ,lectures47 #afic4 ,archbishop ,davies1 ,an ,anatomy of ,atheism4 ,a poem4 #afic4 ,a ,conference between an ,atheist and his ,friend4 #afid4 ,j4 ,goodman1 ,a ,winter ,evening ,conference between ,neighbours4 #afid4 ,bishop ,kidder1 ,a ,demonstration of the ,messias4 7,boyle ,lect47 #afie4 ,john ,locke1 ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity4 #afie4 ,john ,edwards1 ,b4,d41 ,some ,thoughts concerning the ,several ,causes and occasions of ,atheism4 7,directed against ,locke47 #afif4 ,an ,account of the ,growth of ,deism in ,england4 #afif4 ,reflections on a ,pamphlet1 etc4 7the last named74 #afif4 ,sir ,c4 ,wolseley1 ,the ,unreasonableness of ,atheism ,demonstrated4 7,rep47 #afif4 ,dr4 ,nichols' ,conference with a ,theist4 ,pt4 ,i4 7,answer to ,blount47 #afif4 ,j4 ,edwards1 ,d4,d41 ,a ,demonstration of the ,evidence and ,providence of ,god4 #afif4 ,e4 ,pelling1 ,discourse 444 on the ,existence of ,god4 7,pt4 ,,ii in #agje74 #afig4 ,stephen ,eye1 ,a ,discourse concerning ,natural and ,revealed ,religion4 #afig4 ,bishop ,gastrell1 ,the ,certainty and ,necessity of ,religion4 7,boyle ,lect47 #afig4 ,h4 ,prideaux1 ,discourse vindicating ,christianity1 etc4 #afig4 ,c4 ,leslie1 ,a ,short and ,easy ,method with the ,deists4 #afih4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,harris1 ,a ,refutation of ,atheistical ,objections4 7,boyle ,lect47 #afih4 ,thos4 ,emes1 ,the ,atheist turned ,deist1 and the ,deist turned ,christian4 #afii4 ,c4 ,lidgould1 ,proclamation against ,atheism1 etc4 #afii4 ,j4 ,bradley1 ,an ,impartial ,view of the ,truth of ,christianity4 7,answer to ,blount47 #agjj4 ,bishop ,bradford1 ,the ,credibility of the ,christian ,revelation4 7,boyle ,lect47 #agjj4 ,rev4 ,p4 ,berault1 ,discourses on the ,trinity1 ,atheism1 etc4 #agja4 ,t4 ,knaggs1 ,against ,atheism4 #agja4 ,w4 ,scot1 ,discourses concerning the wisdom and goodness of ,god4 #agjb4 ,a ,confutation of ,atheism4 #agjb4 ,dr4 ,stanhope1 ,the ,truth and ,excellency of the ,christian ,religion4 7,boyle ,lect47 #agjd4 ,an ,antidote of ,atheism4 78 ,reprint of ,more74 #agje4 ,translation of ,herbert's ,ancient ,religion of the ,gentiles4 #agje4 ,charles ,gildon1 ,the ,deist's ,manual 7a recantation74 #agje4 ,ed4 ,pelling1 ,discourse concerning the existence of ,god4 ,part ,,ii4 #agje4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 ,a ,demonstration of the ,being and ,attributes of ,god1 etc4 7,boyle ,lect4 of #agjd47 #agjf4 ,a ,preservative against ,atheism and ,infidelity4 #agjf4 ,th4 ,wise1 ,b4,d41 ,a ,confutation of the ,reason and ,philosophy of ,atheism 7recast and abridgment of ,cudworth74 #agjf4 ,t4 ,oldfield1 ,mille ,testes2 against the ,atheists1 ,deists1 and ,skepticks4 #agjf4 ,the ,case of ,deism fully and fairly stated1 with ,dialogue1 etc4 #agjg4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,hancock1 ,arguments to prove the ,being of a ,god4 7,boyle ,lect47 ,still there was no new deistic literature apart from ,toland's ,christianity not ,mysterious 7#afif7 and his unauthorized issue 7of course without author's name7 of ,shaftesbury's ,inquiry ,concerning ,virtue in #afii2 and in that there is little direct conflict with orthodoxy1 though it plainly enough implied that scripturalism would injuriously affect morals4 ,it seems at that date1 perhaps through the author's objection to its circulation1 to have attracted little attention2 but he tells that it incurred hostility4 #dcc ,blount's famous stratagem of #afic #dcd had led to the dropping of the official censorship of the press1 the ,licensing ,act having been renewed for only two years in #afic and dropped in #afie2 but after the prompt issue of ,blount's collected works in that year1 and the appearance of ,toland's ,christianity not ,mysterious in the next1 the new and comprehensive ,blasphemy ,law of #afig #dce served sufficiently to terrorize writers and printers in that regard for the time being4 #dcf ,bare denial of the ,trinity1 of the truth of the ,christian religion1 or of the divine authority of the ,scriptures1 was made punishable by disability for any civil office2 and on a second offence by three years' imprisonment1 with withdrawal of all legal rights4 ,the first clear gain from the freedom of the press was thus simply a cheapening of books in general4 ,by the ,licensing ,act of ,charles ,,ii1 and by a separate patent1 the ,stationers' ,company had a monopoly of printing and selling all classical authors2 and while their editions were disgracefully bad1 the importers of the excellent editions printed in ,holland had to pay them a penalty of #fs4 #h;d4 on each copy4 #dcg ,by the same ,act1 passed under clerical influence1 the number even of master printers and letter-founders had been reduced1 and the number of presses and apprentices strictly limited2 and the total effect of the monopolies was that when ,dutch-printed books were imported in exchange for ,english1 the latter sold more cheaply at ,amsterdam than they did in ,london1 the ,english consumer1 of course1 bearing the burden4 #dch ,the immediate effect1 therefore1 of the lapse of the ,licensing ,act must have been to cheapen greatly all foreign books by removal of duties1 and at the same time to cheapen ,english books by leaving printing free4 ,it will be seen above that the output of treatises against freethought at once increases in #afif4 ,but the revolution of #afhh1 like the ,great ,rebellion1 had doubtless given a new stimulus to freethinking2 and the total effect of freer trade in books1 even with a veto on blasphemy1 could only be to further it4 ,this was ere long to be made plain4 #c ,alongside of the more popular and native influences1 there were at work others1 foreign and more academic2 and even in professedly orthodox writers there are signs of the influence of deistic thought4 ,thus ,sir ,thomas ,browne's ,religio ,medici 7written about #afcd1 published #afdb7 has been repeatedly characterized #dci as tending to promote deism by its tone and method2 and there can be no question that it assumes a great prevalence of critical unbelief1 to which its attitude is an odd combination of humorous cynicism and tranquil dogmatism1 often recalling ,montaigne1 #ddj and at times anticipating ,emerson4 ,there is little savour of confident belief in the smiling maxim that to confirm and establish our belief 'tis best to argue with judgments below our own2 or in the avowal1 ,in divinity ,i love to keep the road2 and though not in an implicit yet an humble faith1 follow the great wheel of the ,church1 by which ,i move4 #dda ,the pose of the typical believer3 ,i can answer all the objections of ,satan and my rebellious reason with that odd resolution ,i learned of ,tertullian1 ,certum est quia impossibile est1 #ddb tells in his case of no anxious hours2 and such smiling incuriousness is not conducive to conviction in others1 especially when followed by a recital of some of the many insoluble dilemmas of ,scripture4 ,when he reasons he is merely self-subversive1 as in the saying1 ',tis not a ridiculous devotion to say a prayer before a game at tables2 for even in sortileges and matters of greatest uncertainty there is a settled and pre-ordered course of effects2 #ddc and after remarking that the notions of ,fortune and astral influence have perverted the devotion of many into atheism1 he proceeds to avow that his many doubts never inclined him to any point of infidelity or desperate positions of atheism2 for ,i have been these many years of opinion there never was any4 #ddd ,yet in his later treatise on ,vulgar ,errors 7#afde7 he devotes a chapter #dde to the activities of ,satan in instilling the belief that there is no ,god at all 444 that the necessity of his entity dependeth upon ours4442 that the natural truth of ,god is an artificial erection of ,man1 and the ,creator himself but a subtile invention of the ,creature4 ,he further notes as coming from the same source a secondary and deductive ,atheism--that although men concede there is a ,god1 yet should they deny his providence4 ,and therefore assertions have flown about1 that he intendeth only the care of the species or common natures1 but letteth loose the guard of individuals1 and single existences therein4 #ddf ,browne now asserts merely that many there are who cannot conceive that there was ever any absolute ,atheist1 and does not clearly affirm that ,satan labours wholly in vain4 ,the broad fact remains that he avows reason is a rebel unto faith2 and in the ,vulgar ,errors he shows in his own reasoning much of the practical play of the new skepticism4 #ddg ,yet it is finally on record that in #affd1 on the trial of two women for witchcraft1 ,browne declared that the fits suffered from by the children said to have been bewitched were natural1 but heightened by the devil's co-operating with the malice of the witches1 at whose instance he did the villainies4 #ddh ,this amazing deliverance is believed to have turned the scale in the minds of the jury against the poor women1 and they were sentenced by the sitting judge1 ,sir ,matthew ,hale1 to be hanged4 ,it would seem that in ,browne's latter years the irrational element in him1 never long dormant1 overpowered the rational4 ,the judgment is a sad one to have to pass on one of the greatest masters of prose in any language4 ,in other men1 happily1 the progression was different4 ,the opening even of ,jeremy ,taylor's ,ductor ,dubitantium1 so far as it goes1 falls little short of the deistic position4 #ddi ,a new vein of rationalism1 too1 is opened in the theological field by the great ,cambridge scholar ,john ,spencer1 whose ,discourse concerning ,prodigies 7#affc2 #bnd ed4 #affe71 though quite orthodox in its main positions1 has in part the effect of a plea for naturalism as against supernaturalism4 ,spencer's great work1 ,de legibus ,hebrorum 7#afhe71 is1 apart from ,spinoza1 the most scientific view of ,hebrew institutions produced before the rise of ,german theological rationalism in the latter part of the eighteenth century4 ,holding most of the ,jewish rites to have been planned by the deity as substitutes for or safeguards against those of the ,gentiles which they resembled1 he unconsciously laid1 with ,herbert1 the foundations of comparative hierology1 bringing to the work a learning which is still serviceable to scholars4 #dej ,and there were yet other new departures by clerical writers1 who of course exhibit the difficulty of attaining a consistent rationalism4 ,one clergyman1 ,joseph ,glanvill1 is found publishing a treatise on ,the ,vanity of ,dogmatizing 7#affa2 amended in #affe under the title ,scepsis ,scientifica71 #dea wherein1 with careful reservation of religion1 the spirit of critical science is applied to the ordinary processes of opinion with much energy1 and the mechanical philosophy of ,descartes is embraced with zeal4 ,following ,raleigh and ,hobbes1 #deb ,glanvill also puts the positive view of causation #dec afterwards fully developed by ,hume4 #ded ,yet he not only vetoed all innovation in divinity1 but held stoutly by the crudest forms of the belief in witchcraft1 and was with ,henry ,more its chief ,english champion in his day against rational disbelief4 #dee ,in religion he had so little of the skeptical faculty that he declared ,our religious foundations are fastened at the pillars of the intellectual world1 and the grand articles of our belief as demonstrable as geometry4 ,nor will ever either the subtile attempts of the resolved ,atheist1 or the passionate hurricanes of the wild enthusiast1 any more be able to prevail against the reason our faith is built on1 than the blustering winds to blow out the ,sun4 #def ,he had his due reward in being philosophically assailed by the ,catholic priest ,thomas ,white as a promoter of skepticism1 #deg and by an ,anglican clergyman1 wroth with the ,royal ,society and all its works1 as an infidel and an atheist4 #deh ,this was as true as clerical charges of the kind usually were in the period4 ,but without any animus or violence of interpretation1 a reader of ,glanvill's visitation sermon on ,the ,agreement of ,reason and ,religion #dei might have inferred that he was a deist4 ,it sets forth that religion primarily and mainly consists in worship and vertue1 and that it in a secondary sense consists in some principles relating to the worship of ,god1 and of his ,son1 in the ways of devout and vertuous living2 ,christianity having superadded baptism and the ,lord's ,supper to the religion of mankind4 ,apart from his obsession as to witchcraft--and perhaps even as to that--,glanvill seems to have grown more and more rationalistic in his later years4 ,the ,scepsis omits some of the credulous flights of the ,vanity of ,dogmatizing2 #dfj the re-written version in the collected ,essays omits such dithyrambs as that above quoted2 and the sermon in its revised form sets out with the emphatic declaration3 ,there is not anything that ,i know which hath done more mischief to religion than the disparaging of reason under pretence of respect and favour to it2 for hereby the very foundations of ,christian faith have been undermined1 and the world prepared for atheism4 ,and if reason must not be heard1 the ,being of a ,god and the authority of ,scripture can neither be proved nor defended2 and so our faith drops to the ground like an house that hath no foundation4 ,such reasoning could not but be suspect to the orthodoxy of the age4 ,apart from the influence of ,hobbes1 who1 like ,descartes1 shaped his thinking from the starting-point of ,galileo1 the ,cartesian philosophy played in ,england a great transitional part4 ,at the university of ,cambridge it was already naturalized2 #dfa and the influence of ,glanvill1 who was an active member of the ,royal ,society1 must have carried it further4 ,the remarkable treatise of the anatomist ,glisson1 #dfb ,de natura substanti energetica 7#afgb71 suggests the influence of either ,descartes or ,gassendi2 and it is remarkable that the clerical moralist ,cumberland1 writing his ,disquisitio de legibus ,natur 7#afgb7 in reply to ,hobbes1 not only takes up a utilitarian position akin to ,hobbes's own1 and expressly avoids any appeal to the theological doctrine of future punishments1 but introduces physiology into his ethic to the extent of partially figuring as an ethical materialist4 #dfc ,in regard to ,gassendi's direct influence it has to be noted that in #afei there appeared ,the ,vanity of ,judiciary ,astrology1 translated by ,a ,person of ,quality1 from ,p4 ,gassendus2 and further that1 as is remarked by ,reid1 ,locke borrowed more from ,gassendi than from any other writer4 #dfd ,it is stated by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen 7,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #bnd ed4 i1 #cb7 that in ,england the philosophy of ,descartes made no distinguished disciples2 and that ,john ,norris seems to be the only exception to the general indifference4 ,this overlooks 7#a7 ,glanvill1 who constantly cites and applauds ,descartes 7,scepsis ,scientifica1 passim74 7#b7 ,in ,henry ,more's ,divine ,dialogues1 again 7#affh71 one of the disputants is made to speak 7,dial4 i1 ch4 xxiv7 of that admired wit ,descartes2 and he later praises him even when passing censure 7above1 p4 #fe74 ,more had been one of the admirers in his youth1 and changed his view 7cp4 ,ward's ,life of ,dr4 ,henry ,more1 pp4 #fc-fd74 ,but his first letter to ,descartes begins3 ,quanta voluptate perfusus est animus meus1 ,vir clarissime1 scriptis tuis legendis1 nemo quisquam prter te unum potest conjectare4 7#c7 ,there was published in #afgj a translation of ,des ,fourneillis's letter in defence of the ,cartesian system1 with ,franois ,bayle's ,general ,system of the ,cartesian ,philosophy4 7#d7 ,the continual objections to the atheistic tendency of ,descartes throughout ,cudworth's ,true ,intellectual ,system imply anything but general indifference2 and 7#e7 ,barrow's tone in venturing to oppose him 7cit4 in ,whewell's ,philosophy of ,discovery1 #ahfj1 p4 #agi7 pays tribute to his great influence4 7#f7 ,molyneux1 in the preface to his translation of the ,six ,metaphysical ,meditations of ,descartes in #afhj1 speaks of him as this excellent philosopher and this prodigious man4 7#g7 ,maxwell1 in a note to his translation 7#agbg7 of ,bishop ,cumberland's ,disquisitio de legibus ,natur1 remarks that the doctrine of a universal plenum was accepted from the ,cartesian philosophy by ,cumberland1 in whose time that philosophy prevailed much 7p4 #abj74 ,see again 7#h7 ,clarke's ,answer to ,butler's ,fifth ,letter 7#agah7 as to the universal prevalence of ,descartes's notions in natural philosophy4 7#i7 ,the ,scottish ,lord ,president ,forbes 7d4 #agdg7 summed up that ,descartes's romance kept entire possession of men's belief for fully fifty years 7,works1 ii1 #acb74 7#aj7 ,and his fellow-judge1 ,sir ,william ,anstruther1 in his ,discourse against ,atheism 7,essays1 ,moral and ,divine1 #agja1 pp4 #f1 #h1 #i71 cites with much approval the theistic argument of the celebrated ,descartes as the last evidences which appeared upon the stage of learning in that connection4 ,cp4 ,berkeley1 ,siris1 #cca4 ,of ,berkeley himself1 ,professor ,adamson writes 7,encyc4 ,brit4 iii1 #ehi7 that ,descartes and ,locke 444 are his real masters in speculation4 ,the ,cartesian view of the eternity and infinity of matter had further become an accepted ground for philosophical atheists in ,england before the end of the century 7,molyneux1 in ,familiar ,letters of ,locke and his ,friends1 #agjh1 p4 #df74 ,as to the many writers who charged ,descartes with promoting atheism1 see ,mosheim's notes in ,harrison's ed4 of ,cudworth's ,intellectual ,system1 i1 #bge-gf2 ,clarke1 as above cited2 ,leibnitz's letter to ,philip1 cited by ,latta1 ,leibnitz1 #ahih1 p4 #h1 note2 and ,brewster's ,memoirs of ,newton1 ii1 #cae4 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen seems to have followed1 under a misapprehension1 ,whewell1 who contends merely that the ,cartesian doctrine of vortices was never widely accepted in ,england 7,philos4 of ,discovery1 pp4 #agg-gh2 cp4 ,hist4 of the ,induct4 ,sciences1 ed4 #aheg1 ii1 #ajg1 #adg-dh74 ,buckle was perhaps similarly misled when he wrote in his note-book3 ,descartes was never popular in ,england 7,misc4 ,works1 abridged ed4 i1 #bfi74 ,whewell himself mentions that ,clarke1 soon after taking his degree at ,cambridge1 was actively engaged in introducing into the academic course of study1 first1 the philosophy of ,descartes in its best form1 and1 next1 the philosophy of ,newton 7,lectures on ,moral ,philosophy1 ed4 #ahfb1 pp4 #ig-ih74 ,and ,professor ,fowler1 in correcting his first remarks on the point1 decides that many of the mathematical teachers at ,cambridge continued to teach the ,cartesian system for some time after the publication of ,newton's ,principia 7ed4 of ,nov4 ,org41 p4 xi74 ,it is clear1 however1 that insofar as new science set up a direct conflict with ,scriptural assumptions it gained ground but slowly and indirectly4 ,it is difficult to-day to realize with what difficulty the ,copernican and ,galilean doctrine of the earth's rotation and movement round the sun found acceptance even among studious men4 ,we have seen that ,bacon finally rejected it4 ,and as ,professor ,masson points out1 #dfe not only does ,milton seem uncertain to the last concerning the truth of the ,copernican system1 but his friends and literary associates1 the ,smectymnuans1 in their answer to ,bishop ,hall's ,humble ,remonstrance 7#afda71 had pointed to the ,copernican doctrine as an unquestioned instance of a supreme absurdity4 ,glanvill1 remarking in #affe that it is generally opinion'd that the ,earth rests as the world's centre1 avows that for a man to go about to counter-argue this belief is as fruitless as to whistle against the winds4 ,i shall not undertake to maintain the paradox that confronts this almost ,catholic opinion4 ,its assertion would be entertained with the hoot of the rabble2 the very mention of it as possible1 is among the most ridiculous4 #dff ,all he ventures to do is to show that the senses do not really vouch the ordinary view4 ,not till the eighteenth century1 probably1 did the common run of educated people anywhere accept the scientific teaching4 ,on the other hand1 however1 there was growing up not a little ,socinian and other ,unitarianism1 for some variety of which we have seen two men burned in #afab4 ,church measures had been taken against the importation of ,socinian books as early as #afdj4 ,the famous ,lord ,falkland1 slain in the ,civil ,war1 is supposed to have leant to that opinion2 #dfg and ,chillingworth1 whose ,religion of ,protestants 7#afcg7 was already a remarkable application of rational tests to ecclesiastical questions in defiance of patristic authority1 #dfh seems in his old age to have turned ,socinian4 #dfi ,violent attacks on the ,trinity are noted among the heresies of #afdf4 #dgj ,colonel ,john ,fry1 one of the regicides1 who in ,parliament was accused of rejecting the ,trinity1 cleared himself by explaining that he simply objected to the terms persons and subsistence1 but was one of those who sought to help the persecuted ,unitarian ,biddle4 ,in #afeb the ,parliament ordered the destruction of a certain ,socinian ,catechism2 and by #afee the heresy seems to have become common4 #dga ,it is now certain that ,milton was substantially a ,unitarian1 #dgb and that ,locke and ,newton were at heart no less so4 #dgc ,the temper of the ,unitarian school appears perhaps at its best in the anonymous ,rational ,catechism published in #afhf4 ,it purports to be an instructive conference between a father and his son1 and is dedicated by the father to his two daughters4 ,the ,catechism rises above the common run of its species in that it is really a dialogue1 in which the rles are at times reversed1 and the catechumen is permitted to think and speak for himself4 ,the exposition is entirely unevangelical4 ,right religion is declared to consist in right conduct2 and while the actuality of the ,christian record is maintained on argued grounds1 on the lines of ,grotius and ,parker1 the doctrine of salvation by faith is strictly excluded1 future happiness being posited as the reward of good life1 not of faith4 ,there is no negation1 the author's object being avowedly peace and conciliation2 but the ,epistle ,dedicatory declares that religious reasoners have hitherto failed in their foundation-work4 ,they have too much slighted that philosophy which is the natural religion of all men2 and which1 being natural1 must needs be universal and eternal3 and upon which therefore1 or at least in conformity with which1 all instituted and revealed religion must be supposed to be built4 ,we have here in effect the position taken up by ,toland ten years later2 and1 in germ1 the principle which developed deism1 albeit in connection with an affirmation of the truth of the ,christian records4 ,of the central ,christian doctrine there is no acceptance1 though there is laudation of ,jesus2 and reprints after #afie bore the motto1 from ,locke3 #dgd ,as the foundation of virtue1 there ought very earnestly to be imprinted on the mind of a young man a true notion of ,god1 as of the independent supreme ,being1 ,author1 and ,maker of all things3 ,and1 consequent to this1 instil into him a love and reverence of this supreme ,being4 ,we are already more than half-way from ,unitarianism to deism4 ,indeed1 the theism of ,locke's ,essay on the ,human ,understanding undermined even his ,unitarian ,scripturalism1 inasmuch as it denies1 albeit confusedly1 that revelation can ever override reason4 ,in one passage he declares that reason is natural revelation1 while revelation is natural reason enlarged by a new set of discoveries communicated by ,god immediately1 which reason vouchsafes the truth of4 #dge ,this compromise appears to be borrowed from ,spinoza1 who had put it with similar vagueness in his great ,tractatus1 #dgf of which pre-eminent work ,locke cannot have been ignorant1 though he protested himself little read in the works of ,hobbes and ,spinoza1 those justly decried names4 #dgg ,the ,tractatus being translated into ,english in the same year with the publication of the ,essay1 its influence would concur with ,locke's in a widened circle of readers2 and the substantially naturalistic doctrine of both books inevitably promoted the deistic movement4 ,we have ,locke's own avowal that he had many doubts as to the ,biblical narratives2 #dgh and he never attempts to remove the doubts of others4 ,since1 however1 his doctrine provided a sphere for revelation on the territory of ignorance1 giving it prerogative where its assertions were outside knowledge1 it counted substantially for ,unitarianism insofar as it did not lead to deism4 ,see the ,essay1 bk4 iv1 ch4 xviii4 ,locke's treatment of revelation may be said to be the last and most attenuated form of the doctrine of two-fold truth4 ,on his principle1 any proposition in a professed revelation that was not provable or disprovable by reason and knowledge must pass as true4 ,his final position1 that whatever is divine revelation ought to overrule all our opinions 7bk4 iv1 ch4 xviii1 #aj71 is tolerably elastic1 inasmuch as he really reserves the question of the actuality of revelation4 ,thus he evades the central issue4 ,naturally he was by critical foreigners classed as a deist4 ,cp4 ,gostwick1 ,german ,culture and ,christianity1 #ahhb1 p4 #cf4 ,the ,german historian ,tennemann sums up that ,clarke wrote his apologetic works because the consequences of the empiricism of ,locke had become so decidedly favourable to the cause of atheism1 skepticism1 materialism1 and irreligion 7,manual of the ,hist4 of ,philos4 ,eng4 tr4 ,bohn ed4 #cdi74 ,in his practical treatise on ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity 7#afie7 ,locke played a similar part4 ,it was inspired by the genuine concern for social peace which had moved him to write an essay on ,toleration as early as #affg1 #dgi and to produce from #afhe onwards his famous ,letters on ,toleration1 by far the most persuasive appeal of the kind that had yet been produced2 #dhj all the more successful so far as it went1 doubtless1 because the first ,letter ended with a memorable capitulation to bigotry3 ,lastly1 those are not at all to be tolerated who deny the being of ,god4 ,promises1 covenants1 and oaths1 which are the bonds of human society1 can have no hold upon an atheist4 ,the taking away of ,god1 though but even in thought1 dissolves all4 ,besides1 also1 those that by their atheism undermine and destroy all religion can have no pretence of religion whereupon to challenge the privilege of a toleration4 ,this handsome endorsement of the religion which had repeatedly dissolved all in a pandemonium of internecine hate1 as compared with the one heresy which had never broken treaties or shed blood1 is presumably more of a prudent surrender to normal fanaticism than an expression of the philosopher's own state of mind2 #dha and his treatise on ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity is an attempt to limit religion to a humane ethic1 with sacraments and mysteries reduced to ceremonies1 while claiming that the gospel ethic was now with divine authority established into a legible law1 far surpassing all that philosophy and human reason had attained to4 #dhb ,its effect was1 however1 to promote rationalism without doing much to mitigate the fanaticism of belief4 ,locke's practical position has been fairly summed up by ,prof4 ,bain3 ,locke proposed1 in his ,reasonableness of ,christianity1 to ascertain the exact meaning of ,christianity1 by casting aside all the glosses of commentators and divines1 and applying his own unassisted judgment to spell out its teachings4444 ,the fallacy of his position obviously was that he could not strip himself of his education and acquired notions4444 ,he seemed unconscious of the necessity of trying to make allowance for his unavoidable prepossessions4 ,in consequence1 he simply fell into an old groove of received doctrines2 and these he handled under the set purpose of simplifying the fundamentals of ,christianity to the utmost4 ,such purpose was not the result of his ,bible study1 but of his wish to overcome the political difficulties of the time4 ,he found1 by keeping close to the ,gospels and making proper selections from the ,epistles1 that the belief in ,christ as the ,messiah could be shown to be the central fact of the ,christian faith2 that the other main doctrines followed out of this by a process of reasoning2 and that1 as all minds might not perform the process alike1 these doctrines could not be essential to the practice of ,christianity4 ,he got out of the difficulty of framing a creed1 as many others have done1 by simply using ,scripture language1 without subjecting it to any very strict definition2 certainly without the operation of stripping the meaning of its words1 to see what it amounted to4 ,that his short and easy method was not very successful the history of the deistical controversy sufficiently proves 7,practical ,essays1 pp4 #bbf-bg74 ,that ,locke was felt to have injured orthodoxy is further proved by the many attacks made on him from the orthodox side4 ,even the first ,letter on ,toleration elicited retorts1 one of which claims to demonstrate the ,absurdity and ,impiety of an ,absolute ,toleration4 #dhc ,on his positive teachings he was assailed by ,bishop ,stillingfleet2 by the ,rev4 ,john ,milner1 ,b4,d42 by the ,rev4 ,john ,morris2 by ,william ,carrol2 and by the ,rev4 ,john ,edwards1 ,b4,d42 #dhd his only assailant with a rationalistic repute being ,dr4 ,thomas ,burnet4 ,some attacked him on his ,essays2 some on his ,reasonableness of ,christianity2 orthodoxy finding in both the same tendency to subvert the nature and use of divine revelation and faith4 #dhe ,in the opinion of the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,bolde1 who defended him in ,some ,considerations published in #afii1 the hostile clericals had treated him with a rudeness peculiar to some who make a profession of the ,christian religion1 and seem to pride themselves in being the clergy of the ,church of ,england4 #dhf ,this is especially true of ,edwards1 a notably ignoble type2 #dhg but hardly of ,milner1 whose later ,account of ,mr4 ,lock's ,religion out of his ,own ,writings1 and in his ,own ,words 7#agjj71 pressed him shrewdly on the score of his ,socinianism4 ,in the eyes of a pietist like ,william ,law1 again1 ,locke's conception of the infant mind as a tabula rasa was dangerous to religion1 besides being philosophically false4 #dhh ,yet ,locke agreed with ,law #dhi that moral obligation is dependent solely on the will of ,god--a doctrine denounced by the deist ,shaftesbury as the negation of morality4 ,see the ,inquiry concerning ,virtue or ,merit1 pt4 iii1 #b2 and the ,letters to a ,student1 under date ,june #c1 #agji 7p4 #djc in ,rand's ,life1 ,letters1 etc41 of ,shaftesbury1 #aijj74 ,the extraordinary letter of ,newton to ,locke1 written just after or during a spell of insanity1 first apologizes for having believed that ,locke endeavoured to embroil me with women and by other means1 and goes on to beg pardon for representing that you struck at the root of morality1 in a principle you laid down in your book of ideas4 ,in his subsequent letter1 replying to that of ,locke granting forgiveness and gently asking for details1 he writes3 ,what ,i said of your book ,i remember not4 7,letters of ,september #af and ,october #e1 #afic1 given in ,fox ,bourne's ,life of ,locke1 ii1 #bbf-bg1 and ,sir ,d4 ,brewster's ,memoirs of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 #ahee1 ii1 #adh-ea47 ,newton1 who had been on very friendly terms with ,locke1 must have been repeating1 when his mind was disordered1 criticisms otherwise current4 ,after printing in full the letters above cited1 ,brewster insists1 on his principle of sacrificing all other considerations to ,newton's glory 7cp4 ,de ,morgan1 ,newton3 his ,friend3 and his ,niece1 #ahhe1 pp4 #ii-aaa71 that all the while ,newton was in the full possession of his mental powers4 ,the whole diction of the first letter tells the contrary4 ,if we are not to suppose that ,newton had been temporarily insane1 we must think of his judgment as even less rational1 apart from physics1 than it is seen to be in his dissertations on prophecy4 ,certainly ,newton was at all times apt to be suspicious of his friends to the point of moral disease 7see his attack on ,montague1 in his letter to ,locke of ,january #bf1 #afia-afib2 in ,fox ,bourne1 ii1 #bah2 and cp4 ,de ,morgan1 as cited1 p4 #adf72 but the letter to ,locke indicates a point at which the normal malady had upset the mental balance4 ,it remains1 nevertheless1 part of the evidence as to bitter orthodox criticism of ,locke4 ,on the whole1 it is clear1 the effect of his work1 especially of his naturalistic psychology1 was to make for rationalism2 and his compromises furthered instead of checking the movement of unbelief4 ,his ideal of practical and undogmatic ,christianity1 indeed1 was hardly distinguishable from that of ,hobbes1 #dij and1 as previously set forth by the ,rev4 ,arthur ,bury in his ,naked ,gospel 7#afij71 was so repugnant to the ,church that that book was burned at ,oxford as heretical4 #dia ,locke's position as a believing ,christian was indeed extremely weak1 and could easily have been demolished by a competent deist1 such as ,collins1 #dib or a skeptical dogmatist who could control his temper and avoid the gross misrepresentation so often resorted to by ,locke's orthodox enemies4 ,but by the deists he was valued as an auxiliary1 and by many latitudinarian ,christians as a helper towards a rationalistic if not a logical compromise4 ,rationalism of one or the other tint1 in fact1 seems to have spread in all directions4 ,deism was ascribed to some of the most eminent public men4 ,bishop ,burnet has a violent passage on ,sir ,william ,temple1 to the effect that ,he had a true judgment in affairs1 and very good principles with relation to government1 but in nothing else4 ,he seemed to think that things are as they were from all eternity2 at least he thought religion was only for the mob4 ,he was a great admirer of the sect of ,confucius in ,china1 who were atheists themselves1 but left religion to the rabble4 #dic ,the praise of ,confucius is the note of deism2 and ,burnet rightly held that no orthodox ,christian in those days would sound it4 ,other prominent men revealed their religious liberalism4 ,the accomplished and influential ,george ,savile1 ,marquis of ,halifax1 often spoken of as a deist1 and even as an atheist1 by his contemporaries1 #did appears clearly from his own writings to have been either that or a ,unitarian2 #die and it is not improbable that the similar gossip concerning ,lord ,keeper ,somers was substantially true4 #dif ,that ,sir ,isaac ,newton was some kind of ,unitarian #dig is proved by documents long withheld from publication1 and disclosed only in the second edition of ,sir ,david ,brewster's ,memoirs4 ,there is indeed no question that he remained a mere scripturalist1 handling the texts as such1 #dih and wasting much time in vain interpretations of ,daniel and the ,apocalypse4 #dii ,temperamentally1 also1 he was averse to anything like bold discussion1 declaring that those at ,cambridge ought not to judge and censure their superiors1 but to obey and honour them1 according to the law and the doctrine of passive obedience #ejj--this after he had sat on the ,convention which deposed ,james ,,ii4 ,in no aspect1 indeed1 apart from his supreme scientific genius1 does he appear as morally #eja or intellectually pre-eminent2 and even on the side of science he was limited by his theological presuppositions1 as when he rejected the nebular hypothesis1 writing to ,bentley that the growth of new systems out of old ones1 without the mediation of a ,divine power1 seems to me apparently absurd4 #ejb ,there is therefore more than usual absurdity in the proclamation of his pious biographer that the apostle of infidelity cowers beneath the implied rebuke #ejc of his orthodoxy4 ,the very anxiety shown by ,newton and his friends #ejd to checkmate the infidels is a proof that his religious work was not scientific even in inception1 but the expression of his neurotic side2 and the attempt of some of his scientific admirers to show that his religious researches belong solely to the years of his decline is a corresponding oversight4 ,newton was always pathologically prepossessed on the side of his religion1 and subordinated his science to his theology even in the ,principia4 ,it is therefore all the more significant of the set of opinion in his day that1 tied as he was to ,scriptural interpretations1 he drew away from orthodox dogma as to the ,trinity4 ,not only does he show himself a destructive critic of ,trinitarian texts and an opponent of ,athanasius #eje3 he expressly formulates the propositions 7#a7 that there is one ,god the ,father 444 and one mediator between ,god and man1 the man ,christ ,jesus2 7#b7 that the ,father is the invisible ,god whom no eye hath seen or can see4 ,all other beings are sometimes visible2 and 7#c7 that the ,father hath life in himself1 and hath given the ,son to have life in himself4 #ejf ,such opinions1 of course1 could not be published3 under the ,act of #afig they would have made ,newton liable to loss of office and all civil rights4 ,in his own day1 therefore1 his opinions were rather gossipped-of than known2 #ejg but insofar as his heresy was realized1 it must have wrought much more for unbelief than could be achieved for orthodoxy by his surprisingly commonplace strictures on atheism1 which show the ordinary inability to see what atheism means4 ,the argument of his ,short ,scheme of ,true ,religion brackets atheism with idolatry1 and goes on3 ,atheism is so senseless and odious to mankind that it never had many professors4 ,can it be by accident that all birds1 beasts1 and men have their right side and left side alike shaped 7except in their bowels71 and just two eyes1 and no more1 on either side of the face8 etc4 7,brewster1 ii1 #cdg74 ,the logical implication is that a monstrous organism1 with the sides unlike1 represents accident1 and that in that case there has either been no causation or no purpose by ,omnipotence4 ,it is only fair to remember that no avowedly atheistic argument could in ,newton's day find publication2 but his remarks are those of a man who had never contemplated philosophically the negation of his own religious sentiment at the point in question4 ,brewster1 whose judgment and good faith are alike precarious1 writes that ,when ,voltaire asserted that ,sir ,isaac explained the prophecies in the same manner as those who went before him1 he only exhibited his ignorance of what ,newton wrote1 and what others had written 7ii1 #cca1 note2 #cee74 ,the writer did not understand what he censured4 ,voltaire meant that ,newton's treatment of prophecy is on the same plane of credulity as that of his orthodox predecessors4 ,even within the sphere of the ,church the ,unitarian tendency1 with or without deistic introduction1 was traceable4 ,archbishop ,tillotson 7d4 #afid7 was often accused of ,socinianism2 and in the next generation was smilingly spoken of by ,anthony ,collins as a leading ,freethinker4 ,the pious ,dr4 ,hickes had in fact declared of the ,archbishop that he caused several to turn atheists and ridicule the priesthood and religion4 #ejh ,the heresy must have been encouraged even within the ,church by the scandal which broke out when ,dean ,sherlock's ,vindication of ,trinitarianism 7#afij71 written in reply to a widely-circulated antitrinitarian compilation1 #eji was attacked by ,dean ,south #eaj as the work of a ,tritheist4 ,the plea of ,dr4 ,wallis1 ,locke's old teacher1 that a doctrine of three somewhats--he objected to the term persons--in one ,god was as reasonable as the concept of three dimensions1 #eaa was of course only a heresy the more4 ,outside the ,church1 ,william ,penn1 the great ,quaker1 held a partially ,unitarian attitude2 #eab and the first of his many imprisonments was on a charge of blasphemy and heresy in respect of his treatise ,the ,sandy ,foundation ,shaken1 which denied 7#a7 that there were in the ,one ,god three distinct and separate persons2 7#b7 the doctrine of the need of plenary satisfaction2 and 7#c7 the justification of sinners by an imputative righteousness4 ,but though many of the early ,quakers seem to have shunned the doctrine of the ,trinity1 ,penn really affirmed the divinity of ,christ1 and was not a ,socinian but a ,sabellian in his theology4 ,positive ,unitarianism all the while was being pushed by a number of tracts which escaped prosecution1 being prudently handled by ,locke's friend1 ,thomas ,firmin4 #eac ,a new impulse had been given to ,unitarianism by the learning and critical energy of the ,prussian ,dr4 ,zwicker1 who had settled in ,holland2 #ead and among those ,englishmen whom his works had found ready for agreement was ,gilbert ,clerke 7b4 #afda71 who1 like several later heretics1 was educated at ,sidney ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,in #afie he published a ,unitarian work entitled ,anti-,nicenismus1 and two other tracts in ,latin1 all replying to the orthodox polemic of ,dr4 ,bull1 against whom another ,unitarian had written ,considerations on the ,explications of the ,doctrine of the ,trinity in #afid1 bitterly resenting his violence4 #eae ,in #afie appeared yet another treatise of the same school1 ,the ,judgment of the ,fathers concerning the ,doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,much was thus done on ,unitarian lines to prepare an audience for the deists of the next reign4 #eaf ,but the most effective influence was probably the ludicrous strife of the orthodox clergy as to what orthodoxy was4 ,the fray over the doctrine of the ,trinity waxed so furious1 and the discredit cast on orthodoxy was so serious1 #eag that in the year #agjj an ,act of ,parliament was passed forbidding the publication of any more works on the subject4 ,meanwhile the so-called ,latitudinarians1 #eah all the while aiming as they did at a non-dogmatic ,christianity1 served as a connecting medium for the different forms of liberal thought2 and a new element of critical disintegration was introduced by a speculative treatment of ,genesis in the ,archologi ,philosophi 7#afib7 of ,dr4 ,thomas ,burnet1 a professedly orthodox scholar1 ,master of the ,charterhouse and chaplain in ordinary to ,king ,william1 who nevertheless treated the ,creation and ,fall stories as allegories1 and threw doubt on the ,mosaic authorship of parts of the ,pentateuch4 ,though the book was dedicated to the king1 it aroused so much clerical hostility that the king was obliged to dismiss him from his post at court4 #eai ,his ideas were partly popularized through a translation of two of his chapters1 with a vindicatory letter1 in ,blount's ,oracles of ,reason 7#afie72 and that they had considerable vogue may be gathered from the ,essay towards a ,vindication of the ,vulgar ,exposition of the ,mosaic ,history of the ,fall of ,adam1 by ,john ,witty1 published in #agje4 ,burnet1 who published three sets of anonymous ,remarks on the philosophy of ,locke 7#afig-afii71 criticizing its sensationist basis1 figured after his death 7#agae71 in posthumous publications1 as a heretical theologian in other regards2 and then played his part in the general deistic movement2 but his allegorical view of ,genesis does not seem to have seriously affected speculation in his time1 the bulk of the debate turning on his earlier ,telluris ,theoria ,sacra 7#afha2 trans4 #afhd71 to which there were many rejoinders1 both scientific and orthodox4 ,on this side he is unimportant1 his science being wholly imaginative2 and in the competition between his ,theory and ,j4 ,woodward's ,essay towards a ,natural ,history of the ,earth 7#afie7 nothing was achieved for scientific progress4 ,much more remarkable1 but outside of popular discussion1 were the ,evangelium medici 7#afig7 of ,dr4 ,b4 ,connor1 wherein the gospel miracles were explained away1 on lines later associated with ,german rationalism1 as natural phenomena2 and the curious treatise of ,newton's friend1 ,john ,craig1 #ebj ,theologi christian principia mathematica 7#afii71 wherein it is argued that all evidence grows progressively less valid in course of time2 #eba and that accordingly the ,christian religion will cease to be believed about the year #cadd1 when probably will occur the ,second ,coming4 ,connor1 when attacked1 protested his orthodoxy2 ,craig held successively two prebends of the ,church of ,england2 #ebb and both lived and died unmolested1 probably because they had the prudence to write in ,latin1 and maintained gravity of style4 ,about this time1 further1 the title of ,rationalist made some fresh headway as a designation1 not of unbelievers1 but of believers who sought to ground themselves on reason4 ,such books as those of ,clifford and ,boyle tell of much discussion as to the efficacy of reason in religious things2 and in #afhf1 as above noted1 there appears ,a ,rational ,catechism1 #ebc a substantially ,unitarian production1 notable for its aloofness from evangelical feeling1 despite its many references to ,biblical texts in support of its propositions4 ,in the ,essays ,moral and ,divine of the ,scotch judge1 ,sir ,william ,anstruther1 published in #agja1 there is a reference to those who arrogantly term themselves ,rationalists #ebd in the sense of claiming to find ,christianity not only1 as ,locke put it1 a reasonable religion1 but one making no strain upon faith4 ,already the term had become potentially one of vituperation1 and it is applied by the learned judge to the wicked reprehended by the ,psalmist4 #ebe ,forty years later1 however1 it was still applied rather to the ,christian who claimed to believe upon rational grounds than to the deist or unbeliever2 #ebf and it was to have a still longer lease of life in ,germany as a name for theologians who believed in ,scripture on condition that all miracles were explained away4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,french ,,and ,,dutch ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #a4 ,we have seen ,france1 in the first quarter of the seventeenth century1 pervaded in its upper classes by a freethought partly born of the knowledge that religion counted for little but harm in public affairs1 partly the result of such argumentation as had been thrown out by ,montaigne and codified by ,charron4 ,that it was not the freethinking of mere idle men of the world is clear when we note the names and writings of ,la ,mothe le ,vayer 7#aehh-afgb71 ,gui ,patin 7#afja-afga71 and ,gabriel ,naud 7#afjj-afec71 all scholars1 all heretics of the skeptical and rationalistic order4 ,the last two indeed1 sided with the ,catholics in politics1 ,patin approving of the ,fronde1 and ,naud of the ,massacre1 on which ground they are sometimes claimed as believers4 #ebg ,but though in the nature of the case their inclusion on the side of freethought is not to be zealously contended for1 they must be classed in terms of the balance of testimony4 ,patin was the admiring friend of ,gassendi2 and though he was never explicitly heretical1 and indeed wrote of ,socinianism as a pestilent doctrine1 #ebh his habit of irony and the risk of written avowals to correspondents must be kept in view in deciding on his cast of mind4 ,he is constantly anti-clerical2 #ebi and the germinal skepticism of ,montaigne and ,charron clearly persists in him4 ,it is true that1 as one critic puts it1 such rationalists were not quite clear whither they were bound4 ,at first sight1 he adds1 no one looks more negative than ,gui ,patin4444 ,he was always congratulating himself on being 'delivered from the nightmare'2 and he rivals the eighteenth century in the scorn he pours on priests1 monks1 and especially 'that black ,loyolitic scum from ,spain' which called itself the ,society of ,jesus4 ,yet ,patin was no freethinker4 ,skeptics who made game of the kernel of religion came quite as much under the lash of his tongue as bigots who dared defend its husks4 ,his letters end with the characteristic confession3 ',credo in ,deum1 ,christum crucifixum1 etc42 444 ,de minimis non curat prtor' 7,viscount ,st4 ,cyres in ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 v1 #gc74 ,but the last statement is an error1 and ,patin did not attack ,gassendi1 though he did ,descartes4 ,he says of ,rabelais3 ,c'toit un homme qui se moquoit de tout2 en verit il y a bien des choses dont on doit raisonnablement se moquer 444 elles sont presque tous remplies de vanit1 d'imposture et d'ignorance3 ceux qui sont un peu philosophes ne doivent-ils pas s'en moquer8 7,lett4 #dhe1 d4 cited1 iii1 #adh74 ,again he writes that la vie humaine n'est qu'un bureau de rencontre et un thtre sur lesquels domine la fortune 7,lett4 #gbf1 iii1 #fbj74 ,this is pure ,montaigne4 ,the formula cited by ,viscount ,st4 ,cyres is neither a general nor a final conclusion to the letters of ,patin4 ,it occurs1 ,i think1 only once 7#ah juillet1 #afdb1 ,m4 ,belin7 in the #hcf letters1 and not at the end of that one 7,lett4 #ee1 d4 cited1 i1 #ij74 ,concerning his friend ,naud1 ,patin writes3 ,je suis fort de l'avis de feu ,m4 ,naud1 qui disoit qu'il y avait quatre choses dont il se fallait garder1 afin de n'tre point tromp1 savoir1 de prophties1 de miracles1 de rvlations1 et d'apparitions 7,lett4 #cec1 d4 cited1 ii1 #dij74 ,again1 he writes of a symposium of ,naud1 ,gassendi1 and himself3 ,peut-tre1 tous trois1 guris de loup-garou et delivrs du mal des scrupules1 qui est le tyran des consciences1 nous irons peut-tre jusque fort prs du sanctuaire4 ,je fis l'an pass ce voyage de ,gentilly avec ,m4 ,naud1 moi seul avec lui tte--tte2 il n'y avait point de tmoins1 aussi n'y en falloit-il point3 nous y parlmes fort librement de tout1 sans que personne en ait t scandalis 7,lett4 #cfb1 ii1 #ejh74 ,this seems tolerably freethinking4 ,all that the ,christian editor cares to claim upon the latter passage is that assuredly l'unit de ,dieu1 l'immortalit de l'me1 l'galit des hommes devant la loi1 ces verits fondamentales de la raison et consacres par le ,christianisme1 y taient places au premier rang in the discussion4 ,as to the skepticism of ,naud the editor remarks3 ,ce qu'il y a de remarquable1 c'est que ,gui ,patin soutenait que son ami 444 avait puis son opinion1 en gnral trs peu orthodoxe1 en ,italie1 pendant le long sjour qu'il fit dans ce pays avec le cardinal ,bagni 7ii1 #dij2 cp4 ,lett4 #haf2 iii1 #geh1 where ,naud is again cited as making small account of religion74 ,certainly ,patin and ,naud are of less importance for freethought than ,la ,mothe le ,vayer4 ,that scholar1 a ,conseiller d',estat ordinaire1 tutor of the brother of ,louis ,,xiv1 and one of the early members of the new ,academy founded by ,richelieu1 is an interesting figure #ecj in the history of culture1 being a skeptic of the school of ,sextus ,empiricus1 and practically a great friend of tolerance4 ,standing in favour with ,richelieu1 he wrote at that statesman's suggestion a treatise ,on the ,virtue of the ,heathen1 #eca justifying toleration by pagan example--a course which raises the question whether ,richelieu himself was not strongly touched by the rationalism of his age4 ,if it be true that the great ,cardinal believed as all the world did in his time1 #ecb there is little more to be said2 for unbelief1 as we have seen1 was already abundant1 and even somewhat fashionable4 ,certainly no ecclesiastic in high power ever followed a less ecclesiastical policy2 #ecc and from the date of his appointment as ,minister to ,louis ,,xiii 7#afbd71 for forty years1 there was no burning of heretics or unbelievers in ,france4 ,if he was orthodox1 it was very passively4 #ecd ,and ,le ,vayer's way of handling the dicta of ,st4 ,augustine and ,thomas ,aquinas as to the virtues of unbelievers being merely vices is for its time so hardy that the ,cardinal's protection alone can explain its immunity from censure4 ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas1 says the critic calmly1 had regard merely to eternal happiness1 which virtue alone can obtain for no one4 ,they are1 therefore1 to be always interpreted in this special sense4 ,and so at the very outset the ground is summarily cleared of orthodox obstacles4 #ece ,the ,petit discours chrtien sur l'immortalit de l'me1 also addressed to ,richelieu1 tells of a good deal of current unbelief on that subject2 and the epistle dedicatory professes pain over the philosopher of our day ,vanini who has had the impiety to write that1 unless one is very old1 very rich1 and a ,german1 one should never expatiate on this subject4 ,but on the very threshold of the discourse1 again1 the skeptic tranquilly suggests that there would be perhaps something unreasonable in following ,augustine's precept1 so popular in later times1 that the problem of immortality should be solved by the dictates of religion and feeling1 not of uncertain reason4 ,why1 he asks1 should the soul be her own judge8 #ecf ,and he shows a distinct appreciation of the avowal of ,augustine in his ,retractationes that his own book on the ,immortality of the ,soul was so obscure to him that in many places he himself could not understand it4 #ecg ,the ,little ,christian ,discourse is1 in fact1 not ,christian at all2 and its arguments are but dialectic exercises1 on a par with those of the ,discours sceptique sur la musique which follows4 ,he was1 in short1 a skeptic by temperament2 and his ,preface d'une histoire #ech shows his mind to have played on the ,mississippi of falsehood called history very much as did that of ,bayle in a later generation4 ,le ,vayer's ,dialogues of ,oratius ,tubero 7#afcc7 is philosophically his most important work2 #eci but its tranquil ,pyrrhonism was not calculated to affect greatly the current thought of his day2 and he ranked rather as a man of all-round learning #edj than as a polemist1 being reputed a little contradictory1 but in no way bigoted or obstinate1 all opinions being to him nearly indifferent1 excepting those of which faith does not permit us to doubt4 #eda ,the last phrase tells of the fact that it affects to negate3 ,le ,vayer's general skepticism was well known4 #edb ,he was not indeed an original thinker1 most of his ideas being echoes from the skeptics of antiquity2 #edc and it has been not unjustly said of him that he is rather of the sixteenth century than of the seventeenth4 #edd #b4 ,on the other hand1 the resort on the part of the ,catholics to a skeptical method1 as against both ,protestants and freethinkers1 which we have seen originating soon after the issue of ,montaigne's ,essais1 seems to have become more and more common2 and this process must rank as in some degree a product of skeptical thought of a more sincere sort4 ,in any case it was turned vigorously1 even recklessly1 against the ,protestants4 ,thus we find ,daill1 at the outset of his work ,on the ,true ,use of the ,fathers1 #ede complaining that when ,protestants quote the ,scriptures some ,romanists at once ask whence and in what way those books may be known to be really written by the prophets and apostles whose names and titles they bear4 ,this challenge1 rashly incurred by ,luther and ,calvin in their pronouncements on the ,canon1 later ,protestants did not as a rule attempt to meet1 save in the fashion of ,la ,placette1 who in his work ,de insanibili ,ecclesi ,roman ,scepticismo 7#afhh7 #edf undertakes to show that ,romanists themselves are without any grounds of certitude for the authority of the ,church4 ,it was indeed certain that the ,catholic method would make more skeptics than it won4 #c4 ,between the negative development of the doctrine of ,montaigne and the vogue of upper-class deism1 the philosophy of ,descartes1 with its careful profession of submission to the ,church1 had at first an easy reception2 and on the appearance of the ,discours de la ,mthode 7#afcg7 it speedily affected the whole thought of ,france2 the women of the leisured class1 now much given to literature1 being among its students4 #edg ,from the first the ,jansenists1 who were the most serious religious thinkers of the time1 accepted the ,cartesian system as in the main soundly ,christian2 and its founder's authority had some such influence in keeping up the prestige of orthodoxy as had that of ,locke later in ,england4 ,boileau1 who wrote a satire in defence of the system when it was persecuted after ,descartes's death1 is named among those whom he so influenced4 #edh ,but a merely external influence of this kind could not counteract the fundamental rationalism of ,descartes's thought1 and the whole social and intellectual tendency towards a secular view of life4 ,soon1 indeed1 ,descartes became suspect1 partly by reason of the hostile activities of the ,jesuits1 who opposed him because the ,jansenists generally held by him1 though he had been a ,jesuit pupil1 and had always some adherents in that order2 #edi partly by reason of the inherent naturalism of his system4 ,that his doctrine was incompatible with the eucharist was the standing charge against it1 #eej and his defence was not found satisfactory1 #eea though his orthodox followers obtained from ,queen ,christina a declaration that he had been largely instrumental in converting her to ,catholicism4 #eeb ,pascal reproached him with having done his best to do without ,god in his system2 #eec and this seems to have been the common clerical impression4 ,thirteen years after his death1 in #affc1 his work was placed on the ,index ,librorum ,prohibitorum1 under a modified censure1 #eed and in #afga a royal order was obtained under which his philosophy was proscribed in all the universities of ,france4 #eee ,cartesian professors and curs were persecuted and exiled1 or compelled to recant2 among the victims being ,pre ,lami of the ,congregation of the ,oratory and ,pre ,andr the ,jesuit2 #eef and the ,oratorians were in #afgh forced to undergo the humiliation of not only renouncing ,descartes and all his works1 but of abjuring their former ,cartesian declarations1 in order to preserve their corporate existence4 #eeg ,precisely in this period of official reaction1 however1 there was going on not merely an academic but a social development of a rationalistic kind1 in which the persecuted philosophy played its part1 even though some freethinkers disparaged it4 #d4 ,the general tendency is revealed on the one hand by the series of treatises from eminent ,churchmen1 defending the faith against unpublished attacks1 and on the other hand by the prevailing tone in belles lettres4 ,malherbe1 the literary dictator of the first quarter of the century1 had died in #afbh with the character of a scoffer2 #eeh and the fashion now lasted till the latter half of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,in #afba1 two years after the burning of ,vanini1 a young man named ,jean ,fontanier had been burned alive on the ,place de ,grve at ,paris1 apparently for the doctrines laid down by him in a manuscript entitled ,le ,trsor ,inestimable1 written on deistic and anti-,catholic lines4 #eei ,he was said to have been successively ,protestant1 ,catholic1 ,turk1 ,jew1 and atheist2 and had conducted himself like one of shaken mind4 #efj ,but the cases of the poet ,thophile de ,viau1 who about #afbc suffered prosecution on a charge of impiety1 #efa and of his companions ,berthelot and ,colletet--who like him were condemned but set free by royal favour--appear to be the only others of the kind for over a generation4 ,frivolity of tone sufficed to ward off legal pursuit4 ,it was in #affe1 some years after the death of ,mazarin1 who had maintained ,richelieu's policy of tolerance1 that ,claude ,petit was burnt at ,paris for impious pieces2 #efb and even then there was no general reversion to orthodoxy1 the upper-class tone remaining1 as in the age of ,richelieu and ,mazarin1 more or less unbelieving4 ,when ,corneille had introduced a touch of ,christian zeal into his ,polyeucte 7#afdc7 he had given general offence to the dilettants of both sexes4 #efc ,molire1 again1 the disciple of ,gassendi #efd and the very genius of reason1 #efe was unquestionably an unbeliever2 #eff and only the personal protection of ,louis ,,xiv1 which after all could not avail to support such a play as ,tartufe against the fury of the bigots1 enabled him to sustain himself at all against them4 #e4 ,equally freethinking was his brilliant predecessor and early comrade1 ,cyrano de ,bergerac 7#afbj-afee71 who did not fear to indicate his frame of mind in one of his dramas4 ,in ,la ,mort d',agrippine he puts in the mouth of ,sejanus1 as was said by a contemporary1 horrible things against the ,gods1 notably the phrase1 whom men made1 and who did not make men1 #efg which1 however1 generally passed as an attack on polytheism2 and though there was certainly no blasphemous intention in the phrase1 ,frappons1 voil l'hostie hostia1 victim1 some pretended to regard it as an insult to the ,catholic host4 #efh ,at times ,cyrano writes like a deist2 #efi but in so many other passages does he hold the language of a convinced materialist1 and of a scoffer at that1 #egj that he can hardly be taken seriously on the former head4 #ega ,in short1 he was one of the first of the hardy freethinkers who1 under the tolerant rule of ,richelieu and ,mazarin1 gave clear voice to the newer spirit4 ,under any other government1 he would have been in danger of his life3 as it was1 he was menaced with prosecutions2 his ,agrippine was forbidden2 the first edition of his ,pdant jou was confiscated2 during his last illness there was an attempt to seize his manuscripts2 and down till the time of the ,revolution the editions of his works were eagerly bought up and destroyed by zealots4 #egb ,his recent literary rehabilitation thus hardly serves to realize his importance in the history of freethought4 ,between ,cyrano and ,molire it would appear that there was little less of rationalistic ferment in the ,france of their day than in ,england4 ,bossuet avows in a letter to ,huet in #afgh that impiety and unbelief abound more than ever before4 #egc #f4 ,even in the apologetic reasoning of the greatest ,french prose writer of that age1 ,pascal1 we have the most pregnant testimony to the prevalence of unbelief2 for not only were the fragments preserved as ,penses 7#afgj71 however originated1 #egd developed as part of a planned defence of religion against contemporary rationalism1 #ege but they themselves show their author profoundly unable to believe save by a desperate abnegation of reason1 though he perpetually commits the gross fallacy of trusting to reason to prove that reason is untrustworthy4 ,his work is thus one continuous paralogism1 in which reason is disparaged merely to make way for a parade of bad reasoning4 ,the case of ,pascal is that of ,berkeley with a difference3 the latter suffered from hypochondria1 but reacted with nervous energy2 ,pascal1 a physical degenerate1 prematurely profound1 was prematurely old2 and his pietism in its final form is the expression of the physical collapse4 ,this is disputed by ,m4 ,lanson1 an always weighty authority4 ,he writes 7p4 #dfd7 that ,pascal was neither mad nor ill when he gave himself up wholly to religion4 ,but ill he certainly was4 ,he had chronically suffered from intense pains in the head from his eighteenth year2 and ,m4 ,lanson admits 7p4 #dea7 that the ,penses were written in intervals of acute suffering4 ,this indeed understates the case4 ,pascal several times told his family that since the age of eighteen he had never passed a day without pain4 ,his sister1 ,madame ,perier1 in her biographical sketch1 speaks of him as suffering continual and ever-increasing maladies1 and avows that the four last years of his life1 in which he penned the fragments called ,penses1 were but a continual languishment4 ,the ,port ,royal preface of #afgj says the same thing1 speaking of the four years of languor and malady in which he wrote all we have of the book he planned1 and calling the ,penses the feeble essays of a sick man4 ,cp4 ,pascal's ,prire pour demander ,dieu le bon usage des maladies3 and ,owen ,french ,skeptics1 pp4 #gdf1 #ghd4 ,doubtless the levity and licence of the libertins in high places #egf confirmed him in his revolt against unbelief2 but his own credence was an act rather of despairing emotion than of rational conviction4 ,the man who advised doubters to make a habit of causing masses to be said and following religious rites1 on the score that cela vous fera croire et vous abtira--that will make you believe and will stupefy you #egg--was a pathological case2 and though the whole ,jansenist movement latterly stood for a reaction against freethinking1 it can hardly be doubted that the ,penses generally acted as a solvent rather than as a sustainer of religious beliefs4 #egh ,this charge was made against them immediately on their publication by the ,abb de ,villars1 who pointed out that they did the reverse of what they claimed to do in the matter of appealing to the heart and to good sense1 since they set forth all the ordinary arguments of ,pyrrhonism1 denied that the existence of ,god could be established by reason or philosophy1 and staked the case on a wager which shocked good sense and feeling alike4 ,have you resolved1 asks this critic in dialogue1 to make atheists on pretext of combatting them8 #egi ,the same question arises concerning the famous ,lettres ,provinciales 7#afef71 written by ,pascal in defence of ,arnauld against the persecution of the ,jesuits1 who carried on in ,arnauld's case their campaign against ,jansen1 whom they charged with mis-stating the doctrine of ,augustine in his great work expounding that ,father4 ,once more the ,catholic ,church was swerving from its own established doctrine of predestination1 the ,spanish ,jesuit ,molina having set up a new movement in the ,pelagian or ,arminian direction4 ,the cause of the ,jansenists has been represented as that of freedom of thought and speech2 #ehj and this it relatively was insofar as ,jansen and ,arnauld sought for a hearing1 while the ,jesuit-ridden ,sorbonne strove to silence and punish them4 ,pascal had to go from printer to printer as his ,letters succeeded each other1 the first three being successively prosecuted by the clerical authorities2 and in their collected form they found publicity only by being printed at ,rouen and published at ,amsterdam1 with the rubric of ,cologne4 ,all the while ,jansenism claimed to be strict orthodoxy2 and it was in virtue only of the irreducible element of rationalism in ,pascal that the school of ,port ,royal made for freethought in any higher or more general sense4 ,indeed1 between his own reputation for piety and that of the ,jansenists for orthodoxy1 the ,provincial ,letters have a conventional standing as orthodox compositions4 ,it is strange1 however1 that those who charge upon the satire of the later philosophers the downfall of ,catholicism in ,france should not realize the plain tendency of these brilliant satires to discredit the entire authority of the ,church1 and1 further1 by their own dogmatic weaknesses1 to put all dogma alike under suspicion4 #eha ,few thoughtful men can now read the ,provinciales without being impressed by the utter absurdity of the problem over which the entire religious intelligence of a great nation was engrossed4 ,it was1 in fact1 the endless wrangles of the religious factions over unintelligible issues that more than any other single cause fostered the unbelief previously set up by religious wars2 #ehb and ,pascal's writings only deepened the trouble4 ,even ,bossuet1 in his ,history of the ,variations of the ,protestant ,churches 7#afhh71 did but throw a new light on the hollowness of the grounds of religion2 and for thoughtful readers gave a lead rather to atheism than to ,catholicism4 ,the converts it would make to the ,catholic ,church would be precisely those whose adherence was of least value1 since they had not even the temperamental basis which1 rather than argument1 kept ,bossuet a believer1 and were ,catholics only for lack of courage to put all religion aside4 ,when variation was put as a sign of error by a ,churchman the bulk of whose life was spent in bitter strifes with sections of his own ,church1 critical people were hardly likely to be confirmed in the faith4 ,within ten years of writing his book against the ,protestants1 ,bossuet was engaged in an acrid controversy with ,fnelon1 his fellow prelate and fellow demonstrator of the existence and attributes of ,god1 accusing him of holding unchristian positions2 and both prelates were always fighting their fellow-churchmen the ,jansenists4 ,if the variations of ,protestants helped ,catholicism1 those of ,catholics must have helped unbelief4 #g4 ,a similar fatality attended the labours of the learned ,huet1 ,bishop of ,avranches1 whose ,demonstratio ,evangelica 7#afgh7 is remarkable 7with ,boyle's ,discourse of ,things above ,reason7 as anticipating ,berkeley in the argument from the arbitrariness of mathematical assumptions4 ,he too1 by that and by his later works1 made for sheer philosophical skepticism1 #ehc always a dangerous basis for orthodoxy4 #ehd ,such an evolution1 on the part of a man of uncommon intellectual energy1 challenges attention1 the more so seeing that it typifies a good deal of thinking within the ,catholic pale1 on lines already noted as following on the debate with ,protestantism4 ,honestly pious by bent of mind1 but always occupied with processes of reasoning and research1 ,huet leant more and more1 as he grew in years1 to the skeptical defence against the pressures of ,protestantism and rationalism1 at once following and furthering the tendency of his age4 ,that the skeptical method is a last weapon of defence can be seen from the temper in which the demonstrator assails ,spinoza1 whom he abuses1 without naming him1 in the fashion of his day1 and to whose arguments concerning the authorship of the ,pentateuch he makes singularly feeble answers4 #ehe ,they are too worthless to have satisfied himself2 and it is easy to see how he was driven to seek a more plausible rebuttal4 #ehf ,a distinguished ,english critic1 noting the general movement1 pronounces1 justly enough1 that ,huet took up philosophy not as an end1 but as a means--not for its own sake1 but for the support of religion2 and then adds that his attitude is thus quite different from ,pascal's4 #ehg ,but the two cases are really on a level4 ,pascal too was driven to philosophy in reaction against incredulity2 and though ,pascal's work is of a more bitter and morbid intensity1 ,huet also had in him that psychic craving for a supernatural support which is the essence of latter-day religion4 ,and if we credit this spirit to ,pascal and to ,huet1 as we do to ,newman1 we must suppose that it partly touched the whole movement of pro-,catholic skepticism which has been above noted as following on the ,reformation4 ,it is ascribing to it as a whole too much of calculation and strategy to say of its combatants that they conceived the desperate design of first ruining the territory they were prepared to evacuate2 before philosophy was handed over to the philosophers the old ,aristotelean citadel was to be blown into the air4 #ehh ,in reality they caught1 as religious men will1 with passion rather than with policy1 at any plea that might seem fitted to beat down the presumption of the wild1 living intellect of man2 #ehi and their skepticism had a certain sincerity inasmuch as1 trained to uncritical belief1 they had never found for themselves the grounds of rational certitude4 ,inasmuch too as ,protestantism had no such ground1 and rationalism was still far from having cleared its bases1 ,huet1 as things went1 was within his moral rights when he set forth his transcendentalist skepticism in his ,qustiones ,alnetan in #afij4 ,though written in very limpid ,latin1 #eij that work attracted practically no attention2 and though1 having a repute for provincialism in his ,french style1 ,huet was loth to resort to the vernacular1 he did devote his spare hours through a number of his latter years to preparing his ,trait ,philosophique de la faiblesse de l'esprit humain1 which1 dying in #agbb1 he left to be published posthumously 7#agbc74 ,the outcry against his criticism of ,descartes and his ,demonstratio had indisposed him for further personal strife2 but he was determined to leave a completed message4 ,thus it came about that a sincere and devoted ,catholic bishop left1 as his last legacy to his fellow-men1 a work of the most outrageous skepticism4 #eia #h4 ,meanwhile the philosophy of ,descartes1 if less strictly propitious to science at some points than that of ,gassendi1 was both directly and indirectly making for the activity of reason4 ,in virtue of its formal spiritualism1 it found access where any clearly materialistic doctrine would have been tabooed2 so that we find the ,cartesian ecclesiastic ,rgis not only eagerly listened to and acclaimed at ,toulouse in #affe1 but offered a civic pension by the magistrates #eib--this within two years of the placing of ,descartes's works on the ,index4 ,after arousing a similar enthusiasm at ,montpellier and at ,paris1 ,rgis was silenced by the ,archbishop1 whereupon he set himself to develop the ,cartesian philosophy in his study4 ,the result was that he ultimately went beyond his master1 openly rejecting the idea of creation out of nothing1 #eic and finally following ,locke in rejecting the innate ideas which ,descartes had affirmed4 #eid ,another young ,churchman1 ,desgabets1 developing from ,descartes and his pupil ,malebranche1 combined with their spiritist doctrine much of the virtual materialism of ,gassendi1 arriving at a kind of pantheism1 and at a courageous pantheistic ethic1 wherein ,god is recognized as the author alike of good and evil #eie--;a doctrine which we find even getting a hearing in general society1 and noticed in the correspondence of ,madame de ,svign in #afgg4 #eif ,malebranche's treatise ,de la ,recherche de la ,vrit 7#afgd7 was in fact a development of ,descartes which on the one hand sought to connect his doctrine of innate ideas with his ,god-idea1 and on the other hand headed the whole system towards pantheism4 ,the tendency had arisen before him in the congregation of the ,oratory1 to which he belonged1 and in which the ,cartesian philosophy had so spread that when1 in #afgh1 the alarmed superiors proposed to eradicate it1 they were told by the members that1 ,if ,cartesianism is a plague1 there are two hundred of us who are infected4 #eig ,but if ,cartesianism alarmed the official orthodox1 ,malebranche wrought a deeper disintegration of the faith4 ,in his old age his young disciple ,de ,mairan1 who had deeply studied ,spinoza1 pressed him fatally hard on the virtual coincidence of his philosophy with that of the more thoroughgoing pantheist2 and ,malebranche indignantly repudiated all agreement with the miserable ,spinoza1 #eih the atheist1 #eii whose system he pronounced a frightful and ridiculous chimera4 #fjj ,nevertheless1 it was towards this chimera that ,malebranche tended4 #fja ,on all hands the new development set up new strife2 and ,malebranche1 who disliked controversy1 found himself embroiled alike with ,jansenists and ,jesuits1 with orthodox and with innovating ,cartesians1 and with his own ,spinozistic disciples4 ,the ,jansenist ,arnauld attacked his book in a long and stringent treatise1 ,des vrayes at des fausses ides 7#afhc71 #fjb accumulating denials and contradictions with a cold tenacity of ratiocination which never lapsed into passion1 and was all the more destructive4 ,for the ,jansenists ,malebranche was a danger to the faith in the ratio of his exaltation of it1 inasmuch as reference of the most ordinary beliefs back to faith left them no ground upon which to argue up to faith4 #fjc ,this seems to have been a common feeling among his readers4 ,for the same reason he made no appeal to men of science4 ,he would have no recognition of secondary causes1 the acceptance of which he declared to be a dangerous relapse into paganism4 #fjd ,there was thus no scientific principle in the new doctrine which could enable it to solve the problems or absorb the systems of other schools4 ,locke was as little moved by it as were the ,jansenists4 ,malebranche won readers everywhere by his charm of style2 #fje but he was as much of a disturber as of a reconciler4 ,the very controversies which he set up made for disintegration2 and ,fnelon found it necessary to refute ,malebranche as well as ,spinoza1 and did his censure with as great severity as ,arnauld's4 #fjf ,the mere fact that ,malebranche put aside miracles in the name of divine law was fatal from the point of view of orthodoxy4 #i4 ,yet another philosophic figure of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv1 the ,jesuit ,pre ,buffier 7#affa-agcg71 deserves a passing notice here--out of his chronological order--though the historians of philosophy have mostly ignored him4 #fjg ,he is indeed of no permanent philosophic importance1 being a precursor of the ,scottish school of ,reid1 nourished on ,locke1 and somewhat on ,descartes2 but he is significant for the element of practical rationalism which pervades his reasoning1 and which recommended him to ,voltaire1 ,reid1 and ,destutt de ,tracy4 ,on the question of primary truths in theology he declares so boldly for the authority of revelation in all dogmas which pass comprehension1 and for the non-concern of theology with any process of rational proof1 #fjh that it is hardly possible to suppose him a believer4 ,on those principles1 ,islam has exactly the same authority as ,christianity4 ,in his metaphysic he rejects all the ontological proofs of the existence of ,god1 and1 among others1 the proof of ,descartes from infinitude3 he maintains that the idea of ,god is not innate1 and that it can be reached only from consideration of the order of nature4 #fji ,he is thus as much of a force for deism as was his master1 ,locke2 and he outgoes him in point of rationalism when he puts the primary ethic of reciprocity as a universally recognized truth1 #faj where ,locke had helplessly fallen back on the will of ,god4 ,on the other hand he censures ,descartes for not admitting the equal validity of other tests with that of primary consciousness1 thus in effect putting himself in line with ,gassendi4 ,for the rest1 his ,examen des prjugs vulgaires1 the most popular of his works1 is so full of practical rationalism1 and declares among other things so strongly in favour of free discussion1 that its influence must have been wholly in the direction of freethought4 ,give me1 he makes one of his disputants say1 a nation where they do not dispute1 do not contest3 it will be1 ,i assure you1 a very stupid and a very ignorant nation4 #faa ,such reasoning could hardly please the ,jesuits1 #fab and must have pleased freethinkers4 ,and yet ,buffier1 like ,gassendi1 in virtue of his clerical status and his purely professional orthodoxy1 escaped all persecution4 ,while an evolving ,cartesianism1 modified by the thought of ,locke and the critical evolution of that1 was thus reacting on thought in all directions1 the primary and proper impulse of ,descartes and ,locke was doing on the ,continent what that of ,bacon had already done in ,england--setting men on actual scientific observation and experiment1 and turning them from traditionalism of every kind4 ,the more religious minds1 as ,malebranche1 set their faces almost fanatically against erudition1 thus making an enemy of the all-learned ,huet1 #fac but on the other hand preparing the way for the scientific age4 ,for the rest we find the influence of ,descartes at work in heresies at which he had not hinted4 ,finally we shall see it taking deep root in ,holland1 furthering a rationalistic view of the ,bible and of popular superstitions4 #aj4 ,yet another new departure was made in the ,france of ,louis ,,xiv by the scholarly performance of ,richard ,simon 7#afch-agab71 who was as regards the ,scriptural texts what ,spencer of ,cambridge was as regards the culture-history of the ,hebrews1 one of the founders of modern methodical criticism4 ,it was as a devout ,catholic refuting ,protestants1 and a champion of the ,bible against ,spinoza1 that ,simon began his work2 but1 more sincerely critical than ,huet1 he reached views more akin to those of ,spinoza than to those of the ,church4 #fad ,the congregation of the ,oratory1 where ,simon laid the foundations of his learning1 was so little inclined to his critical views that he decided to leave it2 and though persuaded to stay1 and to become for a time a professor of philosophy at ,julli1 he at length broke with the ,order4 ,then1 from his native town of ,dieppe1 came his strenuous series of critical works--,l'histoire critique du ,vieux ,testament 7#afgh71 which among other things decisively impugned the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch2 the ,histoire critique du texte du ,nouveau ,testament 7,rotterdam1 #afhi72 numerous other volumes of critical studies on texts1 versions1 and commentators2 and finally a ,french translation of the ,new ,testament with notes4 ,his ,bibliothque ,critique 7#d vols4 under the name of ,saint-,jore7 was suppressed by an order in council2 the translation was condemned by ,bossuet and the ,archbishop of ,paris2 and the two first-named works were suppressed by the ,parlement of ,paris and attacked by a host of orthodox scholars2 but they were translated promptly into ,latin and ,english2 and they gave a new breadth of footing to the deistic argument1 though ,simon always wrote as an avowed believer4 ,before ,simon1 the ,protestant ,isaac la ,peyrre1 the friend of ,la ,mothe le ,vayer and ,gassendi1 and the librarian of ,cond1 had fired a somewhat startling shot at the ,pentateuch in his ,pradamit #fae and ,systema ,theologica ex ,pr-adamitarum ,hypothesi 7both #afee3 printed in ,holland #faf71 for which he was imprisoned at ,brussels1 with the result that he recanted and joined the ,church of ,rome1 going to the ,pope in person to receive absolution1 and publishing an ,epistola ad ,philotimum 7,frankfort1 #afeh71 in which he professed to explain his reasons for abjuring at once his ,calvinism and his treatise4 ,it is clear that all this was done to save his skin1 for there is explicit testimony that he held firmly by his ,preadamite doctrine to the end of his life1 despite the seven or eight confutations of his work published in #afef4 #fag ,were it not for his constructive theses--especially his idea that ,adam was a real person1 but simply the father of the ,hebrews and not of the human race--he would deserve to rank high among the scientific pioneers of modern rationalism1 for his negative work is shrewd and sound4 ,like so many other early rationalists1 collectively accused of destroying without replacing1 he erred precisely in his eagerness to build up1 for his negations have all become accepted truths4 #fah ,as it is1 he may be ranked1 after ,toland1 as a main founder of the older rationalism1 developed chiefly in ,germany1 which sought to reduce as many miracles as possible to natural events misunderstood4 ,but he was too far before his time to win a fair hearing4 ,where ,simon laid a cautious scholarly foundation1 ,peyrre suddenly challenged immemorial beliefs1 and failed accordingly4 #aa4 ,such an evolution could not occur in ,france without affecting the neighbouring civilization of ,holland4 ,we have seen ,dutch life at the beginning of the seventeenth century full of ,protestant fanaticism and sectarian strife2 and in the time of ,descartes these elements1 especially on the ,calvinist side1 were strong enough virtually to drive him out of ,holland 7#afdg7 after nineteen years' residence4 #fai ,he had1 however1 made disciples2 and his doctrine bore fruit1 finding doubtless some old soil ready4 ,thus in #afff one of his disciples1 the ,amsterdam physician ,louis ,meyer1 published a work entitled ,philosophia ,sacrae ,scripturae ,interpres1 #fbj in which1 after formally affirming that the ,scripture is the infallible ,word of ,god1 he proceeds to argue that the interpretation of the ,word must be made by the human reason1 and accordingly sets aside all meanings which are irreconcilable therewith1 reducing them to allegories or tropes4 ,apart from this1 there is somewhat strong evidence that in ,holland in the second half of the century ,cartesianism was in large part identified with a widespread movement of rationalism1 of a sufficiently pronounced kind4 ,peter von ,mastricht1 ,professor of ,theology at ,utrecht1 published in #afgg a ,latin treatise1 ,novitatum ,cartesianarum ,gangrna1 in which he made out a list of fifty-six anti-,christian propositions maintained by ,cartesians4 ,among them are these3 ,that the divine essence1 also that of angels1 and that of the soul1 consists only in ,cogitation2 ,that philosophy is not subservient to divinity1 and is no less certain and no less revealed2 ,that in things natural1 moral1 and practical1 and also in matters of faith1 the ,scripture speaks according to the erroneous notions of the vulgar2 ,that the mystery of the ,trinity may be demonstrated by natural reason2 ,that the first chaos was able of itself to produce all things material2 ,that the world has a soul2 and that it may be infinite in extent4 #fba ,the theologian was thus visibly justified in maintaining that the novelties of ,cartesianism outwent by a long way those of ,arminianism4 #fbb ,it had in fact established a new point of view2 seeing that ,arminius had claimed for theology all the supremacy ever accorded to it in the ,church4 #fbc #ab4 ,as ,meyer was one of the most intimate friends of ,spinoza1 being with him at death1 and became the editor of his posthumous works1 it can hardly be doubted that his treatise1 which preceded ,spinoza's ,tractatus by four years1 influenced the great ,jew1 who speedily eclipsed him4 #fbd ,spinoza1 however 7#afcb-afgg71 was first led to rationalize by his ,amsterdam friend and teacher1 ,van den ,ende1 a scientific materialist1 hostile to all religion2 #fbe and it was while under his influence that he was excommunicated by his father's synagogue4 ,from the first1 apparently1 ,spinoza's thought was shaped partly by the medieval ,hebrew philosophy #fbf 7which1 as we have seen1 combined ,aristotelean and ,saracen influences71 partly by the teaching of ,bruno1 though he modified and corrected that at various points4 #fbg ,later he was deeply influenced by ,descartes1 whom he specially expounded for a pupil in a tractate4 #fbh ,here he endorses ,descartes's doctrine of freewill1 which he was later to repudiate and overthrow4 ,but he drew from ,descartes his retained principle that evil is not a real existence4 ,in a much less degree he was influenced by ,bacon1 whose psychology he ultimately condemned2 but from ,hobbes he took not only his rationalistic attitude towards revelation1 but his doctrine of ecclesiastical subordination4 #fbi ,finally evolving his own conceptions1 he produced a philosophic system which was destined to affect all ,european thought1 remaining the while quietly occupied with the handicraft of lens-grinding by which he earned his livelihood4 ,the ,grand ,pensionary of the ,netherlands1 ,john de ,witt1 seems to have been in full sympathy with the young heretic1 on whom he conferred a small pension before he had published anything save his ,cartesian ,principia 7#affc74 ,the much more daring and powerful ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus 7#afgj #fcj7 was promptly condemned by a ,dutch clerical synod1 along with ,hobbes's ,leviathan1 which it greatly surpassed in the matter of criticism of the scriptural text4 ,it was the most stringent censure of supernaturalism that had thus far appeared in any modern language2 and its preface is an even more mordant attack on popular religion and clericalism than the main body of the work4 ,what seems to-day an odd compromise--the reservation of supra-rational authority for revelation1 alongside of unqualified claims for the freedom of reason #fca--was but an adaptation of the old scholastic formula of twofold truth1 and was perhaps at the time the possible maximum of open rationalism in regard to the current creed1 since both ,bacon and ,locke1 as we have seen1 were fain to resort to it4 ,as revealed in his letters1 ,spinoza in almost all things stood at the point of view of the cultivated rationalism of two centuries later4 ,he believed in a historical ,jesus1 rejecting the ,resurrection2 #fcb disbelieved in ghosts and spirits2 #fcc rejected miracles2 #fcd and refused to think of ,god as ever angry2 #fce avowing that he could not understand the ,scriptures1 and had been able to learn nothing from them as to ,god's attributes4 #fcf ,the ,tractatus could not go so far2 but it went far enough to horrify many who counted themselves latitudinarian4 ,it was only in ,holland that so aggressive a criticism of ,christian faith and practice could then appear2 and even there neither publisher nor author dared avow himself4 ,spinoza even vetoed a translation into ,dutch1 foreseeing that such a book would be placed under an interdict4 #fcg ,it was as much an appeal for freedom of thought 7libertas philosophandi7 as a demonstration of rational truth2 and ,spinoza dexterously pointed 7c4 #bj7 to the social effects of the religious liberty already enjoyed in ,amsterdam as a reason for carrying liberty further4 ,there can be no question that it powerfully furthered alike the deistic and the ,unitarian movements in ,england from the year of its appearance2 and1 though the ,states-,general felt bound formally to prohibit it on the issue of the second edition in #afgd1 its effect in ,holland was probably as great as elsewhere3 at least there seems to have gone on there from this time a rapid modification of the old orthodoxy4 ,still more profound1 probably1 was the effect of the posthumous ,ethica 7#afgg71 which he had been prevented from publishing in his lifetime1 #fch and which not only propounded in parts an absolute pantheism 7 atheism #fci71 but definitely grounded ethics in human nature4 ,if more were needed to arouse theological rage1 it was to be found in the repeated and insistent criticism of the moral and mental perversity of the defenders of the faith #fdj--;a position not indeed quite consistent with the primary teaching of the treatise on the subject of ,will1 of which it denies the entity in the ordinary sense4 ,spinoza was here reverting to the practical attitude of ,bacon1 which1 under a partial misconception1 he had repudiated2 and he did not formally solve the contradiction4 ,his purpose was to confute the ordinary orthodox dogma that unbelief is wilful sin2 and to retort the charge without reconciling it with the thesis was to impair the philosophic argument4 #fda ,it was not on that score1 however1 that it was resented1 but as an unpardonable attack on orthodoxy1 not to be atoned for by any words about the spirit of ,christ4 #fdb ,the discussion went deep and far4 ,a reply to the ,tractatus which appeared in #afgd1 by an ,utrecht professor 7then dead71 is spoken of by ,spinoza with contempt2 #fdc but abler discussion followed1 though the assailants mostly fell foul of each other4 ,franz ,cuper or ,kuyper of ,amsterdam1 who in #afgf published an ,arcana ,atheismi ,revelata1 professedly refuting ,spinoza's ,tractatus1 was charged with writing in bad faith and with being on ,spinoza's side--an accusation which he promptly retorted on other critics1 apparently with justice4 #fdd ,the able treatise of ,prof4 ,e4 ,e4 ,powell on ,spinoza and ,religion is open to demur at one point--its reiterated dictum that ,spinoza's character was marred by lack of moral courage 7p4 #dd74 ,this expression is later in a measure retreated from3 after his habitual attitude of timid caution1 we have3 ,spinoza's timidity1 or1 if you will1 his peaceable disposition4 ,if the last-cited concession is to stand1 the other phrases should be withdrawn4 ,moral courage1 like every other human attribute1 is to be estimated comparatively2 and the test-question here is3 ,did any other writer in ,spinoza's day venture further than he8 ,moral courage is not identical with the fanaticism which invites destruction2 fanaticism supplies a motive which dispenses with courage1 though it operates as courage might4 ,but refusal to challenge destruction gratuitously does not imply lack of courage1 though of course it may be thereby motived4 ,a quite brave man1 it has been noted1 will quietly shun a gratuitous risk where one who is afraid of being afraid may face it4 ,when all is said1 ,spinoza was one of the most daring writers of his day2 and his ethic made it no more a dereliction of duty for him to avoid provoking arrest and capital punishment than it is for either a ,protestant or a rationalist to refrain from courting death by openly defying ,catholic beliefs before a ,catholic mob in ,spain4 ,it is easy for any of us to-day to be far more explicit than ,spinoza was4 ,it is doubtful whether any of us1 if we had lived in his day and were capable of going as far in heresy1 would have run such risks as he did in publishing the ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus4 ,for those who have lived much in his society1 it should be difficult to doubt that1 if allowed1 he would have dared death on the night of the mob-murder of the ,de ,witts4 ,the formerly suppressed proof of his very plain speaking on the subject of prayer1 and his indications of aversion to the practice of grace before meals 7,powell1 pp4 #cbc-be7 show lack even of prudence on his part4 ,prof4 ,powell is certainly entitled to censure those recent writers who have wilfully kept up a mystification as to ,spinoza's religiosity2 but their lack of courage or candour does not justify an imputation of the same kind upon him4 ,that ,spinoza was no saint 7,powell1 p4 #dc7 is true in the remote sense that he was not incapable of anger4 ,but it would be hard to find a ,christian who would compare with him in general nobility of character4 ,the proposition that he was not in any sense religious 7id4 ib47 seems open to verbal challenge4 #ac4 ,the appearance in #afgh of a ,dutch treatise against all sorts of atheists1 #fde and in #afha1 at ,amsterdam1 of an attack in ,french on ,spinoza's ,scriptural criticism1 #fdf points to a movement outside of the clerical and scholarly class4 ,all along1 indeed1 the atmosphere of the ,arminian or ,remonstrant ,school in ,holland must have been fairly liberal4 #fdg ,already in #afhe ,locke's friend ,le ,clerc had taken up the position of ,hobbes and ,spinoza and ,simon on the ,pentateuch in his ,sentimens de quelques thologiens de ,hollande 7translated into ,english and published in #afij as ,five ,letters ,concerning the ,inspiration of the ,holy ,scriptures74 #fdh ,and although ,le ,clerc always remained something of a ,scripturalist1 and refused to go the way of ,spinoza1 he had courage enough to revive an ancient heresy by urging1 in his commentary on the fourth ,gospel 7#agja71 that the ,logos should be rendered ,reason--an idea which he probably derived from the ,unitarian ,zwicker without realizing how far it could take him4 ,his ultimate recantation1 on the subject of the authorship of the ,pentateuch1 served only to weaken his credit with freethinkers1 and came too late to arrest the intellectual movement which he had forwarded4 ,a rationalizing spirit had now begun to spread widely in ,holland2 and within twenty years of ,spinoza's death there had arisen a ,dutch sect1 led by ,pontiaan van ,hattem1 a pastor at ,philipsland1 which blended ,spinozism with evangelicalism in such a way as to incur the anathema of the ,church4 #fdi ,in the time of the ,english ,civil ,war the fear of the opponents of the new multitude of sects was that ,england should become another ,amsterdam4 #fej ,this very multiplicity tended to promote doubt2 and in #agac we find ,anthony ,collins #fea pointing to ,holland as a country where freedom to think has undermined superstition to a remarkable degree4 ,during his stay1 in the previous generation1 ,locke had found a measure of liberal theology1 in harmony with his own2 but in those days downright heresy was still dangerous4 ,deurhoff 7d4 #agag71 who translated ,descartes and was accused of ,spinozism1 though he strongly attacked it1 #feb had at one time to fly ,holland1 though by his writings he founded a pantheistic sect known as ,deurhovians2 and ,balthasar ,bekker1 a ,cartesian1 persecuted first for ,socinianism1 incurred so much odium by publishing in #afia a treatise denying the reality of witchcraft that he had to give up his office as a preacher4 ,cp4 art4 in ,biographie ,universelle1 and ,mosheim1 #ag ,cent4 pt4 ii1 ch4 ii1 #ce1 and notes in ,reid's ed4 ,bekker was not the first to combat demonology on scriptural grounds2 ,arnold ,geulincx1 of ,leyden1 and the ,french ,protestant refugee ,daillon having less confidently put the view before him1 the latter in his ,daimonologia1 #afhg 7trans4 in ,english1 #agbc71 and the former in his system of ethics4 ,gassendi1 as we saw1 had notably discredited witchcraft a generation earlier2 ,reginald ,scot had impugned its actuality in #aehd2 and ,wier1 still earlier1 in #aefc4 ,and even before the ,reformation the learned ,king ,christian ,,ii of ,denmark 7deposed #aebc7 had vetoed witch-burning in his dominions4 7,allen1 ,hist4 de ,danemark1 ,french tr4 #ahgh1 i1 #bha47 ,as ,scot's ,discoverie had been translated into ,dutch in #afji1 ,bekker probably had a lead from him4 ,glanvill's ,blow at ,modern ,sadducism 7#afhh71 reproduced in ,sadducismus ,triumphatus1 undertakes to answer some objections of the kind later urged by ,bekker2 and the discussion was practically international4 ,bekker's treatise1 entitled ,de ,betooverte ,wereld1 was translated into ,english--first in #afie1 from the ,french1 under the title ,the ,world ,bewitched 7only #a vol4 published71 and again in #agjj as ,the ,world turned upside down4 ,in the ,french translation1 ,le ,monde ,enchant 7#d tom4 #afid71 it had a great vogue4 ,a refutation was published in ,english in ,an ,historical ,treatise of ,spirits1 by ,j4 ,beaumont1 in #agje4 ,it is noteworthy that ,bekker was included as one of four modern sages 7vier neuer ,welt-,weisen7 with ,descartes1 ,hobbes1 and ,spinoza1 in a ,german folio tractate 7hostile7 of #agjb4 #ad4 ,no greater service was rendered in that age to the spread of rational views than that embodied in the great ,dictionnaire ,historique et ,critique #fec of ,pierre ,bayle 7#afdg-agjf71 who1 born in ,france1 but driven out by the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 spent the best part of his life and did his main work at ,rotterdam4 ,persecuted there for his freethinking1 to the extent of having to give up his professorship1 he yet produced a virtual encyclopedia for freethinkers in his incomparable ,dictionary1 baffling hostility by the ,pyrrhonian impartiality with which he handled all religious questions4 ,in his youth1 when sent by his ,protestant father to study at ,toulouse1 he had been temporarily converted1 as was the young ,gibbon later1 to ,catholicism2 #fed and the retrospect of that experience seems in ,bayle's case1 as in ,gibbon's1 to have been a permanent motive to practical skepticism4 #fee ,but1 again1 in the one case as in the other1 skepticism was fortified by abundant knowledge4 ,bayle had read everything and mastered every controversy1 and was thereby the better able to seem to have no convictions of his own4 ,but even apart from the notable defence of the character of atheists dropped by him in the famous ,penses diverses sur la ,comte 7#afhb71 and in the claircissements in which he defended it1 it is abundantly evident that he was an unbeliever4 ,the only alternative view is that he was strictly or philosophically a skeptic1 reaching no conclusions for himself2 but this is excluded by the whole management of his expositions4 #fef ,it is recorded that it was his vehement description of himself as a ,protestant in the full force of the term1 accompanied with a quotation from ,lucretius1 that set the clerical diplomatist ,polignac upon re-reading the ,roman atheist and writing his poem ,anti-,lucretius4 #feg ,bayle's ostensible ,pyrrhonism was simply the tactic forced on him by his conditions2 and it was the positive unbelievers who specially delighted in his volumes4 ,he laid down no cosmic doctrines1 but he illuminated all2 and his air of repudiating such views as ,spinoza's had the effect rather of forcing ,spinozists to leave neutral ground than of rehabilitating orthodoxy4 ,on one theme he spoke without any semblance of doubt4 ,above all men who had yet written he is the champion of toleration4 #feh ,at a time when in ,england the school of ,locke still held that atheism must not be tolerated1 he would accept no such position1 insisting that error as such is not culpable1 and that1 save in the case of a sect positively inciting to violence and disorder1 all punishment of opinion is irrational and unjust4 #fei ,on this theme1 moved by the memory of his own life of exile and the atrocious persecution of the ,protestants of ,france1 he lost his normal imperturbability1 as in his ,letter to an ,abb 7if it be really his71 entitled ,ce que c'est que la ,france toute catholique sous le rgne de ,louis le ,grand1 in which a controlled passion of accusation makes every sentence bite like an acid1 leaving a mark that no dialectic can efface4 ,but it was not only from ,catholicism that he suffered1 and not only to ,catholics that his message was addressed4 ,one of his most malignant enemies was the ,protestant ,jurieu1 who it was that succeeded in having him deprived of his chair of philosophy and history at ,rotterdam 7#afic7 on the score of the freethinking of his ,penses sur la ,comte4 ,this wrong cast a shadow over his life1 reducing him to financial straits in which he had to curtail greatly the plan of his ,dictionary4 ,further1 it moved him to some inconsistent censure of the political writings of ,french ,protestant refugees #ffj--;,jurieu being the reputed author of a violent attack on the rule of ,louis ,,xiv1 under the title ,les ,soupirs de la ,france esclave qui aspire aprs la libert 7#afhi74 #ffa ,yet again1 the malicious ,jurieu induced the ,consistory of ,rotterdam to censure the ,dictionary on the score of the tone and tendency of the article ,david and the renewed vindications of atheists4 ,but nothing could turn ,bayle from his loyalty to reason and toleration2 and the malice of the bigots could not deprive him of his literary vogue1 which was in the ratio of his unparalleled industry4 ,as a mere writer he is admirable3 save in point of sheer wit1 of which1 however1 he has not a little1 he is to this day as readable as ,voltaire4 ,by force of unfailing lucidity1 wisdom1 and knowledge1 he made the conquest of literary ,europe2 and fifty years after his death we find the ,jesuit ,delamare in his 7anonymous7 apologetic treatise1 ,la ,foi justifie de tout reproche de contradiction avec la raison 7#agfa71 speaking of him to the deists as their theologian1 their doctor1 their oracle4 #ffb ,he was indeed no less2 and his serene exposure of the historic failure of ,christianity was all the more deadly as coming from a master of theological history4 #ae4 ,meantime1 ,spinoza had reinforced the critical movement in ,france1 #ffc where decline of belief can be seen proceeding after as before the definite adoption of pietistic courses by the king1 under the influence of ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,abbadie1 writing his ,trait de la verit de la religion chrtienne at ,berlin in #afhd1 speaks of an infinity of prejudiced deists as against the infinity of prejudiced believers #ffd--;evidently thinking of northern ,europeans in general2 and he strives hard to refute both ,hobbes and ,spinoza on points of ,biblical criticism4 ,in ,france he could not turn the tide4 ,that radical distrust of religious motives and illumination which can be seen growing up in every country in modern ,europe where religion led to war1 was bound to be strengthened by the spectacle of the reformed sensualist harrying heresy in his own kingdom in the intervals of his wars with his neighbours4 ,the crowning folly of the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes #ffe 7#afhe71 forcing the flight from ,france of some three hundred thousand industrious #fff and educated inhabitants for the offence of ,protestantism1 was as mad a blow to religion as to the ,state4 ,less paralysing to economic life than the similar policy of the ,church against the ,moriscoes in ,spain1 it is no less striking a proof of the paralysis of practical judgment to which unreasoning faith and systematic ecclesiasticism can lead4 ,orthodoxy in ,france was as ecstatic in its praise of the act as had been that of ,spain in the case of the expulsion of the ,moriscoes4 ,the deed is not to be laid at the single door of the king or of any of his advisers1 male or female3 the act which deprived ,france of a vast host of her soundest citizens was applauded by nearly all cultured ,catholicism4 #ffg ,not merely the bishops1 ,bossuet and ,fnelon #ffh and ,masillon1 but the ,jansenist ,arnauld2 not merely the female devotees1 ,mademoiselle de ,scudry and ,madame ,deshoulires1 but ,racine1 ,la ,bruyre1 and the senile la ,fontaine--all extolled the senseless deed4 ,the not over-pious ,madame de ,svign was delighted with the dragonnades1 declaring that nothing could be finer3 no king has done or will do anything more memorable2 the still less mystical ,bussy1 author of the ,histoire amoureuse des ,gaules1 was moved to pious exultation2 and the dying ,chancelier le ,tellier1 on signing the edict of revocation1 repeated the legendary cry of ,simeon1 ,nunc dimitte servum tuum1 ,domine6 ,to this pass had the ,catholic creed and discipline brought the mind of ,france4 ,only the men of affairs1 nourished upon realities--the ,vaubans1 ,saint ,simons1 and ,catinats--realized the insanity of the action1 which ,colbert 7d4 #afhc7 would never have allowed to come to birth4 ,the triumphers1 doubtless1 did not contemplate the expatriation of the myriads of ,protestants who escaped over the frontiers in the closing years of the century in spite of all the efforts of the royal police1 carrying with them1 as a later ,french historian writes1 our arts1 the secrets of our manufactures1 and their hatred of the king4 ,the ,catholics1 as deep in civics as in science1 thought only of the humiliation and subjection of the heretics--doubtless feeling that they were getting a revenge against ,protestantism for the ,test ,act and the atrocities of the ,popish ,plot mania in ,england4 ,the blow recoiled on their country4 ,within a generation1 their children were enduring the agonies of utter defeat at the hands of a coalition of ,protestant nations every one of which had been strengthened by the piously exiled sons of ,france2 and in the midst of their mortal struggle the revolted ,protestants of the ,cvennes so furiously assailed from the rear that the drain upon the king's forces precipitated the loss of their hold on ,germany4 ,for every ,protestant who crossed the frontiers between #afhe and #agjj1 perhaps1 a ,catholic neared or crossed the line between indifferentism and active doubt4 ,the steady advance of science all the while infallibly undermined faith2 and hardly was the bolt launched against the ,protestants when new sapping and mining was going on4 ,fontenelle 7#afeg-ageg71 whose ,conversations on the ,plurality of ,worlds 7#afhf7 popularized for the elegant world the new cosmology1 cannot but have undermined dogmatic faith in some directions2 above all by his graceful and skilful ,histoire des ,oracles 7also #afhf71 where the argumentation passes beyond the thesis advanced4 ,all that he says of oracles could be said of miracles4 #ffi ,the ,jesuits found the book essentially impious2 and a ,french culture-historian sees in it the first attack which directs the scientific spirit against the foundations of ,christianity4 ,all the purely philosophic arguments with which religion has been assailed are in principle in the work of ,fontenelle4 #fgj ,in his abstract thinking he was no less radical1 and his ,trait de la ,libert #fga established so well the determinist position that it was decisively held by the majority of the ,french freethinkers who followed4 ,living to his hundredth year1 he could join hands with the freethought of ,gassendi and ,voltaire1 #fgb ,descartes and ,diderot4 ,yet we shall find him later1 in his official capacity of censor of literature1 refusing to pass heretical books1 on principles that would have vetoed his own4 ,he is in fact a type of the freethought of the age of ,louis ,,xiv--,epicurean in the common sense1 unheroic1 resolute only to evade penalties1 guiltless of over-zeal4 ,not in that age could men generate an enthusiasm for truth4 #af4 ,of the new ,epicureans1 the most famous in his day was ,saint-,evremond1 #fgc who1 exiled from ,france for his politics1 maintained both in ,london and in ,paris1 by his writings1 a leadership in polite letters4 ,in ,england he greatly influenced young men like ,bolingbroke2 and a translation 7attributed to ,dryden7 of one of his writings seems to have given ,bishop ,butler the provocation to the first and weakest chapter of his ,analogy4 #fgd ,as to his skepticism there was no doubt in his own day2 and his compliments to ,christianity are much on a par with those paid later by the equally conforming and unbelieving ,shaftesbury1 whom he also anticipated in his persuasive advocacy of toleration4 #fge ,regnard1 the dramatist1 had a similar private repute as an ,epicurean4 ,and even among the nominally orthodox writers of the time in ,france a subtle skepticism touches nearly all opinion4 ,la ,bruyre is almost the only lay classic of the period who is pronouncedly religious2 and his essay on the freethinkers1 #fgf against whom his reasoning is so forcibly feeble1 testifies to their numbers and to the stress of debate set up by them4 ,even he1 too1 writes as a deist against atheists1 hardly as a believing ,christian4 ,if he were a believer he certainly found no comfort in his faith3 whatever were his capacity for good feeling1 no great writer of his age betrays such bitterness of spirit1 such suffering from the brutalities of life1 such utter disillusionment1 such unfaith in men4 ,and a certain doubt is cast upon all his professions of opinion by the sombre avowal3 ,a man born a ,christian and a ,frenchman finds himself constrained #fgg in satire3 the great subjects are forbidden him3 he takes them up at times1 and then turns aside to little things1 which he elevates by his 444 genius and his style4 #fgh ,m4 ,lanson remarks that we must not let ourselves be abused by the last chapter ,des esprits forts1 a collection of philosophic reflections and reasonings1 where ,la ,bruyre mingles ,plato1 ,descartes1 and ,pascal in a vague ,christian spiritualism4 ,this chapter1 evidently sincere1 but without individuality1 and containing only the reflex of the thoughts of others1 is not a conclusion to which the whole work conducts4 ,it marks1 on the contrary1 the lack of conclusion and of general views4 ,what is more1 with the chapter ,on the ,sovereign1 placed in the middle of the volume1 it is destined to disarm the temporal and spiritual powers1 to serve as passport for the independent freedom of observation in the rest of the ,caractres 7p4 #eii74 ,on this it may be remarked that the essay in question is not so much ,christian as theistic2 but the suggestion as to the object is plausible4 ,taine 7,essais de critique et d'histoire1 ed4 #aija7 first remarks 7p4 #aa7 on the christianisme of the essay1 and then decides 7p4 #ab7 that he merely exposes in brief and imperious style the reasonings of the school of ,descartes4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that in this essay ,la ,bruyre does not scruple to write3 ,if all religion is a respectful fear of ,god1 what is to be thought of those who dare to wound him in his most living image1 which is the sovereign8 7 #bg in ed4 ,walckenaer1 p4 #egh4 ,pascal holds the same tone4 ,vie1 par ,madame ,perier47 ,this appears first in the fourth edition2 and many other passages were inserted in that and later issues3 the whole is an inharmonious mosaic4 ,concerning ,la ,bruyre1 the truth would seem to be that the inconsequences in the structure of his essays were symptomatic of variability in his moods and opinions4 ,taine and ,lanson are struck by the premonitions of the revolution in his famous picture of the peasants1 and other passages2 and the latter remarks 7p4 #fjc7 that the points touched by ,la ,bruyre are precisely those where the writers of the next age undermined the old order3 ,la ,bruyre is already philosophe in the sense which ,voltaire and ,diderot gave to that term4 ,but we cannot be sure that the plunges into convention were not real swervings of a vacillating spirit4 ,it is difficult otherwise to explain his recorded approbation of the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,the ,dialogues sur le ,quitisme1 published posthumously under his name 7#afii71 appear to be spurious4 ,this was emphatically asserted by contemporaries 7,sentiments critiques sur les ,caractres de ,m4 de la ,bruyre1 #agja1 p4 #ddg2 ,apologie de ,m4 de la ,bruyre1 #agja1 p4 #ceg1 both cited by ,walckenaer7 who on other points were in opposition4 ,baron ,walckenaer 7tude1 ed4 cited1 p4 #gf sq47 pronounces that they were the work of ,ellis du ,pin1 a doctor of the ,sorbonne1 and gives good reasons for the attribution4 ,the ,abb d',olivet in his ,histoire de l',acadmie franaise declares that ,la ,bruyre only drafted them1 and that du ,pin edited them2 but the internal evidence is against their containing anything of ,la ,bruyre's draught4 ,they are indeed so feeble that no admirer cares to accept them as his4 7,cp4 note to ,suard's ,notice sur la personne et les crits de la ,bruyre1 in ,didot ed4 #ahfe1 p4 #bj47 ,written against ,madame ,guyon1 they were not worth his while4 ,if the apologetics of ,huet and ,pascal1 ,bossuet and ,fnelon1 had any influence on the rationalistic spirit1 it was but in the direction of making it more circumspect1 never of driving it out4 ,it is significant that whereas in the year of the issue of the ,demonstratio the ,duchesse d',orlans could write that every young man either is or affects to be an atheist1 ,le ,vassor wrote in #afhh3 ,people talk only of reason1 of good taste1 of force of mind1 of the advantage of those who can raise themselves above the prejudices of education and of the society in which one is born4 ,pyrrhonism is the fashion in many things3 men say that rectitude of mind consists in 'not believing lightly' and in being 'ready to doubt4' #fgi ,pascal and ,huet between them had only multiplied doubters4 ,on both lines1 obviously1 freethought was the gainer2 and in a ,jesuit treatise1 ,le ,monde condamn par luymesme1 published in #afie1 the ,prface contre l'incrdulit des libertins sets out with the avowal that to draw the condemnation of the world out of its own mouth1 it is necessary to attack first the incredulity of the unbelievers 7libertins71 who compose the main part of it1 and who under some appearance of ,christianity conceal a mind either ,judaic read deistic or pagan4 ,such was ,france to a religious eye at the height of the ,catholic triumph over ,protestantism4 ,the statement that the libertins formed the majority of the world is of course a furious extravagance4 ,but there must have been a good deal of unbelief to have moved a priest to such an explosion4 ,and the unbelief must have been as much a product of revulsion from religious savagery as a result of direct critical impulse1 for there was as yet no circulation of positively freethinking literature4 ,for a time1 indeed1 there was a general falling away in ,french intellectual prestige1 #fhj the result1 not of the mere protective spirit in literature1 as is sometimes argued1 but of the immense diversion of national energy under ,louis ,,xiv to militarism2 #fha and the freethinkers lost some of the confidence as well as some of the competence they had exhibited in the days of ,molire4 #fhb ,there had been too little solid thinking done to preclude a reaction when the king1 led by ,madame de ,maintenon1 went about to atone for his debaucheries by an old age of piety4 ,the king had been put in such fear of hell that he believed that all who had not been instructed by the ,jesuits were damned4 ,to ruin anyone it was necessary only to say1 ',he is a ,huguenot1 or a ,jansenist1' and the thing was done4 #fhc ,in this state of things there spread in ,france the revived doctrine or temper of ,quietism1 set up by the ,spanish priest1 ,miguel de ,molinos 7#afdj-afig71 whose ,spiritual ,guide1 published in ,spanish in #afge1 appeared in #afha in ,italian at ,rome1 where he was a highly influential confessor4 ,it was soon translated into ,latin1 ,french1 and ,dutch4 ,in #afhe he was cited before the ,inquisition2 in #afhg the book was condemned to be burned1 and he was compelled to retract sixty-eight propositions declared to be heretical2 whereafter1 nonetheless1 he was imprisoned till his death in #afif4 ,in ,france1 whence the attack on him had begun1 his teaching made many converts1 notably ,madame ,guyon1 and may be said to have created a measure of religious revival4 ,but when ,fnelon took it up 7#afig71 modifying the terminology of ,molinos to evade the official condemnation1 he was bitterly attacked by ,bossuet as putting forth doctrine incompatible with ,christianity2 the prelates fought for two years2 and finally the ,pope condemned ,fnelon's book1 whereupon he submitted1 limiting his polemic to attacks on the ,jansenists4 ,thus the gloomy orthodoxy of the court and the mysticism of the new school alike failed to affect the general intelligence2 there was no real building up of belief2 and the forward movement at length recommenced4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,british ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #a ,it appears from our survey that the deistic movement1 commonly assigned to the eighteenth century1 had been abundantly prepared for in the seventeenth1 which1 in turn1 was but developing ideas current in the sixteenth4 ,when1 in #afif1 ,john ,toland published his ,christianity ,not ,mysterious1 the sensation it made was due not so much to any unheard-of boldness in its thought as to the simple fact that deistic ideas had thus found their way into print4 #fhd ,so far the deistic position was explicitly represented in ,english literature only by the works of ,herbert1 ,hobbes1 and ,blount2 and of these only the first 7who wrote in ,latin7 and the third had put the case at any length4 ,against the deists or atheists of the school of ,hobbes1 and the ,scriptural ,unitarians who thought with ,newton and ,locke1 there stood arrayed the great mass of orthodox intolerance which clamoured for the violent suppression of every sort of infidelity4 ,it was this feeling1 of which the army of ignorant rural clergy were the spokesmen1 that found vent in the ,blasphemy ,act of #afig4 ,the new literary growth dating from the time of ,toland is the evidence of the richness of the rationalistic soil already created4 ,thinking men craved a new atmosphere4 ,locke's ,reasonableness of ,christianity is an unsuccessful compromise3 ,toland's book begins a new propagandist era4 ,toland's treatise1 #fhe heretical as it was1 professed to be a defence of the faith1 and avowedly founded on ,locke's anonymous ,reasonableness of ,christianity1 its young author being on terms of acquaintance with the philosopher4 #fhf ,he claimed1 in fact1 to take for granted the ,divinity of the ,new ,testament1 and to demonstrate the verity of divine revelation against atheists and all enemies of revealed religion1 from whom1 accordingly1 he expected to receive no quarter4 ,brought up1 as he declared1 from my cradle1 in the grossest superstition and idolatry1 he had been divinely led to make use of his own reason2 and he assured his ,christian readers of his perfect sincerity in defending the true religion4 #fhg ,twenty years later1 his primary positions were hardly to be distinguished from those of ratiocinative champions of the creed1 save in respect that he was challenging orthodoxy where they were replying to unbelievers4 ,toland1 however1 lacked alike the timidity and the prudence which so safely guided ,locke in his latter years2 and though his argument was only a logical and outspoken extension of ,locke's position1 to the end of showing that there was nothing supra-rational in ,christianity of ,locke's type1 it separated him from respectable society in ,england and ,ireland for the rest of his life4 ,the book was presented by the ,grand ,juries of ,middlesex and ,dublin2 #fhh the dissenters in ,dublin being chiefly active in denouncing it--with or without knowledge of its contents2 #fhi half-a-dozen answers appeared2 and when in #afih ,toland produced another1 entitled ,amyntor1 showing the infirm foundation of the ,christian canon1 there was again a speedy crop of replies4 ,despite the oversights inevitable to such pioneer work1 this opens1 from the side of freethought1 the era of documentary criticism of the ,new ,testament2 and in some of his later freethinking books1 as the ,nazarenus 7#agah7 and the ,pantheisticon 7#agbj71 he continues to show himself in advance of his time in opening new windows for his mind4 #fij ,the latter work represents in particular the influence of ,spinoza1 whom he had formerly criticized somewhat forcibly #fia for his failure to recognize that motion is inherent in matter4 ,on that head he lays down #fib the doctrine that motion is but matter under a certain consideration--an essentially materialist position1 deriving from the pre-,socratic ,greeks1 and incidentally affirmed by ,bacon4 #fic ,he was not exactly an industrious student or writer2 but he had scholarly knowledge and instinct1 and several of his works show close study of ,bayle4 ,as regards his more original views on ,christian origins1 he is not impressive to the modern reader2 but theses which to-day stand for little were in their own day important4 ,thus in his ,hodegus 7pt4 i of the ,tetradymus1 #agbj7 it is elaborately argued that the pillar of fire by night and of cloud by day was no miracle1 but the regular procedure of guides in deserts1 where night marches are the rule2 the cloud being simply the smoke of the vanguard's fire1 which by night flared red4 ,later criticism decides that the whole narrative of the ,exodus is myth4 ,toland's method1 however1 was relatively so advanced that it had not been abandoned by theological rationalists a century later4 ,of that movement he must be ranked an energetic pioneer3 though he lacked somewhat the strength of character that in his day was peculiarly needed to sustain a freethinker4 ,much of his later life was spent abroad2 and his ,letters to ,serena 7#agjd7 show him permitted to discourse to the ,queen of ,prussia on such topics as the origin and force of prejudice1 the history of the doctrine of immortality1 and the origin of idolatry4 ,he pays his correspondent the compliment of treating his topics with much learning2 and his manner of assuming her own orthodoxy in regard to revelation could have served as a model to ,gibbon4 #fid ,but1 despite such distinguished patronage1 his life was largely passed in poverty1 cheerfully endured1 #fie with only chronic help from well-to-do sympathizers1 such as ,shaftesbury1 who was not over-sympathetic4 ,when it is noted that down to #agfa there had appeared no fewer than fifty-four answers to his first book1 #fif his importance as an intellectual influence may be realized4 ,a certain amount of evasion was forced upon ,toland by the ,blasphemy ,law of #afig2 inferentially1 however1 he was a thorough deist until he became pantheist2 and the discussion over his books showed that views essentially deistic were held even among his antagonists4 ,one1 an ,irish bishop1 got into trouble by setting forth a notion of deity which squared with that of ,hobbes4 #fig ,the whole of our present subject1 indeed1 is much complicated by the distribution of heretical views among the nominally orthodox1 and of orthodox views among heretics4 #fih ,thus the school of ,cudworth1 zealous against atheism1 was less truly theistic than that of ,blount1 #fii who1 following ,hobbes1 pointed out that to deny to ,god a continual personal and providential control of human affairs was to hold to atheism under the name of theism2 #gjj whereas ,cudworth1 the champion of theism against the atheists1 entangled himself hopelessly #gja in a theory which made deity endow ,nature with plastic powers and leave it to its own evolution4 ,the position was serenely demolished by ,bayle1 #gjb as against ,le ,clerc1 who sought to defend it2 and in ,england the clerical outcry was so general that ,cudworth gave up authorship4 #gjc ,over the same crux1 in ,ireland1 ,bishop ,browne and ,bishop ,berkeley accused each other of promoting atheism2 and ,archbishop ,king was embroiled in the dispute4 #gjd ,on the other hand1 the theistic ,descartes had laid down a mechanical theory of the universe which perfectly comported with atheism1 and partly promoted that way of thinking2 #gje and a selection from ,gassendi's ethical writings1 translated into ,english #gjf 7#afii71 wrought in the same direction4 ,the ,church itself contained ,cartesians and ,cudworthians1 ,socinians and deists4 #gjg ,each group1 further1 had inner differences as to free-will #gjh and ,providence2 and the theistic schools of ,newton1 ,clarke1 and ,leibnitz rejected each other's philosophies as well as that of ,descartes4 ,leibnitz complained grimly that ,newton and his followers had a very odd opinion concerning the ,work of ,god1 making the universe an imperfect machine1 which the deity had frequently to mend2 and treating space as an organ by which ,god perceives things1 which are thus regarded as not produced or maintained by him4 #gji ,newton's principles of explanation1 he insisted1 were those of the materialists4 #gaj ,john ,hutchinson1 a professor at ,cambridge1 in his ,treatise of ,power1 ,essential and ,mechanical1 also bitterly assailed ,newton as a deistical and anti-scriptural sophist4 #gaa ,clarke1 on the other hand1 declared that the philosophy of ,leibnitz was tending to banish ,god from the world4 #gab ,alongside of such internecine strife1 it was not surprising that the great astronomer ,halley1 who accepted ,newton's principles in physics1 was commonly reputed an atheist2 and that the freethinkers pitted his name in that connection against ,newton's4 #gac ,as it was he who first suggested #gad the idea of the total motion of the entire solar system in space--described by a modern pietist as this great cosmical truth1 the grandest in astronomy #gae--they were not ill justified4 ,it can hardly be doubted that if intellectual ,england could have been polled in #agaj1 under no restraints from economic1 social1 and legal pressure1 some form of rationalism inconsistent with ,christianity would have been found to be nearly as common as orthodoxy4 ,in outlying provinces1 in ,devon and ,cornwall1 in ,ulster1 in ,edinburgh and ,glasgow1 as well as in the metropolis1 the pressure of deism on the popular creed evoked expressions of ,arian and ,socinian thought among the clergy4 #gaf ,it was1 in fact1 the various restraints under notice that determined the outward fortunes of belief and unbelief1 and have substantially determined them since4 ,when the devout ,whiston was deposed from his professorship for his ,arianism1 and the unbelieving ,saunderson was put in his place1 #gag and when ,simson was suspended from his ministerial functions in ,glasgow1 #gah the lesson was learned that outward conformity was the sufficient way to income4 #gai ,hard as it was1 however1 to kick against the pricks of law and prejudice1 it is clear that many in the upper and middle classes privately did so4 ,the clerical and the new popular literature of the time prove this abundantly4 ,in the ,tatler and its successors1 #gbj the decorous ,addison and the indecorous ,steele1 neither of them a competent thinker1 frigidly or furiously asperse the new tribe of freethinkers2 while the evangelically pious ,berkeley and the extremely unevangelical ,swift rival each other in the malice of their attacks on those who rejected their creed4 ,berkeley1 a man of philosophic genius but intense prepossessions1 maintained ,christianity on grounds which are the negation of philosophy4 #gba ,swift1 the genius of neurotic misanthropy1 who1 in the words of ,macaulay1 though he had no religion1 had a great deal of professional spirit1 #gbb fought venomously for the creed of salvation4 ,and still the deists multiplied4 ,in the ,earl of ,shaftesbury #gbc they had a satirist with a finer and keener weapon than was wielded by either ,steele or ,addison1 and a much better temper than was owned by ,swift or ,berkeley4 ,he did not venture to parade his unbelief3 to do so was positively dangerous2 but his thrusts at faith left little doubt as to his theory4 ,he was at once dealt with by the orthodox as an enemy1 and as promptly adopted by the deists as a champion1 important no less for his ability than for his rank4 ,nor1 indeed1 is he lacking in boldness in comparison with contemporary writers4 ,the anonymous pamphlet entitled ,the ,natural ,history of ,superstition1 by the deist ,john ,trenchard1 ,m4,p4 7#agji71 does not venture on overt heresy4 ,but ,shaftesbury's ,letter ,concerning ,enthusiasm 7#agjh71 his ,essay on the ,freedom of ,wit and ,humour 7#agji71 and his treatise ,the ,moralists 7#agji71 had need be anonymous because of their essential hostility to the reigning religious ethic4 ,such polemic marks a new stage in rationalistic propaganda4 ,swift1 writing in #agji1 angrily proposes to prevent the publishing of such pernicious works as under pretence of freethinking endeavour to overthrow those tenets in religion which have been held inviolable in almost all ages4 #gbd ,but his further protest that the doctrine of the ,trinity1 the divinity of ,christ1 the immortality of the soul1 and even the truth of all revelation1 are daily exploded and denied in books openly printed1 points mainly to the ,unitarian propaganda4 ,among freethinkers he names1 in his ,argument ,against ,abolishing ,christianity 7#agjh71 ,asgill1 ,coward1 ,toland1 and ,tindal4 ,but the first was an ultra-,christian2 the second was a ,christian upholder of the thesis that spirit is not immaterial2 and the last1 at that date1 had published only his ,four ,discourses 7collected in #agji7 and his ,rights of the ,christian ,church1 which are anti-clerical1 but not anti-,christian4 ,prof4 ,henry ,dodwell1 who about #afgc published ,two ,letters of ,advice1 ,i1 ,for the ,susception of ,holy ,orders2 ,,ii1 ,for ,studies ,theological1 especially such as are ,rational1 and in #agjf an ,epistolary ,discourse ,concerning the ,soul's ,natural ,mortality1 maintaining the doctrine of conditional immortality1 #gbe which he made dependent on baptism in the apostolical succession1 was a devout ,christian2 and no writer of that date went further4 ,dodwell is in fact blamed by ,bishop ,burnet for stirring up fanaticism against lay-baptism among dissenters4 #gbf ,it would appear that ,swift spoke mainly from hearsay1 and on the strength of the conversational freethinking so common in society4 #gbg ,but the anonymous essays of ,shaftesbury which were issued in #agji might be the immediate provocation of his outbreak4 #gbh ,an official picture of the situation is formally drawn in ,a ,representation of the ,present ,state of ,religion1 with regard to the late excessive growth of infidelity1 heresy1 and profaneness1 drawn up by the ,upper ,house of ,convocation of the province of ,canterbury in #agaa4 #gbi ,this sets forth1 as a result of the disorders of the ,rebellion1 a growth of all manner of unbelief and profanity1 including denial of inspiration and the authority of the canon2 the likening of ,christian miracles to heathen fables2 the treating of all religious mysteries as absurd speculations2 ,arianism and ,socinianism and scoffing at the doctrine of the ,trinity2 denial of natural immortality2 ,erastianism2 mockery of baptism and the ,lord's ,supper2 decrying of all priests as impostors2 the collecting and reprinting of infidel works2 and publication of mock catechisms4 ,it is explained that all such printing has greatly increased since the expiration of the ,act for restraining the press2 and mention is made of an ,arian work just published to which the author has put his name1 and which he has dedicated to the ,convocation itself4 ,this was the first volume of ,whiston's ,primitive ,christianity ,revived1 the work of a devout eccentric1 who had just before been deprived of his professorship at ,cambridge for his orally avowed heresy4 ,whiston1 whose cause was championed1 and whose clerical opponents were lampooned1 in an indecorous but vigorous sketch1 ,the ,tryal of ,william ,whiston1 ,clerk1 for defaming and denying the ,holy ,trinity1 before the ,lord ,chief ,justice ,reason 7#agab2 #crd ed4 #agdj71 always remained perfectly devout in his ,arian orthodoxy2 but his and his friends' arguments were rather better fitted to make deists than to persuade ,christians2 and ,convocation's appeal for a new ,act restraining the present excessive and scandalous liberty of printing wicked books at home1 and importing the like from abroad was not responded to4 ,there was no love lost between ,bolingbroke and ,shaftesbury2 but the government in which the former1 a known deist1 was ,secretary of ,state1 could hardly undertake to suppress the works of the latter4 #b ,deism had been thus made in a manner fashionable #gcj when1 in #agac1 ,anthony ,collins 7#afgf-agbi7 began a new development by his ,discourse of ,freethinking4 ,he had previously published a notably freethinking ,essay ,concerning the ,use of ,reason 7#agjg71 albeit without specific impeachment of the reigning creed2 carried on a discussion with ,clarke on the question of the immateriality of the soul2 and issued treatises entitled ,priestcraft in ,perfection 7#agji1 dealing with the history of the ,thirty-nine ,articles7 #gca and ,a ,vindication of the ,divine ,attributes 7#agaj71 exposing the ,hobbesian theism of ,archbishop ,king on lines followed twenty years later by ,berkeley in his ,minute ,philosopher4 ,but none of these works aroused such a tumult as the ,discourse of ,freethinking1 which may be said to sum up and unify the drift not only of previous ,english freethinking1 but of the great contribution of ,bayle1 whose learning and temper influence all ,english deism from ,shaftesbury onwards4 #gcb ,collins's book1 however1 was unique in its outspokenness4 ,to the reader of to-day1 indeed1 it is no very aggressive performance3 the writer was a man of imperturbable amenity and genuine kindliness of nature2 and his style is the completest possible contrast to that of the furious replies it elicited4 ,it was to ,collins that ,locke wrote1 in #agjc3 ,believe it1 my good friend1 to love truth for truth's sake is the principal part of human perfection in this world1 and the seed-plot of all other virtues2 and1 if ,i mistake not1 you have as much of it as ,i ever met with in anybody4 #gcc ,the ,discourse does no discredit to this uncommon encomium1 being a luminous and learned plea for the conditions under which alone truth can be prosperously studied1 and the habits of mind which alone can attain it4 ,of the many replies1 the most notorious is that of ,bentley writing as ,phileleutherus ,lipsiensis1 a performance which1 on the strength of its author's reputation for scholarship1 has been uncritically applauded by not a few critics1 of whom some of the most eminent do not appear to have read ,collins's treatise4 #gcd ,bentley's is in reality pre-eminent only for insolence and bad faith1 the latter complicated by lapses of scholarship hardly credible on its author's part4 ,see the details in ,dynamics of ,religion1 ch4 vii4 ,i am compelled to call attention to the uncritical verdict given on this matter by the late ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 who asserts 7,english ,thought1 i1 #bjf7 that ,bentley convicts ,collins of unworthy shuffling in respect of his claim that freethinking had banished the devil4 ,bentley affirmed that this had been the work1 not of the freethinkers1 but of the ,royal ,society1 the ,boyles and the ,newtons2 and ,sir ,leslie comments that nothing could be more true4 ,nothing could be more untrue4 ,as we have seen 7above p4 #hb71 ,boyle was a convinced believer in demonology2 and ,newton did absolutely nothing to disperse it4 ,glanvill1 a ,royal ,society man1 had been a vehement supporter of the belief in witchcraft2 and the ,society as such never meddled with the matter4 ,as to ,collins's claim for the virtue of freethinking1 ,sir ,leslie strangely misses the point that ,collins meant by the word not unbelief1 but free inquiry4 ,he could not have meant to say that ,holland was full of deists4 ,in ,collins's sense of the word1 the ,royal ,society's work in general was freethinking work4 ,one mistranslation which appears to have been a printer's error1 and one mis-spelling of a ,greek name1 are the only heads on which ,bentley confutes his author4 ,he had1 in fact1 neither the kind of knowledge nor the candour that could fit him to handle the problems raised4 ,it was ,bentley's cue to represent ,collins as an atheist1 though he was a very pronounced deist2 #gce and in the first uproar ,collins thought it well to fly to ,holland to avoid arrest4 #gcf ,but deism was too general to permit of such a representative being exiled2 and he returned to study quietly1 leaving ,bentley's vituperation and prevarication unanswered1 with the other attacks made upon him4 ,in #agae he published his brief but masterly ,inquiry ,concerning ,human ,liberty--anonymous1 like all his works--which remains unsurpassed as a statement of the case for ,determinism4 #gcg ,the welcome given to ,bentley's attack upon ,collins by the orthodox was warm in proportion to their sense of the general inadequacy of the apologetics on their side4 ,amid the common swarm of voluble futilities put forth by ,churchmen1 the strident vehemence as well as the erudite repute of the old scholar were fitted at least to attract the attention of lay readers in general4 ,most of the contemporary vindications of the faith1 however1 were fitted only to move intelligent men to new doubt or mere contempt4 ,a sample of the current defence against deism is the treatise of ,joseph ,smith on ,the ,unreasonableness of ,deism1 or1 the ,certainty of a ,divine ,revelation1 etc4 #agbj1 where deists in general are called the ,wicked and ,unhappy men we have to deal with3 #gch and the argumentation consists in alleging that a good ,god must reveal himself1 and that if the miracle stories of the ,new ,testament had been false the ,jews would have exposed and discarded them4 ,against such nugatory traditionalism1 the criticism of ,collins shone with the spirit of science4 ,not till #agbc did he publish his next work1 ,a ,discourse of the ,grounds and ,reasons of the ,christian ,religion1 a weighty attack on the argument from prophecy1 to which the replies numbered thirty-five2 on which followed in #agbg his ,scheme of ,literal ,prophecy ,considered1 a reply to criticisms4 ,the former work was pronounced by ,warburton one of the most plausible ever written against ,christianity1 and he might well say so4 ,it faced the argument from prophecy not merely with the skepticism of the ordinary deist1 but with that weapon of critical analysis of which the use had been briefly shown by ,hobbes and ,spinoza4 ,apparently for the first time1 he pointed out that the virgin prophecy in ,isaiah had a plain reference to contemporary and not to future events2 he showed that the out of ,egypt prophecy referred to the ,hebrew past2 and he revived the ancient demonstration of ,porphyry that the ,book of ,daniel is ,maccabean4 ,the general dilemma put by ,collins--that either the prophecies must be reduced1 textually and otherwise1 to non-prophetic utterances1 or ,christianity must give up prophetic claims--has never since been solved4 ,the deistic movement was now in full flood1 the acute ,mandeville #gci having issued in #agbj his ,free ,thoughts on ,religion1 and in #agbc a freshly-expanded edition of his very anti-evangelical ,fable of the ,bees2 while an eccentric ex-clergyman1 ,thomas ,woolston1 who had already lost his fellowship of ,sidney-,sussex ,college1 ,cambridge1 for vagaries of doctrine and action1 contributed in #agbf-bh his freshly reasoned but heedlessly ribald ,discourses on ,miracles4 ,voltaire1 who was in ,england in #agbh1 tells that thirty thousand copies were sold2 #gdj while sixty pamphlets were written in opposition4 ,woolston's were indeed well fitted to arouse wrath and rejoinder4 ,the dialectic against the argument from miracles in general1 and the irrelevance or nullity of certain miracles in particular1 is really cogent1 and anticipates at points the thought of the nineteenth century4 ,but ,woolston was of the tribe who can argue no issue without jesting1 and who stamp levity on every cause by force of innate whimsicality4 ,thus he could best sway the light-hearted when his cause called for the winning-over of the earnest4 ,arguments that might have been made convincing were made to pass as banter1 and serious spirits were repelled4 ,it was during this debate that ,conyers ,middleton1 ,fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 produced his ,letter from ,rome 7#agbi71 wherein the part of paganism in ,christianity is so set forth as to carry inference further than the argument ostensibly goes4 ,in that year the heads of ,oxford ,university publicly lamented the spread of open deism among the students2 and the proclamation did nothing to check the contagion4 ,in ,fogg's ,weekly ,journal of ,july #d1 #agcj1 it is announced that one of the principal colleges in ,oxford has of late been infested with deists2 and that three deistical students have been expelled2 and a fourth has had his degree deferred two years1 during which he is to be closely confined in college2 and1 among other things1 is to translate ,leslie's ,short and ,easy ,method with the ,deists4 #gda ,it is not hard to divine the effect of such exegetic methods4 ,in #agca1 the author of an apologetic pamphlet in reply to ,woolston laments that even at the universities young men too often become tainted with infidelity2 and1 on the other hand1 directing his battery against those who causelessly profess to build their skeptical notions on the writings of ,locke1 he complains of ,dr4 ,holdsworth and other academic polemists who had sought to rob orthodoxy of the credit of such a champion as ,locke by consigning him over to that class of freethinkers and skeptics to which he was an adversary4 #gdb ,with the most famous work of ,matthew ,tindal1 #gdc ,christianity as ,old as ,creation 7#agcj71 the excitement seems to have reached high-water mark4 ,here was vivacity without flippancy1 and argument without irrelevant mirth2 and the work elicited from first to last over a hundred and fifty replies1 at home and abroad4 ,tindal's thesis is that the idea of a good ,god involved that of a simple1 perfect1 and universal religion1 which must always have existed among mankind1 and must have essentially consisted in moral conduct4 ,christianity1 insofar as it is true1 must therefore be a statement of this primordial religion2 and moral reason must be the test1 not tradition or ,scripture4 ,one of the first replies was the ,vindication of ,scripture by ,waterland1 to which ,middleton promptly offered a biting retort in a ,letter to ,dr4 ,waterland 7#agca7 that serves to show the slightness of its author's faith4 ,after demolishing ,waterland's case as calculated rather to arouse than to allay skepticism1 he undertakes to offer a better reply of his own4 ,it is to the simple effect that some religion is necessary to mankind in modern as in ancient times2 that ,christianity meets the need very well2 and that to set up reason in its place is impracticable and the attempt therefore foolish and irrational1 in addition to being criminal and immoral1 when politically considered4 #gdd ,such legalist criticism1 if seriously meant1 was hardly likely to discredit ,tindal's book4 ,its directness and simplicity of appeal to what passed for theistic common-sense were indeed fitted to give it the widest audience yet won by any deist2 and its anti-clericalism would carry it far among his fellow ,whigs to begin with4 #gde ,one tract of the period1 dedicated to the ,queen ,regent1 complains that the present raging infidelity threatens an universal infection1 and that it is not confined to the capital1 but is disseminated even to the confines of your kingdom4 #gdf ,tindal1 like ,collins1 wrote anonymously1 and so escaped prosecution1 dying in #agcc1 when the second part of his book1 left ready for publication1 was deliberately destroyed by ,bishop ,gibson1 into whose hands it came4 ,in #agcf he and ,shaftesbury are described by an orthodox apologist as the two oracles of deism4 #gdg ,woolston1 who put his name to his books1 after being arrested in ,may1 #agbh1 and released on bail1 was prosecuted in #agbi on the charge of blasphemy1 in that he had derided the gospel miracles and represented ,jesus alternately as an impostor1 a sorcerer1 and a magician4 ,his friendly counsel ingeniously argued that ,woolston had aimed at safeguarding ,christianity by returning to the allegorical method of the early ,fathers2 and that he had shown his reverence for ,jesus and religion by many specific expressions2 but the jury took a simpler view1 and1 without leaving the court1 found ,woolston guilty4 ,he was sentenced to pay a fine of #ajj1 to suffer a year's imprisonment1 and either to find surety for his future good conduct or pay or give sureties for #b1jjj4 #gdh ,he is commonly said to have paid the penalty of imprisonment for the rest of his life 7d4 #agcc71 being unable to pay the fine of #ajj2 but ,voltaire positively asserts that nothing is more false than the statement that he died in prison2 adding3 ,several of my friends have seen him in his house3 he died there1 at liberty4 #gdi ,the solution of the conflict seems to be that he lived in his own house in the rules of the ,king's ,bench ,prison--that is1 in the precincts1 and under technical supervision4 #gej ,in any case1 he was sentenced2 and the punishment was the measure of the anger felt at the continuous advance of deistic opinions1 or at least against hostile criticism of the ,scriptures4 #c ,unitarianism1 formerly a hated heresy1 was now in comparison leniently treated1 because of its deference to ,scriptural authority4 ,where the deists rejected all revelation1 ,unitarianism held by the ,bible1 calling only for a revision of the central ,christian dogma4 ,it had indeed gained much theological ground in the past quarter of a century4 ,nothing is more instructive in the culture-history of the period than the rapidity with which the ,presbyterian succession of clergy passed from violent ,calvinism1 by way of ,baxterian ,arminianism1 to ,arianism1 and thence in many cases to ,unitarianism4 ,first they virtually adopted the creed of the detested ,laud1 whom their fathers had hated for it2 then they passed step by step to a heresy for which their fathers had slain men4 ,a closely similar process took place in ,geneva1 where ,servetus after death triumphed over his slayer4 #gea ,in #afia1 after a generation of common suffering1 a precarious union was effected between the ,english ,presbyterians1 now mostly semi-,arminians1 and the ,independents1 still mostly ,calvinists3 but in #afid it was dissolved4 #geb ,thereafter the former body1 largely endowed by the will of ,lady ,hewley in #agaj1 became as regards its ,trust ,deeds the freest of all the ,english sects in matters of doctrine4 #gec ,the recognition of past changes had made their clergy chary of a rigid subscription4 ,naturally the movement did not gain in popularity as it fell away from fanaticism2 but the decline of ,nonconformity in the first half of the eighteenth century was common to all the sects1 and did not specially affect the ,presbyterians4 ,of the many free churches established in ,england and ,wales after the ,act of ,toleration 7#afhi71 about half were extinct in #agae2 #ged and of the ,presbyterian churches the number in ,yorkshire alone fell from fifty-nine in #agae to a little over forty in #agcj4 #gee ,economic causes were probably the main ones4 ,the ,state-endowed parish priest had an enduring advantage over his rival4 ,but the ,hewley endowment gave a certain economic basis to the ,presbyterians2 and the concern for scholarship which had always marked their body kept them more open to intellectual influences than the ostensibly more free-minded and certainly more democratic sectaries of the ,independent and ,baptist bodies4 #gef ,the result was that1 with free ,trust ,deeds1 the ,presbyterians openly exhibited a tendency which was latent in all the other churches4 ,in #agai1 at a special assembly of ,presbyterian ministers at ,salters' ,hall1 it was decided by a majority of #gc to #fi that subscription to the orthodox doctrine of the ,trinity should no longer be demanded of candidates for the ministry4 #geg ,of the #gc1 the majority professed to be themselves orthodox2 but there was no question that antitrinitarian opinions had become common1 especially in ,devonshire1 where the heresy case of ,mr4 ,peirce of ,exeter had brought the matter to a crisis4 #geh ,from this date ,arian opinions spread more rapidly in the dwindling denomination1 shading yet further into ,unitarianism1 step for step with the deistic movement in the ,church4 ,in less than half a century the doctrines of the great founders of ,presbyterianism could scarcely be heard from any ,presbyterian pulpit in ,england4 #gei ,in the ,english ,presbyterian ministry the process was from ,arian opinions to those called ,unitarian 444 by a gradual sliding1 even as the transition had been made from ,calvinism to ,arminianism in the previous century4 #gfj ,presbyterianism having thus come pretty much into line with ,anglicanism on the old question of predestination1 while still holding fast by ,scriptural standards as against the deists1 the old stress of ,anglican dislike had slackened1 despite the rise of the new heretical element4 ,unitarian arguments were now forthcoming from quarters not associated with dissent1 as in the case of ,thomas ,chubb's first treatise1 ,the ,supremacy of the ,father ,asserted 7#agae71 courteously dedicated ,to the ,reverend the ,clergy1 and in particular to the ,right ,reverend ,gilbert ,lord ,bishop of ,sarum1 our vigilant and laborious ,diocesan4 ,chubb 7#afgi-agdg7 had been trained to glove-making1 and1 as his opponents took care to record1 acted also as a tallow-chandler2 #gfa and the good literary quality of his work made some sensation in an ,england which had not learned to think respectfully of ,bunyan4 ,chubb's impulse to write had come from the perusal of ,whiston's ,primitive ,christianity ,revived1 in #agaa1 and that single-minded ,arian published his book for him4 ,the ,unitarians would naturally repudiate all connection with such a performance as ,a ,sober ,reply to ,mr4 ,higgs's ,merry ,arguments from the ,light of ,nature for the ,tritheistic ,doctrine of the ,trinity1 which was condemned by the ,house of ,lords on ,february #ab1 #agbj1 to be burnt1 as having in a daring1 impious manner1 ridiculed the doctrine of the ,trinity and all revealed religion4 ,its author1 ,joseph ,hall1 a serjeant-at-arms to the ,king1 seems to have undergone no punishment1 and more decorous antitrinitarians received public countenance4 ,thus the ,unitarian ,edward ,elwall1 #gfb who had published a book called ,a ,true ,testimony for ,god and his ,sacred ,law 7#agbd71 for which he was prosecuted at ,stafford in #agbf1 was allowed by the judge to argue his cause fully1 and was unconditionally acquitted1 to the displeasure of the clergy4 #d ,anti-scriptural writers could not hope for such toleration1 being doubly odious to the ,church4 ,berkeley1 in #agba1 had complained bitterly #gfc of the general indifference to religion1 which his writings had done nothing to alter2 and in #agcf he angrily demanded that blasphemy should be punished like high treason4 #gfd ,his ,minute ,philosopher 7#agcb7 betrays throughout his angry consciousness of the vogue of freethinking after twenty years of resistance from his profession2 and that performance is singularly ill fitted to alter the opinions of unbelievers4 ,in his earlier papers attacking them he had put a stress of malice that1 in a mind of his calibre1 is startling even to the student of religious history4 #gfe ,it reveals him as no less possessed by the passion of creed than the most ignorant priest of his ,church4 ,for him all freethinkers were detested disturbers of his emotional life2 and of the best of them1 as ,collins1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,spinoza1 he speaks with positive fury4 ,in the ,minute ,philosopher1 half-conscious of the wrongness of his temper1 he sets himself to make the unbelievers figure in dialogue as ignorant1 pretentious1 and coarse-natured2 while his own mouthpieces are meant to be benign1 urbane1 wise1 and persuasive4 ,yet in the very pages so planned he unwittingly reveals that the freethinkers whom he goes about to caricature were commonly good-natured in tone1 while he becomes as virulent as ever in his eagerness to discredit them4 ,not a paragraph in the book attains to the spirit of judgment or fairness2 all is special pleading1 overstrained and embittered sarcasm1 rankling animus4 ,gifted alike for literature and for philosophy1 keen of vision in economic problems where the mass of men were short-sighted1 he was flawed on the side of his faith by the hysteria to which it always stirred him4 ,no man was less qualified to write a well-balanced dialogue as between his own side and its opponents4 ,to candour he never attains1 unless it be in the sense that his passion recoils on his own case4 ,even while setting up ninepins of ill-put infidel argument to knock down1 he elaborates futilities of rebuttal1 indicating to every attentive reader the slightness of his rational basis4 ,on the strength of this performance he might fitly be termed the most ill-conditioned sophist of his age1 were it not for the perception that religious feeling in him has become a pathological phase1 and that he suffers incomparably more from his own passions than he can inflict on his enemies by his eager thrusts at them4 ,more than almost any gifted pietist of modern times he sets us wondering at the power of creed in certain cases to overgrow judgment and turn to naught the rarest faculties4 ,no man in ,berkeley's day had a finer natural lucidity and suppleness of intelligence2 yet perhaps no polemist on his side did less either to make converts or to establish a sound intellectual practice4 ,plain men on the freethinking side he must either have bewildered by his metaphysic or revolted by his spite2 while to the more efficient minds he stood revealed as a kind of inspired child1 rapt in the construction and manipulation of a set of brilliant sophisms which availed as much for any other creed as for his own4 ,to the armoury of ,christian apologetic now growing up in ,england he contributed a special form of the skeptical argument3 freethinkers1 he declared1 made certain arbitrary or irrational assumptions in accepting ,newton's doctrine of fluxions1 and it was only their prejudice that prevented them from being similarly accommodating to ,christian mysteries4 #gff ,it is a kind of argument dear to minds pre-convinced and incapable of a logical revision1 but worse than inept as against opponents2 and it availed no more in ,berkeley's hands than it had done in those of ,huet4 #gfg ,to theosophy1 indeed1 ,berkeley rendered a more successful service in presenting it with the no better formula of existence i4e41 in consciousness dependent upon consciousness--a verbalism which has served the purposes of theology in the philosophic schools down till our own day4 ,for his1 however1 the popular polemic value of such a theorem must have been sufficiently countervailed by his vehement championship of the doctrine of passive obedience in its most extreme form--that loyalty is a virtue or moral duty2 and disloyalty or rebellion1 in the most strict and proper sense1 a vice or crime against the law of nature4 #gfh ,it belonged to the overstrung temperament of ,berkeley that1 like a nervous artist1 he should figure to himself all his freethinking antagonists as personally odious1 himself growing odious under the obsession2 and he solemnly asserts1 in his ,discourse to ,magistrates1 that there had been lately set up within this city of ,dublin an execrable fraternity of blasphemers1 calling themselves blasters1 and forming a distinct society1 whereof the proper and avowed business shall be to shock all serious ,christians by the most impious and horrid blasphemies1 uttered in the most public manner4 #gfi ,there appears to be not a grain of truth in this astonishing assertion1 to which no subsequent historian has paid the slightest attention4 ,in a period in which freethinking books had been again and again burned in ,dublin by the public hangman1 such a society could be projected only in a nightmare2 and ,berkeley's hallucination may serve as a sign of the extent to which his judgment had been deranged by his passions4 #ggj ,his forensic temper is really on a level with that of the most incompetent swashbucklers on his side4 ,when educated ,christians could be so habitually envenomed as was ,berkeley1 there was doubtless a measure of contrary heat among ,english unbelievers2 but1 apart altogether from what could be described as blasphemy1 unbelief abounded in the most cultured society of the day4 ,bolingbroke's rationalism had been privately well known2 and so distinguished a personage as the brilliant and scholarly ,lady ,mary ,wortley ,montagu1 hated by ,pope1 is one of the reputed freethinkers of her time4 #gga ,in the very year of the publication of ,berkeley's ,minute ,philosopher1 the first two epistles of the ,essay on ,man of his own friend and admirer1 ,pope1 gave a new currency to the form of optimistic deism created by ,shaftesbury1 and later elaborated by ,bolingbroke4 ,pope was always anxiously hostile in his allusions to the professed freethinkers #ggb--;among whom ,bolingbroke only posthumously enrolled himself--and in private he specially aspersed ,shaftesbury1 from whom he had taken so much2 #ggc but his prudential tactic gave all the more currency to the virtual deism he enunciated4 ,given out without any critical allusion to ,christianity1 and put forward as a vindication of the ways of ,god to men1 it gave to heresy1 albeit in a philosophically incoherent exposition1 the status of a well-bred piety4 ,a good authority pronounces that the ,essay on ,man did more to spread ,english deism in ,france than all the works of ,shaftesbury2 #ggd and we have explicit testimony that the poet privately avowed the deistic view of things4 #gge ,the line of the ,essay which now reads3 ,the soul1 uneasy and confined from home1 originally ran at home2 but1 says ,warton1 this expression seeming to exclude a future existence1 as1 to speak the plain truth1 it was intended to do1 it was altered--presumably by ,warburton4 7,warton's ,essay on ,pope1 #dth ed4 ii1 #fg47 ,the ,spinozistic or pantheistic character of much of the ,essay on ,man was noted by various critics1 in particular by the ,french ,academician ,de ,crousaz 7,examen de l',essay de ,m4 ,pope sur l',homme1 #agdh1 p4 #ij1 etc47 ,after promising to justify the ways of ,god to man1 writes ,crousaz 7p4 #cc71 ,pope turns round and justifies man1 leaving ,god charged with all men's sins4 ,when the younger ,racine1 writing to the ,chevalier ,ramsay in #agdb1 charged the ,essay with irreligion1 ,pope wrote him repudiating alike ,spinoza and ,leibnitz4 7,warton1 ii1 #aba47 ,in #agee1 however1 the ,abb ,gauchat renewed the attack1 declaring that the ,essay was neither ,christian nor philosophic 7,lettres ,critiques1 i1 #cdf74 ,warburton at first charged the poem with rank atheism1 and afterwards vindicated it in his manner4 7,warton1 i1 #abe47 ,but in ,germany1 in the youth of ,goethe1 we find the ,essay regarded by ,christians as an unequivocally deistic poem4 7,goethe's ,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,th4 ,,ii1 ,b4 vii3 ,werke1 ed4 #ahff1 xi1 #bfc47 ,and by a modern ,christian polemist the ,essay is described as the best positive result of ,english deism in the eighteenth century 7,gostwick1 ,german ,culture and ,christianity1 #ahhb1 p4 #ca74 ,in point of fact1 deism was the fashionable way of thinking among cultured people4 ,though ,voltaire testifies from personal knowledge that there were in ,england in his day many principled atheists1 #ggf there was little overt atheism1 #ggg whether by reason of the special odium attaching to that way of thought1 or of a real production of theistic belief by the concurrence of the deistic propaganda on this head with that of the clergy1 themselves in so many cases deists4 #ggh ,bishop ,burnet1 in the ,conclusion to the ,history of his ,own ,time1 pronounces that there are few atheists1 but many infidels1 who are indeed very little better than the atheists4 ,collins observed that nobody had doubted the existence of ,god until the ,boyle lecturers began to prove it2 and ,clarke had more than justified the jest by arguing1 in his ,boyle ,lectures for #agje1 that all deism logically leads to atheism4 ,but though the apologists roused much discussion on the theistic issue1 the stress of the apologetic literature passed from the theme of atheism to that of deism4 ,shaftesbury's early ,inquiry ,concerning ,virtue had assumed the existence of a good deal of atheism2 but his later writings1 and those of his school1 do not indicate much atheistic opposition4 #ggi ,even the revived discussion on the immateriality and immortality of the soul--which began with the ,grand ,essay of ,dr4 ,william ,coward1 #ghj in #agjd1 and was taken up1 as we have seen1 by the non-juror ,dodwell #gha--was conducted on either orthodox or deistic lines4 ,coward wrote as a professed ,christian1 #ghb to maintain1 against impostures of philosophy1 that matter and motion must be the foundation of thought in men and brutes4 ,collins maintained against ,clarke the proposition that matter is capable of thought2 and ,samuel ,strutt 7of the ,temple71 whose ,philosophical ,inquiry into the ,physical ,spring of ,human ,actions1 and the ,immediate ,cause of ,thinking 7#agcb71 is a most tersely cogent sequence of materialistic argument1 never raises any question of deity4 ,the result was that the problem of materialism was virtually dropped1 ,strutt's essay in particular passing into general oblivion4 ,it was replied to1 however1 with the ,inquiry of ,collins1 as late as #agfj1 by a ,christian controversialist who admits ,strutt to have been a gentleman of an excellent genius for philosophical inquiries1 and a close reasoner from those principles he laid down 7,an ,essay towards demonstrating the ,immateriality and ,free ,agency of the ,soul1 #agfj1 p4 #id74 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,monk1 in his ,life of ,bentley 7#bnd ed4 #ahcc1 ii1 #cia71 absurdly speaks of ,strutt as having dressed up the arguments of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury and other enemies of religion in a new shape4 ,the reverend gentleman cannot have paid any attention to the arguments either of ,herbert or of ,strutt1 which have no more in common than those of ,toland and ,hume4 ,strutt's book was much too closely reasoned to be popular4 ,his name was for the time1 however1 associated with a famous scandal at ,cambridge ,university4 ,when in #agci proceedings were taken against what was described as an atheistical society there1 ,strutt was spoken of as its oracle4 ,one of the members was ,paul ,whitehead1 satirized by ,pope4 ,another1 ,tinkler ,ducket1 a ,fellow of ,caius ,college1 in holy orders1 was prosecuted in the ,vice-,chancellor's ,court on the twofold charge of proselytizing for atheism and of attempting to seduce a female4 ,in his defence he explained that he had been for some time once more a believer in ,god and ,christianity2 but was nevertheless expelled4 ,see ,monk's ,life of ,bentley1 as cited1 ii1 #cia sq4 #e ,no less marked is the failure to develop the higher criticism from the notable start made in #agci in the very remarkable ,inquiry into the ,jewish and ,christian ,revelations by ,samuel ,parvish1 who made the vital discovery that ,deuteronomy is a product of the seventh century ,b4,c4 #ghc ,his book1 which is in the form of a dialogue between a ,christian and a ,japanese1 went into a second edition 7#agdf72 but his idea struck too deep for the critical faculty of that age1 and not till the nineteenth century was the clue found again by ,de ,wette1 in ,germany4 #ghd ,parvish came at the end of the main deistic movement1 #ghe and by that time the more open-minded men had come to a point of view from which it did not greatly matter when ,deuteronomy was written1 or precisely how a cultus was built up2 while orthodoxy could not dream of abandoning its view of inspiration4 ,there was thus an arrest alike of historical criticism and of the higher philosophic thought under the stress of the concrete disputes over ethics1 miracles1 prophecy1 and politics2 and a habit of taking deity for granted became normal1 with the result that when the weak point was pressed upon by ,law and ,butler there was a sense of blankness on both sides4 ,but among men theistically inclined1 the argument of ,tindal against revelationism was extremely telling1 and it had more literary impressiveness than any writing on the orthodox side before ,butler4 ,by this time the philosophic influence of ,spinoza--seen as early as #afii in ,shaftesbury's ,inquiry ,concerning ,virtue1 #ghf and avowed by ,clarke when he addressed his ,demonstration 7#agje7 more particularly in answer to ,mr4 ,hobbs1 ,spinoza1 and their followers--had spread among the studious class1 greatly reinforcing the deistic movement2 so that in #agcb ,berkeley1 who ranked him among weak and wicked writers1 described him as the great leader of our modern infidels4 ,see the ,minute ,philosopher1 ,dial4 vii1 #bi4 ,similarly ,leland1 in the ,supplement 7#agef7 to his ,view of the ,deistical ,writers 7afterwards incorporated as ,letter ,,vi71 speaks of ,spinoza as the most applauded doctor of modern atheism4 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's opinion 7,english ,thought1 i1 #cc71 that few of the deists1 probably1 read ,spinoza1 seems to be thus outweighed4 ,if they did not in great numbers read the ,ethica1 they certainly read the ,tractatus and the letters4 ,as early as #afgg we find ,stillingfleet1 in the preface to his ,letter to a ,deist1 speaking of ,spinoza as a late author who ,i hear is mightily in vogue among many who cry up anything on the atheistical side1 though never so weak and trifling2 and further of a mooted proposal to translate the ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus into ,english4 ,a translation was published in #afhi4 ,in #afhe the ,scotch ,professor ,george ,sinclar1 in the ,preface to the ,reader of his ,satan's ,invisible ,world ,discovered1 writes that ,there are a monstrous rabble of men1 who following the ,hobbesian and ,spinosian principles1 slight religion and undervalue the ,scripture1 etc4 ,in ,gildon's work of recantation1 ,the ,deist's ,manual 7#agje1 p4 #aib71 the indifferent ,pleonexus1 who took more delight in bags than in books1 and demurs to accumulating the latter1 avows that he has a few1 among them being ,hobbes and ,spinoza4 ,evelyn1 writing about #afhj-ij1 speaks of that infamous book1 the ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus1 as a wretched obstacle to the searchers of holy truth 7,the ,history of ,religion1 #ahej1 p4 xxvii74 ,cp4 ,halyburton1 ,natural ,religion ,insufficient1 ,edinburgh1 #agad1 p4 #ca1 as to the great vogue among our young ,gentry and ,students of ,hobbes1 ,spinoza1 and others4 #f ,among the deists of the upper classes was the young ,william ,pitt1 afterwards ,lord ,chatham1 if1 as has been alleged1 it was he who in #agcc1 two years before he entered ,parliament1 contributed to the ,london ,journal a ,letter on ,superstition1 the work of a pronounced freethinker4 #ghg ,on the other hand1 such deistic writing as that with which ,chubb1 in a multitude of tracts1 followed up his early ,unitarian essay of #agae1 brought an ethical ,christian rationalism within the range of the unscholarly many4 ,thomas ,morgan 7d4 #agda71 a physician1 began in the ,moral ,philosopher1 #agci-agdj1 #ghh to sketch a rationalistic theory of ,christian origins1 besides putting the critical case with new completeness4 ,morgan had been at one time a dissenting minister at ,frome1 ,somerset1 and had been dismissed because of his deistical opinions4 ,towards the ,jehovah and the ethic of the ,old ,testament he holds1 however1 the attitude rather of an ancient ,gnostic than of a modern rationalist2 and in his philosophy he is either a very godly deist or a pantheist miscarried4 #ghi ,at the same time ,peter ,annet 7#afic-agfi71 a schoolmaster and inventor of a system of shorthand1 widened the propaganda in other directions4 ,he seems to have been the first freethought lecturer1 for his first pamphlet1 ,judging for ,ourselves3 or1 ,freethinking the ,great ,duty of ,religion1 ,by ,p4 ,a41 ,minister of the ,gospel 7#agci71 consists of ,two ,lectures delivered at ,plaisterers' ,hall4 ,through all his propaganda1 of which the more notable portions are his ,supernaturals ,examined and a series of controversies on the ,resurrection1 there runs a train of shrewd critical sense1 put forth in crisp and vivacious ,english1 which made him a popular force4 ,what he lacked was the due gravity and dignity for the handling of such a theme as the reversal of a nation's faith4 ,like ,woolston1 he is facetious where he should be serious2 entertaining where he had need be impressive2 provocative where he should have aimed at persuasion4 ,we cannot say what types he influenced1 or how deep his influence went3 it appears only that he swayed many whose suffrages weighed little4 ,at length1 when in #agfa he issued nine numbers of ,the ,free ,inquirer1 in which he attacked the ,pentateuch with much insight and cogency1 but with a certain want of rational balance 7shown also in his treatise1 ,social ,bliss ,considered1 #agdi71 he was made a victim of the then strengthened spirit of persecution1 being sentenced to stand thrice in the pillory with the label ,for ,blasphemy1 and to suffer a year's hard labour4 ,nevertheless1 he was popular enough to start a school on his release4 ,such popularity1 of course1 was alien to the literary and social traditions of the century2 and from the literary point of view the main line of deistic propaganda1 as apart from the essays and treatises of ,hume and the posthumous works of ,bolingbroke1 ends with the younger ,henry ,dodwell's 7anonymous7 ironical essay1 ,christianity not ,founded on ,argument 7#agda74 ,so rigorously congruous is the reasoning of that brilliant treatise that some have not quite unjustifiably taken it for the work of a dogmatic believer1 standing at some such position as that taken up before him by ,huet1 and in recent times by ,cardinal ,newman4 #gij ,he argues1 for instance1 not merely that reason can yield none of the confidence which belongs to true faith1 but that it cannot duly strengthen the moral will against temptations4 #gia ,but the book at once elicited a number of replies1 all treating it unhesitatingly as an anti-,christian work2 and ,leland assails it as bitterly as he does any openly freethinking treatise4 #gib ,its thesis might have been seriously supported by reference to the intellectual history of the preceding thirty years1 wherein much argument had certainly failed to establish the reigning creed or to discredit the unbelievers4 #g ,of the work done by ,english deism thus far1 it may suffice to say that within two generations it had more profoundly altered the intellectual temper of educated men than any religious movement had ever done in the same time4 ,this appears above all from the literature produced by orthodoxy in reply1 where the mere defensive resort to reasoning1 apart from the accounts of current rationalism1 outgoes anything in the previous history of literature4 ,the whole evolution is a remarkable instance of the effect on intellectual progress of the diversion of a nation's general energy from war and intense political faction to mental activities4 ,a similar diversion had taken place at the ,restoration1 to be followed by a return to civil and foreign strife1 which arrested it4 ,it was in the closing years of ,anne1 and in the steady rgime of ,walpole under the first two ,georges1 that the ferment worked at its height4 ,collins's ,discourse of ,freethinking was synchronous with the ,peace of ,utrecht3 the era of war re-opened in #agci1 much against the will of ,walpole1 who resigned in #agdb4 ,home and foreign wars thereafter became common2 and in #agea ,clive opened the period of imperialistic expansion1 determining national developments on that main line1 concurrently with that of the new industry4 ,could the discussion have been continuous--could ,england have remained what she was in the main deistic period1 a workshop of investigation and a battleground of ideas--all ,european development might have been indefinitely hastened4 ,but the deists1 for the most part educated men appealing to educated men or to the shrewdest readers among the artisans1 had not learned to reckon with the greater social forces2 and beyond a certain point they could not affect ,england's intellectual destinies4 ,it is worse than idle to argue that the true cause of the decay of deism is to be sought in its internal weakness1 in the sense that it was not rooted in the deepest convictions1 nor associated with the most powerful emotions of its adherents4 #gic ,no such charge can be even partially proved4 ,the deists were at least as much in earnest as two-thirds of the clergy3 the determining difference1 in this regard1 was the economic basis of the latter1 and their social hold of an ignorant population4 ,the clergy1 who could not argue the deists down in the court of culture1 had in their own jurisdiction the great mass of the uneducated lower classes1 and the great mass of the women of all classes1 whom the ideals of the age kept uneducated1 with a difference4 ,and while the more cultured clergy were themselves in large measure deists1 the majority1 in the country parishes1 remained uncritical and unreflective1 caring little even to cultivate belief among their flocks4 ,the contempt of the clergy which had subsisted from the middle of the seventeenth century 7if1 indeed1 it should not be dated from the middle of the sixteenth7 meant among other things that popular culture remained on a lower plane4 ,with the multitude remaining a ready hotbed for new enthusiasm1 and the women of the middle and upper orders no less ready nurturers of new generations of young believers1 the work of emancipation was but begun when deism was made fashionable4 ,and with ,england on the way to a new era at once of industrial and imperial expansion1 in which the energies that for a generation had made her a leader of ,european thought were diverted to arms and to commerce1 the critical and rationalizing work of the deistical generation could not go on as it had begun4 ,that generation left its specific mark on the statute-book in a complete repeal of the old laws relating to witchcraft2 #gid on literature in a whole library of propaganda and apology2 on moral and historic science in a new movement of humanism1 which was to find its check in the ,french ,revolution4 ,how it affected the general intelligence for good may be partly gathered from a comparison of the common ,english political attitudes towards ,ireland in the first and the last quarters of the century4 ,under ,william was wrought the arrest of ,irish industry and commerce1 begun after the ,restoration2 under ,anne were enacted the penal laws against ,catholics--as signal an example of religious iniquity as can well be found in all history4 ,by the middle of the century these laws had become anachronisms for all save bigots4 ,the wave of freethought that was spreading over ,europe and permeating its literature had not failed to affect ,ireland4444 ,an atmosphere of skepticism was fatal to the ,penal ,code4 ,what element of religious persecution there had been in it had long ceased to be operative 7,r4 ,dunlop1 in ,camb4 ,mod4 ,hist4 vi1 #dhi74 ,macaulay's testimony on this head is noteworthy3 ,the philosophy of the eighteenth century had purified ,english ,whiggism of the deep taint of intolerance which had been contracted during a long and close alliance with the ,puritanism of the eighteenth century 7,history1 ch4 xvii1 end74 ,the denunciations of the penal laws by ,arthur ,young in #aghj #gie are the outcome of two generations of deistic thinking2 the spirit of religion has been ousted by judgment4 #gif ,could that spirit have had freer play1 less hindrance from blind passion1 later history would have been a happier record4 ,but for reasons lying in the environment as well as in its own standpoint1 deism was not destined to rise on continuous stepping-stones to social dominion4 ,currency has been given to a misconception of intellectual history by the authoritative statement that in the deistic controversy all that was intellectually venerable in ,england appeared on the side of ,christianity 7,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 ,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth ,century1 i1 #hf74 ,the same thing1 in effect1 is said by ,lecky3 ,it was to repel these deistic attacks 'upon the miracles' that the evidential school arose1 and the annals of religious controversy narrate few more complete victories than they achieved 7,rise and ,influence of ,rationalism1 pop4 ed4 i1 #age74 ,the proposition seems to be an echo of orthodox historiography1 as ,buckle had before written in his note-book3 ,in ,england skepticism made no head4 ,such men as ,toland and ,tindal1 ,collins1 ,shaftesbury1 ,woolston1 were no match for ,clarke1 ,warburton1 and ,lardner4 ,they could make no head till the time of ,middleton 7,misc4 ,works1 abridged ed4 i1 #cba7--;a strain of assertion which clearly proceeds on no close study of the period4 ,in the first place1 all the writing on the freethinking side was done under peril of ,blasphemy ,laws1 and under menace of all the calumny and ostracism that in ,christian society follow on advanced heresy2 while the orthodox side could draw on the entire clerical profession1 over ten thousand strong1 and trained for and pledged to defence of the faith4 ,yet1 when all is said1 the ordinary list of deists amply suffices to disprove ,sir ,l4 ,stephen's phrase4 ,his intellectually venerable list runs3 ,bentley1 ,locke1 ,berkeley1 ,clarke1 ,butler1 ,waterland1 ,warburton1 ,sherlock1 ,gibson1 ,conybeare1 ,smalbroke1 ,leslie1 ,law1 ,leland1 ,lardner1 ,foster1 ,doddridge1 ,lyttelton1 ,barrington1 ,addison1 ,pope1 ,swift4 ,he might have added ,newton and ,boyle4 ,sykes1 #gig ,balguy1 ,stebbing1 and a host of others1 he declares to be now for the most part as much forgotten as their victims2 ,young and ,blackmore he admits to be in similar case4 ,it is expressly told of ,doddridge1 he might have added1 that whereas that well-meaning apologist put before his students at ,northampton the ablest writings both for and against ,christianity1 leaving them to draw their own conclusions1 many of his pupils1 on leaving his institution1 became confirmed ,arians and ,socinians 7,nichols in ,app4 ,p to ,life of ,arminius--,works of ,arminius1 #ahbe1 i1 #bbc-be74 ,this hardly spells success4 #gih ,all told1 the list includes only three or four men of any permanent interest as thinkers1 apart from ,newton2 and only three or four more important as writers4 ,the description of ,waterland1 #gii ,warburton1 #hjj ,smalbroke1 #hja ,sherlock1 ,leslie1 and half-a-dozen more as intellectually venerable is grotesque2 even ,bentley is a strange subject for veneration4 ,on the other hand1 the list of the despised deists1 who make but a poor show when compared with this imposing list1 runs thus3 ,herbert1 ,hobbes1 ,blount1 ,halley 7well known to be an unbeliever1 though he did not write on the subject71 ,toland1 ,shaftesbury1 ,collins1 ,mandeville1 ,tindal1 ,chubb1 ,morgan1 ,dodwell1 ,middleton1 ,hume1 ,bolingbroke1 ,gibbon4 ,it would be interesting to know on what principles this group is excluded from the intellectual veneration so liberally allotted to the other4 ,it is nothing to the purpose that ,shaftesbury and ,mandeville wrote covertly and indirectly4 ,the law and the conditions compelled them to do so4 ,it is still more beside the case to say that ,hume can scarcely be reckoned among the deists4 ,he is already when8 emerging into a higher atmosphere4 ,hume wrote explicitly as a deist2 and only in his posthumous ,dialogues did he pass on to the atheistic position4 ,at no time1 moreover1 was he on the side of ,christianity4 ,on the other hand1 ,locke and ,clarke and ,pope were clearly emerging into a higher atmosphere than ,christianity1 since ,locke is commonly reckoned by the culture-historians1 and even by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 as making for deism2 ,pope was the pupil of ,bolingbroke1 and wrote as such2 and ,clarke was shunned as an ,arian4 ,newton1 again1 was a ,unitarian1 and ,leibnitz accused his system of making for irreligion4 ,it would be hard to show1 further1 who are the forgotten victims of ,balguy and the rest4 ,balguy criticized ,shaftesbury1 whose name is still a good deal better known than ,balguy's4 ,the main line of deists is pretty well remembered4 ,and if we pair off ,hume against ,berkeley1 ,hobbes against ,locke1 ,middleton 7as historical critic7 against ,bentley1 ,shaftesbury against ,addison1 ,mandeville against ,swift1 ,bolingbroke against ,butler1 ,collins against ,clarke1 ,herbert against ,lyttelton1 ,tindal against ,waterland1 and ,gibbon against--shall we say8--,warburton1 it hardly appears that the overplus of merit goes as ,sir ,leslie ,stephen alleges1 even if we leave ,newton1 with brain unhinged1 standing against ,halley4 ,the statement that the deists are but a ragged regiment1 and that in speculative ability most of them were children by the side of their ablest antagonists1 is simply unintelligible unless the names of all the ablest deists are left out4 ,locke1 be it remembered1 did not live to meet the main deistic attack on ,christianity2 and ,sir ,leslie admits the weakness of his pro-,christian performance4 ,the bases of ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's verdict may be tested by his remarks that ,collins1 a respectable country gentleman1 showed considerable acuteness2 ,toland1 a poor denizen of ,grub ,street1 and ,tindal1 a ,fellow of ,all ,souls1 made a certain display of learning1 and succeeded in planting some effective arguments4 ,elsewhere 7pp4 #bag-bbg7 ,sir ,leslie admits that ,collins had the best of the argument against his venerable opponents on ,prophecy2 and ,huxley credits him with equal success in the argument with ,clarke4 ,the work of ,collins on ,human ,liberty1 praised by a long series of students and experts1 and entirely above the capacity of ,bentley1 is philosophically as durable as any portion of ,locke1 who made ,collins his chosen friend and trustee1 and who did not live to meet his anti-,biblical arguments4 ,tindal1 who had also won ,locke's high praise by his political essays1 profoundly influenced such a student as ,laukhard 7,lechler1 p4 #dea74 ,and ,toland1 whom even ,mr4 ,a4 ,s4 ,farrar 7,bampton ,lectures1 p4 #agi7 admitted to possess much originality and learning1 has struck ,lange as a notable thinker1 though he was a poor man4 ,leibnitz1 who answered him1 praises his acuteness1 as does ,pusey1 who further admits the uncommon ability of ,morgan and ,collins 7,histor4 ,enq4 into ,german ,rationalism1 #ahbh1 p4 #abf74 ,it is time that the conventional ,english standards in these matters should be abandoned by modern rationalists4 ,the unfortunate effect of ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's dictum is seen in the assertion of ,prof4 ,hffding 7,hist4 of ,modern ,philos4 ,eng4 tr4 #aijj1 i1 #djc71 that ,sir ,leslie rightly remarks of the ,english deists that they were altogether inferior to their adversaries2 and further 7p4 #dje71 that by the later deists1 ,collins1 ,tindal1 ,morgan1 etc41 the dispute as to miracles was carried on with great violence4 ,it is here evident that ,prof4 ,hffding has not read the writers he depreciates1 for those he names were far from being violent4 ,had he known the literature1 he would have named ,woolston1 not ,collins and ,tindal and ,morgan4 ,he is merely echoing1 without inquiring for himself1 a judgment which he regards as authoritative4 ,in the same passage he declares that only one of all the men formerly known as the ',english deists' ,toland has rendered contributions of any value to the history of thought4 ,if this is said with a knowledge of the works of ,collins1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,mandeville1 it argues a sad lack of critical judgment4 ,but there is reason to infer here also that ,prof4 ,hffding writes in ignorance of the literature he discusses4 ,while some professed rationalists thus belittle a series of pioneers who did so much to make later rationalism possible1 some eminent theologians do them justice4 ,thus does ,prof4 ,cheyne begin his series of lectures on ,founders of ,old ,testament ,criticism 7#ahic73 ,a well-known and honoured representative of progressive ,german orthodoxy 7,j4 ,a4 ,dorner7 has set a fine example of historical candour by admitting the obligations of his country to a much-disliked form of ,english heterodoxy4 ,he says that ,english deism1 which found so many apt disciples in ,germany1 'by clearing away dead matter1 prepared the way for a reconstruction of theology from the very depths of the heart's beliefs1 and also subjected man's nature to stricter observation4' #hjb ,this1 however1 as it appears to me1 is a very inadequate description of the facts4 ,it was not merely a new constructive stage of ,german theoretic theology1 and a keener psychological investigation1 for which deism helped to prepare the way1 but also a great movement1 which has in our own day become in a strict sense international1 concerned with the literary and historical criticism of the ,scriptures4 ,beyond all doubt1 the ,biblical discussions which abound in the works of the deists and their opponents contributed in no slight degree to the development of that semi-apologetic criticism of the ,old ,testament of which ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 and in some degree even ,eichhorn1 were leading representatives4444 ,it is indeed singular that deism should have passed away in ,england without having produced a great critical movement among ourselves4 ,not quite so singular1 perhaps1 when we note that in our own day ,sir ,leslie ,stephen and ,lecky and ,prof4 ,hffding could sum up the work of the deists without a glance at what it meant for ,biblical criticism4 #h ,if we were to set up a theory of intellectual possibilities from what has actually taken place in the history of thought1 and without regard to the economic and political conditions above mentioned1 we might reason that deism failed permanently to overthrow the current creed because it was not properly preceded by discipline in natural science4 ,there might well be stagnation in the higher criticism of the ,hebrew ,scriptures when all natural science was still coloured by them4 ,in nothing1 perhaps1 is the danger of ,sacred ,books more fully exemplified than in their influence for the suppression of true scientific thought4 ,a hundredfold more potently than the faiths of ancient ,greece has that of ,christendom blocked the way to all intellectually vital discovery4 ,if even the fame and the pietism of ,newton could not save him from the charge of promoting atheism1 much less could obscure men hope to set up any view of natural things which clashed with pulpit prejudice4 ,but the harm lay deeper1 inasmuch as the ground was preoccupied by pseudo-scientific theories which were at best fanciful modifications of the myths of ,genesis4 ,types of these performances are the treatise of ,sir ,matthew ,hale on ,the ,primitive ,origination of ,mankind 7#afhe72 ,dr4 ,thomas ,burnet's ,sacred ,theory of the ,earth 7#afhj-afhi72 and ,whiston's ,new ,theory of the ,earth 7#afif7--;all devoid of scientific value2 ,hale's work being pre-,newtonian2 ,burnet's anti-,newtonian1 though partly critical as regards the sources of the ,pentateuch2 and ,whiston's a combination of ,newton and myth with his own quaint speculations4 ,even the ,natural ,history of the ,earth of ,prof4 ,john ,woodward 7#afie71 after recognizing that fossils were really prehistoric remains1 decided that they were deposited by the ,deluge4 #hjc ,woodward's book is in its own way instructive as regards the history of opinion4 ,a ,professor of ,physick in ,gresham ,college1 ,f4,c4,p41 and ,f4,r4,s41 he goes about his work in a methodical and ostensibly scientific fashion1 colligates the phenomena1 examines temperately the hypotheses of the many previous inquirers1 and shows no violence of orthodox prepossession4 ,he claims to have considered ,moses only as an historian1 and to give him credit finally because he finds his narrative punctually true4 #hjd ,he had before him an abundance of facts irreconcilable with the explanation offered by the ,flood story2 yet he actually adds to that myth a thesis of universal decomposition and dissolution of the earth's strata by the flood's action #hje--;a hypothesis far more extravagant than any of those he dismissed4 ,with all his method and scrutiny he had remained possessed by the tradition1 and could not cast it off4 ,it would seem as if such a book1 reducing the tradition to an absurdity1 was bound at least to put its more thoughtful readers on the right track4 ,but the legend remained in possession of the general intelligence as of ,woodward's2 and beyond his standpoint science made little advance for many years4 ,moral and historical criticism1 then1 as regards some main issues1 had gone further than scientific2 and men's thinking on certain problems of cosmic philosophy was thus arrested for lack of due basis or discipline in experiential science4 ,the final account of the arrest of exact ,biblical criticism in the eighteenth century1 however1 is that which explains also the arrest of the sciences4 ,english energy1 broadly speaking1 was diverted into other channels4 ,in the age of ,chatham it became more and more military and industrial1 imperialist and commercial2 and the scientific work of ,newton was considerably less developed by ,english hands than was the critical work of the first deists4 ,long before the ,french ,revolution1 mathematical and astronomical science were being advanced by ,french minds1 the ,english doing nothing4 ,lagrange and ,euler1 ,clairaut and ,d',alembert1 carried on the task1 till ,laplace consummated it in his great theory1 which is to ,newton's what ,newton's was to that of ,copernicus4 ,it was ,frenchmen1 freethinkers to a man1 who built up the new astronomy1 while ,england was producing only eulogies of ,newton's greatness4 ,no ,british name is ever mentioned in the list of mathematicians who followed ,newton in his brilliant career and completed the magnificent edifice of which he laid the foundation4 #hjf ,scotland contributed her ,maclaurin1 but ,england no ,european name4 #hjg ,throughout the latter half of the eighteenth century there was hardly an individual in this country who possessed an intimate acquaintance with the methods of investigation which had conducted the foreign mathematicians to so many sublime results4 #hjh ,the ,english mathematicians seem to have been so dazzled with the splendour of ,newton's discoveries that they never conceived them capable of being extended or improved upon2 #hji and ,newton's name was all the while vaunted1 unwarrantably enough1 as being on the side of ,christian orthodoxy4 ,halley's great hypothesis of the motion of the solar system in space1 put forward in #agah1 borne out by ,cassini and ,le ,monnier1 was left to be established by ,mayer of ,gttingen4 #haj ,there was nothing specially incidental to deism1 then1 in the non-development of the higher criticism in ,england after ,collins and ,parvish1 or in the lull of critical speculation in the latter half of the century4 ,it was part of a general social readjustment in which ,english attention was turned from the mental life to the physical1 from intension of thought to extension of empire4 ,playfair 7as cited1 p4 #ci2 ,brewster1 ,memoirs of ,newton1 i1 #cdh1 note7 puts forward the theory that the progress of the higher science in ,france was due to the small pensions and great honours bestowed on scientific men by the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,the lack of such an institution in ,england he traces to mercantile prejudices1 without explaining these in their turn4 ,they are to be understood as the consequences of the special expansion of commercial and industrial life in ,england in the eighteenth century1 when ,france1 on the contrary1 losing ,india and ,north ,america1 had her energies in a proportional degree thrown back on the life of the mind4 ,french freethought1 it will be observed1 expanded with science1 while in ,england there occurred1 not a spontaneous reversion to orthodoxy any more than a surrender of the doctrine of ,newton1 but a general turning of attention in other directions4 ,it is significant that the most important names in the literature of deism after #agdj are those of ,hume and ,smith1 late products of the intellectual atmosphere of pre-industrial ,scotland2 of ,bolingbroke1 an aristocrat of the deistic generation1 long an exile in ,france1 who left his works to be published after his death2 and of ,gibbon1 who also breathed the intellectual air of ,france4 #i ,it has been commonly assumed that after ,chubb and ,morgan the deistic movement in ,england decayed1 or passed into skepticism with ,hume2 and that the decay was mainly owing to the persuasive effect of ,bishop ,butler's ,analogy 7#agcf74 #haa ,this appears to be a complete misconception1 arising out of the habit of looking to the mere succession of books without considering their vogue and the accompanying social conditions4 ,butler's book had very little influence till long after his death1 #hab being indeed very ill-fitted to turn contemporary deists to ,christianity4 ,it does but develop one form of the skeptical argument for faith1 as ,berkeley had developed another2 and that form of reasoning never does attain to anything better than a success of despair4 ,the main argument being that natural religion is open to the same objections as revealed1 on the score 7#a7 of the inconsistency of ,nature with divine benevolence1 and 7#b7 that we must be guided in opinion as in conduct by probability1 a ,mohammedan could as well use the theorem for the ,koran as could a ,christian for the ,bible2 and the argument against the justice of ,nature tended logically to atheism4 ,but the deists had left to them the resource of our modern theists--that of surmising a beneficence above human comprehension2 and it is clear that if ,butler made any converts they must have been of a very unenthusiastic kind4 ,it is therefore safe to say with ,pattison that ,to whatever causes is to be attributed the decline of deism from #agej onwards1 the books polemically written against it cannot be reckoned among them4 #hac ,on the other hand1 even deists who were affected by the plea that the ,bible need not be more consistent and satisfactory than ,nature1 could find refuge in ,unitarianism1 a creed which1 as industriously propounded by ,priestley #had towards the end of the century1 made a numerical progress out of all proportion to that of orthodoxy4 ,the argument of ,william ,law1 #hae again1 which insisted on the irreconcilability of the course of things with human reason1 and called for an abject submission to revelation1 could appeal only to minds already thus prostrate4 ,both his and ,butler's methods1 in fact1 prepared the way for ,hume4 ,and in the year #agda1 five years after the issue of the ,analogy and seven before the issue of ,hume's ,essay on ,miracles1 we find the thesis of that essay tersely affirmed in a note to ,book ,,ii of an anonymous translation 7ascribed to ,t4 ,francklin7 of ,cicero's ,de ,natura ,deorum4 ,the passage is worth comparing with ,hume3 ,hence we see what little credit ought to be paid to facts said to be done out of the ordinary course of nature4 ,these miracles cutting the whetstone1 etc41 related by ,cicero1 ,de ,div4 i1 c4 xvii are well attested4 ,they were recorded in the annals of a great people1 believed by many learned and otherwise sagacious persons1 and received as religious truths by the populace2 but the testimonies of ancient records1 the credulity of some learned men1 and the implicit faith of the vulgar1 can never prove that to have been1 which is impossible in the nature of things ever to be4 ,m4 ,tullius ,cicero ,of the ,nature of the ,gods 444 with ,notes1 ,london1 #agda1 p4 #he4 ,it does not appear to have been noted that in regard to this as to another of his best-known theses1 ,hume develops a proposition laid down before him4 ,what ,hume did was to elaborate the skeptical argument with a power and fullness which forced attention once for all1 alike in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,it is not to be supposed1 however1 that ,hume's philosophy1 insofar as it was strictly skeptical--that is1 suspensory--drew away deists from their former attitude of confidence to one of absolute doubt4 ,nor did ,hume ever aim at such a result4 ,what he did was to countermine the mines of ,berkeley and others1 who1 finding their supra-rational dogmas set aside by rationalism1 deistic or atheistic1 sought to discredit at once deistic and atheistic philosophies based on study of the external world1 and to establish their creed anew on the basis of their subjective consciousness4 ,as against that method1 ,hume showed the futility of all apriorism alike1 destroying the sham skepticism of the ,christian theists by forcing their method to its conclusions4 ,if the universe was to be reduced to a mere contingent of consciousness1 he calmly showed1 consciousness itself was as easily reducible1 on the same principles1 to a mere series of states4 ,idealistic skepticism1 having disposed of the universe1 must make short work of the hypostatized process of perception4 ,hume1 knowing that strict skepticism is practically null in life1 counted on leaving the ground cleared for experiential rationalism4 ,and he did1 insofar as he was read4 ,his essay1 ,of ,miracles 7with the rest of the ,inquiries of #agdh-agea1 which recast his early ,treatise of ,human ,nature1 #agci71 posits a principle valid against all supernaturalism whatever2 while his ,natural ,history of ,religion 7#ageg71 though affirming deism1 rejected the theory of a primordial monotheism1 and laid the basis of the science of ,comparative ,hierology4 #haf ,finally1 his posthumous ,dialogues ,concerning ,natural ,religion 7#aggi7 admit1 though indirectly1 the untenableness of deism1 and fall back decisively upon the atheistic or agnostic position4 #hag ,like ,descartes1 he lacked the heroic fibre2 but like him he recast philosophy for modern ,europe2 and its subsequent course is but a development of or a reaction against his work4 #aj ,it is remarkable that this development of opinion took place in that part of the ,british ,islands where religious fanaticism had gone furthest1 and speech and thought were socially least free4 ,freethought in ,scotland before the middle of the seventeenth century can have existed only as a thing furtive and accursed2 and though1 as we have seen from the ,religio ,stoici of ,sir ,george ,mackenzie1 unbelief had emerged in some abundance at or before the ,restoration1 only wealthy men could dare openly to avow their deism4 #hah ,early in #afig the clergy had actually succeeded in getting a lad of eighteen1 ,thomas ,aikenhead1 hanged for professing deism in general1 and in particular for calling the ,old ,testament ,ezra's ,fables1 ridiculing the doctrines of the ,trinity and the ,incarnation1 and expressing the hope and belief that ,christianity would be extinct within a century4 #hai ,the spirit of the prosecution may be gathered from the facts that the boy broke down and pleaded penitence1 #hbj and that the statute enacted the capital penalty only for obstinately persisting in the denial of any of the persons of the ,trinity4 #hba ,he had talked recklessly against the current creed among youths about his own age1 one of whom was in ,locke's opinion the decoy who gave him the books and made him speak as he did4 #hbb ,it would appear that a victim was very much wanted2 and ,aikenhead was not allowed the help of a counsel4 ,it is characteristic of the deadening effect of dogmatic religion on the heart that an act of such brutish cruelty elicited no cry of horror from any ,christian writer4 ,at this date the clergy were hounding on the ,privy ,council to new activity in trying witches2 and all works of supposed heretical tendency imported from ,england were confiscated in the ,edinburgh shops1 among them being ,thomas ,burnet's ,sacred ,theory of the ,earth4 #hbc ,scottish intellectual development had in fact been arrested by the ,reformation1 so that1 save for ,napier's ,logarithms 7#afad7 and such a political treatise as ,rutherford's ,lex ,rex 7#afdd71 the nation of ,dunbar and ,lyndsay produced for two centuries no secular literature of the least value1 and not even a theology of any enduring interest4 ,deism1 accordingly1 seems in the latter half of the seventeenth and the early part of the eighteenth century to have made fully as much progress in ,scotland as in ,england2 and the bigoted clergy could offer little intellectual resistance4 ,as early as #afif the ,scottish ,general ,assembly1 with theological candour1 passed an ,act against the ,atheistical opinions of the ,deists4 7,abridgment of the ,acts of the ,general ,assemblies1 #agba1 pp4 #af1 #gf2 ,cunningham1 ,hist4 of the ,ch4 of ,scotland1 ii1 #cac47 ,the opinions specified were ,the denying of all revealed religion1 the grand mysteries of the gospels 444 the resurrection of the dead1 and1 in a word1 the certainty and authority of ,scripture revelation2 as also1 their asserting that there must be a mathematical evidence for each purpose 444 and that ,natural ,light is sufficient to ,salvation4 ,all this is deism1 pure and simple4 ,but ,sir ,w4 ,anstruther 7a judge in the ,court of ,session71 in the preface to his ,essays ,moral and ,divine1 ,edinburgh1 #agaj1 speaks of the spreading contagion of atheism1 which threatens the ruin of our excellent and holy religion4 ,to atheism he devotes two essays2 and neither in these nor in one on the ,incarnation does he discuss deism1 the arguments he handles being really atheistic4 ,scottish freethought would seem thus to have gone further than ,english at the period in question4 ,as to the prevalence of deism1 however1 see the posthumous work of ,prof4 ,halyburton1 of ,st4 ,andrews1 ,natural ,religion ,insufficient 7,edinburgh1 #agad71 ,epist4 of ,recom42 pref4 pp4 #be1 #bg1 and pp4 #h1 #ae1 #ai1 #bc1 #ca1 etc4 ,halyburton's treatise is interesting as showing the psychological state of argumentative ,scotch orthodoxy in his day4 ,he professes to repel the deistical argument throughout by reason2 he follows ,huet1 and concurs with ,berkeley in contending that mathematics involves anti-rational assumptions2 and he takes entire satisfaction in the execution of the lad ,aikenhead for deism4 ,yet in a second treatise1 ,an ,essay ,concerning the ,nature of ,faith1 he contends1 as against ,locke and the ,rationalists1 that the power to believe in the word of ,god is expressly deny'd to man in his natural estate1 and is a supernatural gift4 ,thus the ,calvinists1 like ,baxter1 were at bottom absolutely insincere in their profession to act upon reason1 while insolently charging insincerity on others4 ,even apart from deism there had arisen a widespread aversion to dogmatic theology and formal creeds1 so that an apologist of #agae speaks of his day as a time when creeds and ,confessions of ,faith are so generally decried1 and not only exposed to contempt1 as useless inventions 444 but are loaded by many writers of distinguished wit and learning with the most fatal and dangerous consequences4 #hbd ,this writer admits the intense bitterness of the theological disputes of the time2 #hbe and he speaks1 on the other hand1 of seeing the most sacred mysteries of godliness impudently denied and impugned by some1 while the distinguishing doctrines of ,christianity are by others treacherously undermined1 subtilized into an airy phantom1 or at least doubted1 if not disclaimed4 #hbf ,his references are probably to works published in ,england1 notably those of ,locke1 ,toland1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,collins1 since in ,scotland no such literature could then be published2 but he doubtless has an eye to ,scottish opinion4 ,while1 however1 the rationalism of the time could not take book form1 there are clear traces of its existence among educated men1 even apart from the general complaints of the apologists4 ,thus the ,professor of ,medicine at ,glasgow ,university in the opening years of the eighteenth century1 ,john ,johnston1 was a known freethinker4 #hbg ,in the way of moderate or ,christian rationalism1 the teaching of the prosecuted ,simson seems to have counted for something1 seeing that ,francis ,hutcheson at least imbibed from him liberal views about future punishment and the salvation of the heathen1 which gave much offence in the ,presbyterian pulpit in ,ulster4 #hbh ,and ,hutcheson's later vindication of the ethical system of ,shaftesbury in his ,inquiry ,concerning the ,ideas of ,beauty and ,virtue 7#agbe7 must have tended to attract attention in ,scotland to the ,characteristics after his instalment as a ,professor at ,glasgow4 ,in an ,english pamphlet1 in #agcb1 he was satirized as introducing ,shaftesbury's system into a ,university1 #hbi and it was from the ,shaftesbury camp that the first literary expression of freethought in ,scotland was sent forth4 ,a young ,scotch deist of that school1 ,william ,dudgeon1 published in #agcb a dialogue entitled ,the ,state of the ,moral ,world ,considered1 wherein the optimistic position was taken up with uncommon explicitness2 and in #agci the same writer printed ,a ,catechism ,founded upon ,experience and ,reason1 prefaced by an ,introductory ,letter on ,natural ,religion1 which takes a distinctly anti-clerical attitude4 ,the ,catechism answers to its title1 save insofar as it is priori in its theism and optimistic in its ethic1 as is another work of its author in the same year1 ,a ,view of the ,necessarian or ,best ,scheme1 defending the ,shaftesburyan doctrine against the criticism of ,crousaz on ,pope's ,essay4 ,still more heterodox is his little volume of ,philosophical ,letters ,concerning the ,being and ,attributes of ,god 7#agcg71 where the doctrine goes far towards pantheism4 ,all this propaganda seems to have elicited only one printed reply--an attack on his first treatise in #agcb4 ,in the letter prefaced to his ,catechism1 however1 he tells that the bare suspicion of my not believing the opinions in fashion in our country hath already caused me sufficient trouble4 #hcj ,his case had in fact been raised in the ,church courts1 the proceedings going through many stages in the years #agcb-cf2 but in the end no decision was taken1 #hca and the special stress of his rationalism in #agci doubtless owes something alike to the prosecution and to its collapse4 ,despite such hostility1 he must privately have had fair support4 #hcb ,the prosecution of ,hutcheson before the ,glasgow ,presbytery in #agch reveals vividly the theological temper of the time4 ,he was indicted for teaching to his students the following two false and dangerous doctrines3 first1 that the standard of moral goodness was the promotion of the happiness of others2 and1 second1 that we could have a knowledge of good and evil without and prior to a knowledge of ,god4 #hcc ,there has been a natural disposition on the orthodox side to suppress the fact that such teachings were ever ecclesiastically denounced as false1 dangerous1 and irreligious2 and the prosecution seems to have had no effect beyond intensifying the devotion of ,hutcheson's students4 ,among them was ,adam ,smith1 of whom it has justly been said that1 if he was any man's disciple1 he was ,hutcheson's1 inasmuch as he derived from his teacher the bases alike of his moral and political philosophy and of his deistic optimism4 #hcd ,another prosecution soon afterwards showed that the new influences were vitally affecting thought within the ,church itself4 ,hutcheson's friend ,leechman1 whom he and his party contrived to elect as professor of theology in ,glasgow ,university1 was in turn proceeded against 7#agdc-dd7 for a sermon on ,prayer1 which ,hutcheson and his sympathizers pronounced noble1 #hce but which resolved the efficacy of prayer into its reflex influence on the mind of the worshipper #hcf--;a theorem which has chronically made its appearance in the ,scottish ,church ever since1 still ranking as a heresy1 after having brought a clerical prosecution in the last century on at least one divine1 ,prof4 ,william ,knight1 and rousing a scandal against another1 the late ,dr4 ,robert ,wallace4 #hcg ,leechman in turn held his ground1 and later became ,principal of his ,university2 but still the orthodox in ,scotland fought bitterly against every semblance of rationalism4 ,even the anti-deistic essays of ,lord-,president ,forbes of ,culloden1 head of the ,court of ,session1 when collected #hch and posthumously published1 were offensive to the ,church as laying undue stress on reason2 as accepting the heterodox ,biblical theories of ,dr4 ,john ,hutchinson2 and as making the awkward admission that the freethinkers1 with all their perversity1 generally are sensible of the social duties1 and act up to them better than others do who in other respects think more justly than they4 #hci ,such an utterance from such a dignitary told of a profound change2 and1 largely through the influence of ,hutcheson and ,leechman on a generation of students1 the educated ,scotland of the latter half of the eighteenth century was in large part either ,moderate or deistic4 ,after generations of barren controversy1 #hdj the very aridity of the ,presbyterian life intensified the recoil among the educated classes to philosophical and historical interests1 leading to the performances of ,hume1 ,smith1 ,robertson1 ,millar1 ,ferguson1 and yet others1 all rationalists in method and sociologists in their interests4 ,of these1 ,millar1 one of ,smith's favourite pupils1 and a table-talker of magical vivacity1 #hda was known to be rationalistic in a high degree2 #hdb while ,smith and ,ferguson were certainly deists1 as was ,henry ,home 7the judge1 ,lord ,kames71 who had the distinction of being attacked along with his friend ,hume in the ,general ,assembly of the ,church of ,scotland in #agee-ef4 ,home wrote expressly to controvert ,hume1 alike as to utilitarianism and the idea of causation2 but his book1 ,essays on ,morality and ,natural ,religion 7published anonymously1 #agea71 handled the thorny question of free-will in such fashion as to give no less offence than ,hume had done2 and the orthodox bracketed him with the subject of his criticism4 ,his doctrine was indeed singular1 its purport being that there can be no free-will1 but that the deity has for wise purposes implanted in men the feeling that their wills are free4 ,the fact of his having been made a judge of the ,court of ,session since writing his book had probably something to do with the rejection of the whole subject by the ,general ,assembly1 and afterwards by the ,edinburgh ,presbytery2 but there had evidently arisen a certain diffidence in the ,church1 which would be assiduously promoted by moderates such as ,principal ,robertson1 the historian4 ,it is noteworthy that1 while ,home and ,hume thus escaped1 the other ,home1 ,john1 who wrote the then admired tragedy of ,douglas1 was soon after forced to resign his position as a minister of the ,church for that authorship1 deism having apparently more friends in the fold than drama4 #hdc ,while the theatre was thus being treated as a place of sin1 many of the churches in ,scotland were the scenes of repeated ,sunday riots4 ,a new manner of psalm-singing had been introduced1 and it frequently happened that the congregations divided into two parties1 each singing in its own way1 till they came to blows4 ,according to one of ,hume's biographers1 unbelievers were at this period wont to go to church to see the fun4 #hdd ,naturally orthodoxy did not gain ground4 ,in the case of ,adam ,smith we have one of the leading instances of the divorce between culture and creed in the ,scotland of that age4 ,his intellectual tendencies1 primed by ,hutcheson1 were already revealing themselves when1 seeking for something worth study in the unstudious ,oxford of his day1 he was found by some suspicious supervisor reading ,hume's ,treatise of ,human ,nature4 ,the book was seized and the student scolded4 #hde ,when1 in #agea1 he became ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy in ,glasgow ,university1 he aroused orthodox comment by abandoning the ,sunday class on ,christian ,evidences set up by ,hutcheson1 and still further1 it is said1 by petitioning the ,senatus to be allowed to be relieved of the duty of opening his class with prayer4 #hdf ,the permission was not given2 and the compulsory prayers were thought to savour strongly of natural religion2 while the lectures on ,natural ,theology1 which were part of the work of the chair1 were said to lead presumptuous striplings to hold that the great truths of theology1 together with the duties which man owes to ,god and his neighbours1 may be discovered by the light of nature without any special revelation4 #hdg ,smith was thus well founded in rationalism before he became personally acquainted with ,voltaire and the other ,french freethinkers2 and the pious contemporary who deplores his associations avows that neither before nor after his ,french tour was his religious creed ever properly ascertained4 #hdh ,it is clear1 however1 that it steadily developed in a rationalistic direction4 ,in the ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments 7#agei7 the prevailing vein of theistic optimism is sufficiently uncritical2 but even there there emerges an apparent doubt on the doctrine of a future state1 and positive hostility to certain ecclesiastical forms of it4 #hdi ,in the sixth edition1 which he prepared for the press in #agij1 he deleted the passage which pronounced the doctrine of the ,atonement to be in harmony with natural ethics4 #hej ,but most noteworthy of all is his handling of the question of religious establishments in the ,wealth of ,nations4 #hea ,it is so completely naturalistic that only the habit of taking the ,christian religion for granted could make men miss seeing that its account of the conditions of the rise of new cults applied to that in its origin no less than to the rise of any of its sects4 ,as a whole1 the argument might form part of ,gibbon's fifteenth chapter4 ,and even allowing for the slowness of the average believer to see the application of a general sociological law to his own system1 there must be inferred a great change in the intellectual climate of ,scottish life before we can account for ,smith's general popularity at home as well as abroad after his handling of enthusiasm and superstition in the ,wealth of ,nations4 ,the fact stands out that the two most eminent thinkers in ,scotland in the latter half of the eighteenth century were non-,christians1 #heb and that their most intellectual associates were in general sympathy with them4 #aa ,in ,ireland1 at least in ,dublin1 during the earlier part of the century1 there occurred1 on a smaller scale1 a similar movement of rationalism1 also largely associated with ,shaftesbury4 ,in ,dublin towards the close of the seventeenth century we have seen ,molyneux1 the friend and correspondent of ,locke1 interested in freethought1 albeit much scared by the imprudence of ,toland4 ,at the same period there germinated a growth of ,unitarianism1 which was even more fiercely persecuted than that of ,toland's deism4 ,the ,rev4 ,thomas ,emlyn1 an ,englishman1 co-pastor of the ,protestant ,dissenting ,congregation of ,wood ,street 7now ,strand ,street71 ,dublin1 was found by a ,presbyterian and a ,baptist to be heretical on the subject of the ,trinity1 and was indicted in #agjb for blasphemy4 ,he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine of #a1jjj1 which was partly commuted on his release4 ,he protested that ,south and ,sherlock and other writers on the ,trinitarian controversy might have been as justly prosecuted as he2 but ,irish ,protestant orthodoxy was of a keener scent than ,english1 and ,emlyn was fain1 when released1 to return to his native land4 #hec ,his colleague ,boyse1 like many other ,churchmen1 wished that the unhappy trinitarian controversy were buried in silence1 but was careful to conform doctrinally4 ,more advanced thinkers had double reason to be reticent4 ,as usual1 however1 persecution provoked the growth it sought to stifle2 and after the passing of the ,irish ,toleration ,act of #agai1 a more liberal measure than the ,english1 there developed in ,ulster1 and even in ,dublin1 a ,unitarian movement akin to that proceeding in ,england4 #hed ,in the next generation we find in the same city a coterie of ,shaftesburyans1 centring around ,lord ,molesworth1 the friend of ,hutcheson1 a man of affairs devoted to intellectual interests4 ,it was within a few years of his meeting ,molesworth that ,hutcheson produced his ,inquiry1 championing ,shaftesbury's ideas2 #hee and other literary men were similarly influenced4 ,it is even suggested that ,hutcheson's clerical friend ,synge1 whom we have seen #hef in #agac attempting a ratiocinative answer to the unbelief he declared to be abundant around him1 was not only influenced by ,shaftesbury through ,molesworth1 but latterly avoided publication lest his opinions should prejudice his career in the ,church4 #heg ,after the death of ,molesworth1 in #agbe1 the movement he set up seems to have languished2 #heh but1 as we have seen1 there were among the ,irish bishops men given to philosophic controversy1 and the influence of ,berkeley cannot have been wholly obscurantist4 ,when in #agef we read of the ,arian ,bishop ,clayton #hei proposing in the ,irish ,house of ,lords to drop the ,nicene and ,athanasian creeds1 we realize that in ,ireland thought was far from stagnant4 ,the heretic bishop1 however1 died 7,february1 #ageh7 just as he was about to be prosecuted for the anti-,athanasian heresies of his last book2 and thenceforth ,ireland plays no noticeable part in the development of rationalism1 political interests soon taking the place of religious1 with the result that orthodoxy recovered ground4 ,it cannot be doubted that the spectacle of religious wickedness presented by the operation of the odious penal laws against ,catholics1 and the temper of the ,protestant ,ascendancy party in religious matters1 had bred rational skepticism in ,ireland in the usual way4 ,molesworth stands out in ,irish history as a founder of a new and saner patriotism2 and his doctrines would specially appeal to men of a secular and critical way of thinking4 ,heretical bishops imply heretical laymen4 ,but the environment was unpropitious to dispassionate thinking4 ,the very relaxation of the ,penal ,code favoured a reversion to moderate orthodoxy2 and the new political strifes of the last quarter of the century1 destined as they were to be reopened in the next1 determined the course of ,irish culture in another way4 #ab ,in ,england1 meanwhile1 there was beginning the redistribution of energies which can be seen to have prepared for the intellectual and political reaction of the end of the century4 ,there had been no such victory of faith as is supposed to have been wrought by the forensic theorem of ,butler4 ,an orthodox ,german observer1 making a close inquest about #agej1 cites the ,british ,magazine as stating in #agdi that half the educated people were then deists2 and he1 after full inquiry1 agrees4 #hfj ,in the same year1 ,richardson speaks tragically in the ,postscriptum to ,clarissa of seeing skepticism and infidelity openly avowed1 and even endeavoured to be propagated from the press2 the great doctrines of the gospel brought into question2 and he describes himself as seeking to steal in with a disguised plea for religion4 ,instead of being destroyed by the clerical defence1 the deistic movement had really penetrated the ,church1 which was become as rationalistic in its methods as its function would permit1 and the educated classes1 which had arrived at a state of compromise4 ,pope1 the chief poet of the preceding generation1 had been visibly deistic in his thinking2 as ,dryden had inferribly been before him2 and to such literary prestige was added the prestige of scholarship4 ,the academic ,conyers ,middleton1 whose ,letter from ,rome had told so heavily against ,christianity in exposing the pagan derivations of much of ,catholicism1 and who had further damaged the doctrine of inspiration in his anonymous ,letter to ,dr4 ,waterland 7#agca71 while professing to refute ,tindal1 had carried to yet further lengths his service to the critical spirit4 ,in his famous ,free ,inquiry into the miracles of post-apostolic ,christianity 7#agdi71 again professing to strike at ,rome1 he had laid the foundations of a new structure of comparative criticism1 and had given permanent grounds for rejecting the miracles of the sacred books4 ,middleton's book appeared a year after ,hume's essay ,of ,miracles1 and it made out no such philosophic case as ,hume's against the concept of miracle2 but it created at once1 by its literary brilliance and its cogent argument1 a sensation such as had thus far been made neither by ,hume's philosophic argument nor by ,francklin's anticipation of that4 #hfa ,middleton had duly safeguarded himself by positing the certainty of the gospel miracles and of those wrought by the ,apostles1 on the old principle #hfb that prodigies were divinely arranged so far forth as was necessary to establish ,christianity1 but no further4 ,the history of the gospel1 he writes1 ,i hope may be true1 though the history of the ,church be fabulous4 #hfc ,but his argument against post-,apostolic miracles is so strictly naturalistic that no vigilant reader could fail to realize its fuller bearing upon all miracles whatsoever4 ,with ,hume and ,francklin1 he insisted that facts incredible in themselves could not be established by any amount or kind of testimony2 and he suggested no measure of comparative credibility as between the two orders of miracle4 ,with the deists in general1 he argued that knowledge either of the ways or will of the ,creator was to be had only through study of that revelation which he made of himself from the beginning in the beautiful fabric of this visible world4 #hfd ,an antagonist accordingly wrote that his theses were3 ,first1 that there were no miracles wrought in the primitive ,church2 ,secondly1 that all the primitive fathers were fools or knaves1 and most of them both one and the other4 ,and it is easy to observe1 the whole tenor of your argument tends to prove1 ,thirdly1 that no miracles were wrought by ,christ or his apostles2 and ,fourthly1 that these too were fools or knaves1 or both4 #hfe ,a more temperate opponent pressed the same point in less explosive language4 ,citing ,middleton's demand for an inductive method1 this critic asks with much point3 ,what does he mean by 'deserting the path of ,nature and experience1' but giving in to the belief of any miracles1 and acknowledging the reality of events contrary to the known effects of the established ,laws of ,nature8 #hff ,no other answer was seriously possible4 ,in the very act of ostentatiously terming ,tindal an infidel1 ,middleton describes an answer made to him by the apologist ,chapman as a sample of a kind of writing which did more hurt and discredit to ,christianity than all the attacks of its open adversaries4 #hfg ,in support of the miracles of the gospel and the apostolic history he offers merely conventional pleas3 against the miracles related by the ,fathers he brings to bear an incessant battery of destructive criticism4 ,we may sum up that by the middle of the eighteenth century the essentials of the ,christian creed1 openly challenged for a generation by avowed deists1 were abandoned by not a few scholars within the pale of the ,church1 of whom ,middleton was merely the least reticent4 ,after his death was published his ,vindication of the ,inquiry 7#agea72 and in his collected works 7#ageb7 was included his ,reflections on the ,variations or ,inconsistencies which are found among the ,four ,evangelists1 wherein it is demonstrated that the belief of the inspiration and absolute infallibility of the evangelists seems to be more absurd than even that of transubstantiation itself4 #hfh ,the main grounds of orthodoxy were thus put in doubt in the name of a critical orthodoxy4 ,in short1 the deistic movement had done what it lay in it to do4 ,the old evangelical or pietistic view of life was discredited among instructed people1 and in this sense it was ,christianity that had decayed4 ,its later recovery was economic1 not intellectual4 ,thus ,skelton writes in #agea that our modern apologists for ,christianity often defend it on deistical principles 7,deism ,revealed1 pref4 p4 xii4 ,cp4 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bcd1 #bcg74 ,see also ,sir ,leslie ,stephen as cited above1 p4 #adi1 note2 and ,gostwick1 ,german ,culture and ,christianity1 #ahhb1 pp4 #cc-cf4 ,an interesting instance of liberalizing orthodoxy is furnished by the ,rev4 ,arthur ,ashley ,sykes1 who contributed many volumes to the general deistic discussion1 some of them anonymously4 ,in the preface to his ,essay on the ,truth of the ,christian ,religion 7#agcb2 #bnd ed4 enlarged1 #agee7 ,sykes remarks that since 444 systematical opinions have been received and embraced in such a manner that it has not been safe to contradict them1 the burden of vindicating ,christianity has been very much increased4 ,its friends have been much embarrassed through fear of speaking against local truths2 and its adversaries have so successfully attacked those weaknesses that ,christianity itself has been deemed indefensible1 when in reality the follies of ,christians alone have been so4 ,were ,christians left to the simple doctrines of ,christ and the ,apostles1 he contends1 ,infidelity could make no converts4 ,and at the close of the book he writes3 ,would to ,god that ,christians would be content with the plainness and simplicity of the gospel4444 ,that they would not vend under the name of evangelical truth the absurd and contradictory schemes of ignorant or wicked men6 ,that they would part with that load of rubbish which makes thinking men almost sink under the weight1 and gives too great a handle for ,infidelity6 ,such writing could not give satisfaction to the ecclesiastical authorities2 and as little could ,sykes's remarkable admission 7,the ,principles and ,connection of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion1 #agdj1 p4 #bdb73 ,when the advantages of revelation are to be specified1 ,i cannot conceive that it should be maintained as necessary to fix a rule of morality4 ,for what one principle of morality is there which the heathen moralists had not asserted or maintained8 ,before ever any revelation is offered to mankind they are supposed to be so well acquainted with moral truths as from them to judge of the truth of the revelation itself4 ,again he writes3-- ,nor can revelation be necessary to ascertain religion4 ,for religion consisting in nothing but doing our duties from a sense of the being of ,god1 revelation is not necessary to this end1 unless it be said that we cannot know that there is a ,god1 and what our duties are1 without it4 ,reason will teach us that there is a ,god 444 that we are to be just and charitable to our neighbours2 that we are to be temperate and sober in ourselves 7id4 p4 #bdd74 ,this is simple ,shaftesburyan deism1 and all that the apologist goes on to contend for is that revelation contains motives and reasons for the practice of what is right1 more and different from what natural reason without this help can suggest4 ,he seems1 however1 to have believed in miracles1 though an anonymous ,essay on the ,nature1 ,design1 and ,origin of ,sacrifices 7#agdh7 which is ascribed to him quietly undermines the whole evangelical doctrine4 ,throughout1 he is remarkable for the amenity of his tone towards infidels4 ,balguy1 a man of less ability1 is notably latitudinarian in his theology4 ,in the very act of criticizing the deists1 he complains of ,locke's arbitrariness in deriving morality from the will of ,god4 ,religion1 he argues1 is so derived1 but morality is inherent in the whole nature of things1 and is the same for ,god and men4 ,this position1 common to the school of ,clarke1 is at bottom that of ,shaftesbury and the ,naturalists4 ,all that ,balguy says for religion is that a doctrine of rewards and punishments is necessary to stimulate the average moral sense2 and that the ,christian story of the condescension of ,omnipotence in coming to earth and suffering misery for man's sake ought to overwhelm the imagination6 7,see ,a ,letter to a ,deist1 #bnd ed4 #agcj1 pp4 #e1 #ad1 #ae1 #ca2 ,foundation of ,moral ,goodness1 pt4 ii1 #agbi1 p4 #da sq47 ,the next intellectual step in natural course would have been a revision of the deistic assumptions1 insofar1 that is1 as certain positive assumptions were common to the deists4 ,but1 as we have seen1 certain fresh issues were raised as among the deists themselves4 ,in addition to those above noted1 there was the profoundly important one as to ethics4 ,shaftesbury1 who rejected the religious basis1 held a creed of optimism2 and this optimism was assailed by ,mandeville1 who in consequence was opposed as warmly by the deist ,hutcheson and others as by ,law and ,berkeley4 ,to grapple with this problem1 and with the underlying cosmic problem1 there was needed at least as much general mental activity as went to the antecedent discussion2 and the main activity of the nation was now being otherwise directed4 ,the negative process1 the impeachment of ,christian supernaturalism1 had been accomplished so far as the current arguments went4 ,toland and ,collins had fought the battle of free discussion1 forcing ratiocination on the ,church2 ,collins had shaken the creed of prophecy2 ,shaftesbury had impugned the religious conception of morals2 and ,mandeville had done so more profoundly1 laying the foundations of scientific utilitarianism4 #hfi ,so effective had been the utilitarian propaganda in general that the orthodox ,brown 7author of the once famous ,estimate of the life of his countrymen71 in his criticism of ,shaftesbury 7#agea71 wrote as a pure utilitarian against an inconsistent one1 and defended ,christianity on strictly utilitarian lines4 ,woolston1 following up ,collins1 had shaken the faith in ,new ,testament miracles2 ,middleton had done it afresh with all the decorum that ,woolston lacked2 and ,hume had laid down with masterly clearness the philosophic principle which rebuts all attempts to prove miracles as such4 #hgj ,tindal had clinched the case for natural theism as against revelationism2 and the later deists1 notably ,morgan1 had to some extent combined these results4 #hga ,this literature was generally distributed2 and so far the case had been thrashed out4 #ac ,to carry intellectual progress much further there was needed a general movement of scientific study and a reform in education4 ,the translation of ,la ,mettrie's ,man a ,machine 7#agdi7 #hgb found a public no better prepared for the problems he raised than that addressed by ,strutt eighteen years before2 and the reply of ,luzac1 ,man ,more than a ,machine1 in the preface to which the translator 7#ageb7 declared that irreligion and infidelity overspread the land1 probably satisfied what appetite there was for such a discussion4 ,there had begun a change in the prevailing mental life1 a diversion of interest from ideas as such to political and mercantile interests4 ,the middle and latter part of the eighteenth century is the period of the rise of 7#a7 the new machine industries1 and 7#b7 the new imperialistic policy of ,chatham4 #hgc ,both alike withdrew men from problems of mere belief1 whether theological or scientific4 #hgd ,that the reaction was not one of mere fatigue over deism we have already seen4 ,it was a general diversion of energy1 analogous to what had previously taken place in ,france in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,as the poet ,gray1 himself orthodox1 put the case in #aged1 the mode of freethinking has given place to the mode of not thinking at all4 #hge ,in ,hume's opinion the general pitch of national intelligence south of the ,tweed was lowered4 #hgf ,this state of things of course was favourable to religious revival2 but what took place was rather a new growth of emotional pietism in the new industrial masses 7the population being now on a rapid increase71 under the ministry of the ,wesleys and ,whitefield1 and a further growth of similar religion in the new provincial middle-class that grew up on the industrial basis4 ,the universities all the while were at the lowest ebb of culture1 but officially rabid against philosophic freethinking4 #hgg ,it would be a great mistake1 however1 to suppose that all this meant a dying out of deism among the educated classes4 ,the statement of ,goldsmith1 about #agfj1 that deists in general have been driven into a confession of the necessity of revelation1 or an open avowal of atheism1 #hgh is not to be taken seriously4 ,goldsmith1 whose own orthodoxy is very doubtful1 had a whimsical theory that skepticism1 though it might not injure morals1 has a manifest tendency to subvert the literary merits of any country2 #hgi and argued accordingly4 ,deism1 remaining fashionable1 did but fall partly into the background of living interests1 the more concrete issues of politics and the new imaginative literature occupying the foreground4 ,it was early in the reign of ,george ,,iii that ,sir ,william ,blackstone1 having had the curiosity to listen in succession to the preaching of every clergyman in ,london1 did not hear a single discourse which had more ,christianity in it than the writings of ,cicero1 and declared that it would have been impossible for him to discover from what he heard whether the preacher were a follower of ,confucius1 of ,mahomet1 or of ,christ4 #hhj ,when the ,church was thus deistic1 the educated laity can have been no less so4 ,the literary status of deism after #agej was really higher than ever4 ,it was now represented by ,hume2 by ,adam ,smith 7,moral ,sentiments1 #agei72 by the scholarship of ,conyers ,middleton2 and by the posthumous works 7#ageb-ed7 of ,lord ,bolingbroke1 who1 albeit more of a debater than a thinker1 debated often with masterly skill1 in a style unmatched for harmony and energetic grace1 which had already won him a great literary prestige1 though the visible insincerity of his character1 and the habit of browbeating1 always countervailed his charm4 ,his influence1 commonly belittled1 was much greater than writers like ,johnson would admit2 and it went deep4 ,voltaire1 who had been his intimate1 tells #hha that he had known some young pupils of ,bolingbroke who altogether denied the historic actuality of the ,gospel ,jesus--a stretch of criticism beyond the assimilative power of that age4 ,his motive to write for posthumous publication1 however1 seems rather to have been the venting of his tumultuous feelings than any philosophic purpose4 ,an overweening deist1 he is yet at much pains to disparage the priori argument for deism1 bestowing some of his most violent epithets on ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 who seems to have exasperated him in politics4 ,but his castigation of divines is tolerably impartial on that side2 and he is largely concerned to deprive them of grounds for their functions1 though he finally insists that churches are necessary for purposes of public moral teaching4 ,his own teachings represent an effort to rationalize deism4 ,the ,god whom he affirms is to be conceived or described only as omnipotent and omniscient 7or all-wise71 not as good or benevolent any more than as vindictive4 ,thus he had assimilated part of the ,spinozistic and the atheistic case against anthropomorphism1 while still using anthropomorphic language on the score that we must speak of ,god after the manner of men4 ,beyond this point he compromises to the extent of denying special while admitting collective or social providences2 though he is positive in his denial of the actuality or the moral need of a future state4 ,as to morals he takes the ordinary deistic line1 putting the innate law of nature as the sufficient and only revelation by the deity to his creatures4 ,on the basis of that inner testimony he rejects the ,old ,testament as utterly unworthy of deity1 but endorses the universal morality found in the gospels1 while rejecting their theology4 ,it was very much the deism of ,voltaire1 save that it made more concessions to anti-theistic logic4 ,the weak side of ,bolingbroke's polemic was its inconsistency--a flaw deriving from his character4 ,in the spirit of a partisan debater he threw out at any point any criticism that appeared for the moment plausible2 and1 having no scientific basis or saving rectitude1 would elsewhere take up another and a contradictory position4 ,careful antagonists could thus discredit him by mere collation of his own utterances4 #hhb ,but1 the enemy being no more consistent than he1 his influence was not seriously affected in the world of ordinary readers2 and much of his attack on divines1 on dogmas1 and on ,old ,testament morality must have appealed to many1 thus carrying on the discredit of orthodoxy in general4 ,leland devoted to him an entire volume of his ,view of the ,principal ,deistical ,writers1 and in all bestows more space upon him than on all the others together--a sufficient indication of his vogue4 ,in his lifetime1 however1 ,bolingbroke had been extremely careful to avoid compromising himself4 ,mr4 ,arthur ,hassall1 in his generally excellent monograph on ,bolingbroke 7,statesmen ,series1 #ahhi1 p4 #bbf71 writes1 in answer to the attack of ,johnson1 that ,bolingbroke1 during his lifetime1 had never scrupled to publish criticisms1 remarkable for their freedom1 on religious subjects4 ,i cannot gather to what he refers2 and ,mr4 ,walter ,sichel1 in his copious biography 7#b vols4 #aija-aijb71 indicates no such publications4 ,the ,letters on the ,study and ,use of ,history1 which contain 7,lett4 iii1 sect4 #b7 a skeptical discussion of the ,pentateuch as history1 though written in #agce-cf1 were only posthumously published1 in #ageb4 ,the ,examen ,important de ,milord ,bolingbroke1 produced by ,voltaire in #agfg1 but dated #agcf1 is ,voltaire's own work1 based on ,bolingbroke4 ,in his letter to ,swift of ,september #ab1 #agbd 7,swift's ,works1 ,scott's ed4 #ahbd1 xvi1 #ddh-di71 ,bolingbroke angrily repudiates the title of esprit fort1 declaring1 in the very temper in which pious posterity has aspersed himself1 that such are the pests of society1 because they endeavour to loosen the bands of it4444 ,i therefore not only disown1 but ,i detest1 this character4 ,in this letter he even affects to believe in the truth of the divine revelation of ,christianity4 ,he began to write his essays1 it is true1 before his withdrawal to ,france in #agce1 but with no intention of speedily publishing them4 ,in his ,letter to ,mr4 ,pope 7published with the ,letter to ,wyndham1 #agec71 p4 #dha1 he writes3 ,i have been a martyr of faction in politics1 and have no vocation to be so in philosophy4 ,cp4 pp4 #dhe-hf4 ,it is thus a complete blunder on the part of ,bagehot to say 7,literary ,studies1 ,hutton's ed4 iii1 #acg7 that ,butler's ,analogy1 published in #agcf1 was designed as a confutation of ,shaftesbury and ,bolingbroke4 ,it is even said 7,warton1 ,essay on ,pope1 #dth ed4 ii1 #bid-ie7 that ,pope did not know ,bolingbroke's real opinions2 but ,pope's untruthfulness was such as to discredit such a statement4 ,cp4 ,bolingbroke's ,letter as cited1 p4 #eba1 and his ,philosophical ,works1 #hvo-ed4 #aged1 ii1 #dje4 ,it is noteworthy that a volume of controversial sermons entitled ,a ,preservative against unsettled notions and ,want of ,principles in ,religion1 so entirely stupid in its apologetics as to be at times positively entertaining1 was published in #agae by ,joseph ,trapp1 ,m4,a41 ,chaplain to the ,right ,honble4 ,the ,lord ,viscount ,bolingbroke4 ,in seeking to estimate ,bolingbroke's posthumous influence we have to remember that after the publication of his works the orthodox members of his own party1 who otherwise would have forgiven him all his vices and insincerities1 have held him up to hatred4 ,scott1 for instance1 founding on ,bolingbroke's own dishonest denunciation of freethinkers as men seeking to loosen the bands of society1 pronounced his arrangement for the posthumous issue of his works an act of wickedness more purely diabolical than any hitherto upon record in the history of any age or nation 7,note to ,bolingbroke's letter above cited in ,swift's ,works1 xvi1 #dej74 ,it would be an error1 on the other hand1 to class him among either the great sociologists or the great philosophers4 ,mr4 ,sichel undertakes to show 7vol4 ii1 ch4 x7 that ,bolingbroke had stimulated ,gibbon to a considerable extent in his treatment of early ,christianity4 ,this is in itself quite probable1 and some of the parallels cited are noteworthy2 but ,mr4 ,sichel1 who always writes as a panegyrist1 makes no attempt to trace the common ,french sources for both4 ,he does show that ,voltaire manipulated ,bolingbroke's opinions in reproducing them4 ,but he does not critically recognize the incoherence of ,bolingbroke's eloquent treatises4 ,mr4 ,hassall's summary is nearer the truth2 but that in turn does not note how well fitted was ,bolingbroke's swift and graceful declamation to do its work with the general public1 which 7if it accepted him at all7 would make small account of self-contradiction4 #ad ,in view of such a reinforcement of its propaganda1 deism could not be regarded as in the least degree written down4 ,in #agfe1 in fact1 we find ,diderot recounting1 on the authority of d',holbach1 who had just returned from a visit to this country1 that the ,christian religion is nearly extinct in ,england4 ,the deists are innumerable2 there are almost no atheists2 those who are so conceal it4 ,an atheist and a scoundrel are almost synonymous terms for them4 #hhc ,nor did the output of deistic literature end with the posthumous works of ,bolingbroke4 ,these were followed by translations of the new writings of ,voltaire1 #hhd who had assimilated the whole propaganda of ,english deism1 and gave it out anew with a wit and brilliancy hitherto unknown in argumentative and critical literature4 ,the freethinking of the third quarter of the century1 though kept secondary to more pressing questions1 was thus at least as deeply rooted and as convinced as that of the first quarter2 and it was probably not much less common among educated men1 though new social influences caused it to be more decried4 ,the hapless ,chatterton1 fatally precocious1 a boy in years and experience of life1 a man in understanding at seventeen1 incurred posthumous obloquy more for his infidelity than for the harmless literary forgeries which reveal his poetic affinity to a less prosaic age4 ,it is a memorable fact that this first recovery of the lost note of imaginative poetry in that age of prose and reason is the exploit of a boy whose mind was as independently freethinking on current religion as it was original even in its imitative reversion to the poetics of the past4 ,turning away from the impossible mythicism and mysticism of the ,tudor and ,stuart literatures1 as from the fanaticism of the ,puritans1 the changing ,english world after the ,restoration had let fall the artistic possession of imaginative feeling and style which was the true glory of the time of ,renascence4 ,the ill-strung genius of ,chatterton seems to have been the first to reunite the sense of romantic beauty with the spirit of critical reason4 ,he was a convinced deist1 avowing in his verse1 in his pathetic will 7#aggj71 in a late letter1 and at times in his talk1 that he was no ,christian1 and contemning the ethic of ,scripture history and the absurdity of literal inspiration4 #hhe ,many there must have been who went as far1 with less courage of avowal4 ,what was lacking to the age1 once more1 was a social foundation on which it could not only endure but develop4 ,in a nation of which the majority had no intellectual culture1 such a foundation could not exist4 ,green exaggerates #hhf when he writes that schools there were none1 save the grammar schools of ,edward and ,elizabeth2 #hhg but by another account only twelve public schools were founded in the long reign of ,george ,,iii2 #hhh and1 as a result of the indifference of two generations1 masses of the people were ignorant and brutal to a degree which it is hard to conceive4 #hhi ,a great increase of population had followed on the growth of towns and the development of commerce and manufactures even between #agjj and #agfj2 #hij and thereafter the multiplication was still more rapid4 ,there was thus a positive fall in the culture standards of the majority of the people4 ,according to ,massey1 hardly any tradesman in #agfj had more instruction than qualified him to add up a bill2 and a labourer1 mechanic1 or domestic servant who could read or write possessed a rare accomplishment4 #hia ,as for the ,charity ,schools established between #agjj and #agej1 their express object was to rear humble tradesmen and domestics1 not to educate in the proper sense of the term4 ,in the view of life which accepted this state of things the educated deists seem to have shared2 at least1 there is no record of any agitation by them for betterment4 ,the state of political thought was typified in the struggle over ,wilkes and ,liberty1 from which cool temperaments like ,hume's turned away in contempt2 and it is significant that poor men were persecuted for freethinking while the better-placed went free4 ,jacob ,ilive1 for denying in a pamphlet 7#agec7 the truth of revelation1 was pilloried thrice1 and sent to hard labour for three years4 ,in #aged the ,grand ,jury of ,middlesex presented the editor and publisher of ,bolingbroke's posthumous works #hib--;a distinction that in the previous generation had been bestowed on ,mandeville's ,fable of the ,bees2 and in #agfa1 as before noted1 ,peter ,annet1 aged seventy1 was pilloried twice and sent to prison for discrediting the ,pentateuch2 as if that were a more serious offence than his former attacks on the gospels and on ,st4 ,paul4 ,the personal influence of ,george ,,iii1 further1 told everywhere against freethinking2 and the revival of penalties would have checked publishing even if there had been no withdrawal of interest to politics4 ,yet more or less freethinking treatises did appear at intervals in addition to the works of the better-known writers1 such as ,bolingbroke and ,hume1 after the period commonly marked as that of the decline of deism4 ,in the list may be included a few by ,unitarians1 who at this stage were doing critical work4 ,like a number of the earlier works above mentioned1 the following 7save ,evanson7 are overlooked in ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's survey3-- #agdf4 ,essay on ,natural ,religion4 ,falsely attributed to ,dryden4 #agdf4 ,deism fairly stated and fully vindicated1 etc4 ,anon4 #agdi4 ,j4 ,g4 ,cooper1 ,life of ,socrates4 #agej4 ,john ,dove1 ,a ,creed founded on ,truth and ,common ,sense4 #agej4 ,the ,british ,oracle4 7,two numbers only47 #ageb4 ,the ,pillars of ,priestcraft and ,orthodoxy ,shaken4 ,four vols4 of freethinking pamphlets1 collected 7and some written7 by ,thomas ,gordon1 formerly secretary to ,trenchard4 ,edited by ,r4 ,barron4 7,rep4 #agfh47 #agfe4 ,w4 ,dudgeon1 ,philosophical ,works 7reprints of those of #agcb1 -#d1 -#g1 -#i1 above mentioned74 ,privately printed--at ,glasgow8 #aggb4 ,e4 ,evanson1 ,the ,doctrines of a ,trinity and the ,incarnation1 etc4 #aggc4 ---- ,three ,discourses 7#a4 ,upon the ,man after ,god's own ,heart2 #b4 ,upon the ,faith of ,abraham2 #c4 ,upon the ,seal of the ,foundation of ,god74 #aggg4 ---- ,letter to ,bishop ,hurd4 #agha4 ,w4 ,nicholson1 ,the ,doubts of the ,infidels4 7,rep4 by ,r4 ,carlile47 #aghb4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,answer to ,dr4 ,priestley's ,letters to a ,philosophical ,unbeliever4 #aghe4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,hoggart ,toulmin1 ,the ,antiquity and ,duration of the ,world4 #aghi4 ---- ,the ,eternity of the ,universe4 #hic 7,rep4 #ahbe47 #aghi4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,cooper1 ,tracts1 ,ethical1 ,theological1 and ,political4 #agib4 ,e4 ,evanson1 ,the ,dissonance of the ,four ,evangelists4 7,rep4 #ahje47 #agie4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,o',keefe1 ,on the ,progress of the ,human ,understanding4 #agig4 ,john ,c4 ,davies1 ,the ,scripturian's ,creed4 ,prosecuted and imprisoned4 7,book rep4 #ahbb and #ahci47 ,of the work here noted a considerable amount was done by ,unitarians1 ,evanson being of that persuasion1 though at the time of writing his earlier ,unitarian works he was an ,anglican vicar4 #hid ,during the first half of the eighteenth century1 despite the movement at the end of the seventeenth1 specific anti-,trinitarianism was not much in evidence1 the deistic controversy holding the foreground4 ,but gradually ,unitarianism made fresh headway4 ,one dissenting clergyman1 ,martin ,tomkyns1 who had been dismissed by his congregation at ,stoke ,newington for his ,arian or ,unitarian opinions1 published in #agbb ,a ,sober ,appeal to a ,turk or an ,indian1 concerning the plain sense of the ,trinity1 in reply to the treatise of ,dr4 ,isaac ,watts on ,the ,christian ,doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,a second edition of ,tomkyns's book appeared in #agdh1 with a further reply to ,watts's ,dissertations of #agbd4 ,the result seems to have been an unsettlement of the orthodoxy of the hymn-writer4 ,there is express testimony from ,dr4 ,lardner1 a very trustworthy witness1 that ,watts in his latter years1 before he was seized with an imbecility of his faculties1 was substantially a ,unitarian4 ,his special papers on the subject were suppressed by his executors2 but the full text of his ,solemn ,address to the ,great and ,blessed ,god goes far to bear out ,lardner's express assertion4 #hie ,other prominent religionists were more outspoken4 ,the most distinguished names associated with the position were those of ,lardner and ,priestley1 of whom the former1 trained as a simple dissenter1 avowedly reached his conclusions without much reference to ,socinian literature2 #hif and the second1 who was similarly educated1 no less independently gave up the doctrines of the ,atonement and the ,trinity1 passing later from the ,arian to the ,socinian position after reading ,lardner's ,letter on the ,logos4 #hig ,as ,priestley derived his determinism from ,collins1 #hih it would appear that the deistical movement had set up a general habit of reasoning which thus wrought even on ,christians who1 like ,lardner and ,priestley1 undertook to rebut the objections of unbelievers to their faith4 ,a generally rationalistic influence is to be noted in the works of the ,unitarian ,antipdobaptist ,dr4 ,joshua ,toulmin1 author of lives of ,socinus 7#aggg7 and ,biddle 7#aghi71 and many other solid works1 including a sermon on ,the ,injustice of classing ,unitarians with ,deists and ,infidels 7#agig74 ,in his case the classing was certainly inconvenient4 ,in #agia the effigy of ,paine was burned before his door1 and his windows broken4 ,his house was saved by being closely guarded2 but his businesses of schoolkeeping and bookselling had to be given up4 ,it thus becomes intelligible how1 after a period in which ,dissent1 contemned by the ,state ,church1 learned to criticize that ,church's creed1 there emerged in ,england towards the close of the eighteenth century a fresh movement of specific ,unitarianism4 ,evanson and ,toulmin were scholarly writers1 though without the large learning of ,lardner and the propagandist energy and reputation of ,priestley2 and the ,unitarian movement1 in a quiet fashion1 made a numerical progress out of all proportion to that of orthodoxy4 ,it owed much of its immunity at this stage1 doubtless1 to the large element of tacit deism in the ,church2 and apart from the scholarly work of ,lardner both ,priestley and ,evanson did something for ,new ,testament criticism1 as well as towards the clearing-up of ,christian origins4 ,evanson was actually prosecuted in #aggc1 on local initiative1 for a sermon of ,unitarian character delivered by him in the parish church of ,tewkesbury on ,easter-,day of #agga2 and1 what is much more remarkable1 members of his congregation1 at a single defence-meeting in an inn1 collected #aej to meet his costs4 #hii ,five years later he had given up the belief in eternal punishment1 though continuing to believe in long protracted misery for sinners4 #ijj ,still later1 after producing his ,dissonance1 he became uncommonly drastic in his handling of the ,canon4 ,he lived well into the nineteenth century1 and published in #ahje a vigorous tractate1 ,second ,thoughts on the ,trinity1 recommended to the ,right ,reverend the ,lord ,bishop of ,gloucester4 ,in that he treats the ,first ,gospel as a forgery of the second century4 ,the method is indiscriminating1 and the author lays much uncritical stress upon prophecy4 ,on the whole1 the ,unitarian contribution to rational thought1 then as later1 was secondary or ancillary1 though on the side of historical investigation it was important4 ,lardner's candour is as uncommon as his learning2 and ,priestley #ija and ,evanson have a solvent virtue4 #ijb ,in all three the limitation lies in the fixed adherence to the concept of revelation1 which withheld them from radical rationalism even as it did from ,arianism4 ,evanson's ultra-orthodox acceptance of the ,apocalypse is significant of his limitations2 and ,priestley's calibre is indicated by his life-long refusal to accept the true scientific inference from his own discovery of oxygen4 ,a more pronounced evolution was that of the ,welsh deist ,david ,williams1 who1 after publishing two volumes of ,sermons on ,religious ,hypocrisy 7#aggd71 gave up his post as a dissenting preacher1 and1 in conjunction with ,franklin and other freethinkers1 opened a short-lived deistic chapel in ,margaret ,street1 ,london 7#aggf71 where there was used a ,liturgy on the ,universal ,principles of ,religion and ,morality4 #ijc #ae ,on the other hand1 apart from the revival of popular religion under ,whitefield and ,wesley1 which won multitudes of the people whom no higher culture could reach1 there was no recovery of educated belief upon intellectual lines2 though there was a steady detachment of energy to the new activities of conquest and commerce which mark the second half of the eighteenth century in ,england4 ,on this state of things supervened the massive performance of the greatest historical writer ,england had yet produced4 ,gibbon1 educated not by ,oxford but by the recent scholarly literature of ,france1 had as a mere boy seen1 on reading ,bossuet1 the theoretic weakness of ,protestantism1 and had straightway professed ,romanism4 ,shaken as to that by a skilled ,swiss ,protestant1 he speedily became a rationalist pure and simple1 with as little of the dregs of deism in him as any writer of his age2 and his great work begins1 or rather signalizes 7since ,hume and ,robertson preceded him71 a new era of historical writing1 not merely by its sociological treatment of the rise of ,christianity1 but by its absolutely anti-theological handling of all things4 ,the importance of the new approach may be at once measured by the zeal of the opposition4 ,in no case1 perhaps1 has the essentially passional character of religious resistance to new thought been more vividly shown than in that of the contemporary attacks upon ,gibbon's ,history4 ,there is not to be found in controversial literature such another annihilating rejoinder as was made by ,gibbon to the clerical zealots who undertook to confound him on points of scholarship1 history1 and ratiocination4 ,the contrast between the mostly spiteful incompetence of the attack and the finished mastery of the reply put the faith at a disadvantage from which it never intellectually recovered1 though other forces reinstated it socially4 ,by the admission of ,macaulay1 who thought ,gibbon most unfair to religion1 the whole troup of his assailants are now utterly forgotten2 and those orthodox commentators who later sought to improve on their criticism have in turn1 with a notable uniformity1 been rebutted by their successors2 till ,gibbon's critical section ranks as the first systematically scientific handling of the problem of the rise of ,christianity4 ,he can be seen to have profited by all the relevant deistic work done before him1 learning alike from ,toland1 from ,middleton1 and from ,bolingbroke2 though his acknowledgments are mostly paid to respectable ,protestants and ,catholics1 as ,basnage1 ,beausobre1 ,lardner1 ,mosheim1 and ,tillemont2 and the sheer solidity of the work has sustained it against a hundred years of hostile comment4 #ijd ,while ,gibbon was thus earning for his country a new literary distinction1 the orthodox interest was concerned above all things to convict him of ignorance1 incompetence1 and dishonesty2 and ,davis1 the one of his assailants who most fully manifested all of these qualities1 and who will long be remembered solely from ,gibbon's deadly exposure1 was rewarded with a royal pension4 ,another1 ,apthorp1 received an archiepiscopal living2 while ,chelsum1 the one who almost alone wrote against him like a gentleman1 got nothing4 ,but no cabal could avail to prevent the instant recognition1 at home and abroad1 of the advent of a new master in history2 and in the worst times of reaction which followed1 the ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire impassively defied the claims of the ruling creed4 ,in a literary world which was eagerly reading ,gibbon #ije and ,voltaire1 #ijf there was a peculiar absurdity in ,burke's famous question 7#agij7 as to ,who now reads ,bolingbroke and the rest of the older deists4 #ijg ,the fashionable public was actually reading ,bolingbroke even then2 #ijh and the work of the older deists was being done with new incisiveness and thoroughness by their successors4 #iji ,in the unstudious world of politics1 if the readers were few the indifferentists were many4 ,evanson could truthfully write to ,bishop ,hurd in #aggg that ,that general unbelief of revealed religion among the higher orders of our countrymen1 which1 however your ,lordship and ,i might differ in our manner of accounting for it1 is too notorious for either of us to doubt of1 hath1 by a necessary consequence1 produced in the majority of our present legislators an absolute indifference towards religious questions of every kind4 #iaj ,beside ,burke in ,parliament1 all the while1 was the ,prime ,minister1 ,william ,pitt the younger1 an agnostic deist4 ,whether or not the elder ,pitt was a deist1 the younger gave very plain signs of being at least no more4 ,gladstone 7,studies subsidiary to the ,works of ,bishop ,butler1 ed4 #ahif1 pp4 #cj-cc7 has sought to discredit the recorded testimony of ,wilberforce 7,life of ,wilberforce1 #ahch1 i1 #ih7 that ,pitt told him ,bishop ,butler's work raised in his mind more doubts than it had answered4 ,gladstone points to another passage in ,wilberforce's diary which states that ,pitt commended ,butler's ,analogy 7,life1 i1 #ij74 ,but the context shows that ,pitt had commended the book for the express purpose of turning ,wilberforce's mind from its evangelical bias4 ,wilberforce was never a deist1 and the purpose accordingly could not have been to make him orthodox4 ,the two testimonies are thus perfectly consistent2 especially when we note the further statement credibly reported to have been made by ,wilberforce 7,life1 i1 #ie71 that ,pitt later tried to reason me out of my convictions4 ,we have yet further the emphatic declaration of ,pitt's niece1 ,lady ,hester ,stanhope1 that he never went to church in his life 444 never even talked about religion 7,memoirs of ,lady ,hester ,stanhope1 #ahde1 iii1 #aff-fg74 ,this was said in emphatic denial of the genuineness of the unctuous death-bed speech put in ,pitt's mouth by ,gifford4 ,lady ,hester's high veracity is accredited by her physician 7,travels of ,lady ,hester ,stanhope1 #ahdf1 i1 pref4 p4 #aa74 ,no such character can be given to the conventional ,english biography of the period4 ,we have further to note the circumstantial account by ,wilberforce in his letter to the ,rev4 ,s4 ,gisborne immediately after ,pitt's death 7,correspondence1 #ahdj1 ii1 #fi-gj71 giving the details he had had in confidence from the ,bishop of ,lincoln4 ,they are to the effect that1 after some demur on ,pitt's part 7that he was not worthy to offer up any prayer1 or was too weak17 the ,bishop prayed with him once4 ,wilberforce adds his fear that no further religious intercourse took place before or after1 and ,i own ,i thought what was inserted in the papers impossible to be true4 ,there is clear testimony that ,charles ,james ,fox1 ,pitt's illustrious rival1 was no more of a believer than he1 #iaa though equally careful to make no profession of unbelief4 ,and it was ,fox who1 above all the ,english statesmen of his day1 fought the battle of religious toleration #iab--;a service which finally puts him above ,burke1 and atones for many levities of political action4 ,among thinking men too the nascent science of geology was setting up a new criticism of revelation--this twenty years before the issue of the epoch-making works of ,hutton4 #iac ,in ,england the impulse seems to have come from the writings of the ,abb ,langlet du ,fresnoy1 ,de ,maillet1 and ,mirabaud1 challenging the ,biblical account of the antiquity of the earth4 ,the new phase of infidelity was of course furiously denounced1 one of the most angry and most absurd of its opponents being the poet ,cowper4 #iad ,still rationalism persisted4 ,paley1 writing in #aghf1 protests that ,infidelity is now served up in every shape that is likely to allure1 surprise1 or beguile the imagination1 in a fable1 a tale1 a novel1 or a poem1 in interspersed or broken hints1 remote and oblique surmises1 in books of travel1 of philosophy1 of natural history--in a word1 in any form rather than that of a professed and regular disquisition4 #iae ,the orthodox ,dr4 ,j4 ,ogilvie1 in the introduction to his ,inquiry into the ,causes of the ,infidelity and ,skepticism of the ,times 7#aghc71 begins3 ,that the opinions of the deists and skeptics have spread more universally during a part of the last century and in the present than at any former ra since the resurrection of letters1 is a truth to which the friends and the enemies of religion will give their suffrage without hesitation4 ,in short1 until the general reversal of all progress which followed on the ,french ,revolution1 there had been no such change of opinion as ,burke alleged4 ,one of the most popular poets and writers of the day was the celebrated ,erasmus ,darwin1 a deist1 whose ,zoonomia 7#agid7 brought on him the charge of atheism1 as it well might4 ,however he might poetize about the ,creator1 ,dr4 ,darwin in his verse and prose alike laid the foundations of the doctrines of the transmutation of species and the aqueous origin of simple forms of life which evolved into higher forms2 though the idea of the descent of man from a simian species had been broached before him by ,buffon and ,helvtius in ,france1 and ,lords ,kames and ,monboddo in ,scotland4 ,the idea of a ,natura naturans was indeed ancient2 but it has been authoritatively said of ,erasmus ,darwin that he was the first who proposed and consistently carried out a well-rounded theory with regard to the development of the living world--a merit which shines forth more brilliantly when we compare it with the vacillating and confused attempts of ,buffon1 ,linnus1 and ,goethe4 ,it is the idea of a power working from within the organisms to improve their natural position #iaf--the idea which1 developed by ,lamarck1 was modified by the great ,darwin of the nineteenth century into the doctrine of natural selection4 ,and in the closing years of the century there arose a new promise of higher life in the apparition of ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 ill-starred but noble1 whose ,letters on ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark 7#agif7 show her to have been a freethinking deist of remarkable original faculty1 #iag and whose ,vindication of the ,rights of ,woman 7#agib7 was the first great plea for the emancipation of her sex4 #af ,even in rural ,scotland1 the vogue of the poetry of ,burns told of germinal doubt4 ,to say nothing of his mordant satires on pietistic types--notably ,holy ,willie's ,prayer1 his masterpiece in that line--,burns even in his avowed poems #iah shows small regard for orthodox beliefs2 and his letters reveal him as substantially a deist1 shading into a ,unitarian4 ,such pieces as ,a ,prayer in the prospect of ,death1 and ,a ,prayer under the pressure of ,violent ,anguish1 are plainly unevangelical2 #iai and the allusions to ,jesus in his letters1 even when writing to ,mrs4 ,maclehose1 who desired to bring him to confession1 exclude orthodox belief1 #ibj though they suggest ,unitarianism4 ,he frequently refers to religion in his letters1 yet so constantly restricts himself to the affirmation of a belief in a benevolent ,god and in a future state that he cannot be supposed to have held the further beliefs which his orthodox correspondents would wish him to express4 ,a rationalistic habit is shown even in his professions of belief1 as here3 ,still ,i am a very sincere believer in the ,bible2 but ,i am drawn by the conviction of a man1 not the halter of an ass2 #iba and in the passage3 ,though ,i have no objection to what the ,christian system tells us of another world1 yet ,i own ,i am partial to those proofs and ideas of it which we have wrought out of our own heads and hearts4 #ibb ,withal1 ,burns always claimed to be religious1 and was so even in a somewhat conventional sense4 ,the lines3 ,an atheist-laugh's a poor exchange ,for ,deity offended #ibc exhibit a sufficiently commonplace conception of ,omnipotence2 and there is no sign that the poet ever did any hard thinking on the problem4 ,but1 emotionalist of genius as he was1 his influence as a satirist and mitigator of the crudities and barbarities of ,scots religion has been incalculably great1 and underlies all popular culture progress in ,scotland since his time4 ,constantly aspersed in his own day and world as an infidel1 he yet from the first conquered the devotion of the mass of his countrymen2 though he would have been more potent for intellectual liberation if he had been by them more intelligently read4 ,few of them now1 probably1 realize that their adored poet was either a deist or a ,unitarian--presumably the former4 #ag ,with the infelicity in prediction which is so much commoner with him than the prescience for which he is praised1 ,burke had announced that the whole deist school repose in lasting oblivion4 ,the proposition would be much more true of #iii out of every thousand writers on behalf of ,christianity4 ,it is characteristic of ,burke1 however1 that he does not name ,shaftesbury1 a ,whig nobleman of the sacred period4 #ibd ,a seeming justice was given to ,burke's phrase by the undoubted reaction which took place immediately afterwards4 ,in the vast panic which followed on the ,french ,revolution1 the multitude of mediocre minds in the middle and upper classes1 formerly deistic or indifferent1 took fright at unbelief as something now visibly connected with democracy and regicide2 new money endowments were rapidly bestowed on the ,church2 and orthodoxy became fashionable on political grounds just as skepticism had become fashionable at the ,restoration4 ,class interest and political prejudice wrought much in both cases2 only in opposite directions4 ,democracy was no longer ,bibliolatrous1 therefore aristocracy was fain to became so1 or at least to grow respectful towards the ,church as a means of social control4 ,gibbon1 in his closing years1 went with the stream4 ,and as religious wars have always tended to discredit religion1 so a war partly associated with the freethinking of the ,french revolutionists tended to discredit freethought4 ,the brutish wrecking of ,priestley's house and library and chapel by a mob at ,birmingham in #agia was but an extreme manifestation of a reaction which affected every form of mental life4 ,but while ,priestley went to die in the ,united ,states1 another ,english exile1 temporarily returned thence to his native land1 was opening a new era of popular rationalism4 ,even in the height of the revolutionary tumult1 and while ,burke was blustering about the disappearance of unbelief1 ,thomas ,paine was laying deep and wide the ,english foundations of a new democratic freethought2 and the upper-class reaction in the nature of the case was doomed to impermanency1 though it was to arrest ,english intellectual progress for over a generation4 ,the ,french ,revolution had re-introduced freethought as a vital issue1 even in causing it to be banned as a danger4 ,that freethought at the end of the century was rather driven inwards and downwards than expelled is made clear by the multitude of fresh treatises on ,christian evidences4 ,growing numerous after #agij1 they positively swarm for a generation after ,paley 7#agid74 ,cp4 ,essays on the ,evidence and ,influence of ,christianity1 ,bath1 #agij1 pref42 ,andrew ,fuller1 ,the ,gospel its own ,witness1 #agii1 pref4 and concluding address to deists2 ,watson's sermon of #agie1 in ,two ,apologies1 ed4 #ahjf1 p4 #cii2 ,priestley's ,memoirs 7written in #agie71 #ahjf1 pp4 #abg-bh2 ,wilberforce's ,practical ,view1 #agig1 passim 7e4g41 pp4 #cff-fi1 #hth ed4 #ahda72 ,rev4 ,d4 ,simpson1 ,a ,plea for ,religion 444 addressed to the ,disciples of ,thomas ,paine1 #agig4 ,the latter writer states 7#bnd ed4 p4 #abf7 that infidelity is at this moment running like wildfire among the common people2 and ,fuller 7#bnd ed4 p4 #abh7 speaks of the ,monthly ,magazine as pretty evidently devoted to the cause of infidelity4 ,a pamphlet on ,the ,rise and ,dissolution of the ,infidel ,societies in this ,metropolis 7,london1 #ahjj71 by ,w4 ,hamilton ,reid1 describes the period as the first in which the doctrines of infidelity have been extensively circulated among the lower orders2 and a ,summary of ,christian ,evidences1 by ,bishop ,porteous 7#ahjj2 #afth ed4 #ahbf71 affirms1 in agreement with the #agii ,report of the ,lords' ,committee on ,treasonable ,societies1 that new compendiums of infidelity1 and new libels on ,christianity1 are dispersed continually1 with indefatigable industry1 through every part of the kingdom1 and every class of the community4 ,freethought1 in short1 was becoming democratized4 ,as regards ,england1 ,paine is the great popular factor2 and it is the bare truth to say that he brought into the old debate a new earnestness and a new moral impetus4 ,the first part of the ,age of ,reason1 hastily put together in expectation of speedy death in #agic1 and including some astronomic matter that apparently antedates #agha1 #ibe is a swift outline of the position of the rationalizing deist1 newly conscious of firm standing-ground in astronomic science4 ,that is the special note of ,paine's gospel4 ,he was no scholar2 and the champions of the religion of ,galilee have always been prompt to disparage any unlearned person who meddles with religion as an antagonist2 but in the second part of his book ,paine put hard criticism enough to keep a world of popular readers interested for well over a hundred years4 ,the many replies are forgotten3 the ,biblical criticism of ,paine will continue to do its work till popular orthodoxy follows the lead of professional scholarship and gives up at once the acceptance and the circulation of things incredible and indefensible as sacrosanct4 ,mr4 ,benn 7,hist4 of ,eng4 ,rationalism in the ,nineteenth ,century1 i1 #bag7 remarks that ,paine's ,new ,testament criticisms are such as at all times would naturally occur to a reader of independent mind and strong common sense4 ,if so1 these had been up to ,paine's time1 and remained long afterwards1 rare characteristics4 ,and there is some mistake about ,mr4 ,benn's criticism that the repeated charges of fraud and imposture brought against the ,apostles and ,evangelists 444 jar painfully on a modern ear4 ,but they are largely due to the mistaken notion1 shared by ,paine with his orthodox contemporaries1 that the ,gospels and ,acts were written by contemporaries and eye-witnesses of the events related4 ,many times over1 ,paine argues that the documents could not have been so written4 ,e4g4 in ,conway's ed4 of ,works1 pp4 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #afd1 #afg1 #afh1 etc4 ,the reiterated proposition is that the writers cannot have been eye-witnesses and ear-witnesses of what they relate2 444 and consequently that the books have not been written by the persons called apostles 7p4 #afh74 ,and there is some exaggeration even in ,mr4 ,benn's remark that1 strangely enough1 he accepts the ,book of ,daniel as genuine4 ,paine 7ed4 p4 #add7 merely puts a balance of probability in favour of the genuineness4 ,it may be sometimes--it is certainly not always--true that ,paine cannot distinguish between legendary or 8 and mythical narratives 7,benn1 p4 #baf72 but it is to be feared that the disability subsists to-day in more scholarly quarters4 ,despite his deadly directness1 ,paine1 in virtue of his strong sincerity1 probably jars much less on the modern ear than he did on that of his own1 which was so ready to make felony of any opinion hostile to reigning prejudices4 ,but if it be otherwise1 it is to be feared that no less offence will be given by ,mr4 ,benn's own account of the ,hexateuch as the records kept by a lying and bloodthirsty priesthood2 even if that estimate be followed by the very challengeable admission that priesthoods are generally distinguished for their superior humanity 7,benn1 p4 #cej1 and note74 ,henceforth there is a vital difference in the fortunes of freethought and religion alike4 ,always in the past the institutional strength of religion and the social weakness of freethought had lain in the credulity of the ignorant mass1 which had turned to naught an infinity of rational effort4 ,after the ,french ,revolution1 when over a large area the critical spirit began simultaneously to play on faith and life1 politics and religion1 its doubled activity gave it a new breadth of outlook as of energy1 and the slow enlightenment of the mass opened up a new promise for the ultimate reign of reason4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,french ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #a4 ,the fruits of the intellectual movement of the seventeenth century are seen beginning to take form on the very threshold of the eighteenth4 ,in #agjj1 at the height of the reign of the ,king's confessors1 there was privately printed the ,lettre d',hippocrate ,damagte1 described as the first ,french work openly destructive of ,christianity4 ,it was ascribed to the ,comte de ,boulainvilliers1 a pillar of the feudal system4 #ibf ,thus early is the sound of disintegration heard in the composite fabric of ,church and ,state2 and various fissures are seen in all parts of the structure4 ,the king himself1 so long morally discredited1 could only discredit pietism by his adoption of it2 the ,jansenists and the ,molinists i4e41 the school of ,molina1 not of ,molinos fought incessantly2 even on the side of authority there was bitter dissension between ,bossuet and ,fnelon2 #ibg and the movement of mysticism associated with the latter came to nothing1 though he had the rare credit of converting1 albeit to a doubtful orthodoxy1 the emotional young ,scotch deist ,chevalier ,ramsay4 #ibh ,where the subtlety of ,fnelon was not allowed to operate1 the loud dialectic of ,bossuet could not avail for faith as against rationalism1 whatever it might do to upset the imperfect logic of ,protestant sects4 ,in no society1 indeed1 does mere declamation play a larger part than in that of modern ,france2 but in no society1 on the other hand1 is mere declamation more sure to be disdained and derided by the keener spirits4 ,in the years of disaster and decadence which rounded off in gloom the life of the ,grand ,monarque1 with defeat dogging his armies and bankruptcy threatening his finances1 the spirit of criticism was not likely to slacken4 ,literary polemic1 indeed1 was hardly to be thought of at such a time1 even if it had been safe4 ,in #agji the king destroyed the ,jansenist seminary of ,port ,royal1 wreaking an ignoble vengeance on the very bones of the dead there buried2 and more heretical thinkers had need go warily4 ,yet even in those years of calamity1 perhaps by reason of the very stress of it1 some freethinking books somehow passed the press1 though a system of police espionage had been built up by the king1 step for step with some real reforms in the municipal government of ,paris4 ,the first was a romance of the favourite type1 in which a traveller discovers a strange land inhabited by surprisingly rational people4 ,such appear to have been the ,histoire de ,calejava1 by ,claude ,gilbert1 produced at ,dijon in #agjj1 and the imaginary travels of ,juan de ,posos1 published at ,amsterdam in #agjh4 ,both of these were promptly suppressed2 the next contrived to get into circulation4 ,the work of ,symon ,tyssot de ,patot1 ,voyages et ,avantures de ,jacques ,mass1 published in #agaj1 puts in the mouths of priests of the imaginary land discovered by the traveller such mordant arguments against the idea of a resurrection1 the story of the fall1 and other items of the ,christian creed1 that there could be small question of the deism of the author2 #ibi and the prefatory ,lettre de l'diteur indicates misgivings4 ,the ,rflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont morts en plaisantant1 by ,deslandes1 ostensibly published at ,amsterdam in #agab1 seems to have had a precarious circulation1 inasmuch as ,brunet never saw the first edition4 ,to permit of the issue of such a book as ,jacques ,mass--even at ,bordeaux--the censure must have been notably lax2 as it was again in the year of the king's death1 when there appeared a translation of ,collins's ,discourse of ,freethinking4 ,for the moment the ,government was occupied over an insensate renewal of the old persecution of ,protestants1 promulgating in #agae a decree that all who died after refusing the sacraments should be refused burial1 and that their goods should be confiscated4 ,the edict seems to have been in large measure disregarded4 #b4 ,at the same time the continuous output of apologetics testified to the gathering tide of unbelief4 ,the ,benedictine ,lami followed up his attack on ,spinoza with a more popular treatise1 ,l',incrdule amen la religion par la raison 7#agaj72 the ,abb ,genest turned ,descartes into verse by way of ,preuves naturelles de l'existence de ,dieu et de l'immortalit de l'me 7#agaf72 and the ,anti-,lucretius of ,cardinal ,polignac 7#affa-agda71 though only posthumously published in full 7#agde71 did but pass on to the next age1 when deism was the prevailing heresy1 a deistic argument against atheism4 ,it is difficult to see any ,christian sentiment in that dialectic performance of a born diplomatist4 #icj ,when the old king died1 even the fashion of conformity passed away among the upper classes2 #ica and the feverish manufacture of apologetic works testifies to an unslackened activity of unbelief4 ,in #agai ,jean ,denyse1 professor of philosophy at the college of ,montaigu1 produced ,la vrit de la religion chrtienne demontre par ordre gomtrique 7a title apparently suggested by ,spinoza's early exposition of ,descartes71 without making any permanent impression on heterodox opinion4 ,not more successful1 apparently1 was the performance of the ,abb ,houteville1 first published in #agbb4 #icb ,much more amiable in tone1 and more scientific in temper1 than the common run of defences1 it was found1 says an orthodox biographical dictionary1 to be better fitted to make unbelievers than to convert them1 seeing that objections were presented with much force and fulness1 and the replies with more amenity than weight4 #icc ,that the ,abb was in fact not rigorously orthodox might almost be suspected from his having been appointed1 in the last year of his life 7#agdb71 perpetual secretary to the ,acadmie1 an office which somehow tended to fall to more or less freethinking members1 being held before him by the ,abb ,dubos1 and after him by ,mirabaud1 the ,abb ,duclos1 #icd ,d',alembert1 and ,marmontel4 ,the ,traits des ,premires ,veritz of the ,jesuit ,father ,buffier 7#agbd7 can hardly have been more helpful to the faith4 #ice ,another experiment by way of popularizing orthodoxy1 the copious ,histoire du peuple de ,dieu1 by the ,jesuit ,berruyer1 first published in #agbh1 #icf had little better fortune1 inasmuch as it scandalized the orthodox by its secularity of tone without persuading the freethinkers4 ,condemned by the ,bishop of ,montpellier in #agca1 it was censured by ,rome in #agcd2 and the second part1 produced long afterwards1 aroused even more antagonism4 #c4 ,there was thus no adaptation on the side of the ,church to the forces which in an increasing degree menaced her rule4 ,under the regency of ,orlans 7#agae-agbc71 the open disorder of the court on the one hand and the ruin of the disastrous financial experiment of ,law on the other were at least favourable to toleration2 but under the ,duc de ,bourbon1 put in power and soon superseded by ,fleury 7bishop of ,frjus and tutor of ,louis ,,xv2 later cardinal7 there was a renewal of the rigours against the ,protestants and the ,jansenists2 the edict of #agae was renewed2 emigration recommenced2 and only public outcry checked the policy of persecution on that side4 ,but ,fleury and the king went on fighting the ,jansenists2 and while this embittered strife of the religious sections could not but favour the growth of freethought1 it was incompatible alike with official tolerance of unbelief and with any effectual diffusion of liberal culture4 ,had the terrorism and the waste of ,louis ,,xiv been followed by a sane system of finance and one of religious toleration2 and had not the exhausted and bankrupt country been kept for another half century--save for eight years of peace and prosperity from #agdh to #agee--on the rack of ruinous wars1 alike under the regency of ,orlans and the rule of ,louis ,,xv1 the intellectual life might have gone fast and far4 ,as it was1 war after war absorbed its energy2 and the debt of five milliards left by ,louis ,,xiv was never seriously lightened4 ,under such a system the vestiges of constitutional government were gradually swept away4 #d4 ,as the new intellectual movement began to find expression1 then1 it found the forces of resistance more and more organized4 ,in particular1 the autocracy long maintained the severest checks on printing1 so that freethought could not save by a rare chance attain to open speech4 ,any book with the least tendency to rationalism had to seek printers1 or at least publishers1 in ,holland4 ,huard1 in publishing his anonymous translation of the ,hypotyposes of ,sextus ,empiricus 7#agbe71 is careful to say in his preface that he makes no application of the ,pyrrhonian objections to any dogma that may be called theological2 but he goes on to add that the scandalous quarrels of ,christian sects are well fitted to confirm ,pyrrhonists in their doubts1 the sects having no solid ground on which to condemn each other4 ,as such an assertion was rank heresy1 the translation had to be issued in ,amsterdam1 and even there without a publisher's name4 #icg ,and still it remains clear that the age of ,louis ,,xiv had passed on to the next a heritage of hidden freethinking1 as well as one of debt and misgovernment4 ,what takes place thereafter is rather an evolution of and a clerical resistance to a growth known to have begun previously1 and always feared and hated1 than any new planting of unbelief in orthodox soil4 ,as we have seen1 indeed1 a part of the early work of skepticism was done by distinguished apologists4 ,huet1 dying in #agbb1 left for posthumous publication his ,trait philosophique de la faiblesse de l'esprit humain 7#agbc74 ,it was immediately translated into ,english and ,german2 and though it was probably found somewhat superfluous in deistic ,england1 and supersubtle in ,lutheran ,germany1 it helped to prepare the ground for the active unbelief of the next generation in ,france4 #e4 ,a continuous development may be traced throughout the century4 ,montesquieu1 who in his early ,persian ,letters 7#agba7 had revealed himself as fundamentally irreligious #ich and a censor of intolerance1 #ici proceeded in his masterly little book on the ,greatness and ,decadence of the ,romans 7#agcd7 and his famous ,spirit of ,laws 7#agdh7 to treat the problems of human history in an absolutely secular and scientific spirit1 making only such conventional allusions to religion as were advisable in an age in which all heretical works were suppressible4 #idj ,the attempts of ,la ,harpe and ,villemain #ida to establish the inference that he repented his youthful levity in the ,persian ,letters1 and recognized in ,christianity the main pillar of society1 will not bear examination4 ,the very passages on which they found #idb are entirely secular in tone and purpose1 and tell of no belief4 #idc ,so late as #agea there appeared a work1 ,les ,lettres ,persanes convaincues d'impit1 by the ,abb ,gaultier4 ,the election of ,montesquieu was in fact the beginning of the struggle between the ,philosophe party in the ,academy and their opponents2 #idd and in his own day there was never much doubt about ,montesquieu's deism4 ,in his posthumous ,penses his anti-clericalism is sufficiently emphatic4 ,churchmen1 he writes1 are interested in keeping the people ignorant4 ,he expresses himself as a convinced deist1 and1 with no great air of conviction1 as a believer in immortality4 ,but there his faith ends4 ,i call piety1 he says1 a malady of the heart1 which plants in the soul a malady of the most ineradicable kind4 ,the false notion of miracles comes of our vanity1 which makes us believe we are important enough for the ,supreme ,being to upset ,nature on our behalf4 ,three incredibilities among incredibilities3 the pure mechanism of animals the doctrine of ,descartes2 passive obedience2 and the infallibility of the ,pope4 #ide ,his heresy was of course divined by the guardians of the faith1 through all his panegyric of it4 ,even in his lifetime1 ,jesuits and ,jansenists combined to attack the ,spirit of ,laws1 which was denounced at an assembly of the clergy1 put on the ,roman ,index1 and prohibited by the censure until ,malesherbes came into office in #agej4 #idf ,the ,count de ,cataneo1 a ,venetian noble in the service of the ,king of ,prussia1 published in ,french about #agea a treatise on ,the ,source1 the ,strength1 and the ,true ,spirit of ,laws1 #idg in which the political rationalism and the ethical utilitarianism of ,cumberland and ,grotius were alike repelled as irreconcilable with the doctrine of revelation4 ,it was doubtless because of this atmosphere of hostility that on the death of ,montesquieu at ,paris1 in #agee1 ,diderot was the only man of letters who attended his funeral1 #idh though the ,acadmie performed a commemorative service4 #idi ,nevertheless1 ,montesquieu was throughout his life a figure in good society1 and suffered no molestation apart from the outcry against his books4 ,he lived under a tradition of private freethinking and public clericalism1 even as did ,molire in the previous century2 and where the two traditions had to clash1 as at interment1 the clerical dominion affirmed itself4 ,but even in the ,church there were always successors of ,gassendi1 to wit1 philosophic unbelievers1 as well as quiet friends of toleration4 ,and it was given to an obscure ,churchman to show the way of freethought to a generation of lay combatants4 #f4 ,one of the most comprehensive freethinking works of the century1 the ,testament of ,jean ,meslier1 cur of ,etrpigny1 in ,champagne 7d4 #agbc1 #agbi1 or #agcc71 though it inspired numbers of eighteenth-century freethinkers who read it in manuscript1 was never printed till #ahfa-fd4 ,it deserves here some special notice4 #iej ,at his death1 by common account1 ,meslier left two autograph copies of his book1 after having deposited a third copy in the archives of the jurisdiction of ,sainte-,menehould4 ,by a strange chance one was permitted to circulate1 and ultimately there were some hundred copies in ,paris1 selling at ten louis apiece4 ,as he told on the wrapper of the copy he left for his parishioners1 he had not dared to speak out during his life2 but he had made full amends4 ,he is recorded to have been an exceptionally charitable priest1 devoted to his parishioners1 whose interests he indignantly championed against a tyrannous lord of the manor2 #iea apropos of ,descartes's doctrine of animal automatism1 which he fiercely repudiates1 he denounces with deep feeling all cruelty to animals1 at whose slaughter for food he winces2 and his book reveals him as a man profoundly impressed at once by the sufferings of the people under heartless kings and nobles1 and the immense imposture of religion which1 in his eyes1 maintained the whole evil system4 ,some men before him had impugned miracles1 some the gospels1 some dogma1 some the conception of deity1 some the tyranny of kings4 ,he impugns all2 and where nearly all the deists had eulogized the character of the ,gospel ,jesus1 the priest envelops it in his harshest invective4 ,he must have written during whole years1 with a sombre1 invincible patience1 dumbly building up1 in his lonely leisure1 his unfaltering negation of all that the men around him held for sacred1 and that he was sworn to preach--the whole to be his testament to his parishioners4 ,in the slow1 heavy style--the style of a cart horse1 ,voltaire called it--there is an indubitable sincerity1 a smouldering passion1 but no haste1 no explosion4 ,the long-drawn1 formless1 prolix sentences say everything that can be said on their theme2 and when the long book was done it was slowly copied1 and yet again copied1 by the same heavy1 unwearying hand4 ,he had read few books1 it seems--only the ,bible1 some of the ,fathers1 ,montaigne1 the ,turkish ,spy1 ,naud1 ,charron1 ,pliny1 ,tournmine on atheism1 and ,fnelon on the existence of ,god1 with some history1 and ,moreri's ,dictionary2 but he had re-read them often4 ,he does not cite ,bayle2 and ,montaigne is evidently his chief master4 ,but on his modest reading he had reached as absolute a conviction of the untruth of the entire ,judo-,christian religion as any freethinker ever had4 ,moved above all by his sense of the corruption and misrule around him1 he sets out with a twofold indictment against religion and government1 of which each part sustains the other1 and he tells his parishioners how he had been hundreds of times #ieb on the point of bursting out with an indignant avowal of his contempt for the rites he was compelled to administer1 and the superstitions he had to inculcate4 ,then1 in a grimly-planned order1 he proceeds to demolish1 section by section1 the whole structure4 ,religions in general he exhibits as tissues of error1 illusion1 and imposture1 the endless sources of troubles and strifes for men4 ,their historical proofs and documentary bases are then assailed1 and the gospels in particular are ground between the slow mill-stones of his dialectic2 miracles1 promises1 and prophecies being handled in turn4 ,the ethic and the doctrine are next assailed all along the line1 from their theoretic bases to their political results2 and the kings of ,france fare no better than their creed4 ,as against the theistic argument of ,fnelon1 the entire theistic system is then oppugned1 sometimes with precarious erudition1 generally with cumbrous but solid reasoning2 and the eternity of matter is affirmed with more than ,averrostic conviction1 the ,cartesians coming in for a long series of heavy blows4 ,immortality is further denied1 as miracles had been2 and the treatise ends with a stern affirmation of its author's rectitude1 and1 as it were1 a massive gesture of contempt for all that will be said against him when he has passed into the nothingness which he is nearing4 ,i have never committed any crime1 he writes1 #iec nor any bad or malicious action3 ,i defy any man to make me on this head1 with justice1 any serious reproach2 but he quotes from the ,psalms1 with grim zest1 phrases of hate towards workers of iniquity4 ,there is not even the hint of a smile at the astonishing bequest he was laying up for his parishioners and his country4 ,he was sure he would be read1 and he was right4 ,the whole polemic of the next sixty years1 the indictment of the government no less than that of the creed1 is laid out in his sombre treatise4 ,to the general public1 however1 he was never known save by the ,extract--really a deistic adaptation--made by ,voltaire1 #ied and the re-written summary by d',holbach and ,diderot entitled ,le ,bon ,sens du ,cur ,meslier 7#aggb74 #iee ,even this publicity was delayed for a generation1 since ,voltaire1 who heard of the ,testament as early as #agce1 seems to have made no use of it till #agfb4 ,but the entire group of fighting freethinkers of the age was in some sense inspired by the old priest's legacy4 #g4 ,apart from this direct influence1 too1 others of the cloth bore some part in the general process of enlightenment4 ,a good type of the agnostic priest of the period was the ,abb ,terrasson1 the author of the philosophic romance ,sethos 7#agcb71 who died in #agej4 ,not very judicious in his theory of human evolution 7which he represented as a continuous growth from a stage of literary infancy1 seen in ,homer71 he adopted the ,newtonian theory at a time when the entire ,academy stood by ,cartesianism4 ,among his friends he tranquilly avowed his atheism4 #ief ,he died without the sacraments1 and when asked whether he believed all the doctrine of the ,church1 he replied that for him that was not possible4 #ieg ,another anti-clerical ,abb was ,gaidi1 whose poem1 ,la ,religion l',assembl du ,clerg de ,france 7#agfb71 was condemned to be burned4 #ieh ,among or alongside of such disillusioned ,churchmen there must have been a certain number who1 desiring no breach with the organization to which they belonged1 saw the fatal tendency of the spirit of persecution upon which its rulers always fell back in their struggle with freethought1 and sought to open their eyes to the folly and futility of their course4 ,freethinkers1 of course1 had to lead the way1 as we have seen4 ,it was the young ,turgot who in #agec published two powerful ,lettres sur la tolrance1 and in #aged a further series of admirable ,lettres d'un ecclsiastique un magistrat1 pleading the same cause4 #iei ,but similar appeals were anonymously made1 by a clerical pen1 at a moment when the ,church was about to enter on a new and exasperating conflict with the growing band of freethinking writers who rallied round ,voltaire4 ,the small book of ,questions sur la tolrance1 ascribed to the ,abb ,tailh or ,tailhi and the canonist ,maultrot 7,geneva1 #ageh71 is conceived in the very spirit of rationalism1 yet with a careful concern to persuade the clergy to sane courses1 and is to this day worth reading as a utilitarian argument4 ,but the ,church was not fated to be led by such light4 ,the principle of toleration was left to become the watchword of freethought1 while the ,church identified herself collectively with that of tyranny4 ,anecdotes of the time reveal the coincidence of tyranny and evasion1 intolerance and defiance4 ,of ,nicolas ,boindin 7#afgf-agea71 procureur in the royal ,bureau des ,finances1 who was received into the ,academy of ,inscriptions and ,belles-,lettres in #agjf1 it is told that he would have been received in the ,french ,academy if the public profession he made of being an atheist had not excluded him4 #ifj ,but the publicity was guarded4 ,when he conversed with the young ,marmontel #ifa and others at the ,caf ,procope1 they used a conversational code in which the soul was called ,margot1 religion ,javotte1 liberty ,jeanneton1 and the deity ,monsieur de l'tre4 ,once a listener of furtive aspect asked ,boindin who might be this ,monsieur de l'tre who behaved so ill1 and with whom they were so displeased8 ,monsieur1 replied ,boindin1 he is a police spy--such being the avocation of the questioner4 #ifb ,the morals of ,boindin1 says a biographical dictionary of the period1 were as pure as those of an atheist can be2 his heart was generous2 but to these virtues he joined presumption and the obstinacy which follows from it1 a bizarre humour1 and an unsociable character4 #ifc ,other testimonies occur on the first two heads1 not on the last4 ,but he was fittingly refused ,christian interment1 and was buried by night1 sans pompe4 #h4 ,with the ground prepared as we have seen1 freethought was bound to progress in ,france in the age of ,louis ,,xv2 but it chanced that the lead fell into the hands of the most brilliant and fecund of all the writers of the century4 ,voltaire #ifd 7#afid-aggh7 was already something of a freethinker when a mere child4 ,so common was deism already become in ,paris at the end of the seventeenth century that his godfather1 an abb1 is said to have taught him1 at the age of three1 a poem by ,j4 ,b4 ,rousseau1 #ife then privately circulated1 in which ,moses in particular and religious revelations in general are derided as fraudulent4 #iff ,knowing this poem by heart in his childhood1 the boy was well on the way to his life's work4 ,it is on record that many of his school-fellows were1 like himself1 already deists1 though his brother1 a juvenile ,jansenist1 made vows to propitiate the deity on the small unbeliever's behalf4 #ifg ,it may have been a general reputation for audacious thinking that led to his being charged with the authorship of a stinging philippic published in #agae1 after the death of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the unknown author1 a young man1 enumerated the manifold abuses and iniquities of the reign1 concluding3 ,i have seen all these1 and ,i am not twenty years old4 ,voltaire was then twenty-two2 but ,d',argenson1 who in the poem had been called the enemy of the human race1 finding no likelier author for the verses1 put him under surveillance and exiled him from ,paris2 and on his imprudent return imprisoned him for nearly a year in the ,bastille 7#agaf71 releasing him only when the real author of the verses avowed himself4 ,unconquerable then as always1 ,voltaire devoted himself in prison to his literary ambitions1 planning his ,henriade and completing his ,o,edipe1 which was produced in #agah with signal success4 ,voltaire was thus already a distinguished young poet and dramatist when1 in #agbf1 after enduring the affronts of an assault by a nobleman's lacqueys1 and of imprisonment in the ,bastille for seeking amends by duel1 he came to ,england1 where1 like ,deslandes before him1 he met with a ready welcome from the freethinkers4 #ifh ,four years previously1 in the powerful poem1 ,for and ,against1 #ifi he had put his early deistic conviction in a vehement impeachment of the immoral creed of salvation and damnation1 making the declaration1 ,i am not a ,christian4 ,thus what he had to learn in ,england was not deism1 but the physics of ,newton and the details of the deist campaign against revelationism2 and these he mastered4 #igj ,not only was he directly and powerfully influenced by ,bolingbroke1 who became his intimate friend1 but he read widely in the philosophic1 scientific1 and deistic ,english literature of the day1 #iga and went back to ,france1 after three years' stay1 not only equipped for his ultimate battle with tyrannous religion1 but deeply impressed by the moral wholesomeness of free discussion4 #igb ,not all at once1 indeed1 did he become the mouthpiece of critical reason for his age3 his literary ambitions were primarily on the lines of belles lettres1 and secondarily on those of historical writing4 ,after his ,pour et ,contre1 his first freethinking production was the not very heretical ,lettres philosophiques or ,lettres anglaises1 written in ,england in #agbh1 and1 after circulating in ,,ms41 published in five editions in #agcd2 and the official burning of the book by the common hangman1 followed by the imprisonment of the bookseller in the ,bastille1 #igc was a sufficient check on such activity for the time4 ,save for the jests about ,adam and ,eve in the ,mondain 7#agcf71 a slight satire for which he had to fly from ,paris2 and the indirect though effective thrusts at bigotry in the ,ligue 7#agbc2 later the ,henriade72 in the tragedy of ,mahomet 7#agci2 printed in #agdb71 in the tales of ,memnon and ,zadig 7#agdg-dh71 and in the ,ides de ,la ,mothe le ,vayer 7#agea7 and the ,dfense de ,milord ,bolingbroke 7#ageb71 he produced nothing else markedly deistic till #agee1 when he published the ,poem to the ,king of ,prussia1 otherwise named ,sur la loi naturelle 7which appears to have been written in #agea1 while he was on a visit to the ,margravine of ,bayreuth71 and that on the ,earthquake of ,lisbon4 ,so definitely did the former poem base all morality on natural principles that it was ordered to be burned by the ,parlement of ,paris1 then equally alarmed at freethinking and at ,molinism4 #igd ,and so impossible was it still in ,france to print any specific criticism of ,christianity that when in #agei he issued his verse translations of the ,song of ,solomon and ,ecclesiastes they also were publicly burned1 though he had actually softened instead of heightening the eroticism of the first and the materialism of the second4 #ige #i4 ,it is thus a complete mistake on the part of ,buckle to affirm that the activity of the ,french reformers up to #agej was directed against religion1 and that it was thereafter turned against the ,state4 ,certainly there was much freethinking among instructed men and others1 but it proceeded1 as under ,louis ,,xiv1 mainly by way of manuscripts and conversation1 or at best by the circulation of ,english books and a few translations of these2 and only guardedly before #agde by means of published ,french books4 #igf ,the ,abb ,ranchon1 in his ,,ms4 ,life of ,cardinal ,fleury1 truly says that the time of the ,regency was a period of the spirit of dissoluteness and irreligion2 but when he ascribes to those times many licentious and destructive writings he can specify only those of the ,english deists4 ,precisely in the time of the ,regency a multitude of those offensive and irreligious books were brought over the sea3 ,france was deluged with them4 #igg ,it is incredible that multitudes of ,frenchmen read ,english in the days of the ,regency4 ,french freethinkers like ,saint ,evremond and ,deslandes1 who visited or sojourned in ,london before #agae1 took their freethought there with them2 and the only translations then in print were those of ,collins's ,discourse of ,freethinking and ,shaftesbury's essays on the ,use of ,ridicule and on ,enthusiasm4 ,apart from these1 the only known ,french freethinking book of the ,regency period was the work of ,vroes1 a councillor at the court of ,brabant1 on the ,spirit of ,spinoza1 reprinted as ,des trois imposteurs4 ,meslier died not earlier than #agbi2 the ,histoire de la philosophie payenne of ,burigny belongs to #agbd2 the ,lettres philosophiques of ,voltaire to #agcd2 the earlier works of d',argens to #agcg-ch2 the ,nouvelles liberts de penser1 edited by ,dumarsais1 to #agdc2 and the militant treatise of ,de la ,serre1 best known as the ,examen de la ,religion1 to #agde4 ,the ferment thus kept up was indeed so great that about #agdh the ecclesiastical authorities decided on the remarkable step of adopting for their purposes the apologetic treatise adapted by ,jacob ,vernet1 professor of belles lettres at ,geneva1 from the works of ,jean-,alphonse ,turrettin1 #igh not only a ,protestant but a substantially ,socinian professor of ecclesiastical history at the same university4 ,the treatise is itself a testimony to the advance of rationalism in the ,protestant world2 and its adoption1 even under correction1 by the ,catholic ,church in ,france tells of a keen consciousness of need4 ,but the dreaded advance1 as we have seen1 was only to a small extent yet traceable by new literature4 ,the ,examen critique des apologistes de la religion chrtienne of ,lvesque de ,burigny was probably written about #agcb1 and then and thereafter circulated in manuscript1 but it was not published till #agff2 and even in manuscript its circulation was probably small1 though various apologetic works had testified to the increasing uneasiness of the orthodox world4 ,such titles as ,la religion chrtienne demontre par la ,resurrection 7by ,armand de la ,chapelle1 #agbh7 and ,la religion chrtienne prouve par l'accomplissement des prophties 7by ,pre ,baltus1 #agbh7 tell of private unbelief under the ,regency4 ,in #agcg appeared the voluminous treatise 7anonymous7 of the ,abb de la ,chambre1 ,trait de la vritable religion contre les athes1 les distes1 etc4 7#e vols474 ,in #agdg1 again1 there appeared a learned1 laborious1 and unintelligent work in three volumes 7authorized in #agdb71 ,le ,libertinage combattu par la tmoignage des auteurs profanes1 by an unnamed ,benedictine #igi of the ,congregation of ,st4 ,vanne4 ,it declares that1 between atheism and deism1 there has never been so much unbelief as now2 but it cites no modern books1 and is devoted to arraying classic arguments in support of theism and morals4 ,part of the exposition consists in showing that ,epicurus1 ,lucian1 and ,euripides1 whom modern atheists are wont to cite as their masters1 were not and could not have been atheists2 and the pious author roundly declares in favour of paganism as against atheism4 ,so much smoke tells of fire2 but only in #agde and #agdf did the printed ,examen of ,de la ,serre and the ,penses philosophiques of ,diderot begin to build up in ,france the modern school of critical and philosophic deism4 ,when in #agea the ,abb ,gauchat began his series of ,lettres critiques1 he set out by attacking ,voltaire's ,lettres philosophiques1 ,diderot's ,penses philosophiques1 the anonymous ,discours sur la vie heureuse 7#agdh71 ,les ,moeurs #ihj 7#agdh71 and ,pope's ,essay on ,man2 taking up in his second volume the ,lettres ,persanes of ,montesquieu 7#agba71 and other sets of ,lettres written in imitation of them4 ,in the third volume he has nothing more aggressive of ,voltaire's to deal with than ,la ,henriade1 the ,mahomet1 and some of his fugitive pieces4 ,and the ,bishop of ,puy1 writing in #aged his ,la ,dvotion concilie avec l'esprit1 could say to the faithful3 ,you live in an age fertile in pretended esprits forts1 who1 too weak nevertheless to attack in front an invincible religion1 skirmish lightly around it1 and in default of the reasons they lack1 employ raillery4 #iha ,the chivalrous bishop knew perfectly well that had a serious attack been published author and publisher would have been sent if possible to the ,bastille1 if not to the scaffold4 ,but his evidence is explicit4 ,there is here no recognition of any literary bombardment1 though there was certainly an abundance of unbelief4 #ihb ,buckle has probably mistaken the meaning of the summing up of some previous writer to the effect that up to #agej or a few years later the political opposition to the ,court was religious1 in the sense of ecclesiastical or sectarian 7,jansenist71 #ihc and that it afterwards turned to matters of public administration4 #ihd ,it would be truer to say that the early ,lettres philosophiques1 the reading of which later made the boy ,lafayette a republican at nine1 were a polemic for political and social freedom1 and as such a more direct criticism of the ,french administrative system than ,voltaire ever penned afterwards1 save in the ,voix du ,sage et du ,peuple 7#agej74 ,in point of fact1 as will be shown below1 only some twenty scattered freethinking works had appeared in ,french up to #agde1 almost none of them directly attacking ,christian beliefs2 and1 despite the above-noted sallies of ,voltaire1 ,condorcet comes to the general conclusion that it was the hardihood of ,rousseau's deism in the ,confession of a ,savoyard ,vicar in his mile 7#agfb7 that spurred ,voltaire to new activity4 #ihe ,this is perhaps not quite certain2 there is some reason to believe that his ,sermon of the ,fifty1 his first frontal attack on ,christianity1 #ihf was written a year before2 but in any case that and other productions of his at once left ,rousseau far in the rear4 ,even now he had no fixed purpose of continuous warfare against so powerful and cruel an enemy as the ,church1 which in #ageg had actually procured an edict pronouncing the death penalty against all writers of works attacking religion2 though the fall of the ,jesuits in #agfd raised new hopes of freedom4 ,but when1 after that hopeful episode1 there began a new movement of ,jansenist fanaticism2 and when1 after the age of religious savagery had seemed to be over1 there began a new series of religious atrocities in ,france itself 7#agfb-ff71 he girded on a sword that was not to be laid down till his death4 ,even so late as #agfh1 in his last letter to ,damilaville 7#h fv471 ,voltaire expresses a revulsion against the aggressive freethought propaganda of the time which is either one of his epistolary stratagems or the expression of a nervous reaction in a time of protracted bad health4 ,mes chagrins redoublent1 he writes1 par la quantit incroyable d'crits contre la religion chrtienne1 qui se succdent aussi rapidement en ,hollande que les gazettes et les journaux4 ,his enemies have the barbarism to impute to him1 at his age1 une partie de ces extravagances composes par de jeunes gens et par des moines dfroqus4 ,his immediate ground for chagrin may have been the fact that this outbreak of anti-,christian literature was likely to thwart him in the campaign he was then making to secure justice to the ,sirven family as he had already vindicated that of ,calas4 ,sirven barely missed the fate of the latter4 ,the misconception of ,buckle1 above discussed1 has been widely shared even among students4 ,thus ,lord ,morley1 discussing the ,creed of the ,savoyard ,vicar in ,rousseau's mile 7#agfb71 writes that ,souls weary of the fierce mockeries that had so long been flying like fiery shafts against the far ,jehovah of the ,hebrews1 and the silent ,christ of the later doctors and dignitaries1 may well have turned to it with ardour 7,rousseau1 ed4 #ahhf1 ii1 #bff74 ,he further speaks of the superiority of the sceptical parts of the ,savoyard ,vicar's profession 444 over the biting mockeries which ,voltaire had made the fashionable method of assault 7p4 #bid74 ,no specifications are offered1 and the chronology is seen to be astray4 ,the only mockeries which ,voltaire could be said to have made fashionable before #agfj were those of his ,lettres philosophiques1 his ,mondain1 his ,dfense de ,milord ,bolingbroke1 and his philosophically humorous tales1 as ,candide1 ,zadig1 ,micromgas1 etc43 all his distinctive attacks on ,judaism and ,christianity were yet to come4 ,the ,abb ,guyon1 in his ,l',oracle des nouveaux philosophes 7,berne1 #agei-fj1 #b tom471 proclaims an attack on doctrines taught dans les livres de nos beaux esprits 7,avert4 p4 xi72 but he specifies only denials of 7#a7 revelation1 7#b7 immortality1 and 7#c7 the ,biblical account of man's creation2 and he is largely occupied with ,diderot's ,penses philosophiques1 though his book is written at ,voltaire4 ,the second volume is devoted to ,candide and the ,prcis of ,ecclesiastes and the ,song of ,solomon--not very fierce performances4 ,lord ,morley1 as it happens1 does not make this chronological mistake in his earlier work on ,voltaire1 where he rightly represents him as beginning his attack on the ,infamous after he had settled at ,ferney 7#ageh74 ,his fierce mockeries begin at the earliest in #agfa4 ,the mistake may have arisen through taking as true the fictitious date of #agcf for the writing of the ,examen ,important de ,milord ,bolingbroke4 ,it belongs to #agfg4 ,buckle's error1 it may be noted1 is repeated by so careful a student as ,dr4 ,redlich1 ,local ,government in ,england1 ,eng4 tr4 #aijc1 i1 #fd4 #aj4 ,the rest of ,voltaire's long life was a sleepless and dexterous warfare1 by all manner of literary stratagem1 #ihg facilitated by vast literary fame and ample acquired wealth1 against what he called the ,infamous--the ,church and the creed which he found still swift to slay for mere variation of belief1 and slow to let any good thing be wrought for the bettering of men's lives4 ,of his prodigious literary performance it is probably within the truth to say that in respect of rapid influence on the general intelligence of the world it has never been equalled by any one man's writing2 and that1 whatever its measure of error and of personal misdirection1 its broader influence was invariably for peace on earth1 for tolerance among men1 and for reason in all things4 ,his faults were many1 and some were serious2 but to no other man of his age1 save possibly ,beccaria1 can be attributed so much beneficent accomplishment4 ,he can perhaps better be estimated as a force than as a man4 ,so great was the area of his literary energy that he is inevitably inadequate at many points4 ,lessing could successfully impugn him in drama2 ,diderot in metaphysic2 ,gibbon in history2 and it is noteworthy that all of these men #ihh at different times criticized him with asperity1 testing him by the given item of performance1 and disparaging his personality4 ,yet in his own way he was a greater power than any of them2 and his range1 as distinguished from his depth1 outgoes theirs4 ,in sum1 he was the greatest mental fighter of his age1 perhaps of any age3 in that aspect he is a power-house not to be matched in human history2 and his polemic is mainly for good4 ,it was a distinguished ,english academic who declared that civilization owes more to ,voltaire than to all the ,fathers of the ,church put together4 #ihi ,if in a literary way he hated his personal foes1 much more did he hate cruelty and bigotry2 and it was his work more than any that made impossible a repetition in ,europe of such clerical crimes as the hanging of the ,protestant pastor1 ,la ,rochette2 the execution of the ,protestant1 ,calas1 on an unproved and absurdly false charge2 the torture of his widow and children2 the beheading of the lad ,la ,barre for ill-proved blasphemy4 #iij ,as against his many humanities1 there is not to be charged on him one act of public malevolence4 ,in his relations with his fickle admirer1 ,frederick the ,great1 and with others of his fellow-thinkers1 he and they painfully brought home to freethinkers the lesson that for them as for all men there is a personal art of life that has to be learned1 over and above the rectification of opinion4 ,but he and the others wrought immensely towards that liberation alike from unreason and from bondage which must precede any great improvement of human things4 ,voltaire's constant burden was that religion was not only untrue but pernicious1 and when he was not dramatically showing this of ,christianity1 as in his poem ,la ,ligue 7#agbc71 he was saying it by implication in such plays as ,zare 7#agcb7 and ,mahomet 7#agdb71 dealing with the fanaticism of ,islam2 while in the ,essai sur les moeurs 7#agef71 really a broad survey of general history1 and in the ,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv1 he applied the method of ,montesquieu1 with pungent criticism thrown in4 ,later1 he added to his output direct criticisms of the ,christian books1 as in the ,examen important de ,milord ,bolingbroke 7#agfg71 and the ,recherches historiques sur le ,christianisme 78 #agfi71 continuing all his former lines of activity4 ,meanwhile1 with the aid of his companion the ,marquise du ,chatelet1 an accomplished mathematician1 he had done much to popularize the physics of ,newton and discredit the scientific fallacies of the system of ,descartes2 all the while preaching a ,newtonian but rather agnostic deism4 ,this is the purport of his ,philosophe ,ignorant1 his longest philosophical essay4 #iia ,the destruction of ,lisbon by the earthquake of #agee seems to have shaken him in his deistic faith1 since the upshot of his poem on that subject is to leave the moral government of the universe an absolute enigma2 and in the later ,candide 7#agei7 he attacks theistic optimism with his matchless ridicule4 ,indeed1 as early as #agdi1 in his ,trait de la ,mtaphysique1 written for the ,marquise du ,chatelet1 he reaches virtually pantheistic positions in defence of the ,god-idea1 declaring with ,spinoza that deity can be neither good nor bad4 ,but1 like so many professed pantheists1 he relapsed1 and he never accepted the atheistic view2 on the contrary1 we find him arguing absurdly enough1 in his ,homily on ,atheism 7#agfe71 that atheism had been the destruction of morality in ,rome2 #iib on the publication of d',holbach's ,system of ,nature in #aggj he threw off an article ,dieu3 rponse au ,systme de la ,nature1 where he argued on the old deistic lines2 and his tale of ,jenni2 or1 the ,sage and the ,atheist 7#agge71 is a polemic on the same theme4 ,by this time the inconsistent deism of his youth had itself been discredited among the more thoroughgoing freethinkers2 and for years it had been said in one section of literary society that ,voltaire after all is a bigot2 he is a deist6 #iic ,but for freethinkers of all schools the supreme service of ,voltaire lay in his twofold triumph over the spirit of religious persecution4 ,he had contrived at once to make it hateful and to make it ridiculous2 and it is a great theistic poet of our own day that has pronounced his blade the sharpest1 shrewdest steel that ever stabbed ,to death ,imposture through the armour joints4 #iid ,to be perfect1 the tribute should have noted that he hated cruelty much more than imposture2 and such is the note of the whole movement of which his name was the oriflamme4 ,voltaire personally was at once the most pugnacious and the most forgiving of men4 ,few of the ,christians who hated him had so often as he fulfilled their own precept of returning good for evil to enemies2 and none excelled him in hearty philanthropy4 ,it is notable that most of the humanitarian ideas of the latter half of the century--the demand for the reform of criminal treatment1 the denunciation of war and slavery1 the insistence on good government1 and toleration of all creeds--are more definitely associated with the freethinking than with any religious party1 excepting perhaps the laudable but uninfluential sect of ,quakers4 ,the character of ,voltaire is still the subject of chronic debate2 but the old deadlock of laudation and abuse is being solved in a critical recognition of him as a man of genius flawed by the instability which genius so commonly involves4 ,carlyle 7that model of serenity71 while dwelling on his perpetual perturbations1 half-humanely suggests that we should think of him as one constantly hag-ridden by maladies of many kinds2 and this recognition is really even more important in ,voltaire's case than in ,carlyle's own4 ,he was a bundle of nerves1 and the clear light of his sympathetic intelligence was often blown aside by gusts of passion--often enough excusably4 ,but while his temperamental weaknesses exposed him at times to humiliation1 and often to sarcasm2 and while his compelled resort to constant stratagem made him more prone to trickery than his admirers can well care to think him1 the balance of his character is abundantly on the side of generosity and humanity4 ,one of the most unjustifiable of recent attacks upon him 7one regrets to have to say it7 came from the pen of the late ,prof4 ,churton ,collins4 ,in his book on ,voltaire1 ,montesquieu1 and ,rousseau in ,england 7#aijh7 that critic gives in the main an unbiassed account of ,voltaire's ,english experience2 but at one point 7p4 #ci7 he plunges into a violent impeachment with the slightest possible justification4 ,he in effect adopts the old allegation of ,ruffhead1 the biographer of ,pope--a statement repeated by ,johnson--that ,voltaire used his acquaintance with ,pope and ,bolingbroke to play the spy on them1 conveying information to ,walpole1 for which he was rewarded4 ,the whole story collapses upon critical examination4 ,ruffhead's story is1 in brief1 that ,pope purposely lied to ,voltaire as to the authorship of certain published letters attacking ,walpole4 ,they were by ,bolingbroke2 but ,pope1 questioned by ,voltaire1 said they were his own1 begging him to keep the fact absolutely secret4 ,next day at court everyone was speaking of the letters as ,pope's2 and ,pope accordingly knew that ,voltaire was a traitor4 ,for this tale there is absolutely nothing but hearsay evidence4 ,ruffhead1 as ,johnson declared1 knew nothing of ,pope1 and simply used ,warburton's material4 ,the one quasi-confirmation cited by ,mr4 ,collins is ,bolingbroke's letter to ,swift 7,may #ah1 #agbg7 asking him to insinuate that ,walpole's only ground for ascribing the letters to ,bolingbroke is the authority of one of his spies 444 who reports1 not what he hears 444 but what he guesses4 ,this is an absolute contradiction of the ,pope story1 at two points4 ,it refers to a guess at ,bolingbroke1 and tells of no citation from ,pope4 ,to put it as confirming the charge is to exhibit a complete failure of judgment4 ,after this irrational argument1 ,mr4 ,collins offers a worse4 ,he admits 7p4 #dc7 that ,voltaire always remained on friendly terms with both ,pope and ,bolingbroke2 but adds that this can scarcely be alleged as a proof of his innocence1 for neither ,pope nor ,bolingbroke would1 for such an offence1 have been likely to quarrel with a man in a position so peculiar as that of ,voltaire4 ,his flattery was pleasant4444 ,such an argument is worse than nugatory4 ,that ,bolingbroke spoke ill in private of ,voltaire on general grounds counts for nothing4 ,he did the same of ,pope and of nearly all his friends4 ,mr4 ,collins further accuses ,voltaire of baseness1 falsehood1 and hypocrisy on the mere score of his habit of extravagant flattery4 ,this was notoriously the ,french mode in that age2 but it had been just as much the mode in seventeenth-century ,england1 from the ,jacobean translators of the ,bible to ,dryden--to name no others4 ,and ,mr4 ,collins in effect charges systematic hypocrisy upon both ,pope and ,bolingbroke4 ,other stories of ,ruffhead's against ,voltaire are equally improbable and ill-vouched--as ,mr4 ,collins incidentally admits1 though he forgets the admission4 ,they all come from ,warburton1 himself convicted of double-dealing with ,pope2 and they finally stand for the hatred of ,frenchmen which was so common in eighteenth-century ,england1 and is apparently not yet quite extinct4 ,those who would have a sane1 searching1 and competent estimate of ,voltaire1 leaning humanely to the side of goodwill1 should turn to the ,voltaire of ,m4 ,champion4 ,a brief estimate was attempted by the present writer in the ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 ,annual for #aiab4 #aa4 ,it is difficult to realize how far the mere demand for tolerance which sounds from ,voltaire's plays and poems before he has begun to assail credences was a signal and an inspiration to new thinkers4 ,certain it is that the principle of toleration1 passed on by ,holland to ,england1 was regarded by the orthodox priesthood in ,france as the abomination of desolation1 and resisted by them with all their power4 ,but the contagion was unquenchable4 ,it was presumably in ,holland that there were printed in #agch the two volumes of ,lettres sur la religion essentielle l'homme1 distingue de ce qui n'en est que l'accessoire1 by ,marie ,huber1 a ,genevese lady living in ,lyons2 also the two following parts 7#agci71 replying to criticisms on the earlier4 ,in its gentle way1 the book stands very distinctly for the natural and ethical principle in religion1 denying that the deity demands from men either service or worship1 or that he can be wronged by their deeds1 or that he can punish them eternally for their sins4 ,this was one of the first ,french fruits1 after ,voltaire1 of the ,english deistic influence2 #iie and it is difficult to understand how the authoress escaped molestation4 ,perhaps the memory of the persecution inflicted on the mystic ,madame ,guyon withheld the hand of power4 ,as it was1 four ,protestant theologians opened fire on her1 regarding her doctrine as hostile to ,christianity4 ,one pastor wrote from ,geneva1 one from ,amsterdam1 and two professors from ,zurich--the two last in ,latin4 #iif ,from about #agdf onwards1 the rationalist movement in eighteenth-century ,france rapidly widens and deepens4 ,the number of rationalistic writers1 despite the press laws which in that age inflicted the indignity of imprisonment on half the men of letters1 increased from decade to decade1 and the rising prestige of the philosophes in connection with the ,encyclopdie 7#agea-gb7 gave new courage to writers and printers4 ,at once the ecclesiastical powers saw in the ,encyclopdie a dangerous enemy2 and in ,january1 #ageb1 the ,sorbonne condemned a thesis ,to the celestial ,jerusalem1 by the ,abb de ,prades4 ,it had at first 7#agea7 been received with official applause1 but was found on study to breathe the spirit of the new work1 #iig to which the ,abb had contributed1 and whose editor1 ,diderot1 was his friend4 ,sooth to say1 it contained not a little matter calculated to act as a solvent of faith4 ,under the form of a vindication of orthodox ,catholicism1 it negated alike ,descartes and ,leibnitz2 and declared that the science of ,newton and the ,dutch physiologists was a better defence of religion than the theses of ,clarke1 ,descartes1 ,cudworth1 and ,malebranche1 which made for materialism4 ,the handling1 too1 of the question of natural versus revealed religion1 in which theism is declared to be superior to all religions si unam excipias veram1 if you except the one true1 might well arouse distrust in a vigilant ,catholic reader4 #iih ,the whole argument savours far more of the scientific comparative method than was natural in the work of an eighteenth-century seminarist2 and the principle1 ,either we are ocular witnesses of the facts or we know them only by hearsay1 #iii was plainly as dangerous to the ,christian creed as to any other4 ,according to ,naigeon1 #ajjj the treatise was wholly the work of de ,prades and another ,abb1 ,yvon2 #ajja but it remains probable that ,diderot inspired not a little of the reasoning2 and the clericals1 bent on putting down the ,encyclopdie1 professed to have discovered that he was the real author of the thesis4 ,either this belief or a desire to strike at the ,encyclopdie through one of its collaborators #ajjb was the motive of the absurdly belated censure4 ,such a fiasco evoked much derision from the philosophic party1 particularly from ,voltaire2 and the ,sorbonne compassed a new revenge4 ,soon after came the formal condemnation of the first two volumes of the ,encyclopdie1 of which the second had just appeared4 #ajjc ,d',argenson1 watching in his vigilant retirement the course of things on all hands1 sees in the episode a new and dangerous development1 the establishment of a veritable inquisition in ,france1 of which the ,jesuits joyfully take charge1 though he repeatedly remarks also on the eagerness of the ,jansenists to outgo the ,jesuits4 #ajjd ,but soon the publication of the ,encyclopdie is resumed2 and in #agec ,d',argenson contentedly notes the official bestowal of tacit permissions to print secretly books which could not obtain formal authorization4 ,the permission had been given first by the ,president ,malesherbes2 but even when that official lost the king's confidence the practice was continued by the lieutenant of police4 #ajje ,despite the staggering blow of the suppression of the ,encyclopdie1 the philosophes speedily triumphed4 ,so great was the discontent even at court that soon 7#ageb7 ,madame de ,pompadour and some of the ministry invited ,d',alembert and ,diderot to resume their work1 observing a necessary reserve in all things touching religion and authority4 ,madame de ,pompadour was in fact1 as ,d',alembert said at her death1 in her heart one of ours1 as was ,d',argenson4 ,but ,d',alembert1 in a long private conference with ,d',argenson1 insisted that they must write in freedom like the ,english and the ,prussians1 or not at all4 ,already there was talk of suppressing the philosophic works of ,condillac1 which a few years before had gone uncondemned2 and freedom must be preserved at any cost4 ,i acquiesce1 writes the ex-,minister1 in these arguments4 #ajjf ,curiously enough1 the freethinking ,fontenelle1 who for a time 7the dates are elusive7 held the office of royal censor1 was more rigorous than other officials who had not his reputation for heterodoxy4 ,one day he refused to pass a certain manuscript1 and the author put the challenge3 ,you1 sir1 who have published the ,histoire des ,oracles1 refuse me this8 ,if ,i had been the censor of the ,oracles1 replied ,fontenelle1 ,i should not have passed it4 #ajjg ,and he had cause for his caution4 ,the unlucky ,tercier1 who1 engrossed in foreign affairs1 had authorized the publication of the ,de l',esprit of ,helvtius1 was compelled to resign the censorship1 and severely rebuked by the ,paris ,parlement4 #ajjh ,but the culture-history of the period1 like the political1 was one of ups and downs4 ,from time to time the philosophic party had friends at court1 as in the persons of the ,marquis ,d',argenson1 ,malesherbes1 and the ,duc de ,choiseul1 of whom the last-named engineered the suppression of the ,jesuits4 #ajji ,then there were checks to the forward movement in the press1 as when1 in #aggj1 ,choiseul was forced to retire on the advent of ,madame ,du ,barry4 ,the output of freethinking books is after that year visibly curtailed4 ,but nothing could arrest the forward movement of opinion4 #ab4 ,a new era of propaganda and struggle had visibly begun4 ,in the earlier part of the century freethought had been disseminated largely by way of manuscripts #ajaj and reprints of foreign books in translation2 but from the middle onwards1 despite denunciations and prohibitions1 new books multiply4 ,to the policy of tacit toleration imposed by ,malesherbes a violent end was temporarily put in #ageg1 when the ,jesuits obtained a proclamation of the death penalty against all writers who should attack the ,christian religion1 directly or indirectly4 ,it was doubtless under the menace of this decree that ,deslandes1 before dying in #ageg1 caused to be drawn up by two notaries an acte by which he disavowed and denounced not only his ,grands hommes morts en plaisantant but all his other works1 whether printed or in ,,ms41 in which he had laid down principles or sustained sentiments contrary to the spirit of religion4 #ajaa ,but in #agfd1 on the suppression of the ,jesuits1 there was a vigorous resumption of propaganda4 ,there are books1 writes ,voltaire in #agfe1 of which forty years ago one would not have trusted the manuscript to one's friends1 and of which there are now published six editions in eighteen months4 #ajab ,voltaire single-handed produced a library2 and d',holbach is credited with at least a dozen freethinking treatises1 every one remarkable in its day4 ,but there were many more combatants4 ,the reputation of ,voltaire has overshadowed even that of his leading contemporaries1 and theirs and his have further obscured that of the lesser men2 but a list of miscellaneous freethinking works by ,french writers during the century1 up to the ,revolution1 will serve to show how general was the activity after #agej4 ,it will be seen that very little was published in ,france in the period in which ,english deism was most fecund4 ,a noticeable activity of publication begins about #agde4 ,but it was when the long period of chronic warfare ended for ,france with the peace of ,paris 7#agfc72 when she had lost ,india and ,north ,america2 when she had suppressed the ,jesuit order 7#agfd72 and when ,england had in the main turned from intellectual interests to the pursuit of empire and the development of manufacturing industry1 that the released ,french intelligence #ajac turned with irresistible energy to the rational criticism of established opinions4 ,the following table is thus symbolic of the whole century's development3-- #agjj4 ,lettre d',hypocrate ,damagte1 attributed to the ,comte de ,boulainvilliers4 7,cologne47 ,rep4 in ,bibliothque ,volante1 ,amsterdam1 #agjj4 #agjj4 ,claude ,gilbert4 ,histoire de ,calejava1 ou de l'isle des hommes raisonnables1 avec le parallle de leur morale et du ,christianisme4 ,dijon4 ,suppressed by the author3 only one copy known to have escaped4 #agjd4 ,gueudeville4 ,dialogues de ,m4 le ,baron de la ,houtan et d'un sauvage dans l',amrique4 7,amsterdam47 #agji4 ,lettre sur l'enthousiasme 7,fr4 tr4 of ,shaftesbury1 by ,samson74 ,la ,haye4 #agaj4 ,tyssot de ,patot1 ,symon4 ,voyages et ,avantures de ,jaques ,mass4 7,bourdeaux47 #agaj4 ,essai sur l'usage de la raillerie 7,fr4 tr4 of ,shaftesbury1 by ,van ,effen74 ,la ,haye4 #agab4 ,deslandes1 ,a4 ,f4 ,b4 ,reflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont morts en plaisantant4 #ajad 7,amsterdam47 #agad4 ,discours sur la libert de penser ,french tr4 of ,collins's ,discourse of ,freethinking1 traduit de l'anglois et augment d'une ,lettre d'un ,mdecin ,arabe4 7,tr4 by ,henri ,scheurler and ,jean ,rousset47 ,rep4 #agag4 #ajae #agai4 ,vroes4 ,la ,vie et l',esprit de ,m4 ,benot de ,spinoza4 #agbj4 ,same work rep4 under the double title3 ,de tribus impostoribus3 ,des trois imposteurs4 ,frankfort on ,main4 #agbd4 ,lvesque de ,burigny4 ,histoire de la philosophie payenne4 ,la ,haye1 #b tom4 #agcj4 ,bernard1 ,j4-,f4 ,dialogues critiques et philosophiques4 ,par l',abb de ,charte-,livry4 7,amsterdam47 ,rep4 #agce4 #agca4 ,rfutation des erreurs de ,benot de ,spinoza1 par ,fnelon1 le ,p4 ,laury1 bendictin1 et ,boulainvilliers1 avec la vie de ,spinoza 444 par ,colerus1 etc4 7collected and published by ,lenglet du ,fresnoy74 ,bruxelles 7really ,amsterdam74 ,the treatise of ,boulainvilliers is really a popular exposition4 #agcb4 ,re-issue of ,deslandes's ,rflexions4 #agcd4 ,voltaire4 ,lettres philosophiques4 #d edd4 within the year4 ,condemned to be burned4 ,publisher imprisoned4 #agcd4 ,longue1 ,louis-,pierre de4 ,les ,princesses ,malabares1 ou le ,clibat ,philosophique4 ,deistic allegory4 ,condemned to be burned4 #agcg4 ,marquis ,d',argens4 ,la ,philosophie du ,bon ,sens4 7,berlin3 #hth edition1 ,dresden1 #aged47 #agch4 ----1 ,lettres ,juives4 #f tom4 7,berlin47 #agch4 ,marie ,huber4 ,lettres sur la religion essentielle l'homme1 distingue de ce qui n'en est que l'accessoire4 #b tom4 7,nominally ,london47 ,rep4 #agci and #agef4 #agci4 ----1 ,suite to the foregoing1 servant de rponse aux objections1 etc4 ,also ,suite de la troisime partie4 #agda4 ,deslandes4 ,pigmalion1 ou la ,statue anime4 ,condemned to be burnt by ,parlement of ,dijon1 #agdb4 #agda4 ----1 ,de la ,certitude des connaissances humaines 444 traduit de l'anglais par ,f4 ,a4 ,d4 ,l4 ,v4 #agdc4 ,nouvelles liberts de penser4 ,amsterdam4 ,edited by ,dumarsais4 ,contains the first print of ,fontenelle's ,trait de la ,libert1 ,dumarsais's short essays ,le ,philosophe and ,de la raison1 ,mirabaud's ,sentimens des philosophes sur la nature de l'me1 etc4 #agde4 ,lieut4 ,de la ,serre4 ,la vraie religion traduite de l',ecriture ,sainte1 par permission de ,jean1 ,luc1 ,marc1 et ,matthieu4 7,nominally ,trvoux1 aux dpens des ,pres de la ,socit de ,jsus47 ,appeared later as ,examen1 etc4 ,condemned to be burnt by ,parlement of ,paris4 ,this book was republished in the same year with demontre par substituted in the title for traduite de1 and purporting to be traduit de l',anglais de ,gilbert ,burnet1 with the imprint ,londres1 ,g4 ,cock1 #agde4 ,it appeared again in #agfa as ,examen de la religion dont on cherche l'claircissement de bonne foi4 ,attribu ,m4 de ,saint-,evremont1 traduit1 etc41 with the same imprint4 ,it again bore the latter title when reprinted in #agfc1 and again in the vangile de la ,raison in #agfd4 ,voltaire in #agfc declared it to be the work of ,dumarsais1 pronouncing it to be assuredly not in the style of ,saint-,evremond 7,grimm1 iv1 #he-hh2 ,voltaire1 ,lettre ,damilaville1 #f dc4 #agfc71 adding mais il est fort tronqu et dtestablement imprim4 ,this is true of the reprints in the vangile de la ,raison 7#agfd1 etc471 of one of which the present writer possesses a copy to which there has been appended in ,,ms4 a long section which had been lacking4 ,the vangile as a whole purports to be ,ouvrage posthume de ,m4 ,d4 ,m444444y4 #ajaf ,but its first volume includes four pieces of ,voltaire's1 and his abridged ,testament de ,jean ,meslier4 ,further1 ,de la ,serre is recorded to have claimed the authorship in writing on the eve of his death4 ,barbier1 ,dict4 des ,anonymes1 #b;e d1 ,no4 #faeh4 ,he is said to have been hanged as a spy at ,maestricht1 ,april #aa1 #agdh4 #agde4 ,la ,mettrie4 ,histoire naturelle de l'me4 ,condemned to be burnt1 #agdf4 ,rep4 as ,trait de l'me4 #agdf4 ,diderot4 ,penses philosophiques4 ,condemned to be burnt4 #agdh4 ,p4 ,estve4 ,l',origine de l',univers explique par un principe de matire4 7,berlin47 #agdh4 ,benot de ,maillet4 ,telliamed1 ou ,entretiens d'un philosophe indien avec un missionaire franais4 7,printed privately1 #agce2 rep4 #agee47 #agdh4 ,la ,mettrie4 ,l',homme ,machine4 #agej4 ,nouvelles liberts de penser4 ,rep4 #agea4 ,mirabaud1 ,j4 ,b4 de4 ,le ,monde1 son origine et son antiquit4 ,edited by the ,abb ,le ,maserier 7who contributed the preface and the third part7 and ,dumarsais4 #agea4 ,de ,prades4 ,sorbonne ,thesis4 #ageb4 ,gouvest1 ,j4 ,h4 ,maubert de4 ,lettres ,iroquoises4 ,irocopolis1 chez les ,vnrables4 #b tom4 7,rep4 #agfi as ,lettres cheraksiennes47 #ageb4 ,gnard1 ,f4 ,l'cole de l'homme1 ou ,parallle des ,portraits du sicle et des tableaux de l'criture sainte4 #ajag ,amsterdam1 #c tom4 ,author imprisoned4 #agec4 ,baume-,desdossat1 ,canon of ,avignon4 ,la ,christiade4 ,book suppressed4 ,author fined4 #ajah #agec4 ,maupertuis4 ,systme de la nature4 #agec4 ,astruc1 ,jean4 ,conjectures sur les mmoires originaux dont il parait que ,mose s'est servi pour composer le livre de la ,gense4 ,bruxelles4 #aged4 ,prmontval1 ,a4 ,i4 le ,guay de4 ,le ,diogne de d',alembert1 ou ,penses libres sur l'homme4 ,berlin4 7#bnd ed4 enlarged1 #agee47 #aged4 ,burigny1 ,j4 ,l4 ,thologie payenne4 #b tom4 7,new ed4 of his ,histoire de la philosophie1 #agbd47 #aged4 ,diderot4 ,penses sur l'interpretation de la nature4 #aged4 ,beausobre1 ,l4 de 7the younger74 ,pyrrhonisme du ,sage4 ,berlin4 7,burned by ,paris ,parlement47 #agee4 ,recherches philosophiques sur la libert de l'homme4 ,trans4 of ,collins's ,philosophical ,inquiry concerning ,human ,liberty4 #agee4 ,voltaire4 ,pome ,sur la loi naturelle4 #agee4 ,analyse raisonne de ,bayle4 #d tom4 ,by the ,abb de ,marsy4 ,suppressed4 #ajai ,continued in #aggc1 in #d new vols41 by ,robinet4 #agee4 ,morelly4 ,code de la ,nature4 #agee4 ,deleyre4 ,analyse de la philosophie de ,bacon4 7,largely an exposition of ,deleyre's own views47 #ageg4 ,prmontval4 ,vues ,philosophiques4 7,amsterdam47 ,in this year--apparently after one of vigilant repression--was pronounced the death penalty against all writers attacking religion4 ,hence a general suspension of publication4 ,in #agfd the ,jesuits were suppressed1 and the policy of censorship was soon paralysed4 #ageh4 ,helvtius4 ,de l',esprit4 7,authorized4 ,then condemned47 #agei4 ,voltaire4 ,candide4 7,genve47 #agei4 ,translation of ,hume's ,natural ,history of ,religion and ,philosophical ,essays4 7,by ,mrian47 ,amsterdam4 #agfa4 ,n4-,a4 ,boulanger4 #ajbj ,recherches sur l'origine du despotisme oriental1 et des superstitions4 ,ouvrage posthume de ,mr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,d4 ,p4 ,e4 ,c4 #agfa4 ,rep4 of ,de la ,serre's ,la vraie religion as ,examen de la religion1 etc4 #agfa4 ,d',holbach4 ,le ,christianisme dvoil4 ,imprint3 ,londres1 #agef4 ,really printed at ,nancy in #agfa4 ,wrongly attributed to ,boulanger and to ,damilaville4 ,rep4 #agfg and #aggg4 ,grimm 7,corr4 indite1 #ahbi1 p4 #aid7 speaks in #agfc of this book in his notice of ,boulanger1 remarking that the title was apparently meant to suggest the author of ,l',antiquit dvoile1 but that it was obviously by another hand4 ,the ,antiquit1 in fact1 was the concluding section of ,boulanger's posthumous ,despotisme ,oriental 7#agfa71 and was not published till #agff4 ,grimm professed ignorance as to the authorship1 but must have known it1 as did ,voltaire1 who by way of mystification ascribed the book to ,damilaville4 ,see ,barbier4 #agfb4 ,rousseau4 mile4 ,publicly burned at ,paris and at ,geneva4 ,condemned by the ,sorbonne4 #agfb4 ,robinet1 ,j4 ,b4 ,de la nature4 ,vol4 i4 7,vol4 ii in #agfd2 iii and iv in #agff47 #agfc4 ,voltaire4 ,sal4 ,genve4 #agfc4 ---- ,dialogue entre un ,caloyer et un honnte homme4 #agfc4 ,rep4 of ,de la ,serres' ,examen4 #agfd4 ,discours sur la libert de penser4 7,rep4 of trans4 of ,collins47 #agfd4 ,voltaire4 ,dictionnaire philosophique portatif4 #ajba ,first form of the ,dictionnaire philosophique4 ,burned in #agfe4 #agfd4 ,lettres secrtes de ,m4 de ,voltaire4 ,holland4 ,collection of tracts made by ,robinet1 against ,voltaire's will4 #agfd4 ,voltaire4 ,mlanges1 #c tom4 ,genve4 #agfd4 ,dulaurens1 ,abb ,h4 ,j4 ,l',artin4 #agfd4 ,l'vangile de la ,raison4 ,ouvrage posthume de ,m4 ,d4 ,m----y4 ,ed4 by ,abb ,dulaurens2 containing the ,testament de ,jean ,meslier 7greatly abridged and adapted by ,voltaire72 ,voltaire's ,catchisme de l'honnte homme1 ,sermon des cinquante1 etc42 the ,examen de la religion1 attribu ,m4 de ,st4 ,evremond2 ,rousseau's ,vicaire ,savoyard1 from mile2 ,dumarsais's ,analyse de la religion chrtienne1 etc4 ,rep4 #agfe and #agff4 #agfe4 ,recueil ,ncessaire1 avec ,l'vangile de la ,raison1 #b tom4 ,rep4 of parts of the vangile4 ,rep4 #agfg1 #ajbb #agfh1 with ,voltaire's ,examen important de ,milord ,bolingbroke substituted for that of ,de la ,serre 7attribu a ,m4 de ,st4 ,evremond71 and with a revised set of extracts from ,meslier4 #agfe4 ,castillon1 ,j4 ,l4 ,essai de philosophic morale4 #agff4 ,boulanger1 ,n4 ,a4 ,l',antiquit dvoile4 #ajbc #c tom4 ,recast by d',holbach4 ,life of author by ,diderot4 #agff4 ,voyage de ,robertson aux terres australes4 ,traduit sur le ,manuscrit ,anglois4 ,amsterdam4 ,barbier 7,dict4 des ,ouvr4 ,anon41 #b;e d4 iii1 #dcg7 has a note concerning this ,voyage which pleasantly illustrates the strategy that went on in the issue of freethinking books4 ,an ex-censor of the period1 he tells us1 wrote a note on the original edition pointing out that it contains 7pp4 #ade-ed7 a tirade against ,parlements4 ,this passage was suppressed to obtain permission to bring the book into ,france1 and a new passage attacking the ,encyclopdistes under the name of ,pansophistes was inserted at another point4 ,the ex-censor had a copy of an edition of #agfg1 in #abmo1 better printed than the first and on better paper4 ,in this1 at p4 #hg1 line #cj1 begins the attack on the ,encyclopdistes1 which continues to p4 #ic4 ,if this is accurate1 there has taken place a double mystification4 ,i possess a copy dated #agfg1 in #abmo1 in which no page has so many as #cj lines1 and in which there has been no typographical change whatever in pp4 #hg-ic1 where there is no mention of ,encyclopdistes4 ,but pp4 #ade-ed are clearly a typographical substitution1 in different type1 with fewer lines to the page4 ,here there is a narrative about the ,pansophistes of the imaginary ,australie2 but while it begins with enigmatic satire it ends by praising them for bringing about a great intellectual and social reform4 ,if the censure was induced to pass the book as it is in this edition by this insertion1 it was either very heedless or very indulgent4 ,there is a sweeping attack on the papacy 7pp4 #ia-ii71 and another on the ,jesuits 7pp4 #ajj-ajb72 and it leans a good deal towards republicanism4 ,but on a balance1 though clearly anti-clerical1 it is rather socio-political than freethinking in its criticism4 ,the words on the title-page1 traduit sur le manuscrit anglois1 are of course pure mystification4 ,it is a romance of the ,utopia school1 and criticizes ,english conditions as well as ,french4 #agff4 ,de ,prades4 ,abrg de l'histoire ecclsiastique de ,fleury4 7,berlin47 ,pref4 by ,frederick the ,great4 7,rep4 #agfg47 #agff4 ,burigny4 ,examen critique des ,apologistes de la religion chrtienne4 ,published 7by ,naigeon 87 under the name of ,frret4 #ajbd ,twice rep4 in #agfg4 ,condemned to be burnt1 #aggj4 #agff4 ,voltaire4 ,le philosophe ignorant4 #agff4 ,abb ,millot4 ,histoire philosophique de l'homme4 ,naturalistic theory of human beginnings4 #agfg4 ,castillon4 ,almanach ,philosophique4 #agfg4 ,doutes sur la religion 7attributed to ,gueroult de ,pival71 suivi de l',analyse du ,trait thologique-politique de ,spinoza 7by ,boulainvilliers74 ,rep4 with additions in #agib under the title ,doutes sur les religions rvles1 adresss ,voltaire1 par milie du ,chatelet4 ,ouvrage posthume4 #agfg4 ,dulaurens4 ,l'antipapisme rvl4 #agfg4 ,lettre de ,thrasybule ,leucippe4 ,published under the name of ,frret 7d4 #agdi74 ,written or edited by ,naigeon4 #ajbe #agfg4 ,d',holbach4 ,l',imposture sacerdotale1 ou ,recueil de pices sur la clerg1 traduites de l'anglois4 #agfg4 ,voltaire4 ,collection des lettres sur les miracles4 #agfg4 ---- ,examen important de milord ,bolingbroke4 #agfg4 ,marmontel4 ,blisaire4 7,censured by the ,sorbonne47 #agfg4 ,damilaville4 ,l'honntet thologique4 #agfg4 ,reprint of ,le ,christianisme dvoil4 ,condemned to be burnt1 #agfh and #aggj4 #agfg4 ,voltaire4 ,questions sur les ,miracles4 ,par un ,proposant4 #agfg4 ,seconde partie of the ,recherches sur l'origine du despotisme4 #agfh4 ,meister1 ,j4 ,h4 ,de l'origine des principes religieux4 ,author banished from his native town1 ,zurich1 in perpetuity 7decree rescinded in #aggb71 and book publicly burned there by the hangman4 #ajbf ,meister published a modified edition at ,zurich in #agfi4 ,orig4 rep4 in the ,recueil ,philosophique1 #aggj4 #agfh4 ,catalogue raisonn des esprits forts1 depuis le cur ,rabelais jusqu'au cur ,meslier4 #agfh4 ,d',holbach4 ,la ,contagion sacre1 ou histoire naturelle de la superstition4 ,condemned to be burnt1 #aggj4 #agfh4 ---- ,lettres philosophiques sur l'origine des prjugs1 etc41 traduites de l'anglois 7of ,toland74 #agfh4 ---- ,lettres ,eugnie1 ou preservatif contre les prjugs4 #b tom4 #agfh4 ---- ,thologie ,portative4 ,par l'abb ,bernier4 ,also burnt1 #aggf4 #agfh4 ,trait des trois ,imposteurs4 7,see #agai and #agbj47 ,rep4 #agge1 #aggg1 #agic4 #agfh4 ,naigeon1 ,j4 ,a4 ,le militaire philosophe4 ,adaptation of a ,,ms4 ,the last chapter by d',holbach4 #agfh4 ,d',argens4 ,o,euvres compltes1 #bd tom4 ,berlin4 #agfh4 ,examen des prophties qui servent de fondement la religion chrtienne 7tr4 from ,collins by d',holbach74 #agfh4 ,robinet4 ,considrations philosophiques4 #agfi-aghj4 ,l'vangile du jour4 #ah tom4 ,series of pieces1 chiefly by ,voltaire4 #agfi4 ,diderot4 ,also ascribed to ,castillon4 ,histoire gnrale des dogmes et opinions philosophiques 444 tire du ,dictionnaire encyclopdique4 ,londres1 #c tom4 #agfi4 ,mirabaud4 ,opinions des anciens sur les juifs1 and ,rflexions impartiales sur l'vangile #ajbg 7rep4 in #aggg as ,examen critique du ,nouveau ,testament74 #agfi4 ,isoard-,delisle1 otherwise ,delisle de ,sales4 ,de la ,philosophie de la ,nature4 #f tom4 ,author imprisoned4 ,book condemned to be burnt1 #agge4 #agfi4 ,seguier de ,saint-,brisson4 ,trait des ,droits de ,gnie1 dans lequel on examine si la connoissance de la verit est avantageuse aux hommes et possible au philosophe4 ,carolsrouhe1 #agfi4 ,a strictly naturalistic-ethical theory of society4 ,contains an attack on the doctrine of ,rousseau1 in mile1 on the usefulness of religious error4 #agfi4 ,l'enfer dtruit1 traduit de l',anglois by d',holbach4 #aggj4 ,d',holbach4 ,histoire critique de ,jsus ,christ4 #aggj4 ---- ,examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de ,saint ,paul 7tr4 from ,english of ,peter ,annet74 #aggj4 ---- ,essai sur les ,prjugs4 7,not by ,dumarsais1 whose name on the title-page is a mystification47 #aggj4 ---- ,systme de la ,nature4 #b tom4 #aggj4 ,recueil ,philosophique4 #b tom4 ,edited by ,naigeon4 ,contains a rep4 of ,dumarsais's essays ,le ,philosophe and ,de la raison1 an extract from ,tindal1 essays by ,vauvenargues and ,frret 7or ,fontenelle71 three by ,mirabaud1 ,diderot's ,penses sur la religion1 several essays by d',holbach1 ,meister's ,de l'origine des principes religieux1 etc4 #aggj4 ,analyse de ,bayle4 ,rep4 of the four vols4 of ,de ,marsy1 with four more by ,robinet4 #aggj4 ,l',esprit du ,judaisme4 7,trans4 from ,collins by d',holbach47 #aggj4 ,raynal 7with ,diderot and others74 ,histoire philosophique des deux ,indes4 ,containing atheistic arguments by ,diderot4 ,suppressed1 #aggb4 ,in this year there were condemned to be burned seven freethinking works3 d',holbach's ,contagion ,sacre2 ,voltaire's ,dieu et les ,hommes2 the ,french translation 7undated7 of ,woolston's ,discourses on the ,miracles of ,jesus ,christ2 ,frret's 7really ,burigny's7 ,examen critique de la religion chrtienne2 an ,examen impartial des principales religions du monde1 undated2 d',holbach's ,christianisme dvoil2 and his ,systme de la ,nature4 #aggb4 ,le ,bon ,sens4 ,adaptation from ,meslier by ,diderot and d',holbach4 ,condemned to be burnt1 #aggd4 #aggb4 ,de la nature humaine4 ,trans4 of ,hobbes by d',holbach4 #aggc4 ,helvtius4 ,de l',homme4 ,ouvrage posthume4 #b tom4 ,condemned to be burnt1 ,jan4 #aj1 #aggd4 ,rep4 #agge4 #aggc4 ,carra1 ,j4 ,l4 ,systme de la ,raison1 ou le prophte philosophe4 #aggc4 ,burigny 7874 ,recherches sur les miracles4 #aggc4 ,d',holbach4 ,la politique naturelle4 #b tom4 #aggc4 ----4 ,systme ,sociale4 #c tom4 #aggd4 ,abauzit1 ,f4 ,rflexions impartiales sur les vangiles1 suivies d'un essai sur l',apocalypse4 7,abauzit died #agfg47 #aggd4 ,condorcet4 ,lettres d'un ,thologien4 7,atheistic47 #aggd4 ,new edition of ,theologie ,portative4 #b tom4 ,condemned to be burnt4 #agge4 ,voltaire4 ,histoire de ,jenni1 ou ,le ,sage et l',athe4 ,attack on atheism4 #aggf4 ,d',holbach4 ,la morale universelle4 #c tom4 #aggf4 ---- ,ethocratie4 #aggg4 ,examen critique du ,nouveau ,testament1 par ,m4 ,frret4 ,not by ,frret4 ,a rep4 of ,mirabaud's ,rflexions impartiales sur l'vangile1 #agfi1 which was probably written about #agej1 being replied to in the ,rfutation du ,celse moderne of the ,abb ,gautier1 #ageb and #agfe4 #aggg4 ,carra4 ,esprit de la morale et de la philosophie4 #aggh4 ,barthez1 ,p4 ,j4 ,nouveaux lments de la science de l'homme4 #aggi4 ,vie d',apollonius de ,tyane par ,philostrate1 avec les commentaires donns en anglois par ,charles ,blount sur les deux premiers livres4 ,trans4 by ,j4-,f4 ,salvemini de ,castillon1 ,berlin4 ,amsterdam1 #d tom4 7,in addition to ,blount's pref4 and notes there is a scoffing dedication to ,pope ,clement ,,xiv47 #aghj4 ,duvernet1 ,abb ,th4 ,j4 ,l',intolrance religieuse4 #aghj4 ,clootz1 ,anacharsis4 ,la ,certitude des preuves du ,mahomtisme4 ,reply by way of parody to ,bergier's work1 noted on p4 #bej4 #aghj4 ,second ed4 of ,raynal's ,histoire philosophique1 with additions4 7,condemned to be burnt1 #agha47 #agha4 ,marchal1 ,sylvain4 ,le nouveau ,lucrce4 #aghc4 ,brissot de ,warville4 ,lettres philosophiques sur ,s4 ,paul4 #aghd4 ,doray de ,longrais4 ,faustin1 ou le sicle philosophique4 #aghd4 ,pougens1 ,m4 ,c4 ,j4 de4 ,rcrations de philosophie et de morale4 #aghe4 ,marchal4 ,livre chapp au ,dluge4 ,author dismissed4 #aghg4 ,marquis ,pastoret4 ,zoroastre1 ,confucius1 et ,mahomet4 #aghh4 ,meister4 ,de la morale naturelle4 #aghh4 ,pastoret4 ,mose considr comme legislateur et comme moraliste4 #aghh4 ,marchal4 ,almanach des honntes gens4 ,author imprisoned2 book burnt4 #aghi4 ,volney4 ,les ,ruines des ,empires4 #aghi4 ,duvernet1 ,abb4 ,les ,dvotions de ,madame de ,betzamooth4 #aghi4 ,cerutti 7,jesuit ,father74 ,brviaire ,philosophique1 ou ,histoire du ,judaisme1 du ,christianisme1 et du ,disme4 #agia-c4 ,naigeon4 ,dictionnaire de la philosophie ancienne et moderne4 #agie4 ,dupuis4 ,de l'origine de tous les ,cultes4 #e tom4 #agie4 ,la ,fable de ,christ dvoile2 ou ,lettre du muphti de ,constantinople ,jean ,ange ,braschy1 muphti de ,rome4 #agig4 ,rep4 of d',holbach's ,contagion sacre1 with notes by ,lemaire4 #agih4 ,marchal4 ,penses libres sur les prtres4 ,a ,rome1 et se trouve ,paris1 chez les ,marchands de ,nouveauts4 ,l',an ,ier de la ,raison1 et ,,vi de la ,rpublique ,franaise4 #ac4 ,it will be noted that after #aggj--;coincidently1 indeed1 with a renewed restraint upon the press--there is a notable falling-off in the freethinking output4 ,rationalism had now permeated educated ,france2 and1 for different but analogous reasons1 the stress of discussion gradually shifted as it had done in ,england4 ,france in #agfj stood to the religious problem somewhat as ,england did in #agcj1 repeating the deistic evolution with a difference4 ,by that time ,england was committed to the new paths of imperialism and commercialism2 whereas ,france1 thrown back on the life of ideas and on her own politico-economic problems1 went on producing the abundant propaganda we have noted1 and1 alongside of it1 an independent propaganda of economics and politics4 ,at the end of #agfg1 the leading ,french diarist #ajbh notes that there is formed at ,paris a new sect1 called the ,economists1 and names its leading personages1 ,quesnay1 ,mirabeau the elder1 the ,abb ,baudeau1 ,mercier de la ,rivire1 and ,turgot4 ,these developed the doctrine of agricultural or real production which so stimulated and influenced ,adam ,smith4 ,but immediately afterwards #ajbi the diarist notes a rival sect1 the school of ,forbonnais1 who founded mainly on the importance of commerce and manufactures4 ,each sect had its journal4 ,the intellectual ferment had inevitably fructified thought upon economic as upon historical1 religious1 and scientific problems2 and there was in operation a fourfold movement1 all tending to make possible the immense disintegration of the ,state which began in #aghi4 ,after the ,economists came the ,patriots1 who directed towards the actual political machine the spirit of investigation and reform4 ,and the whole effective movement is not unplausibly to be dated from the fall of the ,jesuits in #agfd4 #ajcj ,inevitably the forces interacted3 ,montesquieu and ,rousseau alike dealt with both the religious and the social issues2 d',holbach in his first polemic1 the ,christianisme dvoil1 opens the stern impeachment of kings and rulers which he develops so powerfully in the ,essai sur les ,prjugs2 and the ,encyclopdie sent its search-rays over all the fields of inquiry4 ,but of the manifold work done by the ,french intellect in the second and third generations of the eighteenth century1 the most copious and the most widely influential body of writings that can be put under one category is that of which we have above made a chronological conspectus4 ,of these works the merit is of course very various2 but the total effect of the propaganda was formidable1 and some of the treatises are extremely effective4 ,the ,examen critique of ,burigny1 #ajca for instance1 which quickly won a wide circulation when printed1 is one of the most telling attacks thus far made on the ,christian system1 raising as it does most of the issues fought over by modern criticism4 ,it tells indeed of a whole generation of private investigation and debate2 and the ,abb ,bergier1 assuming it to be the work of ,frret1 in whose name it is published1 avows that its author has written it in the same style as his academic dissertations3 he has spread over it the same erudition2 he seems to have read everything and mastered everything4 #ajcb ,perhaps not the least effective part of the book is the chapter which asks3 ,are men more perfect since the coming of ,jesus ,christ82 and it is here that the clerical reply is most feeble4 ,the critic cites the claims made by apologists as to the betterment of life by ,christianity1 and then contrasts with those claims the thousand-and-one lamentations by ,christian writers over the utter badness of all the life around them4 ,bergier in reply follows the tactic habitually employed in the same difficulty to-day3 he ignores the fact that his own apologists have been claiming a vast betterment1 and contends that religion is not to be blamed for the evils it condemns4 ,not by such furtive sophistry could the ,church turn the attack1 which1 as ,bergier bitterly observes1 was being made by ,voltaire in a new book every year4 ,as always1 the weaker side of the critical propaganda is its effort at reconstruction4 ,as in ,england1 so in ,france1 the faithful accused the critics of pulling down without building up1 when in point of fact their chief error was to build up--that is1 to rewrite the history of human thought--before they had the required materials1 or had even mastered those which existed4 ,thus ,voltaire and ,rousseau alike framed priori syntheses of the origins of religion and society4 ,but there were closer thinkers than they in the rationalistic ranks4 ,fontenelle's essay ,de l'origine des fables1 though not wholly exempt from error1 admittedly lays aright the foundations of mythology and hierology2 and ,de ,brosses in his treatise ,du ,culte des dieux ftiches 7#agfj7 does a similar service on the side of anthropology4 ,meister's essay ,de l'origine des principes religieux is full of insight and breadth2 and1 despite some errors due to the backwardness of anthropology1 essentially scientific in temper and standpoint4 ,his later essay1 ,de la morale naturelle1 shows the same independence and fineness of speculation1 seeming indeed to tell of a character which missed fame by reason of over-delicacy of fibre and lack of the driving force which marked the foremost men of that tempestuous time4 ,vauvenargues's essay ,de la suffisance de la religion naturelle is no less clinching1 granted its deism4 ,so1 on the side of philosophy1 ,mirabaud1 who was secretary of the ,acadmie from #agdb to #agee1 handles the problem of the relation of deism to ethics--if the posthumous essays in the ,recueil philosophique be indeed his--in a much more philosophic fashion than does ,voltaire1 arguing unanswerably for the ultimate self-dependence of morals4 ,the ,lettre de ,thrasybule ,leucippe1 ascribed to ,frret1 again1 is a notably skilful attack on theism4 #ad4 ,one of the most remarkable of the company in some respects is ,nicolas-,antoine ,boulanger 7#agbb-agei71 of whom ,diderot gives a vivid account in a sketch prefixed to the posthumous ,l',antiquit dvoile par ses usages 7#agff74 ,at the ,collge de ,beauvais1 ,boulanger was so little stimulated by his scholastic teachers that they looked for nothing from him in his maturity4 ,when1 however1 at the age of seventeen1 he began to study mathematics and architecture1 his faculties began to develop2 and the life1 first of a military engineer in #agdc-dd1 and later in the service of the notable department of ,roads and ,bridges--the most efficient of all ,state services under ,louis ,,xv--made him an independent and energetic thinker4 ,the chronic spectacle of the corve1 the forced labour of peasants on the roads1 moved him to indignation2 but he sought peace in manifold study1 the engineer's contact with nature arousing in him all manner of speculations1 geological and sociological4 ,seeking for historic light1 he mastered ,latin1 which he had failed to do at school1 reading widely and voraciously2 and when the ,latins failed to yield him the light he craved he systematically mastered ,greek1 reading the ,greeks as hungrily and with as little satisfaction4 ,then he turned indefatigably to ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 and ,arabic1 gleaning at best verbal clues which at length he wrought into a large1 loose1 imaginative yet immensely erudite schema of ancient social evolution1 in which the physicist's pioneer study of the structure and development of the globe controls the anthropologist's guesswork as to the beginnings of human society4 ,the whole is set forth in the bulky posthumous work ,recherches sur l'origine du despotisme oriental 7#agfa71 and in the further treatise ,l'antiquit dvoile 7#c tom4 #agff71 which is but the concluding section of the first-named4 ,it all yields nothing to modern science2 the unwearying research is all carried on1 as it were1 in the dark2 and the sleepless brain of the pioneer can but weave webs of impermanent speculation from masses of unsifted and unmanageable material4 ,powers which to-day1 on a prepared ground of ascertained science1 might yield the greatest results1 were wasted in a gigantic effort to build a social science out of the chaos of undeciphered antiquity1 natural and human4 ,but the man is nonetheless morally memorable4 ,diderot pictures him with a head ,socratically ugly1 simple and innocent of life1 gentle though vivacious1 reading ,rabbinical ,hebrew in his walks on the high roads1 suffering all his life from domestic persecution1 little contradictory though infinitely learned1 and capable of passing in a moment1 on the stimulus of a new idea1 into a state of profound and entranced absorption4 ,diderot is always enthusiastically generous in praise2 but in reading and reviewing ,boulanger's work we can hardly refuse assent to his friend's claim that if ever man has shown in his career the true characters of genius1 it was he4 ,his immense research was all compassed in a life of thirty-seven years1 occupied throughout in an active profession2 and the diction in which he sets forth his imaginative construction of the past reveals a constant intensity of thought rarely combined with scholarly knowledge4 ,but it was an age of concentrated energy1 carrying in its womb the ,revolution4 ,the perusal of ,boulanger is a sufficient safeguard against the long-cherished hallucination that the ,french freethinking of his age was but a sparkle of raillery4 ,even among some rationalists1 however1 who are content to take hearsay report on these matters1 there appears still to subsist a notion that the main body of the ,french freethinkers of the eighteenth century were mere scoffers1 proceeding upon no basis of knowledge and with no concern for research4 ,such an opinion is possible only to those who have not examined their work4 ,to say nothing more of the effort of ,boulanger1 an erudition much more exact than ,voltaire's and a deeper insight than his and ,rousseau's into the causation of primitive religion inspires the writings of men like ,burigny and ,frret on the one hand1 and ,fontenelle and ,meister on the other4 ,the philosophic reach of ,diderot1 one of the most convinced opponents of the ruling religion1 was recognized by ,goethe4 ,and no critic of the philosophes handled more uncompromisingly than did ,dumarsais #ajcc the vanity of the assumption that a man became a philosopher by merely setting himself in opposition to orthodox belief4 ,dumarsais1 long scholastically famous for his youthful treatise ,des ,tropes1 lived up to his standard1 whatever some of the more eminent philosophes may have done1 being found eminently lovable by pietists who knew him2 while for ,d',alembert he was the ,la ,fontaine of the philosophers in virtue of his lucid simplicity of style4 #ajcd ,the ,analyse de la religion chrtienne printed under his name in some editions of the vangile de la ,raison has been pronounced supposititious4 ,it seems to be the work of at least two hands #ajce of different degrees of instruction2 but1 apart from some errors due to one of these1 it does him no discredit1 being a vigorous criticism of ,scriptural contradictions and anomalies1 such as a ,jansenist atheist might well compose1 though it makes the usual profession of deistic belief4 ,later polemic works1 inspired by those above noticed1 reproduce some of their arguments1 but with an advance in literary skill1 as in the anonymous ,bon ,sens given forth 7#aggb7 by ,diderot and d',holbach as the work of ,jean ,meslier1 but really an independent compilation1 embodying other arguments with his1 and putting the whole with a concision and brilliancy to which he could make no approach4 ,prmontval1 a bad writer1 #ajcf contrives nonetheless to say many pungent things of a deistic order in his ,diogne de d',alembert1 and1 following ,marie ,huber1 puts forward the formula of religion versus theology1 which has done so much duty in the nineteenth century4 ,of the whole literature it is not too much to say that it covered cogently most of the important grounds of latter-day debate1 from the questions of revelation and the doctrine of torments to the bases of ethics and the problem of deity2 and it would be hard to show that the nineteenth century has handled the main issues with more sincerity1 lucidity1 or logic than were attained by ,frenchmen in the eighteenth4 ,to-day1 no doubt1 in the light of a century and a-half of scientific1 historic1 and philosophic accumulation1 the rationalist case is put with more profundity and accuracy by many writers than it could be in the eighteenth century4 ,but we have to weigh the freethinkers of that age against their opponents1 and the ,french performers against those of other countries1 to make a fair estimate4 ,when this is done their credit is safe4 ,when ,german and other writers say with ,tholuck that unbelief entered ,germany not by the weapons of mere wit and scoffing as in ,france2 it grounded itself on learned research1 #ajcg they merely prove their ignorance of ,french culture-history4 ,an abundance of learned research in ,france preceded the triumphant campaign of ,voltaire1 who did most of the witty writing on the subject2 and whose light artillery was to the last reinforced by the heavier guns of d',holbach4 ,it is only in the analysis of the historical problem by the newer tests of anthropology and hierology1 and in the light of latterly discovered documents1 that our generation has made much advance on the strenuous pioneers of the age of ,voltaire4 ,and even in the field of anthropology the sound thinking of ,fontenelle and ,de ,brosses long preceded any equally valid work by rationalists in ,germany2 though ,spencer of ,cambridge had preceded them in his work of constructive orthodoxy4 #ae4 ,though the bibliographers claim to have traced the authorship in most cases1 such works were in the first instance generally published anonymously1 #ajch as were those of ,voltaire1 d',holbach1 and the leading freethinkers2 and the clerical policy of suppression had the result of leaving them generally unanswered1 save in anonymous writings1 when they nevertheless got into private circulation4 ,it was generally impolitic that an official answer should appear to a book which was officially held not to exist2 so that the orthodox defence was long confined mainly to the classic performances of ,pascal1 ,bossuet1 ,huet1 ,fnelon1 and some outsiders such as the ,protestant ,abbadie1 who settled first in ,berlin and later in ,london4 ,the polemic of every one of the writers named is a work of ability2 even that of ,abbadie 7,trait de la ,vrit de la religion chrtienne1 #afhd71 though now little known1 was in its day much esteemed4 #ajci ,in the age of ,louis ,,xiv those classic answers to unbelief were by believers held to be conclusive2 and thus far the ,french defence was certainly more thorough and philosophical than the ,english4 ,but ,french freethought1 which in ,herbert's day had given the lead to ,english1 now drew new energy from the ,english growth2 and the general arguments of the old apologists did not explicitly meet the new attack4 ,their books having been written to meet the mostly unpublished objections of previous generations1 the ,church through its chosen policy had the air of utter inability to confute the newer propaganda1 though some apologetic treatises of fair power did appear1 in particular those of the ,abb ,bergier4 #ajdj ,by the avowal of a ,christian historian1 ,so low had the talents of the once illustrious ,church of ,france fallen that in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 when ,christianity itself was assailed1 not one champion of note appeared in its ranks2 and when the convocation of the clergy1 in #aggj1 published their famous anathema against the dangers of unbelief1 and offered rewards for the best essays in defence of the ,christian faith1 the productions called forth were so despicable that they sensibly injured the cause of religion4 #ajda ,the freethinking attack1 in fact1 had now become overwhelming4 ,after the suppression of the ,jesuit ,order 7#agfd7 #ajdb the press grew practically more and more free2 and when1 after the accession of ,pope ,clement ,,xiv 7#agfi71 the freethinking books circulated with less and less restraint1 ,bergier extended his attack on deism1 and deists and clerics joined in answering the atheistic ,systme de la ,nature of d',holbach4 ,but by this time the deistic books were legion1 and the political battle over the taxation of ,church property had become the more pressing problem1 especially seeing that the mass of the people remained conforming4 ,the manifesto of the clergy in #aggj was accompanied by an address to the king ,on the evil results of liberty of thought and printing1 following up a previous appeal by the pope2 #ajdc and in consideration of the donation by the clergy of sixteen million livres the ,government recommended the ,parlement of ,paris to proceed against impious books4 ,there seems accordingly to have been some hindrance to publication for a year or two2 but in #aggb appeared the ,bon ,sens of d',holbach and ,diderot2 and there was no further serious check1 the ,jesuits being disbanded by the pope in #aggc4 ,the ,english view that ,french orthodoxy made a bad defence to the freethinking attack as compared with what was done in ,england 7,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,stephen1 ,hor ,sabbatic1 #bnd4 ser4 p4 #bha2 ,alison1 as cited above7 proceeds on some misconception of the circumstances1 which1 as has been shown1 were substantially different in the two countries4 ,could the ,english clergy have resorted to official suppression of deistic literature1 they too would doubtless have done so4 ,swift and ,berkeley bitterly desired to4 ,but the view that the ,english defence was relatively good1 and that ,butler's in particular was decisive1 is also1 as we have seen1 fallacious4 ,in ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's analysis1 as apart from his preamble1 the orthodox defence is exhibited as generally weak1 and often absurd4 ,nothing could be more futile than the three ,pastoral ,letters published by the ,bishop of ,london 7#agbh1 #agcj1 #agca7 as counterblasts to the freethinking books of this period4 ,in ,france the defence began sooner1 and was more profound and even more methodical4 ,pascal at least went deeper1 and ,bossuet 7in his ,discours sur l',histoire ,universelle7 more widely1 into certain inward and outward problems of the controversy than did any of the ,english apologists2 ,huet produced1 in his ,demonstratio ,evangelica1 one of the most methodical of all the defensive treatises of the time2 ,abbadie1 as before noted1 gave great satisfaction1 and certainly grappled zealously with ,hobbes and ,spinoza2 ,allix1 though no great dialectician1 gave a lead to ,english apologetics against the deists 7above1 p4 #ig71 and was even adapted by ,paley2 and ,fnelon1 though his ,trait de l',existence et des ,attributs de ,dieu 7#agab7 and ,lettres sur la ,religion 7#agaf7 are not very powerful processes of reasoning1 contributed through his reproduced conversations 7#agaj7 with ,ramsay a set of arguments at least as plausible as anything on the ,english side1 and1 what is more notable1 marked by an amenity which almost no ,english apologist attained4 ,the ground had been thus very fully covered by the defence in ,france before the main battle in ,england began2 and when a new ,french campaign commenced with ,voltaire1 the defence against that incomparable attack1 so far as the system allowed of any1 was probably as good as it could have been made in ,england1 save insofar as the ,protestants gave up modern miracles1 while most of the ,catholics claimed them for their ,church4 ,counterblasts such as the essay of ,linguet1 ,le ,fanatisme des ,philosophes 7#agfd71 were but general indictments of rationalism2 and other apologetic treatises1 as we saw1 handled only the most prominent books on the other side4 ,it should be noted1 too1 that as late as #agfd the police made it almost impossible to obtain in ,paris works of ,voltaire recently printed in ,holland 7,grimm1 vii1 #abc1 #acc1 #dcd74 ,but1 as ,paley admitted with reference to ,gibbon 7,who can refute a sneer871 the new attack was in any case very hard to meet4 ,a sneer is not hard to refute when it is unfounded1 inasmuch as it implies a proposition1 which can be rebutted or turned by another sneer4 ,the ,anglican ,church had been well enough pleased by the polemic sneers of ,swift and ,berkeley2 but the other side had the heavier guns1 and of the mass of defences produced in ,england nothing remains save in the neat compilation of ,paley4 ,alison's whole avowal might equally well apply to anything produced in ,england as against ,voltaire4 ,the skeptical line of argument for faith had been already employed by ,huet and ,pascal and ,fnelon1 with visibly small success2 ,berkeley had achieved nothing with it as against ,english deism2 and ,butler had no such effect in his day in ,england as to induce ,french ,catholics to use him4 7,he does not appear to have been translated into ,french till #ahba47 ,an ,oratorian priest1 again1 translated the anti-deistic essays of ,president ,forbes2 and the ,penses ,theologiques relatives aux erreurs du temps of ,pre ,jamin 7#agfh2 #d;e dit4 #aggc7 were thought worthy of being translated into ,german1 poor as they were4 ,with their empty affirmation of authority they suggest so much blank cartridge1 which could avail nothing with thinking men2 and here doubtless the ,english defence makes a better impression4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,voltaire circulated widely in ,england1 and was no better answered there than in ,france4 ,his attack was1 in truth1 at many points peculiarly baffling1 were it only by its inimitable wit4 ,the ,english replies to ,spinoza1 again1 were as entirely inefficient or deficient as the ,french2 the only intelligent ,english answers to ,hume on ,miracles 7the replies on other issues were of no account7 made use of the ,french investigations of the ,jansenist miracles2 and the replies to ,gibbon were in general ignominious failures4 ,finally1 though the deeper reasonings of ,diderot were over the heads alike of the ,french and the ,english clergy1 the ,systme de la ,nature of d',holbach was met skilfully enough at many points by ,g4 ,j4 ,holland 7#aggb71 who1 though not a ,frenchman1 wrote excellent ,french1 and supplied for ,french readers a very respectable rejoinder2 #ajdd whereas in ,england there was practically none4 ,in this case1 of course1 the defence was deistic2 as was that of ,voltaire1 who criticized d',holbach as ,bolingbroke attacked ,spinoza and ,hobbes4 ,but the ,examen du ,matrialisme of the ,abb ,bergier 7#agga71 who was a member of the ,academy of ,sciences1 was at least as good as anything that could then have been done in the ,church of ,england2 and the same may be said of his reply to ,frret's 7really ,burigny's7 ,examen4 ,it is certainly poor enough2 but ,bishop ,watson used some of its arguments for his reply to ,paine4 ,broadly speaking1 as we have said1 much more of ,french than of ,english intelligence had been turned to the dispute in the third quarter of the century4 ,in ,england1 political and industrial discussion relieved the pressure on creed2 in ,france1 before the ,revolution1 the whole habit of absolutism tended to restrict discussion to questions of creed2 and the attack would in any case have had the best of it1 because it embodied all the critical forces hitherto available4 ,the controversy thus went much further than the pre-,humian issues raised in ,england2 and the ,english orthodoxy of the end of the century was1 in comparison1 intellectually as weak as politically and socially it was strong4 ,in ,france1 from the first1 the greater intellectual freedom in social intercourse1 exemplified in the readiness of women to declare themselves freethinkers 7cp4 ,jamin1 as cited1 ch4 xix1 #a71 would have made the task of the apologists harder even had they been more competent4 #af4 ,above the scattered band of minor combatants rises a group of writers of special power1 several of whom1 without equalling ,voltaire in ubiquity of influence1 rivalled him in intellectual power and industry4 ,the names of ,diderot1 ,d',holbach1 ,d',alembert1 ,helvtius1 and ,condorcet are among the first in literary ,france of the generation before the ,revolution2 after them come ,volney and ,dupuis2 and in touch with the whole series stands the line of great mathematicians and physicists 7to which also belongs ,d',alembert71 ,laplace1 ,lagrange1 ,lalande1 ,delambre4 ,when to these we add the names of ,montesquieu1 ,buffon1 ,chamfort1 ,rivarol1 ,vauvenargues2 of the materialists ,la ,mettrie and ,cabanis2 of the philosophers ,condillac and ,destutt de ,tracy2 of the historian ,raynal2 of the poet ,andr ,chnier2 of the politicians ,turgot1 ,mirabeau1 ,danton1 ,desmoulins1 ,robespierre--all 7save perhaps ,raynal7 deists or else pantheists or atheists--it becomes clear that the intelligence of ,france was predominantly rationalistic before the ,revolution1 though the mass of the nation certainly was not4 ,it is necessary to deprecate ,mr4 ,lecky's statement 7,rationalism in ,europe1 i1 #agf7 that ,raynal has taken1 with ,diderot1 a place in ,french literature which is probably permanent--an estimate as far astray as the declaration on the same page that the ,english deists are buried in unbroken silence4 ,raynal's vogue in his day was indeed immense 7cp4 ,morley1 ,diderot1 ch4 xv72 and ,edmond ,scherer 7tudes sur la litt4 du #ah;e ,sicle1 #ahia1 pp4 #bgg-gh7 held that ,raynal's ,histoire philosophique des deux ,indes had had more influence on the ,french ,revolution than even ,rousseau's ,contrat ,social4 ,but the book has long been discredited 7cp4 ,scherer1 pp4 #bge-gf74 ,a biographical ,dictionary of #ahdd spoke of it as cet ouvrage ampoul qu'on ne lit pas aujourd'hui4 ,although the first edition 7#aggj7 passed the censure only by means of bribery1 and the second 7#aghj7 was publicly burned1 and its author forced to leave ,france1 he was said to reject1 in religion1 only the pope1 hell1 and monks 7,scherer1 p4 #bhf72 and most of the anti-religious declamation in the first edition of the ,histoire is said to be from the pen of ,diderot1 who wrote it very much at random1 at ,raynal's request4 ,no list of orthodox names remotely comparable with these can be drawn from the literature of ,france1 or indeed of any other country of that time4 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh71 the one other pre-eminent figure1 though not an anti-,christian propagandist1 is distinctly on the side of deism4 ,in the ,contrat ,social1 #ajde writing with express approbation of ,hobbes1 he declares that the ,christian law is at bottom more injurious than useful to the sound constitution of the ,state2 and even the famous ,confession of ,faith of a ,savoyard ,vicar in the mile is anti-revelationist1 and practically anti-clerical4 ,he was accordingly anathematized by the ,sorbonne1 which found in mile nineteen heresies2 the book was seized and burned both at ,paris and at ,geneva within a few weeks of its appearance1 #ajdf and the author decreed to be arrested2 even the ,contrat ,social was seized and its vendors imprisoned4 ,all the while he had maintained in mile doctrines of the usefulness of religious delusion and fanaticism4 ,still1 although his temperamental way of regarding things has a clear affinity with some later religious philosophy of a more systematic sort1 he undoubtedly made for freethought as well as for the revolutionary spirit in general4 ,thus the cause of ,christianity stood almost denuded of intellectually eminent adherents in the ,france of #aghi2 for even among the writers who had dealt with public questions without discussing religion1 or who had criticized ,rousseau and the philosophes--as the ,abbs ,mably1 ,morellet1 ,millot--the tone was essentially rationalistic4 ,it has been justly enough argued1 concerning ,rousseau 7see below1 p4 #bhg71 that the generation of the ,revolution made him its prophet in his own despite1 and that had he lived twenty years longer he would have been its vehement adversary4 ,but this does not alter the facts as to his influence4 ,a great writer of emotional genius1 like ,rousseau1 inevitably impels men beyond the range of his own ideals1 as in recent times ,ruskin and ,tolstoy1 both anti-,socialists1 have led thousands towards ,socialism4 ,in his own generation and the next1 ,rousseau counted essentially for criticism of the existing order2 and it was the revolutionaries1 never the conservatives1 who acclaimed him4 ,de ,tocqueville 7,hist4 philos4 du rgne de ,louis ,,xv1 #ahdi1 i1 #cc7 speaks of his impit dogmatique4 ,martin du ,theil1 in his ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau apologiste de la religion chrtienne 7#b;e dit4 #ahdj71 makes out his case by identifying emotional deism with ,christianity1 as did ,rousseau himself when he insisted that the true ,christianity is only natural religion well explained4 ,rousseau's praise of the gospel and of the character of ,jesus was such as many deists acquiesced in4 ,similar language1 in the mouth of ,matthew ,arnold1 gave rather more offence to ,gladstone1 as a believing ,christian1 than did the language of simple unbelief2 and a recent ,christian polemist1 at the close of a copious monograph1 has repudiated the association of ,rousseau with the faith 7see ,j4 ,f4 ,nourrisson1 ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau et le ,rousseauisme1 #aijc1 p4 #dig sq474 ,what is true of him is that he was more religiously a theist than ,voltaire1 whose impeachment of ,providence in the poem on the ,earthquake of ,lisbon he sought strenuously though not very persuasively to refute in a letter to the author4 ,but1 with all his manifold inconsistencies1 which may be worked down to the neurosis so painfully manifest in his life and in his relations to his contemporaries1 he never writes as a believer in the dogmas of ,christianity or in the principle of revelation2 and it was as a deist that he was recognized by his ,christian contemporaries4 ,a demi-,christian is all that ,michelet will call him4 ,his compatriot the ,swiss pastor ,roustan1 located in ,london1 directed against him his ,offrande aux ,autels et la ,patrie1 ou ,dfense du ,christianisme 7#agfd71 regarding him as an assailant4 ,the work of the ,abb ,bergier1 ,le ,disme refut par lui-mme 7#agfe1 and later71 takes the form of letters addressed to ,rousseau1 and is throughout an attack on his works1 especially the mile4 ,when1 therefore1 ,buckle 7#a-vol4 ed4 p4 #dge7 speaks of him as not having attacked ,christianity1 and ,lord ,morley 7,rousseau1 ch4 xiv7 treats him as creating a religious reaction against the deists1 they do not fully represent his influence on his time4 ,as we have seen1 he stimulated ,voltaire to new audacities by his example4 #ag4 ,an interlude in the critical campaign1 little noticed at the time1 developed importance a generation later4 ,in #agec ,jean ,astruc1 doctor of medicine1 published after long hesitation his ,conjectures on the original documents which ,moses seems to have used in composing the book of ,genesis4 ,only in respect of his flash of insight into the composite structure of the ,pentateuch was ,astruc a freethinker4 ,his hesitation to publish was due to his fear that les pretendus esprits forts might make a bad use of his work2 and he was quite satisfied that ,moses was the author of the ,pentateuch as it stands4 ,the denial of that authorship1 implied in the criticisms of ,hobbes and ,spinoza1 he described as the disease of the last century4 ,this attitude may explain the lack of interest in ,astruc's work shown by the freethinkers of the time4 #ajdg ,nonetheless1 by his perception of the clue given by the narrative use of the two names ,yahweh and ,elohim in ,genesis1 he laid a new foundation of the ,higher ,criticism of the ,bible in modern times1 advancing alike on ,spinoza and on ,simon4 ,for freethought he had builded better than he knew4 #ah4 ,in the select ,parisian arena of the ,acadmie1 the intellectual movement of the age is as it were dramatized2 and there more clearly than in the literary record we can trace the struggle of opinions1 from the admission of ,voltaire 7#agdf7 onwards4 ,in the old days the ,acadmie had been rather the home of convention1 royalism1 and orthodoxy than of ideas1 though before ,voltaire there were some freethinking members of the lesser ,acadmies1 notably ,boindin4 #ajdh ,the admission of ,montesquieu 7#agbh71 after much opposition from the court1 preludes a new era2 and from the entrance of ,voltaire1 fourteen years after his first attempt1 #ajdi the atmosphere begins perceptibly to change4 ,when1 in #agbg1 the academician ,bonamy had read a memoir ,on the character and the paganism of the emperor ,julian1 partly vindicating him against the aspersions of the ,christian ,fathers1 the ,academy feared to print the paper1 though its author was a devout ,catholic4 #ajej ,when the ,abb ,la ,bletterie1 also orthodox1 read to the ,academy portions of his ,vie de ,julien1 the members were not now scandalized1 though the ,abb's ,jansenism moved the ,king to veto his nomination4 ,so1 when ,blanchard in #agce read a memoir on ,les exorcismes magiques there was much trepidation among the members1 and again the ,secretary inserted merely an analysis1 concluding with the words of ,philetas1 ,believe and fear ,god2 beware of questioning4 #ajea ,even such a play of criticism as the challenging of the early history of ,rome by ,lvesque de ,pouilly 7brother of ,lvesque de ,burigny7 in a dissertation before the ,acadmie in #agbb1 roused the fears and the resentment of the orthodox2 the ,abb ,sallier1 in undertaking to refute him1 insinuated that he had shown a spirit which might be dangerous to other beliefs2 and whispers of atheism passed among the academicians4 #ajeb ,pouilly1 who had been made a freethinker by ,english contacts1 went again to ,england later1 and spent his last years at ,rheims4 #ajec ,his thesis was much more powerfully sustained in #agch by ,beaufort1 in the famous dissertation ,sur l'incertitude des cinq premiers sicles de l'histoire romaine2 but ,beaufort was of a refugee-,huguenot stock2 his book was published1 under his initials1 at ,utrecht2 and not till #agec did the ,acadmie award him a medal--on the score of an earlier treatise4 ,and in #agdh the ,religio veterum ,persarum of the ,english ,orientalist ,hyde1 published as long before as #agjj1 found a vehement assailant within the ,academy in the ,abb ,foucher1 who saw danger in a favourable view of any heathen religion4 ,yet even in the time of ,louis ,,xiv the ,abb ,mongault1 tutor of the son of the ,regent1 and noted alike for his private freethinking and for the rigid orthodoxy which he instilled into his pupil1 treated the historic subject of the divine honours rendered to ,roman governors with such latitude as to elicit from ,frret1 in his loge of ,mongault1 the remark that the tutor had reserved to himself a liberty of thought which he doubtless felt to be dangerous in a prince4 #ajed ,and after #agej the old order can be seen passing away4 ,d',argenson notes in his diary in #aged3 ,i observe in the ,acadmie de belles-lettres1 of which ,i am a member1 that there begins to be a decided stir against the priests4 ,it began to show itself at the death of ,boindin1 to whom our bigots refused a service at the ,oratory and a public commemoration4 ,our deist philosophers were shocked1 and ever since1 at each election1 they are on guard against the priests and the bigots4 ,nowhere is this division so marked1 and it begins to bear fruits4 #ajee ,the old statesman indicates his own sympathies by adding3 ,why has a bad name been made of the title of deist8 ,it is that of those who have true religion in their hearts1 and who have abjured a superstition that is destructive to the whole world4 ,it was in this year that ,d',alembert1 who took nearly as much pains to stay out as ,voltaire had done to enter1 #ajef was elected a member2 and with two leading encyclopdistes in the forty1 and a friendly abb 7,duclos7 in the secretaryship 7#agee71 and another zealous freethinker1 ,lvesque de ,burigny1 admitted in #agef1 #ajeg the fortunes of freethought were visibly rising4 ,its influence was thrown on the side of the academic orator ,thomas1 a sincere believer but a hater of all persecution1 and as such offensive to the ,church party4 #ajeh #ai4 ,in #agei there came a check4 ,the ,encyclopdie1 which had been allowed to resume publication after its first suppression in #ageb1 was again stopped2 and the battle between philosophes and fanatics1 dramatized for the time being in ,palissot's comedy ,les ,philosophes and in ,voltaire's rejoinder to ,frron1 ,l'cossaise1 came to be fought out in the ,academy itself4 ,the poet ,lefranc de ,pompignan1 #ajei elected in #agei without any opposition from the freethinkers1 had in his youth translated ,pope's ,deist's ,prayer1 and had suffered for it to the extent of being deprived by ,d',aguesseau of his official charge #ajfj for six months4 ,with such a past1 with a keen concern for status1 and with a character that did not stick at tergiversation1 ,pompignan saw fit to signalize his election by making his discours de rception 7,march1 #agfj7 a violent attack on the whole philosophic school1 which1 in his conclusion1 he declared to be undermining equally the throne and the altar4 ,the academicians heard him out in perfect silence1 leaving it to the few pietists among the audience to applaud2 but as soon as the reports reached ,ferney there began the vengeance of ,voltaire4 ,first came a leaflet of stinging sentences1 each beginning with ,quand3 ,when one has translated and even exaggerated the ',deist's ,prayer' composed by ,pope 4441 and so on4 ,the maddened ,pompignan addressed a fatuous memorial to the ,king 7who notoriously hated the philosophes1 and had assented only under petticoat influence to ,voltaire's election #ajfa72 and1 presuming to print it without the usual official sanction1 suffered at the hands of ,malesherbes the blow of having the printer's plant smashed4 ,other combatants entered the fray4 ,voltaire's leaflet les quand was followed by les si1 les pour1 les qui1 les quoi1 les car1 les ah6--by him or others--and the master-mocker produced in swift succession three satires in verse1 #ajfb all accompanied by murderous prose annotations4 ,the speedy result was ,pompignan's retirement into provincial life4 ,he could not face the merciless hail of rejoinders2 and when at his death1 twenty-five years later1 the ,abb ,maury had to pronounce his loge1 the mention of his famous humiliation was hardly tempered by compassion4 #ajfc #bj4 ,voltaire could not compass1 as he for a time schemed1 the election of ,diderot2 but other philosophes of less note entered from time to time2 #ajfd ,marmontel was elected in #agfc2 and when in #agfd the ,academy's prize for poetry was given to ,chamfort for a piece which savoured of what were then called the detestable principles of ,montesquieu1 ,rousseau1 and ,helvtius1 and in #agfh its prize for eloquence went to the same writer1 the society as a whole had acquired a certain character for impiety4 #ajfe ,in #agfg there had occurred the famous ecclesiastical explosion over ,marmontel's philosophic romance ,blisaire1 a performance in which it is somewhat difficult to-day to detect any exciting quality4 ,it was by a chapter in praise of toleration that the universal and mediocre ,marmontel #ajff secured from the ,sorbonne the finest advertisement ever given to a work of fiction1 the ecclesiastics of the old school being still too thoroughly steeped in the past to realize that a gospel of persecution was a bad warcry for a religion that was being more and more put on the defensive4 ,only an angry fear before the rising flood of unlicensed literature1 combining with the long-baffled desire to strike some blow at freethinking1 could have moved the ,sorbonne to select for censure the duly licensed work #ajfg of a popular academician and novelist2 and it should be remembered that it was at a time of great activity in the unlicensed production of freethinking literature that the attack was made4 ,the blow recoiled signally4 ,the book was of course promptly translated into all the languages of ,europe1 selling by tens of thousands2 #ajfh and two sovereigns took occasion to give it their express approval4 ,these were the ,empress ,catherine 7who caused the book to be translated by members of her court while she was making a tour of her empire1 she herself taking a chapter71 and the ,empress ,maria-,theresa4 ,from ,catherine1 herself a freethinker1 the approbation might have been expected2 but the known orthodoxy and austerity of ,maria-,theresa made her support the more telling4 ,in ,france a small literary tempest raged for a year4 ,marmontel published his correspondence with the syndic of the ,sorbonne and with ,voltaire2 and in all there appeared some dozen documents pro and con1 among them an anonymous satire by ,turgot1 ,les xxxvii verits opposes aux xxxvii impits de ,blisaire1 ,par un ,bachelier ,ubiquiste1 #ajfi which1 with the contributions of ,voltaire1 gave the victim very much the best of the battle4 #ba4 ,alongside of the more strictly literary or humanist movement1 too1 there went on one of a scientific kind1 which divided into two lines1 a speculative and a practical4 ,on the former the freelance philosopher ,julien ,offray la ,mettrie gave a powerful initial push by his materialistic theses1 in which a medical knowledge that for the time was advanced is applied with a very keen if unsystematic reasoning faculty to the primary problem of mind and body2 and others after him continued the impulse4 ,la ,mettrie produced his ,natural ,history of the ,mind in #agde2 #ajgj and in #agdf appeared the ,essay on the ,origin of ,human ,knowledge of the ,abb ,condillac1 both essentially rationalistic and anti-theological works1 though differing in their psychological positions1 ,condillac being a non-materialist1 though a strong upholder of sensism4 ,la ,mettrie followed up his doctrine with the more definitely materialistic but less heedfully planned works1 ,l',homme ,plante and ,l',homme ,machine 7#agdh71 the second of which1 published at ,leyden #ajga and wickedly dedicated to the pious ,baron von ,haller1 was burned by order of the magistrates1 its author being at the same time expelled from ,holland4 ,both books are remarkable for their originality of thought1 biological and ethical4 ,though ,la ,mettrie professed to think the greatest degree of probability was in favour of the existence of a personal ,god1 #ajgb his other writings gave small support to the hypothesis2 and even in putting it he rejects any inference as to worship4 ,and he goes on to quote very placidly an atheist who insists that only an atheistic world can attain to happiness4 ,it is notable that he1 the typical materialist of his age1 seems to have been one of its kindliest men1 by the consent of all who knew him1 #ajgc though heedless in his life to the point of ending it by eating a monstrous meal out of bravado4 ,the conventional denunciation of ,la ,mettrie 7endorsed by ,lord ,morley1 ,voltaire1 p4 #abb7 proceeds ostensibly upon those of his writings in which he discussed sexual questions with absolute scientific freedom4 ,he1 however1 insisted that his theoretic discussion had nothing whatever to do with his practice2 and there is no evidence that he lived otherwise than as most men did in his age1 and ours4 ,still1 the severe censure passed on him by ,diderot 7,essai sur les rgnes de ,claude et de ,nron1 ed4 #aghb1 ii1 #bb-bd7 seems to convict him of at least levity of character4 ,voltaire several times holds the same tone4 ,but ,diderot writes so angrily that his verdict incurs suspicion4 ,as ,lange notes1 there has been much loose generalization as to the place and bearing of ,la ,mettrie in the history of ,french thought4 ,hettner1 who apparently had not thought it worth while to read him1 has ascribed his mental movement to the influence of ,diderot's ,penses philosophiques 7#agdf71 whereas it had begun in his own ,histoire naturelle de l'me1 published a year before4 ,la ,mettrie's originality and influence in general have been underestimated as a result of the hostility set up by disparagement of his character4 ,the idea of a fundamental unity of type in nature--an idea underlying all the successive steps of ,lamarck1 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,goethe1 and others1 towards the complete conception of evolution--is set forth by him in ,l',homme ,plante in #agdh1 the year in which appeared ,de ,maillet's ,telliamed4 ,buffon follows in time as in thought1 only beginning his great work in #agdi2 ,maupertuis1 with his pseudonymous dissertation on the ,universal system of ,nature1 applies ,la ,mettrie's conception in #agea2 and ,diderot's ,penses sur l'interprtation de la nature1 stimulated by ,maupertuis1 appeared only in #aged4 ,la ,mettrie proceeded from the classification of ,linnus1 but did not there find his idea4 ,in the words of ,lange1 these forgotten writings are in nowise so empty and superficial as is commonly assumed4 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i1 #cbh-bi4 ,lange seems to have been the first to make a judicial study of ,la ,mettrie's work1 as distinguished from the scandals about his character4 #bb4 ,a more general influence1 naturally1 attached to the simple concrete handling of scientific problems4 ,the interest in such questions1 noticeable in ,england at the ,restoration and radiating thence1 is seen widely diffused in ,france after the publication of ,fontenelle's ,entretiens1 and thenceforward it rapidly strengthens4 ,barren theological disputations set men not merely against theology1 but upon the study of ,nature1 where real knowledge was visibly possible4 ,to a certain extent the study took openly heretical lines4 ,the ,abb ,lenglet du ,fresnoy1 who was four times imprisoned in the ,bastille1 supplied material of which ,d',argens made much use1 tending to overthrow the ,biblical chronology and to discredit the story of the ,flood4 #ajgd ,benot de ,maillet 7#afef-agch71 who had been for fifteen years inspector of the ,french establishments in ,egypt and ,barbary1 left for posthumous publication 7#agdh7 a work of which the first title was an anagram of his name1 ,telliamed1 ou ,entretiens d'un philosophe indien avec un missionaire franais4 ,of this treatise the thesis is that the shell deposits in the ,alps and elsewhere showed the sea to have been where land now was2 and that the rocks were gradually deposited in their different kinds in the fashion in which even now are being formed mud1 sand1 and shingle4 ,de ,maillet had thus anticipated the central conception of modern geology1 albeit retaining many traditional delusions4 ,his abstention from publication during his lifetime testifies to his sense of the danger he underwent1 the treatise having been printed by him only in #agce1 at the age of seventy-nine2 and not till ten years after his death was it given to the world1 with a preface and dedication so worded as1 in case of necessity1 to give the printer a fair chance of falling back on the excuse that the work was intended for a mere jeu d'esprit4 #ajge ,the thesis was adopted1 indeed plagiarized1 #ajgf by ,mirabaud in his ,le ,monde1 son origine et son antiquit 7#agea74 ,strangely enough1 ,voltaire refused to be convinced1 and offered amazing suggestions as to the possible deposit of shells by pilgrims4 #ajgg ,it is not unlikely that it was ,voltaire's opposition rather than any orthodox argumentation that retarded in ,france the acceptance of an evolutionary view of the origin of the earth and of life4 ,it probably had a more practical effect on scientific thought in ,england #ajgh--;at least as regards geology3 its speculations on the modification of species1 which loosely but noticeably anticipate some of the inferences of ,darwin1 found no acceptance anywhere till ,lamarck4 ,in the opinion of ,huxley1 the speculations of ,robinet1 in the next generation1 are rather behind than in advance of those of ,de ,maillet2 #ajgi and it may be added that the former1 with his pet theory that all ,nature is animated1 and that the stars and planets have the faculty of reproducing themselves like animals1 wandered as far from sound bases as ,de ,maillet ever did4 ,the very form of ,de ,maillet's work1 indeed1 was not favourable to its serious acceptance2 and in his case1 as in those of so many pioneers of new ideas1 errors and extravagances and oversights in regard to matters of detail went to justify practical men in dismissing novel speculations4 ,needless to say1 the common run of scientific men remained largely under the influence of religious presuppositions in science even when they had turned their backs on the ,church4 ,nonetheless1 on all sides the study of natural fact began to play its part in breaking down the dominion of creed4 ,even in hidebound ,protestant ,switzerland1 the sheer ennui of ,puritanism is seen driving the descendants of the ,huguenot refugees to the physical sciences for an interest and an occupation1 before any freethinking can safely be avowed2 and in ,france1 as ,buckle has shown in abundant detail1 the study of the physical sciences became for many years before the ,revolution almost a fashionable mania4 ,and at the start the ,church had contrived that such study should rank as unbelief1 and so make unbelievers4 ,when ,buffon #ajhj in #agdi-ej published his ,histoire ,naturelle1 the delight which was given to most readers by its finished style was paralleled by the wrath which its ,thorie de la ,terre aroused among the clergy4 ,after much discussion ,buffon received early in #agea from the ,sorbonne an official letter specifying as reprehensible in his book fourteen propositions which he was invited to retract4 ,he stoically obeyed in a declaration to the effect that he had no intention to contradict the text of ,scripture1 and that he believed most firmly all there related about the creation1 adding3 ,i abandon everything in my book respecting the formation of the earth4 #ajha ,still he was attacked as an unbeliever by the ,bishop of ,auxerre in that prelate's pastoral against the thesis of de ,prades4 #ajhb ,during the rest of his life he outwardly conformed to religious usage1 but all men knew that in his heart he believed what he had written2 and the memory of the affront that the ,church had thus put upon so honoured a student helped to identify her cause no less with ignorance than with insolence and oppression4 ,for all such insults1 and for the long roll of her cruelties1 the ,church was soon to pay a tremendous penalty4 #bc4 ,but science1 like theology1 had its schisms1 and the rationalizing camp had its own strifes4 ,maupertuis1 for instance1 is remembered mainly as one of the victims of the mockery of ,voltaire 7which he well earned by his own antagonism at the court of ,frederick72 yet he was really an energetic man of science1 and had preceded ,voltaire in setting up in ,france the ,newtonian against the ,cartesian physics4 ,in his ,system of ,nature #ajhc 7not to be confused with the later work of d',holbach under the same title7 he in #agea propounded a new version of the hylozoisms of ancient ,greece2 developed the idea of an underlying unity in the forms of natural life1 already propounded by ,la ,mettrie in his ,l',homme ,plante2 connected it with ,leibnitz's formula of the economy of nature 7minimum of action--the germ of the modern line of least resistance71 and at the same time anticipated some of the special philosophic positions of ,kant4 #ajhd ,diderot1 impressed by but professedly dissenting from ,maupertuis's ,systme in his ,penses sur l'interprtation de la nature 7#aged71 promptly pointed out that the conception of a primordially vitalized atom excluded that of a ,creator1 and for his own part thereafter took that standpoint4 #ajhe ,in #aged came the ,trait des ,sensations of ,condillac1 in which is most systematically developed the physio-psychological conception of man as an animated statue1 of which the thought is wholly conditioned by the senses4 ,the mode of approach had been laid down before by ,la ,mettrie1 by ,diderot1 and by ,buffon2 and ,condillac is rather a developer and systematizer than an originator2 #ajhf but in this case the process of unification was to the full as important as the first steps2 #ajhg and ,condillac has an importance which is latterly being rediscovered by the school of ,spencer on the one hand and by that of ,james on the other4 ,condillac1 commonly termed a materialist1 no more held the legendary materialistic view than any other so named2 and the same may be said of the next figure in the materialistic series1 ,j4 ,b4 ,robinet1 a ,frenchman settled at ,amsterdam1 after having been1 it is said1 a ,jesuit4 ,his ,nature 7#d vols4 #agfa-agfh7 is a remarkable attempt to reach a strictly naturalistic conception of things4 #ajhh ,but he is a theorist1 not an investigator4 ,even in his fixed idea that the universe is an animal he had perhaps a premonition of the modern discovery of the immense diffusion of bacterial life2 but he seems to have had more deriders than disciples4 ,he founds at once on ,descartes and on ,leibnitz1 but in his ,philosophical ,considerations on the natural gradation of living forms 7#agfh7 he definitely sets aside theism as illusory1 and puts ethics on a strictly scientific and human footing1 #ajhi extending the arguments of ,hume and ,hutcheson somewhat on the lines of ,mandeville4 #ajij ,on another line of reasoning a similar application of ,mandeville's thesis had already been made by ,helvtius in his ,trait de l',esprit #ajia 7#ageh71 a work which excited a hostility now difficult to understand1 but still reflected in censures no less surprising4 ,one of the worst misrepresentations in theological literature is the account of ,helvtius by the late ,principal ,cairns 7,unbelief in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #ahha1 p4 #aeh7 as appealing to government to promote luxury1 and1 through luxury1 public good1 by abolishing all those laws that cherish a false modesty and restrain libertinage4 ,helvtius simply pressed the consequences of the existing theory of luxury1 which for his own part he disclaimed4 ,de l',esprit1 ,disc4 ii1 ch4 xv4 ,dr4 ,pnjer 7i1 #dfb7 falls so far below his usual standard as to speak of ,helvtius in a similar fashion4 ,as against such detraction it is fitting to note that ,helvtius1 like ,la ,mettrie1 was one of the most lovable and most beloved men of his time1 though1 like him1 sufficiently licentious in his youth4 ,it was at once suppressed by royal order as scandalous1 licentious1 and dangerous1 though ,helvtius held a post at court as matre d'htel to the ,queen4 ,ordered to make a public retractation1 he did so in a letter addressed to a ,jesuit2 and this being deemed insufficient1 he had to sign another1 so humiliating1 wrote ,grimm1 #ajib that one would not have been astonished to see a man take refuge with the ,hottentots rather than put his name to such avowals4 ,the wits explained that the censor who had passed the book1 being an official in the ,bureau of ,foreign ,affairs1 had treated ,de l',esprit as belonging to that department4 #ajic ,a swarm of replies appeared1 and the book was formally burnt1 with ,voltaire's poem ,sur la loi naturelle1 and several obscure works of older standing4 #ajid ,the ,de l',esprit1 appearing alongside of the ever-advancing ,encyclopdie1 #ajie was in short a formidable challenge to the powers of bigotry4 ,its real faults are lack of system1 undue straining after popularity1 some hasty generalization1 and a greater concern for the air of paradox than for persuasion2 but it abounds in acuteness and critical wisdom1 and it definitely and seriously founds public ethics on utility4 ,its most serious error1 the assumption that all men are born with equal faculties1 and that education is the sole differentiating force1 was repeated in our own age by ,john ,stuart ,mill2 but in ,helvtius the error is balanced by the thoroughly sound and profoundly important thesis that the general superiorities of nations are the result of their culture-conditions and politics4 #ajif ,the over-balance of his stress on self-interest #ajig is an error easily soluble4 ,on the other hand1 we have the memorable testimony of ,beccaria that it was the work of ,helvtius that inspired him to his great effort for the humanizing of penal laws and policy2 #ajih and the only less notable testimony of ,bentham that ,helvtius was his teacher and inspirer4 #ajii ,it may be doubted whether any such fruits can be claimed for the teachings of the whole of the orthodox moralists of the age4 ,for the rest1 ,helvtius is not to be ranked among the great abstract thinkers2 but it is noteworthy that his thinking went on advancing to the end4 ,always greatly influenced by ,voltaire1 he did not philosophically harden as did his master2 and though in his posthumous work1 ,les ,progrs de la ,raison dans la recherche du ,vrai 7published in #agge71 he stands for deism against atheism1 the argument ends in the pantheism to which ,voltaire had once attained1 but did not adhere4 #bd4 ,over all of these men1 and even in some measure over ,voltaire1 ,diderot 7#agac-aghd7 stands pre-eminent1 on retrospect1 for variety of power and depth and subtlety of thought2 though for these very reasons1 as well as because some of his most masterly works were never printed in his lifetime1 he was less of a recognized popular force than some of his friends4 ,in his own mental history he reproduces the course of the ,french thought of his time4 ,beginning as a deist1 he assailed the contemporary materialists2 in the end1 with whatever of inconsistency1 he was emphatically an atheist and a materialist4 ,one of his most intimate friends was ,damilaville1 of whom ,voltaire speaks as a vehement anti-theist2 #aajj and his biographer ,naigeon1 who at times overstated his positions but always revered him1 was the most zealous atheist of his day4 #aaja ,compare1 as to ,diderot's position1 ,soury's contention 7p4 #egg7 that we shall never make an atheist and a materialist out of this enthusiastic artist1 this poet-pantheist 7citing ,rosenkranz in support71 with his own admissions1 pp4 #ehi-ij1 and with ,lord ,morley's remarks1 pp4 #cc1 #dja1 #dah4 ,see also ,lange1 i1 #caj sq42 ii1 #fc 7,eng4 tr4 ii1 #cb1 #bef74 ,in the affectionate loge of his friend ,meister 7#aghf7 there is an express avowal that it had been much to be desired for the reputation of ,diderot1 perhaps even for the honour of his age1 that he had not been an atheist1 or that he had been so with less zeal4 ,the fact is thus put beyond reasonable doubt4 ,in the ,correspondance ,littraire of ,grimm and ,diderot1 under date ,september #ae1 #agfe 7vii1 #cff71 there is a letter in criticism of ,descartes1 thoroughly atheistic in its reasoning1 which is almost certainly by ,diderot4 ,and if the criticism of ,voltaire's ,dieu1 above referred to 7p4 #bca71 be not by him1 he was certainly in entire agreement with it1 as with ,grimm in general4 ,rosenkranz finally 7ii1 #dba7 sums up that ,diderot war als ,atheist ,pantheist1 which is merely a way of saying that he was scientifically monistic in his atheism4 ,lange points out in this connection 7i1 #caj7 that the ,hegelian schema of philosophic evolution1 with its sovereign contempt for chronology1 has wrought much confusion as to the real developments of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,it is recorded that ,diderot's own last words in serious conversation were3 ,the beginning of philosophy is incredulity2 and it may be inferred from his writings that his first impulses to searching thought came from his study of ,montaigne1 who must always have been for him one of the most congenial of spirits4 #aajb ,at an early stage of his independent mental life we find him turning to the literature which in that age yielded to such a mind as his the largest measure both of nutriment and stimulus--the ,english4 ,in #agde he translated ,shaftesbury's ,inquiry concerning ,virtue and ,merit2 and he must have read with prompt appreciation the other ,english freethinkers then famous4 ,ere long1 however1 he had risen above the deistical plane of thought1 and grappled with the fundamental issues which the deists took for granted1 partly because of an innate bent to psychological analysis1 partly because he was more interested in scientific problems than in scholarly research4 ,the ,penses philosophiques1 published in #agdf1 really deserve their name2 and though they exhibit him as still a satisfied deist1 and an opponent of the constructive atheism then beginning to suggest itself1 they contain abstract reasonings sufficiently disturbing to the deistic position4 #aajc ,the ,promenade du ,sceptique 7written about #agdg1 published posthumously7 goes further1 and presents tentatively the reply to the design argument which was adopted by ,hume4 ,in its brilliant pages may be found a conspectus of the intellectual life of the day1 on the side of the religious problem4 ,every type of thinker is there tersely characterized--the orthodox1 the deist1 the atheist1 the sheer skeptic1 the scoffer1 the pantheist1 the solipsist1 and the freethinking libertine1 the last figuring as no small nuisance to the serious unbeliever4 ,so drastic is the criticism of orthodoxy that the book was unprintable in its day2 #aajd and it was little known even in manuscript4 ,but ere long there appeared the ,letter on the ,blind1 for the use of those who see 7#agdi71 in which a logical rebuttal alike of the ethical and the cosmological assumptions of theism1 developed from hints in the ,penses1 is put in the mouth of the blind ,english mathematician1 ,sanderson4 ,it is not surprising that whereas the ,penses had been1 with some other books1 ordered by the ,paris ,parlement to be burnt by the common hangman1 the ,lettre sur les ,aveugles led to his arrest and an imprisonment of six months #aaje in the ,chteau de ,vincennes4 ,both books had of course been published without licence2 #aajf but the second book was more than a defiance of the censorship3 it was a challenge alike to the philosophy and the faith of ,christendom2 and as such could not have missed denunciation4 #aajg ,but ,diderot was not the kind of man to be silenced by menaces4 ,in the famous ,sorbonne thesis of the ,abb de ,prades 7#agea7 he probably had1 as we have seen1 some share2 and when ,de ,prades was condemned and deprived of his licence 7#ageb7 ,diderot wrote the third part of the ,apologie 7published by ,de ,prades in ,holland71 which defended his positions2 and possibly assisted in the other parts4 #aajh ,the hand of ,diderot perhaps may be discovered in the skilful allusions to the skeptical ,demonstratio ,evangelica of ,huet1 which ,de ,prades professes to have translated when at his seminary1 seeking there the antidote to the poison of the deists4 ,the entire handling of the question of pagan and ,christian miracles1 too1 suggests the skilled dialectician1 though it is substantially an adaptation of ,leslie's ,short and ,easy ,method with the ,deists4 ,the alternate eulogy and criticism of ,locke are likely to be his1 as is indeed the abundant knowledge of ,english thought shown alike in the thesis and in the ,apologie4 ,whether he wrote the passage which claims to rebut an argument in his own ,penses philosophiques #aaji is surely doubtful4 ,but his1 certainly1 is the further reply to the pastoral of the ,jansenist ,bishop of ,auxerre against de ,prades's thesis1 in which the perpetual disparagement of reason by ,catholic theologians is denounced #aaaj as the most injurious of all procedures against religion4 ,and his1 probably1 is the peroration #aaaa arraigning the ,jansenists and imputing to their fanaticism and superstition1 their miracle-mongering and their sectarian bitterness1 the discredit which among thinking men had latterly fallen upon ,church and creed alike4 #aaab ,de ,prades1 who in his thesis and ,apologie had always professed to be a believing ,christian1 was not a useful recruit to rationalism4 ,passing from ,holland to ,berlin1 he was there appointed1 through the influence of ,voltaire1 reader and amanuensis to the ,king1 #aaac who in #aged arranged for him an official reconciliation with the ,church4 ,a formal retractation was sent to the ,pope1 the ,sorbonne1 and the ,bishop of ,montauban2 #aaad and ,frederick in due course presented him to a ,catholic canonry at ,glogau4 ,in #ageg1 however1 he was put under arrest on the charge1 it is commonly said1 of supplying military information to his countrymen2 #aaae and thereafter1 returning to ,france in #agei1 he obtained a ,french benefice4 ,diderot1 who was now a recognized champion of freethought1 turned away with indignation4 #aaaf ,thenceforward he never faltered on his path4 ,it is his peculiar excellence to be an original and innovating thinker not only in philosophy but in psychology1 in sthetics1 in ethics1 in dramatic art2 and his endless and miscellaneous labours in the ,encyclopdie1 of which he was the most loyal and devoted producer1 represent an extraordinary range of interests4 ,he suffered from his position as a hack writer and as a forced dissembler in his articles on religious matters2 and there is probably a very real connection between his compulsory insincerities #aaag in the ,encyclopdie--to say nothing of the official prosecution of that and of others of his works--and his misdeeds in the way of indecent fiction4 ,when organized society is made to figure as the heartless enemy of thinking men1 it is no great wonder if they are careless at times about the effect of their writings on society4 ,but it stands to his lasting honour that his sufferings at the hands of priests1 printers1 and parlements never soured his natural goodness of heart4 #aaah ,having in his youth known a day's unrelieved hunger1 he made a vow that he would never refuse help to any human being2 and1 says his daughter1 no vow was ever more faithfully kept4 ,no one in trouble was ever turned away from his door2 and even his enemies were helped when they were base enough to beg of him4 ,it seems no exaggeration to say that the bulk of his life was given to helping other people2 and the indirect effect of his work1 which is rather intellectually disinterested than didactic1 is no less liberative and humanitarian4 ,to do good1 and to find truth1 were his mottoes for life4 ,his daughter1 ,madame de ,vandeul1 who in her old age remained tranquilly divided between the religion instilled into her by her pious mother and the rationalism she had gathered from her father and his friends1 testified1 then1 to his constant goodness in the home2 #aaai and his father bore a similar testimony1 contrasting him with his pious brother4 #aabj ,he was1 in his way1 as beneficent as ,voltaire1 without ,voltaire's faults of private malice2 and his life's work was a great ministry of light4 ,it was ,goethe who said of him in the next generation that whoever holds him or his doings cheaply is a ,philistine4 ,his large humanity reaches from the planes of expert thought to that of popular feeling2 and while by his ,letter on the ,blind he could advance speculative psychology and pure philosophy1 he could by his tale ,the ,nun 7,la ,religeuse1 #aaba written about #agfj1 published #agif7 enlist the sympathies of the people against the rule of the ,church4 ,it belonged to his character to be generously appreciative of all excellence2 he delighted in other men's capacity as in pictures and poetry2 and he loved to praise4 ,at a time when ,bacon and ,hobbes were little regarded in ,england he made them newly famous throughout ,europe by his praises4 ,in him was realized ,bacon's saying1 ,admiratio semen scientiae1 in every sense1 for his curiosity was as keen as his sensibility4 #be4 ,with ,diderot were specially associated1 in different ways1 ,d',alembert1 the mathematician1 for some years his special colleague on the ,encyclopdie1 and ,baron d',holbach4 ,the former1 one of the staunchest friends of ,voltaire1 though a less invincible fighter than ,diderot1 counted for practical freethought by his miscellaneous articles1 his little book on the ,jesuits 7#agfe71 his ,penses philosophiques1 his physics1 and the general rationalism of his ,preliminary ,discourse to the ,encyclopdie4 ,it is noteworthy that in his intimate correspondence with ,voltaire he never avows theism1 and that his and ,diderot's friend1 the atheist ,damilaville1 died in his arms4 #aabb ,on ,dumarsais1 too1 he penned an loge of which ,voltaire wrote3 ,dumarsais only begins to live since his death2 you have given him existence and immortality4 #aabc ,and perpetual secretary as he was of the ,academy1 the fanatical daughter of ,madame ,geoffrin could write to him in #aggf3 ,for many years you have set all respectable people against you by your indecent and imprudent manner of speaking against religion4 #aabd ,baron d',holbach1 a naturalized ,german of large fortune1 was on the other hand one of the most strenuous propagandists of freethought in his age4 ,personally no less beloved than ,helvtius1 #aabe he gave his life and his fortune to the work of enlightening men on all the lines on which he felt they needed light4 ,much of the progress of the physical sciences in pre-revolutionary ,france was due to the long series--at least eleven in all--of his translations of solid treatises from the ,german2 and his still longer series of original works and translations from the ,english in all branches of freethought--a really astonishing movement of intellectual energy despite the emotion attaching to the subject-matter--was for the most part prepared in the same essentially scientific temper4 ,of all the freethinkers of the period he had perhaps the largest range of practical erudition2 #aabf and he drew upon it with unhasting and unresting industry4 ,imitating the tactic of ,voltaire1 he produced1 with some assistance from ,diderot1 ,naigeon1 and others1 a small library of anti-,christian treatises under a variety of pseudonyms2 #aabg and his principal work1 the famous ,system of ,nature 7#aggj71 was put out under the name of ,mirabaud1 an actual person1 then dead4 ,summing up as it does with stringent force the whole anti-theological propaganda of the age1 it has been described as a thundering engine of revolt and destruction4 #aabh ,it was the first published atheistic #aabi treatise of a systematic kind1 if we except that of ,robinet1 issued some years before2 and it significantly marks the era of modern freethought1 as does the powerful ,essai sur les prjugs1 published in the same year1 #aacj by its stern impeachment of the sins of monarchy--here carrying on the note struck by ,jean ,meslier in his manuscript of half-a-century earlier4 ,rather a practical argument than a dispassionate philosophic research1 its polemic against human folly laid it open to the regulation retort that on its own necessarian principles no such polemic was admissible4 ,that retort is1 of course1 ultimately invalid when the denunciation is resolved into demonstration4 ,if1 however1 it be termed shallow on the score of its censorious treatment of the past1 #aaca the term will have to be applied to the ,hebrew books1 to the ,gospel ,jesus1 to the ,christian ,fathers1 to ,pascal1 ,milton1 ,carlyle1 ,ruskin1 and a good many other prophets1 ancient and modern4 ,the synthesis of the book is really emotional rather than philosophic1 and hortatory rather than scientific2 and it was all the more influential on that account4 ,to the sensation it produced is to be ascribed the edict of #aggj condemning a whole shelf of previous works to be burnt along with it by the common hangman4 #bf4 ,the death of d',holbach 7#aghi7 brings us to the ,french ,revolution4 ,by that time all the great freethinking propagandists and non-combatant deists of the ,voltairean group were gone1 save ,condorcet4 ,voltaire and ,rousseau had died in #aggh1 ,helvtius in #agga1 ,turgot in #agha1 ,d',alembert in #aghc1 ,diderot in #aghd4 ,after all their labours1 only the educated minority1 broadly speaking1 had been made freethinkers2 and of these1 despite the vogue of the ,system of ,nature1 only a minority were atheists4 ,deism prevailed1 as we have seen1 among the foremost revolutionists2 but atheism was relatively rare4 ,voltaire1 indeed1 impressed by the number of cultured men of his acquaintance who avowed it1 latterly speaks #aacb of them as very numerous2 and ,grimm must have had a good many among the subscribers to his correspondence1 to permit of his penning or passing the atheistic criticism there given of ,voltaire's first reply to d',holbach4 ,nevertheless1 there was no continuous atheistic movement2 and after #aghi the new freethinking works run to critical and ethical attack on the ,christian system rather than on theism4 ,volney combined both lines of attack in his famous ,ruins of ,empires 7#agia72 and the learned ,dupuis1 in his voluminous ,origin of all ,cults 7#agie71 took an important step1 not yet fully reckoned with by later mythologists1 towards the mythological analysis of the gospel narrative4 ,after these vigorous performances1 the popular progress of ,french freethought was for long practically suspended #aacc by the tumult of the ,revolution and the reaction which followed it1 though ,laplace went on his way with his epoch-making theory of the origin of the solar system1 for which1 as he told ,napoleon1 he had no need of the hypothesis of a ,god4 ,the admirable ,condorcet had died1 perhaps by his own hand1 in #agid1 when in hiding from the ,terrorists1 leaving behind him his ,esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrs de l'esprit humain1 in which the most sanguine convictions of the rationalistic school are reformulated without a trace of bitterness or of despair4 #bg4 ,no part of the history of freethought has been more distorted than that at which it is embroiled in the ,french ,revolution4 ,the conventional view in ,england still is that the ,revolution was the work of deists and atheists1 but chiefly of the latter2 that they suppressed ,christianity and set up a worship of a ,goddess of ,reason1 represented by a woman of the town2 and that the bloodshed of the ,terror represented the application of their principles to government1 or at least the political result of the withdrawal of religious checks4 #aacd ,those who remember in the briefest summary the records of massacre connected with the affirmation of religious beliefs--the internecine wars of ,christian sects under the ,roman ,empire2 the vast slaughters of ,manichans in the ,east2 the bloodshed of the period of propagation in ,northern ,europe1 from ,charlemagne onwards2 the story of the ,crusades1 in which nine millions of human beings are estimated to have been destroyed2 the generation of wholesale murder of the heretics of ,languedoc by the papacy2 the protracted savageries of the ,hussite ,war2 the early holocaust of ,protestant heretics in ,france2 the massacres of ,german peasants and ,anabaptists2 the reciprocal persecutions in ,england2 the civil strifes of sectaries in ,switzerland2 the ferocious wars of the ,french ,huguenots and the ,league2 the long-drawn agony of the war of thirty years in ,germany2 the annihilation of myriads of ,mexicans and ,peruvians by the conquering ,spaniards in the name of the ,cross--those who recall these things need spend no time over the proposition that rationalism stands for a removal of restraints on bloodshed4 ,but it is necessary to put concisely the facts as against the legend in the case of the ,french ,revolution4 7a7 ,that many of the leading men among the revolutionists were deists is true2 and the fact goes to prove that it was chiefly the men of ability in ,france who rejected ,christianity4 ,of a number of these the normal attitude was represented in the work of ,necker1 ,sur l'importance des ides religieuses 7#aghg71 which repudiated the destructive attitude of the few1 and may be described as an utterance of pious theism or ,unitarianism4 #aace ,orthodox he cannot well have been1 since1 like his wife1 he was the friend of ,voltaire4 #aacf ,but the majority of the ,constituent ,assembly was never even deistic2 it professed itself cordially ,catholic2 #aacg and the atheists there might be counted on the fingers of one hand4 #aach ,the ,abb ,bergier1 in answering d',holbach 7,examen du ,matrialisme1 ii1 ch4 i1 #a71 denies that there has been any wide spread of atheistic opinion4 ,this is much more probable than the statement of the ,archbishop of ,toulouse1 on a deputation to the king in #agge1 that le monstrueux athisme est devenu l'opinion dominante 7,soulavie1 ,rgne de ,louis ,,xvi1 iii1 #af2 cited by ,buckle1 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #dhh1 note74 ,joseph ,droz1 a monarchist and a ,christian1 writing under ,louis ,philippe1 sums up that the atheists formed only a small number of adepts 7,histoire du ,rgne de ,louis ,,xvi1 d4 #ahci1 p4 #db74 ,and ,rivarol1 who at the time of writing his ,lettres ,m4 ,necker was substantially an atheist1 says in so many words that1 while ,rousseau's ,confession of a ,savoyard ,vicar was naturally very attractive to many1 such a book as the ,systme de la ,nature1 were it as attractive as it is tedious1 would win nobody 7,o,euvres1 d4 #aheb1 p4 #acd74 ,still1 it ran into seven editions between #aggj and #aghj4 ,nor were there lacking vigorous representatives of orthodoxy3 the powerful ,abb ,grgoire1 in particular1 was a convinced ,jansenist ,christian1 and at the same time an ardent democrat and anti-royalist4 #aaci ,he saw the immense importance to the ,church of a good understanding with the ,revolution1 and he accepted the constitution of #agij4 ,with him went a very large number of priests4 ,m4 ,lonce de ,lavergne1 who was pious enough to write that the philosophy of the eighteenth century had had the audacity to lay hands on ,god2 and this impious attempt has had for punishment the revolutionary expiation1 also admits that1 of the clergy1 it was not the minority but the majority which went along with the ,tiers tat4 #aadj ,many of the clergy1 however1 being refractory1 the ,assembly pressed its point1 and the breach widened4 ,it was solely through this political hostility on the part of the ,church to the new constitution that any civic interference with public worship ever took place4 ,grgoire was extremely popular with the advanced types1 #aada though his piety was conspicuous2 #aadb and there were not a few priests of his way of thinking1 #aadc among them being some of the ablest bishops4 #aadd ,on the flight of the king1 he and they went with the democracy2 and it was the obstinate refusal of the others to accept the constitution that provoked the new ,legislative ,assembly to coerce them4 ,though the new body was more anti-clerical than the old1 however1 it was simply doing what successive ,protestant monarchs had done in ,england and ,ireland2 and probably no ,government in the world would then have acted otherwise in a similar case4 #aade ,patience might perhaps have won the day2 but the ,revolution was fighting for its life2 and the conservative ,church1 as all men knew1 was eager to strangle it4 ,had the clergy left politics alone1 or simply accepted the constitutional action of the ,state1 there would have been no religious question4 ,to speak of such a body of priests1 who had at all times been eager to put men to death for heresy1 as vindicating liberty of conscience when they refused fealty to the constitution1 #aadf is somewhat to strain the terms4 ,the expulsion of the ,jesuits under the ,old ,rgime had been a more coercive measure than the demand of the ,assembly on the allegiance of the ,state clergy4 ,and all the while the reactionary section of the priesthood was known to be conspiring with the royalists abroad4 ,it was only when1 in #agic1 the conservative clergy were seen to be the great obstacle to the levy of an army of defence1 that the more radical spirits began to think of interfering with their functions4 #aadg 7b7 ,an priori method has served alike in freethinkers' and in pietists' hands to obscure the facts4 ,when ,michelet insists on the irreconcilable opposition of ,christianity to the ,revolution--a thesis in which he was heartily supported by ,proudhon #aadh--;he means that the central ,christian dogmas of salvation by sacrifice and faith exclude any political ethic of justice #aadi--;any doctrine of equality and equity4 ,but this is only to say that ,christianity as an organization is in perpetual contradiction with some main part of its professed creed2 and that has been a commonplace since ,constantine4 ,it does not mean that either ,christians in multitudes or their churches as organizations have not constantly proceeded on ordinary political motives1 whether populist or anti-populist4 ,in ,germany we have seen ,lutheranism first fomenting and afterwards repudiating the movement of the peasants for betterment2 and in ,england in the next century both parties in the civil war invoke religious doctrines1 meeting texts with texts4 ,jansenism was in constant friction with the monarchy from its outset2 and ,louis ,,xiv and ,louis ,,xv alike regarded the ,jansenists as the enemies of the throne4 ,christianity could be as easily reconciled with a democratic movement in the last quarter of the eighteenth century as with the ,massacre of ,saint ,bartholomew's ,day in the sixteenth4 ,if those ,christians who still charge the bloodshed of the ,french ,revolution on the spirit of incredulity desire to corroborate ,michelet to the extent of making ,christianity the bulwark of absolute monarchy1 the friend of a cruel feudalism1 and the guardian genius of the ,bastille1 they may be left to the criticism of their fellow-believers who have embraced the newer principle that the truth of the ,christian religion is to be proved by connecting it in practice with the spirit of social reform4 ,to point out to either party1 as did ,michelet1 that evangelical ,christianity is a religion of submission and preparation for the end of all things1 and has nothing to do with rational political reform1 is to bestow logic where logic is indomiciliable4 ,while rationalism undoubtedly fosters the critical spirit1 professed ,christians have during many ages shown themselves as prone to rebellion as to war1 whether on religious or on political pretexts4 7c7 ,for the rest1 the legend falsifies what took place4 ,the facts are now established by exact documentary research4 ,the ,government never substituted any species of religion for the ,catholic4 #aaej ,the ,festival of ,reason at ,ntre ,dame was an act not of the ,convention but of the ,commune of ,paris and the ,department2 the ,convention had no part in promoting it2 half the members stayed away when invited to attend2 and there was no ,goddess of ,reason in the ceremony1 but only a ,goddess of ,liberty1 represented by an actress who cannot even be identified4 #aaea ,throughout1 the devoutly theistic ,rousseau was the chief literary hero of the movement4 ,the two executive ,committees in no way countenanced the dechristianization of the ,churches1 but on the contrary imprisoned persons who removed church properties2 and these in turn protested that they had no thought of abolishing religion4 ,the acts of irresponsible violence did not amount to a hundredth part of the sacrilege wrought in ,protestant countries at the ,reformation1 and do not compare with the acts charged on ,cromwell's troopers4 ,the policy of inviting priests and bishops to abdicate their functions was strictly political2 and the ,archbishop ,gobel did not abjure ,catholicism1 but only surrendered his office4 ,that a number of priests did gratuitously abjure their religion is only a proof of what was well known--that a good many priests were simple deists4 ,we have seen how many abbs fought in the freethought ranks1 or near them4 ,diderot in a letter of #agfi tells of a day which he and a friend had passed with two monks who were atheists4 ,one of them read the first draft of a very fresh and very vigorous treatise on atheism1 full of new and bold ideas2 ,i learned with edification that this doctrine was the current doctrine of their cloisters4 ,for the rest1 these two monks were the 'big bonnets' of their monastery2 they had intellect1 gaiety1 good feeling1 knowledge4 #aaeb ,and a priest of the cathedral of ,auxerre1 whose recollections went back to the revolutionary period1 has confessed that at that time philosophic opinions prevailed in most of the monasteries4 ,his words even imply that in his opinion the unbelieving monks were the majority4 #aaec ,in the provinces1 where the movement went on with various degrees of activity1 it had the same general character4 ,reason itself was often identified with deity1 or declared to be an emanation thereof4 ,hbert1 commonly described as an atheist for his share in the movement1 expressly denied the charge1 and claimed to have exhorted the people to read the gospels and obey ,christ4 #aaed ,danton1 though at his death he disavowed belief in immortality1 had declared in the ,convention in #agic that we have not striven to abolish superstition in order to establish the reign of atheism4 #aaee ,even ,chaumette was not an atheist2 #aaef and the ,prussian ,clootz1 who probably was1 had certainly little or no doctrinary influence2 while the two or three other professed atheists of the ,assembly had no part in the public action4 7d7 ,finally1 ,robespierre was all along thoroughly hostile to the movement2 in his character of ,rousseauist and deist he argued that atheism was aristocratic2 he put to death the leaders of the ,cult of ,reason2 and he set up the ,worship of the ,supreme ,being as a counter-move4 ,broadly speaking1 he affiliated to ,necker1 and stood very much at the standpoint of the ,english ,unitarianism of the present day4 ,thus the bloodshed of the ,reign of ,terror1 if it is to be charged on any species of philosophic doctrine rather than on the unscrupulous policy of the enemies of the ,revolution in and out of ,france1 stands to the credit of the belief in a ,god1 the creed of ,frederick1 ,turgot1 ,necker1 ,franklin1 ,pitt1 and ,washington4 ,the one convinced and reasoning atheist among the publicists of the ,revolution1 the journalist ,salaville1 #aaeg opposed the ,cult of ,reason with sound and serious and persuasive argument1 and strongly blamed all forcible interference with worship1 while at the same time calmly maintaining atheism as against theism4 ,the age of atheism had not come1 any more than the triumph of ,reason4 ,mallet du ,pan specifies1 as among those who since #aghh have pushed the blood-stained car of anarchy and atheism1 ,chamfort1 ,gronvelle1 ,garat1 and ,cerutti4 ,chamfort was as high-minded a man as ,mallet himself1 and is to-day so recognized by every unprejudiced reader4 ,the others are forgotten4 ,gronvelle1 who as secretary of the executive council read to ,louis ,,xvi his death-sentence1 wrote ,de l'autorit de ,montesquieu dans la rvolution prsente 7#aghi74 ,garat was ,minister of ,justice in #agib and of the ,interior in #agic1 and was ennobled by ,napoleon4 ,he had published ,considrations sur la ,rvolution 7#agib7 and a ,mmoire sur la ,rvolution 7#agie74 ,cerutti1 originally a ,jesuit1 became a member of the ,legislative ,assembly1 and was the friend of ,mirabeau1 whose funeral oration he delivered4 #bh4 ,the anti-atheistic and anti-philosophic legend was born of the exasperation and bad faith of the dethroned aristocracy1 themselves often unbelievers in the day of their ascendancy1 and1 whether unbelievers or not1 responsible with the ,church and the court for that long insensate resistance to reform which made the revolution inevitable4 ,mere random denunciation of new ideas as tending to generate rebellion was of course an ancient commonplace4 ,medieval heretics had been so denounced2 ,wiclif was in his day2 and when the ,count de ,cataneo attacked ,montesquieu's ,spirit of ,laws1 he spoke of all such reasonings as attempts which shake the sacred basis of thrones4 #aaeh ,but he and his contemporaries knew that freethinkers were not specially given to mutiny2 and when1 later1 ,french ,churchmen had begun systematically to accuse the philosophers of undermining alike the ,church and the throne1 #aaei the unbelieving nobles1 conscious of entire political conservatism1 had simply laughed4 ,better than anyone else they knew that political revolt had other roots and motives than incredulity2 and they could not but remember how many ,french kings had been rebelled against by the ,church1 and how many slain by priestly hands4 ,their acceptance of the priestly formula came later4 ,in the life of the brilliant ,rivarol1 who associated with the noblesse while disdained by many of them because of his obscure birth1 we may read the intellectual history of the case4 ,brilliant without patience1 keen without scientific coherence1 #aafj ,rivarol in #aghg met the pious deism of ,necker with a dialectic in which cynicism as often disorders as illuminates the argument4 ,with prompt veracity he first rejects the ideal of a beneficent reign of delusion1 and insists that religion is seen in all history powerless alike to overrule men's passions and prejudices1 and to console the oppressed by its promise of a reversal of earthly conditions in another world4 ,but in the same breath1 by way of proving that the atheist is less disturbing to convention than the deist1 he insists that the unbeliever soon learns to see that irreverences are crimes against society2 and then1 in order to justify such conformity1 asserts what he had before denied4 ,and the self-contradiction recurs4 #aafa ,the underlying motive of the whole polemic is simply the grudge of the upper class diner-out against the serious and conscientious bourgeois who strives to reform the existing system4 ,conscious of being more enlightened1 the wit is eager at once to disparage ,necker for his religiosity and to discredit him politically as the enemy of the socially useful ecclesiastical order4 ,yet in his second letter ,sur la morale 7#aghh7 he is so plainly an unbeliever that the treatise had to be printed at ,berlin4 ,the due sequence is that when the ,revolution breaks out ,rivarol sides with the court and the noblesse1 while perfectly aware of the ineptitude and malfeasance of both2 #aafb and1 living in exile1 proceeds to denounce the philosophers as having caused the overturn by their universal criticism4 ,in #aghg he had declared that he would not even have written his ,letters to ,necker if he were not certain that the people does not read4 ,then the people had read neither the philosophers nor him4 ,but in exile he must needs frame for the migrs a formula1 true or false4 ,it is the falsity of men divided against themselves1 who pay themselves with recriminations rather than realize their own deserts4 #aafc ,and in the end ,rivarol is but a deist4 #bi4 ,if any careful attempt be made to analyse the situation1 the stirring example of the precedent revolution in the ,british ,american colonies will probably be recognized as counting for very much more than any merely literary influence in promoting that of ,france4 ,a certain republican spirit had indeed existed among educated men in ,france throughout the reign of ,louis ,,xv3 ,d',argenson noted it in #agej and later4 #aafd ,but this spirit1 which ,d',argenson in large measure shared1 while holding firmly by monarchy1 #aafe was simply the spirit of constitutionalism1 the love of law and good government1 and it derived from ,english example and the teachings of such ,englishmen as ,locke1 #aaff insofar as it was not spontaneous4 ,if acceptance of the doctrine of constitutional government can lead to anarchy1 let it be avowed2 but let not the cause be pretended to be deism or atheism4 ,the political teaching for which the ,paris ,parlement denounced ,rousseau's mile in #agfb1 and for which the theologians of the ,sorbonne censured ,marmontel's ,blisaire in #agfg1 was the old doctrine of the sovereignty of the people4 ,but this had been maintained by a whole school of ,english ,protestant ,christians before ,bossuet denounced the ,protestant ,jurieu for maintaining it4 ,nay1 it had been repeatedly maintained by ,catholic theologians1 from ,thomas ,aquinas to ,suarez1 #aafg especially when there was any question of putting down a ,protestant monarch4 ,protestants on their part protested indignantly1 and reciprocated4 ,the recriminations of ,protestants and ,catholics on this head form one of the standing farces of human history4 ,coger1 attacking ,marmontel1 unctuously cites ,bayle's censure of his fellow ,protestants in his ,avis aux ,rfugiz #aafh for their tone towards kings and monarchy1 but says nothing of ,bayle's quarrel with ,jurieu1 which motived such an utterance1 or of his ,critique ,gnrale of ,maimbourg's ,histoire du ,calvinisme1 in which he shows how the ,catholic historian's principles would justify the rebellion alike of ,catholics in every ,protestant country and of ,protestants in every ,catholic country1 #aafi though all the while it is assumed that true ,christians never resort to violence4 ,and1 unless there has been an error as to his authorship1 ,bayle himself1 be it remembered1 had in his letter ,ce que c'est que la ,france toute catholique sous le rgne de ,louis le ,grand passed as scathing a criticism on ,louis ,,xiv as any ,protestant refugee could well have compassed4 ,sectarian hypocrisies apart1 the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people--for opposing which the freethinker ,hobbes has been execrated by generations of ,christians--is the professed political creed of the very classes who1 in ,england and the ,united ,states1 have so long denounced ,french freethinkers for an alleged subversive social teaching which fell far short of what ,english and ,american ,protestants had actually practised4 ,the revolt of the ,american colonies1 in fact1 precipitated democratic feeling in ,france in a way that no writing had ever done4 ,lafayette1 no freethinker1 declared himself republican at once on reading the ,american declaration of the ,rights of ,man4 #aagj ,in all this the freethinking propaganda counted for nothing directly and for little indirectly1 inasmuch as there was no clerical quarrel in the colonies4 ,and if we seek for even an indirect or general influence1 apart from the affirmation of the duty of kings to their people1 the thesis as to the activity of the philosophes must at once be restricted to the cases of ,rousseau1 ,helvtius1 ,raynal1 and d',holbach1 for ,marmontel never passed beyond sound generalities4 ,as for the pretence that it was freethinking doctrines that brought ,louis ,,xvi to the scaffold1 it is either the most impudent or the most ignorant of historical imputations4 ,the right of tyrannicide had been maintained by ,catholic schoolmen before the ,reformation1 and by both ,protestants and ,catholics afterwards1 times without number1 even as they maintained the right of the people to depose and change kings4 ,the doctrine was in fact not even a modern innovation1 the theory being so well primed by the practice--under every sort of government1 ,jewish and pagan in antiquity1 ,moslem in the ,middle ,ages1 and ,christian from the day of ,pepin to the day of ,john ,knox--that a certain novelty lay on the side of the divine right of kings when that was popularly formulated4 ,and on the whole question of revolution1 or the right of peoples to recast their laws1 the general doctrine of the most advanced of the ,french freethinkers is paralleled or outgone by popes and ,church ,councils in the ,middle ,ages1 by ,occam and ,marsiglio of ,padua and ,wiclif and more than one ,german legist in the fourteenth century1 by ,john ,major and ,george ,buchanan in ,scotland1 by ,goodman in ,england1 and by many ,huguenots in ,france1 in the sixteenth2 by ,hotman in his ,francogallia in #aegd2 by the author of the ,soupirs de la ,france ,esclave #aaga in #afhi2 and by the whole propagandist literature of the ,english and ,american ,revolutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth4 ,so far from being a specialty of freethinkers1 sedition was in all these and other cases habitually grounded on ,biblical texts and religious protestations2 so that ,bacon1 little given as he was to defending rationalists1 could confidently avow that ,atheism leaves a man to sense1 to philosophy1 to natural piety1 to laws1 to reputation 444 but superstition dismounts all these1 and erecteth an absolute monarchy in the minds of men4 ,therefore atheism did never perturb states4444 ,but superstition hath been the confusion of many states4 ,for superstition read sectarianism1 fanaticism1 and ecclesiasticism4 ,bacon's generalization is of course merely empirical1 atheism being capable of alliance with revolutionary passion in its turn2 but the historical summary holds good4 ,only by men who had not read or had forgotten universal history could the ascription of the ,french ,revolution to rationalistic thought have been made4 #aagb #cj4 ,a survey of the work and attitude of the leading ,french freethinkers of the century may serve to settle the point once for all4 ,voltaire is admittedly out of the question4 ,mallet du ,pan1 whose resistance to the ,revolution developed into a fanaticism hardly less perturbing to judgment #aagc than that of ,burke1 expressly disparaged him as having so repelled men by his cynicism that he had little influence on their feelings1 and so could not be reckoned a prime force in preparing the ,revolution4 #aagd ,mably1 the critic adds1 whose republican declamations have intoxicated many modern democrats1 was religious to austerity3 at the first stroke of the tocsin against the ,church of ,rome1 he would have thrown his books in the fire1 excepting his scathing apostrophes to ,voltaire and the atheists4 ,marmontel1 ,saint-,lambert1 ,morellet1 ,encyclopedists1 were adversaries of the revolution4 #aage ,on the other hand1 ,barante avows that ,mably1 detesting as he did the freethinking philosophers of his day1 followed no less than others a destructive course1 and contributed1 without knowing it1 to weaken the already frayed ties which still united the parts of an ancient society4 #aagf ,as ,barante had previously ascribed the whole dissolution to the autocratic process under ,louis ,,xiv1 #aagg even this indictment of the orthodox ,mably is invalid4 ,voltaire1 on the other hand1 ,barante charges with an undue leaning to the methods of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,voltaire1 in fact1 was in things political a conservative1 save insofar as he fought for toleration1 for lenity1 and for the most necessary reforms4 ,and if ,voltaire's attack on what he held to be a demoralizing and knew to be a persecuting religion be saddled with the causation of the political crash1 the blame will have to be carried back equally to the ,english deists and the tyranny of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,to such indictments1 as ,barante protests1 there is no limit3 every age pivots on its predecessor2 and to blame for the ,french ,revolution everybody but a corrupt aristocracy1 a tyrannous and ruinously spendthrift monarchy1 and a cruel church1 is to miss the last semblance of judicial method4 ,it may be conceded that the works of ,meslier and d',holbach1 neither of whom is noticed by ,barante1 are directly though only generally revolutionary in their bearing4 ,but the main works of d',holbach appeared too close upon the ,revolution to be credited with generating it2 and ,meslier1 as we know1 had been generally read only in abridgments and adaptations1 in which his political doctrine disappears4 ,mallet du ,pan1 striking in all directions1 indicts alternately ,rousseau1 whose vogue lay largely among religious people1 and the downright freethinkers4 ,the great fomenter of the ,revolution1 the critic avows1 was ,rousseau4 ,he had a hundred times more readers than ,voltaire in the middle and lower classes4444 ,no one has more openly attacked the right of property in declaring it a usurpation4444 ,it is he alone who has inoculated the ,french with the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people1 and with its most extreme consequences4 #aagh ,after this he alone1 the critic obliviously proceeds to exclaim3 ,diderot and ,condorcet3 there are the true chiefs of the revolutionary school1 adding that ,diderot had proclaimed equality before ,marat2 the ,rights of ,man before ,siys2 sacred insurrection before ,mirabeau and ,lafayette2 the massacre of priests before the ,septembrists4 #aagi ,but this is mere furious declamation4 ,only by heedless misreading or malice can support be given to the pretence that ,diderot wrought for the violent overthrow of the existing political system4 ,passages denouncing kingly tyranny had been inserted in their plays by both ,corneille and ,voltaire1 and applauded by audiences who never dreamt of abolishing monarchy4 ,a phrase about strangling kings in the bowels of priests is expressly put by ,diderot in the mouth of an leuthromane or ,liberty-maniac2 #aahj which shows that the type had arisen in his lifetime in opposition to his own bias4 ,this very poem he read to the ,prince von ,galitzin1 the ambassador of the ,empress ,catherine and his own esteemed friend4 #aaha ,the tyranny of the ,french ,government1 swayed by the king's mistresses and favourites and by the ,jesuits1 he did indeed detest1 as he had cause to do1 and as every man of good feeling did with him2 but no writing of his wrought measurably for its violent overthrow4 #aahb ,d',argenson in #agea was expressing his fears of a revolution1 and noting the dsobeissance constante of the ,parlement of ,paris and the disaffection of the people1 before he had heard of un ,m4 ,diderot1 qui a beaucoup d'esprit1 mais qui affecte trop l'irreligion4 ,and when he notes that the ,jesuits have secured the suppression of the ,encyclopdie as being hostile to ,god and the royal authority1 he does not attach the slightest weight to the charge4 ,he knew that ,louis called the pious ,jansenists enemies of ,god and of the king4 #aahc ,mallet du ,pan grounds his charge against ,diderot almost solely on those incendiary diatribes intercalated in the ,histoire philosophique des deux ,indes which dishonour that work1 and which ,raynal1 in his latter days1 excised with horror from a new edition which he was preparing4 ,but supposing the passages in question to be all ,diderot's #aahd--which is far from certain--they are to be saddled with responsibility for the ,reign of ,terror only on the principle that it was more provocative in the days of tyranny to denounce than to exercise it4 ,to this complexion ,mallet du ,pan came1 with the anti-,revolutionists in general2 but to-day we can recognize in the whole process of reasoning a reductio ad absurdum4 ,the school in question came in all seriousness to ascribe the evils of the ,revolution to everything and everybody save the men and classes whose misgovernment made the ,revolution inevitable4 ,some of the philosophers1 it is true1 themselves gave colour to the view that they were the makers of the ,revolution1 as when ,d',alembert said to ,romilly that philosophy had produced in his time that change in the popular mind which exhibited itself in the indifference with which they received the news of the birth of the dauphin4 #aahe ,the error is none the less plain4 ,the philosophes had done nothing to promote anti-monarchism among the common people1 who did not read4 #aahf ,it was the whole political and social evolution of two generations that had wrought the change2 and the people were still for the most part believing ,catholics4 ,frederick the ,great was probably within the mark when in #agfi he privately reminded the more optimistic philosophers that their entire ,french public did not number above #bjj1jjj persons4 ,the people of ,paris1 who played the chief part in precipitating the ,revolution1 were spontaneously mutinous and disorderly1 but were certainly not in any considerable number unbelievers4 ,while ,voltaire dechristianized a portion of polite society the people remained very pious1 even at ,paris4 ,in #agff ,louis ,,xv1 so unpopular1 was acclaimed because he knelt1 on the ,pont ,neuf1 before the ,holy ,sacrament4 #aahg ,and this is the final answer to any pretence that the ,revolution was the work of the school of d',holbach4 ,bergier the priest1 and ,rivarol the conservative unbeliever1 alike denied that d',holbach's systematic writings had any wide public4 ,doubtless the same men were ready to eat their words for the satisfaction of vilifying an opponent4 ,it has always been the way of orthodoxy to tell atheists alternately that they are an impotent handful and that they are the ruin of society4 ,but by this time it ought to be a matter of elementary knowledge that a great political revolution can be wrought only by far-reaching political forces1 whether or not these may concur with a propaganda of rationalism in religion4 #aahh ,if any philosopher so-called is to be credited with specially promoting the ,revolution1 it is either ,rousseau1 who is so often hailed latterly as the engineer of a religious reaction1 and whose works1 as has been repeatedly remarked1 contain much that is utterly and irreconcilably opposed to the ,revolution1 #aahi or ,raynal1 who was only anti-clerical1 not anti-,christian1 and who actually censured the revolutionary procedure4 ,when he published his first edition he must be held to have acquiesced in its doctrine1 whether it were from ,diderot's pen or his own4 ,rousseau and ,raynal were the two most popular writers of their day who dealt with social as apart from religious or philosophical issues1 and to both is thus imputed a general subversiveness4 ,but here too the charge rests upon a sociological fallacy4 ,the ,parlement of ,paris1 composed of rich bourgeois and aristocrats1 many of them ,jansenists1 very few of them freethinkers1 most of them ready to burn freethinking books1 played a subversive part throughout the century1 inasmuch as it so frequently resisted the king's will4 #aaij ,the stars in their courses fought against the old despotism4 ,rousseau was ultimately influential towards change because change was inevitable and essential1 not because he was restless4 ,the whole drift of things furthered his ideas1 which at the outset won no great vogue4 ,he was followed because he set forth what so many felt2 and similarly ,raynal was read because he chimed with a strengthening feeling4 ,in direct contradiction to ,mallet du ,pan1 ,chamfort1 a keener observer1 wrote while the ,revolution was still in action that the priesthood was the first bulwark of absolute power1 and ,voltaire overthrew it4 ,without this decisive and indispensable first step nothing would have been done4 #aaia ,the same observer goes on to say that ,rousseau's political works1 and particularly the ,contrat ,social1 were fitted for few readers1 and caused no alarm at court4444 ,that theory was regarded as a hollow speculation which could have no further consequences than the enthusiasm for liberty and the contempt of royalty carried so far in the pieces of ,corneille1 and applauded at court by the most absolute of kings1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,all that seemed to belong to another world1 and to have no connection with ours2 444 in a word1 ,voltaire above all has made the ,revolution1 because he has written for all2 ,rousseau above all has made the ,constitution because he has written for the thinkers4 #aaib ,and so the changes may be rung for ever4 ,the final philosophy of history cannot be reached by any such artificial selection of factors2 #aaic and the ethical problem equally evades such solutions4 ,if we are to pass any ethico-political judgment whatever1 it must be that the evils of the ,revolution lie at the door not of the reformers1 but of the men1 the classes1 and the institutions which first provoked and then resisted it4 #aaid ,to describe the former as the authors of the process is as intelligent as it was to charge upon ,sokrates the decay of orthodox tradition in ,athens1 and to charge upon that the later downfall of the ,athenian empire4 ,the wisest men of the age1 notably the great ,turgot1 sought a gradual transformation1 a peaceful and harmless transition from unconstitutional to constitutional government4 ,their policy was furiously resisted by an unteachable aristocracy4 ,when at last fortuitous violence made a breach in the feudal walls1 a people unprepared for self-rule1 and fought by an aristocracy eager for blood1 surged into anarchy1 and convulsion followed on convulsion4 ,that is in brief the history of the ,revolution4 #ca4 ,while the true causation of the ,revolution is thus kept clear1 it must not be forgotten1 further1 that to the very last1 save where controlled by disguised rationalists like ,malesherbes1 the tendency of the old rgime was to persecute brutally and senselessly wherever it could lay hands on a freethinker4 ,in #aghh1 only a year before the first explosion of the ,revolution1 there appeared the ,almanach des ,honntes ,gens of ,sylvain ,marchal1 a work of which the offence consisted not in any attack upon religion1 but in simply constructing a calendar in which the names of renowned laymen were substituted for saints4 ,instantly it was denounced by the ,paris ,parlement1 the printer prosecuted1 and the author imprisoned2 and ,de ,sauvigny1 the censor who had passed the book1 was exiled thirty leagues from ,paris4 #aaie ,some idea of the intensity of the tyranny over all literature in ,france under the ,old ,rgime may be gathered from ,buckle's compendious account of the books officially condemned1 and of authors punished1 during the two generations before the ,revolution4 ,apart from the record of the treatment of ,buffon1 ,marmontel1 ,morellet1 ,voltaire1 and ,diderot1 it runs3 ,the 444 tendency was shown in matters so trifling that nothing but the gravity of their ultimate results prevents them from being ridiculous4 ,in #aggj1 ,imbert translated ,clarke's ,letters on ,spain1 one of the best works then existing on that country4 ,this book1 however1 was suppressed as soon as it appeared2 and the only reason assigned for such a stretch of power is that it contained some remarks respecting the passion of ,charles ,,iii for hunting1 which were considered disrespectful to the ,french crown1 because ,louis ,,xv himself was a great hunter4 ,several years before this ,la ,bletterie1 who was favourably known in ,france by his works1 was elected a member of the ,french ,academy4 ,but he1 it seems1 was a ,jansenist1 and had moreover ventured to assert that the ,emperor ,julian1 notwithstanding his apostasy1 was not entirely devoid of good qualities4 ,such offences could not be overlooked in so pure an age2 and the king obliged the ,academy to exclude ,la ,bletterie from their society4 ,that the punishment extended no further was an instance of remarkable leniency2 for ,frret1 an eminent critic and scholar1 was confined in the ,bastille because he stated1 in one of his memoirs1 that the earliest ,frankish chiefs had received their titles from the ,romans4 ,the same penalty was inflicted four different times upon ,lenglet du ,fresnoy4 ,in the case of this amiable and accomplished man1 there seems to have been hardly the shadow of a pretext for the cruelty with which he was treated2 though on one occasion the alleged offence was that he had published a supplement to the ,history of ,de ,thou4 ,indeed1 we have only to open the biographies and correspondence of that time to find instances crowding upon us from all quarters4 ,rousseau was threatened with imprisonment1 was driven from ,france1 and his works were publicly burned4 ,the celebrated treatise of ,helvtius on the ,mind was suppressed by an order of the ,royal ,council2 it was burned by the common hangman1 and the author was compelled to write two letters retracting his opinions4 ,some of the geological views of ,buffon having offended the clergy1 that illustrious naturalist was obliged to publish a formal recantation of doctrines which are now known to be perfectly accurate4 ,the learned ,observations on the ,history of ,france1 by ,mably1 were suppressed as soon as they appeared3 for what reason it would be hard to say1 since ,m4 ,guizot1 certainly no friend either to anarchy or to irreligion1 has thought it worth while to republish them1 and thus stamp them with the authority of his own great name4 ,the ,history of the ,indies1 by ,raynal1 was condemned to the flames1 and the author ordered to be arrested4 ,lanjuinais1 in his well-known work on ,joseph ,,ii1 advocated not only religious toleration1 but even the abolition of slavery2 his book1 therefore1 was declared to be 'seditious'2 it was pronounced 'destructive of all subordination1' and was sentenced to be burned4 ,the ,analysis of ,bayle1 by ,marsy1 was suppressed1 and the author was imprisoned4 ,the ,history of the ,jesuits1 by ,linguet1 was delivered to the flames2 eight years later his journal was suppressed2 and1 three years after that1 as he still persisted in writing1 his ,political ,annals were suppressed1 and he himself was thrown into the ,bastille4 ,delisle de ,sales was sentenced to perpetual exile and confiscation of all his property on account of his work on the ,philosophy of ,nature4 ,the treatise by ,mey1 on ,french ,law1 was suppressed2 that by ,boncerf1 on ,feudal ,law1 was burned4 ,the ,memoirs of ,beaumarchais were likewise burned2 the loge on ,fnelon1 by ,la ,harpe1 was merely suppressed4 ,duvernet1 having written a ,history of the ,sorbonne1 which was still unpublished1 was seized and thrown into the ,bastille1 while the manuscript was yet in his own possession4 ,the celebrated work of ,de ,lolme on the ,english constitution was suppressed by edict directly it appeared4 ,the fate of being suppressed or prohibited also awaited the ,letters of ,gervaise in #agbd2 the ,dissertations of ,courayer in #agbg2 the ,letters of ,montgon in #agcb2 the ,history of ,tamerlane1 by ,margat1 also in #agcb2 the ,essay on ,taste1 by ,cartaud1 in #agcf2 ,the ,life of ,domat1 by ,prvost de la ,janns1 in #agdb2 the ,history of ,louis ,,xi1 by ,duclos1 in #agde2 the ,letters of ,bargeton in #agej2 the ,memoirs on ,troyes1 by ,grosley1 in the same year2 the ,history of ,clement ,,xi1 by ,reboulet1 in #ageb2 ,the ,school of ,man1 by ,gnard1 also in #ageb2 the ,therapeutics of ,garlon in #agef2 the celebrated thesis of ,louis1 on ,generation1 in #aged2 the treatise on ,presidial ,jurisdiction1 by ,jousse1 in #agee2 the ,ericie of ,fontenelle in #agfh2 the ,thoughts of ,jamin in #agfi2 the ,history of ,siam1 by ,turpin1 and the loge of ,marcus ,aurelius1 by ,thomas1 both in #aggj2 the works on ,finance by ,darigrand1 in #agfd1 and by ,le ,trosne in #aggi2 the ,essay on ,military ,tactics1 by ,guibert1 in #aggb2 the ,letters of ,boucquet in the same year2 and the ,memoirs of ,terrai1 by ,coquereau1 in #aggf4 ,such wanton destruction of property was1 however1 mercy itself compared to the treatment experienced by other literary men in ,france4 ,desforges1 for example1 having written against the arrest of the ,pretender to the ,english throne1 was1 solely on that account1 buried in a dungeon eight feet square and confined there for three years4 ,this happened in #agdi2 and in #aggj1 ,audra1 professor at the ,college of ,toulouse1 and a man of some reputation1 published the first volume of his ,abridgement of ,general ,history4 ,beyond this the work never proceeded2 it was at once condemned by the archbishop of the diocese1 and the author was deprived of his office4 ,audra1 held up to public opprobrium1 the whole of his labours rendered useless1 and the prospects of his life suddenly blighted1 was unable to survive the shock4 ,he was struck with apoplexy1 and within twenty-four hours was lying a corpse in his own house4 #cb4 ,among many other illustrations of the passion for persecution in the period may be noted the fact that after the death of the atheist ,damilaville his enemies contrived to deprive his brother of a post from which he had his sole livelihood4 #aaif ,it is but one of an infinity of proofs that the spirit of sheer sectarian malevolence1 which is far from being eliminated in modern life1 was in the ,french ,church of the eighteenth century the ruling passion4 ,lovers of moderate courses there were1 even in the ,church2 but even among professors of lenity we find an ingrained belief in the virtue of vituperation and coercion4 ,and it is not until the persecuted minority has developed its power of written retaliation1 and the deadly arrows of ,voltaire have aroused in the minds of persecutors a new terror1 that there seems to arise on that side a suspicion that there can be any better way of handling unbelief than by invective and imprisonment4 ,after they had taught the heretics to defend themselves1 and found them possessed of weapons such as orthodoxy could not hope to handle1 we find ,churchmen talking newly of the duty of gentleness towards error2 and even then clinging to the last to the weapons of public ostracism and aspersion4 ,so the fight was of necessity fought on the side of freethought in the temper of men warring on incorrigible oppression and cruelty as well as on error4 ,the wonder is that the freethinkers preserved so much amenity4 #cc4 ,this section would not be complete even in outline without some notice of the attitude held towards religion by ,napoleon1 who at once crowned and in large measure undid the work of the ,revolution4 ,he has his place in its religious legend in the current datum that he wrought for the faith by restoring a suppressed public worship and enabling the people of ,france once more to hear church-bells4 ,in point of fact1 as was pointed out by ,bishop ,grgoire in #ahbf1 it is materially proved that in #agif1 before he was ,consul1 and four years before the ,concordat1 according to a statement drawn up at the office of the ,domaines ,nationaux1 there were in ,france #cb1bad parishes where the culte was carried on4 #aaig ,other commonplaces concerning ,napoleon are not much better founded4 ,on the strength of a number of oral utterances1 many of them imperfectly vouched for1 and none of them marked by much deliberation1 he has been claimed by ,carlyle #aaih as a theist who philosophically disdained the clatter of materialism1 and believed in a ,personal ,creator of an infinite universe2 while by others he is put forward as a kind of expert in character study who vouched for the divinity of ,jesus4 #aaii ,in effect1 his verdict that this was not a man would tell1 if anything1 in favour of the view that ,jesus is a mythical construction4 ,he was1 indeed1 by temperament quasi-religious1 liking the sound of church bells and the atmosphere of devotion2 and in his boyhood he had been a rather fervent ,catholic4 ,as he grew up he read1 like his contemporaries1 the ,french deists of his time1 and became a deist like his fellows1 recognizing that religions were human productions4 ,declaring that he was loin d'tre athe1 he propounded to ,o',meara all the conventional views--that religion should be made a support to morals and law2 that men need to believe in marvels2 that religion is a great consolation to those who believe in it2 and that no one can tell what he will do in his last moments4 #abjj ,the opinion to which he seems to have adhered most steadily was that every man should die in the religion in which he had been brought up4 ,and he himself officially did so1 though he put off almost to the last the formality of a deathbed profession4 ,his language on the subject is irreconcilable with any real belief in the ,christian religion3 he was a deist la ,voltaire who recalled with tenderness his ,catholic childhood1 and who at death reverted to his first beliefs4 #abja ,for the rest1 he certainly believed in religion as a part of the machinery of the ,state1 and repeated the usual platitudes about its value as a moral restraint4 ,he was candid enough1 however1 not to pretend that it had ever restrained him2 and no freethinker condemned more sweepingly than he the paralysing effect of the ,catholic system on ,spain4 #abjb ,to the ,church his attitude was purely political2 and his personal liking for the ,pope never moved him to yield1 where he could avoid it1 to the temporal pretensions of the papacy4 ,the ,concordat of #ahjb1 that brilliant triumph over the genius of the ,revolution1 #abjc was purely and simply a political measure4 ,if he had had his way1 he would have set up a system of religious councils in ,france1 to be utilized against all disturbing tendencies in politics4 #abjd ,had he succeeded1 he was capable of suppressing all manifestations of freethought in the interests of order4 #abje ,he had1 in fact1 no disinterested love of truth2 and we have his express declaration1 at ,st4 ,helena1 on the subject of ,molire's ,tartufe3 ,i do not hesitate to say that if the piece had been written in my time1 ,i would not have permitted its representation4 #abjf ,freethought can make no warm claim to the allegiance of such a ruler2 and if the ,church of ,rome is concerned to claim him as a son on the score of his deathbed adherence1 after a reign which led the ,catholic clergy of ,spain to hold him up to the faithful as an incarnation of the devil1 #abjg she will hardly gain by the association4 ,napoleon's ideas on religious questions were in fact no more noteworthy than his views on economics1 which were thoroughly conventional4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,german ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,and ,,eighteenth ,,centuries #a4 ,when two generations of ,protestant strife had turned to naught the intellectual promise of the ,reformation1 and much of the ground first won by it had lapsed to ,catholicism1 the general forward movement of ,european thought availed to set up in ,germany as elsewhere a measure of critical unbelief4 ,there is abundant evidence that the ,lutheran clergy not only failed to hold the best intelligence of the country with them1 but in large part fell into personal disrepute4 #abjh ,the scenes of clerical immorality1 says an eminently orthodox historian1 are enough to chill one's blood even at the distance of two centuries4 #abji ,a ,church ,ordinance of #afjj acknowledges information to the effect that a number of clergymen and schoolmasters are guilty of whoredom and fornication1 and commands that if they are notoriously guilty they shall be suspended4 ,details are preserved of cases of clerical drunkenness and ruffianism2 and the women of the priests' families do not escape the pillory4 #abaj ,nearly a century later1 ,arnold resigned his professorship at ,giessen from despair of producing any amendment in the dissolute habits of the students4 #abaa ,it is noted that the great moral decline of the clergy was confined chiefly to the ,lutheran ,church4 ,the ,reformed ,calvinistic was earnest1 pious1 and aggressive #abab--the usual result of official hostility4 ,in such circumstances1 the active freethought existing in ,france at the beginning of the seventeenth century could not fail to affect ,germany2 and even before the date of the polemic of ,garasse and ,mersenne there appeared 7#afae7 a counterblast to the new thought in the ,theologia ,naturalis of ,j4 ,h4 ,alsted1 of ,frankfort1 directed adversus atheos1 ,epicureos1 et sophistas hujus temporis4 ,the preface to this solid quarto 7a remarkable sample of good printing for the period7 declares that there are men in this diseased 7exulcerato7 age who dare to oppose science to revelation1 reason to faith1 nature to grace1 the creator to the redeemer1 and truth to truth2 and the writer undertakes to rise argumentatively from nature to the ,christian ,god1 without1 however1 transcending the logical plane of ,de ,mornay4 ,the trouble of the time1 unhappily for the faith1 was not rationalism1 but the inextinguishable hatreds of ,protestant and ,catholic1 and the strife of economic interests dating from the appropriations of the first reformers4 ,at length1 after a generation of gloomy suspense1 came the explosion of the hostile ecclesiastical interests1 and the long-drawn horror of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 which left ,germany mangled1 devastated1 drained of blood and treasure1 decivilized1 and well-nigh destitute of the machinery of culture4 ,no such printing as that of ,alsted's book was to be done in the ,german world for many generations4 ,but as in ,france1 so in ,germany1 the exhausting experience of the moral and physical evil of religious war wrought something of an antidote1 in the shape of a new spirit of rationalism4 ,not only was the ,peace of ,westphalia an essentially secular arrangement1 subordinating all religious claims to a political settlement1 #abac but the drift of opinion was markedly freethinking4 ,already in #afcj one writer describes three classes of skeptics among the nobility of ,hamburg3 first1 those who believe that religion is nothing but a mere fiction1 invented to keep the masses in restraint2 second1 those who give preference to no faith1 but think that all religions have a germ of truth2 and third1 those who1 confessing that there must be one true religion1 are unable to decide whether it is papal1 ,calvinist1 or ,lutheran1 and consequently believe nothing at all4 ,no less explicit is the written testimony of ,walther1 the court chaplain of ,ulrich ,,ii of ,east ,friesland1 #afcg3 ,these infernal courtiers1 among whom ,i am compelled to live against my will1 doubt those truths which even the heathen have learned to believe4 #abad ,in ,germany as in ,france the freethinking which thus grew up during the religious war expanded after the peace4 ,as usual1 this is to be gathered from the orthodox propaganda against it1 setting out in #affb with a ,preservative against the ,pest of ,present-day ,atheists1 #abae by one ,theophilus ,gegenbauer4 ,so far was this from attaining its end that there ensued ere long a more positive and aggressive development of freethinking than any other country had yet seen4 ,a wandering scholar1 ,matthias ,knutzen of ,holstein 7b4 #afde71 who had studied philosophy at ,knigsberg1 went about in #afgd teaching a hardy ,religion of ,humanity1 rejecting alike immortality1 ,god and ,devil1 churches and priests1 and insisting that conscience could perfectly well take the place of the ,bible as a guide to conduct4 ,his doctrines are to be gathered chiefly from a curious ,latin letter1 #abaf written by him for circulation1 headed ,amicus ,amicis ,amica2 and in this the profession of atheism is explicit3 ,insuper ,deum negamus4 ,in two dialogues in ,german he set forth the same ideas4 ,his followers1 as holding by conscience1 were called ,gewissener2 and he or another of his group asserted that in ,jena alone there were seven hundred of them4 #abag ,the figures were fantastic1 and the whole movement passed rapidly out of sight--hardly by reason of the orthodox refutations1 however4 ,germany was in no state to sustain such a party2 and what happened was a necessarily slow gestation of the seed of new thought thus cast abroad4 ,knutzen's ,latin letter is given in full by a ,welsh scholar settled in ,germany1 ,jenkinus ,thomasius 7,jenkin ,thomas71 in his ,historia ,atheismi 7,altdorf1 #afib71 ed4 ,basel1 #agji1 pp4 #ig-aja2 also by ,la ,croze in his 7anon47 ,entretiens sur divers sujets1 #agaa1 p4 #djb sq4 ,thomasius thus codifies its doctrine3--#a4 ,there is neither ,god nor ,devil4 #b4 ,the magistrate is nothing to be esteemed2 temples are to be condemned1 priests to be rejected4 #c4 ,in place of the magistrate and the priest are to be put knowledge and reason1 joined with conscience1 which teaches to live honestly1 to injure none1 and to give each his own4 #d4 ,marriage and free union do not differ4 #e4 ,this is the only life3 after it1 there is neither reward nor punishment4 #f4 ,the ,scripture contradicts itself4 ,knutzen admittedly wrote like a scholar 7,thomasius1 p4 #ig72 but his treatment of ,scripture contradictions belongs to the infancy of criticism2 though ,la ,croze1 replying thirty years later1 could only meet it with charges of impiety and stupidity4 ,as to the numbers of the movement see ,trinius1 ,freydenker ,lexicon1 #agei1 s4 v4 ,knutzen4 ,kurtz 7,hist4 of the ,christian ,church1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfd1 i1 #bac7 states that a careful academic investigation proved the claim to a membership of #gjj to be an empty boast 7citing ,h4 ,rossel1 ,studien und ,kritiken1 #ahdd1 iv74 ,this doubtless refers to the treatise of ,musus1 ,jena1 #afge1 cited by ,la ,croze1 p4 #dja4 ,some converts ,knutzen certainly made2 and as only the hardiest would dare to avow themselves1 his influence may have been considerable4 ,examples of total unbelief come only singly to knowledge1 says ,tholuck2 but total unbelief had still to the end of the century to bear penal treatment4 ,he gives the instances 7#a7 of the ,swedish ,baron ,skytte1 reported in #affi by ,spener to the ,frankfort authorities for having said at table1 before the court preacher1 that the ,scriptures were not holy1 and not from ,god but from men2 and 7#b7 a certain minister who at the end of the century was prosecuted for blasphemy4 7,das kirchliche ,leben des #agten ,jahrhunderts1 #b ,abth4 pp4 #ef-eg47 ,even ,anabaptists were still liable to banishment in the middle of the century4 ,id4 #a ,abth4 #ahfa1 p4 #cf4 ,as to clerical intolerance see pp4 #dj-dd4 ,on the merits of the ,knutzen movement cp4 ,pnjer1 ,hist1 of the ,christian ,philos4 of ,religion1 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #dcg-h4 #b4 ,while1 however1 clerical action could drive such a movement under the surface1 it could not prevent the spread of rationalism in all directions2 and there was now germinating a philosophic unbelief #abah under the influence of ,spinoza4 ,nowhere were there more prompt and numerous answers to ,spinoza than in ,germany1 #abai whence it may be inferred that within the educated class he soon had a good many adherents4 ,in point of fact the ,elector ,palatine offered him a professorship of philosophy at ,heidelberg in #afgc1 promising him the most ample freedom in philosophical teaching1 and merely stipulating that he should not use it to disturb the religion publicly established4 #abbj ,on the other hand1 ,professor ,rappolt1 of ,leipzig1 attacked him as an atheist1 in an ,oratio contra naturalistas in #afgj2 ,professor ,musus1 of ,jena1 assailed him in #afgd2 #abba and the ,chancellor ,kortholt1 of ,kiel1 grouped him1 ,herbert1 and ,hobbes as ,the ,three ,great ,impostors in #afhj4 #abbb ,after the appearance of the ,ethica the replies multiplied4 ,on the other hand1 ,cuffelaer vindicated ,spinoza in #afhd2 and in #afia ,f4 ,w4 ,stosch1 a court official1 and son of the court preacher1 published a stringent attack on revelationism1 entitled ,concordia rationis et fidei1 partly on ,spinozistic lines1 which created much commotion1 and was forcibly suppressed and condemned to be burnt by the hangman at ,berlin1 #abbc as it denied not only the immateriality but the immortality of the soul and the historical truth of the ,scriptural narratives4 ,this seems to have been the first work of modern freethought published by a ,german1 #abbd apart from ,knutzen's letter2 but a partial list of the apologetic works of the period1 from ,gegenbauer onwards1 may suffice to suggest the real vogue of heterodox opinions3-- #affb4 ,th4 ,gegenbauer4 ,preservatio wider die ,pest der heutigen ,atheisten4 ,erfurt4 #affh4 ,j4 ,musus4 ,examen ,cherburianismi4 ,contra ,e4 ,herbertum de ,cherbury4 #affh4 ,anton ,reiser4 ,de origine1 progressu1 et incremento ,antitheismi seu ,atheismi4 #abbe ,augsburg4 #afgj4 ,rappolt4 ,oratio contra ,naturalistas4 ,leipzig4 #afgb4 ,j4 ,mller4 ,atheismus devictus 7in ,german74 ,hamburg4 #afgb4 ,j4 ,lassen4 ,arcana-,politica-,atheistica 7in ,german74 #afgc4 ---- ,besiegte ,atheisterey4 #afgc4 ,chr4 ,pfaff4 ,disputatio contra ,atheistas4 #afgd4 ,j4 ,musus4 ,spinozismus4 ,jena4 #afgg4 ,val4 ,greissing4 ,corona ,transylvani2 ,exerc4 #b1 de ,atheismo1 contra ,cartesium et ,math4 ,knutzen4 ,wittemberg4 #afgg4 ,tobias ,wagner4 ,examen 444 atheismi speculativi4 ,tbingen4 #afgg4 ,k4 ,rudrauff1 ,giessen4 ,dissertatio de ,atheismo4 #afhj4 ,chr4 ,kortholt4 ,de tribus impostoribus magnis liber4 ,kiloni4 #afhi4 ,th4 ,undereyck4 ,der ,nrrische ,atheist in seiner ,thorheit ueberzeugt4 ,bremen4 #afib4 ,jenkinus ,thomasius4 ,historia ,atheismi4 ,altdorf4 #afif4 ,j4 ,lassen4 ,arcana-,politica-,atheistica4 ,reprint4 #afig4 ,a4 ,h4 ,grosse4 ,an ,atheismus necessario ducat ad corruptionem morum4 ,rostock4 #afig4 ,em4 ,weber4 ,beurtheilung der ,atheisterei4 #agjj4 ,tribbechov4 ,historia ,naturalismi4 ,jena4 #agjh4 ,loescher4 ,prnotiones ,theologic contra ,naturalistarum et ,fanaticorum omne genus1 ,atheos1 ,deistas1 ,indifferentistas1 etc4 ,wittemberg4 #agjh4 ,schwartz4 ,demonstrationes ,dei4 ,leipzig4 #agjh4 ,rechenberg4 ,fundamenta ver religionis ,prudentum1 adversus ,atheos1 etc4 #agaj4 ,j4 ,c4 ,wolfius4 ,dissertatio de ,atheismi falso suspectis4 ,wittemberg4 #agac4 ,j4 ,n4 ,fromman4 ,atheus ,stultus4 ,tbingen4 #agac4 ,anon4 ,widerlegung der ,atheisten1 ,deisten1 und neuen ,zweifeler4 ,frankfort4 ,later came the works of ,buddeus 7#agaf7 and ,reimmann and ,fabricius1 noted above1 vol4 i1 ch4 i1 #b4 #c4 ,for a community in which the reading class was mainly clerical and scholastic1 the seeds of rationalism were thus in part sown in the seventeenth century2 but the ground was not yet propitious4 ,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf71 the chief thinker produced by ,germany before ,kant1 lived in a state of singular intellectual isolation2 #abbf and showed his sense of it by writing his philosophic treatises chiefly in ,french4 ,one of the most widely learned men of his age1 he was wont from his boyhood to grapple critically with every system of thought that came in his way2 and1 while claiming to be always eager to learn1 #abbg he was as a rule strongly concerned to affirm his own powerful bias4 ,early in life he writes that it horrifies him to think how many men he has met who were at once intelligent and atheistic2 #abbh and his propaganda is always dominated by the desire rather to confute unbelief than to find out the truth4 ,as early as #affh 7aet4 #bb7 he wrote an essay to that end1 which was published as a ,confessio natur contra ,atheistas4 ,against ,spinoza he reacted instantly and violently1 pronouncing the ,tractatus on its first 7anonymous7 appearance an unbearably bold 7licentiosum7 book1 and resenting the ,hobbesian criticism which it dared to apply to sacred ,scripture4 #abbi ,yet in the next year we find him writing to ,arnauld in earnest protest against the hidebound orthodoxy of the ,church4 ,a philosophic age1 he declares1 is about to begin1 in which the concern for truth1 flourishing outside the schools1 will spread even among politicians4 ,nothing is more likely to strengthen atheism and to upset faith1 already so shaken by the attacks of great but bad men a pleasing allusion to ,spinoza1 than to see on the one side the mysteries of the faith preached upon as the creed of all1 and on the other hand become matter of derision to all1 convicted of absurdity by the most certain rules of common reason4 ,the worst enemies of the ,church are in the ,church4 ,let us take care lest the latest heresy--,i will not say atheism1 but--naturalism1 be publicly professed4 #abcj ,for a time he seemed thus disposed to liberalize4 ,he wrote to ,spinoza on points of optics before he discovered the authorship2 and he is represented later as speaking of the ,tractatus with respect4 ,he even visited ,spinoza in #afgf1 and obtained a perusal of the manuscript of the ,ethica2 but he remained hostile to him in theology and philosophy4 ,to the last he called ,spinoza a mere developer of ,descartes1 #abca whom he also habitually resisted4 ,this was not hopeful2 and ,leibnitz1 with all his power and originality1 really wrought little for the direct rationalization of religious thought4 #abcb ,his philosophy1 with all its ingenuity1 has the common stamp of the determination of the theist to find reasons for the ,god in whom he believed beforehand2 and his principle that all is for the best is the fatal rounding of his argumentative circle4 ,thus his doctrine that that is true which is clear was turned to the account of an empiricism of which the clearness was really predetermined by the conviction of truth4 ,his ,theodice1 #abcc written in reply to ,bayle1 is by the admission even of admirers #abcd a process of begging the question4 ,deity1 a mere infinition of finite qualities1 is proved priori1 though it is expressly argued that a finite mind cannot grasp infinity2 and the necessary goodness of necessary deity is posited in the same fashion4 ,it is very significant that such a philosopher1 himself much given to denying the religiousness of other men's theories1 was nevertheless accused among both the educated and the populace of being essentially non-religious4 ,nominally he adhered to the entire ,christian system1 including miracles1 though he declared that his belief in dogma rested on the agreement of reason with faith1 and claimed to keep his thought free on unassailed truths2 #abce and he always discussed the ,bible as a believer2 yet he rarely went to church2 #abcf and the ,low ,german nickname ,lvenix 7 ,glaubet nichts1 believes nothing7 expressed his local reputation4 ,no clergyman attended his funeral2 but indeed no one else went1 save his secretary4 #abcg ,it is on the whole difficult to doubt that his indirect influence not only in ,germany but elsewhere had been and has been for deism and atheism4 #abch ,he and ,newton were the most distinguished mathematicians and theists of the age2 and ,leibnitz1 as we saw1 busied himself to show that the philosophy of ,newton #abci tended to atheism1 and that that of their theistic predecessor ,descartes would not stand criticism4 #abdj ,spinoza being1 according to him1 in still worse case1 and ,locke hardly any sounder1 #abda there remained for theists only his cosmology of monads and his ethic of optimism--all for the best in the best of all possible worlds--which seems at least as well fitted as any other theism to make thoughtful men give up the principle4 #d4 ,other culture-conditions concurred to set up a spirit of rationalism in ,germany4 ,after the ,thirty ,years' ,war there arose a religious movement1 called ,pietism by its theological opponents1 which aimed at an emotional inwardness of religious life as against what its adherents held to be an irreligious orthodoxy around them4 #abdb ,contending against rigid articles of credence1 they inevitably prepared the way for less credent forms of thought4 #abdc ,though the first leaders of ,pietism grew embittered with their unsuccess and the attacks of their religious enemies1 #abdd their impulse went far1 and greatly influenced the clergy through the university of ,halle1 which in the first part of the eighteenth century turned out #f1jjj clergymen in one generation4 #abde ,against the ,pietists were furiously arrayed the ,lutherans of the old order1 who even contrived in many places to suppress their schools4 #abdf ,virtues generated under persecution1 however1 underwent the law of degeneration which dogs all intellectual subjection2 and the inner life of ,pietism1 lacking mental freedom and intellectual play1 grew as cramped in its emotionalism as that of orthodoxy in its dogmatism4 ,religion was thus represented by a species of extremely unattractive and frequently absurd formalists on the one hand1 and on the other by a school which at its best unsettled religious usage1 and otherwise tended alternately to fanaticism and cant4 #abdg ,thus the rationalist tendencies of the age were promoted by this treble exhibition of the aberrations of belief4 #abdh ,how sorely1 says ,tholuck1 the hold not only of ecclesiastical but of ,biblical belief on men of all grades had been shaken at the beginning of the eighteenth century is seen in many instances4 #abdi ,orthodoxy selects that of a ,holstein student who hanged himself at ,wittemberg in #afhh1 leaving written in his ,new ,testament1 in ,latin1 the declaration that ,our soul is mortal2 religion is a popular delusion1 invented to gull the ignorant1 and so govern the world the better4 #abej ,but again there is the testimony of the mint-master at ,hanover that at court there all lived as free atheists4 ,and though the name freethinker was not yet much used in discussion1 it had become current in the form of ,freigeist--the ,german equivalent still used4 ,this1 as we have noted1 #abea was probably a survival from the name of the old sect of the ,free ,spirit1 rather than an adaptation from the ,french esprit fort or the ,english freethinker4 #e4 ,after the collapse of the popular movement of ,matthias ,knutzen1 the thin end of the new wedge may be seen in the manifold work of ,christian ,thomasius 7#afee-agbh71 who in #afhg published a treatise on ,divine ,jurisprudence1 in which the principles of ,pufendorf on natural law1 already offensive to the theologians1 were carried so far as to give new offence4 ,reading ,pufendorf in his nonage as a student of jurisprudence1 he was so conscious of the conflict between the utilitarian and the ,scriptural view of moral law that1 taught by a master who had denounced ,pufendorf1 he recoiled in a state of theological fear4 #abeb ,some years later1 gaining self-possession1 he recognized the rationality of ,pufendorf's system1 and both expounded and defended him1 thus earning his share in the hostility which the great jurist encountered at clerical hands4 ,between that hostility and the naturalist bias which he had acquired from ,pufendorf1 there grew up in him an aversion to the methods and pretensions of theologians which made him their lifelong antagonist4 #abec ,pufendorf had but guardedly introduced some of the fundamental principles of ,hobbes1 relating morals to the social state1 and thus preparing the way for utilitarianism4 #abed ,this sufficed to make the theologians his enemies2 and it is significant that ,thomasius1 heterodox at the outset only thus far forth1 becomes from that point onwards an important pioneer of freethought1 toleration1 and humane reform4 ,innovating in all things1 he began1 while still a ,privatdocent at ,leipzig ,university1 a campaign on behalf of the ,german language2 and1 not content with arousing much pedantic enmity by delivering lectures for the first time in his mother tongue1 and deriding at the same time the bad scholastic ,latin of his compatriots1 he set on foot the first vernacular ,german periodical1 #abee which ran for two years 7#afhh-ij71 and caused so much anger that he was twice prosecuted before the ecclesiastical court of ,dresden1 the second time on a charge of contempt of religion4 ,the periodical was in effect a crusade against all the pedantries1 the theologians coming in for the hardest blows4 #abef ,other satirical writings1 and a defence of intermarriage between ,calvinists and ,lutherans1 #abeg at length put him in such danger that1 to escape imprisonment1 he sought the protection of the ,elector of ,brandenburg at ,halle1 where he ultimately became professor of jurisprudence in the new university1 founded by his advice4 ,there for a time he leant towards the ,pietists1 finding in that body a concern for natural liberty of feeling and thinking which was absent from the mental life of orthodoxy2 but he was of another spirit than they1 and took his own way4 ,in philosophy an unsystematic pantheist1 he taught1 after ,plutarch1 ,bayle1 and ,bacon1 that superstition is worse than atheism2 but his great practical service to ,german civilization1 over and above his furthering of the native speech1 was his vigorous polemic against prosecutions for heresy1 trials for witchcraft1 and the use of torture1 all of which he did more than any other ,german to discredit1 though judicial torture subsisted for another half-century4 #abeh ,it was by his propaganda that the princes of ,germany were moved to abolish all trials for sorcery4 #abei ,in such a battle he of course had the clergy against him all along the line2 and it is as an anti-clerical that he figures in clerical history4 ,the clerical hostility to his ethics he repaid with interest1 setting himself to develop to the utmost1 in the interest of lay freedom1 the ,lutheran admission of the divine right of princes4 #abfj ,this he turned not against freedom of opinion but against ecclesiastical claims1 very much in the spirit of ,hobbes1 who may have influenced him4 ,the perturbed ,mosheim1 while candidly confessing that ,thomasius is the founder of academic freedom in ,germany1 pronounces that the famous jurists who were led by ,thomasius set up a new fundamental principle of church polity--namely1 the supreme authority and power of the civil magistrate1 so tending to create the opinion that the ministers of religion are not to be accounted ambassadors of ,god1 but vicegerents of the chief magistrates4 ,they also weakened not a little the few remaining prerogatives and advantages which were left of the vast number formerly possessed by the clergy2 and maintained that many of the maxims and regulations of our churches which had come down from our fathers were relics of popish superstition4 ,this afforded matter for long and pernicious feuds and contests between our theologians and our jurists4444 ,it will be sufficient for us to observe1 what is abundantly attested1 that they diminished much in various places the respect for the clergy1 the reverence for religion1 and the security and prosperity of the ,lutheran ,church4 #abfa ,pusey1 in turn1 grudgingly allows that the study of history was revived and transformed through the views of ,thomasius4 #abfb #f4 ,a personality of a very different kind emerges in the same period in ,johann ,conrad ,dippel 7#afgc-agcd71 who developed a system of rationalistic mysticism1 and as to whom1 says an orthodox historian1 one is doubtful whether to place him in the class of pietists or of rationalists1 of enthusiasts or of scoffers1 of mystics or of freethinkers4 #abfc ,the son of a preacher1 he yet exhibited in his ninth year strong doubts as to the catechism4 ,after a tolerably free life as a student he turned ,pietist at ,strasburg1 lectured on astrology and palmistry1 preached1 and got into trouble with the police4 ,in #afih he published under the pen-name of ,christianus ,democritus his book1 ,gestuptes ,papstthum der ,protestirenden 7,the ,popery of the ,protestantizers ,whipped71 in which he so attacked the current ,christian ethic of salvation as to exasperate both ,churches4 #abfd ,the stress of his criticism fell firstly on the unthinking ,scripturalism of the average ,protestant1 who1 he said1 while reproaching the ,catholic with setting up in the crucifix a ,god of wood1 was apt to make for himself a ,god of paper4 #abfe ,in his repudiation of the bargain or redemption doctrine of the historic ,church he took up positions which were as old as ,abailard1 and which were one day to become respectable2 but in his own life he was much of an ,ishmaelite1 with wild notions of alchemy and gold-making2 and after predicting that he should live till #ahjh1 he died suddenly in #agcd1 leaving a doctrine which appealed only to those constitutionally inclined1 on the lines of the earlier ,english ,quakers1 to set the inner light above ,scripture4 #abff #g4 ,among the pupils of ,thomasius at ,halle was ,theodore ,louis ,lau1 who1 born of an aristocratic family1 became ,minister of ,finances to the ,duke of ,courland1 and after leaving that post held a high place in the service of the ,elector ,palatine4 ,while holding that office ,lau published a small ,latin volume of penses entitled ,meditationes ,theologic-,physic1 notably deistic in tone4 ,this gave rise to such an outcry among the clergy that he had to leave ,frankfort1 only1 however1 to be summoned before the consistory of ,knigsberg1 his native town1 and charged with atheism 7#agai74 ,he thereupon retired to ,altona1 where he had freedom enough to publish a reply to his clerical persecutors4 #abfg #h4 ,while ,thomasius was still at work1 a new force arose of a more distinctly academic cast4 ,this was the adaptation of ,leibnitz's system by ,christian ,wolff1 who1 after building up a large influence among students by his method of teaching1 #abfh came into public prominence by a rectorial address #abfi at ,halle 7#agba7 in which he warmly praised the ethics of ,confucius4 ,such praise was naturally held to imply disparagement of ,christianity2 and as a result of the pietist outcry ,wolff was condemned by the king to exile from ,prussia1 under penalty of the gallows1 #abgj all atheistical writings being at the same time forbidden4 ,wolff's system1 however1 prevailed so completely1 in virtue of its lucidity and the rationalizing tendency of the age1 that in the year #agch there were said to be already #ajg authors of his cast of thinking4 ,nevertheless1 he refused to return to ,halle on any invitation till the accession 7#agdj7 of ,frederick the ,great1 one of his warmest admirers1 whereafter he figured as the ,german thinker of his age4 ,his teaching1 which for the first time popularized philosophy in the ,german language1 in turn helped greatly1 by its ratiocinative cast1 to promote the rationalistic temper1 though orthodox enough from the modern point of view4 ,under the new reign1 however1 pietism and ,wolffism alike lost prestige1 #abga and the age of anti-,christian and ,christian rationalism began4 ,thus the period of freethinking in ,germany follows close upon one of religious revival4 ,the #f1jjj theologians trained at ,halle in the first generation of the century had worked like a leaven through all ,germany4 #abgb ,not since the time of the ,reformation had ,germany such a large number of truly pious preachers and laymen as towards the end of the first half of the eighteenth century4 #abgc ,there1 as elsewhere1 religion intellectually collapsed4 ,as to ,wolff's rationalistic influence see ,cairns1 ,unbelief in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #ahha1 p4 #agc2 ,pusey1 pp4 #aae-ai2 ,pnjer1 p4 #ebi2 ,lechler1 pp4 #ddh-di4 ,it cannot be questioned that1 in his philosophy1 the main stress rests upon the rational 7,kahnis1 as cited1 p4 #bh74 ,francke and ,lange 7pietists7 444 saw atheism and corruption of manners springing up from ,wolff's school 7before his exile74 ,id4 p4 #aac4 ,wolff's chief offence lay in stressing natural religion1 and in indicating1 as ,tholuck observes1 that that could be demonstrated1 whereas revealed religion could only be believed 7,abriss1 p4 #ah74 ,he greatly pleased ,voltaire by the dictum that men ought to be just even though they had the misfortune to be atheists4 ,it is noted by ,tholuck1 however 7,abriss1 as cited1 p4 #aa1 note71 that the decree for ,wolff's expulsion was inspired not by his theological colleagues but by two military advisers of the king4 ,tholuck's own criticism resolves itself into a protest against ,wolff's predilection for logical connection in his exposition4 ,the fatal thing was that ,wolff accustomed ,german ,christians to reason4 #i4 ,even before the generation of active pressure from ,english and ,french deism there were clear signs that rationalism had taken root in ,german life4 ,on the impulse set up by the establishment of the ,grand ,lodge at ,london in #agag1 ,freemasonic lodges began to spring up in ,germany1 the first being founded at ,hamburg in #agcc4 #abgd ,the deism which in the ,english lodges was later toned down by orthodox reaction was from the first pronounced in the ,german societies1 which ultimately passed on the tradition to the other parts of the ,continent4 ,but the new spirit was not confined to secret societies4 ,wolffianism worked widely4 ,in the so-called ,wertheim ,bible 7#agce7 ,johann ,lorenz ,schmid1 in the spirit of the ,leibnitz-,wolffian theology1 undertook to translate the ,bible1 and to explain it according to the principle that in revelation only that can be accepted as true which does not contradict the reason4 #abge ,this of course involved no thorough-going criticism2 but the spirit of innovation was strong enough in ,schmid to make him undermine tradition at many points1 and later carried him so far as to translate ,tindal's ,christianity as old as ,creation4 ,so far was he in advance of his time that when his ,wertheim ,bible was officially condemned throughout ,germany he found no defenders4 #abgf ,the ,wolffians were in comparison generally orthodox2 and another writer of the same school1 ,martin ,knutzen1 professor at ,knigsberg 7#agae-agea71 undertook in a youthful thesis ,de ternitate mundi impossibili 7#agce7 to rebut the old ,averrost doctrine1 revived by modern science1 of the indestructibility of the universe4 ,a few years later 7#agci7 he published a treatise entitled ,the ,truth of ,christianity ,demonstrated by ,mathematics1 which succeeded as might have been expected4 #aj4 ,to the same period belong the first activities of ,johann ,christian ,edelmann 7#afih-agfg71 one of the most energetic freethinkers of his age4 ,trained philosophically at ,jena under the theologian ,budde1 a bitter opponent of ,wolff1 and theologically in the school of the ,pietists1 he was strongly influenced against official orthodoxy through reading the ,impartial ,history of the ,church and of ,heretics1 by ,gottfried ,arnold1 an eminently anti-clerical work1 which nearly always takes the side of the heretics4 #abgg ,in the same heterodox direction he was swayed by the works of ,dippel4 ,at this stage ,edelmann produced his ,unschuldige ,wahrheiten 7,innocent ,truths71 in which he takes up a pronouncedly rationalist and latitudinarian position1 but without rejecting revelation2 and in #agcf he went to ,berleburg1 where he worked on the ,berleburg translation of the ,bible1 a ,pietist undertaking1 somewhat on the lines of ,dippel's mystical doctrine1 in which a variety of incredible ,scriptural narratives1 from the six days' creation onwards1 are turned to mystical purpose4 #abgh ,in this occupation ,edelmann seems to have passed some years4 ,gradually1 however1 he came more and more under the influence of the ,english deists2 and he at length withdrew from the ,pietist camp1 attacking his former associates for the fanaticism into which their thought was degenerating4 ,it was under the influence of ,spinoza1 however1 that he took his most important steps4 ,a few months after meeting with the ,tractatus he began 7#agdj7 the first part of his treatise ,moses mit aufgedecktem ,angesichte 7,moses with unveiled face71 an attack at once on the doctrine of inspiration and on that of the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch4 ,the book was intended to consist of twelve parts2 but after the appearance of three it was prohibited by the imperial fisc1 and the published parts burned by the hangman at ,hamburg and elsewhere4 ,nonetheless1 ,edelmann continued his propaganda1 publishing in #agda or #agdb ,the ,divinity of ,reason1 #abgi and in #agda ,christ and ,belial4 ,in #agdi or #agej his works were again publicly burned at ,frankfurt by order of the imperial authorities2 and he had much ado to find anywhere in ,germany safe harbourage1 till he found protection under ,frederick at ,berlin1 where he died in #agfg4 ,edelmann's teaching was essentially ,spinozist and pantheistic1 #abhj with a leaning to the doctrine of metempsychosis4 ,as a pantheist he of course entirely rejected the divinity of ,jesus1 pronouncing inspiration the appanage of all2 and the gospels were by him dismissed as late fabrications1 from which the true teachings of the founder could not be learned2 though1 like nearly all the freethinkers of that age1 he estimated ,jesus highly4 #abha ,a ,german theologian complains1 nevertheless1 that he was more just toward heathenism than toward ,judaism2 and more just toward ,judaism than toward ,christianity2 adding3 ,what he taught had been thoroughly and ingeniously said in ,france and ,england2 but from a ,german theologian1 and that with such eloquent coarseness1 with such a mastery in expatiating in blasphemy1 such things were unheard of4 #abhb ,the force of ,edelmann's attack may be gathered from the same writer's account of him as a bird of prey who rose to a wicked height of opposition1 not only against the ,lutheran ,church1 but against ,christianity in general4 #aa4 ,even from decorous and official exponents of religion1 however1 there came naturalistic and semi-rationalistic teaching1 as in the ,reflections on the most important truths of religion #abhc 7#agfh-agfi7 of ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,jerusalem1 ,abbot of ,marienthal in ,brunswick1 and later of ,riddagshausen 7#agji-aghi74 ,jerusalem had travelled in ,europe1 and had spent two years in ,holland and one in ,england1 where he studied the deists and their opponents4 ,in ,england alone1 he declared1 is mankind original4 #abhd ,though really written by way of defending ,christianity against the freethinkers1 in particular against ,bolingbroke and ,voltaire1 #abhe the very title of his book is suggestive of a process of disintegration2 and in it certain unedifying ,scriptural miracles are actually rejected4 #abhf ,it was probably this measure of adaptation to new needs that gave it its great popularity in ,germany and secured its translation into several other languages4 ,goethe called him a freely and gently thinking theologian2 and a modern orthodox historian of the ,church groups him with those who contributed to the spread of ,rationalism by sermons and by popular doctrinal and devotional works4 #abhg ,jerusalem was1 however1 at most a semi-rationalist1 taking a view of the fundamental ,christian dogmas which approached closely to that of ,locke4 #abhh ,it was1 as ,goethe said later1 the epoch of common sense2 and the very theologians tended to a religion of nature4 #abhi #ab4 ,alongside of home-made heresy there had come into play a new initiative force in the literature of ,english deism1 which began to be translated after #agdj1 #abij and was widely circulated till1 in the last third of the century1 it was superseded by the ,french4 ,the ,english answers to the deists were frequently translated likewise1 and notoriously helped to promote deism #abia--;another proof that it was not their influence that had changed the balance of activity in ,england4 ,under a freethinking king1 even clergymen began guardedly to accept the deistic methods2 and the optimism of ,shaftesbury began to overlay the optimism of ,leibnitz2 #abib while a ,french scientific influence began with ,la ,mettrie1 #abic ,maupertuis1 and ,robinet4 ,even the ,leibnitzian school1 proceeding on the principle of immortal monads1 developed a doctrine of the immortality of the souls of animals #abid--;a position not helpful to orthodoxy4 ,there was thus a general stirring of doubt among educated people1 #abie and we find mention in ,goethe's ,autobiography of an old gentleman of ,frankfort who avowed1 as against the optimists1 ,even in ,god ,i find defects 7,fehler74 #abif ,on the other hand1 there were instances in ,germany of the phenomenon1 already seen in ,england in ,newton and ,boyle1 of men of science devoting themselves to the defence of the faith4 ,the most notable cases were those of the mathematician ,euler and the biologist von ,haller4 ,the latter wrote ,letters 7to his ,daughter7 ,on the most important ,truths of ,revelation 7#aggb7 #abig and other apologetic works4 ,euler in #agdg published at ,berlin1 where he was professor1 his ,defence of ,revelation against the ,reproaches of ,freethinkers2 #abih and in #agfi his ,letters to a ,german ,princess1 of which the argument notably coincides with part of that of ,berkeley against the freethinking mathematicians4 ,haller's position comes to the same thing4 ,all three men1 in fact1 grasped at the argument of despair--the inadequacy of the human faculties to sound the mystery of things2 and all alike were entirely unable to see that it logically cancelled their own judgments4 ,even a theologian1 contemplating ,haller's theorem of an incomprehensible omnipotence countered in its merciful plan of salvation by the set of worms it sought to save1 comments on the childishness of the philosophy which confidently described the plans of deity in terms of what it declared to be the blank ignorance of the worms in question4 #abii ,euler and ,haller1 like some later men of science1 kept their scientific method for the mechanical or physical problems of their scientific work1 and brought to the deepest problems of all the self-will1 the emotionalism1 and the irresponsibility of the ignorant average man4 ,each did but express in his own way the resentment of the undisciplined mind at attacks upon its prejudices2 and ,haller's resort to poetry as a vehicle for his religion gives the measure of his powers on that side4 ,thus in ,germany as in ,england the answer to the freethinkers was a failure4 ,men of science playing at theology and theologians playing at science alike failed to turn the tide of opinion1 now socially favoured by the known deism of the king4 ,german orthodoxy1 says a recent ,christian apologist1 fell with a rapidity reminding one of the capture of ,jericho4 #acjj ,goethe1 writing of the general attitude to ,christianity about #agfh1 sums up that the ,christian religion wavered between its own historic-positive base and a pure deism1 which1 grounded on morality1 was in turn to re-establish ethics4 #acja ,frederick's attitude1 said an early ,kantian1 had had an almost magical influence on popular opinion 7,willich1 ,elements of the ,critical ,philosophy1 #agih1 p4 #b74 ,with this his ,french teachers must have had much to do4 ,lord ,morley pronounces 7,voltaire1 #dth ed4 p4 #abc7 that ,french deism never made any impression on ,germany1 and that the teaching of ,leibnitz and ,wolff stood like a fortified wall against the ,french invasion4 ,this is contradicted by much ,german testimony2 in particular by ,lange's 7,gesch4 des ,mater4 i1 #cah71 though he notes that ,french materialism could not get the upper hand4 ,laukhard1 who expressed the highest admiration for ,tindal1 as having wholly delivered him from dogmatism1 avowed that ,voltaire1 whom everybody read1 had perhaps done more harm to priest religion than all the books of the ,english and ,german deists together 7,leben1 #agib-ahjb1 ,th4 i1 p4 #bfh74 ,tholuck gravely affirms 7,abriss1 p4 #cc7 that the acquaintance with the ,french deistery and frivolity in ,germany belongs to a somewhat later period than that of the ,english4 ,naturally it did4 ,the bulk of the ,english deistic literature was printed before the printing of the ,french had begun6 ,french ,,mss4 would reach ,german princes1 but not ,german pastors4 ,but ,tholuck sadly avows that the ,french deism 7of the serious and pre-,voltairean portions of which he seems to have known nothing7 had a frightful influence on the upper classes1 though not on the clergy 7p4 #cd74 ,following him1 ,kahnis writes 7,internal ,history1 p4 #da7 that ,english and ,french ,deism met with a very favourable reception in ,germany--the latter chiefly in the higher circles1 the former rather among the educated middle classes4 7,he should have added1 the younger theologians47 ,baur1 even in speaking disparagingly of the ,french as compared with the ,english influence1 admits 7,lehrbuch der ,dogmengeschichte1 #bte ,aufl4 p4 #cdg7 that the former told upon ,germany4 ,cp4 ,tennemann1 ,bohn4 tr4 pp4 #che1 #chh4 ,hagenbach shows great ignorance of ,english deism1 but he must have known something of ,german2 and he writes 7tr4 p4 #eg7 that the imported deism1 both ,english and ,french1 soon swept through the rifts of the ,church1 and gained supreme control of literature4 ,cp4 pp4 #fg-fh4 ,see ,croom ,robertson's ,hobbes1 pp4 #bbe-bf1 as to the persistence of a succession of ,hobbes and ,locke in ,germany in the teeth of the ,wolffian school1 which soon lost ground after #agdj4 ,it is further noteworthy that ,brucker's copious ,historia ,critica ,philosophi 7#agdb-dd71 which as a mere learned record has great merit1 and was long the standard authority in ,germany1 gives great praise to ,locke and little space to ,wolff4 7,see ,enfield's abstract1 pp4 #fad1 #fai sq47 ,the ,wolffian philosophy1 too1 had been rejected and disparaged by both ,herder and ,kant--who were alike deeply influenced by ,rousseau--in the third quarter of the century2 and was generally discredited1 save in the schools1 when ,kant produced the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,see below1 pp4 #ccg1 #cde4 #ac4 ,frederick1 though reputed a ,voltairean freethinker par excellence1 may be claimed for ,germany as partly a product of the rationalizing philosophy of ,wolff4 ,in his first letter to ,voltaire1 written in #agcf1 four years before his accession1 he promises to send him a translation he has had made of the accusation and the justification of ,wolff1 the most celebrated philosopher of our days1 who1 for having carried light into the darkest places of metaphysics1 and for having treated the most difficult matters in a manner no less elevated than precise and clear1 is cruelly accused of irreligion and atheism2 and he speaks of getting translated ,wolff's ,treatise of ,god1 the ,soul1 and the ,world4 ,when he became a thoroughgoing freethinker is not clear1 for ,voltaire at this time had produced no explicit anti-,christian propaganda4 ,at first the new king showed himself disposed to act on the old maxim that freethought is bad for the common people4 ,in #agdc-dd he caused to be suppressed two ,german treatises by one ,gebhardi1 a contributor to ,gottsched's magazines1 attacking the ,biblical miracles2 and in #agdh he sent a young man named ,rdiger to ,spandau for six months' confinement for printing an anti-,christian work by one ,dr4 ,pott4 #acjb ,but as he grew more confident in his own methods he extended to men of his own way of thinking the toleration he allowed to all religionists1 save insofar as he vetoed the mutual vituperation of the sects1 and such proselytizing as tended to create strife4 ,with an even hand he protected ,catholics1 ,greek ,christians1 and ,unitarians1 letting them have churches where they would2 #acjc and when1 after the battle of ,striegau1 a body of ,protestant peasantry asked his permission to slay all the ,catholics they could find1 he answered with the gospel precept1 ,love your enemies4 #acjd ,beyond the toleration of all forms of religion1 however1 he never went2 though he himself added to the literature of deism4 ,apart from his verses we have from him the posthumous treatise ,penses sur la ,religion1 probably written early in his life1 where the rational case against the concepts of revelation and of miracles is put with a calm and sustained force4 ,like the rest1 he is uncritical in his deism2 but1 that granted1 his reasoning is unanswerable4 ,in talk he was wont to treat the clergy with small respect2 #acje and he wrote more denunciatory things concerning them than almost any freethinker of the century4 #acjf ,bayle1 ,voltaire1 and ,lucretius were his favourite studies2 and as the then crude ,german literature had no attraction for him1 he drew to his court many distinguished ,frenchmen1 including ,la ,mettrie1 ,maupertuis1 ,d',alembert1 ,d',argens1 and above all ,voltaire1 between whom and him there was an incurable incompatibility of temper and character1 and a persistent attraction of force of mind1 which left them admiring without respecting each other1 and unable to abstain from mutual vituperation4 ,under ,frederick's vigorous rule all speech was free save such as he considered personally offensive1 as ,voltaire's attack on ,maupertuis2 and after a stormy reign he could say1 when asked by ,prince ,william of ,brunswick whether he did not think religion one of the best supports of a king's authority1 ,i find order and the laws sufficient4444 ,depend upon it1 countries have been admirably governed when your religion had no existence4 #acjg ,religion certainly had no part in his personality in the ordinary sense of the term4 ,voltaire was wont to impute to him atheism2 when ,la ,mettrie died1 the mocker1 then at ,frederick's court1 remarked that the post of his majesty's atheist was vacant1 but happily the ,abb de ,prades was there to fill it4 ,in effect1 ,frederick professed ,voltaire's own deism2 but of all the deists of the time he had least of the religious temperament and most of sheer cynicism4 ,the attempt of ,carlyle to exhibit ,frederick as a practical believer is a flagrant instance of that writer's subjective method4 ,he tells 7,hist4 of ,friedrich1 bk4 xviii1 ch4 x7 that at the beginning of the battle of ,leuthen a column of troops near the king sang a hymn of duty 7which ,carlyle calls the sound of ,psalms72 that an officer asked whether the singing should be stopped1 and that the king said ,by no means4 ,his hard heart seems to have been touched by it4 ,indeed1 there is in him1 in those grim days1 a tone 767 as of trust in the ,eternal1 as of real religious piety and faith1 scarcely noticeable elsewhere in his history4 ,his religion--and he had in withered forms a good deal of it1 if we will look well--being almost always in a strictly voiceless state1 nay1 ultra voiceless1 or voiced the wrong way1 as is too well known4 ,then comes the assertion that a moment after the king said to someone1 ,ziethen probably1 ',with men like these1 don't you think ,i shall have victory this day6' ,here1 with the very spirit of unveracity at work before his eyes1 ,carlyle plumps for the fable4 ,yet the story1 even if true1 would give no proof whatever of religious belief4 ,in point of fact1 ,frederick was a much less religious deist than ,voltaire4 ,he erected no temple to his unloved ,god4 ,and a perusal of his dialogue of ,pompadour and the ,virgin 7,dialogues des morts7 may serve to dispose of the thesis that the ,german mind dealt reverently and decently with matters which the ,french mind handled frivolously4 ,that performance outgoes in ribaldry anything of the age in ,french4 ,as the first modern freethinking king1 ,frederick is something of a test case4 ,son of a man of narrow mind and odious character1 he was himself no admirable type1 being neither benevolent nor considerate1 neither truthful nor generous2 and in international politics1 after writing in his youth a treatise in censure of ,machiavelli1 he played the old game of unscrupulous aggression4 ,yet he was not only the most competent1 but1 as regards home administration1 the most conscientious king of his time4 ,to find him a rival we must go back to the pagan ,antonines and ,julian1 or at least to ,st4 ,louis of ,france1 who1 however1 was rather worsened than bettered by his creed4 #acjh ,henri ,,iv of ,france1 who rivalled him in sagacity and greatly excelled him in human kindness1 was far his inferior in devotion to duty4 ,the effect of ,frederick's training is seen in his final attitude to the advanced criticism of the school of d',holbach1 which assailed governments and creeds with the same unsparing severity of logic and moral reprobation4 ,stung by the uncompromising attack1 ,frederick retorts by censuring the rashness which would plunge nations into civil strife because kings miscarry where no human wisdom could avoid miscarriage4 ,he who had wantonly plunged all ,germany into a hell of war for his sole ambition1 bringing myriads to misery1 thousands to violent death1 and hundreds of his own soldiers to suicide1 could be virtuously indignant at the irresponsible audacity of writers who indicted the whole existing system for its imbecility and injustice4 ,but he did reason on the criticism2 he did ponder it2 he did feel bound to meet argument with argument2 and he left his arguments to the world4 ,the advance on previous regal practice is noteworthy3 the whole problem of politics is at once brought to the test of judgment and persuasion4 ,beside the ,christian ,georges and the ,louis's of his century1 and beside his ,christian father1 his superiority in judgment and even in some essential points of character is signal4 ,such was the great deist king of the deist age2 a deist of the least religious temper and of no very fine moral material to begin with4 ,the one contemporary monarch who in any way compares with him in enlightenment1 ,joseph ,,ii of ,austria1 belonged to the same school4 ,the main charge against ,frederick as a ruler is that he did not act up to the ideals of the school of ,voltaire4 ,in reply to the demand of the ,french deists for an abolition of all superstitious teaching1 he observed that among the #af1jjj1jjj inhabitants of ,france at most #bjj1jjj were capable of philosophic views1 and that the remaining #ae1hjj1jjj were held to their opinions by insurmountable obstacles4 #acji ,this1 however1 had been said by the deists themselves 7e4g41 d',holbach1 prf4 to ,christianisme dvoil72 and such an answer meant that he had no idea of so spreading instruction that all men should have a chance of reaching rational beliefs4 ,this attitude was his inheritance from the past4 ,yet it was under him that ,prussia began to figure as a first-rate culture force in ,europe4 #ad4 ,the social vogue of deistic thought could now be traced in much of the ,german belles-lettres of the time4 ,the young ,jakob von ,mauvillon 7#agdc-agid71 secretary of the ,king of ,poland and author of several histories1 in his youth translated from the ,latin into ,french ,holberg's ,voyage of ,nicolas ,klimius 7#agff71 which made the tour of ,europe1 and had a special vogue in ,germany4 ,later in life1 besides translating and writing abundantly and intelligently on matters of economic and military science--in the latter of which he had something like expert status--,mauvillon became a pronounced heretic1 though careful to keep his propaganda anonymous4 ,the most systematic dissemination of the new ideas was that carried on in the periodical published by ,christoph ,friedrich ,nicolai 7#agcc-ahaa7 under the title of ,the ,general ,german ,library 7founded #agfe71 which began with fifty contributors1 and at the height of its power had a hundred and thirty1 among them being ,lessing1 ,eberhard1 and ,moses ,mendelssohn4 ,in the period from its start to the year #agib it ran to #ajf volumes2 and it has always been more or less bitterly spoken of by later orthodoxy as the great library of that movement4 ,nicolai1 himself an industrious and scholarly writer1 produced among many other things a satirical romance famous in its day1 the ,life and ,opinions of ,magister ,sebaldus ,nothanker1 ridiculing the bigots and persecutors the type of ,klotz1 the antagonist of ,lessing1 and some of ,nicolai's less unamiable antagonists1 #acaj as well as various aspects of the general social and literary life of the time4 ,to ,nicolai is fully due the genial tribute paid to him by ,heine1 #acaa were it only for the national service of his ,library4 ,its many translations from the ,english and ,french freethinkers1 older and newer1 concurred with native work to spread a deistic rationalism1 labelled ,aufklrung1 or enlightenment1 through the whole middle class of ,germany4 #acab ,native writers in independent works added to the propaganda4 ,andreas ,riem 7#agdi-ahjg71 a ,berlin preacher1 appointed by ,frederick a hospital chaplain1 #acac wrote anonymously against priestcraft as no other priest had yet done4 ,no class of men1 he declared1 in language perhaps echoed from his king1 has ever been so pernicious to the world as the priesthood4 ,there were laws at all times against murderers and bandits1 but not against the assassin in the priestly garb4 ,war was repelled by war1 and it came to an end4 ,the war of the priesthood against reason has lasted for thousands of years1 and it still goes on without ceasing4 #acad ,georg ,schade 7#agab-agie71 who appears to have been one of the believers in the immortality of animals1 and who in #aggj was imprisoned for his opinions in the ,danish island of ,christiansoe1 was no less emphatic1 declaring1 in a work on ,natural ,religion on the lines of ,tindal 7#agfj71 that all who assert a supernatural religion are godless impostors4 #acae ,constructive work of great importance1 again1 was done by ,j4 ,b4 ,basedow 7#agbc-agij71 who early became an active deist1 but distinguished himself chiefly as an educational reformer1 on the inspiration of ,rousseau's mile1 #acaf setting up a system which tore education away from the ,christian basis1 #acag and becoming in virtue of that one of the most popular writers of his day4 ,it is latterly admitted even by orthodoxy that school education in ,germany had in the seventeenth century become a matter of learning by rote1 and that such reforms as had been set up in some of the schools of the ,pietists had in ,basedow's day come to nothing4 #acah ,as ,basedow was the first to set up vigorous reforms1 it is not too much to call him an instaurator of rational education1 whose chief fault was to be too far ahead of his age4 ,this1 with the personal flaw of an unamiable habit of wrangling in all companies1 caused the failure of his ,philanthropic ,institute1 established in #agga1 on the invitation of the ,prince of ,dessau1 to carry out his educational ideals4 ,quite a number of other institutions1 similarly planned1 after his lead1 by men of the same way of thinking1 as ,canope and ,salzmann1 in the same period1 had no better success4 ,goethe1 who was clearly much impressed by ,basedow1 and travelled with him1 draws a somewhat antagonistic picture of him on retrospect 7,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,b4 xiv74 ,he accuses him in particular of always obtruding his anti-orthodox opinions2 not choosing to admit that religious opinions were being constantly obtruded on ,basedow4 ,praising ,lavater for his more amiable nature1 ,goethe reveals that ,lavater was constantly propounding his orthodoxy4 ,goethe1 in fine1 was always lenient to pietism1 in which he had been brought up1 and to which he was wont to make sentimental concessions4 ,he could never forget his courtly duties towards the established convention1 and so far played the game of bigotry4 ,hagenbach notes 7i1 #bih1 note71 without any deprecation1 that after ,basedow had published in #agfc-agfd his ,philalethie1 a perfectly serious treatise on natural as against revealed religion1 one of the many orthodox answers1 that by ,pastor ,goeze1 so inflamed against him the people of his native town of ,hamburg that he could not show himself there without danger4 ,and this is the man accused of obtruding his views4 ,baur is driven1 by way of disparagement of ,basedow and his school1 to censure their self-confidence--precisely the quality which1 in religious teachers with whom he agreed1 he as a theologian would treat as a mark of superiority4 ,baur's attack on the moral utilitarianism of the school is still less worthy of him4 7,gesch4 der christl4 ,kirche1 iv1 #eie-if74 ,it reads like an echo of ,kahnis 7as cited1 p4 #df sq474 ,yet another influential deist was ,johann ,august ,eberhard 7#agci-ahji71 for a time a preacher at ,charlottenburg1 but driven out of the ,church for the heresy of his ,new ,apology of ,sokrates2 or the ,final ,salvation of the ,heathen 7#aggb74 #acai ,the work in effect placed ,sokrates on a level with ,jesus1 #acbj which was blasphemy4 #acba ,but the outcry attracted the attention of ,frederick1 who made ,eberhard a ,professor of ,philosophy at ,halle1 where later he opposed the idealism of both ,kant and ,fichte4 ,substantially of the same school was the less pronouncedly deistic cleric ,steinbart1 #acbb author of a utilitarian ,system of ,pure ,philosophy1 or ,christian doctrine of ,happiness1 now forgotten1 who had been variously influenced by ,locke and ,voltaire4 #acbc ,among the less heterodox but still rationalizing clergy of the period were ,j4 ,j4 ,spalding1 author of a work on ,the ,utility of the ,preacher's ,office1 a man of the type labelled ,moderate in the ,scotland of the same period1 and as such antipathetic to emotional pietists2 #acbd and ,zollikofer1 of the same school--both inferribly influenced by the deism of their day4 ,considerably more of a rationalist than these was the clergyman ,w4 ,a4 ,teller 7#agcd-ahjd71 author of a ,new ,testament ,lexicon1 who reached a position virtually deistic1 and intimated to the ,jews of ,berlin that he would receive them into his church on their making a deistic profession of faith4 #acbe #ae4 ,if it be true that even the rationalizing defenders of ,christianity led men on the whole towards deism1 #acbf much more must this hold true of the new school who applied rationalistic methods to religious questions in their capacity as theologians4 ,of this school the founder was ,johann ,salomo ,semler 7#agbe-agia71 who1 trained as a ,pietist at ,halle1 early thought himself into a more critical attitude1 #acbg albeit remaining a theological teacher4 ,son of a much-travelled army chaplain1 who in his many campaigns had learned much of the world1 and in particular seen something of religious frauds in the ,catholic countries1 ,semler started with a critical bias which was cultivated by wide miscellaneous reading from his boyhood onwards4 ,as early as #agej1 in his doctoral dissertation defending certain texts against the criticism of ,whiston1 he set forth the view1 developed a century later by ,baur1 that the early ,christian ,church contained a ,pauline and a ,petrine party1 mutually hostile4 ,the merit of his research won him a professorship at ,halle2 and this position he held till his death1 despite such heresy as his rejection from the canon of the books of ,ruth1 ,esther1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 the ,song of ,solomon1 the two books of ,chronicles1 and the ,apocalypse1 in his ,freie ,untersuchung des ,canons 7#agga-aggd7--;a work apparently inspired by the earlier performance of ,richard ,simon4 #acbh ,his intellectual life was for long a continuous advance1 always in the direction of a more rationalistic comprehension of religious history2 and he reached1 for his day1 a remarkably critical view of the mythical element in the ,old ,testament4 #acbi ,not only did he recognize that ,genesis must have pre-,mosaic origins1 and that such books as the ,proverbs and the ,psalms were of later date and other origin than those traditionally assigned3 #accj his historical sense worked on the whole narrative4 ,thus he recognized the mythical character of the story of ,samson1 and was at least on the way towards a scientific handling of the ,new ,testament4 #acca ,but in his period and environment a systematic rationalism was impossible2 he was always a revelation-believing ,christian2 his critical intelligence was always divided against itself2 #accb and his powers were expended in an immense number of works1 #accc which failed to yield any orderly system1 while setting up a general stimulus1 in despite of their admitted unreadableness4 #accd ,in his latter days he strongly opposed and condemned the more radical rationalism of his pupil ,bahrdt1 and of the posthumous work of ,reimarus1 here exemplifying the common danger of the intellectual life1 for critical as well as uncritical minds4 ,after provoking many orthodox men by his own challenges1 he is roused to fury alike by the genial rationalism of ,bahrdt and by the cold analysis of ,reimarus2 and his attack on the ,wolfenbttel ,fragments published by ,lessing is loaded with a vocabulary of abuse such as he had never before employed #acce--;a sure sign that he had no scientific hold of his own historical conception4 ,like the similarly infuriated semi-rational defenders of the historicity of ,jesus in our own day1 he merely followed the tactic of exposing the lack of scientific knowledge and theological learning of the innovating writer4 ,always temperamentally religious1 he died in the evangelical faith4 ,but his own influence in promoting rationalism is now obvious and unquestioned1 #accf and he is rightly to be reckoned a main founder of ,german rationalism--that is1 academic rationalism on theologico-historical lines #accg--;although he always professed to be merely rectifying orthodox conceptions4 ,in the opinion of ,pusey the revival of historical interpretation by ,semler became the most extensive instrument of the degradation of ,christianity4 ,among the other theologians of the time who exercised a similar influence to the ,wolffian1 ,tllner attracts notice by the comparative courage with which1 in the words of an orthodox critic1 he raised1 as much as possible1 natural religion to revelation1 and1 on the other hand1 lowered ,scripture to the level of natural light4 #acch ,first he published 7#agfd7 ,true ,reasons why ,god has not furnished ,revelation with evident proofs1 #acci arguing for the modern attenuation of the idea of revelation2 then a work on ,divine ,inspiration 7#agga7 in which he explicitly avowed that ,god has in no way1 either inwardly or outwardly1 dictated the sacred books4 ,the writers were the real authors #acdj--;a declaration not to be counterbalanced by further generalities about actual divine influence4 ,later still he published a ,proof that ,god leads men to salvation even by his revelation in ,nature #acda 7#agff7--;a form of ,christianity little removed from deism4 ,other theologians1 such as ,ernesti1 went far with the tide of illuminism2 and when the orthodox ,chr4 ,a4 ,crusius died at ,leipzig in #agha1 ,jean ,paul ,richter1 then a student1 wrote that people had become too much imbued with the spirit of illuminism to be of his school4 ,most1 almost all the students1 adds ,richter1 incline to heterodoxy2 and of the professor ,morus he tells that wherever he can explain away a miracle1 the devil1 etc41 he does so4 ,of this order of accommodators1 a prominent example was ,michaelis 7#agag-agia71 whose reduction of the ,mosaic legislation to motives of every-day utility is still entertaining4 #af4 ,much more notorious than any other ,german deist of his time was ,carl ,friedrich ,bahrdt 7#agda-agib71 a kind of raw ,teutonic ,voltaire1 and the most popularly influential ,german freethinker of his age4 ,in all he is said to have published a hundred and twenty-six books and tracts1 #acdb thus approximating to ,voltaire in quantity if not in quality4 ,theological hatred has so pursued him that it is hard to form a fair opinion as to his character2 but the record runs that he led a somewhat ,bohemian and disorderly life1 though a very industrious one4 ,while a preacher in ,leipzig in #agfh he first got into trouble--persecution by his own account2 disgrace for licentious conduct1 by that of his enemies4 ,in any case1 he was at this period quite orthodox in his beliefs4 #acdc ,that there was no serious disgrace is suggested by the fact that he was appointed ,professor of ,biblical ,antiquities at ,erfurt2 and soon afterwards1 on the recommendation of ,semler and ,ernesti1 at ,giessen 7#agga74 ,while holding that post he published his modernized translation of the ,new ,testament1 done from the point of view of belief in revelation1 following it up by his ,new ,revelations of ,god in ,letters and ,tales 7#aggc71 which aroused ,protestant hostility4 ,after teaching for a time in a new ,swiss ,philanthropin--an educational institution on ,basedow's lines--he obtained a post as a district ecclesiastical superintendent in the principality of ,trkheim on the ,hardt2 whereafter he was enabled to set up a ,philanthropin of his own in the castle of ,heidesheim1 near ,worms4 ,the second edition of his translation of the ,new ,testament1 however1 aroused ,catholic hostility in the district2 the edition was confiscated1 and he found it prudent to make a tour in ,holland and ,england1 only to receive1 on his return1 a missive from the imperial consistory declaring him disabled for any spiritual office in the ,holy ,german ,empire4 ,seeking refuge in ,halle1 he found ,semler grown hostile2 but made the acquaintance of ,eberhard1 with the result of abandoning the remains of his orthodox faith4 ,henceforth he regarded ,jesus1 albeit with admiration1 as simply a great teacher1 like ,moses1 ,confucius1 ,sokrates1 ,semler1 ,luther1 and myself2 #acdd and to this view he gave effect2 in the third edition of his ,new ,testament translation1 which was followed in #aghb by his ,letters on the ,bible in ,popular ,style 7,volkston71 and in #aghd by his ,completion 7,ausfhrung7 of the ,plan and ,aim of ,jesus in ,letters 7#aghd71 and his ,system of ,moral ,religion 7#aghg74 ,more and more fiercely antagonized1 he duly retaliated on the clergy in his ,church and ,heretic ,almanack 7#agha72 and after for a time keeping a tavern1 he got into fresh trouble by printing anonymous satires on the religious edict of #aghh1 directed against all kinds of heresy1 #acde and was sentenced to two years' imprisonment in a fortress--a term reduced by the king to one year4 ,thereafter he ended not very happily his troublous life in ,halle in #agib4 ,the weakest part of ,bahrdt's performance is now seen to be his application of the empirical method of the early theological rationalists1 who were wont to take every ,biblical prodigy as a merely perverted account of an incident which certainly happened4 ,that method--which became identified with the so-called rationalism of ,germany in that age1 and is not yet discarded by rationalizing theologians--is reduced to open absurdity in his hands1 as when he makes ,moses employ fireworks on ,mount ,sinai1 and ,jesus feed the five thousand by stratagem1 without miracle4 ,but it was not by such extravagances that he won and kept a hearing throughout his life4 ,it is easy to see on retrospect that the source of his influence as a writer lay above all things in his healthy critical ethic1 his own mode of progression being by way of simple common sense and natural feeling1 not of critical research4 ,his first step in rationalism was to ask himself how ,three ,persons could be ,one ,god--this while believing devoutly in revelation1 miracles1 the divinity of ,jesus1 and the ,atonement4 ,under the influence of a naturalist travelling in his district1 he gave up the orthodox doctrine of the ,atonement1 feeling himself as if new-born in being freed of what he had learned to see as a pernicious and damnable error4 #acdf ,it was for such writing that he was hated and persecuted1 despite his habitual eulogy of ,christ as the greatest and most venerable of mortals4 ,his offence was not against morals1 but against theology2 and he heightened the offence by his vanity4 ,bahrdt's real power may be inferred from the fury of some of his opponents4 ,the wretched ,bahrdt is ,dr4 ,pusey's ,christian account of him4 ,even ,f4 ,c4 ,baur is abusive4 ,the ,american translators of ,hagenbach1 ,messrs4 ,gage and ,stuckenberg1 have thought fit to insert in their chapter-heading the phrase ,bahrdt1 the ,theodore ,parker of ,germany4 ,as ,hagenbach has spoken of ,bahrdt with special contempt1 the intention can be appreciated2 but the intended insult may now serve as a certificate of merit to ,bahrdt4 ,bishop ,hurst solemnly affirms that ,what ,jeffreys is to the judicial history of ,england1 ,bahrdt is to the religious history of ,german ,protestantism4 ,whatever he touched was disgraced by the vileness of his heart and the ,satanic daring of his mind 7,history of ,rationalism1 ed4 #ahfg1 p4 #aai2 ed4 #aija1 p4 #aci74 ,this concerning doctrines of a nearly invariable moral soundness1 which to-day would be almost universally received with approbation4 ,pnjer1 who cannot at any point indict the doctrines1 falls back on the professional device of classing them with the platitudes of the ,aufklrung2 and1 finding this insufficient to convey a disparaging impression to the general reader1 intimates that ,bahrdt1 connecting ethic with rational sanitation1 does not shrink from the coarseness of laying down a rule for bodily health1 which ,pnjer does not shrink from quoting 7pp4 #edi-ej74 ,finally ,bahrdt is dismissed as the theological public-house-keeper of ,halle4 ,so hard is it for men clerically trained to attain to a manly rectitude in their criticism of anti-clericals4 ,bahrdt was a great admirer of the ,gospel ,jesus2 so ,cairns 7p4 #agh7 takes a lenient view of his life4 ,on that and his doctrine cp4 ,hagenbach1 pp4 #ajg-aj2 ,pnjer1 i1 #edf-ej2 ,noack1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #e4 ,goethe satirized him in a youthful ,prolog1 but speaks of him not unkindly in the ,wahrheit und ,dichtung4 ,as a writer he is much above the ,german average4 #ag4 ,alongside of these propagators of popular rationalism stood a group of companion deists usually considered together--,gotthold ,ephraim ,lessing 7#agbi-agha71 ,hermann ,samuel ,reimarus 7#afid-agfh71 and ,moses ,mendelssohn 7#agbi-aghf74 ,the last-named1 a ,jew1 lived entirely in the sphere of deism and of natural religion1 #acdg and sought1 like the deists in general1 to give religion an ethical structure2 but he was popular chiefly as a constructive theist and a defender of the doctrine of immortality on non-,christian lines4 ,his ,phdon 7#agfg71 setting forth that view1 had a great vogue4 #acdh ,one of his more notable teachings was an earnest declaration against any connection between ,church and ,state2 but like ,locke and ,rousseau he so far sank below his own ideals as to agree in arguing for a ,state enforcement of a profession of belief in a ,god #acdi--;a negation of his own plea4 ,with much contemporary popularity1 he had no permanent influence2 and he seems to have been completely broken-hearted over ,jacobi's disclosure of the final pantheism of ,lessing1 for whom he had a great affection4 ,see the monograph of ,rabbi ,schreiber1 of ,bonn1 ,moses ,mendelssohn's ,verdienste um die deutsche ,nation 7,zrich1 #ahhj71 pp4 #da-db4 ,the strongest claim made for ,mendelssohn by ,rabbi ,schreiber is that he1 a ,jew1 was much more of a ,german patriot than ,goethe1 ,schiller1 or ,lessing4 ,heine1 however1 pronounces that ,as ,luther against the ,papacy1 so ,mendelssohn rebelled against the ,talmud 7,zur ,gesch4 der ,relig4 und ,philos4 in ,deutschland3 ,werke1 ed4 #ahgf1 iii1 #fe74 ,lessing1 on the other hand1 is one of the outstanding figures in the history of ,biblical criticism1 as well as of ,german literature in general4 ,the son of a ,lutheran pastor1 ,lessing became in a considerable measure a rationalist1 while constantly resenting1 as did ,goethe1 the treatment of religion in the fashion in which he himself treated non-religious opinions with which he did not agree4 #acej ,it is clear that already in his student days he had become substantially an unbeliever1 and that it was on this as well as other grounds that he refused to become a clergyman4 #acea ,nor was he unready to jeer at the bigots when they chanced to hate where he was sympathetic4 #aceb ,on the side of religious problems1 he was primarily and permanently influenced by two such singularly different minds as ,bayle #acec and ,rousseau1 the first appealing to and eliciting his keen critical faculty1 the second his warm emotional nature2 and he never quite unified the result4 ,from first to last he was a freethinker in the sense that he never admitted any principle of authority1 and was stedfastly loyal to the principle of freedom of utterance4 ,he steadily refused to break with his freethinking friend ,mylius1 and he never sought to raise odium against any more advanced freethinker on the score of his audacity4 #aced ,in his ,hamburgische ,dramaturgie1 indeed1 dealing with a ,german play in which ,mohammedanism in general1 and one ,ismenor in particular1 in the time of the ,crusades are charged with the sin of persecution1 he remarks that these very ,crusades1 which in their origin were a political stratagem of the popes1 developed into the most inhuman persecutions of which ,christian superstition has ever made itself guilty3 the true religion had then the most and the bloodiest ,ismenors4 #acee ,in his early ,rettungen 7,vindications71 again1 he defends the dubious ,cardan and impersonally argues the pros and cons of ,christianity and ,mohammedanism in a fashion possible only to a skeptical mind4 #acef ,and in his youth1 as in his last years1 he maintained that there have long been men who disregarded all revealed religions and have yet been good men4 #aceg ,in his youth1 however1 he was more of a ,rousseauist than of an intellectual philosopher1 setting up a principle of the heart against every species of analytic thought1 including even that of ,leibnitz1 which he early championed against the ,wolfian adaptation of it4 #aceh ,the sound principle that conduct is more important than opinion he was always apt1 on the religious side1 to strain into the really contrary principle that opinions which often went with good conduct were necessarily to be esteemed4 ,so when the rationalism of the day seriously or otherwise 7in ,voltairean ,berlin it was too apt to be otherwise7 assailed the creed of his parents1 whom he loved and honoured1 sympathy in his case as in ,goethe's always predetermined his attitude2 #acei and it is not untruly said of him that he did prefer the orthodox to the heterodox party1 like ,gibbon1 inasmuch as the balance of learning which attracted his esteem was then on that side4 #acfj ,we thus find him1 about the time when he announces to his father that he had doubted concerning the ,christian dogmas1 #acfa rather nervously proving his essential religiousness by dramatically defending the clergy against the prejudices of popular freethought as represented by his friend ,mylius1 who for a time ran in ,leipzig a journal called the ,freigeist--not a very advanced organ4 #acfb ,lessing was in fact1 with his versatile genius and his vast reading1 a man of moods rather than a systematic thinker1 despite his powerful critical faculty2 and alike his emotional and his critical side determined his aversion to the attempts of the rationalizing clergy to put religion on a common-sense footing4 ,his personal animosity to ,voltaire and to ,frederick would also influence him2 but he repugned even the decorous rationalism of the theologians of his own country4 ,when his brother wrote him to the effect that the basis of the current religion was false1 and the structure the work of shallow bunglers1 he replied that he admitted the falsity of the basis1 but not the incompetence of those who built up the system1 in which he saw much skill and address4 ,shallow bunglers1 on the other hand1 he termed the schemers of the new system of compromise and accommodation4 #acfc ,in short1 as he avowed in his fragment on ,bibliolatry1 he was always pulled this way and that in his thought on the problem of religion4 #acfd ,for himself1 he framed 7or perhaps adopted7 #acfe a pseudo-theory of the ,education of the ,human ,race 7#aghj71 which has served the semi-rationalistic clergy of our own day in good stead2 and adapted ,rousseau's catching doctrine that the true test of religion lies in feeling and not in argument4 #acff ,neither doctrine1 in short1 has a whit more philosophical value than the other popular philosophy of the time1 and neither was fitted to have much immediate influence2 but both pointed a way to the more philosophic apologists of religion1 while baulking the orthodox4 #acfg ,if all this were more than a piece of defensive strategy1 it was no more scientific than the semi-rationalist theology which he contemned4 ,the education theorem1 on its merits1 is indeed a discreditable paralogism2 and only our knowledge of his affectional bias can withhold us from counting it a mystification4 ,on analysis it is found to have no logical content whatever4 ,christianity ,lessing made out to be a universal principle1 independent of its pseudo-historical setting2 thus giving to the totality of the admittedly false tradition the credit of an ethic which in the terms of the case is simply human1 and in all essentials demonstrably pre-,christian4 ,his propaganda of this kind squares ill with his paper on ,the ,origin of ,revealed ,religion1 written about #ahfj4 ,there he professes to hold by a naturalist view of religion4 ,all positive or dogmatic creeds he ascribes to the arrangements that men from time to time found it necessary to make as to the means of applying natural religion4 ,hence all positive and revealed religions are alike true and alike false2 alike true1 inasmuch as it has everywhere been necessary to come to terms over different things in order to secure agreement and unity in the public religion2 alike false1 inasmuch as that over which men came to terms does not so much stand close to the essential 7nicht sowohl 444 neben dem ,wesentlichen besteht71 but rather weakens and oppresses it4 ,the best revealed or positive religion is that which contains the fewest conventional additions to natural religion2 that which least limits the effects of natural religion4 #acfh ,this is the position of ,tindal and the ,english deists in general2 and it seems to have been in this mood that ,lessing wrote to ,mendelssohn about being able to help the downfall of the most frightful structure of nonsense only under the pretext of giving it a new foundation4 #acfi ,on the historical side1 too1 he had early convinced himself that ,christianity was established and propagated by entirely natural means #acgj--this before ,gibbon4 ,but1 fighter as he was1 he was not prepared to lay his cards on the table in the society in which he found himself4 ,in his strongest polemic there was always an element of mystification2 #acga and his final pantheism was only privately avowed4 ,it was through a series of outside influences that he went so far1 in the open1 as he did4 ,becoming the librarian of the great ,bibliothek of ,wolfenbttel1 the possession of the hereditary ,prince 7afterwards ,duke7 of ,brunswick1 he was led to publish the ,anonymous ,fragments known as the ,wolfenbttel ,fragments 7#aggd-aggh71 wherein the methods of the ,english and ,french deists are applied with a new severity to both the ,old and the ,new ,testament narratives4 ,it is now put beyond doubt that they were the work of ,reimarus1 #acgb who had in #agee produced a defence of ,natural ,religion--that is1 of the theory of a ,providence--against ,la ,mettrie1 ,maupertuis1 and older materialists1 which had a great success in its day4 #acgc ,at his death1 accordingly1 ,reimarus ranked as an admired defender of theism and of the belief in immortality4 #acgd ,he was the son-in-law of the esteemed scholar ,fabricius1 and was for many years ,professor of ,oriental ,languages in the ,hamburg ,academy4 ,the famous research which preserves his memory was begun by him at the age of fifty1 for his own satisfaction1 and was elaborated by him during twenty years1 while he silently endured the regimen of the intolerant ,lutheranism of his day4 #acge ,as he left the book it was a complete treatise entitled ,an ,apology for the ,rational ,worshipper of ,god2 but his son feared to have it published1 though ,lessing offered to take the whole risk2 and it was only by the help of the daughter1 ,elise ,reimarus1 #acgf ,lessing's friend1 that the fragments came to light4 ,as the ,berlin censor would not give official permission1 #acgg ,lessing took the course of issuing them piecemeal in a periodical series of selections from the treasures of the ,wolfenbttel ,library1 which had privilege of publication4 ,the first1 ,on the ,toleration of ,deists1 which attracted little notice1 appeared in #aggd2 four more1 which made a stir1 in #aggg2 and only in #aggh was the most audacious of all1 ,on the ,aim of ,jesus and his ,disciples1 #acgh published as a separate book4 ,collectively they constituted the most serious attack yet made in ,germany on the current creed1 though their theory of the true manner of the gospel history of course smacks of the pre-scientific period4 ,a generation later1 however1 they were still the radical book of the anti-supernaturalists in ,germany4 #acgi ,as against miracles in general1 the ,resurrection in particular1 and ,biblical ethics in general1 the attack of ,reimarus was irresistible1 but his historical construction is pre-scientific4 ,the method is1 to accept as real occurrences all the non-miraculous episodes1 and to explain them by a general theory4 ,thus the appointment of the seventy apostles--a palpable myth--is taken as a fact1 and explained as part of a scheme by ,jesus to obtain temporal power2 and the scourging of the money-changers from the ,temple1 improbable enough as it stands1 is made still more so by supposing it to be part of a scheme of insurrection4 ,the method further involves charges of calculated fraud against the disciples or evangelists--a historical misconception which ,lessing repudiated1 albeit not on the right grounds4 ,see the sketch in ,cairns1 p4 #aig sq41 which indicates the portions of the treatise produced later by ,strauss4 ,cp4 ,pnjer1 i1 #eej-eg2 ,noack1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #d4 ,schweitzer 7,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede71 in his satisfaction at the agreement of ,reimarus with his own conception of an eschatological ,jesus1 occupied with the last things1 gives ,reimarus extravagant praise4 ,strauss rightly notes the weakness of the indictment of ,moses as a worker of fraud 7,voltaire1 #bte ,ausg4 p4 #djg74 ,it is but fair to say that ,reimarus's fallacy of method1 which was the prevailing one in his day1 has not yet disappeared from criticism4 ,as we have seen1 it was employed by ,pomponazzi in the ,renaissance 7vol4 i1 p4 #cgg71 and reintroduced in the modern period by ,connor and ,toland4 ,it is still employed by some professed rationalists1 as ,dr4 ,conybeare4 ,it has1 however1 in all likelihood suggested itself spontaneously to many inquirers4 ,in the ,phdrus ,plato presents it as applied by empirical rationalizers to myths at that time4 ,though ,lessing at many points oppugned the positions of the ,fragments1 he was led into a fiery controversy over them1 in which he was unworthily attacked by1 among others1 ,semler1 from whom he had looked for support2 and the series was finally stopped by authority4 ,there can now be no doubt that ,lessing at heart agreed with ,reimarus on most points of negative criticism1 #achj but reached a different emotional estimate and attitude4 ,all the greater is the merit of his battle for freedom of thought4 ,thereafter1 as a final check to his opponents1 he produced his famous drama ,nathan the ,wise1 which embodies ,boccaccio's story of ,the ,three ,rings1 and has ever since served as a popular lesson of tolerance in ,germany4 #acha ,in the end1 he seems to have become1 to at least some extent1 a pantheist2 #achb but he never expounded any coherent and comprehensive set of opinions1 #achc preferring1 as he put it in an oft-quoted sentence1 the state of search for truth to any consciousness of possessing it4 #achd ,he left behind him1 however1 an important fragment1 which constituted one of his most important services to national culture--his ,new ,hypothesis concerning the evangelists as merely human writers4 ,he himself thought that he had done nothing more important or ingenious #ache of the kind2 and though his results were in part unsound and impermanent1 he is justly to be credited with the first scientific attempt to deduce the process of composition of the gospels #achf from primary writings by the first ,christians4 ,holding as he did to the authenticity and historicity of the fourth gospel1 he cannot be said to have gone very deep2 but two generations were to pass before the specialists got any further4 ,lessing had shown more science and more courage than any other pro-,christian scholar of the time1 and1 as the orthodox historian of rationalism has it1 ,though he did not array himself as a champion of rationalism1 he proved himself one of the strongest promoters of its reign4 #achg #ah4 ,deism was now as prevalent in educated ,germany as in ,france or ,england2 and1 according to a contemporary preacher1 ,berliner was about #aggg a synonym for rationalist4 #achh ,wieland1 one of the foremost ,german men of letters of his time1 is known to have become a deist of the school of ,shaftesbury2 #achi and in the leading journal of the day he wrote on the free use of reason in matters of faith4 #acij ,some acts of persecution by the ,church show how far the movement had gone4 ,in #aggd we find a ,catholic professor at ,mayence1 ,lorenzo ,isenbiehl1 deposed and sent back to the seminary for two years on the score of deficient theological knowledge1 because he argued 7after ,collins7 that the text ,isaiah vii1 #ad applied not to the mother of ,jesus but to a contemporary of the prophet2 and when1 four years later1 he published a book on the same thesis1 in ,latin1 he was imprisoned4 ,three years later still1 a young ,jesuit of ,salzburg1 named ,steinbuhler1 was actually condemned to death for writing some satires on ,roman ,catholic ceremonies1 and1 though afterwards pardoned1 died of the ill-usage he had undergone in prison4 #acia ,it may have been the sense of danger aroused by such persecution that led to the founding1 in #aghj1 of a curious society which combined an element of freethinking ,jesuitism with freemasonry1 and which included a number of statesmen1 noblemen1 and professors--,goethe1 ,herder1 and the ,duke of ,weimar being among its adherents4 ,but it is difficult to take seriously the accounts given of the order4 #acib ,the spirit of rationalism1 in any case1 was now so prevalent that it began to dominate the work of the more intelligent theologians1 to whose consequent illogical attempts to strain out by the most dubious means the supernatural elements from the ,bible narratives #acic the name of rationalism came to be specially applied1 #acid that being the kind of criticism naturally most discussed among the clergy4 ,taking rise broadly in the work of ,semler1 reinforced by that of the ,english and ,french deists and that of ,reimarus1 the method led stage by stage to the scientific performance of ,strauss and ,baur1 and the recent higher criticism of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,noteworthy at its outset as exhibiting the tendency of official believers to make men1 in the words of ,lessing1 irrational philosophers by way of making them rational ,christians1 #acie this order of rationalism in its intermediate stages belongs rather to the history of ,biblical scholarship than to that of freethought1 since more radical work was being done by unprofessional writers outside1 and deeper problems were raised by the new systems of philosophy4 ,within the ,lutheran pale1 however1 there were some hardy thinkers4 ,a striking figure of the time1 in respect of his courage and thoroughness1 is the ,lutheran pastor ,j4 ,h4 ,schulz1 #acif who so strongly combatted the compromises of the ,semler school in regard to the ,pentateuch1 and argued so plainly for a severance of morals from religion as to bring about his own dismissal 7#agib74 #acig ,schulz's ,philosophical ,meditation on ,theology and ,religion #acih 7#aghd7 is indeed one of the most pronounced attacks on orthodox religion produced in that age4 ,but it is in itself a purely speculative construction4 ,following the current historical method1 he makes ,moses the child of the ,egyptian princess1 and represents him as imposing on the ignorant ,israelites a religion invented by himself1 and expressive only of his own passions4 ,jesus in turn is extolled in the terms common to the freethinkers of the age2 but his conception of ,god is dismissed as chimerical2 and ,schulz finally rests in the position of ,edelmann1 that the only rational conception of deity is that of the sufficient ground of the world1 and that on this view no man is an atheist4 #acii ,schulz's dismissal appears to have been one of the fruits of the orthodox edict 7#aghh7 of the new king1 ,frederick ,william ,,ii1 the brother of ,frederick1 who succeeded in #aghf4 ,it announced him--in reality a strange compound of lawless debauchery and priest-ridden superstition #adjj--;as the champion of religion and the enemy of freethinking2 forbade all proselytizing1 and menaced with penalties all forms of heresy1 #adja while professing to maintain freedom of conscience4 ,the edict seems to have been specially provoked by fresh literature of a pronouncedly freethinking stamp1 though it lays stress on the fact that so many clergymen have the boldness to disseminate the doctrines of the ,socinians1 ,deists1 and ,naturalists under the name of ,aufklrung4 ,the work of ,schulz would be one of the provocatives1 and there were others4 ,in #aghe had appeared the anonymous ,moroccan ,letters1 #adjb wherein1 after the model of the ,persian ,letters and others1 the life and creeds of ,germany are handled in a quite ,voltairean fashion4 ,the writer is evidently familiar with ,french and ,english deistic literature1 and draws freely on both1 making no pretence of systematic treatment4 ,such writing1 quietly turning a disenchanting light of common sense on ,scriptural incredibilities and ,christian historical scandals1 without a trace of polemical zeal1 illustrated at once the futility of ,kant's claim1 in the second edition of his ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 to counteract freethinking unbelief by transcendental philosophy4 ,and though the writer is careful to point to the frequent association of ,christian fanaticism with regicide1 his very explicit appeal for a unification of ,germany1 #adjc his account of the ,german ,protestant peasant and labourer as the most dismal figure in ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,switzerland1 #adjd and his charge against ,germans of degrading their women1 #adje would not enlist the favour of the authorities for his work4 ,within two years 7#aghg7 appeared1 unsigned1 an even more strongly anti-,christian and anti-clerical work1 ,the ,in ,part ,only ,true ,system of the ,christian ,religion1 #adjf ascribed to ,jakob von ,mauvillon1 #adjg whom we have seen twenty-one years before translating the freethinking romance of ,holberg4 ,beginning his career as a serious publicist by translating ,raynal's explosive history of the ,indies 7#g vols4 #aggd-gh71 he had done solid work as a historian and as an economist1 and also as an officer in the service of the ,duke of ,brunswick and a writer on military science4 ,the ,true ,system is hostile alike to priesthoods and to the accommodating theologians1 whose attempt to rationalize ,christianity on historical lines it flouts in ,lessing's vein as futile4 ,mauvillon finds unthinkable the idea of a revelation which could not be universal2 rejects miracles and prophecies as vain bases for a creed2 sums up the ,new ,testament as planless2 and pronounces the ethic of ,christianity1 commonly regarded as its strongest side1 the weakest side of all4 ,he sums up1 in fact1 in a logical whole1 the work of the ,english and ,french deists4 #adjh ,to such propaganda the edict of repression was the official answer4 ,it naturally roused a strong opposition2 #adji but though it ultimately failed1 through the general breakdown of ,european despotisms1 it was not without injurious effect4 ,the first edict was followed in a few months by one which placed the press and all literature1 native and foreign1 under censorship4 ,this policy1 which was chiefly inspired by the new king's ,minister of ,religion1 ,woellner1 was followed up in #agia by the appointment of a committee of three reactionaries--,hermes1 ,hilmer1 and ,woltersdorf--who not only saw to the execution of the edicts1 but supervised the schools and churches4 ,such a regimen1 aided by the reaction against the ,revolution1 for a time prevented any open propaganda on the part of men officially placed2 and we shall see it hampering and humiliating ,kant2 but it left the leaven of anti-supernaturalism to work all the more effectively among the increasing crowd of university students4 ,many minds of the period1 doubtless1 are typified by ,herder1 who1 though a practising clergyman1 was clearly a ,spinozistic theist1 accommodating himself to popular ,christianity in a genially latitudinarian spirit4 #adaj ,when in his youth he published an essay discussing ,genesis as a piece of oriental poetry1 not to be treated as science or theology1 he evoked an amount of hostility which startled him4 #adaa ,learning his lesson1 he was for the future guarded enough to escape persecution4 ,he was led by his own temperamental bias1 however1 to a transcendental position in philosophy4 ,originally in agreement with ,kant1 #adab as against the current metaphysic1 in the period before the issue of the latter's ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 he nourished his religious instincts by a discursive reading of history1 which he handled in a comparatively scientific yet above all poetic or theosophic spirit1 while ,kant1 who had little or no interest in history1 developed his thought on the side of physical science4 #adac ,the philosophic methods of the two men thus became opposed2 and when ,herder found ,kant's philosophy producing a strongly rationalistic cast of thought among the divinity students who came before him for examination1 he directly and sharply antagonized it #adad in a theistic sense4 ,yet his own influence on his age was on the whole latitudinarian and anti-theological2 he opposed to the apriorism of ,kant the view that the concepts of space and time are the results of experience and an abstraction of its contents2 his historic studies had developed in him a conception of the process of evolution alike in life1 opinion1 and faculty2 and orthodoxy and philosophy alike incline to rank him as a pantheist4 #adae #ai4 ,meanwhile1 the drift of the age of ,aufklrung was apparent in the practically freethinking attitude of the two foremost men of letters in the new ,germany--,goethe and ,schiller4 ,of the former1 despite the bluster of ,carlyle1 and despite the sthetic favour shown to ,christianity in ,wilhelm ,meister1 no religious ingenuity can make more than a pantheist1 #adaf who1 insofar as he touched on ,biblical questions1 copied the half-grown rationalism of the school of ,semler4 #adag ,the great ,pagan was the common label among his orthodox or conformist contemporaries4 #adah ,as a boy1 learning a little ,hebrew1 he was already at the critical point of view in regard to ,biblical marvels1 #adai though he never became a scientific critic4 ,he has told how1 in his youth1 when ,lavater insisted that he must choose between orthodox ,christianity and atheism1 he answered that1 if he were not free to be a ,christian in his own way 7wie ich es bisher gehegt htte71 he would as soon turn atheist as ,christian1 the more so as he saw that nobody knew very well what either signified4 #adbj ,as he puts it1 he had made a ,christ and a ,christianity of his own4 #adba ,his admired friend ,frulein von ,klettenberg1 the ,beautiful ,soul of one of his pieces1 told him that he never satisfied her when he used the ,christian terminology1 which he never seemed to get right2 and he tells how he gradually turned away from her religion1 which he had for a time approached1 in its ,moravian aspect1 with a too passionate zeal4 #adbb ,in his letters to ,lavater1 he wrote quite explicitly that a voice from heaven would not make him believe in a virgin birth and a resurrection1 such tales being for him rather blasphemies against the great ,god and his revelation in ,nature4 ,thousands of pages of earlier and later writings1 he declared1 were for him as beautiful as the gospel4 #adbc ,nor did he ever yield to the ,christian ,church more than a ,platonic amity2 so that much of the peculiar hostility that was long felt for his poetry and was long shown to his memory in ,germany is to be explained as an expression of the normal malice of pietism against unbelievers4 #adbd ,such utterances as the avowal that he revered ,jesus as he revered the ,sun1 #adbe and the other to the effect that ,christianity has nothing to do with philosophy1 where ,hegel sought to bring it--that it is simply a beneficent influence1 and is not to be looked to for proof of immortality #adbf--;are clearly not those of a believer4 ,to-day belief is glad to claim ,goethe as a friend in respect of his many concessions to it1 as well as of his occasional flings at more consistent freethinkers4 ,but a great pagan he remains for the student4 ,in the opinion of later orthodoxy his influence on religion was very pernicious4 #adbg ,he indeed showed small concern for religious susceptibilities when he humorously wrote that from his youth up he believed himself to stand so well with his ,god as to fancy that he might even have something to forgive ,him4 #adbh ,one passage in ,goethe's essay on the ,pentateuch1 appended to the ,west-,oestlicher ,divan1 is worth noting here as illustrating the ability of genius to cherish and propagate historical fallacies4 ,it runs3 ,the peculiar1 unique1 and deepest theme of the history of the world and man1 to which all others are subordinate1 is always the conflict of belief and unbelief4 ,all epochs in which belief rules1 under whatever form1 are illustrious1 inspiriting1 and fruitful for that time and the future4 ,all epochs1 on the other hand1 in which unbelief1 in whatever form1 secures a miserable victory1 even though for a moment they may flaunt it proudly1 disappear for posterity1 because no man willingly troubles himself with knowledge of the unfruitful 7first ed4 pp4 #dbd-be74 ,goethe goes on to speak of the four latter books of ,moses as occupied with the theme of unbelief1 and of the first as occupied with belief4 ,thus his formula was based1 to begin with1 on purely fabulous history1 into the nature of which his poetic faculty gave him no true insight4 7,see his idyllic recast of the patriarchal history in ,th4 ,i1 ,b4 iv of the ,wahrheit und ,dichtung47 ,applied to real history1 his formula has no validity save on a definition which implies either an equivoque or an argument in a circle4 ,if it refer1 in the natural sense1 to epochs in which any given religion is widely rejected and assailed1 it is palpably false4 ,the ,renaissance and ,goethe's own century were ages of such unbelief2 and they remain much more deeply interesting than the ,ages of ,faith4 ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome is the work of a reputedly unbelieving pope4 ,if on the other hand his formula be meant to apply to belief in the sense of energy and enthusiasm1 it is still fallacious4 ,the crusades were manifestations of energy and enthusiasm2 but they were profoundly unfruitful1 and they are not deeply interesting4 ,the only sense in which ,goethe's formula could stand would be one in which it is recognized that all vigorous intellectual life stands for belief--that is to say1 that ,lucretius and ,voltaire1 ,paine and d',holbach1 stand for belief when confidently attacking beliefs4 ,the formula is thus true only in a strained and non-natural sense2 whereas it is sure to be read and to be believed1 by thoughtless admirers1 in its natural and false sense1 though the whole history of ,byzantium and modern ,islam is a history of stagnant and unfruitful belief1 and that of modern ,europe a history of fruitful doubt1 disbelief1 and denial1 involving new affirmations4 ,goethe's own mind on the subject was in a state of verbalizing confusion1 the result or expression of his temperamental aversion to clear analytical thought 7,above all1 he boasts1 ,i never thought about thinking7 and his habit of poetic allegory and apriorism4 ,logic was invincibly repugnant to him 7,lewes1 ,life of ,goethe1 #crd ed4 p4 #ch74 ,the mosaic of his thinking is sufficiently indicated in ,lewes's sympathetically confused account 7id4 pp4 #ebc-bg74 ,where he himself doubted and denied current creeds1 as in his work in natural science1 he was most fruitful #adbi 7though he was not always right--e4g41 his polemic against ,newton's theory of colour72 and the permanently interesting teaching of his ,faust is precisely that which artistically utters the doubt through which he passed to a pantheistic ,naturalism4 #bj4 ,no less certain is the unbelief of ,schiller 7#agei-ahje71 whom ,hagenbach even takes as the representative of the rationalism of his age4 ,in his juvenile ,robbers1 indeed1 he makes his worst villains freethinkers2 and in the preface he stoutly champions religion against all assailants2 but hardly ever after that piece does he give a favourable portrait of a priest4 #adcj ,he himself soon joined the ,aufklrung2 and all his sthetic appreciation of ,christianity never carried him beyond the position that it virtually had the tendency 7,anlage7 to the highest and noblest1 though that was in general tastelessly and repulsively represented by ,christians4 ,he added that in a certain sense it is the only sthetic religion1 whence it is that it gives such pleasure to the feminine nature1 and that only among women is it to be met with in a tolerable form4 #adca ,like ,goethe1 he sought to reduce the ,biblical supernatural to the plane of possibility1 #adcb in the manner of the liberal theologians of the period2 and like him he often writes as a deist1 #adcc though professedly for a time a ,kantist4 ,on the other hand1 he does not hesitate to say that a healthy nature 7which ,goethe had said needed no morality1 no ,natur-recht1 #adcd and no political metaphysic7 required neither deity nor immortality to sustain it4 #adce #ba4 ,the critical philosophy of ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 may be said to represent most comprehensively the outcome in ,german intelligence of the higher freethought of the age1 insofar as its results could be at all widely assimilated4 ,in its most truly critical part1 the analytic treatment of previous theistic systems in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason 7#agha71 he is fundamentally anti-theological2 the effect of the argument being to negate all previously current proofs of the existence and cognizableness of a supreme power or deity4 ,already the metaphysics of the ,leibnitz-,wolff school were discredited2 #adcf and so far ,kant could count on a fair hearing for a system which rejected that of the schools4 ,certainly he meant his book to be an antidote to the prevailing religious credulity4 ,henceforth there were to be no more dreams of ghost-seers1 metaphysicians1 and enthusiasts4 #adcg ,on his own part1 however1 no doubt in sympathy with the attitude of many of his readers1 there followed a species of intuitional reaction4 ,in his short essay ,what is ,freethinking8 #adch 7#aghd7 he defines ,aufklrung or freethinking as the advance of men from their self-imputed minority2 and minority as the inability to use one's own understanding without another's guidance4 ,sapere aude2 dare to use thine own understanding1 he declares to be the motto of freethought3 and he dwells on the laziness of spirit which keeps men in the state of minority1 letting others do their thinking for them as the doctor prescribes their medicine4 ,in this spirit he justifies the movement of rational criticism while insisting1 justly enough1 that men have still far to go ere they can reason soundly in all things4 ,if1 he observes1 we ask whether we live in an enlightened 7aufgeklrt7 age the answer is1 ,no1 but in an age of enlightening 7aufklrung74 ,there is still great lack of capacity among men in general to think for themselves1 free of leading-strings4 ,only slowly can a community 7,publikum7 attain to freethinking4 ,but he repeats that the age is the age of aufklrung1 the age of ,frederick the ,great3 and he pays a high tribute to the king who repudiated even the arrogant pretence of toleration1 and alone among monarchs said to his subjects1 ,reason as you will2 only obey6 ,but the element of apprehension gained ground in the aging freethinker4 ,in #aghg appeared the second edition of the ,critique1 with a preface avowing sympathy with religious as against freethinking tendencies2 and in the ,critique of ,practical ,reason 7#aghh7 he makes an almost avowedly unscientific attempt to restore the reign of theism on a basis of a mere emotional and ethical necessity assumed to exist in human nature--a necessity which he never even attempts to demonstrate4 ,with the magic wand of the ,practical ,reason1 as ,heine has it1 he reanimated the corpse of theism1 which the ,theoretic ,reason had slain4 #adci ,in this adjustment he was perhaps consciously copying ,rousseau1 who had greatly influenced him1 #addj and whose theism is an avowedly subjectivist predication4 ,but the same attitude to the problem had been substantially adopted by ,lessing2 #adda and indeed the process is at bottom identical with that of the quasi-skeptics1 ,pascal1 ,huet1 ,berkeley1 and the rest1 who at once impugn and employ the rational process1 reasoning that reason is not reasonable4 ,kant did but set up the practical against the pure reason1 as other theists before him had set up faith against science1 or the heart against the head1 and as theists to-day exalt the will against knowledge1 the emotional nature against the logical4 ,it is tolerably clear that ,kant's motive at this stage was an unphilosophic fear that ,naturalism would work moral harm #addb--;a fear shared by him with the mass of the average minds of his age4 ,the same motive and purpose are clearly at work in his treatise on ,religion within the bounds of ,pure i4e4 ,mere ,reason 7#agib-agid71 where1 while insisting on the purely ethical and rational character of true religion1 he painfully elaborates reasons for continuing to use the ,bible 7concerning which he contends that1 in view of its practically godly contents1 no one can deny the possibility of its being held as a revelation7 as the basis of ecclesiastical instruction no less than a means of swaying the populace4 #addc ,miracles1 he in effect avows1 are not true2 still1 there must be no carping criticism of the miracle stories1 which serve a good end4 ,there is to be no persecution2 but there is to be no such open disputation as would provoke it4 #addd ,again and again1 with a visible uneasiness1 the writer returns to the thesis that even revealed religion cannot do without sacred books which are partly untrue4 #adde ,the doctrine of the ,trinity he laboriously metamorphosed1 as so many had done before him1 and as ,coleridge and ,hegel did after him1 into a formula of three modes or aspects of the moral deity #addf which his ethical purpose required4 ,and all this divagation from the plain path of ,truth is justified in the interest of ,goodness4 ,all the while the book is from beginning to end profoundly divided against itself4 ,it indicates disbelief in every one of the standing ,christian dogmas--,creation1 ,fall1 ,salvation1 ,miracles1 and the supernatural basis of morals4 ,the first paragraph of the preface insists that morality is founded on the free reason1 and that it needs no religion to aid it4 ,again and again this note is sounded4 ,the pure religious faith is that alone which can serve as basis for a universal ,church2 because it is a pure reason-faith1 in which everyone can participate4 #addg ,but without the slightest attempt at justification there is thrown in the formula that no religion is thinkable without belief in a future life4 #addh ,thus heaven and hell #addi and ,bible and church are arbitrarily imposed on the pure religion for the comfort of unbelieving clergymen and the moralizing of life4 ,error is to cast out error1 and evil1 evil4 ,the process of ,kant's adjustment of his philosophy to social needs as he regarded them is to be understood by following the chronology and the vogue of his writings4 ,the first edition of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason excited little attention 7,stuckenberg1 ,life of ,kant1 p4 #cfh72 but in #aghg appeared the second and modified edition1 with a new preface1 clearly written with a propitiatory eye to the orthodox reaction4 ,all at once the work now became popular1 and the praise was as loud and as fulsome as at first the silence had been profound4 ,the literature of the day began to teem with ,kantian ideas1 with discussions of the new philosophy1 and with the praises of its author4444 ,high officials in ,berlin would lay aside the weighty affairs of ,state to consider the ,kritik1 and among them were found warm admirers of the work and its author4 ,id4 p4 #cfi4 ,cp4 ,heine1 ,rel4 und ,phil4 in ,deutschland1 ,b4 iii--,werke1 iii1 #ge1 #hb4 ,this popularity becomes intelligible in the light of the new edition and its preface4 ,to say nothing of the alterations in the text1 pronounced by ,schopenhauer to be cowardly accommodations 7as to which question see ,adamson1 as cited1 and ,stuckenberg1 p4 #dfa1 note #id71 ,kant writes in the preface that he had been obliged to destroy knowledge in order to make room for faith2 and1 again1 that only through criticism can the roots be cut of materialism1 fatalism1 atheism1 freethinking unbelief 7freigeisterischen ,unglauben71 fanaticism and superstition1 which may become universally injurious2 also of idealism and skepticism1 which are dangerous rather to the ,schools1 and can hardly reach the general public4 7,meiklejohn mistranslates3 which are universally injurious--,bohn ed4 p4 xxxvii47 ,this passage virtually puts the popular religion and all philosophies save ,kant's own on one level of moral dubiety4 ,it is1 however1 distinctly uncandid as regards the freethinking unbelief1 for ,kant himself was certainly an unbeliever in ,christian miracles and dogmas4 ,his readiness to make an appeal to prejudice appears again in the second edition of the ,critique when he asks3 ,whence does the freethinker derive his knowledge that there is1 for instance1 no ,supreme ,being8 7,kritik der reinen ,vernunft1 ,transc4 ,methodenlehre1 #a ,h4 #b ,absch4 ed4 ,kirchmann1 #ahgi1 p4 #ehg2 ,bohn tr4 p4 #deh47 ,he had just before professed to be dealing with denial of the existence of ,god--a proposition of no significance whatever unless ,god be defined4 ,he now without warning substitutes the still more undefined expression ,supreme ,being for ,god1 thus imputing a proposition probably never sustained with clear verbal purpose by any human being4 ,either1 then1 ,kant's own proposition was the entirely vacuous one that nobody can demonstrate the impossibility of an alleged undefined existence1 or he was virtually asserting that no one can disprove any alleged supernatural existence--spirit1 demon1 ,moloch1 ,krishna1 ,bel1 ,siva1 ,aphrodite1 or ,isis and ,osiris4 ,in the latter case he would be absolutely stultifying his own claim to cut the roots of superstition and fanaticism as well as of freethinking and materialism2 for1 if the freethinker cannot disprove ,jehovah1 neither can the ,kantist disprove ,allah and ,satan2 and ,kant had no basis for denying1 as he did with ,spinoza1 the existence of ghosts or spirits4 ,from this dilemma ,kant's argument cannot be delivered4 ,and as he finally introduces deity as a psychologically and morally necessary regulative idea1 howbeit indemonstrable1 he leaves every species of superstition exactly where it stood before--every superstition being practically held1 as against freethinking unbelief1 on just such a tenure4 ,if he could thus react against freethinking before #aghi1 he must needs carry the reaction further after the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution2 and his ,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft 7#agib-agid7 is a systematic effort to draw the teeth of the ,aufklrung1 modified only by his resentment of the tyranny of the political authority towards himself4 ,concerning the age-long opposition between rationalism 7,verstandesaufklrung7 and intuitionism or emotionalism 7,gefhlsphilosophie71 it is claimed by modern transcendentalists that ,kant1 or ,herder1 or another1 has effected a solution on a plane higher than either4 7,e4g4 ,kronenberg1 ,herder's ,philosophie1 #ahhi1 p4 #f47 ,the true solution certainly must account for both points of view--no very difficult matter2 but no solution is really attained by either of these writers4 ,kant alternately stood at the two positions2 and his unhistorical mind did not seek to unify them in a study of human evolution4 ,for popular purposes he let pass the assumption that a cosmic emotion is a clue to the nature of the cosmos1 as the water-finder's hazel-twig is said to point to the whereabouts of water4 ,herder1 recognisant of evolution1 would not follow out any rational analysis4 ,all the while1 however1 ,kant's theism was radically irreconcilable with the prevailing religion4 ,as appears from his cordial hostility to the belief in ghosts1 he really lacked the religious temperament4 ,he himself1 says a recent biographer1 was too suspicious of the emotions to desire to inspire any enthusiasm with reference to his own heart4 #adej ,this misstates the fact that his ,practical ,reason was but an abstraction of his own emotional predilection2 but it remains true that that predilection was nearly free from the commoner forms of pious psychosis2 and typical ,christians have never found him satisfactory4 ,from my heart1 writes one of his first biographers1 ,i wish that ,kant had not regarded the ,christian religion merely as a necessity for the ,state1 or as an institution to be tolerated for the sake of the weak 7which now so many1 following his example1 do even in the pulpit71 but had known that which is positive1 improving1 and blessed in ,christianity4 #adea ,he had in fact never kept up any theological study2 #adeb and his plan of compromise had thus1 like those of ,spencer and ,mill in a later day1 a fatal unreality for all men who have discarded theology with a full knowledge of its structure1 though it appeals very conveniently to those disposed to retain it as a means of popular influence4 ,all his adaptations1 therefore1 failed to conciliate the mass of the orthodox2 and even after the issue of the second ,critique 7,kritik der praktischen ,vernunft7 he had been the subject of discussion among the reactionists4 #adec ,but that ,critique1 and the preface to the second edition of the first1 were at bottom only pleas for a revised ethic1 ,kant's concern with current religion being solely ethical2 #aded and the force of that concern led him at length1 in what was schemed as a series of magazine articles1 #adee to expound his notion of religion in relation to morals4 ,when he did so he aroused a resentment much more energetic than that felt by the older academics against his philosophy4 ,the title of his complete treatise1 ,religion within the ,boundaries of ,mere ,reason1 is obviously framed to parry criticism2 yet so drastic is its treatment of its problems that the ,college of ,censors at ,berlin under the new theological rgime vetoed the second part4 ,by the terms of the law as to the censorship1 the publisher was entitled to know the reason for the decision2 but on his asking for it he was informed that another instruction was on hand1 which the censor followed as his law1 but whose contents he refused to make known4 #adef ,greatly incensed1 ,kant submitted the rejected article with the rest of his book to the theological faculty of his own university of ,knigsberg1 asking them to decide in which faculty the censorship was properly vested4 ,they referred the decision to the philosophical faculty1 which duly proceeded to license the book 7#agic74 ,as completed1 it contained passages markedly hostile to the ,church4 ,his opponents in turn were now so enraged that they procured a royal cabinet order 7,october1 #agid7 charging him with distorting and degrading many of the chief and fundamental doctrines of the ,holy ,scriptures and of ,christianity1 and ordering all the instructors at the university not to lecture on the book4 #adeg ,such was the reward for a capitulation of philosophy to the philosophic ideals of the police4 ,kant1 called upon to render an account of his conduct to the ,government1 formally defended it1 but in conclusion decorously said3 ,i think it safest1 in order to obviate the least suspicion in this respect1 as your ,royal ,majesty's most faithful subject1 to declare solemnly that henceforth ,i will refrain altogether from all public discussion of religion1 whether natural or revealed1 both in lectures and in writings4 ,after the death of ,frederick ,william ,,ii 7#agig7 and the accession of ,frederick ,william ,,iii1 who suspended the edict of #aghh1 ,kant held himself free to speak out again1 and published 7#agih7 an essay on ,the ,strife of the ,university ,faculties1 wherein he argued that philosophers should be free to discuss all questions of religion so long as they did not handle ,biblical theology as such4 ,the belated protest1 however1 led to nothing4 ,by this time the philosopher was incapable of further efficient work2 and when he died in #ahjd the chief manuscript he left1 planned as a synthesis of his philosophic teaching1 was found to be hopelessly confused4 #adeh ,the attitude1 then1 in which ,kant stood to the reigning religion in his latter years remained fundamentally hostile1 from the point of view of believing ,christians as distinguished from that of ecclesiastical opportunists4 ,what were for temporizers arguments in defence of didactic deceit1 were for sincerer spirits fresh grounds for recoiling from the whole ecclesiastical field4 ,kant must have made more rebels than compliers by his very doctrine of compliance4 ,religion was for him essentially ethic2 and there is no reconciling the process of propitiation of deity1 in the ,christian or any other cult1 with his express declaration that all attempts to win ,god's favour save by simple right-living are sheer fetichism4 #adei ,he thus ends practically at the point of view of the deists1 whose influence on him in early life is seen in his work on cosmogony4 #adfj ,he had1 moreover1 long ceased to go to church or follow any religious usage1 even refusing to attend the services on the installation of a new university rector1 save when he himself held the office4 ,at the close of his treatise on religion1 after all his anxious accommodations1 he becomes almost violent in his repudiations of sacerdotalism and sectarian self-esteem4 ,he did not like the singing in the churches1 and pronounced it mere bawling4 ,in prayer1 whether public or private1 he had not the least faith2 and in his conversation as well as his writings he treated it as a superstition1 holding that to address anything unseen would open the way for fanaticism4 ,not only did he argue against prayer2 he also ridiculed it1 and declared that a man would be ashamed to be caught by another in the attitude of prayer4 ,one of his maxims was that ,to kneel or prostrate himself on the earth1 even for the purpose of symbolizing to himself reverence for a heavenly object1 is unworthy of man4 #adfa ,so too he held that the doctrine of the ,trinity had no practical value1 and he had a low opinion of the ,old ,testament4 ,yet his effort at compromise had carried him to positions which are the negation of some of his own most emphatic ethical teachings4 ,like ,plato1 he is finally occupied in discussing the right fictions for didactic purposes4 ,swerving from thoroughgoing freethought for fear of moral harm1 he ends by sacrificing intellectual morality to what seems to him social security4 ,his doctrine1 borrowed from ,lessing1 of a conceivable revelation which told man only what he could find out for himself1 is a mere flout to reason4 ,while he carries his categorical imperative1 or priori conception of duty1 so extravagantly far as to argue that it is wrong even to tell a falsehood to a would-be murderer in order to mislead him1 he approves of the systematic employment of the pulpit function by men who do not believe in the creed they there expound4 ,the priest1 with ,kant's encouragement1 is to draw all the practical lessons for his congregation from dogmas which he himself cannot subscribe with a full conviction of their truth1 but which he can teach1 since it is not altogether impossible that truth may be concealed therein1 while he remains free as a scholar to write in a contrary sense in his own name4 ,and this doctrine1 set forth in the censured work of #agic1 is repeated in the moralist's last treatise 7#agih71 wherein he explains that the preacher1 when speaking doctrinally1 can put into the passage under consideration his own rational views1 whether found there or not4 ,kant thus ended by reviving for the convenience of churchmen1 in a worse form1 the medieval principle of a twofold truth4 ,so little efficacy is there in a transcendental ethic for any of the actual emergencies of life4 ,on this question compare ,kant's ,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 ,stck iii1 ,abth4 i1 #f2 ,stck iv1 ,th4 ii1 preamble and i1 #c1 and #d2 with the essay ,ueber ein vermeintes ,recht aus ,menschenliebe zu lgen 7#agig71 in reply to ,constant--rep4 in ,kant's ,vorzgliche kleine ,schriften1 #ahcc1 ,bd4 ii1 and in ,app4 to ,rosenkranz's ed4 of ,werke1 vii1 #bie--;given by ,t4 ,k4 ,abbott in his tr4 of the ,critique of ,judgment4 ,see also ,stuckenberg1 pp4 #cda-de1 and the general comment of ,baur1 ,kirchengeschichte des #aiten ,jahrhunderts1 #ahfb1 p4 #fe4 ,kant's recognition of ,scripture is purely a matter of expedience4 ,the ,state needs the ,bible to control the people2 the masses need it in order that they1 having weak consciences1 may recognize their duty2 and the philosopher finds it a convenient vehicle for conveying to the people the faith of reason4 ,were it rejected it might be difficult1 if not impossible1 to put in its place another book which would inspire as much confidence4 ,all the while ,kant's principles of course led him to deny that the ,bible is authoritative in matters of religion1 or that it is of itself a safe guide in morals4444 ,its value consists in the fact that1 owing to the confidence of the people in it1 reason can use it to interpret into ,scripture its own doctrines1 and can thus make it the means of popularizing rational faith4 ,if anyone imagines that the aim of the interpretation is to obtain the real meaning of ,scripture1 he is no ,kantian on this point 7,stuckenberg1 p4 #cda74 #bb4 ,the total performance of ,kant thus left ,germany with a powerful lead on the one hand towards that unbelief in religion which in the last reign had been fashionable1 and on the other hand a series of prescriptions for compromise2 the monarchy all the while throwing its weight against all innovation in doctrine and practice4 ,in #agii ,fichte is found expressing the utmost alarm at the combination of the ,european despotisms to rout out freethought2 #adfb and so strong did the official reaction become that in the opinion of ,heine all the ,german philosophers and their ideas would have been suppressed by wheel and gallows but for ,napoleon1 #adfc who intervened in the year #ahje4 ,the ,prussian despotism being thus weakened1 what actually happened was an adaptation of ,kant's teaching to the needs alike of religion and of rationalism4 ,the religious world was assured by it that1 though all previous arguments for theism were philosophically worthless1 theism was now safe on the fluid basis of feeling4 ,on the other hand1 rationalism alike in ethics and in historical criticism was visibly reinforced on all sides4 ,herder1 as before noted1 found divinity students grounding their unbelief on ,kant's teaching4 ,stadlin begins the preface to his ,history and ,spirit of ,skepticism 7#agid7 with the remark that ,skepticism begins to be a disease of the age2 and ,kant is the last in his list of skeptics4 ,at the close of the century the number of ,kantian theologians was legion1 and it was through the ,kantian influence that the various anti-orthodox tendencies which flourished during the period of ,illumination were concentrated in ,rationalism #adfd--;in the tendency1 that is1 to bring rational criticism to bear alike on history1 dogma1 and philosophy4 ,borowski in #ahjd complains that beardless youths and idle babblers devoid of knowledge appeal to ,kant's views respecting ,christianity4 #adfe ,these views1 as we have seen1 were partly accommodating1 partly subversive in the extreme4 ,kant regards ,jesus as an edifying ideal of perfect manhood1 belief in whom as such makes a man acceptable to ,god1 because of following a good model4 ,while he thus treats the historical account of ,jesus as of no significance1 except as a shell into which the practical reason puts the kernel1 his whole argument tends to destroy faith in the historic person of ,jesus as given in the gospel1 treating the account itself as something whose truthfulness it is not worth while to investigate4 #adff ,in point of fact we find his devoted disciple ,erhard declaring3 ,i regard ,christian morality as something which has been falsely imputed to ,christianity2 and the existence of ,christ does not at all seem to me to be a probable historical fact--this while declaring that ,kant had given him the indescribable comfort of being able to call himself openly1 and with a good conscience1 a ,christian4 #adfg ,while therefore a multitude of preachers availed themselves of ,kant's philosophic licence to rationalize in the pulpit and out of it as occasion offered1 and yet others opposed them only on the score that all divergence from orthodoxy should be avowed1 the dissolution of orthodoxy in ,germany was rapid and general2 and the anti-supernaturalist handling of ,scripture1 prepared for as we have seen1 went on continuously4 ,even the positive disparagement of ,christianity was carried on by ,kantian students2 and ,hamann1 dubbed the ,magician of the ,north for his alluring exposition of emotional theism1 caused one of them1 a tutor1 to be brought before a clerical consistory for having taught his pupil to throw all specifically ,christian doctrines aside4 ,the tutor admitted the charge1 and with four others signed a declaration that neither morality nor sound reason nor public welfare could exist in connection with ,christianity4 #adfh ,hamann's own influence was too much a matter of literary talent and caprice to be durable2 and recent attempts to re-establish his reputation have evoked the deliberate judgment that he has no permanent importance4 #adfi ,against the intellectual influence thus set up by ,kant there was none in contemporary ,germany capable of resistance4 ,philosophy for the most part went in ,kant's direction1 having indeed been so tending before his day4 ,rationalism of a kind had already had a representative in ,chr4 ,a4 ,crusius 7#agab-agge71 who in treatises on logic and metaphysics opposed alike ,leibnitz and ,wolff1 and taught for his own part a kind of ,epicureanism1 nominally ,christianized4 ,to his school belonged ,platner 7much admired by ,jean ,paul ,richter1 his pupil7 and ,tetens1 the ,german ,locke1 who attempted a common-sense answer to ,hume4 ,his ideal was a philosophy at once intelligible and religious1 agreeable to ,god and accessible to the people4 #adgj ,platner on the other hand1 leaning strongly towards a psychological and anthropological view of human problems1 #adga opposed first to atheism #adgb and later to ,kantian theism #adgc a moderate ,pyrrhonic skepticism2 here following a remarkable lead from the younger ,beausobre1 who in #agee had published in ,french1 at ,berlin1 a treatise entitled ,le ,pyrrhonisme ,raisonnable1 taking up the position1 among others1 that while it is hard to prove the existence of ,god by reason it is impossible to disprove it4 ,this was virtually the position of ,kant a generation later2 and it is clear that thus early the dogmatic position was discredited4 #bc4 ,some philosophic opposition there was to ,kant1 alike on intuitionist grounds1 as in the cases of ,hamann and ,herder1 and on grounds of academic prejudice1 as in the case of ,kraus2 but the more important thinkers who followed him were all as heterodox as he4 ,in particular1 ,johann ,gottlieb ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad71 who began in authorship by being a ,kantian zealot1 gave even greater scandal than the ,master had done4 ,fichte's whole career is a kind of abstract and brief chronicle of the movements of thought in ,germany during his life4 ,in his boyhood1 at the public school of ,pforta1 we find him and his comrades already influenced by the new currents4 ,books imbued with all the spirit of free inquiry were secretly obtained1 and1 in spite of the strictest prohibitions1 great part of the night was spent in their perusal4 ,the works of ,wieland1 ,lessing1 and ,goethe were positively forbidden2 yet they found their way within the walls1 and were eagerly studied4 #adgd ,in particular1 ,fichte followed closely the controversy of ,lessing with ,goeze2 and ,lessing's lead gave him at once the spirit of freethought1 as distinct from any specific opinion4 ,never a consistent thinker1 ,fichte in his student and tutorial days is found professing at once determinism and a belief in ,providence1 accepting ,spinoza and contemplating a village pastorate4 #adge ,but while ready to frame a plea for ,christianity on the score of its psychic adaptation to the sinner1 he swerved from the pastorate when it came within sight1 declaring that no purely ,christian community now exists4 #adgf ,about the age of twenty-eight he became an enthusiastic convert to the ,kantian philosophy1 especially to the ,critique of ,practical ,reason1 and threw over determinism on what appear to be grounds of empirical utilitarianism1 failing to face the philosophical issue4 ,within a year of his visit to ,kant1 however1 he was writing to a friend that ,kant has only indicated the truth1 but neither unfolded nor proved it1 and that he himself has discovered a new principle1 from which all philosophy can easily be deduced4444 ,in a couple of years we shall have a philosophy with all the clearness of geometrical demonstration4 #adgg ,he had in fact passed1 perhaps under ,spinoza's influence1 to pantheism1 from which standpoint he rejected ,kant's anti-rational ground for affirming a ,god not immanent in things1 and claimed1 as did his contemporaries ,schelling and ,hegel1 to establish theism on rational grounds4 ,rejecting1 further1 ,kant's reiterated doctrine that religion is ethic1 ,fichte ultimately insisted that1 on the contrary1 religion is knowledge1 and that it is only a corrupt society that has to use religion as an impulse to moral action4 ,but alike in his ,kantian youth and later he was definitely anti-revelationist1 however much he conformed to clerical prejudice by attacks upon the movement of freethought4 ,in his wander-years he writes with vehemence of the worse than ,spanish inquisition under which the ,german clergy are compelled to cringe and dissemble1 partly because of lack of ability1 partly through economic need4 #adgh ,in his ,versuch einer ,kritik aller ,offenbarung 7,essay towards a ,critique of all ,revelation71 published with some difficulty1 ,kant helping 7#agib71 he in effect negates the orthodox assumption1 and1 in the spirit of ,kant and ,lessing1 but with more directness than they had shown1 concludes that belief in revelation is an element1 and an important element1 in the moral education of humanity1 but it is not a final stage for human thought4 #adgi ,in ,kant's bi-frontal fashion1 he had professed #adhj to silence the opponents of positive religion not less than its dogmatical defenders2 but that result did not follow on either side1 and ere long1 as a professor at ,jena1 he was being represented as one of the most aggressive of the opponents4 ,soon after producing his ,critique of all ,revelation he had published anonymously two pamphlets vindicating the spirit as distinguished from the conduct of the ,french ,revolution2 and upon a young writer known to harbour such ideas enmity was bound to fall4 ,soon it took the form of charges of atheism4 ,it does not appear to be true that he ever told his students at ,jena3 ,in five years there will be no more ,christian religion3 reason is our religion2 #adha and it would seem that the first charges of atheism brought against him were purely malicious4 #adhb ,but his career henceforth was one of strife and friction1 first with the student-blackguardism which had been rife in the ,german universities ever since the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and which he partly subdued2 then with the academic authorities and the traditionalists1 who1 when he began lecturing on ,sunday mornings1 accused him of attempting to throw over ,christianity and set up the worship of reason4 ,he was arraigned before the ,high ,consistory of ,weimar and acquitted2 but his wife was insulted in the streets of ,jena2 his house was riotously attacked in the night2 and he ceased to reside there4 ,then1 in his ,wissenschaftslehre 7,doctrine of ,knowledge1 #agid-ie7 he came into conflict with the ,kantians1 with whom his rupture steadily deepened on ethical grounds4 ,again he was accused of atheism in print2 and after a defence in which he retorted the charge on the utilitarian theists he resigned4 ,in ,berlin1 where the new king held the old view that the wrongs of the ,gods were the ,gods' affair1 he found harbourage2 and sought to put himself right with the religious world by his book ,die ,bestimmung des ,menschen 7,the ,vocation of ,man1 #ahjj71 wherein he speaks of the ,eternal ,infinite ,will as regulating human reason so far as human reason is right--the old counter-sense and the old evasion4 ,by this book he repelled his rationalistic friends ,schelling and the ,schlegels2 while his religious ally ,schleiermacher1 who chose another tactic1 wrote on it a bitter and contemptuous review1 and could hardly find words strong enough to express his detestation of it4 #adhc ,a few years later ,fichte was writing no less contemptuously of ,schelling2 and in his remaining years1 though the ,napoleonic wars partly brought him into sympathy with his countrymen1 from whom he had turned away in angry alienation1 he remained a philosophic ,ishmael1 warring and warred upon all round4 ,he was thus left to figure for posterity as a religionist for his own hand1 who rejected all current religion while angrily dismissing current unbelief as freethinking chatter4 #adhd ,if his philosophy be estimated by its logical content as distinguished from its conflicting verbalisms1 it is fundamentally as atheistic as that of ,spinoza4 #adhe ,that he was conscious of a vital sunderance between his thought and that of the past is made clear by his answer1 in #ahje1 to the complaint that the people had lost their religious feeling 7,religiositt74 ,his retort is that a new religious feeling has taken the place of the old2 #adhf and that was the position taken up by the generation which swore by him1 in the ,german manner1 as the last had sworn by ,kant4 ,but the successive philosophies of ,kant1 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel1 all rising out of the ,illumination of the eighteenth century1 have been alike impermanent4 ,nothing is more remarkable in the history of thought than the internecine strife of the systems which insisted on putting something in the place of the untenable systems of the past4 ,they have been but so many toppling spires of cloud4 ,fichte1 like ,herder1 broke away from the doctrine of ,kant2 and later became bitterly opposed to that of his former friend ,schelling1 as did ,hegel in his turn4 ,schleiermacher1 hostile to ,kant1 was still more hostile to ,fichte2 and ,hegel1 detesting ,schleiermacher #adhg and developing ,fichte1 give rise to schools arrayed against each other1 of which the anti-,christian was by far the stronger4 ,all that is permanent in the product of the age of ,german ,rationalism is the fundamental principle upon which it proceeded1 the confutation of the dogmas and legends of the past1 and the concrete results of the historical1 critical1 and physical research to which the principle and the confutation led4 #bd4 ,it is true that the progressive work was not all done by the ,rationalists so-called4 ,as always1 incoherences in the pioneers led to retorts which made for rectification4 ,one of the errors of bias of the early naturalists1 as we have noted1 was their tendency to take every religious document as genuine and at bottom trustworthy1 provided only that its allegations of miracles were explained away as misinterpretations of natural phenomena4 ,so satisfied were many of them with this inexpensive method that they positively resisted the attempts of supernaturalists1 seeking a way out of their special dilemma1 to rectify the false ascriptions of the documents4 ,bent solely on one solution1 they were oddly blind to evidential considerations which pointed to interpolation1 forgery1 variety of source1 and error of literary tradition2 while scholars bent on saving inspiration were often ready in some measure for such recognitions4 ,these arrests of insight took place alternately on both sides1 in the normal way of intellectual progress by alternate movements4 ,all the while1 it is the same primary force of reason that sets up the alternate pressures1 and the secondary pressures are generated by1 and are impossible without1 the first4 #be4 ,the emancipation1 too1 was limited in area in the ,german-speaking world4 ,in ,austria1 despite a certain amount of ,french culture1 the rule of the ,jesuits in the eighteenth century was too effective to permit of any intellectual developments4 ,maria ,theresa1 who knew too well that the boundless sexual licence against which she fought had nothing to do with innovating ideas1 had to issue a special order to permit the importation of ,montesquieu's ,esprit des ,lois2 and works of more subversive doctrine could not openly pass the frontiers at all4 ,an attempt to bring ,lessing to ,vienna in #aggd1 with a view to founding a new literary ,academy1 collapsed before the opposition2 and when ,prof4 ,jahn1 of the ,vienna ,university--described as freethinking1 latitudinarian1 anti-supernaturalistic--developed somewhat anti-clerical tendencies in his teaching and writing1 he was forced to resign1 and died a simple ,canon4 #adhh ,the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii in his day passed for an unbeliever2 #adhi but there was no general movement4 ,austria1 in a time of universal effervescence1 produced only musicians1 and showed zest only for pleasure4 #adij ,yet among the music-makers was the ,german-born ,beethoven1 the greatest master of his age4 ,kindred in spirit to ,goethe1 and much more of a revolutionist than he in all things1 ,beethoven spent the creative part of his life at ,vienna without ceasing to be a freethinker4 #adia ,formal religion he apparently had none4 ,he copied out a kind of theistic creed consisting of three ancient formulas3 ,i am that which is3 ,i am all that is1 that was1 that shall be3 ,he is alone by ,himself2 and to ,him alone do all things owe their being4 ,beyond this his beliefs did not go4 ,when his friend ,moscheles at the end of his arrangement of ,fidelio wrote3 ,fine1 with ,god's help1 ,beethoven added1 ,o man1 help thyself4 #adib ,his reception of the ,catholic sacraments in extremis was not his act4 ,he had left to mankind a purer and a more lasting gift than either the creeds or the philosophies of his age4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,remaining ,,european ,,states #a4 ,holland ,holland1 so notable for relative hospitality to freethinking in the seventeenth century1 continued to exhibit it in the eighteenth1 though without putting forth much native response4 ,after her desperate wars with ,louis ,,xiv1 the ,dutch ,state1 now monarchically ruled1 turned on the intellectual side rather to imitative belles lettres than to the problems which had begun to exercise so much of ,english thought4 ,it was an age of retrogression and weakness4 #adic ,elizabeth ,wolff1 ne ,bekker1 one of the most famous of the numerous ,dutch women-writers of the century 7#agch-ahjd71 is notable for her religious as well as for her political liberalism2 #adid but her main activity was in novel-writing2 and there are few other signs of freethinking tendencies in popular ,dutch culture4 ,it was impossible1 however1 that the influences at work in the neighbouring lands should be shut out2 and if ,holland did not produce innovating books she printed many throughout the century4 ,in #agjh there was published at ,amsterdam a work under the pseudonym of ,juan di ,posos1 wherein1 by way of a relation of imaginary travels1 something like atheism was said to be taught2 but the pastor ,leenhof had in #agjc been accused of atheism for his treatise1 ,heaven on ,earth1 which was at most ,spinozistic4 #adie ,even as late as #agad a ,spinozist shoemaker1 ,booms1 was banished for his writings2 but henceforth liberal influences1 largely traceable to the works of ,bayle1 begin to predominate4 ,welcomed by students everywhere1 ,bayle must have made powerfully for tolerance and rationalism in his adopted country1 which after his time became a centre of culture for the ,states of northern ,europe rather than a source of original works4 ,holland in the eighteenth century was receptive alike of ,french and ,english thought and literature1 especially the former2 #adif and1 besides reprinting many of the ,french deists' works and translating some of the ,english1 the ,dutch cities harboured such heretics as the ,italian ,alberto ,radicati1 ,count ,passerano1 who1 dying at ,rotterdam in #agcf1 left a collection of deistic treatises of a strongly freethinking cast to be posthumously published4 ,the ,german traveller ,alberti1 #adig citing the ,london ,magazine1 #agcb1 states that ,passerano visited ,england and published works in ,english through a translator1 ,joseph ,morgan1 and that both were sentenced to imprisonment4 ,this presumably refers to his anonymous ,philosophical ,dissertation upon ,death1 by a friend to truth1 published in ,english in #agcb4 #adih ,it is a remarkable treatise1 being a hardy justification of suicide1 composed for the consolation of the unhappy1 from a practically atheistic standpoint4 ,two years earlier he had published in ,english1 also anonymously1 a tract entitled ,christianity set in a ,true ,light1 by a ,pagan ,philosopher newly converted2 and it may be that the startling nature of the second pamphlet elicited a prosecution which included both4 ,the pamphlet of #agcj1 however1 is a eulogy of the ethic of ,jesus1 who is deistically treated as a simple man1 but with all the amenity which the deists usually brought to bear on that theme4 ,passerano's ,recueil des pices curieuses sur les matires les plus interessants1 published with his name at ,rotterdam in #agcf1 #adii includes a translation of ,swift's ironical ,project concerning babies1 and an ,histoire abrege de la profession sacerdotale1 which was published in a separate ,english translation4 #aejj ,passerano is noticeable chiefly for the relative thoroughness of his rationalism4 #aeja ,in the ,recueil he speaks of deists and atheists as being the same1 those called atheists having always admitted a first cause under the names ,god1 ,nature1 ,eternal ,germs1 movement1 or universal soul4 #aejb ,in #agcg was published in ,french a small mystification consisting of a ,sermon prch dans la grande ,assemble des ,quakers de ,londres1 par le fameux ,frre ,e4 ,e41 and another little tract1 ,la ,religion ,muhamedane compare la paenne de l',indostan1 par ,ali-,ebn-,omar4 ,e4 ,e4 stood for ,edward ,elwall1 a well-known ,unitarian of the time1 who1 as we saw1 was tried at ,stafford ,assizes in #agbf for publishing a ,unitarian treatise1 and who in #agdb published another1 entitled ,the ,supernatural ,incarnation of ,jesus ,christ proved to be false 444 and that our ,lord ,jesus ,christ was the real son of ,joseph and ,mary4 ,the two tracts are both by ,passerano1 and are on deistic lines1 the text of the ,sermon being 7in ,english7 ,the ,religion of the ,gospel is the true ,original ,religion of ,reason and ,nature4 ,the proposition is of course purely ethical in its bearing4 ,the currency given in ,holland to such literature tells of growing liberality of thought as well as of political freedom4 ,but the conditions were not favourable to such general literary activity as prevailed in the larger ,states1 though good work was done in medicine and the natural sciences4 ,not till the nineteenth century did ,dutch scholars again give a lead to ,europe in religious thought4 #b4 ,the ,scandinavian ,states #a4 ,traces of new rationalistic life are to be seen in the ,scandinavian countries at least as early as the times of ,descartes4 ,there1 as elsewhere1 the ,reformation had been substantially a fiscal or economic revolution1 proceeding on various lines4 ,in ,denmark the movement1 favoured by the king1 began among the people2 the nobility rapidly following1 to their own great profit2 and finally ,christian ,,iii1 who ruled both ,denmark and ,norway1 acting with the nobles1 suppressed ,catholic worship1 and confiscated to the crown the castles1 fortresses1 and vast domains of the prelates4 #aejc ,in ,sweden the king1 ,gustavus ,vasa1 took the initiative1 moved by sore need of funds1 and a thoroughly anti-ecclesiastical temper1 #aejd the clergy having supported the ,danish rule which he threw off4 ,the burghers and peasants promptly joined him against the clergy and nobles1 enabling him to confiscate the bishops' castles and estates1 as was done in ,denmark2 and he finally secured himself with the nobles by letting them reclaim lands granted by their ancestors to monasteries4 #aeje ,his anti-feudal reforms having stimulated new life in many ways1 further evolution followed4 ,in ,sweden the stimulative reign of ,gustavus ,vasa was followed by a long period of the strife which everywhere trod on the heels of the ,reformation4 ,the second successor of ,gustavus1 his son ,john1 had married a daughter of the ,catholic ,sigismund of ,poland1 and sought to restore her religion to power1 causing much turmoil until her death1 whereafter he abandoned the cause4 ,his ,catholic son ,sigismund recklessly renewed the effort1 and was deposed in consequence2 ,john's brother ,charles becoming king4 ,in ,denmark1 meanwhile1 ,frederick ,,ii 7d4 #aehh7 had been a bigoted champion of ,lutheranism1 expelling a professor of ,calvinistic leanings on the ,eucharist1 and refusing a landing to the ,calvinists who fled from the ,netherlands4 ,on the other hand he patronized and pensioned ,tycho ,brah1 who1 until driven into banishment by a court cabal during the minority of ,christian ,,iv1 did much for astronomy1 though unable to accept ,copernicanism4 ,in #afaa there broke out between ,sweden and ,denmark the sanguinary two-years' ,war of ,calmar1 their common religion availing nothing to avert strife4 ,thereafter ,gustavus ,adolphus of ,sweden1 as ,protestant champion in the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 in succession to ,christian ,,iv of ,denmark1 fills the eye of ,europe till his death in #afcb2 eleven years after which event ,sweden and ,denmark were again at war4 ,in #affj the latter country1 for lack of goodwill between nobles and commoners1 underwent a political revolution whereby its king1 whose predecessors had held the crown on an elective tenure1 became absolute1 and set up a hereditary line4 ,the first result was a marked intellectual stagnation4 ,divinity1 law1 and philosophy were wholly neglected2 surgery was practised only by barbers2 and when ,frederick ,,iv and his queen required medical aid1 no native physician could be found to whom it was deemed safe to entrust the cure of the royal patients4444 ,the only name1 after ,tycho ,brah1 of which astronomy can boast1 is that of ,peter ,horrebow1 and with him the cultivation of the science became extinct4 #aejf #b4 ,for long1 the only personality making powerfully for culture was ,holberg1 #aejg certainly a host in himself4 ,of all the writers of his age1 the only one who can be compared with him in versatility of power is ,voltaire1 whom he emulated as satirist1 dramatist1 and historian2 but all his dramatic genius could not avail to sustain against the puritanical pietism which then flourished1 the ,danish drama of which he was the fecund creator4 ,after producing a brilliant series of plays 7#agbb-agbg7 he had to witness the closing of the ,copenhagen ,theatre1 and take to general writing1 historical and didactic4 ,in #agda he produced in ,latin his famous ,subterranean ,journey of ,nicolas ,klimius1 #aejh one of the most widely famous performances of its age4 #aeji ,he knew ,english1 and must have been influenced by ,swift's ,gulliver's ,travels1 which his story frequently recalls4 ,the hero catastrophically reaches a subterranean planet1 with another social system1 and peopled by moving trees and civilized and socialized animals4 ,with the tree-people1 the ,potuans1 the tale deals at some length1 giving a chapter on their religion1 #aeaj after the manner of ,tyssot de ,patot in ,jacques ,mass4 ,they are simple deists1 knowing nothing of ,christianity2 and the author makes them the mouthpieces of criticisms upon ,christian prayers1 ,te ,deums1 and hymn-singing in general4 ,they believe in future recompenses1 but not in providential government of this life2 and at various points they improve upon the current ethic of ,christendom4 #aeaa ,there is a trace of the tone of ,frederick alike in the eulogy of tolerance and in the intimation that anyone who disputes about the character of the deity and the properties of spirits or souls is condemned to phlebotomy and to be detained in the general hospital 7nosocomium74 #aeab ,it was probably by way of precaution that in the closing paragraph of the chapter the ,potuans are alleged to maintain that1 though their creed seemed mere natural religion1 it was all revealed in a book which was sent from the sky some centuries ago2 but the precaution is slight1 as they are declared to have practically no dogmas at all4 ,it is thus easy to read between the lines of the declaration of ,potuan orthodoxy3 ,formerly our ancestors contented themselves to live in natural religion alone2 but experience has shown that the mere light of nature does not suffice1 and that its precepts are effaced in time by the sloth and negligence of some and the philosophic subtleties of others1 so that nothing can arrest freethinking 7libertatem cogitandi7 or keep it within just bounds4 ,thence came depravation2 and therefore it was that ,god had chosen to give them a written law4 #aeac ,such a confutation of the error of those who pretend that a revelation is unnecessary must have given more entertainment to those in question than satisfaction to the defenders of the faith4 ,but a general tone of levity and satire1 maintained at the expense of various ,european nations1 ,england included1 #aead together with his popularity as a dramatist1 saved ,holberg from the imputation of heresy4 ,his satire reached and was realized by the cultured few alone3 the multitude was quite unaffected2 and during the reign of ,christian ,,vi all intellectual efforts beyond the reign of science were subjected to rigorous control4 #aeae ,as a culture force1 ,protestantism had failed in the north lands as completely as ,catholicism in the south4 #c4 ,in ,sweden1 meantime1 there had occurred some reflex of the intellectual renascence4 ,towards the middle of the seventeenth century there are increasing traces of rationalism at the court of the famous ,christina1 who already in her youth is found much interested in the objections of ,jews1 heathens1 and philosophers against ,christian doctrine2 #aeaf and her invitation of ,descartes to her court 7#afdi7 implies that ,sweden had been not a little affected by the revulsion of popular thought which followed on the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany4 ,christina herself1 however1 was a remarkable personality1 unfeminine1 strong-willed1 with a vigorous but immature intelligence2 and she did much of her early skeptical thinking for herself4 ,in the course of a few years1 the new spirit had gone so far as to make church-going matter for open scoffing at the ,swedish court2 #aeag and the ,queen's adoption of ,romanism1 for which she prepared by abdicating the crown1 appears to have been by way of revulsion from a state of mind approaching atheism1 to which she had been led by her freethinking ,french physician1 ,bourdelot1 after ,descartes's death4 #aeah ,it has been confidently asserted that she really cared for neither creed1 and embraced ,catholicism only by way of conformity for social purposes1 retaining her freethinking views4 #aeai ,it is certain that she was always unhappy in her ,swedish surroundings4 ,but her course may more reasonably be explained as that of a mind which could not rest in deism or face atheism1 and sought in ,catholicism the sense of anchorage which is craved by temperaments ill-framed for the discipline of reason4 ,the author of the ,histoire des intrigues galantes de la reine ,christine de ,sude 7#afig71 who seems to have been one of her suite1 insists that while she loved bigots no more than atheists1 #aebj and although her religion had been shaken in her youth by ,bourdelot and other freethinkers1 she was regular in all ,catholic observances2 and that once1 looking at the portrait of her father1 she said he had failed to provide for the safety of his soul1 and thanked ,god for having guided her aright4 #aeba ,her annotations of ,descartes are of little importance2 but it is noteworthy that she accorded to his orthodox adherents a declaration that he had greatly contributed to her glorious conversion to the ,catholic faith4 #aebb ,whatever favour she may have shown to liberty of thought in her youth1 no important literary results could follow in the then state of ,swedish culture1 when the studies at even the new colleges were mainly confined to ,latin and theology4 #aebc ,the ,german ,pufendorf1 indeed1 by his treatises ,on the ,law of ,nature and ,nations and ,on the ,duty of ,man and ,citizen 7published at ,lund1 where he was professor1 in #afgb-gc71 did much to establish the utilitarian and naturalistic tendency in ethics which was at work at the same time in ,england2 but his latent deism had no great influence even in ,germany1 his ,scripture-citing orthodoxy countervailing it1 although he argued for a separation of ,church and ,state4 #aebd #d4 ,that there was1 however1 in eighteenth-century ,sweden a considerable amount of unpublished rationalism may be gathered from the writings of ,emanuel ,swedenborg1 himself something of a freethinker in his very supernaturalism4 ,his frequent subacid allusions to those who regarded ,nature instead of the divine1 and thought from science1 #aebe tell not merely of much passive opposition to his own prophetic claims 7which he avenged by much serene malediction and the allotment of bad quarters in the next world71 but of reasoned rejection of all ,scriptural claims4 ,thus in his ,sapientia ,angelica de ,divina ,providentia #aebf 7#agfd7 he sets himself #aebg to deal with a number of the ways in which the merely natural man confirms himself in favour of ,nature against ,god and comes to the conclusion that religion in itself is nothing1 but yet that it is necessary because it serves as a restraint4 ,among the sources of unbelief specified are ethical revolt alike against the ,biblical narratives and against the lack of moral government in the world2 the recognition of the success of other religions than the ,christian1 and of the many heresies within that2 and dissatisfaction with the ,christian dogmas4 ,as ,swedenborg sojourned much in other countries1 he may be describing men other than his countrymen2 but it is very unlikely that the larger part of his intercourse with his fellows counted for nothing in this account of contemporary rationalism4 ,with his odd mixture of scripturalism and innovating dogmatism1 ,swedenborg disposes of difficulties about ,genesis by reducing ,adam and ,eve to an allegory of the ,most ,ancient ,church1 tranquilly dismissing the orthodox belief by asking1 ,for who can suppose that the creation of the world could have been as there described8 #aebh ,his own scientific training1 which had enabled him to make his notable anticipation of the nebular theory1 #aebi made it also easy for him to reduce to allegory the text of what he nevertheless insisted on treating as a divine revelation2 and his moral sense1 active where he felt no perverting resentment of contradiction by reasoners1 #aecj made him reject the orthodox doctrine of salvation by faith1 even as he did the orthodox doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,on these points he seems to have had a lead from his father1 ,bishop ,jasper ,svedberg1 #aeca as he had in his overwhelming physiological bias to subjective vision-making4 ,but a message which finally amounted to the oracular propounding of a new and bewildering supernaturalism1 to be taken on authority like the old1 could make for freethought only by rousing rational reaction4 ,it was ,swedenborg's destiny to establish1 in virtue of his great power of orderly dogmatism1 a new supernaturalist and scripturalist sect1 while his scientific conceptions were left for other men to develop4 ,in his own country1 in his own day1 he had little success qua prophet1 though always esteemed for his character and his high secular competence2 and he finally figured rather as a heresiarch than otherwise4 #aecb #e4 ,according to one of ,swedenborg's biographers1 the worldliness of most of the ,swedish clergy in the middle of the eighteenth century so far outwent even that of the ,english ,church that the laity were left to themselves2 while gentlemen disdained the least taint of religion1 and except on formal occasions would have been ashamed to be caught church-going4 #aecc ,but this was a matter rather of fashion than of freethought2 and there is little trace of critical life in the period4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 doubtless1 the aristocracies and the cultured class in the ,scandinavian ,states were influenced like the rest of ,europe by the spirit of ,french freethought1 #aecd which everywhere followed the vogue of the ,french language and literature4 ,thus we find ,gustavus ,,iii of ,sweden1 an ardent admirer of ,voltaire1 defending him in company1 and proposing in #aggj1 before the death of his father prevented it1 to make a pilgrimage to ,ferney4 #aece ,it is without regard to this testimony that ,gustavus1 who was assassinated1 is said to have died with the fortitude and resignation of a ,christian4 #aecf ,he was indeed flighty and changeable1 #aecg and after growing up a ,voltairean was turned for a year or two into a credulous mystic1 the dupe of pseudo-,swedenborgian charlatans2 #aech but there is small sign of religious earnestness in his fashion of making his dying confession4 #aeci ,claiming at an earlier date to believe more than ,joseph ,,ii1 who in his opinion believed in nothing at all1 he makes light of their joint parade of piety at ,rome1 #aedj and seems to have been at bottom a good deal of an indifferentist4 ,during his reign his influence on literature fostered a measure of the spirit of freethought in belles lettres2 and in the poets ,j4 ,h4 ,kjellgren and ,j4 ,m4 ,bellman 7both d4 #agie7 there is to be seen the effect of the ,german ,aufklrung and the spirit of ,voltaire4 #aeda ,their contemporary1 ,tomas ,thoren1 who called himself ,torild 7d4 #ahab71 though more of an innovator in poetic style than in thought1 wrote among other things a pamphlet on ,the ,freedom of the ,general ,intelligence4 ,but ,torild's nickname1 the mad magister1 tells of his extravagance2 and none of the ,swedish belletrists of that age amounted to a ,european influence4 ,finally1 in the calamitous period which followed on the assassination of ,gustavus ,,iii1 all ,swedish culture sank heavily4 ,the desperate energies of ,charles ,,xii had left his country half-ruined in #agah2 and even while ,linnus and his pupils were building up the modern science of botany in the latter half of the century the economic exhaustion of the people was a check on general culture4 ,the ,university of ,upsala1 which at one time had over #b1jjj students1 counted only some #ejj at the close of the eighteenth century4 #aedb #f4 ,in ,denmark1 on the other hand1 the stagnation of nearly a hundred years had been ended at the accession of ,frederick ,v in #agdf4 #aedc ,national literature1 revivified by ,holberg1 was further advanced by the establishment of a society of polite learning in #agfc2 under ,frederick's auspices ,danish naturalists and scholars were sent abroad for study2 and in particular a literary expedition was sent to ,arabia4 ,the ,european movement of science1 in short1 had gripped the little kingdom1 and the usual intellectual results began to follow1 though1 as in ,catholic ,spain1 the forces of reaction soon rallied against a movement which had been imposed from above rather than evolved from within4 ,the most celebrated northern unbeliever of the ,french period was ,count ,struensee1 who for some years 7#aggj-gb7 virtually ruled ,denmark as the favourite of the young queen1 the king being half-witted and worthless4 ,struensee was an energetic and capable though injudicious reformer3 he abolished torture2 emancipated the enslaved peasantry2 secured toleration for all sects2 encouraged the arts and industry2 established freedom of the press2 and reformed the finances1 the police1 the law courts1 and sanitation4 #aedd ,his very reforms1 being made with headlong rapidity1 made his position untenable1 and his enemies soon effected his downfall and death4 ,the young queen1 who was not alleged to have been a freethinker1 was savagely seized by the hostile faction and put on her trial on a charge of adultery1 which being wholly unproved1 the aristocratic faction proposed to try her on a charge of drugging her husband4 ,only by the efforts of the ,british court was she saved from imprisonment for life in a fortress1 and sent to ,hanover1 where1 three years later1 she died4 ,she too was a reformer1 and it was on that score that she was hated by the nobles4 #aede ,both she and ,struensee1 in short1 were the victims of a violent political reaction4 ,there is an elaborate account of ,struensee's conversion to ,christianity in prison by the ,german ,dr4 ,munter1 #aedf which makes him out by his own confession an excessive voluptuary4 ,it is an extremely suspicious document1 exhibiting strong political bias1 and giving ,struensee no credit for reforms2 the apparent assumption being that the conversion of a reprobate was of more evidential value than that of a reputable and reflective type4 ,in spite of the reaction1 rationalism persisted among the cultured class4 ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 visiting ,denmark in #agie1 noted that there and in ,norway the press was free1 and that new ,french publications were translated and freely discussed4 ,the press had in fact been freed by ,struensee1 and was left free by his enemies because of the facilities it had given them to attack him4 #aedg ,on the subject of religion1 she added1 they are likewise becoming tolerant1 at least1 and perhaps have advanced a step further in freethinking4 ,one writer has ventured to deny the divinity of ,jesus ,christ1 and to question the necessity or utility of the ,christian system1 without being considered universally as a monster1 which would have been the case a few years ago4 #aedh ,she likewise noted that there was in ,norway very little of the fanaticism she had seen gaining ground1 on ,wesleyan lines1 in ,england4 #aedi ,but though the ,danes had translated many ,german works on education1 they had not adopted any of their plans2 there were few schools1 and those not good4 ,norway1 again1 had been kept without a university under ,danish rule2 and not until one was established at ,christiania in #ahaa could ,norwegian faculty play its part in the intellectual life of ,europe4 ,the reaction1 accordingly1 soon afterwards began to gain head4 ,already in #agij precautionary measures had been attempted against the press2 #aeej and1 these being found inefficient1 an edict was issued in #agii enforcing penalties against all anonymous writers--a plan which of course struck at the publishers4 ,but the great geographer1 ,malte-,brun1 was exiled1 as were ,heiberg1 the dramatic poet1 and others2 and again there was a temporary stagnation in literature1 which1 however1 soon passed away in the nineteenth century4 ,meantime ,sweden and ,denmark had alike contributed vitally to the progress of ,european science2 though neither had shared in the work of freethought as against dogma4 #c4 ,the ,slavonic ,states #a4 ,in ,poland1 where1 as we saw1 ,unitarian heresy had spread considerably in the sixteenth century1 positive atheism is heard of in #afhh-hi1 when ,count ,liszinski 7or ,lyszczynski71 among whose papers1 it was said1 had been found the written statement that there is no ,god1 or that man had made ,god out of nothing1 was denounced by the bishops of ,posen and ,kioff1 tried1 and found guilty of denying not only the existence of ,god but the doctrine of the ,trinity and the ,virgin ,birth4 ,after being tortured1 beheaded1 and burned1 his ashes were scattered from a cannon4 #aeea ,the first step was to tear out his tongue1 with which he had been cruel towards ,god2 the next to burn his hands at a slow fire4 ,it is all told by ,zulaski1 the leading ,inquisitionist4 #aeeb ,but even had a less murderous treatment been meted out to such heresy1 anarchic ,poland1 ridden by ,jesuits1 was in no state to develop a rationalistic literature4 ,the old king1 ,john ,sobieski1 made no attempt to stop the execution1 though he is credited with a philosophical habit of mind1 and with reprimanding the clergy for not admitting modern philosophy in the universities and schools4 #aeec #b4 ,in ,russia the possibilities of modern freethought emerge only in the seventeenth century1 when ,muscovy was struggling out of ,byzantine barbarism4 ,the late-recovered treasure of ancient folk-poesy1 partly preserved by chance among the northern peasantry1 tells of the complete rupture wrought in the racial life by the imposition of ,byzantine ,christianity from the south4 ,as early as the fourteenth century the ,strigolniks1 who abounded at ,novgorod1 had held strongly by anti-ecclesiastical doctrines of the ,paulician and ,lollard type2 #aeed but orthodox fanaticism ruled life in general down to the age of ,peter the ,great4 ,in the sixteenth century we find the usual symptom of criticism of the lives of the monks2 #aeee but the culture was almost wholly ecclesiastical2 and in the seventeenth century the effort of the turbulent ,patriarch ,nikon 7#afje-afha71 to correct the corrupt sacred texts and the traditional heterodox practices1 was furiously resisted1 to the point of a great schism4 #aeef ,he himself had violently denounced other innovations1 destroying pictures and an organ in the manner of ,savonarola2 but his own elementary reforms were found intolerable by the orthodox1 #aeeg though they were favoured by ,sophia1 the able and ambitious sister of ,peter4 #aeeh ,the priest ,kriezanitch 7#afag-afgh71 who wrote a work on ,the ,russian ,empire in the second half of the ,seventeenth ,century1 denounced researches in physical science as devilish heresies2 #aeei and it is on record that scholars were obliged to study in secret and by night for fear of the hostility of the common people4 #aefj ,half-a-century later the orthodox majority seems to have remained convinced of the atheistic tendency of all science2 #aefa and the friends of the new light doubtless included deists from the first4 ,not till the reforms of ,peter had begun to bear fruit1 however1 could freethought raise its head4 ,the great ,czar1 who promoted printing and literature as he did every other new activity of a practical kind1 took the singular step of actually withdrawing writing materials from the monks1 whose influence he held to be wholly reactionary4 #aefb ,in #agjc appeared the first ,russian journal2 and in #agbd ,peter founded the first ,academy of ,sciences1 enjoining upon it the study of languages and the production of translations4 ,now began the era of foreign culture and translations from the ,french4 #aefc ,prince ,kantemir1 the satirist1 who was with the ,russian embassy in ,london in #agcc1 pronounced ,england1 then at the height of the deistic tide1 the most civilized and enlightened of ,european nations4 #aefd ,the fact that he translated ,fontenelle on ,the ,plurality of ,worlds tells further of his liberalism4 #aefe ,gradually there arose a new secular faction1 under ,western influences2 and other forms of culture slowly advanced likewise1 notably under ,elisabeth ,petrovna4 ,at length1 in the reign of ,catherine ,,ii1 called the ,great1 ,french ideas1 already heralded by belles lettres1 found comparatively free headway4 ,she herself was a deist1 and a satirist of bigots in her comedies2 #aeff she accomplished what ,peter had planned1 the secularization of ,church property2 #aefg and she was long the admiring correspondent of ,voltaire1 to whom and to ,d',alembert and ,diderot she offered warm invitations to reside at her court4 ,diderot alone accepted1 and him she specially befriended1 buying his library when he was fain to sell it1 and constituting him its salaried keeper4 ,in no country1 not excepting ,england1 was there more of practical freedom than in ,russia under her rule2 #aefh and if after the outbreak of the ,revolution she turned political persecutor1 she was still not below the ,english level4 ,her half-crazy son ,paul ,,ii1 whom she had given cause to hate her1 undid her work wherever he could4 ,but neither her reaction nor his rule could eradicate the movement of thought begun in the educated classes2 though in ,russia1 as in the ,scandinavian ,states1 it was not till the nineteenth century that original serious literature flourished4 #d4 ,italy #a4 ,returning to ,italy1 no longer the leader of ,european thought1 but still full of veiled freethinking1 we find in the seventeenth century the proof that no amount of such predisposition can countervail thoroughly bad political conditions4 ,ground down by the matchless misrule of ,spain1 from which the conspiracy of the monk ,campanella vainly sought to free her1 and by the kindred tyranny of the papacy1 ,italy could produce in its educated class1 save for the men of science and the students of economics1 only triflers1 whose unbelief was of a piece with their cynicism4 ,while ,naples and the south decayed1 mental energy had for a time flourished in ,tuscany1 where1 under the grand dukes from ,ferdinando ,i onwards1 industry and commerce had revived2 and even after a time of retrogression ,ferdinando ,,ii encouraged science1 now made newly glorious by the names of ,galileo and ,torricelli4 ,but again there was a relapse2 and at the end of the century1 under a bigoted duke1 ,florence was priest-ridden and1 at least in outward seeming1 gloomily superstitious2 while1 save for the better conditions secured at ,naples under the viceroyalty of the ,marquis of ,carpi1 #aefi the rest of ,italy was cynically corrupt and intellectually superficial4 #aegj ,even in ,naples1 of course1 enlightenment was restricted to the few4 ,burnet observes that there are societies of men at ,naples of freer thoughts than can be found in any other place of ,italy2 and he admits a general tendency of intelligent ,italians to recoil from ,christianity by reason of ,catholic corruption4 ,but at the same time he insists that1 though the laity speak with scorn of the clergy1 yet they are masters of the spirits of the people4 #aega ,yet it only needed the breathing time and the improved conditions under the ,bourbon rule in the eighteenth century to set up a wonderful intellectual revival4 #b4 ,first came the great work of ,vico1 the ,principles of a ,new ,science 7#agbe71 whereof the originality and the depth--qualities in which1 despite its incoherences1 it on the whole excels ,montesquieu's ,spirit of ,laws--place him among the great freethinkers in philosophy4 ,it was significant of much that ,vico's book1 while constantly using the vocabulary of faith1 grappled with the science of human development in an essentially secular and scientific spirit4 ,this is the note of the whole eighteenth century in ,italy4 #aegb ,vico posits ,deity and ,providence1 but proceeds nevertheless to study the laws of civilization inductively from its phenomena4 ,he permanently obscured his case1 indeed1 by insisting on putting it theologically1 and condemning ,grotius and others for separating the idea of law from that of religion4 ,only in a pantheistic sense has ,vico's formula any validity2 and he never avows a pantheistic view1 refusing even to go with ,grotius in allowing that ,hebrew law was akin to that of other nations4 ,but a rationalistic view1 had he put it1 would have been barred4 ,the wonder is1 in the circumstances1 not that he makes so much parade of religion1 but that he could venture to undermine so vitally its pretensions1 especially after he had found it prudent to renounce the project of annotating the great work of ,grotius1 ,de ,jure ,belli et ,pacis1 on the score that 7as he puts it in his ,autobiography7 a good ,catholic must not endorse a heretic4 ,signor ,benedetto ,croce1 in his valuable work on ,vico 7,the ,philosophy of ,giambattista ,vico1 ,eng4 tr4 #aiac1 pp4 #hi-id71 admits that ,vico is fundamentally at one with the ,naturalists3 ,like them1 in constructing his science of human society1 he excludes with ,grotius all idea of ,god1 and with ,pufendorf considers man as without help or attention from ,god1 excluding him1 that is1 from revealed religion and its ,god4 ,of ,vico's opposition to ,grotius1 ,signor ,croce offers two unsatisfactory explanations4 ,first3 ,vico's opposition1 which he expresses with his accustomed confusion and obscurity1 turns 444 upon the actual conception of religion4444 ,religion 444 means for ,vico not necessarily revelation1 but conception of reality4 ,this reduces the defence to a quibble2 but finally ,signor ,croce asks himself ,why--if ,vico agreed with the natural-right school in ignoring revelation1 and if he instead of it deepened their superficial immanental doctrine--why he put himself forward as their implacable enemy and persisted in boasting loudly before prelates and pontiffs of having formulated a system of natural rights different from that of the three ,protestant authors and adapted to the ,roman ,church4 ,the natural suggestion of politic caution ,signor ,croce rejects1 declaring that the spotless character of ,vico entirely precludes it2 and we can only suppose that1 lacking as his ideas always were in clarity1 on this occasion he indulged his tendency to confusion and nourished his illusions1 to the extent of conferring upon himself the flattering style and title of ,defensor ,ecclesi at the very moment when he was destroying the religion of the ,church by means of humanity4 ,it is very doubtful whether this equivocal vindication is more serviceable to ,vico's fame than the plain avowal that a writer placed as he was1 in the ,catholic world of #agbj1 could not be expected to be straightforward upon such an issue4 ,vico comported himself towards the ,catholic ,church very much as ,descartes did4 ,his own declaration as to his motives is surely valid as against a formula which combines spotless character with a cherished tendency to confusion4 ,the familiar tendency to hedge is a simpler conception4 #c4 ,it is noteworthy1 indeed1 that the ,new ,science1 as ,vico boasted1 arose in the ,catholic and not in the ,protestant world4 ,we might say that1 genius apart1 the reason was that the energy which elsewhere ran to criticism of religion as such had in ,catholic ,italy to take other channels4 ,by attacking a ,protestant position which was really less deeply heterodox than his own1 ,vico secured ,catholic currency for a philosopheme which on its own merits ,catholic theologians would have scouted as atheism4 ,as it was1 ,vico's sociology aroused on the one hand new rationalistic speculation as to the origin of civilization1 and on the other orthodox protest on the score of its fundamentally anti-,biblical character4 ,it was thus attacked in #agdi by ,damiano ,romano1 and later by ,finetti1 a professor at ,padua1 propos of the propaganda raised by ,vico's followers as to the animal origin of the human race4 ,this began with ,vico's disciple1 ,emmanuele ,duni1 a professor at ,rome1 who published a series of sociological essays in #agfc4 ,thenceforth for many years there raged1 under the eyes of ,pope and cardinals1 an ,italian debate between the ,ferini and ,antiferini1 the affirmers and deniers of the animal origin of man1 the latter of course taking up their ground on the ,bible1 from which ,finetti drew twenty-three objections to ,vico4 #aegc ,duni found it prudent to declare that he had no intention of discussing the origin of the world1 still less that of the ,hebrew nation1 but solely that of the ,gentile nations2 but even when thus limited the debate set up far-reaching disturbance4 ,at this stage ,italian sociology doubtless owed something to ,montesquieu and ,rousseau2 but the fact remains that the ,scienza ,nuova was a book truly ,italian2 ,italian par excellence4 #aegd ,it was ,vico1 too1 who led the way in the critical handling of early ,roman history1 taken up later by ,beaufort1 and still later by ,niebuhr2 and it was he who began the scientific analysis of ,homer1 followed up later by ,f4 ,a4 ,wolf4 #aege ,by a fortunate coincidence1 the papal chair was held at the middle of the century 7#agdj-ageh7 by the most learned1 tolerant1 and judicious of modern popes1 ,benedict ,,xiv1 #aegf whose influence was used for political peace in ,europe and for toleration in ,italy2 and whom we shall find1 like ,clement ,,xiv1 on friendly terms with a freethinker4 ,in the same age ,muratori and ,giannone amassed their unequalled historical learning2 and a whole series of ,italian writers broke new ground on the field of social science1 ,italy having led the way in this as formerly in philosophy and physics4 #aegg ,the ,hanoverian ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,alberti1 of ,italian descent1 writes in #ageb that ,italy is full of atheists2 #aegh and ,grimm1 writing in #agfe1 records that according to capable observers the effect of the ,french freethinking literature in the past thirty years had been immense1 especially in ,tuscany4 #aegi #d4 ,between #agcg and #agih may be counted twenty-eight ,italian writers on political economy2 and among them was one1 ,cesare ,beccaria1 who on another theme produced perhaps the most practically influential single book of the eighteenth century1 #aehj the treatise on ,crimes and ,punishments 7#agfd71 which affected penal methods for the better throughout the whole of ,europe4 ,even were he not known to be a deist1 his strictly secular and rationalist method would have brought upon him priestly suspicion2 and he had in fact to defend himself against pertinacious and unscrupulous attacks1 #aeha though he had sought in his book to guard himself by occasionally veiling the truth in clouds4 #aehb ,as we have seen1 ,beccaria owed his intellectual awakening first to ,montesquieu and above all to ,helvtius--another testimony to the reformative virtue of all freethought4 ,of the aforesaid eight-and-twenty writers on economics1 probably the majority were freethinkers4 ,among them1 at all events1 were ,count ,algarotti 7#agab-agfd71 the distinguished sthetician1 one of the group round ,frederick at ,berlin and author of ,il ,newtonianismo per le dame 7#agcg72 ,filangieri1 whose work on legislation 7put on the ,index by the papacy7 won the high praise of ,franklin2 the ,neapolitan abbate ,ferdinando ,galiani1 one of the brightest and soundest wits in the circle of the ,french philosophes2 the other ,neapolitan abbate ,antonio ,genovesi 7#agab-agfi71 the redeemer of the ,italian mind1 #aehc and the chief establisher of economic science for modern ,italy4 #aehd ,to these names may be added those of ,alfieri1 one of the strongest anti-clericalists of his age2 ,bettinelli1 the correspondent of ,voltaire and author of ,the ,resurrection of ,italy 7#agge72 ,count ,dandolo1 author of a ,french work on ,the ,new ,men 7#agii72 and the learned ,giannone1 author of the great anti-papal ,history of the ,kingdom of ,naples 7#agbc71 who1 after more than one narrow escape1 was thrown in prison by the king of ,sardinia1 and died there 7#agdh7 after twelve years' confinement4 ,to the merits of ,algarotti and ,genovesi there are high contemporary testimonies4 ,algarotti was on friendly terms with ,cardinal ,ganganelli1 who in #agfi became ,pope ,clement ,,xiv4 ,in #aged the latter writes #aehe him3 ,my dear ,count1 ,contrive matters so1 in spite of your philosophy1 that ,i may see you in heaven2 for ,i should be very sorry to lose sight of you for an eternity4 ,you are one of those rare men1 both for heart and understanding1 whom we could wish to love even beyond the grave1 when we have once had the advantage of knowing them4 ,no one has more reasons to be convinced of the spirituality and immortality of the soul than you have4 ,the years glide away for the philosophers as well as for the ignorant2 and what is to be the term of them cannot but employ a man who thinks4 ,own that ,i can manage sermons so as not to frighten away a bel esprit2 and that if every one delivered as short and as friendly sermons as ,i do1 you would sometimes go to hear a preacher4 ,but barely hearing will not do 444 the amiable ,algarotti must become as good a ,christian as he is a philosopher3 then should ,i doubly be his friend and servant4 #aehf ,in an earlier letter1 ,ganganelli writes3 ,the ,pope ,benedict ,,xiv is ever great and entertaining for his bons mots4 ,he was saying the other day that he had always loved you1 and that it would give him very great pleasure to see you again4 ,he speaks with admiration of the king of ,prussia 444 whose history will make one of the finest monuments of the eighteenth century4 ,see here and acknowledge my generosity6 ,for that prince makes the greatest jest possible of the ,court of ,rome1 and of us monks and friars4 ,cardinal ,querini will not be satisfied unless he have you with him for some time at ,brescia4 ,he one day told me that he would invite you to come and dedicate his library4444 ,there is no harm in preaching to a philosopher who seldom goes to hear a sermon1 and who will not have become a great saint by residing at ,potsdam4 ,you are there three men whose talents might be of great use to religion if you would change their direction--viz4 ,yourself1 ,mons4 de ,voltaire1 and ,m4 de ,maupertuis4 ,but that is not the ton of the age1 and you are resolved to follow the fashion4 #aehg ,ganganelli in his correspondence reveals himself as an admirer of ,newton #aehh and somewhat averse to religious zeal4 #aehi ,of the papal government he admitted that it was favourable neither to commerce1 to agriculture1 nor to population1 which precisely constitute the essence of public felicity1 while suavely reminding the ,englishman of the inconveniences of his own government4 #aeij ,to the learned ,muratori1 who suffered at the hands of the bigots1 he and ,pope ,benedict ,,xiv gave their sympathy4 #aeia ,but ,ganganelli's own thinking on the issues between reason and religion was entirely commonplace4 ,whatever1 he wrote1 departs from the account given of the ,creation in the book of ,genesis has nothing to support it but paradoxes1 or1 at most1 mere hypotheses4 ,moses alone1 as being an inspired author1 could perfectly acquaint us with the formation of the world1 and the development of its parts4444 ,whoever does not see the truth in what ,moses relates was never born to know it4 #aeib ,it was only in his relation to the bigots of his own ,church that his thinking was rationalistic4 ,the ,pope1 he writes to a ,french marquis1 relies on ,providence2 but ,god does not perform miracles every time he is asked to do it4 ,besides1 is he to perform one that ,rome may enjoy a right of seignory over the ,duchy of ,parma8 #aeic ,at his death an ,italian wrote of him that the distinction he was able to draw between dogmas or discipline and ultramontane opinions gave him the courage to take many opportunities of promoting the peace of the ,state4 ,his tolerance is sufficiently exhibited in one of his letters to ,algarotti3 ,i hope that you will preach to me some of these days1 so that each may have his turn4 #aeid ,freethought had achieved something when a ,roman ,cardinal1 a predestinate ,pope1 could so write to an avowed freethinker4 ,concerning ,galiani we have the warm panegyric of ,grimm4 ,if ,i have any vanity with which to reproach myself1 he writes1 it is that which ,i derive in spite of myself from the fact of the conformity of my ideas with those of the two rarest men whom ,i have the happiness to know1 ,galiani and ,denis ,diderot4 #aeie ,grimm held ,galiani to be of all men the best qualified to write a true ecclesiastical history4 ,but the history that would have satisfied him and ,grimm was not to be published in that age4 ,italy1 however1 had done her full share1 considering her heritage of burdens and hindrances1 in the intellectual work of the century2 and in the names of ,galvani and ,volta stands the record of one more of her great contributions to human enlightenment4 ,under ,duke ,leopold ,,ii of ,tuscany the papacy was so far defied that books put on the ,index were produced for him under the imprint of ,london2 #aeif and the papacy itself at length gave way to the spirit of reform1 ,clement ,,xiv consenting among other things to abolish the ,order of ,jesuits 7#aggc71 after his predecessor had died of grief over his proved impotence to resist the secular policy of the ,states around him4 #aeig ,in ,tuscany1 indeed1 the reaction against the ,french ,revolution was instant and severe4 ,leopold succeeded his brother ,joseph as emperor of ,austria in #agij1 but died in #agib2 and in his realm1 as was the case in ,denmark and in ,spain in the same century1 the reforms imposed from above by a liberal sovereign were found to have left much traditionalism untouched4 ,after #agib1 ,ferdinando ,,iii suspended some of his father's most liberal edicts1 amid the applause of the reactionaries2 and in #agii1 after the first short stay of the revolutionary ,french army1 out of its one million inhabitants no fewer than #bb1jjj were prosecuted for ,french opinions4 #aeih ,certainly some of the ,french opinions were wild enough2 for instance1 the practice among ladies of dressing alla ghigliottina1 with a red ribbon round the neck1 a usage borrowed about #agie from ,france4 #aeii ,as ,quinet sums up1 the revolution was too strong a medicine for the ,italy of that age4 ,the young abbate ,monti1 the chief poet of the time1 was a freethinker1 but he alternated his strokes for freedom with unworthy compliances4 #afjj ,such was the dawn of the new ,italian day that has since slowly but steadily broadened1 albeit under many a cloud4 #e4 ,spain and ,portugal #a4 ,for the rest of ,europe during the eighteenth century1 we have to note only traces of receptive thought4 ,spain under ,bourbon rule1 as already noted1 experienced an administrative renascence4 ,such men as ,count ,aranda 7#agah-ii7 and ,aszo y del ,rio 7#agdb-ahad7 wrought to cut the claws of the ,inquisition and to put down the ,jesuits2 but not yet1 after the long work of destruction accomplished by the ,church in the past1 could ,spain produce a fresh literature of any far-reaching power4 ,when ,aranda was about to be appointed in #agff1 his friends the ,french ,encyclopdistes prematurely proclaimed their exultation in the reforms he was to accomplish2 and he sadly protested that they had thereby limited his possibilities4 #afja ,nonetheless he wrought much1 the power of the ,inquisition in ,spain being already on the wane4 ,dr4 ,joaquin ,villanueva1 one of the ecclesiastical statesmen who took part in its suppression by the ,cortes at ,cadiz in #ahac1 tells how1 in his youth1 under the reign of ,charles ,,iii1 it was a current saying among the students at college that while the clever ones could rise to important posts in the ,church1 or in the law1 the blockheads would be sure to find places in the ,inquisition4 #afjb ,it was of course still powerful for social terrorism and minor persecution2 but its power of taking life was rapidly dwindling4 ,between #agdf and #agei it had burned only ten persons2 from #agei until #agha it burned only four2 thereafter none1 #afjc the last case having provoked protests which testified to the moral change wrought in ,europe by a generation of freethought4 ,in ,spain too1 as elsewhere1 freethought had made way among the upper classes2 and in #aggc we find the ,duke d',alba 7formerly ,huescar71 ex-ambassador of ,spain to ,france1 subscribing eighty louis for a statue to ,voltaire4 ,condemned to cultivate my reason in secret1 he wrote to ,d',alembert1 ,i see this opportunity to give a public testimony of my gratitude to and admiration for the great man who first showed me the way4 #afjd #b4 ,still all freethinking in ,spain ran immense risks1 even under ,charles ,,iii4 ,the ,spanish admiral ,solano was denounced by his almoner to the ,inquisition for having read ,raynal1 and had to demand pardon on his knees of the ,inquisition and ,god4 #afje ,aranda himself was from first to last four times arraigned before the ,inquisition1 #afjf escaping only by his prestige and power4 ,so eminent a personage as ,p4 ,a4 ,j4 ,olavids1 known in ,france as the ,count of ,pilos 7#agbf-ahjc71 could not thus escape4 ,he had been appointed by ,charles ,,iii prefect of ,seville1 and had carried out for the king the great work of colonizing the ,sierra ,morena1 #afjg of which region he was governor4 ,at the height of his career1 in #aggf1 he was arrested and imprisoned1 as suspected of professing impious sentiments1 particularly those of ,voltaire and ,rousseau1 with whom he had carried on a very intimate correspondence4 ,he had spoken unwarily to inhabitants of the new towns under his jurisdiction concerning the exterior worship of deity in ,spain1 the worship of images1 the fast days1 the cessation of work on holy days1 the offerings at mass1 and all the rest of the apparatus of popular ,catholicism4 #afjh ,olavids prudently confessed his error1 declaring that he had never lost his inner faith4 ,after two years' detention he was forced to make his penance at a lesser auto da f in presence of sixty persons of distinction1 many of whom were suspected of holding similar opinions1 and were thus grimly warned to keep their counsel4 ,during four hours the reading of his process went on1 and then came the sentence4 ,he was condemned to pass eight years in a convent2 to be banished forever from ,madrid1 ,seville1 ,cordova1 and the new towns of the ,sierra ,morena1 and to lose all his property2 he was pronounced incapable henceforth of holding any public employment or title of honour2 and he was forbidden to mount a horse1 to wear any ornament of gold1 silver1 pearls1 diamonds1 or other precious stones1 or clothing of silk or fine linen4 ,on hearing his sentence he fainted4 ,afterwards1 on his knees1 he received absolution4 ,escaping some time afterwards from his convent1 he reached ,france4 ,after some years more1 he cynically produced a work entitled ,the ,gospel ,triumphant1 or the ,philosopher ,converted1 which availed to procure a repeal of his sentence2 and he returned into favour4 #afji ,in his youth he had not the talent to play the hypocrite4 ,in the end he mastered the art as few had done4 #c4 ,another grandee1 ,don ,christophe ,ximenez de ,gongora1 ,duke of ,almodobar1 published a free and expurgated translation of ,raynal's ,history of the ,indies under another title2 #afaj and though he put upon the book only an anagram of his name1 he presented copies to the king4 ,the inquisitors1 learning as much1 denounced him as suspected of having embraced the systems of unbelieving philosophers2 but this time the prosecution broke down for lack of evidence4 #afaa ,a similar escape was made by ,don ,joseph ,nicholas d',azara1 who had been minister of foreign affairs1 minister plenipotentiary of the king at ,rome1 and ambassador extraordinary at ,paris1 and was yet denounced at ,saragossa and ,madrid as an unbelieving philosopher4 #afab ,count ,ricla1 minister of war under ,charles ,,iii1 was similarly charged1 and similarly escaped for lack of proofs4 #afac #d4 ,in another case1 a freethinking priest skilfully anticipated prosecution4 ,don ,philip de ,samaniego1 priest1 archdeacon of ,pampeluna1 chevalier of the order of ,st4 ,james1 counsellor of the king and secretary-general1 interpreter of foreign languages1 was one of those invited to assist at the auto da f of ,olavids4 ,the impression made upon him was so strong that he speedily prepared with his own hand a confession to the effect that he had read many forbidden books1 such as those of ,voltaire1 ,mirabeau1 ,rousseau1 ,hobbes1 ,spinoza1 ,montesquieu1 ,bayle1 ,d',alembert1 and ,diderot2 and that he had been thus led into skepticism2 but that after serious reflection he had resolved to attach himself firmly and forever to the ,catholic faith1 and now begged to be absolved4 ,the sentence was memorable4 ,he was ordered first to confirm his confession by oath2 then to state how and from whom he had obtained the prohibited books1 where they now were1 with what persons he had talked on these matters1 what persons had either refuted or adopted his views1 and which of those persons had seemed to be aware of such doctrines in advance2 such a detailed statement being the condition of his absolution4 ,samaniego obeyed1 and produced a long declaration in which he incriminated nearly every enlightened man at the court1 naming ,aranda1 the ,duke of ,almodobar1 ,ricla1 and the minister ,florida ,blanca2 also ,general ,ricardos1 ,count of ,truillas1 ,general ,massones1 ,count of ,montalvo1 ambassador at ,paris and brother of the ,duke of ,sotomayor2 and ,counts ,campomanes1 ,orreilly1 and ,lascy4 ,proceedings were begun against one and all2 but the undertaking was too comprehensive1 and the proofs were avowed to be insufficient4 #afad ,what became of ,samaniego1 history saith not4 ,a namesake of his1 ,don ,felix-,maria de ,samaniego1 one of the leading men of letters of the reign of ,charles ,,iv1 was arraigned before the ,inquisition of ,logrogno as suspected of having embraced the errors of modern philosophers and read prohibited books1 but contrived1 through his friendship with the minister of justice1 to arrange the matter privately4 #afae #e4 ,out of a long series of other men of letters persecuted by the ,inquisition for giving signs of enlightenment1 a few cases are preserved by its historian1 ,llorente4 ,don ,benedict ,bails1 professor of mathematics at ,madrid and author of a school-book on the subject1 was proceeded against in his old age1 towards the end of the reign of ,charles ,,iii1 as suspected of atheism and materialism4 ,he was ingenuous enough to confess that he had had doubts on the existence of ,god and the immortality of the soul1 but that after serious reflection he was repentant and ready to abjure all his errors4 ,he thus escaped1 after an imprisonment4 ,don ,louis ,cagnuelo1 advocate1 was forced to abjure for having written against popular superstition and against monks in his journal ,the ,censor1 and was forbidden to write in future on any subject of religion or morals4 ,f4 ,p4 ,centeno1 one of the leading critics of the reigns of ,charles ,,iii and ,charles ,,iv1 was an ,augustinian monk2 but his profession did not save him from the ,inquisition when he made enemies by his satirical criticisms1 though he was patronized by the minister ,florida ,blanca4 ,to make quite sure1 he was accused at once of atheism and ,lutheranism4 ,he had in fact preached against ceremonialism1 and as censor he had deleted from a catechism for the free schools of ,madrid an article affirming the existence of the ,limbo of children who had died unbaptized4 ,despite a most learned defence1 he was condemned as violently suspected of heresy and forced to abjure1 whereafter he went mad and in that state died4 #afaf #f4 ,another savant of the same period1 ,don ,joseph de ,clavijo y ,faxardo1 director of the natural history collection at ,madrid1 was in turn arraigned as having adopted the anti-,christian principles of modern philosophy4 ,he had been the friend of ,buffon and ,voltaire at ,paris1 had admirably translated ,buffon's ,natural ,history1 with notes1 and was naturally something of a deist and materialist4 ,having the protection of ,aranda1 he escaped with a secret penance and abjuration4 #afag ,don ,thomas ,iriarte1 chief of the archives in the ministry of foreign affairs1 was likewise indicted towards the end of the reign of ,charles ,,iii1 as suspected of anti-,christian philosophy1 and escaped with similarly light punishment4 #afah #g4 ,still in the same reign1 the ,jesuit ,francisco de ,ista1 author of an extremely popular satire against absurd preachers1 the ,history of the famous preacher ,fray ,gerondif1 published under the pseudonym of ,don ,francisco ,lobon de ,salazar--a kind of ecclesiastical ,don ,quixote--so infuriated the preaching monks that the ,holy ,office received an almost infinite number of denunciations of the book4 ,ista1 however1 was a ,jesuit1 and escaped1 through the influence of his order1 with a warning4 #afai ,influence1 indeed1 could achieve almost anything in the ,holy ,office1 whether for culprits or against the uninculpable4 ,in #agif1 ,don ,raymond de ,salas1 a professor at ,salamanca1 was actually prosecuted by the ,inquisition of ,madrid as being suspected of having adopted the principles of ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 and other modern philosophers1 he having read their works4 ,the poor man proved that he had done so only in order to refute them1 and produced the theses publicly maintained at ,salamanca by his pupils as a result of his teachings4 ,the prosecution was a pure work of personal enmity on the part of the ,archbishop of ,santiago 7formerly bishop of ,salamanca7 and others1 and ,salas was acquitted1 with the statement that he was entitled to reparation4 ,again and again did his enemies revive the case1 despite repeated acquittals1 he being all the while in durance1 and at length he had to abjure1 and was banished the capital4 ,after a time the matter was forced on the attention of the ,government1 with the result that even ,charles ,,iv was asked by his ministers to ordain that henceforth the ,inquisition should not arrest anyone without prior intimation to the king4 ,at this stage1 however1 the intriguing archbishop successfully intervened1 and the ancient machinery for the stifling of thought remained intact for the time4 #afbj #h4 ,it is plain that the combined power of the ,church1 the orders1 and the ,inquisition1 even under ,charles ,,iii1 had been substantially unimpaired1 and rested on a broad foundation of popular fanaticism and ignorance4 ,the ,inquisition attacked not merely freethought but heresy of every kind1 persecuting ,jansenists and ,molinists as of old it had persecuted ,lutherans1 only with less power of murder4 ,that much the ,bourbon kings and their ministers could accomplish1 but no more4 ,the trouble was that the enlightened administration of ,charles ,,iii in ,spain did not build up a valid popular education1 the sole security for durable rationalism4 ,its school policy1 though not without zeal1 was undemocratic1 and so left the priests in control of the mind of the multitude2 and throughout the reign the ecclesiastical revenues had been allowed to increase greatly from private sources4 #afba ,like ,leopold of ,tuscany1 he was in advance of his people1 and imposed his reforms from above4 ,when1 accordingly1 the weak and pious ,charles ,,iv succeeded in #aghh1 three of the anti-clerical ,ministers of his predecessor1 including ,aranda1 were put under arrest1 #afbb and clericalism resumed full sway1 to the extent even of vetoing the study of moral philosophy in the universities4 #afbc ,mentally and materially alike1 ,spain relapsed to her former state of indigence2 and the struggle for national existence against ,napoleon helped rather traditionalist sentiment than the spirit of innovation4 #i4 ,portugal in the same period1 despite the anti-clerical policy of the famous ,marquis of ,pombal1 made no noticeable intellectual progress4 ,though that powerful statesman in #agfa abolished slavery in the kingdom1 #afbd he too failed to see the need for popular education1 while promoting that of the upper classes4 #afbe ,his expulsion of the ,jesuits1 accordingly1 did but raise up against him a new set of enemies in the shape of the ,jacobeos1 the ,blessed1 a species of ,catholic ,puritan1 who accused him of impiety4 ,his somewhat forensic defence #afbf leaves the impression that he was in reality a deist2 but though he fought the fanatics by imprisoning the ,bishop of ,coimbra1 their leader1 and by causing ,molire's ,tartufe to be translated and performed1 he does not seem to have shown any favour to the deistical literature of which the ,bishop had composed a local ,index ,expurgatorius4 #afbg ,in ,portugal1 as later in ,spain1 accordingly1 a complete reaction set in with the death of the enlightened king4 ,dom ,joseph died in #aggg1 and ,pombal was at once disgraced and his enemies released1 the pious ,queen ,maria and her ,ministers subjecting him to persecution for some years4 ,in #aghc1 the ,queen1 who became a religious maniac1 and died insane1 #afbh is found establishing new nunneries1 and so adding to one of the main factors in the impoverishment1 moral and financial1 of ,portugal4 #f4 ,switzerland ,during the period we have been surveying1 up to the ,french ,revolution1 ,switzerland1 which owed much of new intellectual life to the influx of ,french ,protestants at the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 #afbi exhibited no less than the other ,european countries the inability of the traditionary creed to stand criticism4 ,calvinism by its very rigour generated a reaction within its own special field2 and the spirit of the slain ,servetus triumphed strangely over that of his slayer4 ,genevan ,calvinism1 like that of the ,english ,presbyterians1 was transmuted first into a modified ,arminianism1 then into ,arianism or ,socinianism1 then into the ,unitarianism of modern times4 ,in the eighteenth century ,switzerland contributed to the ,european movement some names1 of which by far the most famous is ,rousseau2 and the potent presence of ,voltaire cannot have failed to affect ,swiss culture4 ,before his period of influence1 indeed1 there had taken place not a little silent evolution of a ,unitarian and deistic kind2 ,socinianism1 as usual1 leading the way4 ,among the families of ,italian ,protestant refugees who helped to invigorate the life of ,switzerland1 as ,french ,protestants did later that of ,germany1 were the ,turrettini1 of whom ,francesco came to ,geneva in the last quarter of the sixteenth century4 ,one of his sons1 ,benedict1 made a professor at twenty-four1 became a leading theologian and preacher of orthodox ,calvinism1 and distinguished himself as an opponent of ,arminianism4 #afcj ,still more distinguished in his day was ,benedict's son ,franois 7#afbc-afhg71 also a professor1 who repeated his father's services1 political and controversial1 to orthodoxy1 and combated ,socinianism1 as ,benedict had done ,arminianism4 ,but ,franois's son ,jean-,alphonse1 also a professor 7whose ,latin work on ,christian evidences1 translated into ,french by a colleague1 we have seen adopted and adapted by the ,catholic authorities in ,france71 became a virtual ,unitarian #afca 7#afga-agcg71 and as such is still anathematized by ,swiss ,calvinists4 ,against the deists1 however1 he was industrious1 as his grandfather1 a heretic to ,catholicism1 had been against the ,arminians1 and his father against the ,socinians4 ,the family evolution in some degree typifies the theological process from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century2 and the apologetics of ,jean-,alphonse testify to the vogue of critical deism among the educated class at ,geneva in the days of ,voltaire's nonage4 ,he 7or his translator7 deals with the natural objections to the faith1 cites approvingly ,locke1 ,lardner1 and ,clarke1 and combats ,woolston1 but names no other ,english deist4 ,the heresy1 therefore1 would seem to be a domestic development from the roots noted by ,viret nearly two centuries before4 ,one of ,turrettini's annotators complacently observes #afcb that though deists talk of natural religion1 none of them has ever written a book in exposition of it1 the task being left to the ,christians4 ,the writer must have been aware1 on the one hand1 that any deist who in those days should openly expound natural religion as against revealed would be liable to execution for blasphemy in any ,european country save ,england1 where1 as it happened1 ,herbert1 ,hobbes1 ,blount1 ,toland1 ,collins1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,tindal had all maintained the position1 and on the other hand he must have known that the ,ethica of ,spinoza was naturalistic4 ,the false taunt merely goes to prove that deists could maintain their heresy on the ,continent at that time without the support of books4 ,but soon after ,turrettini's time they give literary indication of their existence even in ,switzerland2 and in #agfc we find ,voltaire sending a package of copies of his treatise on ,toleration by the hand of a young ,m4 ,turretin of ,geneva1 who is worthy to see the brethren1 though he is the grandson of a celebrated priest of ,baal4 ,he is reserved1 but decided1 as are most of the ,genevese4 ,calvin begins in our cantons to have no more credit than the pope4 #afcc ,for this fling there was a good deal of justification4 ,when in #agfc the ,council of ,geneva officially burned a pamphlet reprint of the ,vicaire ,savoyard from ,rousseau's mile there was an immediate public protest by two hundred persons1 among whom there were three priests2 #afcd and some five weeks later a hundred persons came for the third time to protest4444 ,they say that it is permissible to every citizen to write what he will on religion2 that he should not be condemned without a hearing2 and that the rights of men must be respected4 #afce ,all this was not a sudden product of the freethinking influence of ,voltaire and ,rousseau1 which had but recently begun4 ,an older leaven had long been at work4 ,the ,principes du ,droit ,naturel of ,j4 ,j4 ,burlamaqui 7#agdh71 save for its subsumption of deity as the originator of all human tendencies1 is strictly naturalistic and utilitarian in its reasoning1 and clearly exhibits the influence of ,hobbes and ,mandeville4 #afcf ,voltaire1 too1 in his correspondence1 is found frequently speaking with a wicked chuckle of the ,unitarianism of the clergy of ,geneva1 #afcg a theme on which ,d',alembert had written openly in his article ,genve in the ,encyclopdie in #agef4 #afch ,so early as #ageg1 ,voltaire roundly affirms that there are only a few ,calvinists left3 tous les honntes gens sont distes par ,christ4 #afci ,and when the younger ,salchi1 professor at ,lausanne1 writes in #agei that deism is become the fashionable religion4444 ,europe is inundated with the works of deists2 and their partisans have made perhaps more proselytes in the space of eighty years than were made by the apostles and the first ,fathers of the ,church1 #afdj he must be held to testify in some degree concerning ,switzerland4 ,the chief native service to intellectual progress thus far1 however1 was rendered in the field of the natural sciences1 ,swiss religious opinion being only passively liberalized1 mainly in a ,unitarian direction4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,early ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states #a4 ,perhaps the most signal of all the proofs of the change wrought in the opinion of the civilized world in the eighteenth century is the fact that at the time of the ,war of ,independence the leading statesmen of the ,american colonies were deists4 ,such were ,benjamin ,franklin1 the diplomatist of the ,revolution2 ,thomas ,paine1 its prophet and inspirer2 ,washington1 its commander2 and ,jefferson1 its typical legislator4 ,but for these four men the ,american ,revolution probably could not have been accomplished in that age2 and they thus represent in a peculiar degree the power of new ideas1 in fit conditions1 to transform societies1 at least politically4 ,on the other hand1 the fashion in which their relation to the creeds of their time has been garbled1 alike in ,american and ,english histories1 proves how completely they were in advance of the average thought of their day2 and also how effectively the mere institutional influence of creeds can arrest a nation's mental development4 ,it is still one of the stock doctrines of religious sociology in ,england and ,america that deism1 miscalled atheism1 wrought the ,reign of ,terror in the ,french ,revolution2 when as a matter of fact the same deism was at the head of affairs in the ,american4 #b4 ,the rise of rationalism in the colonies must be traced in the main to the imported ,english literature of the eighteenth century2 for the first ,puritan settlements had contained at most only a fraction of freethought2 and the conditions1 so deadly for all manner even of devout heresy1 made avowed unbelief impossible4 ,the superstitions and cruelties of the ,puritan clergy1 however1 must have bred a silent reaction1 which prepared a soil for the deism of the next age4 #afda ,the perusal of ,shaftesbury and ,collins1 writes ,franklin with reference to his early youth1 had made me a skeptic1 after being previously so as to many doctrines of ,christianity4 #afdb ,this was in his seventeenth or eighteenth year1 about #agbj1 so that the importation of deism had been prompt4 #afdc ,throughout life he held to the same opinion1 conforming sufficiently to keep on fair terms with his neighbours1 #afdd and avoiding anything like critical propaganda2 though on challenge1 in the last year of his life1 he avowed his negatively deistic position4 #afde #c4 ,similarly prudent was ,jefferson1 who1 like ,franklin and ,paine1 extolled the ,gospel ,jesus and his teachings1 but rejected the notion of supernatural revelation4 #afdf ,in a letter written so late as #ahbb to a ,unitarian correspondent1 while refusing to publish another of similar tone1 on the score that he was too old for strife1 he declared that he should as soon undertake to bring the crazy skulls of ,bedlam to sound understanding as to inculcate reason into that of an ,athanasian4 #afdg ,his experience of the ,new ,england clergy is expressed in allusions to ,connecticut as having been the last retreat of monkish darkness1 bigotry1 and abhorrence of those advances of the mind which had carried the other ,states a century ahead of them2 and in congratulations with ,john ,adams 7who had written that this would be the best of all possible worlds if there were no religion in it71 when this den of the priesthood is at last broken up4 #afdh ,john ,adams1 whose letters with their crowd of skepticisms kept even ,jefferson from sleep1 #afdi seems to have figured as a member of a ,congregationalist church1 while in reality a ,unitarian4 #afej ,still more prudent was ,washington1 who seems to have ranked habitually as a member of the ,episcopal church2 but concerning whom ,jefferson relates that1 when the clergy1 having noted his constant abstention from any public mention of the ,christian religion1 so penned an address to him on his withdrawal from the ,presidency as almost to force him to some declaration1 he answered every part of the address but that1 which he entirely ignored4 ,it is further noted that only in his valedictory letter to the governors of the ,states1 on resigning his commission1 did he speak of the benign influence of the ,christian religion #afea--the common tone of the ,american deists of that day4 ,it is further established that ,washington avoided the ,communion in church4 #afeb ,for the rest1 the broad fact that all mention of deity was excluded from the ,constitution of the ,united ,states must be historically taken to signify a profound change in the convictions of the leading minds among the people as compared with the beliefs of their ancestors4 ,at the same time1 the fact that they as a rule dissembled their unbelief is a proof that1 even where legal penalties do not attach to an avowal of serious heresy1 there inheres in the menace of mere social ostracism a power sufficient to coerce the outward life of public and professional men of all grades1 in a democratic community where faith maintains and is maintained by a competitive multitude of priests4 ,with this force the freethought of our own age has to reckon1 after ,inquisitions and blasphemy laws have become obsolete4 #d4 ,nothing in ,american culture-history more clearly proves the last proposition than the case of ,thomas ,paine1 the virtual founder of modern democratic freethought in ,great ,britain and the ,states4 #afec ,it does not appear that ,paine openly professed any heresy while he lived in ,england1 or in ,america before the ,french ,revolution4 ,yet the first sentence of his ,age of ,reason1 of which the first part was written shortly before his imprisonment1 under sentence of death from the ,robespierre ,government1 in ,paris 7#agic71 shows that he had long held pronounced deistic opinions4 #afed ,they were probably matured in the ,states1 where1 as we have seen1 such views were often privately held1 though there1 as ,franklin is said to have jesuitically declared in his old age1 by way of encouraging immigration3 ,atheism is unknown2 infidelity rare and secret1 so that persons may live to a great age in this country without having their piety shocked by meeting with either an atheist or an infidel4 ,paine did an unequalled service to the ,american ,revolution by his ,common ,sense and his series of pamphlets headed ,the ,crisis3 there is1 in fact1 little question that but for the intense stimulus thus given by him at critical moments the movement might have collapsed at an early stage4 ,yet he seems to have had no thought there and then of avowing his deism4 ,it was in part for the express purpose of resisting the ever-strengthening attack of atheism in ,france on deism itself that he undertook to save it by repudiating the ,judo-,christian revelation2 and it is not even certain that he would have issued the ,age of ,reason when it did appear1 had he not supposed he was going to his death when put under arrest1 on which score he left the manuscript for publication4 #afee #e4 ,its immediate effect was much greater in ,britain1 where his ,rights of ,man had already won him a vast popularity in the teeth of the most furious reaction1 than in ,america4 ,there1 to his profound chagrin1 he found that his honest utterance of his heresy brought on him hatred1 calumny1 ostracism1 and even personal and political molestation4 ,in #agig he had founded in ,paris the little ,church of ,theo-philanthropy1 beginning his inaugural discourse with the words3 ,religion has two principal enemies1 ,fanaticism and ,infidelity1 or that which is called atheism4 ,the first requires to be combated by reason and morality2 the other by natural philosophy4 #afef ,these were his settled convictions2 and he lived to find himself shunned and vilified1 in the name of religion1 in the country whose freedom he had so puissantly wrought to win4 #afeg ,the ,quakers1 his father's sect1 refused him a burial-place4 ,he has had sympathy and fair play1 as a rule1 only from the atheists whom he distrusted and opposed1 or from thinkers who no longer hold by deism4 ,there is reason to think that in his last years the deistic optimism which survived the deep disappointments of the ,french ,revolution began to give way before deeper reflection on the cosmic problem1 #afeh if not before the treatment he had undergone at the hands of ,unitarians and ,trinitarians alike4 ,the ,butlerian argument1 that ,nature is as unsatisfactory as revelation1 had been pressed upon him by ,bishop ,watson in a reply to the ,age of ,reason2 and though1 like most deists of his age1 he regarded it as a vain defence of orthodoxy1 he was not the man to remain long blind to its force against deistic assumptions4 ,like ,franklin1 he had energetically absorbed and given out the new ideals of physical science2 his originality in the invention of a tubular iron bridge1 and in the application of steam to navigation1 #afei being nearly as notable as that of ,franklin's great discovery concerning electricity4 ,had the two men drawn their philosophy from the ,france of the latter part of the century instead of the ,england of the first1 they had doubtless gone deeper4 ,as it was1 temperamental optimism had kept both satisfied with the transitional formula2 and in the ,france of before and after the ,revolution they lived pre-occupied with politics4 #f4 ,the habit of reticence or dissimulation among ,american public men was only too surely confirmed by the treatment meted out to ,paine4 ,few stood by him2 and the vigorous deistic movement set up in his latter years by ,elihu ,palmer soon succumbed to the conditions1 #affj though ,palmer's book1 ,the ,principles of ,nature 7#ahjb1 rep4 by ,richard ,carlile1 #ahai71 is a powerful attack on the ,judaic and ,christian systems all along the line4 ,george ,houston1 leaving ,england after two years' imprisonment for his translation of d',holbach's ,ecce ,homo1 went to ,new ,york1 where he edited the ,minerva 7#ahbb71 reprinted his book1 and started a freethought journal1 ,the ,correspondence4 ,that1 however1 lasted only eighteen months4 ,all the while1 such statesmen as ,madison and ,monroe1 the latter ,paine's personal friend1 seem to have been of his way of thinking1 #affa though the evidence is scanty4 ,thus it came about that1 save for the liberal movement of the ,hicksite ,quakers1 #affb the ,american deism of ,paine's day was decorously transformed into the later ,unitarianism1 the extremely rapid advance of which in the next generation is the best proof of the commonness of private unbelief4 ,the influence of ,priestley1 who1 persecuted at home1 went to end his days in the ,states1 had doubtless much to do with the ,unitarian development there1 as in ,england2 but it seems certain that the whole deistic movement1 including the work of ,paine and ,palmer1 had tended to move out of orthodoxy many of those who now1 recoiling from the fierce hostility directed against the outspoken freethinkers1 sought a more rational form of creed than that of the orthodox churches4 ,the deistic tradition in a manner centred in the name of ,jefferson1 and the known deism of that leader would do much to make fashionable a heresy which combined his views with a decorous attitude to the ,sacred ,books4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,freethought ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,the ,reaction ,all over the civilized world1 as we have seen1 the terrors of the ,french ,revolution evoked an intellectual no less than a political reaction1 its stress being most apparent and most destructive in those countries in which there had been previously the largest measure of liberty4 ,nowhere was it more intense or more disastrous than in ,england4 ,in countries such as ,denmark and ,spain1 only lately and superficially liberalized1 there was no great progress to undo3 in ,england1 though liberty was never left without an indomitable witness1 there was a violent reversal of general movement1 not to be wholly rectified in half a century4 ,joined in a new activity with the civil power for the suppression of all innovating thought1 the ,church rapidly attained to an influence it had not possessed since the days of ,sacheverel and a degree of wealth it had not before reached since the ,reformation4 ,the wealth of the upper class was at its disposal to an unheard-of extent1 there being apparently no better way of fighting the new danger of democracy2 and dissent joined hands with the establishment to promote orthodoxy4 ,the average tone in ,england in the first quarter of the century may be gathered from the language held by a man so enlightened1 comparatively speaking1 as ,sydney ,smith1 wit1 humourist1 ,whig1 and clergyman4 ,in #ahja we find him1 in a preface never reprinted1 prescribing various measures of religious strategy in addition to the just1 necessary1 and innumerable invectives which have been levelled against ,rousseau1 ,voltaire1 ,d',alembert1 and the whole pandemonium of those martyrs to atheism1 who toiled with such laborious malice1 and suffered odium with such inflexible profligacy1 for the wretchedness and despair of their fellow creatures4 #affc ,that this was not jesting may be gathered from his daughter's account of his indignation when a publisher sent him a work of irreligious tendency1 and when ,jeffrey admitted irreligious opinions to the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,to the former he writes that every principle of suspicion and fear would be excited in me by a man who professed himself an infidel2 and to ,jeffrey3 ,do you mean to take care that the ,review shall not profess infidel principles8 ,unless this is the case ,i must absolutely give up all connection with it4 #affd ,all the while any semblance of infidelity in any article in the ,review must have been of the most cautious kind4 ,in the ,catholic countries1 naturally1 the reaction was no less violent4 ,in ,italy1 as we saw1 it began in ,tuscany almost at once4 ,the rule of ,napoleon1 it is true1 secured complete freedom of the ,press as regarded translation of freethinking books1 an entire liberty of conscience in religious matters1 and a sharp repression of clericalism1 the latter policy going to the length of expelling all the religious orders and confiscating their property4 #affe ,all this counted for change2 but the ,napoleonic rule all the while choked one of the springs of vital thought--to wit1 the spirit of political liberty2 and in #ahad-ae the clerical system returned in full force1 as it did all over ,italy4 ,everywhere freethought was banned4 ,all criticism of ,catholicism was a penal offence2 and in the kingdom of ,naples alone1 in #ahbe1 there were #bg1fab priests1 #h1dee monks1 #h1ahe nuns1 #bj archbishops1 and #gc bishops1 though in #ahjg the ,french influence had caused the dissolution of some #bej convents4 #afff ,at ,florence the ,censure forbade1 in #ahag1 the issue of a new edition of the translated work of ,cabanis on ,les ,rapports du physique et du moral2 and ,mascagni1 the physiologist1 was invited to delete from his work a definition of man in which no notice was taken of the soul4 #affg ,it was even proclaimed that the works of ,voltaire and ,rousseau were not to be read in the public libraries without ecclesiastical permission2 but this veto was not seriously treated4 #affh ,all native energy1 however1 was either cowed or cajoled into passivity4 ,if1 accordingly1 the mind of ,italy was to survive1 it must be by the assimilation of the culture of freer ,states2 and this culture1 reinforced by the writings of ,leopardi1 generated a new intellectual life1 which was a main factor in the ultimate achievement of ,italian liberation from ,austrian rule4 ,spain1 under ,charles ,,iv1 became so thoroughly re-clericalized at the very outbreak of the ,revolution that no more leeway seemed possible2 but even in ,spain1 early in the nineteenth century1 the government found means to retrogress yet further1 and the minister ,caballero sent an order to the universities forbidding the study of moral philosophy4 ,the king1 he justly declared1 did not want philosophers1 but good and obedient subjects4 #affi ,in ,france1 where the downfall of ,napoleon meant the restoration of the monarchy1 the intellectual reaction was really less powerful than in ,england4 ,the new spirit had been too widely and continuously at work1 from ,voltaire onwards1 to be politically expelled2 and the revolutions of #ahcj and #ahdh gave the proof that even on the political side the old spirit was incapable of permanent recovery4 ,in ,germany1 where freethinking was associated not with the beaten cause of the ,revolution but in large measure with the national movement for liberation from the tyranny of ,napoleon1 #afgj the religious reaction was substantially emotional and unintellectual1 though it had intellectual representatives1 notably ,schleiermacher4 ,apart from his culture-movement1 the revival consisted mainly in a new ,pietism1 partly orthodox1 partly mystical2 #afga and on those lines it ran later to the grossest excesses4 ,but among the educated classes of ,germany there was the minimum of arrest1 because there the intellectual life was least directly associated with the political1 and the ecclesiastical life relatively the least organized4 ,the very separateness of the ,german ,states1 then and later so often deplored by ,german patriots1 was really a condition of relative security for freedom of thought and research2 and the resulting multiplicity of universities meant a variety of intellectual effort not then paralleled in any other country4 #afgb ,what may be ranked as the most important effect of the reaction in ,germany--the turning of ,kant1 ,fichte1 and ,hegel in succession to the task of reconciling rational philosophy with religion in the interests of social order--was in itself a rationalistic process as compared with the attitude of orthodoxy in other lands4 ,german scholarship1 led by the re-organized university of ,berlin1 was in fact one of the most progressive intellectual forces in ,europe during the first half of the nineteenth century2 and only its comparative isolation1 its confinement to a cultured class1 prevented it from affecting popular thought as widely as deism had done in the preceding century4 ,even in the countries in which popular and university culture were less sharply divided1 the ,german influence was held at bay like others4 ,but in time the spirit of progress regained strength1 the most decisive form of recovery being the new development of the struggle for political liberty from about #ahcj onwards4 ,in ,england the advance thenceforward was to be broadly continuous on the political side4 ,on the ,continent it culminated for the time in the explosions of #ahdh1 which were followed in the ,germanic world by another political reaction1 in which freethought suffered2 and in ,france1 after a few years1 by the ,second ,empire1 in which clericalism was again fostered4 ,but these checks have proved impermanent4 ,the ,forces of ,renascence ,as with the cause of democracy1 so with the cause of rationalism1 the forward movement grew only the deeper and more powerful through the check2 and the nineteenth century closed on a record of freethinking progress which may be said to outbulk that of all the previous centuries of the modern era together4 ,so great was the activity of the century in point of mere quantity that it is impossible1 within the scheme of a ,short ,history1 to treat it on even such a reduced scale of narrative as has been applied to the past4 ,a detailed history on national lines from the ,french ,revolution onwards would mean another book as large as the present4 ,on however large a scale it might be written1 further1 it would involve a recognition of international influences such as had never before been evolved1 save when on a much smaller scale the educated world all round read and wrote ,latin4 ,since ,goethe1 the international aspect of culture upon which he laid stress has become ever more apparent2 and scientific and philosophical thought1 in particular1 are world-wide in their scope and bearing4 ,it must here suffice1 therefore1 to take a series of broad and general views of the past century's work1 leaving adequate critical and narrative treatment for separate undertakings4 #afgc ,the most helpful method seems to be that of a conspectus 7#a7 of the main movements and forces that during the century affected in varying degrees the thought of the civilized world1 and 7#b7 of the main advances made and the point reached in the culture of the nations1 separately considered4 ,at the same time1 the forces of rationalism may be discriminated into ,particular and ,general4 ,we may then roughly represent the lines of movement1 in non-chronological order1 as follows3-- ,i4--,forces of criticism and corrective thought bearing expressly on religious beliefs4 #a4 ,in ,great ,britain and ,america1 the new movements of popular freethought begun by ,paine1 and lasting continuously to the present day4 #b4 ,in ,france and elsewhere1 the reverberation of the attack of ,voltaire1 d',holbach1 ,dupuis1 and ,volney1 carried on most persistently in ,catholic countries by the ,freemasons1 as against official orthodoxy after #ahae4 #c4 ,german rationalism1 proceeding from ,english deism1 moving towards naturalist as against supernaturalist conceptions1 dissolving the notion of the miraculous in both ,old and ,new ,testament history1 analysing the literary structure of the sacred books1 and all along affecting studious thought in other countries4 #d4 ,the literary compromise of ,lessing1 claiming for all religions a place in a scheme of divine education4 #e4 ,in ,england1 the neo-,christianity of the school of ,coleridge1 a disintegrating force1 promoting the ,broad ,church tendency1 which in ,dean ,milman was so pronounced as to bring on him charges of rationalism4 #f4 ,the utilitarianism of the school of ,bentham1 carried into moral and social science4 #g4 ,comtism1 making little direct impression on the constructive lines laid by the founder1 but affecting critical thought in many directions4 #h4 ,german philosophy1 ,kantian and post-,kantian1 in particular the ,hegelian1 turned to anti-,christian and anti-supernaturalist account by ,strauss1 ,vatke1 ,bruno ,bauer1 ,feuerbach1 and ,marx4 #i4 ,german atheism and scientific materialism--represented by ,feuerbach and ,bchner 7who1 however1 rejected the term materialism as inappropriate74 #aj4 ,revived ,english deism1 involving destructive criticism of ,christianity1 as in ,hennell1 ,f4 ,w4 ,newman1 ,r4 ,w4 ,mackay1 ,w4 ,r4 ,greg1 ,theodore ,parker1 and ,thomas ,scott1 partly in co-operation with ,unitarianism4 #aa4 ,american transcendentalism or pantheism--the school of ,emerson4 #ab4 ,colenso's preliminary attack on the narrative of the ,pentateuch1 a systematized return to ,voltairean common-sense1 rectifying the unscientific course of the earlier higher criticism on the historical issue4 #ac4 ,the later or scientific higher criticism of the ,old ,testament--represented by ,kuenen1 ,wellhausen1 and their successors4 #ad4 ,new historical criticism of ,christian origins1 in particular the work of ,strauss and ,baur in ,germany1 ,renan and ,havet in ,france1 and their successors4 #ae4 ,exhibition of rationalism within the churches1 as in ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,switzerland generally2 in ,england in the ,essays and ,reviews2 later in multitudes of essays and books1 and in the ethical criticism of the ,old ,testament2 in ,america in popular theology4 #af4 ,association of rationalistic doctrine with the ,socialist movements1 new and old1 from ,owen to ,bebel4 #ag4 ,communication of doubt and moral questioning through poetry and belles-lettres--as in ,shelley1 ,byron1 ,coleridge1 ,clough1 ,tennyson1 ,carlyle1 ,arnold1 ,browning1 ,swinburne1 ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,heine1 ,victor ,hugo1 ,leconte de ,lisle1 ,leopardi1 and certain ,french and ,english novelists4 ,,ii4--,modern ,science1 physical1 mental1 and moral1 sapping the bases of all supernaturalist systems4 #a4 ,astronomy1 newly directed by ,laplace4 #b4 ,geology1 gradually connected 7as in ,britain by ,chambers7 with #c4 ,biology1 made definitely non-deistic by ,darwin4 #d4 ,the comprehension of all science in the ,evolution ,theory1 as by ,spencer1 advancing on ,comte4 #e4 ,psychology1 as regards localization of brain functions4 #f4 ,comparative mythology1 as yet imperfectly applied to ,christism4 #g4 ,sociology1 as outlined by ,comte1 ,buckle1 ,spencer1 ,winwood ,reade1 ,lester ,ward1 ,giddings1 ,tarde1 ,durkheim1 and others1 on strictly naturalistic lines4 #h4 ,comparative ,hierology2 the methodical application of principles insisted on by all the deists1 and formulated in the interests of deism by ,lessing1 but latterly freed of his implications4 #i4 ,above all1 the later development of ,anthropology 7in the wide ,english sense of the term71 which1 beginning to take shape in the eighteenth century1 came to new life in the latter part of the nineteenth2 and is now one of the most widely cultivated of all the sciences--especially on the side of religious creed and psychology4 ,on the other hand1 we may group somewhat as follows the general forces of retardation of freethought operating throughout the century3-- #a4 ,penal laws1 still operative in ,britain and ,germany against popular freethought propaganda1 and till recently in ,britain against any endowment of freethought4 #b4 ,class interests1 involving in the first half of the century a social conspiracy against rationalism in ,england4 #c4 ,commercial pressure thus set up1 and always involved in the influence of churches4 #d4 ,in ,england1 identification of orthodox ,dissent with political ,liberalism--a sedative4 #e4 ,concessions by the clergy1 especially in ,england and the ,united ,states--to many1 another sedative4 #f4 ,above all1 the production of new masses of popular ignorance in the industrial nations1 and continued lack of education in the others4 #g4 ,on this basis1 business-like and in large part secular-minded organization of the endowed churches1 as against a freethought propaganda hampered by the previously named causes1 and in ,england by laws which veto all direct endowment of anti-,christian heresy4 ,it remains to make1 with forced brevity1 the surveys thus outlined4 ,section #a4--,popular ,propaganda and ,culture #a4 ,if any one circumstance more than another differentiates the life of to-day from that of older civilizations1 or from that of previous centuries of the modern era1 it is the diffusion of rationalistic views among the common people4 ,in no other era is to be found the phenomenon of widespread critical skepticism among the labouring masses3 in all previous ages1 though chronic complaint is made of some unbelief among the uneducated1 the constant and abject ignorance of the mass of the people has been the sure foothold of superstitious systems4 ,within the last century the area of the recognizably civilized world has grown far vaster2 and in the immense populations that have thus arisen there is a relative degree of enlightenment1 coupled with a degree of political power never before attained4 ,merely to survey1 then1 the broad movement of popular culture in the period in question will yield a useful notion of the dynamic change in the balance of thought in modern times1 and will make more intelligible the special aspects of the culture process4 ,this vital change in the distribution of knowledge is largely to be attributed to the written and spoken teaching of a line of men who made popular enlightenment their great aim4 ,their leading type among the ,english-speaking races is ,thomas ,paine1 whom we have seen combining a gospel of democracy with a gospel of critical reason in the midst of the ,french ,revolution4 ,never before had rationalism been made widely popular4 ,the ,english and ,french deists had written for the middle and upper classes4 ,peter ,annet was practically the first who sought to reach the multitude2 and his punishment expressed the special resentment aroused in the governing classes by such a policy4 ,of all the ,english freethinkers of the earlier deistical period he alone was selected for reprinting by the propagandists of the ,paine period4 ,paine was to ,annet1 however1 as a cannon to a musket1 and through the democratic ferment of his day he won an audience a hundredfold wider than ,annet could have dreamt of reaching4 ,the anger of the governing classes1 in a time of anti-democratic panic1 was proportional4 ,paine would have been at least imprisoned for his ,rights of ,man had he not fled from ,england in time2 and the sale of all his books was furiously prohibited and ferociously punished4 ,yet they circulated everywhere1 even in ,protestant ,ireland1 #afgd hitherto affected only under the surface of upper-class life by deism4 ,the circulation of ,bishop ,watson's ,apology in reply only served to spread the contagion1 as it brought the issues before multitudes who would not otherwise have heard of them4 #afge ,all the while1 direct propaganda was carried on by translations and reprints as well as by fresh ,english tractates4 ,diderot's ,thoughts on ,religion1 and ,frret's ,letter from ,thrasybulus to ,leucippus1 seem to have been great favourites among the ,painites1 as was ,elihu ,palmer's ,principles of ,nature2 and ,volney's ,ruins of ,empires had a large vogue4 ,condorcet's ,esquisse had been promptly translated in #agie2 the translation of d',holbach's ,system of ,nature reached a third edition in #ahag2 #afgf that of ,raynal's ,history had been reprinted in #ahjd2 and that of ,helvtius ,on the ,mind in #ahaj2 while an ,english abridgment of ,bayle in four volumes1 on freethinking lines1 appeared in #ahbf4 #b4 ,meantime1 new writers arose to carry into fuller detail the attacks of ,paine1 sharpening their weapons on those of the more scholarly ,french deists4 ,a ,life of ,jesus1 including his ,apocryphal ,history1 #afgg was published in #ahah1 with such astute avoidance of all comment that it escaped prosecution4 ,others1 taking a more daring course1 fared accordingly4 ,george ,houston translated the ,ecce ,homo of d',holbach1 first publishing it at ,edinburgh in #agii1 and reprinting it in ,london in #ahac4 ,for the second issue he was prosecuted1 fined #bjj1 and imprisoned for two years in ,newgate4 ,robert ,wedderburn1 a mulatto calling himself the ,rev41 in reality a superannuated journeyman tailor who officiated in ,hopkins ,street ,unitarian ,chapel1 ,london1 was in #ahbj sentenced to two years' imprisonment in ,dorchester ,jail for a blasphemous libel contained in one of his pulpit discourses4 ,his ,letters to the ,rev4 ,solomon ,herschell 7the ,jewish ,chief ,rabbi7 and to the ,archbishop of ,canterbury show a happy vein of orderly irony and not a little learning1 despite his profession of apostolic ignorance2 and at the trial the judge admitted his defence to be exceedingly well drawn up4 ,his publications naturally received a new impetus1 and passed to a more drastic order of mockery4 #c4 ,as the years went on1 the persecution in ,england grew still fiercer2 but it was met with a stubborn hardihood which wore out even the bitter malice of piety4 ,one of the worst features of the religious crusade was that it affected to attack not unbelief but vice1 such being the plea on which ,wilberforce and others prosecuted1 during a period of more than twenty years1 the publishers and booksellers who issued the works of ,paine4 #afgh ,but even that dissembling device did not ultimately avail4 ,a name not to be forgotten by those who value obscure service to human freedom is that of ,richard ,carlile1 who between #ahai and #ahce underwent nine years' imprisonment in his unyielding struggle for the freedom of the ,press1 of thought1 and of speech4 #afgi ,john ,clarke1 an ex-,methodist1 became one of ,carlile's shopmen1 was tried in #ahbd for selling one of his publications1 and after a spirited defence1 in which he read many of the worst passages of the ,bible1 was sentenced to three years' imprisonment1 and to find securities for good behaviour during life4 ,the latter disability he effectively anticipated by writing1 while in prison1 ,a ,critical ,review of the ,life1 ,character1 and ,miracles of ,jesus1 wherein ,christian feelings were treated as ,christians had treated the feelings of freethinkers1 with a much more destructive result4 ,published first1 strangely enough1 in the ,newgate ,magazine1 it was republished in #ahbe and #ahci1 with impunity4 ,thus did a brutal bigotry bring upon itself ever a deadlier retaliation1 till it sickened of the contest4 ,those who threw up the struggle on the orthodox side declaimed as before about the tone of the unbeliever's attack1 failing to read the plain lesson that1 while noisy fanaticism1 doing its own worst and vilest1 deterred from utterance all the gentler and more sympathetic spirits on the side of reason1 the work of reason could be done only by the harder natures1 which gave back blow for blow and insult for insult1 rejoicing in the encounter4 ,thus championed1 freethought could not be crushed4 ,the propagandist and publishing work done by ,carlile was carried on diversely by such free lances as ,robert ,taylor 7ex-clergyman1 author of the ,diegesis1 #ahbi1 and ,the ,devil's ,pulpit1 #ahcj71 ,charles ,southwell 7#ahad-ahfj71 and ,william ,hone1 #afhj who ultimately became an independent preacher4 ,southwell1 a disciple of ,robert ,owen1 who edited ,the ,oracle of ,reason1 was imprisoned for a year in #ahdj for publishing in that journal an article entitled ,the ,jew ,book2 and was succeeded in the editorship by ,george ,jacob ,holyoake 7#ahag-aijf71 another ,owenite missionary1 who met a similar sentence2 whereafter ,george ,adams and his wife1 who continued to publish the journal1 were imprisoned in turn4 ,matilda ,roalfe and ,mrs4 ,emma ,martin about the same period underwent imprisonment for like causes4 #afha ,in this fashion1 by the steady courage of a much-enduring band of men and women1 was set on foot a systematic ,secularist propaganda--the name having relation to the term ,secularism1 coined by ,holyoake4 #d4 ,in this evolution political activities played an important part4 ,henry ,hetherington 7#agib-ahdi71 the strenuous democrat who in #ahcj began the trade union movement1 and so became the founder of ,chartism1 fought for the right of publication in matters of freethought as in politics4 ,after undergoing two imprisonments of six months each 7#ahcb71 and carrying on for three and a half years the struggle for an untaxed ,press1 which ended in his victory 7#ahcd71 he was in #ahdj indicted for publishing ,haslam's ,letters to the ,clergy of all ,denominations1 a freethinking criticism of ,old ,testament morality4 ,he defended himself so ably that ,lord ,denman1 the judge1 confessed to have listened with feelings of great interest and sentiments of respect too2 and ,justice ,talfourd later spoke of the defence as marked by great propriety and talent4 ,nevertheless1 he was punished by four months' imprisonment4 #afhb ,in the following year1 on the advice of ,francis ,place1 he brought a test prosecution for blasphemy against ,moxon1 the poet-publisher1 for issuing ,shelley's complete works1 including ,queen ,mab4 ,talfourd1 then ,serjeant1 defended ,moxon1 and pleaded that there must be some alteration of the law1 or some restriction of the right to put it in action2 but the jury were impartial enough to find the publisher guilty1 though he received no punishment4 #afhc ,among other works published by ,hetherington was one entitled ,a ,hunt after the ,devil1 by ,dr4 ,p4 ,y4 7really by ,lieutenant ,lecount71 in which the story of ,noah's ark was subjected to a destructive criticism4 #afhd #e4 ,holyoake had been a missionary and martyr in the movement of ,socialism set up by ,robert ,owen1 whose teaching1 essentially scientific on its psychological or philosophical side1 was the first effort to give systematic effect to democratic ideals by organizing industry4 ,it was in the discussions of the ,association of all ,classes of all ,nations1 formed by ,owen in #ahce1 that the word ,socialism first became current4 #afhe ,owen was a freethinker in all things2 #afhf and his whole movement was so penetrated by an anti-theological spirit that the clergy as a rule became its bitter enemies1 though such publicists as ,macaulay and ,john ,mill also combined with them in scouting it on political and economic grounds4 #afhg ,up till the middle of #ahag he had on his side a large body of respectable and highly-placed philanthropists1 his notable success in his own social and commercial undertakings being his main recommendation4 ,his early ,essays on the ,formation of ,character1 indeed1 were sufficient to reveal his heterodoxy2 but not until1 at his memorable public meeting on ,august #ba1 #ahag1 he began to expatiate on the gross errors that have been combined with the fundamental notions of every religion that has hitherto been taught to men #afhh did he rank as an aggressive freethinker4 ,it was in his own view the turning-point of his life4 ,he was not prosecuted2 though ,brougham declared that if any politician had said half as much he would have been burned alive2 but the alienation of moderate opinion at once began2 and ,owen1 always more fervid than prudent1 never recovered his influence among the upper classes4 ,nonetheless1 his secularistic teaching gained such influence among the working classes as to give occasion for the statement in the ,westminster ,review 7#ahci7 that his principles were the actual creed of a great portion of them4 #afhi ,owen's polemic method--if it could properly be so called--was not so much a criticism of dogma as a calm impeachment of religion in a spirit of philanthropy4 ,no reformer was ever more entirely free from the spirit of wrath3 on this side ,owen towers above comparison4 ,there is no place found in him for scorn or indignation4 ,he cannot bring himself to speak or think evil of any man4 ,he carried out in his daily life his own teaching that man is not the proper object of praise or blame4 ,throughout his numerous works there is hardly a sentence of indignation--of personal denunciation never4 ,he loves the sinner1 and can hardly bring himself to hate the sin4 #afij ,he had come by his rationalism through the influence rather of ,rousseau than of ,voltaire2 and he had assimilated the philosophic doctrine of determinism--of all ideals the most difficult to realize in conduct--with a thoroughness of which the flawed ,rousseau was incapable4 ,there was thus presented to the world the curious case of a man who on the side of character carried rationalism to the perfection of ideal saintliness1 while in the general application of rational thought to concrete problems he was virtually unteachable4 ,for an absolute and immovable conviction in his own practical rightness was in ,owen as essential a constituent as his absolute benevolence4 #afia ,these were the two poles of his personality4 ,he was1 in short1 a fair embodiment of the ideal formed by many people--doctrine and dogma apart--of the ,gospel ,jesus4 ,and most ,christians accordingly shunned and feared or hated him4 ,such a personality was evidently a formidable force as against the reinforced ,english orthodoxy of the first generation of the nineteenth century4 ,the nature of ,owen's propaganda as against religion may be best sampled from his lecture1 ,the ,new ,religion3 or1 ,religion founded on the ,immutable ,laws of the ,universe1 contrasted with all ,religions founded on ,human ,testimony1 delivered at the ,london ,tavern on ,october #bj1 #ahcj3 #afib-- ,under the arrangements which have hitherto existed for educating and governing man1 four general characters have been produced among the human race4 ,these four characters appear to be formed1 under the past and present arrangements of society1 from four different original organizations at birth4444 ,no4 #a4 ,may be termed the conscientious religious in all countries4 ,no4 #b4 ,unbelievers in the truth of any religion1 but who strenuously support the religion of their country1 under the conviction that1 although religion is not necessary to insure their own good conduct1 it is eminently required to compel others to act right4 ,no4 #c4 ,unbelievers who openly avow their disbelief in the truth of any religion1 such as ,deists1 ,atheists1 ,skeptics1 etc41 etc41 but who do not perceive the laws of nature relative to man as an individual1 or when united in a social state4 ,no4 #d4 ,disbelievers in all past and present religions1 but believers in the eternal unchanging laws of the universe1 as developed by facts derived from all past experience2 and who1 by a careful study of these facts1 deduce from them the religion of nature4 ,class ,no4 #a is formed1 under certain circumstances1 from those original organizations which possess at birth strong moral and weak intellectual faculties4444 ,class ,no4 #b is composed of those individuals who by nature possess a smaller quantity of moral and a larger quantity of intellectual faculty4444 ,class ,no4 #c is composed of men of strong moral and moderate intellectual faculty4444 ,class ,no4 #d comprises those who1 by nature1 possess a high degree of intellectual and moral faculty4444 ,thus all forms of opinion were shown to proceed either from intellectual or moral defect1 save the opinions of ,owen4 ,such propositions1 tranquilly elaborated1 were probably as effective in producing irritation as any frontal attack upon any dogmas1 narratives1 or polities4 ,but1 though not even consistent 7inasmuch as the fundamental thesis that character is formed by circumstances is undermined by the datum of four varieties of organization71 they were potent to influence serious men otherwise broadly instructed as to the nature of religious history and the irrationality of dogma2 and ,owen for a generation1 despite the inevitable failure and frustration of his social schemes1 exercised by his movement a very wide influence on popular life4 ,to a considerable extent it was furthered by the popular deistic philosophy of ,george and ,andrew ,combe--a kind of deistic positivism--which then had a great vogue2 #afic and by the implications of phrenology1 then also in its most scientific and progressive stage4 ,when1 for various reasons1 ,owen's movement dissolved1 the freethinking element seems to have been absorbed in the secular party1 while the others appear to have gone in large part to build up the movement of ,co-operation4 ,on the whole1 the movement of popular freethought in ,england could be described as poor1 struggling1 and persecuted1 only the most hardy and zealous venturing to associate themselves with it4 ,the imprisonment of ,holyoake 7#ahdb7 for six months1 on a trifling charge of blasphemy1 is an illustration of the brutal spirit of public orthodoxy at the time4 #afid ,where bigotry could thus only injure and oppress without suppressing heresy1 it stimulated resistance2 and the result of the stimulus was a revival of popular propaganda which led to the founding of a ,secular ,society in #aheb4 #f4 ,this date broadly coincides with the maximum domination of conventional orthodoxy in ,english life4 ,from about the middle of the century the balance gradually changes4 ,in #aheb we find the publisher ,henry ,bohn reissuing the worthless apologetic works of the ,rev4 ,andrew ,fuller1 with a publisher's preface in which they are said to maintain an acknowledged pre-eminence1 though written at a period of our national history when the writings of ,volney and ,gibbon1 and especially of ,thomas ,paine1 fostered by the political effects of the ,french ,revolution1 had deteriorated the morals of the people1 and infused the poison of infidelity into the disaffected portion of the public4 ,we have here still the note of early-nineteenth-century ,anglican respectability1 not easily to be matched in human history for hollowness and blatancy4 ,fuller is at once one of the most rabid and one of the most futile of the thousand and one defenders of the faith4 ,a sample of his mind and method is the verdict that ,if the light that is gone abroad on earth would permit the rearing of temples to ,venus1 or ,bacchus1 or any of the rabble of heathen deities1 there is little doubt but that modern unbelievers would in great numbers become their devotees2 but1 seeing they cannot have a ,god whose worship shall accord with their inclinations1 they seem determined not to worship at all4 #afie ,in the very next year the same publisher began the issue of a reprint of ,gibbon1 with variorum notes1 edited by ,an ,english ,churchman1 who for the most part defended ,gibbon against his orthodox critics4 ,this enterprise in turn brought upon the pious publisher a fair share of odium4 ,but the second half of the century1 albeit soon darkened by new wars in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 was to be for ,england one of ,liberalism alike in politics and in thought1 free trade1 and relatively free publication1 with progress in enlightenment for both the populace and the educated classes4 #g4 ,in #aheh there was elected to the presidency of the ,london ,secular ,society the young ,charles ,bradlaugh1 one of the greatest orators of his age1 and one of the most powerful personalities ever associated with a progressive movement4 ,early experience of clerical persecution1 which even drove the boy from his father's roof1 helped to make him a fighter1 but never infirmed his humanity4 ,in the main self-taught1 he acquired a large measure of culture in ,french and ,english1 and his rare natural gift for debate was sharpened by a legal training4 ,a personal admirer of ,owen1 he never accepted his social polity1 but was at all times the most zealous of democratic reformers4 ,thenceforward the working masses in ,england were in large part kept in touch with a freethought which drew on the results of the scientific and scholarly research of the time1 and wielded a dialectic of which trained opponents confessed the power4 #afif ,in the place of the bland dogmatism of ,owen1 and the calm assumption that all mankind could and should be schoolmastered into happiness and order1 there came the alert recognition of the absoluteness of individualism as regards conviction1 and its present pre-potency as regards social arrangements4 ,every thesis was brought to the test of argument and evidence2 and in due course many who had complained that ,owen would not argue1 complained that the new school argued everything4 ,the essential thing was that the people were receiving vitally needed instruction2 and were being taught with a new power to think for themselves4 ,incidentally they were freed from an old burden by ,bradlaugh's successful resistance to the demand of suretyship from newspapers1 and by his no less successful battle for the right of non-theistic witnesses to make affirmation instead of taking the oath in the law courts4 #afig ,the inspiration and the instruction of the popular movement thus maintained were at once literary1 scientific1 ethical1 historical1 scholarly1 and philosophic4 ,shelley was its poet2 ,voltaire its first story-teller2 and ,gibbon its favourite historian4 ,in philosophy1 ,bradlaugh learned less from ,hume than from ,spinoza2 in ,biblical criticism--himself possessing a working knowledge of ,hebrew--he collated the work of ,english and ,french specialists1 down to and including ,colenso1 applying all the while to the consecrated record the merciless tests of a consistent ethic4 ,at the same time1 the whole battery of argument from the natural sciences was turned against traditionalism and supernaturalism1 alike in the lectures of ,bradlaugh and the other speakers of his party1 and in the pages of his journal1 ,the ,national ,reformer4 ,the general outcome was an unprecedented diffusion of critical thought among the ,english masses1 and a proportionate antagonism to those who had wrought such a result4 ,when1 therefore1 ,bradlaugh1 as deeply concerned for political as for intellectual righteousness1 set himself to the task of entering ,parliament1 he commenced a struggle which shortened his life1 though it promoted his main objects4 ,not till after a series of electoral contests extending over twelve years was he elected for ,northampton in #ahhj2 and the ,house of ,commons in a manner enacted afresh the long resistance made to him in that city4 #afih ,when1 however1 on his election in #ahhj1 the ,conservative ,opposition began the historic proceedings over the ,oath question1 they probably did even more to deepen and diffuse the popular freethought movement than ,bradlaugh himself had done in the whole of his previous career4 ,the process was furthered by the policy of prosecuting and imprisoning 7#ahhc7 ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,foote1 editor of the ,freethinker1 under the ,blasphemy ,laws--a course not directly ventured on as against ,bradlaugh1 though it was sought to connect him with the publication of ,mr4 ,foote's journal4 ,to this day it is common to give a false account of the origin of the episode1 representing ,bradlaugh as having forced his opinions on the attention of the ,house4 ,rather he strove unduly to avoid wounding religious feeling4 ,wont to make affirmation by law in the courts of justice1 he held that the same law applied to the oath of allegiance1 and felt that it would be unseemly on his part to use the words of adjuration if he could legally affirm4 ,on this point he expressly consulted the law officers of the ,crown1 and they gave the opinion that he had the legal right1 which was his own belief as a lawyer4 ,the faction called the fourth party1 however1 saw an opportunity to embarrass the ,gladstone ,government by challenging the act of affirmation1 and thus arose the protracted struggle4 ,only when a committee of the ,house decided that he could not properly affirm did ,bradlaugh propose to take the oath1 in order to take his seat4 ,the pretence of zeal for religion1 made by the politicians who had raised the issue1 was known by all men to be the merest hypocrisy4 ,lord ,randolph ,churchill1 who distinguished himself by insisting on the moral necessity for a belief in some divinity or other1 is recorded to have professed a special esteem for ,mr4 7now ,lord7 ,morley1 the most distinguished ,positivist of his time4 #afii ,the whole procedure1 in ,parliament and out1 was so visibly that of the lowest political malice1 exploiting the crudest religious intolerance1 that it turned into active freethinkers many who had before been only passive doubters1 and raised the secularist party to an intensity of zeal never before seen4 ,at no period in modern ,british history had there been so constant and so keen a platform propaganda of unbelief2 so unsparing an indictment of ,christian doctrine1 history1 and practice2 such contemptuous rebuttal of every ,christian pretension2 such asperity of spirit against the creed which was once more being championed by chicanery1 calumny1 and injustice4 ,in those five years of indignant warfare were sown the seeds of a more abundant growth of rationalism than had ever before been known in the ,british ,islands4 ,with invincible determination ,bradlaugh fought his case through ,parliament and the law courts1 incurring debts which forced upon him further toils that clearly shortened his life1 but never yielding for an instant in his battle with the bigotry of half the nation4 ,liberalism was shamed by many defections2 ,conservatism1 with the assent of ,mr4 ,balfour1 was solid for injustice2 #agjj and in the entire ,church of ,england less than a dozen priests stood for tolerance4 ,but the cause at stake was indestructible4 ,when ,bradlaugh at length took the oath and his seat in #ahhf1 under a ruling of the new ,speaker 7,peel7 which stultified the whole action of the ,speaker and majorities of the previous ,parliament1 and no less that of the law courts1 straightforward freethought stood three-fold stronger in ,england than in any previous generation4 ,apart from their educative work1 the struggles and sufferings of the secularist leaders won for ,great ,britain the abolition within one generation of the old burden of suretyship on newspapers1 and of the disabilities of non-theistic witnesses2 the freedom of public meeting in the ,london parks2 the right of avowed atheists to sit in ,parliament 7,bradlaugh having secured in #ahhh their title to make affirmation instead of oath72 and the virtual discredit of the ,blasphemy ,laws as such4 ,it is probable also that the treatment meted out to ,mrs4 ,besant--then associated with ,bradlaugh in freethought propaganda--marked the end of another form of tyrannous outrage1 already made historic in the case of ,shelley4 ,secured the custody of her children under a marital deed of separation1 she was deprived of it at law 7#ahgi7 on her avowal of atheistic opinions1 with the result that her influence as a propagandist was immensely increased4 #h4 ,the special energy of the ,english secularist movement in the ninth decade was partly due to the fact that by that time there had appeared a remarkable amount of modern freethinking literature of high literary and intellectual quality1 and good social status4 ,down to #ahgj the new literary names committed to the rejection of ,christianity1 apart from the men of science who kept to their own work1 were the theists ,hennell1 ,f4 ,w4 ,newman1 ,w4 ,e4 ,greg1 ,r4 ,w4 ,mackay1 ,buckle1 and ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,lecky1 all of them influential1 but none of them at once recognized as a first-rate force4 ,but with the appearance of ,lecky's ,history of the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit of ,rationalism in ,europe 7#ahfe71 lacking though it was in clearness of thought1 a new tone began to prevail2 and his ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne 7#ahfi71 equally readable and not more uncompromising1 was soon followed by a series of powerful pronouncements of a more explicit kind4 ,one of the first of the literary class to come forward with an express impeachment of ,christianity was ,moncure ,daniel ,conway1 whose ,earthward ,pilgrimage 7#ahgj7 was the artistic record of a gifted preacher's progress from ,wesleyan ,methodism1 through ,unitarianism1 to a theism which was soon to pass into agnosticism4 ,in #ahga appeared the remarkable work of ,winwood ,reade1 ,the ,martyrdom of ,man1 wherein a rapid survey of ancient and medieval history1 and of the growth of religion from savage beginnings1 leads up to a definitely anti-theistic presentment of the future of human life with the claim to have shown that the destruction of ,christianity is essential to the interests of civilization4 #agja ,some eighteen editions tell of the acceptance won by the book4 ,less vogue1 but some startled notice1 was won by the ,duke of ,somerset's ,christian ,theology and ,modern ,scepticism 7#ahgb71 a work of moderate rationalism1 but by a peer4 ,in #ahgc appeared ,herbert ,spencer's ,introduction to the ,study of ,sociology1 wherein the implicit anti-supernaturalism of that philosopher's ,first ,principles was advanced upon1 in the chapter on ,the ,theological ,bias1 by a mordant attack on that ,christian creed4 ,that attack had been preceded by ,matthew ,arnold's ,literature and ,dogma 7#ahgb71 wherein the publicist who had censured ,colenso for not writing in ,latin described the ,christian doctrine of the ,trinity as the fairy-tale of three ,lord ,shaftesburys4 ,much pleading for the recognition by unbelievers of the value of the ,bible failed to convince ,christians of the value of such a thinker's ,christianity4 ,a more important sensation was provided in #ahgc by the posthumous publication of ,mill's ,autobiography1 and1 in the following year1 by his ,three ,essays on ,religion1 which exhibited its esteemed author as not only not a ,christian but as never having been one1 although he formulated a species of limited liability theism1 as unsatisfactory to the rationalists as to the orthodox4 ,still the fresh manifestations of freethinking multiplied4 ,on the one hand the massive treatise entitled ,supernatural ,religion 7#ahgd71 and on the other the freethinking essays of ,prof4 ,w4 ,k4 ,clifford in the ,fortnightly ,review1 the most vigorously outspoken ever yet written by an ,english academic1 showed that the whole field of debate was being reopened with a new power and confidence4 ,the ,history of ,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth ,century1 by ,leslie ,stephen 7#ahgf71 set up the same impression from another side2 yet another social sensation was created by the appearance of ,viscount ,amberley's ,analysis of ,religious ,belief 7#ahgg72 and all the while the ,higher ,criticism proceeded within the pale of the ,church4 ,the literary situation was now so changed that1 whereas from #ahej to #ahhj the sensations in the religious world were those made by rationalistic attacks1 thereafter they were those made by new defences4 ,h4 ,drummond's ,natural ,law in the ,spiritual ,world 7#ahhc71 ,mr4 ,balfour's ,defence of ,philosophic ,doubt 7#ahgi7 and ,foundations of ,belief 7#ahie71 and ,mr4 ,kidd's ,social ,evolution 7#ahid71 were successively welcomed as being declared to render such a service4 ,it is doubtful whether they are to-day valued upon that score in any quarter4 #i4 ,in the first half of the century popular forms of freethought propaganda were hardly possible in other ,european countries4 ,france had been too long used to regulation alike under the monarchy and under the empire to permit of open promotion of unbelief in the early years of the ,restoration4 ,yet as early as #ahbh we find the ,protestant ,coquerel avowing that in his day the ,bourbonism of the ,catholic clergy had revived the old anti-clericalism1 and that it was common to find the most high-minded patriots unbelievers and materialists4 #agjb ,but still more remarkable was the persistence of deep freethinking currents in the ,catholic world throughout the century4 ,about #ahcj rationalism had become normal among the younger students at ,paris2 #agjc and the revolution of that year elicited a charter putting all religions on an equality4 #agjd ,soon the throne and the chambers were on a footing of practical hostility to the ,church4 #agje ,under ,louis ,philippe men dared to teach in the ,collge de ,france that the ,christian dispensation is but one link in the chain of divine revelations to man4 #agjf ,even during the first period of reaction after the restoration numerous editions of ,volney's ,ruines and of the ,abrg #agjg of ,dupuis's ,origine de tous les ,cultes served to maintain among the more intelligent of the proletariat an almost scientific rationalism1 which can hardly be said to have been improved on by such historiography as that of ,renan's ,vie de ,jsus4 ,and there were other forces1 over and above freemasonry1 which in ,france and other ,latin countries has since the ,revolution been steadily anti-clerical4 ,the would-be social reconstructor ,charles ,fourier 7#aggb-ahcg7 was an independent and non-,christian though not an anti-clerical theist1 and his system may have counted for something as organizing the secular spirit among the workers in the period of the monarchic and ,catholic reaction4 ,fourier approximated to ,christianity inasmuch as he believed in a divine ,providence2 but like ,owen he had an unbounded and heterodox faith in human goodness and perfectibility2 and he claimed to have discovered the plan of ,god for men4 ,but ,fourier was never1 like ,owen1 a popular force2 and popular rationalism went on other lines4 ,at no time was the proletariat of ,paris otherwise than largely ,voltairean after the ,revolution1 of which one of the great services 7carried on by ,napoleon7 was an improvement in popular education4 ,the rival non-,christian systems of ,saint-,simon 7#agfj-ahbc7 and ,auguste ,comte 7#agih-aheg7 also never took any practical hold among them2 but throughout the century they have been fully the most freethinking working-class population in the world4 ,as to ,fourier see the ,o,euvres ,choisies de ,fourier1 ed4 ,ch4 ,gide1 pp4 #a-c1 #i4 ,cp4 ,solidarit3 ,vue ,synthtique sur la doctrine de ,ch4 ,fourier1 par ,hippolyte ,renaud1 #c;e dit4 #ahdf1 ch4 i3 ,pour ramener l'homme la foi en ,dieu1 writes ,renaud1 il faut lui offrir aujourd'hui une foi complte et compose1 une foi solidement assise sur le tmoignage de la raison4 ,pour cela il faut que la flambeau de la science dissipe toutes les obscurits 7p4 #i74 ,this is not propitious to dogma2 but ,fourier planned and promised to leave priests and ministers undisturbed in his new world1 and even declared religions to be much superior to uncertain sciences4 ,gide1 introd4 to ,o,euvres ,choisies1 pp4 xxii-xxiii1 citing ,manuscrits1 vol4 de #ahec-ahef1 p4 #bic4 ,cp4 ,dr4 ,ch4 ,pellarin1 ,fourier1 sa vie et sa thorie1 #e;e dit4 p4 #adc4 ,saint-,simon1 who proposed a new ,christianity1 expressly guarded against direct appeals to the people4 ,see ,weil1 ,saint-,simon et son ,o,euvre1 #ahid1 p4 #aic4 ,as to the ,saint-,simonian sect1 see an interesting testimony by ,renan1 ,les ,aptres1 p4 #adh4 ,the generation after the fall of ,napoleon was pre-eminently the period of new schemes of society2 and it is noteworthy that they were all non-,christian1 though all1 including even ,owen's1 claimed to provide a religion1 and the ,french may seem all to have been convinced by ,napoleon's practice that some kind of cult must be provided for the peoples4 ,owen alone rejected alike supernaturalism and cultus2 and his movement left the most definite rationalistic traces4 ,all seem to have been generated by the double influence of 7#a7 the social failure of the ,french ,revolution1 which left so many anxious for another and better effort at reconstruction1 and 7#b7 of the spectacle of the rule of ,napoleon1 which seems to have elicited new ideals of beneficent autocracy4 ,owen1 ,fourier1 ,saint-,simon1 and ,comte were all alike would-be founders of a new society or social religion4 ,it seems probable that this proclivity to systematic reconstruction1 in a world which still carried a panic-memory of one great social overturn1 helped to lengthen the rule of orthodoxy4 ,considerably more progress was made when freethought became detached from special plans of polity1 and grew up anew by way of sheer truth-seeking on all the lines of inquiry4 ,in ,france1 however1 the freethinking tradition from the eighteenth century never passed away1 at least as regards the life of the great towns4 ,and while ,napoleon ,,iii made it his business to conciliate the ,church1 which in the person of the somewhat latitudinarian ,darboy1 ,archbishop of ,paris1 had endorsed his coup d'tat of #ahea1 #agjh even under his rule the irreversible movement of freethought revealed itself among his own ministers4 ,victor ,duruy1 the eminent historian1 his energetic ,minister of ,education1 was a freethinker1 non-aggressive towards the ,church1 but perfectly determined not to permit aggression by it4 #agji ,and when the ,church1 in its immemorial way1 declaimed against all forms of rationalistic teaching in the colleges1 and insisted on controlling the instruction in all the schools1 #agaj his firm resistance made him one of its most hated antagonists4 ,even in the ,senate1 then the asylum of all forms of antiquated thought and prejudice1 ,duruy was able to carry his point against the prelates1 ,sainte-,beuve strongly and skilfully supporting him4 #agaa ,thus in the ,france of the ,third ,empire1 on the open field of the educational battle-ground between faith and reason1 the rationalistic advance was apparent in administration no less than in the teaching of the professed men of science and the polemic of the professed critics of religion4 #aj4 ,in other ,catholic countries the course of popular culture in the first half of the century was not greatly dissimilar to that seen in ,france1 though less rapid and expansive4 ,thus we find the ,spanish ,inquisitor-,general in #ahae declaring that all the world sees with horror the rapid progress of unbelief1 and denouncing the errors and the new and dangerous doctrines which have passed from other countries to ,spain4 #agab ,this evolution was to some extent checked2 but in the latter half of the century1 especially in the last thirty years1 all the ,catholic countries of ,europe were more or less permeated with demotic freethought1 usually going hand in hand with republican or socialistic propaganda in politics4 ,it is indeed a significant fact that freethought propaganda is often most active in countries where the ,catholic ,church is most powerful4 ,thus in ,belgium there are at least three separate federations1 standing for hundreds of freethinking groups2 in ,spain1 a few years ago1 there were freethought societies in all the large towns1 and at least half-a-dozen freethought journals2 in ,portugal there have been a number of societies--a weekly journal1 ,o ,secolo1 of ,lisbon1 and a monthly review1 ,o ,livre ,exame4 ,in ,france and ,italy1 where educated society is in large measure rationalistic1 the ,masonic lodges do most of the personal and social propaganda2 but there are federations of freethought societies in both countries4 ,in ,switzerland freethought is more aggressive in the ,catholic than in the ,protestant cantons4 #agac ,in the ,south ,american republics1 again1 as in ,italy and ,france1 the ,masonic lodges are predominantly freethinking2 and in ,peru there was1 a few years ago1 a ,freethought ,league1 with a weekly organ4 ,as long ago as #ahef the ,american diplomatist and archologist1 ,squier1 wrote that1 ,although the people of ,honduras1 in common with those of ,central ,america in general1 are nominally ,catholics1 yet1 among those capable of reflection or possessed of education1 there are more who are destitute of any fixed creed--,rationalists or1 as they are sometimes called1 ,freethinkers1 than adherents of any form of religion4 #agad ,that the movement is also active in the other republics of the southern continent may be inferred from the facts that a ,positivist organization has long subsisted in ,brazil2 that its members were active in the peaceful revolution which there substituted a republic for a monarchy2 and that at the ,freethought ,congresses of ,rome and ,paris in #aijd and #aije there was an energetic demand for a ,congress at ,buenos ,aires1 which was finally agreed to for #aijf4 ,while popular propaganda is hardly possible save on political lines1 freethinking journalism has counted for much in the most ,catholic parts of ,southern ,europe4 ,the influence of such journals is to be measured not by their circulation1 which is never great1 but by their keeping up a habit of more or less instructed freethinking among readers1 to many of whom the instruction is not otherwise easily accessible4 ,probably the least ambitious of them is an intellectual force of a higher order than the highest grade of popular religious journalism2 while some of the stronger1 as ,de ,dageraad of ,amsterdam1 have ranked as high-class serious reviews4 ,in the more free and progressive countries1 however1 freethought affects all periodical literature2 and in ,france it partly permeates the ordinary newspapers4 ,in ,england1 where a series of monthly or weekly publications of an emphatically freethinking sort has been nearly continuous from about #ahdj1 #agae new ones rising in place of those which succumbed to the commercial difficulties1 such periodicals suffer an economic pinch in that they cannot hope for much income from advertisements1 which are the chief sustenance of popular journals and magazines4 ,the same law holds elsewhere2 but in ,england and ,america the high-priced reviews have been gradually opened to rationalistic articles1 the way being led by the ,english ,westminster ,review #agaf and ,fortnightly ,review1 both founded with an eye to freer discussion4 ,among the earlier freethinking periodicals may be noted ,the ,republican1 #ahai-bf 7edited by ,carlile72 ,the ,deist's ,magazine1 #ahbj2 ,the ,lion1 #ahbh 7,carlile72 ,the ,prompter1 #ahcj 7,carlile72 ,the ,gauntlet1 #ahcc 7,carlile72 ,the ,atheist and ,republican1 #ahda-db2 ,the ,blasphemer1 #ahdb2 ,the ,oracle of ,reason 7founded by ,southwell71 #ahdb1 etc42 ,the ,reasoner and ,herald of ,progress 7largely conducted by ,holyoake71 #ahdf-ahfa2 ,cooper's ,journal2 or1 unfettered ,thinker1 etc41 #ahej1 etc42 ,the ,movement1 #ahdc2 ,the ,freethinker's ,information for the ,people 7undated3 after #ahdj72 ,freethinker's ,magazine1 #ahej1 etc42 ,london ,investigator1 #ahed1 etc4 ,bradlaugh's ,national ,reformer1 begun in #ahfj1 lasted till #ahic4 ,mr4 ,foote's ,freethinker1 begun in #ahha1 still subsists4 ,various freethinking monthlies have risen and fallen since #ahhj--;e4g41 ,our ,corner1 edited by ,mrs4 ,besant1 #ahhc-hh2 ,the ,liberal and ,progress1 edited by ,mr4 ,foote1 #ahgi-hg2 the ,free ,review1 transformed into the ,university ,magazine1 #ahic-ahih4 ,the ,reformer1 a monthly1 edited by ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner1 subsisted from #ahig to #aijd4 ,the ,literary ,guide1 which began as a small sheet in #ahhe1 flourishes4 ,since #aijj1 a popular ,socialist journal1 ,the ,clarion1 has declared for rationalism through the pen of its editor1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,blatchford 7,nunquam71 whose polemic has caused much controversy4 ,for a generation back1 further1 rationalistic essays have appeared from time to time not only in the ,fortnightly ,review 7founded by ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 and long edited by ,mr4 ,john 7now ,lord7 ,morley1 much of whose writing on the ,french philosophes appeared in its pages71 but in the ,nineteenth ,century1 wherein was carried on1 for instance1 the famous controversy between ,mr4 ,gladstone and ,prof4 ,huxley4 ,in the early 'seventies1 the ,cornhill ,magazine1 under the editorship of ,leslie ,stephen1 issued serially ,matthew ,arnold's ,literature and ,dogma and ,st4 ,paul and ,protestantism4 ,in the latter years of the century quite a number of reviews1 some of them short-lived1 gave space to advanced opinions4 ,but propaganda has latterly become more and more a matter of all-pervading literary influence1 the immense circulation of the sixpenny reprints of the ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 having put the advanced literature of the last generation within the reach of all4 #aa4 ,in ,germany1 as we have seen1 the relative selectness of culture1 the comparative aloofness of the enlightened from the mass of the people1 made possible after the ,war of ,independence a certain pietistic reaction1 in the absence of any popular propagandist machinery or purpose on the side of the rationalists4 ,in the opinion of an evangelical authority1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 through modern enlightenment 7,aufklrung7 the people had become indifferent to the ,church2 the ,bible was regarded as a merely human book1 the ,saviour merely as a person who had lived and taught long ago1 not as one whose almighty presence is with his people still4 #agag ,according to the same authority1 before the war1 the indifference to the word of ,god which prevailed among the upper classes had penetrated to the lower2 but after it1 a desire for the ,scriptures was everywhere felt4 #agah ,this involves an admission that the religion of the heart propounded by ,schleiermacher in his addresses ,on ,religion to the educated among its despisers #agai 7#agii7 was not really a ,christian revival at all4 ,schleiermacher himself in #ahjc declared that in ,prussia there was almost no attendance on public worship1 and the clergy had fallen into profound discredit4 #agbj ,a pietistic movement had1 however1 begun during the period of the ,french ascendancy2 #agba and seeing that the freethinking of the previous generation had been in part associated with ,french opinion1 it was natural that on this side anti-,french feeling should promote a reversion to older and more national forms of feeling4 ,thus after the fall of ,napoleon the tone of the students who had fought in the war seems to have been more religious than that of previous years4 #agbb ,inasmuch1 however1 as the enlightenment of the scholarly class was maintained1 and applied anew to critical problems1 the religious revival did not turn back the course of progress4 ,when the third centenary commemoration1 in #ahag1 of the ,reformation approached1 the ,prussian people were in a state of stolid indifference1 apparently1 on religious matters4 #agbc ,alongside of the pietistic reaction of the ,liberation period there went on an open ecclesiastical strife1 dating from an anti-rationalist declaration by the ,court preacher ,reinhard at ,dresden in #ahaa1 #agbd between the rationalists or ,friends of ,light and the ,scripturalists of the old school2 and the effect was a general disintegration of orthodoxy1 despite1 or it may be largely in virtue of1 the governmental policy of rewarding the ,pietists and discouraging their opponents in the way of official appointments4 #agbe ,the ,prussian measure 7#ahag7 of forcibly uniting the ,lutheran and ,calvinistic ,churches1 with a neutral sacramental ritual in which the eucharist was treated as a historical commemoration1 tended to the same consequences1 though it also revived old ,lutheran zeal2 #agbf and when the new revolutionary movement broke out in #ahdh1 popular feeling was substantially non-religious4 ,in the south of ,germany especially the conflict of political opinions and revolutionary tendencies produced1 in the first instance1 an entire prostration of religious sentiment4 ,the bulk of society showed entire indifference to worship1 the churches being everywhere deserted2 and atheism was openly avowed1 and ,christianity ridiculed as the invention of priestcraft4 #agbg ,one result was a desperate effort of the clergy to effect a union among all who retained any measure of ,christian belief1 in order to raise up their national religion and faith from the lowest state into which it has ever fallen since the ,french ,revolution4 ,but the clerical effort evoked a counter effort4 ,already1 in #ahdf1 official interference with freedom of utterance led to the formation of a free religious society by ,dr4 ,rupp1 of ,knigsberg1 one of the ,friends of ,light in the ,state ,church2 and he was followed by ,wislicenus of ,halle1 a ,hegelian1 and by ,uhlich of ,magdeburg4 #agbh ,as a result of the determined pressure1 social and official1 which ensued on the collapse of the revolution of #ahdh1 these societies failed to develop on the scale of their beginnings2 and that of ,magdeburg1 which at the outset had #g1jjj members1 has latterly only #ejj2 though that of ,berlin has nearly #d1jjj4 #agbi ,there is further a ,freidenker ,bund1 with branches in many towns2 and the two organizations1 with their total membership of some fifty thousand1 may be held to represent the militant side of popular freethought in ,germany4 ,this1 however1 constitutes only a fraction of the total amount of passive rationalism4 ,there is a large measure of enlightenment in both the working and the middle classes2 and the ostensible force of orthodoxy among the official and conformist middle class is in many respects illusory4 ,the ,german police laws put a rigid check on all manner of platform and press propaganda which could be indicted as hurting the feelings of religious people2 so that a jest at the ,holy ,coat of ,trves could even in recent years send a journalist to jail1 and the platform work of the militant societies is closely trammelled4 ,yet there are1 or have been1 over a dozen journals which so far as may be take the freethought side2 #agcj and the whole stress of ,bismarckian reaction and of official orthodoxy under the present ,kaiser has never availed to make the tone of popular thought pietistic4 ,karl ,marx1 the prophet of the ,german ,socialist movement 7#ahah-ahhc71 laid it down as part of its mission to free consciousness from the religious spectre2 and his two most influential followers in ,germany1 ,bebel and ,liebknecht1 were avowed atheists1 the former even going so far as to avow officially in the ,reichstag that the aim of our party is on the political plane the republican form of ,state2 on the economic1 ,socialism2 and on the plane which we term the religious1 atheism2 #agca though the party attempts no propaganda of the latter order4 ,christianity and ,social-,democracy1 said ,bebel again1 are opposed as fire and water4 #agcb ,some index to the amount of popular freethought that normally exists under the surface in ,germany is furnished1 further1 by the strength of the ,german freethought movement in the ,united ,states1 where1 despite the tendency to the adoption of the common speech1 there grew up in the last quarter of the nineteenth century many ,german freethinking societies1 a ,german federation of atheists1 and a vigorous popular organ1 ,der ,freidenker4 ,thus1 under the sounder moral and economic conditions of the life of the proletariate in ,germany1 straightforward rationalism1 as apart from propaganda1 is becoming among them more and more the rule4 ,the bureaucratic control of education forces religious teaching in the common schools2 and there is no conscience clause for unbelieving parents4 #agcc ,a ,protestant pastor at the end of the century made an investigation into the state of religious opinion among the working ,socialists of some provincial towns and rural districts1 and found everywhere a determined attitude of rationalism4 ,the formula of the ,social ,democrats1 ,religion is a private matter1 he bitterly perceives to carry the implication a private matter for the fools2 and while he holds that the belief in a speedy collapse of the ,christian religion is latterly less common than formerly among the upper and middle classes1 he complains that the ,socialists are not similarly enlightened4 #agcd ,bebel's drastic teaching as to the economic and social conditions of the rise of ,christianity1 #agce and the materialistic theory of history set forth by ,marx and ,engels1 he finds generally accepted4 ,not only do most of the party leaders declare themselves to be without religion1 but those who do not so declare themselves are so no less4 #agcf ,nor is the unbelief a mere sequel to the ,socialism3 often the development is the other way4 #agcg ,the opinion is almost universal1 further1 that the clergy in general do not believe what they teach4 #agch ,atheists are numerous among the peasantry2 more numerous among the workers in the provincial towns2 and still more numerous in the large towns2 #agci and while many take a sympathetic view of ,jesus as a man and teacher1 not a few deny his historic existence #agdj--;a view set forth in non-,socialist circles also4 #agda #ab4 ,under the widely-different political conditions in ,russia and the ,scandinavian ,states it is the more significant that in all alike rationalism is latterly common among the educated classes4 ,in ,norway the latter perhaps include a larger proportion of working people than can be so classed even in ,germany2 and rationalism is relatively hopeful1 though social freedom is still far from perfect4 ,it is the old story of toleration for a dangerously well-placed freethought1 and intolerance for that which reaches the common people4 ,in ,russia rationalism has before it the task of transmuting a system of autocracy into one of self-government4 ,in no ,european country1 perhaps1 is rationalism more general among the educated classes2 and in none is there a greater mass of popular ignorance4 #agdb ,the popular icon-worship in ,moscow can hardly be paralleled outside of ,asia4 ,on the other hand1 the aristocracy became ,voltairean in the eighteenth century1 and has remained more or less incredulous since1 though it now joins hands with the ,church2 while the democratic movement1 in its various phases of socialism1 constitutionalism1 and ,nihilism1 has been markedly anti-religious since the second quarter of the century4 #agdc ,subsidiary revivals of mysticism1 such as are chronicled in other countries1 are of course to be seen in ,russia2 but the instructed class1 the intelliguentia1 is essentially naturalistic in its cast of thought4 ,this state of things subsists despite the readiness of the government to suppress the slightest sign of official heterodoxy in the universities4 #agdd ,the struggle is thus substantially between the spirit of freedom and that of arbitrary rule2 and the fortunes of freethought go with the former4 #ac4 ,free-religious societies1 such as have been noted in ,germany1 may be rated as forms of moderate freethought propaganda1 and are to be found in all ,protestant countries1 with all shades of development4 ,a movement of the kind has existed for a number of years back in ,america1 in the ,new ,england ,states and elsewhere1 and may be held to represent a theistic or agnostic thought too advanced to adhere even to the ,unitarianism which during the two middle quarters of the century was perhaps the predominant creed in ,new ,england4 ,the ,theistic ,church conducted by the ,rev4 ,charles ,voysey after his expulsion from the ,church of ,england in #ahga to his death in #aiab1 and since then by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,walter ,walsh1 is an example4 ,another type of such a gradual and peaceful evolution is the ,south ,place ,institute 7formerly ,chapel7 of ,london1 where1 under the famous orator ,w4 ,j4 ,fox1 nominally a ,unitarian1 there was preached between #ahbd and #aheb a theism tending to pantheism1 perhaps traceable to elements in the doctrine of ,priestley1 and passed on by ,mr4 ,fox to ,robert ,browning4 #agde ,in #ahfd the charge passed to ,moncure ,d4 ,conway1 under whom the congregation quietly advanced during twenty years from ,unitarianism to a non-scriptural rationalism1 embracing the shades of philosophic theism1 agnosticism1 and anti-theism4 ,in ,conway's ,lessons for the ,day will be found a series of peculiarly vivid mementos of that period1 a kind of itinerary1 more intimate than any retrospective record4 ,the latter part of his life1 partly preserved in one of the most interesting autobiographies of the century1 was spent between ,england and the ,united ,states and in travel4 ,after his first withdrawal to the ,states in #ahhd the ,institute became an open platform for rationalist and non-theological ethics and social and historical teaching1 and it now stands as an ,ethical ,society in touch with the numerous groups so named which have come into existence in ,england in the last dozen years on lines originally laid down by ,dr4 ,felix ,adler in ,new ,york4 ,at the time of the present writing the ,english societies of this kind number between twenty and thirty1 the majority being in ,london and its environs4 ,their open adherents1 who are some thousands strong1 are in most cases non-theistic rationalists1 and include many former members of the ,secularist movement1 of which the organization has latterly dwindled4 ,on partly similar lines there were developed in provincial towns about the end of the century a small number of ,labour ,churches1 in which the tendency was to substitute a rationalist humanitarian ethic for supernaturalism2 and the same lecturers frequently spoke from their platforms and from those of ,ethical and ,secularist societies4 ,of late1 however1 the ,labour ,churches have tended to disappear4 ,all this means no resumption of church-going1 but1 by the confession of the ,churches1 a completer secularization of the ,sunday4 #ad4 ,alongside of the lines of movement before sketched1 there has subsisted in ,england during the greater part of the nineteenth century a considerable organization of ,unitarianism4 ,in the early years of the nineteenth century it was strong enough to obtain the repeal 7#ahac7 of the penal laws against anti-,trinitarianism1 whereafter the use of the name ,unitarian became more common1 and a sect so called was founded formally in #ahbe4 ,when the heretical preachers of the ,presbyterian sect began openly to declare themselves as ,unitarians1 there naturally arose a protest from the orthodox1 and an attempt was made in #ahcc to save from its new destination the property owned by the heretical congregations4 #agdf ,this was frustrated by the ,dissenters' ,chapels ,act of #ahdd1 which gave to each group singly the power to interpret its trust in its own fashion4 ,thenceforward the sect prospered considerably1 albeit not so greatly as in the ,united ,states4 ,during the century ,english ,unitarianism has been associated with scholarship through such names as ,john ,kenrick and ,samuel ,sharpe1 the historians of ,egypt1 and ,j4 ,j4 ,tayler2 and1 less directly1 with philosophy in the person of ,dr4 ,james ,martineau1 who1 however1 was rather a coadjutor than a champion of the sect4 ,in the ,united ,states the movement1 greatly aided to popularity by the eloquent humanism of the two ,channings1 lost the prestige of the name of ,emerson1 who had been one of its ministers1 by the inability of his congregation to go the whole way with him in his opinions4 ,in #ahec ,emerson told the young ,moncure ,conway that the ,unitarian ,churches were stated to be no longer producing ministers equal to their forerunners1 but were more and more finding their best men in those coming from orthodox ,churches1 who would1 of course1 have some enthusiasm for their new faith4 #agdg ,latterly ,unitarians have been entitled to say that the ,trinitarian ,churches are approximating to their position4 #agdh ,such an approach1 however1 involves rather a weakening than a strengthening of the smaller body2 though some of its teachers are to the full as bigoted and embittered in their propaganda as the bulk of the traditionally orthodox4 ,others adhere to their ritual practices in the spirit of use and wont1 as ,emerson found when he sought to rationalize in his own ,church the usage of the eucharist4 #agdi ,on the other hand1 numbers have passed from ,unitarianism to thoroughgoing rationalism2 and some whole congregations1 following more or less the example of that of ,south ,place ,chapel1 have latterly reached a position scarcely distinguishable from that of the ,ethical ,societies4 #ae4 ,a partly similar evolution has taken place among the ,protestant ,churches of ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,hungary1 and ,holland4 ,french ,protestantism could not but be intellectually moved by the intense ferment of the ,revolution2 and1 when finally secured against active oppression from the ,catholic side1 could not but develop an intellectual opposition to the ,catholic ,reaction after #ahae4 ,in ,switzerland1 always in intellectual touch with ,france and ,germany1 the tendencies which had been stamped as ,socinian in the days of ,voltaire soon reasserted themselves so strongly as to provoke fanatical reaction4 #agej ,the nomination of ,strauss to a chair of theology at ,zrich by a ,radical ,government in #ahci actually gave rise to a violent revolt1 inflamed and led by ,protestant clergymen4 ,the ,executive ,council were expelled1 and a number of persons killed in the strife4 #agea ,in the canton of ,aargau in #ahda1 again1 the cry of religion in danger sufficed to bring about a ,catholic insurrection against a ,liberal ,council2 and yet again in #ahdd it led1 among the ,catholics of the ,valais canton1 to the bloodiest insurrection of all4 ,since these disgraceful outbreaks the progress of ,rationalism in ,switzerland has been steady4 ,in #ahdg a chair was given at ,berne to the rationalistic scholar ,zeller1 without any such resistance as was made to ,strauss at ,zrich4 ,in #ahib1 out of a total number of #c1aea students in the five universities of ,switzerland and in the academies of ,fribourg and ,neuchtel1 the number of theological students was only #cgd1 positively less than that of the teaching staff1 which was #dca4 ,leaving out the academies named1 which had no medical faculty1 the number of theological students stood at #bge out of #b1iag4 ,the ,church in ,switzerland has thus undergone the relative restriction in power and prestige seen in the other ,european countries of long-established culture4 ,the evolution1 however1 remains negative rather than positive4 ,though a number of pastors latterly call themselves libres penseurs or penseurs libres1 and a movement of ethical culture 7morale sociale7 has made progress1 the forces of positive freethought are not numerically strong4 ,an economic basis still supports the ,churches1 and the lack of it leaves rationalism non-aggressive4 #ageb ,a somewhat similar state of things exists in ,holland1 where the higher criticism of both the ,old and ,new ,testaments made notable progress in the middle decades of the century4 ,there then resulted not only an extensive decay of orthodoxy within the ,protestant ,church1 but a movement of aggressive popular freethought1 which was for a number of years well represented in journalism4 ,to-day1 orthodoxy and freethought are alike less demonstrative2 the broad explanation being that the ,dutch people in the mass has ceased to be pietistic1 and has secularized its life4 ,even in the ,bible-loving ,boer ,republic of ,south ,africa 7,transvaal71 in its time one of the most orthodox of the civilized communities of the world1 there was seen in the past generation the phenomenon of an agnostic ex-clergyman's election to the post of president1 in the person of ,t4 ,f4 ,burgers1 who succeeded ,pretorius in #ahga4 ,his election was of course on political and not on religious grounds2 and panic fear on the score of his heresy1 besides driving some fanatics to emigrate1 is said to have disorganized a ,boer expedition under his command2 #agec but his views were known when he was elected4 ,in the years #ahii-aijb the terrible experience of the last ,boer ,war1 in ,south ,africa as in ,britain1 perhaps did more to turn critical minds against supernaturalism than was accomplished by almost any other agency in the same period4 ,in ,britain the overturn was by way of the revolt of many ethically-minded ,christians against the attitude of the orthodox churches1 which were so generally and so unscrupulously belligerent as to astonish many even of their freethinking opponents4 #aged ,as regards the ,boers and the ,cape ,dutch the resultant unbelief was among the younger men1 who harassed their elders with challenges as to the justice or the activity of a ,god who permitted the liberties of his most devoted worshippers to be wantonly destroyed4 ,among the more educated burghers in the ,orange ,free ,state commandos unbelief asserted itself with increasing force and frequency4 #agee ,an ethical rationalism thus motived is not likely to be displaced2 and the ,christian churches of ,britain have thus the sobering knowledge that the war which they so vociferously glorified #agef has wrought to the discredit of their creed alike in their own country and among the vanquished4 #af4 ,the history of popular freethought in ,sweden yields a good illustration1 in a compact form1 #ageg of the normal play of forces and counter-forces4 ,since the day of ,christina1 as we saw1 though there have been many evidences of passive unbelief1 active rationalism has been little known in her kingdom down till modern times1 ,sweden as a whole having been little touched by the great ferment of the eighteenth century4 ,the ,french ,revolution1 however1 stirred the waters there as elsewhere4 ,tegnr1 the poet-bishop1 author of the once-famous ,frithiof's ,saga1 was notable in his day for a determined rejection of the evangelical doctrine of salvation2 and his letters contain much criticism of the ruling system4 ,but the first recognizable champion of freethought in ,sweden is the thinker and historian ,e4 ,g4 ,geijer 7d4 #ahdg71 whose history of his native land is one of the best ,european performances of his generation4 ,in #ahbj he was prosecuted for his attack upon the dogmas of the ,trinity and redemption--long the special themes of discussion in ,sweden--in his book ,thorild2 but was acquitted by the jury4 ,thenceforth ,sweden follows the general development of ,europe4 ,in #ahda ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu was translated in ,swedish1 and wrought its usual effect4 ,on the popular side the poet ,wilhelm von ,braun carried on an anti-,biblical warfare2 and a blacksmith in a provincial town contrived to print in #ahej a translation of ,paine's ,age of ,reason4 ,once more the spirit of persecution blazed forth1 and he was prosecuted and imprisoned4 ,h4 ,b4 ,palmaer 7d4 #ahed7 was likewise prosecuted for his satire1 ,the ,last ,judgment in ,cocaigne 7,krkwinkel71 with the result that his defence extended his influence4 ,in the same period the ,stockholm curate ,nils ,ignell 7d4 #ahfd7 produced a whole series of critical pamphlets and a naturalistic ,history of the ,development of ,man1 besides supplying a preface to the ,swedish translation of ,renan's ,vie de ,jsus4 ,meantime translations of the works of ,theodore ,parker1 by ,v4 ,pfeiff and ,a4 ,f4 ,akerberg1 had a large circulation and a wide influence2 and the courage of the gymnasium rector ,n4 ,j4 ,cramer 7d4 #ahic71 author of ,the ,farewell to the ,church1 gave an edge to the movement4 ,the partly rationalistic doctrine of ,victor ,rydberg 7d4 #ahie7 was in comparison uncritical1 and was proportionally popular4 ,on another line the books of ,dr4 ,nils ,lilja 7d4 #ahgj71 written for working people1 created a current of rationalism among the masses2 and in the next generation ,g4 ,j4 ,leufstedt maintained it by popular lectures and by the issue of translations of ,colenso1 ,ingersoll1 ,bchner1 and ,renan4 ,hjalmar ,stromer 7d4 #ahhf7 did similar platform work4 ,meantime the followers of ,parker and ,rydberg founded in #ahgg a monthly review1 ,the ,truthseeker1 which lasted till #ahid1 and an association of ,believers in ,reason1 closely resembling the ,british ,ethical ,societies of our own day4 ,among its leading adherents has been ,k4 ,p4 ,arnoldson1 the well-known peace advocate4 ,liberal clerics were now fairly numerous2 ,positivism1 represented by ,dr4 ,anton ,nystrm's ,general ,history of ,civilization1 played its part2 and the more radical freethinking movement1 nourished by new translations1 became specially active1 with the usual effect on orthodox feeling4 ,august ,strindberg1 author and lecturer1 was prosecuted in #ahhd on a charge of ridiculing the eucharist1 but was declared not guilty4 ,the strenuous ,victor ,lennstrand1 lecturer and journalist1 prosecuted in #ahhh and later for his anti-,christian propaganda1 was twice fined and imprisoned1 with the result of extending his influence and discrediting his opponents4 ,utilitarian ,associations1 created by his activity1 were set up in many parts of the country2 and his movement survives his death4 #ag4 ,only in the ,united ,states has the public lecture platform been made a means of propaganda to anything like the extent seen in ,britain2 and the greatest part of the work in the ,states has thus far been done by the late ,colonel ,ingersoll1 the leading ,american orator of the last generation1 and the most widely influential platform propagandist of the last century4 ,no other single freethinker1 it is believed1 has reached such an audience by public speech2 and between his propaganda and that of the freethought journals there has been maintained for a generation back a large body of vigorous freethinking opinion in all parts of the ,states4 ,before the ,civil ,war this could hardly be said4 ,in the middle decades of the century the conditions had been so little changed that after the death of ,president ,lincoln1 who was certainly a non-,christian deist1 and an agnostic deist at that1 #ageh it was sought to be established that he was latterly orthodox4 ,in his presidential campaign of #ahfj he escaped attack on his opinions simply because his opponent1 ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas1 was likewise an unbeliever4 #agei ,the great negro orator1 ,frederick ,douglas1 was as heterodox as ,lincoln4 #agfj ,it is even alleged that ,president ,grant #agfa was of the same cast of opinion4 ,such is the general drift of intelligent thought in the ,united ,states1 from ,washington onwards2 and still the social conditions impose on public men the burden of concealment1 while popular history is garbled for the same reasons4 ,despite the great propagandist power of the late ,colonel ,ingersoll1 therefore1 ,american freethought remains dependent largely on struggling organizations and journals1 #agfb and its special literature is rather of the popularizing than of the scholarly order4 ,nowhere else has every new advance of rationalistic science been more angrily opposed by the priesthood2 because nowhere is the ordinary prejudice of the priest more voluble or better-bottomed in self-complacency4 ,as late as #ahia the ,methodist ,bishop ,keener delivered a ridiculous attack on the evolution theory before the ,o,ecumenical ,council of ,methodism at ,washington1 declaring that it had been utterly refuted by a certain wonderful deposit of the ,ashley beds4 #agfc ,various professors in ecclesiastical colleges have been driven from their posts for accepting in turn the discoveries of geology1 biology1 and the higher criticism--for instance1 ,woodrow of ,columbia1 ,south ,carolina2 ,toy of ,louisville2 ,winchell of ,vanderbilt ,university2 and more than one professor in the ,american college at ,beyrout4 #agfd ,in every one of the three former cases1 it is true1 the denounced professor has been called to a better chair2 and latterly some of the more liberal clergy have even commercially exploited the higher criticism by producing the ,rainbow ,bible4 ,generally speaking1 however1 in the ,united ,states sheer preoccupation with business1 and lack of leisure1 counteract in a measure the relative advantage of social freedom2 and while culture is more widely diffused than in ,england1 it remains on the whole less radical in the educated classes so-called4 ,so far as it is possible to make a quantitative estimate1 it may be said that in the more densely populated parts of the ,states there is latterly less of studious freethinking because there is less leisure than in ,england2 but that in the ,western ,states there is a relative superiority1 class for class1 because of the special freedom of the conditions and the independent character of many of the immigrants who constitute the new populations4 #agfe ,section #b4--;,biblical ,criticism ,it is within the last generation that the critical analysis of the ,jewish and ,christian sacred books has been most generally carried on2 but the process has never been suspended since the ,german ,aufklrung arose on the stimuli of ,english and ,french deism4 #a4 ,at the beginning of the century1 educated men in general believed in the ,semitic myths of creation1 as given in ,genesis3 long before the end of it they had more or less explicitly rectified their beliefs in the light of new natural science and new archology4 ,the change became rapid after #ahfj2 but it had been led up to even in the period of reaction4 ,while in ,france1 under the restored monarchy1 rationalistic activity was mainly headed into historical1 philosophical1 and sociological study1 and in ,england orthodoxy predominated in theological discussion1 the ,german rationalistic movement went on among the specialists1 despite the liberal religious reaction of ,schleiermacher1 #agff who himself gave forth such an uncertain sound4 ,his case and that of his father1 an army chaplain1 tell signally of the power of the mere clerical occupation to develop a species of emotional belief in one who has even attained rationalism4 ,when the son1 trained for the church1 avowed to his father 7#aghg7 that he had lost faith in the supernatural ,jesus1 the father professed to mourn bitterly1 but three years later avowed that he in his own youth had preached ,christianity for twelve years while similarly disbelieving its fundamental tenet4 #agfg ,he professionally counselled compromise1 which the son duly practised1 with such success that1 whereas he originally addressed his ,discourses on ,religion 7#agii7 to the educated among its despisers1 he was able to say in the preface to the third edition1 twenty years later 7#ahba71 that the need now was to reason with the pietists and literalists1 the ignorant and bigoted1 the credulous and superstitious4 #agfh ,in short1 he and others had been able to set up a fashion of poetic religion among deists1 but not to lighten the darkness of orthodox belief4 ,the ostensible religious revival associated with ,schleiermacher's name was in fact a reaction of temperament1 akin to the romantic movement in literature1 of which ,chateaubriand in ,france was the exponent as regarded religious feeling4 ,the ,german rationalism of the latter part of the eighteenth century1 with its stolid translation of the miraculous into the historical1 and its official accommodation of the result to the purposes of the pulpit1 had not reached any firm scientific foundation2 and ,schleiermacher on the other side1 protesting that religion was a matter not of knowledge but of feeling1 attracted alike the religious emotionalists1 the seekers of compromise1 and the romantics4 ,his personal and literary charm1 and his tolerance of mundane morals1 gave him a ,german vogue not unlike that of ,chateaubriand in ,france4 ,his intellectual cast and ultimate philosophic bias1 however1 together with his freedom of private life1 #agfi ultimately alienated him from the orthodox1 and thus it was that he died 7#ahcd7 in the odour of heresy4 ,heresy1 in fact1 he had preached from the outset2 and it was only in a highly emancipated society that his teaching could have been fashionable4 ,the statement that by his ,discourses with one stroke he overthrew the card-castle of rationalism and the old fortress of orthodoxy #aggj is literally quite false1 for the old compromising pseudo-rationalism survived a long while1 and orthodoxy still longer2 and it is quite misleading inasmuch as it suggests a resurgence of faith4 ,the same historian proceeds to record that some saw in the work only a slightly disguised return to superstition1 and others a brilliant confession of unbelief4 ,the general public saw in the ,discourses a new assault of romanticism upon religion4 ,the clergy in particular were painfully aroused1 and did not dissemble their irritation4 ,spalding himself could not restrain his anger4 ,schleiermacher's friend ,sach1 who had passed the ,discourses in manuscript1 woke up to denounce them as unchristian1 pantheistic1 and denuded of the ideas of ,god1 immortality1 and morality4 #agga ,in ,england the work would have been so denounced on all sides2 and the bulk of ,schleiermacher's teaching would there have been reckoned revolutionary and godless4 ,he was a lover of both political and social freedom2 and in his ,two ,memoranda on the ,church ,question in regard to ,prussia 7#ahjc7 he made a veritable declaration of war on the clerical spirit4 #aggb ,recognizing that ecclesiastical discipline had reached a low ebb1 he even proposed that civil marriage should precede religious marriage1 and be alone obligatory2 besides planning a drastic subjection of the ,prussian ,church to ,state regulation4 #aggc ,in his pamphlet on ,the ,so-called ,epistle to ,timothy1 of which he denied the authenticity1 he played the part of a destructive critic4 #aggd ,he saw with pain the approach of the rising tide of confessionalism--that is1 the movement for an exact statement of creed4 #agge ,nor can it be said that1 despite his attempts in later life to reach a more definite theology1 ,schleiermacher really held firmly any ,christian or even theistic dogma4 ,he seems to have been at bottom a pantheist2 #aggf and the secret of his attraction for so many ,german preachers and theologians then and since is that he offered them in eloquent and moving diction a kind of profession of faith which avoided alike the fatal undertaking of the old religious rationalism to reduce the sacred narratives to terms of reason1 and the dogged refusal of orthodoxy to admit that there was anything to explain away4 ,philosophically and critically speaking1 his teaching has no lasting intellectual substance1 being first a negation of intellectual tests and then a belated attempt to apply them4 ,it is not even original1 being a development from ,rousseau and ,lessing4 ,but it had undoubtedly a freeing and civilizing influence for many years2 and it did little harm save insofar as it fostered the ,german proclivity to the nebulous in thought and language1 and partly encouraged the normal resistance to the critical spirit4 ,all irrationalism1 to be sure1 in some sort spells self-will and lawlessness2 but the orthodox negation of reason was far more primitive than ,schleiermacher's4 ,from that side1 accordingly1 he never had any sympathy4 ,when1 soon after his funeral1 in which his coffin was borne and followed by troops of students1 his church was closed to the friends who wished there to commemorate him1 it was fairly clear that his own popularity lay mainly with the progressive spirits1 and not among the orthodox2 and in the end his influence tended to merge in that of the critical movement4 #aggg #b4 ,gradually that had developed a greater precision of method1 though there were to be witnessed repetitions of the intellectual anomalies of the past1 so-called rationalists losing the way while supernaturalists occasionally found it4 ,it has been remarked by ,reuss that ,paulus1 a clerical rationalist1 fought for the ,pauline authorship of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews in the very year in which ,tholuck1 a reconverted evangelical1 gave up the ,pauline authorship as hopeless2 that when ,schleiermacher1 ostensibly a believer in inspiration1 denied the authenticity of the ,epistle to ,timothy1 the theological rationalist ,wegscheider opposed him2 and that the rationalistic ,eichhorn maintained the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch long after the supernaturalist ,vater had disproved it4 #aggh ,still the general movement was inevitably and irrevocably rationalistic4 ,beginning with the ,old ,testament1 criticism gradually saw more and more of mere myth where of old men had seen miracle1 and where the first rationalists saw natural events misconceived4 ,soon the process reached the ,new ,testament1 every successive step being resisted in the old fashion2 and much laborious work1 now mostly forgotten1 was done by a whole company of scholars1 among whom ,paulus1 ,eichhorn1 ,de ,wette1 ,g4 ,l4 ,bauer1 ,wegscheider1 ,bretschneider1 and ,gabler were prominent4 #aggi ,the train as it were exploded on the world in the great ,life of ,jesus by ,strauss 7#ahce71 a year after the death of ,schleiermacher4 ,this was in some respects the high-water mark of rational critical science for the century1 inasmuch as it represented the fullest use of free judgment4 ,the powerful and orderly mind of ,strauss1 working systematically on a large body of previous unsystematic criticism1 produced something more massive and coherent than any previous writer had achieved4 ,it was not that he applied any new principle4 ,criticism had long been slowly disengaging itself from the primary fallacy of taking all scriptural records as standing for facts1 and explaining away the supernatural side4 ,step by step it was recognized that not misinterpretation of events but mythology underlay much of the sacred history4 ,already in #agii an anonymous and almost unnoticed writer #aghj had argued that the entire gospel story was a pre-existent conception in the ,jewish mind4 ,in #ahjb ,g4 ,l4 ,bauer had produced a treatise on ,hebrew ,mythology1 #agha in which not only was the actuality of myth in ,bible narrative insisted on1 but the general principle of animism in savage thought was clearly formulated4 ,semler had seen that the stories of ,samson and ,esther were myths4 ,even ,eichhorn--who reduced all the ,old ,testament stories to natural events misunderstood1 accepted ,noah and the patriarchs as historical personages1 and followed ,bahrdt in making ,moses light a fire on ,mount ,sinai--changed his method on coming to the ,new ,testament1 and pointed out that only indemonstrable hypotheses could be reached by turning supernatural events into natural where there was no outside historical evidence4 ,other writers--as ,krug1 ,gabler1 ,kaiser1 ,wegscheider1 and ,horst--ably pressed the mythical principle1 some of them preceding ,bauer4 ,the so-called natural theory--which was not at all that of the naturalists but the specialty of the compromising rationalists--was thus effectively shaken by a whole series of critics4 ,but the power of intellectual habit and environment was still strikingly illustrated in the inability of all of the critics to shake off completely the old fallacy4 ,bauer explained the divine promise to ,abraham as standing for the patriarch's own prophetic anticipation1 set up by a contemplation of the starry heavens4 ,another gave up the supernatural promise of the birth of the ,baptist1 but held to the dumbness of ,zechariah4 ,krug similarly accepted the item of the childless marriage1 and claimed to be applying the mythical principle in taking the ,magi without the star1 and calling them oriental merchants4 ,kaiser took the story of the fish with a coin in its mouth as fact1 while complaining of other less absurd reductions of miracle to natural occurrences4 ,the method of ,paulus1 #aghb the ,christian ,evmeros--who loyally rejected all miracles1 but got rid of them on the plan of explaining1 e4g41 that when ,jesus was supposed to be walking on the water he was really walking on the bank--was still popular1 a generation after ,schleiermacher's ,reden4 ,the mythical theory as a whole went on hesitating among definitions and genera--saga and legend1 historical myth1 mythical history1 philosophical myth1 poetic myth--and the differences of the mythological school over method arrested the acceptance of their fundamental principle4 #c4 ,no less remarkable was the check to the few attempts which had been made at clearing the ground by removing the ,fourth ,gospel from the historical field4 ,lessing had taken this gospel as peculiarly historical1 as did ,fichte and ,schleiermacher and the main body of critics after him4 ,only in ,england 7by ,evanson7 had the case been more radically handled4 ,in #ahbj ,bretschneider1 following up a few tentative ,german utterances1 put forth1 by way of hypothesis1 a general argument #aghc to the effect that the whole presentment of ,jesus in the ,fourth ,gospel is irreconcilable with that of the ,synoptics1 that it could not be taken as historical1 and that it could not therefore be the work of the ,apostle ,john4 #aghd ,the result was a general discussion and a general rejection4 ,the innovation in theory was too sudden for assimilation3 and ,bretschneider1 finding no support1 later declared that he had been relieved of his doubts by the discussion1 and had thus attained his object4 ,strauss himself1 in his first ,leben ,jesu1 failed to realize the case2 and it was not till the second 7#ahfc7 that he developed it1 profiting by the intermediate work of ,f4 ,c4 ,baur4 #d4 ,but as regards the gospel history in general1 the first ,leben ,jesu is a great advance in force as compared with all preceding work4 ,himself holding undoubtingly to the vital assumption of the rationalizing school that the central story of ,jesus and the disciples and the crucifixion was history1 he yet applied the mythical principle systematically to nearly all the episodes1 handling the case with the calmness of a great judge and the skill of a great critic4 ,even ,strauss1 indeed1 paid the penalty which seems so generally to attach to the academic discipline--the lack of ultimate hold on life4 ,after showing that much of the gospel narrative was mere myth1 and leaving utterly problematical all the rest1 he saw fit to begin and end with the announcement that nothing really mattered--that the ideal ,jesus was unaffected by historic analysis1 and that it was the ideal that counted4 #aghe ,in a world in which nine honest believers out of ten held that the facts mattered everything1 there could be no speedy or practical triumph for a demonstration which thus announced its own inutility4 ,strauss had achieved for ,new ,testament criticism what ,kant and ,fichte and ,hegel had compassed for rational philosophy in general1 ostensibly proffering together bane and antidote4 ,as in their case1 however1 so in his1 the truly critical work had an effect in despite of the theoretic surrender4 ,among instructed men1 historical belief in the gospels has never been the same since ,strauss wrote2 and he lived to figure for his countrymen as one of the most thoroughgoing freethinkers of his age4 #e4 ,for a time there was undoubtedly reaction1 engineered with the full power of the ,prussian ,state in particular4 ,the pious ,frederick ,william ,,iv1 already furious against ,swiss ,radicalism in #ahdg1 was moved by the revolutionary outbreaks of #ahdh to a fierce repression of everything liberal in theological teaching4 ,this dismal period of ,prussian history was the bloom-period of the ,hengsterbergan theology #aghf--the school of rabid orthodoxy4 ,in #ahed1 ,eduard ,zeller1 bringing out in book form his work on the ,acts of the ,apostles 7originally produced in the ,tbingen ,theological ,journal1 #ahdh-ea71 writes that ,the exertions of our ecclesiastics1 assisted by political reaction1 have been so effectual that the majority of our theologians not only look with suspicion or indifference on this or that scientific opinion1 but regard scientific knowledge in general with the same feelings2 and he leaves it an open question whether time will bring a change1 or whether ,german ,protestantism will stagnate in the ,byzantine conditions towards which it is now hastening with all sail on4 #aghg ,for his own part1 ,zeller abandoned the field of theology for that of philosophy1 producing a history of ,greek philosophy1 and one of ,german philosophy since ,leibnitz4 #f4 ,another expert of ,baur's school1 ,albrecht ,schwegler1 author of works on ,montanism1 the ,post-,apostolic ,age1 and other problems of early ,christian history1 and of a ,handbook of the ,history of ,philosophy which for half a century had an immense circulation1 was similarly driven out of theological research by the virulence of the reaction1 #aghh and turned to the task of ,roman history1 in which he distinguished himself as he did in every other he essayed4 ,the brains were being expelled from the chairs of theology4 ,but this very fact tended to discredit the reaction itself2 and outside of the ,prussian sphere of influence ,german criticism went actively on4 ,gustav ,volkmar1 turning his back on ,germany in #ahed1 settled in ,switzerland1 and in #ahfc became professor at ,zrich1 where he added to his early ,religion ,jesu 7#aheg7 and other powerful works his treatises on the ,origin of the ,gospels 7#ahff71 ,the ,gospels 7#ahfi71 ,commentary on the ,apocalypse 7#ahfj-fe71 and ,jesus ,nazarenus 7#ahha7--;all stringent critical performances1 irreconcilable with orthodoxy4 ,elsewhere too there was a general resumption of progress4 ,to this a certain contribution was made by ,bruno ,bauer 7#ahji-ahhb71 who1 after setting out as an orthodox ,hegelian1 outwent ,strauss in the opposite direction4 ,in #ahch1 as a licentiate at ,bonn1 he produced two volumes on ,the ,religion of the ,old ,testament1 in which the only critical element is the notion of a historical evolution of revelation4 ,soon he had got beyond belief in revelation4 ,in #ahdj appeared his ,critique of the ,gospel ,history of ,john1 and in #ahda his much more disturbing ,critique of the ,gospel ,history of the ,synoptics1 wherein there is substituted for ,strauss's formula of the community-mind working on tradition1 that of individual literary construction4 ,weisse and ,wilcke had convinced him that ,mark was the first gospel1 and ,wilcke in particular that it was no mere copy of an oral tradition but an artistic construction4 ,as he claimed1 this was a much more positive conception than ,strauss's1 which was fundamentally mysterious4 #aghi ,unfortunately1 though he saw that the new position involved the non-historicity of the ,gospel ,jesus1 he left his own historic conception mysterious1 giving no reason why the ,urevangelist framed his romance4 ,bauer was non-anthropological1 and left his theory as it began1 one of an arbitrary construction by gospel-makers4 ,immediately after his book appeared that of ,ghillany on ,human ,sacrifice among the ancient ,hebrews 7#ahdb71 which might have given him clues2 but they seem to have had for him no significance4 ,as it was1 his book on the ,synoptics raised a great storm2 and when the official request for the views of the university faculties as to the continuance of his licence evoked varying answers1 ,bauer settled the matter by a violent attack on professional theologians in general1 and was duly expelled4 #agij ,for the rest of his long life he was a freelance1 doing some relatively valid work on the ,pauline problem1 but pouring out his turbid spirit in a variety of political writings1 figuring by turns as an anti-,semite 7#ahdc71 a culture-historian1 #agia and a pre-,bismarckian imperialist1 despairing of ,german unity1 but looking hopefully to ,german absorption in a vast empire of ,russia4 #agib ,naturally he found political happiness in #ahgj1 #agic living on1 a spent force1 to do fresh books on ,christian origins1 #agid on ,german culture-history1 and on the glories of imperialism4 #g4 ,in #ahfd1 after an abstention of twenty years from discussion of the problem1 ,strauss restated his case in a ,life of ,jesus1 adapted for the ,german ,people4 ,here1 accepting the contention of ,f4 ,c4 ,baur that the proper line of inquiry was to settle the order of composition of the synoptic gospels1 and agreeing in ,baur's view that ,matthew came first1 he undertook to offer more of positive result than was reached in his earlier research1 which simply dealt scientifically with the abundant elements of dubiety in the records4 ,the new procedure was really much less valid than the old4 ,baur had quite unwarrantably decided that the ,sermon on the ,mount was one of the most certainly genuine of the discourses ascribed to ,jesus2 #agie and ,strauss1 while exhibiting a reserve of doubt #agif as to all such speeches1 nonetheless committed himself to the certain genuineness alike of the ,sermon and of the seven parables in the thirteenth chapter of ,matthew4 #agig ,many scholars who continue to hold by the historicity of ,jesus have since recognized that the ,sermon is no real discourse1 but a compilation of gnomic sayings or maxims previously current in ,jewish literature4 #agih ,thus the certainties of ,baur and ,strauss pass into the category of the cruder certainties which ,strauss impugned2 and the latter left the life of ,jesus an unsolved enigma after all his analysis4 ,as he himself noted1 the ,german ,new ,testament criticism of the previous twenty years had run to seed #agii in a multitude of treatises on the sources1 aims1 composition1 and mutual relations of the ,synoptics1 as if these were the final issues4 ,they had settled nothing2 and after a lapse of fifty years the same problems are being endlessly discussed4 ,the scientific course for ,strauss would have been to develop more radically the method of his first ,life3 failing to do this1 he made no new contribution to the problem1 though he deftly enough indicated how little difference there was1 save in formula1 between ,baur's negations and his own4 ,something of the explanation is to be detected in the sub-title1 ,adapted for the ,german ,people4 ,from his first entrance into the arena he had met with endless odium theologicum2 being at once deprived of his post as a philosophical lecturer at ,tbingen1 and virulently denounced on all hands4 ,his proposed appointment to a chair at ,zrich in #ahci1 as we have seen1 led there to something approaching a revolution4 ,later1 he found that acquaintance with him was made a ground of damage to his friends2 and though he had actually been elected to the ,wirtemberg ,diet in #ahdh by his fellow citizens of ,ludwigsburg town1 after being defeated in his candidature for the new parliament at ,frankfort through the hostility of the rural voters1 he had abundant cause to regard himself as a banned person in ,germany4 ,a craving for the goodwill of the people as against the hatred of the priests was thus very naturally and justifiably operative in the conception of his second work2 and this none the less because his fundamental political conservatism had soon cut short his representation of radical ,ludwigsburg4 ,as he justly said1 the question of the true history of ,christianity was not one for theologians alone4 ,but the emotional aim affected the intellectual process4 ,as previously in his ,life of ,ulrich von ,hutten1 he strove to establish the proposition that the new ,reformation he desired was akin to the old2 and that the ,germans1 as the people of the ,reformation1 would show themselves true to their past by casting out the religion of dogma and supernaturalism4 ,such an attempt to identify the spirit of freethought with the old spirit of ,bibliolatry was in itself fantastic1 and could not create a genuine movement1 though the book had a wide audience4 ,the ,glaubenslehre1 in which he made good his maxim that the true criticism of dogma is its history1 is a sounder performance4 ,strauss's avowed desire to write a book as suitable to ,germans as was ,renan's ,vie de ,jsus to ,frenchmen was something less than scientific4 ,the right book would be written for all nations4 ,like most other ,germans1 ,strauss exulted immensely over the war of #ahgj4 ,in what is now recognized as the national manner1 he wrote two boastful open-letters to ,renan explaining that whatsoever ,germany did was right1 and whatsoever ,france did was wrong1 and that the annexation of ,alsace and ,lorraine was altogether just4 ,these letters form an important contribution to the vast cairn of self-praise raised by latter-day ,german culture4 ,but ,strauss's literary life ended on a nobler note and in a higher warfare4 ,after all his efforts at popularity1 and all his fraternization with his people on the ground of racial animosity 7not visible in his volume of lectures on ,voltaire1 written and delivered at the request of the ,princess ,alice71 his fundamental sincerity moved him to produce a final ,confession1 under the title of ,the ,old and the ,new ,faith 7#ahgb74 ,it asked the questions3 ,are we still ,christians82 ,have we still religion82 ,how do we conceive the world82 ,how do we order our life82 and it answered them all in a calmly and uncompromisingly naturalistic sense1 dismissing all that men commonly call religious belief4 ,the book as a whole is heterogeneous in respect of its two final chapters1 ,of our ,great ,poets and ,of our ,great ,musicians1 which seem to have been appended by way of keeping up the attitude of national fraternity evoked by the war4 ,but they could not and did not avail to conciliate the theologians1 who opened fire on the book with all their old animosity1 and with an unconcealed delight in the definite committal of the great negative critic to an attitude of practical atheism4 ,the book ran through six editions in as many months1 and crystallized much of the indefinite freethinking of ,germany into something clearer and firmer4 ,all the more was it a new engine of strife and disintegration2 and the aging author1 shocked but steadied by the unexpected outburst of hostility1 penned a quatrain to himself1 ending3 ,in storm hast thou begun2 in storm shalt thou end4 ,on the last day of the year he wrote an afterword summing up his work and his position4 ,he had not written1 he declared1 by way of contending with opponents2 he had sought rather to commune with those of his own way of thinking2 and to them1 he felt1 he had the right to appeal to live up to their convictions1 not compromising with other opinions1 and not adhering to any ,church4 ,for his ,confession he anticipated the thanks of a more enlightened future generation4 ,the time of agreement1 he concluded1 will come1 as it came for the ,leben ,jesu2 only this time ,i shall not live to see it4 #ahjj ,a little more than a year later 7#ahgd7 he passed away4 ,it is noteworthy that he should have held that agreement had come as to the first ,leben ,jesu4 ,he was in fact convinced that all educated men--at least in ,germany--had ceased to believe in miracles and the supernatural1 however they might affect to conform to orthodoxy4 ,and1 broadly speaking1 this was true3 all ,new ,testament criticism of any standing had come round to the naturalistic point of view4 ,but1 as we have seen1 the second ,leben ,jesu was far enough from reaching a solid historical footing2 and the generation which followed made only a piecemeal and unsystematic advance to a scientific solution4 #h4 ,and it was long before even ,strauss's early method of scientific criticism was applied to the initial problems of ,old ,testament history4 ,the investigation lagged strangely4 ,starting from the clues given by ,hobbes1 ,spinoza1 and ,simon1 and above all by the suggestion of ,astruc 7#agec7 as to the twofold element implied in the ,god-names ,jehovah and ,elohim1 it had proceeded1 for sheer lack of radical skepticism1 on the assumption that the ,pentateuchal history was true4 ,on this basis1 modern ,old ,testament criticism of a professional kind may be said to have been founded by ,eichhorn1 who hoped by a quasi-rationalistic method to bring back unbelievers to belief4 #ahja ,of his successors1 some1 like ,ilgen1 were ahead of their time2 some1 like ,de ,wette1 failed to make progress in their criticism2 some1 like ,ewald1 remained always arbitrary2 and some of the ablest and most original1 as ,vatke1 failed to cordinate fully their critical methods and results4 #ahjb ,thus1 despite all the ,german activity1 little sure progress had been made1 apart from discrimination of sources1 between the issue of the ,critical ,remarks on the ,hebrew ,scriptures of the ,scotch ,catholic priest1 ,dr4 ,geddes1 in #ahjj1 and the publication of the first part of the work of ,bishop ,colenso on ,the ,pentateuch 7#ahfb74 ,this1 by the admission of ,kuenen1 who had begun as a rather narrow believer1 #ahjc corrected the initial error of the ,german specialists by applying to the narrative the common-sense tests suggested long before by ,voltaire4 #ahjd ,that academic scholarship thus wasted two generations in its determination to adhere to the reverent method1 and in its aversion to the irreverence which proceeded on the simple power to see facts1 is a sufficient comment on the ,kantian doctrine that it was the business of scholars to adapt the sacred books to popular needs4 ,tampering with the judgment of their flocks1 the ,german theologians injured their own4 ,as of old1 part of the explanation lay in the malignant resistance of orthodoxy to every new advance4 ,we have seen how ,strauss's appointment to a chair at ,zrich was met by ,swiss pietism4 ,the same spirit sought to revert1 even in intellectually free ,germany1 to its old methods of repression4 ,the authorities of ,berlin discussed with ,neander the propriety of suppressing ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu2 #ahje and after a time those who shared his views were excluded even from philosophical chairs4 #ahjf ,later1 the brochure in which ,edgar ,bauer defended his brother ,bruno against his opponents 7#ahdb7 was seized by the police2 and in the following year1 for publishing ,the ,strife of ,criticism with ,church and ,state1 the same writer was sentenced to four years' imprisonment4 ,in private life1 persecution was carried on in the usual ways2 and the virulence of the theological resistance recalled the palmy days of ,lutheran polemics4 ,in the sense that the mass of orthodoxy held its ground for the time being1 the attack failed4 ,naturally the most advanced and uncompromisingly scientific positions were least discussed1 the stress of dispute going on around the criticism which modified without annihilating the main elements in the current creed1 or that which did the work of annihilation on a popular level of thought4 ,only in our day is ,german expert criticism beginning openly to reckon with propositions fairly and fully made out by ,german writers of three or more generations back4 ,thus in #agha ,corodi in his ,geschichte des ,chiliasmus dwelt on the pre-,hebraic origins of the belief in angels1 in immortality1 and heaven and hell1 and on the ,persian derivation of the ,jewish seven archangels2 ,wegscheider in #ahai in his ,institutes of ,theology indicated further connections of the same order1 and cited pagan parallels to the virgin-birth2 ,j4 ,a4 ,l4 ,richter in the same year pointed to ,indian and ,persian precedents for the ,logos and many other ,christian doctrines2 and several other writers1 ,strauss included1 pointed to both ,persian and ,babylonian influences on ,jewish theology and myth4 #ahjg ,the mythologist and ,hebraist ,f4 ,korn 7who wrote as ,f4 ,nork71 in a series of learned and vigorous but rather loosely speculative works1 #ahjh indicated many of the mythological elements in ,christianity1 and endorsed many of the astronomical arguments of ,dupuis1 while holding to the historicity of ,jesus4 #ahji ,when even these theses were in the main ignored1 more mordant doctrine was necessarily burked4 ,such subversive criticism of religious history as ,ghillany's ,die ,menschenopfer der alten ,hebrer 7#ahdb71 insisting that human sacrifice had been habitual in early ,jewry1 and that ritual cannibalism underlay the paschal eucharist1 found even fewer students prepared to appreciate it than did the searching ethico-philosophical criticism passed on the ,christian creed by ,feuerbach4 ,f4 ,daumer1 #ahaj who in #ahdb published a treatise on the same lines as ,ghillany's 7,der ,feuer und ,molochdienst71 and followed it up in #ahdg with another on the ,christian mysteries1 nearly as drastic1 wavered later in his rationalism and avowed his conversion to a species of faith4 ,hence a certain setback for his school4 ,in ,france the genial ,german revolutionist and exile ,ewerbeck published1 under the titles of ,qu'est ce que la ,religion8 and ,qu'est ce que la ,bible8 7#ahej71 two volumes of very freely edited translations from ,feuerbach1 ,daumer1 ,ghillany1 ,ltzelberger 7on the simple humanity of ,jesus71 and ,bruno ,bauer1 avowing that after vainly seeking a publisher for years he had produced the books at his own expense4 ,he had1 however1 so mutilated the originals as to make the work ineffectual for scholars1 without making it attractive to the general public2 and there is nothing to show that his formidable-looking arsenal of explosives had much effect on contemporary ,french thought1 which developed on other lines4 ,old ,testament criticism1 nevertheless1 has in the last generation been much developed1 after having long missed some of the first lines of advance4 ,after ,colenso's rectification of the fundamental error as to the historicity of the narrative of the ,pentateuch1 so long and so obstinately persisted in by the ,german specialists in contempt of ,voltaire1 the higher criticism proceeded with such substantial certainty on the scientific lines of ,kuenen and ,wellhausen that1 whereas ,professor ,robertson ,smith had to leave the ,free ,church of ,scotland in #ahha #ahaa for propagating ,kuenen's views1 before the century was out ,canons of the ,english ,church were doing the work with the acquiescence of perhaps six clergymen out of ten2 and ,american preachers were found promoting an edition of the ,bible which exhibited some of the critical results to the general reader4 ,heresy on this score had become merchandise4 ,nevertheless1 the professional tendency to compromise 7a result of economic and other pressures7 keeps most of the ecclesiastical critics far short of the outspoken utterances of ,m4 ,m4 ,kalisch1 who in his ,commentary on ,leviticus 7#ahfg-gb7 repudiates every vestige of the doctrine of inspiration4 #ahab ,later clerical critics1 notably ,canon ,driver1 use language on that subject which cannot be read with critical respect4 #ahac ,but among students at the end of the century the orthodox view was practically extinct4 ,whereas the defenders of the faith even a generation before habitually stood to the argument from prophecy1 the conception of prophecy as prediction has now become meaningless as regards the so-called ,mosaic books2 and the constant disclosure of interpolations and adaptations in the others has discredited it as regards the prophets themselves4 ,for the rest1 much of the secular history still accepted is tentatively reduced to myth in the ,geschichte ,israels of ,hugo ,winckler 7#ahie-aijj74 ,the peculiar theory of ,dr4 ,cheyne is no less destructive4 #i4 ,in ,new ,testament criticism1 though the strict critical method of ,strauss's first book was not faithfully followed1 critical research went on continuously2 and the school of ,f4 ,c4 ,baur of ,tbingen in particular imposed a measure of rational criticism on theologians in general4 ,apart from ,strauss1 ,baur was probably the ablest ,christian scholar of his day4 ,always lamed by his professionalism1 he yet toiled endlessly to bring scientific method into ,christian research4 ,his ,paulus1 der ,apostel ,jesu ,christi1 #ahde2 ,kritische ,untersuchungen ber die ,kanonischen ,evangelien1 #ahdg2 and ,das ,christenthum und die christliche ,kirche der drei ersten ,jahrhunderte1 #ahec1 were epoch-marking works1 which recast so radically1 in the name of orthodoxy1 the historical conception of ,christian origins1 that he figured as the most unsettling critic of his time after ,strauss4 ,with his earlier researches in the history of the first ,christian sects and his history of the ,church1 they constitute a memorable mass of studious and original work4 ,in the case of the ,tbingen school as of every other there was reaction1 with the usual pretence by professional orthodoxy that the innovating criticism had been disposed of2 but no real refutation has ever taken place4 ,where ,baur reduced the genuine ,pauline epistles to four1 the last years of the century witnessed the advent of ,van ,manen1 who1 following up earlier suggestions1 wrought out the thesis that the epistles are all alike supposititious4 ,this may or may not hold good2 but there has been no restoration of traditionary faith among the mass of open-minded inquirers4 ,such work as ,zeller's ,contents and ,origin of the ,acts of the ,apostles 7#ahed71 produced in ,baur's circle1 has substantially held its ground2 and such a comparatively safe book of the next generation as ,weizscker's ,apostolic ,age 7,eng4 tr4 of #bnd ed4 #ahic7 leaves no doubt as to the untrustworthiness of the ,acts4 ,thus at the close of the century the current professional treatises indicated a ,christianity stripped not only of all supernaturalism1 and therefore of the main religious content of the historic creed1 but even of credibility as regards large parts of the non-supernaturalist narratives of its sacred books4 ,the minute analysis and collocation of texts which has occupied so much of critical industry has but made clearer the extreme precariousness of every item in the records4 ,the amount of credit for historicity that continues to be given to them is demonstrably unjustifiable on scientific grounds2 and the stand for a ,christianity without dogma is more and more clearly seen to be an economic adjustment1 not an outcome of faithful criticism4 #aj4 ,the movement of ,biblical and other criticism in ,germany has had a significant effect on the supply of students for the theological profession4 ,the numbers of ,protestant and ,catholic theological students in all ,germany have varied as follows3--,protestant3 #ahca1 #d1adg2 #ahea1 #a1fca2 #ahfj1 #b1ebj2 #ahgf1 #a1eci2 #ahhb-hc1 #c1afh4 ,catholic3 #ahca1 #a1hja2 #ahdj1 #hff2 #ahej1 #a1cic2 #ahfj1 #a1bji2 #ahhj1 #fai4 #ahad ,thus1 under the reign of reaction which set in after #ahdh there was a prolonged recovery2 and again since #ahgf the figures rise for ,protestantism through financial stimulus4 ,when1 however1 we take population into account1 the main movement is clear4 ,in an increasing proportion1 the theological students come from the rural districts 7#fid in #ahfa-gj71 the towns furnishing ever fewer2 #ahae so that the conservative measures do but outwardly and formally affect the course of thought2 the clergy themselves showing less and less inclination to make clergymen of their sons4 #ahaf ,even among the ,catholic population1 though that has increased from ten millions in #ahcj to sixteen millions in #ahhj1 the number of theological students has fallen from eleven to four per #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 #ahag ,thus1 after many reactions and much ,bismarckism1 the ,zeit-,geist in ,germany was still pronouncedly skeptical in all classes in #ahha1 #ahah when the church accommodation in ,berlin provided only two per cent4 of the population1 and even that provision outwent the demand4 #ahai ,and though there have been yet other alleged reactions since1 and the imperial influence is zealously used for orthodoxy1 a large proportion of the intelligent workers in the towns remain socialistic and freethinking2 and the mass of the educated classes remain unorthodox in the teeth of the socialist menace4 ,reactionary professors can make an academic fashion3 the majority of instructed men remain tacitly naturalistic4 ,alongside of the inveterate rationalism of modern ,germany1 however1 a no less inveterate bureaucratism preserves a certain official conformity to religion4 ,university freedom does not extend to open and direct criticism of the orthodox creed4 ,on the other hand1 the applause won by ,virchow in #ahgg on his declaration against the doctrine of evolution1 and the tactic resorted to by him in putting upon that doctrine the responsibility of ,socialist violence1 are instances of the normal operation of the lower motives against freedom in scientific teaching4 #ahbj ,the pressure operates in other spheres in ,germany1 especially under such a regimen as the present4 ,men who never go to church save on official occasions1 and who have absolutely no belief in the ,church's doctrine1 nevertheless remain nominally its adherents2 #ahba and the ,press laws make it peculiarly difficult to reach the common people with freethinking literature1 save through ,socialist channels4 ,thus the ,catholic ,church is perhaps nowhere--save in ,ireland and the ,united ,states--more practically influential than in nominally ,protestant ,germany1 where it wields a compact vote of a hundred or more in the ,reichstag1 and can generally count on well-filled churches as beside the half-empty temples of ,protestantism4 ,another circumstance partly favourable to reaction is the simple maintenance of all the old theological chairs in the universities4 ,as the field of scientific work widens1 and increasing commerce raises the social standard of comfort1 men of original intellectual power grow less apt to devote themselves to theological pursuits even under the comparatively free conditions which so long kept ,german ,biblical scholarship far above that of other countries4 ,it can hardly be said that men of the mental calibre of ,strauss1 ,baur1 ,volkmar1 and ,wellhausen continue to arise among the specialists in their studies4 ,harnack1 the most prominent ,german ,biblical scholar of our day1 despite his great learning1 creates no such impression of originality and insight1 and1 though latterly forced forward by more independent minds1 exhibits often a very uncritical orthodoxy4 ,thus it is priori possible enough that the orthodox reactions so often claimed have actually occurred1 in the sense that the experts have reverted to a prior type4 ,a scientifically-minded theologian in ,germany has now little official scope for his faculty save in the analysis of the ,hebrew ,sacred ,books and the ,new ,testament documents as such2 and this has been on the whole very well done1 short of the point of express impeachment of the historic delusion2 but there is a limit to the attraction of such studies for minds of a modern cast4 ,thus there is always a chance that chairs will be filled by men of another type4 #aa4 ,on a less extensive scale than in ,germany1 critical study of the sacred books made some progress in ,england1 ,france1 and ,america in the first half of the century2 though for a time the attention even of the educated world was centred much more upon the ,oxford tractarian religious reaction than upon the movement of rationalism4 ,the reaction1 associated mainly with the name of ,john ,henry ,newman1 was rather against the political ,erastianism and sthetic apathy of the ,whig type of ,christian than against ,german or other criticism1 of which ,newman knew little4 ,but against the attitude of those moderate ,anglicans who were disposed to disestablish the ,church in ,ireland and to modernize the liturgy somewhat1 the language of the ,tracts for the ,times is as authoritarian and anti-rationalistic as that of ,catholics denouncing freethought4 ,such expressions as the filth of heretical novelty #ahbb are meant to apply to anything in the nature of innovation2 the causes at stake are ritual and precedent1 the apostolic succession and the status of the priest1 not the truth of revelation or the credibility of the scriptures4 ,the third ,tract appeals to the clergy to resist the alteration of even one jot or tittle of the liturgy2 and concerning the burial service the line of argument is3 ,do you pretend you can discriminate the wheat from the tares8 ,of course not4 ,all attempts even to modify the ritual are an abuse of reason2 and the true believer is adjured to stand fast in the ancient ways4 #ahbc ,at a pinch he is to consider what ,reason says2 which surely1 as well as ,scripture1 was given us for religious ends2 #ahbd but the only reason thus recognized is one which accepts the whole apparatus of revelation4 ,previous to and alongside of this single-minded reversion to the ideals of the ,dark ,ages--a phenomenon not unconnected with the revival of romanticism by ,scott and ,chateaubriand--there was going on a movement of modernism1 of which one of the overt traces is ,milman's ,history of the ,jews 7#ahbi71 a work to-day regarded as harmless even by the orthodox1 but sufficient in its time to let ,newman see whither religious ,liberalism was heading4 ,other and later researches dug much deeper into the problems of religious historiography4 ,the ,unitarian ,c4 ,c4 ,hennell produced an ,inquiry ,concerning the ,origin of ,christianity 7#ahch71 so important for its time as to be thought worth translating into ,german by ,strauss2 and this found a considerable response from the educated ,english public of its day4 ,in the preface to his second edition 7#ahda7 ,hennell spoke very plainly of the large and probably increasing amount of unbelief in all classes around us2 and made the then remarkably courageous declarations that in his experience neither deism1 pantheism1 nor even atheism indicates modes of thought incompatible with uprightness and benevolence2 and that the real or affected horror which it is still a prevailing custom to exhibit towards their names would be better reserved for those of the selfish1 the cruel1 the bigot1 and other tormentors of mankind4 ,it was in the circle of ,hennell that ,marian ,evans1 later to become famous as ,george ,eliot1 grew into a rationalist in despite of her religious temperament2 and it was she who1 when ,hennell's bride gave up the task1 undertook the toil of translating ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu--though at many points she thought him wrong4 #ahbe ,in the churches he had of course no overt acceptance4 ,at this stage1 ,english orthodoxy was of such a cast that the pious ,tregelles1 himself fiercely opposed to all forms of rationalism1 had to complain that the most incontrovertible corrections of the current text of the ,new ,testament were angrily denounced4 #ahbf ,in the next generation ,theodore ,parker in the ,united ,states1 developing his critical faculty chiefly by study of the ,germans1 at the cost of much obloquy forced some knowledge of critical results and a measure of theistic or pantheistic rationalism on the attention of the orthodox world2 promoting at the same time a semi-philosophic1 semi-ethical reaction against the ,calvinistic theology of ,jonathan ,edwards1 theretofore prevalent among the orthodox of ,new ,england4 ,in the old country a number of writers developed new movements of criticism from theistic points of view4 ,f4 ,w4 ,newman1 the scholarly brother of ,john ,henry1 #ahbg produced a book entitled ,the ,soul 7#ahdi71 and another1 ,phases of ,faith 7#ahec71 which had much influence in promoting rationalism of a rather rigidly theistic cast4 ,r4 ,w4 ,mackay in the same period published two learned treatises1 ,a ,sketch of the ,rise and ,progress of ,christianity 7#ahed71 notably scientific in method for its time2 and ,the ,progress of the ,intellect as ,exemplified in the ,religious ,development of the ,greeks and ,hebrews 7#ahej71 which won the admiration of ,buckle2 ,george ,eliot translated ,feuerbach's ,essence of ,christianity 7#ahed7 under her own name1 ,marian ,evans2 and ,w4 ,r4 ,greg1 one of the leading publicists of his day1 put forth a rationalist study of ,the ,creed of ,christendom3 ,its ,foundations ,contrasted with its ,superstructure 7#ahej71 which has gone through many editions and is still reprinted4 ,in #ahfd appeared ,the ,prophet of ,nazareth1 by ,evan ,powell ,meredith1 who had been a ,baptist minister in ,wales4 ,the book is a bulky prize essay on the theme of ,new ,testament eschatology1 which develops into a deistic attack on the central ,christian dogma and on gospel ethics4 ,another zealous theist1 ,thomas ,scott1 whose pamphlet-propaganda on deistic lines had so wide an influence during many years1 produced an ,english ,life of ,jesus 7#ahga71 which1 though less important than the works of ,strauss and less popular than those of ,renan1 played a considerable part in the disintegration of the traditional faith among ,english churchmen4 ,still the primacy in critical research on scholarly lines lay with the ,germans2 and it was the results of their work that were co-ordinated1 from a theistic standpoint1 #ahbh in the anonymous work1 ,supernatural ,religion 7#ahgd-gg71 a massive and decisive performance1 too powerful to be disposed of by the episcopal and other attacks made upon it4 #ahbi ,since its assimilation the orthodox or inspirationist view of the gospels has lost credit among competent scholars even within the churches4 ,the battleground is now removed to the problem of the historicity of the ostensible origins of the cult2 and scholarly orthodoxy takes for granted many positions which fifty years ago were typical of ,german rationalism4 #ab4 ,in ,france systematic criticism of the sacred books recommenced in the second half of the century with such writings as those of ,p4 ,larroque 7,examen ,critique des doctrines de la religion chrtienne1 #ahfj72 ,gustave d',eichthal 7,les vangiles1 ptie4 i1 #ahfc72 and ,alphonse ,peyrat 7,histoire lmentaire et critique de ,jsus1 #ahfd72 whereafter the rationalistic view was applied with singular literary charm1 if with imperfect consistency1 by ,renan in his series of seven volumes on the origins of ,christianity1 and with more scientific breadth of view by ,ernest ,havet in his ,christianisme et ses ,origines 7#ahgb1 etc474 ,renan's ,vie de ,jsus 7#ahfc7 especially has been read throughout the civilized world4 ,it has been quite justly pronounced1 by ,german and other critics1 a romance2 but no other life properly so called has been anything else1 ,strauss's first ,life being an analysis rather than a construction2 and the epithet was but an unwitting avowal that to accept the gospels1 barring miracles1 as biography--which is what ,renan did--is to be committed to the unhistorical4 ,he began by accepting the fourth as equipollent with the synoptics2 and upon this ,strauss in his second ,life confidently called for a recantation1 which came in due course4 ,but ,renan1 in his fitful way1 had critical glimpses which were denied to ,strauss--for instance1 as to the material of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,the whole series of the ,origines1 which wound up with ,marc ,aurle 7#ahhb71 has a similar fluctuating value1 showing on the whole a progressive critical sense4 ,the ,saint ,paul1 for example1 at the close suddenly discards the traditional view previously accepted in ,les ,aptres1 and recognizes that the ministry of ,paul can have been no more than a propaganda of small conventicles1 whose total membership throughout the ,empire could not have been above a thousand4 ,but ,renan's total service consisted rather in a highly artistic and winning application of rational historical methods to early ,christian history1 with the effect of displacing the traditionist method1 than in any lasting or comprehensive solution of the problem of the origins4 ,havet's survey is both corrective and complementary to his4 ,renan's influence on opinion throughout the world1 however1 was enormous1 were it only because he was one of the most finished literary artists of his time4 ,section #c4--,poetry and ,general ,literature #a4 ,the whole imaginative literature of ,europe1 in the generation after the ,french ,revolution1 reveals directly or indirectly the transmutation that the eighteenth century had worked in religious thought4 ,either it reacts against or it develops the rationalistic movement4 ,in ,france the literary reaction is one of the first factors in the orthodox revival4 ,its leader and type was ,chateaubriand1 in whose typical work1 the ,gnie du ,christianisme 7#ahjb71 lies the proof that1 whatever might be the shallowness of ,voltairism1 it was profundity beside the philosophy of the majority who repelled it4 ,on one who now reads it with the slightest scientific preparation1 the book makes an impression in parts of something like fatuity4 ,the handling of the scientific question at the threshold of the inquiry is that of a man incapable of a scientific idea4 ,all the accumulating evidence of geology and palontology is disposed of by the grotesque theorem that ,god made the world out of nothing with all the marks of antiquity upon it--the oaks at the start bearing last year's nests--on the ground that1 if the world were not at once young and old1 the great1 the serious1 the moral would disappear from nature1 for these sentiments by their essence attach to antique things4 #ahcj ,in the same fashion the fable of the serpent is with perfect gravity homologated as a literal truth1 on the strength of an anecdote about the charming of a rattlesnake with music4 #ahca ,it is humiliating1 but instructive1 to realize that only a century ago a ,christian reaction1 in a civilized country1 was inspired by such an order of ideas2 and that in the nation of ,laplace1 with his theory in view1 it was the fashion thus to prattle in the taste of the ,dark ,ages4 #ahcb ,the book is merely the eloquent expression of a nervous recoil from everything savouring of cool reason and clear thought1 a recoil partly initiated by the sheer stress of excitement of the near past2 partly fostered by the vague belief that freethinking in religion had caused the ,revolution2 partly enhanced by the tendency of every warlike period to develop emotional rather than reflective life4 ,what was really masterly in ,chateaubriand was the style2 and sentimental pietism had now the prestige of fine writing1 so long the specialty of the other side4 ,yet a generation of monarchism served to wear out the ill-based credit of the literary reaction2 and belles lettres began to be rationalistic as soon as politics began again to be radical4 ,thus the prestige of the neo-,christian school was already spent before the revolution of #ahdh2 #ahcc and the inordinate vanity of ,chateaubriand1 who died in that year1 had undone his special influence still earlier4 ,he had created merely a literary mode and sentiment4 #b4 ,the literary history of ,france since his death decides the question1 so far as it can be thus decided4 ,from #ahdh till our own day it has been predominantly naturalistic and non-religious4 ,after ,guizot and the ,thierrys1 the nearest approach to ,christianity by an influential ,french historian is perhaps in the case of the very heterodox ,edgar ,quinet4 ,michelet was a mere heretic in the eyes of the faithful1 ,saisset describing his book ,du ,prtre1 de la ,femme1 et de la ,famille 7#ahde71 as a renaissance of ,voltaireanism4 #ahcd ,his whole brilliant ,history1 indeed1 is from beginning to end rationalistic1 challenging as it does all the decorous traditions1 exposing the failure of the faith to civilize1 pronouncing that the monastic ,middle ,age is an age of idiots and the scholastic world which followed it an age of artificially formed fools1 #ahce flouting dogma and discrediting creed over each of their miscarriages4 #ahcf ,and he was popular1 withal1 not only because of his vividness and unfailing freshness1 but because his convictions were those of the best intelligence around him4 ,in poetry and fiction the predominance of one or other shade of freethinking is signal4 ,balzac1 who grew up in the age of reaction1 makes essentially for rationalism by his intense analysis2 and after him the difficulty is to find a great ,french novelist who is not frankly rationalistic4 ,george ,sand will probably not be claimed by orthodoxy2 and ,beyle1 ,constant1 ,flaubert1 ,mrime1 ,zola1 ,daudet1 ,maupassant1 and the ,de ,goncourts make a list against which can be set only the names of ,m4 ,bourget1 an artist of the second order1 and of the distinguished dcadent ,huysmans1 who became a ,trappist after a life marked by a philosophy and practice of an extremely different complexion4 #c4 ,in ,french poetry the case is hardly otherwise4 ,branger1 who passed for a ,voltairean1 did indeed claim to have saved from the wreck an indestructible belief2 #ahcg and ,lamartine goes to the side of ,christianity2 but de ,musset1 the most inspired of dcadents1 was no more ,christian than ,heine1 save for what a critic has called la banale religiosit de l',espoir en ,dieu1 #ahch and the pessimist ,baudelaire had not even that to show4 ,de ,musset's absurd attack on ,voltaire in his ,byronic poem1 ,rolla1 well deserves the same epithets4 ,it is a mere product of hysteria1 representing neither knowledge nor reflection4 ,the grandiose theism of ,victor ,hugo1 again1 is stamped only with his own image and superscription2 and in his great contemporary ,leconte de ,lisle we have one of the most convinced and aggressive freethinkers of the century1 a fine scholar and a self-controlled pessimist1 who felt it well worth his while to write a little ,popular ,history of ,christianity 7#ahga7 which would have delighted d',holbach4 ,it is significant1 on the other hand1 that the exquisite religious verse of ,verlaine was the product of an incurable neuropath1 like the later work of ,huysmans1 and stands for decadence pure and simple4 ,while ,french belles lettres thus in general made for rationalism1 criticism was naturally not behindhand4 ,sainte-,beuve1 the most widely appreciative though not the most scientific or just of critics1 had only a literary sympathy with the religious types over whom he spent so much effusive research2 #ahci ,edmond ,scherer was an unbeliever almost against his will2 ,taine1 though reactionary on political grounds in his latter years1 was the typical ,french rationalist of his time2 and though ,m4 ,brunetire1 whose preferences were all for ,bossuet1 made the bankruptcy of science the text of his very facile philosophy1 the most scientific and philosophic head in the whole line of ,french critics1 the late mile ,hennequin1 was wholly a rationalist2 and even the rather reactionary ,jules ,lematre did not maintain his early attitude of austerity towards ,renan4 #d4 ,in ,england it was due above all to ,shelley that the very age of reaction was confronted with unbelief in lyric form4 ,his immature ,queen ,mab was vital enough with conviction to serve as an inspiration to a whole host of unlettered freethinkers not only in its own generation but in the next4 ,its notes preserved1 and greatly expanded1 the tract entitled ,the ,necessity of ,atheism1 for which he was expelled from ,oxford2 and against his will it became a people's book1 the law refusing him copyright in his own work1 on the memorable principle that there could be no protection for a book setting forth pernicious opinions4 ,whether he might not in later life1 had he survived1 have passed to a species of mystic ,christianity1 reacting like ,coleridge1 but with a necessary difference1 is a question raised by parts of the ,hellas4 ,gladstone seems to have thought that he had in him such a potentiality4 ,but ,shelley's work1 as done1 sufficed to keep for radicalism and rationalism the crown of song as against the final ,tory orthodoxy #ahdj of the elderly ,wordsworth and of ,southey2 and ,coleridge's zeal for 7amended7 dogma came upon him after his hour of poetic transfiguration was past4 ,and even ,coleridge1 who held the heresies of a modal ,trinity and the non-expiatory character of the death of ,christ1 was widely distrusted by the pious1 and expressed himself privately in terms which would have outraged them4 ,miracles1 he declared1 are supererogatory4 ,the law of ,god and the great principles of the ,christian religion would have been the same had ,christ never assumed humanity4 ,it is for these things1 and for such as these1 for telling unwelcome truths1 that ,i have been termed an atheist4 ,it is for these opinions that ,william ,smith assured the ,archbishop of ,canterbury that ,i was 7what half the clergy are in their lives7 an atheist4 ,little do these men know what atheism is4 ,not one man in a thousand has either strength of mind or goodness of heart to be an atheist4 ,i repeat it4 ,not one man in ten thousand has goodness of heart or strength of mind to be an atheist4 ,allsopp's ,letters1 etc41 as cited1 p4 #dg4 ,but at other times ,coleridge was a defender of the faith1 while contemning the methods of the evidential school4 ,id4 pp4 #ac-ad1 #ca4 ,on the other side1 ,scott's honest but unintellectual romanticism1 as we know from ,newman1 certainly favoured the ,tractarian reaction1 to which it was sthetically though hardly emotionally akin4 ,yet ,george ,eliot could say in later life that it was the influence of ,scott that first unsettled her orthodoxy2 #ahda meaning1 doubtless1 that the prevailing secularity of his view of life and his objective handling of sects and faiths excluded even a theistic solution4 ,scott's orthodoxy was in fact nearly on all fours with his ,jacobitism--a matter of temperamental loyalty to a tradition4 #ahdb ,but the far more potent influence of ,byron1 too wayward to hold a firm philosophy1 but too intensely alive to realities to be capable of ,scott's feudal orthodoxy1 must have counted much for heresy even in ,england1 and was one of the literary forces of revolutionary revival for the whole of ,europe4 ,though he never came to a clear atheistical decision as did ,shelley1 #ahdc and often in private gave himself out for a ,calvinist1 he so handled theological problems in his ,cain that he1 like ,shelley1 was refused copyright in his work2 #ahdd and it was widely appropriated for freethinkers' purposes4 ,the orthodox ,southey was on the same grounds denied the right to suppress his early revolutionary drama1 ,wat ,tyler1 which accordingly was made to do duty in ,radical propaganda by freethinking publishers4 ,keats1 again1 though he melodiously declaimed1 in a boyish mood1 against the scientific analysis of the rainbow1 and though he never assented to ,shelley's impeachments of ,christianity1 was in no active sense a believer in it1 and after his long sickness met death gladly without the consolations ascribed to creed4 #ahde #e4 ,one of the best-beloved names in ,english literature1 ,charles ,lamb1 is on several counts to be numbered with those of the freethinkers of his day--who included ,godwin and ,hazlitt--though he had no part in any direct propaganda4 ,himself at most a ,unitarian1 but not at all given to argument on points of faith1 he did his work for reason partly by way of the subtle and winning humanism of such an essay as ,new ,year's ,eve1 which seems to have been what brought upon him the pedantically pious censure of ,southey1 apparently for its lack of allusion to a future state2 partly by his delicately-entitled letter1 ,the ,tombs in the ,abbey1 in which he replied to ,southey's stricture4 ,a book which wants only a sounder religious feeling to be as delightful as it is original had been ,southey's pompous criticism1 in a paper on ,infidelity4 #ahdf ,in his reply1 ,lamb commented on ,southey's life-long habit of scoffing at the ,church of ,rome1 and gravely repudiated the test of orthodoxy for human character4 ,lamb's words are not generally known1 and are worth remembering4 ,i own1 he wrote1 ,i never could think so considerably of myself as to decline the society of an agreeable or worthy man upon difference of opinion only4 ,the impediments and the facilitations to a sound belief are various and inscrutable as the heart of man4 ,some believe upon weak principles2 others cannot feel the efficacy of the strongest4 ,one of the most candid1 most upright1 and single-meaning men ,i ever knew was the late ,thomas ,holcroft4 ,i believe he never said one thing and meant another in his life2 and1 as near as ,i can guess1 he never acted otherwise than with the most scrupulous attention to conscience4 ,ought we to wish the character false for the sake of a hollow compliment to ,christianity8 ,of the freethinking and unpopular ,hazlitt1 who had soured towards ,lamb in his perverse way1 the essayist spoke still more generously4 ,of ,leigh ,hunt he speaks more critically1 but with the same resolution to stand by a man known as a heretic4 ,but the severest flout to ,southey and his ,church is in the next paragraph1 where1 after the avowal that the last sect with which you can remember me to have made common profession were the ,unitarians1 he tells how1 on the previous ,easter ,sunday1 he had attended the service in ,westminster ,abbey1 and when he would have lingered afterwards among the tombs to meditate1 was turned1 like a dog or some profane person1 out into the common street1 with feelings which ,i could not help1 but not very congenial to the day or the discourse4 ,i do not know1 he adds1 that ,i shall ever venture myself again into one of your churches4 ,these words were published in the ,london ,magazine in #ahbe2 but in the posthumous collected edition of the ,essays of ,elia all the portions above cited were dropped1 and the paragraph last quoted from was modified1 leaving out the last words4 ,the essay does not seem to have been reprinted in full till it appeared in ,r4 ,h4 ,shepherd's edition of #ahgh4 ,but the original issue in the ,london ,magazine created a tradition among the lovers of ,lamb1 and his name has always been associated with some repute for freethinking4 ,there is further very important testimony as to ,lamb's opinions in one of ,allsopp's records of the conversation of ,coleridge3-- ,no1 no2 ,lamb's skepticism has not come lightly1 nor is he a skeptic sic3 ,query1 scoffer84 ,the harsh reproof to ,godwin for his contemptuous allusion to ,christ before a well-trained child proves that he is not a skeptic 8 scoffer4 ,his mind1 never prone to analysis1 seems to have been disgusted with the hollow pretences1 the false reasonings and absurdities of the rogues and fools with whom all establishments1 and all creeds seeking to become established1 abound4 ,i look upon ,lamb as one hovering between earth and heaven2 neither hoping much nor fearing anything4 ,it is curious that he should retain many usages which he learnt or adopted in the fervour of his early religious feelings1 now that his faith is in a state of suspended animation4 ,believe me1 who know him well1 that ,lamb1 say what he will1 has more of the essentials of ,christianity than ninety-nine out of a hundred professing ,christians4 ,he has all that would still have been ,christian had ,christ never lived or been made manifest upon earth4 7,allsopp's ,letters1 etc41 as cited1 p4 #df47 ,in connection with the frequently cited anecdote as to ,lamb's religious feeling given in ,leigh ,hunt's ,autobiography 7rep4 p4 #bec71 also by ,hazlitt 7,winterslow1 essay ii1 ed4 #aijb1 p4 #ci71 may be noted the following1 given by ,allsopp3 ,after a visit to ,coleridge1 during which the conversation had taken a religious turn1 ,leigh ,hunt 444 expressed his surprise that such a man as ,coleridge should1 when speaking of ,christ1 always call him ,our ,saviour4 ,lamb1 who had been exhilarated by one glass of that gooseberry or raisin cordial which he has so often anathematized1 stammered out3 ',ne-ne-never mind what ,coleridge says2 he is full of fun4' #f4 ,while a semi-,bohemian like ,lamb could thus dare to challenge the reigning bigotry1 the graver ,english writers of the first half of the century who had abandoned or never accepted orthodoxy felt themselves for the most part compelled to silence or ostensible compliance4 ,it was made clear by ,carlyle's posthumous ,reminiscences that he had early turned away from ,christian dogma1 having in fact given up a clerical career because of unbelief4 ,later evidence abounds4 ,at the age of fifteen1 by his own account1 he had horrified his mother with the question3 ,did ,god ,almighty come down and make wheel-barrows in a shop8 #ahdg ,of his college life he told3 ,i studied the evidences of ,christianity for several years1 with the greatest desire to be convinced1 but in vain4 ,i read ,gibbon1 and then first clearly saw that ,christianity was not true4 ,then came the most trying time of my life4 #ahdh ,goethe1 he claimed1 led him to peace2 but philosophic peace he never attained4 ,he was contemptuous to those who held to ,christian dogmas2 he was angry with those who gave them up2 he was furious with those who attacked them4 ,if equanimity be the mark of a ,philosopher1 he was of all great-minded men the least of a ,philosopher4 #ahdi ,to all freethinking work1 scholarly or other1 he was hostile with the hostility of a man consciously in a false position4 ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu he pronounced1 quite late in life1 a revolutionary and ill-advised enterprise1 setting forth in words what all wise men had in their minds for fifty years past1 and thought it fittest to hold their peace about4 #ahej ,he was1 in fact1 so false to his own doctrine of veracity as to disparage all who spoke out2 while privately agreeing with ,mill as to the need for speaking out4 #ahea ,even ,mill did so only partially in his lifetime1 as in his address to the ,st4 ,andrews students 7#ahfg71 when1 in the reception given to the ,address1 he was most struck by the vociferous applause of the divinity students at the freethought passage4 #aheb ,in the first half of the century such displays of courage were rare indeed4 ,only after the death of ,romilly was it tacitly avowed1 by the publication of a deistic prayer found among his papers1 that he had had no belief in revelation4 #ahec ,much later in the century1 ,harriet ,martineau1 for openly avowing her unbelief1 incurred the angry public censure of her own brother4 ,despite his anxious caution1 ,carlyle's writing conveyed to susceptible readers a non-,christian view of things4 ,we know from a posthumous writing of ,mr4 ,froude's that1 when that writer had gone through the university and taken holy orders without ever having had a single doubt as to his creed1 ,carlyle's books taught him that the religion in which he had been reared was but one of many dresses in which spiritual truth had arrayed itself1 and that the creed was not literally true so far as it was a narrative of facts4 #ahed ,it was presumably from the ,sartor ,resartus and some of the ,essays1 such as that on ,voltaire--perhaps1 also1 negatively from the general absence of ,christian sentiment in ,carlyle's works--that such lessons were learned2 and though it is certain that many non-zealous ,christians saw no harm in ,carlyle1 there is reason to believe that for multitudes of readers he had the same awakening virtue4 ,it need hardly be said that his friend ,emerson exercised it in no less degree4 ,mr4 ,froude was remarkable in his youth for his surrender of the clerical profession1 in the teeth of a bitter opposition from his family1 and further for his publication of a freethinking romance1 ,the ,nemesis of ,faith 7#ahdi72 but he went far to conciliate ,anglican orthodoxy by his ,history4 ,the romance had a temporary vogue rather above its artistic merits as a result of being publicly burned by the authorities of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford1 of which he was a ,fellow4 #ahee #g4 ,this attitude of orthodoxy1 threatening ostracism to any avowed freethinker who had a position to lose1 must be kept in mind in estimating the ,english evolution of that time4 ,a professed man of science could write in #ahch that the new mode of interpreting the ,scriptures which has sprung up in ,germany is the darkest cloud which lowers upon the horizon of that country4444 ,the ,germans have been conducted by some of their teachers to the borders of a precipice1 one leap from which will plunge them into deism4 ,he added that in various parts of ,europe the heaviest calamity impending over the whole fabric of society in our time is the lengthening stride of bold skepticism in some parts1 and the more stealthy onwards-creeping step of critical cavil in others4 #ahef ,such declamation could terrorize the timid and constrain the prudent in such a society as that of early ,victorian ,england4 ,the prevailing note is struck in ,macaulay's description of ,charles ,blount as an infidel1 and the head of a small school of infidels who were troubled with a morbid desire to make converts4 #aheg ,all the while1 ,macaulay was himself privately infidel2 #aheh but he cleared his conscience by thus denouncing those who had the courage of their opinions4 ,in this simple fashion some of the sanest writers in history were complacently put below the level of the commonplace dissemblers who aspersed them2 and the average educated man saw no baseness in the procedure4 ,the opinion deliberately expressed in this connection by the late ,professor ,bain is worth noting3-- ,it can at last be clearly seen what was the motive of ,carlyle's perplexing style of composition4 ,we now know what his opinions were when he began to write1 and that to express them would have been fatal to his success2 yet he was not a man to indulge in rank hypocrisy4 ,he accordingly adopted a studied and ambiguous phraseology1 which for long imposed upon the religious public1 who put their own interpretation upon his mystical utterances1 and gave him the benefit of any doubt4 ,in the ,life of ,sterling he threw off the mask1 but still was not taken at his word4 ,had there been a perfect tolerance of all opinions1 he would have begun as he ended2 and his strain of composition1 while still mystical and high-flown1 would never have been identified with our national orthodoxy4 ,i have grave doubts as to whether we possess ,macaulay's real opinions on religion4 ,his way of dealing with the subject is so like the hedging of an unbeliever that1 without some good assurance to the contrary1 ,i must include him also among the imitators of ,aristotle's 'caution4'444 ,when ,sir ,charles ,lyell brought out his ,antiquity of ,man1 he too was cautious4 ,knowing the dangers of his footing1 he abstained from giving an estimate of the extension of time required by the evidences of human remains4 ,society in ,london1 however1 would not put up with this reticence1 and he had to disclose at dinner parties what he had withheld from the public--namely1 that in his opinion the duration of man could not be less than #ej1jjj years 7,practical ,essays1 p4 #bgd47 #h4 ,thus for a whole generation honest and narrow-minded believers were trained to suppose that their views were triumphant over all attacks1 #ahei and to see in infidelity a disease of an ill-informed past2 and as the ,church had really gained in conventional culture as well as in wealth and prestige in the period of reaction1 the power of mere convention to override ideas was still enormous4 ,but through the whole stress of reaction and conservatism1 even apart from the positive criticism of creed which from time to time forced its head up1 there is a visible play of a new spirit in the most notable of the serious writing of the time4 ,carlyle undermined orthodoxy even in his asseveration of unreasoned theism2 ,emerson disturbs it alike when he acclaims mystics and welcomes evolutionary science2 and the whole inspiration of ,mill's ,logic no less than of his ,liberty is something alien to the principle of authority4 ,of ,ruskin1 again1 the same may be asserted in respect of his many searching thrusts at clerical and lay practice1 his defence of ,colenso1 and the obvious disappearance from his later books of the evangelical orthodoxy of the earlier4 #ahfj ,thus the most celebrated writers of serious ,english prose in the latter half of the century were in a measure associated with the spirit of critical thought on matters religious4 ,in a much stronger degree the same thing may be predicated finally of the writer who in the field of ,english belles lettres1 apart from fiction1 came nearest them in fame and influence4 ,matthew ,arnold1 passing insensibly from the ,english attitude of academic orthodoxy to that of the humanist for whom ,christ is but an admirable teacher and ,god a ,something not ourselves which makes for righteousness1 became for the ,england of his later years the favourite pilot across the bar between supernaturalism and naturalism4 ,only in ,england1 perhaps1 could his curious gospel of church-going and ,bible-reading atheism have prospered1 but there it prospered exceedingly4 ,alike as poet and as essayist1 even when essaying to disparage ,colenso or to confute the ,germans where they jostled his predilection for the ,fourth ,gospel1 he was a disintegrator of tradition1 and1 in his dogmatic way1 a dissolver of dogmatism4 ,when1 therefore1 beside the four names just mentioned the ,british public placed those of the philosophers ,spencer1 ,lewes1 and ,mill1 and the scientists ,darwin1 ,huxley1 ,clifford1 and ,tyndall1 they could not but recognize that the mind of the age was divorced from the nominal faith of the ,church4 #i4 ,in ,english fiction1 the beginning of the end of genuine faith was apparent to the prophetic eyes of ,wilberforce and ,robert ,hall1 of whom the former lamented the total absence of ,christian sentiment from nearly all the successful fiction even of his day2 #ahfa and the latter avowed the pain with which he noted that ,miss ,edgeworth1 whom he admired for her style and art1 put absolutely no religion in her books1 #ahfb while ,hannah ,more1 whose principles were so excellent1 had such a vicious style4 ,with ,thackeray and ,dickens1 indeed1 serious fiction might seem to be on the side of faith1 both being liberally orthodox1 though neither ventured on religious romance2 but with ,george ,eliot the balance began to lean the other way1 her sympathetic treatment of religious types counting for little as against her known rationalism4 ,at the end of the century almost all of the leading writers of the higher fiction were known to be either rationalists or simple theists2 and against the heavy metal of ,mr4 ,meredith1 ,mr4 ,conrad1 ,mr4 ,hardy1 ,mr4 ,bennett1 ,mr4 ,moore 7whose sympathetic handling of religious motives suggests the influence of ,huysmans71 and the didactic-deistic ,mrs4 ,humphry-,ward1 orthodoxy can but claim artists of the third or lower grades4 ,the championship of some of the latter may be regarded as the last humiliation of faith4 ,in #aije there was current a vulgar novel entitled ,when it was ,dark1 wherein was said to be drawn a blood-curdling picture of what would happen in the event of a general surrender of ,christian faith4 ,despite some episcopal approbation1 the book excited much disgust among the more enlightened clergy4 ,the preface to ,miss ,marie ,corelli's ,mighty ,atom may serve to convey to the many readers who cannot peruse the works of that lady an idea of the temper in which she vindicates her faith4 ,another popular novelist of a low artistic grade1 the late ,mr4 ,seton-,merriman1 has avowed his religious soundness in a romance with a ,russian plot1 entitled ,the ,sowers4 ,referring to the impressions produced by great scenes of ,nature1 he writes3 ,these places and these times are good for convalescent atheists and such as pose as unbelievers--the cheapest form of notoriety 7p4 #afh74 ,the novelist's own ,christian ethic is thus indicated3 ,he had ,jewish blood in his veins1 which 444 carried with it the usual tendency to cringe4 ,it is in the blood2 it is part of that which the people who stood without ,pilate's palace took upon themselves and their children 7p4 #ei74 ,but the enormous mass of modern novels includes some tolerable pleas for faith1 as well as many manifestoes of agnosticism4 ,one of the works of the late ,edna ,lyall1 ,we ,two1 was notable as the expression of the sympathy of a devout1 generous1 and amiable ,christian lady with the personality and career of ,mr4 ,bradlaugh4 #aj4 ,among the most artistically gifted of the ,english story-writers and essayists of the last generation of the century was ,richard ,jefferies 7d4 #ahhg71 who in ,the ,story of ,my ,heart 7#ahhc7 has told how the last traces and relics of superstitions acquired compulsorily in childhood finally passed away from his mind1 leaving him a ,naturalist in every sense of the word4 ,in the ,eulogy of ,richard ,jefferies published by ,sir ,walter ,besant in #ahhh it is asserted that on his deathbed ,jefferies returned to his faith1 and died listening with faith and love to the words contained in the ,old ,book4 ,a popular account of this conversion accordingly became current1 and was employed to the usual purpose4 ,as has been shown by a careful student1 and as was admitted on inquiry by ,sir ,walter ,besant1 there had been no conversion whatever1 ,jefferies having simply listened to his wife's reading without hinting at any change in his convictions4 #ahfc ,despite his biographer's express admission of his error1 ,christian journals1 such as the ,spectator1 have burked the facts2 one1 the ,christian1 has piously charged dishonesty on the writer who brought them to light2 and a third1 the ,salvationist ,war ,cry1 has pronounced his action the basest form of chicanery and falsehood4 #ahfd ,the episode is worth noting as indicating the qualities which still attach to orthodox propaganda4 #aa4 ,though ,shelley was anathema to ,english ,christians in his own clay1 his fame and standing steadily rose in the generations after his death4 ,nor has the balance of ,english poetry ever reverted to the side of faith4 ,even ,tennyson1 who more than once struck at rationalism below the belt1 is in his own despite the poet of doubt as much as of credence1 however he might wilfully attune himself to the key of faith2 and the unparalleled optimism of ,browning evolved a form of ,christianity sufficiently alien to the historic creed4 #ahfe ,in ,clough and ,matthew ,arnold1 again1 we have the positive record of surrendered faith4 ,alongside of ,arnold1 ,swinburne put into his verse the freethinking temper that ,leconte de ,lisle reserved for prose2 and the ill-starred but finely gifted ,james ,thomson 7,b4,v47 was no less definitely though despairingly an unbeliever4 ,among our later poets1 finally1 the balance is pretty much the same4 ,mr4 ,watson has declared in worthily noble diction for a high agnosticism1 and the late ,john ,davidson defied orthodox ethics in the name of his very antinomian theology2 #ahff while on the side of the regulation religion--since ,mr4 ,yeats is but a stray ,druid--can be cited at best the regimental psalmody of ,mr4 ,kipling1 lyrist of trumpet and drum2 the stained-glass ,mariolatries of the late ,francis ,thompson2 the declamatory orthodoxy of ,mr4 ,noyes2 and the ,godism of ,w4 ,e4 ,henley1 whereat the prosaic godly look askance4 #ab4 ,of the imaginative literature of the ,united ,states1 as of that of ,england1 the same generalization broadly holds good4 ,the incomparable ,hawthorne1 whatever his psychological sympathy with the ,puritan past1 wrought inevitably by his art for the loosening of its intellectual hold2 ,poe1 though he did not venture till his days of downfall to write his ,eureka1 thereby proves himself an entirely non-,christian theist2 and ,emerson's poetry1 no less than his prose1 constantly expresses his pantheism2 while his gifted disciple ,thoreau1 in some ways a more stringent thinker than his master1 was either a pantheist or a ,lucretian theist1 standing aloof from all churches4 #ahfg ,the economic conditions of ,american life have till recently been unfavourable to the higher literature1 as apart from fiction2 but the unique figure of ,walt ,whitman stands for a thoroughly naturalistic view of life2 #ahfh ,mr4 ,howells appears to be at most a theist2 ,mr4 ,henry ,james has not even exhibited the bias of his gifted brother to the theism of their no less gifted father2 and some of the most esteemed men of letters since the ,civil ,war1 as ,dr4 ,wendell ,holmes and ,colonel ,wentworth ,higginson1 have been avowedly on the side of rationalism1 or1 as the term goes in the ,states1 liberalism4 ,though the tone of ordinary conversation is more often reminiscent of religion in the ,united ,states than in ,england1 the novel and the newspaper have been perhaps more thoroughly secularized there than here2 and in the public honour done to so thorough a rationalist as the late ,dr4 ,moncure ,conway at the hands of his alma mater1 the ,dickinson ,college1 ,west ,virginia1 may be seen the proof that the official orthodoxy of his youth has disappeared from the region of his birth4 #ac4 ,of the vast modern output of belles lettres in continental ,europe1 finally1 a similar account is to be given4 ,the supreme poet of modern ,italy1 ,leopardi1 is one of the most definitely rationalistic as well as one of the greatest philosophic poets in literature2 ,carducci1 the greatest of his successors1 was explicitly anti-,christian2 and despite all the claims of the ,catholic socialists1 there is little modern ,catholic literature in ,italy of any ,european value4 ,one of the most distinguished of modern ,italian scholars1 ,professor ,a4 de ,gubernatis1 has in his ,letture sopra la mitologia vedica 7#ahgd7 explicitly treated the ,christian legend as a myth4 ,in ,germany we have seen ,goethe and ,schiller distinctly counting for naturalism2 and of ,jean ,paul ,richter 7#agfc-ahbe7 an orthodox historian declares that his religion was a chaotic fermenting of the mind1 out of which now deism1 then ,christianity1 then a new religion1 seems to come forth4 #ahfi ,the naturalistic line is found to be continued in ,heinrich von ,kleist1 the unhappy but masterly dramatist of ,der ,zerbrochene ,krug1 one of the truest geniuses of his time2 and above all in ,heine1 whose characteristic profession of reconciling himself on his deathbed with the deity he imaged as the ,aristophanes of heaven #ahgj serves so scantily to console the orthodox lovers of his matchless song4 ,his criticism of ,kant and ,fichte is a sufficient clue to his serious convictions2 and that ,god is all that there is #ahga is the sufficient expression of his pantheism4 ,the whole purport of his brilliant sketch of the ,history of ,religion and ,philosophy in ,germany 7#ahcd2 #bnd ed4 #aheb7 is a propaganda of the very spirit of freethinking1 which constitutes for ,germany at once a literary classic and a manifesto of rationalism4 ,as he himself said of the return of the aged ,schelling to ,catholicism1 we may say of ,heine1 that a deathbed reversion to early beliefs is a pathological phenomenon4 ,the use latterly made of ,heine's deathbed re-conversion by orthodoxy in ,england is characteristic4 ,the late letters and conversations in which he said edifying things of ,god and the ,bible are cited for readers who know nothing of the context1 and almost as little of the speaker4 ,he had similarly praised the ,bible in #ahcj 7,letter of ,july1 in ,b4 iii of his volume on ,brne--,werke1 vii1 #afj74 ,to the reader of the whole it is clear that1 while ,heine's verbal renunciation of his former pantheism1 and his characterization of the pantheistic position as a timid atheism1 might have been made independently of his physical prostration1 his profession of the theism at which he had formerly scoffed is only momentarily serious1 even at a time when such a reversion would have been in no way surprising4 ,his return to and praise of the ,bible1 the book of his childhood1 during years of extreme suffering and utter helplessness1 was in the ordinary way of physiological reaction4 ,but inasmuch as his thinking faculty was never extinguished by his tortures1 he chronically indicated that his religious talk was a half-conscious indulgence of the overstrained emotional nature1 and substantially an exercise of his poetic feeling--always as large a part of his psychosis as his reasoning faculty4 ,even in deathbed profession he was neither a ,jew nor a ,christian1 his language being that of a deism scarcely distinguishable in any essential element from that of ,voltaire or ,diderot 7,strodtmann1 ,heine's ,leben und ,werke1 #bte ,aufl4 ii1 #chf74 ,my religious convictions and views1 he writes in the preface to the late ,romancero1 remain free of all churchism4444 ,i have abjured nothing1 not even my old heathen ,gods1 from whom ,i have parted in love and friendship4 ,in his will he peremptorily forbade any clerical procedure at his funeral2 and his feeling on that side is revealed in his sad jests to his friend ,meissner in #ahej4 ,if ,i could only go out on crutches6 he exclaimed2 adding3 ,do you know where ,i should go8 ,straight to church4 ,on his friends expressing disbelief1 he went on3 ,certainly1 to church6 ,where should a man go on crutches8 ,naturally1 if ,i could walk without crutches1 ,i should go to the laughing boulevards or the ,jardin ,mabille4 ,the story is told in ,england without the conclusion1 as a piece of ,christian ,evidence4 ,but even as to his theism ,heine was never more than wilfully and poetically a believer4 ,in #ahdi we find him jesting about ,god and the ,gods1 declaring he will not offend the lieber ,gott1 whose vultures he knows and respects4 ,opium is also a religion1 he writes in #ahej4 ,christianity is useless for the healthy 444 for the sick it is a very good religion4 ,if the ,german people in their need accept the ,king of ,prussia1 why should not ,i accept the personal ,god8 ,and in speaking of the postscript to the ,romancero he writes in #ahea3 ,alas1 ,i had neither time nor mood to say there what ,i wanted--namely1 that ,i die as a ,poet1 who needs neither religion nor philosophy1 and has nothing to do with either4 ,the ,poet understands very well the symbolic idiom of ,religion1 and the abstract jargon of ,philosophy2 but neither the religious gentry nor those of philosophy will ever understand the ,poet4 ,a few weeks before his death he signs a ,new ,year letter1 ,nebuchadnezzar ,,ii1 formerly ,prussian ,atheist1 now ,lotosflower-adorer4 ,at this time he was taking immense doses of morphia to make his tortures bearable4 ,a few hours before his death a querying pietist got from him the answer3 ,god will pardon me2 it is his business4 ,the ,gestndnisse1 written in #ahed1 ends in absolute irony2 and his alleged grounds for giving up atheism1 sometimes quoted seriously1 are purely humorous 7,werke1 iv1 #cc74 ,if it be in any sense true1 as he tells in the preface to the ,romancero1 that the high clerisy of atheism pronounced its anathema over him--that is to say1 that former friends denounced him as a weak turncoat--it needed only the publication of his ,life and ,letters to enable freethinkers to take an entirely sympathetic view of his case1 which may serve as a supreme example of the martyrdom of man4 ,on the whole question see ,strodtmann1 as cited1 ii1 #cgb sq41 and the ,gestndnisse1 which should be compared with the earlier written fragments of ,briefe ber ,deutschland 7,werke1 iii1 #aaj71 where there are some significant variations in statements of fact4 ,since ,heine1 ,german belles lettres has not been a first-rate influence in ,europe2 but some of the leading novelists1 as ,auerbach and ,heyse1 are well known to have shared in the rational philosophy of their age2 and the ,christianity of ,wagner1 whose precarious support to the cause of faith has been welcomed chiefly by its heteroclite adherents1 counts for nothing in the critical scale4 #ahgb #ad4 ,but perhaps the most considerable evidence1 in belles lettres1 of the predominance of rationalism in modern ,europe is to be found in the literary history of the ,scandinavian ,states and ,russia4 ,the ,russian development indeed had gone far ere the modern ,scandinavian literatures had well begun4 ,already in the first quarter of the century the poet ,poushkine was an avowed heretic2 and ,gogol even let his art suffer from his preoccupations with the new humanitarian ideas2 while the critic ,bilinsky1 classed by ,tourgunief as the ,lessing of ,russia1 #ahgc was pronouncedly rationalistic1 #ahgd as was his contemporary the critic ,granovsky1 #ahge reputed the finest ,russian stylist of his day4 ,at this period belles lettres stood for every form of intellectual influence in ,russia1 #ahgf and all educated thought was moulded by it4 ,the most perfect artistic result is the fiction of the freethinker ,tourgunief1 #ahgg the ,sophocles of the modern novel4 ,his two great contemporaries1 ,dostoyevsky and ,tolstoy1 count indeed for supernaturalism2 but the truly wonderful genius of the former was something apart from his philosophy1 which was merely childlike2 and the latter1 the least masterly if the most strenuous artist of the three1 made his religious converts in ,russia chiefly among the uneducated1 and was in any case sharply antagonistic to orthodox ,christianity4 ,it does not appear that the younger writer1 ,potapenko1 a fine artist1 is orthodox1 despite his extremely sympathetic presentment of a superior priest2 and the still younger ,gorky is an absolute ,naturalist4 #ae4 ,in the ,scandinavian ,states1 again1 there are hardly any exceptions to the freethinking tendency among the leading living men of letters4 ,in the person of the abnormal religionist ,sren ,kierkegaard 7#ahac-ahee7 a new force of criticism began to stir in ,denmark4 ,setting out as a theologian1 ,kierkegaard gradually developed1 always on quasi-religious lines1 into a vehement assailant of conventional ,christianity1 somewhat in the spirit of ,pascal1 somewhat in that of ,feuerbach1 again in that of ,ruskin2 and in a temper recalling now a ,berserker and now a ,hebrew prophet4 ,the general effect of his teaching may be gathered from the mass of the work of ,henrik ,ibsen1 who was his disciple1 and in particular from ,ibsen's ,brand1 of which the hero is partly modelled on ,kierkegaard4 #ahgh ,ibsen1 though his ,brand was counted to him for righteousness by the ,churches1 showed himself a thorough-going naturalist in all his later work2 ,bjrnson was an active freethinker2 the eminent ,danish critic1 ,georg ,brandes1 early avowed himself to the same effect2 and his brother1 the dramatist1 ,edward ,brandes1 was elected to the ,danish ,parliament in #ahga despite his declaration that he believed in neither the ,christian nor the ,jewish ,god4 ,most of the younger littrateurs of ,norway and ,sweden seem to be of the same cast of thought4 ,section #d4--,the ,natural ,sciences #a4 ,the power of intellectual habit and tradition had preserved among the majority of educated men1 to the end of the eighteenth century1 a notion of deity either slightly removed from that of the ancient ,hebrews or ethically purified without being philosophically transformed1 though the astronomy of ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 and ,newton had immensely modified the ,hebraic conception of the physical universe4 ,we have seen that ,newton did not really hold by the ,christian scheme--he wrote1 at times1 in fact1 as a pantheist--but some later astronomers seem to have done so4 ,when1 however1 the great ,laplace developed the nebular hypothesis1 previously guessed at by ,bruno and outlined by ,kant1 orthodox psychological habit was rudely shaken as regards the ,biblical account of creation2 and like every other previous advance in physical science this was denounced as atheistic #ahgi--which1 as we know1 it was1 ,laplace having declared in reply to ,napoleon that he had no need of the ,god hypothesis4 ,confirmed in essentials by all subsequent science1 ,laplace's system widens immensely the gulf between modern cosmology and the historic theism of the ,christian era2 and the subsequent concrete developments of astronomy1 giving as they do such an insistent and overwhelming impression of physical infinity1 have made the ,christian hypothesis #ahhj fantastic save for minds capable of enduring any strain on the sense of consistency4 ,paine had brought the difficulty vividly home to the common intelligence2 and though the history of orthodoxy is a history of the success of institutions and majorities in imposing incongruous conformities1 the perception of the incongruity on this side must have been a force of disintegration4 ,the freethinking of the ,french astronomers of the ,revolution period marks a decisive change2 and as early as #ahbf we find in a work on ,jewish antiquities by a ,scotch clergyman a very plain indication #ahha of disbelief in the ,hebrew story of the stopping of the sun and moon1 or 7alternatively7 of the rotation of the earth4 ,it is typical of the tenacity of religious delusion that a quarter of a century later this among other irrational credences was contended for by the ,swiss theologian ,gaussen1 #ahhb and by the orthodox majority elsewhere1 when for all scientifically trained men they had become untenable4 ,and that the general growth of scientific thought was disintegrating among scientific men the old belief in miracles may be gathered from an article1 remarkable in its day1 which appeared in the ,edinburgh ,review of ,january1 #ahad 7,no4 #df71 and was universally attributed to ,prof4 ,leslie1 #ahhc the distinguished physicist4 ,reviewing the argument of ,laplace's essay1 ,sur les probabilits1 it substantially endorsed the thesis of ,hume that miracles cannot be proved by any testimony4 ,leslie's own case is one of the milestones marking the slow recovery of progress in ,britain after the ,revolution4 ,his appointment to the chair of ,mathematics1 after ,playfair1 at ,edinburgh ,university in #ahje was bitterly resisted by the orthodox on the score that he was a disbeliever in miracles and an infidel of the school of ,hume1 who had been his personal friend4 ,nevertheless he again succeeded ,playfair in the chair of ,physics in #ahai1 and was knighted in #ahcb4 ,the invention of the hygrometer and the discovery of the relations of light and heat had begun to count for more in science than the profession of orthodoxy4 #b4 ,from ,france came likewise the impulse to a naturalistic handling of biology1 long before the day of ,darwin4 ,the protagonist in this case was the physician ,p4-,j4-,g4 ,cabanis 7#agcg-ahjh71 the colleague of ,laplace in the ,school of ,sciences4 ,growing up in the generation of the ,revolution1 ,cabanis had met1 in the salon of ,madame ,helvtius1 d',holbach1 ,diderot1 ,d',alembert1 ,condorcet1 ,laplace1 ,condillac1 ,volney1 ,franklin1 and ,jefferson1 and became the physician of ,mirabeau4 ,his treatise on the ,rapports du physique et du morale de l'homme 7#agif-ahjb7 #ahhd might be described as the systematic application to psychology of that positive method to which all the keenest thought of the eighteenth century had been tending1 yet with much of the literary or rhetorical tone by which the ,french writers of that age had nearly all been characterized4 ,for ,cabanis1 the psychology of ,helvtius and ,condillac had been hampered by their ignorance of physiology2 #ahhe and he easily put aside the primary errors1 such as the equality of minds and the entity of the soul1 which they took over from previous thinkers4 ,his own work is on the whole the most searching and original handling of the main problems of psycho-physiology that had yet been achieved2 and to this day its suggestiveness has not been exhausted4 ,but ,cabanis1 in his turn1 made the mistake of ,helvtius and ,condillac4 ,not content with presenting the results of his study in the province in which he was relatively master1 he undertook to reach ultimate truth in those of ethics and philosophy1 in which he was not so4 ,in the preface to the ,rapports he lays down an emphatically agnostic conviction as to final causes3 ignorance the most invincible1 he declares1 is all that is possible to man on that issue4 #ahhf ,but not only does he in his main work freely and loosely generalize on the phenomena of history and overleap the ethical problem3 he penned shortly before his death a ,lettre sur les causes premires1 addressed to ,fauriel1 #ahhg in which the aging intelligence is seen reverting to priori processes1 and concluding in favour of a sort of stoic pantheism #ahhh with a balance towards normal theism and a belief in immortality4 ,the final doctrine did not in the least affect the argument of the earlier1 which was simply one of positive science2 but the clerical world1 which had in the usual fashion denounced the scientific doctrine1 not on the score of any attack by ,cabanis upon religion1 but because of its incompatibility with the notion of the soul1 naturally made much of the mystical1 #ahhi and accorded its framer authority from that moment4 ,as for the conception of vitalism put forward in the ,letter to ,fauriel by way of explanation of the phenomena of life1 it is but a reversion to the earlier doctrine of ,stahl1 of which ,cabanis had been a partisan in his youth4 #ahij ,the fact remains that he gave an enduring impulse to positive science1 #ahia his own final vacillation failing to arrest the employment of the method he had inherited and improved4 ,most people know him solely through one misquotation1 the famous phrase that the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile4 ,this is not only an imperfect statement of his doctrine3 it suppresses precisely the idea by which ,cabanis differentiates from pure sensationalism4 ,what he taught was that impressions1 reaching the brain1 set it in activity1 as aliments reaching the stomach excite it to a more abundant secretion of gastric juice4444 ,the function proper to the first is to perceive particular impressions1 to attach to them signs1 to combine different impressions1 to separate them1 to draw from them judgments and determinations1 as the function of the second is to act on nutritive substances1 etc4 #ahib ,it is after this statement of the known processus1 and after pointing out that there is as much of pure inference in the one case as in the other1 that he concludes3 ,the brain in a manner digests impressions1 and makes organically the secretion of thought and this conclusion1 he points out1 disposes of the difficulty of those who cannot conceive how judging1 reasoning1 imagining1 can ever be anything else than feeling4 ,the difficulty ceases when one recognizes1 in these different operations1 the action of the brain upon the impressions which are passed on to it4 ,the doctrine is1 in short1 an elementary truth of psychological science1 as distinguished from the pseudo-science of the ,ego considered as an entity4 ,to that pseudo-science ,cabanis gave a vital wound2 and his derided formula is for true science to-day almost a truism4 ,the attacks made upon his doctrine in the next generation only served to emphasize anew the eternal dilemma of theism4 ,on the one hand his final vitalism was repugnant to those who1 on traditional lines1 insisted upon a distinction between soul and vital force2 on the other hand1 those who sought to make a philosophic case for theism against him made the usual plunge into pantheism1 and were reproached accordingly by the orthodox4 #ahic ,all that remained was the indisputable positive gain4 #c4 ,in ,england the influence of the ,french stimulus in physiology was seen even more clearly than that of the great generalization of ,laplace4 ,professor ,william ,lawrence 7#aghc-ahfg71 the physiologist1 published in #ahaf an ,introduction to ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology1 containing some remarks on the nature of life1 which elicited from the then famous ,dr4 ,abernethy a foul attack in his ,physiological ,lectures delivered before the ,college of ,surgeons4 ,lawrence was charged with belonging to the party of ,french physiological skeptics whose aim was to loosen those restraints on which the welfare of mankind depends4 #ahid ,in the introductory lecture of his course of #ahag before the ,college of ,physicians1 ,lawrence severely retaliated1 repudiating the general charge1 but reasserting that the dependence of life on organization is as clear as the derivation of daylight from the sun4 ,the war was adroitly carried at once into the enemy's territory in the declaration that ,the profound1 the virtuous1 and fervently pious ,pascal acknowledged1 what all sound theologians maintain1 that the immortality of the soul1 the great truths of religion1 and the fundamental principles of morals cannot be demonstrably proved by mere reason2 and that revelation alone is capable of dissipating the uncertainties which perplex those who inquire too curiously into the sources of these important principles4 ,all will acknowledge that1 as no other remedy can be so perfect and satisfactory as this1 no other can be necessary1 if we resort to this with firm faith4 #ahie ,the value of this pronouncement is indicated later in the same volume by subacid allusions to those who regard the ,hebrew ,scriptures as writings composed with the assistance of divine inspiration1 and who receive ,genesis as a narrative of actual events4 ,indicating various grounds of doubt respecting inspiration1 the lecturer adds that the stories of the naming of the animals and their collection in the ark1 if we are to understand them as applied to the living inhabitants of the whole world1 are zoologically impossible4 #ahif ,on the principle then governing such matters ,lawrence was in #ahbb1 on the score of his heresies1 refused copyright in his lectures1 which were accordingly reprinted many times in a cheap stereotyped edition1 and thus widely diffused4 #ahig ,this hardy attack was reinforced in #ahai by the publication of ,sir ,t4 ,c4 ,morgan's ,sketches of the ,philosophy of ,life1 wherein the physiological materialism of ,cabanis is quietly but firmly developed1 and a typical sentence of his figures as a motto on the title-page4 ,the method is strictly naturalistic1 alike on the medical and on the philosophic side2 and vitalism is argued down as explicitly as is anthropomorphism4 #ahih ,as a whole the book tells notably of the stimulus of recent ,french thought upon ,english4 #d4 ,a more general effect1 however1 was probably wrought by the science of geology1 which in a stable and tested form belongs to the nineteenth century4 ,of its theoretic founders in the eighteenth century1 ,werner and ,dr4 ,james ,hutton 7#agbf-agig71 the latter and more important #ahii is known from his ,investigation of the ,principles of ,knowledge 7#agid7 to have been consciously a freethinker on more grounds than that of his naturalistic science2 and his ,theory of the ,world 7#agie7 was duly denounced as atheistic4 #aijj ,whereas the physical infinity of the universe almost forced the orthodox to concede a vast cosmic process of some kind as preceding the shaping of the earth and solar system1 the formation of these within six days was one of the plainest assertions in the sacred books2 and every system of geology excluded such a conception4 ,as the evidence accumulated1 in the hands of men mostly content to deprecate religious opposition1 #aija there was duly evolved the quaint compromise of the doctrine that the ,biblical six days meant six ages--a fantasy still cherished in the pulpit4 ,on the ground of that absurdity1 nevertheless1 there gradually grew up a new conception of the antiquity of the earth4 ,thus a popular work on geology such as ,the ,ancient ,world1 by ,prof4 ,ansted 7#ahdg71 could begin with the proposition that long before the human race had been introduced on the earth this world of ours existed as the habitation of living things different from those now inhabiting its surface4 ,even the thesis of six ages1 and others of the same order1 drew upon their supporters angry charges of infidelity4 ,hugh ,miller1 whose natural gifts for geological research were chronically turned to confusion by his orthodox bias1 was repeatedly so assailed1 when in point of fact he was perpetually tampering with the facts to salve the ,scriptures4 #aijb ,of all the inductive sciences geology had been most retarded by the ,christian canonization of error4 #aijc ,even the plain fact that what is dry land had once been sea was obstinately distorted through centuries1 though ,ovid #aijd had put the observations of ,pythagoras in the way of all scholars2 and though ,leonardo da ,vinci had insisted on the visible evidence2 nay1 deistic habit could keep even ,voltaire1 as we saw1 preposterously incredulous on the subject4 ,when the scientific truth began to force its way in the teeth of such authorities as ,cuvier1 who stood for the ,mosaic doctrine1 the effect was proportionately marked2 and whether or not the suicide of ,miller 7#ahef7 was in any way due to despair on perception of the collapse of his reconciliation of geology with ,genesis1 #aije the scientific demonstration made an end of revelationism for many4 ,what helped most to save orthodoxy from humiliation on the scientific side was the attitude of men like ,professor ,baden ,powell1 whose scientific knowledge and habit of mind moved him to attack the ,judaism of the ,bibliolaters in the name of ,christianity1 and in the name of truth to declare that nothing in geology bears the smallest semblance to any part of the ,mosaic cosmogony1 torture the interpretation to what extent we may4 #aijf ,in #aheg this was very bold language4 #e4 ,still more rousing1 finally1 was the effect of the science of zoology1 as placed upon a broad scientific foundation by ,charles ,darwin4 ,here again steps had been taken in previous generations on the right path1 without any general movement on the part of scientific and educated men4 ,darwin's own grandfather1 ,erasmus ,darwin1 had in his ,zoonomia 7#agid7 anticipated many of the positions of the ,french ,lamarck1 who in #ahja began developing the views he fully elaborated in #ahae1 as to the descendance of all existing species from earlier forms4 #aijg ,as early as #agie ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire had begun to suspect that all species are variants on a primordial form of life2 and at the same time 7#agid-ie7 ,goethe in ,germany had reached similar convictions4 #aijh ,that views thus reached almost simultaneously in ,germany1 ,england1 and ,france1 at the time of the ,french ,revolution1 should have to wait for two generations before even meeting the full stress of battle1 must be put down as one of the results of the general reaction4 ,saint-,hilaire1 publishing his views in #ahbh1 was officially overborne by the ,cuvier school in ,france4 ,in ,england1 indeed1 so late as #ahee1 we find ,sir ,david ,brewster denouncing the ,nebular ,hypothesis3 that dull and dangerous heresy of the age4444 ,an omnipotent arm was required to give the planets their position and motion in space1 and a presiding intelligence to assign to them the different functions they had to perform4 #aiji ,and ,murchison the geologist was no less emphatic against ,darwinism1 which he rejected till his dying day 7#ahga74 #f4 ,other anticipations of ,darwin's doctrine in ,england and elsewhere came practically to nothing1 #aiaj as regarded the general opinion1 until ,robert ,chambers in #ahdd published anonymously his ,vestiges of the ,natural ,history of ,creation1 a work which found a wide audience1 incurring bitter hostility not only from the clergy but from some specialists who1 like ,huxley1 were later to take the evolutionist view on ,darwin's persuasion4 ,chambers it was that brought the issue within general knowledge2 and he improved his position in successive editions4 ,a hostile clerical reader1 ,whewell1 admitted of him1 in a letter to a less hostile member of his profession1 that1 as to the degree of resemblance between the author and the ,french physiological atheists1 he uses reverent phrases3 theirs would not be tolerated in ,england2 adding3 ,you would be surprised to hear the contempt and abhorrence with which ,owen and ,sedgwick speak of the ,vestiges4 #aiaa ,hugh ,miller1 himself accused of infidelity for his measure of inductive candour1 held a similar tone towards men of greater intellectual rectitude1 calling the liberalizing religionists of his day vermin and reptiles1 #aiab and classifying as degraded and lost #aiac all who should accept the new doctrine of evolution1 which1 as put by ,chambers1 was then coming forward to evict his own delusions from the field of science4 ,the young ,max ,mller1 with the certitude born of an entire ignorance of physical science1 declared in #ahef that the doctrine of a human evolution from lower types can never be maintained again1 and pronounced it an unhallowed imputation4 #aiad #g4 ,contempt and abhorrence had in fact at all times constituted the common ,christian temper towards every form of critical dissent from the body of received opinion2 and only since the contempt1 doubled with criticism1 began to be in a large degree retorted on the bigots by instructed men has a better spirit prevailed4 ,such a reaction was greatly promoted by the establishment of the ,darwinian theory4 ,it was after the above-noted preparation1 popular and academic1 and after the theory of transmutation of species had been definitely pronounced erroneous by the omniscient ,whewell1 #aiae that ,darwin produced 7#ahei7 his irresistible arsenal of arguments and facts1 the ,origin of ,species1 expounding systematically the principle of ,natural ,selection1 suggested to him by the economic philosophy of ,malthus1 and independently and contemporaneously arrived at by ,dr4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,the outcry was enormous2 and the ,church1 as always1 arrayed itself violently against the new truth4 ,bishop ,wilberforce pointed out in the ,quarterly ,review that the principle of natural selection is absolutely incompatible with the word of ,god1 #aiaf which was perfectly true2 and at a famous meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahfj he so travestied the doctrine as to goad ,huxley into a fierce declaration that he would rather be a descendant of an ape than of a man who 7like the ,bishop7 plunged into questions with which he had no real acquaintance1 only to obscure them and distract his hearers by appeals to religious prejudice4 #aiag ,the mass of the clergy kept up the warfare of ignorance2 but the battle was practically won within twenty years4 ,in ,france1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states leading theologians had made the same suicidal declarations1 entitling all men to say that1 if evolution proved to be true1 ,christianity was false4 ,professor ,luthardt1 of ,leipzig1 took up the same position as ,bishop ,wilberforce1 declaring that the whole superstructure of personal religion is built upon the doctrine of creation2 #aiah leading ,american theologians pronounced the new doctrine atheistic2 and everywhere gross vituperation eked out the theological argument4 #aiai #h4 ,thus the idea of a specific creation of all forms of life by an originating deity--the conception which virtually united the deists and ,christians of the eighteenth century against the atheists--was at length scientifically exploded4 ,the principle of personal divine rule or providential intervention had now been philosophically excluded successively 7#a7 from astronomy by the system of ,newton2 7#b7 from the science of earth-formation by the system of ,laplace and the new geology2 7#c7 from the science of living organisms by the new zoology4 ,it only needed that the deistic conception should be further excluded from the human sciences--from anthropology1 from the philosophy of history1 and from ethics--to complete1 at least in outline1 the rationalization of modern thought4 ,not that the process was complete in detail even as regarded zoology4 ,despite the plain implications of the ,origin of ,species1 the doctrine of the ,descent of ,man 7#ahga7 came on many as a shocking surprise and evoked a new fury of protest4 ,the lacun in ,darwin1 further1 had to be supplemented2 and much speculative power has been spent on the task by ,haeckel1 without thus far establishing complete agreement4 ,but the desperate stand so long made on the score of the missing link seems to have been finally discredited in #ahid2 and the ,judo-,christian doctrine of special creation and providential design appears1 even in the imperfectly educated society of our day1 to be already a lost cause4 ,as we have seen1 however1 it was not merely the clerical class that resisted the new truth3 the men of science themselves were often disgracefully hostile2 and that class continued to give a sufficiency of support to clericalism4 ,if the study of the physical sciences be no guarantee for recognition of new truth in those sciences1 still less is it a sure preparation for right judgment in matters of sociology1 or1 indeed1 for a courageous attitude towards conventions4 ,spencer in his earlier works used the language of deism #aibj at a time when ,comte had discarded it4 ,it takes a rare combination of intellectual power1 moral courage1 and official freedom to permit of such a directly rationalistic propaganda as was carried on by ,professor ,clifford1 or even such as has been accomplished by ,president ,andrew ,white in ,america under the comparatively popular profession of deism4 ,it was only in his leisured latter years that ,huxley carried on a general conflict with orthodoxy4 ,in middle age he frequently covered himself by attacks on professed freethinkers2 and he did more than any other man of his time in ,england to conserve the ,bible as a school manual by his politic panegyric of it in that aspect at a time when bolder rationalists were striving to get it excluded from the ,state schools4 #aiba ,other men of science have furnished an abundance of support to orthodoxy by more or less vaguely religious pronouncements on the problem of the universe2 so that ,catholic and other obscurantist agencies are able to cite from them many quasi-scientific phrases #aibb--taking care not to ask what bearing their language has on the dogmas of the ,churches4 ,physicists who attempt to be more precise are rarely found to be orthodox2 and the moral and social science of such writers is too often a species of charlatanism4 ,but the whole tendency of natural science1 which as such is necessarily alien to supernaturalism1 makes for a rejection of the religious tradition2 and the real leaders of science are found more and more openly alienated from the creed of faith4 ,we know that ,darwin1 though the son and grandson of freethinkers1 was brought up in ordinary orthodoxy by his mother1 and gave up common religious belief almost independently from his own reflections4 #aibc ,all over the world that has since been an increasingly common experience among scientific men4 ,section #e4--,the ,sociological ,sciences #a4 ,a rationalistic treatment of human history had been explicit or implicit in the whole literature of ,deism2 and had been attempted with various degrees of success by ,bodin1 ,vico1 ,montesquieu1 ,mandeville1 ,hume1 ,smith1 ,voltaire1 ,volney1 and ,condorcet1 as well as by lesser men4 #aibd ,so clear had been the classic lead to naturalistic views of social growth in the ,politics of ,aristotle1 and so strong the influence of the new naturalistic spirit1 that it is seen even in the work of ,goguet 7#agfi71 who sets out as biblically as ,bossuet2 while in ,germany ,herder and ,kant framed really luminous generalizations2 and a whole group of sociological writers rose up in the ,scotland of the middle and latter parts of the century4 #aibe ,here again there was reaction2 but in ,france the orthodox ,guizot did much to promote broader views than his own2 ,eusbe ,salverte in his essay ,de la ,civilisation 7#ahac7 made a highly intelligent effort towards a general view2 and ,charles ,comte in his ,trait de ,lgislation 7#ahbf7 made a marked scientific advance on the suggestive work of ,herder4 ,as we have seen1 the eclectic ,jouffroy put human affairs in the sphere of natural law equally with cosmic phenomena4 ,at length1 in the great work of ,auguste ,comte1 scientific method was applied so effectively and concretely to the general problem that1 despite his serious fallacies1 social science again took rank as a solid study4 #b4 ,in ,england the anti-revolution reaction was visible in this as in other fields of thought4 ,hume and ,gibbon had set the example of a strictly naturalistic treatment of history2 and the clerical ,robertson was faithful to their method2 but ,hallam makes a stand for supernaturalism even in applying a generally scientific critical standard4 ,the majority of historical events he is content to let pass as natural1 even as the average man sees the hand of the doctor in his escape from rheumatism1 but the hand of ,god in his escape from a railway accident4 ,discussing the defeat of ,barbarossa at ,legnano1 ,hallam pronounces that it is not material to allege 444 that the accidental destruction of ,frederic's army by disease enabled the cities of ,lombardy to succeed in their resistance4444 ,providence reserves to itself various means by which the bonds of the oppressor may be broken2 and it is not for human sagacity to anticipate whether the army of a conqueror shall moulder in the unwholesome marshes of ,rome or stiffen with frost in a ,russian winter4 #aibf ,but ,hallam was nearly the last historian of distinction to vend such nugatory oracles as either a philosophy or a religion of history4 ,even the oracular ,carlyle did not clearly stipulate for special providences in his histories1 though he leant to that conception2 and though ,ranke also uses mystifying language1 he writes as a ,naturalist2 while ,michelet is openly anti-clerical4 ,grote was wholly a rationalist2 the historic method of his friend and competitor1 ,bishop ,thirlwall1 was as non-theological as his2 ,macaulay1 whatever might be his conformities or his bias1 wrote in his most secular spirit when exhibiting theological evolution2 and ,george ,long indicated his rationalism again and again4 #aibg ,it is only in the writings of the most primitively prejudiced of those ,german historians who eliminate ethics from historiography that the ,god factor is latterly emphasized in ostensibly expert historiography4 #c4 ,all study of economics and of political history fostered such views1 and at length1 in ,england and ,america1 by the works of ,draper and ,buckle1 in the sixth and later decades of the century1 the conception of law in human history was widely if slowly popularized1 to the due indignation of the supernaturalists1 who saw the last great field of natural phenomena passing like others into the realm of science4 ,draper's avowed theism partly protected him from attack2 but ,buckle's straightforward attacks on creeds and on ,churches brought upon him a peculiarly fierce hostility1 which was unmollified by his incidental avowal of belief in a future life and his erratic attacks upon unbelievers4 ,for long this hostility told against his sociological teaching4 ,spencer's ,principles of ,sociology nevertheless clinched the scientific claim by taking sociological law for granted2 and the new science has continually progressed in acceptance4 ,in the hands of all its leading modern exponents in all countries--,lester ,ward1 ,giddings1 ,guyau1 ,letourneau1 ,tarde1 ,ferri1 ,durkheim1 ,de ,greef1 ,gumplowicz1 ,lilienfeld1 ,schffle--it has been entirely naturalistic1 though some ,catholic professors continue to inject into it theological assumptions4 ,it cannot be said1 however1 that a general doctrine of social evolution is even yet fully established4 ,the problem is complicated by the profoundly contentious issues of practical politics2 and in the resulting diffidence of official teachers there arises a notable opening for obscurantism1 which has been duly forthcoming4 ,in the first half of the century such an eminent ,churchman as ,dean ,milman incurred at the hands of ,j4 ,h4 ,newman and others the charge of writing the history of the ,jews and of early ,christianity in a rationalistic spirit1 presenting religion as a human phenomenon4 #aibh ,later ,churchmen1 with all their preparation1 have rarely gone further4 #d4 ,two lines of scientific study1 it would appear1 must be thoroughly followed up before the ground can be pronounced clear for authoritative conclusions--those of anthropological archology 7including comparative mythology and comparative hierology7 and economic analysis4 ,on both lines1 however1 great progress has been made2 and on the former in particular the result is profoundly disintegrating to traditional belief4 ,the lessons of anthropology had been long available to the modern world before they began to be scientifically applied to the science of religion4 ,the issues raised by ,fontenelle and ,de ,brosses in the eighteenth century were in practice put aside in favour of direct debate over ,christian history1 dogma1 and ethic2 though many of the deists dwelt on the analogies of heathen and revealed religion4 ,as early as #ahbd ,benjamin ,constant made a vigorous attempt to bring the whole phenomena under a general evolutionary conception in his work ,de la ,religion4 #aibi ,but it was not till the treasure of modern anthropology had been scientifically massed by such students as ,theodor ,waitz 7,anthropologie der ,naturvlker1 #f ,bde4 #ahei-ga7 and ,adolf ,bastian 7,der ,mensch in der ,geschichte1 #c ,bde4 #ahfj71 and above all by ,sir ,edward ,tylor1 who first lucidly elaborated the science of it all1 that the arbitrary religious conception of the psychic evolution of humanity began to be decisively superseded4 ,in #ahga ,tylor could still say that to many educated minds there seems something presumptuous and repulsive in the view that the history of mankind is part and parcel of the history of nature2 that our thoughts1 wills1 and actions accord with laws as definite as those which govern the motion of waves1 the combination of acids and bases1 and the growth of plants and animals4 #aicj ,but the old repulsion had already been profoundly impaired by biological and social science2 and ,tylor's book met with hardly any of the odium that had been lavished on ,darwin and ,buckle4 ,it will make me for the future look on religion--a belief in the soul1 etc4--from a different point of view1 wrote ,darwin #aica to ,tylor on its appearance4 ,so thoroughly did the book press home the fact of the evolution of religious thought from savagery that thenceforward the science of mythology1 which had never yet risen in professional hands to the height of vision of ,fontenelle1 began to be decisively adapted to the anthropological standpoint4 ,in the hands of ,spencer #aicb all the phenomena of primitive mental life--beliefs1 practices1 institutions--are considered as purely natural data1 no other point of view being recognized2 and the anthropological treatises of ,lord ,avebury 7,sir ,john ,lubbock7 are at the same standpoint4 ,when at length the mass of savage usages which lie around the beginnings of historic religion began to be closely scanned and classified1 notably in the great latter-day compilations of ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 what had appeared to be sacred peculiarities of the ,christian cult were seen to be but variants of universal primitive practice4 ,thenceforth the problem for serious inquirers was not whether ,christianity was a supernatural revelation--the supernatural is no longer a ground of serious discussion--but whether the central narrative is historical in any degree whatever4 ,the defence is latterly conducted from a standpoint indistinguishable from the ,unitarian4 ,but an enormous amount of anthropological research is being carried on without any reference to such issues1 the total effect being to exclude the supernaturalist premiss from the study of religion as completely as from that of astronomy4 ,section #f4--,philosophy and ,ethics #a4 ,the philosophy of ,kant1 while giving the theological class a new apparatus of defence as against common-sense freethinking1 forced none the less on theistic philosophy a great advance from the orthodox positions4 ,thus his immediate successors1 ,fichte and ,schelling1 produced systems of which one was loudly denounced as atheistic1 and the other as pantheistic1 #aicc despite its dualism4 ,neither seems to have had much influence on concrete religious opinion outside the universities2 #aicd and when ,schelling in old age turned ,catholic obscurantist1 the gain to clericalism was not great4 ,hegel in turn loosely wrought out a system of which the great merit is to substitute the conception of existence as relation for the nihilistic idealism of ,fichte and the unsolved dualism of ,schelling4 ,this system he latterly adapted to practical exigencies #aice by formulating1 as ,kant had recently done1 a philosophic ,trinity and hardily defining ,christianity as ,absolute ,religion in comparison with the various forms of ,natural ,religion4 ,nevertheless1 he counted in a great degree as a disintegrating influence1 and was in a very practical way anti-,christian4 ,more explicitly than ,kant1 he admitted that the ,aufklrung1 the freethinking movement of the past generation1 had made good its case so far as it went2 and though1 by the admission of admirers1 he took for granted without justification that it had carried its point with the world at large1 #aicf he was chronically at strife with the theologians as such1 charging them on the one hand with deserting the dogmas which he re-stated1 #aicg and on the other declaring that the common run of them know as little of ,god as a blind man sees of a painting1 even though he handles the frame4 #aich ,of the belief in miracles he was simply contemptuous4 ,whether at the marriage of ,cana the guests got a little more wine or a little less is a matter of absolutely no importance2 nor is it any more essential to demand whether the man with the withered hand was healed2 for millions of men go about with withered and crippled limbs1 whose limbs no man heals4 ,on the story of the marks made for the information of the angel on the ,hebrew houses at the ,passover he asks3 ,would the angel not have known them without these marks81 adding3 ,this faith has no real interest for ,spirit4 #aici ,such writing1 from the orthodox point of view1 was not compensated for by a philosophy of ,christianity which denaturalized its dogmas1 and a presentment of the ,god-idea and of moral law which made religion alternately a phase of philosophy and a form of political utilitarianism4 ,as to the impression made by ,hegel on most ,christians1 compare ,hagenbach1 ,german ,rationalism 7,eng4 tr4 of ,kirchengeschichte71 pp4 #cfd-fi2 ,renan1 tudes d'histoire religieuse1 #e;e dit4 p4 #djf2 ,j4 ,d4 ,morell1 ,histor4 and ,crit4 ,view of the ,spec4 ,philos4 of ,europe in the ,nineteenth ,century1 #bnd ed4 #ahdg1 ii1 #ahi-ia2 ,robins1 ,a ,defence of the ,faith1 #ahfb1 pt4 i1 pp4 #ace-da1 #agf2 ,eschenmenger1 ,die ,hegel'sche ,religions-philosophie1 #ahcd2 quoted in ,beard's ,voices of the ,church1 p4 #h2 ,leo1 ,die ,hegelingen1 #ahch2 and ,reinhard1 ,lehrbuch der ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 #bnd ed4 #ahci1 pp4 #gec-ed--;also cited by ,beard1 pp4 #i-ab4 ,the gist of ,hegel's rehabilitation of ,christianity is well set forth by ,prof4 ,a4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison in his essay on ,the ,philosophy of ,religion in ,kant and ,hegel 7rep4 in ,the ,philos4 ,radicals and other ,essays1 #aijg71 ch4 iii4 ,considered in connection with his demonstration that in politics the ,prussian ,state was the ideal government1 it is seen to be even more of an arbitrary and unveridical accommodation to the social environment than ,kant's ,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft4 ,it approximates intellectually to the process by which the neo-,platonists and other eclectics of the classic decadence found a semblance of allegorical or symbolical justification for every item in the old theology4 ,nothing could be more false to the spirit of ,hegel's general philosophy than the representing of ,christianity as a culmination or ultimate of all religion2 and nothing1 in fact1 was more readily seen by his contemporaries4 ,we who look back1 however1 may take a more lenient view of ,hegel's process of adaptation than was taken in the next generation by ,haym1 who1 in his ,hegel und seine ,zeit 7#aheg71 presented him as always following the prevailing fashion in thought1 and lending himself as the tool of reactionary government4 ,hegel's officialism was in the main probably wholehearted4 ,even as ,kant felt driven to do something for social conservation at the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution1 and ,fichte to shape for his country the sinister ideal of ,the ,closed ,industrial ,state1 so ,hegel1 after seeing ,prussia shaken to its foundations at the battle of ,jena and being turned out of his own house by the looting ,french soldiers1 was very naturally impelled to support the existing ,state by quasi-philosophico-religious considerations4 ,it was an abandonment of the true function of philosophy2 but it may have been done in all good faith4 ,an intense political conservatism was equally marked in ,strauss1 who dreaded demagogy1 and in ,schopenhauer1 who left his fortune to the fund for the widows and families of soldiers killed or injured in the revolutionary strifes of #ahdh4 ,it came in their case from the same source--an alarmed memory of social convulsion4 ,the fact remains that ,hegel had no real part in the ,state religion which he crowned with formulas4 ,not only does ,hegel's conception of the ,absolute make deity simply the eternal process of the universe1 and the divine consciousness indistinguishable from the total consciousness of mankind1 #aidj but his abstractions lend themselves equally to all creeds2 #aida and some of the most revolutionary of the succeeding movements of ,german thought--as those of ,vatke1 ,strauss1 #aidb ,feuerbach1 and ,marx--professedly founded on him4 ,it is certainly a striking testimony to the influence of ,hegel that five such powerful innovators as ,vatke #aidc in ,old-,testament1 ,bruno ,bauer and ,strauss in ,new-,testament criticism1 ,feuerbach in the philosophy of religion1 and ,marx in social philosophy1 should at first fly the ,hegelian flag4 ,it can hardly have been that ,hegel's formulas sufficed to generate the criticism they all brought to bear upon their subject matter2 rather we must suppose that their naturally powerful minds were attracted by the critical and reconstructive aspects of his doctrine2 but the philosophy which stimulated them must have had great affinities for revolution1 as well as for all forms of the idea of evolution4 #b4 ,in respect of his formal championship of ,christianity ,hegel's method1 arbitrary even for him1 appealed neither to the orthodox nor1 with a few exceptions1 #aidd to his own disciples1 some of whom1 as ,ruge1 at length definitely renounced ,christianity4 #aide ,in #ahed ,heine told his ,french readers that there were in ,germany fanatical monks of atheism who would willingly burn ,voltaire as a besotted deist2 #aidf and ,heine himself1 in his last years of suffering and of revived poetic religiosity1 could see in ,hegel's system only atheism4 ,bruno ,bauer at first opposed ,strauss1 and afterwards went even further than he1 professing ,hegelianism all the while4 #aidg ,schopenhauer and ,hartmann in turn being even less sustaining to orthodoxy1 and later orthodox systems failing to impress1 there came in due course the cry of ,back to ,kant1 where at least orthodoxy had some formal semblance of sanction4 ,hartmann's work on ,the ,self-,decomposition of ,christianity #aidh is a stringent exposure of the unreality of what passed for liberal ,christianity in ,germany a generation ago1 and an appeal for a new concrete religion of monism or pantheism as a bulwark against ,ultramontanism4 ,on this monism1 however1 ,hartmann insisted on grounding his pessimism2 and with this pessimistic pantheism he hoped to outbid ,catholicism against the irreligious ,strauss and the liberal ,christians--in his view no less irreligious4 ,it does not seem to have had much acceptance4 ,on the whole1 the effect of all ,german philosophy has probably been to make for the general discredit of theistic thinking1 the surviving forms of ,hegelianism being little propitious to current religion4 ,and though ,schopenhauer and ,nietzsche can hardly be said to carry on the task of philosophy either in spirit or in effect1 yet the rapid intensification of hostility to current religion which their writings in particular manifest #aidi must be admitted to stand for a deep revolt against the ,kantian compromise4 ,and this revolt was bound to come about4 ,the truth-shunning tactic of ,kant1 ,fichte1 and ,hegel--aiming at the final discrediting of the ,aufklrung as a force that had done its work1 and could find no more to do1 however it be explained and excused--was a mere expression of their own final lack of scientific instinct4 ,it is hard to believe that thinkers who had perceived and asserted the fact of progression in religion could suppose that true philosophy consisted in putting a stop on priori grounds to the historical analysis1 and setting up an ultimate of philosophic theory4 ,the straightforward investigators1 seeking simply for truth1 have passed on to posterity a spirit which1 correcting their inevitable errors1 reaches a far deeper and wider comprehension of religious evolution and psychosis than could be reached by the verbalizing methods of the self-satisfied and self-sufficing metaphysicians4 ,these1 so far as they prevailed1 did but delay the advance of real knowledge4 ,their work1 in fact1 was fatally shaped by the general reaction against the ,revolution1 which in their case took a quasi-philosophic form1 while in ,france and ,england it worked out as a crude return to clerical and political authoritarianism4 #aiej #c4 ,from the collisions of philosophic systems in ,germany there emerged two great practical freethinking forces1 the teachings of ,ludwig ,feuerbach 7#ahjd-gf71 who was obliged to give up his lecturing at ,erlangen in #ahcj after the issue of his ,thoughts upon ,death and ,immortality1 and ,ludwig ,bchner1 who was deprived of his chair of clinic at ,tbingen in #ahee for his ,force and ,matter4 ,the former1 originally a ,hegelian1 expressly broke away from his master1 declaring that1 whereas ,hegel belonged to the ,old ,testament of modern philosophy1 he himself would set forth the ,new1 wherein ,hegel's fundamentally incoherent treatment of deity 7as the total process of things on the one hand1 and an objective personality on the other7 should be cured4 #aiea ,feuerbach accordingly1 in his ,essence of ,christianity 7#ahda7 and ,essence of ,religion 7#ahea71 supplied one of the first adequate modern statements of the positively rationalistic position as against ,christianity and theism1 in terms of philosophic as well as historical insight--a statement to which there is no characteristically modern answer save in terms of the refined sentimentalism of the youthful ,renan1 #aieb fundamentally averse alike to scientific precision and to intellectual consistency4 ,feuerbach's special service consists in the rebuttal of the metaphysic in which religion had chronically taken refuge from the straightforward criticism of freethinkers1 in itself admittedly unanswerable4 ,they had shown many times over its historic falsity1 its moral perversity1 and its philosophic self-contradiction2 and the more astute official defenders1 leaving to the less competent the task of re-vindicating miracles and prophecy and defending the indefensible1 proceeded to shroud the particular defeat in a pseudo-philosophic process which claimed for all religion alike an indestructible inner truth1 in the light of which the instinctive believer could again make shift to affirm his discredited credences4 ,it was this process which ,feuerbach exploded1 for all who cared to read him4 ,he had gone through it4 ,intensely religious in his youth1 he had found in the teaching of ,hegel an attractive philosophic garb for his intuitional thought4 ,but a wider concern than ,hegel's for actual knowledge1 and for the knowledge of the actual1 moved him to say to his teacher1 on leaving3 ,two years have ,i attached myself to you2 two years have ,i completely devoted to your philosophy4 ,now ,i feel the necessity of starting in the directly opposite way3 ,i am going to study anatomy4 #aiec ,it may have been that what saved him from the ,hegelian fate of turning to the end the squirrel-cage of conformist philosophy was the personal experience which put him in fixed antagonism to the governmental forces that ,hegel was moved to serve4 ,the hostility evoked by his ,thoughts on ,death and ,immortality completed his alienation from the official side of things1 and left him to the life of a devoted truth-seeker--a career as rare in ,germany as elsewhere4 ,the upshot was that ,feuerbach1 in the words of ,strauss1 broke the double yoke in which1 under ,hegel1 philosophy and theology still went4 #aied ,for the task he undertook he had consummately equipped himself4 ,in a series of four volumes 7,history of ,modern ,philosophy from ,bacon to ,spinoza1 #ahcc2 ,exposition and ,criticism of the ,leibnitzian ,philosophy1 #ahcg2 ,pierre ,bayle1 #ahch2 ,on ,philosophy and ,christianity1 #ahci7 he explored the field of philosophy1 and re-studied theology in the light of moral and historical criticism1 before he produced his masterpiece1 ,das ,wesen des ,christenthums4 ,here the tactic of ,hegel is turned irresistibly on the ,hegelian defence2 and religion1 defiantly declared by ,hegel to be an affair of self-consciousness1 #aiee is shown to be in very truth nothing else4 ,such as are a man's thoughts and dispositions1 such is his ,god2 so much worth as a man has1 so much and no more has his ,god4 ,consciousness of ,god is self-consciousness2 knowledge of ,god is self-knowledge4 #aief ,this of course is openly what ,hegelian theism is in effect--philosophic atheism2 and though ,feuerbach at times disclaimed the term1 he declares in his preface that atheism1 at least in the sense of this work1 is the secret of religion itself2 that religion itself 444 in its heart1 in its essence1 believes in nothing else than the truth and divinity of human nature4 ,in the preliminary section on ,the ,essence of ,religion he makes his position clear once for all3 ,a ,god who has abstract predicates has also an abstract existence4444 ,not the attribute of the divinity1 but the divineness or deity of the attribute1 is the first true ,divine ,being4 ,thus what theology and philosophy have held to be ,god1 the ,absolute1 the ,infinite1 is not ,god2 but that which they have held not to be ,god1 is ,god--namely the attribute1 the quality1 whatever has reality4 ,hence1 he alone is the true atheist to whom the predicates of the ,divine ,being--for example1 love1 wisdom1 justice--are nothing2 not he to whom merely the subject of these predicates is nothing4444 ,these have an intrinsic1 independent reality2 they force their recognition upon man by their very nature2 they are self-evident truths to him2 they approve1 they attest themselves4444 ,the idea of ,god is dependent on the idea of justice1 of benevolence4444 ,this is obviously the answer to ,baur1 who1 after paying tribute to the personality of ,feuerbach1 and presenting a tolerably fair summary of his critical philosophy1 can find no answer to it save the inept protest that it is one-sided in respect of its reduction of religion to the subjective 7the very course insisted on by a hundred defenders671 that it favours the communistic and other extreme tendencies of the time1 and that it brings everything under the rude rule of egoism4 #aieg ,here a philosophic and an aspersive meaning are furtively combined in one word4 ,the scientific subjectivism of ,feuerbach's analysis of religion is no more a vindication or acceptance of rude egoism than is the ,christian formula of ,god's will a condonation of murder4 ,the restraint of egoism by altruism lies in human character and polity alike for the rationalist and for the irrationalist1 as ,baur must have known well enough after his long survey of ,church history4 ,his really contemptible escape from ,feuerbach's criticism1 under cover of alternate cries of ,communism and egoism--a self-stultification which needs no comment--is simply one more illustration of the fashion in which1 since the time of ,kant1 philosophy in ,germany as elsewhere has been chronically demoralized by resort to non-philosophical tests4 ,max ,stirner 7pen-name of ,johann ,caspar ,schmidt1 #ahjf-ahef7 carried the philosophic egoism of ,feuerbach about as far in words as might be2 but his work on the ,ego 7,der ,einzige und sein ,eigenthum1 #ahde7 remains an ethical curiosity rather than a force4 #aieh #d4 ,arnold ,ruge 7#ahjb-ahhj71 who was of the same philosophical school1 #aiei gave his life to a disinterested propaganda of democracy and light2 and if in #ahgj he capitulated to the new ,empire1 and thereby won a small pension for the two last years of his life1 he was but going the way of many another veteran1 dazzled in his old age by very old fires4 ,his ,addresses on ,religion1 its ,rise and ,fall3 to the educated among its ,reverers #aifj 7#ahfi7 is a lucid and powerful performance1 proceeding from a mythological analysis of religion to a cordial plea for rationalism in all things4 ,the charge of materialism was for him no bugbear4 ,truly1 he writes1 we are not without the earth and the solar system1 not without the plants and the animals1 not without head4 ,but whoever has head enough to understand science and its conquests in the field of nature and of mind 7,geist7 knows also that the material world rests in the immaterial1 moves in it1 and is by it animated1 freed1 and ensouled2 that soul and idea are incarnate in ,nature1 but that also logic1 idea1 spirit1 and science free themselves out of ,nature1 become abstracted and as immaterial ,power erect their own realm1 the realm of spirit in ,state1 science1 and art4 #aifa #e4 ,on ,feuerbach's ,essence of ,religion followed the resounding explosion of ,bchner's ,force and ,matter 7#ahee71 which in large measure1 but with much greater mastery of scientific detail1 does for the plain man of his century what d',holbach in his chief work sought to do for his day4 ,constantly vilified1 even in the name of philosophy1 in the exact tone and spirit of animal irritation which marks the religious vituperation of all forms of rationalism in previous ages2 and constantly misrepresented as professing to explain an infinite universe when it does but show the hollowness of all supernaturalist explanations1 #aifb the book steadily holds its ground as a manual of anti-mysticism4 #aifc ,between them1 ,feuerbach and ,bchner may be said to have framed for their age an atheistic ,system of ,nature1 concrete and abstract1 without falling into the old error of substituting one apriorism for another4 ,whosoever endorses ,baur's protest against the one-sidedness of ,feuerbach1 who treats of religion on its chosen ground of self-consciousness1 has but to turn to ,bchner's study of the objective world and see whether his cause fares any better4 #f4 ,in ,france the course of thought had been hardly less revolutionary4 ,philosophy1 like everything else1 had been affected by the legitimist restoration2 and between ,victor ,cousin and the other classic philosophers of the first third of the century orthodoxy was nominally reinstated4 ,yet even among these there was no firm coherence4 ,maine de ,biran1 one of the shrinking spirits who passed gradually into an intolerant authoritarianism from fear of the perpetual pressures of reason1 latterly declared 7#ahba7 that a philosophy which ascribed to deity only infinite thought or supreme intelligence1 eliminating volition and love1 was pure atheism2 and this pronouncement struck at the philosophy of ,cousin4 ,nor was this species of orthodoxy any more successful than the furious irrationalism of ,joseph ,de ,maistre in setting up a philosophic form of faith1 as distinct from the cult of rhetoric and sentiment founded by ,chateaubriand4 ,cousin was deeply distrusted by those who knew him1 and at the height of his popularity he was contemned by the more competent minds around him1 such as ,sainte-,beuve1 ,comte1 and ,edgar ,quinet4 #aifd ,the latter thinker himself counted for a measure of rationalism1 though he argued for theism1 and undertook to make good the historicity of ,jesus against those who challenged it4 ,for the rest1 even among the ostensibly conservative and official philosophers1 ,thodore ,jouffroy1 an eclectic1 who held the chair of moral philosophy in the ,facult des ,lettres at ,paris1 was at heart an unbeliever from his youth up1 #aife and even in his guarded writings was far from satisfying the orthodox4 ,god1 he wrote1 #aiff interposes as little in the regular development of humanity as in the course of the solar system4 ,he added a fatalistic theorem of divine predetermination1 which he verbally salved in the usual way by saying that predetermination presupposed individual liberty4 ,eclecticism thus fell1 as usual1 between two stools2 but it was not orthodoxy that would gain4 ,on another line ,jouffroy openly bantered the authoritarians on their appeal to a popular judgment which they declared to be incapable of pronouncing on religious questions4 #aifg #g4 ,on retrospect1 the whole official ,french philosophy of the period1 however conservative in profession1 is found to have been at bottom rationalistic1 and only superficially friendly to faith4 ,the ,abb ,felice de ,lamennais declaimed warmly against ,l'indiffrence en matire de religion 7#d vols4 #ahah-bd71 resorting to the old ,catholic device1 first employed by ,montaigne1 of turning ,pyrrhonism against unbelief4 ,having ostensibly discredited the authority of the senses and the reason 7by which he was to be read and understood71 he proceeded in the customary way to set up the ancient standard of the consensus universalis1 the authority of the majority1 the least reflective and the most fallacious4 ,this he sought to elevate into a kind of corporate wisdom1 superior to all individual judgment2 and he marched straight into the countersense of claiming the pagan consensus as a confirmation of religion in general1 while arguing for a religion which claimed to put aside paganism as error4 ,the final logical content of the thesis was the inanity that the majority for the time being must be right4 ,damiron1 writing his ,essai sur l'histoire de la philosophie en ,france au ,x,i,xe ,sicle in #ahbh1 replies in a fashion more amiable than reassuring1 commenting on the strange skepticism of ,lamennais as to the human reason4 #aifh ,for himself1 he takes up the parable of ,lessing1 and declares that where ,lessing spoke doubtfully1 men had now reached conviction4 ,it was no longer a question of whether1 but of when1 religion was to be recast in terms of fuller intelligence4 ,in this religious regeneration we shall be to the ,christians what the ,christians were to the ,jews1 and the ,jews to the patriarchs3 we shall be ,christians and something more4 ,the theologian of the future will be half-physicist1 half-philosopher4 ,we shall study ,god through nature and through men2 and a new ,messiah will not be necessary to teach us miraculously what we can learn of ourselves and by our natural lights4 ,christianity has been a useful discipline2 but our education is so advanced that henceforth we can be our own teachers2 and1 having no need of an extraneous inspiration1 we draw faith from science4 #aifi ,prayer is good1 doubtless1 but it has only a mysterious1 uncertain1 remote action on our environment4 #aigj ,all this under ,louis ,philippe1 from a professor at the cole ,normale4 ,not to this day has official academic philosophy in ,britain ventured to go so far4 ,in ,france the brains were never out1 even under the ,restoration4 ,lamennais himself gave the proof4 ,his employment of skepticism as an aid to faith had been1 like ,montaigne's1 the expression of a temperament slow to reach rational positions1 but surely driven thither4 ,as a boy of twelve1 when a priest sought to prepare him for communion1 he had shown such abnormal incredulity that the priest gave him up2 and later he read omnivorously among the deists of the eighteenth century1 ,rousseau attracting him in particular4 ,later he passed through a religious crisis1 slowly covering ground which others traverse early4 ,he did not become a communicant till he was twenty-two2 he entered the seminary only at twenty-seven2 and he was ordained only when he was nearly thirty-two4 ,yet he had experienced much4 ,already in #ahjh his ,rflexions sur l'tat de l'glise had been suppressed by ,napoleon's police2 in #ahad he had written1 along with his brother1 in whose seminary he taught mathematics1 a treatise maintaining the papal claims2 and in the ,hundred ,days of #ahae he took flight to ,london4 ,his mind was always at work4 ,his ,essay on ,indifference expressed his need of a conviction2 with unbelief he could reckon and sympathize2 with indifference he could not2 but when the indifference was by his own account the result of reflective unbelief he treated it in the same fashion as the spontaneous form4 ,at bottom1 his quarrel was with reason4 ,yet the very element in his mind which prompted his anti-rational polemic was ratiocinative2 and as he slowly reached clearness of thought he came more and more into conflict with ,catholicism4 ,it was all very well to flout the individual reason in the name of the universal2 but to give mankind a total infallibility was not the way to satisfy a pope or a ,church which claimed a monopoly of the gift4 ,in #ahbd he was well received by the pope2 but when in #ahcj he began to write ,liberal articles in the journal ,l',avenir1 in which he collaborated with ,lacordaire1 the ,comte de ,montalembert1 and other neo-,catholics1 offence was quickly taken1 and the journal was soon suspended4 ,lamennais and his disciples ,lacordaire and ,montalembert went to ,rome to plead their cause1 but were coldly received2 and on their way home in #ahcb received at ,munich a missive of severe reprimand4 ,rendering formal obedience1 ,lamennais retired1 disillusioned1 with his friends to his and his brother's estate in ,brittany1 and began his process of intellectual severance4 ,in ,january1 #ahcc1 he performed mass1 and at this stage he held by his artificial distinction between the spheres of faith and reason4 ,in ,may of that year he declared his determination to place himself as a writer outside of the ,church and ,catholicism1 declaring that outside of ,catholicism1 outside faith1 there is reason2 outside of the ,church there is humanity2 ,i place myself 7je me renferme7 in this sphere4 #aiga ,still he claimed to be simple fidle en religion1 and to combine fidelity in obedience with liberty in science4 #aigb ,in ,january of #ahcd1 however1 he had ceased to perform any clerical function2 and his ,paroles d'un ,croyant1 published in that year1 stand for a faith which the ,church reckoned as infidelity4 ,lacordaire1 separating from his insubordinate colleague1 published an ,examen de la philosophie de ,m4 de ,lamennais1 in which the true papal standpoint was duly taken4 ,thenceforth ,lamennais was an ,ishmaelite4 ,feeling as strongly in politics as in everything else1 he was infuriated by the brutal suppression of the ,polish rising in #ahca-cb2 and the government of ,louis ,philippe pleased him as little as that of ,charles ,x had done4 ,in #ahda he was sentenced to a year's imprisonment for his brochure ,le pays et le gouvernement 7#ahdj74 ,shortly before his death in #ahed he claimed that he had never changed3 ,i have gone on1 that is all4 ,but he had in effect changed from a ,catholic to a pantheist2 #aigc and in #ahdh1 as a member of the ,national ,assembly1 he more than once startled his colleagues by an affectation of impiety4 #aigd ,on his deathbed he refused to receive the cur of the parish1 and by his own wish he was buried without any religious ceremony1 in the fosse commune of the poor and with no cross on his grave4 ,such a type does not very clearly belong to rationalism2 and ,lamennais never enrolled himself save negatively under that flag4 ,always emotional and impulsive1 he had in his period of aggressive fervour as a ,churchman played a rather sinister part in the matter of the temporary insanity of ,auguste ,comte1 lending himself to the unscrupulous tactics of the philosopher's mother1 who did not stick at libelling her son's wife in order to get him put under clerical control4 #aige ,it was perhaps well for him that he was forced out of the ,church2 for his love of liberty was too subjective to have qualified him for a wise use of power4 ,but the spectacle of such a temperament forced into antagonism with the ,church on moral and social grounds could not but stimulate anti-clericalism in ,france1 whatever his philosophy may have done to promote rational thinking4 #h4 ,the most energetic and characteristic philosophy produced in the new ,france was that of ,auguste ,comte1 which as set forth in the ,cours de ,philosophie ,positive 7#ahcj-db7 practically reaffirmed while it recast and supplemented the essentials of the anti-theological rationalism of the previous age1 and in that sense rebuilt ,french positivism1 giving that new name to the naturalistic principle4 ,though ,comte's direct following was never large1 it is significant that soon after the completion of his ,cours we find ,saisset lamenting that the war between the clergy and the philosophers1 suspended by the great political commotion of #ahcj1 had been revived with a new energy4 #aigf ,the later effort of ,comte to frame a politico-ecclesiastical system never succeeded beyond the formation of a politically powerless sect2 and the attempt to prove its consistency with his philosophic system by claiming that from the first he had harboured a plan of social regulation #aigg is beside the case4 ,a man's way of thinking may involve intellectual contradictions all through his life2 and ,comte's did4 ,positivism in the scientific sense cannot be committed to any one man's scheme for regulating society and conserving cultus2 and ,comte's was merely one of the many evoked in ,france by the memory of an age of revolutions4 ,it belongs1 indeed1 to the unscientific and unphilosophic side of his mind1 the craving for authority and the temper of ascendency1 which connect with his admiration of the medieval ,church4 ,himself philosophically an atheist1 he condemned atheists because they mostly contemned his passion for regimentation4 ,by reason of this idiosyncrasy and of the habitually dictatorial tone of his doctrine1 he has made his converts latterly more from the religious than from the freethinking ranks4 ,but both in ,france and in ,england his philosophy tinged all the new thought of his time1 his leading ,english adherents in particular being among the most esteemed publicists of the day4 ,above all1 he introduced the conception of a science of society where hitherto there had ruled the haziest forms of providentialism4 ,in ,france the general effect of the rationalistic movement had been such that when ,taine1 under the ,third ,empire1 assailed the whole classic school in his ,philosophes classiques 7#aheg71 his success was at once generally recognized1 and a non-,comtist positivism was thenceforth the ruling philosophy4 ,the same thing has happened in ,italy1 where quite a number of university professors are explicitly positivist in their philosophic teaching4 #aigh #i4 ,in ,britain1 where abstract philosophy after ,berkeley had been mainly left to ,hume and the ,scotch thinkers who opposed him1 metaphysics was for a generation practically overriden by the moral and social sciences2 ,hartley's ,christian ,materialism making small headway as formulated by him1 though it was followed up by the ,unitarian ,priestley4 ,the reaction against the ,revolution1 indeed1 seems to have evicted everything in the nature of active philosophic thought from the universities in the first decade of the nineteenth century2 at ,oxford it was taught in a merely traditionary fashion1 in lamentable contrast to what was going on in ,germany2 #aigi and in ,scotland in the 'thirties things had fallen to a similar level4 #aihj ,it was over practical issues that new thought germinated in ,england4 ,the proof of the change wrought in the direction of native thought is seen in the personalities of the men who1 in the teeth of the reaction1 applied rationalistic method to ethics and psychology4 ,bentham and ,james ,mill were in their kindred fields among the most convinced and active freethinkers of their day1 the former attacking both clericalism and orthodoxy2 #aiha while the latter1 no less pronounced in his private opinions1 more cautiously built up a rigorously naturalistic psychology in his ,analysis of the ,human ,mind 7#ahbi74 ,bentham's utilitarianism was so essentially anti-,christian that he could hardly have been more disliked by discerning theists if he had avowed his share in the authorship of the atheistic ,analysis of the ,influence of ,natural ,religion1 which1 elaborated from his manuscript by no less a thinker than ,george ,grote1 was published in #ahbb4 #aihb ,pseudonymous as that essay is1 it seeks to guard against the risk of prosecution by the elaborate stipulation that what it discusses is always the influence of natural religion on life1 revealed religion being another matter4 ,but this is of course the merest stratagem1 the whole drift of the book being a criticism of the effects of the current religion on contemporary society4 ,it greatly influenced ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 whose essay on ,the ,utility of ,religion echoes its beginning2 and if it had been a little less drab in style it might have influenced many more4 ,but ,bentham's ostensible restriction of his logic to practical problems of law and morals secured him a wider influence than was wielded by any of the higher publicists of his day4 ,the whole tendency of his school was intensely rationalistic2 and it indirectly affected all thought by its treatment of economics1 which from ,hume and ,smith onwards had been practically divorced from theology4 ,even clerical economists1 such as ,malthus and ,chalmers1 alike orthodox in religion1 furthered naturalism in philosophy in spite of themselves by their insistence on the law of population1 which is the negation of divine benevolence as popularly conceived4 ,a not unnatural result was a religious fear of all reasoning whatever1 and a disparagement of the very faculty of reason4 ,this1 however1 was sharply resisted by the more cultured champions of orthodoxy1 #aihc to the great advantage of critical discussion4 #aj4 ,when ,english metaphysical philosophy revived with ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 #aihd it was on the lines of a dialectical resistance to the pantheism of ,germany1 in the interests of faith2 though ,hamilton's dogmatic views were always doubtful4 #aihe ,admirably learned1 and adroit in metaphysical fence1 he always grounded his theism on the alleged needs of our moral nature--a declaration of philosophical bankruptcy4 ,the vital issue was brought to the front after his death in the ,bampton ,lectures 7#aheh7 of his supporter ,dean ,mansel2 and between them they gave the decisive proof that the orthodox cause had been philosophically lost while being socially won1 since their theism emphasized in the strongest way the negative criticism of ,kant1 leaving deity void of all philosophically cognizable qualities4 ,hamilton and ,mansel alike have received severe treatment at the hands of ,mill and others for the calculated irrationalism and the consequent immoralism of their doctrine1 which insisted on attributing moral bias to an admittedly ,unknowable ,absolute1 and on standing for ,christian mysteries on the skeptical ground that reason is an imperfect instrument1 and that our moral faculties and feelings demand the traditional beliefs4 ,but they did exactly what was needed to force rationalism upon open and able minds4 ,it is indeed astonishing to find so constantly repeated by trained reasoners the old religious blunder of reasoning from the inadequacy of reason to the need for faith4 ,the disputant says in effect3 ,our reason is not to be trusted2 let us then on that score rationally decide to believe what is handed down to us3 for if the argument is not a process of reasoning it is nothing2 and if it is to stand1 it is an assertion of the validity it denies4 ,evidently the number of minds capable of such self-stultification is great2 but among minds at once honest and competent the number capable of detecting the absurdity must be considerable2 and the invariable result of its use down to our own time is to multiply unbelievers in the creed so absurdly defended4 ,it is difficult to free ,mansel from the charge of seeking to confuse and bewilder2 but mere contact with the processes of reasoning in his ,bampton ,lectures is almost refreshing after much acquaintance with the see-saw of vituperation and platitude which up to that time mostly passed muster for defence of religion in nineteenth-century ,england4 ,he made for a revival of intellectual life4 ,and he suffered enough at the hands of his co-religionists1 including ,f4 ,d4 ,maurice1 to set up something like compassion in the mind of the retrospective rationalist4 ,accused of having adopted the absolute and infinite1 as defined after the leaders of ,german metaphysics1 as a synonym for the true and living ,god1 he protested that he had done exactly the reverse4 ,i assert that the absolute and infinite1 as defined in the ,german metaphysics1 and in all other metaphysics with which ,i am acquainted1 is a notion which destroys itself by its own contradictions4 ,i believe also that ,god is1 in some manner incomprehensible by me1 both absolute and infinite2 and that those attributes exist in ,him without any repugnance or contradiction at all4 ,hence ,i maintain throughout that the infinite of philosophy is not the true infinite4 #aihf ,charged further with borrowing without acknowledgment from ,newman1 the ,dean was reduced to crediting ,newman with transcendent gifts while claiming to have read almost nothing by him1 #aihg and winding up with a quotation from ,newman inviting men to seek solace from the sense of nescience in blind belief4 ,it was said of ,hamilton that1 having scratched his eyes out in the bush of reason1 he scratched them in again in the bush of faith2 and when that could obviously be said also of his reverend pupil1 the philosophic tide was clearly on the turn4 ,within two years of the delivery of ,mansel's lectures his and ,hamilton's philosophic positions were being confidently employed as an open and avowed basis for the naturalistic ,first ,principles 7#ahfj-fb7 of ,herbert ,spencer1 wherein1 with an unfortunate laxity of metaphysic on the author's own part1 and a no less unfortunate lack of consistency as regards the criticism of religious and anti-religious positions1 #aihh the new cosmic conceptions are unified in a masterly conception of evolution as a universal law4 ,this service1 the rendering of which was quite beyond the capacity of the multitude of ,spencer's metaphysical critics1 marks him as one of the great influences of his age4 ,strictly1 the book is a ,system of ,nature rather than a philosophy in the sense of a study of the grounds and limitations of knowledge2 that is to say1 it is on the former ground alone that it is coherent and original4 ,but its very imperfections on the other side have probably promoted its reception among minds already shaken in theology by the progress of concrete science2 while at the same time such imperfections give a hostile foothold to the revived forms of theism4 ,in any case1 the agnostic foundation supplied by the despairing dialectic of ,hamilton and ,mansel has always constituted the most effective part of the ,spencerian case4 #aa4 ,the effect of the ethical pressure of the deistic attack on the intelligence of educated ,christians was fully seen even within the ,anglican ,church before the middle of the century4 ,the unstable ,coleridge1 who had gone round the whole compass of opinion #aihi when he began to wield an influence over the more sensitive of the younger ,churchmen1 was strenuous in a formal affirmation of the doctrine of the ,trinity1 but no less anxious to modify the doctrine of ,atonement on which the conception of the ,trinity was historically founded4 ,in the hands of ,maurice the doctrine of sacrifice became one of example to the end of subjective regeneration of the sinner4 ,this view1 which was developed by ,john the ,scot--perhaps from hints in ,origen #aiij--;and again by ,bernardino ,ochino1 #aiia is specially associated with the teaching of ,coleridge2 but it was quite independently held in ,england before him by the ,anglican ,dr4 ,parr 7#agdg-ahbe71 who appears to have been heterodox upon most points in the orthodox creed1 #aiib and who1 like ,servetus and ,coleridge and ,hegel1 held by a modal as against a personal ,trinity4 ,the advance in ethical sensitiveness which had latterly marked ,english thought1 and which may perhaps be traced in equal degrees to the influence of ,shelley and to that of ,bentham1 counted for much in this shifting of ,christian ground4 ,the doctrine of salvation by faith was by many felt to be morally indefensible4 ,such ,unitarian accommodations presumably reconciled to ,christianity and the ,church many who would otherwise have abandoned them2 and the only orthodox rebuttal seems to have been the old and dangerous resort to the ,butlerian argument1 to the effect that the ,god of ,nature shows no such benign fatherliness as the anti-sacrificial school ascribe to him4 #aiic ,this could only serve to emphasize the moral bankruptcy of ,butler's philosophy1 to which ,mansel1 in an astonishing passage of his ,bampton ,lectures1 #aiid had shown himself incredibly blind4 ,the same pressure of moral argument was doubtless potent in the development of ,socinian or other rationalistic views in the ,protestant ,churches of ,germany1 ,holland1 ,hungary1 ,switzerland1 and ,france in the first half of the century4 ,such development had gone so far that by the middle of the century the ,churches in question were1 to the eye of an ,english evangelical champion1 predominantly rationalistic1 and in that sense infidel4 #aiie ,reactions have been claimed before and since2 but in our own age there is little to show for them4 ,in the ,united ,states1 again1 the ethical element probably predominated in the recoil of ,emerson from ,christian orthodoxy even of the ,unitarian stamp1 as well as in the heresy of ,theodore ,parker1 whose aversion to the theistic ethic of ,jonathan ,edwards was so strong as to make him blind to the reasoning power of that stringent ,calvinist4 #ab4 ,a powerful and wholesome stimulus was given to ,english thought throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century by the many-sided influence of ,john ,stuart ,mill1 who1 beginning by a brilliant ,system of ,logic 7#ahdc71 which he followed up with a less durable exposition of the ,principles of ,political ,economy 7#ahdh71 became through his shorter works ,on ,liberty and on various political problems one of the most popular of the serious writers of his age4 ,it was not till the posthumous issue of his ,autobiography and his ,three ,essays on ,religion 7#ahgd7 that many of his readers realized how complete was his alienation from the current religion1 from his childhood up4 ,in his ,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy 7#ahfe71 indeed1 he had indignantly repudiated the worship of an unintelligibly good ,god2 but he had there seemed to take for granted the ,god-idea2 and save in inconclusive passages in the ,liberty 7#ahei7 he had indicated no rejection of ,christianity4 ,but though the ,liberty was praised by ,kingsley and contemned by ,carlyle1 it made for freethinking no less than for tolerance2 and his whole life's work made for reason4 ,the saint of rationalism was ,gladstone's #aiif account of him as a parliamentarian4 ,his posthumous presentment to the world of the strange conception of a limited-liability ,god1 the victim of circumstances--a theorem which meets neither the demand for a theistic explanation of the universe nor the worshipper's craving for support--sets up some wonder as to his philosophy2 but was probably as disintegrative of orthodoxy as a more philosophical performance would have been4 ,section #g4--,modern ,jewry ,in the culture-life of the dispersed ,jews1 in the modern period1 there is probably as much variety of credence in regard to religion as occurs in the life of ,christendom so called4 ,such names as those of ,spinoza1 ,jacobi1 ,moses ,mendelssohn1 ,heine1 and ,karl ,marx tell sufficiently of ,jewish service to freethought2 and each one of these must have had many disciples of his own race4 ,deism among the educated ,jews of ,germany in the eighteenth century was probably common4 #aiig ,the famous ,rabbi ,elijah of ,wilna 7d4 #agig71 entitled the ,gaon1 the great one1 set up a movement of relatively rationalistic pietism that led to the establishment in #ahjc of a ,rabbinical college at ,walosin1 which has flourished ever since1 and had in #ahhh no fewer than #djj students1 among whose successors there goes on a certain amount of independent study4 #aiih ,in the freer world outside critical thought has asserted itself within the pale of orthodox ,judaism2 witness such a writer as ,nachman ,krochmal 7#aghe-ahdj71 whose posthumous ,guide to the ,perplexed of the ,time #aiii 7#ahea71 though not a scientific work1 is ethically and philosophically in advance of the orthodox ,judaism of its age4 ,of ,krochmal it has been said that he was inspired in his work by the study of ,hegel1 just as ,maimonides had been by the study of ,aristotle4 #bjjj ,the result is only a liberalizing of ,jewish orthodoxy in the light of historic study1 #bjja such as went on among ,christians in the same period2 but it is thus a stepping-stone to further science4 ,to-day educated ,jewry is divided in somewhat the same proportions as ,christendom into absolute rationalists and liberal and fanatical believers2 and representatives of all three types1 of different social grades1 may be found among the ,zionists1 whose movement for the acquisition of a new racial home has attracted so much attention and sympathy in recent years4 ,whether or not that movement attains to any decisive political success1 ,judaism clearly cannot escape the solvent influences which affect all ,european opinion4 ,as in the case of the ,christian ,church1 the synagogue in the centres of culture keeps the formal adherence of some who no longer think on its plane2 but while attempts are made from time to time to set up more rationalistic institutions for ,jews with the modern bias1 the general tendency is to a division between devotees of the old forms and those who have decided to live by reason4 ,section #h4--,the ,oriental ,civilizations ,we have already seen1 in discussing the culture histories of ,india1 ,china1 and ,moslem ,persia1 how ancient elements of rationalism continue to germinate more or less obscurely in the unpropitious soils of ,asiatic life4 ,ignorance is in most oriental countries too immensely preponderant to permit of any other species of survival4 ,but sociology1 while recognizing the vast obstacles to the higher life presented by conditions which with a fatal facility multiply the lower1 can set no limit to the possibilities of upward evolution4 ,the case of ,japan is a sufficient rebuke to the thoughtless iterators of the formula of the unprogressiveness of the ,east4 ,while a cheerfully superstitious religion is there still normal among the mass1 the transformation of the political ideals and practice of the nation under the influence of ,european example is so great as to be unparalleled in human history2 and it has inevitably involved the substitution of rationalism for supernaturalism among the great majority of the educated younger generation4 ,the late ,yukichi ,fukuzawa1 who did more than any other man to prepare the ,japanese mind for the great transformation effected in his time1 was spontaneously a freethinker from his childhood2 #bjjb and through a long life of devoted teaching he trained thousands to a naturalist way of thought4 ,that they should revert to ,christian or native orthodoxy seems as impossible as such an evolution is seen to be in educated ,hindostan1 where the higher orders of intelligence are probably not relatively more common than among the ,japanese4 ,the final question1 there as everywhere1 is one of social reconstruction and organization2 and in the enormous population of ,china the problem1 though very different in degree of imminence1 is the same in kind4 ,perhaps the most hopeful consideration of all is that of the ever-increasing inter-communication which makes ,european and ,american progress tend in every succeeding generation to tell more and more on ,asiatic life4 ,as to ,japan1 ,professor ,b4 ,h4 ,chamberlain pronounced twenty years ago that the ,japanese now bow down before the shrine of ,herbert ,spencer 7,things ,japanese1 #crd ed4 #ahih1 p4 #cba4 ,cp4 ,religious ,systems of the ,world1 #crd ed4 p4 #ajc71 proceeding in another connection 7p4 #ceb7 to describe them as essentially an undevotional people4 ,such a judgment would be hard to sustain4 ,the ,japanese people in the past have exhibited the amount of superstition normal in their culture stage 7cp4 the ,voyages de ,c4 ,p4 ,thunberg au ,japon1 ,french tr4 #agif1 iii1 #bjf72 and in our own day they differ from ,western peoples on this side merely in respect of their greater general serenity of temperament4 ,there were in ,japan in #ahid no fewer than #ga1hca ,buddhist temples1 and #aij1hjc ,shinto temples and shrines2 and the largest temple of all1 costing several million dollars1 was built in the last dozen years of the nineteenth century4 ,to the larger shrines there are habitual pilgrimages1 the numbers annually visiting one leading ,buddhist shrine reaching from #bjj1jjj to #bej1jjj1 while at the ,shint shrine of ,kompira the pilgrims are said to number about #ijj1jjj each year4 7,see ,the ,evolution of the ,japanese1 #aijc1 by ,l4 ,gulick1 an ,american missionary organizer47 ,professor ,chamberlain appears to have construed devotional in the light of a special conception of true devotion4 ,yet a ,christian observer testifies1 of the revivalist sect of ,nichirenites1 the ,ranters of ,buddhism1 that the wildest excesses that seek the mantle of religion in other lands are by them equalled if not excelled 7,griffis1 ,the ,mikado's ,empire1 #ahgf1 p4 #afc72 and ,professor ,chamberlain admits that the religion of the family binds them the ,japanese in general1 including the 'most materialistic' down in truly sacred bonds2 while another writer1 who thinks ,christianity desirable for ,japan1 though he apparently ranks ,japanese morals above ,christian1 declares that in his travels he was much reassured by the superstition of the innkeepers1 feeling thankful that his hosts were not ,agnostics or ,secularists1 but devout believers in future punishments 7,tracy1 ,rambles through ,japan without a ,guide1 #ahib1 pp4 #aca1 #bgf1 etc474 ,a third authority with ,japanese experience1 ,professor ,w4 ,g4 ,dixon1 while noting a generation ago that among certain classes in ,japan not only religious earnestness but fanaticism and superstition still prevail1 decides that at the same time it remains true that the ,japanese are not in the main a very religious people1 and that at the present day religion is in lower repute than probably it has ever been in the country's history4 ,religious indifference is one of the prominent features of new ,japan 7,the ,land of the ,morning1 #ahhb1 p4 #eag74 ,the reconciliation of these estimates lies in the recognition of the fact that the ,japanese populace is religious in very much the same way as those of ,italy and ,england1 while the more educated classes are rationalistic1 not because of any essential incapacity for devotion1 but because of enlightenment and lack of countervailing social pressure4 ,to the eye of the devotional ,protestant the ,catholics of ,italy1 with their regard to externals1 seem essentially irreligious2 and vice vers4 ,such formulas miss science4 ,two hundred years ago ,charron1 following previous schematists1 made a classification in which northerners figured as strong1 active1 stupid1 warlike1 and little given to religion2 the southerners as slight1 abstinent1 obstinate1 unwarlike1 and superstitious2 and the middle peoples as between the two4 ,la ,sagesse1 liv4 i1 ch4 #db4 ,the cognate formulas of to-day are hardly more trustworthy4 ,buddhism triumphed over ,shintism in ,japan both in ancient and modern times precisely because its lore and ritual make so much more appeal to the devotional sense4 7,cp4 ,chamberlain1 pp4 #ceh-fb2 ,dixon1 ch4 x2 ,religious ,systems of the ,world1 pp4 #ajc1 #aaa2 ,griffis1 p4 #aff47 ,but the sthetically charming cult of the family1 with its poetic recognition of ancestral spirits 7as to which see ,lafcadio ,hearn1 ,japan3 ,an ,attempt at ,interpretation1 #aijd71 seems to hold its ground as well as any4 ,so universal is sociological like other law that we find in ,japan1 among some freethinkers1 the same disposition as among some in ,europe to decide that religion is necessary for the people4 ,professor ,chamberlain 7p4 #ceb7 cites ,fukuzawa1 ,japan's most representative thinker and educationist1 as openly declaring that ,it goes without saying that the maintenance of peace and security in society requires a religion4 ,for this purpose any religion will do4 ,i lack a religious nature1 and have never believed in any religion4 ,i am thus open to the charge that ,i am advising others to be religious while ,i am not so4 ,yet my conscience does not permit me to clothe myself with religion when ,i have it not at heart4444 ,of religions there are several kinds--,buddhism1 ,christianity1 and what not4 ,from my standpoint there is no more difference between those than between green tea and black4444 ,see that the stock is well selected and the prices cheap4444 7,japan ,herald1 ,september #i1 #ahig74 ,to this view1 however1 ,fukuzawa did not finally adhere4 ,the ,rev4 ,isaac ,dooman1 a missionary in ,japan who knew him well1 testifies to a change that was taking place in his views in later life regarding the value of religion4 ,in an unpublished letter to ,mr4 ,robert ,young1 of ,kobe1 ,mr4 ,dooman says that on one occasion1 when conversing on the subject of ,christianity1 ,fukuzawa remarked3 ,there was a time when ,i advocated its adoption as a means to elevate our lower classes2 but1 after finding out that all ,christian countries have their own lower classes just as bad1 if not worse than ours1 ,i changed my mind4 ,further reflection1 marked by equal candour1 may lead the pupils of ,fukuzawa to see that nations cannot be led to adore any form of tea by the mere assurance of its indispensableness from leaders who confess they never take any4 ,his view is doubtless shared by those priests concerning whom it may be questioned whether in their fundamental beliefs the more scholarly of the ,shinshi priests differ very widely from the materialistic agnostics of ,europe 7,dixon1 p4 #eaf74 ,in this state of things the ,christian thinks he sees his special opportunity4 ,professor ,dixon writes 7p4 #eah71 in the manner of the missionary1 that decaying shrines and broken gods are to be seen everywhere4 ,not only is there indifference1 but there is a rapidly-growing skepticism4444 ,the masses too are becoming affected by it4444 ,shintism and 444 ,buddhism are doomed4 ,what is to take their place8444 ,it must be either ,christianity or ,atheism4 ,we have the brightest hopes that the former will triumph in the near future4444 ,the ,american missionary before cited1 ,mr4 ,gulick1 argues alternately that the educated ,japanese are religious and that they are not1 meaning that they have religious instincts1 while rejecting current creeds4 ,the so-called religious instinct is in fact simply the spirit of moral and intellectual seriousness4 ,mr4 ,gulick's summing-up1 as distinct from his theory and forecast1 is as follows3 ,for about three hundred years the intelligence of the nation has been dominated by ,confucian thought1 which rejects active belief in supra-human beings4444 ,the tendency of all persons trained in ,confucian classics was towards thoroughgoing skepticism as to divine beings and their relation to this world4 ,for this reason1 beyond doubt1 has ,western agnosticism found so easy an entrance into ,japan4444 ,complete indifference to religion is characteristic of the educated classes of to-day4 ,japanese and foreigners1 ,christians and non-,christians alike1 unite in this opinion4 ,the impression usually conveyed by this statement1 however1 is that agnosticism is a new thing in ,japan4 ,in point of fact1 the old agnosticism is merely reinforced by 444 the agnosticism of the ,west 7,the ,evolution of the ,japanese1 pp4 #bhf-hg74 ,this may be taken as broadly accurate4 ,cp4 the author's paper on ,freethought in ,japan in the ,agnostic ,annual for #aijf4 ,professor ,e4 ,h4 ,parker notes 7,china and ,religion1 #aije1 p4 #bfc7 that the ,japanese in translating ,western books are beginning1 to the dismay of our missionaries1 to leave out all the ,christianity that is in them4 ,but a very grave danger to the intellectual and moral life of ,japan has been of late set up by a new application of ,shintism1 on the lines of the emperor-worship of ancient ,rome4 ,a recent pamphlet by ,professor ,chamberlain1 entitled ,the ,invention of a ,new ,religion 7,r4 ,p4 ,a42 #aiab71 incidentally shows that the ,japanese temperament is so far from being essentially devoid of devotion as to be capable of building up a fresh cultus to order4 ,it appears that since the so-called ,restoration of #ahfh1 when the ,imperial ,house1 after more than two centuries of seclusion in ,kyoto1 was brought from its retirement and the ,emperor publicly installed as ruler by right of his divine origin1 the sentiment of religious devotion to the ,imperial ,house has been steadily inculcated1 reaching its height during the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 when the messages of victorious generals and admirals piously ascribed their successes over the enemy to the virtues of the ,imperial ,ancestors4 ,in every school throughout the ,empire there hangs a portrait of the emperor1 which is regarded and treated as is a sacred image in ,russia and in ,catholic countries4 ,the curators of schools have been known on occasion of fire and earthquake to save the imperial portrait before wife or child2 and their action has elicited popular acclamation4 ,on the imperial birthday teachers and pupils assemble1 and passing singly before the portrait1 bow in solemn adoration4 ,the divine origin of the ,imperial ,house and the grossly mythical history of the early emperors are taught as articles of faith in ,japanese schools precisely as the cosmogony of ,genesis has been taught for ages in the schools of ,christendom4 ,some years ago a professor who exposed the absurdity of the chronology upon which the religion is based was removed from his post1 and a teacher who declined to bow before a casket containing an imperial rescript was dismissed4 ,his life was1 in fact1 for some time in danger from the fury of the populace4 ,so dominant has ,mikado-worship become that some ,japanese ,christian pastors have endeavoured to reconcile it with ,christianity1 and to be ,mikado-worshippers and ,christ-worshippers at the same time4 #bjjc ,all creeds are nominally tolerated in ,japan1 but avowed heresy as to the divine origin of the ,imperial ,house is a bar to public employment1 and exposes the heretic to suspicion of treason4 ,the new religion1 which is merely old ,shintism revised1 has been invented as a political expedient1 and may possibly not long survive the decease of ,mutsu ,hito1 the late emperor1 who continued throughout his reign to live in comparative seclusion1 and has been succeeded by a young prince educated on ,european lines4 ,but the cult has obtained a strong hold upon the people2 and by reason of social pressure receives the conventional support of educated men exactly as ,christianity does in ,england1 ,america1 ,germany1 and ,russia4 ,thus there is not plain sailing for freethought in ,japan4 ,in such a political atmosphere neither moral nor scientific thought has a good prognosis2 and if it be not changed for the better much of the ,japanese advance may be lost4 ,rationalism on any large scale is always a product of culture2 and culture for the mass of the people of ,japan has only recently begun4 ,down till the middle of the nineteenth century nothing more than sporadic freethought existed4 #bjjd ,some famous captains were irreverent as to the omens2 and in a seventeenth-century manual of the principles of government1 ascribed to the great founder of modern feudalism1 ,iyyasu1 the sacrifices of vassals at the graves of their lords are denounced1 and ,confucius is even cited as ridiculing the burial of effigies in substitution4 #bjje ,but1 as elsewhere under similar conditions1 such displays of originality were confined to the ruling caste4 #bjjf ,i have seen1 indeed1 a delightful popular satire1 apparently a product of mother-wit1 on the methods of popular ,buddhist shrine-making2 but1 supposing it to be genuine and vernacular1 it can stand only for that measure of freethought which is never absent from any society not pithed by a long process of religious tyranny4 ,old ,japan1 with its intense feudal discipline and its indurated etiquette1 exhibited the social order1 the grace1 the moral charm1 and the intellectual vacuity of a hive of bees4 ,the higher mental life was hardly in evidence2 and the ethical literature of native inspiration is of no importance4 #bjjg ,to this day the educated ,chinese1 though lacking in ,japanese efficiency and devotion to drill of all kinds1 are the more freely intellectual in their habits of mind4 ,the ,japanese feudal system1 indeed1 was so immitigably ironbound1 so incomparably destructive of individuality in word1 thought1 and deed1 that only in the uncodified life of art and handicraft was any free play of faculty possible4 ,what has happened of late is the rapid and docile assimilation of western science4 ,another and a necessarily longer step is the independent development of the speculative and critical intelligence2 and in the ,east1 as in the ,west1 this is subject to economic conditions4 ,a similar generalization holds good as to the other ,oriental civilizations4 ,analogous developments to those seen in the latter-day ,mohammedan world1 and equally marked by fluctuation1 have been noted in the mental life alike of the non-,mohammedan and the ,mohammedan peoples of ,india2 and at the present day the thought of the relatively small educated class is undoubtedly much affected by the changes going on in that of ,europe1 and especially of ,england4 ,the vast ,indian masses1 however1 are far from anything in the nature of critical culture2 and though some system of education for them is probably on the way to establishment1 #bjjh their life must long remain quasi-primitive1 mentally as well as physically4 ,buddhism is theoretically more capable of adaptation to a rationalist view of life than is ,christianity2 but its intellectual activities at present seem to tend more towards an esoteric credulity than towards a rational or scientific adjustment to life4 ,of the nature of the influence of ,buddhism in ,burmah1 where it has prospered1 a vivid and thoughtful account is given in the work of ,h4 ,fielding1 ,the ,soul of a ,people1 #ahih4 ,at its best the cult there deifies the ,buddha2 elsewhere1 it is interwoven with aboriginal polytheism and superstition 7,davids1 ,buddhism1 pp4 #bjg-baa2 ,max ,mller1 ,anthro4 ,rel41 ,p4 #acb74 ,within ,brahmanism1 again1 there have been at different times attempts to set up partly naturalistic reforms in religious thought--e4g4 that of ,chaitanya in the sixteenth century2 but these have never been pronouncedly freethinking1 and ,chaitanya preached a surrender of all to ,krishna1 very much in the manner of evangelical ,christianity4 ,finally he has been deified by his followers4 7,mller1 ,nat4 ,rel4 p4 #ajj2 ,phys4 ,rel4 p4 #cef47 ,more definitely freethinking was the monotheistic cult set up among the ,sikhs in the fifteenth century1 as the history runs1 by ,nanak1 who had been influenced both by ,parsees and by ,mohammedans1 and whose ethical system repudiated caste4 ,but though ,nanak objected to any adoration of himself1 he and all his descendants have been virtually deified by his devotees1 despite their profession of a theoretically pantheistic creed4 7,cp4 ,de la ,saussaye1 ,manual of the ,science of ,religion1 ,eng4 tr4 pp4 #fei-fb2 ,mller1 ,phys4 ,rel4 p4 #cee47 ,trumpp 7,die ,religion der ,sikhs1 #ahha1 p4 #abc7 tells of other ,sikh sects1 including one of a markedly atheistic character belonging to the nineteenth century2 but all alike seem to gravitate towards ,hinduism4 ,similarly among the ,jainas1 who compare with the ,buddhists in their nominal atheism as in their tenderness to animals and in some other respects1 there has been decline and compromise2 and their numbers appear steadily to dwindle1 though in ,india they survived while ,buddhism disappeared4 ,cp4 ,de la ,saussaye1 ,manual1 pp4 #eeg-fc2 ,rev4 ,j4 ,robson1 ,hinduism1 #ahgd1 pp4 #hj-hf2 ,tiele1 ,outlines1 p4 #ada4 ,finally1 the ,brahmo-,somaj movement of the nineteenth century appears to have come to little in the way of rationalism 7,mitchell1 ,hinduism1 pp4 #bbd-df2 ,de la ,saussaye1 pp4 #ffi-ga2 ,tiele1 p4 #afj74 ,the principle of the interdependence of the external and the internal life1 finally1 applies even in the case of ,turkey4 ,the notion that ,turkish civilization in ,europe is unimprovable1 though partly countenanced by despondent thinkers even among the enlightened ,turks1 #bjji had no justification in social science1 though bad politics may ruin the ,turkish1 like other ,moslem ,states2 and although ,turkish freethinking has not in general passed the theistic stage1 #bjaj and its spread is grievously hindered by the national religiosity1 #bjaa which the age-long hostility of the ,christian ,states so much tends to intensify1 a gradual improvement in the educational and political conditions would suffice to evolve it1 according to the observed laws of all civilization4 ,it may be that a result of the rationalistic evolution in the other ,european ,states will be to make them intelligently friendly to such a process1 where at present they are either piously malevolent towards the rival creed or merely self-seeking as against each other's influence on ,turkish destinies4 ,in any case1 it cannot seriously be pretended that the mental life of ,christian ,greece in modern times has yielded1 apart from services to simple scholarship1 a much better result to the world at large than has that of ,turkey4 ,the usual reactions in individual cases of course take place4 ,an ,american traveller writing in #ahef notes how illiterate ,greek priests glory in their ignorance1 asserting that a more liberal education has the effect of making atheists of the youth4 ,he adds that he has known several deacons and others in the ,university of ,athens that were skeptics even as to the truth of religion1 and would gladly have become laymen if they could have secured a livelihood4 #bjab ,but there was then and later in the century no measurable movement of a rationalistic kind4 ,at the time of the emancipation the ,greek priesthood was in general at once the most ignorant and the most vicious portion of the community2 #bjac and it remained socially predominant and reactionary4 ,whatever progress has been made in ,greece has received but little assistance from them4 #bjad ,liberal-minded professors in the theological school were mutinied against by bigoted students1 #bjae a type still much in evidence at ,athens2 and the liberal thinker ,theophilus ,kares1 charged with teaching atheistic doctrines1 and found guilty with three of his followers1 died of jail fever while his appeal to the ,areopagus was pending4 #bjaf ,thus far ,christian bigotry seems to have held its own in what once was ,hellas4 ,on the surface1 ,greece shows little trace of instructed freethought2 while in ,bulgaria1 by ,greek testimony1 school teachers openly proclaim their rationalism1 and call for the exclusion of religious teaching from the schools4 #bjag ,despite the political freedom of the ,christian ,state1 there has thus far occurred there no such general fertilization by the culture of the rest of ,europe as is needed to produce a new intellectual evolution of any importance4 ,the mere geographical isolation of modern ,greece from the main currents of ,european thought and commerce is probably the most retardative of her conditions2 and it is hard to see how it can be countervailed4 ,italy1 in comparison1 is pulsating with original life1 industrial and intellectual4 ,but1 given either a renascence of ,mohammedan civilization or a great political reconstruction such as is latterly on foot1 the whole life of the nearer ,east may take a new departure2 and in such an evolution ,greece would be likely to share4 ,,conclusion ,any fuller survey of the intellectual history of the nineteenth century will but reveal more fully the signal and ever-widening growth of rational thought among all classes of the more advanced nations1 and among the more instructed of the less advanced4 ,the retrospect of the whole past tells of a continuous evolution1 which in the twentieth century proceeds more extensively than ever before4 ,there has emerged the curious fact that in our own country a measure of rational doubt has been almost constantly at work in the sphere in which it could perhaps least confidently be expected--to wit1 that of poetry4 ,from ,chaucer onwards it is hard to find a great orthodox poet4 ,even ,spenser was as much ,platonist as ,christian2 and ,marlowe1 ,shakespeare1 ,milton1 ,dryden1 ,pope1 ,burns1 ,wordsworth1 ,shelley1 ,byron1 ,coleridge1 ,keats1 ,tennyson1 ,arnold1 and ,browning 7to name no others7 in their various ways baffle the demand of faith4 ,latterly1 the sex which has always been reckoned the more given to religion has shown many signs of adaptation to the higher law4 ,in ,britain1 as in ,france1 women began to appear in the ranks of reason in the eighteenth century4 #bjah ,in the nineteenth the number has increased at a significant rate4 ,already in the fierce battles fought in the time of reaction after the ,french ,revolution women took their place on the side of freedom2 and ,frances ,wright 7,madame d',arusmont7 played a notable part as a freethinking publicist and philanthropist4 #bjai ,since her day the names of ,harriet ,martineau and ,george ,eliot tell of the continual gain of knowledge2 and women rationalists are now to be counted by thousands in all the more civilized countries4 ,the same law holds of public life in general4 ,gladstone eagerly maintained in his latter years that politicians1 in virtue of their practical hold of life1 were little given to skepticism2 but the facts were and are increasingly against him4 ,the balance of the evidence is against the ascription of orthodoxy to either of the ,pitts1 or to ,fox2 and we have seen that the statesmen of the ,american ,revolution1 as of the ,french1 were in general deists4 ,garibaldi #bjbj in ,italy1 and ,gambetta in ,france1 were freethinkers2 ,lincoln and his opponent1 ,douglas1 were deists2 towards the close of the century1 in ,new ,zealand1 ,sir ,robert ,stout and the late ,mr4 ,john ,ballance1 avowed rationalists1 were among the foremost politicians of their generation2 and in the ,english ,cabinet rationalism began to be represented in the person of ,lord ,morley4 ,while such developments have been possible in the fierce light of political strife1 the process of disintegration and decomposition has proceeded in society at large till unbelief can hardly be reckoned a singularity4 ,within the pale of all the ,christian ,churches dogmatic belief has greatly dwindled1 and goes on dwindling3 and ,christianity is made to figure more and more as an ethical doctrine which has abandoned its historical foundations1 while preserving formulas and rituals which have no part in rational ethics4 ,the mythical cosmogony out of which the whole originally grew is no longer believed in by any educated person1 though it is habitually presented to the young as divine truth4 ,thousands of clergymen1 economically gripped to a false position1 would gladly rectify their professed creeds1 but cannot2 because the political and economic bases involve the consent of the majority1 and changes cannot be made without angry resistance and uproar among the less instructed multitude of all classes4 ,the ,protestant ,churches collectively dread to figure as repudiating the historic creed2 while the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 conscious of the situation1 maintains a semblance of rigid discipline and a minimum standard of instruction for its adherents1 counting on holding its ground while the faculty of uncritical faith subsists4 ,only by the silent alienation of the more thoughtful and sincere minds from the priesthood can the show of orthodoxy be maintained even within the ,catholic pale4 ,in all orders alike1 nevertheless1 the practice of religion decays with the theory4 ,the ,churches are constantly challenged to justify their existence by social reforms and philanthropic works3 no other plea passes as generally valid2 and it is only by reason of a general transference of interest from religious to social problems that the decay of belief is disguised4 ,piety1 in the old sense1 counts relatively for little2 and while orthodoxy is still a means of advantage in political life1 religion counts for nothing in international relations4 ,in the war of #ahii-aijb1 ,bible-loving ,england forced a quarrel on the most ,bible-loving race in the world2 and at the time of the penning of these lines six nations are waging the greatest war of all time irrespectively of racial and religious ties alike1 though all alike officially claim the support of ,omnipotence4 ,in ,berlin a popular preacher edifies great audiences by proclaiming that ,god is not neutral2 and his ,emperor habitually parades the same faith1 with the support of all the theologians of ,germany--the ,state supremely guilty of the whole embroilment1 and the deliberate perpetrator of the grossest aggression in modern history4 ,on the side of the ,allies ,christianity is less systematically but still frequently invoked4 ,on both sides the forms of prayer are officially practised by the non-combatants1 very much as the ,romans in their wars maintained the practice of augury from the entrails of sacrificed victims2 and family prayer is said to be reviving4 ,everywhere1 nevertheless1 the more rational1 remembering how in the ages of faith deadly wars were waged for whole generations in the very name of religion1 recognize that ,christianity furnishes neither control for the present nor solution for the future2 and that the hope of civilization lies in the resort of the nations to human standards of sanity and reciprocity4 ,the ties which hold are those of fellow-citizenship4 ,there can be no doubt among rationalists that if modern civilization escapes the ruin which militarism brought upon those of all previous eras1 the principle of reason will continually widen its control1 latterly seen to be everywhere strengthening apart from the dangerous persistence of militarist ideals and impulses4 ,when it controls international relations1 it will be dominant in the life of thought4 ,in the words of a great fighter for freethought1 ,no man ever saw a religion die2 and there are abundant survivals of pre-,christian paganism in ,europe after two thousand years of ,christianity2 but it seems likely that when the history of the twentieth century is written it will be recognized that what has historically figured as religion belongs in all its forms to the past4 ,the question is sometimes raised whether the age of decline will be marked by movements of active and persecuting fanaticism4 ,here1 again1 the answer must be that everything depends upon the general fortunes of civilization4 ,it is significant that a number of clerical voices proclaim a revival of religion as a product of war1 while others complain that the state of struggle has a sterilizing effect upon religious life4 ,while organized religions subsist1 there will always be adherents with the will to persecute2 and from time to time acts of public persecution occur1 in addition to many of a private character4 ,but in ,britain public persecution is latterly restricted to cases in which the technical offence of blasphemy is associated with acts which come under ordinary police jurisdiction4 ,after the unquestionable blasphemies of ,arnold and ,swinburne had to be officially ignored1 it became impossible1 in the present stage of civilization1 that any serious and decent literary indictment of the prevailing creeds should be made a subject of persecution2 and before long1 probably1 such indictments will be abandoned in the cases of offenders against police regulations4 ,the main danger appears to lie in ,catholic countries1 and from the action of the ,catholic hierarchy4 ,the common people everywhere1 save in the most backward countries1 are increasingly disinclined to persecution4 ,in ,ireland there is much less of that spirit among the ,catholic population than among that of ,protestant ,ulster4 ,but the infamous execution of ,francisco ,ferrer in ,spain1 in #aiji1 which aroused passionate reprobation in every civilized country1 was defended in ,england and elsewhere with extravagant baseness by ,catholic littrateurs1 who1 with their reactionary priests1 are the last to learn the lesson of tolerance4 ,the indignation everywhere excited by the judicial murder #bjba of ,ferrer1 however1 gives promise that even the most zealous fanatics of the ,catholic ,church will hesitate again to rouse the wrath of the nations by such a reversion to the methods of the eras of religious rule4 ,,notes #a ,stow's ,annals1 ed4 #afae1 pp4 #egj1 #ege4 #b ,burnet1 ,hist4 of the ,reformation1 ed4 ,nares1 ii1 #agi2 iii1 #bhi2 ,strype1 ,memorials of ,cranmer1 ed4 #ahdh-ed1 ii1 #ajj4 #c ,the ,marian persecutions undoubtedly did much to stimulate ,protestantism4 ,it is not generally realized that many of the burnings of heretics under ,mary were quasi-sacrifices on her behalf4 ,on each occasion of her hopes of pregnancy being disappointed1 some victims were sent to the stake4 ,see ,strype1 ed4 cited1 iii1 #aif1 and ,peter ,martyr1 there cited2 ,froude1 ed4 #ahgj1 v1 #eba sq41 #eci sq4 ,the influence of ,spanish ecclesiastics may be inferred4 ,the expulsions of the ,jews and the ,moriscoes from ,spain were by way of averting the wrath of ,god4 ,still1 a ,spanish priest at ,court preached in favour of mercy4 ,lingard1 ed4 #ahee1 v1 #bca4 #d ,the number slain was certainly not small4 ,it amounted to at least #aij1 perhaps to #bjd4 ,soames1 ,elizabethan ,religious ,history1 #ahci1 p4 #eif-ih4 ,under ,mary there perished some #bhh4 ,durham ,dunlop1 ,the ,church under the ,tudors1 #ahfi1 p4 #ajd and refs4 #e ,soames1 as cited1 pp4 #bac-ah1 and refs4 #f ,froude1 ,hist4 of ,england1 ed4 #ahgj1 x1 #ede 7ed4 #ahge1 xi1 #aii71 citing ,,mss4 ,ireland4 #g ,gloss to ,february in the ,shepherd's ,calendar1 ,globe ed4 pp4 #dea-eb4 #h ,euphues3 ,the ,anatomy of ,wit1 ,arber's reprint1 pp4 #adj1 #aec4 ,that the reference was mainly to ,oxford is to be inferred from the address ,to my verie good friends the ,gentlemen ,schollers of ,oxford1 prefixed to the ed4 of #aeha4 ,id4 p4 #bjg4 #i ,id4 p4 #aeh4 #aj ,id4 pp4 #afa1 #aff4 #aa ,essay ,of ,atheism4 #ab ,lecky1 ,rationalism1 i1 #ajc-ajd4 ,scot's book 7now made accessible by a reprint1 #ahhf7 had practically no influence in his own day2 and ,king ,james1 who wrote against it1 caused it to be burned by the hangman in the next4 ,scot inserts the infidelitie of atheists in the list of intellectual evils on his title-page2 but save for an allusion to the abhomination of idolatrie all the others indicted are aspects of the black art4 #ac ,no woman ever lived who was so totally destitute of the sentiment of religion 7,green1 ,short ,history1 ch4 vii1 #c1 p4 #cfi74 #ad ,cp4 ,soames1 ,elizabethan ,religious ,history1 #ahci1 p4 #bbe4 ,yet when ,morris1 the attorney of the ,duchy of ,lancaster1 introduced in ,parliament a ,bill to restrain the power of the ecclesiastical courts1 she had him dismissed and imprisoned for life1 being determined that the control should remain1 through those courts1 in her own hands4 ,heylyn1 ,hist4 of the ,reformation1 ed4 #ahdi1 pref4 vol4 i1 pp4 xiv-xv4 #ae ,see above1 vol4 i1 pp4 #dce1 #ddf1 #dei4 #af ,collier's ,reprint1 p4 #aij4 #ag ,camden1 ,annals of ,elizabeth1 sub4 ann4 #aehj2 #crd ed4 #afce1 p4 #bah4 ,cp4 ,soames1 p4 #bad4 #ah ,hooker1 ,pref4 to ,ecclesiastical ,polity1 ch4 iii1 #i1 ed4 #ahej4 ,camden 7p4 #bai7 states that the ,dutch teacher ,henry ,nichalai1 whose works were translated for the sect1 gave out that he did partake of ,god1 and ,god of his humanity4 #ai ,see above1 i1 #deh1 as to a much more pronounced heresy in #aedi1 which also seems to have escaped punishment4 ,camden tells that the books of the ,family of ,love were burnt in #aehj1 but mentions no other penalties4 ,stow records that on ,october #i1 #aehj1 proclamation was published at ,london for the apprehension and severe punishing of all persons suspected to be of the family of love4 ,ed4 #afae1 p4 #fhg4 ,five of them had been frightened into a public recantation in #aege4 ,id4 p4 #fgi4 #bj ,may #ac1 #aegi4 ,the burning was on the #bjth4 #ba ,stow's ,annals1 ed4 #aehj1 pp4 #a1 #aid-ie4 ,ed4 #afae1 p4 #fie4 #bb ,stow1 ed4 #afae1 p4 #fig2 ,david's ,evidence1 by ,william ,burton1 ,preacher of ,reading1 #aeib 7871 p4 #abe4 #bc ,stow1 ed4 #afae1 p4 #fif4 #bd ,burton1 as cited4 ,see below1 pp4 #g1 #ab1 as to ,kett's writings4 #be ,art4 ,matthew ,hamond1 in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 #bf ,art4 ,francis ,kett1 in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 #bg ,prof4 ,storojenko1 ,life of ,greene1 ,eng4 tr4 in ,grosart's ,huth ,library ed4 of ,greene's ,works1 i1 #db-ej4 ,it is quite clear that ,malone and the critics who have followed him were wrong in supposing the unnamed instructor to be ,francis ,kett1 who was a devout ,unitarian4 ,prof4 ,storojenko speaks of ,kett as having been made an ,arian at ,norwich1 after his return there in #aehe1 by the influence of ,lewes and ,haworth4 ,query ,hamond8 #bh ,in ,pierce's ,supererogation1 ,collier's ed4 p4 #he4 #bi ,rep4 of ,nashe's ,works in ,grosart's ,huth ,library ed4 vol4 iv1 pp4 #agb1 #agc1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahc4 etc4 ,ed4 ,mc,kerrow4 #aijd1 ii1 #aad-abi4 #cj ,,ms4 ,harl4 #fhec1 fol4 #cbj4 ,it is given in full in the appendix to the first issue of the selected plays of ,marlowe in the ,mermaid ,series1 edited by ,mr4 ,havelock ,ellis3 and1 with omissions1 in the editions of ,cunningham1 ,dyce1 and ,bullen4 #ca ,act ,,ii1 sc4 i4 #cb ,grosart's ed4 in ,temple ,dramatists series1 #aa4 #bdf-cga4 ,there is plenty of irreligion in the passage1 but not atheism1 though there is a denial of a future state 7#cfe-gj74 ,the lines in question strongly suggest ,marlowe's influence or authorship1 which indeed is claimed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,crawford for the whole play4 ,but all the external evidence ascribes the play to ,greene4 #cc ,tamburlaine1 ,part ,,ii1 ,act ,,ii1 sc4 ii1 iii2 ,v1 sc4 i4 #cd ,writing as ,andrew ,philopater4 ,see ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog41 art4 ,robert ,parsons1 and ,storojenko1 as cited1 i1 #cf1 and note4 #ce ,translated into ,latin by ,henri ,estienne in #aefb4 #cf ,remains of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 ed4 #afeg1 p4 #abc4 #cg ,bk4 i1 ch4 i1 sec4 #aa4 #ch ,bk4 ii1 ch4 i1 sec4 #g4 #ci ,essay on the ,prometheus4 #dj ,art4 ,raleigh1 in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog41 xlvii1 #aib4 #da ,id4 pp4 #bjj-bja4 #db ,report in #agcf ed4 of ,history of the ,world1 p4 ccxlix4 ,harpool seems an error for ,harriott4 ,cp4 ,edwards1 ,life of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 #ahfh1 i1 #dcb1 #dcf4 ,it is after naming ,harpool that the judge says3 ,let not any devil persuade you to think there is no eternity in heaven4 #dc ,ed4 cited1 p4 xxviii4 #dd ,id4 p4 xxiv4 #de ,id4 p4 xxii4 #df ,id4 p4 xvi4 #dg ,cp4 ,gardiner1 ,history of ,england1 #afjc-afdb1 #aj-vol4 ed4 i1 #acb-ce2 iii1 #aej1 #aeb4 #dh ,ed4 cited1 p4 xxii4 #di ,title of verses appended to trans4 of ,achilles ,shield1 #aeih4 ,chapman spells the name ,harriots4 #ej ,pref4 to complete trans4 of ,iliad4 #ea ,bk4 v1 ch4 ii1 #a-d4 ,works1 ed4 #ahej1 i1 #dcb-cf4 #eb ,exposition upon ,nehemiah 7#aehe7 in ,parker ,soc4 ed4 of ,works1 #ahab1 p4 #dja4 #ec ,work cited1 pp4 #h-aa1 #bb4 #ed ,works1 i1 #dcb2 ii1 #gfb-fc4 #ee ,eccles4 ,pol4 bk4 i1 ch4 vii2 bk4 ii1 ch4 i1 vii2 bk4 iii1 ch4 viii1 #af2 bk4 v1 ch4 viii2 bk4 vii1 ch4 xi2 bk4 viii1 #f 7,works1 i1 #afe1 #bca1 #cjj1 #ddf2 ii1 #chh1 #ecg74 ,see the citations in ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 iii1 #cda-db2 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #aic-id4 #ef ,supplication of ,travers1 in ,hooker's ,works1 ed4 #ahej1 ii1 #ffb4 #eg ,answer to ,travers1 id4 p4 #fic4 #eh ,some typical attempts of the kind are discussed in the author's two lectures on ,the ,religion of ,shakespeare1 #ahhg 7,south ,place ,institute74 #ei ,shakespeare ,commentaries1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfc1 ii1 #fah-ai4 #fj ,id4 ii1 #ehf4 #fa ,in the last edition ,i had written to that effect2 but ,i have modified the opinion4 #fb ,the allusion to popish ceremonies in ,titus ,andronicus is probably from his hand4 ,see the author's work1 ,did ,shakespeare ,write ,titus ,andronicus81 where it is argued that the play in question is substantially ,peele's and ,greene's4 #fc ,shakespeare ,soc4 rep4 #ahec1 pp4 #ad1 #af-ag1 #ah1 #bd1 #bh1 etc4 #fd ,this has been shown to be his by ,fleay and ,mr4 ,crawford4 #fe ,see his ,groatsworth of ,wit ,bought with a ,million of ,repentance4 #ff ,compare the ,jane ,shore portions of his ,edward ,,iv with the close of ,a ,woman ,killed with ,kindness4 ,note also the conclusion of ,the ,english ,traveller4 #fg ,see the poem ,england's ,elizabeth1 #afca4 #fh ,henslowe's ,diary1 ed4 ,greg1 i1 fol4 #if4 #fi ,e4g41 the lines1 ,the best of men ,that e'er wore earth about him1 was a sufferer1 ,a soft1 meek1 patient1 humble1 tranquil spirit1 ,the first true gentleman that ever breathed1 at the close of ,part ,i of ,the ,honest ,whore2 and the phrase1 ,heaven's great arithmetician1 at the close of ,old ,fortunatus4 #gj ,green1 ,short ,hist4 ch4 vii1 #g end4 ,cp4 ,ruskin1 ,sesame and ,lilies1 ,lect4 iii1 #aae4 #ga ,the old work of ,w4 ,j4 ,birch1 ,m4,a41 ,an ,inquiry into the ,philosophy and ,religion of ,shakspere 7#ahdh71 is an unjudicial ex parte statement of the case for ,shakespeare's unbelief2 but it is worth study4 #gb ,the town paid for his bread and wine1 no doubt by way of compliment4 #gc ,cp4 the author's ,montaigne and ,shakespeare1 #bnd ed4 sec4 viii4 #gd ,a ,woorke concerning the trewnesse of the ,christian ,religion1 #aehg4 ,reprinted in #aeib1 #afjd1 and #afag4 #ge ,as to the expert analysis of this play1 which shows it to be in large part ,fletcher's1 see ,furnivall1 as cited1 pp4 xciii-xcvi4 #gf ,cp4 ,seccombe and ,allen1 ,the ,age of ,shakspere1 #aijc1 ii1 #ahi4 #gg ,alberti1 ,briefe betreffende den ,zustand der ,religion in ,gross-,britannien1 ,hanover1 #ageb1 ii1 #dbi4 ,alberti reads ,god at the end of the passage2 ,i follow ,grosart's edition4 #gh ,hallam1 ,lit4 ,europe1 ii1 #cga1 #cgf2 ,pattison1 ,isaac ,casaubon1 #bnd ed4 p4 #bhf sq4 #gi ,pattison1 as cited1 p4 #bij2 ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson1 ,memoirs of ,john ,selden1 #ahce1 pp4 #ef-gj4 #hj ,memoirs cited1 pp4 #fj-fa4 ,on the whole question see the ,review appended by ,selden to his ,history after a few copies had been distributed4 #ha ,poems of ,sir ,john ,davies1 ed4 ,grosart1 #ahgf1 i1 #hb1 #hc4 #hb ,essaies ,politicke and ,morall1 by ,d4 ,t4 ,gent1 #afjh1 fol4 #i4 #hc ,act iv1 sc4 #a4 #hd ,act i1 sc4 #a4 ,jonson himself could have been so indicted on the strength of certain verses4 #he ,he had been offered professorships of divinity at ,saumur and ,marburg4 #hf ,gardiner1 ,history of ,england1 #afjc-afdb1 #dth ed4 ii1 #abh4 ,cp4 ,bayle1 art4 ,vorstius1 ,note ,n4 ,by his theological opponents and by ,james1 ,vorstius was of course called an atheist4 ,he was in reality not a ,socinian1 but a strict ,arian1 who believed that the ,son of ,god was at first created by the ,father1 and then delegated to create the universe--a sort of inferior deity1 who was nevertheless entitled to religious homage 7,james ,nichols1 note to ,app4 ,p4 on ,brandt's ,life of ,arminius in ,works of ,arminius1 #ahbe1 i1 #bah74 ,nichols gives a full survey of the subject1 pp4 #bjb-bcg4 ,fuller 7,ch4 ,hist4 ,b4 x1 cent4 #ag1 sec4 iv1 #a-e7 tells the story1 and pronounces the opinions of ,vorstius fitter to be remanded to hell than committed to writing4 #hg ,bayle 7art4 cited1 ,note ,f7 says both ,universities1 as does ,fuller4 ,at the ,synod of ,dort1 however1 the ,british representatives read only1 it seems1 a decree 7dated ,sept4 #ba1 #afaa7 of the ,vice-,chancellor of ,cambridge1 ordering the burning of the book there4 7,nichols1 ,account of the ,synod of ,dort1 in ,works of ,arminius1 i1 #dig74 #hh ,gardiner1 pp4 #abi-cj4 ,fuller 7as last cited1 #f-ad7 gives a list of ,legate's damnable tenets4 ,see it in ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner's ,penalties upon ,opinion1 pp4 #ab-ad4 #hi ,gardiner1 as cited4 ,fuller is cheerfully acquiescent1 though he notes the private demurs1 which he denounces4 ,god1 he says1 may seem well pleased with this seasonable severity4 #ij ,in #aehj ,stow records how one ,randall was put on trial for conjuring to know where treasure was hid in the earth and goods feloniously taken were become2 and four others were tried for being present4 ,four were found guilty and sentenced to be hanged4 ,randall was executed1 and the others reprieved4 7,ed4 #afae1 p4 #fhh47 #ia ,fuller actually alleges that there was none ever after that openly avowed these heretical doctrines--an unintelligible figment4 #ib ,all reprinted in #ahaf for the ,hanserd ,knollys ,society1 with histor4 introd4 by ,e4 ,b4 ,underhill1 in the vol4 ,tracts on ,liberty of ,conscience and ,persecution1 #afad-affa4 ,they do not speak of ,legate or ,wightman4 #ic ,atheomastix1 #afbb1 pref4 ,sig4 ,b4 #c1 verso4 ,the work was posthumous and incomplete4 #id ,bk4 i1 ch4 i1 p4 #e4 #ie ,in the ,advancement of ,learning1 bk4 i 7,routledge ed4 p4 #ed71 he himself notes how1 long before his time1 the new learning had in part discredited the schoolmen4 #if ,filum ,labyrinthi--an ,english version of the ,cogitata et ,visa-- #g4 #ig ,cp4 ,huarte1 cited above1 p4 #dga4 #ih ,nov4 ,org4 bk4 i4 ,aph4 #fb 7,works1 ,routledge ed4 p4 #bga74 #ii ,id4 ,aph4 #fe4 #ajj ,id4 ib4 ,cp4 the ,advancement of ,learning1 bk4 ii1 and the ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 ix1 near end4 7,ed4 cited1 pp4 #agc1 #fcd47 #aja ,nov4 ,org4 ,aph4 #hi4 ,cp4 ,aph4 #df1 #di1 #if2 the ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 xxv2 the ,english ,filum ,labyrinthi1 #g2 and the ,de ,principiis atque ,originibus 7ed4 cited1 p4 #fej74 #ajb ,valerius ,terminus1 cap4 i4 7,ed4 cited1 p4 #ahh47 #ajc ,id4 p4 #ahg2 ,filum ,labyrinthi1 p4 #bji4 #ajd ,bk4 ix1 ch4 i4 7,ed4 cited1 p4 #fca47 ,compare ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 i 7p4 #ahf71 and ,de ,aug4 bk4 iii1 ch4 ii 7p4 #def71 as to the impossibility of knowing the will and character of ,god from ,nature1 though 7,de ,aug4 last cit47 it reveals his power and glory4 #aje ,advancement1 bk4 i 7ed4 cited1 p4 #de74 ,cp4 ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 i 7p4 #ahg74 #ajf ,advancement1 bk4 ii2 ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 iii1 chs4 iv and v2 ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 xxv2 ,novum ,organum1 bk4 i1 ,aph4 #dh2 bk4 ii1 ,aph4 #b4 7,ed4 cited1 pp4 #if1 #bje1 #bff1 #cjb1 #dga1 #dgc47 #ajg ,de ,principiis atque ,originibus4 7,ed4 cited1 pp4 #fdi-ej47 ,elsewhere 7,de ,aug4 bk4 iii1 ch4 iv1 p4 #dga7 he expressly puts it that the system of ,democritus1 which removed ,god and mind from the structure of things1 was more favourable to true science than the teleology and theology of ,plato and ,aristotle4 #ajh ,id4 pp4 #fea1 #feg4 #aji ,id4 p4 #fdh4 #aaj ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 iii1 ch4 ii2 bk4 iv1 ch4 ii4 7,ed4 cited1 pp4 #def1 #dhb47 #aaa ,id4 bk4 ii1 ch4 i4 7,ed4 cited1 p4 #dbh47 #aab ,de ,augmentis1 ed4 cited1 p4 #gc4 #aac ,no4 xviii1 ,diomedes4 ,ed4 cited1 p4 #hda4 #aad ,de ,principiis atque ,originibus1 p4 #ffd4 #aae ,nov4 ,org4 i4 #hi2 ,filum ,labyrinthi1 #g2 ,essay #af4 #aaf ,francis ,osborn1 pref4 to his ,miscellany1 in ,works1 #gth ed4 #afgc4 #aag ,cp4 ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 i4 #aah ,this is noted by ,glassford in his tr4 of the ,novum ,organum 7#ahdd1 p4 #bf72 and by ,ellis in his and ,spedding's edition of the ,works4 7,routledge ed4 pp4 #cb1 #dgc1 note47 #aai ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 iii1 ch4 iv1 end4 #abj ,essay #eg1 ,of ,anger4 #aba ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 xxv4 #abb ,de ,principiis1 ed4 cited1 pp4 #fdh-di4 ,cp4 pp4 #fab-dc4 #abc ,id4 p4 #fdh4 #abd ,valerius ,terminus1 ch4 ii2 ,de ,augmentis1 bk4 v1 ch4 iv4 ,ed4 cited1 pp4 #aii1 #eag4 #abe ,cp4 ,brewster1 ,life of ,newton1 #ahee1 ii1 #djj-djd2 ,draper1 ,intel4 ,devel4 of ,europe1 ed4 #ahge1 ii1 #beh-fj2 ,dean ,church1 ,bacon1 pp4 #ahj-bja2 ,fowler1 ,bacon1 ch4 vi2 ,lodge1 ,pioneers of ,science1 pp4 #ade-ea2 ,lange1 ,gesch4 d4 ,materialismus1 i1 #aig sq4 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bcf-cg71 and cit4 from ,liebig--as to whom1 however1 see ,fowler1 pp4 #acc1 #aeg4 #abf ,novum ,organum1 ii1 #df and #dh1 #ag2 ,de ,aug4 iii1 #d2 ,thema ,coeli4 ,ed4 cited1 pp4 #cfd1 #cge1 #dfa1 #gje1 #gji4 ,whewell 7,hist4 of ,induct4 ,sciences1 #crd ed4 i1 #bif1 #bih7 ignores the second and third of these passages in denying ,hume's assertion that ,bacon rejected the ,copernican theory with disdain4 ,it is true1 however1 that ,bacon had vacillated4 ,the facts are fairly faced by ,prof4 ,fowler in his ,bacon1 #ahha1 pp4 #aea-eb1 and his ed4 of ,novum ,organum1 ,introd4 pp4 #cj-cf4 ,see also the summing-up of ,ellis in notes to passages above cited1 and at p4 #fge4 #abg ,aubrey1 ,lives of ,eminent ,persons1 ed4 #ahac1 vol4 ii1 pt4 ii1 p4 #chc4 #abh ,see notes in ed4 cited1 pp4 #ej1 #ec1 #fa1 #fc1 #fh1 #ge1 #gf1 #hd1 #aaj4 #abi ,fowler1 ed4 of ,nov4 ,org4 #ad1 pp4 #aja-ajd4 #acj ,id4 #ad1 p4 #ajh2 ,ellis in ed4 cited1 p4 #fdc4 #aca ,rawley's ,life1 in ed4 cited1 p4 #i2 ,osborn1 as above cited2 ,fowler1 ed4 of ,nov4 ,org4 ,introd4 #ad2 ,t4 ,martin1 ,character of ,bacon1 #ahce1 pp4 #baf1 #bbg1 #bbb-bc4 #acb ,cp4 ,fowler1 ,bacon1 pp4 #aci-da2 ,mill1 ,logic1 bk4 vi1 ch4 v1 #e2 ,jevons1 ,princ4 of ,science1 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #egf2 ,tyndall1 ,scientific ,use of the ,imagination1 #crd ed4 pp4 #d1 #h-i1 #db-dc2 ,t4 ,martin1 as cited1 pp4 #baj-ch2 ,bagehot1 ,postulates of ,eng4 ,polit4 ,econ4 ed4 #ahhe1 pp4 #ah-ai2 ,ellis and ,spedding1 in ed4 cited1 pp4 x1 xii1 #bb1 #chi4 ,the notion of a dialectic method which should mechanically enable any man to make discoveries is an irredeemable fallacy1 and must be abandoned4 ,bacon's own remarkable anticipation of modern scientific thought in the formula that heat is a mode of motion 7,nov4 ,org4 ii1 #bj7 is not mechanically yielded by his own process1 noteworthy and suggestive though that is4 #acc ,pref4 ,epistle4 #acd ,works1 ed4 ,dublin4 #agff1 p4 #aei2 ed4 #aiaj1 p4 #cdd4 #ace ,kohlrausch1 ,hist4 of ,germany1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #che4 #acf ,moritz ,ritter1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,union1 #ahfg-gc1 ii1 #ee4 #acg ,menzel1 ,geschichte der ,deutschen1 #cte ,aufl4 ,cap4 #daf4 #ach ,cp4 ,gardiner1 ,thirty ,years' ,war1 pp4 #ab-ac2 ,kohlrausch1 p4 #dch2 ,pusey1 ,histor4 ,enq4 into ,ger4 ,rationalism1 pp4 #i-be2 ,henderson1 ,short ,hist4 of ,germany1 i1 ch4 xvi4 #aci ,kohlrausch1 p4 #dci4 ,a specially strong reaction set in about #aegc4 ,ritter1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,union1 i1 #ai4 ,cp4 ,menzel1 ,cap4 #dcc4 #adj ,cp4 ,gardiner1 ,thirty ,years' ,war1 pp4 #af1 #ah1 #ba2 ,kohlrausch1 p4 #cgj4 #ada ,as to this see ,moritz ,ritter1 as cited1 i1 #i1 #bg2 ii1 #abb sq42 ,dunham1 ,hist4 of the ,germanic ,empire1 iii1 #ahf2 ,henderson1 i1 #daa sq4 #adb ,freytag1 ,bilder aus d4 deutschen ,vergangenheit1 ,bd4 ii1 #ahhc1 p4 #cha2 ,bd4 iii1 ad init4 #adc ,cp4 ,lecky1 ,rationalism in ,europe1 i1 #ec-hc4 #add ,freytag1 ,bilder1 ,bd4 ii1 ,abth4 ii1 p4 #cgh4 #ade ,the ,pope and the ,council1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #bfj2 ,french tr4 p4 #bhe4 #adf ,de ,praestigiis ,daemonum1 #aefc4 ,see it described by ,lecky1 ,rationalism1 i1 #he-hg2 ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 ii1 #gf4 #adg ,by ,dutch historians ,wier is claimed as a ,dutchman4 ,he was born at ,grave1 in ,north ,brabant1 but studied medicine at ,paris and ,orleans1 and after practising physic at ,arnheim in the ,netherlands was called to ,dsseldorf as physician to the ,duke of ,jlich1 to whom he dedicated his treatise4 ,his ideas are probably traceable to his studies in ,france4 #adh ,his collected works 7#afcb7 amount to nearly #g1jjj folio pages4 ,j4 ,ten ,brink1 ,kleine ,geschiedenis der ,nederlandsche ,letteren1 #ahhb1 p4 #ia4 #adi ,ten ,brink1 p4 #hf4 ,jonckbloet 7,beknopte ,geschiedenis der ,nederl4 ,letterkunde1 ed4 #ahhj1 p4 #adh7 is less specific4 #aej ,ten ,brink1 pp4 #hi-ij4 #aea ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 ii1 #hc4 #aeb ,ten ,brink1 p4 #hg4 #aec ,jonckbloet1 ,beknopte ,geschiedenis1 p4 #adi2 ,ten ,brink1 p4 #ia2 ,bayle1 ,dictionnaire1 art4 ,koornhert2 ,pnjer1 ,hist4 of the ,chr4 ,philos4 of ,religion1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #bfi2 ,dr4 ,e4 ,gosse1 art4 on ,dutch ,literature in ,encyc4 ,brit4 #ith ed4 xii1 #ic4 #aed ,ten ,brink1 p4 #ia4 #aee ,flint1 ,vico1 p4 #adb4 #aef ,de ,jure ,belli et ,pacis1 proleg4 #aa1 #af4 #aeg ,bayle1 art4 ,voelkel4 #aeh ,schlegel's note on ,mosheim1 ,reid's ed4 p4 #hfb4 #aei ,nelson1 ,life of ,bishop ,bull1 #bnd ed4 #agad1 p4 #cib4 #afj ,nicron1 ,mmoires pour servir1 etc41 xiv 7#agca71 #cdj sq4 ,one of the replies is the ,justa ,detestatio sceleratissimi libelli ,adriani ,beverlandi ,de ,peccato ,originali1 by ,leonard ,ryssen1 #afhj4 ,a very free version of ,beverland's book appeared in ,french in #agad under the title ,etat de l',homme dans le ,pech ,originel4 ,it reached a sixth edition in #agda4 #afa ,nelson1 ,life of ,bishop ,bull1 as cited1 p4 #bhj4 #afb ,krasinski1 ,ref4 in ,poland1 #ahdj1 ii1 #cfc2 ,mosheim1 #af ,cent4 sec4 iii1 pt4 ii1 ch4 iv1 #bb4 ,budny translated the ,bible1 with rationalistic notes4 #afc ,krasinski1 p4 #cfa4 #afd ,mosheim1 last cit4 #bc1 note #d4 #afe ,krasinski1 p4 #cfg2 ,wallace1 ,antitrin4 ,biog4 #ahej1 ii1 #cbj4 #aff ,bayle1 art4 ,fauste ,socin4 ,krasinski1 p4 #cgd4 #afg ,krasinski1 pp4 #cfa-fb4 ,fausto ,sozzini also could apparently forgive everybody save those who believed less than he did4 #afh ,cp4 the inquiry as to ,locke's ,socinianism in ,j4 ,milner's ,account of ,mr4 ,lock's ,religion out of his own ,writings1 #agjf1 and ,lessing's ,zur ,geschichte und ,literatur1 i1 as to ,leibnitz's criticism of ,sonerus4 #afi ,enfield's ,history of ,philosophy 7an abstract of ,brucker71 ed4 #ahdj1 p4 #ecg4 #agj ,in the dominions of ,philip ,,ii there are said to have been #eh archbishops1 #fhd bishops1 #aa1djj abbeys1 #bc1jjj religious fraternities1 #df1jjj monasteries1 #ac1ejj nunneries1 #cab1jjj secular priests1 #djj1jjj monks1 #bjj1jjj friars and other ecclesiastics4 ,h4 ,e4 ,watts1 ,miguel de ,cervantes1 #ahie1 pp4 #fg-fh4 ,spain alone had #i1jhh monasteries4 #aga ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 ii1 #dhd2 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #efd1 and refs4 #agb ,cp4 ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 ii1 #dig-ii2 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #egb-gc2 ,la ,rigaudire1 ,hist4 des ,persc4 ,relig4 en ,espagne1 #ahfj1 pp4 #bbj-bf4 #agc ,cp4 ,lewes1 ,spanish ,drama1 passim4 #agd ,he inspires me only with horror for the faith which he professes4 ,no one ever so far disfigured ,christianity2 no one ever assigned to it passions so ferocious1 or morals so corrupt 7,sismondi1 ,lit4 of ,south of ,europe1 ,bohn tr4 ii1 #cgi74 #age ,ticknor1 ,hist4 of ,spanish ,lit4 #fth ed4 ii1 #eja2 ,don ,quixote1 pt4 ii1 ch4 liv2 ,ormsby1 tr4 of ,don ,quixote1 #ahhe1 introd4 i1 #eh4 #agf ,lafuente1 ,historia de ,espaa1 #ahef1 xvii1 #cdj4 ,it is not quite certain that ,lafuente expressed his sincere opinion4 #agg ,llorente1 ii4 #dcc4 #agh ,id4 p4 #dbj4 #agi ,bouterwek1 ,hist4 of ,spanish and ,portuguese ,literature1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahbc1 i1 #cca4 #ahj ,id4 p4 #aea4 #aha ,part ,,ii1 ch4 xxxvi4 #ahb ,bouterwek1 whose sociology1 though meritorious1 is ill-clarified1 argues that the ,inquisition was in a manner congenital to ,spain because before its establishment the suspicion of heresy was already more degrading in ,spain than the most odious crimes in other countries4 ,but the same might have been said of the other countries also4 ,as to earlier ,spanish heresy see above1 vol4 i1 p4 #ccg sq4 #ahc ,despite the many fallacies retained by ,copernicus from the current astronomy1 he must be pronounced an exceptionally scientific spirit4 ,trained as a mathematician1 astronomer1 and physician1 he showed a keen and competent interest in the practical problem of currency2 and one of the two treatises which alone he published of his own accord was a sound scheme for the rectification of that of his own government4 ,though a canon of ,frauenburg1 he never took orders2 but did manifold and unselfish secular service4 #ahd ,it was shielded by thirteen popes--from ,paul ,,iii to ,paul ,v4 #ahe ,galileo1 ,dialogi dei due massimi sistemi del mondo1 ii 7,opere1 ed4 #ahaa1 xi1 #cjc-cjd74 #ahf ,a good study of ,bruno is supplied by ,owen in his ,skeptics of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,he has1 however1 omitted to embody the later discoveries of ,dufour and ,berti1 and has some wrong dates4 ,the ,life of ,giordano ,bruno1 by ,i4 ,frith 7,mrs4 ,oppenheim71 #ahhg1 gives all the data1 but is inadequate on the philosophic side4 ,a competent estimate is given in the late ,prof4 ,adamson's lectures on ,the ,development of ,modern ,philosophy1 etc41 #aijc1 ii1 #bc sq42 also in his art4 in ,encyc4 ,brit4 ,for a hostile view see ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 ii1 #aje-aaa4 ,the biography of ,bartholmss1 ,jordano ,bruno1 #ahdf1 is extremely full and sympathetic1 but was unavoidably loose as to dates4 ,much new matter has since been collected1 for which see the ,vita di ,giordano ,bruno of ,domenico ,berti1 rev4 and enlarged ed4 #ahhi2 ,prof4 ,j4 ,l4 ,mc,intyre1 ,giordano ,bruno1 #aijc2 ,dufour1 ,giordano ,bruno ,gnve3 ,documents ,indits1 #ahhd2 ,david ,levi1 ,giordano ,bruno1 o la religione del pensiero3 l'uomo1 l'apostolo e il martire1 #ahhg2 ,dr4 ,h4 ,brunnhofer's ,giordano ,bruno's ,weltanschauung und ,verhngniss1 #ahhb2 and the doctoral treatise of ,c4 ,sigwart1 ,die ,lebensgeschichte ,giordano ,brunos1 ,tbingen1 #ahhj4 ,for other authorities see ,owen's and ,i4 ,frith's lists1 and the final ,literaturnachweis in ,gustav ,louis's ,giordano ,bruno1 seine ,weltanschauung und ,lebensverfassung1 ,berlin1 #aijj4 ,the study of ,bruno has been carried further in ,germany than in ,england2 but ,mr4 ,whittaker 7,essays and ,notices1 #ahie7 and ,prof4 ,mc,intyre make up much leeway4 #ahg ,cp4 ,bartholmss1 i1 #di-ec2 ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i1 #aia-id 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bcb72 ,gustav ,louis1 as cited1 pp4 #aa1 #hh4 #ahh ,berti1 ,vita di ,giordano ,bruno1 #ahhi1 pp4 #dj-da1 #dbj4 ,bruno gives the facts in his own narrative before the ,inquisitors at ,venice4 #ahi ,berti1 pp4 #db-dc1 #dg2 ,owen1 p4 #bfe4 #aij ,not to ,genoa1 as ,berti stated in his first ed4 ,see ed4 #ahhi1 pp4 #ed1 #cib4 #aia ,berti1 p4 #fe4 ,owen has the uncorrected date1 #aegf4 #aib ,dufour1 ,giordano ,bruno ,gnve3 ,documents ,indits1 #ahhd2 ,berti1 pp4 #ie-ig2 ,gustav ,louis1 ,giordano ,bruno1 pp4 #gc-ge4 ,owen 7p4 #bfi7 has overlooked these facts1 set forth by ,dufour in #ahhd4 ,the documents are given in full in ,frith1 ,life1 #ahhg1 p4 #fj sq4 #aic ,the dates are in doubt4 ,cp4 ,berti1 p4 #aae1 and ,frith1 p4 #fe4 #aid ,see his own narrative before the ,inquisitors in #aeib4 ,berti1 p4 #cid4 #aie ,mc,intyre1 ,giordano ,bruno1 #aijg1 pp4 #ba-bb4 #aif ,frith1 ,life1 p4 #aba1 and refs42 ,owen1 p4 #bge2 ,bartholmss1 ,jordano ,bruno1 i1 #acf-ch4 #aig ,cp4 ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 ii1 #aaa1 note4 ,as to ,bruno's supposed influence on ,bacon and ,shakespeare1 cp4 ,bartholmss1 i1 #acd-ce2 ,frith1 ,life1 pp4 #ajd-dh2 and the author's ,montaigne and ,shakspere1 pp4 #acb-ch4 ,here there is no case2 but there is much to be said for ,mr4 ,whittaker's view 7,essays and ,notices1 p4 #id7 that ,spenser's late ,cantos on ,mutability were suggested by ,bruno's ,spaccio4 ,prof4 ,mc,intyre supports4 #aih ,his praise of ,luther1 and his compliments to the ,lutherans1 are in notable contrast to his verdict on ,calvinism4 ,what happened was that at ,wittemberg he was on his best behaviour1 and was well treated accordingly4 #aii ,as to the traitor's motives cp4 ,mc,intyre1 p4 #ff sq42 ,berti1 p4 #bfb sq4 #bjj ,noroff1 as cited in ,frith1 p4 #cde4 #bja ,de l',infinito1 ed4 ,wagner1 ii1 #bg2 ,cena de la ,ceneri1 ed4 ,wagner1 i1 #agc2 ,acrotismus1 ed4 ,gfrrer1 p4 #ab4 #bjb ,cp4 ,berti1 pp4 #ahg-hh2 ,whittaker1 ,essays and ,notices1 #ahie1 p4 #hi2 and ,louis's section1 ,stellung zu ,christenthum und ,kirche4 #bjc ,berti1 pp4 #big-ih4 ,it takes much searching in the two poems to find any of the ideas in question1 and ,berti has attempted no collation2 but1 allowing for distortions1 the ,inquisition has sufficient ground for outcry4 #bjd ,sigillus ,sigillorum3 ,de duodecima contractionis speciae4 ,cp4 ,f4 ,j4 ,clemens1 ,giordano ,bruno und ,nicolaus von ,cusa1 #ahdg1 pp4 #agf1 #ahc2 and ,h4 ,brunnhofer1 ,giordano ,bruno's ,weltanschauung und ,verhngniss1 #ahhb1 pp4 #bbg1 #bcg4 #bje ,in the treatise ,de ,lampade combinatoria ,lulliana 7#aehg74 ,according to ,berti 7p4 #bbj7 he is the first to employ this phrase1 which becomes the watchword of ,spinoza 7libertas philosophandi7 a century later4 #bjf ,berti1 cap4 iv2 ,owen1 p4 #bdi2 ,ueberweg1 ii1 #bg2 ,pnjer1 p4 #ic sq42 ,whittaker1 ,essays and ,notices1 p4 #ff4 ,as to ,bruno's debt to ,nicolaus of ,cusa cp4 ,gustav ,louis1 as cited1 p4 #aa2 ,pnjer1 as cited2 ,carriere1 ,die philosophische ,weltanschauung der ,reformationszeit1 p4 #be2 and ,whittaker1 p4 #fh4 ,the argument of ,carriere's second edition is analysed and rebutted by ,mr4 ,whittaker1 p4 #bec sq4 #bjg ,de ,immenso1 vii1 c4 #ah1 cited by ,whittaker1 ,essays and ,notices1 p4 #gj4 #bjh ,as to ,bruno's own claim in the ,eroici ,furori1 cp4 ,whittaker1 ,essays1 p4 #ij4 #bji ,documents in ,berti1 pp4 #djg-ah2 ,mc,intyre1 p4 #ge sq4 #baj ,see the document in ,berti1 p4 #cih sq42 ,frith1 pp4 #bgj-ha4 #baa ,berti1 p4 #djj sq4 #bab ,see ,berti1 p4 #cif2 ,owen1 pp4 #bhe-hf2 ,frith1 pp4 #bhb-hc4 #bac ,the controversy as to whether ,galileo was tortured leaves it clear that torture was common4 ,see ,dr4 ,parchappe1 ,galile1 sa vie1 etc41 #ahff1 ,ptie4 ii1 ch4 #g4 #bad ,spaccio della bestia trionfante1 ed4 ,wagner1 ii1 #abj4 #bae ,prof4 ,carriere has contended that a transition from pantheism to theism marks the growth of his thought2 but1 as is shown by ,mr4 ,whittaker1 he is markedly pantheistic in his latest work of all1 though his pantheism is not merely naturalistic4 ,essays and ,notices1 pp4 #gb1 #bec-eh4 #baf ,italian versions differ verbally4 ,cp4 ,levi1 p4 #cgi2 ,berti1 p4 #chf4 ,that inscribed on the ,bruno statue at ,rome is a close rendering of the ,latin3 ,majori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam1 preserved by ,scioppius4 #bag ,avviso1 in ,berti1 p4 #cbi2 in ,levi1 p4 #chf4 #bah ,levi1 pp4 #chd-ib4 ,levi relates 7p4 #cij7 that ,bruno at the stake was heard to utter the words3 ,o ,eterno1 io fo uno sforzo supremo per attrarre in me quanto vi tra di pi divino nell'universo4 ,he cites no authority4 ,an ,avviso reports that ,bruno said his soul would rise with the smoke to ,paradise 7p4 #chf2 ,berti1 p4 #ccj71 but does not state that this was said at the stake4 ,and ,levi accepts the other report that ,bruno was gagged4 #bai ,notably his comedy ,il ,candelaio4 #bbj ,owen1 ,skeptics of the ,italian ,renaissance1 p4 #ceg4 ,a full narrative1 from the documents1 is given in ,r4 ,c4 ,christie's essay1 ,vanini in ,england1 in the ,english ,historical ,review of ,april1 #ahie1 reprinted in his ,selected ,essays and ,papers1 #aijb4 #bba ,see it analysed by ,owen1 pp4 #cfa-fh1 and by ,carriere1 ,weltanschauung1 pp4 #dif-ejd4 #bbb ,amphitheatrum1 #afae1 ,exercit4 xix1 pp4 #aag-ah4 #bbc ,amphitheatrum1 ,exercit4 xxvii1 p4 #afa4 #bbd ,id4 pp4 #gb1 #gc1 #gh1 #aac1 etc4 #bbe ,p4 #ce4 ,machiavelli is elsewhere attacked4 ,pp4 #cf1 #ej4 #bbf ,julii ,csaris ,vanini ,neapolitani1 ,theologi1 ,philosophi1 et juris utriusque ,doctoris1 de ,admirandis ,natur ,reginque ,deque ,mortalium ,arcanis1 libri quatuor4 ,luteti1 #afaf4 #bbg ,mr4 ,owen makes a serious misstatement on this point1 by which ,i was formerly misled4 ,he writes 7p4 #cfi7 that from the publisher's preface we learn that the ,dialogues were not written by ,vanini1 but by his disciples4 ,they are a collection of discursive conversations embodying their master's opinions4 ,this is not what the preface says4 ,it tells1 after a high-pitched eulogy of ,vanini1 that nos public utilitatis solliciti1 alia eius monumenta1 qu avarius retinebat1 per idoneos ex scriptores nancisci curavimus4 ,in ascribing the matter of the dialogues to ,vanini's young days1 ,mr4 ,owen forgets the references to the ,amphitheatrum4 #bbh ,alex4 ,sed in qua nam ,religione ver et pi ,deum coli vetusti ,philosophi existimarunt8 ,vanini4 ,in unica ,natur lege1 quam ipsa ,natura1 qu ,deus est 7est enim principium motus74444 ,de ,arcanis1 as cited1 p4 #cff4 ,lib4 iv1 ,dial4 #ej4 ,see ,rousselot's ,french tr4 #ahdb1 p4 #bbg4 ,this passage is cited by ,hallam 7,lit4 ,hist4 ii1 #dfa7 as avowing disbelief of all religion except such as ,nature 444 has planted in the minds of men--a heedless perversion4 #bbi ,de ,arcanis1 pp4 #ced-fj1 #dbj-bb 7,dial4 #ej1 #ef72 ,rousselot1 pp4 #bai-bc1 #bga-gc4 #bcj ,the special reference 7lib4 iv1 dial4 #ef1 p4 #dbh7 is to a story of an infant prophesying when only twenty-four hours old4 7,amphitheatrum1 ,ex4 vi1 p4 #ch2 cp4 ,owen1 p4 #cfh1 note47 ,on this and on other points ,cousin 7cited by ,owen1 pp4 #cfh1 #cga1 #cgg7 and ,hallam 7,lit4 ,hist4 ii1 #dfa7 make highly prejudiced statements4 ,quoting the final pages on which the dialoguist passes from serious debate to a profession of levity1 and ends by calling for the play-table1 the ,english historian dismisses him as the wretched man4 #bca ,cp4 ,carriere's analysis of the ,dialogues1 pp4 #eje-ei2 and the ,apologia pro ,jul4 ,csare ,vanino 7by ,arpe71 #agab4 #bcb ,see ,owen's vindication1 pp4 #cga-gd4 ,renan's criticism 7,averros1 pp4 #dbj-bc7 is not quite judicial4 ,see many others cited by ,carriere1 p4 #eaf4 #bcc ,it is difficult to understand how the censor could let pass the description of ,nature in the title2 but this may have been added after the authorization4 ,the book is dedicated by ,vanini to ,marshal ,bassompierre1 and the epistle dedicatory makes mention of the ,serenissima ,regina aeterni nominis ,maria ,medica1 which would disarm suspicion4 ,in any case the permit was revoked1 and the book condemned to be burned4 #bcd ,owen1 p4 #cie4 #bce ,mercure ,franais1 #afai1 tom4 v1 p4 #fd4 #bcf ,gramond 7,barthlemi de ,grammont71 ,historia ,galli ab excessu ,henrici ,,iv1 #afdc1 p4 #bji4 ,carriere translates the passage in full1 pp4 #ejj-ab1 #eae2 as does ,david ,durand in his hostile ,vie et ,sentimens de ,lucilio ,vanini1 #agag4 ,as to ,gramond see the ,lettres de ,gui ,patin1 who 7,lett4 #dbh1 ed4 ,reveill-,parise7 calls him me foible et bigote1 and guilty of falsehood and flattery4 #bcg ,gramond1 p4 #baj4 ,of ,vanini1 as of ,bruno1 it is recorded that at the stake he repelled the proffered crucifix4 ,owen and other writers1 who justly remark that he well might1 overlook the once received belief that it was the official practice1 with obstinate heretics1 to proffer a red-hot crucifix1 so that the victim should be sure to spurn it with open anger4 #bch ,stephen ,phillips1 ,marpessa4 #bci ,cp4 ,owen1 pp4 #chi1 #cia1 and ,carriere1 pp4 #eab-ac1 as to the worst calumnies4 ,it is significant that ,vanini was tried solely for blasphemy and atheism4 ,what is proved against him is that he and an associate practised a rather gross fraud on the ,english ecclesiastical authorities1 having apparently no higher motive than gain and a free life4 ,mr4 ,christie notes1 however1 that ,vanini in his writings always speaks very kindly of ,england and the ,english1 and so did not add ingratitude to his act of imposture4 #bdj ,de ,arcanis1 p4 #bje4 ,lib4 iii1 dial4 #cj4 #bda ,amphitheatrum1 p4 #ag4 #bdb ,de ,arcanis1 lib4 iv1 dial4 #eb1 p4 #cgi2 dial4 #ea1 p4 #cgc4 ,cp4 ,amphitheatrum1 p4 #cf2 and ,de ,arcanis1 p4 #bj4 #bdc ,de ,arcanis1 dial4 #ej and #ef4 ,in the ,amphitheatrum he adduces an equally skilful ,german atheist 7p4 #gc74 #bdd ,dial4 li1 p4 #cga4 #bde ,dial4 liv1 p4 #djg4 #bdf ,cp4 ,rousselot1 notice1 p4 xi4 #bdg ,durand compiles a list of ten or eleven works of ,vanini from the allusions in the ,amphitheatrum and the ,de ,arcanis4 #bdh ,reported by ,gramond1 as cited4 #bdi ,owen1 pp4 #cic-id4 #bej ,garasse1 ,doctrine curieuse des beaux esprits1 #afbc4 #bea ,de ,arcanis1 dial4 vii1 p4 #cf4 #beb ,dial4 iv1 p4 #ba4 #bec ,doctrine curieuse des beaux esprits de ce temps1 #afbc1 p4 #hdh4 #bed ,karl von ,gebler1 ,galileo ,galilei and the ,roman ,curia1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahgi1 pp4 #cf-cg4 #bee ,this appears from the letters of ,sagredo to ,galileo4 ,gebler1 p4 #cg4 ,cp4 ,gui ,patin1 ,lett4 #haf1 ed4 ,reveill-,parise1 #ahdf1 iii1 #geh2 ,bayle1 art4 ,cremonin1 notes ,c and ,d2 and ,renan1 ,averros1 #c;e dit4 pp4 #djh-ac4 ,patin writes that his friend ,naud avoit t intime ami de ,cremonin1 qui n'toit point meilleur ,chrtien que ,pomponace1 que ,machiavel1 que ,cardan et telles autres 444 dont le pays abonde4 #bef ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i1 #ahc 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bbj72 ,gebler1 p4 #be4 ,libri actually made the refusal2 but all that is proved as to ,cremonini is that he opposed ,galileo's discoveries priori4 ,as to the attitude of such opponents see ,galileo's letter to ,kepler4 ,j4 ,j4 ,fahie1 ,galileo3 his ,life and ,work1 #aijc4 pp4 #aja-ajb4 #beg ,fahie1 ,galileo1 p4 #ajj4 #beh ,id4 p4 #abg4 #bei ,gebler1 pp4 #ed1 #abi1 and passim2 ,the ,private ,life of ,galileo 7by ,mrs4 ,olney71 ,boston1 #ahgj1 pp4 #fg-gb4 #bfj ,galileo's letter to ,kepler1 cited by ,gebler1 p4 #bf4 #bfa ,the ,jesuits were expelled from ,venice in #afaf1 in retaliation for a papal interdict4 #bfb ,see it summarized by ,gebler1 pp4 #df-fj1 and quoted in the ,private ,life1 pp4 #hc-he4 #bfc ,the measure of reverence with which the orthodox handled the matter may be inferred from the fact that the ,dominican ,caccini1 who preached against ,galileo in ,florence1 took as one of his texts the verse in ,acts i3 ,viri ,galilaei1 quid statis aspicientes in coelum1 making a pun on the ,scripture4 #bfd ,see this summarized by ,gebler1 pp4 #fd-gj4 #bfe ,see ,the ,private ,life of ,galileo1 pp4 #hf-hg1 #ia1 #ii2 ,gebler1 p4 #dd2 ,fahie1 pp4 #afi-gj2 ,berti1 ,il ,processo ,originale de ,galileo ,galilei1 #ahgh1 p4 #ec4 #bff ,gebler 7p4 #aja7 solemnly comments on this letter as a lapse into servility on ,galileo's part4 #bfg ,gebler1 pp4 #aab-ac4 #bfh ,private ,life1 pp4 #baf-ah2 ,gebler1 pp4 #aeg-fb4 #bfi ,berti1 pp4 #fa-fd2 ,private ,life1 pp4 #bab-ac2 ,gebler1 p4 #afb4 #bgj ,gebler1 p4 #bci2 ,private ,life1 p4 #bef4 #bga ,gebler1 pp4 #bdi-fc2 ,private ,life1 pp4 #bee-ef2 ,marini1 pp4 #ee-eg4 ,the e pur si muove story is first heard of in #aggd4 ,as to the torture1 it is to be remembered that ,galileo recanted under threat of it4 ,see ,berti1 pp4 #ic-aja2 ,marini1 p4 #ei2 ,sir ,o4 ,lodge1 ,pioneers of ,science1 #ahic1 pp4 #abh-ca4 ,berti argues that only the special humanity of the ,commissary-,general1 ,macolano1 saved him from the torture4 ,cp4 ,gebler1 p4 #bei1 note4 #bgb ,gebler1 p4 #bha4 #bgc ,private ,life1 pp4 #bfe-fj1 #bfh2 ,gebler1 p4 #beb4 #bgd ,berti1 ,il ,processo di ,galileo1 pp4 #aaa-ab4 #bge ,letter of ,hobbes to ,newcastle1 in ,report of the ,hist4 ,mss4 ,comm4 on the ,duke of ,portland's ,papers1 #ahib1 ii4 ,hobbes explains that few copies were brought over1 and they that buy such books are not such men as to part with them again4 ,i doubt not1 he adds1 but the translation of it will here be publicly embraced4 #bgf ,gebler1 pp4 #cab-ae2 ,putnam1 ,censorship of the ,church of ,rome1 i1 #cac-ad4 #bgg ,see ,ueberweg1 ii1 #ab1 as to the conflicting types4 ,in addition to ,cremonini1 several leading ,aristotelians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were accused of atheism 7,hallam1 ,lit4 ,hist4 ii1 #aja-ajb71 the old charge against the ,peripatetic school4 ,hallam 7p4 #ajb7 complains that ,cesalpini of ,pisa substitutes the barren unity of pantheism for religion4 ,cp4 ,ueberweg1 ii1 #ad2 ,renan1 ,averros1 #c;e dit4 p4 #dag4 ,an ,averrost on some points1 he believed in separate immortality4 #bgh ,gebler1 pp4 #cg1 #de4 ,gebler appears to surmise that ,cremonini may have escaped the attack upon himself by turning suspicion upon ,galileo1 but as to this there is no evidence4 #bgi ,ueberweg1 ii1 #ag4 #bhj ,epist4 #cf4 #bha ,see above1 p4 #de4 #bhb ,bartholmss1 ,jordano ,bruno1 i1 #di4 #bhc ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,mater4 i1 #ahi-ij 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bbh74 ,born in ,valencia and trained at ,paris1 ,vives became a humanist teacher at ,louvain1 and was called to ,england 7#aebc7 to be tutor to the ,princess ,mary4 ,during his stay he taught at ,oxford4 ,being opposed to the divorce of ,henry ,,viii1 he was imprisoned for a time1 afterwards living at ,bruges4 #bhd ,see the monograph1 ,ramus1 sa vie1 ses crits1 et ses opinions1 par ,ch4 ,waddington1 #ahee4 ,owen has a good account of ,ramus in his ,french ,skeptics4 #bhe ,schol math4 l4 iii1 p4 #gh1 cited by ,waddington1 p4 #cdc4 #bhf ,in many respects ,galileo deserves to be ranked with ,descartes as inaugurating modern philosophy4 ,prof4 ,adamson1 ,development of ,mod4 ,philos4 #aijc1 i1 #e4 ,we may compare his ,hobbes's thought with ,descartes's1 but the impulse came to him from the physical reasonings of ,galileo4 ,prof4 ,croom ,robertson1 ,hobbes1 #ahhf1 p4 #db4 #bhg ,buckle1 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #cbg-cf2 #c-vol4 ed4 ii1 #gg-he4 ,cp4 ,lange1 i1 #dbe 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bdh1 note72 ,adamson1 ,philosophy of ,kant1 #ahgi1 p4 #aid4 #bhh ,cp4 ,lange1 i1 #dbe 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bdh-di1 note72 ,bouillier1 ,hist4 de la philos4 cartsienne1 #ahed1 i1 #dj-dg1 #ahe-hf2 ,bartholmss1 ,jordano ,bruno1 i1 #ced-ee2 ,memoir in ,garnier ed4 of ,o,euvres ,choisies1 p4 v1 also pp4 #f1 #ag1 #ai1 #ba4 ,bossuet pronounced the precautions of ,descartes excessive4 ,but cp4 ,dr4 ,land's notes in ,spinoza3 ,four ,essays1 #ahhb1 p4 #ee4 #bhi ,coll4 of ,philos4 ,writings1 ed4 #agab1 pref4 p4 xi4 #bij ,discours de la ,mthode1 pties4 i1 ii1 iii1 iv 7,o,euvres ,choisies1 pp4 #h1 #aj1 #aa1 #bb1 #bd72 ,meditation ,i 7id4 pp4 #gc-gd74 #bia ,full details in ,kuno ,fischer's ,descartes and his ,school1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahij1 bk4 i1 ch4 vi2 ,bouillier1 i1 chs4 xii1 xiii4 #bib ,buckle1 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #ccg-ci2 #c-vol4 ed4 ii1 #id1 #ig4 #bic ,buckle1 pp4 #cbg-cj2 ii1 #ha4 #bid ,id4 p4 #ccj2 ii1 #hb4 ,the process is traced hereinafter4 #bie ,kuno ,fischer1 ,francis ,bacon1 ,eng4 tr4 #aheg1 p4 #gd4 #bif ,for an exact summary and criticism of ,gassendi's positions see the masterly monograph of ,prof4 ,brett of ,lahore1 ,the ,philosophy of ,gassendi1 #aijh--;a real contribution to the history of philosophy4 #big ,cp4 ,adam ,smith1 ,wealth of ,nations1 bk4 v1 ch4 i 7,mc,culloch's ed4 #ahci1 pp4 #cfd-fe74 ,it is told of him1 with doubtful authority1 that when dying he said3 ,i know not who brought me into the world1 neither do ,i know what was to do there1 nor why ,i go out of it4 ,reflections on the ,death of ,freethinkers1 by ,deslandes 7,eng4 tr4 of the ,rflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont morts en plaisantant71 #agac1 p4 #aje4 #bih ,for a good account of ,gassendi and his group 7founded on ,lange1 iii1 ch4 i7 see ,soury1 ,brviaire de l'hist4 de matrialisme1 ptie4 iii1 ch4 ii4 #bii ,voltaire1 lments de philos4 de ,newton1 ch4 ii2 ,lange1 i1 #bcb 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #bfg7 and #bfi4 #cjj ,bayle1 art4 ,pomponace1 ,notes ,f4 and ,g4 ,the complaint was made by ,arnauld1 who with the rest of the ,jansenists was substantially a ,cartesian4 #cja ,see it in ,garnier's ed4 of ,descartes's ,o,euvres ,choisies1 p4 #ade4 #cjb ,id4 pp4 #aeh-fd4 #cjc ,apparently just because the ,jansenists adopted ,descartes and opposed ,gassendi4 ,but ,gassendi is extremely guarded in all his statements1 save1 indeed1 in his objections to the ,mditations of ,descartes4 #cjd ,see ,soury1 pp4 #cig-ih1 as to a water-drinking debauch of ,gassendi and his friends4 #cje ,rambaud1 as cited1 p4 #aed4 #cjf ,id4 p4 #aee4 #cjg ,voltaire1 ,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv1 ed4 ,didot1 p4 #cff4 ,on ne l'et pas os sous ,henri ,,iv et sous ,louis ,,xiii1 adds ,voltaire4 ,cp4 ,michelet1 ,la ,sorcire1 d4 ,sailles1 #aijc1 p4 #cjb4 #cjh ,tr4 into ,english in #afei1 under the title ,the ,vanity of ,judiciary ,astrology4 #cji ,jenkin ,thomasius in his ,historia ,atheismi 7#afib7 joins ,herbert with ,bodin as having five points in common with him 7ed4 #agji1 ch4 ix1 #b1 pp4 #gf-gg74 #caj ,it might have been supposed that he was recalled on account of his book2 but it was not so4 ,he was recalled by letter in ,april1 returned home in ,july1 and seems to have sent his book thence to ,paris to be printed4 #caa ,autobiography1 ,sir ,s4 ,lee's #bnd ed4 p4 #acb4 #cab ,the book was reprinted at ,london in ,latin in #afcc2 again at ,paris in #afcf2 and again at ,london in #afde4 ,it was translated and published in ,french in #afci1 but never in ,english4 #cac ,compare the verdict of ,hamilton in his ed4 of ,reid1 note ,a1 #f1 #ce 7p4 #gha74 #cad ,for a good analysis see ,pnjer1 ,hist4 of the ,christ4 ,philos4 of ,religion1 ,eng4 trans4 #ahhg1 pp4 #bib-ii2 also ,noack1 ,die ,freidenker in der ,religion1 ,bern1 #ahec1 i1 #ag-dj2 and ,lechler1 ,geschichte des englischen ,deismus1 pp4 #cf-ed4 #cae ,see his ,autobiography1 as cited1 pp4 #acc-cd4 #caf ,de causis errorum1 una cum tractate de religione laici et appendice ad sacerdotes 7#afde72 ,de religione gentilium 7#affc74 ,the latter was translated into ,english in #agje4 ,the former are short appendices to the ,de ,veritate4 ,in #agfh was published for the first time from a manuscript1 ,a ,dialogue between a ,tutor and his ,pupil1 which1 despite the doubts of ,lechler1 may confidently be pronounced ,herbert's from internal evidence4 ,see the ,advertisement by the editor of the volume1 and cp4 ,lee1 p4 xxx1 and notes there referred to4 ,the five points1 in particular1 occur not only in the ,religio ,gentilium1 but in the ,de ,veritate4 ,the style is clearly of the seventeenth century4 #cag ,sir ,sidney ,lee can hardly be right in taking the ,dialogue to be the little treatise which ,herbert proposed to write on behaviour 7,autobiography1 ,lee's #bnd ed4 p4 #dc74 ,it does not answer to that description1 being rather an elaborate discussion of the themes of ,herbert's main treatises1 running to #bgb quarto pages4 #cah ,see below1 p4 #hj4 #cai ,more ,reasons for the ,christian ,religion1 #afgb1 p4 #gi4 #cbj ,it is to be remembered that the doctrine of the supremacy of the civil power in religious matters 7,erastianism7 was maintained by some of the ablest men on the ,parliamentary side1 in particular ,selden4 #cba ,leviathan1 ch4 iv1 ,h4 ,morley's ed4 p4 #bf4 #cbb ,cp4 his letter to an opponent1 ,considerations upon the ,reputation1 etc41 of ,thomas ,hobbes1 #afhj1 with chs4 xi and xii of ,leviathan1 and ,de ,corpore ,politico1 pt4 ii1 c4 #f4 ,one of his most explicit declarations for theism is in the ,de ,homine1 c4 #a1 where he employs the design argument1 declaring that he who will not see that the bodily organs are a mente aliqua conditas ordinatasque ad sua quasque officia must be himself without mind4 ,this ascription of mind1 however1 he tacitly negates in ,leviathan1 ch4 xi1 and ,de ,corpore ,politico1 pt4 ii1 c4 #f4 #cbc ,de ,corpore1 pt4 ii1 c4 #h1 #bj4 #cbd ,cp4 ,bentley's letter to ,bernard1 #afib1 cited in ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #hb-hc4 #cbe ,leviathan1 pt4 i1 ch4 vi4 ,morley's ed4 p4 #cd4 #cbf ,leviathan1 pt4 iii1 ch4 xxxiii4 #cbg ,above1 p4 #bd4 #cbh ,on this see ,lange1 ,hist4 of ,materialism1 sec4 iii1 ch4 ii4 #cbi ,molyneux1 an anti-,hobbesian1 in translating ,hobbes's objections along with the ,meditations 7#afhj7 claims that the slightness of ,descartes's replies was due to his unacquaintance with ,hobbes's works and philosophy in general 7trans4 cited1 p4 #aad74 ,this is an obviously lame defence4 ,descartes does parry some of the thrusts of ,hobbes2 others he simply cannot meet4 #ccj ,e4g41 ,leviathan1 pt4 iv1 ch4 xlvii4 #cca ,kuno ,fischer1 ,descartes and his ,school1 pp4 #bcb-ce4 ,cp4 ,bentley1 ,sermons on ,atheism 7i4e41 his ,boyle ,lectures71 ed4 #agbd1 p4 #h4 #ccb ,hobbes also was of ,mersenne's acquaintance1 but only as a man of science4 ,when1 in #afdg1 ,hobbes was believed to be dying1 ,mersenne for the first time sought to discuss theology with him2 but the sick man instantly changed the subject4 ,in #afdh ,mersenne died4 ,he thus did not live to meet the strain of ,leviathan 7#afea71 which enraged the ,french no less than the ,english clergy4 7,croom ,robertson's ,hobbes1 pp4 #fc-fe47 #ccc ,hobbes lived to see this law abolished 7#afgg74 ,there was left1 however1 the jurisdiction of the bishops and ecclesiastical courts over cases of atheism1 blasphemy1 heresy1 and schism1 short of the death penalty4 #ccd ,croom ,robertson1 ,hobbes1 p4 #aif2 ,pepys's ,diary1 ,sept4 #c1 #affh4 #cce ,leviathan1 ch4 ii2 ,morley's ed4 p4 #ai2 chs4 xiv1 xv1 pp4 #ff1 #ga1 #gb1 #gh2 ch4 xxix1 pp4 #adh1 #adi4 #ccf ,leviathan1 chs4 xv1 xvii1 xviii4 ,morley's ed4 pp4 #gb1 #hb1 #hc1 #he4 #ccg ,for two generations the effort to construct morality on a philosophical basis takes more or less the form of answers to ,hobbes 7,sidgwick1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,ethics1 #crd ed4 p4 #afi74 #cch ,as when he presents the law of ,nature as dictating peace1 for a means of the conservation of men in multitudes 7,leviathan1 ch4 xv4 ,morley's ed4 p4 #gg74 #cci ,see the headings1 ,council1 ,religion1 etc4 #cdj ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson1 ,memoirs of ,john ,selden1 #ahce1 pp4 #cdh1 #cfb4 #cda ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson1 p4 #bfd4 #cdb ,above1 p4 #bj4 #cdc ,g4 ,w4 ,johnson1 pp4 #beh1 #cjb4 #cdd ,id4 p4 #cjb4 ,cp4 in the ,table ,talk1 art4 ,trinity1 his view of the ,roundheads4 #cde ,memoirs of ,colonel ,hutchinson1 ed4 #ahaj1 i1 #aha4 ,cp4 i1 #bib2 ii1 #dd4 #cdf ,cp4 ,overton's pamphlet1 ,an ,arrow against all ,tyrants and ,tyranny 7#afdf71 cited in the ,history of ,passive ,obedience since the ,reformation1 #afhi1 i1 #ei2 pt4 ii of ,thomas ,edwards's ,gangrna3 or a ,catalogue and ,discovery of many of the ,errours1 ,heresies1 ,blasphemies1 and pernicious ,practices of the ,sectaries of this time1 etc41 #bnd ed4 #afdf1 pp4 #cc-cd 7,nos4 #aea-ec74 #cdg ,lords ,journals1 ,january #af1 #afde-afdf2 ,gangrna1 as cited1 p4 #aej2 cp4 ,gardiner1 ,hist4 of the ,civil ,war1 ed4 #ahic1 iii1 #aa4 #cdh ,green1 ,short ,hist4 ch4 viii1 #h1 pp4 #eea-eb2 ,gardiner1 ,hist4 of the ,civil ,war1 iv1 #bb4 #cdi ,gangrna1 p4 #ah4 #cej ,in #afdd he had been imprisoned at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds for dipping adults1 and after six months' durance had been released on a recantation and promise of amendment4 ,gangrna1 as cited1 pp4 #ajd-aje4 #cea ,rev4 ,james ,cranford1 ,hreseo-,machia1 a ,sermon1 #afdf1 p4 #aj4 #ceb ,no4 #ajj in ,gangrna4 #cec ,cranford1 as cited1 p4 #aa sq4 #ced ,see ,g4 ,p4 ,gooch's ,hist4 of ,democ4 ,ideas in ,england in the #agth ,century1 #ahih1 ch4 vi4 #cee ,above1 pp4 #d and #h4 #cef ,in the ,british ,museum copy the name ,richardson is penned1 not in a contemporary hand1 at the end of the preface2 and in the preface to vol4 ii of the ,phenix1 #agjh1 in which the treatise is reprinted1 the same name is given1 but with uncertainty4 ,the ,richardson pointed at was the author of ,the ,necessity of ,toleration in ,matters of ,religion 7#afdg74 ,e4 ,b4 ,underhill1 in his collection of that and other ,tracts on ,liberty of ,conscience for the ,hanserd ,knollys ,society1 #ahdf1 remains doubtful 7p4 #bdg7 as to the authorship of the tract on hell4 #ceg ,the fourth ,english edition appeared in #aged4 #ceh ,gangrna1 ep4 ded4 7p4 #e74 ,cp4 pp4 #dg1 #aea1 #agh-gi2 and ,bailie's ,letters1 ed4 #ahda1 ii1 #bcd-cg2 iii1 #cic4 ,the most sweeping plea for toleration seems to have been the book entitled ,toleration ,justified1 #afdf4 7,gangrna1 p4 #aea47 ,the ,hanserd ,knollys collection1 above mentioned1 does not contain one of that title4 #cei ,gangrna1 pp4 #aeb-ec4 #cfj ,pp4 #ah-cf4 #cfa ,id4 p4 #ae4 ,as to other sects mentioned by him cp4 ,tayler1 p4 #aid4 #cfb ,on the intense aversion of most of the ,presbyterians to toleration see ,tayler1 ,retrospect of ,relig4 ,life of ,eng4 p4 #acf4 ,they insisted1 rightly enough1 that the principle was never recognized in the ,bible4 #cfc ,see the citations in ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 i1 #cdg2 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #aif4 #cfd ,alex4 ,ross1 ,pansebeia1 #dth ed4 #afgb1 p4 #cgi4 #cfe ,cp4 the present writer's ,buckle and his ,critics1 #ahie1 ch4 viii1 #b4 #cff ,see above1 vol4 i1 p4 #e4 #cfg ,memoirs of ,colonel ,hutchinson1 #crd ed4 i1 #bjj4 #cfh ,heresiography3 ,the ,heretics and ,sectaries of these ,times1 #afad4 ,epist4 ,ded4 #cfi ,discourse1 ed4 #aheg1 p4 #bbf4 #cgj ,dr4 ,j4 ,brown's pref4 to ed4 of #aheg1 p4 xxii4 #cga ,more1 ,collection of ,philosophical ,writings1 #dth ed4 #afib1 p4 #ie4 #cgb ,fabricius1 ,delectus ,argumentorum et ,syllabus ,scriptorum1 #agbe1 p4 #cda4 #cgc ,no copy in ,british ,museum4 #cgd ,urwick1 ,life of ,john ,howe1 with #ahdf ed4 of ,howe's ,select ,works1 pp4 xiii1 xix4 ,urwick1 a learned evangelical1 fully admits the presence of infidels on both sides in the politics of the time4 #cge ,discourse ,concerning ,union ,among ,protestants1 ed4 cited1 pp4 #adf1 #aef1 #aeh4 ,in the preface to his treatise1 ,the ,redeemer's ,tears ,wept over ,lost ,souls1 ,howe complains of the atheism of some1 the avowed mere theism of others1 and of a fashionable habit of ridiculing religion4 ,this sermon1 however1 appears to have been first published in #afhd2 and the date of its application is uncertain4 #cgf ,wallace1 ,antitrinitarian ,biography1 ,art4 #bhe4 #cgg ,the preface begins3 ,it is neither to satisfie the importunity of friends1 nor to prevent false copies 7which and such like excuses ,i know are expected in usual prefaces71 that ,i have adventured abroad this following treatise3 but it is out of a just resentment of the affronts and indignities which have been cast on religion1 by such who account it a matter of judgment to disbelieve the ,scriptures1 and a piece of wit to dispute themselves out of the possibility of being happy in another world4 #cgh ,see bk4 ii1 ch4 x4 ,page #cch1 #crd ed4 #afff4 #cgi ,cp4 ,glanvill1 pref4 ,address to his ,scepsis ,scientifica1 ,owen's ed4 #ahhe1 pp4 lv-lvii2 and ,henry ,more's ,divine ,dialogues1 ,dial4 i1 ch4 xxxii4 #chj ,cp4 ,lecky1 ,rationalism in ,europe1 i4 #aji4 #cha ,the ,reformed ,pastor1 abr4 ed4 #ahbf1 pp4 #bcf1 #bci4 #chb ,work cited1 ed4 #affg1 p4 #acf4 ,the proposition is reiterated4 #chc ,id4 p4 #chh4 #chd ,reasons of the ,christian ,religion1 pp4 #chh-hi4 #che ,religio ,stoici1 ,edinburgh1 #affc4 p4 #ai4 ,the essay was reprinted in #affe1 and in ,london in #afic under the title of ,the ,religious ,stoic4 #chf ,id4 p4 #ah4 #chg ,id4 p4 #abd4 #chh ,id4 p4 #gf4 #chi ,id4 p4 #fi4 #cij ,religio ,stoici1 p4 #aaf4 #cia ,id4 p4 #abb4 #cib ,this last is interesting as a probable echo of opinions he had heard from some of his older contemporaries3 ,opinion kept within its proper bounds is an the ,scottish ane pure act of the mind2 and so it would appear that to punish the body for that which is a guilt of the soul is as unjust as to punish one relation for another 7pref4 pp4 #aj-aa74 ,he adds that the ,almighty hath left no warrand upon holy record for persecuting such as dissent from us4 #cic ,reason3 an ,essay1 ed4 #afij1 p4 #ba4 ,cp4 p4 #aeb4 #cid ,id4 p4 #hb4 ,it is noteworthy that ,mackenzie puts in a protest against implicit ,faith and ,infallibility1 those great tyrants over ,reason 7p4 #hh74 ,but the essay as a whole is ill-planned and unimpressive4 #cie ,work cited1 #bnd ed4 pt4 ii1 pp4 #ajf-ae4 #cif ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #hf-hg1 #hi-ij4 ,this explanation is also given by ,bishop ,wilkins in his treatise on ,natural ,religion1 #gth ed4 p4 #ced4 #cig ,replying to ,herbert's ,de ,veritate1 which he seems not to have read before4 #cih ,pref4 to ,obs4 upon the ,united ,prov4 of the ,netherlands1 in ,works1 ed4 #ahad1 i1 #cf4 #cii ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #hg1 #id-ih1 #aaa1 #aab4 #djj ,as to the religious immoralism see ,mosheim1 #ag ,cent4 sec4 ii1 pt4 ii1 ch4 ii1 #bc1 and ,murdock's notes4 #dja ,compare the picture of average ,protestant deportment given by ,benjamin ,bennet in his ,discourses against ,popery1 #agad1 p4 #cgg4 #djb ,more1 ,coll4 of ,philos4 ,writings1 #dth ed4 #agab1 gen4 pref4 p4 #g4 #djc ,compare some of the extracts in ,thomas ,bennet's ,defence of the ,discourse of ,schism1 etc41 #bnd ed4 #agjd1 from the sermons of ,r4 ,gouge 7#afhh74 ,the description of men as mortal crumbling bits of dependency1 yesterday's start-ups1 that come out of the abyss of nothing1 hastening to the bosom of their mother earth 7work cited1 p4 #ic7 is a reminder that the resonant and cadenced rhetoric of the ,brownes and ,taylors and ,cudworths was an art of the age1 at the command of different orders of propaganda4 #djd ,cited by ,bonnet1 ,a ,defence of the ,discourse of ,schism1 etc41 as cited1 p4 #da4 #dje ,thus ,henry ,more's biographer1 the ,rev4 ,richard ,ward1 says the late ,mr4 ,chiswel told a friend of mine that for twenty years together after the return of ,king ,charles the ,second the ,mystery of ,godliness1 and ,dr4 ,more's other works1 ruled all the booksellers in ,london 7,life of ,more1 #agaj1 pp4 #afb-fc74 ,we have seen the nature of some of ,more's other works4 #djf ,the ,reasonableness of ,scripture ,belief1 #afgb1 ,epist4 ,ded4 #djg ,rep4 #afge2 #bnd ed4 #afia2 rep4 in the ,phoenix1 vol4 ii1 #agjh2 #crd ed4 #agcf4 #djh ,a very hostile account of him is given in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 ,he was1 however1 the friend of ,cowley1 and the ,m4 ,clifford to whom ,sprat addressed his sketch of ,cowley's ,life4 ,he was also a foe of ,dryden--the malicious ,matt ,clifford of ,dryden's ,sessions of the ,poets2 and he attacked the poet in ,notes on ,dryden's ,poems 7published #afhg71 and is supposed to have had a hand in the ,rehearsal4 ,he was befriended by ,shaftesbury4 #dji ,tract4 ,theol4 ,polit4 c4 #ae4 #daj ,wood1 ,athen ,oxonienses1 ii1 #cha-hb2 ,granger1 ,biog4 ,hist4 of ,england1 #eth ed4 v1 #bic4 #daa ,johnson's ,life of ,dr4 ,watts1 #aghe1 ,app4 i4 #dab ,toulmin1 ,hist4 of the ,prot4 ,dissenters1 #ahad1 citing ,johnson's ,life of ,dr4 ,watts4 #dac ,it has been suggested that this was really written by ,clifford1 for posthumous publication4 ,the humorous sketch of ,his ,character at the close1 suggesting that his vices seem to the writer to have outweighed his virtues1 hints of ironical mystification4 #dad ,work cited1 pp4 #aj1 #ad1 #cj1 #ee4 #dae ,dr4 ,urwick1 ,life of ,howe1 as cited1 p4 xxxii4 #daf ,a ,demonstration of the ,divine ,authority of the ,law of ,nature and of the ,christian ,religion1 by ,samuel ,parker1 ,d4,d41 #afha1 pref4 ,the first part of this treatise is avowedly a popularization of the argument of ,cumberland's ,disquisitio de ,legibus ,natur1 #afgb4 ,parker had previously published in ,latin a ,disiputatio de ,deo et ,providentia ,divina1 in which he raised the question1 ,an ,philosophorum ulli1 et quinam ,athei fuerunt 7#afgh74 #dag ,work cited1 #bnd ed4 #afhb1 pp4 #cb1 #ch-dj1 #de-dh4 #dah ,id4 pp4 #ed-ee4 #dai ,id4 p4 #eb4 #dbj ,twelve ,sermons ,preached upon ,several ,occasions1 #afib1 pp4 #dch-ci4 #dba ,this has been ascribed1 without any good ground1 to ,charles ,blount4 ,it does not seem to me to be in his style4 #dbb ,premonition to the ,candid ,reader4 #dbc ,hist4 ,nat4 vii1 #a4 #dbd ,pamphlet cited1 pp4 #bj1 #ba4 #dbe ,id4 p4 #bc4 #dbf ,concerning whom see ,macaulay's ,history1 ch4 xix1 ed4 #ahgg1 ii1 #daa-ab--;a very prejudiced account4 ,blount is there spoken of as one of the most unscrupulous plagiaries that ever lived1 and as having stolen from ,milton1 because he issued a pamphlet ,by ,philopatris1 largely made up from the ,areopagitica4 ,compare ,macaulay's treatment of ,locke1 who adopted ,dudley ,north's currency scheme 7ch4 xxi1 vol4 ii1 p4 #edg74 #dbg ,bayle 7art4 ,apollonius1 note71 who is followed by the ,french translator of ,philostratus with ,blount's notes in #aggi 7,j4 ,f4 ,salvemini de ,castillon71 says the notes were drawn from the papers of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury2 but of this ,blount says nothing4 #dbh ,as to these see the ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 ,the statements of ,anthony ,wood as to the writings of ,blount's father1 relied on in the author's ,dynamics of ,religion1 appear to be erroneous4 ,sir ,thomas ,pope ,blount1 ,charles's eldest brother1 shows a skeptical turn of mind in his ,essays 7#crd ed4 #afig1 ,essay #g74 ,himself a learned man1 he disparages learning as checking thought2 and1 professing belief in the longevity of the patriarchs 7p4 #ahg71 pronounces popery and pagan religion to be mere works of priestcraft 7,essay #a74 ,he detested theological controversy and intolerance1 and seems to have been a ,lockian4 #dbi ,all that is known of this tragedy is that ,blount loved his deceased wife's sister and wished to marry her2 but she held it unlawful1 and he was in despair4 ,according to ,pope1 a sufficiently untrustworthy authority1 he gave himself a stab in the arm1 as pretending to kill himself1 of the consequence of which he really died 7note to ,epilogue to the ,satires1 i1 #abc74 ,an overstrung nervous system may be diagnosed from his writing4 #dcj ,boyle ,lectures on ,atheism1 ed4 #agbd1 p4 #d4 #dca ,reflexions upon the ,books of the ,holy ,scriptures to establish the ,truth of the ,christian ,religion1 by ,peter ,allix1 ,d4,d41 #afhh1 i1 #f-g4 #dcb ,as cited by ,leslie1 ,truth of ,christianity ,demonstrated1 #agaa1 pp4 #ag-ba4 #dcc ,characteristics1 ii1 #bfc 7,moralists1 pt4 ii1 #c74 ,one of the most dangerous positions from the orthodox point of view would be the thesis that while religion could do either great good or great harm to morals1 atheism could do neither4 7,bk4 ,i1 pt4 iii1 #a47 ,cp4 ,bacon's ,essay1 ,of ,atheism4 #dcd ,blount1 after assailing in anonymous pamphlets ,bohun the licenser1 induced him to license a work entitled ,king ,william and ,queen ,mary ,conquerors1 which infuriated the nation4 ,macaulay calls the device a base and wicked scheme4 ,it was almost innocent in comparison with ,blount's promotion of the ,popish plot mania4 ,see ,who ,killed ,sir ,edmund ,godfrey ,berry8 by ,alfred ,marks4 #aije1 pp4 #acc-ce1 #aej4 #dce ,see the text in ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner's ,penalties upon ,opinion1 pp4 #ai-ba4 ,macaulay does not mention this measure4 #dcf ,the ,act had been preceded by a proclamation of the king1 dated ,feb4 #bd4 #afig4 #dcg ,as to an earlier monopoly of the ,london booksellers1 see ,george ,herbert's letters to the ,archbishop of ,canterbury and to ,bacon1 ,jan4 #bi1 #afbj4 ,in ,works of ,george ,herbert1 ed4 #ahda1 i4 #bag-ah4 #dch ,see ,locke's notes on the ,licensing ,act in ,lord ,king's ,life of ,locke1 #ahbi1 pp4 #bjc-bjf2 ,fox ,bourne's ,life of ,locke1 ii4 #cac-ad2 ,macaulay's ,history1 ii1 #ejd4 #dci ,trinius1 ,freydenker-,lexicon1 #agei1 p4 #abj2 ,pnjer1 i1 #bia1 #cjj-cja4 ,browne was even called an atheist4 ,arpe1 ,apologia pro ,vanino1 #agab1 p4 #bg1 citing ,welschius4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,bullen1 in his introduction to his ed4 of ,marlowe 7#ahhe1 vol4 i1 p4 lviii71 remarks that ,browne1 who kept the road in divinity1 exposed the vulnerable points in the ,scriptural narratives with more acumen and gusto than the whole army of freethinkers1 from ,anthony ,collins downwards4 ,this is of course an extravagance1 but1 as ,mr4 ,bullen remarks in the ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 vii1 #ff1 ,browne discusses with evident relish the seeming absurdities in the ,scriptural narrative4 #ddj ,browne's ,annotator points to the derivation of his skepticism from that excellent ,french writer ,monsieur ,mountaign1 in whom ,i often trace him 7,sayle's ed4 #aijd1 i1 p4 xviii74 #dda ,religio ,medici1 i1 #f4 #ddb ,id4 i1 #i4 #ddc ,id4 i1 #ah4 #ddd ,religio ,medici1 i1 #bj4 #dde ,bk4 ,i1 ch4 x4 #ddf ,here we have a theorem independently reached later 7with the substitution of ,nature for ,god7 by ,mary ,wollstonecraft and ,tennyson in turn4 ,browne cites yet another3 that he looks not below the moon1 but hath resigned the regiment of sublunary affairs unto inferior deputations--a thesis adopted in effect by ,cudworth4 #ddg ,by an error of the press1 ,browne is made in ,mr4 ,sayle's excellent reprint 7i1 #ajh7 to begin a sentence in the middle of a clause1 with an odd result3--,i do confess ,i am an ,atheist4 ,i cannot persuade myself to honour that the world adores4 ,the passage should obviously read3 to that subterraneous ,idol 7avarice7 and ,god of the ,earth ,i do confess ,i am an ,atheist1 etc4 #ddh ,hutchinson1 ,histor4 ,essay ,conc4 ,witchcraft1 #agah1 p4 #aah2 #bnd ed4 #agbj1 p4 #aea4 #ddi ,cp4 ,whewell1 ,lectures on the ,history of ,moral ,philosophy1 ed4 #ahfb1 p4 #cc4 #dej ,robertson ,smith1 ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 #ahhi1 pref4 p4 vi2 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,duff1 ,hist4 of ,old ,test4 ,criticism1 ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 #aiaj1 p4 #aac4 #dea ,this appears again1 much curtailed and so altered as to be in a manner new1 in its author's collected ,essays on ,several ,important ,subjects in ,religion and ,philosophy 7#afgf71 under the title ,against ,confidence in ,philosophy4 #deb ,see the ,humane ,nature 7#afdj71 ch4 iv1 #g-i4 #dec ,scepsis ,scientifica1 ch4 #bc1 #a4 #ded ,see the passages compared by ,lewes1 ,history of ,philosophy1 #dth ed4 ii1 #cch4 #dee ,in his ,blow at ,modern ,sadducism 7#dth ed4 #affh71 ,sadducismus ,triumphatus 7#afha2 #crd ed4 #afhi71 and ,a ,whip to the ,droll1 ,fidler to the ,atheist 7#afhh--;a letter to ,henry ,more1 who was zealous on the same lines74 ,these works seem to have been much more widely circulated than the ,scepsis ,scientifica4 #def ,scepsis1 ch4 #bj1 #c4 #deg ,see ,glanvill's reply in a letter to a friend 7#affe71 re-written as ,essay ,,ii1 ,of ,scepticism and ,certainty3 in ,a short ,reply to the learned ,mr4 ,thomas ,white in his collected ,essays on ,several ,important ,subjects1 #afgf4 #deh ,see the reply in ,plus ,ultra3 or1 the ,progress and ,advancement of ,knowledge since the days of ,aristotle1 #affh1 ,epist4 ,ded4 ,pref4 ch4 xviii1 and ,conclusion4 ,the re-written treatise1 in the collected ,essays1 eliminates the controversial matter4 #dei ,first printed with ,glanvill's ,philosophia ,pia in #afga4 ,rep4 as an essay in the collected ,essays4 #dfj ,owen1 pref4 to ,scepsis1 pp4 xx-xxii4 #dfa ,owen1 pref4 to ed4 of ,scepsis ,scientifica1 p4 ix4 #dfb ,of whom1 however1 a high medical authority declares that1 as a physiologist1 he was sunk in realism 7that is1 metaphysical apriorism74 ,prof4 ,t4 ,clifford ,allbutt1 ,harveian ,oration on ,science and ,medieval ,thought1 #aija1 p4 #dd4 #dfc ,cp4 ,whewell1 as last cited1 pp4 #ge-hc2 ,hallam1 ,literature of ,europe1 iv1 #aei-ga4 #dfd ,reid1 ,intellectual ,powers1 ,essay ,i1 ch4 i2 ,hamilton's ed4 of ,works1 p4 #bbf4 ,glanvill calls ,gassendi that noble wit4 7,scepsis ,scientifica1 ,owen's ed4 p4 #aea47 #dfe ,poet4 ,works of ,milton1 #ahgd1 ,introd4 i1 #ib sq4 #dff ,scepsis ,scientifica1 ,owen's ed4 p4 #ff4 ,in the condensed version of the treatise in ,glanvill's collected ,essays 7#afgf1 p4 #bj71 the language is to the same effect4 #dfg ,j4 ,j4 ,tayler1 ,retrospect of the ,religious ,life of ,england1 ,martineau's ed4 p4 #bjd2 ,wallace1 ,antitrinitarian ,biography1 iii1 #aeb-ec4 #dfh ,cp4 ,buckle1 #c-vol4 ed4 ii1 #cdg-ea2 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #aif-ii4 #dfi ,tayler1 ,retrospect1 pp4 #bjd-bje2 ,wallace1 iii1 #aed-ef4 #dgj ,gangrna1 pt4 i1 p4 #ch4 #dga ,tayler1 p4 #bba4 ,as to ,biddle1 the chief propagandist of the sect1 see pp4 #bba-bd1 and ,wallace1 ,art4 #bhe4 #dgb ,macaulay1 ,essay on ,milton4 ,cp4 ,brown's ed4 7,clarendon ,press7 of the poems of ,milton1 ii1 #cj4 #dgc ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 ch4 v4 #dgd ,of ,education1 #acf4 #dge ,essay1 bk4 iv1 ch4 xix4 #d4 #dgf ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus1 c4 #ae4 #dgg ,third ,letter to the ,bishop of ,worcester4 #dgh ,some ,familiar ,letters between ,mr4 ,locke and ,several of his ,friends1 #agjh1 pp4 #cjb-cjd4 #dgi ,fox ,bourne1 ,life of ,locke1 #ahgf1 ii1 #cd4 #dhj ,the first ,letter1 written while he was hiding in ,holland in #afhe1 was in ,latin1 but was translated into ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,english4 #dha ,mr4 ,fox ,bourne1 in his biography 7ii1 #da71 apologizes for the lapse1 so alien to his own ideals1 by the remark that the atheism then in vogue was of a very violent and rampant sort4 ,it is to be feared that this palliation will not hold good--at least1 the present writer has been unable to trace the atheism in question4 ,for atheism we had better read religion4 #dhb ,second ,vindication of ,the ,reasonableness of ,christianity1 #afig1 pref4 #dhc ,fox ,bourne1 ,life of ,locke1 ii1 #aha4 #dhd ,son of the ,presbyterian author of the famous ,gangrna4 #dhe ,said by ,carrol1 ,dissertation on ,mr4 ,lock's ,essay1 #agjf1 cited by ,anthony ,collins1 ,essay ,concerning the ,use of ,reason1 #agji1 p4 #cj4 #dhf ,cited by ,fox ,bourne1 ,life of ,locke1 ii1 #dch4 #dhg ,whose calibre may be gathered from his egregious doctoral thesis1 ,concio ad clerum de dmonum malorum existentia et natura 7#agjj74 ,after a list of the deniers of evil spirits1 from the ,sadducees and ,sallustius to ,bekker and ,van ,dale1 he addresses to his dilectissimi in ,christo fratres the exordium3 ,en1 ,academici1 veteres ac hodiernos ,sadducos6 quibuscum tota ,atheorum cohors amicissim congruit2 nam qui divinum numen1 iidem ipsi infernales spiritus acriter negant4 #dhh ,confutation of ,warburton 7#ageg7 in ,extracts from ,law's ,works1 #agfh1 i1 #bjh-bji4 #dhi ,cp4 the ,essay1 bk4 i1 ch4 iii1 #f1 with ,law's ,case of ,reason1 in ,extracts1 as cited1 p4 #cf4 #dij ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 p4 #abb4 #dia ,fox ,bourne1 ii1 #djd-dje4 #dib ,an ostensibly orthodox ,professor of our own day has written that ,locke's doctrine as to religion and ethics shows at once the sincerity of his religious convictions and the inadequate conception he had formed to himself of the grounds and nature of moral philosophy 7,fowler1 ,locke1 #ahhj1 p4 #gf74 #dic ,burnet1 ,history of his ,own ,time1 ed4 #ahch1 p4 #bea4 ,burnet adds that ,temple was a corrupter of all that came near him4 ,the #ahch editor protests against the whole attack as the most unfair and exaggerated of ,burnet's portraits2 and a writer in ,the ,present ,state of the ,republick of ,letters1 ,jan41 #agcf1 p4 #bf1 carries the defence to claiming orthodoxy for ,temple4 ,but the whole cast of his thought is deistic4 ,cp4 the ,essay upon the ,origin and ,nature of ,government1 and ch4 v of the ,observations upon the ,united ,provinces 7,works1 ed4 #aggj1 i1 #bi1 #cf1 #agj-gd74 #did ,cp4 ,macaulay1 ,history1 ch4 ii4 ,student's ed4 i1 #abj4 #die ,compare his ,advice to a ,daughter1 #a 7in ,miscellanies1 #agjj71 and his ,political ,thoughts and ,reflections3 ,religion4 #dif ,see ,macaulay1 ch4 xx4 ,student's ed4 ii1 #dei4 #dig ,de ,morgan1 as cited1 p4 #ajg4 #dih ,see ,brewster1 ii1 #cah1 #cba-bb1 #cbc1 #cca sq41 #cdb sq4 #dii ,id4 p4 #cbg sq4 #ejj ,id4 p4 #aae4 #eja ,cp4 ,de ,morgan1 pp4 #acc-de4 #ejb ,four ,letters from ,sir ,isaac ,newton to ,dr4 ,bentley1 ed4 #agef1 p4 #be4 ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #ig-ajb4 #ejc ,brewster1 ii1 #cad4 #ejd ,id4 pp4 #cae-af4 #eje ,id4 pp4 #cdb-df4 #ejf ,brewster1 p4 #cdi4 ,see the remaining articles1 and ,app4 ,,xxx1 p4 #ecb4 #ejg ,id4 p4 #chh4 #ejh ,discourse on ,tillotson and ,burnet1 pp4 #ch1 #dj1 #gd1 cited by ,collins1 ,discourse of ,freethinking1 #agac1 pp4 #aga-gb4 #eji ,the ,brief ,notes on the ,creed of ,st4 ,athanasius 7author unknown71 printed by ,thomas ,firmin4 ,late in #afic appeared another antitrinitarian tract1 by ,william ,freke1 who was prosecuted1 fined #ejj1 and ordered to make a recantation in the ,four ,courts of ,westminster ,hall4 ,the book was burnt by the hangman4 ,wallace1 ,art4 #ced4 ,there had also been two quarto volumes of tracts in support of ,unitarianism1 published in #afia 7,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,drummond1 ,an ,explanation and ,defence of the ,principles of ,protestant ,dissent1 #ahdb1 p4 #ag74 #eaj ,locke's ribald schoolfellow of nearly fifty years ago 7,fox ,bourne1 ii1 #dje74 #eaa ,id4 ib4 #eab ,tayler1 ,retrospect1 p4 #bbf2 ,wallace1 ,antitrinitarian ,biography1 i1 #afj-fi4 #eac ,fox ,bourne1 ii1 #dje2 ,wallace1 art4 #cec4 #ead ,above1 pp4 #ce-cf4 #eae ,nelson's ,life of ,bishop ,bull1 #bnd ed4 #agad1 p4 #cih4 #eaf ,perhaps at no period was the ,unitarian controversy so actively carried on in ,england as between #afij and #agbj4 ,history1 ,opinions1 etc41 of the ,english ,presbyterians1 #ahcd1 p4 #bb4 #eag ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #aac-ae--,tayler1 ,retrospect1 p4 #bbg4 #eah ,as to whom see ,tayler1 ,retrospect1 ch4 v4 #d4 ,they are spoken of as the new sect of ,latitude-,men in #affb2 and in #agjh are said to be at this day ,low ,churchmen4 ,see ,a ,brief ,account of the ,new ,sect of ,latitude-,men1 by ,s4 ,p4 of ,cambridge1 #affb1 reprinted in ,the ,phenix1 vol4 ii1 #agjh4 and pref4 to that vol4 ,from ,s4 ,p4's account it is clear that they connected with the new scientific movement1 and leant to ,cartesianism4 ,as above noted1 they included such prelates as ,wilkins and ,tillotson4 ,the work of ,e4 ,a4 ,george1 ,seventeenth ,century ,men of ,latitude 7#aijh71 deals with ,hales1 ,chillingworth1 ,whichcote1 ,h4 ,more1 ,taylor1 ,browne1 and ,baxter4 #eai ,toulmin1 ,histor4 ,view of the ,prot4 ,dissenters1 #ahad1 p4 #bgj4 ,a main ground of the offence taken was a somewhat trivial dialogue in ,burnet's book between ,eve and the serpent1 indicating the popular character of the tale4 ,this was omitted from a ,dutch edition at the author's request1 and from the #crd ed4 #agcc 7,toulmin1 as cited74 ,it is given in the partial translation in ,blount's ,oracles of ,reason4 #ebj ,see ,brewster's ,memoirs of ,newton1 #ahee1 ii1 #cae-af1 for a letter indicating ,craig's religious attitude4 ,he contributed to ,dr4 ,george ,cheyne's ,philosophical ,principles of ,religion1 ,natural and ,revealed1 #agje4 7,pref4 to pt4 i1 ed4 #agbe47 #eba ,see the note of ,pope and ,warburton on the ,dunciad1 iv1 #dfb4 #ebb ,see arts4 in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 #ebc ,reprinted at ,amsterdam1 #agab4 #ebd ,essays as cited1 p4 #hd4 #ebe ,id4 p4 #cj4 #ebf ,see ,christianity not ,founded on ,argument 7by ,henry ,dodwell1 jr471 #agda1 pp4 #aa1 #cd4 ,waterland1 as cited by ,bishop ,hurst1 treats the terms ,reasonist and ,rationalist as labels or nicknames of those who untruly profess to reason more scrupulously than other people4 ,the former term may1 however1 have been set up as a result of ,le ,clerc's rendering of the ,logos1 in ,john i1 #a1 by ,reason--an argument to which ,waterland repeatedly refers4 #ebg ,prof4 ,strowski1 who is concerned to prove that the freethinkers of the period were mostly men-about-town1 claims ,patin as a ,frondeur 7,de ,montaigne ,pascal1 p4 #bae74 ,but ,patin's attitude in this matter was determined by his detestation of ,mazarin1 whom he regarded as an arch-scoundrel4 ,naud's defence of the ,massacre is forensic4 #ebh ,lettres de ,gui ,patin1 ,no4 #ahh1 dit4 ,reveill-,parise1 #ahdf1 i1 #cfd4 #ebi ,cp4 ,reveill-,parise1 as cited1 ,notice sur ,gui ,patin1 pp4 xxiii-xxvii1 and ,bayle1 art4 ,patin4 #ecj ,see the notices of him in ,owen's ,skeptics of the ,french ,renaissance2 and in ,sainte-,beuve4 ,port ,royal1 iii1 #ahj1 etc4 #eca ,de la ,vertu des ,payens1 in t4 v4 of the #abmo ed4 of ,o,euvres1 #affi4 #ecb ,hanotaux1 ,hist4 du ,cardinal de ,richelieu1 #ahic1 i1 pref4 p4 #g4 #ecc ,cp4 ,buckle1 ch4 viii1 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #cje-aj1 #cbe-bh4 #ecd ,see the good criticism of ,m4 ,hanotaux in ,perrens1 ,les ,libertins en ,france au xvii4 sicle1 p4 #ie sq4 #ece ,o,euvres1 ed4 #affi1 v1 #d sq4 ,bellarmin1 as ,le ,vayer shows1 had similarly explained away ,augustine4 ,but the doctrine that heathen virtue was not true virtue had remained orthodox4 #ecf ,ed4 cited1 iv1 #abe4 #ecg ,id4 pp4 #abc-bd4 #ech ,tom4 iii1 #bea4 #eci ,he wrote very many1 the final collection filling three volumes folio1 and fifteen in duodecimo4 ,the ,cincq ,dialogues faits l'imitation des ,anciens were pseudonymous1 and are not included in the collected works4 #edj ,on le rgarde comme le ,plutarque de notre sicle 7,perrault1 ,les ,hommes ,illustres du ,x,v,i,ie ,sicle1 d4 #agja1 ii4 #aca74 #eda ,perrault1 ii1 #acb4 #edb ,bayle1 ,dict4 art4 ,la ,mothe le ,vayer4 ,cp4 introd4 to ,l',esprit de la ,mothe le ,vayer1 par ,m4 de ,m4 ,c4 ,d4 ,s4 ,p4 ,d4 ,l4 7i4e4 ,de ,montlinot1 chanoine de ,saint ,pierre de ,lille71 #agfc1 pp4 xviii1 xxi1 xxvi4 #edc ,m4 ,perrens1 who endorses this criticism1 does not note that some passages he quotes from the ,dialogues1 as to atheism being less disturbing to ,states than superstition1 are borrowed from ,bacon's essay ,of ,atheism1 of which ,le ,vayer would read the ,latin version4 #edd ,perrens1 p4 #acb4 #ede ,in ,french1 #afca2 in ,latin1 #afef1 amended4 #edf ,translated into ,english in #afhh1 and into ,french1 under the title ,trait du ,pyrrhonisme de l'glise romaine1 by ,n4 ,chalaire1 ,amsterdam1 #agba4 #edg ,bouillier1 ,hist4 de la ,philos4 cartsienne1 #ahed1 i1 #daj sq41 #dbj sq42 ,lanson1 ,hist4 de la litt4 franaise1 #e;e dit4 p4 #cif2 ,brunetire1 tudes ,critiques1 #c;e srie1 p4 #b2 ,buckle1 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #cch4 ,bouillier notes 7i1 #dbf7 that the femmes savantes ridiculed by ,molire are ,cartesians4 #edh ,bouillier1 i1 #def2 ,lanson1 p4 #cig4 #edi ,bouillier1 i1 #daa sq4 #eej ,id4 p4 #dca sq4 #eea ,id4 p4 #dcg sq4 #eeb ,id4 pp4 #ddi-ej4 #eec ,il disait trs souvent1 said ,pascal's niece3--,je ne puis pardonner ,descartes3 il aurait bien voulu1 dans toute sa philosophie1 pouvoir se passer de ,dieu2 mais il n'a pu s'empcher de lui accorder une chiquenade1 pour mettre le monde en mouvement2 aprs cela il n'a plus que faire de ,dieu4 ,rcit de ,marguerite ,perier 7,de ce que j'ai ou dire par ,m4 ,pascal1 mon oncle71 rep4 with ,penses1 ed4 #ahec4 pp4 #ch-ci4 #eed ,bouillier1 p4 #dec4 #eee ,id4 p4 #dee sq4 #eef ,see ,bouillier1 i1 #dfj sq42 ii1 #cgc sq42 and introd4 to ,o,euvres philos4 du ,pre ,buffier1 #ahdf1 p4 #d2 and cp4 ,rambaud1 ,hist4 de la civilisation franaise1 #f;e dit4 ii1 #ccf4 #eeg ,bouillier1 i1 #dfe4 #eeh ,perrens1 pp4 #hd-he4 #eei ,cp4 ,perrens1 pp4 #fh-fi1 and refs4 #efj ,cp4 ,strowski1 ,de ,montaigne ,pascal1 p4 #ada4 #efa ,see ,duvernet1 ,vie de ,voltaire1 ch4 i1 and note #a2 and ,perrens1 pp4 #gd-hj4 #efb ,for all that is known of ,petit see the ,avertissement to ,bibliophile ,jacob's edition of ,paris ridicule et burlesque au #ag;ime sicle1 and refs4 in ,perrens1 p4 #aec4 ,after ,petit's death1 his friend ,du ,pelletier defended him as being a deist2 but he seems in his youthful writings to have blasphemed at large1 and he had been guilty of assassinating a young monk4 ,he was burned1 however1 for blaspheming the ,virgin4 #efc ,guizot1 ,corneille et son temps1 ed4 #ahhj1 p4 #bjj4 ,the circle of the ,htel ,rambouillet were especially hostile4 ,cp4 ,palissot's note to ,polyeucte1 end4 ,on the other hand1 ,corneille found it prudent to cancel four skeptical lines which he had originally put in the mouth of the pagan ,severus1 the sage of the piece4 ,perrens1 ,les ,libertins1 p4 #adj4 #efd ,under whom he studied in his youth with a number of other notably independent spirits1 among them ,cyrano de ,bergerac4 ,see ,sainte-,beuve's essay on ,molire1 prefixed to the ,hachette edition4 ,molire held by ,gassendi as against ,descartes4 ,bouillier1 i1 #edb sq4 #efe ,constant ,coquelin1 art4 ,don ,juan in the ,international ,review1 ,september1 #aijc1 p4 #fa--;an acute and scholarly study4 #eff ,molire is a freethinker to the marrow of his bones 7,perrens1 p4 #bhj74 ,cp4 ,lanson1 p4 #ebj2 ,fournier1 tudes sur ,molire1 #ahhe1 pp4 #abb-bc2 ,soury1 ,brv4 de l'hist4 du matr4 p4 #chd4 ,ginguen1 writes ,sainte-,beuve1 a publi une brochure pour montrer ,rabelais prcurseur de la rvolution franaise3 c'toit inutile prouver sur ,molire 7essay cited74 #efg ,act ,,ii1 sc4 iv4 in ,o,euvres ,comiques1 etc41 ed4 ,jacob1 rep4 by ,garnier1 pp4 #dbf-bg4 #efh ,see ,jacob's note in loc41 ed4 cited1 p4 #dee4 #efi ,e4g4 his ,lettre contre un ,pdant 7,no4 #ac of the ,lettres ,satiriques in ed4 cited1 p4 #aha71 which1 however1 appears to have been mutilated in some editions2 as one of the deistic sentences cited by ,m4 ,perrens1 p4 #bdg1 does not appear in the reprint of ,bibliophile ,jacob4 #egj ,e4g4 the ,histoire des ,oiseaux in the ,histoire ,comique des tats et empires du ,soleil1 ed4 ,jacob 7,garnier71 p4 #bgh2 and the ,fragment de ,physique 7same vol474 #ega ,see the careful criticism of ,perrens1 pp4 #bdh-ej4 #egb ,bibliophile ,jacob1 pref4 to ed4 cited1 pp4 i-ii4 #egc ,perrens1 p4 #cjb4 ,compare ,bossuet's earlier sermon for the ,second ,sunday of ,advent1 #affe1 cited by ,perrens1 pp4 #bec-ed1 where he speaks with something like fury of the free discussion around him4 #egd ,cousin plausibly argues that ,pascal began writing ,penses under the influence of a practice set up in her circle by ,madame de ,sabl4 ,mme4 de ,sabl1 #e;e dit4 p4 #abd sq4 #ege ,it is to be remembered that the work as published contained matter not ,pascal's4 ,cp4 ,brunetire1 tudes1 iii1 #df-dg2 and the editions of the ,penses by ,faugre and ,havet4 #egf ,as to some of these see ,perrens1 pp4 #aeh-fi4 ,they included the great ,cond and some of the women in his circle2 all of them unserious in their skepticism1 and all converted when the physique gave the required cue4 #egg ,penses1 ed4 ,faugre1 ii1 #afh-fi4 ,the abtira comes from ,montaigne4 #egh ,thus ,mr4 ,owen treats ,pascal as a skeptic1 which philosophically he was1 insofar as he really philosophized and did not merely catch at pleas for his emotional beliefs4 ,les ,penses de ,pascal1 writes ,prof4 ,le ,dantec1 sont mon avis le livre le plus capable de renforcer l'athisme chez un athe 7,l',athisme1 #aijf1 pp4 #bd-be74 ,they have in fact always had that effect4 #egi ,de la ,delicatesse1 #afga1 dial4 v1 p4 #cbi1 etc4 #ehj ,vinet1 tudes sur ,blaise ,pascal1 #c;e dit4 p4 #bfg sq4 #eha ,cp4 the loge de ,pascal by ,bordas ,demoulin in ,didot ed4 of the ,lettres1 #ahed1 pp4 xxii-xxiii1 and cit4 from ,saint-,beuve4 ,mark ,pattison1 it seems1 held that the ,jesuits had the best of the argument4 ,see the ,letters of ,lord ,acton to ,mary ,gladstone1 #aijd1 p4 #bjg4 ,as regards the effect of ,jansenism on belief1 we find ,de ,tocqueville pronouncing that ,le ,jansenisme ouvrit 444 la brche par laquelle la philosophie du #ah;e sicle devait faire irruption 7,hist4 philos4 du rgne de ,louis ,,xv1 #ahdi1 i1 #b74 ,this could truly be said of ,pascal4 #ehb ,cp4 ,voltaire's letter of #agfh1 cited by ,morley1 ,voltaire1 #dth ed4 p4 #aei4 #ehc ,cp4 ,owen1 ,french ,skeptics1 pp4 #gfb-fc1 #gfg4 #ehd ,this was expressly urged against ,huet by ,arnauld4 ,see the ,notice in ,jourdain's ed4 of the ,logique de ,port ,royal1 #ahed1 p4 xi2 ,perrens1 ,les ,libertins1 p4 #cja2 and ,bouillier ,hist4 de la philos4 cartsienne1 #ahed1 i1 #eie-if1 where are cited the letters of ,arnauld 7,nos4 #hcj1 #hcd1 and #hcg in ,o,euvres ,compl4 iii1 #cif1 #djd1 #dbd7 denouncing ,huet's ,pyrrhonism as impious and perfectly adapted to the purposes of the freethinkers4 #ehe ,cp4 ,alexandre ,westphal1 ,les ,sources du ,pentateuque1 i 7#ahhh71 pp4 #fd-fh4 #ehf ,huet himself incurred a charge of temerity in his handling of textual questions4 ,id4 p4 #ff4 #ehg ,pattison1 ,essays1 #ahhi1 i4 #cjc-cjd4 #ehh ,pattison1 as cited4 #ehi ,after all1 a book the ,bible cannot make a stand against the wild1 living intellect of man4 ,newman1 ,apologia pro ,vita ,sua1 #ast ed4 p4 #chb2 ed4 #ahge1 p4 #bde4 ,the same is said by ,newman of religion in general 7p4 #bdc74 #eij ,pattison disparages it as colourless1 a fault he charges on ,jesuit ,latin in general4 ,but by most moderns the ,latin style of ,huet will be found pure and pleasant4 #eia ,pattison1 ,essays1 i1 #bii4 ,cp4 ,bouillier1 i1 #eie4 #eib ,fontenelle1 loge sur ,rgis2 ,bouillier1 ,philos4 carts41 i1 #ejg4 #eic ,rponse to ,huet's ,censura philosophi cartes41 #afia2 ,bouillier1 i1 #eae4 #eid ,usage de la raison et de la foi1 #agjd1 liv4 i1 ptie4 i1 ch4 vii2 ,bouillier1 p4 #eaa4 #eie ,bouillier1 i1 #eba-be4 #eif ,lettre de #aj aot1 #afgg1 ,no4 #eia1 d4 ,nodier4 #eig ,bouillier1 ii1 #aj4 #eih ,mditations chrtiennes1 ix1 #ac4 #eii ,entretiens mtaphysiques1 viii4 #fjj ,id4 viii1 ix4 #fja ,bouillier1 ii1 #cc4 ,so ,kuno ,fischer3 ,in brief1 ,malebranche's doctrine1 rightly understood1 is ,spinoza's 7,descartes and his ,school1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahij1 p4 #ehi4 ,cp4 p4 #edb74 #fjb ,the work of ,arnauld was reprinted in #agbd with a remarkable ,approbation by ,clavel1 in which he eulogizes the style and the dialectic of ,arnauld1 and expresses the hope that the book may gurir1 s'il se peut1 d'une trange proccupation et d'une excessive confiance1 ceux qui enseignent ou soutiennent comme evident ce qu'il y a de plus dangereux dans la nouvelle philosophie non-obstant les dfenses faites par le feu ,roi ,louis ,,xiv l',universit d',angers en l'anne #afge et l',universit de ,paris aux annes #afia et #agjd de le laisser enseigner ou soutenir4 #fjc ,des vrayes et des fausses ides1 ch4 xxviii4 #fjd ,recherche de la ,vrit1 liv4 vi1 ptie4 ii1 ch4 iii4 #fje ,this was the main theme of the finished loge of ,fontenelle1 and was acknowledged by ,bayle1 ,daguesseau1 ,arnauld1 ,bossuet1 ,voltaire1 and ,diderot1 none of whom agreed with him4 ,bouillier1 ii1 #ai4 ,fontenelle opposed ,malebranche's philosophy in his ,doutes sur le systme physique des causes occasionelles4 ,id4 p4 #ege4 #fjf ,cp4 ,bouillier1 ii1 #bfj-fa4 #fjg ,he is not mentioned by ,ueberweg1 ,lange1 or ,lewes4 ,his importance in sthetics1 however1 is recognized by some moderns1 though he is not named in ,mr4 ,bosanquet's ,history of sthetic4 #fjh ,trait des premires vrits1 #agbd1 #eba-ca4 #fji ,bouillier1 introd4 to ,buffier's ,o,euvres philosophiques1 #ahdf1 p4 xiii4 #faj ,remarques sur les principes de la metaphysique de ,locke1 passages cited by ,bouillier4 #faa ,o,euvres1 d4 ,bouillier1 p4 #cbi4 #fab ,cp4 ,bouillier1 ,hist4 de la philos4 carts41 ii1 #cia4 #fac ,malebranche1 ,trait de ,morale1 liv4 ii1 ch4 #aj4 ,cp4 ,bouillier1 i1 #ehb1 #ehh-ij2 ii1 #bc4 #fad ,cp4 ,westphal1 ,les ,sources du ,pentateuque1 #ahhh1 i1 #fg sq4 #fae ,pradamit1 sive ,exercitatio super versibus #ab1 #ac1 #ad cap4 #e1 ,epist4 ,d4 ,pauli ad ,romanos1 ,quibus inducuntur ,primi ,homines ante ,adamum conditi4 ,the notion of a pre-,adamite human race1 as we saw1 had been held by ,bruno4 7,above1 p4 #df47 #faf ,my copies of the ,pradamit and ,systema bear no place-imprint1 but simply ,anno ,salutis ,,mdclv4 ,both books seem to have been at once reprinted in #abmo4 #fag ,bayle1 ,dictionnaire1 art4 ,peyrere4 ,a correspondent of ,bayle's concludes his account of le ,pradamite thus3 ,le ,pereire toit le meilleur homme du monde1 le plus doux1 et qui tranquillement croyoit fort peu de chose4 ,there is a satirical account of him in the ,lettres de ,gui ,patin1 ,april #e1afeh 7,no4 #ded1 ed4 ,reveill-,parise1 #ahdf1 iii1 #hc71 cited by ,bayle4 #fah ,see the account of his book by ,mr4 ,lecky1 ,rationalism in ,europe1 i1 #bie-ig4 ,rejecting as he did the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch1 he ranks with ,hobbes and ,spinoza among the pioneers of true criticism4 ,indeed1 as his book seems to have been in ,,ms4 in #afde1 he may precede ,hobbes4 ,patin had heard of ,peyrre's ,pradamit as ready for printing in #afdc4 ,let4 #afi1 ed4 cited1 i1 #big4 #fai ,kuno ,fischer1 ,descartes and his ,school1 pp4 #bed-fh4 #fbj ,colerus 7i4e41 ,khler71 ,vie de ,spinoza1 in ,gfrrer's ed4 of the ,opera1 pp4 xlv-xlvii4 #fba ,cited by ,george ,sinclar in pref4 to ,satan's ,invisible ,world ,discovered1 #afhe1rep4 #ahga4 ,i have been unable to meet with a copy of ,mastricht's book4 #fbb ,novitates ,cartesian multis parasangas superunt ,arminianas4 #fbc ,nichols1 ,works of ,arminius1 #ahbd1 i1 #beg b 7paging partly duplicated74 #fbd ,cp4 ,bouillier1 i1 #bic-id4 #fbe ,colerus1 ,vie de ,spinoza1 in ,gfrrer's ed4 of ,opera1 p4 xxv2 ,martineau1 ,study of ,spinoza1 #ahhb1 pp4 #bj-bb2 ,pollock1 ,spinoza1 #bnd ed4 #ahii1 pp4 #aj-ad4 #fbf ,as set forth by ,joel1 ,beitrge zur ,gesch4 der ,philos41 ,breslau1 #ahgf4 ,see citations in ,land's note to his lecture in ,spinoza3 ,four ,essays1 #ahhb1 pp4 #ea-ec4 #fbg ,land1 ,in ,memory of ,spinoza1 in ,spinoza3 ,four ,essays1 pp4 #eg-eh2 ,sigwart1 as there cited2 ,pollock1 ,spinoza1 p4 #ab4 ,cp4 however1 ,martineau1 p4 #aja1 note4 #fbh ,renati ,des ,cartes ,princip4 ,philos4 more geometrico demonstrat1 #affc4 #fbi ,cp4 ,martineau1 pp4 #df1 #eg4 #fcj ,reprinted in #afgd1 without place-name1 and with the imprint of an imaginary ,hamburg publisher4 #fca ,tractatus1 c4 #ae4 #fcb ,ep4 xxiv1 to ,oldenburg4 #fcc ,epp4 lviii1 lx1 to ,boxel4 #fcd ,ep4 xxiii1 to ,oldenburg4 #fce ,ep4 xxiv4 #fcf ,ep4 xxxiv1 to ,w4 van ,bleyenberg4 #fcg ,ep4 xlvii1 to ,jellis1 ,feb4 #afga4 #fch ,ep4 xix1 #afge1 to ,oldenburg4 #fci ,spinozism is atheistic1 and has no valid ground for retaining the word ',god' 7,martineau1 p4 #cdi74 ,this estimate is systematically made good by ,prof4 ,e4 ,e4 ,powell of ,miami ,university in his ,spinoza and ,religion 7#aijf74 ,see in particular ch4 v4 ,the summing-up is that the right name for ,spinoza's philosophy is ,atheistic ,monism 7pp4 #cci-dj74 #fdj ,ethica1 pt4 i1 ,app42 pt4 ii1 end2 pt4 v1 prop4 #da1 schol4 ,cp4 the ,letters1 passim4 #fda ,the solution is1 of course1 that the attitude of the will in the forming of opinion may or may not be passionally perverse1 in the sense of being inconsistent4 ,to show that it is inconsistent may be a means of enlightening it2 and an aspersion to that effect may be medicinal4 ,spinoza might truly have said that passional perversity was at least as common on the orthodox side as on the other4 ,in any case1 he quashes his own criticism of ,bacon4 ,cp4 the author's essay on ,spinoza in ,pioneer ,humanists4 #fdb ,pt4 iv1 prop4 #fh1 schol4 #fdc ,ep4 #a2 #b ,june1 #afgd4 #fdd ,colerus1 as cited1 p4 liv4 ,cuper appears to have been genuinely anti-,spinozist1 while his opponent1 ,breitburg1 or ,bredenburg1 of ,rotterdam1 was a ,spinozist4 ,both were members of the society of ,collegiants1 a body of non-dogmatic ,christians1 which for a time was broken up through their dissensions4 ,mosheim1 #ag ,cent4 sec4 ii1 pt4 ii1 ch4 vii1 #b1 and note4 #fde ,theologisch1 ,philosophisch1 en ,historisch process voor ,god1 tegen allerley ,atheisten4 ,by ,francis ,ridder1 ,rotterdam1 #afgh4 #fdf ,l',impiti ,convaincu1 par ,pierre ,yvon1 ,amsterdam1 #afha4 ,really by the ,sieur ,nol ,aubert de ,vers4 ,this appears to have been reprinted in #afhe under the title ,l',impie convaincu1 ou ,dissertation contre ,spinosa1 ou l'on rfute les fondemens de son athisme4 #fdg ,see ,fox ,bourne's ,life of ,locke1 ii1 #bhb-hc1 as to ,locke's friendly relations with the ,remonstrants in #afhc-hi4 #fdh ,see the summary of his argument by ,alexandre ,westphal1 ,les ,sources du ,pentateuque1 #ahhh1 i1 #gh sq4 #fdi ,mosheim1 ,reid's ed4 p4 #hcf2 ,martineau1 pp4 #cbg-bh4 ,the first ,,ms4 of the treatise of ,spinoza1 ,de ,deo et ,homine1 found and published in the nineteenth century1 bore a note which showed it to have been used by a sect of ,christian ,spinozists4 ,see ,janet's ed4 #ahgh1 p4 #c4 ,they altered the text1 putting faith for opinion4 ,id4 p4 #ec1 notes4 #fej ,edwards1 ,gangrna1 as before cited4 #fea ,discourse of ,freethinking1 p4 #bh4 #feb ,colerus1 as cited1 p4 lviii4 #fec ,first ed4 ,rotterdam1 #b vols4 folio1 #afif4 #fed ,albert ,cazes1 ,pierre ,bayle1 sa vie1 ses ides1 son influence1 son oeuvre1 #aije1 pp4 #f1 #g4 #fee ,a movement of skepticism had probably been first set up in the young ,bayle by ,montaigne1 who was one of his favourite authors before his conversion 7,cazes1 p4 #e74 ,montaigne1 it will be remembered1 had been a fanatic in his youth4 ,thus three typical skeptics of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries had known what it was to be ,catholic believers4 #fef ,cp4 the essay on ,the ,skepticism of ,bayle in ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,stephen's ,hor ,sabbatic1 vol4 iii1 and the remarks of ,perrens1 ,les ,libertins1 pp4 #cca-cg4 #feg loge de ,m4 le ,cardinal ,polignac prefixed to ,bougainville's translation1 ,l',anti-,lucrce1 #agfg1 i1 #ada4 ,bayle's quoted words are3 ,oui1 monsieur1 je suis bon ,protestant1 et dans toute la force du mot2 car au fond de mon me je proteste contre tout ce qui se dit et tout ce qui se fait4 #feh ,cp4 the testimony of ,bonet-,maury1 ,histoire de la libert de conscience en ,france1 #aijj1 p4 #ee4 ,besides the writings above cited1 note1 in the ,dictionnaire1 art4 ,mahomet1 ix2 art4 ,conecte2 art4 ,simonide1 notes ,h and ,g2 art4 ,sponde1 note ,c4 #fei ,commentaire philosophique sur la parabole3 ,contrains-les d'entrer1 #b;e ptie1 vi4 ,cp4 the ,critique gnrale de l'histoire du ,calvinisme du ,pre ,maimbourg1 passim4 #ffj ,see pref4 to ,eng4 tr4 of ,hotman's ,franco-,gallia1 #agaa4 #ffa ,rep4 at ,amsterdam1 #aghh1 under the title1 ,voeux d'un ,patriote4 ,jurieu's authorship is not certain4 ,cp4 ,ch4 ,nodier1 ,mlanges tirs d'une petite bibliothque1 #ahbi1 p4 #ceg4 ,but it is more likely than the alternative ascription to ,le ,vassor4 ,the book made such a sensation that the police of ,louis ,,xiv destroyed every copy they could find2 and in #aggb the ,chancelier ,maupeou was said to have paid #ejj livres for a copy at auction over the ,duc d',orlans4 #ffb ,ed4 #agff1 p4 #g4 #ffc ,the ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus had been translated into ,french in #afgh by ,saint-,glain1 a ,protestant1 who gave it no fewer than three other titles in succession to evade prosecution4 7,note to ,colerus in ,gfrrer's ed4 of ,spinoza1 p4 xlix47 ,in addition to the work of ,aubert de ,vers1 above mentioned1 replies were published by ,simon1 ,de la ,motte 7minister of the ,savoy ,chapel1 ,london71 ,lami1 a ,benedictine1 and others4 ,their spirit may be divined from ,lami's title1 ,nouvel athisme renvers1 #agjf4 #ffd ,tom4 ,i4 ii1 ch4 ix 7ed4 #ahfd1 i1 #acd4 #agg74 #ffe ,the destruction of ,protestant liberties was not the work of the single ,act of ,revocation4 ,it had begun in detail as early as #affc4 ,from the withholding of court favour it proceeded to subsidies for conversions1 and thence to a graduated series of invasions of ,protestant rights1 so that the formal ,revocation was only the violent consummation of a process4 ,see the recital in ,bonet-,maury1 ,histoire de la libert de conscience en ,france1 #aijj1 pp4 #df-eb4 #fff ,as to the loss to ,french industry see ,bonet-,maury1 as cited1 p4 #ei1 and refs4 #ffg ,see ,duruy1 ,hist4 de la ,france1 ii1 #bec2 ,bonet-,maury1 as cited1 pp4 #ec-ff4 #ffh ,as to whose attitude at this crisis see ,o4 ,douen1 ,l',intolrance de ,fnelon1 #ahhj4 #ffi ,lanson1 ,hist4 de la litt4 franaise1 p4 #fbg4 #fgj ,id ib4 ,cp4 ,demogeot1 p4 #dfh4 #fga ,not printed till #agdc1 in the ,nouvelles liberts de penser2 and still read in ,,ms4 by ,grimm in #aged4 ,fontenelle was also credited with a heretical letter on the resurrection1 and an essay on the ,infinite1 pointing to disbelief4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that he stands for deism in his essay1 ,de l'existence de ,dieu1 which is a guarded application of the design argument against what was then assumed to be the only alternative--the fortuitous concourse of atoms4 #fgb ,but ,voltaire and he were not at one4 ,he is the nain de ,saturne in ,micromgas4 #fgc ,b4 #afac2 d4 #agjc4 ,a man who lived to ninety can have been no great debauchee4 #fgd ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 p4 #agb4 #fge ,cp4 ,gidel1 tude prefixed to ,o,euvres ,choisies de ,saint-,evremond1 ed4 ,garnier1 pp4 #fd-fi4 #fgf ,caractres 7#afhg71 ch4 xvi3 ,les ,esprits ,forts4 #fgg ,is embarrassed in the first edition4 #fgh ,des ouvrages de l'esprit1 near end4 #fe in ed4 ,walckenaer1 p4 #agf4 #fgi ,m4 ,le ,vassor1 ,de la vritable religion1 #afhh1 prf4 ,le ,vassor speaks in the same preface of this multitude of libertins and of unbelievers which now terrifies us4 ,his book seeks to vindicate the ,mosaic authorship of the ,pentateuch1 inspiration1 prophecies1 and miracles1 against ,spinoza1 ,le ,clerc1 and others4 #fhj ,cp4 ,huet1 ,huetiana1 #a4 #fha ,the question is discussed in the author's ,buckle and his ,critics1 pp4 #cbd-db1 and ed4 of ,buckle's ,introduction4 ,buckle's view1 however1 was held by ,huet1 ,huetiana1 #gc4 #fhb ,cp4 ,perrens1 pp4 #caj-ad4 #fhc ,letter of the ,duchesse d',orlans1 cited by ,rocquain1 ,l',esprit rvolutionnaire avant la rvolution1 #ahgh1 p4 #c1 note4 #fhd ,as ,voltaire noted1 ,toland was persecuted in ,ireland for his circumspect and cautious first book1 and left unmolested in ,england when he grew much more aggressive4 #fhe ,first ed4 anonymous4 ,second ed41 of same year1 gives author's name4 ,another ed4 in #agjb4 #fhf ,see ,dynamics of ,religion1 p4 #abi4 #fhg ,pref4 to #bnd ed4 pp4 vi1 viii1 xxiv1 xxvi4 #fhh ,as late as #agja a vote for its prosecution was passed in the ,lower ,house of ,convocation4 ,farrar1 ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,freethought1 p4 #ahj4 #fhi ,molyneux1 in ,familiar ,letters of ,locke1 etc4 p4 #bbh4 #fij ,no credit for this is given in ,sir ,leslie ,stephen's notice of ,toland in ,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth ,century1 i1 #aja-ab4 ,compare the estimate of ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i1 #bgb-gf 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #cbd-cj74 ,lange perhaps idealizes his subject somewhat4 #fia ,in two letters published along with the ,letters to ,serena1 #agjd4 #fib ,letters to ,serena1 etc4 #agjd1 pref4 #fic ,de ,principiis atque ,originibus 7,routledge's #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #fea1 #ffg74 #fid ,letters to ,serena1 pp4 #ai1 #fg4 #fie ,sir ,henry ,craik 7cited by ,temple ,scott1 ,bohn ed4 of ,swift's ,works1 iii1 #i7 speaks of ,toland as a man of utterly worthless character4 ,this is mere malignant abuse4 ,toland is described by ,pope in a note to the ,dunciad 7ii1 #cii7 as a spy to ,lord ,oxford4 ,there could hardly be a worse authority for such a charge4 #fif ,gostwick1 ,german ,culture and ,christianity1 #ahhb1 p4 #bf4 #fig ,cp4 ,stephen1 as cited1 p4 #aae4 #fih ,the ,christianity of many writers consisted simply in expressing deist opinions in the old-fashioned phraseology 7,stephen1 i1 #ia74 #fii ,cp4 ,pnjer1 ,christ4 ,philos4 of ,religion1 i1 #bhi-ij2 and ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #id-ih4 ,lord ,morley's reference to the godless deism of the ,english school 7,voltaire1 #dth ed4 p4 #fi7 is puzzling4 ,cp4 ,rosenkranz 7,diderot's ,leben und ,werke1 #ahff1 ii1 #dba7 on den ungttlichen ,gott der ,jesuiten and ,jansenisten1 dies monstrse ,zerrbild des alten ,jehovah1 diesen apotheosirten ,tyrannen1 diesen ,moloch4 ,the latter application of the term seems the more plausible4 #gjj ,macaulay's description of ,blount as an atheist is therefore doubly unwarranted4 #gja ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #id-ih4 #gjb ,continuation des ,penses ,diverses 444 l'occasion de la ,comte 444 de #afhj1 ,amsterdam1 #agje1 i1 #ia4 #gjc ,warburton1 ,divine ,legation1 vol4 ii1 preface4 #gjd ,stephen1 ,english ,thought1 i1 #aad-ah4 #gje ,this1 according to ,john ,craig1 was ,newton's opinion4 ,the reason of his ,newton's showing the errors of ,cartes's philosophy was because he thought it made on purpose to be the foundation of infidelity4 ,letter to ,conduitt1 ,april #g1 #agbg1 in ,brewster's ,memoirs of ,newton1 ii1 #cae4 ,clarke1 in his ,answer to ,butler's ,fifth ,letter1 expresses a similar view4 #gjf ,three ,discourses of ,happiness1 ,virtue1 and ,liberty1 ,collected from the ,works of the ,learn'd ,gassendi by ,monsieur ,bernier4 ,translated out of the ,french1 #afii4 #gjg ,cp4 ,w4 ,sichel1 ,bolingbroke and ,his ,times1 #aija1 i1 #age4 #gjh ,sir ,leslie ,stephen 7i1 #cc7 makes the surprising statement that a dogmatic assertion of free-will became a mark of the whole deist and semi-deist school4 ,on the contrary1 ,hobbes and ,anthony ,collins1 not to speak of ,locke1 wrote with uncommon power against the conception of free-will1 and had many disciples on that head4 #gji ,letter to the ,princess of ,wales1 ,november1 #agae1 in ,brewster1 ii1 #bhd-he4 #gaj ,second ,letter to ,clarke1 par4 #a4 #gaa ,abstract from the ,works of ,john ,hutchinson1 #agee1 pp4 #adi-fc4 #gab ,clarke's ,answer to ,leibnitz's ,first ,letter1 end4 #gac ,berkeley1 ,defence of ,freethinking in ,mathematics1 par4 vii2 and ,stock's ,memoir of ,berkeley4 ,cp4 ,brewster1 ,memoirs of ,newton1 ii1 #djh4 #gad ,in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #agah1 ,no4 #cee1 i1 v1 vi4 #gae ,brewster1 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 #ahed1 p4 #aaj4 #gaf ,lecky1 ,hist4 of ,england in the ,eighteenth ,cent4 ed4 #ahib1 iii1 #bb-bd4 #gag ,the tradition of ,saunderson's unbelief is constant4 ,in the memoir prefixed to his ,elements of ,algebra 7#agdj7 no word is said of his creed1 though at death he received the sacrament4 #gah ,see ,the ,state of the ,process depending against ,mr4 ,john ,simson1 ,edinburgh1 #agbh4 ,simson always expressed himself piously1 but had thrown out such expressions as ,ratio est principium et fundamentum theologi1 which contravened the ,act of ,assembly1 #agag 7vol4 cited1 p4 #caf74 ,the process against him began in #agad1 and dragged on for nearly twenty years1 with the result of his resigning his professorship of theology at ,glasgow in #agbi1 and seceding from the ,associate ,presbytery in #agcc4 ,burton1 ,history of ,scotland1 viii1 #cii-djj4 #gai ,cp4 the pamphlet by ,a ,presbyter of the ,church of ,england1 attributed to ,bishop ,hare1 cited in ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #agg-gh1 and by ,lecky1 iii1 #be4 #gbj ,tatler1 ,nos4 #ab1 #aaa1 #ace2 ,spectator1 ,nos4 #bca1 #cha1 #chi1 #eii2 ,guardian1 ,nos4 #c1 #i1 #bg1 #ce1 #ci1 #ee1 #fb1 #gj1 #gg1 #hc1 #hh1 #abj1 #acj1 #afi4 ,most of the ,guardian papers cited are by ,berkeley4 ,they are extremely virulent2 but ,steele's run them hard4 #gba ,analyst1 ,queries #fj and #fb3 ,defence of ,freethinking in ,mathematics1 #e1 #f1 #ej4 ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #ada-db4 #gbb ,letter in ,de ,morgan's ,newton3 his ,friend3 and his ,niece1 #ahhe1 p4 #fi4 #gbc ,the essays in the ,characteristics 7excepting the ,inquiry ,concerning ,virtue and ,merit1 which was published by ,toland1 without permission1 in #afii7 appeared between #agjh and #agaa1 being collected in the latter year4 ,shaftesbury died in #agac1 in which year appeared his paper on ,the ,judgment of ,hercules4 #gbd ,a ,project for the ,advancement of ,religion4 ,bohn ed4 of ,works1 iii1 #dd4 ,in this paper ,swift reveals his moral standards by the avowal 7p4 #dj7 that hypocrisy is much more eligible than open infidelity and vice3 it wears the livery of religion 444 and is cautious of giving scandal4 #gbe ,sir ,leslie ,stephen 7,english ,thought1 i1 #bhc7 speaks of ,dodwell's thesis as deserving only pity or contempt4 ,cp4 ,macaulay1 ,student's ed4 ii1 #ajg-ajh4 ,but a doctrine of conditional immortality had been explicitly put by ,locke in his ,reasonableness of ,christianity1 #afie1 p4 #ac4 ,cp4 ,prof4 ,fraser's ,locke1 #ahij1 pp4 #bei-fj1 and ,fox ,bourne's ,life of ,locke1 ii1 #bhg4 ,the difference was that ,dodwell elaborately gave his reasons1 which1 as ,dr4 ,clarke put it1 made all good men sorry1 and all profane men rejoice4 #gbf ,history of his ,own ,time1 ed4 #ahch1 p4 #hhg4 #gbg ,compare his ironical ,argument ,against ,abolishing ,christianity1 #agjh4 #gbh ,he had1 however1 hailed the anonymous ,letter ,concerning ,enthusiasm as very well writ1 believing it to be by a friend of his own--7,robert ,hunter1 to whom1 accordingly1 it has since been mistakenly attributed by various bibliographers1 including ,barbier74 ,enthusiasm1 as meaning popular fanaticism1 was of course as repellent to a ,churchman as to the deists4 #gbi ,printed in folio #agaa4 ,rep4 in vol4 xi of the ,harleian ,miscellany1 p4 #afh sq4 7#bnd ed4 p4 #afc sq474 #gcj ,dr4 ,e4 ,synge1 of ,dublin 7afterwards ,archbishop of ,tuam71 in his ,religion ,tryed by the ,test of ,sober and ,impartial ,reason1 published in #agac1 seems to be writing before the issue of ,collins's book when he says 7,dedication1 p4 #aa7 that the spread of the disease not only of ,heterodoxy but of ,infidelity is too plain to be either denied or dissembled4 #gca ,leslie affirms in his ,truth of ,christianity ,demonstrated 7#agaa1 p4 #ad7 that the satirical ,detection of his ,short ,method with the ,deists1 to which the ,truth is a reply1 was by the author of ,priestcraft in ,perfection2 but1 while the ,detection has some of ,collins's humour1 it lacks his amenity1 and is evidently not by him4 #gcb ,an ,english translation of the ,dictionary1 in #e vols4 folio1 with many passages restored1 appeared in #agcd4 #gcc ,a ,collection of ,several ,pieces of ,mr4 ,john ,locke1 #agbj1 p4 #bga4 #gcd ,e4g4 ,mark ,pattison1 who calls ,collins's book of #agh pages a small tract4 #gce ,ignorance1 ,collins writes1 is the foundation of ,atheism1 and ,freethinking the cure of it 7,discourse of ,freethinking1 p4 #aje74 ,like ,newton1 he contemplated only an impossible atheism1 never formulated by any writer4 ,the ,philosophical ,principles of ,religion1 ,natural and ,reveal'd1 of ,dr4 ,george ,cheyne 7#agje1 #bnd ed4 #agae71 similarly declares 7pref4 end7 that if the modern i4e4 ,newtonian philosophy demonstrates nothing else1 yet it infallibly proves ,atheism to be the most gross ignorance4 ,thus the vindicator of religion was writing in the key of the deist4 #gcf ,mr4 ,temple ,scott1 in his ,bohn ed4 of ,swift's ,works 7iii1 #aff71 asserts that ,swift's satire frightened ,collins into ,holland4 ,for this statement there is no evidence whatever1 and as it stands it is unintelligible4 ,the assertion that ,collins had had to fly to ,holland in #agaa 7,dr4 ,conybeare1 ,hist4 of ,n4 ,t4 ,crit4 ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 #aiaj1 p4 #ch7 is also astray4 #gcg ,second ed4 #agag4 ,another writer1 ,william ,lyons1 was on the same track1 publishing ,the ,infallibility of ,human ,judgment1 its ,dignity and ,excellence 7#bnd ed4 #agbj71 and ,a ,discourse of the ,necessity of ,human ,actions 7#agcj74 #gch ,work cited1 p4 #ac4 #gci ,as to whose positions see a paper in the writer's ,pioneer ,humanists1 #aijg4 #gdj ,there were six separate ,discourses4 ,voltaire speaks of three editions coup sur coup of ten thousand each 7,lettre sur les auteurs ,anglais--in ,o,euvres1 ed4 #agib4 lxviii1 #cei74 ,this seems extremely unlikely as to any one ,discourse2 and even #e1jjj copies of each ,discourse is a hardly credible sale1 though the writer of the sketch of his life 7#agcc7 says that the sale of ,mr4 ,woolston's works was very great4 ,in any case1 ,woolston's ,discourses are now seldomer met with than ,collins's ,discourse of ,freethinking4 ,alberti 7,briefe betreffend den ,zustand der ,religion in ,gross-,brittannien7 wrote in #ageb that the ,discourses were even in that day somewhat rare1 and seldom found together4 ,many copies were probably destroyed by the orthodox1 and many would doubtless be thrown away1 as tracts so often are4 #gda ,tyerman's ,life of ,wesley1 ed4 #ahga1 i1 #fe-ff4 #gdb ,the ,infidel ,convicted1 #agca1 pp4 #cc1 #fb4 #gdc ,tindal 7#afec-agcc7 was the son of a clergyman1 and in #afgh was elected a ,fellow of ,all ,souls1 ,oxford4 ,from #afhe to #afhh he was a ,roman ,catholic4 ,under ,william ,,iii he wrote three works on points of political freedom--one1 #afih1 on ,the ,liberty of the ,press4 ,his ,rights of the ,christian ,church1 anonymously published in #agjf1 a defence of ,erastianism1 made a great sensation1 and was prosecuted--only to be reprinted4 ,his later ,defence of the ,rights of the ,christian ,church was in #agaj1 by order of the ,house of ,commons1 burned by the common hangman4 #gdd ,middleton's ,works1 #bnd ed4 #agee1 iii1 #ej-ef4 #gde ,tindal 7,voltaire tells7 regarded ,pope as devoid of genius and imagination1 and so trebly earned his place in the ,dunciad4 #gdf ,a ,layman's ,faith4444 ,by a ,freethinker and a ,christian1 #agcb4 #gdg ,title-page of ,rev4 ,elisha ,smith's ,cure of ,deism1 #ast ed4 #agcf2 #crd ed4 #agdj4 #gdh ,le ,moine1 ,dissertation historique sur les crits de ,woolston1 sa condemnation1 etc4 pp4 #bi-ca1 cited by ,salchi1 ,lettres sur le ,disme1 #agei1 p4 #fg sq4 #gdi ,lettre sur les auteurs ,anglais1 as cited4 ,voltaire tells that1 when a she-bigot one day spat in ,woolston's face1 he calmly remarked3 ,it was so that the ,jews treated your ,god4 ,another story reads like a carefully-improved version of the foregoing4 ,a woman is said to have accosted him as a scoundrel1 and asked him why he was not yet hanged4 ,on his asking her grounds for such an accost1 she replied3 ,you have writ against my ,saviour4 ,what would become of my poor sinful soul if it was not for my dear ,saviour--my ,saviour who died for such wicked sinners as ,i am4 ,life of ,mr4 ,woolston1 prefixed to a reprint of his collected ,discourses1 #agcc1 p4 #bg4 ,cp4 ,salchi1 p4 #gh4 #gej ,life cited1 pp4 #bb1 #bf1 #bi4 #gea ,an ,historical ,defence of the ,trustees of ,lady ,hewley's ,foundations1 by the ,rev4 ,joseph ,hunter1 #ahcd1 pp4 #ag1 #ce2 ,the ,history1 ,opinions1 and present legal position of the ,english ,presbyterians1 #ahcd1 pp4 #ah1 #bi2 ,skeats1 ,history of the ,free ,churches of ,england1 ed4 ,miall1 p4 #bdj4 #geb ,hunter1 as cited1 p4 #ag2 ,history of the ,presbyterians1 as cited1 p4 #ai2 ,fletcher1 ,history of ,independency1 #ahfb1 iv1 #bff-fg4 #gec ,hunter1 pp4 #cg1 #ci4 #ged ,skeats1 as cited1 p4 #bbf4 #gee ,hunter1 pp4 #bd-be4 #gef ,skeats 7pp4#bci-dj7 sums up that while the ,baptists had probably never been entirely free from the taint of ,unitarianism1 the ,particular ,baptists and the ,congregationalists were saved from it by their lack of men of eminently speculative mind2 while the ,presbyterians were men1 for the most part1 of larger reading than other ,nonconformists1 and the writings of ,whiston and ,clarke had found their way among them4 ,but the tendency existed before ,whiston and ,clarke4 #geg ,history1 cited1 p4 #bb2 ,hunter1 pp4 #dd-de2 ,skeats1 pp4 #bdc-dd4 #geh ,skeats1 pp4 #bdj-dc1 #bde sq4 #gei ,skeats1 p4 #bdh4 #gfj ,hunter1 p4 #ej4 #gfa ,as ,sir ,leslie ,stephen has observed 7,english ,thought1 i1 #afd71 ,chubb deserves the praise of ,malthusians4 ,having a sufficiency of means for himself1 but not more1 he lived a single life1 judging it greatly improper to introduce a family into the world without a prospect of maintaining them4 ,the proverb as to mouths and meat1 he drily observes1 had not been verified in his experience4 7,the ,author's ,account of ,himself1 pref4 to ,posthumous ,works1 #agdh1 i1 p4 iv47 #gfb ,one of the then numerous tribe of eccentrics4 ,he held by ,judaic ,sabbatarianism1 and affected a ,rabinnical costume4 ,he made a competence1 however1 as an ironmonger4 #gfc ,essay ,towards ,preventing the ,ruin of ,great ,britain4 #gfd ,discourse to ,magistrates4 #gfe ,guardian1 ,nos4 #c1 #ee1 #hh4 #gff ,the ,analyst1 ,queries1 #ee-fg4 #gfg ,see above1 pp4 #abf-bh4 #gfh ,discourse of ,passive ,obedience1 #bf4 #gfi ,works1 ed4 #ahcg1 p4 #ceb4 #ggj ,see the whole context1 which palpitates with excitement4 #gga ,mr4 ,walter ,sichel 7,bolingbroke and his ,times1 #aija1 i1 #age7 thinks fit to dispose of her attitude as her aversion to the ,church and to everything that transcended her own faculties4 ,so far as the evidence goes1 her faculties were much superior to those of most of her orthodox contemporaries4 ,for her tone see her letters4 #ggb ,e4g4 ,dunciad1 ii1 #cii2 iii1 #bab2 iv1 #dib4 #ggc ,voltaire commented pointedly on ,pope's omission to make any reference to ,shaftesbury1 while vending his doctrine4 7,lettres ,philosophiques1 xxii47 ,as a matter of fact ,pope does in the ,dunciad 7iv1 #dhh7 refer maliciously to the ,theocles of ,shaftesbury's ,moralists as maintaining a ,lucretian theism or virtual atheism4 ,the explanation is that ,shaftesbury had sharply criticized the political course of ,bolingbroke1 who in turn ignored him as a thinker4 ,see the present writer's introd4 to ,shaftesbury's ,characteristics1 ed4 #aijj 7rep4 in ,pioneer ,humanists72 and cp4 ,w4 ,r4 ,scott1 ,francis ,hutcheson1 #aijj1 p4 #aja4 #ggd ,texte1 ,rousseau and the ,cosmopolitan ,spirit in ,literature1 ,eng4 tr4 pp4 #aag-ah4 #gge ,chesterfield in his ,characters 7app4 to the ,letters7 testifies that ,pope was a deist believing in a future state2 this he has often owned himself to me4 7,bradshaw's ed4 of ,letters1 iii1 #adaj47 ,chesterfield makes a similar statement concerning ,queen ,caroline3--,after puzzling herself in all the whimsies and fantastical speculations of different sects1 she fixed herself ultimately in ,deism1 believing in a future state4 7,id4 p4 #adjf47 #ggf ,dict4 ,philos4 art4 ,athe1 #b4 #ggg ,wise1 in his adaptation of ,cudworth1 ,a ,confutation of the ,reason and ,philosophy of ,atheism 7#agjf71 writes 7i1 #e7 that the philosophical atheists are but few in number1 and their objections so weak as that they deserve not a hearing but rather neglect2 but confusedly goes on to admit that one or two broachers of 'em maybe thought able to infect a whole nation1 as 444 sad experience tells us4 #ggh ,complaint to this effect was made by orthodox writers4 ,the ,scotch ,professor ,halyburton1 for instance1 complains that in many sermons in his day ,heathen ,morality has been substituted in the room of ,gospel ,holiness4 ,and ,ethicks by some have been preached instead of the ,gospels of ,christ4 ,natural ,religion ,insufficient 7,edinburgh71 #agad1 p4 #be4 ,cp4 pp4 #bc1 #bf-bg1 #ei1 etc4 ,bishop ,burnet1 in the ,conclusion to his ,history of his ,own ,time1 declares1 ,i must own that the main body of our clergy has always seemed dead and lifeless to me1 and ascribes much more zeal to ,catholics and dissenters4 7,ed4 #ahch1 pp4 #ijg-iaj47 #ggi ,the ,moralists deals rather with strict skepticism than with substantive atheism4 #ghj ,the ,grand ,essay3 or1 a ,vindication of ,reason and ,religion against ,impostures of ,philosophy4 ,the book was1 on ,march #ah1 #agjd1 condemned by the ,house of ,commons to be burned in ,palace ,yard1 along with its author's ,second ,thoughts ,concerning the ,human ,soul 7#agjb74 ,a second ed4 of the latter appeared soon after4 #gha ,above1 p4 #aec4 #ghb ,mr4 ,herbert ,paul1 in his essay on ,swift 7,men and ,letters1 #aija1 p4 #bfg71 lumps as deists the four writers named by ,swift in his ,argument4 ,not having read them1 he thinks fit to asperse all four as bad writers4 ,asgill1 as was noted by ,coleridge 7,table ,talk1 ,july #cj1 #ahca2 ,april #cj1 #ahcb71 was one of the best writers of his time4 ,he was1 in fact1 a master of the staccato style1 practised by ,mr4 ,paul with less success4 #ghc ,work cited1 p4 #cbd4 ,the book is now rare4 #ghd ,cp4 ,cheyne1 ,founders of ,old ,testament ,criticism1 #ahic1 p4 #b4 #ghe ,dr4 ,cheyne expresses surprise that a theological writer who got no far should not have been prompted by his good genius to follow up his advantage4 ,it is1 however1 rather remarkable that ,parvish1 who was a bookseller at ,guildford 7,alberti1 ,briefe1 p4 #dbf71 should have achieved what he did4 ,it was through not being a theological writer that he went so far1 no theologian of his day following him4 #ghf ,see the author's introduction to ed4 of the ,characteristics1 #aijj1 rep4 in ,pioneer ,humanists4 #ghg ,the question remains obscure4 ,cp4 the ,letter cited1 reprinted at end of ,carver's #ahcj ed4 of ,paine's ,works 7,new ,york72 ,f4 ,thackeray's ,life of ,chatham1 ii1 #dje2 and ,chatham's scalping-knife speech4 #ghh ,a ,vindication of the ,moral ,philosopher appeared in #agda4 #ghi ,cp4 ,lechler1 pp4 #cga1 #chf4 #gij ,cp4 ,cairns1 ,unbelief in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #ahha1 p4 #aja4 #gia ,ed4 #agda1 p4 #cj sq4 #gib ,view of the ,deistical ,writers1 ,letter ,,xi 7,x in #ast ed474 #gic ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 ,english ,thought1 i1 #afi4 #gid ,act #ith1 ,geo4 ,,ii 7#agcf71 ch4 #e4 #gie ,a ,tour in ,ireland1 ed4 #ahib1 ii1 #ei-gb4 #gif ,young at this period was entirely secular in his thinking4 ,telling of his recovery from a fever in #agij1 he writes3 ,i fear that not one thought of ,god ever occurred to me at that time 7,autobiography1 #ahih1 p4 #ahh74 ,afterwards he fell into religious melancholia 7,introd4 note of editor74 #gig ,really an abler man than half the others in the list1 but himself a good deal of a heretic4 ,so far from attempting to make victims1 he pleaded for a more candid treatment of deistic objections4 #gih ,doddridge himself was not theologically orthodox1 but was an evangelical ,christian4 ,dr4 ,stoughton1 ,religion in ,england under ,queen ,anne and the ,georges1 #ahgh1 i1 #cdd-df4 #gii ,whose doctrine ,sir ,leslie ,stephen elsewhere 7p4 #beh7 calls a brutal theology which gloried in trampling on the best instincts of its opponents1 and a most unlovely product of eighteenth-century speculation4 #hjj ,of ,warburton ,sir ,leslie writes elsewhere 7p4 #cec7 that this colossus was built up of rubbish4 ,see p4 #ceb for samples4 ,again he speaks 7p4 #cfh7 of the bishop's pretensions as colossal impudence4 ,it should be noted1 further1 that ,warburton's teaching in the ,divine ,legation was a gross heresy in the eyes of ,william ,law1 who in his ,short but ,sufficient ,confutation pronounced its main thesis a most horrible doctrine4 ,ed4 #agfh1 as cited1 i1 #bag4 #hja ,as to whose senile incompetence see same vol4 p4 #bcd4 #hjb ,history of ,protestant ,theology1 ,eng4 tr4 ii1 #gg4 ,for the influence of deism on ,germany1 see ,tholuck 7,vermischte ,schriften1 ,bd4 ii7 and ,lechler 7,gesch4 des englischen ,deismus74--,note by ,dr4 ,cheyne4 #hjc ,an ,essay towards a ,natural ,history of the ,earth1 #crd ed4 #agbc1 pref4 and pp4 #af sq41 #gg sq4 ,cp4 ,white1 ,warfare of ,science with ,theology1 i4 #bbg4 #hjd ,end of pref4 #hje ,work cited1 p4 #he4 #hjf ,playfair1 in the ,edinburgh ,review1 ,january1 #ahjh1 cited by ,brewster1 ,memoirs of ,newton1 #ahee4 i1 #cdg4 #hjg ,brewster1 as last cited4 #hjh ,grant1 ,history of ,physical ,astronomy1 #aheb1 p4 #ajh4 #hji ,baden ,powell1 ,hist4 of ,nat4 ,philos4 #ahcd1 p4 #cfc4 #haj ,brewster1 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 #ahed1 p4 #aaa4 #haa ,sir ,james ,stephen1 ,hor ,sabbatic1 ii1 #bha2 ,lechler1 p4 #dea4 #hab ,see details in ,dynamics of ,religion1 ch4 viii4 #hac ,essay on ,tendencies of ,religious ,thought in ,england3 #afhh-agej1 in ,essays and ,reviews1 #ith ed4 p4 #cjd4 #had ,in criticizing whom ,sir ,leslie ,stephen barely notices his scientific work1 but dwells much on his religious fallacies--a course which would make short work of the fame of ,newton4 #hae ,in his ,case of ,reason2 or1 ,natural ,religion ,fully and ,fairly ,stated1 in answer to ,tindal 7#agcb74 ,see the argument set forth by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 i1 #aeh-fc4 ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that in his ,spirit of ,prayer 7#agej71 pt4 ii1 dial4 i1 ,law expressly argues that ,no other religion can be right but that which has its foundation in ,nature4 ,for the ,god of ,nature can require nothing of his creatures but what the state of their nature calls them to4 ,like ,baxter1 ,berkeley1 ,butler1 and so many other orthodox polemists1 ,law uses the argument from ignorance when it suits him1 and ignores or rejects it when used by others4 #haf ,the general reader should take note that in ,a4 ,murray's issue of ,hume's ,essays 7afterwards published by ,ward1 ,lock1 and ,co471 which omits altogether the essays on ,miracles and a ,future ,state1 the ,natural ,history of ,religion is much mutilated1 though the book professes to be a verbatim reprint4 #hag ,even before his death he was suspected of that view4 ,when his coffin was being carried from his house for interment1 one of the refuse of the rabble is said to have remarked1 ,ah1 he was an atheist4 ,no matter1 replied another1 he was an honest man 7,curious ,particulars1 etc41 respecting ,chesterfield and ,hume1 #aghh1 p4 #ae74 #hah ,see ,burton1 ,hist4 of ,scotland1 viii1 #edi-ej1 as to the case of ,pitcairne4 #hai ,howell's ,state ,trials1 xiii 7#ahab71 coll4 #iag-ch4 #hbj ,macaulay1 ,history1 ch4 xxii2 student's ed4 ii1 #fbj-ba2 ,burton1 ,history of ,scotland1 viii1 #gf-gg4 ,aikenhead seems to have been a boy of unusual if unbalanced capacity1 even by the bullying account of ,macaulay1 who missed no opportunity to cover himself by stoning heretics4 ,see the boy's arguments on the bases of ethics1 set forth in his dying speech1 as cited by ,halyburton1 ,natural ,religion ,insufficient1 #agad1 pp4 #aai-bc1 #aca1 and the version in the ,state ,trials1 xiii1 #icj-cd4 #hba ,macaulay ascribes the savagery of the prosecution to the ,lord ,advocate1 ,sir ,james ,stewart1 as cruel as he was base2 but a letter printed in the ,state ,trials1 from a member of the ,privy ,council1 says the sentence would have been commuted if the ministers would intercede4 ,they1 however1 spoke and preached for cutting him off4 ,trials1 xiii1 #icj2 ,burton1 viii1 #gg4 #hbb ,letter to ,sir ,francis ,masham1 printed in the ,state ,trials1 xiii1 #ibh-bi--;evidently written by ,locke1 who seems to have preserved all the papers printed by ,howell4 #hbc ,macaulay1 as cited4 ,in #afha one ,francis ,borthwick1 who had gone abroad at the age of fourteen and turned ,jew1 was accused of blaspheming ,jesus1 and had to fly for his life1 being outlawed4 ,state ,trials1 as cited1 col4 #ici4 #hbd ,a ,full ,account of the ,several ,ends and ,uses of ,confessions of ,faith1 first published in #agai as a preface to a ,collection of ,confessions of ,faith1 by ,prof4 ,w4 ,dunbar1 of ,edinburgh ,university1 #crd ed4 #agge1 p4 #a4 #hbe ,work cited1 p4 #dh4 #hbf ,id4 p4 #aih4 #hbg ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,from the ,,mss4 of ,john ,ramsay1 of ,ochtertyre1 #ahhh1 i1 #bgg4 ,ramsay describes ,johnston as a joyous1 manly1 honourable man1 of whom ,kames was exceedingly fond 7p4 #bgh74 #hbh ,w4 ,r4 ,scott1 ,francis ,hutcheson1 #aijj1 pp4 #ae1 #bj-ba4 #hbi ,id4 p4 #eb4 #hcj ,cp4 ,alberti1 ,briefe betreffende den ,zustand der ,religion in ,gross-,brittannien1 #ageb1 pp4 #dcj-ca4 #hca ,see ,dr4 ,mc,cosh's ,scottish ,philosophy1 #ahge1 pp4 #aaa-ac4 ,dr4 ,mc,cosh notes that at some points ,dudgeon anticipated ,hume4 #hcb ,dr4 ,mc,cosh1 however1 admits that the absence of the printer's name on the #agfe edition of ,dudgeon's works shows that there was then no thorough freedom of thought in ,scotland4 #hcc ,rae1 ,life of ,adam ,smith1 #ahie1 p4 #ac4 ,prof4 ,fowler shows no knowledge of this prosecution in his monograph on ,hutcheson 7,shaftesbury and ,hutcheson1 #ahhb72 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,scott1 in his1 seems to rely for the wording of the indictment solely on ,mr4 ,rae1 who gives no references1 drawing apparently on unpublished ,,mss4 #hcd ,rae1 as cited1 pp4 #aa-ae4 #hce ,scott1 as cited1 p4 #hg4 #hcf ,dr4 ,james ,orr1 ,david ,hume and his ,influence1 etc41 #aijc4 pp4 #cf-cg4 #hcg ,also for a time a theological professor in ,edinburgh ,university4 #hch ,the ,thoughts ,concerning ,religion1 ,natural and ,revealed1 appeared in #agce2 the ,letter to a ,bishop in #agcb2 and the ,reflections on the ,sources of ,incredulity 7left unfinished7 posthumously about #agej4 ,forbes in his youth had been famed as one of the hardest drinkers of his day4 #hci ,reflections on ,incredulity1 in ,works1 undated1 ii1 #ada-db4 ,yet the works of ,forbes were translated for orthodox purposes into ,german1 and later into ,french by ,pre ,houbigant 7#agfi71 who preserves the passage on freethinkers' morals1 though curtailing the ,reflections as a whole4 #hdj ,as to which see ,a ,sober ,enquiry into the ,grounds of the ,present ,differences in the ,church of ,scotland1 #agbc4 #hda ,cockburn's ,life of ,jeffrey1 ed4 #ahgb1 p4 #aj4 #hdb ,see the ,autobiography of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,carlyle1 #ahfj1 pp4 #dib-ic4 ,millar's ,historical ,view of the ,english ,government 7censured by ,hallam7 was once much esteemed2 and his ,origin of ,ranks is still worth the attention of sociologists4 #hdc ,ritchie's ,life of ,hume1 #ahjg1 pp4 #eb-ha2 ,tytler's ,life of ,lord ,kames1 #bnd ed4 #ahad1 i1 ch4 v2 ,burton's ,life of ,hume1 i1 #dbe-cj4 #hdd ,ritchie1 as cited1 p4 #eg4 #hde ,mc,culloch1 ,life of ,smith prefixed to ed4 of ,wealth of ,nations1 ed4 #ahci1 p4 ii4 #hdf ,ramsay of ,ochtertyre1 ,scotland and ,scotsmen in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #ahhh1 i1 #dfb-fc4 ,mr4 ,rae doubts the story1 ,life of ,adam ,smith1 #ahie1 p4 #fj4 #hdg ,ramsay1 as last cited4 #hdh ,ramsay1 passage cited4 #hdi ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments1 pt4 iii1 ch4 ii1 end4 #hej ,cp4 ,rae1 pp4 #dbg-cj4 ,mr4 ,rae thinks the deletion stood for no change of opinion1 and cites ,smith's own private explanation 7,sinclair's ,life of ,sir ,john ,sinclair1 i1 #dj7 that he thought the passage unnecessary and misplaced4 ,but this expression must be read in the light of ,smith's general reticence concerning established dogmas4 ,certainly he adhered to his argument--which does not claim to be a demonstration--for the doctrine of a future state4 #hea ,bk4 v1 ch4 i1 pt4 iii1 art4 #c4 #heb ,smith's admiration for ,voltaire might alone indicate his mental attitude4 ,as to that see ,f4 ,w4 ,hirst1 ,adam ,smith 7,eng4 ,men of ,letters ser471 pp4 #abg-bh4 ,but the assertion of ,skarzinski1 that ,smith1 after being an ,idealist under the influence of ,hume1 returned a materialist from his intercourse with ,voltaire and other ,french freethinkers1 is an exhibition of learned ignorance4 ,see ,hirst1 p4 #aha4 #hec ,an ,explanation and ,defence of the ,principles of ,protestant ,dissent1 by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,drummond1 #ahdb1 pp4 #e-f4 #dg2 ,skeats1 ,hist4 of the ,free ,churches of ,england1 ed4 ,miall1 pp4 #bch-ci2 ,wallace1 ,anti-,trinitarian ,biography1 iii1 art4 #cfj4 #hed ,cp4 ,drummond1 as cited1 pp4 #bi-cj2 ,history1 ,opinions1 etc41 of the ,english ,presbyterians1 #ahcd1 p4 #bi4 #hee ,w4 ,r4 ,scott1 ,francis ,hutcheson1 p4 #ca4 #hef ,above1 p4 #aed1 note4 #heg ,scott1 pp4 #bh-bi1 #ce-cf4 ,the suggestion is not quite convincing4 ,synge1 after becoming ,archbishop of ,tuam1 continued to publish his propagandist tracts1 among them ,an ,essay towards making the ,knowledge of ,religion ,easy to the ,meanest ,capacity 7#fth ed4 #agcd71 which is quite orthodox1 and which argues 7p4 #c7 that the doctrine of the ,trinity is to be believed1 and not pried into1 because it is above our understanding to comprehend4 ,all the while there was being sold also his early treatise1 ,a ,gentleman's ,religion3 in ,three ,parts 444 with an ,appendix1 wherein it is proved that nothing contrary to our ,reason can possibly be the object of our belief1 but that it is no just exception against some of the doctrines of ,christianity that they are above our reason4 #heh ,scott1 p4 #cf4 #hei ,all that is told of this prelate by ,lecky 7,hist4 of ,ireland in the #ahth ,cent4 #ahib4 i1 #bjg7 is that at ,killala he patronized horse-races4 ,he was industrious on more episcopal lines4 ,he wrote an ,introduction to the ,history of the ,jews2 a ,vindication of ,biblical ,chronology2 two treatises on prophecy2 an anti-,athanasian ,essay on ,spirit 7#agea71 which aroused much controversy2 ,a ,vindication of the ,histories of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 in answer to ,bolingbroke 7#b vols4 #ageb-aged2 #bnd ed4 #ageg2 rep4 with the ,essay on ,spirit1 ,dublin1 #agei71 which led to his being prosecuted2 and other works4 ,the offence given by the ,vindication lay in his denunciation of the ,athanasian creed1 and of the bigotry of those who supported it4 ,see pt4 iii1 letters i and ii4 ,the ,essay on ,spirit is no less heterodox4 ,in other respects1 however1 ,clayton is ultra-orthodox4 #hfj ,dr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,alberti1 ,briefe betreffende den ,zustand der ,religion in ,gross-,brittannien1 ,hannover1 #ageb1 p4 #ddj4 #hfa ,above1 p4 #ahj4 #hfb ,put by ,huarte in #aege4 ,above1 i1 #dgb4 #hfc ,inquiry1 p4 #afb4 #hfd ,inquiry1 pref4 pp4 x1 xxii4 #hfe ,a ,letter to the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,conyers ,middleton1 occasioned by his late ,free ,inquiry1 #agdi1 pp4 #c-d4 #hff ,a ,free ,answer to ,dr4 ,middleton's ,free ,inquiry1 by ,william ,dodwell son of the elder and brother of the younger ,henry1 ,rector of ,shottesbrook1 #agdi1 pp4 #ad-ae4 #hfg ,inquiry1 p4 #afb4 #hfh ,works1 #bnd ed4 #agee1 ii1 #cdh4 #hfi ,cp4 essay on ,mandeville1 in the author's ,pioneer ,humanists1 #aijg4 #hgj ,as against the objections of ,mr4 ,lang1 see the author's paper in ,studies in ,religious ,fallacy4 #hga ,cp4 the summary of ,farrar1 ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,freethought1 pp4 #agg-gh1 which is founded on that of ,pusey's early ,historical ,enquiry concerning ,german ,rationalism1 pp4 #abd-bf4 #hgb ,rep4 same year at ,dublin3 #bnd ed4 #agej4 ,the first ed4 was ascribed to ,d',argens--an error caused though not justified by the publisher's notice4 #hgc ,the point is further discussed in ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #age-gf4 #hgd ,cp4 ,g4 ,b4 ,hertz1 ,the ,old ,colonial ,system1 #aije1 pp4 #d1 #bb1 #ic1 #aeg4 #hge ,letter xxxi1 in ,mason's ,memoir4 #hgf ,hill ,burton's ,life of ,hume1 ii1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #dhd-he1 #dhg4 #hgg ,compare the verdicts of ,gibbon in his ,autobiography1 and of ,adam ,smith1 ,wealth of ,nations1 bk4 v1 ch4 i1 art4 #b2 and see the memoir of ,smith in #ahca ed4 and ,mc,culloch's ed41 and ,rae's ,life of ,adam ,smith1 p4 #bd4 ,it appears that about #agfd many ,english people sent their sons to ,edinburgh ,university on account of the better education there4 ,letter of ,blair1 in ,burton's ,life of ,hume1 ii1 #bbi4 #hgh ,essays1 iv1 end4 #hgi ,present ,state of ,polite ,learning1 #agfe1 ch4 vi4 ,his story of how the father of ,st4 ,foix cured the youth of the desire to rationalize his creed is not suggestive of conviction4 ,the father pointed to a crucifix1 saying1 ,behold the fate of a reformer4 ,the story has been often plagiarized since--e4g41 in ,galt's ,annals of the ,parish4 #hhj ,abbey and ,overton1 ,the ,english ,church in the ,eighteenth ,century1 #ahgh1 ii1 #cg4 #hha ,dieu et les ,hommes1 ch4 xxxix4 #hhb ,cp4 ,bishop ,law1 ,considerations on the ,theory of ,religion1 #fth ed4 #aggd1 p4 #fe1 note1 and the ,analysis of ,bolingbroke's writings 7#agee7 there cited4 ,mr4 ,sichel's reply to ,sir ,l4 ,stephen's criticism may or may not be successful2 but he does not deal with ,bishop ,law's4 #hhc ,mmoires de ,diderot1 ed4 #ahda1 ii1 #be4 #hhd ,these had begun as early as #agec 7,micromgas74 #hhe ,works1 ed4 #ahdb1 i1 pp4 cix1 #dde2 ii1 #fbh1 #gbh4 ,cp4 the poem ,kew ,gardens1 left in ,,ms4 #hhf ,i here take a few sentences from my paper1 ,the ,church and ,education1 #aijc4 #hhg ,short ,history1 p4 #gag4 ,the ,concise ,description of the ,endowed ,grammar ,schools1 by ,nicholas ,carlisle1 #ahah1 shows that schools were founded in all parts of the country by private bequest or public action during the eighteenth century4 #hhh ,collis1 in ,transactions of the ,social ,science ,association1 #aheg1 p4 #abf4 ,according to ,collis1 #dh had been founded by ,james ,i1 #bh under ,charles ,i1 #af under the ,commonwealth1 #cf under ,charles ,,ii1 #d under ,james ,,ii1 #g under ,william and ,mary1 #aa under ,anne1 #ag under ,george ,i1 and #g under ,george ,,ii4 ,he does not indicate their size4 #hhi ,green1 as last cited4 #hij ,gibbins1 ,industrial ,history of ,england1 #ahid1 p4 #aea4 #hia ,hist4 of ,england under ,george ,,iii1 ed4 #ahfe1 ii1 #hc4 #hib ,the document is given in ,ritchie's ,life of ,hume1 #ahjg1 pp4 #ec-ee4 #hic ,a reply1 ,the ,world proved to be not eternal nor mechanical1 appeared in #agij4 #hid ,the ,doctrines of a ,trinity and the ,incarnation of ,god was published anonymously4 #hie ,see the ,biographical ,introduction to the ,unitarian reprint of ,watts's ,solemn ,address1 #ahdj1 which gives the letters of ,lardner4 ,and cp4 ,skeats1 ,hist4 of the ,english ,free ,churches1 ed4 ,miall1 p4 #bdj4 #hif ,life of ,lardner1 by ,dr4 ,kippis1 prefixed to ,works1 ed4 #ahce1 i1 p4 xxxii4 #hig ,memoirs of ,priestley1 #ahjf1 pp4 #cj-cb1 #ce1 #cg4 ,the ,letter on the ,logos was addressed by ,lardner to the first ,lord ,barrington1 and was first published anonymously1 in #agei4 #hih ,memoirs of ,priestley1 p4 #ai4 #hii ,pamphlet of #aggh1 printing the sermon1 with reply to a local attack4 #ijj ,,ms4 alteration in print4 ,see also p4 #a of ,epistle ,dedicatory4 #ija ,in criticizing whom ,sir ,leslie ,stephen barely notices his scientific work1 but dwells much on his religious fallacies--a course which would make short work of the fame of ,newton4 #ijb ,a ,church dignitary has described ,evanson's ,dissonance as the commencement of the destructive criticism of the ,fourth ,gospel 7,archdeacon ,watkins's ,bampton ,lectures1 #ahij1 p4 #agd74 #ijc ,williams 7d4 #ahaf71 who published #c vols4 of ,lectures on ,education and other works1 has a longer claim on remembrance as the founder of the ,literary ,fund4 #ijd ,the subject is discussed at length in the essay on ,gibbon in the author's ,pioneer ,humanists4 #ije ,cp4 ,bishop ,watson's ,apology for ,christianity 7#aggf7 as to the vogue of unbelief at that date4 7,two ,apologies1 ed4 #ahjf1 p4 #aba4 ,cp4 pp4 #agi1 #cii47 #ijf ,the panegyric on ,voltaire delivered at his death by ,frederick the ,great 7,nov4 #bf1 #aggh7 was promptly translated into ,english 7#aggi74 #ijg ,reflections on the ,french ,revolution1 #agij1 p4 #aca4 #ijh ,see ,hannah ,more's letter of ,april1 #aggg1 in her ,life1 abridged #afmo-ed4 p4 #cf4 ,an edition of ,shaftesbury1 apparently1 appeared in #aggc1 and another in #agij4 #iji ,the essays of ,hume1 including the ,dialogues concerning ,natural ,religion 7#aggi71 were now circulated in repeated editions4 ,mr4 ,rae1 in his valuable ,life of ,adam ,smith1 p4 #caa1 cites a ,german observer1 ,wendeborn1 as writing in #aghe that the ,dialogues1 though a good deal discussed in ,germany1 had made no sensation in ,england1 and were at that date entirely forgotten4 ,but a second edition had been called for in #aggi1 and they were added to a fresh edition of the essays in #aghh4 ,any forgetting is to be set down to preoccupation with other interests4 #iaj ,letter to the ,bishop of ,lichfield and ,coventry1 #aggg1 p4 #c4 #iaa ,dr4 ,parr1 ,characters of ,c4 ,j4 ,fox1 i1 #bbj2 cited in ,charles ,james ,fox1 a ,commentary1 by ,w4 ,s4 ,landor1 ed4 by ,s4 ,wheeler1 #aijg1 p4 #adg4 ,fox's secretary and biographer1 ,trotter1 while anxious to discredit the statement of ,parr1 gives such a qualified account 7,memoirs of the ,latter ,years of ,c4 ,j4 ,fox1 #ahaa1 pp4 #dgj-ga7 of ,fox's views on immortality as to throw much doubt on the stronger testimony of ,b4 ,c4 ,walpole 7,recollections of ,c4 ,j4 ,fox1 #ahjf1 p4 #bdb74 #iab ,see ,j4 ,l4 ,le ,b4 ,hammond1 ,charles ,james ,fox1 #aijc1 ch4 xiii4 #iac ,see a letter in ,bishop ,watson's ,life1 i1 #djb2 and cp4 ,buckle1 ch4 vii1 note #bah4 #iad ,see his ,task1 bk4 iii1 #aej-ij 7#aghc-aghd71 for the prevailing religious tone4 #iae ,princ4 of ,moral ,philos4 bk4 v1 ch4 ix4 ,the chapter tells of widespread freethinking4 #iaf ,ernest ,krause1 ,erasmus ,darwin1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahgi1 p4 #baa4 ,cp4 pp4 #aic1 #aid4 #iag ,letters vii1 viii1 ix1 xix1 xxii4 #iah ,e4g41 ,the ,ordination1 the ,address to the ,deil1 ,a ,dedication to ,gavin ,hamilton1 ,the ,kirk's ,alarm1 etc4 #iai ,see also the pieces printed between these in the ,globe edition1 pp4 #ff-fh4 #ibj ,the benevolent ,supreme ,being1 he writes1 has put the immediate administration of all this into the hands of ,jesus ,christ--a great personage1 whose relation to ,him we cannot fathom1 but whose relation to us is that of a guide and ,saviour4 ,letter #hf in ,globe ed4 ,letters #ahi and #aig1 to ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 similarly fail to meet the requirements of the orthodox correspondent4 ,the poem ,look up and ,see1 latterly printed several times apart from ,burns's works1 and extremely likely to be his1 is a quite ,voltairean criticism of ,david4 ,if the poem be ungenuine1 it is certainly by far the ablest of the unacknowledged pieces ascribed to him1 alike in diction and in purport4 #iba ,letter to ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 ,jan4 #a1 #aghi1 in ,robert ,burns and ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 ed4 by ,w4 ,wallace1 #ahih1 p4 #abi4 ,the passage is omitted from ,letter #afh in the ,globe ed41 and presumably from other reprints4 #ibb ,letter to ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 ,july #i1 #agij4 ,published for the first time in vol4 cited1 p4 #bff4 #ibc ,epistle to a ,young ,friend4 #ibd ,lecky1 writing in #ahfe1 and advancing on ,burke1 has said of the whole school1 including ,shaftesbury1 that the shadow of the tomb rests on all3 a deep1 unbroken silence1 the chill of death1 surrounds them4 ,they have long ceased to wake any interest 7,rationalism in ,europe1 i1 #aaf74 ,as a matter of fact1 they had been discussed by ,taylor in #ahec2 by ,pattison in #ahfj2 and by ,farrar in #ahfb2 and they have since been discussed at length by ,dr4 ,hunt1 by ,dr4 ,cairns1 by ,lange1 by ,gyzicki1 by ,m4 ,sayous1 by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 by ,prof4 ,hffding1 and by many others4 #ibe ,conway1 introd4 to ,age of ,reason1 in his ed4 of ,paine's ,works1 iv1 #c4 #ibf ,lemontey1 ,hist4 de la rgence et de la minorit de ,louis ,,xv1 #ahce1 ii1 #ceh1 note4 ,in #agca there was published under the name of ,boulainvilliers 7d4 #agbb7 a so-called ,rfutation de ,spinoza1 which was really a popular exposition4 ,pollock1 ,spinoza1 #bnd ed4 p4 #cfc4 ,sir ,f4 ,pollock assents to ,voltaire's remark that ,boulainvilliers gave the poison and forgot to give the antidote4 #ibg ,for a brief view of the facts1 usually misconceived1 see ,lanson1 pp4 #faj-aa4 ,fnelon seems to have been uncandid1 while ,bossuet1 by common consent1 was malevolent4 ,there is probably truth1 however1 in the view of ,shaftesbury 7,characteristics1 ed4 #aijj1 ii1 #bad71 that the real grievance of ,fnelon's ecclesiastical opponents was the tendency of his mysticism to withdraw devotees from ceremonial duties4 #ibh ,now remembered chiefly through the account of his intercourse with ,fnelon 7repr4 in ,didot ed4 of ,fnelon's misc4 works71 and ,hume's long extract from his ,philosophical ,principles of ,natural and ,revealed ,religion in the concluding note to the ,essays4 ,cp4 ,m4 ,matter1 ,le ,mysticisme en ,france au temps de ,fnelon1 #ahfe1 pp4 #ceb-ed4 #ibi ,tyssot de ,patot was ,professor of ,mathematics at ,deventer4 ,in his ,lettres choisies1 published in #agbf1 there is an avowal that he might be charged with having different notions from those of the vulgar in point of religion 7,new ,memoirs of ,literature1 iv 7#agbf71 #bfg72 and his accounts of pietists and unbelieving and other priests sufficiently convey that impression 7id4 pp4 #bfh-hd74 #icj ,towards the close of his poem ,polignac speaks of a defence of ,christianity as a future task4 ,he died without even completing the ,anti-,lucretius1 begun half a century before4 ,of him are related two classic anecdotes4 ,sent at the age of twenty-seven to discuss ,church questions with the ,pope1 he earned from ,his ,holiness the compliment3 ,you seem always to be of my opinion2 and in the end it is yours that prevails4 ,louis ,,xiv gave him a long audience1 after which the ,king said3 ,i have had an interview with a young man who has constantly contradicted me without my being able to be angry for a moment4 7loge prefixed to ,bougainville's trans41 ,l',anti-,lucrce1 #agfg1 i4 #aca47 #ica ,cp4 ,duvernet1 ,vie de ,voltaire1 ch4 i4 ,rivarol 7,lettres ,necker1 in ,o,euvres1 ed4 #aheb1 p4 #ach7 wrote that under ,louis ,,xv there began a general insurrection of discussion1 and that everybody then talked only of religion and philosophy during half a century4 ,but this exaggerates the beginnings1 of which ,rivarol could have no exact knowledge4 #icb ,la verit de la religion chrtienne prouve par les faits3 prcde d'un discours historique et critique sur la mthode des principaux auteurs qui ont crit pour et contre le christianisme depuis son origine1 #agbb4 ,rep4 #agda1 #c vols4 #dto41 #d vols4 #abmo4 #icc ,nouveau ,dictionnaire historique portatif1 #agga1 art4 ,houteville1 tom4 ii4 #icd ,whose ,considrations sur les ,moeurs 7#agea7 does not seem to contain a single religious sentiment4 ,historiographer of ,france1 he had not escaped the suppression of his ,histoire de ,louis ,,xi1 #agde4 #ice ,see above1 p4 #acj4 ,buffier seems to have begun an attempt at spelling reform 7by dropping doubled letters71 followed in #agbe by ,huard and later by ,prmontval4 #icf #g vols4 #dto41 #aj vols4 #abmo4 ,rep4 with corrections #agcc4 ,seconde partie1 #agec1 #h vols4 #abmo4 #icg ,a reprint in #agce bears the imprint of ,london1 with the note ,aux dpens de la ,compagnie4 #ich ,lanson1 p4 #gjb4 ,the ,persian ,letters1 like the ,provincial ,letters of ,pascal1 had to be printed at ,rouen and published at ,amsterdam4 ,their freethinking expressions put considerable difficulties in the way of his election 7#agbg7 to the ,academy4 ,see ,e4 ,edwards1 ,chapters of the ,biog4 ,hist4 of the ,french ,academy1 #ahfd1 pp4 #cd-ce1 and ,d4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,hist4 of the ,french ,academy1 #aiaj1 p4 #ib1 as to the mystification about the alleged reprint without the obnoxious passages4 #ici ,lettre #hf4 #idj ,au point de vue religieux1 ,montesquieu tirait poliment son coup de chapeau au christianisme 7,lanson1 p4 #gad74 ,e4g4 in the ,esprit des ,lois1 liv4 xxiv1 chs4 i1 ii1 iii1 iv1 vi1 and the footnote to ch4 x of liv4 xxv4 ,montesquieu's letter to ,warburton 7#af mai1 #aged71 in acknowledgment of that prelate's attack on the posthumous works of ,bolingbroke1 is a sample of his social make-believe4 ,but no religious reader could suppose it to come from a religious man4 #ida ,also of ,e4 ,edwards1 as cited above4 #idb ,see the notes cited on pp4 #dje1 #djg of ,garnier's variorum ed4 of the ,esprit des ,lois1 #ahga4 ,la ,harpe and ,villemain seem blind to irony4 #idc ,the flings at ,bayle 7liv4 xxiv1 chs4 ii1 vi7 are part of a subtly ironical vindication of ideal as against ecclesiastical ,christianity1 and they have no note of faith4 #idd ,paul ,mesnard1 ,hist4 de l'acadmie franaise1 #aheg1 pp4 #fa-fc4 #ide ,penses ,diverses3 ,de la religion4 #idf ,lanson1 p4 #gad1 note4 #idg ,tr4 in ,english1 #agec4 ,it is noteworthy that ,cataneo formally accepts ,montesquieu's professions of orthodoxy4 #idh ,correspondance littraire de ,grimm et ,diderot1 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 i1 #bgc4 ,see the footnote for an account of the indecent efforts of the ,jesuits to get at the dying philosopher4 ,the cur of the parish who was allowed entry began his exhortation with3 ,vous savez1 ,m4 le ,prsident1 combien ,dieu est grand4 ,oui1 monsieur1 returned ,montesquieu1 et combien les hommes sont petits4 #idi ,mesnard1 ,hist4 de l'acadmie franaise1 p4 #fc4 #iej ,a full analysis is given by ,strauss in the second ,appendix to his ,voltaire3 ,sechs ,vortrge1 #bte ,aufl4 #ahgj4 #iea ,the details are dubious4 ,see the memoir compiled by ,rudolf ,charles 7,r4 ,c4 ,d',ablaing van ,giessenburg71 the editor of the ,testament1 ,amsterdam1 #c tom4 #ahfa-fd4 ,it draws chiefly on the ,mmoires secrets de ,bachaumont1 under date ,sept4 #cj1 #agfd4 #ieb ,testament1 as cited1 i1 #be4 #iec iii1 #cif4 #ied ,first published in #agfb or #agfd8 ,see ,bachaumont1 ,oct4 #cj1 with the date #agdb2 and reprinted in the vangile de la ,raison1 #agfd4 ,it was no fewer than four times ordered to be destroyed in the ,restoration period4 #iee ,probably ,diderot did the most of the adaptation4 ,il y a plus que du bon sens dans ce livre1 writes ,voltaire to ,d',alembert2 il est terrible4 ,s'il sort de la boutique du ,systme de la ,nature1 l'auteur s'est bien perfectionn 7,lettre de #bg ,juillet1 #agge74 #ief ,il leur faut un tre ces messieurs2 pour moi1 je m'en passe4 ,grimm1 ,correspondance ,littraire1 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 iv1 #ahf4 #ieg ,grimm1 as cited1 i1 #bce4 ,grimm tells a delightful story of his reception of the confessor4 #ieh ,cet ouvrage1 dont les vers sont grands et bien tourns1 est une satire des plus licencieuses contre les moeurs de nos vques4 ,bachaumont1 ,mmoires ,secrets1 ,juin #ae1 #agfb4 #iei ,bonet-,maury1 ,hist4 de la lib4 de conscience en ,france1 #aijj1 p4 #fh4 #ifj ,nouveau dictionnaire historique-portatif 444 par une ,socit de ,gens de ,lettres1 ed4 #agga1 i1 #cad4 #ifa ,marmontel does not relate this in his ,mmoires1 where he insists on the decorum of the talk1 even at d',holbach's table4 #ifb ,chamfort1 ,caractres et ,anecdotes4 #ifc ,nouveau dictionnaire1 above cited1 i1 #cae4 #ifd ,name assumed for literary purposes1 and probably composed by anagram from the real name ,arouet1 with le jeune 7junior7 added1 thus3 ,a4 ,r4 ,o4 ,v4 ,e4 ,t4 ,l7e74 ,i7eune74 #ife ,not to be confounded with the greater and later ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau4 ,j4 ,b4 ,rousseau became ,voltaire's bitter enemy--on the score1 it is said1 of the young man's epigram on the elder poet's ,ode to ,posterity1 which1 he said1 would not reach its address4 ,himself a rather ribald freethinker1 ,rousseau professed to be outraged by the irreligion of ,voltaire4 #iff ,see the poem in note #d to ch4 ii of ,duvernet's ,vie de ,voltaire4 ,duvernet calls it one of the first attacks on which philosophy in ,france had ventured against superstition 7,vie de ,voltaire1 ed4 #agig1 p4 #ai74 #ifg ,duvernet1 ch4 ii4 ,the free-hearted ,ninon de l',enclos1 brightest of old ladies1 is to be numbered among the pre-,voltairean freethinkers1 and to be remembered as leaving young ,voltaire a legacy to buy books4 ,she refused to sell her soul by turning dvote on the invitation of her old friend ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,madame ,d'pinay1 ,voltaire's belle philosophe et aimable ,habacuc1 ,madame du ,deffand1 and ,madame ,geoffrin were among the later freethinking grandes dames of the ,voltairean period2 and so1 presumably1 was the ,madame de ,crqu1 quoted by ,rivarol1 who remarked that ,providence is the baptismal name of ,chance4 ,as to ,madame ,geoffrin see the ,o,euvres ,posthumes de ,d',alembert1 #agii1 i1 #bdj1 #bga2 and the ,mmoires de ,marmontel1 #ahjd1 ii1 #ajb sq4 ,if ,marmontel is accurate1 she went secretly at times to mass 7p4 #ajd74 #ifh ,deslandes wrote some new chapters of his ,rflexions in ,london1 for the ,english translation4 ,eng4 tr4 #agac1 p4 #ii4 #ifi ,pour et ,contre1 ou pitre ,uranie4 ,it was of course not printed till long afterwards4 ,diderot1 writing his ,promenade du ,sceptique in #agdg1 says3 ,c'est1 je crois1 dans l'alle des fleurs of his allegory entre le champagne et le tokay1 que l'pitre ,uranie prit naissance4 7,l',alle des ,marronniers1 ad init47 ,this seems unjust4 #igj ,he has been alternately represented as owing everything and owing very little to ,england4 ,cp4 ,texte1 ,rousseau and the ,cosmopolitan ,spirit1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #eh4 ,neither view is just4 #iga ,in his ,essay upon the ,civil ,wars of ,france1 and 444 upon ,epick ,poetry 7#bnd ed4 #agbh1 corrected by himself71 written and published in ,english1 he begins his ,advertisement with the remark3 ,it has the appearance of too great a presumption in a traveller who hath been but eighteen months in ,england1 to attempt to write in a language which he cannot pronounce at all1 and which he hardly understands in conversation4 ,as the book is remarkably well written1 he must have read much ,english4 #igb ,lord ,morley 7,voltaire1 #dth ed4 p4 #dj7 speaks of the ,english people as having then won a full liberty of thought and speech and person4 ,this1 as we have seen1 somewhat overstates the case4 ,but discussion was much more nearly free than in ,france4 #igc ,probably as much on political as on religious grounds4 ,the #hth letter1 ,sur le ,parlement1 must have been very offensive to the ,french ,government2 and in #agci1 moved by angry criticisms1 ,voltaire saw fit to modify its language4 ,see ,lanson's ed4 of the ,lettres1 #aiji1 i1 #ib1 #aaj4 #igd ,condorcet1 ,vie de ,voltaire1 ed4 #agib1 p4 #ib4 ,in reprints the poem was entitled ,sur la religion naturelle1 and was so commonly cited4 #ige ,condorcet1 p4 #ii4 #igf ,see above1 pp4 #bac-ad1 as to the works of ,boulainvilliers1 ,tyssot de ,patot1 ,deslandes1 and others who wrote between #agjj and #agae4 #igg ,cited by ,schlosser1 ,hist4 of the ,eighteenth ,century1 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #adf-g4 #igh ,trait de la verit de la religion chrtienne1 tir en partie du latin de ,m4 ,j4 ,alphonse ,turrettin1 professeur 444 en l'acadmie de ,gnve1 par ,m4 ,j4 ,vernet1 professeur de belles-lettres en la mme ,acadmie4 ,revue et corrig par un ,thologien ,catholique4 #a;e d4 ,gnve1 #agcj4 ,rep4 in #b tom4 #agec4 ,ecclesiastical approbation given #ae janv4 #agdi2 privilge1 juillet1 #agea4 #igi ,dom ,remi ,desmonts1 according to ,barbier4 #ihj ,par ,panage 7,toussaint874 ,rep4 #agee and #agfg 7,berlin74 #iha ,work cited1 ed4 #agee1 p4 #beb4 #ihb ,a glimpse of old ,paris before or about #agej is afforded by ,fontenelle's remark that the prevailing diseases might be known from the affiches4 ,at every street corner were to be seen two1 of which one advertised a ,trait sur l'incrdulit4 7,grimm1 ,corr4 litt4 iii1 #cgc47 #ihc ,thus ,duruy had said in his ,histoire de ,france 7#ast ed4 #aheb7 that in the work of the ,jansenists of ,port ,royal l'esprit d'opposition politique se cacha sous l'opposition religieuse 7ed4 #ahhj1 ii1 #bih74 #ihd ,the case has been thus correctly put by ,m4 ,rocquain1 who1 however1 decides that de religieuse qu'elle tait1 l'opposition devient politique as early as about #agbd-agcc4 ,l',esprit rvolutionnaire avant la rvolution1 #ahgh2 table des matires1 liv4 #b;e4 ,duruy 7last note7 puts the tendency still earlier4 #ihe ,cette hardiesse tonna ,voltaire1 et excita son mulation 7ed4 cited1 p4 #aah74 #ihf ,avertissement des diteurs1 in ,basle ed4 of #agib1 vol4 xlv1 p4 #ib4 #ihg ,it has been counted that he used no fewer than a hundred and thirty different pseudonyms2 and the perpetual prosecution and confiscation of his books explains the procedure4 ,as we have seen1 the ,lettres philosophiques 7otherwise the ,lettres anglaises7 were burned on their appearance1 in #agcd1 and the bookseller put in the ,bastille2 the ,recueil des pices fugitives was suppressed in #agci2 the ,voix du ,sage et du ,peuple was officially and clerically condemned in #agea2 the poem on ,natural ,law was burned at ,paris in #ageh2 ,candide at ,geneva in #agei2 the ,dictionnaire philosophique at ,geneva in #agfd1 and at ,paris in #agfe2 and many of his minor pseudonymous performances had the same advertisement4 ,but even the ,henriade1 the ,charles ,,xii1 and the first chapters of the ,sicle de ,louis ,,xiv were prohibited2 and in #aghe the thirty volumes published of the #aghd edition of his works were condemned en masse4 #ihh ,diderot1 critique of ,le philosophe ignorant in ,grimm's ,corr4 ,litt4 #a juin #agff2 ,lessing1 ,hamburgische ,dramaturgie1 ,stck #aj-ab1 #ae2 ,gibbon1 ch4 i1 note near end2 ch4 li1 note on siege of ,damascus4 ,rousseau was as hostile as any 7see ,morley's ,rousseau1 ch4 ix1 #a74 ,but ,rousseau's verdict is the least important1 and the least judicial4 ,he had himself earned the detestation of ,voltaire1 as of many other men4 ,in a moment of pique1 ,diderot wrote of ,voltaire3 ,cet homme n'est que le second dans tous les genres 7,lettre #ga ,mdlle4 ,voland1 #ab aot1 #agfb74 ,he forgot wit and humour6 #ihi ,prof4 ,jowett1 of ,balliol ,college4 ,see ,l4 ,a4 ,tollemache1 ,benjamin ,jowett1 ,master of ,balliol1 #dth ed4 pp4 #bg-bh4 #iij ,see details in ,lord ,morley's ,voltaire1 #dth ed4 pp4 #afe-gj1 #beg-eh4 ,the erection by the ,french freethinkers of a monument to ,la ,barre in #aije1 opposite the ,cathedral of the ,sacred ,heart1 ,montmartre1 ,paris1 is an expression at once of the old feud with the ,church and the ,french appreciation of high personal courage4 ,la ,barre was in truth something of a scapegrace1 but his execution was an infamy1 and he went to his death as to a bridal4 ,the erection of the monument has been the occasion of a futile pretence on the clerical side that for ,la ,barre's death the ,church had no responsibility1 the movers in the case being laymen4 ,nothing1 apparently1 can teach ,catholic ,churchmen that the ,church's past sins ought to be confessed like those of individuals4 ,it is quite true that it was a ,parlement that condemned ,la ,barre4 ,but what a religious training was it that turned laymen into murderous fanatics6 #iia ,m4 ,lanson seems to overlook it when he writes 7p4 #gdg7 that the affirmation of ,god1 the denial of ,providence and miracles1 is the whole metaphysic of ,voltaire4 #iib ,lord ,morley writes 7p4 #bji73 ,we do not know how far he ever seriously approached the question 444 whether a society can exist without a religion4 ,this overlooks both the ,homlie sur l',athisme and the article ,athisme in the ,dictionnaire ,philosophique1 where the question is discussed seriously and explicitly4 #iic ,horace ,walpole1 ,letter to ,gray1 ,nov4 #ai1 #agfe4 ,compare the mordant criticism of ,grimm 7,corr4 litt4 vii1 #ed sq47 on his tract ,dieu in reply to d',holbach4 ,il raisonne l-dessus comme un enfant1 writes ,grimm1 mais comme un joli enfant qu'il est4 #iid ,browning1 ,the ,two ,poets of ,croisic1 st4 cvii4 #iie ,cp4 ,stndlin1 ,gesch4 des ,rationalismus und ,supernaturalismus1 #ahbf1 pp4 #bhg-ij4 ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte des #ah4 und #ai4 ,jahrhunderts1 #bte ,aufl4 #ahdh1 i1 #bah-bj4 #iif ,zimmerman1 ,de causis magis magisque invalescentis incredulitatis1 et medela huic malo adhibenda1 ,tiguri1 #agci1 #dto4 ,prof4 ,breitinger of ,zurich wrote a criticism afterwards tr4 7#agda7 as ,examen des ,lettres sur la religion essentielle4 ,de ,roches1 pastor at ,geneva1 published in letter-form #b vols4 entitled ,dfense du ,christianisme1 as prservatif contre the ,lettres of ,mdlle4 ,huber 7#agdj72 and ,bouillier of ,amsterdam also #b vols4 of ,lettres 7#agda74 #iig ,cp4 ,bouillier1 ,hist4 de la philos4 carts1 ii1 #fbd-be2 ,d',argenson1 ,mmoires1 ed4 ,jannet1 iv4 #fc4 #iih ,see the thesis 7,jerusalem ,coelesti7 as printed in the ,apologie de ,m4 l',abb ,de ,prades1 ,amsterdam1 #ageb1 pp4 #d1 #f4 #iii ,id4 p4 #aj4 #ajjj ,mmoires sur la vie et les ouvrages de ,diderot1 #ahba1 p4 #afj4 #ajja ,cp4 ,bachaumont1 ,mmoires secrets1 #d fv4 #agfb2 #bb avril1 #agfh4 ,tn the latter entry1 ,yvon is described as poursuivi comme infidle1 quoique le plus croyant de ,france4 ,in #agfh1 after the ,blisaire scandal1 he was refused permission to proceed with the publication of his ,histoire ecclsiastique4 #ajjb ,this was de ,prades's own view of the matter 7,apologie1 as cited1 p4 v72 and ,d',argenson repeatedly says as much4 ,mmoires1 iv1 #eg1 #fe1 #ff1 #gd1 #gg4 #ajjc ,rocquain1 ,l'esprit revolutionnaire avant la rvolution1 #ahgh1 pp4 #adi-ea2 ,morley1 ,diderot1 ch4 v2 ,d',argenson1 iv1 #gh4 ,the decree of suppression was dated #ac fv4 #ageb4 #ajjd ,mmoires1 iv1 #fd1 #gd4 #ajje ,id4 iv1 #abi1 #adj4 #ajjf ,id4 iv1 #ib-ic4 #ajjg ,maury1 ,hist4 de l'ancienne ,acadmie des ,inscriptions1 #ahfd1 pp4 #cab-ac4 #ajjh ,journal historique de ,barbier1 #ahdg-ef1 iv1 #cjd4 #ajji ,astruc1 we learn from ,d',alembert1 connected their decline with the influence of the new opinions4 ,ce ne sont pas les jansenistes qui tuent les jsuites1 c'est l',encyclopdie4 ,le maroufle ,astruc1 adds ,d',alembert1 est comme ,pasquin1 il parle quelquefois d'assez bon sens4 ,lettre ,voltaire4 #d mai1 #agfb4 #ajaj ,cp4 pref4 7,la ,vie de ,salvien7 to ,french tr4 of ,salvian1 #agcd1 p4 lxix4 ,i have seen ,,ms4 translations of ,toland and ,woolston4 #ajaa ,,ms4 statement1 in eighteenth-century hand1 on flyleaf of a copy of #agee ed4 of the ,grands hommes1 in the writer's possession4 #ajab ,lettre ,d',alembert1 #af ,octobre1 #agfe4 #ajac ,of the works noted below1 the majority appear or profess to have been printed at ,amsterdam1 though many bore the imprint ,londres4 ,all the freethinking books and translations ascribed to d',holbach bore it4 ,the ,artin of ,abb ,dulaurens bore the imprint3 ,rome1 aux dpens de la ,congrgation de l',index4 ,mystifications concerning authorship have been as far as possible cleared up in the present edition4 #ajad ,given by ,brunet1 who is followed by ,wheeler1 as appearing in #agcb1 and as translated into ,english1 under the title ,dying ,merrily1 in #agde4 ,but ,i possess an ,english translation of #agac 7pref4 dated ,march #be71 entitled ,a ,philological ,essay3 or1 ,reflections on the ,death of ,freethinkers4444 ,by ,monsieur ,d----1 of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences in ,france1 and author of the ,poetae ,rusticantis ,literatum ,otium4 ,translated from the ,french by ,mr4 ,b----1 with additions by the author1 now in ,london1 and the translator4 ,a note in a contemporary hand makes ,b ,boyer4 ,barbier gives #agab for the first edition1 #agcb for the second4 ,rep4 #agee and #aggf4 #ajae ,there is no sign of any such excitement in ,france over the translation as was aroused in ,england by the original2 but an ,examen du trait de la libert de penser1 by ,de ,crousaz1 was published at ,amsterdam in #agah4 #ajaf ,this was probably meant to point to the ,abb de ,marsy1 who died in #agfc4 #ajag ,the ,abb ,sepher ascribed this book to one ,dupuis1 a ,royal ,guardsman4 #ajah ,this prose poem was not an intentional burlesque1 as the ecclesiastical authorities alleged2 but it did not stand for orthodoxy4 ,see ,grimm's ,correspondance1 i1 #aac4 #ajai ,a eu les honneurs de la brlure1 et toutes les censures cumules des ,facults de ,thologie1 de la ,sorbonne et des vques4 ,bachaumont1 dc4 #bc1 #agfc4 ,marsy1 who was expelled from the ,order of ,jesuits1 was of bad character1 and was hotly denounced by ,voltaire4 #ajbj ,see ,grimm1 ,corr4 v4 #ae4 #ajba ,a second edition appeared within the year4 ,quoique proscrit presque partout1 et mme en ,hollande1 c'est de l qu'il nous arrive4 ,bachaumont1 dc4 #bg1 #agfd4 #ajbb ,bachaumont1 mai #g1 #agfg4 #ajbc ,se repand ,paris avec la permission de la police4 ,bachaumont1 #ac fv4 #agff4 #ajbd ,il est facile de se convaincre que les parties les plus importantes et les plus solides de cet ouvrage sont empruntes aux travaux de ,burigny4 ,l4-,f4 ,alfred ,maury1 ,l'ancienne ,acadmie des ,incriptions et bellet-lettres1 #ahfd1 p4 #caf4 ,maury leaves it open question whether the compilation was made by ,burigny or by ,naigeon4 ,the ,abb ,bergier accepted it without hesitation as the work of ,frret1 who was known to hold some heretical views4 7,maury1 p4 #cag47 ,barbier confidently ascribes the work to ,burigny4 #ajbe ,the mystification in regard to this work is elaborate4 ,it purports to be translated from an ,english version1 declared in turn by its translator to be made from the ,greek4 ,it is now commonly ascribed to ,naigeon4 7,maury1 as cited1 p4 #cag47 ,its machinery1 and its definite atheism1 mark it as of the school of d',holbach1 though it is alleged to have been written by ,frret as early as #agbb4 ,it is however reprinted1 with the ,examen critique des ,apologistes1 in the #agif edition of ,frret's works without comment2 and ,barbier was satisfied that it was the one genuine philosophic work ascribed to ,frret1 but that it was redacted by ,naigeon from imperfect ,,mss4 #ajbf ,notice sur ,henri ,meister1 pref4 to ,lettres indites de ,madame de ,stal ,henri ,meister1 #aijc1 p4 #ag4 #ajbg ,deux nouveaux livres infernaux 444 connus comme manuscrits depuis longtemps et gards dans l'obscurit des portefeuilles4444 ,bachaumont1 #bb mars1 #agfi4 #ajbh ,bachaumont1 ,mmoires ,secrets1 dc4 #bj1 #agfg4 #ajbi ,id4 ,jan4 #ah1 #agfh4 #ajcj ,so ,pidansat de ,mairobert in his preface to the first ed4 7#aggg7 of the ,mmoires ,secrets of ,bachaumont1 continued by him4 ,see pref4 to the abridged ed4 by ,bibliophile ,jacob4 #ajca ,as to the authorship see above1 p4 #bda4 #ajcb ,la ,certitude des preuves du ,christianisme 7#agfg74 #b;e dit4 #agfh1 ,avertissement4 #ajcc ,in the short essay ,le ,philosophe1 which appeared in the ,nouvelles ,liberts de ,penser1 #agdc and #agej1 and in the ,recueil ,philosophique1 #aggj4 ,in the #agic rep4 of the ,essai sur les prjugs 7again rep4 in #ahbb7 it is unhesitatingly affirmed1 on the strength of its title-page and the prefixed letter of ,dumarsais1 dated #agej1 that that book is an expansion of the essay ,le ,philosophe1 and that this was published in #agfj4 ,but ,le ,philosophe is an entirely different production1 which to a certain extent criticizes les philosophes so-called4 ,the ,essai sur les prjugs published in #aggj is not the work of ,dumarsais2 it is a new work by d',holbach4 ,this was apparently known to ,frederick1 who in his rather angry criticism of the book writes that1 whereas ,dumarsais had always respected constituted authorities1 others had put out in his name1 two years after he was dead and buried1 a libel of which the veritable author could only be a schoolboy as new to the world as he was puzzle-headed4 7,mlanges en vers et en prose de ,frederic ,,ii1 #agib1 ii1 #bae74 ,dumarsais died in #aged1 but ,i can find no good evidence that the ,essai sur les prjugs was ever printed before #aggj4 ,as to d',holbach's authorship see the ,o,euvres de ,diderot1 ed4 #ahba1 xii1 #aae sq4--passage copied in the #ahbi-ca ed4 of the ,correspondance littraire of ,grimm and ,diderot1 xiv1 #bic sq4 ,in a letter to ,d',alembert dated ,mars #bg1 #aggc1 ,voltaire writes that in a newly-printed collection of treatises containing his own ,lois de ,minos is included le philosophe de ,dumarsais1 qui n'a jamais t imprim jusqu' present4 ,this seems to be a complete mistake4 #ajcd ,grimm 7iv1 #hf7 has some good stories of him4 ,he announced one day that he had ound twenty-five fatal flaws in the story of the resurrection of ,lazarus1 the first being that the dead do not rise4 ,his scholarly friend ,nicolas ,boindin 7see above1 p4 #bbb7 said3 ,dumarsais is a ,jansenist atheist2 as for me1 ,i am a ,molinist atheist4 #ajce ,on two successive pages the title ,messiah is declared to mean simply one sent and simply anointed4 #ajcf ,like ,buffier and ,huard1 however1 he strives for a reform in spelling1 dropping many doubled letters1 and writing home1 bone1 acuse1 fole1 apelle1 honte1 afreux1 etc4 #ajcg ,abriss einer ,geschichte der ,umwlzung welche seit #agej auf dem ,gebiete der ,theologie in ,deutschland statt gefunden1 in ,tholuck's ,vermischte ,schriften1 #ahci1 ii1 #e4 ,the proposition is repeated pp4 #bd1 #cc4 #ajch ,the exceptions were books published outside of ,france4 #ajci ,madame de ,svign1 for instance1 declared that she would not let pass a year of her life without re-reading the second volume of ,abbadie4 #ajdj ,le ,disme refut par lui-mme 7largely a reply to ,rousseau71 #agfe2 #aggj1 ,apologie de la religion chrtienne2 #aggc1 ,la certitude des preuves du christianisme4 ,in #agei had appeared the ,lettres sur le ,disme of the younger ,salchi1 professor at ,lausanne4 ,it deals chiefly with the ,english deists1 and with ,d',argens4 ,as before noted1 the ,abb ,gauchat began in #agea his ,lettres ,critiques1 which in time ran to #ae volumes 7#agea-fa74 ,there were also two journals1 ,jesuit and ,jansenist1 which fought the philosophes 7,lanson1 p4 #gba72 and sometimes even a manuscript was answered--e4g4 the ,rfutation du ,celse moderne of the ,abb ,gautier 7#ageb71 a reply to ,mirabaud's unpublished ,examen critique4 #ajda ,alison1 ,history of ,europe1 ed4 #ahdi1 i1 #ahj-ha4 #ajdb ,the ,jesuits were expelled from ,portugal in #agei2 from ,bohemia and ,denmark in #agff2 from the whole dominions of ,spain in #agfg2 from ,genoa and ,venice in the same year2 and from ,naples1 ,malta1 and ,parma in #agfh4 ,officially suppressed in ,france in #agfd1 they were expelled thence in #agfg4 ,pope ,clement ,,xiii strove to defend them2 but in #aggc the ,society was suppressed by papal bull by ,clement ,,xiv2 whereafter they took refuge in ,prussia and ,russia1 ruled by the freethinking ,frederick and ,catherine4 #ajdc ,see the ,correspondance de ,grimm1 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 vii1 #ea sq4 #ajdd ,this apologetic work1 after having been praised by the censor and registered with privilge du roi in ,november1 #aggb1 was officially suppressed on ,jan4 #ag1 #aggc1 and1 it would appear1 reissued in that year4 #ajde ,liv4 i4 ch4 viii4 #ajdf ,bachaumont1 juin #bb2 juillet #i1 #bj1 #bg2 novembre #ad1 #agfb4 #ajdg ,grimm notices ,astruc's ,dissertations sur l'immortalit1 l'immaterialit1 et la libert de l'me1 published in #agee 7,corr4 i1 #dch71 but not his ,conjectures4 ,at his death 7#agff7 he pronounces him un des hommes les plus decris de ,paris1 ,il passait pour fripon1 fourbe1 mchant1 en un mot pour un trs-malhonnte homme4 ,il tait violent et emport1 et d'une avarice sordide4 ,finally1 he died sans sacremens after having fait le dvot and attached himself to the ,jesuits in their day of power4 ,corr4 v1 #ih4 ,but ,grimm was a man of many hates1 and not the best of historians4 #ajdh ,cp4 ,maury1 ,l'ancienne ,acadmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres1 #ahfd1 pp4 #ee-ef4 #ajdi ,voltaire's various stratagems to secure election are not to his credit4 ,see ,paul ,mesnard1 ,histoire de l'acadmie franaise1 #aheg1 pp4 #fh-gd4 ,but even ,montesquieu is said to have resorted to some questionable devices for the same end4 ,id4 p4 #fb4 #ajej ,maury1 ,l'ancienne ,acadmie des inscriptions1 pp4 #ed-ee1 #id1 #cjh4 #ajea ,id4 p4 #ic4 #ajeb ,id4 pp4 #aaf-bj4 #ajec ,where he was lieutenant-gnral1 and died in #agej4 #ajed ,maury1 pp4 #ec1 #hf-hg4 #ajee ,mmoires1 ed4 ,jannet1 iv1 #aha4 #ajef ,cp4 ,mesnard1 as cited1 pp4 #gi-hj4 #ajeg ,maury1 p4 #cae4 #ajeh ,id4 pp4 #hb-hd4 ,it is noteworthy that the orthodox ,thomas1 and not any of the philosophes1 was the first to impeach the ,government in academic discourses4 ,mesnard1 pp4 #hb-hd1 #ajj sq4 #ajei ,l'excellent ,pompignan1 ,m4 ,lanson calls him1 p4 #gbc4 #ajfj ,les provisions de sa charge pendant six mois en #agcf4 ,voltaire1 ,lettre ,mme4 ,d'pinay1 #ac juin1 #agfj4 ,je le servis dans cette affaire1 adds ,voltaire4 #ajfa ,mesnard1 pp4 #fg1 #ga1 #gc1 #hi4 #ajfb ,le ,pauvre ,diable1 ouvrage en vers aiss de feu ,m4 ,vad1 mis en lumire par ,catherine ,vad1 sa cousine 7falsely dated #ageh72 ,la ,vanit2 and ,le ,russe ,paris4 #ajfc ,mesnard1 pp4 #hf-ib4 #ajfd ,id4 pp4 #ic-id4 #ajfe ,id4 pp4 #ie-if4 #ajff ,lanson1 ,hist4 de la litt4 franaise1 p4 #gbe4 #ajfg ,the formal approval of a ,sorbonnist was necessary4 ,one refused it2 another gave it4 ,marmontel1 ,mmoires1 #ahjd1 iii1 #ce-cf4 #ajfh ,marmontel mentions that while he was still discussing a compromise with the syndic of the ,sorbonne1 #dj1jjj copies had been sold throughout ,europe4 ,mmoires1 iii1 #ci4 #ajfi ,this satire was taken by the ,german freethinker ,eberhard1 in his ,new ,apology for ,socrates1 as the actual publication of the ,sorbonne4 ,barbier1 ,dict4 des ,ouvr4 anon et ,pseud41 #b;e dit41 i1 #dfh4 #ajgj ,published pseudonymously as a translation from the ,english3 ,histoire naturelle de l'me1 traduite de l',anglais de ,m4 ,charp1 par feu ,m4 ,h----1 de l',acadmie des ,sciences4 ,la ,haye1 #agde4 ,republished under the title ,trait de l'me4 #ajga ,by ,elie ,luzac1 to whom is ascribed the reply entitled ,l',homme plus que ,machine 7#agdh also74 ,this is printed in the ,o,euvres philosophiques of ,la ,mettrie as if it were his3 and ,lange 7i1 #dbj7 seems to think it was4 ,but the bibliographers ascribe it to ,luzac1 who was a man of culture and ability4 #ajgb ,l',homme ,machine1 ed4 ,asszat1 #ahfe1 p4 #ig2 ,o,euv4 philos4 ed4 #aggd1 iii1 #ea4 #ajgc ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i1 #cfb sq4 7,eng4 tr4 ii1 #gh-hj72 ,soury1 ,brviare de l'hist4 du matrialisme1 pp4 #ffc1 #fff-fh2 ,voltaire1 ,homlie sur l'athisme1 end4 ,frederick the ,great1 who gave ,la ,mettrie harbourage1 support1 and friendship1 and who was not a bad judge of men1 wrote and read in the ,berlin ,academy the funeral loge of ,la ,mettrie1 and pronounced him une me pure et un coeur serviable4 ,by pure he meant sincere4 #ajgd ,salchi1 ,lettres sur le ,disme1 #agei1 pp4 #agg1 #aig1 #bci1 #bhc sq4 #ajge ,huxley1 essay on ,darwin on the ,origin of ,species2 ,r4 ,p4 ,a4 ed4 of ,twelve ,lectures and ,essays1 p4 #id4 #ajgf ,see the parallel passages in the ,lettres ,critiques of the ,abb ,gauchat1 vol4 xv 7#agfa71 p4 #aib sq4 #ajgg ,see his essay ,des ,singularits de la ,nature1 ch4 xii1 and his ,dissertation sur les changements arrivs dans notre globe4 #ajgh ,eng4 tr4 #agej4 #ajgi ,essay cited1 p4 #if4 ,the criticism ignores the greater comprehensiveness of ,robinet's survey of nature4 #ajhj ,george-,louis ,leclerc1 ,comte de ,buffon1 #agjg-aghh4 #ajha ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology1 #abth ed4 #ahge1 i1 #eg-eh4 #ajhb ,suite de l',apologie de ,m4 l',abb ,de ,prades1 #ageb1 p4 #cg sq4 #ajhc ,dissertatio inauguralis metaphysica de universali natur systemate1 published at ,gttingen as the doctoral thesis of an imaginary ,dr4 ,baumann1 #agea4 ,in ,french1 #agec4 #ajhd ,soury1 p4 #egi4 ,the later speculations of ,maupertuis by their extravagance discredited the earlier4 #ajhe ,scheinbar bekmpft er ,maupertuis desswegen1 aber im geheimen stimmt er ihm bei7,rosenkranz1 i1 #add74 #ajhf ,it should be noted that by ,condillac's avowal he was much aided by his friend ,mdlle4 ,ferrand4 #ajhg ,cp4 ,rthor1 ,condillac1 ou l'empirisme et le rationalisme1 #ahfd1 ch4 i4 #ajhh ,lange1 ii1 #bg1 #bi2 ,soury1 pp4 #fjc-dd4 #ajhi ,soury1 pp4 #eif-fjj2 ,lange1 ii1 #bg4 #ajij ,oddly enough he became ultimately press censor6 ,he lived till #ahbj1 dying at ,rennes at the age of #he4 #ajia ,this may best be translated ,treatise on the ,mind4 ,the ,english translation of #agei 7rep4 #ahjg7 is entitled ,de l',esprit3 or1 ,essays on the ,mind1 etc4 #ajib ,correspondance1 ii1 #bfb4 #ajic ,id4 p4 #bfc4 #ajid ,id4 p4 #bic4 #ajie ,at the time the pietists declared that ,diderot had collaborated in ,de l',esprit4 ,this was denied by ,grimm1 who affirmed that ,diderot and ,helvtius were little acquainted1 and rarely met2 but his ,secretary1 ,meister1 wrote in #aghf that the finest pages in the book were ,diderot's4 ,id4 p4 #bid1 note4 ,in his sketch la mmoire de ,diderot 7#aghf1 app4 to ,naigeon's ,mmoires1 #ahba1 p4 #dbe1 note71 ,meister speaks of a number of belles pages1 but does not particularize4 #ajif ,de l',esprit1 ,disc1 iii1 ch4 #cj4 #ajig ,cp4 ,morley's criticism4 ,diderot1 ed4 #ahhd1 pp4 #cca-cb4 #ajih ,beccaria's ,letter to ,morellet1 cited in ch4 i of ,j4 ,a4 ,farrer's ed4 of the ,crimes and ,punishments1 p4 #f4 ,it is noteworthy that the partial reform effected earlier in ,england by ,oglethorpe1 on behalf of imprisoned debtors 7#agcj-cb71 belongs to the time of propagandist deism there4 #ajii ,morley1 ,diderot1 p4 #cbi4 #aajj ,lettre d',alembert1 #i janvier1 #aggc4 #aaja ,cp4 ,rosenkranz1 ,vorbericht1 p4 vi4 #aajb ,cp4 ,morley1 ,diderot1 ed4 #ahcd1 p4 #cb4 #aajc ,e4g4 #ba4 #aajd ,a police agent seized the ,,ms4 in ,diderot's library1 and ,diderot could not get it back4 ,malesherbes1 the censor1 kept it safe for him6 #aaje ,according to ,naigeon 7,mmoires1 #ahba1 p4 #aca71 three months and ten days4 #aajf ,the ,lettre purports1 like so many other books of that and the next generation1 to be published ,a ,londres4 #aajg ,diderot's daughter1 in her memoir of him1 speaks of his imprisonment in the ,bastille as brought about through the resentment of a lady of whom he had spoken slightingly2 and her husband left a statement in ,,ms4 to the same effect 7printed at the end of the ,mmoires by ,naigeon74 ,the lady is named as ,madame ,dupr de ,saint-,maur1 a mistress of the ,king1 and the offence is said to have been committed in the story entitled ,le ,pigeon blanc4 ,howsoever this may have been1 the prosecution was quite in the spirit of the period1 and the earlier ,penses were made part of the case against him4 ,see ,delort1 ,hist4 de la dtention des philosophes1 #ahbi1 ii1 #bjh-af4 ,m4 de ,vandeul-,diderot testifies that the ,marquis ,du ,chatelet1 ,governor of ,vincennes1 treated his prisoner very kindly4 ,buckle 7#a-vol4 ed4 p4 #dbe7 does not seem to have fully read the ,lettre1 which he describes as merely discussing the differentiation of thought and sensation among the blind4 #aajh ,his friend ,meister 7 la mmoire de ,diderot1 #aghf1 app4 to ,naigeon's ,mmoires de ,diderot1 #ahba1 p4 #dbd7 writes as if ,diderot had written the whole ,apologie in a few days4 ,the third part1 a reply to the pastoral of the ,bishop of ,auxerre1 appeared separately as a ,suite to the others4 #aaji ,apologie1 as cited1 #b;e partie1 p4 #hg sq4 #aaaj ,observations sur l'instruction pastorale de ,mons4 l'vque d',auxerre1 ,berlin1 #ageb1 p4 #ag4 #aaaa ,id4 p4 #ajb sq4 #aaab ,cp4 ,morley1 ,diderot1 pp4 #ih-ii4 #aaac ,carlyle1 ,frederick1 bk4 xviii1 ch4 ix1 end4 #aaad ,d',argenson1 ,mmoires1 iv1 #ahh4 #aaae ,carlyle1 as cited4 #aaaf ,quelle abominable homme6 he writes to ,mdlle4 ,voland 7#ae juillet1 #agei72 and ,lord ,morley pronounces de ,prades a rascal 7,diderot1 p4 #ih74 ,carlyle is inarticulate with disgust--but as much against the original heresy as against the treason to ,frederick4 ,as to that1 ,thibault was convinced that de ,prades was innocent and calumniated4 ,everybody at court1 he declares1 held the same view4 ,mes ,souvenirs de vingt ans de sjour ,berlin1 #b;e dit4 #ahje1 v1 #djb-djd4 #aaag ,it is not clear how these are to be distinguished from the mutilations of the later volumes by his treacherous publisher ,le ,breton4 ,of this treachery the details are given by ,grimm1 ,corr4 litt4 ed4 #ahbi4 vii1 #add sq4 #aaah ,buckle's account of him 7#a-vol4 ed4 p4 #dbf7 as burning with hatred against his persecutors after his imprisonment is overdrawn4 ,he was a poor hater4 #aaai ,madame ,diderot1 says her daughter1 was very upright as well as very religious1 but her temper1 ternellement grondeur1 faisait de notre intrieur un enfer1 dont mon pre tait l'ange consolateur 7,letter to ,meister1 in ,notice pref4 to ,lettres ,indites de ,mme4 de ,stal ,henri ,meister1 #aijc1 p4 #fb74 #aabj ,hlas6 disait mon excellent grand-pre1 j'ai deux fils3 l'un sera srement un saint1 et je crains bien que l'autre ne soit damn2 mais je ne puis vivre avec le saint1 et je suis trs heureux du temps que je passe avec le damn 7,letter of ,mme4 de ,vandeul1 last cited74 ,freethinker as he was1 his fellow-townsmen officially requested in #aghj to be allowed to pay for a portrait of him for public exhibition1 and the bronze bust he sent them was placed in the htel de ville 7,,ms4 of ,m4 de ,vandeul-,diderot1 as cited74 #aaba ,madame de ,vandeul states that this story was motived by the case of ,diderot's sister1 who died mad at the age of #bg or #bh 7,letter above cited2 ,rosenkranz1 i1 #i74 #aabb ,lettre de ,voltaire ,d',alembert1 #bg aot1 #aggd4 #aabc ,lettre de #b dcembre1 #ageg4 #aabd ,o,euvres posthumes de ,d',alembert1 #agii1 i1 #bdj4 #aabe ,d',holbach was the original of the character of ,wolmar in ,rousseau's ,nouvelle ,hlose1 of whom ,julie says that he does good without recompense4 ,i never saw a man more simply simple was the verdict of ,madame ,geoffrin4 ,corr4 litt4 de ,grimm 7notice probably by ,meister71 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 xiv1 #bia4 #aabf ,marmontel says of him that he avoit tout lu et n'avoit jamais rien oubli d'interessant4 ,mmoires1 #ahjd1 ii1 #cab4 #aabg ,see a full list of his works 7compiled by ,julian ,hibbert after the list given in the #ahba ed4 of ,diderot's ,works1 xii1 #aae1 and rep4 in the #ahbi-ca ed4 of ,grimm and ,diderot's ,correspondance1 xiv1 #bic71 prefixed to ,watson's ed4 7#ahcd and later7 of the ,english translation of the ,system of ,nature4 #aabh ,morley1 ,diderot1 p4 #cda4 ,the chapter gives a good account of the book4 ,cp4 ,lange1 i1 #cfd sq4 7,eng4 trans1 ii1 #bf sq47 as to its materialism4 ,the best pages were said to be by ,diderot 7,corr4 de ,grimm1 as cited1 p4 #bhi2 the statement of ,meister1 who makes it also in his loge74 ,naigeon denied that ,diderot had any part in the ,systme1 but in #ahbj there was published an edition with notes and corrections by ,diderot4 #aabi ,it is to be noted that the ,english translation 7#c vols4 #crd ed4 #ahag2 #dth ed4 #ahbj7 deliberately tampers with the language of the original to the extent of making it deistic4 ,this perversion has been by oversight preserved in all the reprints4 #aacj ,mirabeau spoke of the ,essai as le livre le moins connu1 et celui qui mrite le plus l'tre4 ,even the reprint of #agic had become extremely rare in #ahbb4 ,the book seems to have been specially disquieting to orthodoxy1 and was hunted down accordingly4 #aaca ,so ,morley1 p4 #cdg4 ,it does not occur to ,lord ,morley1 and to the ,comtists who take a similar tone1 that in thus disparaging past thinkers they are really doing the thing they blame4 #aacb ,lettres de ,memmius ,cicron 7#agga72 ,histoire de ,jenni 7#agge74 ,in the earlier article1 ,athe1 in the ,dictionnaire ,philosophique1 he speaks of having met in ,france very good physicists who were atheists4 ,in his letter of ,september #bf1 #aggj1 to ,madame ,necker1 he writes concerning the ,systme de la ,nature3 ,il est un peu honteux notre nation que tant de gens aient embrass si vite une opinion si ridicule4 ,and yet ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,sloane1 of ,columbia ,university1 still writes of ,voltaire1 in the manner of ,english bishops1 as atheistical 7,the ,french ,revolution and ,religious ,reform1 #aija1 p4 #bf74 #aacc ,though in #agig we have ,marchal's ,code d'une ,socit d'hommes sans ,dieu1 and in #agih his ,penses libres sur les prtres4 #aacd ,thus ,dr4 ,cairns 7,unbelief in the ,eighteenth ,century1 p4 #afe7 gravely argues that the ,french ,revolution proves the inefficacy of theism without a ,trinity to control conduct4 ,he has omitted to compare the theistic bloodshed of the ,revolution with the ,trinitarian bloodshed of the ,crusades1 the papal suppression of the ,albigenses1 the ,hussite wars1 and other orthodox undertakings4 #aace ,the book was accorded the ,monthyon prize by the ,french ,academy4 ,in translation 7#aghh7 it found a welcome in ,england among ,churchmen by reason of its pro-,christian tone and its general vindication of religious institutions4 ,the translation was the work of ,mary ,wollstonecraft4 ,see ,kegan ,paul's ,william ,godwin1 #ahgf1 i1 #aic4 ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 the friend of ,burns1 recommending its perusal to the poet1 paid it a curious compliment3 ,he does not write like a sectary1 hardly like a ,christian1 but yet while ,i read him1 ,i like better my ,god1 my neighbour1 ,monsieur ,necker1 and myself4 ,robert ,burns and ,mrs4 ,dunlop1 ed4 by ,w4 ,wallace1 #ahih1 p4 #beh4 #aacf ,see ,voltaire's letters to ,madame ,necker1 ,corr4 de ,grimm1 ed4 #ahbi1 vii1 #bc1 #aah4 ,of the lady1 ,grimm writes 7p4 #aah73 ,hypathie ,necker passe sa vie avec des systmatiques1 mais elle est devote sa manire4 ,elle voudrait tre sincrement hugenote1 ou socinienne1 ou distique1 ou plutt1 pour tre quelque chose1 elle prend le parti de ne se rendre compte sur rien4 ,hypathie was ,voltaire's complimentary name for her4 #aacg ,cp4 ,aulard1 ,le ,culte de la ,raison et le ,culte de l'tre ,suprme1 #ahib1 pp4 #ag-ai4 ,m4 ,gazier 7tudes sur l'histoire religieuse de la rvolution franaise1 #ahgg1 pp4 #dh1 #agc1 #ahi sq47 speaks somewhat loosely of a prevailing anti-,christian feeling when actually citing only isolated instances1 and giving proofs of a general orthodoxy4 ,yet he points out the complete misconception of ,thiers on the subject 7p4 #bjb74 #aach ,cp4 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,sloane1 ,the ,french ,revolution and ,religious ,reform1 p4 #dc4 #aaci ,gazier1 as cited1 pp4 #b1 #d1 #ab1 #ai-ba1 #ga1 etc4 #aadj ,les ,assembles ,provinciales sous ,louis ,,xvi1 #ahfd1 pref4 pp4 viii-ix4 #aada ,gazier1 ,l4 ii1 ch4 i4 #aadb ,id4 p4 #fg4 #aadc ,id4 p4 #fi4 #aadd ,lonce de ,lavergne1 as cited4 #aade ,the authority of ,turgot himself could be cited for the demand that the ,state clergy should accept the constitution of the ,state4 ,cp4 ,aulard1 ,le ,culte de la ,raison1 p4 #ab2 ,tissot1 tude sur ,turgot1 #ahgh1 p4 #afj4 #aadf ,gazier1 p4 #aac4 #aadg ,aulard1 ,culte1 pp4 #ai-bj4 #aadh ,michelet1 ,hist4 de la rvolution franaise1 ed4 #hvo #ahfh and later1 i1 #af4 ,cp4 ,proudhon's ,de la justice1 #aheh4 #aadi ,tout jugement religieux ou politique est une contradiction flagrante dans une religion uniquement fonde sur un dogme tranger la justice4 ,ed4 cited1 introd4 p4 #fj4 #aaej ,the grave misstatement of ,michelet on this head is exposed by ,aulard1 ,culte1 p4 #fj4 #aaea ,yet it is customary among ,christians to speak of this lady in the most opprobrious terms4 ,the royalist 7but malcontent7 ,marquis de ,villeneuve1 who had seen the ,revolution in his youth1 claimed in his old age to have afterwards conversed with the ,goddess ,reason of ,paris and with the ,goddess ,reason of ,bourges 7where he became governor72 but1 though he twice alludes to those women1 he says nothing whatever against their characters 7,de l',agonie de la ,france1 #ahce1 i1 #c1 #ai74 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,sloane1 with all his religious prejudice1 is satisfied that the women chosen as ,goddesses of ,reason outside of ,paris were noted for their spotless character4 ,work cited1 p4 #aih4 #aaeb ,mmoires1 ed4 #ahda1 ii1 #aff4 #aaec ,pre ,f4-,j4-,f4 ,fortin1 ,souvenirs1 ,auxerre1 #ahfg1 ii1 #da4 #aaed ,see the speech in ,aulard1 ,culte1 p4 #bdj2 and cp4 pp4 #gi-he4 #aaee ,le peuple aura des ftes dans lesquelles il offrira de l'encens l'tre ,suprme1 au matre de la nature1 car nous n'avons pas voulu anantir la superstition pour tablir le rgne de l'athisme4 ,speech of ,nov4 #bf1 #agic1 in the ,moniteur4 7,discours de ,danton1 ed4 ,andr ,fribourg1 #aiaj1 p4 #eii47 #aaef ,aulard1 ,culte1 pp4 #ha-hb4 #aaeg ,concerning whom see ,aulard1 ,culte1 pp4 #hf-if4 #aaeh ,the ,source1 the ,strength1 and the ,true ,spirit of ,laws1 ,eng4 tr4 #agec1 p4 #f4 #aaei ,e4g41 in the ,arrt du ,parlement of #i juin1 #agfb1 denouncing ,rousseau's mile as tending to make the royal authority odious and to destroy the principle of obedience2 and in the ,examen du ,bllisaire de ,m4 ,marmontel1 by ,coger 7,nouv4 d4 augm4 #agfg1 p4 #de sq4 ,cp4 ,marmontel's ,mmoires1 #ahjd1 iii1 #df1 as to his being called ennemi du trne et de l'autel74 ,this kind of invective was kept up against the philosophes to the moment of the ,revolution4 ,see for instance ,le vrai religieux1 ,discours ddi ,madame ,louise de ,france1 par le ,r4 ,p4 ,c4 ,a4 #aghg1 p4 #d3 ,une philosophie orgueilleuse a renvers les limites sacres que la main du ,trs-,haut avoit elle-mme leves4 ,la raison de l'homme a os sonder les dcrets de ,dieu4444 ,dans les accs de son ivresse1 n'a-t-elle pas sap les fondemens du trne et des lois1 etc4 #aafj ,cp4 the admissions of ,curnier 7,rivarol1 sa vie et ses oeuvres1 #aheh1 p4 #adi7 in deprecation of ,burke's wild likening of ,rivarol's journalism to the ,annals of ,tacitus4 #aafa ,o,euvres1 ed4 cited1 pp4 #acf-dj1 #adg-ee4 #aafb ,cp4 the critique of ,sainte-,beuve1 prefixed to ed4 cited1 pp4 #ad-ag1 and that of ,arsne ,houssaye1 id4 pp4 #ca-cc4 ,mr4 ,saintsbury1 though biassed to the side of the royalist1 admits that ,rivarol hardly knows what sincerity is 7,miscellaneous ,essays1 #ahib1 p4 #fg74 #aafc ,charles ,comte is thus partly inaccurate in saying 7,trait de ,lgislation1 #ahce1 i1 #gb7 that the charge against the philosophers began on the day on which there was set up a government in ,france that sought to re-establish the abuses of which they had sought the destruction4 ,what is true is that the charge1 framed at once by the backers of the ,old ,rgime1 has always since done duty for reaction4 #aafd ,mmoires1 ed4 ,jannet1 iii1 #cac2 iv1 #gj2 v1 #cdf1 #cdh4 #aafe ,id4 iii1 #cdf-dg4 #aaff ,d',argenson1 noting in his old age how on n'a jamais autant parl de nation et d'tat qu'aujourd'hui1 how no such talk had been heard under ,louis ,,xiv1 and how he himself had developed on the subject1 adds1 cela vient du parlement et des ,anglois4 ,he goes on to speak of a reissue of the translation of ,locke on ,civil ,government1 originally made by the ,jansenists 7,mmoires1 iv1 #ahi-ij74 #aafg ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 ed4 #ahgb1 iii1 #afj-fc4 #aafh ,o,euvres diverses de ,pierre ,bayle1 ,la ,haye1 #d vols4 fol4 #agcg1 ii1 #efd sq4 #aafi ,this ,critique appears in the very volume to which ,coger refers for the ,avis aux ,rfugiz4 ,see ,lett4 viii1 xiii1 xvii1 etc41 vol4 and ed4 cited1 pp4 #cf1 #ed1 #ga1 etc4 #aagj ,cp4 the survey of ,aulard1 ,hist4 polit4 de la rv4 franaise1 #b;e dit4 #aijc1 pp4 #b-bc4 #aaga ,probably the work of a ,jansenist4 #aagb ,on the whole question of the growth of abstract revolutionary doctrine in politics cp4 ,w4 ,s4 ,mc,kechnie on the ,de ,jure ,regni apud ,scotos in the ,george ,buchanan vol4 of ,glasgow ,quatercentenary ,studies1 #aijf1 pp4 #bef-gf2 ,gierke1 ,political ,theories of the ,middle ,ages1 ,maitland's tr4 #aijj1 p4 #cg sq4 #aagc ,mallet actually reproaches the philosophes in the mass--while admitting the hostility of many of them to the ,revolution--with having accelerated ,french degeneration and depravation 444 by rendering the conscience argumentative 7raisonneuse71 by substituting for duties inculcated by sentiment1 tradition1 and habit1 the uncertain rules of the human reason and sophisms adapted to passions1 etc41 etc4 7,b4 ,mallet1 as cited1 p4 #cfj74 ,with all his natural vigour of mind1 ,mallet du ,pan thus came to talk the language of the ordinary irrationalist of the ,reaction4 ,certainly1 if the stimulation of the habit of reasoning be a destructive course1 the philosophes stand condemned4 ,but as ,christians had been reasoning as best they could1 in an eternal series of vain disputes1 for a millennium and a-half before the ,revolution1 with habitual appeal to the passions1 the argument only proves how vacuous a ,christian champion's reasoning can be4 #aagd ,art4 in ,mercure ,britannique1 ,no4 #ac1 ,feb4 #ba1 #agii2 cited by ,b4 ,mallet in ,mallet du ,pan and the ,french ,revolution1 #aijb1 ,app4 p4 #ceg4 #aage ,id4 p4 #cei4 #aagf ,tableau littraire du dix-huitime sicle1 #h;e dit4 pp4 #aab1 #aac4 #aagg ,id4 p4 #gb4 #aagh ,work cited1 p4 #ceh4 #aagi ,id4 p4 #cei4 #aahj ,cp4 ,morley1 ,diderot1 p4 #djg4 ,lord ,morley points to the phrase in another form in a letter of ,voltaire's in #agfa4 ,it really derives from ,jean ,meslier1 who quotes it from an unlettered man 7,testament1 i4 #ai74 #aaha ,rosenkranz1 ,diderot's ,leben und ,werke1 #ahff1 ii1 #chj-ha4 #aahb ,as ,lord ,morley points out1 ,henri ,martin absolutely reverses the purport of a passage in order to convict ,diderot of justifying regicide4 #aahc ,mmoires1 ed4 ,jannet1 iv1 #dd1 #ea1 #fh1 #fi1 #gd1 #ia1 #ic1 #aja1 #ajc4 #aahd ,mallet du ,pan says he saw the ,,ms41 and knew ,diderot to have received #aj1jjj livres tournois for his additions4 ,this statement is incredible4 ,but ,meister is explicit1 in his loge1 as to ,diderot having written for the book much that he thought nobody would sign1 whereas ,raynal was ready to sign anything4 #aahe ,memoirs of ,sir ,samuel ,romilly1 #crd ed4 #ahda1 i1 #df4 #aahf ,when ,d',argenson writes in #ageb 7,mmoires1 d4 ,jannet1 iv1 #ajc7 that he hears only philosophes say1 as if convinced1 that even anarchy would be better than the existing misgovernment1 he makes no suggestion that they teach this4 ,and he declares for his own part that everything is drifting to ruin3 nulle rformation 444 nulle amlioration4444 ,tout tombe1 par lambeaux4 #aahg ,aulard1 ,hist4 polit4 de la rvol4 p4 #bd4 #aahh ,this is the sufficient comment on a perplexing page of ,lord ,morley's second monograph on ,burke 7pp4 #aaj-aa71 which ,i have never been able to reconcile with the rest of his writing4 #aahi ,lecky1 ,hist4 of ,england in the ,eighteenth ,century1 small ed4 vi1 #bfc4 #aaij ,d',argenson notes this repeatedly1 though in one passage he praises the ,parlement as having alone made head against absolutism 7dc4 #ageb2 ed4 cited1 iv1 #aaf74 #aaia ,maximes et ,penses1 ed4 #ahef1 p4 #gb4 #aaib ,id4 pp4 #gc-gd4 #aaic ,chamfort in another passage maintains against ,soulavie that the ,academy did much to develop the spirit of freedom in thought and politics4 ,id4 p4 #ajg4 ,and this too is arguable1 as we have seen4 #aaid ,on this complicated issue1 which cannot be here handled at any further length1 see ,prof4 ,p4 ,a4 ,wadia's essay ,the ,philosophers and the ,french ,revolution 7,social ,science ,series1 #aijd71 which1 however1 needs revision2 and compare the argument of ,nourrisson1 ,j4-,j4 ,rousseau et le ,rousseauisme1 #aijc1 ch4 xx4 #aaie ,correspondance de ,grimm1 ed4 cited1 xiv1 #e-f4 ,lettre de janv4 #aghh4 #aaif ,lettre de ,voltaire ,d',alembert1 #bg aot1 #aggd4 #aaig ,histoire du mariage des prtres en ,france1 par ,m4 ,grgoire1 ancien vque de ,blois1 #ahbf1 p4 v4 ,compare the details in the ,appendice to the ,etudes of ,m4 ,gazier1 before cited4 ,that writer's account is the more decisive seeing that his bias is clerical1 and that1 writing before ,m4 ,aulard1 he had to a considerable extent retained the old illusion as to the decreeing of atheism by the ,convention 7p4 #cac74 ,see pp4 #bcj-bfj as to the readjustment effected by ,grgoire1 while the conservative clergy were still striving to undo the ,revolution4 #aaih ,heroes and ,hero-,worship3 ,napoleon4 #aaii ,see the ,sentiments de ,napolon sur le ,christianisme3 conversations recueillies ,sainte-,hlne par le ,comte de ,montholon1 #ahda4 ,many of the utterances here set forth are irreconcilable with ,napoleon's general tone4 #abjj ,o',meara1 ,napolon en ,exil1 ed4 ,lacroix1 #ahig1 ii1 #ci4 #abja ,ph4 ,gonnard1 ,les origines de la lgende ,napolonienne1 #aijf1 p4 #beh4 #abjb ,id4 p4 #bfj4 #abjc ,pasquier1 cited by ,rose1 ,life of ,napoleon1 ed4 #aiac1 i1 #bhb4 ,the ,concordat was bitterly resented by the freethinkers in the army4 ,id4 p4 #bha4 #abjd ,see ,jules ,barni's ,napolon ,ier4 ed4 #ahgj1 p4 #hc1 as to the amazing ,catechism imposed by ,napoleon on ,france in #ahaa4 ,for the history of its preparation and imposition see ,de ,labone1 ,paris sous ,napolon3 ,la ,religion1 #aijg1 p4 #ajj sq4 #abje ,as to the ,napoleonic censorship of literature1 cp4 ,madame de ,stal1 ,considrations sur la rvolution franaise1 ptie4 iv1 ch4 #af2 ,dix ,annes d',exil1 prf42 ,welschinger1 ,la ,censure sous le premier ,empire1 #ahhb4 #abjf ,las ,cases1 ,mmorial de ,sainte-,hlne1 #ai aot1 #ahaf4 #abjg ,mignet1 ,hist4 de la rvolution franaise1 #d;e dit4 ii1 #cdj4 #abjh ,cp4 ,pusey1 ,histor4 ,enquiry into the ,probable ,causes of the ,rationalist ,character 444 of the ,theology of ,germany1 #ahbh1 p4 #gi4 #abji ,bishop ,hurst1 ,history of ,rationalism1 ed4 #ahfg1 p4 #ef4 #abaj ,id4 pp4 #eg-eh 7last ed4 pp4 #gd-gf71 citing ,tholuck1 ,deutsche ,universitten1 i1 #ade-dh1 and ,dowding1 ,life of ,calixtus1 pp4 #acb-cc4 #abaa ,pusey1 p4 #aac4 #abab ,hurst1 p4 #ei4 #abac ,cp4 ,buckle1 #a-vol4 ed4 pp4 #cjc-cji4 ,the result of the ,thirty ,years' ,war was indifference1 not only to the ,confession1 but to religion in general4 ,ever since that period1 secular interests decidedly occupy the foreground 7,kahnis1 ,internal ,history of ,german ,protestantism1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahef1 p4 #ba74 #abad ,quoted by ,bishop ,hurst1 ed4 cited1 p4 #fj 7#gh74 #abae ,preservatio wider die ,pest der heutigen ,atheisten4 #abaf ,dated from ,rome2 but this was a mystification4 #abag ,kahnis1 p4 #abe2 ,la ,croze1 ,entretiens1 #agaa1 p4 #dja4 #abah ,even ,knutzen seems to have been influenced by ,spinoza4 ,pnjer1 ,hist4 of the ,christ4 ,philos4 of ,religion1 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #dcg4 ,pnjer1 however1 seems to have exaggerated the connection4 #abai ,cp4 ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 #cte ,aufl4 i1 #cah 7,eng4 tr4 ii1 #ce74 #abbj ,epistol ad ,spinozam et ,responsiones1 in ,gfrrer1 liii4 #abba ,colerus1 ,vie de ,spinoza1 in ,gfrrer's ed4 of the ,opera1 #ahcj1 pp4 lv1 lvi4 #abbb ,pnjer1 as cited1 i1 #dcd-cj3 ,lange1 last cit4 ,lange notes that ,genthe's ,compendium de impostura religionum1 which has been erroneously assigned to the sixteenth century1 must belong to the period of ,kortholt's work4 #abbc ,pnjer1 p4 #dci2 ,lange1 last cit42 ,tholuck1 ,kirch4 ,leben1 #b ,abth4 pp4 #eg-eh4 #abbd ,it was nominally issued at ,amsterdam1 really at ,berlin4 #abbe ,this writer gives 7p4 #ab7 a notable list of the forms of atheism3 ,atheismus directus1 indirectus1 formalis1 virtualis1 theoreticus1 practicus1 inchoatus1 consummatus1 subtilis1 crassus1 privativus1 negativus1 and so on1 ad lib4 #abbf ,cp4 ,buckle and his ,critics1 pp4 #aga-gb2 ,pnjer1 i1 #eae4 #abbg ,letter cited by ,dr4 ,latta4 ,leibniz1 #ahih1 p4 #b1 note4 #abbh ,philos4 ,schriften1 ed4 ,gerhardt1 i1 #bf2 ,martineau1 ,study of ,spinoza1 p4 #gg4 #abbi ,letter to ,thomas1 ,december #bc1 #afgj4 #abcj ,quoted by ,tholuck1 as last cited1 p4 #fa4 ,spener took the same tone4 #abca ,philos4 ,schriften1 ed4 ,gerhardt1 i1 #cd2 ii1 #efc2 ,latta1 p4 #bd2 ,martineau1 p4 #ge4 ,cp4 ,refutation of ,spinoza by ,leibnitz1 ed4 by ,foucher de ,careil4 ,eng4 tr4 #ahee4 #abcb ,his notable surmise as to gradation of species 7see ,latta1 pp4 #ch-ci7 was taken up among the ,french materialists1 but did not then modify current science4 #abcc ,the only lengthy treatise published by him in his lifetime4 #abcd ,m4 ,a4 ,jacques1 intr4 to ,o,euvres de ,leibniz1 #ahdf1 i1 #ed-eg4 #abce ,cp4 ,tholuck1 ,das kirchliche ,leben1 as cited1 #b ,abth4 pp4 #eb-ee4 ,kahnis1 coinciding with ,erdmann1 pronounces that1 although ,leibnitz acknowledges the ,god of the ,christian faith1 yet his system assigned to ,him a very uncertain position only 7,int4 ,hist4 of ,ger4 ,protestantism1 p4 #bf74 #abcf ,cp4 ,pnjer1 i1 #eji1 as to his attitude on ritual4 #abcg ,latta1 as cited1 p4 #af2 ,vie de ,leibnitz1 par ,de ,jaucourt1 in ed4 #agdg of the ,essais de ,thodice1 i1 #bce-ci4 #abch ,as to his virtual deism see ,pnjer1 i1 #eac-ae4 ,but he proposed to send ,christian missionaries to the heathen4 ,tholuck1 as last cited1 p4 #ee4 #abci ,lettres entre ,leibnitz et ,clarke4 #abdj ,discours de la conformit de la foi avec la raison1 #fh-gj2 ,essais sur la bont de ,dieu1 etc41 #ej1 #fa1 #afd1 #ahj1 #bib-ic4 #abda ,the ,nouveaux ,essais sur l',entendement humain1 refuting ,locke1 appeared posthumously in #agfe4 ,locke had treated his theistic critic with contempt4 7,latta1 p4 #ac47 #abdb ,amand ,saintes1 ,hist4 crit4 du ,rationalisme en ,allemagne1 #ahda1 ch4 vi2 ,heinrich ,schmid1 ,die ,geschichte des ,pietismus1 #ahfc1 ch4 ii4 #abdc ,saintes1 p4 #ea2 cp4 ,pusey1 p4 #aje1 as to the want of resistance from the school of ,pietists to the subsequent invasion of unbelief4 #abdd ,hagenbach1 ,german ,rationalism1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfe1 p4 #i4 #abde ,id4 p4 #ci2 ,pusey1 ,histor4 ,enquiry into the ,causes of ,german ,rationalism1 #ahbh1 pp4 #hh1 #ig2 ,tholuck1 ,abriss einer ,geschichte des ,umwlzung 444 seit #agej auf dem ,gebiete der ,theologie in ,deutschland1 in ,vermischte ,schriften1 #ahci1 ii1 #e4 #abdf ,pusey1 pp4 #hf1 #hg1 #ih4 #abdg ,cp4 ,pusey1 pp4 #cg-ch1 #de1 #dh1 #di1 #ec-ed1 #gi1 #aja-aji2 ,saintes1 pp4 #bh1 #gi-hj2 ,hagenbach1 pp4 #da1 #gb1 #aje4 #abdh ,pusey1 p4 #aaj4 ,cp4 ,saintes1 ch4 vi4 #abdi ,das kirchliche ,leben1 as cited1 #b ,abth4 p4 #eh4 #abej ,id4 pp4 #ef-eg4 #abea ,vol4 i1 p4 #f4 #abeb ,h4 ,luden1 ,christian ,thomasius nach seinen ,schicksalen und ,schriften dargestellt1 #ahje1 p4 #g4 #abec ,cp4 ,schmid1 ,geschichte des ,pietismus1 pp4 #dhf-hh4 #abed ,pufendorf's bulky treatise ,de ,jure ,natur et ,gentium was published at ,lund1 where he was professor1 in #afgb4 ,the shorter ,de ,officio hominis et civis 7also ,lund1 #afgc7 is a condensation and partly a vindication of the other1 and this it was that convinced ,thomasius4 ,as to ,pufendorf's part in the transition from theological to rational moral philosophy1 see ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 iv1 #aga-gh4 ,he is fairly to be bracketed with ,cumberland2 but ,hallam hardly recognizes that it was the challenge of ,hobbes that forced the change4 #abee ,freimthige1 lustige und ernsthafte1 jedoch vernunft- und gesetzmssige ,gedanken1 oder ,monatgesprche ber allerhand1 vornehmlich ber neue ,bcher4 ,there had been an earlier ,acta ,eruditorum1 in ,latin1 published at ,leipzig1 and a ,french ,ephemerides savantes1 ,hamburg1 #afhf4 ,other ,german and ,french periodicals soon followed that of ,thomasius4 ,luden1 p4 #afb4 #abef ,schmid1 pp4 #dhh-ib1 gives a sketch of some of the contents4 #abeg ,pusey1 p4 #hf1 note4 ,it is surprising that ,pusey does not make more account of ,thomasius's naturalistic treatment of polygamy and suicide1 which he showed to be not criminal in terms of natural law4 #abeh ,compare ,weber1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,lit4 #ha 7ed4 #ahhj1 pp4 #ij-ia72 ,pusey1 as cited1 p4 #aad4 note2 ,enfield's ,hist4 of ,philos4 7abst4 of ,brucker's ,hist4 crit4 philos471 #ahdj4 pp4 #faj-fab2 ,ueberweg1 ii1 #aae2 and ,schlegel's note in ,reid's ,mosheim1 p4 #gij1 with ,karl ,hillebrand1 ,six ,lect4 on the ,hist4 of ,german ,thought1 #ahhj1 pp4 #fd-fe4 ,there is a modern monograph by ,a4 ,nicoladoni1 ,christian ,thomasius2 ein ,beitrag zur ,geschichte der ,aufklrung1 #ahhh4 #abei ,baron de ,bielfeld1 ,progrs des ,allemands1 #c;e d4 #agfg1 i1 #bd4 ,before ,thomasius1 writes ,bielfeld1 an old woman could not have red eyes without running the risk of being accused of witchcraft and burned at the stake4 #abfj ,schmid1 pp4 #dic-ig4 ,thomasius's principal writings on this theme were3 ,vom ,recht evangelischen ,frsten in ,mitteldingen 7#afib72 ,vom ,recht evangelischen ,frsten in theologischen ,streitigkeiten 7#afif72 ,vom ,recht evangelischen ,frsten gegen ,ketzer 7#afig74 #abfa ,ec4 ,hist4 #ag ,cent4 sect4 ii1 pt4 ii1 ch4 i1 #aa1 #ad4 ,it is noteworthy that the ,pietists at ,halle did not scruple to ally themselves for a time with ,thomasius1 he being opposed to the orthodox party4 ,kahnis1 ,internal ,hist4 of ,ger4 ,protestantism1 p4 #aad4 #abfb ,pusey1 as cited1 p4 #aba4 ,cp4 p4 #aac4 #abfc ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte des #ah4 und #ai4 ,jahrh41 #bte ,aufl4 i1 #afd4 7,this matter is not in the abridged translation47 #abfd ,see the furious account of him by ,mosheim1 #ag ,c4 sec4 ii1 pt4 ii1 ch4 i1 #cc4 #abfe ,hagenbach1 last cit4 p4 #afi4 #abff ,noack1 ,die ,freidenker in der ,religion1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #a2 ,bruno ,bauer1 ,einfluss des englischen ,qukerthums auf die deutsche ,cultur und auf das englisch-russische ,projekt einer ,weltkirche1 #ahgh1 pp4 #da-dd4 #abfg ,pref4 to ,french tr4 of the ,meditationes1 #aggj1 pp4 xii-xvii4 ,lau died in #agdj4 #abfh ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 as cited1 p4 #aj4 #abfi ,trans4 in ,english1 #agej4 #abgj ,hagenbach1 tr4 pp4 #ce-cf2 ,saintes1 p4 #fa2 ,kahnis1 as cited1 p4 #aad4 #abga ,hagenbach1 pp4 #cg-ci4 ,it is to be observed 7,tholuck1 ,abriss1 p4 #bc7 that the ,wolffian philosophy was reinstated in ,prussia by royal mandate in #agci1 a year before the accession of ,frederick the ,great4 ,but we know that ,frederick championed him4 #abgb ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 as cited1 p4 #e4 #abgc ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 as cited1 p4 #f4 #abgd ,kahnis1 p4 #ee4 #abge ,pnjer1 i1 #edd4 ,cp4 ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 pp4 #ai-bb4 #abgf ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 p4 #bb4 ,schmid was for a time supposed to be the author of the ,wolfenbttel ,fragments of ,reimarus 7below1 p4 #cbg74 #abgg ,unpartheyische ,kirchen- und ,ketzerhistorie1 #afii-agjj1 #b tom4 fol4--fuller ed4 #c tom4 fol4 #agdj4 ,compare ,mosheim's angry account of it with ,murdock's note in defence3 ,reid's ed4 p4 #hjd4 ,bruno ,bauer describes it as epoch-making 7,einfluss des englischen ,qukerthums1 p4 #db74 ,this history had a great influence on ,goethe in his teens1 leading him1 he says1 to the conviction that he1 like so many other men1 should have a religion of his own1 which he goes on to describe4 ,it was a re-hash of ,gnosticism4 7,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,b4 viii2 ,werke1 ed4 #ahff1 xi1 #cdd sq47 #abgh ,cp4 ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #aga3 ,pnjer1 i1 #bgi4 #abgi ,die ,gttlichkeit der ,vernunft4 #abhj ,noack1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #b3 ,saintes1 pp4 #he-hf2 ,pnjer1 p4 #ddb4 ,it is interesting to find ,edelmann supplying a formula latterly utilized by the so-called ,new ,theology in ,england--the thesis that the reality of everything which exists is ,god1 and that there can therefore be no atheists1 since he who recognizes the universe recognizes ,god4 #abha ,naigeon1 by altering the words of ,diderot1 caused him to appear one of the exceptions2 but he was not4 ,see ,rosenkranz1 ,diderot's ,leben und ,werke4 ,vorb4 p4 vii4 #abhb ,kahnis1 pp4 #abh-bi4 ,edelmann's ,life was written by ,pratje4 ,historische ,nachrichten von ,edelmann's ,leben1 #agee4 ,it gives a list of replies to his writings 7p4 #bje sq474 ,apropos of the first issue of ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu1 a volume of ,erinnerungen of ,edelmann was published at ,clausthal in #ahci by ,w4 ,elster2 and ,strauss in his ,dogmatik avowed the pleasure with which he had made the acquaintance of so interesting a writer4 ,a collection of extracts from ,edelmann's works1 entitled ,der neu erffnete ,edelmann1 was published at ,bern in #ahdg2 and the ,unschuldige ,wahrheiten was reprinted in #ahdf4 ,his ,autobiography1 written in #ageb1 was published in #ahdi4 #abhc ,betrachtungen ber die vornehmsten ,wahrheiten der ,religion4 ,another apologetic work of the period marked by rational moderation and tolerance was the ,vertheidigten ,glauben der ,christen of the ,berlin court-preacher ,a4 ,w4 ,f4 ,sack 7#aged74 #abhd ,art4 by ,wagenmann in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie4 #abhe ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #cee4 #abhf ,pnjer1 i1 #edb4 #abhg ,kurz1 ,hist4 of the ,christian ,church from the ,reformation1 ,eng4 tr4 ii1 #bgd4 ,a ,jesuit1 ,a4 ,merz1 wrote four replies to ,jerusalem4 ,one was entitled ,frag ob durch die biblische ,simplicitt allein ein ,freydenker oder ,deist bekehret 444 werden knne 7,can a ,freethinker or ,deist be converted by ,biblical ,simplicity alone871 #agge4 #abhh ,cp4 ,hagenbach1 i1 #cec2 tr4 p4 #abj4 ,jerusalem was the father of the gifted youth whose suicide 7#agge7 moved ,goethe to write ,the ,sorrows of ,werther1 a false presentment of the real personality1 which stirred ,lessing 7his affectionate friend7 to publish a volume of the dead youth's essays1 in vindication of his character4 ,the father had considerable influence in purifying ,german style4 ,cp4 ,goethe1 ,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,th4 ii1 ,b4 vii2 ,werke1 ed4 #ahff4 xi1 #bgb2 and ,hagenbach1 i1 #ced4 #abhi ,goethe1 as last cited1 pp4 #bfh-fi4 #abij ,lechler1 ,gesch4 des englischen ,deismus1 pp4 #ddg-eb4 ,the translations began with that of ,tindal 7#agda71 which made a great sensation4 #abia ,pusey1 pp4 #abe1 #abg1 citing ,twesten2 ,gostwick1 ,german ,culture and ,christianity1 p4 #cf1 citing ,ernesti4 ,thorschmid's ,freidenker ,bibliothek1 issued in #agfe-fg1 collected both translations and refutations4 ,lechler1 p4 #dea4 #abib ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 i4 #dje 7,eng4 tr4 ii1 #adf-dg74 #abic ,lange1 i1 #cdg1 #cii 7,eng4 tr4 ii1 #gf1 #acg74 #abid ,lange1 i1 #cif-ig 7ii1 #acd-ce74 #abie ,goethe tells of having seen in his boyhood1 at ,frankfort1 an irreligious ,french romance publicly burned1 and of having his interest in the book thereby awakened4 ,but this seems to have been during the ,french occupation4 7,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,b4 iv2 ,werke1 xi1 #adf47 #abif ,id4 ,b4 iv1 end4 #abig ,translated into ,english #aghj2 #bnd ed4 #agic4 ,the translator claims for ,haller great learning 7#bnd ed4 p4 xix74 ,he seems in reality to have had very little1 as he represents that ,jesus in his day was the only teacher who recommended chastity to men 7p4 #hb74 #abih ,rettung der ,offenbarung gegen die ,einwrfe der ,freigeister4 ,haller wrote under a similar title1 #agge-gf4 #abii ,baur1 ,gesch4 der christl4 ,kirche1 iv1 #eii4 #acjj ,gostwick1 p4 #ae4 #acja ,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,b4 viii2 ,werke1 xi1 #cbi4 #acjb ,schlosser1 ,hist4 of ,eighteenth ,cent41 ,eng4 tr4 #ahdc4 i1 #aej2 ,hagenbach1 tr4 p4 #ff4 #acjc ,hagenbach1 tr4 p4 #fc4 #acjd ,id41 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #bcb4 #acje ,kahnis1 p4 #dc2 ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 p4 #cd4 #acjf ,see the extracts of ,bchner1 ,zwei gekrnte ,freidenker1 #ahij1 pp4 #de-dg4 #acjg ,thibault1 ,mes ,souvenirs de ,vingt ,ans de ,sjour ,berlin1 #b;e dit4 #ahje1 i1 #abf-bh4 ,see i1 #cee-ef1 ii1 #gh-hb1 as to the baselessness of the stories 7e4g41 ,pusey1 ,histor4 ,inq4 into ,ger4 ,rationalism1 p4 #abc7 that ,frederick changed his views in old age4 ,thibault1 a strict ,catholic1 is emphatic in his negation3 ,the persons who assert that his principles became more religious 444 have either lied or been themselves mistaken4 ,carlyle naturally detests ,thibault4 ,the rumour may have arisen out of the fact that in his ,examen critique du ,systme de la ,nature ,frederick counter-argues d',holbach's impeachment of ,christianity4 ,the attack on kings gave him a fellow-feeling with the ,church4 #acjh ,cp4 the argument of ,faure1 ,hist4 de ,saint ,louis1 #ahff1 i1 #bdb-dc2 ii1 #eig4 #acji ,examen de l',essai sur les prjugs1 #agfi4 ,see the passage in ,lvy-,bruhl1 ,l',allemagne depuis ,leibniz1 p4 #hi74 #acaj ,g4 ,weber1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,literatur1 #aate ,aufl4 p4 #ii4 #acaa ,zur ,gesch4 der ,relig4 und ,philos4 in ,deutschland--,werke1 ed4 #ahgf1 iii1 #fc-fd4 ,goethe's blame 7,w4 und ,d41 ,b4 vii7 is passed on purely literary grounds4 #acab ,hagenbach1 tr4 pp4 #ajc-ajd2 ,cairns1 p4 #agg4 #acac ,this post he left to become secretary of the ,academy of ,painting4 #acad ,cited by ,pnjer1 i1 #ede-df4 #acae ,id4 p4 #edf4 #acaf ,hagenbach1 tr4 pp4 #ajj-ajc2 ,saintes1 pp4 #ia-ib2 ,pnjer1 p4 #ecf2 ,noack1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #g4 #acag ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #bih1 #cea4 #acah ,id4 i1 #bid sq4 #acai ,the book is remembered in ,france by reason of ,eberhard's amusing mistake of treating as a serious production of the ,sorbonne the skit in which ,turgot derided the ,sorbonne's findings against ,marmontel's ,blisaire4 #acbj ,hagenbach1 tr4 p4 #aji4 #acba ,eberhard1 however1 is respectfully treated by ,lessing in his discussion on ,leibnitz's view as to eternal punishment4 #acbb ,noack1 ,th4 iii1 ,kap4 #h4 #acbc ,saintes1 pp4 #ib-ic4 #acbd ,cp4 ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #cdh1 #cfc4 #acbe ,id4 i1 #cfg2 tr4 pp4 #abd-be2 ,saintes1 p4 #id2 ,kahnis1 p4 #de4 ,pusey 7#aej-ea1 note7 speaks of ,teller and ,spalding as belonging1 with ,nicolai1 ,mendelssohn1 and others1 to a secret institute1 whose object was to remodel religion and alter the form of government4 ,this seems to be a fantasy4 #acbf ,so ,steffens1 cited by ,hagenbach1 tr4 p4 #abd4 #acbg ,p4 ,gastrow1 ,joh4 ,salomo ,semler1 #aije1 p4 #de4 ,see ,pusey1 #adj-da1 note1 for ,semler's account of the rigid and unreasoning orthodoxy against which he reacted4 7,citing ,semler's ,lebenschreibung1 ii1 #aba-fa47 ,semler1 however1 records that ,baumgarten1 one of the theological professors at ,halle1 would in expansive moods defend theism and make light of theology 7,lebenschreibung1 i1 #ajc 74 ,cp4 ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 as cited1 pp4 #ab1 #ah4 ,pusey notes that many of the principal innovators had been pupils of ,baumgarten 7p4 #acb1 citing ,niemeyer74 #acbh ,cp4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,karo1 ,johann ,salomo ,semler1 #aije1 p4 #be2 ,saintes1 pp4 #abi-ca4 #acbi ,cp4 ,gostwick1 p4 #ea2 ,pnjer1 i1 #efa4 #accj ,karo1 p4 #dd4 #acca ,cp4 ,saintes1 p4 #acb sq4 #accb ,cp4 ,karo1 pp4 #c1 #h1 #af1 #bh4 #accc ,over a hundred and seventy in all4 ,pnjer1 i1 #efj2 ,gastrow1 p4 #fcg4 #accd ,karo1 pp4 #e-f4 #acce ,gastrow1 p4 #bbc4 #accf ,pusey1 p4 #adb2 ,a4 ,s4 ,farrar1 ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,freethought1 p4 #cac4 #accg ,cp4 ,karo1 p4 #e sq42 ,studlin1 cited by ,tholuck1 ,abriss1 p4 #ci4 #acch ,kahnis4 p4 #aaf4 #acci ,wahre ,grnde wanum ,gott die ,offenbarung nicht mit augenscheinlichen ,beweisen versehen hat4 #acdj ,die ,gttliche ,eingebung1 #agga4 #acda ,beweis das ,gott die ,menschen bereits durch seine ,offenbarung in der ,natur zur ,seligkeit fuhre4 #acdb ,gostwick1 p4 #ec2 ,pnjer1 i1 #edf1 note4 #acdc ,cp4 ,kahnis1 pp4 #acb-cf1 as to ,bahrdt's early morals4 #acdd ,geschichte seines ,lebens1 etc4 #agjj-ia1 iv1 #aai4 #acde ,see below1 p4 #cca4 #acdf ,geschichte seines ,lebens1 ,kap4 #bb2 ii1 #bbc sq4 #acdg ,baur1 ,gesch4 der chr4 ,kirche1 iv4 #eig4 #acdh ,translated into ,english in #aghi4 #acdi ,mendelssohn1 ,jerusalem1 ,abschn4 ,i--,werke1 #ahch p4 #bci 7,eng4 tr4 #ahch1 pp4 #ej-ea72 ,rousseau1 ,contrat ,social1 liv1 iv1 ch4 viii1 near end2 ,locke1 as cited above1 p4 #aag4 ,cp4 ,bartholmss1 ,hist4 crit4 des doctr4 relig4 de la philos4 moderne1 #ahee1 i1 #ade2 ,baur1 as last cited4 #acej ,see his ,werke1 ed4 #ahff1 v1 #cag--;,aus dem ,briefe1 die neueste ,literatur betreffend1 #diter ,brief4 #acea ,if ,lessing's life were sketched in the spirit in which orthodoxy has handled that of ,bahrdt1 it could be made unedifying enough4 ,even ,goethe remarks that ,lessing enjoyed himself in a disorderly tavern life 7,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,b4 vii72 and all that ,hagenbach maliciously charges against ,basedow in the way of irregularity of study is true of him4 ,on that and other points1 usually glossed over1 see the sketch in ,taylor's ,historic ,survey of ,german ,poetry1 #ahcj1 i1 #ccb-cg4 ,all the while1 ,lessing is an essentially sound-hearted and estimable personality2 and he would probably have been the last man to echo the tone of the orthodox towards the personal life of the freethinkers who went further in unbelief than he4 #aceb ,e4g4 his fable ,the ,bull and the ,calf 7,fabeln1 ii1 #e71 propos of the clergy and ,bayle4 #acec ,sime1 ,life of ,lessing1 #ahgg1 i1 #ajb4 #aced ,e4g4 his early notice of ,diderot's ,lettre sur les ,aveugles4 ,sime1 i1 #id4 #acee ,dramaturgie1 ,stck #g4 #acef ,sime1 i1 #ajc-aji4 #aceg ,sime1 i1 #gc1 #ajg2 ii1 #bec4 #aceh ,in his ,gedanke ber die ,herrnhuter1 written in #agej4 ,see ,adolf ,stahr's ,lessing1 sein ,leben und seine ,werke1 #gte ,aufl4 ii1 #ahc sq4 #acei ,julian ,schmidt puts the case sympathetically3 ,he had learned in his father's house what value the pastoral function may have for the culture of the people4 ,he was bibelfest1 instructed in the history of his church1 ,protestant in spirit1 full of genuine reverence for ,luther1 full of high respect for historical ,christianity1 though on reading the ,fathers he could say hard things of the ,church4 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,litteratur von ,leibniz bis auf unsere ,zeit1 ii 7#ahhf71 #cbf4 #acfj ,taylor1 as cited1 p4 #cfa4 #acfa ,sime1 i1 #gc4 #acfb ,see ,lessing's rather crude comedy1 ,der ,freigeist1 and ,sime's ,life1 i1 #da-db1 #gb1 #gg4 #acfc ,cp4 his letters to his brother of which extracts are given by ,sime1 ii1 #aia-ib4 #acfd ,sime1 ii1 #ahh4 #acfe ,as to the authorship see ,saintes1 pp4 #aja-ajb2 and ,sime's ,life of ,lessing1 i1 #bfa-fb1 where the counter-claim is rejected4 #acff ,zur ,geschichte und ,literatur1 aus dem #dten ,beitr4--,werke1 vi4 #adb sq4 ,see also in his ,theologische ,streitschriften the ,axiomata written against ,pastor ,goeze4 ,cp4 ,schwarz1 ,lessing als ,theologe1 #ahed1 pp4 #adf1 #aea2 and ,pusey1 as cited1 p4 #ea4 note4 #acfg ,compare the regrets of ,pusey 7pp4 #ea1 #aec71 ,cairns 7p4 #aie71 ,hagenbach 7pp4 #hi-ig71 and ,saintes 7p4 #ajj74 #acfh ,smmtliche ,schriften1 ed4 ,lachmann1 #aheg1 xi 7#b71 #bdh4 ,sime 7ii1 #aij7 mistranslates this passage2 and ,schmidt 7ii1 #cbf7 mutilates it by omissions4 ,fontanes 7,le ,christianisme moderne3 tude sur ,lessing1 #ahfg1 p4 #aga7 paraphrases it very loosely4 #acfi ,sime1 ii1 #aij4 #acgj ,stahr1 ii1 #bci2 ,sime1 ii4 #ahi4 #acga ,see ,sime1 ii1 #bbb1 #bcc3 ,stahr1 ii1 #bed4 ,hettner1 an admirer1 calls the early ,christianity of ,reason a piece of sophistical dialectic4 ,litteraturgeschichte des #ahten ,jahrhunderts1 ed4 #ahgb1 iii4 #ehh-hi4 #acgb ,stahr1 ii1 #bdc4 ,lessing said the report to this effect was a lie2 but this and other mystifications appear to have been by way of fulfilling his promise of secrecy to the ,reimarus family4 ,cairns1 pp4 #bjc1 #bji4 ,cp4 ,farrar1 ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,freethought1 note #bi4 #acgc ,see it analysed by ,bartholmss1 ,hist4 crit4 des doctr4 relig4 de la philos4 moderne1 i1 #adg-fg2 and by ,schweitzer1 ,the ,quest of the ,historic ,jesus 7trans4 of ,von ,reimarus zu ,wrede71 #aiaj4 #acgd ,gostwick1 p4 #dg2 ,bartholmss1 i1 #aff4 ,his book was translated into ,english 7,the ,principal ,truths of ,natural ,religion ,defended and ,illustrated7 in #agff2 into ,dutch in #ageh2 in part into ,french in #agfh2 and seven editions of the original had appeared by #agih4 #acge ,stahr1 ii1 #bda-dd4 #acgf ,id4 ii1 #bde4 #acgg ,the statement that1 in ,lessing's age1 in north ,germany men were able to think and write freely 7,conybeare1 ,hist4 of ,n4 ,t4 ,crit41 p4 #hj7 is thus seen to be highly misleading4 #acgh ,von dem ,zwecke1 ,jesus und seiner ,jnger1 ,braunschweig1 #aggh4 #acgi ,taylor1 ,histor4 ,survey of ,german ,poetry1 i1 #cfe4 #achj ,stahr1 ii1 #bec-ed4 #acha ,cp4 ,introd4 to ,willis's trans4 of ,nathan4 ,the play is sometimes attacked as being grossly unfair to ,christianity4 7,e4g4 ,crousl1 ,lessing1 #ahfc1 p4 #bjf47 ,the answer to this complaint is given by ,sime1 ii1 #beb sq4 #achb ,see ,cairns1 ,appendix1 ,note ,i2 ,willis1 ,spinoza1 pp4 #adi-fb2 ,sime1 ii1 #bii-cjc2 and ,stahr1 ii1 #bai-cj1 giving the testimony of ,jacobi4 ,cp4 ,pnjer1 i1 #efd-he4 ,but ,heine laughingly adjures ,moses ,mendelssohn1 who grieved so intensely over ,lessing's ,spinozism1 to rest quiet in his grave3 ,thy ,lessing was indeed on the way to that terrible error 444 but the ,highest1 the ,father in ,heaven1 saved him in time by death4 ,he died a good deist1 like thee and ,nicolai and ,teller and the ,universal ,german ,library 7,zur ,gesch4 der ,rel4 und ,philos4 in ,deutschland1 ,b4 ii1 near end4--,werke1 ed4 #ahgf1 iii4 #fi74 #achc ,see in ,stahr1 ii1 #ahd-he4 the various characterizations of his indefinite philosophy4 ,stahr's own account of him as anticipating the moral philosophy of ,kant is as overstrained as the others4 ,gastrow1 an admirer1 expresses wonder 7,johann ,salomo ,semler1 p4 #ahh7 at the indifference of ,lessing to the critical philosophy in general4 #achd ,sime1 ii1 ch4 xxix1 gives a good survey4 #ache ,letter to his brother1 ,feb41 #aggh4 #achf ,strauss1 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7the second7 ,einleitung1 #ad4 #achg ,hurst1 ,history of ,rationalism1 #crd ed4 p4 #acj4 ,it was a popular belief1 as an organ of pious opinion announced to its readers1 that at his death the devil came and carried him away like a second ,faust4 ,sime1 ii1 #ccj4 #achh ,cited by ,hurst1 ,hist4 of ,rationalism1 #crd ed4 p4 #abe4 ,outside ,berlin1 however1 matters went otherwise till late in the century4 ,kurz tells 7,gesch4 der deutschen ,literatur1 ii1 #dfa b7 that the indifference of the learned towards native literature was so great that even in the year #agfa ,abbt could write that in ,rinteln there was nobody who knew the names of ,moses ,mendelssohn and ,lessing4 #achi ,karl ,hillebrand1 ,lectures on the ,hist4 of ,german ,thought1 #ahhj1 p4 #aji4 #acij ,deutsche ,merkur1 ,jan4 and ,march1 #aghh 7,werke1 ed4 #agig1 xxix1 #a-add2 cited by ,studlin1 ,gesch4 der ,rationalismus und ,supernaturalismus1 #ahbf1 p4 #bcc74 #acia ,kurtz1 ,hist4 of the ,chr4 ,church1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfd1 ii1 #bbd4 #acib ,t4 ,c4 ,perthes1 ,das ,deutsche ,staatsleben vor der ,revolution1 #bfb sq41 cited by ,kahnis pp4 #eh-ei4 #acic ,see above1 pp4 #cba1 #cbh4 #acid ,kant distinguishes explicitly between rationalists1 as thinkers who would not deny the possibility of a revelation1 and naturalists1 who did4 ,see the ,religion innerhalb der grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 ,stck iv1 ,th4 i4 ,this was in fact the standing significance of the term in ,germany for a generation4 #acie ,letter to his brother1 ,february #b1 #aggd4 #acif ,known as ,zopf-,schulz from his wearing a pigtail in the fashion then common among the laity4 ,an old insolent rationalist1 ,kurtz calls him 7ii1 #bgj74 #acig ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #cgb2 ,gostwick1 pp4 #eb1 #ed4 #acih ,philosophische ,betrachtung ber ,theologie und ,religion berhaupt1 und ber die ,jdische insonderheit1 #aghd4 #acii ,pnjer1 i1 #edd-de4 #adjj ,coleridge1 ,biographia ,literaria1 ch4 ix1 ,bohn ed4 p4 #ga4 #adja ,see the details in ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte1 i1 #cfh-gb2 ,kahnis1 p4 #fj4 #adjb ,marokkanische ,briefe4 ,aus dem ,arabischen4 ,frankfurt and ,leipzig1 #aghe4 ,the ,letters purport to be written by one of the ,moroccan embassy at ,vienna in #aghc4 #adjc ,briefe1 xxi4 #adjd ,p4 #di4 #adje ,p4 #bcb4 #adjf ,das zum ,theil einzige wahre ,system der christlichen ,religion4 ,it had been composed in its author's youth under the title ,false ,reasonings of the ,christian ,religion2 and the ,,ms4 was lost through the bankruptcy of a ,dutch publisher4 #adjg ,noack1 ,th4 ,,iii1 ,kap4 #i1 p4 #aid4 #adjh ,mauvillon further collaborated with ,mirabeau1 and became a great admirer of the ,french ,revolution4 ,he left freethinking writings among his remains4 ,they are not described by ,noack1 and ,i have been unable to meet with them4 #adji ,it was a test of the depth of the freethinking spirit in the men of the day4 ,semler justified the edict2 ,bahrdt vehemently denounced it4 ,hagenbach1 i1 #cgb4 #adaj ,cp4 ,crabb ,robinson's ,diary1 iii1 #dh2 ,martineau1 ,study of ,spinoza1 p4 #cbh2 ,willis1 ,spinoza1 pp4 #afb-fh4 ,bishop ,hurst laments 7,hist4 of ,rationalism1 #crd ed4 p4 #ade7 that ,herder's early views as to the mission of ,christ were1 in common with many other evangelical views1 doomed to an unhappy obscuration upon the advance of his later years by frequent intercourse with more skeptical minds4 #adaa ,on the clerical opposition to him at ,weimar on this score see ,dntzer1 ,life of ,goethe1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahhc1 i1 #cag4 #adab ,cp4 ,kronenberg1 ,herder's ,philosophie nach ihrem ,entwickelungsgang1 #ahhi4 #adac ,kronenberg1 p4 #ij4 #adad ,stuckenberg1 ,life of ,immanuel ,kant1 #ahhb1 pp4 #cha-hg2 ,kronenberg1 ,herder's ,philosophie1 pp4 #ia1 #ajc4 #adae ,kahnis1 p4 #gh1 and ,erdmann1 as there cited4 ,erdmann finds the pantheism of ,herder to be1 not ,spinozistic as he supposed1 but akin to that of ,bruno and his ,italian successors4 #adaf ,the chief sample passages in his works are the poem ,das ,gttliche and the speech of ,faust in reply to ,gretchen in the garden scene4 ,it was the surmised pantheism of ,goethe's poem ,prometheus that1 according to ,jacobi1 drew from ,lessing his avowal of a pantheistic leaning4 ,the poem has even an atheistic ring2 but we have ,goethe's own account of the influence of ,spinoza on him from his youth onwards 7,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,th4 ,,iii1 ,b4 xiv2 ,th4 ,,iv1 ,b4 xvi74 ,see also his remarks on the natural religion of conviction or rational inference1 and that of faith 7,glaube7 or revelationism1 in ,b4 iv 7,werke1 ed4 #ahff1 xi1 #acd72 also ,kestner's account of his opinions at twenty-three1 in ,dntzer's ,life1 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #ahe2 and again his letter to ,jacobi1 ,january #f1 #ahac1 quoted by ,dntzer1 ii1 #bij4 #adag ,see the ,alt-,testamentliches ,appendix to the ,west-,oestlicher ,divan4 #adah ,heine1 ,zur ,gesch4 der ,rel4 u4 ,phil4 in ,deutschland 7,werke1 ed4 #ahgf1 iii1 #ib74 #adai ,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,th4 ,i1 ,b4 iv 7,werke1 ed4 #ahhf1 xi1 #abc74 #adbj ,id4 ,th4 ,,iii1 ,b4 xiv1 par4 #bj 7,werke1 xii1 #aei74 #adba ,id4 pp4 #afe1 #ahf4 #adbb ,id4 p4 #ahd4 #adbc ,cited by ,baur1 ,gesch4 der christl4 ,kirche1 v1 #ej4 #adbd ,compare1 as to the hostility he aroused1 ,dntzer1 i1 #aeb1 #cag1 #cbi-cj1 #dea2 ii1 #bia note1 #dee1 #dfa2 ,eckermann1 ,gesprche mit ,goethe1 ,mrz #f1 #ahcj2 and ,heine1 last cit4 p4 #ic4 #adbe ,eckermann1 ,mrz #aa1 #ahcb4 #adbf ,id4 ,feb4 #d1 #ahbi4 #adbg ,hurst1 ,hist4 of ,rationalism1 #crd ed4 p4 #aej4 #adbh ,wahrheit und ,dichtung1 ,th4 ,,iii1 ,b4 viii2 ,werke1 xi1 #ccd4 #adbi ,cp41 however1 the estimate of ,krause1 above1 p4 #bjg4 ,virchow1 ,gthe als ,naturforscher1 #ahfa1 goes into detail on the biological points1 without reaching any general estimate4 #adcj ,remarked by ,hagenbach1 tr4 p4 #bch4 #adca ,letter to ,goethe1 ,august #ag1 #agie 7,briefwechsel1 ,no4 #hg74 ,the passage is given in ,carlyle's essay on ,schiller4 #adcb ,in ,die ,sendung ,moses4 #adcc ,see the ,philosophische ,briefe4 #adcd ,carlyle translates1 ,no ,rights of ,man1 which was probably the idea4 #adce ,letter to ,goethe1 ,july #i1 #agif 7,briefwechsel1 ,no4 #ahh74 ,it is evident that he was estranged not only from the church but from the fundamental truths of ,christianity 7,rev4 ,w4 ,baur1 ,religious ,life of ,germany1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahgb1 p4 #bb74 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur has a curious page in which he seeks to show that1 though ,schiller and ,goethe cannot be called ,christian in a natural sense1 the age was not made un-,christian by them to such an extent as is commonly supposed 7,gesch4 der christl4 ,kirche1 v1 #df74 #adcf ,cp4 ,tieftrunk1 as cited by ,stuckenberg1 ,life of ,immanuel ,kant1 p4 #bbe4 #adcg ,id4 p4 #cgf4 ,in his early essay ,trume eines ,geistersehers1 erlutert durch ,trume der ,metaphysik 7#agff7 this attitude is clear4 ,it ends with an admiring quotation from ,voltaire's ,candide4 #adch ,beantwortung der ,frage3 ,was ist ,aufklrung8 in the ,berliner ,monatschrift1 ,dec4 #aghd1 rep4 in ,kant's ,vorzgliche kleine ,schriften1 #ahcc1 ,bd4 i4 #adci ,for an able argument vindicating the unity of ,kant's system1 however1 see ,prof4 ,adamson1 ,the ,philosophy of ,kant1 #ahgi1 p4 #ba sq41 as against ,lange4 ,with the verdict in the text compare that of ,heine1 ,zur ,gesch4 der ,relig4 u4 ,philos4 in ,deutschland1 ,b4 iii 7,werke1 as cited1 iii1 #ha-hb72 that of ,prof4 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,the ,life of ,reason1 vol4 i1 #aije1 p4 #id sq42 and that of ,prof4 ,a4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 ,the ,philosophy of ,religion in ,kant and ,hegel1 rep4 in vol4 entitled ,the ,philosophical ,radicals and ,other ,essays1 #aijg1 pp4 #bfd1 #bff4 #addj ,stuckenberg1 pp4 #bbe1 #ccb4 #adda ,cp4 ,haym1 ,herder nach seinem ,leben 444 dargestellt1 #ahgg1 i1 #cc1 #dh2 ,kronenberg1 ,herder's ,philosophie1 p4 #aj4 #addb ,cp4 ,hagenbach1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #bbc4 #addc ,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 ,stck iii1 ,abth4 i1 #e2 ,abth4 ii 7ed4 #agic1 pp4 #ade-df1 #ahh-hi74 #addd ,work cited1 ,stck ii1 ,abschn4 ii1 ,allg4 ,anm4 p4 #ajh sq4 #adde ,e4g4 ,stck iv1 ,th4 i1 preamble 7p4 #bba1 ed4 cited74 #addf ,id4 ,stck iii1 ,abth4 ii1 ,allg4 ,anm43 ,this belief1 he avows frankly enough1 involves no mystery 7p4 #aii74 ,in a note to the second edition he suggests that there must be a basis in reason for the idea of a ,trinity1 found as it is among so many ancient and primitive peoples4 ,the speculation is in itself evasive1 for he does not give the slightest reason for thinking the ,goths capable of such metaphysic4 #addg ,stck iii1 ,abth4 i1 #e2 pp4 #acg1 #aci4 #addh ,stck iii1 ,abth4 ii1 p4 #agh4 #addi ,kant explicitly concurs in ,warburton's thesis that the ,jewish lawgiver purposely omitted all mention of a future state from the ,pentateuch2 since such belief must be supposed to have been current in ,jewry4 ,but he goes further1 and pronounces that simple ,judaism contains absolutely no religious belief4 ,to this complexion can philosophic compromise come4 #adej ,stuckenberg1 ,life of ,immanuel ,kant1 p4 #cbi4 #adea ,borowski1 ,darstellung des ,lebens und ,charakters ,immanuel ,kant's1 #ahjd1 cited by ,stuckenberg1 p4 #ceg4 #adeb ,stuckenberg1 pp4 #cei-fj4 #adec ,stuckenberg1 p4 #cfa4 #aded ,cp4 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 ,gesch4 der christl4 ,kirche1 v1 #fc-ff4 #adee ,the first1 on ,radical ,evils1 appeared in a ,berlin monthly in ,april1 #agib1 and was then reprinted separately4 #adef ,stuckenberg1 p4 #cfa4 #adeg ,ueberweg1 ii1 #ada2 ,stuckenberg1 p4 #cfc4 #adeh ,stuckenberg1 pp4 #cjd-cji4 #adei ,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 ,stck iv1 ,th4 #b4 #adfj ,cp4 ,stuckenberg1 p4 #ccb2 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 as cited4 #adfa ,stuckenberg1 pp4 #cdj1 #cdf1 #ced1 #dfh4 #adfb ,letter of ,may #bb1 #agii1 reproduced by ,heine4 #adfc ,zur ,gesch4 der ,rel4 u4 ,philos4 in ,deutschland4 ,werke1 as cited1 iii1 #if1 #ih4 #adfd ,stuckenberg1 p4 #caa4 #adfe ,id4 p4 #ceg4 #adff ,stuckenberg1 p4 #cea4 ,it is only necessary1 adds ,stuckenberg 7p4 #dfh1 note #adb71 to develop ,kant's hints in order to get the views of ,strauss in his ,leben ,jesu4 #adfg ,id4 p4 #cge4 ,erhard stated that ,pestalozzi shared his views on ,christian ethics4 #adfh ,stuckenberg1 p4 #ceh4 #adfi ,cp4 ,weber1 ,gesch4 der deutschen ,literatur1 #aate ,aufl4 p4 #aai2 ,r4 ,unger1 ,hamann und die ,aufklrung1 #aiaa4 #adgj ,bartholmss1 ,hist4 crit4 des doctr4 relig4 de la philos4 moderne1 #ahee1 i1 #acf-dj4 #adga ,in demanding a history of the human conscience 7,neue ,anthropologie1 #agij7 ,platner seems to have anticipated the modern scientific approach to religion4 #adgb ,gesprche ber den ,atheismus1 #agha4 #adgc ,lehrbuch der ,logik und ,metaphysik1 #agie4 #adgd ,w4 ,smith1 ,memoir of ,fichte1 #bnd ed4 p4 #aj4 #adge ,id4 pp4 #ab1 #ac1 #bj1 #bc1 #be1 etc4 #adgf ,id4 pp4 #cd-ce4 #adgg ,smith1 p4 #id4 #adgh ,id4 p4 #cd4 #adgi ,adamson1 ,fichte1 #ahha1 p4 #cb2 ,smith1 as cited1 pp4 #fd-fe4 #adhj ,letter to ,kant1 cited by ,smith1 p4 #fc4 #adha ,asserted by ,stuckenberg1 ,life of ,kant1 p4 #chf4 #adhb ,cp4 ,robins1 ,a ,defence of the ,faith1 #ahfb1 pt4 i1 pp4 #acb-cc2 ,adamson1 ,fichte1 pp4 #ej-fg2 ,w4 ,smith1 ,memoir of ,fichte1 pp4 #ajf-ajg4 #adhc ,adamson1 pp4 #ga1 #gc4 #adhd ,grundzge des gegenwrtigen ,zeitalters1 #afte ,vorles4 ed4 #ahjf1 pp4 #eji-eaj4 #adhe ,compare the complaints of ,hurst1 ,hist4 of ,rationalism1 #crd ed4 pp4 #acf-cg1 and of ,coleridge1 ,biographia ,literaria1 ,bohn ed4 p4 #gb4 ,fichte's theory1 says ,coleridge 7after praising him as the destroyer of ,spinozism71 degenerated into a crude egoismus1 a boastful and hyperstoic hostility to ,nature1 as lifeless1 godless1 and altogether unholy1 while his religion consisted in the assumption of a mere ordo ordinans1 which we were permitted exoteric to call ,god4 ,heine 7as last cited1 p4 #ge7 insists that ,fichte's ,idealism is more ,godless than the crassest ,materialism4 #adhf ,grundzge1 as cited1 p4 #ejb4 #adhg ,cp4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 as cited1 p4 #bhj1 note4 #adhh ,kurtz1 ,hist4 of the ,chr4 ,church1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfd1 ii1 #bbe4 ,jahn was well in advance of his age in his explanation of ,joshua's cosmic miracle as the mistaken literalizing of a flight of poetic phrase4 ,see the passage in his ,introduction to the ,book of ,joshua1 cited by ,rowland ,williams1 ,the ,hebrew ,prophets1 ii 7#ahga71 #ca1 note #cc4 #adhi ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,gustavus ,vasa and his ,contemporaries1 #ahid1 i4 #bfe-fh4 #adij ,a4 ,sorel1 ,l',europe et la rvolution franaise1 i 7#ahhe71 p4 #deh4 #adia ,see articles on ,beethoven by ,macfarren in ,dictionary of ,universal ,biography1 and by ,grove in the ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians4 #adib ,grove1 art4 cited1 ed4 #aijd1 i1 #bbd4 #adic ,jonckbloet1 ,beknopte ,geschiedenis der nederl4 ,letterkunde1 ed4 #ahhj1 p4 #bhb4 #adid ,id4 pp4 #cae-af4 #adie ,cp4 ,trinius1 ,freydenker-,lexicon1 pp4 #ccf-cg2 ,colerus1 ,vie de ,spinoza1 as cited1 p4 lviii4 #adif ,see ,texte1 ,rousseau and the ,cosmopolitan ,spirit1 ,eng4 tr4 p4 #bi4 #adig ,briefe1 #ageb1 p4 #dea4 #adih ,this is the basis of ,pope's reference to illustrious ,passeran in his ,epilogue to the ,satires1 #agch1 ii1 #abd4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4 ,bramstone's satire1 ,the ,man of ,taste 7#agcc71 spells the name ,pasaran1 whence may be inferred the extent of the satirist's knowledge of his topic4 #adii ,reprinted1 in ,french1 at ,london in #agdi1 in a more complete and correct edition1 published by ,j4 ,brindley4 #aejj ,the copy in the ,british ,museum is dated #agcg1 and the title-page describes ,passerano as a ,piemontse exile now in ,holland1 a ,christian ,freethinker4 ,it is presumably a re-issue4 #aeja ,warburton in a note on ,pope 7,epilogue1 as cited7 characteristically alleges that ,passerano had been banished from ,piedmont for his impieties1 and lived in the utmost misery1 yet feared to practise his own precepts2 and at last died a penitent4 ,the source of these allegations may serve as warrant for disbelieving them4 ,warburton1 it will be observed1 says nothing of an imprisonment in ,england4 #aejb ,london ed4 #agdi1 pp4 #bd-be4 #aejc ,koch1 ,histor4 ,view of the ,european ,nations1 ,eng4 tr4 #crd ed4 p4 #ajc4 ,cp4 ,crichton and ,wheaton1 ,scandinavia1 #ahcg1 i1 #chc-if2 ,ott1 ,scandinavian ,history1 #ahgd1 pp4 #bbb-bd2 ,villiers1 ,essay on the ,reformation1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahcf1 p4 #aje4 ,but cp4 ,allen1 ,histoire de ,danemark1 ,fr4 tr4 i1 #bih-cjj4 #aejd ,ott1 pp4 #bcb-cf2 ,crichton-,wheaton1 i1 #cih-djj2 ,geijer1 ,hist4 of the ,swedes1 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #abe4 #aeje ,koch1 p4 #ajd2 ,geijer1 i1 #abi4 #aejf ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #cbb4 #aejg ,ludwig ,holberg1 ,baron ,holberg1 born at ,bergen1 ,norway1 #afhd4 ,after a youth of poverty and struggle he settled at ,copenhagen in #agah1 as professor of metaphysics1 and attained the chair of eloquence in #agbj4 ,made ,baron by ,king ,frederick ,v of ,denmark at his accession in #agdg4 ,d4 #aged4 #aejh ,nicolai ,klimii ,iter ,subterraneum novam telluris theoriam ac historiam quint monarchi 444 exhibens1 etc4 ,dr4 ,gosse1 in art4 ,holberg1 ,encyc4 ,brit41 makes the mistake of calling the book a poem4 ,it is in ,latin prose1 with verse passages4 #aeji ,it was published thrice in ,danish1 ten times in ,german1 thrice in ,swedish1 thrice in ,dutch1 thrice in ,english1 twice in ,french1 twice in ,russian1 and once in ,hungarian4 #aeaj ,cap4 vi1 ,de religione gentis ,potuan4 #aeaa ,cp4 pp4 #ge-gh1 ed4 #aged4 #aeab ,cap4 vi1 p4 #fi2 cp4 cap4 viii1 ,de ,academia1 p4 #aja4 #aeac ,id4 p4 #gg4 #aead ,he had visited ,england in his youth4 #aeae ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #cbb4 ,on p4 #aei a somewhat contrary statement is made1 which obscures the facts4 ,cp4 ,schlosser1 iv1 #ac1 as to ,christian's martinet methods4 #aeaf ,geijer1 i1 #cbd4 #aeag ,id4 p4 #cdc2 ,ott1 p4 #bib4 #aeah ,geijer1 i1 #cdb4 ,cp4 ,ranke1 ,hist4 of the ,popes1 ,eng4 tr4 ed4 #aijh1 ii1 #cii2 iii1 #cde-df4 #aeai ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #hh-hi1 and refs4 #aebj ,cp4 ,ranke1 as cited1 ii1 #djg4 #aeba ,work cited1 pp4 #bhh-hi4 ,this writer gives the only intelligible account of the private execution of ,christina's secretary1 ,monaldeschi1 by her orders4 ,monaldeschi had either passed over to other hands some of her letters to him1 or kept them so carelessly as to let them be stolen4 ,id4 p4 #aa4 ,for her cruel act she shows no trace of religious or any other remorse4 ,she was1 in fact1 a neurotic egoist4 ,cp4 ,ranke1 ii1 #cid1 #dje4 #aebb ,bouillier1 ,hist4 de la philos4 carts41 i1 #ddi-ej4 #aebc ,geijer1 i1 #cdb4 #aebd ,see his treatise1 ,of the ,nature and ,qualification of ,religion in ,reference to ,civil ,society1 ,eng4 tr4 by ,crull1 #afih4 #aebe ,heaven and ,hell1 #ageh1 #cec1 #ced1 #dfd4 #aebf ,translated as ,the ,divine ,providence4 #aebg #bce-bfd4 #aebh ,work cited1 #bda4 #aebi ,de cultu et amore ,dei1 #agde4 tr4 as ,the ,worship and ,love of ,god1 ed4 #ahhe1 p4 #ah4 #aecj ,when he was contradicted he kept silence4 ,documents concerning ,swedenborg1 ed4 by ,dr4 ,tafel1 #ahge-ahgg1 ii1 #efd4 #aeca ,cp4 ,swedenborg's letter to ,beyer1 in ,documents1 as cited1 ii1 #bgi4 #aecb ,for many years he seldom went to church1 being unable to listen peacefully to the trinitarian doctrine he heard there4 ,documents1 as cited1 ii1 #efj4 #aecc ,w4 ,white1 ,swedenborg3 his ,life and ,writings1 ed4 #ahfg1 i1 #ahh4 #aecd ,schweitzer1 ,geschichte der skandinavischen ,literatur1 ii1 #age1 #bbe2 ,c4-,f4 ,allen1 ,histoire de ,danemark1 ,fr4 tr4 ii1 #aijj-aija2 ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,gustavus ,vasa and his ,contemporaries1 #ahid1 i1 #bbf4 #aece ,correspondance de ,grimm1 ed4 #ahbi-ahca1 vii1 #bbi4 #aecf ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #bjf4 #aecg ,writing to his mother on his first visit to ,paris1 he takes her1 ostensibly as a libre esprit1 into his confidence1 disparaging ,marmontel and ,grimm as vain4 ,joseph ,,ii in turn pronounced ,gustavus a conceited fop1 an impudent braggart 7,bain1 as cited1 i1 #bff74 ,both monarchs set up an impression of want of balance1 and the mother of ,gustavus1 who forced him to break with her1 does the same4 #aech ,bain1 as cited1 i1 #bbd-ca4 #aeci ,id4 ii1 #bjh-ab4 #aedj ,id4 i1 #bfg-fh4 #aeda ,cp4 ,bain1 ii1 #bgb1 #bhg1 #bic-if4 #aedb ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #cce4 #aedc ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #cbb4 ,cp4 pp4 #afa-fc4 ,schlosser1 iv1 #ae4 #aedd ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #aij2 ,ott1 p4 #cbb2 ,c4-,f4 ,allen1 as cited1 ii1 #aid-bja2 ,schlosser1 iv1 #cai sq4 #aede ,cp4 ,mary ,wollstonecraft's ,letters from ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark1 #agif1 ,let4 xviii4 ,one of the grounds on which the queen was charged with unchastity was1 that she had established a hospital for foundlings4 #aedf ,trans4 from the ,german1 #aggd2 #bnd ed4 #ahbe4 ,see it also in the work1 ,converts from ,infidelity1 by ,andrew ,crichton2 vols4 vi and vii of ,constable's ,miscellany1 #ahbg4 ,this singular compilation includes lives of ,boyle1 ,bunyan1 ,haller1 and others1 who were never infidels4 #aedg ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #aij-ia4 #aedh ,work cited1 ,letter vii4 #aedi ,id4 ,letter viii1 near end4 #aeej ,crichton-,wheaton1 ii1 #cbd4 #aeea ,he claimed that the remarks penned by him in an anti-atheistic work1 challenging its argument1 represented not unbelief but the demand for a better proof1 which he undertook to produce4 ,see ,krasinski1 ,sketch of the ,religious ,history of the ,slavonic ,nations1 #ahea1 pp4 #bbd-be4 ,it is remarkable that the ,pope1 ,innocent ,,xi1 bitterly censured the execution4 #aeeb ,fletcher1 ,history of ,poland1 #ahca1 p4 #ada4 #aeec ,fletcher1 pp4 #ade-df4 #aeed ,hardwick1 ,church ,history3 ,middle ,age1 #ahec1 pp4 #chf-hg4 #aeee ,l4 ,sichler1 ,hist4 de la litt4 ,russe1 #ahhg1 pp4 #hh-hi1 #aci4 ,cp4 ,rambaud1 ,hist4 de ,russie1 #b;e dit4 pp4 #bdi1 #bei1 etc4 7,eng4 tr4 i1 #cji1 #cba1 #cbh74 #aeef ,r4 ,n4 ,bain1 ,the ,first ,romanovs1 #aije1 pp4 #acf-ea2 ,rambaud1 p4 #ccc 7tr4 i1 #dad-ag74 ,the struggle 7#afed7 elicited old forms of heresy1 going back to ,manicheism and ,gnosticism4 ,in this furious schism ,nikon destroyed irregular ikons or sacred images2 and savage persecutions resulted from his insistence that the faithful should use three fingers instead of two in crossing themselves4 ,many resisted to the death4 #aeeg ,prince ,serge ,wolkonsky1 ,russian ,history and ,literature1 #ahig1 pp4 #ih-aja4 #aeeh ,morfill1 ,history of ,russia1 #aijb1 p4 #ad2 ,bain1 p4 #bja4 #aeei ,cp4 ,wolkonsky1 p4 #aja4 #aefj ,c4 ,e4 ,turner1 ,studies in ,russian ,literature1 #ahhb1 p4 #b4 #aefa ,id4 pp4 #af1 #ag1 #be1 #bf1 #dj2 ,sichler1 p4 #adh4 #aefb ,sichler1 p4 #aci4 ,peter's dislike of monks won him the repute of a freethinker4 ,morfill1 p4 #ig4 ,he was actually attacked as ,antichrist in a printed pamphlet on the score of his innovations4 ,personally1 he detested religious persecution1 and was willing to tolerate anybody but ,jews2 but he had to let persecution take place2 and even to consent to removing statues of pagan deities from his palace4 ,bain1 pp4 #cjd-cji4 #aefc ,cp4 ,bain1 p4 #cib4 #aefd ,turner1 p4 #bb4 ,kantemir was the friend of ,bolingbroke and ,montesquieu in ,paris4 #aefe ,sichler1 p4 #adg4 #aeff ,turner1 pp4 #dj-da4 #aefg ,see the passages cited by ,rambaud1 p4 #dhb1 from her letter to ,voltaire4 #aefh ,seume1 ,ueber das ,leben 444 der ,kaiserin ,catharina ,,ii3 ,werke1 ed4 #ahci1 v1 #bci-dj2 ,rambaud1 pp4 #dhb-hd4 #aefi ,see ,bishop ,burnet's ,letters1 iv1 ed4 ,rotterdam1 #afhf1 pp4 #ahg-ia4 #aegj ,zeller1 ,histoire d',italie1 pp4 #dbf-cb1 #dej2 ,procter1 ,hist4 of ,italy1 #bnd ed4 pp4 #bdj1 #bfh4 #aega ,burnet1 as cited1 pp4 #aie-ig4 #aegb ,prof4 ,flint1 who insists on the deep piety of ,vico1 notes that he appears to have had strangely little interest in ,christian systematic theology 7,vico1 #ahhd1 p4 #gj74 #aegc ,siciliani1 ,sul ,rinnovamento della filosofia positiva in ,italia1 #ahga1 pp4 #cg-da4 #aegd ,siciliani1 p4 #cf4 #aege ,introduction 7by ,mignet87 to the ,princess ,belgiojoso's tr4 ,la ,science ,nouvelle1 #ahdd1 p4 cxiii4 ,cp4 ,flint1 ,vico1 #bca4 #aegf ,ganganelli1 ,papst ,clemens ,,xiv1 seine ,briefe und seine ,zeit1 vom ,verfasser der ,rmischen ,briefe 7,von ,reumont71 #ahdg1 pp4 #ce-cf1 and p4 #aee1 note4 #aegg ,see the ,storia della economia pubblica in ,italia of ,g4 ,pecchio1 #ahbi1 p4 #fa sq41 as to the claim of ,antonio ,serra 7,breve trattato1 etc4 #afac7 to be the pioneer of modern political economy4 ,cp4 ,hallam1 ,lit4 of ,europe1 iii1 #afd-ff4 ,buckle 7#a-vol4 ed4 p4 #abb1 note7 has claimed the title for ,william ,stafford1 whose ,compendious or briefe ,examination of certain ordinary ,complaints 7otherwise called ,a ,briefe ,conceipt of ,english ,policy7 appeared in #aeha4 ,but cp4 ,ingram 7,hist4 of ,pol4 ,econ4 #ahhh1 pp4 #dc-de7 as to the prior claims of ,bodin4 #aegh ,briefe1 as before cited1 p4 #djh4 #aegi ,correspondence littraire1 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 vii1 #cca4 ,cp4 ,von ,reumont1 ,ganganelli1 p4 #cc4 #aehj ,the ,dei delitti e delle pene was translated into #bb languages4 ,pecchio1 p4 #add4 #aeha ,see in the #fth ed4 of the ,dei delitti 7,harlem1 #agff7 the appended ,risposta ad uno scritto1 etc41 ,parte prima1 ,accuse d'empiet4 #aehb ,see his letter to the ,abb ,morellet1 cited by ,mr4 ,farrer in ch4 i of his ed4 of ,crimes and ,punishments1 #ahhj1 p4 #e4 ,it describes the ,milanese as deeply sunk in prejudices4 #aehc ,pecchio1 p4 #abc4 #aehd ,cp4 ,mc,culloch1 ,literature of ,political ,economy1 #ahde1 p4 #fd2 ,blanqui1 ,hist4 de l'economie politique1 #b;e dit4 ii1 #dcb4 #aehe ,as to the genuineness of the ,ganganelli letters1 originally much disputed1 see ,von ,reumont's ,ganganelli1 ,papst ,clemens ,,xiv2 seine ,briefe und seine ,zeit1 #ahdg1 pp4 #dj-dd4 #aehf ,lett4 lvi1 ,eng4 tr4 #aggg1 i1 #ada-db4 ,no4 lxxii in ,von ,reumont's ,ganganelli1 #ahdg4 #aehg ,lett4 xiii1 #agdi4 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #dd-df2 ,no4 cxiv in ,von ,reumont's translation4 #aehh ,lett4 vi and xiv2 ,nos4 ix and xxii in ,von ,reumont4 #aehi ,lett4 xxx1 p4 #hc2 ,no4 xxxiv in ,von ,reumont4 #aeij ,lett4 xci2 ,no4 xcii in ,von ,reumont4 #aeia ,lett4 cxlvi2 ,no4 xiii in ,von ,reumont4 #aeib ,lett4 lxxxii1 #agec or #aged2 ,no4 lxi in ,von ,reumont4 #aeic ,lett4 cxxiv1 #agfi4 ,this letter is not in ,von ,reumont's collection1 and appears to be regarded by him as spurious--or unduly indiscreet4 #aeid ,lett4 lxxxiii1 #aged2 ,no4 lxxiii in ,von ,reumont4 #aeie ,corr4 ,litt4 as cited1 vii1 #ajd4 #aeif ,zeller1 p4 #dgc4 #aeig ,zeller1 pp4 #dgh-gi4 #aeih ,julien ,luchaire1 ,essai sur l'evolution intellectuelle de l',italie de #ahae #ahcj1 #aijf1 p4 #c4 #aeii ,parini wrote a reproving ,ode on the subject4 7,henri ,hauvette1 ,littrature ,italienne1 #aijf1 p4 #cga47 ,he was one of those disillusioned by the course of the ,revolution4 7,id4 p4 #cge47 #afjj ,hauvette1 pp4 #cia-ic4 #afja ,coxe1 ,memoirs of the ,bourbon ,kings of ,spain1 ed4 #ahae1 iv1 #djh4 #afjb ,villanueva1 ,vida ,literaria1 ,london1 #ahbe4 #afjc ,buckle1 iii1 #edg-dh 7#a-vol4 ed4 #eii-fjj74 ,the last victim seems to have been a woman accused of witchcraft4 ,her nose was cut off before her execution4 ,see the ,marokkanische ,briefe1 #aghe1 p4 #cf2 and ,buckle's note #bgb4 #afjd ,letter of ,d',alembert to ,voltaire1 #ac mai1 #aggc4 #afje ,grimm1 ,corr4 ,litt4 x1 #cic4 #afjf ,llorente1 ii1 #ecd4 #afjg ,as to which see ,buckle1 p4 #fjg4 #afjh ,llorente1 ii1 #edd4 #afji ,id4 ii1 #edd-dg4 #afaj ,grimm is evidently in error in his statement 7,correspondance1 ed4 #ahbi-ca1 x1 #cid7 that one of the main grievances against ,olavids was his having caused to be made a ,spanish translation of ,raynal's book1 which was never published4 ,no such offence is mentioned by ,llorente4 ,the case of ,almodobar had been connected in ,french rumour with that of ,olavids4 #afaa ,llorente1 ii1 #ecb4 #afab ,id4 ii1 #ecd-ce4 #afac ,id4 pp4 #edg-dh4 #afad ,llorente1 ii4 #edi-ej4 #afae ,id4 ii1 #dgb-gc4 #afaf ,id4 pp4 #dcf-dj4 #afag ,id4 ii1 #ddj-db4 ,llorente mentions that ,clavijo edited a journal named ,the ,thinker1 at a time when hardly anyone was to be found who thought4 ,a ,frenchman1 ,langle having asserted1 in his ,voyage d',espagne1 that the ,thinker was without merit1 the historian comments that if ,langle is right in the assertion1 it will be the sole verity in his book1 but that1 in view of his errors on all other matters1 it is probable that he is wrong there also4 #afah ,llorente1 p4 #ddi4 #afai ,id4 ii1 #dej-ea4 ,the book was prohibited1 but a printer at ,bayonne reissued it with an additional volume of the tracts written for and against it4 #afbj ,id4 ii1 #dfi-gb4 #afba ,buckle1 p4 #fah4 #afbb ,id4 p4 #fab4 #afbc ,id4 p4 #fac4 #afbd ,carnota1 ,the ,marquis of ,pombal1 #bnd ed4 #ahga1 p4 #bdb4 #afbe ,id4 p4 #bdj4 #afbf ,id4 pp4 #bfa-fb4 #afbg ,id4 p4 #bfb4 #afbh ,id4 p4 #cge4 #afbi ,cp4 ,p4 ,godet1 ,hist4 litt4 de la suisse franaise1 #aijj4 #afcj ,e4 de ,bud1 ,vie de ,franois ,turrettini1 #ahga1 pp4 #ab-ah4 ,b4 ,turrettini was commissioned to write a history of the ,reformation at ,geneva1 which however remains in ,,ms4 ,he was further commissioned in #afba to go to ,holland to obtain financial help for the city1 then seriously menaced by ,savoy2 and obtained #cj1jjj florins1 besides smaller sums from ,hamburg and ,bremen4 #afca ,cp4 ,bud1 as cited1 pp4 #bd 7birth-date wrong71 #bid2 and the ,avis de l'diteur to the ,trait de la ,verit de la ,religion ,chrtienne of ,j4 ,a4 ,turretin1 ,paris1 #agec4 #afcb ,work cited1 i1 #h1 note4 #afcc ,lettre ,damilaville1 #f dcembre1 #agfc4 ,the reserved youth may have been either ,jean-,alphonse1 grandson of the ,socinian professor1 who was born in #agce and died childless1 or some other member of the numerous ,turrettini clan4 #afcd ,voltaire to ,damilaville1 #ab juillet1 #agfc4 ,il faut que vous sachiez1 explains ,voltaire que ,jean ,jacques n'a t condamn que parce qu'on n'aime pas sa personne4 #afce ,voltaire to ,damilaville1 #ba auguste1 #agfc4 #afcf ,cp4 i1 #b1 #af1 #ef1 #eh1 #fe1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gc1 #id2 ii1 #bij1 etc4 #afcg ,for instance3 ,je me recommande contr'eux les prtres ,dieu le pre1 car pour le fils1 vous savez qu'il a aussi peu de crdit que sa mre ,genve 7,lettre ,d',alembert1 #be mars1 #ageh74444 ,une rpublique o tout le monde est ouvertement socinien1 excepts ceux qui font anabaptistes ou moraves4 ,figurez-vous1 mon cher ami1 qu'il n'y a pas actuellement un chrtien de ,genve ,berne2 cela fait frmir6 7,to the same1 #h fv4 #aggf47 #afch ,on this see the correspondence of ,voltaire and ,d',alembert1 under dates #h1 #bh1 and #bi janvier1 #ageg4 #afci ,lettre ,d',alembert1 #bg aot1 #ageg4 #afdj ,lettres sur le ,disme1 #agei1 p4 #f4 ,cp4 pp4 #hd1 #id1 #ajc1 #aje1 #dab4 #afda ,john ,wesley in his ,journal1 dating ,may1 #agcg1 speaks of having everywhere met many more converts to infidelity than converts to ,popery1 with apparent reference to ,carolina4 #afdb ,such is the wording of the passage in the ,autobiography in the ,edinburgh edition of #ahjc1 p4 #be1 which follows the ,french translation of the original ,,ms4 ,in the edition of the ,autobiography and ,letters in the ,minerva ,library1 edited by ,mr4 ,bettany 7#ahia1 p4 #aa71 which follows ,mr4 ,bigelow's edition of #ahgi1 it runs3 ,being then1 from reading ,shaftesbury and ,collins1 become a real doubter in many points of our religious doctrine4444 #afdc ,only in #aghd1 however1 appeared the first anti-,christian work published in ,america1 ,ethan ,allen's ,reason the only ,oracle of ,man4 ,as to its positions see ,conway1 ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #aib-ic4 #afdd ,autobiography1 ,bettany's ed4 pp4 #ef1 #fe1 #gd1 #gg1 etc4 #afde ,letter of ,march #i1 #agij4 ,id4 p4 #fcf4 #afdf ,cp4 ,j4 ,t4 ,morse's ,thomas ,jefferson1 pp4 #cci-dj4 #afdg ,,ms4 cited by ,dr4 ,conway1 ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #caj-aa4 #afdh ,memoirs of ,jefferson1 #ahbi1 iv1 #cjj-cja4 ,the date is #ahag4 ,these and other passages exhibiting ,jefferson's deism are cited in ,rayner's ,sketches of the ,life1 etc41 of ,jefferson1 #ahcb1 pp4 #eac-ag4 #afdi ,memoirs of ,jefferson1 iv1 #cca4 #afej ,dr4 ,conway1 ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #caj4 #afea ,extract from ,jefferson's ,journal under date ,february #a1 #ahjj1 in the ,memoirs1 iv1 #eab4 ,gouverneur ,morris1 whom ,jefferson further cites as to ,washington's unbelief1 is not a very good witness2 but the main fact cited is significant4 #afeb ,compare the testimony given by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,wilson1 of ,albany1 in #ahca1 as cited by ,r4 ,d4 ,owen in his ,discussion on the ,authenticity of the ,bible with ,o4 ,bacheler 7,london1 ed4 #ahdj1 p4 #bca71 with the replies on the other side 7pp4 #bcc-cd74 ,washington's death-bed attitude was that of a deist4 ,see all the available data for his supposed orthodoxy in ,sparks's ,life of ,washington1 #aheb1 app4 iv4 #afec ,so far as is known1 ,paine was the first writer to use the expression the religion of ,humanity4 ,see ,conway's ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #bjf4 ,to ,paine's influence1 too1 appears to be due the founding of the first ,american ,anti-,slavery ,society4 ,id4 i1 #ea-eb1 #fj1 #hj1 etc4 #afed ,cp4 ,conway's ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #bje-bjg4 #afee ,a letter of ,franklin to someone who had shown him a freethinking manuscript1 advising against its publication 7,bettany's ed4 p4 #fbj71 has been conjecturally connected with ,paine1 but was clearly not addressed to him4 ,franklin died in #agij1 and ,paine was out of ,america from #aghg onwards4 ,but the letter is in every way inapplicable to the ,age of ,reason4 ,the remark3 ,if men are so wicked with religion1 what would they be without it8 could not be made to a devout deist like ,paine4 #afef ,conway1 ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #bed-ee4 #afeg ,see ,dr4 ,conway's chapter1 ,the ,american ,inquisition1 vol4 ii1 ch4 xvi2 also pp4 #cfa-fb1 #cgd1 #cgi4 ,the falsity of the ordinary charges against ,paine's character is finally made clear by ,dr4 ,conway1 ch4 xix1 and pp4 #cga1 #chc1 #dai1 #dbc4 ,cp4 the author's pamphlet1 ,thomas ,paine3 ,an ,investigation 7,bonner74 ,the chronically revived story of his death-bed remorse for his writings--long ago exposed 7,conway1 ii1 #dbj7--;is definitively discredited in the latest reiteration4 ,that occurs in the ,life and ,letters of ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,thomas 7#aije71 the mother of whose stepmother was the ,mrs4 ,mary ,hinsdale1 ne ,roscoe1 on whose testimony the legend rests4 ,dr4 ,thomas1 a ,quaker of the highest character1 accepted the story without question1 but incidentally tells of the old lady 7p4 #ac7 that her wandering fancies had all the charm of a present fairy-tale to us4 ,no further proof is needed1 after the previous exposure1 of the worthlessness of the testimony in question4 #afeh ,conway1 ii1 #cga4 #afei ,see the details in ,conway's ,life1 ii1 #bhj-ha1 and note4 ,he had also a scheme for a gunpowder motor 7id4 and i1 #bdj71 and various other remarkable plans4 #affj ,conway1 ii1 #cfb-ga4 #affa ,testimonies quoted by ,r4 ,d4 ,owen1 as cited1 pp4 #bca-cb4 #affb ,conway1 ii1 #dbb4 #affc ,memoir of ,sydney ,smith1 by his daughter1 ,lady ,holland1 ed4 #ahfi1 p4 #di4 ,lady ,holland remarks on the same page that her father's religion had in it nothing intolerant4 #affd ,memoir of ,sydney ,smith1 p4 #adb4 #affe ,julien ,luchaire1 ,essai sur l'volution intellectuelle de l',italie1 #aijf1 pp4 #e-g4 #afff ,dr4 ,ramage1 ,nooks and ,byeways of ,italy1 #ahfh1 pp4 #gf1 #aje-ac4 ,ramage describes the helplessness of the better minds before #ahcj4 #affg ,luchaire1 pp4 #ce1 #cf4 #affh ,id4 p4 #cj4 #affi ,doblado 7,blanco ,white71 ,letters from ,spain1 #ahbb4 p4 #ceh4 #afgj ,thus the traveller and belletrist ,j4 ,g4 ,seume1 a zealous deist and opponent of atheism1 and a no less zealous patriot1 penned many fiercely freethinking maxims1 as3 ,where were the most so-called positive religions1 there was always the least morality2 ,grotius and the ,bible are the best supports of despotism2 ,heaven has lost us the earth2 ,the best apostles of despotism and slavery are the mystics4 ,apokryphen1 #ahjf-ahjg1 in ,smmtliche ,werke1 #ahci1 iv1 #aeg1 #agc1 #agg1 #bai4 #afga ,c4 ,h4 ,cottrell1 ,religious ,movements of ,germany1 #ahdi1 p4 #ab sq4 #afgb ,cp4 the author's ,evolution of ,states1 pp4 #ach-ci4 #afgc ,when ,i thus planned the treatment of the nineteenth century in the first edition of this book1 it was known to me that ,mr4 ,alfred ,w4 ,benn had in hand a work on ,the ,history of ,english ,rationalism in the ,nineteenth ,century2 and the knowledge made me the more resolved to keep my own record condensed4 ,duly published in #aijf 7,longmans1 #b vols471 ,mr4 ,benn's book amply fulfilled expectations2 and to it ,i would refer every reader who seeks a fuller survey than the present4 ,its freshness of thought and vigour of execution will more than repay him4 ,even ,mr4 ,benn's copious work1 however--devoting as it does a large amount of space to a preliminary survey of the eighteenth century--leaves room for various ,english monographs on the nineteenth1 to say nothing of the culture history of a dozen other countries4 #afgd ,lecky1 ,hist4 of ,ireland in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ed4 #ahib1 iii1 #chb4 #afge ,cp4 ,conway's ,life of ,paine1 ii1 #beb-ec4 #afgf ,this translation1 issued by ,sherwood1 ,neely1 and ,jones1 ,paternoster ,row1 and all booksellers1 purports to be with additions4 ,the translation1 however1 has altered d',holbach's atheism to deism4 #afgg ,by ,w4 ,huttman4 ,the book is embellished with a head of ,jesus--a conventional religious picture4 ,huttman's opinions may be divined from the last sentence of his preface1 alluding to the high pretentions and inflated stile of the lives of ,christ which issue periodically from the ,english press4 #afgh ,cp4 ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #bjh-bji4 #afgi ,see ,harriet ,martineau's ,history of the ,peace1 ed4 #ahgg1 ii1 #hg1 and ,mrs4 ,carlile ,campbell's ,the ,battle of the ,press 7,bonner1 #ahii71 passim1 as to the treatment of those who acted as ,carlile's shopmen4 ,women were imprisoned as well as men--e4g4 ,susanna ,wright1 as to whom see ,wheeler's ,dictionary1 and last ref4 ,carlile's wife and sister were likewise imprisoned with him2 and over twenty volunteer shopmen in all went to jail4 #afhj ,hone's most important service to popular culture was his issue of the ,apocryphal ,new ,testament1 which1 by co-ordinating work of the same kind1 gave a fresh scientific basis to the popular criticism of the gospel history4 ,as to his famous trial for blasphemy on the score of his having published certain parodies1 political in intention1 see bk4 i1 ch4 x 7by ,knight7 of ,harriet ,martineau's ,history of the ,peace4 #afha ,holyoake1 ,sixty ,years of an ,agitator's ,life1 i1 #aji-aj4 ,see p4 #aaa as to other cases4 #afhb ,art4 by ,holyoake in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 ,cp4 ,sixty ,years1 per index4 #afhc ,articles in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 #afhd ,holyoake1 ,sixty ,years1 i1 #dg4 #afhe ,kirkup1 ,history of ,socialism1 #ahib1 p4 #fd4 #afhf ,from an early age he had lost all belief in the prevailing forms of religion 7,kirkup1 p4 #ei74 #afhg ,reformers of almost all schools1 indeed1 from the first regarded ,owen with more or less genial incredulity1 some criticizing him acutely without any ill-will4 ,see ,podmore's ,robert ,owen1 #aijf1 i1 #bch-db4 ,southey was one of the first to detect his lack of religious belief4 ,id4 p4 #bbb1 n4 #afhh ,podmore1 i1 #bdf4 #afhi ,kirkup1 as cited1 p4 #fd4 #afij ,podmore1 ii1 #fdj4 #afia ,extraordinary self-complacency1 autocratic action1 arrogance1 are among the expressions used of him by his ablest biographer4 7,podmore1 ii1 #fda47 ,of him might be said1 as of ,emerson by himself1 the children of the ,gods do not argue--the faculty being absent4 #afib ,pamphlet sold at #a #a_/b;d41 and to be had of all the ,booksellers4 #afic ,of ,george ,combe's ,constitution of ,man 7#ahbh71 a deistic work1 over #ej1jjj copies were sold in ,britain within twelve years1 and #aj1jjj in ,america4 ,advt4 to #dth ed4 #ahci4 ,combe avows that his impulse came from the phrenologist ,spurzheim4 #afid ,see the details in his ,last ,trial by ,jury for ,atheism in ,england4 #afie ,the ,gospel its ,own ,witness1 #agii4 rep4 in ,bohn's ed4 of ,the ,principal ,works and ,remains of the ,rev4 ,andrew ,fuller1 #aheb1 pp4 #acf-cg4 #afif ,see ,prof4 ,flint's tribute to the reasoning power of ,bradlaugh and ,holyoake in his ,anti-,theistic ,theories1 #dth ed4 pp4 #eah-ai4 #afig ,see ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner's ,charles ,bradlaugh1 i1 #adi1 #bhh-hi4 #afih ,for a full record see ,part ,,ii of ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner's ,charles ,bradlaugh4 #afii ,after ,bradlaugh had secured his seat1 the noble lord even sought his acquaintance4 #agjj ,though young ,conservative members1 after #ahhf1 privately professed sympathy4 #agja ,work cited1 p4 #ebd4 #agjb ,coquerel1 ,essai sur l'histoire gnrale du christianisme1 #ahbh1 prf4 #agjc ,dr4 ,christopher ,wordsworth1 ,diary in ,france1 #ahde1 pp4 #ge-gg4 #agjd ,the miserable and deistical principle of the equality of all religions 7id4 p4 #ahh74 ,cp4 pp4 #aea1 #aec4 #agje ,id4 pp4 #ae1 #cg1 #de1 #aha1 #ahe1 #aij4 #agjf ,id4 pp4 #aeg-fa4 ,as to the general vogue of rationalism in ,france at that period1 see pp4 #ce1 #bjd3 and compare ,saisset1 ,essais sur la philosophie et la religion1 #ahde2 ,the ,progress of ,religious ,thought as illustrated in the ,protestant ,church of ,france1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,beard1 #ahfa2 and ,wilson's article in ,essays and ,reviews4 ,as to ,switzerland and ,holland1 see ,pearson1 ,infidelity1 its ,aspects1 etc41 #ahec1 pp4 #efj-fd1 #ege-hd4 #agjg ,louis ,philippe sought to suppress this book1 of which many editions had appeared before #ahcj4 ,see ,blanco ,white's ,life1 #ahde1 ii4 #afh4 #agjh ,prof4 ,e4 ,lavisse1 ,un ,ministre3 ,victor ,duruy1 #ahie 7rep4 of art4 in ,revue de ,paris1 ,janv4 #ae and ,mars #a1 #ahie71 p4 #aag4 #agji ,id4 pp4 #ii-aje4 #agaj ,id4 pp4 #ajg-aah4 #agaa ,id4 pp4 #aah-bg4 #agab ,llorente1 ,hist4 crit4 de l',inquisition de l',espagne1 #b;e dit1 iv1 #aec4 #agac ,rapport of ,ch4 ,fulpius in the ,almanach de ,libre ,pense1 #aijf4 #agad ,squier1 ,notes on ,central ,america1 #ahef1 p4 #bbg4 #agae ,before #ahdj the popular freethought propaganda had been partly carried on under cover of ,radicalism1 as in ,carlile's ,republican1 and ,lion1 and in various publications of ,william ,hone4 ,cp4 ,h4 ,b4 ,wilson's article ,the ,national ,church1 in ,essays and ,reviews1 #ith ed4 p4 #aeb4 #agaf ,described as our chief atheistic organ by the late ,f4 ,w4 ,newman because ,dr4 ,james ,martineau declined to continue writing for it1 because it interpolated atheistical articles between his theistic articles 7,contributions 444 to the early history of the late ,cardinal ,newman1 #ahia1 p4 #ajc74 ,the review was for a time edited by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 and for long after him by ,dr4 ,john ,chapman4 ,it lasted into the twentieth century1 under the editorship of ,dr4 ,chapman's widow1 and kept a free platform to the end4 #agag ,pastor ,w4 ,baur1 ,hamburg1 ,religious ,life in ,germany during the ,wars of ,independence1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahgb1 p4 #da4 ,h4 ,j4 ,rose and ,pusey1 in their controversy as to the causes of ,german rationalism1 were substantially at one on this point of fact4 ,rose1 ,letter to the ,bishop of ,london1 #ahbi1 pp4 #ai1 #aej1 #afa4 #agah ,id4 p4 #dha4 #agai ,ueber die ,religion3 ,reden an die gebildeten unter ihren ,verchtern4 ,these are discussed hereinafter4 #agbj ,lichtenberger1 ,hist4 of ,ger4 ,theol4 in the ,nineteenth ,cent4 ,eng4 tr4 #ahhi1 pp4 #abb-bc4 #agba ,see the same volume1 passim4 #agbb ,karl von ,raumer1 ,contrib4 to the ,hist4 of the ,german ,universities1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahei1 p4 #gi4 ,the intellectual tone of ,w4 ,baur and ,k4 von ,raumer certainly protects them from any charge of enlightenment4 #agbc ,laing1 ,notes of a ,traveller1 #ahdb1 p4 #aha4 #agbd ,c4 ,h4 ,cotterill1 ,relig4 ,movements of ,germany in the ,nineteenth ,century1 #ahdi1 pp4 #ci-dj4 #agbe ,id4 pp4 #bg-bh1 #da-db4 #agbf ,cp4 ,laing1 as cited1 pp4 #bjf-bjg1 #baa4 #agbg ,cotterill1 as cited1 p4 #hd4 #agbh ,cotterill4 as cited1 pp4 #dc-dg4 #agbi ,rapport de ,ida ,altmann1 in ,almanach de ,libre ,pense1 #aijf1 p4 #bj4 #agcj ,the principal have been3 ,das freie ,wort and ,frankfurter ,zeitung1 ,frankfort-on-,main2 ,der ,freidenker1 ,friedrichshagen1 near ,berlin2 ,das freireligise ,sonntagsblatt1 ,breslau2 ,die freie ,gemeinde1 ,magdeburg2 ,der ,atheist1 ,nuremberg2 ,menschentum1 ,gotha2 ,vossische ,zeitung1 ,berlin2 ,berliner ,volkszeitung1 ,berlin2 ,vorwrts 7,socialist71 ,berlin2 ,weser ,zeitung1 ,bremen2 ,hartungsche ,zeitung1 ,knigsberg2 ,klnische ,zeitung1 ,cologne4 #agca ,studemund1 ,der moderne ,unglaube in den unteren ,stnden1 #aija1 p4 #ad4 #agcb ,id4 p4 #bb4 #agcc ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,laren1 ,an ,australian in ,germany1 #aiaa1 pp4 #aha1 #ahd4 #agcd ,studemund1 ,der moderne ,unglaube in den unteren ,stnden1 #aija1 pp4 #ag1 #ba4 #agce ,glossen zu ,yves ,guyot's und ,sigismund ,lacroix's ,die wahre ,gestalt des ,christentums4 #agcf ,studemund1 p4 #bb4 #agcg ,id4 p4 #bc4 #agch ,id4 p4 #bg4 #agci ,id4 pp4 #cg-ch4 #agdj ,id4 pp4 #dj-db4 ,cp4 p4 #dc4 ,pastor ,studemund cites other inquirers1 notably ,rade1 ,gebhardt1 ,lorenz1 and ,dietzgen1 all to the same effect4 #agda ,e4g4 ,pastor ,a4 ,kalthoff's ,was wissen wir von ,jesus8 #aija4 ,since that date the opinion has found new and powerful supporters in ,germany4 #agdb ,the people in the country do not read2 in the towns they read little4 ,the journals are little circulated4 ,in ,russia one never sees a cabman1 an artisan1 a labourer reading a newspaper 7,ivan ,strannik1 ,la pense russe contemporaine1 #aijc1 p4 #e74 #agdc ,cp4 ,e4 ,lavigne1 ,introduction l'histoire du nihilisme russe1 #ahhj1 pp4 #adi1 #afa1 #bbd2 ,arnaudo1 ,le ,nihilisme1 ,french trans4 pp4 #cg1 #eh1 #fa1 #fc1 #gg1 #hf1 etc42 ,tikhomirov1 ,la ,russie1 p4 #bij4 #agdd ,tikhomirov1 ,la ,russie1 pp4 #cbe-bf1 #cch-ci4 #agde ,cp4 ,priestley1 ,essay on the ,first ,principles of ,government1 #bnd ed4 #agga1 pp4 #beg-fa1 and ,conway's ,centenary ,history of ,south ,place1 pp4 #fc1 #gg1 #hj4 #agdf ,see ,rev4 ,joseph ,hunter1 ,an ,historical ,defence of the ,trustees of ,lady ,henley's ,foundations1 #ahcd2 ,the ,history1 ,opinions1 and ,present ,legal ,position of the ,english ,presbyterians 7official71 #ahcd2 ,an ,examination and ,defence of the ,principles of ,protestant ,dissent1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,drummond1 of ,dublin1 #ahdb4 #agdg ,conway1 ,autobiography1 #aije1 i1 #abc4 #agdh ,so ,prof4 ,william ,james1 ,the ,will to ,believe1 etc41 #ahig1 p4 #acc4 #agdi ,conway1 ,emerson at ,home and ,abroad1 #ahhc1 ch4 vii4 #agej ,hagenbach1 ,kirchengeschichte des #ah4 und #ai4 ,jahrhunderts1 #ahdh1 ii1 #dbb4 ,rationalism seems to have spread soonest in the canton of ,zrich4 ,id4 ii1 #dbg4 #agea ,grote1 ,seven ,letters concerning the ,politics of ,switzerland1 pp4 #cd-ce4 ,hagenbach 7,kirchengeschichte1 ii1 #dbg-bh7 shows no shame over the insurrection at ,zrich4 ,but cp4 ,beard1 in ,voices of the ,church in ,reply to ,dr4 ,strauss1 #ahde1 pp4 #ag-ah4 #ageb ,cp4 the rapport of ,ch4 ,fulpius in the ,almanach de ,libre ,pense1 #aijf4 #agec ,g4 ,m4 ,theal1 ,south ,africa 7,story of the ,nations series71 pp4 #cdj1 #cde4 ,mr4 ,theal's view of the mental processes of the ,boers is somewhat priori1 and his explanation seems in part inconsistent with his own narrative4 #aged ,an ,english acquaintance of my own at ,cape ,town1 who before the war not only was an orthodox believer1 but found his chief weekly pleasure in attending church1 was so astounded by the general attitude of the clergy on the war that he severed his connection1 once for all4 ,thousands did the same in ,england4 #agee ,i write on the strength of personal testimonies spontaneously given to me in ,south ,africa1 some of them by clergymen of the ,dutch ,reformed ,church4 #agef ,see the evidence collected in the pamphlet ,the ,churches and the ,war1 by ,alfred ,marks4 ,new ,age ,office1 #aije4 #ageg ,for the survey here reduced to outline ,i am indebted to two ,swedish friends4 #ageh ,cp4 ,lamon's ,life of ,lincoln1 and ,j4 ,b4 ,remsburg's ,abraham ,lincoln3 ,was he a ,christian8 7,new ,york1 #ahic47 #agei ,remsburg1 pp4 #cah-ai4 #agfj ,personal information4 #agfa ,remsburg1 p4 #cbd4 #agfb ,of these the ,new ,york ,truthseeker has been the most energetic and successful4 #agfc ,white1 ,warfare1 i1 #ha4 #agfd ,white1 ,warfare1 i1 #hd1 #hf1 #cad1 #cag1 #cah4 #agfe ,this view is not inconsistent with the fact that popular forms of credulity are also found specially flourishing in the ,west4 ,cp4 ,bryce1 ,the ,american ,commonwealth1 #crd ed4 ii1 #hcb-cc4 #agff ,as to the absolute predominance of rationalistic unbelief 7in the orthodox sense of the word7 in educated ,germany in the first third of the century1 see the ,memoirs of ,f4 ,perthes1 ,eng4 tr4 #bnd ed4 ii1 #bdj-de1 #bee1 #bff-ge4 ,despite the various reactions claimed by ,perthes and others1 it is clear that the tables have never since been turned4 ,cp4 ,pearson1 ,infidelity1 pp4 #eed-ei1 #efi-gd4 ,schleiermacher was charged on his own side with making fatal concessions4 ,kahnis1 ,internal ,hist4 of ,german ,protestantism1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahef1 pp4 #baj-aa2 ,robins1 ,a ,defence of the ,faith1 #ahfb1 i1 #aha2 and ,quinet as there cited4 #agfg ,aus ,schleiermachers ,leben3 ,in ,briefen1 #ahfj1 i1 #db1 #hd4 ,the father's letters1 with their unctuous rhetoric1 are a revelation of the power of declamatory habit to eliminate sincere thought4 #agfh ,werke1 #ahdc1 i1 #adj4 #agfi ,see ,kabnis1 p4 #bad1 and refs4 as to his relations with ,frau ,grunow4 ,he belonged to the circle of ,prince ,louis1 in which intellect and art1 but not morality1 reigned4 ,ib4 ,compare the sympathetic ,lichtenberger1 ,hist4 of ,ger4 ,theol4 in the ,nineteenth ,cent4 ,eng4 tr4 #ahhi1 pp4 #ajc-ajd4 ,it was of course his clerical character that disadvantaged ,schleiermacher in such matters4 #aggj ,lichtenberger1 as cited1 p4 #hg4 #agga ,lichtenberger1 as cited1 p4 #hi4 #aggb ,id4 p4 #aji4 #aggc ,id4 pp4 #abc-bd4 #aggd ,id4 p4 #aai4 #agge ,id4 p4 #abi4 #aggf ,strauss1 ,die ,halben und die ,ganzen1 #ahfe1 p4 #ah4 #aggg ,for estimates of his work cp4 ,baur1 ,kirchengeschichte des #aiten ,jahrh41 p4 #de2 ,kahnis1 as last cited2 ,pfleiderer1 ,development of ,theology in ,germany1 #ahic1 bk4 i1 ch4 iii2 bk4 ii1 ch4 ii2 ,lichtenberger1 as cited2 and art4 by ,rev4 ,f4 ,j4 ,smith in ,theol4 ,review1 ,july1 #ahfi4 #aggh ,reuss1 ,history of the ,canon1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahij1 p4 #chg4 ,cp4 ,strauss1 ,einleitung in ,das ,leben ,jesu1 #aj4 #aggi ,see a good account of the development in ,strauss's ,introductions to his two ,lives of ,jesus4 #aghj ,in a volume entitled ,offenbarung und ,mythologie4 #agha ,hebrische ,mythologie des alten und neuen ,testaments4 #aghb ,evangeliencommentar1 #ahjj-ahjd2 ,leben ,jesu1 #ahbh4 #aghc ,probabilia de ,evangelii et ,epistolarum ,joannis ,apostoli indole et origine4 #aghd ,it is thus inaccurate--,strauss himself being the witness--to say1 as does ,dr4 ,conybeare 7,hist4 of ,n4 ,t4 ,crit4 p4 #ajg71 that ,strauss was the first ,german writer to discern the unhistoricity of the ,fourth ,gospel4 #aghe ,das ,leben ,jesu1 pref4 to first ed4 end4 #aghf ,hausrath1 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss und die ,theologie seiner ,zeit1 #ahgh1 ii1 #bcc-cd4 #aghg ,pref4 to work cited4 ,eng4 tr4 #ahge1 i1 #hf1 #hi4 #aghh ,lichtenberger1 as cited1 p4 #cia4 #aghi ,kritik der evang4 ,gesch4 der ,synoptiker1 ed4 #ahdf1 ,vorrede1 pp4 v-xiii4 #agij ,baur1 ,kirchengesch4 des #aiten ,jahrh41 pp4 #chh-hi4 #agia ,gesch4 der ,politik1 ,kultur1 und ,aufklrung des #ahten ,jahrh4 #d ,bde4 #ahdc-de2 ,gesch4 der franzs4 ,revolution1 #c ,bde4 #ahdg4 #agib ,russland und das ,germanenthum1 #ahdg4 #agic ,lichtenberger1 p4 #cgh4 #agid ,philo1 ,strauss1 ,renan1 und das ,urchristenthum1 #ahgd2 ,christus und die ,csaren1 #ahgg4 #agie ,das ,christenthum und die chr4 ,kirche1 #ahed1 p4 #cd4 #agif ,das ,leben ,jesu fr das deutsche ,volk bearbeitet1 #da1 #cte ,aufl4 p4 #bed1 #ast par4 #agig ,id4 ib4 #agih ,cp4 ,christianity and ,mythology1 pt4 iii1 div4 ii1 #f4 #agii ,pref4 to second ,leben ,jesu1 ed4 cited1 p4 xv4 #ahjj ,zeller1 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 #bte ,aufl4 p4 #aac4 #ahja ,cheyne1 ,founders of ,old ,testament ,criticism1 #ahic1 p4 #af4 ,eichhorn seems to have known ,astruc's work only at second-hand1 yet1 without him1 it might be contended1 ,astruc's work would have been completely lost to science4 7,id4 p4 #bc47 #ahjb ,see ,dr4 ,cheyne's surveys1 which are those of a liberal ecclesiastic--a point of view on which he has since notably advanced4 #ahjc ,cheyne1 pp4 #ahg-hh4 #ahjd ,kuenen1 ,the ,hexateuch1 ,eng4 tr4 introd4 pp4 xiv-xvii4 #ahje ,dr4 ,beard1 in ,voices of the ,church in ,reply to ,strauss1 #ahde1 pp4 #af-ag4 #ahjf ,zeller1 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahgi1 p4 #ef4 #ahjg ,see ,gunkel1 ,zum religionsgeschichtlichen ,verstndnis des ,neuen ,testaments1 #aijc1 pp4 #a-b1 note4 #ahjh ,mythen der alten ,perser als ,quellen christlicher ,glaubenslehren1 #ahce2 ,der ,mystagog1 oder ,deutung der ,geheimenlehren1 ,symbole und ,feste der christlichen ,kirche1 #ahch2 ,rabbinische ,quellen und ,parallelen zu neutestamentlichen ,schriftstellen1 #ahci2 ,biblische ,mythologie des alten und neuen ,testaments1 #ahdb2 ,der ,festkalender1 #ahdg1 etc4 #ahji ,der ,mystagog1 #ahch1 p4 vii1 note1 and p4 #bda4 #ahaj ,see ,nork's preamble on ,hr4 ,fr4 ,daumer1 ein kurzweiliger ,molochsfnger1 in his ,biblische ,mythologie1 ,bd4 i4 #ahaa ,after being acquitted in #ahhj4 ,the first charge was founded on his ,britannica article ,bible2 the second on the article ,hebrew ,language and ,literature1 which appeared after the acquittal4 #ahab ,these utterances were noted for their vigour and independence by ,kuenen1 and also by ,dr4 ,cheyne1 who remarks that the earlier work of ,kalisch on ,exodus 7#ahee7 was somewhat behind the critical standpoint of contemporary investigators on the ,continent4 7,founders of ,old ,testament ,criticism1 p4 #bjg47 #ahac ,see his ,introduction to the ,study of the ,old ,testament1 pref4 ,it is the spirit of compromise that ,i chiefly dread for our younger students1 wrote ,dr4 ,cheyne in #ahic 7,founders1 p4 #bdg74 ,his courteous criticism of ,dr4 ,driver does not fail to point the moral in that writer's direction4 #ahad ,conrad1 ,the ,german ,universities for the ,last ,fifty ,years1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahhe1 p4 #gd4 ,see p4 #ajj as to the financial measures taken2 and p4 #aje as to the essentially financial nature of the reaction4 #ahae ,id4 p4 #ajc4 #ahaf ,id4 p4 #ajd4 #ahag ,id4 p4 #aab4 ,see pp4 #aah-ai as to ,austria4 #ahah ,id4 pp4 #ig-ih4 #ahai ,white1 ,warfare1 i1 #bci4 ,in ,february1 #aiad1 on a given ,sunday1 out of a ,protestant population of over two millions1 only #ce1jjj persons attended church in ,berlin4 ,art4 on ,creeds1 ,heresy-,hunting1 and ,secession in ,german ,protestantism ,to-day1 in ,hibbert ,journal for ,july1 #aiad1 p4 #gbb4 #ahbj ,see ,haeckel's ,freedom in ,science and ,teaching1 ,eng4 tr4 with pref4 by ,huxley1 #ahgi1 pp4 xix1 xxv1 xxvii1 #hi-ij2 and ,clifford4 #ahba ,bchner1 for straightforwardly renouncing his connection with the ,state ,church a generation ago1 was blamed by many who held his philosophic opinions4 ,in our own day1 there has arisen a considerable ,austrittsbewegung1 or ,withdrawal ,movement2 while creedless clerics strive to remain inside a ,church bent on ejecting them4 ,a4 ,d4 ,mc,laren1 in ,hibbert ,journal for ,july1 #aiad1 art4 cited4 #ahbb ,tracts for the ,times1 vol4 ii1 ed4 #ahci2 ,records of the ,church1 ,no4 xxiv4 #ahbc ,tracts for the ,times1 ,no4 #c4 #ahbd ,id4 ,no4 #cb4 #ahbe ,cross's ,life1 #a-vol4 ed4 p4 #gi4 #ahbf ,account of the ,printed ,text of the ,greek ,n4 ,t41 #ahed1 pref4 and pp4 #dg1 #aab-ac1 #bff4 #ahbg ,a third brother1 ,charles ,robert1 became an atheist4 ,this1 as well as his psychic infirmity1 insures him sufficiently severe treatment at the hands of his theistic brother in the introduction to the latter's ,contributions ,chiefly to the ,early ,history of the late ,cardinal ,newman1 #ahia4 #ahbh ,latterly abandoned by the learned author1 who before his death disclosed his name--,w4 ,r4 ,cassels4 #ahbi ,see the testimonies of ,pfleiderer1 ,the ,development of ,theology since ,kant1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahij1 p4 #cig1 and ,dr4 ,samuel ,davidson1 ,introd4 to the ,study of the ,new ,testament1 pref4 to #bnd ed4 #ahcj ,ptie4 i1 liv4 i1 ch4 v4 #ahca ,id4 i1 liv4 iii1 ch4 ii4 #ahcb ,it is further to be remembered1 however1 that ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold saw fit to defend ,chateaubriand1 calling him great1 when his fame was being undone by common sense4 #ahcc ,c4 ,wordsworth1 ,diary in ,france1 #ahde1 pp4 #ee-ef1 #abd1 #bjd4 #ahcd ,essais sur la philosophie et la religion1 #ahde1 p4 #aic4 #ahce ,histoire1 tom4 vii1 ,renaissance1 introd4 #f4 #ahcf ,m4 ,faguet writes 7tudes sur le ,x,i,xe ,sicle1 p4 #ceb7 that ,michelet croit l'me plus qu' ,dieu1 encore que profondment diste4 ,les thories philosophiques modernes lui taient pnibles4 ,this may be true1 though1 hardly any evidence is offered on the latter head2 but when ,m4 ,faguet writes1 ,est-il chrtien8 ,je n'en sais rien 444 mais il sympathise avec la pense chrtienne1 he seems to ignore the preface to the later editions of the ,histoire de la rvolution franaise4 ,to pronounce ,christianity1 as ,michelet there does1 essentially anti-democratic1 and therefore hostile to the ,revolution1 was1 for him1 to condemn it4 #ahcg ,letter to ,sainte-,beuve1 cited by ,levallois1 ,sainte-,beuve1 #ahgb1 p4 #ad4 #ahch ,lanson1 ,hist4 de la litt4 franaise1 p4 #iea4 #ahci ,l'incrdulit de ,sainte-,beuve tait sincre1 radicale1 et absolue4 ,elle a t invariable et invincible pendant trente ans4 ,voil la vrit 7,jules ,levallois1 ,sainte-,beuve1 #ahgb1 prf4 p4 xxxiii74 ,m4 ,levallois1 who writes as a theist1 was one of ,sainte-,beuve's secretaries4 ,m4 ,zola1 who spoke of the famous critic's rationalism as une ngation n'osant conclure1 admitted later that it was hardly possible for him to speak more boldly than he did 7,documents ,littraires1 #ahha1 pp4 #cad1 #cbe-bh74 ,and ,m4 ,lavisse has shown 7as cited above1 p4 #djf7 with what courage he supported ,duruy in the ,senate against the attacks of the exasperated clerical party4 ,see also his letter of #ahfg to ,louis ,viardot in the avant-propos to that writer's ,libre ,examen3 ,apologie d'un ,incrdule1 #f;e dit4 #ahha1 p4 #c4 #ahdj ,that ,wordsworth was not an orthodox ,christian is fairly certain4 ,both in talk and in poetry he put forth a pantheistic doctrine4 ,cp4 ,benn1 ,hist4 of ,eng4 ,rationalism1 i1 #bbg-bi2 and ,coleridge's letter of ,aug4 #h1 #ahbj1 in ,allsopp's ,letters1 etc41 of ,s4 ,t4 ,coleridge1 #crd ed4 #ahfd1 pp4 #ef-eg4 #ahda ,leslie ,stephen1 ,george ,eliot1 p4 #bg4 #ahdb ,mr4 ,benn 7,hist4 of ,eng4 ,rationalism1 i1 #bbf1 #cji sq47 has some interesting discussions on ,scott's relation to religion1 but does not take full account of biographical data and of ,scott's utterances outside of his novels4 ,the truth probably is that ,scott's brain was one with watertight compartments4 #ahdc ,at the age of twenty-five we find him writing to ,gifford3 ,i am no bigot to infidelity1 and did not expect that because ,i doubted the immortality of man ,i should be charged with denying the existence of ,god 7letter of ,june #ah1 #ahac74 #ahdd ,by the ,court of ,chancery1 in #ahbb1 the year in which copyright was refused to the ,lectures of ,dr4 ,lawrence4 ,harriet ,martineau1 ,history of the ,peace1 ii1 #hg4 #ahde ,w4 ,sharp1 ,life of ,severn1 #ahib1 pp4 #hf-hg1 #ij1 #aag-ah4 #ahdf ,on reading ,lamb's severe rejoinder1 ,southey1 in distress1 apologized1 and ,lamb at once relented 7,life and ,letters of ,john ,rickman1 by ,orlo ,williams1 #aiab1 p4 #bbe74 ,hence the curtailment of ,lamb's letter in the ordinary editions of his works4 #ahdg ,william ,allingham3 ,a ,diary1 #aijg1 p4 #bec4 ,cp4 p4 #bfh4 #ahdh ,id4 p4 #bcb4 #ahdi ,allingham1 as cited1 p4 #bed4 #ahej ,id4 p4 #baa4 ,carlyle said the same thing to ,moncure ,conway4 #ahea ,cp4 ,prof4 ,bain's ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 pp4 #aeg1 #aia2 ,froude's ,london ,life of ,carlyle1 i1 #deh4 #aheb ,bain1 p4 #abh4 #ahec ,see ,brougham's letters in the ,correspondence of ,macvey ,napier1 #ahgi1 pp4 #ccc-cg4 ,brougham is deeply indignant1 not at the fact1 but at the indiscreet revelation of it--as also at the similar revelation concerning ,pitt 7p4 #ccd74 #ahed ,my ,relations with ,carlyle1 #aijc1 p4 #b4 #ahee ,morning ,post1 ,march #i1 #ahdi4 #ahef ,germany1 by ,bisset ,hawkins1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,c4,p41 ,inspector of ,prisons1 late ,professor at ,king's ,college1 etc41 #ahch1 p4 #aga4 #aheg ,history1 ch4 xix4 ,student's ed4 ii1 #daa4 #aheh ,sometimes he gives a clue2 and we find ,brougham privately denouncing him for his remark 7,essay on ,ranke's ,history of the ,popes1 #fth par47 that to try without the help of revelation to prove the immortality of man is vain4 ,it is next thing to preaching atheism1 shouts ,brougham 7,letter of ,october #bj1 #ahdj1 in ,correspondence of ,macvey ,napier1 p4 #ccc71 who at the same time hotly insisted that ,cuvier had made an advance in ,natural ,theology by proving that there must have been one divine interposition after the creation of the world--to create species4 7,id4 p4 #ccg47 #ahei ,in #ahcj1 for instance1 we find a ,scottish episcopal ,d4,d4 writing that ,infidelity has had its day2 it1 depend upon it1 will never be revived--,,no ,,man ,,of ,,genius ,,will ,,ever ,,write ,,another ,,word ,,in ,,its ,,support4 ,morehead1 ,dialogues on ,natural and ,revealed ,religion1 p4 #bff4 #ahfj ,cp4 the author's ,modern ,humanists1 pp4 #ahi-id4 #ahfa ,practical ,view of the ,prevailing ,religious ,system 7#agig71 #hth ed4 p4 #cfh4 ,wilberforce points with chagrin to the superiority of ,mohammedan writers in these matters4 #ahfb ,in point of tendency ,i should class her books among the most irreligious ,i ever read1 delineating good characters in every aspect1 and all this without the remotest allusion to ,christianity1 the only true religion4 ,cited in ,o4 ,gregory's ,brief ,memoir of ,robert ,hall1 #ahcc1 p4 #bdb4 ,the context tells how ,miss ,edgeworth avowed that she had not thought religion necessary in books meant for the upper classes4 #ahfc ,art4 ,the ,faith of ,richard ,jefferies1 by ,h4 ,s4 ,salt1 in ,westminster ,review1 ,august1 #aije1 rep4 as pamphlet by the ,r4 ,p4 ,a41 #aijf4 #ahfd ,the writer of these scurrilities is ,mr4 ,bramwell ,booth1 ,war ,cry1 ,may #bg1 #aije4 #ahfe ,cp4 ,mrs4 ,sutherland ,orr's article on ,the ,religious ,opinions of ,robert ,browning in the ,contemporary ,review1 ,december1 #ahia1 p4 #hgh2 and the present writer's ,tennyson and ,browning as ,teachers1 #aijc4 #ahff ,apropos of his ,theatrocrat1 which he pronounced the most profound and original of ,english books4 ,mr4 ,davidson in a newspaper article proclaimed himself on socio-political grounds an anti-,christian4 ,i take the first resolute step out of ,christendom1 was his claim 7,daily ,chronicle1 ,december #bj1 #aije74 #ahfg ,see ,talks with ,emerson1 by ,c4 ,j4 ,woodbury1 #ahij1 pp4 #ic-id4 #ahfh ,it was in his old age that ,whitman tended most to theize ,nature4 ,in conversation with ,dr4 ,moncure ,conway1 he once used the expression that the spectacle of a mouse is enough to stagger a sextillion of infidels4 ,dr4 ,conway replied3 ,and the sight of the cat playing with the mouse is enough to set them on their feet again2 whereat ,whitman tolerantly smiled4 #ahfi ,kahnis1 ,internal ,hist4 of ,ger4 ,protestantism1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahef1 p4 #gh4 #ahgj ,gestndnisse1 end 7,werke1 ed4 #ahgf1 iv1 #ei74 #ahga ,zur ,gesch4 der ,relig4 und ,philos4 in ,werke1 ed4 cited1 iii1 #hj4 #ahgb ,see ,ernest ,newman's ,study of ,wagner1 #ahii1 p4 #cij1 note1 as to the vagueness of ,wagnerians on the subject4 #ahgc ,tikhomirov1 ,la ,russie1 #b;e dit4 p4 #cdc4 #ahgd ,see ,comte de ,vogu's ,le roman russe1 p4 #bah1 as to his propaganda of atheism4 #ahge ,arnaudo1 ,le ,nihilisme et les ,nihilistes1 ,french tr4 #ej4 #ahgf ,tikhomirov1 p4 #cdd4 #ahgg ,il ,tourgunief tait libre-penseur1 et dtestt l'apparat religieux d'une manire toute particulire4 ,i4 ,pavlovsky1 ,souvenirs sur ,tourgunief1 #ahhg1 p4 #bdb4 #ahgh ,see the article ,un ,prcurseur d',henrik ,ibsen1 ,soeren ,kierkegaard1 in the ,revue de ,paris1 ,july #a1 #aija4 #ahgi ,prof4 ,a4 ,d4 ,white1 ,hist4 of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology1 #ahif1 i1 #ag1 #bb4 #ahhj ,the phrase is used by a ,french ,protestant pastor4 ,la vrit chrtienne et la doute moderne 7,confrences71 #ahgi1 pp4 #bd-be4 #ahha ,antiquities of the ,jews1 by ,william ,brown1 ,d4,d41 ,edinburgh1 #ahbf1 i1 #aba-bb4 ,brown quotes from a friend a demonstration of the monstrous consequences of a stoppage of the earth's rotation4 #ahhb ,theopneustia3 ,the ,plenary ,inspiration of the ,holy ,scriptures1 ,eng4 trans4 ,edinburgh1 #ahej1 pp4 #bdf-di4 ,gaussen elaborately argues that if eighteen minutes were allowed for the stoppage of the earth's rotation1 no shock would occur4 ,finally1 however1 he argues that there may have been a mere refraction of the sun's rays--an old theory1 already set forth by ,brown4 #ahhc ,dr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,edmonds1 ,introd4 to rep4 of ,leland's ,view of the ,deistical ,writers1 ,tegg's ed4 #ahcg1 p4 xxiii4 #ahhd ,the work consists of twelve ,mmoires or treatises1 six of which were read in #agif-agig at the ,institute4 ,they appeared in book form in #ahjb4 #ahhe ,rapports1 ,ier ,mmoire1 ii1 near end4 7d4 #ahdc1 p4 #gc47 ,cp4 ,prf4 7pp4 #df-dg74 #ahhf ,ed4 cited1 p4 #ed4 ,cp4 p4 #bjg1 note4 #ahhg ,not published till #ahbd4 #ahhh ,ueberweg1 ii1 #cci4 #ahhi ,cp4 ,luchaire1 as cited1 p4 #cf4 #ahij ,lange1 ,gesch4 des ,materialismus1 ii1 #acd4 #ahia ,since ,cabanis1 the referring back of mental functions to the nervous system has remained dominant in physiology1 whatever individual physiologists may have thought about final causes 7,lange1 ii1 #gj74 ,compare the tribute of ,cabanis's orthodox editor ,cerise 7ed4 #ahdc1 ,introd4 pp4 xlii-iii74 #ahib ,rapports1 ,i,ie ,mmoire1 near end4 7,ed4 cited1 p4 #abb47 #ahic ,see the already cited introduction of ,cerise1 who solved the problem religiously by positing a force which executes the plans of ,god without our knowledge or intervention 7p4 xix74 ,he goes on to lament the pantheism of ,dr4 ,dubois 7whose ,examen des doctrines de ,cabanis1 ,gall1 et ,broussais 7#ahdb7 was put forward as a vindication of the spiritual principle71 and of the ,german school of physiology represented by ,oken and ,burdach4 #ahid ,lawrence's ,lectures on ,physiology1 ,zoology1 and the ,natural ,history of ,man1 #hth ed4 #ahdj1 pp4 #a-c4 ,the aspersion of ,abernethy is typical of the orthodox malignity of the time4 ,cabanis in his preface had expressly contended for the all-importance of morals4 ,the orthodox ,dr4 ,cerise1 who edited his book in #ahdc1 while acknowledging the high character of ,cabanis1 thought fit to speak of the materialists as interested in abasing man 7introd4 p4 xxi74 ,on the score of fear of demoralization1 the champions of spirit themselves exhibited the maximum of baseness4 #ahie ,lawrence's ,lectures1 p4 #i1 note4 #ahif ,id4 pp4 #afh-fi4 #ahig ,yet ,lawrence was created a baronet two months before his death4 ,so much progress had been made in half a century4 #ahih ,work cited1 pp4 #cee sq41 #cge sq4 ,the tone is at times expressive of a similar attitude towards historical religion--e4g43 ,human testimony is of so little value 444 that it cannot be received with sufficient caution4 ,to doubt is the beginning of wisdom4 ,id4 p4 #bfi4 #ahii ,cp4 ,whewell1 ,hist4 of the ,inductive ,sciences1 #crd ed4 iii1 #eje4 #aijj ,white1 as cited1 i1 #bbb-bc1 gives a selection of the language in general use among theologians on the subject4 #aija ,the early policy of the ,geological ,society of ,london 7#ahjg71 which professed to seek for facts and to disclaim theories as premature 7cp4 ,whewell1 iii1 #dbh2 ,buckle1 iii1 #cib71 was at least as much socially as scientifically prudential4 #aijb ,see the excellent monograph of ,w4 ,m4 ,mackenzie1 ,hugh ,miller3 ,a ,critical ,study1 #aije1 ch4 vi2 and cp4 ,spencer's essay on ,illogical ,geology--,essays1 vol4 i2 and ,baden ,powell's ,christianity without ,judaism1 #aheg1 p4 #bed sq4 ,miller's friend ,dick1 the ,thurso naturalist1 being a freethinker1 escaped such error4 7,mackenzie1 pp4 #afa-fd47 #aijc ,cp4 the details given by ,whewell1 iii1 #djf-djh1 #daa-ac1 #ejf-ejg1 as to early theories of a sound order1 all of which came to nothing4 ,steno1 a ,dane resident in ,italy in the seventeenth century1 had reached non-,scriptural and just views on several points4 ,cp4 ,white1 ,hist4 of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology1 i1 #bae4 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,frascatorio had reached them still earlier4 ,above1 vol4 i1 p4 #cga4 #aijd ,metamorphoses1 lib4 xv4 #aije ,he had just completed a work on the subject at his death4 ,cp4 ,mackenzie1 ,hugh ,miller1 as cited1 pp4 #acd-ce1 #adf-dg4 #aijf ,christianity and ,judaism1 pp4 #bef-eg4 #aijg ,see ,charles ,darwin's ,historical ,sketch prefixed to the ,origin of ,species4 #aijh ,meding1 as cited by ,darwin1 #fth ed4 i1 p4 xv4 ,goethe seems to have had his general impulse from ,kielmeyer1 who also taught ,cuvier4 ,virchow1 ,gthe als ,naturforscher1 #ahfa1 ,beilage x4 #aiji ,memoirs of ,newton1 i1 #aca4 ,cp4 ,more ,worlds than ,one1 #ahed1 pp4 vi1 #bbf4 #aiaj ,see ,darwin's ,sketch1 as cited4 #aiaa ,letter of ,march #af1 #ahde1 in ,life of ,whewell1 by ,mrs4 ,stair ,douglas1 #bnd ed4 #ahhb1 pp4 #cah-ai4 ,if this statement be true as to ,owen1 he shuffled badly in his correspondence with the author of the ,vestiges4 ,see the ,life of ,sir ,richard ,owen1 #ahid1 i1 #bea4 #aiab ,mackenzie1 ,hugh ,miller1 p4 #ahe4 #aiac ,foot-,prints of the ,creator1 end4 #aiad ,oxford ,essays1 #ahef1 p4 #e4 #aiae ,hist4 of the ,inductive ,sciences1 #crd ed4 iii1 #dgi-hc2 ,life1 as above cited4 ,whewell is said to have refused to allow a copy of the ,origin of ,species to be placed in the ,trinity ,college ,library4 ,white1 i1 #hd4 #aiaf ,white1 i1 #gj sq4 #aiag ,edward ,clodd1 ,thomas ,henry ,huxley1 #aijb1 pp4 #ai-bj4 #aiah ,luthardt1 ,fundamental ,truths of ,christianity1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahfe1 p4 #gd4 #aiai ,see the many examples cited by ,white4 ,as late as #ahhe the ,scottish clergyman ,dr4 ,lee is quoted as calling the ,darwinians gospellers of the gutter1 and charging on their doctrine utter blasphemy against the divine and human character of our incarnate ,lord 7,white1 i1 #hc74 ,carlyle is quoted as calling ,darwin an apostle of dirt-worship4 ,his admirers appear to regard him as having made amends by admitting that ,darwin was personally charming4 #aibj ,e4g4 the ,education1 small ed4 pp4 #da1 #aee4 #aiba ,i am informed on good authority that in later life ,huxley changed his views on the subject4 ,he had abundant cause4 ,as early as #ahgi he is found complaining 7pref4 to ,eng4 tr4 of ,haeckel's ,freedom in ,science and ,teaching1 p4 xvii7 of the mass of falsities at present foisted upon the young in the name of the ,church4 #aibb ,see a choice collection in the pamphlet ,what ,men of ,science say about ,god and ,religion1 by ,a4 ,e4 ,proctor2 ,catholic ,truth ,society4 #aibc ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 ed4 #ahhh1 iii1 #agi4 #aibd ,it is doubtful whether ,c4 ,a4 ,walckenaer should be so described4 ,his ,essai sur l'histoire de l'espce humaine 7#agih7 has real scientific value4 #aibe ,see the author's ,buckle and his ,critics1 #ahie4 #aibf ,europe during the ,middle ,ages1 #aath ed4 i1 #cgg4 #aibg ,cp4 his ,decline of the ,roman ,republic1 #ahfd1 i1 #cde-dg2 and note on p4 #ddg of his translation of ,plutarch's ,brutus1 ,bohn ed4 of ,lives1 vol4 iv4 #aibh ,see ,the ,dynamics of ,religion1 pp4 #bbg-cc4 #aibi ,it is difficult to understand the claim made for ,hegel by his translator1 the ,rev4 ,e4 ,b4 ,speirs1 that any student of his lectures on the ,philosophy of ,religion will be constrained to admit that in them we have the true 'sources' of the evolution principle as applied to the study of religion 7edit4 pref4 to trans4 of work cited1 i1 p4 viii74 ,to say nothing of ,fontenelle and ,de ,brosses1 ,constant had laid out the whole subject before ,hegel4 #aicj ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #b4 #aica ,life and ,letters1 i1 #aea4 #aicb ,principles of ,sociology1 #c vols4 #ahgf-if4 #aicc ,cp4 ,saintes1 ,hist4 crit4 du rationalisme en ,allemagne1 p4 #cbc4 #aicd ,id4 pp4 #cbb-bd4 #aice ,as to ,hegel's mental development cp4 ,dr4 ,beard on ,strauss1 ,hegel1 and their ,opinions1 in ,voices of the ,church in ,reply to ,strauss1 #ahde1 pp4 #c-d4 #aicf ,e4 ,caird1 ,hegel1 #ahhc1 p4 #id4 #aicg ,e4g4 ,philos4 of ,religion1 introd4 ,eng4 tr4 i1 #ch-dj4 #aich ,id4 p4 #da4 ,cp4 pp4 #baf-ag4 #aici ,id4 p4 #bai4 #aidj ,cp4 ,morell1 as cited1 and pp4 #aie-if2 and ,feuerbach1 as summarized by ,baur1 ,kirchengeschichte des #aiten ,jahrh4 p4 #cij4 #aida ,cp4 ,michelet as cited by ,morell1 ii1 #aib-ic4 #aidb ,as to ,strauss cp4 ,beard1 as above cited1 pp4 #ba-bb1 #cj2 and ,zeller1 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 ,eng4 tr4 pp4 #ce1 #dg-dh1 #ga-gb1 etc4 #aidc ,as to ,vatke see ,pfleiderer1 as cited1 p4 #beb sq42 ,cheyne1 ,founders of ,o4 ,t4 ,criticism1 #ahic1 p4 #ace4 #aidd ,e4g4 ,dr4 ,hutchison ,stirling4 ,see his trans4 of ,schwegler's ,handbook of the ,history of ,philosophy1 #fth ed4 p4 #dch sq4 #aide ,baur1 last cit4 p4 #chi4 #aidf ,gestndnisse1 ,werke1 iv1 #cc4 ,cp4 iii1 #aaj4 #aidg ,cp4 ,hagenbach1 pp4 #cfi-gb2 ,farrar1 ,crit4 ,hist4 of ,freethought1 pp4 #chg-hh4 ,on ,bauer's critical development and academic career see ,baur1 ,kirchengesch4 des #aiten ,jahrh4 pp4 #chf-hi4 #aidh ,die ,selbstzersetzung des ,christenthums und die ,religion der ,zukunft1 #bte ,aufl4 #ahgd trans4 in ,eng4 as ,the ,religion of the ,future1 #ahhf4 #aidi ,see ,schopenhauer's dialogues on ,religion and ,immortality1 and his essay on ,the ,christian ,system 7,eng4 tr4 by ,t4 ,b4 ,samplers71 and ,nietzsche's ,antichrist4 ,the latter work is discussed by the writer in ,essays in ,sociology1 vol4 ii4 #aiej ,prof4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 who passes many just criticisms on their work 7,philos4 of ,relig4 in ,kant and ,hegel1 rep4 with ,the ,philosophical ,radicals71 does not seem to suspect this determination4 #aiea ,baur gives a good summary1 ,kirchengeschichte1 pp4 #cij-id4 #aieb ,m4 ,feuerbach et la nouvelle cole hglienne1 in tudes d'histoire religieuse4 #aiec ,a4 ,kohut1 ,ludwig ,feuerbach1 sein ,leben und seine ,werke1 #aiji1 p4 #dh4 #aied ,die ,halben und die ,ganzen1 p4 #ej4 ,feuerbach a ruin le systme de ,hegel et fond la positivisme4 ,a4 ,lvy1 ,la philosophie de ,feuerbach et son influence sur la litt4 allemande1 #aijd1 introd4 p4 xxii4 #aiee ,e4g4 ,all knowledge1 all conviction1 all piety 444 is based on the principle that in the spirit1 as such1 the consciousness of ,god exists immediately with the consciousness of itself4 ,philos4 of ,relig4 ,eng4 tr4 introd4 i4 #db-dc4 #aief ,essence of ,christianity1 ,eng4 tr4 #ahed1 p4 #ab4 #aieg ,kirchengeschichte des #aiten ,jahrhunderts1 pp4 #cic-id4 #aieh ,cp4 ,a4 ,lvy1 as cited1 ch4 iv4 #aiei ,id4 ch4 ii4 #aifj ,reden ber ,religion1 ihr ,entstehen und ,vergehen1 an die ,gebildeten unter ihren ,verehrern--a parody of the title of the famous work of ,schleiermacher4 #aifa ,work cited1 p4 #aai4 #aifb ,bchner expressly rejected the term materialism because of its misleading implications or connotations4 ,cp4 in ,mrs4 ,bradlaugh ,bonner's ,charles ,bradlaugh the discussion in ,pt4 ii1 ch4 i1 #c 7by ,j4 ,m4 ,r474 #aifc ,while the cognate works of ,carl ,vogt and ,moleschott have gone out of print1 ,bchner's1 recast again and again1 continues to be republished4 #aifd ,cp4 ,paul ,deschanel1 ,figures ,littraires1 #ahhi1 pp4 #acj-cb1 #aga-gc2 ,lvy-,bruhl1 ,the ,philosophy of ,auguste ,comte1 ,eng4 tr4 #aijc1 p4 #aij2 and ,ch4 ,adam1 ,la ,philosophie en ,france1 #ahid4 p4 #bbh4 #aife ,adam1 as cited1 pp4 #bbg-cj4 #aiff ,in his ,mlanges philosophiques 7#ahcc71 ,eng4 trans4 7incomplete7 by ,george ,ripley1 ,philos4 ,essays of ,th4 ,jouffroy1 ,edinburgh1 #ahci1 ii1 #cb4 ,ripley1 who was one of the ,american transcendentalist group and a member of the ,brook ,farm ,colony1 indicates his own semi-rationalism in his ,introductory ,note1 p4 xxv4 #aifg ,mlanges philosophiques1 trans4 as cited1 ii1 #ie4 #aifh ,essai1 cited1 i1 #bcb1 #bcg4 #aifi ,id4 pp4 #bda-dc4 #aigj ,id4 p4 #bba4 #aiga ,correspondance1 #aheh-hf1 letter of ,may #bf1 #ahcc4 #aigb ,letters of ,august #a and ,november #be4 #aigc ,cp4 ,ch4 ,adam1 ,la ,philosophie en ,france1 #ahid1 p4 #aje4 #aigd ,id4 p4 #hd4 #aige ,littr1 ,auguste ,comte et la philosophie positive1 pp4 #abc1 #abe-bf4 #aigf ,article in #ahdd1 rep4 in ,essais sur la philosophie et la religion1 #ahde1 p4 #a4 #aigg ,see ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl's ,philosophy of ,auguste ,comte1 ,eng4 tr4 pp4 #aj-ae4 ,m4 ,lvy-,bruhl really does not attempt to meet ,littre's argument1 which he puts aside4 #aigh ,cp4 ,prof4 ,botta's chapter in ,ueberweg's ,hist4 of ,philos4 ii1 #eac-af4 #aigi ,veitch's ,memoir of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 #ahfi1 p4 #ed4 ,cp4 ,hamilton's own ,discussions1 #aheb1 p4 #ahg 7rep4 of article of #ahci74 #aihj ,veitch1 p4 #bad4 #aiha ,in his ,church of ,englandism and its ,catechism ,examined 7#ahah71 and ,not ,paul but ,jesus 7#ahbc71 by ,gamaliel ,smith4 #aihb ,under the pseudonym of ,philip ,beauchamp4 ,see ,the ,minor ,works of ,george ,grote1 edited by ,professor ,bain1 #ahgc1 p4 #ah2 ,athenum1 ,may #ca1 #ahgc2 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,autobiography1 p4 #fi2 and ,three ,essays on ,religion1 p4 #gf4 #aihc ,cp4 ,morell1 ,spec4 ,philos4 of ,europe in the ,nineteenth ,century1 ii1 #fbj2 and ,life and ,corr4 of ,whately1 by ,e4 ,jane ,whately1 abridged ed4 p4 #aei4 #aihd ,articles in the ,edinburgh ,review 7#ahbi-cj72 and professorial lectures at ,edinburgh 7#ahci-ef74 #aihe ,cp4 ,veitch's ,memoir1 pp4 #aie-ig4 #aihf ,bampton ,lectures on ,the ,limits of ,religious ,thought1 #dth ed4 pref4 p4 xxxvi1 note4 ,after thus declaring all metaphysics to be profoundly delusive1 ,mansel shows at his worst 7,philosophy of the ,conditioned1 #ahff1 p4 #ahh7 by disparaging ,mill as an incompetent metaphysician4 #aihg ,id4 p4 xxxviii4 #aihh ,spencer has avowed in his ,autobiography 7ii1 #ge7 what might be surmized by critical readers1 that he wrote the ,first ,part of ,first ,principles in order to guard against the charge of materialism4 ,this motive led him to misrepresent atheism1 and there was a touch of retribution in the general disregard of his disavowal of materialism1 at which he expresses surprise4 ,the broad fact remains that for prudential reasons he set forth at the very outset of his system a set of conclusions which could properly be reached only at the end1 if at all4 #aihi ,as to his fluctuations1 which lasted till his death1 cp4 the author's ,new ,essays towards a ,critical ,method1 #ahig1 pp4 #add-dg1 #adi-ed1 #afh-fi4 #aiij ,baur1 ,die christliche ,lehre der ,vershnung1 #ahch1 pp4 #ed-fc1 #abd-ca4 #aiia ,benrath1 ,bernardino ,ochino1 ,eng4 tr4 pp4 #bdh-hg4 #aiib ,field's ,memoirs of ,parr1 #ahbh1 ii1 #cfc1 #cgd-gi4 #aiic ,see ,pearson's ,infidelity1 its ,aspects1 ,causes1 and ,agencies1 #ahec1 p4 #bae sq4 ,the position of ,maurice and ,parr 7associated with other and later names7 is there treated as one of the prevailing forms of infidelity1 and called spiritualism4 ,in ,germany the orthodox made the same dangerous answer to the theistic criticism4 ,see the ,memoirs of ,f4 ,perthes1 ,eng4 tr4 #bnd4 ed4 ii1 #bdb-dc4 #aiid ,ed4 cited1 pp4 #aeh-ei4 #aiie ,pearson1 as cited1 pp4 #efj-fb1 #efh-gi1 #ehd-hd4 #aiif ,letter in ,w4 ,l4 ,courtney's ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 #ahhi1 p4 #adb4 #aiig ,cp4 ,schechter1 ,studies in ,judaism1 #ahif1 pp4 #ei1 #ga4 ,schechter writes with a marked ,judaic prejudice4 #aiih ,id4 pp4 #aag-ah4 #aiii ,this title imitates that of the famous ,more ,nebuchim of ,maimonides4 #bjjj ,zunz1 cited by ,schechter1 p4 #gi4 #bjja ,whence ,krochmal is termed the ,father of ,jewish ,science4 ,id4 p4 #ha4 #bjjb ,a ,life of ,mr4 ,yukichi ,fukuzawa1 by ,asatar ,miyamori1 revised by ,prof4 ,e4 ,h4 ,vickers1 ,tokyo1 #aijb1 pp4 #i-aj4 #bjjc ,pamphlet cited1 p4 #af4 #bjjd ,a curious example of sporadic freethought occurs in a pamphlet published towards the end of the eighteenth century4 ,in #agga a writer named ,motoori began a propaganda in favour of ,shintism with the publication of a tract entitled ,spirit of ,straightening4 ,this tract emphatically asserted the divinity of the ,mikado1 and elicited a reply from another writer named ,ichikawa1 who wrote3 ,the ,japanese word kami 7,god7 was simply a title of honour2 but in consequence of its having been used to translate the ,chinese character shin 7shn7 a meaning has come to be attached to it which it did not originally possess4 ,the ancestors of the ,mikados were not ,gods1 but men1 and were no doubt worthy to be reverenced for their virtues2 but their acts were not miraculous nor supernatural4 ,if the ancestors of living men were not human beings1 they are more likely to have been birds or beasts than ,gods4 ,art43 ,the ,revival of ,pure ,shinto1 by ,sir ,e4 ,n4 ,satow1 in ,trans4 ,asiatic ,society of ,japan4 #bjje ,lafcadio ,hearn1 ,japan3 ,an ,attempt at ,interpretation1 #aijd1 p4 #cac2 cp4 p4 #df4 #bjjf ,thus the third emperor of the ,ming dynasty in ,china 7#adbe-adce71 referring to the belief in a future life1 makes the avowal3 ,i am fain to sigh with despair when ,i see that in our own day men are just as superstitious as ever 7,prof4 ,e4 ,h4 ,parker1 ,china and ,religion1 #aije1 p4 #ii74 #bjjg ,see ,hearn1 as cited1 passim4 #bjjh ,cp4 ,sir ,f4 ,s4 ,p4 ,lely1 ,suggestions for the ,better ,governing of ,india1 #aijf1 p4 #ei4 #bjji ,see article on ,the ,future of ,turkey in the ,contemporary ,review1 ,april1 #ahii1 by ,a ,turkish ,official4 #bjaj ,yet1 as early as the date of the ,crimean ,war1 it was noted by an observer that young ,turkey makes profession of atheism4 ,ubicini1 ,la ,turquie actuelle1 #ahee1 p4 #cfa4 ,cp4 ,sir ,g4 ,campbell1 ,a ,very ,recent ,view of ,turkey1 #bnd ed4 #ahgh1 p4 #fe4 ,vambry makes somewhat light of such tendencies 7,der ,islam im #aiten ,jahrhundert1 #ahge1 pp4 #ahe1ahg72 but admits cases of atheism even among mollahs1 as a result of ,european culture 7p4 #aja74 #bjaa ,ubicini 7p4 #cdd71 with ,vambry and most other observers1 pronounces the ,turks the most religious people in ,europe4 #bjab ,h4 ,m4 ,baird1 ,modern ,greece1 ,new ,york1 #ahef1 pp4 #abc-bd4 #bjac ,id41 p4 #cbj4 #bjad ,id41 p4 #cci4 #bjae ,id41 p4 #hf4 #bjaf ,id41 p4 #cdj4 #bjag ,prof4 ,neocles ,karasis1 ,greeks and ,bulgarians in the ,nineteenth and ,twentieth ,centuries1 ,london1 #aijg1 pp4 #ae-ag1 citing a ,bulgarian journal4 #bjah ,in the ,edinburgh ,mirror of #aggi 7,no4 #cj7 ,henry ,mackenzie speaks of women freethinkers as a new phenomenon4 #bjai ,she bought #b1jjj acres in ,tennessee1 and peopled them with slave families she purchased and redeemed 7,wheeler1 ,biog4 ,dict474 #bjbj ,see ,lord ,morley's ,life of ,gladstone1 #aijc1 ii1 #aaj-aa1 as to the embarrassment felt in ,english official circles at the time of ,garibaldi's visit4 #bjba ,on the whole case see ,the ,life1 ,trial1 and ,death of ,francisco ,ferrer1 by ,william ,archer3 ,chapman ,hall1 #aiaa2 and ,the ,martyrdom of ,ferrer1 by ,joseph ,mc,cabe3 ,r4 ,p4 ,a41 #aiaj4