,,man ,a ,,machine                      
,,by                          ,julien   
,offray de la ,mettrie                  
,,french-,,english                      
,,including ,,frederick ,,the ,,great',s
 ,,eulogy                ,,on ,,la      
,,mettrie ,,and ,,extracts ,,from ,,la  
,,mettrie',s                     ,,the  
,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,soul   
,,philosophical ,,and ,,historical      
,,notes                                 
,,by                                    
,,gertrude ,,carman ,,bussey            
,m4 ,a41 ,,wellesley ,,college          
,,chicago                       ,,the   
,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,co4       
#aiab                                   
,,copyright ,,by                        
,,the ,,open ,,court ,,publishing ,,co4 
#aiab                  ,,table ,,of     
,,contents4                             
,,page        ,preface                  
v      ,frederic the ,great's ,eulogy on
 ,julien ,offray ,de ,la ,mettrie       
#a      ,l',homme ,machine              

#aa      ,man a ,machine                
#hc      ,the ,natural ,history of the  
,soul3 ,extracts                        
#aea      ,appendix                     
#afc      ,la ,mettrie's ,relation to   
,his ,predecessors and to ,his          
,successors                             
#afe      ,outline of ,la ,mettrie's    
,metaphysical ,doctrine                 
#age      ,notes                        
#agf      ,works ,consulted and ,cited  
in the ,notes                           
#bje      ,index                        
#bji                  ,,preface4        
,the ,french text presented in this     
volume is taken from that of a ,leyden  
edition of #agdh1 in other words1 from  
that of an edition published  in the    
year and in the place of issue of the   
first edition4 ,the  title page of this 
edition is reproduced in the present    
volume4 ,the  original was evidently the
 work of a ,dutch compositor unschooled 
in  the ,french language1 and is full of
 imperfections1 inconsistencies1  and   

grammatical blunders4 ,by the direction 
of the publishers these  obviously      
typographical blunders have been        
corrected by ,m4 ,lucien  ,arrat of     
,paris4    ,the translation is the work 
of several hands4 ,it is founded on a   
version made by ,miss ,gertrude ,c4     
,bussey 7from the ,french text in the   
edition of ,j4 ,assezat7 and has been   
revised by ,professor ,m4 ,w4 ,calkins  
who is responsible for it in its present
 form4 ,mademoiselle ,m4 ,carret1  of   
the ,wellesley ,college department of   
,french1 and ,professor ,george         
,santayana1 of ,harvard ,university1    
have given valued assistance2 and  this 
opportunity is taken to acknowledge     
their kindness in solving  the problems 
of interpretation which have been       
submitted to them4 ,it  should be added 
that the translation sometimes          
subordinates the claims  of ,english    
structure and style in the effort to    
render ,la ,mettrie's  meaning exactly4 
,the paragraphing of the ,french is     

usually followed1  but the italics and  
the capitals are not reproduced4 ,the   
page-headings  of the translation refer 
back to the pages of the ,french text2  
and  a few words inserted by the        
translators are enclosed in brackets4   
,the philosophical and historical ,notes
 are condensed and adapted  from a      
master's thesis on ,la ,mettrie         
presented by ,miss ,bussey to the       
faculty of ,wellesley ,college4         
,,frederic ,,the ,,great',s ,,eulogy    
,,on ,,julien ,,offray ,,de ,,la        
,,mettrie4      ,julien ,offray de la   
,mettrie was born in ,saint ,malo1 on   
the twenty-fifth  of ,december1 #agji1  
to ,julien ,offray de la ,mettrie and   
,marie ,gaudron1  who were living by a  
trade large enough to provide a good    
education  for their son4 ,they sent him
 to the college of ,coutance to study   
the  humanities2 he went from there to  
,paris1 to the college of ,plessis2  he 
studied his rhetoric at ,caen1 and since
 he had much genius and  imagination1 he

 won all the prizes for eloquence4 ,he  
was a born orator1  and was passionately
 fond of poetry and belles-lettres1 but 
his father  thought that he would earn  
more as an ecclesiastic than as a poet1 
and destined him for the church4 ,he    
sent him1 the following year1  to the   
college of ,plessis where he studied    
logic under ,m4 ,cordier1  who was more 
a ,jansenist than a logician4    ,it is 
characteristic of an ardent imagination 
to seize forcefully  the objects        
presented to it1 as it is characteristic
 of youth to be  prejudiced in favor of 
the first opinions that are inculcated4 
,any  other scholar would have adopted  
the opinions of his teacher but  that   
was not enough for young ,la ,mettrie2  
he became a ,jansenist1  and wrote a    
work which had great vogue in that      
party4    ,in #agbe1 he studied natural 
philosophy at the college of ,harcourt1 
and made great progress there4 ,on his  
return to ,brittany1 ,m4 ,hunault1  a   
doctor of ,saint ,malo1 had advised him 

to adopt the medical  profession4 ,they 
had persuaded his father1 assuring him  
that a  mediocre physician would be     
better paid for his remedies than a     
good priest for absolutions4 ,at first  
young ,la ,mettrie had applied  himself 
to the study of anatomy3 for two years  
he had worked at the  dissecting-table4 
,after this1 in #agbe1 he took the      
degree of doctor  at ,rheims1 and was   
there received as a physician4    ,in   
#agcc1 he went to ,leyden to study under
 the famous ,boerhaave4 ,the  master was
 worthy of the scholar and the scholar  
soon made himself  worthy of the master4
 ,m4 ,la ,mettrie devoted all the       
acuteness of  his mind to the knowledge 
and to the healing of human infirmities2
  and he soon became a great physician4 
,in the year #agcd1 during his leisure  
moments1 he translated a  treatise of   
the late ,m4 ,boerhaave1 his            
,aphrodisiacus1 and joined to  it a     
dissertation on venereal maladies1 of   
which he himself was the  author4 ,the  

old physicians in ,france rose up       
against a scholar who  affronted them by
 knowing as much as they4 ,one of the   
most celebrated  doctors of ,paris did  
him the honor of criticizing his work 7a
 sure  proof that it was good74 ,la     
,mettrie replied2 and1 to confound his  
adversary still more1 he composed in    
#agcf a treatise on vertigo1  esteemed  
by all impartial physicians4    ,by an  
unfortunate effect of human imperfection
 a certain base jealousy  has come to be
 one of the characteristics of men of   
letters4 ,this  feeling incites those   
who have reputations1 to oppose the     
progress  of budding geniuses4 ,this    
blight often fastens on talents without 
destroying them1 but it sometimes       
injures them4 ,m4 ,la ,mettrie1 who was 
advancing in the career of science at a 
giant's pace1 suffered from  this       
jealousy1 and his quick temper made him 
too susceptible to it4    ,in ,saint    
,malo1 he translated the ,aphorisms of  
,boerhaave1 the  ,materia ,medica1 the  

,chemical ,proceedings1 the ,chemical   
,theory1  and the ,institutions1 by this
 same author4 ,about the same time1  he 
published an abstract of ,sydenham4 ,the
 young doctor had learned  by premature 
experience1 that if he wished to live in
 peace1 it was  better to translate than
 to compose2 but it is characteristic of
  genius to escape from reflection4     
,counting on himself alone1 if ,i  may  
speak thus1 and filled with the         
knowledge he had gained from his        
infinitely skilful researches into      
nature1 he wished to communicate  to the
 public the useful discoveries he had   
made4 ,he published his  treatise on    
smallpox1 his ,practical ,medicine1 and 
six volumes of  commentary on the       
physiology of ,boerhaave4 ,all these    
works appeared at  ,paris1 although the 
author had written them at ,saint ,malo4
 ,he joined  to the theory of his art an
 always successful practice1 which is no
  small recommendation for a physician4 
,in #agdb1 ,la ,mettrie came to ,paris1 

led there by the death of  ,m4 ,hunault1
 his old teacher4 ,morand and ,sidobre  
introduced him to  the ,duke of         
,gramont1 who1 a few days after1        
obtained for him the  commission of     
physician of the guards4 ,he accompanied
 the ,duke to  war1 and was with him at 
the battle of ,dettingen1 at the siege  
of  ,freiburg1 and at the battle of     
,fontenoy1 where he lost his patron1    
who was killed by a cannon shot4    ,la 
,mettrie felt this loss all the more    
keenly1 because it was at  the same time
 the reef on which his fortune was      
wrecked4 ,this is  what happened4       
,during the campaign of ,freiburg1 ,la  
,mettrie had an  attack of violent      
fever4 ,for a philosopher an illness is 
a school of  physiology2 he believed    
that he could clearly see that thought  
is  but a consequence of the            
organization of the machine1 and that   
the  disturbance of the springs has     
considerable influence on that part of  
us which the metaphysicians call soul4  

,filled with these ideas during  his    
convalescence1 he boldly bore the torch 
of experience into the  night of        
metaphysics2 he tried to explain by the 
aid of anatomy the  thin texture of     
understanding1 and he found only        
mechanism where others  had supposed an 
essence superior to matter4 ,he had his 
philosophic  conjectures printed under  
the title of ,the ,natural ,history of  
the  ,soul4 ,the chaplain of the        
regiment sounded the tocsin against him1
  and at first sight all the devotees   
cried out against him4    ,the common   
ecclesiastic is like ,don ,quixote1 who 
found marvelous  adventures in          
commonplace events1 or like the famous  
soldier1 so  engrossed with his system  
that he found columns in all the books  
he  read4 ,the majority of priests      
examine all works of literature as  if  
they were treatises on theology1 and    
filled with this one aim1  they discover
 heresies everywhere4 ,to this fact are 
due very many  false judgments and very 

many accusations1 for the most part     
unfair1  against the authors4 ,a book of
 physics should be read in the spirit   
of a physicist2 nature1 the truth1 is   
its sole judge1 and should  absolve or  
condemn it4 ,a book of astronomy should 
be read in the same  manner4 ,if a poor 
physician proves that the blow of a     
stick smartly  rapped on the skull      
disturbs the mind1 or that at a certain 
degree  of heat reason wanders1 one must
 either prove the contrary or keep      
quiet4 ,if a skilful astronomer proves1 
in spite of ,joshua1 that the  earth and
 all the celestial globes revolve around
 the sun1 one must  either calculate    
better than he1 or admit that the earth 
revolves4    ,but the theologians1 who1 
by their continual apprehension1 might  
make  the weak believe that their cause 
is bad1 are not troubled by such  a     
small matter4 ,they insisted on finding 
seeds of heresy in a work  dealing with 
physics4 ,the author underwent a        
frightful persecution1  and the priests 

claimed that a doctor accused of heresy 
could not  cure the ,french guards4     
,to the hatred of the devotees was      
joined that of his rivals for  glory4   
,this was rekindled by a work of ,la    
,mettrie's entitled ,the  ,politics of  
,physicians4 ,a man full of cunning1 and
 carried away  by ambition1 aspired to  
the place1 then vacant1 of first        
physician  to the king of ,france4 ,he  
thought that he could gain it by heaping
  ridicule upon those of his            
contemporaries who might lay claim to   
this position4 ,he wrote a libel against
 them1 and abusing the easy  friendship 
of ,la ,mettrie1 he enticed him to lend 
to it the volubility  of his pen1 and   
the richness of his imagination4        
,nothing more was  needed to complete   
the downfall of a man little known1     
against whom  were all appearances1 and 
whose only protection was his merit4    
,for having been too sincere as a       
philosopher and too obliging as  a      
friend1 ,la ,mettrie was compelled to   

leave his country4 ,the ,duke  of ,duras
 and the ,viscount of ,chaila advised   
him to flee from the  hatred of the     
priests and the revenge of the          
physicians4 ,therefore1  in #agdf1 he   
left the hospitals of the army where he 
had been placed by  ,m4 ,sechelles1 and 
came to ,leyden to philosophize in      
peace4 ,he there  composed his          
,penelope1 a polemical work against the 
physicians in  which1 after the fashion 
of ,democritus1 he made fun of the      
vanity of  his profession4 ,the curious 
result was that the doctors themselves1 
though their quackery was painted in    
true colors1 could not help  laughing   
when they read it1 and that is a sure   
sign that they had  found more wit than 
malice in it4    ,m4 ,la ,mettrie after 
losing sight of his hospitals and his   
patients1  gave himself up completely to
 speculative philosophy2 he wrote his   
,man a ,machine or rather he put on     
paper some vigorous thoughts  about     
materialism1 which he doubtless planned 

to rewrite4 ,this work1  which was bound
 to displease men who by their position 
are declared  enemies of the progress of
 human reason1 roused all the priests of
  ,leyden against its author4           
,calvinists1 ,catholics and ,lutherans  
forgot  for the time that               
consubstantiation1 free will1 mass for  
the dead1  and the infallibility of the 
pope divided them3 they all united      
again to persecute a philosopher who had
 the additional misfortune  of being    
,french1 at a time when that monarchy   
was waging a successful  war against    
their ,high ,powers4    ,the title of   
philosopher and the reputation of being 
unfortunate  were enough to procure for 
,la ,mettrie a refuge in ,prussia with a
  pension from the king4 ,he came to    
,berlin in the month of ,february  in   
the year #agdh2 he was there received as
 a member of the ,royal  ,academy of    
,science4 ,medicine reclaimed him from  
metaphysics1 and  he wrote a treatise on
 dysentery1 another on asthma1 the best 

that  had then been written on these    
cruel diseases4 ,he sketched works on   
certain philosophical subjects which he 
had proposed to look into4 ,by  a       
sequence of accidents which befell him  
these works were stolen1  but he        
demanded their suppression as soon as   
they appeared4    ,la ,mettrie died in  
the house of ,milord ,tirconnel1        
minister  plenipotentiary of ,france1   
whose life he had saved4 ,it seems that 
the disease1 knowing with whom it had to
 deal1 was clever enough  to attack his 
brain first1 so that it would more      
surely confound  him4 ,he had a burning 
fever and was violently delirious4 ,the 
invalid  was obliged to depend upon the 
science of his colleagues1 and he did   
not find there the resources which he   
had so often found in his own1  both for
 himself and for the public4    ,he died
 on the eleventh of ,november1 #agea1 at
 the age of forty-three  years4 ,he had 
married ,louise ,charlotte ,drano1 by   
whom he left only  a daughter1 five     

years and a few months old4    ,la      
,mettrie was born with a fund of natural
 and inexhaustible gaiety2  he had a    
quick mind1 and such a fertile          
imagination that it made  flowers grow  
in the field of medicine4 ,nature had   
made him an orator  and a philosopher2  
but a yet more precious gift which he   
received  from her1 was a pure soul and 
an obliging heart4 ,all those who are   
not imposed upon by the pious insults of
 the theologians mourn in ,la  ,mettrie 
a good man and a wise physician4        
,,facsimile ,,of ,,title ,,page ,,of    
,,the ,,leyden #agdh ,,edition          
,l',,homme ,,machine4                   
,est-ce l ce ,raion de l',essence       
suprme1                  ,que l'on nous 
peint si lumineux8                      
,est-ce l cet ,esprit survivant  nous   
mme8                  ,il nat avec nos  
sens1 croit1 s'affoiblit comme eux4     
,helas6 il prira de mme4                
,voltaire4                              
,,leyde1                         ,de    

l',imp4 d',,elie ,,luzac1 ,fils4        
-----                                   
,,mdccxlviii4                           
,l',,homme ,,machine4      ,il ne suffit
 pas  un sage d'tudier la nature et la  
vrit2 il doit  oser la dire en faveur du
 petit nombre de ceux qui veulent et    
peuvent  penser2 car pour les autres1   
qui sont volontairement esclaves des    
prjugs1 il ne leur est pas plus possible
 d'atteindre la vrit1  qu'aux           
grenouilles de voler4    ,je rduis  deux
 les systmes des philosophes sur l'me de
 l'homme4 ,le  premier1 et le plus      
ancien1 est le systme du matrialisme2 le
 second  est celui du spiritualisme4    
,les mtaphysiciens qui ont insinu que la
 matire pourrait bien avoir  la facult  
de penser1 n'ont pas dshonor leur       
raison4 ,pourquoi8 ,c'est  qu'ils ont   
cet avantage 7car ici c'en est un7 de   
s'tre mal  exprims4 ,en effet1 demander 
si la matire peut penser1 sans la       
considrer autrement qu'en elle-mme1     
c'est demander si la matire peut        

marquer les heures4 ,on voit d'avance   
que nous viterons cet cueil1  o ,mr4    
,locke a eu le malheur d'chouer4    ,les
 ,leibniziens1 avec leurs monades1 ont  
lev une hypothse  inintelligible4 ,ils  
ont plutt spiritualis la matire1 que    
matrialis  l'me4 ,comment peut-on dfinir
 un tre dont la nature nous est         
absolument inconnue8    ,descartes1 et  
tous les ,cartsiens1 parmi lesquels il y
 a longtemps  qu'on a compt les         
,malebranchistes1 ont fait la mme faute4
 ,ils ont  admis deux substances        
distinctes dans l'homme1 comme s'ils les
 avaient  vues et bien comptes4    ,les 
plus sages ont dit que l'me ne pouvait  
se connatre que par les  seules lumires 
de la ,foi3 cependant1 en qualit d'tres 
raisonnables1  ils ont cru pouvoir se   
rserver le droit d'examiner ce que      
l',ecriture  a voulu dire par le mot    
,esprit1 dont elle se sert en parlant de
 l'me  humaine2 et dans leurs           
recherches1 s'ils ne sont pas d'accord  
sur ce  point avec les thologiens1      

ceux-ci le sont-ils davantage entr'eux  
sur tous les autres8    ,voici en peu de
 mots le rsultat de toutes leurs        
rflexions4    ,s'il y a un ,dieu1 il est
 auteur de la ,nature1 comme de la      
,rvlation2  il nous a donn l'une1 pour  
expliquer l'autre2 et la ,raison1 pour  
les accorder ensemble4    ,se dfier des 
connaissances qu'on peut puiser dans les
 corps anims1  c'est regarder la ,nature
 et la ,rvlation comme deux contraires  
qui  se dtruisent2 et par consquent1    
c'est oser soutenir cette absurdit3  que
 ,dieu se contredit dans ses divers     
ouvrages1 et nous trompe4    ,s'il y a  
une ,rvlation1 elle ne peut donc dmentir
 la ,nature4 ,par la  ,nature seule1 on 
peut dcouvrir le sens des paroles de    
l',evangile1  dont l'exprience seule est
 la vritable interprte4 ,en effet1  les 
autres commentateurs jusqu'ici n'ont    
fait qu'embrouiller  la vrit4 ,nous     
allons en juger par l'auteur du         
,spectacle de la  ,nature4 ,il est      
tonnant1 dit-il 7au sujet de ,mr4       

,locke71 qu'un homme  qui dgrade notre  
me jusqu' la croire une me de boue1 ose 
tablir  la ,raison pour juge et         
souverain arbitre des mystres de la     
,foi2  car1 ajoute-t-il1 quelle ide     
tonnante aurait-on du ,christianisme1   
si l'on voulait suivre la ,raison8      
,outre que ces rflexions n'claircissent 
rien par rapport  la ,foi1  elles       
forment de si frivoles objections contre
 la mthode de ceux  qui croient pouvoir 
interprter les ,livres ,saints1 que j'ai
 presque  honte de perdre le temps  les 
rfuter4    #a4 ,l'excellence de la      
,raison ne dpend pas d'un grand mot vide
 de  sens 7l'immatrialit72 mais de sa   
force1 de son tendue1 ou de sa          
clairvoyance4 ,ainsi une me de boue1 qui
 dcouvrirait1 comme d'un coup  d'oeil1  
les rapports et les suites d'une infinit
 d'ides difficiles   saisir1 serait     
videmment prfrable  une me sotte et     
stupide  qui serait faite des lments les
 plus prcieux4 ,ce n'est pas tre        
philosophe1 que de rougir avec ,pline de

 la misre de notre origine4 ,ce  qui    
parait vil1 est ici la chose la plus    
prcieuse1 et pour laquelle  la nature   
semble avoir mis le plus d'art et le    
plus d'appareil4 ,mais  comme l'homme1  
quand mme il viendrait d'une source     
encore plus vile  en apparence1 n'en    
serait pas moins le plus parfait de tous
 les tres1  quelle que soit l'origine de
 son me1 si elle est pure1 noble1       
sublime1  c'est une belle me1 qui rend  
respectable quiconque en est dou4    ,la
 seconde manire de raisonner de ,mr4    
,pluche me parait vicieuse1 mme  dans   
son systme1 qui tient un peu du         
fanatisme2 car si nous avons  une ide de
 la ,foi1 qui soit contraire aux        
principes les plus clairs1  aux vrits   
les plus incontestables1 il faut croire1
 pour l'honneur  de la ,rvlation et de  
son ,auteur1 que cette ide est fausse1  
et que  nous ne connaissons point encore
 les sens des paroles de l',evangile4   
,de deux choses l'une2 ou tout est      
illusion1 tant la ,nature mme1 que la   

,rvlation2 ou l'exprience seule peut    
rendre raison de la ,foi4 ,mais  quel   
plus grand ridicule que celui de notre  
auteur8 ,je m'imagine  entendre un      
pripatticien1 qui dirait3 ,il ne faut   
pas croire  l'exprience de ,toricelli3  
car si nous la croyions1 si nous allions
  bannir l'horreur du vide1 quelle      
tonnante philosophie aurions-nous8      
,j'ai fait voir combien le raisonnement 
de ,mr4 ,pluche est vicieux1  #a afin de
 prouver premirement que s'il y a une   
,rvlation1 elle  n'est point            
suffisamment dmontre par la seule       
autorit de l',eglise  et sans aucun     
examen de la ,raison1 comme le prtendent
 tous ceux qui  la craignent4           
,secondement1 pour mettre  l'abri de    
toute attaque la  mthode de ceux qui    
voudraient suivre la voie que je leur   
ouvre1  d'interprter les choses         
surnaturelles1 incomprhensibles en soi1 
par les lumires que chacun a reues de la
 nature4    ,l'exprience et             
l'observation doivent donc seules nous  

guider  ici4 ,elles se trouvent sans    
nombre dans les ,fastes des mdecins1 qui
  ont t philosophes1 et non dans les    
philosophes1 qui n'ont pas t  mdecins4  
,ceux-ci ont parcouru1 ont clair le     
labyrinthe de l'homme2  ils nous ont    
seuls dvoil ces ressorts cachs sous des 
enveloppes  qui drobent  nos yeux tant  
de merveilles4 ,eux seuls1 contemplant  
tranquillement notre me1 l'ont mille    
fois surprise1 et dans sa misre1  et    
dans sa grandeur1 sans plus la mpriser  
dans l'un de ces tats1 que  l'admirer   
dans l'autre4 ,encore une fois1 voil les
 seuls physiciens qui  aient droit de   
parler ici4 ,que nous diraient les      
autres1 et surtout  les thologiens8     
,n'est-il pas ridicule de les entendre  
dcider sans  pudeur1 sur un sujet qu'ils
 n'ont point t  porte de connatre1  dont
 ils ont t au contraire entirement      
dtourns par des tudes  obscures1 qui les
 ont conduits  mille prjugs1 et pour    
tout dire  en un mot1 au fanatisme1 qui 
ajoute encore  leur ignorance dans le   

mcanisme des corps4    ,mais1 quoique   
nous ayons choisi les meilleurs guides1 
nous trouverons  encore beaucoup d'pines
 et d'obstacles dans cette carrire4     
,l'homme est une machine si compose1    
qu'il est impossible de s'en  faire     
d'abord une ide claire1 et consquemment 
de la dfinir4 ,c'est  pourquoi toutes   
les recherches que les plus grands      
philosophes ont  faites  priori1 c'est  
dire1 en voulant se servir en quelque   
sorte  des ailes de l'esprit1 ont t     
vaines4 ,ainsi ce n'est qu' posteriori1 
ou en cherchant  demler l'me comme au   
travers les organes du corps1  qu'on    
peut1 je ne dis pas dcouvrir avec       
vidence la nature mme de  l'homme1 mais 
atteindre le plus grand degr de         
probabilit possible  sur ce sujet4      
,prenons donc le bton de l'exprience1 et
 laissons l l'histoire de  toutes les   
vaines opinions des philosophes4 ,etre  
aveugle1 et croire  pouvoir se passer de
 ce bton1 c'est le comble de            
l'aveuglement4 ,qu'un  moderne a bien   

raison de dire qu'il n'y a que la vanit 
seule qui ne  tire pas des causes       
secondes le mme parti que des premires6 
,on peut  et on doit mme admirer tous   
ces beaux gnies dans leurs travaux les  
plus inutiles1 les ,descartes1 les      
,malebranche1 les ,leibnitz1 les ,wolf1 
etc42 mais quel fruit1 je vous prie1    
a-t-on retir de leurs profondes         
mditations et de tous leurs ouvrages8   
,commenons donc et voyons1 non  ce qu'on
 a pens1 mais ce qu'il faut penser pour 
le repos de la vie4    ,autant de       
tempraments1 autant d'esprits1 de       
caractres et de moeurs  diffrentes4     
,galien mme a connu cette vrit1 que     
,descartes1 et non  ,hippocrate1 comme  
le dit l'auteur de l'histoire de l',ame1
 a pousse  loin1 jusqu' dire que la     
mdecine seule pouvait changer les       
esprits  et les moeurs avec le corps4   
,il est vrai1 la mlancolie1 la bile1 le 
phlegme1 le sang etc41 suivant la       
nature1 l'abondance et la diverse       
combinaison de ces humeurs1 de chaque   

homme font un homme diffrent4    ,dans  
les maladies1 tantt l'me s'clipse et ne 
montre aucun signe  d'elle-mme2 tantt on
 dirait qu'elle est double1 tant la     
fureur la  transporte2 tantt l'imbcilit 
se dissipe3 et la convalescence d'un    
sot fait un homme d'esprit4 ,tantt le   
plus beau gnie devenu stupide1  ne se   
reconnait plus4 ,adieu toutes ces belles
 connaissances acquises   si grands     
frais1 et avec tant de peine6    ,ici   
c'est un paralytique1 qui demande si sa 
jambe est dans son lit3 l  c'est un     
soldat qui croit avoir le bras qu'on lui
 a coup4 ,la mmoire  de ses anciennes   
sensations1 et du lieu o son me les     
rapportait1  fait son illusion et son   
espce de dlire4 ,il suffit de lui parler
 de  cette partie qui lui manque1 pour  
lui en rappeller et faire sentir  tous  
les mouvements2 ce qui se fait avec je  
ne sais quel dplaisir  d'imagination    
qu'on ne peut exprimer4    ,celui-ci    
pleure1 comme un enfant1 aux approches  
de la mort1 que  celui-l badine4 ,que   

fallait-il  ,caius ,julius1  ,snque1    
,ptrone  pour changer leur intrpidit en 
pusillanimit ou en poltronnerie8 ,une   
obstruction dans la rate1 dans le foie1 
un embarras dans la veine  porte4       
,pourquoi8 ,parceque l'imagination se   
bouche avec les viscres2  et de l       
naissent tous ces singuliers phnomnes de
 l'affection  hystrique et              
hypocondriaque4    ,que dirais-je de    
nouveau sur ceux qui s'imaginent tre    
transforms  en loups-garous1 en coqs1 en
 vampires1 qui croient que les morts    
les sucent8 ,pourquoi m'arrterais-je    
ceux qui voient leur nez1 ou  autres    
membres1 de verre1 et  qui il faut      
conseiller de coucher sur  la paille1 de
 peur qu'ils ne se cassent1 afin qu'ils 
en retrouvent  l'usage et la vritable   
chair1 lorsque mettant le feu  la paille
 on  leur fait craindre d'tre brls3     
frayeur qui a quelquefois guri la       
paralysie8 ,je dois lgrement passer sur 
des choses connues de tout  le monde4   
,je ne serai pas plus long sur le dtail 

des effets du sommeil4 ,voyez  ce soldat
 fatigu6 il ronfle dans la tranche1 au  
bruit de cent  pices de canons6 ,son me 
n'entend rien1 son sommeil est une      
parfaite  apoplexie4 ,une bombe va      
l'craser2 il sentira peut-tre moins ce  
coup  qu'un insecte qui se trouve sous  
le pied4    ,d'un autre ct1 cet homme   
que la jalousie1 la haine1 l'avarice  ou
 l'ambition dvore1 ne peut trouver aucun
 repos4 ,le lieu le plus  tranquille1   
les boissons les plus fraches et les    
plus calmantes1 tout  est inutile  qui  
n'a pas dlivr son coeur du tourment des 
passions4    ,l'me et le corps          
s'endorment ensemble4 ,a mesure que le  
mouvement du  sang se calme1 un doux    
sentiment de paix et de tranquillit se  
rpand  dans toute la machine2 l'me se   
sent mollement s'appesantir avec les    
paupires et s'affaisser avec les fibres 
du cerveau3 elle devient ainsi  peu  peu
 comme paralytique1 avec tous les       
muscles du corps4 ,ceux-ci ne  peuvent  
plus porter le poids de la tte2 celle l 

ne peut plus soutenir  le fardeau de la 
pense2 elle est dans le sommeil1 comme  
n'tant point4    ,la circulation se     
fait-elle avec trop de vitesse8 l'me ne 
peut  dormir4 ,l'me est-elle trop agite1
 le sang ne peut se calmer2  il galope  
dans les veines avec un bruit qu'on     
entend3 telles sont  les deux causes    
rciproques de l'insomnie4 ,une seule    
frayeur dans  les songes fait battre le 
coeur  coups redoubls1 et nous arrache  
la ncessit1 ou  la douceur du repos1    
comme feraient une vive  douleur ou des 
besoins urgents4 ,enfin1 comme la seule 
cessation des  fonctions de l'me procure
 le sommeil1 il est1 mme pendant la     
veille  7qui n'est alors qu'une         
demi-veille71 des sortes de petits      
sommeils  d'me trs frquents1 des rves   
la ,suisse1 qui prouvent que l'me       
n'attend pas toujours le corps pour     
dormir2 car si elle ne dort pas         
tout--fait1 combien peu s'en faut-il6   
puisqu'il lui est impossible  d'assigner
 un seul objet auquel elle ait prt      

quelque attention1  parmi cette foule   
innombrable d'ides confuses1 qui comme  
autant de  nuages remplissent1 pour     
ainsi dire1 l'atmosphre de notre        
cerveau4    ,l'opium a trop de rapport  
avec le sommeil qu'il procure1 pour ne  
pas le placer ici4 ,ce remde enivre1    
ainsi que le vin1 le caf1  et chacun  sa
 manire1 et suivant sa dose4 ,il rend   
l'homme heureux  dans un tat qui        
semblerait devoir tre le tombeau du     
sentiment1  comme il est l'image de la  
mort4 ,quelle douce lthargie6 ,l'me n'en
  voudrait jamais sortir4 ,elle tait en 
proie aux plus grandes douleurs2  elle  
ne sent plus que le seul plaisir de ne  
plus suffrir et de jouir  de la plus    
charmante tranquillit4 ,l'opium change  
jusqu' la volont2  il force l'me qui    
voulait veiller et se divertir1 d'aller 
se mettre  au lit malgr elle4 ,je passe 
sous silence l'histoire des poisons4    
,c'est en fouettant l'imagination1 que  
le caf1 cet antidote du vin1  dissipe   
nos maux de tte et nos chagrins1 sans   

nous en mnager1  comme cette liqueur1   
pour le lendemain4    ,contemplons l'me 
dans ses autres besoins4    ,le corps   
humain est une machine qui monte        
elle-mme ses ressorts2  vivante image du
 mouvement perptuel4 ,les aliments      
entretiennent  ce que la fivre excite4  
,sans eux l'me languit1 entre en fureur 
et  meurt abattue4 ,c'est une bougie    
dont la lumire se ranime1 au moment  de 
s'teindre4 ,mais nourrissez le corps1   
versez dans ses tuyaux des  sucs        
vigoureux1 des liqueurs fortes2 alors   
l'me gnreuse comme  elles s'arme d'un   
fier courage et le soldat que l'eau eut 
fait fuir1  devenu froce1 court gaiement
  la mort au bruit des tambours4 ,c'est 
ainsi que l'eau chaude agite un sang que
 l'eau froide eut calm4    ,quelle      
puissance d'un repas6 ,la joie renat    
dans un coeur triste2  elle passe dans  
l'me des convives qui l'expriment par   
d'aimables  chansons1 o les ,franais    
excellent4 ,le mlancolique seul est     
accabl1  et l'homme d'tude n'y est plus 

propre4    ,la viande crue rend les     
animaux froces2 les hommes le           
deviendraient  par la mme nourriture2   
cela est si vrai1 que la nation         
anglaise1  qui ne mange pas la chair si 
cuite que nous1 mais rouge et sanglante1
  parait participer de cette frocit plus
 ou moins grande1 qui vient  en partie  
de tels aliments1 et d'autres causes1   
que l'ducation  peut seule rendre       
impuissantes4 ,cette frocit produit dans
 l'me  l'orgueil1 la haine1 le mpris des
 autres nations1 l'indocilit et  autres 
sentiments1 qui dpravent le caractre1   
comme des aliments  grossiers font un   
esprit lourd1 pais1 dont la paresse et  
l'indolence  sont les attributs favoris4
    ,mr4 ,pope a bien connu tout        
l'empire de la gourmandise1 lorsqu'il   
dit3  ,le grave ,catius parle toujours  
de vertu1 et croit que1 qui souffre  les
 vicieux est vicieux lui-mme4 ,ces beaux
 sentiments durent jusqu'  l'heure du   
diner2 alors il prfre un sclrat1 qui a  
une table  dlicate1  un saint frugal4   

,considrez1 dit-il ailleurs1 le mme     
homme en sant1 ou en maladie2  possdant 
une belle charge1 ou l'ayant perdue2    
vous le verrez chrir  la vie1 ou la     
dtester1 fou  la chasse1 ivrogne dans   
une assemble  de province1 poli au bal1 
bon ami en ville1 sans foi  la cour4    
,nous avons eu en ,suisse un bailli1    
nomm ,steiguer de ,wittighofen2  il tait
  jen le plus intgre et mme le plus     
indulgent des juges2  mais malheur au   
misrable qui se trouvait sur la         
sellette1 lorsqu'il  avait fait un grand
 diner6 ,il tait homme  faire pendre    
l'innocent1  comme le coupable4    ,nous
 pensons1 et mme nous ne sommes honntes 
gens1 que comme nous  sommes gais1 ou   
braves2 tout dpend de la manire dont    
notre machine  est monte4 ,on dirait en 
certains moments que l'me habite dans   
l'estomac1 et que ,van ,helmont1 en     
mettant son sige dans le pylore1  ne se 
serait tromp qu'en prenant la partie    
pour le tout4    ,a quels excs la faim  
cruelle peut nous porter6 ,plus de      

respect  pour les entrailles auxquelles 
on doit ou on a donn la vie2 on les     
dchire  belles dents1 on s'en fait      
d'horribles festins2 et dans la  fureur 
dont on est transport1 le plus faible   
est toujours la proie  du plus fort4    
,la grossesse1 cette mule dsire des ples
 couleurs1 ne se contente  pas d'amener 
le plus souvent  sa suite les gots      
dpravs qui  accompagnent ces deux tats3 
elle a quelquefois fait excuter  l'me   
les plus affreux complots2 effets d'une 
manie subite1 qui touffe  jusqu' la loi 
naturelle4 ,c'est ainsi que le cerveau1 
cette matrice  de l'esprit1 se pervertit
  sa manire1 avec celle du corps4       
,quelle autre fureur d'homme ou de      
femme1 dans ceux que la continence  et  
la sant poursuivent6 ,c'est peu pour    
cette fille timide et modeste  d'avoir  
perdu toute honte et toute pudeur2 elle 
ne regarde plus  l'inceste1 que comme   
une femme galante regarde l'adultre4 ,si
 ses  besoins ne trouvent pas de prompts
 soulagements1 ils ne se borneront      

point aux simples accidents d'une       
passion utrine1  la manie1 etc42  cette 
malheureuse mourra d'un mal1 dont il y a
 tant de mdecins4    ,il ne faut que des
 yeux pour voir l'influence ncessaire de
 l'ge  sur la raison4 ,l'me suit les    
progrs du corps1 comme ceux de          
l'ducation4 ,dans le beau sexe1 l'me    
suit encore la dlicatesse du            
temprament3 de l cette tendresse1 cette 
affection1 ces sentiments  vifs1 plutt  
fonds sur la passion que sur la raison1 
ces prjugs1  ces superstitions1 dont la 
forte empreinte peut  peine s'effacer1  
etc4 ,l'homme1 au contraire1 dont le    
cerveau et les nerfs participent  de la 
fermet de tous les solides1 a l'esprit1 
ainsi que les traits  du visage1 plus   
nerveux3 l'ducation1 dont manquent les  
femmes1  ajoute encore de nouveaux degrs
 de force  son me4 ,avec de tels        
secours de la nature et de l'art1       
comment ne serait-il pas plus           
reconnaissant1 plus gnreux1 plus        
constant en amiti1 plus ferme dans      

l'adversit8 etc4 ,mais1 suivant  peu prs
 la pense de l'auteur des  ,lettres sur 
les ,physionomies1 qui joint les grces  
de l'esprit et du  corps  presque tous  
les sentiments du cur les plus tendres  
et les  plus dlicats ne doit point nous 
envier une double force1 qui ne semble  
avoir t donne  l'homme1 l'une1 que pour 
se mieux pntrer des  attraits de la     
beaut1 l'autre1 que pour mieux servir   
ses plaisirs4    ,il n'est pas plus     
ncessaire d'tre aussi grand             
physionomiste que cet  auteur pour      
deviner la qualit de l'esprit par la    
figure ou la forme  des traits1         
lorsqu'ils sont marqus jusqu' un certain
 point1 qu'il ne  l'est d'tre grand     
mdecin pour connatre un mal accompagn de
 tous  ses symptomes vidents4 ,examinez 
les portraits de ,locke1 de ,steele1  de
 ,boerhaave1 de ,maupertuis1 etc4 vous  
ne serez point surpris de leur  trouver 
des physionomies fortes1 des yeux       
d'aigle4 ,parcourez-en une  infinit     
d'autres1 vous distinguerez toujours le 

beau du grand gnie1  et mme souvent     
l'honnte homme du fripon4 ,on a remarqu1
 par exemple1  qu'un pote clbre runit   
7dans son portrait7 l'air d'un filou1   
avec le feu de ,promthe4    ,l'histoire 
nous offre un mmorable exemple de la    
puissance de l'air4 ,le  fameux ,duc de 
,guise tait si fort convaincu que ,henri
 ,,iii4 qui l'avait  eu tant de fois en 
son pouvoir1 n'oserait jamais           
l'assassiner1 qu'il  partit pour ,blois4
 ,le chancelier ,chyverni apprenant son 
dpart1  s'cria3 voil un homme perdu6    
,lorsque sa fatale prdiction fut        
justifie par l'vnement1 on lui en       
demanda la raison4 ,il y a vingt  ans1  
dit-il1 que je connais le ,roi2 il est  
naturellement bon et mme  faible2 mais  
j'ai observ qu'un rien l'impatiente et  
le met en fureur1  lorsqu'il fait froid4
    ,tel peuple a l'esprit lourd et     
stupide2 tel autre l'a vif1 lger1       
pntrant4 ,d'o cela vient-il1 si ce n'est
 en partie1 et de la  nourriture qu'il  
prend1 et de la semence de ses pres1 #b 

et de ce  chaos de divers lments qui    
nagent dans l'immensit de l'air8        
,l'esprit  a1 comme le corps1 ses       
maladies pidmiques et son scorbut4      
,tel est l'empire du climat1 qu'un homme
 qui en change se ressent  malgr lui de 
ce changement4 ,c'est une plante        
ambulante1 qui s'est  elle-mme          
transplante2 si le climat n'est plus le 
mme1 il est juste  qu'elle dgnre1 ou    
s'amliore4    ,on prend tout encore de  
ceux avec qui l'on vit1 leurs gestes1   
leurs  accents1 etc41 comme la paupire  
se baisse  la menace du coup dont  on   
est prvenu1 ou par la mme raison que le 
corps du spectateur imite               
machinalement1 et malgr lui1 tous les   
mouvements d'un bon pantomime4    ,ce   
que je viens de dire prouve que la      
meilleure compagnie pour un homme       
d'esprit1 est la sienne1 s'il n'en      
trouve une semblable4 ,l'esprit se      
rouille avec ceux qui n'en ont point1   
faute d'tre exerc3  la paume1  on       
renvoie mal la balle  qui la sert mal4  

,j'aimerais mieux un homme  intelligent1
 qui n'aurait eu aucune ducation1 que   
s'il en et eu une  mauvaise1 pourvu     
qu'il ft encore assez jeune4 ,un esprit 
mal conduit  est un acteur que la       
province a gt4    ,les divers tats de   
l'me sont donc toujours corrlatifs  ceux
 du  corps4 ,mais1 pour mieux dmontrer  
toute cette dpendance et ses causes1    
servons-nous ici de l'anatomie compare2 
ouvrons les entrailles de  l'homme et   
des animaux4 ,le moyen de connatre la   
nature humaine1 si  l'on n'est clair par
 un juste parallle de la structure des  
uns et  des autres6    ,en gnral1 la    
forme et la composition du cerveau des  
quadrupdes est   peu prs la mme que dans
 l'homme4 ,mme figure1 mme disposition  
partout2 avec cette diffrence           
essentielle1 que l'homme est de tous    
les animaux celui qui a le plus de      
cerveau1 et le cerveau le plus          
tortueux1 en raison de la masse de son  
corps4 ,ensuite le singe1 le  castor1   
l'lphant1 le chien1 le renard1 le chat1 

etc41 voil les  animaux qui ressemblent 
le plus  l'homme2 car on remarque aussi 
chez  eux la mme analogie gradue1 par   
rapport au corps calleux1 dans lequel   
,lancisi avait tabli le sige de l'me1   
avant feu ,mr4 de la ,peyronnie1  qui   
cependant a illustr cette opinion par   
une foule d'expriences4    ,aprs tous   
les quadrupdes1 ce sont les oiseaux qui 
ont le plus de  cerveau4 ,les poissons  
ont la tte grosse2 mais elle est vide de
 sens1  comme celle de bien des hommes4 
,ils n'ont point de corps calleux et    
fort peu de cerveau1 lequel manque aux  
insectes4    ,je ne me rpandrai point en
 un plus long dtail des varits de la    
nature1 ni en conjectures1 car les unes 
et les autres sont infinies1  comme on  
en peut juger en lisant les seuls traits
 de ,willis1 ,de  ,cerebro1 et ,de      
,anima ,brutorum4    ,je conclrai       
seulement ce qui s'en suit clairement de
 ces  incontestables observations3 #ao  
que plus les animaux sont farouches1    
moins ils ont de cerveau2 #bo que ce    

viscre semble s'agrandir1 en  quelque   
sorte1  proportion de leur docilit2 #co 
qu'il y a ici une  singulire condition  
impose ternellement par la nature1 qui  
est  que plus on gagnera du ct de       
l'esprit1 plus on perdra du ct de       
l'instinct4 ,lequel l'emporte1 de la    
perte ou du gain8    ,ne croyez pas1 au 
reste1 que je veuille prtendre par l que
 le seul  volume du cerveau suffise pour
 faire juger du degr de docilit des     
animaux2 il faut que la qualit rponde   
encore  la quantit1 et que  les solides 
et les fluides soient dans cet quilibre 
convenable qui  fait la sant4    ,si    
l'imbcile ne manque pas de cerveau1     
comme on le remarque  ordinairement1 ce 
viscre pchera par une mauvaise          
consistance1 par  trop de mollesse1 par 
exemple4 ,il en est de mme des fous2 les
 vices  de leur cerveau ne se drobent   
pas toujours  nos recherches2 mais si   
les causes de l'imbcilit1 de la folie1  
etc4 ne sont pas sensibles1  o aller    
chercher celles de la varit de tous les 

esprits8 ,elles  chapperaient aux yeux  
des lynx et des argus4 ,un rien1 une    
petite  fibre1 quelque chose que la plus
 subtile anatomie ne peut dcouvrir1  eut
 fait deux sots d',erasme et de         
,fontenelle1 qui le remarque lui  mme   
dans un de ses meilleurs ,dialogues4    
,outre la mollesse de la molle du       
cerveau1 dans les enfants1 dans  les    
petits chiens et dans les oiseaux1      
,willis a remarqu que les  corps cannels
 sont effacs et comme dcolors dans tous 
ces animaux1  et que leurs stries sont  
aussi imparfaitement formes que dans les
  paralytiques4 ,il ajoute1 ce qui est  
vrai1 que l'homme a la protubrance      
annulaire fort grosse2 et ensuite       
toujours diminutivement par dgrs1  le   
singe et les autres animaux nomms       
ci-devant1 tandis que le veau1  le      
boeuf1 le loup1 la brebis1 le cochon1   
etc4 qui ont cette partie  d'un trs     
petit volume1 ont les nattes et testes  
fort gros4    ,on a beau tre discret et 
rserv sur les consquences qu'on peut    

tirer  de ces observations et de tant   
d'autres sur l'espce d'inconstance  des 
vaisseaux et des nerfs1 etc43 tant de   
varits ne peuvent tre  des jeux gratuits
 de la nature4 ,elles prouvent du moins 
la ncessit  d'une bonne et abondante    
organisation1 puisque dans tout le rgne 
animal l'me1 se raffermissant avec le   
corps1 acquiert de la sagacit1   mesure 
qu'il prend des forces4    ,arrtons-nous
  contempler la diffrente docilit des   
animaux4 ,sans  doute l'analogie la     
mieux entendue conduit l'esprit  croire 
que les  causes dont nous avons fait    
mention produisent toute la diversit qui
  se trouve entr'eux et nous1 quoiqu'il 
faille avouer que notre faible          
entendement1 born aux observations les  
plus grossires1 ne puisse  voir les     
liens qui rgnent entre la cause et les  
effets4 ,c'est une  espce d'harmonie que
 les philosophes ne connatront jamais4  
,parmi les animaux1 les uns apprennent  
parler et  chanter2 ils  retiennent des 
airs et prennent tous les tons aussi    

exactement qu'un  musicien4 ,les autres1
 qui montrent cependant plus d'esprit1  
tels que  le singe1 n'en peuvent venir  
bout4 ,pourquoi cela1 si ce n'est par   
un vice des organes de la parole8       
,mais ce vice est-il tellement de       
conformation1 qu'on n'y puisse  apporter
 aucun remde8 en un mot serait-il       
absolument impossible  d'apprendre une  
langue  cet animal8 ,je ne le crois pas4
    ,je prendrais le grand singe        
prfrablement  tout autre1 jusqu' ce que 
le hasard nous et fait dcouvrir quelque 
autre espce plus semblable   la ntre1   
car rien ne rpugne qu'il y en ait dans  
des rgions qui nous  sont inconnues4    
,cet animal nous ressemble si fort1 que 
les naturalistes  l'ont appel homme     
sauvage1 ou homme des bois4 ,je le      
prendrais aux  mmes conditions des      
coliers d',amman2 c'est--dire1 que je   
voudrais  qu'il ne ft ni trop jeune ni  
trop vieux2 car ceux qu'on nous apporte 
en ,europe sont communment trop gs4 ,je 
choisirais celui qui aurait  la         

physionomie la plus spirituelle1 et qui 
tiendrait le mieux dans  mille petites  
oprations ce qu'elle m'aurait promis4   
,enfin1 ne me  trouvant pas digne d'tre 
son gouverneur1 je le mettrais  l'cole  
de  l'excellent matre que je viens de   
nommer1 ou d'un autre aussi habile1     
s'il en est4    ,vous savez par le livre
 d',amman1 et par tous ceux #c qui ont  
traduit  sa mthode1 tous les prodiges   
qu'il a su oprer sur les sourds de      
naissance1 dans les yeux desquels il a1 
comme il le fait entendre  lui-mme1     
trouv des oreilles2 et en combien peu de
 temps enfin il leur  a appris          
entendre1 parler1 lire1 et crire4 ,je   
veux que les yeux  d'un sourd voient    
plus clair et soient plus intelligents  
que s'il ne  l'tait pas1 par la raison  
que la perte d'un membre ou d'un sens   
peut  augmenter la force ou la pntration
 d'un autre3 mais le singe voit  et     
entend2 il comprend ce qu'il entend et  
ce qu'il voit2 il conoit  si            
parfaitement les signes qu'on lui fait1 

qu' tout autre jeu1 ou  tout autre      
exercice1 je ne doute point qu'il ne    
l'emportt sur les  disciples d',amman4  
,pourquoi donc l'ducation des singes    
serait-elle  impossible8 ,pourquoi ne   
pourrait-il enfin1  force de soins1     
imiter1   l'exemple des sourds1 les     
mouvemens ncessaires pour prononcer8 ,je
  n'ose dcider si les organes de la     
parole du singe ne peuvent1  quoiqu'on  
fasse1 rien articuler2 mais cette       
impossibilit absolue me  surprendrait1  
cause de la grande analogie du singe et 
de l'homme1  et qu'il n'est point       
d'animal connu jusqu' prsent1 dont le   
dedans  et le dehors lui ressemblent    
d'une manire si frappante4 ,mr4 ,locke1 
qui certainement n'a jamais t suspect de
 crdulit1 n'a pas fait  difficult de    
croire l'histoire que le ,chevalier     
,temple fait dans  ses ,mmoires1 d'un   
perroquet qui rpondait  propos et avait 
appris1  comme nous1  avoir une espce de
 conversation suivie4 ,je sais  qu'on   
s'est moqu #d de ce grand mtaphysicien2 

mais qui aurait  annonc  l'univers qu'il
 y a des gnrations qui se font sans     
oeufs  et sans femmes1 aurait-il trouv  
beaucoup de partisans8 ,cependant  ,mr4 
,trembley en a dcouvert1 qui se font    
sans accouplement1 et par la  seule     
section4 ,amman n'et-il pas aussi pass  
pour un fou1 s'il se  ft vant1 avant que
 d'en faire l'heureuse exprience1       
d'instruire1  et en aussi peu de temps1 
des coliers tels que les siens8         
,cependant  ses succs ont tonn          
l'univers1 et comme l'auteur de         
l',histoire des  ,polypes1 il a pass de 
plein vol  l'immortalit4 ,qui doit  son 
gnie  les miracles qu'il opre1 l'emporte
  mon gr sur qui doit les siens  au     
hasard4 ,qui a trouv l'art d'embellir le
 plus beau des rgnes1  et de lui donner 
des perfections qu'il n'avait pas1 doit 
tre mis  au-dessus d'un faiseur oisif de
 systmes frivoles1 ou d'un auteur       
laborieux de striles dcouvertes4 ,celles
 d',amman sont bien d'un  autre prix2 il
 a tir les hommes de l'instinct auquel  

ils semblaient  condamns2 il leur a donn
 les ides1 de l'esprit1 une me en un    
mot1  qu'ils n'essent jamais eue4 ,quel 
plus grand pouvoir6    ,ne bornons point
 les ressources de la nature2 elles sont
 infinies1  surtout aides d'un grand    
art4    ,la mme mcanique1 qui ouvre le  
canal d',eustachi dans les sourds1 ne   
pourrait-il le dboucher dans les singes8
 ,une heureuse envie d'imiter  la       
prononciation du matre1 ne pourrait-elle
 mettre en libert les  organes de la    
parole1 dans les animaux qui imitent    
tant d'autres  signes1 avec tant        
d'adresse et d'intelligence8 ,non       
seulement je dfie  qu'on me cite aucune 
exprience vraiment concluante1 qui dcide
 mon  projet impossible et ridicule2    
mais la similitude de la structure et   
des oprations du singe est telle1 que je
 ne doute presque point1 si  on exerait 
parfaitement cet animal1 qu'on ne vnt   
enfin  bout de lui  apprendre           
prononcer1 et par consquent  savoir une 
langue4 ,alors  ce ne serait plus ni un 

homme sauvage1 ni un homme manqu3 ce    
serait  un homme parfait1 un petit homme
 de ville1 avec autant d'toffe ou  de   
muscles que nous-mmes1 pour penser et   
profiter de son ducation4    ,des       
animaux  l'homme1 la transition n'est   
pas violente2 les vrais  philosophes en 
conviendront4 ,qu'tait l'homme1 avant   
l'invention des  mots et la connaissance
 des langues8 ,un animal de son espce1  
qui avec  beaucoup moins d'instinct     
naturel que les autres1 dont alors il ne
  se croyait pas roi1 n'tait distingu du
 singe et des autres animaux  que comme 
le singe l'est lui-mme2 je veux dire par
 une physionomie  qui annonait plus de  
discernement4 ,rduit  la seule          
connaissance  intuitive des             
,leibniziens1 il ne voyait que des      
figures et des  couleurs1 sans pouvoir  
rien distinguer entr'elles2 vieux1 comme
 jeune1  enfant  tout ge1 il bgayait ses
 sensations et ses besoins1 comme  un   
chien affam1 ou ennuy de repos1 demande 
manger ou  se promener4    ,les mots1   

les langues1 les lois1 les sciences1 les
 beaux-arts  sont venus2 et par eux     
enfin le diamant brut de notre esprit a 
t  poli4 ,on a dress un homme1 comme un 
animal2 on est devenu auteur1  comme    
portefaix4 ,un gomtre a appris  faire   
les dmonstrations  et les calculs les   
plus difficiles1 comme un singe  ter ou 
mettre  son petit chapeau1 et  monter   
sur son chien docile4 ,tout s'est fait  
par les signes2 chaque espce a compris  
ce qu'elle a pu comprendre3  et c'est de
 cette manire que les hommes ont acquis 
la connaissance  symbolique1 ainsi nomme
 encore par nos philosophes             
d',allemagne4    ,rien de si simple1    
comme on voit1 que la mcanique de notre 
ducation6 ,tout se rduit  des sons1 ou  
des mots1 qui de la bouche  de l'un     
passent par l'oreille de l'autre dans le
 cerveau1 qui reoit  en mme temps par   
les yeux la figure des corps1 dont ces  
mots sont  les signes arbitraires4      
,mais qui a parl le premier8 ,qui a t le
 premier prcepteur du  genre human8 ,qui

 a invent les moyens de mettre  profit  
la docilit  de notre organisation8 ,je  
n'en sais rien2 le nom de ces heureux et
  premiers gnies a t perdu dans la nuit 
des temps4 ,mais l'art est  le fils de  
la nature2 elle a d longtemps le prcder4
    ,on doit croire que les hommes les  
mieux organiss1 ceux pour qui la  nature
 aura puis ses bienfaits1 auront        
instruit les autres4 ,ils  n'auront pu  
entendre un bruit nouveau1 par exemple1 
prouver de  nouvelles sensations1 tre   
frapp de tous ces beaux objets divers   
qui forment le ravissant spectacle de la
 nature1 sans se trouver  dans le cas de
 ce sourd de ,chartres dont le grand    
,fontenelle nous  a le premier donn     
l'histoire1 lorsqu'il entendit pour la  
premire  fois  quarante ans le bruit    
tonnant des cloches4    ,de l serait-il 
absurde de croire que ces premiers      
mortels essayrent   la manire de ce     
sourd1 ou  celle des animaux et des     
muets  7autre espce d'animaux71         
d'exprimer leurs nouveaux sentiments    

par des mouvements dpendants de         
l'conomie de leur imagination1  et      
consquemment ensuite par des sons       
spontans propres  chaque  animal1       
expression naturelle de leur surprise1  
de leur joie1 de leurs  transports1 ou  
de leurs besoins8 ,car sans doute ceux  
que la nature  a dous d'un sentiment    
plus exquis1 ont eu aussi plus de       
facilit  pour l'exprimer4    ,voil comme
 je conois que les hommes ont employ    
leur sentiment1  ou leur instinct1 pour 
avoir de l'esprit1 et enfin leur esprit1
 pour  avoir des connaissances4 ,voil   
par quels moyens1 autant que je puis    
les saisir1 on s'est rempli le cerveau  
des ides1 pour le rception  desquelles  
la nature l'avait form4 ,on s'est aid   
l'un par l'autre2  et les plus petits   
commencements s'agrandissant peu  peu1  
toutes les  choses de l'univers ont t   
aussi facilement distingues qu'un       
cercle4    ,comme une corde de violon ou
 une touche de clavecin frmit et rend   
un son1 les cordes du cerveau1 frappes  

par les rayons sonores1 ont  t excites  
rendre ou  redire les mots qui les      
touchaient4 ,mais  comme telle est la   
construction de ce viscre1 que ds qu'une
 fois  les yeux bien forms pour         
l'optique ont reu la peinture des       
objets1  le cerveau ne peut pas ne pas  
voir leurs images et leurs diffrences3  
de mme1 lorsque les signes de ces       
diffrences ont t marqus1 ou  gravs dans 
le cerveau1 l'me en a ncessairement     
examin les rapports2  examen qui lui    
tait impossible sans la dcouverte des   
signes1 ou  l'invention des langues4    
,dans ces temps1 o l'univers tait       
presque  muet1 l'me tait  l'gard de tous
 les objets1 comme un homme qui1  sans  
avoir aucune ide des proportions1       
regarderait un tableau1 ou  une pice de 
sculpture3 il n'y pourrait rien         
distinguer2 ou comme  un petit enfant   
7car alors l'me tait dans son enfance7  
qui1 tenant  dans sa main un certain    
nombre de petits brins de paille ou de  
bois1  les voit en gnral d'une vue vague

 et superficielle1 sans pouvoir les     
compter ni les distinguer4 ,mais qu'on  
mette une espce de pavillon1  ou        
d'tendard1  cette pice de bois1 par     
exemple1 qu'on appelle mt1  qu'on en    
mette un autre  un autre pareil corps2  
que le premier venu  se nombre par le   
signe #a et le second par le signe ou   
chiffre #b2 alors  cet enfant pourra les
 compter1 et ainsi de suite il apprendra
 toute  l'arithmtique4 ,ds qu'une figure
 lui paratra gale  une autre par  son   
signe numratif1 il conclra sans peine   
que ce sont deux corps  diffrents2 que  
#a et #a font deux1 que #b et #b font   
#d1 #e etc4    ,c'est cette similitude  
relle1 ou apparente1 des figures1 qui   
est la  base fondamentale de toutes les 
vrits et de toutes nos connaissances1   
parmi lesquelles il est vident que      
celles dont les signes sont moins       
simples et moins sensibles sont plus    
difficiles  apprendre que les  autres1  
en ce qu'elles demandent plus de gnie   
pour embrasser et  combiner cette       

immense quantit de mots par lesquels les
 sciences  dont je parle expriment les  
vrits de leur ressort3 tandis que les   
sciences qui s'annoncent par des        
chiffres1 ou autres petits signes1      
s'apprennent facilement2 et c'est sans  
doute cette facilit qui a  fait la      
fortune des calculs algbriques1 plus    
encore que leur vidence4    ,tout ce    
savoir dont le vent enfle le ballon du  
cerveau de nos pdants  orgueilleux1     
n'est donc qu'un vaste amas de mots et  
de figures1  qui forment dans la tte    
toutes les traces par lesquelles nous   
distinguons et nous nous rappellons les 
objets4 ,toutes nos ides se  rveillent1 
comme un jardinier qui connat les       
plantes se souvient  de toutes leurs    
phases  leur aspect4 ,ces mots et ces   
figures qui  sont dsigns par eux1 sont  
tellements lis ensemble dans le cerveau1
  qu'il est assez rare qu'on imagine une
 chose sans le nom ou le signe  qui lui 
est attach4    ,je me sers toujours du  
mot imaginer1 parceque je crois que tout

  s'imagine1 et que toutes les parties  
de l'me peuvent tre justement  rduites  
la seule imagination1 qui les forme     
toutes2 et qu'ainsi  le jugement1 le    
raisonnement1 la mmoire ne sont que des 
parties de  l'me nullement absolues1    
mais de vritables modifications de cette
  espce de toile mdullaire1 sur laquelle
 les objets peints dans l'oeil  sont    
renvoys1 comme d'une lanterne magique4  
,mais si tel est ce merveilleux et      
incomprhensible rsultat de              
l'organisation du cerveau2 si tout se   
conoit par l'imagination1  si tout      
s'explique par elle2 pourquoi diviser le
 principe sensitif  qui pense dans      
l'homme8 ,n'est-ce pas une contradiction
 manifeste  dans les partisans de la    
simplicit de l'esprit8 ,car une chose   
qu'on divise ne peut plus tre1 sans     
absurdit1 regarde comme  indivisible4   
,voil o conduit l'abus des langues1 et  
l'usage de ces  grands mots1            
spiritualit1 immatrialit1 etc41 placs   
tout hasard1  sans tre entendus1 mme par

 des gens d'esprit4    ,rien de plus    
facile que de prouver un systme1 fond   
comme  celui-ci sur le sentiment intime 
et l'exprience propre de chaque         
individu4 ,l'imagination1 ou cette      
partie fantastique du cerveau1 dont  la 
nature nous est aussi inconnue que sa   
manire d'agir1 est-elle  naturellement  
petite1 ou faible8 elle aura  peine la  
force de  comparer l'analogie1 ou la    
ressemblance de ses ides2 elle ne pourra
  voir que ce qui sera vis--vis d'elle1 
ou ce qui l'affectera le plus  vivement2
 et encore de quelle manire6 ,mais      
toujours est-il vrai  que l'imagination 
seule aperoit2 que c'est elle qui se    
reprsente  tous les objets1 avec les    
mots et les figures qui les             
caractrisent2  et qu'ainsi c'est elle   
encore une fois qui est l'me1           
puisqu'elle  en fait tous les rles4 ,par
 elle1 par son pinceau flatteur1 le     
froid  squelette de la raison prend des 
chairs vives et vermeilles2 par elle    
les sciences fleurissent1 les arts      

s'embellissent1 les bois parlent1  les  
chos soupirent1 les rochers pleurent1 le
 marbre respire1 tout  prend vie parmi  
les corps inanims4 ,c'est elle encore   
qui ajoute   la tendresse d'un coeur    
amoureux le piquant attrait de la       
volupt2  elle la fait germer dans le    
cabinet du philosophe1 et du pdant      
poudreux2 elle forme enfin les savants  
comme les orateurs et les  potes4       
,sottement dcrie par les uns1 vainement 
distingue par les  autres1 qui tous     
l'ont mal connue1 elle ne marche pas    
seulement   la suite des ,grces et des  
beaux-art1 elle ne peint pas seulement  
la nature1 elle peut aussi la mesurer4  
,elle raisonne1 juge1 pntre1  compare1  
approfondit4 ,pourrait-elle si bien     
sentir les beautes des  tableaux qui lui
 sont tracs1 sans en dcouvrir les       
rapports8 ,non2  comme elle ne peut se  
replier sur les plaisirs des sens1 sans 
en  goter toute la perfection ou la     
volupt1 elle ne peut rflchir sur  ce    
qu'elle a mcaniquement conu1 sans tre   

alors le jugement mme4    ,plus on      
exerce l'imagination1 ou le plus maigre 
gnie1 plus il prend1  pour ainsi dire1  
d'embonpoint2 plus il s'agrandit1       
devient nerveux1  robuste1 vaste et     
capable de penser4 ,la meilleure        
organisation a  besoin de cet exercice4 
,l'organisation est le premier mrite de 
l'homme2 c'est en vain que  tous les    
auteurs de morale ne mettent point au   
rang des qualits  estimables celles     
qu'on tient de la nature1 mais seulement
 les  talents qui s'acquirent  force de 
rflexions et d'industrie3 car  d'o nous 
vient1 je vous prie1 l'habilet1 la      
science et la vertu1 si  ce n'est d'une 
disposition qui nous rend propres       
devenir habiles1  savants et vertueux8  
,et d'o nous vient encore cette         
disposition1  si ce n'est de la nature8 
,nous n'avons de qualits estimables que 
par elle2 nous lui devons tout ce que   
nous sommes4 ,pourquoi donc             
n'estimerais-je pas autant ceux qui ont 
des qualits naturelles1 que  ceux qui   

brillent par des vertus acquises1 et    
comme d'emprunt8 ,quel  que soit le     
mrite1 de quelque endroit qu'il naisse1 
il est digne  d'estime2 il ne s'agit que
 de savoir le mesurer4 ,l'esprit1 la    
beaut1  les richesses1 la noblesse1     
quoiqu'enfants du hasard1 ont tous leur 
prix1 comme l'adresse1 le savoir1 la    
vertu1 etc4 ,ceux que la nature  a      
combls de ses dons les plus prcieux1    
doivent plaindre ceux  qui  ils ont t   
refuss2 mais ils peuvent sentir leur    
supriorit sans  orgueil1 et en          
connaisseurs4 ,une belle femme serait   
aussi ridicule  de se trouver laide1    
qu'un homme d'esprit de se croire un    
sot4 ,une  modestie outre 7dfaut rare   
la vrit7 est une sorte d'ingratitude    
envers la nature4 ,une honnte fiert1 au 
contraire1 est la marque  d'une me belle
 et grande1 que dclent des traits mles  
mouls comme  par le sentiment4    ,si   
l'organisation est un mrite1 et le      
premier mrite1 et la source  de tous les
 autres1 l'instruction est le second4   

,le cerveau le mieux  construit1 sans   
elle1 le serait en pure perte2 comme    
sans l'usage du  monde1 l'homme le mieux
 fait ne serait qu'un paysan grossier4  
,mais  aussi quel serait le fruit de la 
plus excellente cole1 sans une  matrice 
parfaitement ouverte  l'entre ou  la    
conception des  ides8 ,il est aussi     
impossible de donner une seule ide  un  
homme  priv de tous les sens1 que de    
faire un enfant  une femme  laquelle  la
 nature aurait pouss la distraction     
jusqu' oublier de faire une  vulve1     
comme je l'ai vu dans une1 qui n'avait  
ni fente1 ni vagin1  ni matrice1 et qui 
pour cette raison fut dmarie aprs dix   
ans  de mariage4    ,mais si le cerveau 
est  la fois bien organis et bien       
instruit1 c'est  une terre fconde       
parfaitement ensemence1 qui produit le  
centuple de  ce qu'elle a reu3 ou 7pour 
quitter le style figur souvent          
ncessaire1  pour mieux exprimer ce qu'on
 sent et donner des grces  la ,vrit     
mme71 l'imagination leve par l'art  la  

belle et rare dignit de  gnie1 saisit   
exactement tous les rapports des ides   
qu'elle a conues1  embrasse avec facilit
 une foule tonnante d'objets1 pour en   
tirer  enfin une longue chane de        
consquences1 lesquelles ne sont encore  
que de nouveaux rapports1 enfants par la
 comparaison des premiers1  auxquels    
l'me trouve une parfaite ressemblance4  
,telle est1 selon moi1  la gnration de  
l'esprit4 ,je dis trouve1 comme j'ai    
donn ci-devant  l'pithte d'apparente  la
 similitude des objets3 non que je pense
  que nos sens soient toujours          
trompeurs1 comme l'a prtendu le ,pre    
,malebranche1 ou que nos yeux           
naturellement un peu ivres ne voient pas
  les objets tels qu'ils sont en eux    
mmes1 quoique les microscopes  nous le  
prouvent tous les jours1 mais pour      
n'avoir aucune dispute  avec les        
,pyrrhoniens1 parmi lesquels ,bayle     
s'est distingu4    ,je dis de la vrit en
 gnral ce que ,mr4 de ,fontenelle dit de
  certaines en particulier1 qu'il faut  

la sacrifier aux agrments de  la socit4 
,il est de la douceur de mon caractre   
d'obvier  toute  dispute1 lorsqu'il ne  
s'agit pas d'aiguiser la conversation4  
,les  ,cartsiens viendraient ici        
vainement  la charge avec leur ides     
innes2 je ne me donnerais certainement  
pas le quart de la peine qu'a  prise    
,mr4 ,locke pour attaquer de telles     
chimres4 ,quelle utilit1  en effet1 de  
faire un gros livre1 pour prouver une   
doctrine qui tait  rige en axiome il y a
 trois mille ans8    ,suivant les       
principes que nous avons poss1 et que   
nous croyons vrais1  celui qui a le plus
 d'imagination doit tre regard comme    
ayant le  plus d'esprit1 ou de gnie1 car
 tous ces mots sont synonymes2 et       
encore une fois c'est par un abus       
honteux qu'on croit dire des choses     
diffrentes1 lorsqu'on ne dit que        
diffrents mots ou diffrents sons1       
auxquels on n'a attach aucune ide ou    
distinction relle4    ,la plus belle1 la
 plus grande1 ou la plus forte          

imagination1 est donc  la plus propre   
aux sciences1 comme aux arts4 ,je ne    
dcide point s'il  faut plus d'esprit    
pour exceller dans l'art des ,aristotes1
 ou des  ,descartes1 que dans celui des 
,euripides ou des ,sophocles2 et si la  
nature s'est mise en plus grands frais  
pour faire ,newton que pour  former     
,corneille 7ce dont je doute fort71 mais
 il est certain que  c'est la seule     
imagination diversement applique qui a  
fait leur  diffrent triomphe et leur    
gloire immortelle4    ,si quelqu'un     
passe pour avoir peu de jugement1 avec  
beaucoup  d'imagination2 cela veut dire 
que l'imagination trop abandonne  elle  
mme1 presque toujours comme occupe  se  
regarder dans le miroir de  ses         
sensations1 n'a pas assez contract      
l'habitude de les examiner  elles-mmes  
avec attention2 plus profondment pntre  
des traces1  ou des images1 que de leur 
vrit ou de leur ressemblance4    ,il est
 vrai que telle est la vivacit des      
ressorts de l'imagination1  que si      

l'attention1 cette cl ou mre des        
sciences1 ne s'en mle1  il ne lui est   
gures permis que de parcourir et        
d'effleurer les objets4    ,voyez cet   
oiseau sur la branche1 il semble        
toujours prt  s'envoler2  l'imagination 
est de mme4 ,toujours emporte par le    
tourbillon du  sang et des esprits1 une 
onde fait une trace1 efface par celle   
qui  suit2 l'me court aprs1 souvent en  
vain3 il faut qu'elle s'attende         
regretter ce qu'elle n'a pas assez vite 
saisi et fix3 et c'est  ainsi que       
l'imagination1 vritable image du temps1 
se dtruit et se  renouvelle sans cesse4 
,tel est le chaos et la succession      
continuelle et rapide de nos  ides2     
elles se chassent1 comme un flot pousse 
l'autre2 de sorte  que si l'imagination 
n'emploie1 pour ainsi dire1 une partie  
de ses  muscles pour tre comme en       
quilibre sur les cordes du cerveau1 pour
  se soutenir quelque temps sur un objet
 qui va fuir et s'empcher de  tomber sur
 un autre1 qu'il n'est pas encore temps 

de contempler1 jamais  elle ne sera     
digne du beau nom de jugement4 ,elle    
exprimera vivement ce  qu'elle aura     
senti de mme2 elle formera des orateurs1
 des musiciens1  des peintres1 des      
potes1 et jamais un seul philosophe4 ,au
 contraire  si1 ds l'enfance1 on        
accoutume l'imagination  se brider      
elle-mme1   ne point se laisser emporter
  sa propre imptuosit1 qui ne fait  que 
de brillants enthousiastes1  arrter1    
contenir ses ides1  les  retourner dans 
tous les sens1 pour voir toutes les     
faces d'un objet1  alors l'imagination  
prompte  juger embrassera par le        
raisonnement  la plus grande sphre      
d'objets1 et sa vivacit1 toujours de si 
bon  augure dans les enfants1 et qu'il  
ne s'agit que de rgler par l'tude  et   
l'exercice1 ne sera plus qu'une         
pntration clairvoyante1 sans  laquelle  
on fait peu de progrs dans les sciences4
    ,tels sont les simples fondements   
sur lesquels a t bati l'difice  de la   
logique4 ,la nature les avait jets pour 

tout le genre humain2  mais les uns en  
ont profit1 les autres en ont abus4     
,malgr toutes ces prrogatives de l'homme
 sur les animaux1 c'est lui  faire      
honneur que de le ranger dans la mme    
classe4 ,il est vrai que1  jusqu' un    
certain ge1 il est plus animal qu'eux1  
parce qu'il apporte  moins d'instinct en
 naissant4    ,quel est l'animal qui    
mourrait de faim au milieu d'une rivire 
de  lait8 ,l'homme seul4 ,semblable  ce 
vieux enfant dont un moderne  parle     
d'aprs ,arnobe1 il ne connait ni les    
aliments qui lui sont  propres1 ni l'eau
 qui peut le noyer1 ni le feu qui peut  
le rduire  en poudre4 ,faites briller   
pour la premire fois la lumire d'une    
bougie aux yeux d'un enfant1 il y       
portera machinalement le doigt1  comme  
pour savoir quel est le nouveau phnomne 
qu'il aperoit2 c'est   ses dpens qu'il  
en connatra le danger1 mais il n'y sera 
pas repris4    ,mettez-le encore avec un
 animal sur le bord d'un prcipice6 lui  
seul  y tombera2 il se noie1 o l'autre  

se sauve  la nage4 ,a quatorze ou       
quinze ans1 il entrevoit  peine les     
grands plaisirs qui l'attendent  dans la
 reproduction de son espce2 dj          
adolescent1 il ne sait pas  trop comment
 s'y prendre dans un jeu que la nature  
apprend si vite aux  animaux3 il se     
cache1 comme s'il tait honteux d'avoir  
du plaisir et  d'tre fait pour tre      
heureux1 tandis que les animaux se font 
gloire  d'tre cyniques4 ,sans ducation1 
ils sont sans prjugs4 ,mais voyons      
encore ce chien et cet enfant qui ont   
tous deux perdu leur matre dans  un     
grand chemin3 l'enfant pleure1 il ne    
sait  quel saint se vouer2  le chien1   
mieux servi par son odorat que l'autre  
par sa raison1  l'aura bientt trouv4    
,la nature nous avait donc faits pour   
tre au dessous des animaux1 ou du  moins
 pour faire par l mme mieux clater les  
prodiges de l'ducation1  qui seule nous 
tire du niveau et nous lve enfin        
au-dessus d'eux4 ,mais  accordera-t-on  
la mme distinction aux sourds1 aux      

aveugles-ns1  aux imbciles1 aux fous1   
aux hommes sauvages1 ou qui ont t levs  
dans les bois avec les btes1  ceux dont 
l'affection hypocondriaque  a perdu     
l'imagination1 enfin  toutes ces btes   
figure humaine1  qui ne montrent que    
l'instinct le plus grossier8 ,non1 tous 
ces hommes  de corps1 et non d'esprit1  
ne mritent pas une classe particulire4  
,nous n'avons pas dessein de nous       
dissimuler les objections qu'on peut    
faire en faveur de la distinction       
primitive de l'homme et des animaux1    
contre notre sentiment4 ,il y a1 dit-on1
 dans l'homme une loi naturelle1  une   
connaissance du bien et du mal1 qui n'a 
pas t grave dans le  coeur des animaux4 
,mais cette objection1 ou plutt cette   
assertion est-elle fonde sur            
l'exprience1 sans laquelle un philosophe
 peut tout rejeter8 ,en  avons-nous     
quelqu'une qui nous convainque que      
l'homme seul a t  clair d'un rayon refus
  tous les autres animaux8 ,s'il n'y en 
a  point1 nous ne pouvons pas plus      

connatre par elle ce qui se passe  dans 
eux1 et mme dans les hommes1 que ne pas 
sentir ce qui affecte  l'intrieur de    
notre tre4 ,nous savons que nous pensons
 et que nous  avons des remords3 un     
sentiment intime ne nous force que trop 
d'en  convenir2 mais pour juger des     
remords d'autrui1 ce sentiment qui est  
dans nous est insuffisant3 c'est        
pourquoi il en faut croire les autres   
hommes sur leur parole1 ou sur les      
signes sensibles et extrieurs  que nous 
avons remarqus en nous-mmes1 lorsque    
nous prouvions la  mme conscience et les
 mmes tourments4    ,mais pour dcider si
 les animaux qui ne parlent point ont   
reu  la loi naturelle1 il faut s'en     
rapporter consquemment  ces  signes dont
 je viens de parler1 suppos qu'ils      
existent4 ,les faits  semblent le       
prouver4 ,le chien qui a mordu son matre
 qui l'agaait1  a paru s'en repentir le 
moment suivant2 on l'a vu triste1 fch1  
n'osant se montrer1 et s'avouer coupable
 par un air rampant et  humili4         

,l'histoire nous offre un exemple clbre 
d'un lion qui ne  voulut pas dchirer un 
homme abandonn  sa fureur1 parce qu'il  
le  reconnut pour son bienfaiteur4      
,qu'il serait  souhaiter que l'homme    
mme montrt toujours la mme              
reconnaissance pour les bienfaits et le 
mme respect pour l'humanit6 ,on n'aurait
 plus  craindre les ingrats1  ni ces    
guerres qui sont le flau du genre humain
 et les vrais bourreaux  de la loi      
naturelle4    ,mais un tre  qui la      
nature a donn un instinct si prcoce1 si 
clair1 qui juge1 combine1 raisonne et   
dlibre1 autant que s'tend  et le lui    
permet la sphre de son activit2 un tre  
qui s'attache  par les bienfaits1 qui se
 dtache par les mauvais traitements et  
va essayer un meilleur matre2 un tre    
d'une structure semblable   la ntre1 qui
 fait les mmes oprations1 qui a les mmes
 passions1  les mmes douleurs1 les mmes 
plaisirs1 plus ou moins vifs suivant    
l'empire de l'imagination et la         
dlicatesse des nerfs2 un tel tre  enfin 

ne montre-t-il pas clairement qu'il sent
 ses torts et les  ntres1 qu'il connait 
le bien et le mal et1 en un mot1 a      
conscience  de ce qu'il fait8 ,son me   
qui marque comme la ntre les mmes joies1
  les mmes mortifications1 les mmes     
dconcertements1 serait-elle  sans aucune
 rpugnance  la vue de son semblable     
dchir1 ou aprs  l'avoir lui-mme         
impitoyablement mis en pices8 ,cela pos1
 le don  prcieux dont il s'agit n'aurait
 point t refus aux animaux2 car         
puisqu'ils nous offrent des signes      
vidents de leur repentir1 comme  de leur
 intelligence1 qu'y a-t-il d'absurde    
penser que des tres1  des machines      
presque aussi parfaites que nous1       
soient1 comme nous1  faites pour penser 
et pour sentir la nature8    ,qu'on ne  
m'objecte point que les animaux sont    
pour la plupart des tres  froces1 qui ne
 sont pas capables de sentir les maux   
qu'ils font2 car  tous les hommes       
distinguent-ils mieux les vices et les  
vertus8 ,il est  dans notre espce de la 

frocit1 comme dans la leur4 ,les hommes 
qui  sont dans la barbare habitude      
d'enfreindre la loi naturelle1 n'en sont
  pas si tourments que ceux qui la      
transgressent pour la premire fois1  et 
que la force de l'exemple n'a point     
endurcis4 ,il en est de mme des         
animaux1 comme des hommes4 ,les uns et  
les autres peuvent tre plus  ou moins   
froces par temprament1 et ils le        
deviennent encore plus  avec ceux qui le
 sont4 ,mais un animal doux1 pacifique1 
qui vit avec  d'autres animaux          
semblables1 et d'aliments doux1 sera    
ennemi du sang  et du carnage1 il       
rougira intrieurement de l'avoir vers2  
avec cette  diffrence peut-tre que1     
comme chez eux tout est immol aux       
besoins1  aux plaisirs et aux commodits 
de la vie1 dont ils jouissent plus  que 
nous1 leurs remords ne semblent pas     
devoir tre si vifs que les  ntres1      
parceque nous ne sommes pas dans la mme 
ncessit qu'eux4 ,la  coutume mousse et  
peut-tre touffe les remords1 comme les  

plaisirs4    ,mais je veux pour un      
moment supposer que je me trompe1 et    
qu'il n'est  pas juste que presque tout 
l'univers ait tort  ce sujet1 tandis    
que j'aurais seul raison2 j'accorde que 
les animaux1 mme les plus  excellents1  
ne connaissent pas la distinction du    
bien et du mal moral1  qu'ils n'ont     
aucune mmoire des attentions qu'on a    
eues pour eux1  du bien qu'on leur a    
fait1 aucun sentiment de leurs propres  
vertus2  que ce lion1 par exemple1 dont 
j'ai parl aprs tant d'autres1 ne se     
souvienne pas de n'avoir pas voulu ravir
 la vie  cet homme qui fut  livr  sa    
furie1 dans un spectacle plus inhumain  
que tous les lions1  les tigres et les  
ours2 tandis que nos compatriotes se    
battent1 ,suisses  contre ,suisses1     
frres contre frres1 se reconnaissent1   
s'enchanent1  ou se tuent sans remords1 
parce qu'un prince paie leurs meurtres3 
je  suppose enfin que la loi naturelle  
n'ait pas t donne aux animaux1  quelles 
en seront les consquences8 ,l'homme     

n'est pas ptri d'un limon  plus prcieux2
 la nature n'a employ qu'une seule et   
mme pte1 dont  elle a seulement vari les
 levains4 ,si donc l'animal ne se repent
  pas d'avoir viol le sentiment intrieur
 dont je parle1 ou plutt  s'il en est   
absolument priv1 il faut ncessairement  
que l'homme  soit dans le mme cas3      
moyennant quoi adieu la loi naturelle et
 tous  ces beaux traits qu'on a publis  
sur elle6 ,tout le rgne animal en       
serait gnralement dpourv4 ,mais         
rciproquement si l'homme ne peut  se    
dispenser de convenir qu'il distingue   
toujours1 lorsque la sant le  laisse    
jour de lui-mme1 ceux qui ont de la     
probit1 de l'humanit1  de la vertu1 de  
ceux qui ne sont ni humains1 ni         
vertueux1 ni honntes  gens2 qu'il est   
facile de distinguer ce qui est vice1 ou
 vertu1 par  l'unique plaisir ou la     
propre rpugnance qui en sont comme les  
effets  naturels1 il s'ensuit que les   
animaux forms de la mme matire1         
laquelle il n'a peut-tre manqu qu'un    

degr de fermentation pour  galer les    
hommes en tout1 doivent participer aux  
mmes prrogatives  de l'animalit1 et     
qu'ainsi il n'est point d'me1 ou de     
substance  sensitive1 sans remords4 ,la 
rflexion suivante va fortifier          
celles-ci4    ,on ne peut dtruire la loi
 naturelle4 ,l'empreinte en est si forte
 dans  tous les animaux1 que je ne doute
 nullement que les plus sauvages  et les
 plus froces n'aient quelques moments de
 repentir4 ,je crois  que la fille      
sauvage de ,chlons en ,champagne aura   
port la peine de  son crime1 s'il est   
vrai qu'elle ait mang sa soeur4 ,je     
pense la mme  chose de tous ceux qui    
commettent des crimes1 mme              
involontaires1 ou de  temprament3 de    
,gaston d',orlans qui ne pouvait        
s'empcher de voler2  de certaine femme  
qui fut sujette au mme vice dans la     
grossesse1 et  dont ses enfants         
hritrent2 de celle qui dans le mme tat1 
mangea son  mari2 de cette autre qui    
gorgeait les enfants1 salait leurs      

corps1  et en mangeait tous les jours   
comme du petit sal2 de cette fille  de  
voleur anthropophage1 qui la devint  #ab
 ans1 quoiqu'ayant perdu  pre et mre    
l'ge d'un an elle et t leve par         
d'honntes gens1  pour ne rien dire de   
tant d'autres exemples dont nos         
observateurs  sont remplis1 et qui      
prouvent tous qu'il est mille vices et  
vertus  hrditaires1 qui passent des     
parents aux enfants1 comme ceux de la   
nourrice  ceux qu'elle allaite4 ,je dis 
donc et j'accorde que ces  malheureux ne
 sentent pas pour la plupart sur le     
champ l'normit  de leur action4 ,la     
boulimie1 par exemple1 ou la faim       
canine1 peut  teindre tout sentiment2   
c'est une manie d'estomac qu'on est forc
  de satisfaire4 ,mais revenues         
elles-mmes1 et comme dsenivres1  quels  
remords pour ces femmes qui se          
rappellent le meurtre qu'elles  ont     
commis dans ce qu'elles avaient de plus 
cher6 quelle punition d'un  mal         
involontaire1 auquel elles n'ont pu     

rsister1 dont elles n'ont eu  aucune    
conscience6 ,cependant ce n'est point   
assez apparemment pour les  juges4      
,parmi les femmes dont je parle1 l'une  
fut roue1 et brle1  l'autre enterre     
vive4 ,je sens tout ce que demande      
l'intrt de la  socit4 ,mais il serait   
sans doute  souhaiter qu'il n'y et pour 
juges que d'excellents mdecins4 ,eux    
seuls pourraient distinguer le  criminel
 innocent1 du coupable4 ,si la raison   
est esclave d'un sens  dprav1 ou en     
fureur1 comment peut-elle le gouverner8 
,mais si le crime porte avec soi sa     
propre punition plus ou moins  cruelle2 
si la plus longue et la plus barbare    
habitude ne peut  tout--fait arracher le
 repentir des coeurs les plus inhumains2
  s'ils sont dchirs par la mmoire mme de
 leurs actions2 pour quoi  effrayer     
l'imagination des esprits faibles par un
 enfer1 par des  spectres1 et des       
prcipices de feu1 moins rels encore que 
ceux  de ,pascal #f8 ,qu'est-il besoin  
de recourir  des fables1 comme un  pape 

de bonne foi l'a dit lui-mme1 pour      
tourmenter les malheureux  mmes qu'on   
fait prir1 parce qu'on ne les trouve pas
 assez punis  par leur propre           
conscience1 qui est leur premier        
bourreau8 ,ce n'est  pas que je veuille 
dire que tous les criminels soient      
injustement  punis2 je prtends seulement
 que ceux dont la volont est dprave1  et
 la conscience teinte1 le sont assez par
 leurs remords1 quand ils  reviennent   
eux-mmes2 remords1 j'ose encore le dire1
 dont la nature  aurait d en ce cas1 ce 
me semble1 dlivrer des malheureux       
entrans  par une fatale ncessit4    ,les
 criminels1 les mchants1 les ingrats1   
ceux enfin que ne sentent  pas la       
nature1 tyrans malheureux et indignes du
 jour1 ont beau se  faire un cruel      
plaisir de leur barbarie1 il est des    
moments calmes et  de rflexion1 o la    
conscience vengeresse s'lve1 dpose      
contr'eux1  et les condamne  tre presque
 sans cesse dchirs de ses propres       
mains4 ,qui tourmente les hommes1 est   

tourment par lui-mme2 et les  maux qu'il
 sentira seront la juste mesure de ceux 
qu'il aura faits4    ,d'un autre ct1 il 
y a tant de plaisir  faire du bien1     
sentir1   reconnatre celui qu'on reoit1 
tant de contentement  pratiquer  la     
vertu1  tre doux1 humain1 tendre1       
charitable1 compatissant et  gnreux 7ce 
seul mot renferme toutes les vertus71   
que je tiens pour  assez puni quiconque 
a le malheur de n'tre pas n vertueux4   
,nous n'avons pas originairement t faits
 pour tre savants2  c'est peut-tre par  
une espce d'abus de nos facults         
organiques1  que nous le sommes devenus2
 et cela  la charge de l',etat1 qui     
nourrit une multitude de fainants1 que  
la vanit a decors du nom  de            
philosophes4 ,la nature nous a tous crs 
uniquement pour tre  heureux2 oui1 tous1
 depuis le ver qui rampe1 jusqu' l'aigle
 qui  se perd dans la nue4 ,c'est       
pourquoi elle a donn  tous les animaux  
quelque portion de la loi naturelle1    
portion plus ou moins exquise  selon que

 le comportent les organes bien         
conditionns de chaque animal4    ,a     
prsent1 comment dfinirons-nous la loi   
naturelle8 ,c'est un sentiment  qui nous
 apprend ce que nous ne devons pas      
faire1 parce que nous ne  voudrions pas 
qu'on nous le ft4 ,oserais-je ajouter   
cette ide  commune1 qu'il me semble que 
ce sentiment n'est qu'une espce de      
crainte1 ou de frayeur1 aussi salutaire 
l'espce qu'a l'individu2  car peut-tre  
ne respectons-nous la bourse et la vie  
des autres1 que  pour nous conserver nos
 biens1 notre honneur et nous-mmes2     
semblables   ces ,ixions du             
,christianisme qui n'aiment ,dieu et    
n'embrassent tant  de chimriques vertus1
 que parce qu'ils craignent l'enfer4    
,vous voyez que la loi naturelle n'est  
qu'un sentiment intime1  qui appartient 
encore  l'imagination1 comme tous les   
autres1  parmi lesquels on compte la    
pense4 ,par consquent elle ne suppose   
videmment ni ducation1 ni rvlation1 ni  
lgislateur1  moins qu'on  ne veuille la 

confondre avec les lois civiles1  la    
manire ridicule  des thologiens4    ,les
 armes du fanatisme peuvent dtruire ceux
 qui soutiennent ces  vrits2 mais elles 
ne dtruiront jamais ces vrits mmes4     
,ce n'est pas que je rvoque en doute    
l'existence d'un ,etre suprme2 il  me   
semble au contraire que le plus grand   
degr de probabilit est pour  elle3 mais 
comme cette existence ne prouve pas plus
 la ncessit d'un  culte1 que toute      
autre1 c'est une vrit thorique1 qui     
n'est gure  d'usage dans la pratique3 de
 sorte que1 comme on peut dire1 d'aprs  
tant d'expriences1 que la religion ne   
suppose pas l'exacte probit1  les mmes  
raisons autorisent  penser que l'athisme
 ne l'exclut pas4    ,qui sait          
d'ailleurs si la raison de l'existence  
de l'homme ne serait  pas dans son      
existence mme8 ,peut-tre a-t-il t jet au
 hasard  sur un point de la surface de  
la terre1 sans qu'on puisse savoir ni   
comment1 ni pourquoi1 mais seulement    
qu'il doit vivre et mourir1  semblable  

ces champignons1 qui paraissent d'un    
jour  l'autre1  ou  ces fleurs qui      
bordent les fosss et couvrent les       
murailles4    ,ne nous perdons point    
dans l'infini1 nous ne sommes pas faits 
pour en  avoir la moindre ide2 il nous  
est absolument impossible de remonter   
l'origine des choses4 ,il est gal       
d'ailleurs pour notre repos1  que la    
matire soit ternelle1 ou qu'elle ait t  
cre1 qu'il y ait  un ,dieu1 ou qu'il n'y
 en ait pas4 ,quelle folie de tant se   
tourmenter  pour ce qu'il est impossible
 de connatre1 et ce qui ne nous rendrait
  pas plus heureux1 quand nous en       
viendrions  bout4    ,mais1 dit-on1     
lisez tous les ouvrages des ,fnelon1 des
 ,nieuventit1 des  ,abadie1 des ,derham1
 des ,ra1 etc4 ,eh bien6 que            
m'apprendront-ils8 ou  plutt que        
m'ont-ils appris8 ,ce ne sont que       
d'ennuyeuses rptitions  d'crivains zls1 
dont l'un n'ajoute  l'autre qu'un       
verbiage1  plus propres  fortifier qu'  
saper les fondements de l'athisme4 ,le  

volume des preuves qu'on tire du        
spectacle de la nature1 ne leur donne   
pas plus de force4 ,la structure seule  
d'un doigt1 d'une oreille1  d'un oeil1  
une observation de ,malpighi1 prouve    
tout1 et sans doute  beaucoup mieux que 
,descartes et ,malebranche2 ou tout le  
reste ne prouve  rien4 ,les distes1 et  
les ,chrtiens mmes devraient donc se    
contenter  de faire observer que1 dans  
tout le rgne animal1 les mmes vues sont 
excutes par une infinit de divers       
moyens1 tous cependant exactement       
gomtriques4 ,car de quelles plus fortes 
armes pourrait-on terrasser  les athes8 
,il est vrai que si ma raison ne me     
trompe pas1 l'homme et  tout l'univers  
semblent avoir t destins  cette unit de 
vues4 ,le  soleil1 l'air1 l'eau1        
l'organisation1 la forme des corps1 tout
 est  arrang dans l'oeil1 comme dans un 
miroir qui prsente fidlement            
l'imagination les objets qui y sont     
peints1 suivant les lois qu'exige  cette
 infinie varit de corps qui servent  la 

vision4 ,dans l'oreille1  nous trouvons 
partout une diversit frappante1 sans que
 cette diverse  fabrique de l'homme1 des
 animaux1 des oiseaux1 des poissons1    
produise  diffrents usages4 ,toutes les 
oreilles sont si mathmatiquement        
faites1 qu'elles tendent galement au    
seul et mme but1 qui est  d'entendre4   
,le hasard1 demande le diste1 serait-il 
donc assez grand  gomtre1 pour varier   
ainsi  son gr les ouvrages dont on le   
suppose  auteur1 sans que tant de       
diversit pt l'empcher d'atteindre la mme
  fin8 ,il objecte encore ces parties   
videmment contenues dans l'animal  pour 
de futurs usages1 le papillon dans la   
chenille1 l'homme dans  le ver          
spermatique1 un polype entier dans      
chacune de ses parties1  la valvule du  
trou ovale1 le poumon dans le foetus1   
les dents dans  leurs alvoles1 les os   
dans les fluides1 qui s'en dtachent et  
se  durcissent d'une manire             
incomprhensible4 ,et comme les partisans
  de ce systme1 loin de rien ngliger    

pour le faire valoir1 ne se  lassent    
jamais d'accumuler preuves sur preuves1 
ils veulent profiter  de tout1 et de la 
faiblesse mme de l'esprit en certain    
cas4 ,voyez1  disent-ils1 les ,spinoza1 
les ,vanini1 les ,desbarreaux1 les      
,boindin1  aptres qui font plus         
d'honneur que de tort au disme6 ,la dure
 de la  sant de ces derniers a t la     
mesure de leur incrdulit3 et il est     
rare en effet1 ajoutent-ils1 qu'on      
n'abjure pas l'athisme1 ds que  les     
passions se sont affaiblies avec le     
corps qui en est l'instrument4    ,voil 
certainement tout ce qu'on peut dire de 
plus favorable   l'existence d'un ,dieu1
 quoique le dernier argument soit       
frivole1 en ce  que ces conversions sont
 courtes1 l'esprit reprenant presque    
toujours  ses anciennes opinions et se  
conduisant en consquence1 ds qu'il a    
recouvr ou plutt retrouv ses forces dans
 celles du corps4 ,en voil  du moins    
beaucoup plus que n'en dit le mdecin    
,diderot dans ses ,penses               

philosophiques1 sublime ouvrage qui ne  
convaincra pas un athe4 ,que  rpondre en
 effet  un homme qui dit8 ,nous ne      
connaissons point  la nature3 des causes
 caches dans son sein pourraient avoir  
tout  produit4 ,voyez  votre tour le    
polype de ,trembley6 ne contient-il  pas
 en soi les causes qui donnent lieu  sa 
rgnration8 quelle  absurdit y aurait-il 
donc  penser qu'il est des causes       
physiques  pour lesquelles tout a t     
fait1 et auxquelles toute la chane de ce
  vaste univers est si ncessairement lie
 et assujettie1 que rien de ce  qui     
arrive ne pouvait pas ne pas arriver2   
des causes dont l'ignorance  absolument 
invincible nous a fait recourir  un     
,dieu1 qui n'est pas  mme un tre de     
raison1 suivant certains8 ,ainsi1       
dtruire le hasard1 ce  n'est pas prouver
 l'existence d'un ,etre supreme1        
puisqu'il peut y avoir  autre chose qui 
ne serait ni hasard1 ni ,dieu1 je veux  
dire la ,nature1  dont l'tude par       
consquent ne peut faire que des         

incrdules1 comme  le prouve la faon de  
penser de tous ses plus heureux         
scrutateurs4    ,le poids de l'univers  
n'branle donc pas un vritable athe1 loin
  de l'craser2 et tous ces indices mille
 et mille fois rebattus d'un  ,crateur1 
indices qu'on met fort au-dessus de la  
faon de penser  dans nos semblables1 ne 
sont vidents1 quelque loin qu'on pousse 
cet  argument1 que pour les             
,antipyrrhoniens1 ou pour ceux qui ont  
assez  de confiance dans leur raison    
pour croire pouvoir juger sur certaines 
apparences1 auxquelles1 comme vous      
voyez1 les athes peuvent en opposer     
d'autres peut-tre aussi fortes et       
absolument contraires4 ,car si  nous    
coutons encore les naturalistes1 ils    
nous diront que les mmes  causes qui    
dans les mains d'un chimiste et par le  
hasard de divers  mlanges ont fait le   
premier miroir1 dans celles de la nature
 ont  fait l'eau pure1 qui en sert  la  
simple bergre3 que le mouvement  qui    
conserve le monde1 a pu le crer2 que    

chaque corps a pris la  place que sa    
nature lui a assigne2 que l'air a d     
entourer la terre1  par la mme raison   
que le fer et les autres mtaux sont     
l'ouvrage  de ses entrailles2 que le    
soleil est une production aussi         
naturelle1  que celle de l'lectricit2   
qu'il n'a pas plus t fait pour chauffer 
la terre et tous ses habitants1 qu'il   
brle quelquefois1 que la pluie  pour    
faire pousser les grains1 qu'elle gte   
souvent2 que le miroir et  l'eau n'ont  
pas plus t faits pour qu'on pt s'y      
regarder1 que tous  les corps polis qui 
ont la mme proprit3 que l'oeil est  la  
vrit  une espce de trumeau dans lequel  
l'me peut contempler l'image des        
objets1 tels qu'ils lui sont reprsents  
par ces corps3 mais qu'il  n'est pas    
dmontr que cet organe ait t rellement   
fait exprs  pour cette contemplation1 ni
 exprs plac dans l'orbite2 qu'enfin  il 
se pourrait bien faire que ,lucrce1 le  
mdecin ,lamy et tous les  ,epicuriens   
anciens et modernes essent raison1      

lorsqu'ils avancent que  l'oeil ne voit 
que par ce qu'il se trouve organis1 et  
plac comme il  l'est1 que poses une fois
 les mmes rgles de mouvement que suit la
  nature dans la gnration et le         
dveloppement des corps1 il n'tait  pas  
possible que ce merveilleux organe ft   
organis et plac autrement4    ,tel est  
le pour et le contre1 et l'abrg des     
grandes raisons qui  partageront        
ternellement les philosophes4 ,je ne    
prends aucun parti4          ,non       
nostrum inter vos tantas componere      
lites4      ,c'est ce que je disais  un 
,franais de mes amis1 aussi franc       
,pyrrhonien que moi1 homme de beaucoup  
de mrite1 et digne d'un meilleur  sort4 
,il me fit  ce sujet une rponse fort    
singulire4 ,il est vrai1  me dit-il1 que
 le pour et le contre ne doit point     
inquiter l'me d'un  philosophe1 qui voit
 que rien n'est dmontr avec assez de    
clart  pour forcer son consentement1 et 
mme que les ides indicatives qui        
s'offrent d'un ct1 sont ausitt dtruites 

par celles qui se montrent  de l'autre4 
,cependant1 reprit-il1 l'univers ne sera
 jamais heureux1   moins qu'il ne soit  
athe4 ,voici quelles taient les raisons 
de  cet abominable homme4 ,si l'athisme1
 disait-il1 tait gnralement  rpandu1    
toutes les branches de la religion      
seraient alors dtruites et  coupes par  
la racine4 ,plus de guerres thologiques2
 plus de soldats  de religion2 soldats  
terribles6 la nature infecte d'un poison
 sacr1  reprendrait ses droits et sa    
puret4 ,sourds  toute autre voix1 les   
mortels tranquilles ne suivraient que   
les conseils spontans de leur  propre   
individu1 les seuls qu'on ne mprise     
point impunment et qui  peuvent seuls   
nous conduire au bonheur par les        
agrables sentiers de  la vertu4         
,telle est la loi naturelle2 quiconque  
en est rigide observateur1  est honnte  
homme1 et mrite la confiance de tout le 
genre  humain4 ,quiconque ne la suit pas
 scrupuleusement1 a beau affecter les   
spcieux dehors d'une autre religion1 est

 un fourbe1 ou un hypocrite  dont je me 
dfie4    ,aprs cela1 qu'un vain peuple  
pense diffremment2 qu'il ose affirmer   
qu'il y va de la probit mme1  ne pas    
croire la ,rvlation2 qu'il  faut en un  
mot un autre religion que celle de la   
nature1 quelle  qu'elle soit6 quelle    
misre6 quelle piti6 et la bonne opinion 
que  chacun nous donne de celle qu'il a 
embrasse6 ,nous ne briguons point  ici  
le suffrage du vulgaire4 ,qui dresse    
dans son coeur des autels   la          
superstition1 est n pour adorer des     
idoles1 et non pour sentir  la vertu4   
,mais puisque toutes les facults de l'me
 dpendent tellement de  la propre       
organisation du cerveau et de tout le   
corps1 qu'elles ne  sont visiblement que
 cette organisation mme3 voil une       
machine bien  claire6 car enfin quand   
l'homme seul aurait reu en partage la   
loi naturelle1 en serait-il moins une   
machine8 ,des roues1 quelques  ressorts 
de plus que dans les animaux les plus   
parfaits1 le cerveau                    

proportionnellement plus proche du      
coeur1 et recevant aussi plus de  sang1 
la mme raison donne2 que sais-je enfin8 
des causes inconnues  produiraient      
toujours cette conscience dlicate1 si   
facile  blesser1  ces remords qui ne    
sont pas plus trangers  la matire que la
 pense1  et en un mot toute la diffrence
 qu'on suppose ici4 ,l'organisation     
suffirait-elle donc a tout8 oui1 encore 
une fois4 ,puisque la pense  se dveloppe
 visiblement avec les organes1 pourquoi 
la matire dont  ils sont faits ne       
serait-elle pas aussi susceptible de    
remords1  quand une fois elle a acquis  
avec le temps la facult de sentir8      
,l'me n'est donc qu'un vain terme dont  
on n'a point d'ide1 et dont  un bon     
esprit ne doit se servir que pour nommer
 la partie qui pense  en nous4 ,pos le  
moindre principe de mouvement1 les corps
 anims  auront tout ce qu'il leur faut  
pour se mouvoir1 sentir1 penser1  se    
repentir1 et se conduire en un mot dans 
le physique1 et dans le  moral qui en   

dpend4    ,nous ne supposons rien2 ceux 
qui croiraient que toutes les difficults
  ne seraient pas encore leves1 vont    
trouver des expriences1 qui  achveront  
de les satisfaire4    #a4 ,toutes les   
chairs des animaux palpitent aprs la    
mort1 d'autant  plus longtemps que      
l'animal est plus froid et transpire    
moins3 les  tortues1 les lzards1 les    
serpents1 etc4 en font foi4    #b4 ,les 
muscles spars du corps1 se retirent1    
lorsqu'on les pique4    #c4 ,les        
entrailles conservent longtemps leur    
mouvement pristaltique1  ou             
vermiculaire4    #d4 ,une simple        
injection d'eau chaude ranime le coeur  
et les muscles1  suivant ,cowper4    #e4
 ,le coeur de la grenouille1 surtout    
expos au soleil1 encore mieux  sur une  
table ou une assiette chaude1 se remue  
pendant une heure et  plus1 aprs avoir t
 arrach du corps4 ,le mouvement         
semble-t-il  perdu sans ressource8 il   
n'y a qu' piquer le coeur1 et ce muscle 
creux bat encore4 ,harvey a fait la mme 

observation sur les crapauds4    #f4    
,bacon de ,verulam1 dans son ,trait     
,sylva-,sylvarum1 parle d'un homme      
convaincu de trahison1 qu'on ouvrit     
vivant1 et dont le coeur jet  dans l'eau
 chaude sauta  plusieurs reprises1      
toujours moins haut1   la distance      
perpendiculaire de #b pieds4    #g4     
,prenez un petit poulet encore dans     
l'oeuf2 arrachez lui le coeur2  vous    
observerez les mmes phnomnes1 avec  peu 
prs les mmes  circonstances4 ,la seule  
chaleur de l'haleine ranime un animal   
prt   prir dans la machine pneumatique4 
,les mmes expriences que nous devons    
,boyle et  ,stnon1 se font dans  les    
pigeons1 dans les chiens1 dans les      
lapins1 dont les morceaux de  coeur se  
remuent1 comme les coeurs entiers4 ,on  
voit le mme mouvement  dans les pattes  
de taupe arraches4    #h4 ,la chenille1 
les vers1 l'araigne1 la mouche1         
l'anguille offrent  les mmes choses     
considrer2 et le mouvement des parties  
coupes  augmente dans l'eau chaude1     

cause du feu qu'elle contient4    #i4   
,un soldat ivre emporta d'un coup de    
sabre la tte d'un coq  d',inde4 ,cet    
animal resta debout1 ensuite il marcha1 
courut2 venant   rencontrer une         
muraille1 il se tourna1 battit des      
ailes1 en continuant  de courir1 et     
tomba enfin4 ,etendu par terre1 tous les
 muscles de  ce coq se remuaient encore4
 ,voil ce que j'ai vu1 et il est facile 
de voir  peu prs ces phnomnes dans les  
petits chats1 ou chiens1  dont on a coup
 la tte4    #aj4 ,les polypes font plus 
que de se mouvoir1 aprs la section2 ils 
se reproduisent dans huit jours en      
autant d'animaux qu'il y a de  parties  
coupes4 ,j'en suis fch pour le systme   
des naturalistes  sur la gnration1 ou   
plutt j'en suis bien aise2 car que cette
  dcouverte nous apprend bien  ne jamais
 rien conclure de gnral1  mme de toutes 
les expriences connues1 et les plus     
dcisives6    ,voil beaucoup plus de     
faits qu'il n'en faut1 pour prouver     
d'une  manire incontestable que chaque  

petite fibre1 ou partie des corps       
organiss1 se meut par un principe qui   
lui est propre1 et dont l'action  ne    
dpend point des nerfs1 comme les        
mouvements volontaires1 puisque  les    
mouvements en question s'exercent sans  
que les parties qui les  manifestent    
aient aucun commerce avec la            
circulation4 ,or1 si cette  force se    
fait remarquer jusques dans des morceaux
 de fibres1 le coeur1  qui est un compos
 de fibres singulirement entrelaces1    
doit avoir la  mme proprit4 ,l'histoire 
de ,bacon n'tait pas ncessaire pour me  
le  persuader4 ,il m'tait facile d'en   
juger1 et par la parfaite analogie  de  
la structure du coeur de l'homme et des 
animaux2 et par la masse  mme du        
premier1 dans laquelle ce mouvement ne  
se cache aux yeux1  que parce qu'il y   
est touff2 et enfin parce que tout est  
froid et  affaiss dans les cadavres4 ,si
 les dissections se faisaient sur des   
criminels supplicis1 dont les corps sont
 encore chauds1 on verrait  dans leur   

coeur les mmes mouvements qu'on observe 
dans les muscles  du visage des gens    
dcapits4    ,tel est ce principe moteur 
des corps entiers1 ou des parties coupes
 en  morceaux1 qu'il produit des        
mouvements non drgls1 comme on l'a cru1 
mais trs rguliers1 et cela1 tant dans   
les animaux chauds et parfaits1  que    
dans ceux qui sont froids et imparfaits4
 ,il ne reste donc aucune  ressource    
nos adversaires1 si ce n'est que de nier
 mille et mille  faits que chacun peut  
facilement vrifier4    ,si on me demande
  prsent quel est le sige de cette force
 inne dans  nos corps1 je rponds qu'elle
 rside trs clairement dans ce que les   
anciens ont appell parenchyme2 c'est    
dire dans la substance propre  des      
parties1 abstraction faite des veines1  
des artres1 des nerfs1  en un mot de    
l'organisation de tout le corps2 et que 
par consquent  chaque partie contient en
 soi des ressorts plus ou moins vifs1   
selon  le besoin qu'elles en avaient4   
,entrons dans quelque dtail de ces      

ressorts de la machine humaine4 ,tous   
les mouvements vitaux1 animaux1 naturels
 et automatiques se font par  leur      
action4 ,n'est-ce pas machinalement que 
le corps se retire1 frapp  de terreur   
l'aspect d'un prcipice inattendu8 que   
les paupires  se baissent  la menace    
d'un coup1 comme on l'a dit8 que la     
pupille  s'trcit au grand jour pour     
conserver la rtine1 et s'largit pour    
voir les objets dans l'obscurit8        
n'est-ce pas machinalement que les      
pores de la peau se ferment en hiver1   
pour que le froid ne pntre  pas         
l'intrieur des vaisseaux8 que l'estomac 
se soulve1 irrit par  le poison1 par une
 certaine quantit d'opium1 par tous les 
mtiques1  etc48 que le coeur1 les       
artres1 les muscles se contractent      
pendant  le sommeil1 comme pendant la   
veille8 que le poumon fait l'office d'un
  souflet continuellement exerc8        
n'est-ce pas machinalement qu'agissent  
tous les sphincters de la vessie1 du    
rectum1 etc48 que le coeur a  une       

contraction plus forte que tout autre   
muscle8 que les muscles  recteurs font  
dresser la verge dans l'homme1 comme    
dans les animaux  qui s'en battent le   
ventre1 et mme dans l'enfant1 capable   
d'rection1  pour peu que cette partie   
soit irrite8 ,ce qui prouve1 pour le    
dire  en passant1 qu'il est un ressort  
singulier dans ce membre1 encore peu    
connu1 et qui produit des effets qu'on  
n'a point encore bien expliqus1  malgr  
toutes les lumires de l'anatomie4    ,je
 ne m'tendrai pas davantage sur tous ces
 petits ressorts  subalternes connus de 
tout le monde4 ,mais il en est un autre 
plus  subtil1 et plus merveilleux qui   
les anime tous2 il est la source de     
tous nos sentiments1 de tous nos        
plaisirs1 de toutes nos passions1 de    
toutes nos penses2 car le cerveau a ses 
muscles pour penser1 comme  les jambes  
pour marcher4 ,je veux parler de ce     
principe incitant1  et imptueux1        
qu',hippocrate appelle enormn 7l'me74   
,ce principe  existe1 et il a son sige  

dans le cerveau  l'origine des nerfs1   
par lesquels il exerce son empire sur   
tout le reste du corps4 ,par l          
s'explique tout ce qui peut s'expliquer1
 jusqu'aux effets surprenants  des      
maladies de l'imagination4    ,mais1    
pour ne pas languir dans une richesse et
 une fcondit mal  entendue1 il faut se  
borner  un petit nombre de questions et 
de  rflexions4    ,pourquoi la vue ou la
 simple ide d'une belle femme nous      
cause-t-elle  des mouvements et des     
dsirs singuliers8 ,ce qui se passe alors
 dans  certains organes1 vient-il de la 
nature mme de ces organes8 ,point  du   
tout2 mais du commerce et de l'espce de 
sympathie de ces muscles  avec          
l'imagination4 ,il n'y a ici qu'un      
premier ressort excit par le  bene      
placitum des anciens1 ou par l'image de 
la beaut1 qui en excite  un autre1      
lequel tait fort assoupi1 quand         
l'imagination l'a veill3  et comment    
cela1 si ce n'est par le dsordre et le  
tumulte du sang  et des esprits1 qui    

galopent avec une promptitude           
extraordinaire1  et vont gonfler les    
corps caverneux8    ,puisqu'il est des  
communications videntes entre la mre et 
l'enfant  #g1 et qu'il est dur de nier  
des faits rapports par ,tulpius et  par 
d'autres crivains aussi dignes de foi   
7il n'y en a point qui le  soient plus71
 nous croirons que c'est par la mme voie
 que le foetus  ressent l'imptuosit de  
l'imagination maternelle1 comme une cire
  molle reoit toutes sortes             
d'impressions2 et que les mmes traces1  
ou envies de la mre1 peuvent s'imprimer 
sur le foetus1 sans que  cela puisse se 
comprendre1 quoiqu'en disent ,blondel et
 tous ses  adhrents4 ,ainsi nous faisons
 rparation d'honneur au ,p4             
,malebranche1  beaucoup trop raill de sa
 crdulit par les auteurs qui n'ont point
  observ d'assez prs la nature et ont   
voulu l'assujettir  leur ides4    ,voyez
 le portrait de ce fameux ,pope1 au     
moins le ,voltaire  des ,anglais4 ,les  
efforts1 les nerfs de son gnie sont     

peints  sur sa physionomie2 elle est    
toute en convulsion2 ses yeux  sortent  
de l'orbite1 ses sourcils s'lvent avec  
les muscles du  front4 ,pourquoi8 ,c'est
 que l'origine des nerfs est en travail 
et que  tout le corps doit se ressentir 
d'une espce d'accouchement aussi        
laborieux4 ,s'il n'y avait une corde    
interne qui tirt ainsi celles  du       
dehors1 d'o viendraient tous ces        
phnomnes8 ,admettre une me1  pour les   
expliquer1 c'est tre rduit  l'opration  
du ,st4 ,esprit4    ,en effet1 si ce qui
 pense en mon cerveau n'est pas une     
partie  de ce viscre1 et consquemment de
 tout le corps1 pourquoi1  lorsque      
tranquille dans mon lit je forme le plan
 d'un ouvrage1  ou que je poursuis un   
raisonnement abstrait1 pourquoi mon sang
  s'chauffe-t-il8 pourquoi la fivre de  
mon esprit passe-t-elle dans  mes       
veines8 ,demandez-le aux hommes         
d'imagination1 aux grandes potes1   ceux
 qu'un sentiment bien rendu ravit1 qu'un
 got exquis1 que les  charmes de la     

nature1 de la vrit ou de la vertu       
transportent6 ,par  leur enthousiasme1  
par ce qu'ils vous diront avoir prouv1  
vous  jugerez de la cause par les       
effets3 par cette harmonie que ,borelli1
  qu'un seul anatomiste a mieux connue  
que tous les ,leibniziens1 vous         
connatrez l'unit matrielle de l'homme4  
,car enfin si la tension des  nerfs qui 
fait la douleur1 cause la fivre1 par    
laquelle l'esprit  est troubl et n'a    
plus de volont2 et que rciproquement    
l'esprit  trop exerc trouble le corps1  
et allume ce feu de consomption qui a   
enlev ,bayle dans un ge si peu avanc2 si
 telle titillation me fait  vouloir1 me 
force de dsirer ardemment ce dont je ne 
me souciais  nullement le moment        
d'auparavant2 si  leur tour certaines   
traces  du cerveau excitent le mme      
prurit et les mmes dsirs1 pourquoi      
faire double ce qui n'est videmment     
qu'un8 ,c'est en vain qu'on se  rcrie   
sur l'empire de la volont4 ,pour un     
ordre qu'elle donne1 elle  subit cent   

fois le joug4 ,et quelle merveille que  
le corps obisse dan  l'tat sain1        
puisqu'un torrent de sang et d'esprits  
vient l'y forcer1  la volont ayant pour 
ministres une lgion invisible de fluides
 plus  vifs que l'clair1 et toujours    
prts a la servir6 ,mais comme c'est  par
 les nerfs que son pouvoir s'exerce1    
c'est aussi par eux qu'il est  arrt4 ,la
 meilleure volont d'un amant puis1 les  
plus violents  dsirs lui rendront-ils sa
 vigueur perdue8 ,hlas6 non2 et elle en 
sera la premire punie1 parceque1 poses  
certaines circonstances1  il n'est pas  
dans sa puissance de ne pas vouloir du  
plaisir4 ,ce que  j'ai dit de la        
paralysie1 etc4 revient ici4    ,la     
jaunisse vous surprend6 ne savez vous   
pas que la couleur  des corps dpend de  
celle des verres au travers desquels on 
les  regarde6 ,ignorez-vous que telle   
est la teinte des humeurs1 telle  est   
celle des objets1 au moins par rapport  
nous1 vains jouets  de mille illusions8 
,mais tez cette teinte de l'humeur      

aqueuse de  l'oeil2 faites couler la    
bile par son tamis naturel3 alors l'me  
ayant d'autres yeux1 ne verra plus      
jaune4 ,n'est ce pas encore ainsi  qu'en
 abattant la cataracte1 ou en injectant 
le canal d',eustachi1  on rend la vue   
aux aveugles1 et l'ouie aux sourds8     
,combien de gens  qui n'taient peut-tre 
que d'habiles charlatans dans des sicles
  ignorants1 ont pass pour faire de     
grands miracles6 ,la belle me et  la    
puissante volont1 qui ne peut agir      
qu'autant que les dispositions  du corps
 le lui permettent1 et dont les gots    
changent avec l'ge et  la fivre6        
,faut-il donc s'tonner si les           
philosophes ont toujours eu  en vue la  
sant du corps pour conserver celle de   
l'me1 si ,pythagore  a aussi            
soigneusement ordonn la dite1 que       
,platon a dfendu le  vin8 ,le rgime qui 
convient au corps1 est toujours celui   
par lequel  les mdecins senss prtendent 
qu'on doit prluder1 lorsqu'il s'agit  de
 former l'esprit1 de l'lever  la        

connaissance de la vrit et de  la vertu2
 vains sons dans le dsordre des maladies
 et le tumulte des  sens6 ,sans les     
prceptes de l'hygine1 ,epictte1         
,socrate1 ,platon1  etc4 prchent en     
vain3 toute morale est infructueuse1    
pour qui n'a  pas la sobriet en partage3
 c'est la source de toutes les vertus   
comme l'intemprance est celle de tous   
les vices4    ,en faut-il davantage 7et 
pourquoi irais-je me perdre dans        
l'histoire  des passions1 qui toutes    
s'expliquent par l'enormn d',hippocrate7
 pour  prouver que l'homme n'est qu'un  
animal1 ou un assemblage de ressorts1   
qui tous se montent les uns par les     
autres1 sans qu'on puisse dire  par quel
 point du cercle humain la nature a     
commenc8 ,si ces ressorts  diffrent     
entr'eux1 ce n'est donc que par leur    
sige et par quelques  degrs de force1 et
 jamais par leur nature2 et par         
consquent l'me  n'est qu'un principe de 
mouvement1 ou une partie matrielle      
sensible  du cerveau1 qu'on peut1 sans  

craindre l'erreur1 regarder comme un    
ressort principal de toute la machine1  
qui a une influence visible  sur tous   
les autres1 et mme parait avoir t fait  
le premier2 en  sorte que tous les      
autres n'en seraient qu'une manation1   
comme on  le verra par quelques         
observations que je rapporterai et qui  
ont t  faites sur divers embryons4      
,cette oscillation naturelle1 ou propre 
notre machine1 et dont est  doue chaque 
fibre1 et1 pour ainsi dire1 chaque lment
 fibreux1  semblable  celle d'une       
pendule1 ne peut toujours s'exercer4 ,il
 faut  la renouveler1  mesure qu'elle se
 perd2 lui donner des forces1 quand     
elle languit2 l'affaiblir1 lorsqu'elle  
est opprime par un excs de  force et de 
vigueur4 ,c'est en cela seul que la     
vraie mdecine consiste4    ,le corps    
n'est qu'une horloge1 dont le nouveau   
chyle est l'horloger4 ,le  premier soin 
de la nature1 quand il entre dans le    
sang1 c'est d'y  exciter une sorte de   
fivre1 que les chimistes1 qui ne rvent  

que  fourneaux1 ont d prendre pour une  
fermentation4 ,cette fivre procure  une 
plus grande filtration d'esprits1 qui   
machinalement vont animer  les muscles  
et le coeur1 comme s'ils y taient envoys
 par ordre de  la volont4    ,ce sont   
donc les causes ou les forces de la vie 
qui entretiennent  ainsi durant #ajj ans
 le mouvement perptuel des solides et   
des  fluides1 aussi ncessaire aux uns   
qu'aux autres4 ,mais qui peut dire  si  
les solides contribuent  ce jeu1 plus   
que les fluides1 et vice  versa8 ,tout  
ce qu'on sait1 c'est que l'action des   
premiers serait  bientt anantie1 sans le
 secours des seconds4 ,ce sont les      
liqueurs  qui par leur choc veillent et 
conservent l'lasticit des vaisseaux1  de
 laquelle dpend leur propre circulation4
 ,de l vient qu'aprs la  mort le ressort
 naturel de chaque substance est plus ou
 moins fort  encore suivant les restes  
de la vie1 auxquels il survit1 pour     
expirer  le dernier4 ,tant il est vrai  
que cette force des parties animales    

peut  bien se conserver et s'augmenter  
par celle de la circulation1 mais       
qu'elle n'en dpend point1 puisqu'elle se
 passe mme de l'intgrit  de chaque      
membre1 ou viscre1 comme on l'a vu4     
,je n'ignore pas que cette opinion n'a  
pas t gote de tous les  savants1 et que 
,stahl surtout l'a fort ddaigne4 ,ce    
grand chimiste  a voulu nous persuader  
que l'me tait la seule cause de tous nos
  mouvements4 ,mais c'est parler en     
fanatique1 et non en philosophe4        
,pour dtruire l'hypothse ,stahlienne1 il
 ne faut pas faire tant  d'efforts que  
je vois qu'on en a faits avant moi4 ,il 
n'y a qu' jeter  les yeux sur un joueur 
de violon4 ,quelle souplesse6 ,quelle   
agilit  dans les doigts6 ,les mouvements
 sont si prompts1 qu'il ne parat        
presque pas y avoir de succession4 ,or1 
je prie1 ou plutt je dfie  les          
,stahliens de me dire1 eux qui          
connaissent si bien tout ce que peut    
notre me1 comment il serait possible    
qu'elle excutt si vite tant de          

mouvements1 des mouvements qui se       
passent si loin d'elle1 et en tant      
d'endroits divers4 ,c'est supposer un   
joueur de flte qui pourrait faire  de   
brillantes cadences sur une infinit de  
trous qu'il ne connaitrait  pas1 et     
auxquels il ne pourrait seulement pas   
appliquer le doigt4    ,mais disons avec
 ,mr4 ,hecquet qu'il n'est pas permis   
tout le monde  d'aller  ,corinthe4 ,et  
pourquoi ,stahl n'aurait-il pas t encore
 plus  favoris de la nature en qualit   
d'homme1 qu'en qualit de chimiste et  de
 praticien8 ,il fallait 7heureux        
mortel67 qu'il et reu une autre  me que 
le reste des hommes2 une me souveraine1 
qui non contente  d'avoir quelque empire
 sur les muscles volontaires1 tenait    
sans peine  les rnes de tous les        
mouvements du corps1 pouvait les        
suspendre1 les  calmer1 ou les exciter  
son gr4 ,avec une matresse aussi        
despotique1  dans les mains de laquelle 
taient en quelque sorte les battements  
du coeur et les lois de la circulation1 

point de fivre sans doute2  point de    
douleur2 point de langueur2 ni honteuse 
impuissance1 ni  facheux priapisme4     
,l'me veut1 et les ressorts jouent1 se  
dressent1  ou se dbandent4 ,comment ceux
 de la machine de ,stahl se sont-ils    
sitt  dtraqus8 ,qui a chez soi un si    
grand mdecin1 devrait tre immortel4     
,stahl1 au reste1 n'est pas le seul qui 
ait rejet le principe  d'oscillation des
 corps organiss4 ,de plus grands esprits
 ne l'ont pas  employ1 lorsqu'ils ont   
voulu expliquer l'action du coeur1      
l'rection  du penis1 etc4 ,il n'y a qu' 
lire les ,institutions de mdecine de    
,boerhaave1 pour voir quels laborieux et
 sduisants systmes1 faute  d'admettre   
une force aussi frappante dans tous les 
corps1 ce grand  homme a t oblig        
d'enfanter  la sueur de son puissant    
gnie4    ,willis et ,perrault1 esprits  
d'une plus faible trempe1 mais          
observateurs  assidus de la nature1 que 
le fameux professeur de ,leyde n'a      
connue  que par autrui et n'a eue1 pour 

ainsi dire1 que de la seconde main1     
paraissent avoir mieux aim supposer une 
me gnralement rpandue  par tout le      
corps1 que le principe dont nous        
parlons4 ,mais dans  cette hypothse qui 
fut celle de ,virgile et de tous les    
,epicuriens1  hypothse que l'histoire du
 polype semblerait favoriser  la premire
  vue1 les mouvements qui survivent au  
sujet dans lequel ils sont  inhrents    
viennent d'un reste d'me1 que conservent
 encore les parties  qui se contractent1
 sans tre dsormais irrites par le sang  
et les  esprits4 ,d'o l'on voit que ces 
crivains dont les ouvrages solides      
clipsent aisment toutes les fables      
philosophiques1 ne se sont tromps  que  
sur le modle de ceux qui ont donn  la   
matire la facult de  penser1 je veux    
dire1 pour s'tre mal exprims1 en termes 
obscurs1  et qui ne signifient rien4 ,en
 effet1 qu'est ce que ce reste d'me1  si
 ce n'est la force motrice des          
,leibniziens1 mal rendue par une  telle 
expression1 et que cependant ,perrault  

surtout a vritablement  entrevue4 ,voy4 
son ,trait de la ,mcanique des ,animaux4
    ,a prsent qu'il est clairement      
dmontr contre les ,cartsiens1 les       
,stahliens1 les ,malebranchistes1 et les
 thologiens peu dignes d'tre  ici placs1
 que la matire se meut par elle-mme1 non
 seulement  lorsqu'elle est organise1   
comme dans un coeur entier1 par exemple1
  mais lors mme que cette organisation  
est dtruite1 la curiosit de  l'homme    
voudrait savoir comment un corps1 par   
cela mme qu'il est  originairement dou  
d'un souffle de vie1 se trouve en       
consquence orn  de la facult de sentir1 
et enfin par celle-ci de la pense4 ,et  
pour  en venir  bout1  bon ,dieu1 quels 
efforts n'ont pas faits certains        
philosophes6 et quel galimatias j'ai eu 
la patience de lire  ce sujet6    ,tout 
ce que l'exprience nous apprend1 c'est  
que tant que le mouvement  subsiste1 si 
petit qu'il soit dans une ou plusieurs  
fibres1 il n'y a  qu' les piquer1 pour  
rveiller1 animer ce mouvement presque   

teint1  comme on l'a vu dans cette foule
 d'expriences dont j'ai voulu accabler  
les systmes4 ,il est donc constant que  
le mouvement et le sentiment  s'excitent
 tour  tour1 et dans les corps entiers1 
et dans les mmes  corps dont la         
structure est dtruite2 pour ne rien dire
 de certaines  plantes qui semblent nous
 offrir les mmes phnomnes de la runion  
du sentiment et du mouvement4    ,mais  
de plus1 combien d'excellents           
philosophes ont dmontr que la  pense    
n'est qu'une facult de sentir1 et que   
l'me raisonnable  n'est que l'me        
sensitive applique  contempler les ides1
 et   raisonner6 ,ce qui serait prouv   
par cela seul que lorsque le  sentiment 
est teint1 la pense l'est aussi1 comme  
dans l'apoplexie1  la lthargie1 la      
catalepsie1 etc4 ,car ceux qui ont avanc
 que l'me  n'avait pas moins pens dans  
les maladies soporeuses1 quoiqu'elle  ne
 se souvint pas des ides qu'elle avait  
eues1 ont soutenu une  chose ridicule4  
,pour ce qui est de ce dveloppement1    

c'est une folie de perdre le  temps  en 
rechercher le mcanisme4 ,la nature du   
mouvement nous  est aussi inconnue que  
celle de la matire4 ,le moyen de        
dcouvrir  comment il s'y produit1  moins
 que de ressusciter avec l'auteur de    
l',histoire de l',ame l'ancienne et     
inintelligible doctrine des formes      
substantielles6 ,je suis donc aussi     
consol d'ignorer comment la  matire1    
d'inerte et simple1 devient active et   
compose d'organes1  que de ne pouvoir   
regarder le soleil sans verre rouge3 et 
je suis  d'aussi bonne composition sur  
les autres merveilles incomprhensibles  
de la nature1 sur la production du      
sentiment et de la pense dans un  tre   
qui ne paraissait autrefois  nos yeux   
borns qu'un peu de boue4    ,qu'on      
m'accorde seulement que la matire       
organise est doue d'un  principe moteur1
 qui seul la diffrencie de celle qui ne 
l'est pas  7eh6 peut-on rien refuser    
l'observation la plus incontestable87 et
  que tout dpend dans les animaux de la 

diversit de cette organisation1  comme  
je l'ai assez prouv2 c'en est assez pour
 deviner l'nigme des  substances et     
celle de l'homme4 ,on voit qu'il n'y en 
a qu'une dans  l'univers et que l'homme 
est la plus parfaite4 ,il est au singe1 
aux  animaux les plus spirituels1 ce que
 le pendule plantaire de ,huygens  est  
une montre de ,julien le ,roi4 ,s'il a  
fallu plus d'instruments1  plus de      
rouages1 plus de ressorts pour marquer  
les mouvements des  plantes1 que pour   
marquer les heures1 ou les rpter2 s'il a
 fallu  plus d'art  ,vaucanson pour     
faire son ,fluteur1 que pour son        
,canard1  il et d en employer encore    
davantage pour faire un ,parleur2       
machine  qui ne peut plus tre regarde   
comme impossible1 surtout entre les     
mains d'un nouveau ,promthe4 ,il tait   
donc de mme ncessaire que la  nature    
employt plus d'art et d'appareil pour   
faire et entretenir une  machine1 qui   
pendant un sicle entier pt marquer tous 
les battements  du coeur et de l'esprit2

 car si on n'en voit pas au pouls les   
heures1  c'est du moins le baromtre de  
la chaleur et de la vivacit1 par        
laquelle on peut juger de la nature de  
l'me4 ,je ne me trompe point1  le corps 
humain est une horloge1 mais immense1 et
 construite avec  tant d'artifice et    
d'habilet1 que si la roue qui sert      
marquer les  secondes vient  s'arrter1  
celle des minutes tourne et va toujours 
son train1 comme la roue des quarts     
continue de se mouvoir2 et ainsi  des   
autres1 quand les premires1 rouilles1 ou
 dranges par quelque  cause que ce soit1
 ont interrompu leur marche4 ,car       
n'est-ce pas ainsi  que l'obstruction de
 quelques vaisseaux ne suffit pas pour  
dtruire1  ou suspendre le fort des      
mouvements1 qui est dans le coeur1 comme
 dans  la pice ouvrire de la machine2   
puisqu'au contraire les fluides dont  le
 volume est diminu1 ayant moins de      
chemin a faire1 le parcourent  d'autant 
plus vite1 emports comme par un nouveau 
courant1 que la  force du coeur         

s'augmente en raison de la rsistance    
qu'il trouve   l'extrmit des vaisseaux8 
,lorsque le nerf optique seul comprim   
ne laisse plus passer l'image des       
objets1 n'est-ce pas ainsi que  la      
privation de la vue n'empche pas plus   
l'usage de l'oue1 que la  privation de  
ce sens1 lorsque les fonctions de la    
portion molle sont  interdites1 ne      
suppose celle de l'autre8 ,n'est-ce pas 
ainsi encore  que l'un entend1 sans     
pouvoir dire qu'il entend 7si ce n'est  
aprs  l'attaque du mal7 et que l'autre  
qui n'entend rien1 mais dont les  nerfs 
linguaux sont libres dans le cerveau1   
dit machinalement tous les  rves qui lui
 passent par la tte8 ,phnomnes qui ne   
surprennent point  les mdecins clairs4  
,ils savent  quoi s'en tenir sur la     
nature de  l'homme2 et pour le dire en  
passant3 de deux mdecins1 le meilleur1  
celui qui mrite le plus de confiance1   
c'est toujours1  mon avis1  celui qui   
est le plus vers dans la physique1 ou la
 mcanique du corps  humain1 et qui      

laissant l'me et toutes les inquitudes  
que cette  chimre donne aux sots et aux 
ignorans1 n'est occup srieusement  que  
du pur naturalisme4    ,laissons donc le
 prtendu ,mr4 ,charp se moquer des      
philosophes qui ont  regard les animaux1
 comme des machines4 ,que je pense      
diffremment6 ,je  crois que ,descartes  
serait un homme respectable  tous gards1
 si1  n dans un sicle qu'il n'et pas d  
clairer1 il et connu le prix de         
l'exprience et de l'observation1 et le  
danger de s'en carter4 ,mais  il n'est  
pas moins juste que je fasse ici une    
authentique rparation   ce grand homme1 
pour tous ces petits philosophes mauvais
 plaisants1  et mauvais singes de       
,locke1 qui1 au lieu de rire impudemment
 au nez  de ,descartes1 feraient mieux  
de sentir que sans lui le champ de la   
philosophie1 comme celui du bon esprit  
sans ,newton1 serait peut tre  encore en
 friche4    ,il est vrai que ce clbre   
philosophe s'est beaucoup tromp1 et     
personne n'en disconvient4 ,mais enfin  

il a connu la nature animale2  il a le  
premier parfaitement dmontr que les     
animaux taient de pures  machines4 ,or1 
aprs une dcouverte de cette importance  
et qui suppose  autant de sagacit1 le   
moyen1 sans ingratitude1 de ne pas faire
 grce   toutes ses erreurs6    ,elles   
sont  mes yeux toutes rpares par ce     
grand aveu4 ,car enfin1  quoiqu'il      
chante sur la distinction des deux      
substances1 il est visible  que ce n'est
 qu'un tour d'adresse1 une ruse de      
style1 pour faire avaler  aux thologiens
 un poison cach  l'ombre d'une analogie 
qui frappe  tout le monde1 et qu'eux    
seuls ne voient pas4 ,car c'est elle1   
c'est  cette forte analogie qui force   
tous les savants et les vrais juges     
d'avouer que ces tres fiers et vains1   
plus distingus par leur orgueil  que par
 le nom d'hommes1 quelque envie qu'ils  
aient de s'lever1  ne sont au fond que  
des animaux et des machines             
perpendiculairement  rampantes4 ,elles  
ont toutes ce merveilleux instinct1 dont

 l'ducation  fait de l'esprit1 et qui a 
toujours son sige dans le cerveau1 et   
son  dfaut1 comme lorsqu'il manque ou   
est ossifi1 dans la molle allonge1  et  
jamais dans le cervelet2 car je l'ai vu 
considrablement bless1  d'autres #h     
l'ont trouv squirreux1 sans que l'me    
cesst de faire  ses fonctions4    ,etre 
machine1 sentir1 penser1 savoir         
distinguer le bien du mal1 comme  le    
bleu du jaune1 en un mot tre n avec de  
l'intelligence et un  instinct sr de    
morale1 et n'tre qu'un animal1 sont donc
 des choses  qui ne sont pas plus       
contradictoires qu'tre un singe ou un   
perroquet  et savoir se donner du       
plaisir4 ,car1 puisque l'occasion se    
prsente de  le dire1 qui eut jamais     
devin  priori qu'une goutte de la       
liqueur  qui se lance dans              
l'accouplement fit ressentir des        
plaisirs divins1  et qu'il en natrait   
une petite crature1 qui pourrait un     
jour1  poses certaines lois1 jouir des  
mmes dlices8 ,je crois la pense  si peu 

incompatible avec la matire organise1   
qu'elle semble en  tre une proprit1     
telle que l'lectricit1 la facult        
motrice1  l'impntrabilit1 l'tendue1 etc4
    ,voulez vous de nouvelles           
observations8 ,en voici qui sont sans   
rplique  et qui prouvent toutes que     
l'homme ressemble parfaitement aux      
animaux  dans son origine1 comme dans   
tout ce que nous avons dj cru essentiel 
de comparer4    ,j'en appelle  la bonne 
foi de nos observateurs4 ,qu'ils nous   
disent  s'il n'est pas vrai que l'homme 
dans son principe n'est qu'un ver1  qui 
devient homme1 comme la chenille        
papillon4 ,les plus graves #i  auteurs  
nous ont appris comment il faut s'y     
prendre pour voir cet  animalcule4 ,tous
 les curieux l'ont vu1 comme            
,hartsoeker1 dans la  semence de        
l'homme1 et non dans celle de la femme2 
il n'y a que les  sots qui s'en soient  
fait scrupule4 ,comme chaque goutte de  
sperme  contient une infinit de ces     
petits vers lorsqu'ils sont lancs       

l'ovaire1 il n'y a que le plus adroit1  
ou le plus vigoureux qui ait la  force  
de s'insinuer et de s'implanter dans    
l'oeuf que fournit la femme1  et qui lui
 donne sa premire nourriture4 ,cet oeuf1
 quelquefois surpris  dans les trompes  
de ,fallope1 est port par ces canaux  la
 matrice1 o  il prend racine1 comme un  
grain de bl dans la terre4 ,mais        
quoiqu'il y  devienne monstrueux par sa 
croissance de #i mois1 il ne diffre     
point  des oeufs des autres femelles1 si
 ce n'est que sa peau 7l'amnios7  ne se 
durcit jamais1 et se dilate             
prodigieusement1 comme on en peut  juger
 en comparant les foetus trouvs en      
situation et prs d'clore  7ce que j'ai  
eu le plaisir d'observer dans une femme 
morte un moment  avant l'accouchement71 
avec d'autres petits embryons trs       
proches  de leur origine3 car alors     
c'est toujours l'oeuf dans sa coque1  et
 l'animal dans l'oeuf1 qui1 gn dans ses 
mouvements1 cherche  machinalement  voir
 le jour2 et pour y russir1 il commence 

par  rompre avec la tte cette membrane1 
d'o il sort1 comme le poulet1  l'oiseau1
 etc41 de la leur4 ,j'ajouterai une     
observation que je ne  trouve nulle     
part2 c'est que l'amnios n'en est pas   
plus mince1 pour  s'tre prodigieusement 
tendu2 semblable en cela  la matrice    
dont  la substance mme se gonfle de sucs
 infiltrs1 indpendamment de la  rpltion 
et du dploiement de tous ses coudes     
vasculeux4    ,voyons l'homme dans et   
hors de sa coque2 examinons avec un     
microscope  les plus jeunes embryons1 de
 #d1 de #f1 de #h ou de #ae jours2 aprs 
ce  temps les yeux suffisent4 ,que      
voit-on8 la tte seule2 un petit oeuf    
rond avec deux points noirs qui marquent
 les yeux4 ,avant ce temps1  tout tant  
plus informe1 on n'aperoit qu'une pulpe 
mdullaire1 qui  est le cerveau1 dans    
lequel se forme d'abord l'origine des   
nerfs1  ou le principe du sentiment1 et 
le coeur qui a dj par lui-mme dans      
cette pulpe la facult de battre3 c'est  
le punctum saliens de ,malpighi1  qui   

doit peut-tre dj une partie de sa       
vivacit  l'influence des  nerfs4        
,ensuite peu--peu on voit la tte        
allonger le col1 qui en  se dilatant    
forme d'abord le thorax1 o le coeur a dj
 descendu1  pour s'y fixer2 aprs quoi   
vient le bas ventre qu'une cloison 7le  
diaphragme7 spare4 ,ces dilatations     
donnent l'une1 les bras1 les  mains1 les
 doigts1 les ongles1 et les poils2      
l'autre les cuisses1  les jambes1 les   
pieds1 etc41 avec la seule diffrence de 
situation  qu'on leur connait1 qui fait 
l'appui et le balancier du corps4 ,c'est
  une vgtation frappante4 ,ici1 ce sont 
des cheveux qui couvrent le  sommet de  
nos ttes2 l1 ce sont des feuilles et des
 fleurs4 ,partout  brille le mme luxe de
 la nature2 et enfin l'esprit recteur   
des plantes  est plac o nous avons notre
 me1 cette autre quintessence de        
l'homme4    ,telle est l'uniformit de la
 nature qu'on commence  sentir1  et     
l'analogie du rgne animal et vgtal1 de  
l'homme  la  plante4 ,peut-tre mme y    

a-t-il des plantes animal1 c'est--dire  
qui en vgtant1 ou se battent comme les  
polypes1 ou font d'autres  fonctions    
propres aux animaux8    ,voil  peu prs  
tout ce qu'on sait de la gnration4 ,que 
les parties  qui s'attirent1 qui sont   
faites pour s'unir ensemble et pour     
occuper  telle ou telle place1 se       
runissent toutes suivant leur nature2 et
  qu'ainsi se forment les yeux1 le      
coeur1 l'estomac et enfin tout le       
corps1 comme de grands hommes l'ont     
crit1 cela est possible4 ,mais1  comme  
l'exprience nous abandonne au milieu des
 ces subtilits1  je ne supposerai rien1 
regardant tout ce qui ne frappe pas mes 
sens  comme un mystre impntrable4 ,il   
est si rare que les deux semences  se   
rencontrent dans le congrs1 que je      
serais tent de croire que la  semence de
 la femme est inutile  la gnration4     
,mais comment en expliquer les phnomnes1
 sans ce commode rapport  de parties1   
qui rend si bien raison des             
ressemblances des enfants1  tantt au    

pre1 et tantt  la mre8 ,d'un autre ct1  
l'embarras d'une  explication doit-elle 
contrebalancer un fait8 ,il me parait   
que c'est  le mle qui fait tout1 dans   
une femme qui dort1 comme dans la plus  
lubrique4 ,l'arrangement des parties    
serait donc fait de toute ternit  dans  
le germe1 ou dans le ver mme de l'homme4
 ,mais tout ceci est  fort au-dessus de 
la porte des plus excellents            
observateurs4 ,comme  ils n'y peuvent   
rien saisir1 ils ne peuvent pas plus    
juger de la  mcanique de la formation et
 du dveloppement des corps1 qu'une taupe
  du chemin qu'un cerf peut parcourir4  
,nous sommes de vraies taupes dans le   
champ de la nature2 nous n'y  faisons   
gures que le trajet de cet animal2 et   
c'est notre orgueil qui  donne des      
bornes  ce qui n'en a point4 ,nous      
sommes dans le cas d'une  montre qui    
dirait3 7un fabuliste en ferait un      
personnage de consquence  dans un       
ouvrage frivole7 ,quoi6 c'est ce sot    
ouvrier qui m'a faite1 moi  qui divise  

le temps6 moi qui marque si exactement  
le cours du soleil2  moi qui rpte  haute
 voix les heures que j'indique6 non1    
cela ne se  peut pas4 ,nous ddaignons de
 mme1 ingrats que nous sommes1 cette    
mre commune de tous les rgnes1 comme    
parlent les chimistes4 ,nous  imaginons 
ou plutt supposons une cause suprieure  
celle  qui  nous devons tout1 et qui a  
vritablement tout fait d'une manire     
inconcevable4 ,non1 la matire n'a rien  
de vil1 qu'aux yeux grossiers  qui la   
mconnaissent dans ses plus brillants    
ouvrages2 et la nature  n'est point une 
ouvrire borne4 ,elle produit des        
millions d'hommes  avec plus de facilit 
et de plaisir1 qu'un horloger n'a de    
peine   faire la montre la plus compose4
 ,sa puissance clate galement et dans   
la production du plus vil insecte1 et   
dans celle de l'homme le plus  superbe2 
le rgne animal ne lui cote pas plus que 
le vgtal1 ni le  plus beau gnie qu'un pi
 de bl4 ,jugeons donc par ce que nous   
voyons1  de ce qui se drobe  la curiosit

 de nos yeux et de nos recherches1  et  
n'imaginons rien au del4 ,suivons le    
singe1 le castor1 l'lphant1  etc41 dans 
leurs oprations4 ,s'il est vident       
qu'elles ne peuvent  se faire sans      
intelligence1 pourquoi la refuser  ces  
animaux8 et si  vous leur accordez une  
me1 fanatiques1 vous tes perdus2 vous   
aurez  beau dire que vous ne dcidez     
point sur sa nature1 tandis que vous lui
  tez l'immortalit2 qui ne voit que     
c'est une assertion gratuite8 qui  ne   
voit qu'elle doit tre ou mortelle1 ou   
immortelle1 comme la ntre1  dont elle   
doit subir le mme sort quel qu'il soit6 
et qu'ainsi c'est  tomber dans ,scilla  
pour vouloir viter ,caribde8    ,brisez 
la chane de vos prjugs2 armez-vous du   
flambeau de  l'exprience et vous ferez  
la nature l'honneur qu'elle mrite1  au  
lieu de rien conclure  son dsavantage1  
de l'ignorance o elle  vous a laiss4    
,ouvrez les yeux seulement1 et laissez-l
 ce que vous  ne pouvez comprendre2 et  
vous verrez que ce laboureur dont       

l'esprit  et les lumires ne s'tendent   
pas plus loin que les bords de son      
sillon1 ne diffre point essentiellement 
du plus grand gnie1 comme  l'et prouv la
 dissection des cerveaux de ,descartes  
et de ,newton3  vous serez persuad que  
l'imbcile ou le stupide sont des btes   
figure humaine1 comme le singe plein    
d'esprit est un petit homme  sous une   
autre forme2 et qu'enfin tout dpendant  
absolument de la  diversit de           
l'organisation1 un animal bien          
construit1  qui on a  appris            
l'astronomie1 peut prdire une clipse1   
comme la gurison  ou la mort1 lorsqu'il 
a port quelque temps du gnie et de bons 
yeux  l'cole d',hippocrate et au lit des
 malades4 ,c'est par cette  file        
d'observations et de vrits qu'on        
parvient  lier  la matire  l'admirable  
proprit de penser1 sans qu'on en puisse 
voir les liens1  parce que le sujet de  
cet attribut nous est essentiellement   
inconnu4    ,ne disons point que toute  
machine1 ou tout animal1 prit           

tout--fait1  ou prend une autre forme1  
aprs la mort2 car nous n'en savons      
absolument rien4 ,mais assurer qu'une   
machine immortelle est une  chimre1 ou  
un tre de raison1 c'est faire un        
raisonnement aussi  absurde que celui   
que feraient des chenilles1 qui1 voyant 
les  dpouilles de leurs semblables1     
dploreraient amrement le sort de  leur  
espce qui leur semblerait s'anantir4    
,l'me de ces insectes  7car chaque      
animal a la sienne7 est trop borne pour 
comprendre  les mtamorphoses de la      
nature4 ,jamais un seul des plus russ   
d'entr'eux n'et imagin qu'il dt devenir 
papillon4 ,il en est de  mme de nous4   
,que savons-nous plus de notre destine1 
que de notre  origine8 ,soumettons-nous 
donc  une ignorance invincible de       
laquelle  notre bonheur dpend4    ,qui  
pensera ainsi1 sera sage1 juste1        
tranquille sur son sort1  et par        
consquent heureux4 ,il attendra la mort1
 sans la craindre1  ni la dsirer2 et    
chrissant la vie1 comprenant  peine     

comment le  dgot vient corrompre un     
coeur dans ce lieu plein de dlices2     
plein  de respect pour la nature1 plein 
de reconnaissance1 d'attachement et  de 
tendresse1  proportion du sentiment et  
des bienfaits qu'il en a  reus1 heureux 
enfin de la sentir1 et d'tre au charmant
 spectacle de  l'univers1 il ne le      
dtruira certainement jamais dans soi1 ni
 dans les  autres4 ,que dis-je6 plein   
d'humanit1 il en aimera le caractre     
jusques  dans ses ennemis4 ,jugez comme 
il traitera les autres6 ,il plaindra    
les vicieux1 sans les har2 ce ne seront 
ses yeux que des hommes  contrefaits4   
,mais en faisant grce aux dfauts de la  
conformation  de l'esprit et du corps1  
il n'en admirera pas moins leurs beauts 
et  leurs vertus4 ,ceux que la nature   
aura favoriss lui paratront mriter  plus
 d'gards que ceux qu'elle aura traits en
 martre4 ,c'est ainsi  qu'on a vu que   
les dons naturels1 la source de tout ce 
qui s'acquiert1  trouvent dans la bouche
 et le coeur du matrialiste des hommages

 que  tout autre leur refuse            
injustement4 ,enfin le matrialiste      
convaincu1  quoi que murmure sa propre  
vanit1 qu'il n'est qu'une machine1 ou   
un animal1 ne maltraitera point ses     
semblables2 trop instruit sur la  nature
 de ces actions1 dont l'inhumanit est   
toujours proportionne  au degr          
d'analogie prouve ci devant2 et ne      
voulant pas en un mot1  suivant la loi  
naturelle donne  tous les animaux1 faire
  autrui  ce qu'il ne voudrait pas qu'il
 lui ft4    ,concluons donc hardiment   
que l'homme est une machine2 et qu'il   
n'y a  dans tout l'univers qu'une seule 
substance diversement modifie4 ,ce      
n'est point ici une hypothse leve  force
 de demandes et de  suppositions3 ce    
n'est point l'ouvrage du prjug1 ni mme  
de ma  raison seule2 j'eusse ddaign un  
guide que je crois si peu sr1 si  mes   
sens portant1 pour ainsi dire1 le       
flambeau1 ne m'essent engag   la suivre1
 en l'clairant4 ,l'exprience m'a donc   
parl pour la raison2  c'est ainsi que je

 les ai jointes ensemble4    ,mais on a 
d voir que je ne me suis permis le      
raisonnement le  plus rigoureux et le   
plus immdiatement tir1 qu' la suite     
d'une  multitude d'observations         
physiques qu'aucun savant ne contestera2
 et  c'est encore eux seuls que je      
reconnais pour juges des consquences    
que j'en tire2 rcusant ici tout homme   
prjugs1 et qui n'est ni  anatomiste1 ni 
au fait de la seule philosophie qui soit
 ici de mise1  celle du corps humain4   
,que pourraient contre un chne aussi    
ferme et  solide ces faibles roseaux de 
la thologie1 de la mtaphysique et  des  
coles2 armes puriles1 semblables aux    
fleurets de nos salles1  qui peuvent    
bien donner le plaisir de l'escrime1    
mais jamais entamer  son adversaire4    
,faut-il dire que je parle de ces ides  
creuses et  triviales1 de ces           
raisonnements rebattus et pitoyables1   
qu'on fera  sur la prtendue             
incompatibilit de deux substances qui se
 touchent  et se remuent sans cesse     

l'une et l'autre1 tant qu'il restera    
l'ombre  du prjug ou de la superstition 
sur la terre8 ,voil mon systme1  ou     
plutt la vrit1 si je ne me trompe fort4 
,elle est courte et  simple4 ,dispute   
prsent qui voudra6                      
,,man ,a ,,machine4      ,it is not     
enough for a wise man to study nature   
and truth2 he should  dare state truth  
for the benefit of the few who are      
willing and able  to think4 ,as for the 
rest1 who are voluntarily slaves of     
prejudice1  they can no more attain     
truth1 than frogs can fly4    ,i reduce 
to two the systems of philosophy which  
deal with man's  soul4 ,the first and   
older system is materialism2 the second 
is  spiritualism4    ,the metaphysicians
 who have hinted that matter may well be
 endowed  with the faculty of thought#a 
have perhaps not reasoned ill4 ,for     
there is in this case a certain         
advantage in their inadequate way of    
expressing their meaning4 ,in truth1 to 
ask whether matter can think1  without  

considering it otherwise than in itself1
 is like asking  whether matter can tell
 time4 ,it may be foreseen that we shall
 avoid  this reef upon which ,locke had 
the bad luck to make shipwreck4    ,the 
,leibnizians with their monads have set 
up an unintelligible  hypothesis4 ,they 
have rather spiritualized matter than   
materialized  the soul4 ,how can we     
define a being whose nature is          
absolutely unknown  to us8#b            
,descartes and all the ,cartesians1     
among whom the followers of             
,malebranche have long been numbered1   
have made the same mistake4 ,they  have 
taken for granted two distinct          
substances in man1 as if they  had seen 
them1 and positively counted them4      
,the wisest men have declared that the  
soul can not know itself save by  the   
light of faith4 ,however1 as reasonable 
beings they have thought  that they     
could reserve for themselves the right  
of examining what  the ,bible means by  
the word spirit1 which it uses in       

speaking of  the human soul4 ,and if in 
their investigation1 they do not agree  
with  the theologians on this point1 are
 the theologians more in agreement      
among themselves on all other points8   
,here is the result in a few words1 of  
all their reflections4 ,if there  is a  
,god1 ,he is the ,author of nature as   
well as of revelation4 ,he has  given us
 the one to explain the other1 and      
reason to make them agree4    ,to       
distrust the knowledge that can be drawn
 from the study of animated  bodies1 is 
to regard nature and revelation as two  
contraries which  destroy each the      
other1 and consequently to dare uphold  
the absurd  doctrine1 that ,god         
contradicts ,himself in ,his various    
works and  deceives us4    ,if there is 
a revelation1 it can not then contradict
 nature4 ,by nature  only can we        
understand the meaning of the words of  
the ,gospel1 of which  experience is the
 only true interpreter4 ,in fact1 the   
commentators  before our time have only 

obscured the truth4 ,we can judge of    
this  by the author of the ,spectacle of
 ,nature4#c ,it is astonishing1  he says
 concerning ,locke1 that a man who      
degrades our soul far  enough to        
consider it a soul of clay should dare  
set up reason as  judge and sovereign   
arbiter of the mysteries of faith1 for1 
he adds1  what an astonishing idea of   
,christianity one would have1 if one    
were  to follow reason4    ,not only do 
these reflections fail to elucidate     
faith1 but they also  constitute such   
frivolous objections to the method of   
those who  undertake to interpret the   
,scripture1 that ,i am almost ashamed to
  waste time in refuting them4    ,the  
excellence of reason does not depend on 
a big word devoid of  meaning           
7immateriality71 but on the force1      
extent1 and perspicuity  of reason      
itself4 ,thus a soul of clay which      
should discover1  at one glance1 as it  
were1 the relations and the consequences
 of  an infinite number of ideas hard to

 understand1 would evidently be         
preferable to a foolish and stupid soul1
 though that were composed  of the most 
precious elements4 ,a man is not a      
philosopher because1  with ,pliny1 he   
blushes over the wretchedness of our    
origin4 ,what  seems vile is here the   
most precious of things1 and seems to be
 the  object of nature's highest art and
 most elaborate care4 ,but as man1  even
 though he should come from an          
apparently still more lowly source1     
would yet be the most perfect of all    
beings1 so whatever the origin  of his  
soul1 if it is pure1 noble1 and lofty1  
it is a beautiful soul  which dignifies 
the man endowed with it4    ,pluche's   
second way of reasoning seems vicious to
 me1 even in his  system1 which smacks a
 little of fanaticism2 for on his view  
if we  have an idea of faith as being   
contrary to the clearest principles1  to
 the most incontestable truths1 we must 
yet conclude1 out of respect  for       
revelation and its author1 that this    

conception is false1 and  that we do not
 yet understand the meaning of the words
 of the ,gospel4    ,of the two         
alternatives1 only one is possible3     
either everything  is illusion1 nature  
as well as revelation1 or experience    
alone can  explain faith4 ,but what can 
be more ridiculous than the position of 
our author6 ,can one imagine hearing a  
,peripatetic say1 ,we ought not  to     
accept the experiments of ,torricelli1#d
 for if we should accept  them1 if we   
should rid ourselves of the horror of   
the void1 what an  astonishing          
philosophy we should have6    ,i have   
shown how vicious the reasoning of      
,pluche is #aj in order to  prove1 in   
the first place1 that if there is a     
revelation1 it is not  sufficiently     
demonstrated by the mere authority of   
the ,church1 and  without any appeal to 
reason1 as all those who fear reason    
claim3 and  in the second place1 to     
protect against all assault the method  
of those  who would wish to follow the  

path that ,i open to them1 of           
interpreting  supernatural things1      
incomprehensible in themselves1 in the  
light  of those ideas with which nature 
has endowed us4 ,experience and         
observation should therefore be our only
 guides here4 ,both are to be  found    
throughout the records of the physicians
 who were philosophers1  and not in the 
works of the philosophers who were not  
physicians4 ,the  former have traveled  
through and illuminated the labyrinth of
 man2 they  alone have laid bare to us  
those springs of life hidden under the  
external integument which conceals so   
many wonders from our eyes4 ,they       
alone1 tranquilly contemplating our     
soul1 have surprised it1 a thousand     
times1 both in its wretchedness and in  
its glory1 and they have no  more       
despised it in the first estate1 than   
they have admired it in the  second4    
,thus1 to repeat1 only the physicians   
have a right to speak on  this          
subject4#e ,what could the others1      

especially the theologians1  have to    
say8 ,is it not ridiculous to hear them 
shamelessly coming to  conclusions about
 a subject concerning which they have   
had no means  of knowing anything1 and  
from which on the contrary they have    
been  completely turned aside by obscure
 studies that have led them to a        
thousand prejudiced opinions1--in a     
word1 to fanaticism1 which adds  yet    
more to their ignorance of the mechanism
 of the body8    ,but even though we    
have chosen the best guides1 we shall   
still find  many thorns and stumbling   
blocks in the way4    ,man is so        
complicated a machine#f that it is      
impossible to get a  clear idea of the  
machine beforehand1 and hence impossible
 to define  it4 ,for this reason1 all   
the investigations have been vain1 which
 the  greatest philosophers have made   
priori1 that is to say1 in so far  as   
they use1 as it were1 the wings of the  
spirit4 ,thus it is only   posteriori or
 by trying to disentangle the soul from 

the organs of  the body1 so to speak1   
that one can reach the highest          
probability  concerning man's own       
nature1 even though one can not discover
 with  certainty what his nature is4    
,let us then take in our hands the staff
 of experience1#g paying no  heed to the
 accounts of all the idle theories of   
philosophers4 ,to be  blind and to think
 that one can do without this staff is  
the worst  kind of blindness4 ,how truly
 a contemporary writer says that only   
vanity fails to gather from secondary   
causes the same lessons as  from primary
 causes6 ,one can and one even ought to 
admire all these  fine geniuses in their
 most useless works1 such men as        
,descartes1  ,malebranche1 ,leibniz1    
,wolff and the rest1 but what profit1 ,i
 ask1 has  any one gained from their    
profound meditations1 and from all their
  works8 ,let us start out then to      
discover not what has been thought1  but
 what must be thought for the sake of   
repose in life4    ,there are as many   

different minds1 different characters1  
and different  customs1 as there are    
different temperaments4 ,even ,galen#h  
knew this  truth which ,descartes       
carried so far as to claim that medicine
 alone  can change minds and morals1    
along with bodies4 7,by the writer of   
,l'histoire de l'me1#i this teaching is 
incorrectly attributed to               
,hippocrates4#aj7 ,it is true that      
melancholy1 bile1 phlegm1 blood         
etc4--according to the nature1 the      
abundance1 and the different            
combination of these humors--make each  
man different from another4#aa    ,in   
disease the soul is sometimes hidden1   
showing no sign of life2  sometimes it  
is so inflamed by fury that it seems to 
be doubled2  sometimes1 imbecility      
vanishes and the convalescence of an    
idiot  produces a wise man4 ,sometimes1 
again1 the greatest genius becomes      
imbecile and loses the sense of self4   
,adieu then to all that fine  knowledge1
 acquired at so high a price1 and with  

so much trouble6 ,here  is a paralytic  
who asks if his leg is in bed with him2 
there is  a soldier who thinks that he  
still has the arm which has been cut    
off4 ,the memory of his old sensations1 
and of the place to which they  were    
referred by his soul1 is the cause of   
his illusion1 and of this  kind of      
delirium4 ,the mere mention of the      
member which he has lost is  enough to  
recall it to his mind1 and to make him  
feel all its motions2  and this causes  
him an indefinable and inexpressible    
kind of imaginary  suffering4 ,this man 
cries like a child at death's approach1 
while this  other jests4 ,what was      
needed to change the bravery of ,caius  
,julius1  ,seneca1 or ,petronius into   
cowardice or faintheartedness8 ,merely  
an obstruction in the spleen1 in the    
liver1 an impediment in the  portal     
vein8 ,why8 ,because the imagination is 
obstructed along with  the viscera1 and 
this gives rise to all the singular     
phenomena of  hysteria and hypochondria4

    ,what can ,i add to the stories     
already told of those who imagine       
themselves transformed into wolf-men1   
cocks or vampires1 or of those  who     
think that the dead feed upon them8 ,why
 should ,i stop to speak  of the man who
 imagines that his nose or some other   
member is of  glass8 ,the way to help   
this man regain his faculties and his   
own  flesh-and-blood nose is to advise  
him to sleep on hay1 lest he break  the 
fragile organ1 and then to set fire to  
the hay that he may be  afraid of being 
burned--a fear which has sometimes cured
 paralysis4 ,but  ,i must touch lightly 
on facts which everybody knows4         
,neither shall ,i dwell long on the     
details of the effects of sleep4 ,here  
a tired soldier snores in a trench1 in  
the middle of the thunder of  hundreds  
of cannon4 ,his soul hears nothing2 his 
sleep is as deep as  apoplexy4 ,a bomb  
is on the point of crushing him4 ,he    
will feel this  less perhaps than he    
feels an insect which is under his foot4

    ,on the other hand1 this man who is 
devoured by jealousy1 hatred1  avarice1 
or ambition1 can never find any rest4   
,the most peaceful spot1  the freshest  
and most calming drinks are alike       
useless to one who  has not freed his   
heart from the torment of passion4      
,the soul and the body fall asleep      
together4 ,as the motion of the  blood  
is calmed1 a sweet feeling of peace and 
quiet spreads through  the whole        
mechanism4 ,the soul feels itself little
 by little growing  heavy as the eyelids
 droop1 and loses its tenseness1 as the 
fibres  of the brain relax2 thus little 
by little it becomes as if paralyzed    
and with it all the muscles of the body4
 ,these can no longer sustain  the      
weight of the head1 and the soul can no 
longer bear the burden  of thought2 it  
is in sleep as if it were not4    ,is   
the circulation too quick8 the soul can 
not sleep4 ,is the soul  too much       
excited8 the blood can not be quieted3  
it gallops through  the veins with an   

audible murmur4 ,such are the two       
opposite causes  of insomnia4 ,a single 
fright in the midst of our dreams makes 
the  heart beat at double speed and     
snatches us from needed and delicious   
repose1 as a real grief or an urgent    
need would do4 ,lastly as the  mere     
cessation of the functions of the soul  
produces sleep1 there  are1 even when we
 are awake 7or at least when we are half
 awake71  kinds of very frequent short  
naps of the mind1 vergers' dreams1 which
  show that the soul does not always    
wait for the body to sleep4 ,for  if the
 soul is not fast asleep1 it surely is  
not far from sleep1  since it can not   
point out a single object to which it   
has attended1  among the uncounted      
number of confused ideas which1 so to   
speak1  fill the atmosphere of our      
brains like clouds4    ,opium is too    
closely related to the sleep it         
produces1 to be left  out of            
consideration here4 ,this drug          
intoxicates1 like wine1 coffee1  etc41  

each in its own measure and according to
 the dose4#ab ,it makes  a man happy in 
a state which would seemingly be the    
tomb of feeling1  as it is the image of 
death4 ,how sweet is this lethargy6 ,the
 soul  would long never to emerge from  
it4 ,for the soul has been a prey to    
the most intense sorrow1 but now feels  
only the joy of suffering past1  and of 
sweetest peace4 ,opium even alters the  
will1 forcing the soul  which wished to 
wake and to enjoy life1 to sleep in     
spite of itself4 ,i  shall omit any     
reference to the effect of poisons4     
,coffee1 the well-known antidote for    
wine1 by scourging the imagination1     
cures our headaches and scatters our    
cares without laying up for us1  as wine
 does1 other headaches for the morrow4  
,but let us contemplate  the soul in its
 other needs4    ,the human body is a   
machine which winds its own springs4 ,it
 is  the living image of perpetual      
movement4 ,nourishment keeps up the     
movements which fever excites4 ,without 

food1 the soul pines away1  goes mad1   
and dies exhausted4 ,the soul is a taper
 whose light flares  up the moment      
before it goes out4 ,but nourish the    
body1 pour into  its veins life-giving  
juices and strong liquors1 and then the 
soul  grows strong like them1 as if     
arming itself with a proud courage1  and
 the soldier whom water would have made 
flee1 grows bold and runs  joyously to  
death to the sound of drums4 ,thus a hot
 drink sets into  stormy movement the   
blood which a cold drink would have     
calmed4    ,what power there is in a    
meal6 ,joy revives in a sad heart1 and  
infects  the souls of comrades1 who     
express their delight in the friendly   
songs  in which the ,frenchman excels4  
,the melancholy man alone is dejected1  
and the studious man is equally out of  
place in such company4    ,raw meat     
makes animals fierce1 and it would have 
the same effect on  man4 ,this is so    
true that the ,english who eat meat red 
and bloody1  and not as well done as    

ours1 seem to share more or less in the 
savagery due to this kind of food1 and  
to other causes which can be  rendered  
ineffective by education only4 ,this    
savagery creates in the  soul1 pride1   
hatred1 scorn of other nations1         
indocility and other  sentiments which  
degrade the character1 just as heavy    
food makes a  dull and heavy mind whose 
usual traits are laziness and indolence4
    ,pope understood well the full power
 of greediness when he said3#ac         
,catius is ever moral1 ever grave1      
,thinks who endures a knave is next a   
knave1      ,save just at dinner--then  
prefers no doubt1      ,a rogue with    
ven'son to a saint without4             
,elsewhere he says3          ,see the   
same man in vigor1 in the gout          
,alone1 in company1 in place or out1    
,early at business and at hazard late1  
,mad at a fox chase1 wise at a debate1  
,drunk at a borough1 civil at a ball1   
,friendly at ,hackney1 faithless at     
,white ,hall4      ,in ,switzerland we  

had a bailiff by the name of ,m4        
,steigner de  ,wittighofen4 ,when he    
fasted he was a most upright and even a 
most  indulgent judge1 but woe to the   
unfortunate man whom he found on the    
culprit's bench after he had had a large
 dinner6 ,he was capable of  sending the
 innocent like the guilty to the        
gallows4    ,we think we are1 and in    
fact we are1 good men1 only as we are   
gay or  brave2 everything depends on the
 way our machine is running4 ,one is    
sometimes inclined to say that the soul 
is situated in the stomach1  and that   
,van ,helmont1#ad who said that the seat
 of the soul was in  the pylorus1 made  
only the mistake of taking the part for 
the whole4    ,to what excesses cruel   
hunger can bring us6 ,we no longer      
regard even  our own parents and        
children4 ,we tear them to pieces       
eagerly and make  horrible banquets of  
them2 and in the fury with which we are 
carried  away1 the weakest is always the
 prey of the strongest4444    ,one needs

 only eyes to see the necessary         
influence of old age on  reason4 ,the   
soul follows the progress of the body1  
as it does the  progress of education4  
,in the weaker sex1 the soul accords    
also with  delicacy of temperament1 and 
from this delicacy follow tenderness1   
affection1 quick feelings due more to   
passion than to reason1  prejudices1 and
 superstitions1 whose strong impress can
 hardly be  effaced4 ,man1 on the other 
hand1 whose brain and nerves partake of 
the firmness of all solids1 has not only
 stronger features but also a  more     
vigorous mind4 ,education1 which women  
lack1 strengthens his mind  still more4 
,thus with such help of nature and art1 
why should not  a man be more grateful1 
more generous1 more constant in         
friendship1  stronger in adversity8     
,but1 to follow almost exactly the      
thought of  the author of the ,lettres  
sur la ,physiognomie1#ae the sex which  
unites the charms of the mind and of the
 body with almost all the  tenderest and

 most delicate feelings of the heart1   
should not envy  us the two capacities  
which seem to have been given to man1   
the one  merely to enable him better to 
fathom the allurements of beauty1  and  
the other merely to enable him to       
minister better to its pleasures4    ,it
 is no more necessary to be just as     
great a physiognomist as this  author1  
in order to guess the quality of the    
mind from the countenance  or the shape 
of the features1 provided these are     
sufficiently marked1  than it is        
necessary to be a great doctor to       
recognize a disease  accompanied by all 
its marked symptoms4 ,look at the       
portraits of ,locke1  of ,steele1 of    
,boerhaave1#af of ,maupertuis1#ag and   
the rest1 and  you will not be surprised
 to find strong faces and eagle eyes4   
,look  over a multitude of others1 and  
you can always distinguish the man  of  
talent from the man of genius1 and often
 even an honest man from  a scoundrel4  
,for example1 it has been noticed that a

 celebrated poet  combines 7in his      
portrait7 the look of a pickpocket with 
the fire  of ,prometheus4    ,history   
provides us with a noteworthy example of
 the power of  temperature4 ,the famous 
,duke of ,guise was so strongly         
convinced that  ,henry the ,third1 in   
whose power he had so often been1 would 
never dare  assassinate him1 that he    
went to ,blois4 ,when the ,chancelor    
,chiverny  learned of the duke's        
departure1 he cried1 ,he is lost4 ,after
 this  fatal prediction had been        
fulfilled by the event1 ,chiverny was   
asked  why he made it4 ,i have known the
 king for twenty years1 said he2  he is 
naturally kind and even weakly          
indulgent1 but ,i have noticed  that    
when it is cold1 it takes nothing at all
 to provoke him and send  him into a    
passion4    ,one nation is of heavy and 
stupid wit1 and another quick1 light and
  penetrating4 ,whence comes this       
difference1 if not in part from the     
difference in foods1 and difference in  

inheritance1 #aa and in part  from the  
mixture of the diverse elements which   
float around in the  immensity of the   
void8 ,the mind1 like the body1 has its 
contagious  diseases and its scurvy4    
,such is the influence of climate1 that 
a man who goes from one climate  to     
another1 feels the change1 in spite of  
himself4 ,he is a walking  plant which  
has transplanted itself2 if the climate 
is not the same1  it will surely either 
degenerate or improve4    ,furthermore1 
we catch everything from those with whom
 we come in  contact2 their gestures1   
their accent1 etc42 just as the eyelid  
is  instinctively lowered when a blow is
 foreseen1 or as 7for the same  reason7 
the body of the spectator mechanically  
imitates1 in spite of  himself1 all the 
motions of a good mimic4#ah    ,from    
what ,i have just said1 it follows that 
a brilliant man is  his own best        
company1 unless he can find other       
company of the same  sort4 ,in the      
society of the unintelligent1 the mind  

grows rusty for  lack of exercise1 as at
 tennis a ball that is served badly is  
badly  returned4 ,i should prefer an    
intelligent man without an education1   
if he were still young enough1 to a man 
badly educated4 ,a badly  trained mind  
is like an actor whom the provinces have
 spoiled4    ,thus1 the diverse states  
of the soul are always correlative with 
those of the body4#ai ,but the better to
 show this dependence1 in  its          
completeness and its causes1 let us here
 make use of comparative  anatomy2 let  
us lay bare the organs of man and of    
animals4 ,how can  human nature be      
known1 if we may not derive any light   
from an exact  comparison of the        
structure of man and of animals8    ,in 
general1 the form and the structure of  
the brains of quadrupeds  are almost the
 same as those of the brain of man2 the 
same shape1  the same arrangement       
everywhere1 with this essential         
difference1  that of all the animals man
 is the one whose brain is largest1 and1

  in proportion to its mass1 more       
convoluted than the brain of any  other 
animal2 then come the monkey1 the       
beaver1 the elephant1 the  dog1 the fox1
 the cat4 ,these animals are most like  
man1 for among  them1 too1 one notes the
 same progressive analogy in relation to
  the corpus callosum in which          
,lancisi--anticipating the late ,m4 de  
la  ,peyronie#bj--;established the seat 
of the soul4 ,the latter1 however1      
illustrated the theory by innumerable   
experiments4 ,next after all the        
quadrupeds1 birds have the largest      
brains4 ,fish have large heads1  but    
these are void of sense1 like the heads 
of many men4 ,fish have  no corpus      
callosum1 and very little brain1 while  
insects entirely  lack brain4    ,i     
shall not launch out into any more      
detail about the varieties  of nature1  
nor into conjectures concerning them1   
for there is an  infinite number of     
both1 as any one can see by reading no  
further  than the treatises of ,willis  

,de ,cerebro and ,de ,anima             
,brutorum4#ba    ,i shall draw the      
conclusions which follow clearly from   
these  incontestable observations3 #ast1
 that the fiercer animals are1 the  less
 brain they have2 #b;d1 that this organ 
seems to increase in size  in proportion
 to the gentleness of the animal2 #c;d1 
that nature seems  here eternally to    
impose a singular condition1 that the   
more one gains  in intelligence the more
 one loses in instinct4 ,does this bring
 gain  or loss8    ,do not think1       
however1 that ,i wish to infer by that1 
that the size  alone of the brain1 is   
enough to indicate the degree of        
tameness in  animals3 the quality must  
correspond to the quantity1 and the     
solids  and liquids must be in that due 
equilibrium which constitutes health4   
,if1 as is ordinarily observed1 the     
imbecile does not lack brain1 his  brain
 will be deficient in its               
consistency--for instance1 in being too 
soft4 ,the same thing is true of the    

insane1 and the defects of their  brains
 do not always escape our investigation4
 ,but if the causes of  imbecility1     
insanity1 etc41 are not obvious1 where  
shall we look for  the causes of the    
diversity of all minds8 ,they would     
escape the eyes  of a lynx and of an    
argus4 ,a mere nothing1 a tiny fibre1   
something  that could never be found by 
the most delicate anatomy1 would have   
made of ,erasmus and ,fontenelle#bb two 
idiots1 and ,fontenelle himself  speaks 
of this very fact in one of his best    
dialogues4    ,willis has noticed in    
addition to the softness of the         
brain-substance  in children1 puppies1  
and birds1 that the corpora striata are 
obliterated and discolored in all these 
animals1 and that the  striations are as
 imperfectly formed as in paralytics4444
    ,however cautious and reserved one  
may be about the consequences  that can 
be deduced from these observations1 and 
from many others  concerning the kind of
 variation in the organs1 nerves1 etc41 

one must admit that so many different   
varieties can not be the  gratuitous    
play of nature4 ,they prove at least the
 necessity for a  good and vigorous     
physical organization1 since throughout 
the animal  kingdom the soul gains force
 with the body and acquires keenness1   
as the body gains strength4    ,let us  
pause to contemplate the varying        
capacity of animals to  learn4          
,doubtless the analogy best framed leads
 the mind to think  that the causes we  
have mentioned produce all the          
difference that is  found between       
animals and men1 although we must       
confess that our weak  understanding1   
limited to the coarsest observations1   
can not see the  bonds that exist       
between cause and effects4 ,this is a   
kind of harmony  that philosophers will 
never know4    ,among animals1 some     
learn to speak and sing2 they remember  
tunes1  and strike the notes as exactly 
as a musician4 ,others1 for instance    
the ape1 show more intelligence1 and yet

 can not learn music4 ,what is  the     
reason for this1 except some defect in  
the organs of speech8 ,but  is this     
defect so essential to the structure    
that it could never be  remedied8 ,in a 
word1 would it be absolutely impossible 
to teach the  ape a language8#bc ,i do  
not think so4    ,i should choose a     
large ape in preference to any other1   
until by  some good fortune another kind
 should be discovered1 more like us1    
for nothing prevents there being such an
 one in regions unknown to  us4 ,the ape
 resembles us so strongly that          
naturalists have called it  wild man or 
man of the woods4 ,i should take it in  
the condition  of the pupils of         
,amman1#bd that is to say1 ,i should not
 want it to be  too young or too old2   
for apes that are brought to ,europe are
 usually  too old4 ,i would choose the  
one with the most intelligent face1 and 
the one which1 in a thousand little     
ways1 best lived up to its look of      
intelligence4 ,finally not considering  

myself worthy to be his master1  ,i     
should put him in the school of that    
excellent teacher whom ,i have  just    
named1 or with another teacher equally  
skilful1 if there is one4    ,you know  
by ,amman's work1 and by all those #ab  
who have interpreted  his method1 all   
the wonders he has been able to         
accomplish for those  born deaf4 ,in    
their eyes he discovered ears1 as he    
himself explains1  and in how short a   
time6 ,in short he taught them to hear1 
speak1  read1 and write4 ,i grant that a
 deaf person's eyes see more clearly    
and are keener than if he were not deaf1
 for the loss of one member  or sense   
can increase the strength or acuteness  
of another1 but apes  see and hear1 they
 understand what they hear and see1 and 
grasp so  perfectly the signs that are  
made to them1 that ,i doubt not that    
they  would surpass the pupils of ,amman
 in any other game or exercise4 ,why    
then should the education of monkeys be 
impossible8 ,why might not  the monkey1 

by dint of great pains1 at last imitate 
after the manner  of deaf mutes1 the    
motions necessary for pronunciation8 ,i 
do not  dare decide whether the monkey's
 organs of speech1 however trained1     
would be incapable of articulation4     
,but1 because of the great analogy      
between ape and man#be and because there
 is no known animal whose  external and 
internal organs so strikingly resemble  
man's1 it would  surprise me if speech  
were absolutely impossible to the ape4  
,locke1  who was certainly never        
suspected of credulity1 found no        
difficulty  in believing the story told 
by ,sir ,william ,temple#bf in his      
memoirs1  about a parrot which could    
answer rationally1 and which had learned
  to carry on a kind of connected       
conversation1 as we do4 ,i know that    
people have ridiculed #ac this great    
metaphysician2 but suppose some  one    
should have announced that reproduction 
sometimes takes place  without eggs or a
 female1 would he have found many       

partisans8 ,yet  ,m4 ,trembley#bg has   
found cases where reproduction takes    
place without  copulation and by        
fission4 ,would not ,amman too have     
passed for mad if  he had boasted that  
he could instruct scholars like his in  
so short  a time1 before he had happily 
accomplished the feat8 ,his successes   
have1 however1 astonished the world2 and
 he1 like the author of ,the  ,history  
of ,polyps1 has risen to immortality at 
one bound4 ,whoever  owes the miracles  
that he works to his own genius         
surpasses1 in  my opinion1 the man who  
owes his to chance4 ,he who has         
discovered  the art of adorning the most
 beautiful of the kingdoms of nature1   
and of giving it perfections that it did
 not have1 should be rated  above an    
idle creator of frivolous systems1 or a 
painstaking author  of sterile          
discoveries4 ,amman's discoveries are   
certainly of a much  greater value2 he  
has freed men from the instinct to which
 they seemed  to be condemned1 and has  

given them ideas1 intelligence1 or in a 
word1  a soul which they would never    
have had4 ,what greater power than this6
    ,let us not limit the resources of  
nature2 they are infinite1 especially   
when reinforced by great art4    ,could 
not the device which opens the          
,eustachian canal of the deaf1  open    
that of apes8 ,might not a happy desire 
to imitate the master's  pronunciation1 
liberate the organs of speech in animals
 that imitate  so many other signs with 
such skill and intelligence8 ,not only  
do ,i  defy any one to name any really  
conclusive experiment which proves my   
view impossible and absurd2 but such is 
the likeness of the structure  and      
functions of the ape to ours that ,i    
have very little doubt that  if this    
animal were properly trained he might at
 last be taught to  pronounce1 and      
consequently to know1 a language4 ,then 
he would no  longer be a wild man1 nor a
 defective man1 but he would be a       
perfect  man1 a little gentleman1 with  

as much matter or muscle as we have1    
for thinking and profiting by his       
education4    ,the transition from      
animals to man is not violent1 as true  
philosophers  will admit4 ,what was man 
before the invention of words and the   
knowledge of language8#bh ,an animal of 
his own species with much  less instinct
 than the others4 ,in those days1 he did
 not consider  himself king over the    
other animals1 nor was he distinguished 
from  the ape1 and from the rest1 except
 as the ape itself differs from the     
other animals1 i4 e41 by a more         
intelligent face4 ,reduced to the bare  
intuitive knowledge of the ,leibnizians 
he saw only shapes and colors1  without 
being able to distinguish between them3 
the same1 old as young1  child at all   
ages1 he lisped out his sensations and  
his needs1 as a  dog that is hungry or  
tired of sleeping1 asks for something to
 eat1  or for a walk4    ,words1        
languages1 laws1 sciences1 and the fine 
arts have come1 and by  them finally the

 rough diamond of our mind has been     
polished4 ,man has  been trained in the 
same way as animals4 ,he has become an  
author1  as they became beasts of       
burden4 ,a geometrician has learned to  
perform the most difficult              
demonstrations and calculations1 as a   
monkey has learned to take his little   
hat off and on1 and to mount his  tame  
dog4 ,all has been accomplished through 
signs1 every species has  learned what  
it could understand1 and in this way men
 have acquired  symbolic knowledge1     
still so called by our ,german          
philosophers4    ,nothing1 as any one   
can see1 is so simple as the mechanism  
of our  education4 ,everything may be   
reduced to sounds or words that pass    
from  the mouth of one through the ears 
of another into his brain4 ,at the  same
 moment1 he perceives through his eyes  
the shape of the bodies  of which these 
words are the arbitrary signs4    ,but  
who was the first to speak8 ,who was the
 first teacher of the  human race8 ,who 

invented the means of utilizing the     
plasticity of our  organism8 ,i can not 
answer3 the names of these first        
splendid geniuses  have been lost in the
 night of time4 ,but art is the child of
 nature1  so nature must have long      
preceded it4    ,we must think that the 
men who were the most highly organized1 
those  on whom nature had lavished her  
richest gifts1 taught the others4 ,they 
could not have heard a new sound for    
instance1 nor experienced new           
sensations1 nor been struck by all the  
varied and beautiful objects  that      
compose the ravishing spectacle of      
nature without finding  themselves in   
the state of mind of the deaf man of    
,chartres1 whose  experience was first  
related by the great ,fontenelle1#bi    
when1  at forty years1 he heard for the 
first time1 the astonishing sound  of   
bells4    ,would it be absurd to        
conclude from this that the first       
mortals tried  after the manner of this 
deaf man1 or like animals and like mutes

  7another kind of animals71 to express 
their new feelings by motions  depending
 on the nature of their imagination1 and
 therefore afterwards  by spontaneous   
sounds1 distinctive of each animal1 as  
the natural  expression of their        
surprise1 their joy1 their ecstasies and
 their  needs8 ,for doubtless those whom
 nature endowed with finer feeling  had 
also greater facility in expression4    
,that is the way in which1 ,i think1 men
 have used their feeling and  their     
instinct to gain intelligence and then  
have employed their  intelligence to    
gain knowledge4 ,those are the ways1 so 
far as ,i can  understand them1 in which
 men have filled the brain with the     
ideas1  for the reception of which      
nature made it4 ,nature and man have    
helped  each other2 and the smallest    
beginnings have1 little by little1      
increased1 until everything in the      
universe could be as easily  described  
as a circle4    ,as a violin string or a
 harpsichord key vibrates and gives     

forth sound1  so the cerebral fibres1   
struck by waves of sound1 are stimulated
 to  render or repeat the words that    
strike them4 ,and as the structure  of  
the brain is such that when eyes well   
formed for seeing1 have  once perceived 
the image of objects1 the brain can not 
help seeing  their images and their     
differences1 so when the signs of these 
differences have been traced or         
imprinted in the brain1 the soul        
necessarily examines their relations--an
 examination that would have  been      
impossible without the discovery of     
signs or the invention of  language4 ,at
 the time when the universe was almost  
dumb1 the soul's  attitude toward all   
objects was that of a man without any   
idea of  proportion toward a picture or 
a piece of sculpture1 in which he could 
distinguish nothing2 or the soul was    
like a little child 7for the  soul was  
then in its infancy7 who1 holding in his
 hand small bits of  straw or wood1 sees
 them in a vague and superficial way    

without being  able to count or         
distinguish them4 ,but let some one     
attach a kind of  banner1 or standard1  
to this bit of wood 7which perhaps is   
called a  mast71 and another banner to  
another similar object2 let the first   
be known by the symbol #a1 and the      
second by the symbol or number #b1  then
 the child will be able to count the    
objects1 and in this way he  will learn 
all of arithmetic4 ,as soon as one      
figure seems equal to  another in its   
numerical sign1 he will decide without  
difficulty that  they are two different 
bodies1 that #a  #a make #b1 and #b  #b 
make #d1  #ad etc4    ,this real or     
apparent likeness of figures is the     
fundamental basis of  all truths and of 
all we know4 ,among these sciences1     
evidently those  whose signs are less   
simple and less sensible are harder to  
understand  than the others1 because    
more talent is required to comprehend   
and  combine the immense number of words
 by which such sciences express  the    

truths in their province4 ,on the other 
hand1 the sciences that  are expressed  
by numbers or by other small signs1 are 
easily learned2  and without doubt this 
facility rather than its demonstrability
 is  what has made the fortune of       
algebra4    ,all this knowledge1 with   
which vanity fills the balloon-like     
brains of  our proud pedants1 is        
therefore but a huge mass of words and  
figures1  which form in the brain all   
the marks by which we distinguish and   
recall objects4 ,all our ideas are      
awakened after the fashion in which  the
 gardener who knows plants recalls all  
stages of their growth at  sight of     
them4 ,these words and the objects      
designated by them are  so connected in 
the brain that it is comparatively rare 
to imagine  a thing without the name or 
sign that is attached to it4    ,i      
always use the word imagine1 because ,i 
think that everything is  the work of   
imagination1 and that all the faculties 
of the soul can be  correctly reduced to

 pure imagination in which they all     
consist4#cj  ,thus judgment1 reason1 and
 memory are not absolute parts of the   
soul1  but merely modifications of this 
kind of medullary screen upon which     
images of the objects painted in the eye
 are projected as by a magic  lantern4  
,but if such is the marvelous and       
incomprehensible result of the          
structure of the brain1 if everything is
 perceived and explained  by            
imagination1 why should we divide the   
sensitive principle which  thinks in    
man8 ,is not this a clear inconsistency 
in the partisans  of the simplicity of  
the mind8 ,for a thing that is divided  
can no  longer without absurdity be     
regarded as indivisible4 ,see to what   
one is  brought by the abuse of language
 and by those fine words 7spirituality1 
immateriality1 etc47 used haphazard and 
not understood even by the  most        
brilliant4#ca    ,nothing is easier than
 to prove a system based1 as this one   
is1 on  the intimate feeling and        

personal experience of each individual4 
,if  the imagination1 or1 let us say1   
that fantastic part of the brain  whose 
nature is as unknown to us as its way of
 acting1 be naturally  small or weak1 it
 will hardly be able to compare the     
analogy or the  resemblance of its      
ideas1 it will be able to see only what 
is face  to face with it1 or what       
affects it very strongly2 and how will  
it  see all this6 ,yet it is always     
imagination which apperceives1 and      
imagination which represents to itself  
all objects along with their  names and 
symbols2 and thus1 once again1          
imagination is the soul1  since it plays
 all the rles of the soul4 ,by the      
imagination1 by its  flattering brush1  
the cold skeleton of reason takes on    
living and ruddy  flesh1 by the         
imagination the sciences flourish1 the  
arts are adorned1  the wood speaks1 the 
echoes sigh1 the rocks weep1 marble     
breathes1 and  all inanimate objects    
gain life4 ,it is imagination again     

which adds  the piquant charm of        
voluptuousness to the tenderness of an  
amorous  heart2 which makes tenderness  
bud in the study of the philosopher  and
 of the dusty pedant1 which1 in a word1 
creates scholars as well  as orators and
 poets4 ,foolishly decried by some1     
vainly praised by  others1 and          
misunderstood by all2 it follows not    
only in the train  of the graces and of 
the fine arts1 it not only describes1   
but can  also measure nature4 ,it       
reasons1 judges1 analyzes1 compares1 and
  investigates4 ,could it feel so keenly
 the beauties of the pictures  drawn for
 it1 unless it discovered their         
relations8 ,no1 just as it can  not turn
 its thoughts on the pleasures of the   
senses1 without enjoying  their         
perfection or their voluptuousness1 it  
can not reflect on what  it has         
mechanically conceived1 without thus    
being judgment itself4    ,the more the 
imagination or the poorest talent is    
exercised1 the  more it gains in        

embonpoint1 so to speak1 and the larger 
it grows4 ,it  becomes sensitive1       
robust1 broad1 and capable of thinking4 
,the best  of organisms has need of this
 exercise4    ,man's preeminent         
advantage is his organism4#cb ,in vain  
all writers  of books on morals fail to 
regard as praiseworthy those qualities  
that come by nature1 esteeming only the 
talents gained by dint of  reflection   
and industry4 ,for whence come1 ,i ask1 
skill1 learning1  and virtue1 if not    
from a disposition that makes us fit to 
become  skilful1 wise and virtuous8 ,and
 whence again1 comes this disposition1  
if not from nature8 ,only through nature
 do we have any good qualities2  to her 
we owe all that we are4 ,why then should
 ,i not esteem men with  good natural   
qualities as much as men who shine by   
acquired and as  it were borrowed       
virtues8 ,whatever the virtue may be1   
from whatever  source it may come1 it is
 worthy of esteem2 the only question is1
  how to estimate it4 ,mind1 beauty1    

wealth1 nobility1 although the  children
 of chance1 all have their own value1 as
 skill1 learning and  virtue have       
theirs4 ,those upon whom nature has     
heaped her most costly  gifts should    
pity those to whom these gifts have been
 refused2 but1  in their character of   
experts1 they may feel their superiority
 without  pride4 ,a beautiful woman     
would be as foolish to think herself    
ugly1  as an intelligent man to think   
himself a fool4 ,an exaggerated modesty 
7a rare fault1 to be sure7 is a kind of 
ingratitude towards nature4 ,an  honest 
pride1 on the contrary1 is the mark of a
 strong and beautiful  soul1 revealed by
 manly features moulded by feeling4     
,if one's organism is an advantage1 and 
the preeminent advantage1  and the      
source of all others1 education is the  
second4 ,the best made  brain would be a
 total loss without it1 just as the best
 constituted  man would be but a common 
peasant1 without knowledge of the ways  
of  the world4 ,but1 on the other hand1 

what would be the use of the most       
excellent school1 without a matrix      
perfectly open to the entrance and      
conception of ideas8 ,it is 444         
impossible to impart a single idea to  a
 man deprived of all his senses4444     
,but if the brain is at the same time   
well organized and well educated1  it is
 a fertile soil1 well sown1 that brings 
forth a hundredfold  what it has        
received3 or 7to leave the figures of   
speech often  needed to express what one
 means1 and to add grace to truth       
itself7  the imagination1 raised by art 
to the rare and beautiful dignity  of   
genius1 apprehends exactly all the      
relations of the ideas it has           
conceived1 and takes in easily an       
astounding number of objects1 in  order 
to deduce from them a long chain of     
consequences1 which are  again but new  
relations1 produced by a comparison with
 the first1  to which the soul finds a  
perfect resemblance4 ,such is1 ,i think1
 the  generation of intelligence4#cc ,i 

say finds as ,i before gave the  epithet
 apparent to the likeness of objects1   
not because ,i think that  our senses   
are always deceivers1 as ,father        
,malebranche has claimed1  or that our  
eyes1 naturally a little unsteady1 fail 
to see objects as  they are in          
themselves1 7though microscopes prove   
this to us every  day7 but in order to  
avoid any dispute with the              
,pyrrhonians1#cd  among whom ,bayle#ce  
is well known4    ,i say of truth in    
general what ,m4 de ,fontenelle says of 
certain  truths in particular1 that we  
must sacrifice it in order to remain  on
 good terms with society4 ,and it       
accords with the gentleness of  my      
character1 to avoid all disputes unless 
to whet conversation4 ,the  ,cartesians 
would here in vain make an onset upon me
 with their innate  ideas4 ,i certainly 
would not give myself a quarter of the  
trouble  that ,m4 ,locke took1 to attack
 such chimeras4 ,in truth1 what is the  
use of writing a ponderous volume to    

prove a doctrine which became  an axiom 
three thousand years ago8    ,according 
to the principles which we have laid    
down1 and which we  consider true2 he   
who has the most imagination should be  
regarded  as having the most            
intelligence or genius1 for all these   
words are  synonymous2 and again1 only  
by a shameful abuse of terms do we      
think that we are saying different      
things1 when we are merely using        
different words1 different sounds1 to   
which no idea or real distinction  is   
attached4    ,the finest1 greatest1 or  
strongest imagination is then the one   
most  suited to the sciences as well as 
to the arts4 ,i do not pretend to say   
whether more intellect is necessary to  
excel in the art of ,aristotle  or of   
,descartes than to excel in that of     
,euripides or of ,sophocles1  and       
whether nature has taken more trouble to
 make ,newton than to make  ,corneille1 
though ,i doubt this4 ,but it is certain
 that imagination  alone1 differently   

applied1 has produced their diverse     
triumphs and  their immortal glory4     
,if one is known as having little       
judgment and much imagination1 this     
means that the imagination has been left
 too much alone1 has1 as it  were1      
occupied most of the time in looking at 
itself in the mirror of  its sensations1
 has not sufficiently formed the habit  
of examining the  sensations themselves 
attentively4 ,it means that the         
imagination has  been more impressed by 
images than by their truth or their     
likeness4    ,truly1 so quick are the   
responses of the imagination that if    
attention1  that key or mother of the   
sciences1 does not do its part1         
imagination  can do little more than run
 over and skim its objects4    ,see that
 bird on the bough3 it seems always     
ready to fly  away4 ,imagination is like
 the bird1 always carried onward by the 
turmoil of the blood and the animal     
spirits4 ,one wave leaves a mark1       
effaced by the one that follows2 the    

soul pursues it1 often in vain3  it must
 expect to regret the loss of that which
 it has not quickly  enough seized and  
fixed4 ,thus1 imagination1 the true     
image of time1  is being ceaselessly    
destroyed and renewed4    ,such is the  
chaos and the continuous quick          
succession of our  ideas3 they drive    
each other away even as one wave yields 
to  another4 ,therefore1 if imagination 
does not1 as it were1 use one set  of   
its muscles to maintain a kind of       
equilibrium with the fibres of  the     
brain1 to keep its attention for a while
 upon an object that is on  the point of
 disappearing1 and to prevent itself    
from contemplating  prematurely another 
object--unless the imagination does all 
this1  it will never be worthy of the   
fine name of judgment4 ,it will express 
vividly what it has perceived in the    
same fashion3 it will create  orators1  
musicians1 painters1 poets1 but never a 
single philosopher4 ,on  the contrary1  
if the imagination be trained from      

childhood to bridle  itself and to keep 
from being carried away by its own      
impetuosity--an  impetuosity which      
creates only brilliant enthusiasts--and 
to check1  to restrain1 its ideas1 to   
examine them in all their aspects in    
order to see all sides of an object1    
then the imagination1 ready in          
judgment1 will comprehend the greatest  
possible sphere of objects1  through    
reasoning2 and its vivacity 7always so  
good a sign in children1  and only      
needing to be regulated by study and    
training7 will be only  a far-seeing    
insight without which little progress   
can be made in  the sciences4    ,such  
are the simple foundations upon which   
the edifice of logic has  been reared4  
,nature has built these foundations for 
the whole human  race1 but some have    
used them1 while others have abused     
them4    ,in spite of all these         
advantages of man over animals1 it is   
doing him  honor to place him in the    
same class4 ,for1 truly1 up to a certain

  age1 he is more of an animal than     
they1 since at birth he has less        
instinct4 ,what animal would die of     
hunger in the midst of a river of  milk8
 ,man alone4 ,like that child of olden  
time to whom a modern writer1  refers1  
following ,arnobius1#cf he knows neither
 the foods suitable for  him1 nor the   
water that can drown him1 nor the fire  
that can reduce him  to ashes4 ,light a 
wax candle for the first time under a   
child's eyes1  and he will mechanically 
put his fingers in the flame as if to   
find  out what is the new thing that he 
sees4 ,it is at his own cost that  he   
will learn of the danger1 but he will   
not be caught again4 ,or1  put the child
 with an animal on a precipice1 the     
child alone falls  off2 he drowns where 
the animal would save itself by         
swimming4 ,at  fourteen or fifteen years
 the child knows hardly anything of the 
great pleasures in store for him1 in the
 reproduction of his species2  when he  
is a youth1 he does not know exactly how

 to behave in a game  which nature      
teaches animals so quickly4 ,he hides   
himself as if he  were ashamed of taking
 pleasure1 and of having been made to be
 happy1  while animals frankly glory in 
being cynics4 ,without education1 they  
are without prejudices4 ,for one more   
example1 let us observe a dog and  a    
child who have lost their master on a   
highway3 the child cries and  does not  
know to what saint to pray1 while the   
dog1 better helped by  his sense of     
smell than the child by his reason1 soon
 finds his master4    ,thus nature made 
us to be lower than animals or at least 
to exhibit all  the more1 because of    
that native inferiority1 the wonderful  
efficacy  of education which alone      
raises us from the level of the animals 
and lifts us above them4 ,but shall we  
grant this same distinction to  the deaf
 and to the blind1 to imbeciles1 madmen1
 or savages1 or to  those who have been 
brought up in the woods with animals2 to
 those  who have lost their imagination 

through melancholia1 or in short to  all
 those animals in human form who give   
evidence of only the rudest  instinct8  
,no1 all these1 men of body but not of  
mind1 do not deserve  to be classed by  
themselves4    ,we do not intend to hide
 from ourselves the arguments that can  
be brought forward against our belief   
and in favor of a primitive  distinction
 between men and animals4 ,some say that
 there is in man  a natural law1 a      
knowledge of good and evil1 which has   
never been  imprinted on the heart of   
animals4    ,but is this objection1 or  
rather this assertion1 based on         
observation8 ,any assertion unfounded on
 observation may be rejected by  a      
philosopher4 ,have we ever had a single 
experience which convinces  us that man 
alone has been enlightened by a ray     
denied all other  animals8 ,if there is 
no such experience1 we can no more know 
what  goes on in animals' minds or even 
in the minds of other men1 than  we can 
help feeling what affects the inner part

 of our own being4 ,we  know that we    
think1 and feel remorse--an intimate    
feeling forces us to  recognize this    
only too well2 but this feeling in us is
 insufficient to  enable us to judge the
 remorse of others4 ,that is why we have
 to take  others at their word1 or judge
 them by the sensible and external signs
  we have noticed in ourselves when we  
experienced the same accusations  of    
conscience and the same torments4    ,in
 order to decide whether animals which  
do not talk have received the  natural  
law1 we must1 therefore1 have recourse  
to those signs to which  ,i have just   
referred1 if any such exist4 ,the facts 
seem to prove it4 ,a  dog that bit the  
master who was teasing it1 seemed to    
repent a minute  afterwards2 it looked  
sad1 ashamed1 afraid to show itself1 and
 seemed  to confess its guilt by a      
crouching and downcast air4 ,history    
offers  us a famous example of a lion   
which would not devour a man abandoned  
to its fury1 because it recognized him  

as its benefactor4 ,how much  might it  
be wished that man himself always showed
 the same gratitude  for kindnesses1 and
 the same respect for humanity6 ,then we
 should no  longer fear either          
ungrateful wretches1 or wars which are  
the plague  of the human race and the   
real executioners of the natural law4   
,but a being to which nature has given  
such a precocious and enlightened       
instinct1 which judges1 combines1       
reasons1 and deliberates as far  as the 
sphere of its activity extends and      
permits1 a being which  feels attachment
 because of benefits received1 and which
 leaving a  master who treats it badly  
goes to seek a better one1 a being with 
a structure like ours1 which performs   
the same acts1 has the same  passions1  
the same griefs1 the same pleasures1    
more or less intense  according to the  
sway of the imagination and the delicacy
 of the  nervous organization--does not 
such a being show clearly that it  knows
 its faults and ours1 understands good  

and evil1 and in a word1  has           
consciousness of what it does8 ,would   
its soul1 which feels the  same joys1   
the same mortification and the same     
discomfiture which we  feel1 remain     
utterly unmoved by disgust when it saw a
 fellow-creature  torn to bits1 or when 
it had itself pitilessly dismembered    
this  fellow-creature8 ,if this be      
granted1 it follows that the precious   
gift  now in question would not have    
been denied to animals3 for since they  
show us sure signs of repentance1 as    
well as of intelligence1 what  is there 
absurd in thinking that beings1 almost  
as perfect machines  as ourselves1 are1 
like us1 made to understand and to feel 
nature8    ,let no one object that      
animals1 for the most part1 are savage  
beasts1 incapable of realizing the evil 
that they do2 for do all men            
discriminate better between vice and    
virtue8 ,there is ferocity in our       
species as well as in theirs4 ,men who  
are in the barbarous habit of  breaking 

the natural law are not tormented as    
much by it1 as those who  transgress it 
for the first time1 and who have not    
been hardened by  the force of habit4   
,the same thing is true of animals as of
 men--both  may be more or less         
ferocious in temperament1 and both      
become more  so by living with others   
like themselves4 ,but a gentle and      
peaceful  animal which lives among other
 animals of the same disposition and of 
gentle nurture1 will be an enemy of     
blood and carnage2 it will blush        
internally at having shed blood4 ,there 
is perhaps this difference1  that since 
among animals everything is sacrificed  
to their needs1 to  their pleasures1 to 
the necessities of life1 which they     
enjoy more  than we1 their remorse      
apparently should not be as keen as     
ours1  because we are not in the same   
state of necessity as they4 ,custom     
perhaps dulls and perhaps stifles       
remorse as well as pleasures4    ,but ,i
 will suppose for a moment that ,i am   

utterly mistaken in  concluding that    
almost all the world holds a wrong      
opinion on this  subject1 while ,i alone
 am right4 ,i will grant that animals1  
even  the best of them1 do not know the 
difference between moral good and  evil1
 that they have no recollection of the  
trouble taken for them1  of the kindness
 done them1 no realization of their own 
virtues4 ,i  will suppose1 for instance1
 that this lion1 to which ,i1 like so   
many  others1 have referred1 does not   
remember at all that it refused to  kill
 the man1 abandoned to its fury1 in a   
combat more inhuman than  one could find
 among lions1 tigers and bears1 put     
together4 ,for our  compatriots fight1  
,swiss against ,swiss1 brother against  
brother1  recognize each other1 and yet 
capture and kill each other without     
remorse1 because a prince pays for the  
murder4 ,i suppose in short  that the   
natural law has not been given animals4 
,what will be the  consequences of this 
supposition8 ,man is not moulded from a 

costlier  clay2 nature has used but one 
dough1 and has merely varied the        
leaven4 ,therefore if animals do not    
repent for having violated this  inmost 
feeling which ,i am discussing1 or      
rather if they absolutely  lack it1 man 
must necessarily be in the same         
condition4 ,farewell  then to the       
natural law and all the fine treatises  
published about  it6 ,the whole animal  
kingdom in general would be deprived of 
it4 ,but1  conversely1 if man can not   
dispense with the belief that when      
health  permits him to be himself1 he   
always distinguishes the upright1       
humane1  and virtuous1 from those who   
are not humane1 virtuous1 nor honorable3
  that it is easy to tell vice from     
virtue1 by the unique pleasure and  the 
peculiar repugnance that seem to be     
their natural effects1 it  follows that 
animals1 composed of the same matter1   
lacking perhaps  only one degree of     
fermentation to make it exactly like    
man's1  must share the same prerogatives

 of animal nature1 and that thus  there 
exists no soul or sensitive substance   
without remorse4#cg  ,the following     
consideration will reinforce these      
observations4    ,it is impossible to   
destroy the natural law4 ,the impress of
 it on  all animals is so strong1 that  
,i have no doubt that the wildest and   
most savage have some moments of        
repentance4 ,i believe that that  cruel 
maid of ,chalons in ,champagne must have
 sorrowed for her crime1  if she really 
ate her sister4 ,i think that the same  
thing is true  of all those who commit  
crimes1 even involuntary or             
temperamental  crimes3 true of ,gaston  
of ,orleans who could not help stealing2
 of a  certain woman who was subject to 
the same crime when pregnant1 and  whose
 children inherited it2 of the woman    
who1 in the same condition1  ate her    
husband2 of that other woman who killed 
her children1 salted  their bodies1 and 
ate a piece of them every day1 as a     
little relish2  of that daughter of a   

thief and cannibal who at twelve years  
followed  in his steps1 although she had
 been orphaned when she was a year old1 
and had been brought up by honest       
people2 to say nothing of many other    
examples of which the records of our    
observers are full1 all of them  proving
 that there are a thousand hereditary   
vices and virtues which  are transmitted
 from parents to children as those of   
the foster mother  pass to the children 
she nurses4 ,now1 ,i believe and admit  
that these  wretches do not for the most
 part feel at the time the enormity of  
their actions4 ,bulimia1 or canine      
hunger1 for example1 can stifle  all    
feeling2 it is a mania of the stomach   
that one is compelled to  satisfy1 but  
what remorse must be in store for those 
women1 when they  come to themselves and
 grow sober1 and remember the crimes    
they have  committed against those they 
held most dear6 ,what a punishment for  
an involuntary crime which they could   
not resist1 of which they had  no       

consciousness whatever6 ,however1 this  
is apparently not enough  for the       
judges4 ,for of these women1 of whom ,i 
tell1 one was cruelly  beaten and       
burned1 and another was buried alive4 ,i
 realize all that  is demanded by the   
interest of society4 ,but doubtless it  
is much to  be wished that excellent    
physicians might be the only judges4    
,they  alone could tell the innocent    
criminal from the guilty4 ,if reason is 
the slave of a depraved or mad desire1  
how can it control the desire8    ,but  
if crime carries with it its own more or
 less cruel punishment1  if the most    
continued and most barbarous habit can  
not entirely blot  out repentance in the
 crudest hearts1 if criminals are       
lacerated by the  very memory of their  
deeds1 why should we frighten the       
imagination of  weak minds1 by a hell1  
by specters1 and by precipices of fire  
even less  real than those of ,pascal8  
#ae ,why must we have recourse to       
fables1 as  an honest pope once said    

himself1 to torment even the unhappy    
wretches  who are executed1 because we  
do not think that they are sufficiently 
punished by their own conscience1 their 
first executioner8 ,i do  not mean to   
say that all criminals are unjustly     
punished2 ,i only  maintain that those  
whose will is depraved1 and whose       
conscience is  extinguished1 are        
punished enough by their remorse when   
they come to  themselves1 a remorse1 ,i 
venture to assert1 from which nature    
should in  this case have delivered     
unhappy souls dragged on by a fatal     
necessity4    ,criminals1 scoundrels1   
ingrates1 those in short without natural
  feelings1 unhappy tyrants who are     
unworthy of life1 in vain take  a cruel 
pleasure in their barbarity1 for there  
are calm moments of  reflection in which
 the avenging conscience arises1        
testifies against  them1 and condemns   
them to be almost ceaselessly torn to   
pieces at  their own hands4 ,whoever    
torments men is tormented by himself2   

and  the sufferings that he will        
experience will be the just measure of  
those that he has inflicted4    ,on the 
other hand1 there is so much pleasure in
 doing good1 in  recognizing and        
appreciating what one receives1 so much 
satisfaction  in practising virtue1 in  
being gentle1 humane1 kind1 charitable1 
compassionate and generous 7for this one
 word includes all the  virtues71 that  
,i consider as sufficiently punished any
 one who is  unfortunate enough not to  
have been born virtuous4    ,we were not
 originally made to be learned2 we have 
become so perhaps  by a sort of abuse of
 our organic faculties1 and at the      
expense of  the ,state which nourishes a
 host of sluggards whom vanity has      
adorned  with the name of philosophers4 
,nature has created us all solely to be 
happy#ch--yes1 all of us from the       
crawling worm to the eagle lost  in the 
clouds4 ,for this cause she has given   
all animals some share  of natural law1 
a share greater or less according to the

 needs of  each animal's organs when in 
normal condition4    ,now how shall we  
define natural law8 ,it is a feeling    
that teaches us  what we should not do1 
because we would not wish it to be done 
to  us4 ,should ,i dare add to this     
common idea1 that this feeling seems  to
 me but a kind of fear or dread1 as     
salutary to the race as to the          
individual2 for may it not be true that 
we respect the purse and life  of others
 only to save our own possessions1 our  
honor1 and ourselves2  like those       
,ixions of ,christianity#ci who love    
,god and embrace so  many fantastic     
virtues1 merely because they are afraid 
of hell6    ,you see that natural law is
 but an intimate feeling that1  like all
 other feelings 7thought included71     
belongs also to  imagination4           
,evidently1 therefore1 natural law does 
not presuppose  education1 revelation1  
nor legislator1--provided one does not  
propose  to confuse natural law with    
civil laws1 in the ridiculous fashion of

  the theologians4    ,the arms of      
fanaticism may destroy those who support
 these truths1  but they will never     
destroy the truths themselves4    ,i do 
not mean to call in question the        
existence of a supreme being2  on the   
contrary it seems to me that the        
greatest degree of probability  is in   
favor of this belief4 ,but since the    
existence of this being goes  no further
 than that of any other toward proving  
the need of worship1  it is a theoretic 
truth with very little practical value4 
,therefore1  since we may say1 after    
such long experience1 that religion does
 not  imply exact honesty1 we are       
authorized by the same reasons to think 
that atheism does not exclude it4       
,furthermore1 who can be sure that the  
reason for man's existence  is not      
simply the fact that he exists8#dj      
,perhaps he was thrown by  chance on    
some spot on the earth's surface1 nobody
 knows how nor why1  but simply that he 
must live and die1 like the mushrooms   

which appear  from day to day1 or like  
those flowers which border the ditches  
and  cover the walls4    ,let us not    
lose ourselves in the infinite1 for we  
are not made to have  the least idea    
thereof1 and are absolutely unable to   
get back to the  origin of things4      
,besides it does not matter for our     
peace of mind1  whether matter be       
eternal or have been created1 whether   
there be or  be not a ,god4 ,how foolish
 to torment ourselves so much about     
things  which we can not know1 and which
 would not make us any happier even     
were we to gain knowledge about them6   
,but1 some will say1 read all such works
 as those of ,fnelon1#da of             
,nieuwentyt1#db of ,abadie1#dc of       
,derham1#dd of ,rais1#de and the  rest4 
,well6 what will they teach me or rather
 what have they taught  me8 ,they are   
only tiresome repetitions of zealous    
writers1 one of  whom adds to the other 
only verbiage1 more likely to strengthen
 than  to undermine the foundations of  

atheism4 ,the number of the evidences   
drawn from the spectacle of nature does 
not give these evidences any  more      
force4 ,either the mere structure of a  
finger1 of an ear1 of an  eye1 a single 
observation of ,malpighi#df proves all1 
and doubtless  much better than         
,descartes and ,malebranche proved it1  
or all the  other evidences prove       
nothing4 ,deists1#dg and even           
,christians1 should  therefore be       
content to point out that throughout the
 animal kingdom  the same aims are      
pursued and accomplished by an infinite 
number of  different mechanisms1 all of 
them however exactly geometrical4 ,for  
what  stronger weapons could there be   
with which to overthrow atheists8 ,it   
is true that if my reason does not      
deceive me1 man and the whole  universe 
seem to have been designed for this     
unity of aim4 ,the sun1  air1 water1 the
 organism1 the shape of                 
bodies1--everything is brought  to a    
focus in the eye as in a mirror that    

faithfully presents to the  imagination 
all the objects reflected in it1 in     
accordance with the  laws required by   
the infinite variety of bodies which    
take part in  vision4 ,in ears we find  
everywhere a striking variety1 and yet  
the  difference of structure in men1    
animals1 birds1 and fishes1 does not    
produce different uses4 ,all ears are so
 mathematically made1 that  they tend   
equally to one and the same end1 namely1
 hearing4 ,but would  ,chance1 the deist
 asks1 be a great enough geometrician to
 vary thus1  at pleasure1 the works of  
which she is supposed to be the author1 
without being hindered by so great a    
diversity from gaining the  same end8   
,again1 the deist will bring forward as 
a difficulty those  parts of the animal 
that are clearly contained in it for    
future use1  the butterfly in the       
caterpillar1 man in the sperm1 a whole  
polyp in  each of its parts1 the valvule
 in the oval orifice1 the lungs in the  
foetus1 the teeth in their sockets1 the 

bones in the fluid from which  they     
detach themselves and 7in an            
incomprehensible manner7 harden4 ,and   
since the partisans of this theory1 far 
from neglecting anything that  would    
strengthen it1 never tire of piling up  
proof upon proof1 they  are willing to  
avail themselves of everything1 even of 
the weakness  of the mind in certain    
cases4 ,look1 they say1 at men like     
,spinoza1  ,vanini1#dh ,desbarreau1#di  
and ,boindin1#ej apostles who honor     
deism  more than they harm it4 ,the     
duration of their health was the measure
  of their unbelief1 and one rarely     
fails1 they add1 to renounce atheism    
when the passions1 with their           
instrument1 the body1 have grown weak4  
,that is certainly the most that can be 
said in favor of the  existence of ,god3
 although the last argument is frivolous
 in that  these conversions are short1  
and the mind almost always regains its  
former opinions and acts accordingly1 as
 soon as it has regained or  rather     

rediscovered its strength in that of the
 body4 ,that is1 at  least1 much more   
than was said by the physician          
,diderot1#ea in his  ,penses            
,philosophiques1 a sublime work that    
will not convince a  single atheist4    
,what reply can1 in truth1 be made to a 
man who says1  ,we do not know nature2  
causes hidden in her breast might have  
produced  everything4 ,in your turn1    
observe the polyp of ,trembley3#eb does 
it  not contain in itself the causes    
which bring about regeneration8 ,why    
then would it be absurd to think that   
there are physical causes by  reason of 
which everything has been made1 and to  
which the whole chain  of this vast     
universe is so necessarily bound and    
held that nothing  which happens1 could 
have failed to happen1#ec--;causes1 of  
which we  are so invincibly ignorant    
that we have had recourse to a ,god1    
who1 as  some aver1 is not so much as a 
logical entity8 ,thus to destroy chance 
is not to prove the existence of a      

supreme being1 since there may be  some 
other thing which is neither chance nor 
,god--,i mean1 nature4 ,it  follows that
 the study of nature can make only      
unbelievers2 and the  way of thinking of
 all its more successful investigators  
proves this4    ,the weight of the      
universe therefore far from crushing a  
real atheist  does not even shake him4  
,all these evidences of a creator1      
repeated  thousands and thousands of    
times1 evidences that are placed far    
above  the comprehension of men like us1
 are self-evident 7however far one  push
 the argument7 only to the              
anti-,pyrrhonians1#ed or to those who   
have enough confidence in their reason  
to believe themselves capable of        
judging on the basis of certain         
phenomena1 against which1 as you see1   
the atheists can urge others perhaps    
equally strong and absolutely  opposed4 
,for if we listen to the naturalists    
again1 they will tell  us that the very 
causes which1 in a chemist's hands1 by a

 chance  combination1 made the first    
mirror1 in the hands of nature made the 
pure water1 the mirror of the simple    
shepherdess2 that the motion which      
keeps the world going could have created
 it1 that each body has taken  the place
 assigned to it by its own nature1 that 
the air must have  surrounded the earth1
 and that iron and the other metals are 
produced  by internal motions of the    
earth1 for one and the same reason2 that
  the sun is as much a natural product  
as electricity1 that it was not  made to
 warm the earth and its inhabitants1    
whom it sometimes burns1  any more than 
the rain was made to make the seeds     
grow1 which it often  spoils2 that the  
mirror and the water were no more made  
for people to  see themselves in1 than  
were all other polished bodies with this
 same  property2 that the eye is in     
truth a kind of glass in which the soul 
can contemplate the image of objects as 
they are presented to it by  these      
bodies1 but that it is not proved that  

this organ was really made  expressly   
for this contemplation1 nor purposely   
placed in its socket1  and in short that
 it may well be that ,lucretius1#ee the 
physician  ,lamy1#ef and all ,epicureans
 both ancient and modern were right when
  they suggested that the eye sees only 
because it is formed and placed  as it  
is1#eg and that1 given once for all1 the
 same rules of motion  followed by      
nature in the generation and development
 of bodies1  this marvelous organ could 
not have been formed and placed         
differently4    ,such is the pro and the
 con1 and the summary of those fine     
arguments  that will eternally divide   
the philosophers4 ,i do not take either 
side4          ,non nostrum inter vos   
tantas componere lites4#eh      ,this is
 what ,i said to one of my friends1 a   
,frenchman1 as frank a  ,pyrronian as   
,i1 a man of much merit1 and worthy of a
 better fate4 ,he  gave me a very       
singular answer in regard to the matter4
 ,it is true1  he told me1 that the pro 

and con should not disturb at all the   
soul of  a philosopher1 who sees that   
nothing is proved with clearness enough 
to force his consent1 and that the      
arguments offered on one side  are      
neutralized by those of the other4      
,however1 he continued1 the  universe   
will never be happy1 unless it is       
atheistic4#ei ,here are  this wretch's  
reasons4 ,if atheism1 said he1 were     
generally accepted1  all the forms of   
religion would then be destroyed and cut
 off at the  roots4 ,no more theological
 wars1 no more soldiers of              
religion--such  terrible soldiers6      
,nature infected with a sacred poison1  
would regain  its rights and its purity4
 ,deaf to all other voices1 tranquil    
mortals  would follow only the          
spontaneous dictates of their own being 
the  only commands which can never be   
despised with impunity and which  alone 
can lead us to happiness through the    
pleasant paths of virtue4    ,such is   
natural law3 whoever rigidly observes it

 is a good man and  deserves the        
confidence of all the human race4       
,whoever fails to follow  it            
scrupulously affects1 in vain1 the      
specious exterior of another  religion2 
he is a scamp or a hypocrite whom ,i    
distrust4    ,after this1 let a vain    
people think otherwise1 let them dare   
affirm  that even probity is at stake in
 not believing in revelation1  in a word
 that another religion than that of     
nature is necessary1  whatever it may   
be4 ,such an assertion is wretched and  
pitiable2  and so is the good opinion   
which each one gives us of the religion 
he has embraced6 ,we do not seek here   
the votes of the crowd4 ,whoever  raises
 in his heart altars to superstition1 is
 born to worship idols  and not to      
thrill to virtue4    ,but since all the 
faculties of the soul depend to such a  
degree  on the proper organization of   
the brain and of the whole body1  that  
apparently they are but this            
organization itself1 the soul is        

clearly an enlightened machine4 ,for    
finally1 even if man alone had  received
 a share of natural law1 would he be any
 less a machine for  that8 ,a few more  
wheels1 a few more springs than in the  
most perfect  animals1 the brain        
proportionally nearer the heart and for 
this very  reason receiving more        
blood--any one of a number of unknown   
causes  might always produce this       
delicate conscience so easily wounded1  
this  remorse which is no more foreign  
to matter than to thought1 and in a     
word all the differences that are       
supposed to exist here4 ,could the      
organism then suffice for everything8   
,once more1 yes2 since thought  visibly 
develops with our organs1 why should not
 the matter of which  they are composed 
be susceptible of remorse also1 when    
once it has  acquired1 with time1 the   
faculty of feeling8    ,the soul is     
therefore but an empty word1 of which no
 one has any  idea1 and which an        
enlightened man should use only to      

signify the  part in us that thinks4#fj 
,given the least principle of motion1   
animated bodies will have all that is   
necessary for moving1 feeling1          
thinking1 repenting1 or in a word for   
conducting themselves in the  physical  
realm1 and in the moral realm which     
depends upon it4    ,yet we take nothing
 for granted2 those who perhaps think   
that all the  difficulties have not yet 
been removed shall now read of          
experiments  that will completely       
satisfy them4    #a4 ,the flesh of all  
animals palpitates after death4 ,this   
palpitation  continues longer1 the more 
cold blooded the animal is and the less 
it perspires4 ,tortoises1 lizards1      
serpents1 etc4 are evidence of this4    
#b4 ,muscles separated from the body    
contract when they are stimulated4      
#c4 ,the intestines keep up their       
peristaltic or vermicular motion for  a 
long time4    #d4 ,according to         
,cowper1#fa a simple injection of hot   
water reanimates  the heart and the     

muscles4    #e4 ,a frog's heart moves   
for an hour or more after it has been   
removed  from the body1 especially when 
exposed to the sun or better still when 
placed on a hot table or chair4 ,if this
 movement seems totally lost1  one has  
only to stimulate the heart1 and that   
hollow muscle beats  again4 ,harvey#fb  
made this same observation on toads4    
#f4 ,bacon of ,verulam#fc in his        
treatise ,sylva ,sylvarum cites the     
case of a man convicted of treason1 who 
was opened alive1 and whose  heart      
thrown into hot water leaped several    
times1 each time less high1  to the     
perpendicular height of two feet4    #g4
 ,take a tiny chicken still in the egg1 
cut out the heart and you  will observe 
the same phenomena as before1 under     
almost the same  conditions4 ,the warmth
 of the breath alone reanimates an      
animal about  to perish in the air pump4
    ,the same experiments1 which we owe 
to ,boyle#fd and to ,stnon1#fe  are made
 on pigeons1 dogs1 and rabbits4 ,pieces 

of their hearts beat  as their whole    
hearts would4 ,the same movements can be
 seen in paws  that have been cut off   
from moles4    #h4 ,the caterpillar1 the
 worm1 the spider1 the fly1 the eel--all
 exhibit  the same phenomena2 and in hot
 water1 because of the fire it contains1
  the movement of the detached parts    
increases4    #i4 ,a drunken soldier cut
 off with one stroke of his sabre an    
,indian  rooster's head4 ,the animal    
remained standing1 then walked1 and ran3
  happening to run against a wall1 it   
turned around1 beat its wings  still    
running1 and finally fell down4 ,as it  
lay on the ground1 all the  muscles of  
this rooster kept on moving4 ,that is   
what ,i saw myself1  and almost the same
 phenomena can easily be observed in    
kittens or  puppies with their heads cut
 off4    #aj4 ,polyps do more than move 
after they have been cut in pieces4 ,in 
a  week they regenerate to form as many 
animals as there are pieces4 ,i  am     
sorry that these facts speak against the

 naturalists' system of  generation2 or 
rather ,i am very glad of it1 for let   
this discovery  teach us never to reach 
a general conclusion even on the ground 
of  all known 7and most decisive7       
experiments4    ,here we have many more 
facts than are needed to prove1 in an   
incontestable way1 that each tiny fibre 
or part of an organized  body moves by a
 principle which belongs to it4 ,its    
activity1 unlike  voluntary motions1    
does not depend in any way on the       
nerves1 since  the movements in question
 occur in parts of the body which have  
no  connection with the circulation4    
,but if this force is manifested even   
in sections of fibres the heart1 which  
is a composite of peculiarly  connected 
fibres1 must possess the same property4 
,i did not need  ,bacon's story to      
persuade me of this4 ,it was easy for me
 to come to  this conclusion1 both from 
the perfect analogy of the structure of 
the  human heart with that of animals1  
and also from the very bulk of the      

human heart1 in which this movement     
escapes our eyes only because it is     
smothered1 and finally because in       
corpses all the organs are cold and     
lifeless4 ,if executed criminals were   
dissected while their bodies are  still 
warm1 we should probably see in their   
hearts the same movements  that are     
observed in the face-muscles of those   
that have been beheaded4    ,the motive 
principle of the whole body1 and even of
 its parts cut in  pieces1 is such that 
it produces not irregular movements1 as 
some have  thought1 but very regular    
ones1 in warm blooded and perfect       
animals  as well as in cold and         
imperfect ones4 ,no resource therefore  
remains  open to our adversaries but to 
deny thousands and thousands of facts   
which every man can easily verify4      
,if now any one ask me where is this    
innate force in our bodies1  ,i answer  
that it very clearly resides in what the
 ancients called  the parenchyma1 that  
is to say1 in the very substance of the 

organs  not including the veins1 the    
arteries1 the nerves1 in a word1 that it
  resides in the organization of the    
whole body1 and that consequently  each 
organ contains within itself forces more
 or less active according  to the need  
of them4    ,let us now go into some    
detail concerning these springs of the  
human  machine4 ,all the vital1 animal1 
natural1 and automatic motions are      
carried on by their action4 ,is it not  
in a purely mechanical way  that the    
body shrinks back when it is struck with
 terror at the  sight of an unforeseen  
precipice1 that the eyelids are lowered 
at  the menace of a blow1 as some have  
remarked1 and that the pupil  contracts 
in broad daylight to save the retina1   
and dilates to see  objects in darkness8
 ,is it not by mechanical means that the
 pores  of the skin close in winter so  
that the cold can not penetrate to  the 
interior of the blood vessels1 and that 
the stomach vomits when  it is irritated
 by poison1 by a certain quantity of    

opium and by all  emetics1 etc48 that   
the heart1 the arteries and the muscles 
contract  in sleep as well as in waking 
hours1 that the lungs serve as bellows  
continually in exercise1 444 that the   
heart contracts more strongly  than any 
other muscle8#ff444    ,i shall not go  
into any more detail concerning all     
these little  subordinate forces1 well  
known to all4 ,but there is another more
  subtle and marvelous force1 which     
animates them all2 it is the source  of 
all our feelings1 of all our pleasures1 
of all our passions1 and  of all our    
thoughts3 for the brain has its muscles 
for thinking1  as the legs have muscles 
for walking4#fg ,i wish to speak of this
  impetuous principle that ,hippocrates 
calls enormn 7soul74 ,this  principle   
exists and has its seat in the brain at 
the origin of the  nerves1 by which it  
exercises its control over all the rest 
of the  body4 ,by this fact is explained
 all that can be explained1 even to  the
 surprising effects of maladies of the  

imagination4444    ,look at the portrait
 of the famous ,pope who is1 to say the 
least1  the ,voltaire of the ,english4  
,the effort1 the energy of his genius   
are  imprinted upon his countenance4 ,it
 is convulsed4 ,his eyes protrude  from 
their sockets1 the eyebrows are raised  
with the muscles of the  forehead4 ,why8
 ,because the brain is in travail and   
all the body must  share in such a      
laborious deliverance4 ,if there were   
not an internal  cord which pulled the  
external ones1 whence would come all    
these  phenomena8 ,to admit a soul as   
explanation of them1 is to be reduced to
  explaining phenomena by the operations
 of the ,holy ,spirit4    ,in fact1 if  
what thinks in my brain is not a part of
 this organ and  therefore of the whole 
body1 why does my blood boil1 and the   
fever of  my mind pass into my veins1   
when lying quietly in bed1 ,i am forming
  the plan of some work or carrying on  
an abstract calculation8 ,put  this     
question to men of imagination1 to great

 poets1 to men who are  enraptured by   
the felicitous expression of sentiment1 
and transported  by an exquisite fancy  
or by the charms of nature1 of truth1 or
 of  virtue6 ,by their enthusiasm1 by   
what they will tell you they have       
experienced1 you will judge the cause by
 its effects2 by that harmony  which    
,borelli1#fh a mere anatomist1          
understood better than all the          
,leibnizians1 you will comprehend the   
material unity of man4 ,in short1  if   
the nerve-tension which causes pain     
occasions also the fever by  which the  
distracted mind loses its will-power1   
and if1 conversely1  the mind too much  
excited1 disturbs the body 7and kindles 
that inner  fire which killed ,bayle    
while he was still so young72 if an     
agitation  rouses my desire and my      
ardent wish for what1 a moment ago1 ,i  
cared  nothing about1 and if in their   
turn certain brain impressions excite   
the same longing and the same desires1  
then why should we regard as  double    

what is manifestly one being8 ,in vain  
you fall back on the  power of the will1
 since for one order that the will      
gives1 it bows a  hundred times to the  
yoke4#fi ,and what wonder that in health
 the body  obeys1 since a torrent of    
blood and of animal spirits#gj forces   
its  obedience1 and since the will has  
as ministers an invisible legion of     
fluids swifter than lightning and ever  
ready to do its bidding6 ,but  as the   
power of the will is exercised by means 
of the nerves1 it is  likewise limited  
by them44444    ,does the result of     
jaundice surprise you8 ,do you not know 
that the  color of bodies depends on the
 color of the glasses through which  we 
look at them1#ga and that whatever is   
the color of the humors1  such is the   
color of objects1 at least for us1 vain 
playthings of a  thousand illusions8    
,but remove this color from the aqueous 
humor of  the eye1 let the bile flow    
through its natural filter1 then the    
soul  having new eyes1 will no longer   

see yellow4 ,again1 is it not thus1 by  
removing cataract1 or by injecting the  
,eustachian canal1 that sight  is       
restored to the blind1 or hearing to the
 deaf8 ,how many people1  who were      
perhaps only clever charlatans1 passed  
for miracle workers  in the dark ages6  
,beautiful the soul1 and powerful the   
will which  can not act save by         
permission of the bodily conditions1 and
 whose  tastes change with age and      
fever6 ,should we1 then1 be astonished  
that philosophers have always had in    
mind the health of the body1  to        
preserve the health of the soul1 that   
,pythagoras#gb gave rules  for the diet 
as carefully as ,plato forbade wine8#gc 
,the regime  suited to the body is      
always the one with which sane          
physicians  think they must begin1 when 
it is a question of forming the mind1   
and of instructing it in the knowledge  
of truth and virtue2 but  these are vain
 words in the disorder of illness1 and  
in the tumult  of the senses4 ,without  

the precepts of hygiene1 ,epictetus1    
,socrates1  ,plato1 and the rest preach 
in vain3 all ethics is fruitless for one
  who lacks his share of temperance2 it 
is the source of all virtues1  as       
intemperance is the source of all vices4
    ,is more needed1 7for why lose      
myself in discussion of the passions    
which are all explained by the term1    
enormn1 of ,hippocrates7 to prove  that 
man is but an animal1 or a collection of
 springs which wind each  other up1     
without our being able to tell at what  
point in this human  circle1 nature has 
begun8 ,if these springs differ among   
themselves1  these differences consist  
only in their position and in their     
degrees  of strength1 and never in their
 nature2 wherefore the soul is but  a   
principle of motion or a material and   
sensible part of the brain1  which can  
be regarded1 without fear of error1 as  
the mainspring of  the whole machine1   
having a visible influence on all the   
parts4 ,the  soul seems even to have    

been made for the brain1 so that all the
 other  parts of the system are but a   
kind of emanation from the brain4 ,this 
will appear from certain observations1  
made on different embryos1  which ,i    
shall now enumerate4    ,this           
oscillation1 which is natural or suited 
to our machine1 and with  which each    
fibre and even each fibrous element1 so 
to speak1 seems  to be endowed1 like    
that of a pendulum1 can not keep up     
forever4 ,it  must be renewed1 as it    
loses strength1 invigorated when it is  
tired1  and weakened when it is         
disturbed by excess of strength and     
vigor4 ,in  this alone1 true medicine   
consists4    ,the body is but a watch1  
whose watchmaker is the new chyle4      
,nature's  first care1 when the chyle   
enters the blood1 is to excite in it a  
kind of fever#gd which the chemists1 who
 dream only of retorts1 must  have taken
 for fermentation4 ,this fever produces 
a greater filtration  of spirits1 which 
mechanically animate the muscles and the

 heart1  as if they had been sent there 
by order of the will4    ,these then are
 the causes or the forces of life which 
thus sustain for  a hundred years that  
perpetual movement of the solids and the
 liquids  which is as necessary to the  
first as to the second4 ,but who can say
  whether the solids contribute more    
than the fluids to this movement or     
vice versa8 ,all that we know is that   
the action of the former would  soon    
cease without the help of the latter1   
that is1 without the help  of the fluids
 which by their onset rouse and maintain
 the elasticity  of the blood vessels on
 which their own circulation depends4   
,from this  it follows that after death 
the natural resilience of each substance
  is still more or less strong according
 to the remnants of life which  it      
outlives1 being the last to perish4 ,so 
true is it that this force  of the      
animal parts can be preserved and       
strengthened by that of  the            
circulation1 but that it does not depend

 on the strength of the  circulation1   
since1 as we have seen1 it can dispense 
with even the  integrity of each member 
or organ4    ,i am aware that this      
opinion has not been relished by all    
scholars1  and that ,stahl especially   
had much scorn for it4 ,this great      
chemist  has wished to persuade us that 
the soul is the sole cause of all our   
movements4 ,but this is to speak as a   
fanatic and not as a philosopher4    ,to
 destroy the hypothesis of ,stahl1#ge we
 need not make as great an  effort as ,i
 find that others have done before me4  
,we need only glance  at a violinist4   
,what flexibility1 what lightness in his
 fingers6 ,the  movements are so quick1 
that it seems almost as if there were no
  succession4 ,but ,i pray1 or rather ,i
 challenge1 the followers of  ,stahl who
 understand so perfectly all that our   
soul can do1 to  tell me how it could   
possibly execute so many motions so     
quickly1  motions1 moreover1 which take 
place so far from the soul1 and in so   

many different places4 ,that is to      
suppose that a flute player could  play 
brilliant cadences on an infinite number
 of holes that he could  not know1 and  
on which he could not even put his      
finger6    ,but let us say with ,m4     
,hecquet#gf that all men may not go to  
,corinth4#gg ,why should not ,stahl have
 been even more favored by nature  as a 
man than as a chemist and a             
practitioner8 ,happy mortal1 he must    
have received a soul different from that
 of the rest of mankind1--a  sovereign  
soul1 which1 not content with having    
some control over  the voluntary        
muscles1 easily held the reins of all   
the movements  of the body1 and could   
suspend them1 calm them1 or excite them1
  at its pleasure6 ,with so despotic a  
mistress1 in whose hands were1  in a    
sense1 the beating of the heart1 and the
 laws of circulation1  there could      
certainly be no fever1 no pain1 no      
weariness14446 ,the  soul wills1 and the
 springs play1 contract or relax4 ,but  

how did the  springs of ,stahl's machine
 get out of order so soon8 ,he who has  
in  himself so great a doctor1 should be
 immortal4    ,moreover1 ,stahl is not  
the only one who has rejected the       
principle  of the vibration of organic  
bodies4 ,greater minds have not used    
the principle when they wished to       
explain the action of the heart1  444   
etc4 ,one need only read the            
,institutions of ,medicine by           
,boerhaave#gh to see what laborious and 
enticing systems this great  man was    
obliged to invent1 by the labor of his  
mighty genius1 through  failure to admit
 that there is so wonderful a force in  
all bodies4    ,willis#gi and           
,perrault1#hj minds of a more feeble    
stamp1 but careful  observers of nature 
7whereas nature was known to the famous 
,leyden  professor only through others  
and second hand1 so to speak7 seem to   
have preferred to suppose a soul        
generally extended over the whole  body1
 instead of the principle which we are  

describing4 ,but according  to this     
hypothesis 7which was the hypothesis of 
,vergil and of all  ,epicureans1 an     
hypothesis which the history of the     
polyp might seem  at first sight to     
favor7 the movements which go on after  
the death of  the subject in which they 
inhere are due to a remnant of soul     
still  maintained by the parts that     
contract1 though1 from the moment of    
death1 these are not excited by the     
blood and the spirits4 ,whence it  may  
be seen that these writers1 whose solid 
works easily eclipse all  philosophic   
fables1 are deceived only in the manner 
of those who have  endowed matter with  
the faculty of thinking1 ,i mean to say1
 by having  expressed themselves badly  
in obscure and meaningless terms4 ,in   
truth1 what is this remnant of a soul1  
if it is not the moving  force of the   
,leibnizians 7badly rendered by such an 
expression71  which however ,perrault in
 particular has really foreseen4 ,see   
his  ,treatise on the ,mechanism of     

,animals4    ,now that it is clearly    
proved against the ,cartesians1 the     
followers of  ,stahl1 the               
,malebranchists1 and the theologians who
 little deserve to be  mentioned here1  
that matter is self-moved1#ha not only  
when organized1  as in a whole heart1   
for example1 but even when this         
organization has  been destroyed1 human 
curiosity would like to discover how a  
body1  by the fact that it is originally
 endowed with the breath of life1  finds
 itself adorned in consequence with the 
faculty of feeling1  and thus with that 
of thought4 ,and1 heavens1 what efforts 
have not  been made by certain          
philosophers to manage to prove this6   
and what  nonsense on this subject ,i   
have had the patience to read6    ,all  
that experience teaches us is that while
 movement persists1 however  slight it  
may be1 in one or more fibres1 we need  
only stimulate them  to re-excite and   
animate this movement almost            
extinguished4 ,this has  been shown in  

the host of experiments with which ,i   
have undertaken  to crush the systems4  
,it is therefore certain that motion and
 feeling  excite each other in turn1    
both in a whole body and in the same    
body  when its structure is destroyed1  
to say nothing of certain plants which  
seem to exhibit the same phenomena of   
the union of feeling and motion4    ,but
 furthermore1 how many excellent        
philosophers have shown that  thought is
 but a faculty of feeling1 and that the 
reasonable soul  is but the feeling soul
 engaged in contemplating its ideas and 
in  reasoning6 ,this would be proved by 
the fact alone that when feeling  is    
stifled1 thought also is checked1 for   
instance in apoplexy1 in  lethargy1 in  
catalepsis1 etc4 ,for it is ridiculous  
to suggest that1  during these stupors1 
the soul keeps on thinking1 even though 
it does  not remember the ideas that it 
has had4    ,as to the development of   
feeling and motion1 it is absurd to     
waste  time seeking for its mechanism4  

,the nature of motion is as unknown  to 
us as that of matter4#hb ,how can we    
discover how it is produced  unless1    
like the author of ,the ,history of the 
,soul1 we resuscitate  the old and      
unintelligible doctrine of substantial  
forms8 ,i am then  quite as content not 
to know how inert and simple matter     
becomes  active and highly organized1 as
 not to be able to look at the sun      
without red glasses2 and ,i am as little
 disquieted concerning the  other       
incomprehensible wonders of nature1 the 
production of feeling  and of thought in
 a being which earlier appeared to our  
limited eyes  as a mere clod of clay4   
,grant only that organized matter is    
endowed with a principle of motion1     
which alone differentiates it from the  
inorganic 7and can one deny  this in the
 face of the most incontestable         
observation87 and that  among animals1  
as ,i have sufficiently proved1         
everything depends  upon the diversity  
of this organization3 these admissions  

suffice  for guessing the riddle of     
substances and of man4 ,it thus appears 
that there is but one type of           
organization in the universe1 and  that 
man is the most perfect example4 ,he is 
to the ape1 and to the  most intelligent
 animals1 as the planetary pendulum of  
,huyghens#hc  is to a watch of ,julien  
,leroy4#hd ,more instruments1 more      
wheels and  more springs were necessary 
to mark the movements of the planets    
than  to mark or strike the hours2 and  
,vaucanson1#he who needed more skill    
for making his flute player than for    
making his duck1 would have needed      
still more to make a talking man1 a     
mechanism no longer to be regarded  as  
impossible1 especially in the hands of  
another ,prometheus4 ,in like  fashion1 
it was necessary that nature should use 
more elaborate art  in making and       
sustaining a machine which for a whole  
century could  mark all motions of the  
heart and of the mind2 for though one   
does  not tell time by the pulse1 it is 

at least the barometer of the warmth    
and the vivacity by which one may       
estimate the nature of the soul4 ,i  am 
right6 ,the human body is a watch1 a    
large watch constructed with  such skill
 and ingenuity1 that if the wheel which 
marks the seconds  happens to stop1 the 
minute wheel turns and keeps on going   
its round1  and in the same way the     
quarter-hour wheel1 and all the others  
go  on running when the first wheels    
have stopped because rusty or1  for any 
reason1 out of order4 ,is it not for a  
similar reason that  the stoppage of a  
few blood vessels is not enough to      
destroy or  suspend the strength of the 
movement which is in the heart as in the
  mainspring of the machine2 since1 on  
the contrary1 the fluids whose  volume  
is diminished1 having a shorter road to 
travel1 cover the  ground more quickly1 
borne on as by a fresh current which the
 energy  of the heart increases in      
proportion to the resistance it         
encounters  at the ends of the          

blood-vessels8 ,and is not this the     
reason why the  loss of sight 7caused by
 the compression of the optic nerve and 
by  its ceasing to convey the images of 
objects7 no more hinders hearing1  than 
the loss of hearing 7caused by          
obstruction of the functions of the     
auditory nerve7 implies the loss of     
sight8 ,in the same way1 finally1  does 
not one man hear 7except immediately    
after his attack7 without  being able to
 say that he hears1 while another who   
hears nothing1 but  whose lingual nerves
 are uninjured in the brain1            
mechanically tells  of all the dreams   
which pass through his mind8 ,these     
phenomena do not  surprise enlightened  
physicians at all4 ,they know what to   
think about  man's nature1 and 7more    
accurately to express myself in passing7
 of two  physicians1 the better one and 
the one who deserves more confidence is 
always1 in my opinion1 the one who is   
more versed in the physique or          
mechanism of the human body1 and who1   

leaving aside the soul and all  the     
anxieties which this chimera gives to   
fools and to ignorant men1  is seriously
 occupied only in pure naturalism4      
,therefore let the pretended ,m4 ,charp 
deride philosophers who have  regarded  
animals as machines4 ,how different is  
my view6 ,i believe  that ,descartes    
would be a man in every way worthy of   
respect1 if1  born in a century that he 
had not been obliged to enlighten1 he   
had  known the value of experiment and  
observation1 and the danger of  cutting 
loose from them4 ,but it is none the    
less just for me to make  an authentic  
reparation to this great man for all the
 insignificant  philosophers--poor      
jesters1 and poor imitators of          
,locke--who instead  of laughing        
impudently at ,descartes1 might better  
realize that without  him the field of  
philosophy1 like the field of science   
without ,newton1  might perhaps be still
 uncultivated4    ,this celebrated      
philosopher1 it is true1 was much       

deceived1 and no  one denies that4 ,but 
at any rate he understood animal nature1
 he was  the first to prove completely  
that animals are pure machines4#hf  ,and
 after a discovery of this importance   
demanding so much sagacity1  how can we 
without ingratitude fail to pardon all  
his errors6    ,in my eyes1 they are all
 atoned for by that great confession4   
,for after  all1 although he extols the 
distinctness of the two substances1 this
  is plainly but a trick of skill1 a    
ruse of style1 to make theologians      
swallow a poison1 hidden in the shade of
 an analogy which strikes  everybody    
else and which they alone fail to       
notice4 ,for it is this1  this strong   
analogy1 which forces all scholars and  
wise judges to  confess that these proud
 and vain beings1 more distinguished by 
their  pride than by the name of men    
however much they may wish to exalt     
themselves1 are at bottom only animals  
and machines which1 though  upright1 go 
on all fours4 ,they all have this       

marvelous instinct1 which  is developed 
by education into mind1 and which always
 has its seat  in the brain1 7or for    
want of that when it is lacking or      
hardened1 in  the medulla oblongata7 and
 never in the cerebellum2 for ,i have   
often  seen the cerebellum injured1 and 
other observers #af have found it       
hardened1 when the soul has not ceased  
to fulfil its functions4    ,to be a    
machine1 to feel1 to think1 to know how 
to distinguish good  from bad1 as well  
as blue from yellow1 in a word1 to be   
born with  an intelligence and a sure   
moral instinct1 and to be but an animal1
  are therefore characters which are no 
more contradictory1 than to  be an ape  
or a parrot and to be able to give      
oneself pleasure4444 ,i  believe that   
thought is so little incompatible with  
organized matter1  that it seems to be  
one of its properties on a par with     
electricity1  the faculty of motion1    
impenetrability1 extension1 etc4    ,do 
you ask for further observations8 ,here 

are some which are  incontestable and   
which all prove that man resembles      
animals perfectly1  in his origin as    
well as in all the points in which we   
have thought  it essential to make the  
comparison4444    ,let us observe man   
both in and out of his shell1 let us    
examine young  embryos of four1 six1    
eight or fifteen days with a microscope2
 after  that time our eyes are          
sufficient4 ,what do we see8 ,the head  
alone2  a little round egg with two     
black points which mark the eyes4       
,before  that1 everything is formless1  
and one sees only a medullary pulp1     
which is the brain1 in which are formed 
first the roots of the nerves1  that is1
 the principle of feeling1 and the      
heart1 which already  within this       
substance has the power of beating of   
itself2 it is the  punctum saliens of   
,malpighi1 which perhaps already owes a 
part of its  excitability to the        
influence of the nerves4 ,then little by
 little1 one  sees the head lengthen    

from the neck1 which1 in dilating1 forms
 first  the thorax inside which the     
heart has already sunk1 there to become 
stationary2 below that is the abdomen   
which is divided by a partition  7the   
diaphragm74 ,one of these enlargements  
of the body forms the arms1  the hands1 
the fingers1 the nails1 and the hair2   
the other forms the  thighs1 the legs1  
the feet1 etc41 which differ only in    
their observed  situation1 and which    
constitute the support and the balancing
 pole of  the body4 ,the whole process  
is a strange sort of growth1 like that  
of plants4 ,on the tops of our heads is 
hair in place of which the  plants have 
leaves and flowers2 everywhere is shown 
the same luxury  of nature1 and finally 
the directing principle of plants is    
placed  where we have our soul1 that    
other quintessence of man4    ,such is  
the uniformity of nature1 which we are  
beginning to realize2  and the analogy  
of the animal with the vegetable        
kingdom1 of man with  plant4 ,perhaps   

there even are animal plants1 which in  
vegetating1  either fight as polyps do1 
or perform other functions              
characteristic  of animals4444    ,we   
are veritable moles in the field of     
nature2 we achieve little more  than the
 mole's journey and it is our pride     
which prescribes limits  to the         
limitless4 ,we are in the position of a 
watch that should say  7a writer of     
fables would make the watch a hero in a 
silly tale73  ,i was never made by that 
fool of a workman1 ,i who divide time1  
who  mark so exactly the course of the  
sun1 who repeat aloud the hours  which  
,i mark6 ,no6 that is impossible6 ,in   
the same way1 we disdain1  ungrateful   
wretches that we are1 this common mother
 of all kingdoms1  as the chemists say4 
,we imagine1 or rather we infer1 a cause
 superior  to that to which we owe all1 
and which truly has wrought all things  
in an inconceivable fashion4 ,no2 matter
 contains nothing base1 except  to the  
vulgar eyes which do not recognize her  

in her most splendid  works2 and nature 
is no stupid workman4 ,she creates      
millions of men1  with a facility and a 
pleasure more intense than the effort of
 a  watchmaker in making the most       
complicated watch4 ,her power shines    
forth equally in creating the lowliest  
insect and in creating the  most highly 
developed man2 the animal kingdom costs 
her no more than  the vegetable1 and the
 most splendid genius no more than a    
blade  of wheat4 ,let us then judge by  
what we see of that which is hidden     
from the curiosity of our eyes and of   
our investigations1 and let  us not     
imagine anything beyond4 ,let us observe
 the ape1 the beaver1  the elephant1    
etc41 in their operations4 ,if it is    
clear that these  activities can not be 
performed without intelligence1 why     
refuse  intelligence to these animals8  
,and if you grant them a soul1 you are  
lost1 you fanatics6 ,you will in vain   
say that you assert nothing about  the  
nature of the animal soul and that you  

deny its immortality4 ,who  does not see
 that this is a gratuitous assertion2   
who does not see that  the soul of an   
animal must be either mortal or         
immortal1 whichever  ours is1 and that  
it must therefore undergo the same fate 
as ours1  whatever that may be1 and that
 thus in admitting that animals have    
souls1 you fall into ,scylla in the     
effort to avoid ,charybdis8    ,break   
the chain of your prejudices1 arm       
yourselves with the torch  of           
experience1 and you will render to      
nature the honor she deserves1  instead 
of inferring anything to her            
disadvantage1 from the ignorance  in    
which she has left you4 ,only open wide 
your eyes1 only disregard  what you can 
not understand1 and you will see that   
the ploughman whose  intelligence and   
ideas extend no further than the bounds 
of his furrow1  does not differ         
essentially from the greatest genius1--a
 truth which  the dissection of         
,descartes's and of ,newton's brains    

would have proved2  you will be         
persuaded that the imbecile and the fool
 are animals with  human faces1 as the  
intelligent ape is a little man in      
another shape2  in short1 you will learn
 that since everything depends          
absolutely on  difference of            
organization1 a well constructed animal 
which has studied  astronomy1 can       
predict an eclipse1 as it can predict   
recovery or death  when it has used its 
genius and its clearness of vision1 for 
a time1  in the school of ,hippocrates  
and at the bedside of the sick4 ,by this
  line of observations and truths1 we   
come to connect the admirable  power of 
thought with matter1 without being able 
to see the links1  because the subject  
of this attribute is essentially unknown
 to us4    ,let us not say that every   
machine or every animal perishes        
altogether  or assumes another form     
after death1 for we know absolutely     
nothing  about the subject4 ,on the     
other hand1 to assert that an immortal  

machine is a chimera or a logical       
fiction1 is to reason as absurdly  as   
caterpillars would reason if1 seeing the
 cast-off skins of their                
fellow-caterpillars1 they should        
bitterly deplore the fate of their      
species1 which to them would seem to    
come to nothing4 ,the soul of these     
insects 7for each animal has his own7 is
 too limited to comprehend  the         
metamorphoses of nature4 ,never one of  
the most skilful among them  could have 
imagined that it was destined to become 
a butterfly4 ,it  is the same with us4  
,what more do we know of our destiny    
than of our  origin8 ,let us then submit
 to an invincible ignorance on which our
  happiness depends4    ,he who so      
thinks will be wise1 just1 tranquil     
about his fate1 and  therefore happy4   
,he will await death without either fear
 or desire1 and  will cherish life      
7hardly understanding how disgust can   
corrupt a heart  in this place of many  
delights72 he will be filled with       

reverence1  gratitude1 affection1 and   
tenderness for nature1 in proportion to 
his  feeling of the benefits he has     
received from nature2 he will be happy1 
in short1 in feeling nature1 and in     
being present at the enchanting         
spectacle of the universe1 and he will  
surely never destroy nature  either in  
himself or in others4 ,more than that6  
,full of humanity1  this man will love  
human character even in his enemies4    
,judge how he  will treat others4 ,he   
will pity the wicked without hating     
them2 in his  eyes1 they will be but    
mis-made men4 ,but in pardoning the     
faults of the  structure of mind and    
body1 he will none the less admire the  
beauties  and the virtues of both4      
,those whom nature shall have favored   
will  seem to him to deserve more       
respect than those whom she has treated 
in  stepmotherly fashion4 ,thus1 as we  
have seen1 natural gifts1 the source  of
 all acquirements1 gain from the lips   
and heart of the materialist1  the      

homage which every other thinker        
unjustly refuses them4 ,in short1  the  
materialist1 convinced1 in spite of the 
protests of his vanity1  that he is but 
a machine or an animal1 will not        
maltreat his kind1  for he will know too
 well the nature of those actions1 whose
 humanity  is always in proportion to   
the degree of the analogy proved above  
between human beings and animals2 and   
following the natural law  given to all 
animals1 he will not wish to do to      
others what he would  not wish them to  
do to him4    ,let us then conclude     
boldly that man is a machine1 and that  
in  the whole universe there is but a   
single substance differently  modified4 
,this is no hypothesis set forth by dint
 of a number of  postulates and         
assumptions2 it is not the work of      
prejudice1 nor even  of my reason alone2
 ,i should have disdained a guide which 
,i think to  be so untrustworthy1 had   
not my senses1 bearing a torch1 so to   
speak1  induced me to follow reason by  

lighting the way themselves4 ,experience
  has thus spoken to me in behalf of    
reason2 and in this way ,i have         
combined the two4    ,but it must have  
been noticed that ,i have not allowed   
myself even the  most vigorous and      
immediately deduced reasoning1 except as
 a result  of a multitude of            
observations which no scholar will      
contest2 and  furthermore1 ,i recognize 
only scholars as judges of the          
conclusions  which ,i draw from the     
observations2 and ,i hereby challenge   
every  prejudiced man who is neither    
anatomist1 nor acquainted with the  only
 philosophy which can here be           
considered1 that of the human  body4    
,against so strong and solid an oak1    
what could the weak reeds of  theology1 
of metaphysics1 and of the schools1     
avail1--childish arms1  like our parlor 
foils1 that may well afford the pleasure
 of fencing1  but can never wound an    
adversary4 ,need ,i say that ,i refer to
 the empty  and trivial notions1 to the 

pitiable and trite arguments that will  
be  urged 7as long as the shadow of     
prejudice or of superstition remains  on
 earth7 for the supposed incompatibility
 of two substances which  meet and move 
each other unceasingly8 ,such is my     
system1 or rather  the truth1 unless ,i 
am much deceived4 ,it is short and      
simple4 ,dispute  it now who will4      
,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,of ,,the    
,,soul4                         ,,by    
,,jean ,,offray ,,de ,,la ,,mettrie4    
,,extracts4      ,,chapter ,,ii4        
,,concerning ,,matter4      ,all        
philosophers who have examined          
attentively the nature of matter1       
considered in itself1 independently of  
all the forms which constitute  bodies1 
have discovered in this substance1      
diverse properties  proceeding from an  
absolutely unknown essence4 ,such are1  
7#a7 the  capacity of taking on         
different forms1 which are produced in  
matter  itself1 by which matter can     
acquire moving force and the faculty of 

feeling2 7#b7 actual extension1 which   
these philosophers have rightly         
recognized as an attribute1 but not as  
the essence1 of matter4    ,however1    
there have been some1 among others      
,descartes1 who have  insisted on       
reducing the essence of matter to simple
 extension1  and on limiting all the    
properties of matter to those of        
extension2  but this opinion has been   
rejected by all other modern            
philosophers1  444 so that the power of 
acquiring moving force1 and the faculty 
of feeling as well as that of extension1
 have been from all time  considered as 
essential properties#hg of matter4      
,all the diverse properties that are    
observed in this unknown principle      
demonstrate a being in which these same 
properties exist1 a being  which must   
therefore exist through itself4 ,but we 
can not conceive1  or rather it seems   
impossible1 that a being which exists   
through  itself should be able neither  
to create nor to annihilate itself4 ,it 

is evident that only the forms to which 
its essential properties  make it       
susceptible can be destroyed and        
reproduced in turn4 ,thus1  does        
experience force us to confess that     
nothing can come from nothing4    ,all  
philosophers who have not known the     
light of faith1 have thought  that this 
substantial principle of bodies has     
existed and will exist  forever1 and    
that the elements of matter have an     
indestructible  solidity which forbids  
the fear that the world is going to fall
 to  pieces4 ,the majority of ,christian
 philosophers also recognize that the   
substantial principle of bodies exists  
necessarily through itself1  and that   
the power of beginning or ending does   
not accord with its  nature4 ,one finds 
that this view is upheld by an author of
 the last  century who taught theology  
in ,paris4          ,,chapter ,,iii4    
,,concerning ,,the ,,extension ,,of     
,,matter4      ,although we have no idea
 of the essence of matter1 we can not   

refuse to  admit the existence of the   
properties which our senses discover in 
it4    ,i open my eyes1 and ,i see      
around me only matter1 or the  extended4
 ,extension is then a property which    
always belongs to all  matter1 which can
 belong to matter alone1 and which      
therefore is  inseparable from the      
substance of matter4    ,this property  
presupposes three dimensions in the     
substance of bodies1  length1 width1 and
 depth4 ,truly1 if we consult our       
knowledge1 which is  gained entirely    
from the senses1 we cannot conceive of  
matter1 or the  substance of bodies1    
without having the idea of a being which
 is at  the same time long1 broad1 and  
deep2 because the idea of these three   
dimensions is necessarily bound up with 
our idea of every magnitude  or         
quantity4    ,those philosophers who    
have meditated most concerning matter do
 not  understand by the extension of    
this substance1 a solid extension       
composed of distinct parts1 capable of  

resistance4 ,nothing is united1  nothing
 is divided in this extension2 for there
 must be a force which  separates to    
divide1 and another force to unite the  
divided parts4 ,but  in the opinion of  
these physical philosophers matter has  
no actually  active force1 because every
 force can come only from movement1 or  
from  some impulse or tendency toward   
movement1 and they recognize in matter1 
stripped of all form by abstraction1    
only a potential moving force4    ,this 
theory is hard to conceive1 but given   
its principles1 it is  rigorously true  
in its consequences4 ,it is one of those
 algebraic  truths which is more readily
 believed than conceived by the mind4   
,the extension of matter is then but a  
metaphysical extension1 which  according
 to the idea of these very philosophers1
 presents nothing to  affect our senses4
 ,they rightly think that only solid    
extension can  make an impression on our
 senses4 ,it thus seems to us that      
extension  is an attribute which        

constitutes part of the metaphysical    
form1  but we are far from thinking that
 extension constitutes its essence4     
,however1 before ,descartes1 some of the
 ancients made the essence of  matter   
consist in solid extension4 ,but this   
opinion1 of which all the  ,cartesians  
have made much1 has at all times been   
victoriously combated  by clear reasons1
 which we will set forth later1 for     
order demands that  we first examine to 
what the properties of extension can be 
reduced4          ,,chapter ,v4         
,,concerning ,,the ,,moving ,,force ,,of
 ,,matter4      ,the ancients1 persuaded
 that there is no body without a moving 
force1 regarded the substance of bodies 
as composed of two primitive            
attributes4 ,it was held that1 through  
one of these attributes1 this  substance
 has the capacity for moving and1       
through the other1 the  capacity for    
being moved4#hh ,as a matter of fact1 it
 is impossible  not to conceive these   
two attributes in every moving body1    

namely1  the thing which moves1 and the 
same thing which is moved4    ,it has   
just been said that formerly the name1  
matter1 was given to  the substance of  
bodies1 in so far as it is susceptible  
of being  moved4 ,when capable of moving
 this same matter was known by the name 
of active principle4444 ,but these two  
attributes seem to depend so            
essentially on each other that ,cicero1 
in order better to state this  essential
 and primitive union of matter with its 
moving principle1  says that each is    
found in the other4 ,this expresses very
 well the  idea of the ancients4        
,from this it is clear that modern      
writers have given us but an inexact    
idea of matter in attempting 7through a 
confusion ill understood7  to give this 
name to the substance of bodies4 ,for1  
once more1 matter1  or the passive      
principle of the substance of bodies1   
constitutes only  one part of this      
substance4 ,thus it is not surprising   
that these  modern thinkers have not    

discovered in matter moving force and   
the  faculty of feeling4    ,it should  
now be evident at the first glance1 it  
seems to me1 that  if there is an active
 principle it must have1 in the unknown 
essence  of matter1 another source than 
extension4 ,this proves that simple     
extension fails to give an adequate idea
 of the complete essence or             
metaphysical form of the substance of   
bodies1 and that this failure is  due   
solely to the fact that extension       
excludes the idea of any activity  in   
matter4 ,therefore1 if we demonstrate   
this moving principle1 if we  show that 
matter1 far from being as indifferent as
 it is supposed  to be1 to movement and 
to rest1 ought to be regarded as an     
active1  as well as a passive substance1
 what resource can be left to those  who
 have made its essence consist in       
extension8    ,the two principles of    
which we have just spoken1 extension and
 moving  force1 are then but            
potentialities of the substance of      

bodies2 for  in the same way in which   
this substance is susceptible of        
movement1  without actually being moved1
 it also has always1 even when it is    
not moving itself1 the faculty of       
spontaneous motion4    ,the ancients    
have rightly noticed that this moving   
force acts in the  substance of bodies  
only when the substance is manifested in
 certain  forms2 they have also observed
 that the different motions which it    
produces are all subject to these       
different forms or regulated by  them4  
,that is why the forms1 through which   
the substance of bodies  can not only   
move1 but also move in different ways1  
were called  material forms4    ,once   
these early masters had cast their eyes 
on all the phenomena  of nature1 they   
discovered in the substance of bodies1  
the power  of self-movement4 ,in fact1  
this substance either moves itself1 or  
when it is in motion1 the motion is     
communicated to it by another           
substance4 ,but can anything be seen in 

this substance1 save the  substance     
itself in action2 and if sometimes it   
seems to receive a  motion that it has  
not1 does it receive that motion from   
any cause  other than this same kind of 
substance1 whose parts act the one upon 
the other8    ,if1 then1 one infers     
another agent1 ,i ask what agent1 and ,i
 demand  proofs of its existence4 ,but  
since no one has the least idea of such 
an agent1 it is not even a logical      
entity4 ,therefore it is clear  that the
 ancients must have easily recognized an
 intrinsic force of  motion within the  
substance of bodies1 since in fact it is
 impossible  to prove or conceive any   
other substance acting upon it4         
,descartes1 a genius made to blaze new  
paths and to go astray in them1         
supposed with some other philosophers   
that ,god is the only efficient  cause  
of motion1 and that every instant ,he   
communicates motion to all  bodies4 ,but
 this opinion is but an hypothesis which
 he tried to adjust  to the light of    

faith2 and in so doing he was no longer 
attempting  to speak as a philosopher or
 to philosophers4 ,above all he was not 
addressing those who can be convinced   
only by the force of evidence4    ,the  
,christian ,scholastics of the last     
centuries have felt the full  force of  
this reflection2 for this reason they   
have wisely limited  themselves to      
purely philosophic knowledge concerning 
the motion of  matter1 although they    
might have shown that ,god ,himself said
 that ,he  had imprinted an active      
principle in the elements of matter     
7,gen4 i2  ,is4 lxvi74    ,one might    
here make up a long list of authorities1
 and take from the  most celebrated     
professors the substance of the doctrine
 of all the  rest2 but it is clear      
enough1 without a medley of citations1  
that  matter contains this moving force 
which animates it1 and which is  the    
immediate cause of all the laws of      
motion4          ,,chapter ,,vi4        
,,concerning ,,the ,,sensitive ,,faculty

 ,,of ,,matter4      ,we have spoken of 
two essential attributes of matter1 upon
 which  depend the greater number of its
 properties1 namely extension and       
moving force4 ,we have now but to prove 
a third attribute3 ,i mean the  faculty 
of feeling which the philosophers of all
 centuries have found  in this same     
substance4 ,i say all philosophers1     
although ,i am not  ignorant of all the 
efforts which the ,cartesians have made1
 in vain1  to rob matter of this        
faculty4 ,but in order to avoid         
insurmountable  difficulties1 they have 
flung themselves into a labyrinth from  
which  they have thought to escape by   
this absurd system that animals are     
pure machines4#hi    ,an opinion so     
absurd has never gained admittance among
 philosophers1  except as the play of   
wit or as a philosophical pastime4 ,for 
this  reason we shall not stop to refute
 it4 ,experience gives us no less  proof
 of the faculty of feeling in animals   
than of feeling in men4444    ,there    

comes up another difficulty which more  
nearly concerns our  vanity3 namely1 the
 impossibility of our conceiving this   
property as a  dependence or attribute  
of matter4 ,let it not be forgotten that
 this  substance reveals to us only     
ineffable characters4 ,do we understand 
better how extension is derived from its
 essence1 how it can be moved  by a     
primitive force whose action is exerted 
without contact1 and a  thousand other  
miracles so hidden from the gaze of the 
most penetrating  eyes1 that 7to        
paraphrase the idea of an illustrious   
modern writer7  they reveal only the    
curtain which conceals them8    ,but    
might not one suppose as some have      
supposed1 that the feeling  which is    
observed in animated bodies1 might      
belong to a being distinct  from the    
matter of these bodies1 to a substance  
of a different nature  united to them8  
,does the light of reason allow us in   
good faith to  admit such conjectures8  
,we know in bodies only matter1 and we  

observe  the faculty of feeling only in 
bodies3 on what foundation then can  we 
erect an ideal being1 disowned by all   
our knowledge8    ,however1 we must     
admit1 with the same frankness1 that we 
are ignorant  whether matter has in     
itself the faculty of feeling1 or only  
the power  of acquiring it by those     
modifications or forms to which matter  
is  susceptible2 for it is true that    
this faculty of feeling appears only  in
 organic bodies4    ,this is then       
another new faculty which might exist   
only potentially  in matter1 like all   
the others which have been mentioned2   
and this was  the hypothesis of the     
ancients1 whose philosophy1 full of     
insight and  penetration1 deserves to be
 raised above the ruins of the          
philosophy  of the moderns4 ,it is in   
vain that the latter disdain the sources
  too remote from them4 ,ancient        
philosophy will always hold its own     
among those who are worthy to judge it1 
because it forms 7at least  in relation 

to the subject of which ,i am treating7 
a system that is  solid and well        
articulated like the body1 whereas all  
these scattered  members of modern      
philosophy form no system4              
,,appendix4                             
,,outlines ,,and ,,notes4               
,,by ,,gertrude ,,carman ,,bussey4      
,,la ,,mettrie',s ,,relation ,,to ,,his 
,,predecessors ,,and ,,to ,,his         
,,successors4      ,i4 ,the ,historical 
,relation of ,la ,mettrie to ,ren       
,descartes 7#aeif-afej74    ,the most   
direct source of ,la ,mettrie's work1 if
 the physiological  aspect of his system
 is set aside1 is found in the          
philosophy of  ,descartes4 ,in fact it  
sometimes seems as if ,la ,mettrie's    
materialism  grew out of his insistence 
on the contradictory character of the   
dualistic system of ,descartes4 ,he     
criticises ,descartes's statement  that 
the body and soul are absolutely        
independent1 and takes great  pains to  
show the dependence of the soul on the  

body4 ,yet though ,la  ,mettrie's system
 may be opposed to that of ,descartes   
#ag from one  point of view1 from       
another point of view it seems to be a  
direct  consequence of it4 ,la ,mettrie 
himself recognizes this relationship and
  feels that his doctrine that man is a 
machine1 is a natural inference  from   
,descartes's teaching that animals are  
mere machines4 #ah ,moreover  ,la       
,mettrie carries on ,descartes's        
conception of the body as a machine1    
and many of his detailed discussions of 
the machinery of the body  seem to have 
been drawn from ,descartes4    ,it      
should be noted that ,la ,mettrie did   
justice to ,descartes1 and  realized how
 much all philosophers owed to him4 ,he 
insisted moreover  that ,descartes's    
errors were due to his failure to follow
 his own  method4 #ai ,yet ,la          
,mettrie's method was different from    
that of  ,descartes1 for ,la ,mettrie   
was an empiricist #bj without           
rationalistic  leaning4 ,as regards     

doctrine3 ,la ,mettrie differed from    
,descartes in  his opinion of matter4   
,since he disbelieved in any spiritual  
reality1  he gave matter the attributes 
of motion and thought1 while ,descartes 
insisted that the one attribute of      
matter is extension4 #ba ,it  was a     
natural consequence of ,la ,mettrie's   
disbelief in spiritual  substance that  
he could throw doubt on the existence of
 ,god4 #bb  ,on the other hand the      
belief in ,god was one of the           
foundations of  ,descartes's system4 ,la
 ,mettrie tried to show that            
,descartes's belief  in a soul and in   
,god was merely designed to hide his    
true thought  from the priests1 and to  
save himself from persecution4 #bc      
,i,ia4 ,the ,likeness of ,la ,mettrie to
 the ,english ,materialists1 ,thomas    
,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 and ,john ,toland  
7#afgj-agba74    ,the influence of      
,descartes upon ,la ,mettrie cannot be  
questioned but it  is more difficult to 
estimate the influence upon him of      

materialistic  philosophers4 ,hobbes    
published ,the ,leviathan in #afea and  
,de ,corpore  in #afee4 ,thus he wrote  
about a century before ,la ,mettrie1 and
 since  the eighteenth century was one  
in which the influence of ,england upon 
,france was very great1 it is easy to   
suppose that ,la ,mettrie had read      
,hobbes4 ,if so1 he must have gained    
many ideas from him4 ,the extent  of    
this influence is1 however1 unknown1 for
 ,la ,mettrie rarely if ever  quotes    
from ,hobbes1 or attributes any of his  
doctrines to ,hobbes4    ,in the first  
place1 both ,hobbes and ,la ,mettrie are
 thoroughgoing  materialists4 ,they both
 believe that body is the only reality1 
and that  anything spiritual is         
unimaginable4 #bd ,furthermore their    
conceptions  of matter are very similar4
 ,according to ,la ,mettrie1 matter     
contains  the faculty of sensation and  
the power of motion as well as the      
quality of extension4 #be ,this same    
conception of matter is held by         

,hobbes1 for he specifically attributes 
extension and motion to matter1  and    
then reduces sensation to a kind of     
internal motion4 #bf ,thus  sensation   
also may be an attribute of matter4     
,moreover ,hobbes and  ,la ,mettrie are 
in agreement on many smaller points1 and
 ,la ,mettrie  elaborates much that is  
suggested in ,hobbes4 ,they both believe
 that  the passions are dependent on    
bodily conditions4 #bg ,they agree in   
the belief that all the differences in  
men are due to differences  in the      
constitution and organization of their  
bodies4 #bh ,they both  discuss the     
nature and importance of language4 #bi  
,hobbes differs from ,la ,mettrie in    
holding that we can be sure that ,god   
exists as the cause of this world4 #cj  
,however even though he thinks  that it 
is possible to know that ,god exists1 he
 does not believe that  we can know his 
nature4    ,la ,mettrie's system may be 
regarded as the application of a system 
like  that of ,hobbes to the special    

problem of the relation of soul and body
  in man2 for if there is nothing in the
 universe but matter and motion1  it    
inevitably follows that man is merely a 
very complicated machine4    ,there is  
great similarity also between the       
doctrine of ,la ,mettrie and  that of   
,toland4 ,it is interesting to note the 
points of resemblance  and of           
difference4 ,toland's ,letters to       
,serena1 which contain much  of his     
philosophical teaching1 were published  
in #agjd4 ,there is  a possibility      
therefore that ,la ,mettrie read them   
and gained some  suggestions from them4 
,the point most emphasized in ,toland's 
teaching #ca is that motion  is an      
attribute of matter4 ,he argues for this
 belief on the ground  that matter must 
be essentially active in order to       
undergo change1  #cb and that the       
conception of the inertness of matter is
 based  on the conception of absolute   
rest1 and that this absolute rest  is   
nowhere to be found4 #cc ,since motion  

is essential to matter1  there is no    
need1 ,toland believes1 to account for  
the beginning of  motion4 ,those who    
have regarded matter as inert have had  
to find some  efficient cause for       
motion1 and to do this1 they have held  
that all  nature is animated4 ,but this 
pretended animation is utterly useless1 
since matter is itself endowed with     
motion4 #cd ,the likeness to  ,la       
,mettrie is evident4 ,la ,mettrie       
likewise opposes the doctrine of  the   
animation of matter1 and the belief in  
any external cause of  motion4 #ce ,yet 
he feels the need of postulating some   
beginning  of motion1 #cf and although  
he uses the conception so freely1 he    
does not agree with ,toland that the    
nature of motion is known4 ,he  believes
 that it is impossible to know the      
nature of motion1 #cg  while ,toland    
believes that the nature of motion is   
self-evident4 #ch    ,another point of  
contrast between ,toland and ,la        
,mettrie is in  their doctrines of ,god4

 ,toland believes that ,god1 a pure     
spirit  or immaterial being1 is         
necessary for his system1 #ci while ,la 
,mettrie questions ,god's existence and 
insists that immateriality and          
spirituality are fine words that no one 
understands4    ,it must be admitted1 in
 truth1 that ,la ,mettrie and ,toland   
have  different interests and different 
points of view4 ,toland is concerned  to
 discover the essential nature of       
matter1 while ,la ,mettrie's problem  is
 to find the specific relation of body  
and mind4 ,on this relation1  he builds 
his whole system4          b4 ,the      
,relation of ,la ,mettrie to an ,english
 ,sensationalist3 ,john ,locke          
7#afcb-agjd74    ,locke's ,essay        
,concerning ,human ,understanding was   
published in #afij1  and ,la ,mettrie1  
like most cultured ,frenchmen of the    
,enlightenment1  was influenced by his  
teaching4 ,the main agreement between   
,locke  and ,la ,mettrie is in their    
doctrine that all ideas are derived from

  sensation4 ,both vigorously oppose the
 belief in innate ideas1 #dj  teaching  
that even our most complex and our most 
abstract ideas are  gained through      
sensation4 ,but ,la ,mettrie does not   
follow ,locke in  analyzing these ideas 
and in concluding that many sensible    
qualities  of objects--such as colors1  
sounds1 etc4--have no existence outside 
the mind4 #da ,he rejects ,locke's      
doctrine of spiritual substances1  #db  
and opposes ,locke's theistic teaching1 
laying stress1 on the  other hand1 upon 
,locke's admission of the possibility   
that thinking  being may also be        
material4 #dc          ,i,i,ia4 ,the    
,likeness1 probable but unacknowledged1 
to ,la ,mettrie1 of  the ,french        
,sensationalists1 ,etienne ,bonnot de   
,condillac 7#agae-aghj7  and ,claude    
,adrien ,helvetius 7#agae-agga74        
,condillac's ,trait des sensations was  
published about ten years  after ,la    
,mettrie's ,l'histoire naturelle de     
l'me1 and therefore it  is probable that

 ,condillac had read this work1 and     
gained some ideas  from it4 ,yet        
,condillac never mentions ,la ,mettrie's
 name nor cites  his doctrines4 ,this   
omission may be accounted for by the    
fact that  the works of ,la ,mettrie had
 been so condemned that later           
philosophers  wished to conceal the     
similarity of their doctrines to his4   
,whether  the sensationalists were      
influenced by his teachings or not1     
there  is such a profound likeness in   
their teachings1 that ,la ,mettrie may  
well be regarded as one of the first    
,french sensationalists as well  as one 
of the leading ,french materialists of  
the time4    ,condillac and ,la ,mettrie
 agree that experience is the source of 
all  knowledge4 ,as ,lange suggests1 #dd
 ,la ,mettrie's development of reason   
from the imagination may have suggested 
to ,condillac the way to develop  all   
the faculties from the soul4 ,la        
,mettrie asserts that reason is but  the
 sensitive soul contemplating its ideas1

 and that imagination plays  all the    
rles of the soul1 while ,condillac      
elaborates the same idea1  and shows in 
great detail how all the faculties of   
the soul are but  modifications of      
sensation4 #de    ,both ,la ,mettrie and
 ,condillac believe that there is no    
gulf between  man and the lower animals2
 but this leads to a point of           
disagreement  between the two           
philosophers1 for ,condillac absolutely 
denies that  animals can be mere        
machines1 #df and we must suppose that  
he  would the more ardently oppose the  
teaching that man is merely a           
complicated machine6 ,condillac finally1
 unlike ,la ,mettrie1 believes  in the  
existence of ,god4 ,a final point of    
contrast also concerns the  theology of 
the two writers4 ,la ,mettrie insists   
that we can not be sure  that there is  
any purpose in the world1 while         
,condillac affirms that  we can discern 
intelligence and design throughout the  
universe4 #dg    ,like ,la ,mettrie and 

,condillac1 ,helvetius teaches that all 
the faculties  of the mind can be       
reduced to sensation4 #dh ,unlike ,la   
,mettrie1  he specifically distinguishes
 the mind from the soul1 and describes  
the mind as a later developed product of
 the soul or faculty of  sensation4 #di 
,this idea may have been suggested by   
,la ,mettrie's  statement that reason is
 a modification of sensation4           
,helvetius1  however1 unlike ,la        
,mettrie1 does not clearly decide that  
sensation  is but a result of bodily    
conditions1 and he admits that sensation
  may be a modification of a spiritual  
substance4 #ej ,moreover1 he  claims    
that climate and food have no effect on 
the mind1 and that the  superiority of  
the understanding is not dependent on   
the strength of  the body and its       
organs4 #ea    ,la ,mettrie and         
,helvetius resemble each other in       
ethical doctrine4 ,both  make pleasure  
and pain the ruling motives of man's    
conduct4 ,they claim  that all the      

emotions are merely modifications of    
corporeal pleasure  and pain1 and that  
therefore the only principle of action  
in man is  the desire for pleasure and  
the fear of pain4 #eb          b4 ,the  
,likeness to ,la ,mettrie of the ,french
 ,materialist1 ,baron ,paul  ,heinrich  
,dietrich von ,holbach 7#agbc-aghi74    
,as ,condillac and ,helvetius emphasize 
the sensationalism taught by ,la        
,mettrie1 so ,holbach's book is a       
reiteration and elaboration of the      
materialism set forth in ,la ,mettrie's 
works4 ,the teaching of ,holbach  is so 
like that of ,la ,mettrie1 that the     
similarity can hardly be  a coincidence4
    ,la ,mettrie regards experience as  
the only teacher4 ,holbach dwells  on   
this same idea1 and insists that        
experience is our only source  of       
knowledge in all matters4 #ec ,holbach  
likewise teaches that man  is a purely  
material being4 ,he disbelieves in any  
spiritual reality  whatsoever1 and makes
 matter the only substance in the world4

 ,he lays  stress1 also1 on one thought 
which is a natural consequence of ,la   
,mettrie's teaching4 ,la ,mettrie has   
limited the action of the will and  has 
insisted that the will is dependent on  
bodily conditions4 ,holbach  goes       
further and declares repeatedly that all
 freedom is a delusion1  and that man is
 controlled in every action by rigid    
necessity4 #ed  ,this teaching seems to 
be the natural outcome of the belief    
that man  is a machine4    ,holbach's   
atheistic theology is more extreme than 
his predecessor's1  for ,la ,mettrie    
admits that ,god may exist1 while       
,holbach vigorously  opposes the        
possibility4 ,moreover ,holbach holds   
the opinion1  barely suggested by ,la   
,mettrie1 that an atheistic doctrine    
would  ameliorate the condition of      
mankind4 #ee ,he insists that the idea  
of ,god has hindered the progress of    
reason and interfered with  natural law4
 ,holbach is indeed the only one of the 
philosophers here  discussed1 who       

frankly adopts a fatalistic and         
atheistic doctrine of  the universe4 ,in
 these respects1 his teaching is the    
culmination of  ,french materialism4    
,,outline ,,of ,,la ,,mettrie',s        
,,metaphysical ,,doctrine4              
,,pages #ef    ,i4 ,insistence on the   
,empirical ,standpoint          #af;f42 
#hh;f42 #gb1 #adb    ,,ii4 ,arguments in
 ,favor of ,materialism3        a4 ,the 
,soul is ,affected1          #a4 ,by    
,disease                                
#ah;f42 #ij;f4          #b4 ,by ,sleep  
#ai;f42 #ia;f4          #c4 ,by ,drugs  
#bj2 #ib          #d4 ,by ,food         
#ba;f42 #ic;ff4          #e4 ,by ,age   
and ,sex                                
#bc;f42 #ie;f4          #f4 ,by         
,temperature and ,climate               
#bd;f42 #if;ff4      b4 ,there is ,no   
,sharp ,distinction ,between ,men and   
,animals         7,machines7            
#bh;f41 #ajj;ff42 #da;ff41 #aac;ff42    
#ge;f41 #adb;f4      c4 ,bodily         
,movements are ,due to the ,motive      

,power of the         ,body             
#ea;ff41 #abi;ff4    ,,iii4 ,conception 
of ,matter4        a4 ,matter is        
,extended                               
#aed;f4      b4 ,matter ,has the ,power 
of ,motion                   #gj1 #adj2 
#aef;ff4      c4 ,matter ,has the       
,faculty of ,feeling                    
#aei;ff4    ,,iv4 ,conception of ,man3  
a4 ,man is a ,machine               #ag1
 #hi2 #ba1 #ic2 #ef1 #abh2 #fi1 #adj;f42
                                        
#gc1 #adc2 #hj1 #adh      b4 ,all ,man's
 ,faculties ,reduce to ,sense and       
,imagination         #ce;ff41           
#ajg;ff4      c4 ,man is ,like ,animals 
in ,being ,capable of ,education        
#ch1 #aaj      d4 ,man is ,ignorant of  
,his ,destiny                           
#gi1 #adg    ,v4 ,theological ,doctrine3
        a4 ,the ,existence of ,god is   
,unproved and ,practically              
,unimportant                            
#ej1 #abb      b4 ,the ,argument from   
,design is ,ineffective ,against the    

,hypothesis of ,mechanical ,causality   
#ea;ff41 #abd;ff4      c4 ,atheism      
,makes for ,happiness                   
#ee1 #abf;f4                  ,,notes4  
#eg      ,,note ,,on ,,frederick ,,the  
,,great',s ,,eulogy4    ,this           
translation is made from the third      
volume1 pp4 #aei ff4 of ,o,euvres  de   
,frderic ,,ii41 ,roi de ,prusse1        
,publies du vivant de l',auteur1        
,berlin1 #aghi4    ,la ,mettrie was     
received at the court of ,frederick the 
,great1 when he  had been driven from   
,holland on account of the heretical    
teaching of  ,l',homme ,machine1 ,the   
,eloge was read by ,darget1 the         
secretary of  the king1 at a public     
meeting of the ,academy of ,berlin1 to  
which1  at the initiative of ,frederick1
 ,la ,mettrie had been admitted4    ,the
 careful reader will not fail to note   
that ,frederick's arithmetic  is at     
fault1 and that ,la ,mettrie died at the
 age of forty-one1 not  forty-three1    
years4    ,at a few points1 perhaps1 the

 ,eloge demands elucidation4 ,coutances1
  like ,caen1 is a ,norman town4 ,st4   
,malo lies1 just over the border1  in   
,brittany4 ,la ,mettrie's military      
service was with the ,french in  the    
,silesian wars against ,maria ,theresa4 
,the battle of ,dettingen was  fought in
 ,bavaria and was won by the ,austrians 
through the aid given  by ,george ,,ii  
of ,england to ,maria ,theresa4 ,the    
battle of ,fontenoy in  the ,netherlands
 was the only victory of the ,french in 
this war4      ,other accounts of the   
life of ,la ,mettrie are3    ,j4        
,asszat1 ,introduction to ,l',homme     
,machine1 ,paris1 #ahfe4    ,f4 ,a4     
,lange1 ,history of ,materialism4       
,ph4 ,damiron1 ,histoire de la          
philosophie du dix-huitime sicle1       
,paris1 #aheh4    ,n4 ,qupat1 ,la       
philosophie matrialiste au ,x,v,i,i,ie  
sicle4 ,essai sur  ,la ,mettrie1 sa vie1
 et ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahgc4         
,,notes ,,on ,,man ,a ,,machine4    #a4 
,matter may well be endowed with the    

faculty of thought4 ,although  ,la      
,mettrie attempts to avoid this reef1 by
 refraining from the use  of these      
words1 yet he asserts throughout his    
work that sensations1  consciousness1   
and the soul itself are modifications of
 matter  and motion4    ,the possibility
 of matter being endowed with the       
faculty of thought1  is denied by ,elie 
,luzac1 the publisher of ,l'homme       
machine1 in his  work ,l'homme plus que 
machine4 ,in this work he tries to      
disprove the  conclusions of ,l'homme   
machine4 ,he says3 ,we have therefore   
proved  by the idea of the inert state  
of matter1 by that of motion1 by that   
of relations1 by that of activity1 by   
that of extension1 that matter  can not 
be possessed of the faculty of          
thinking4444 ,to be brief1  ,i say1 that
 if1 by a material substance1 we        
understand that matter  which falls     
under the cognizance of our senses1 and 
which is endowed  with the qualities we 
have mentioned1 the soul can not be     

material3  so that it must be           
immaterial1 and1 for the same reason1   
,god could  not have given the faculty  
of thinking to matter1 since ,he can not
  perform contradictions4 #eh    #b4    
,how can we define a being whose nature 
is absolutely unknown to  us8 ,la       
,mettrie uses this as an argument       
against the belief in a soul1  and yet  
he later admits that the nature of      
motion is as unknown to  us as the      
nature of matter4 ,it is difficult then 
to see why there  is more reason to     
doubt the existence of spirit1 than to  
doubt the  existence of matter4 ,locke  
makes this point very well4 ,it is for  
want  of reflection that we are apt to  
think that our senses show us nothing   
but material things4 ,every act of      
sensation1 when duly considered1  gives 
us an equal view of both parts of       
nature1 the corporeal and  spiritual4   
#ei444 ,if this notion of immaterial    
spirit may have1  perhaps1 some         
difficulties in it not easy to be       

explained1 we have  therefore no more   
reason to deny or doubt the existence of
 such  spirits1 than we have to deny or 
doubt the existence of body because  the
 notion of body is cumbered with some   
difficulties1 very hard and  perhaps    
impossible to be explained or understood
 by us4 #fj    #c4 ,author of the       
',spectacle de la nature4' ,noel        
,antoine ,pluche  7#afhh-agfa7 was a    
,jansenist author4 ,he was ,director of 
the ,college  of ,laon1 but was deprived
 of his position on account of his      
refusal  to adhere to the bull          
,unigenitus4 ,rollin then recommended   
him to  ,gasville1 intendant of         
,normandy1 who entrusted him with his   
son's  education4 ,he finally settled in
 ,paris4 ,his principal works are3      
,spectacle de la nature1 7,paris1       
#agci72 ,mcanique des langues et  l'art 
de les enseigner1 7,paris1 #agea72      
,harmonie des ,psaumes et de            
l',evangile1 7,paris1 #agfd72 ,concorde 
de la gographie des diffrents  ages1    

7,paris1 #agfe74 #fa    ,la ,mettrie    
describes ,pluche in the ,essais sur    
l'esprit et les beaux  esprits thus3    
,without wit1 without taste1 he is      
,rollin's pedant4 ,a  superficial man1  
he had need of the work of ,m4 ,raumur1 
of whom he  is only a stale and tiresome
 imitator in the flat little sayings    
scattered in his dialogues4 ,it was with
 the works of ,rollin as with  the      
',spectacle de la ,nature1' one made the
 fortune of the other3  ,gaon praised   
,person1 ,person praised ,gaon1 and the 
public praised  them both4 #fb    ,this 
quotation from ,la ,mettrie occurs in   
,asszat's edition of ,la  ,mettrie's    
,l'homme machine1 which was published as
 the second  volume of the series       
,singularits physiologiques 7#ahfe74    
,asszat  was a ,french publisher and    
writer4 ,he was at one time ,secretary  
of  the ,anthropological ,society1 and  
collaborated with other writers  in the 
publication of ,la ,revue ,nationale1   
,la ,revue de ,paris1  and ,la ,pense   

nouvelle4 ,his notes to ,l',homme       
,machine show great  knowledge          
concerning physiological subjects4 ,he  
intended to publish a  complete edition 
of ,diderot's works1 but overwork on    
this undermined  his health1 so that he 
was unable to complete it4 #fc    #d4   
,torricelli was a physicist and         
mathematician who lived from #afjh  to  
#afdg4 ,he was a disciple of ,galileo1  
and acted as his amanuensis  for three  
months before ,galileo's death4 ,he was 
then nominated  as grand-ducal          
mathematician and professor of          
mathematics in the  ,florentine         
,academy4 ,in #afdc1 he made his most   
famous discovery4 ,he  found that the   
height to which a liquid will rise in a 
closed tube1  depends on the specific   
gravity of the liquid1 and concludes    
from this  that the column of liquid is 
sustained by atmospheric pressure4 ,this
  discovery did away with the obscure   
idea of a fuga vacui1 and laid  bare the
 principle on which mercurial barometers

 are constructed4 ,for  a long time the 
mercurial thermometer was called the    
,torricellian  tube1 and the vacuum     
which the barometer includes is still   
known as a  ,torricellian vacuum4 #fd   
#e4 ,only the physicians have a right to
 speak on this subject4 ,luzac  says3   
',tis true that if the materiality of   
the soul was proved1  the knowledge of  
her would be an object of natural       
philosophy1 and  we might with some     
appearance of reason reject all         
arguments to the  contrary which are not
 drawn from that science4 ,but if the   
soul is not  material1 the investigation
 of its nature does not belong to       
natural  philosophy1 but to those who   
search into the nature of its faculties1
  and are called metaphysicians4 #fe    
#f4 ,man is 444 a machine4 ,this is the 
first clear statement of this  theory1  
which as the title of the work          
indicates1 is the central  doctrine of  
this work4 ,descartes had strongly      
denied the possibility  of conceiving   

man as a machine4 ,we may easily        
conceive a machine  to be so constructed
 that it emits vocables1 and even that  
it emits  some correspondent to the     
action upon it of external objects which
  cause a change in its organs1444 but  
not that it should emit them  variously 
so as appositely to reply to what is    
said in its presence1  as men of the    
lowest grade of intellect can do4 #ff   
#g4 ,let us then take in our hands the  
staff of experience4 ,la  ,mettrie      
repeatedly emphasizes the belief that   
knowledge must come from  experience4   
,moreover he confines this experience to
 sense experience1  and concludes       
,l'histoire naturelle de l'me with these
 words3  ,no senses1 no ideas4 ,the     
fewer senses there are3 the fewer ideas4
 ,no  sensations experienced1 no ideas4 
,these principles are the necessary     
consequence of all the observations and 
experiences that constitute  the        
unassailable foundation of this work4   
,this doctrine is opposed to the        

teaching of ,descartes1 who insists     
that neither our imagination nor our    
senses can give us assurance of         
anything unless our understanding       
intervene4 #fg ,moreover ,descartes     
believes that the senses are fallacious1
 and that the ideal method  for         
philosophy is a method corresponding to 
that of mathematics4 #fh  ,condillac and
 ,holbach agree with ,la ,mettrie's     
opinion4 ,thus1 ,condillac  teaches that
 man is nothing more than what he has   
become by the use  of his senses4 #fi   
,and ,holbach says3 ,as soon as we take 
leave of  experience1 we fall into the  
chasm where our imagination leads us    
astray4 #gj    #h4 ,galen 7,galenus7    
,claudius1 #acj to circa #baj ,a4 ,d4   
,an eminent  ,greek physician and       
philosopher4 ,born at ,pergamus1 ,mysia1
 he studied  both the ,platonic and     
,peripatetic systems of philosophy4     
,satyrus  instructed him in anatomy4 ,he
 traveled extensively while young to    
perfect his education4 ,about #afe ,a4  

,d4 he moved to ,rome1 and became  very 
celebrated as a surgeon and practising  
physician1 attending  the family of     
,marcus ,aurelius4 ,he returned to      
,pergamus1 but probably  visited ,rome  
three or four times afterwards4 ,he     
wrote in philosophy1  logic1 and        
medicine4 ,many1 probably most1 of his  
works are lost4 ,he  was the one medical
 authority for thirteen centuries1 and  
his services  to logic and to philosophy
 were also great4 #ga    #i4 ,the author
 of ,l'histoire de l'me is ,la ,mettrie 
himself4    #aj4 ,hippocrates is often  
termed the father of medicine4 ,he was  
born in ,cos in #dfj ,b4 ,c4 ,he studied
 medicine under his father1             
,heraclides1 and ,herodicus of          
,selymbria2 and philosophy under        
,gorgias  and ,democritus4 ,he was the  
first to separate medicine from religion
  and from philosophy4 ,he insisted that
 diseases must be treated by  the       
physician1 as if they were governed by  
purely natural laws4 ,the  ,greeks had  

such respect for dead bodies that       
,hippocrates could not  have dissected a
 human body1 and consequently his       
knowledge of its  structure was limited1
 but he seems to have been an acute and 
skilful  observer of conditions in the  
living body4 ,he wrote several works on 
medicine1 and in one of them showed the 
first principles on which the  public   
health must be based4 ,the details of   
his life are hidden by  tradition1 but  
it is certain that he was regarded with 
great respect  and veneration by the    
,greeks4 #gb    #aa4 ,the different     
combinations of these humors4444        
,compare this  with ,descartes's        
statement that the difference in men    
comes from the  difference in the       
construction and position of the brain1 
which causes  a difference in the action
 of the animal spirits4 #gc    #ab4     
,this drug intoxicates1 like wine1      
coffee1 etc41 each in its own  measure1 
and according to the dose4 ,descartes   
also speaks of the  effect of wine4 ,the

 vapors of wine1 entering the blood     
quickly1 go  from the heart to the      
brain1 where they are converted into    
spirits1  which being stronger and more 
abundant than usual are capable of      
moving the body in several strange      
fashions4 #gd    #ac4 ,the quotation    
from ,pope is from the ,moral ,essays1  
published  #agca to #agce1 ,epistle ,i1 
#a1 #fi4    #ad4 ,jan ,baptista ,van    
,helmont 7#aegh-afdd7 was a ,flemish    
physician and  chemist4 ,he is noted for
 having demonstrated the necessity of   
the  balance in chemistry1 and for      
having been among the first to use the  
word gas4 ,his works were published as  
,ortus ,medicinae1 #afdh4 #ge    #ae4   
,the author of ,lettres sur la          
physiognomie was ,jacques ,pernety  or  
,pernetti4 ,he was born at              
,chazelle-sur-,lyon1 was for some years 
canon at ,lyons1 and died there in      
#aggg4 #gf    #af4 ,boerhaave4 ,see     
,note #gh4    #ag4 ,pierre ,louis       
,moreau de ,maupertuis 7#afih-agei7 was 

a ,french  mathematician1 astronomer and
 philosopher4 ,he supported the         
,newtonian  theory against the          
,cartesians4 ,in #agdj he became        
president of the  ,academy of ,berlin4  
,he was the head of the expedition which
 was sent  by ,louis ,,xv to measure a  
degree of longitude in ,lapland4        
,voltaire  satirized ,maupertuis in the 
,diatribe du ,docteur ,akakia4 #gg      
#ah4 ,luzac sums up the preceding facts 
by saying3 ,here are a great  many      
facts1 but what is it they prove8 only  
that the faculties of the  soul arise1  
grow1 and acquire strength in proportion
 as the body does2  so that these same  
faculties are weakened in the same      
proportion as  the body is4444 ,but from
 all these circumstances it does not    
follow  that the faculty of thinking is 
an attribute of matter1 and that all    
depends on the manner in which our      
machine is made1 that the faculties  of 
the soul arise from a principle of      
animal life1 from an innate  heat or    

force1 from an irritability of the      
finest parts of the body1  from a subtil
 ethereal matter diffused through it1 or
 in a word1  from all these things taken
 together4 #gh    #ai4 ,the diverse     
states of the soul are therefore always 
correlative  with those of the body4    
,this view is in diametrical opposition 
to  the teaching of ,descartes1 who     
says3 ,the soul is of a nature wholly   
independent of the body4 #gi ,yet       
,descartes also states that there is  an
 intimate connection between the two4   
,the ,reasonable ,soul 444 could  by no 
means be educed from the power of matter
 444 it must be expressly  created2 and 
it is not sufficient that it be lodged  
in the human body1  exactly like a pilot
 in a ship1 unless perhaps to move its  
members1  but 444 it is necessary for it
 to be joined and united more closely to
  the body1 in order to have sensations 
and appetites similar to ours1  and thus
 constitute a real man4 #gi    ,holbach 
later emphasizes this close connection  

between body and soul1  which is so     
insisted upon by ,la ,mettrie4 ,if freed
 from our prejudices  we wish to see our
 soul1 or the moving principle which    
acts in us1 we  shall remain convinced  
that it is part of our body1 that it can
 not  be distinguished from the body    
except by an abstraction1 that it is    
but the body itself considered          
relatively to some of the functions  or 
faculties to which its nature and       
particular organization make  it        
susceptible4 ,we shall see that this    
soul is forced to undergo  the same     
changes as the body1 that it grows and  
develops with the  body4444 ,finally we 
can not help recognizing that at some   
periods it  shows evident signs of      
weakness1 sickness1 and death4 #hj      
#bj4 ,peyronie 7,franois ,gigot de la71 
a ,french surgeon1 born in              
,montpellier1 the fifteenth of ,january1
 #afgh1 died the twenty-fifth  of       
,april1 #agdg4 ,he was surgeon of the   
hospital of ,saint-,eloi de             

,montpellier and instructor of anatomy  
to the ,faculty2 then1 in #agjd1  served
 in the army4 ,in #agag he became       
reversioner of the position of  first   
surgeon to ,louis ,,xv2 in #agca1       
steward of the ,queen's palace2  in     
#agce1 a doctor of the ,king2 in #agcf1 
first surgeon of the ,king1  and chief  
of the surgeons of the kingdom4 ,the    
greatest merit of  ,la ,peyronie is for 
having founded the ,academy of ,surgery 
in ,paris1  and for having gained       
special protection for surgery and      
surgeons in  ,france4 ,he wrote little4 
#ha    #ba4 ,willis1 ,thomas            
7#afba-afge71 ,english physician1 was   
born at ,great  ,bedwin1 ,wiltshire1 on 
#bgth ,january1 #afba4 ,he studied at   
,christ ,church1  ,oxford2 and when that
 city was garrisoned for the king he    
bore arms  for the ,royalists4 ,he took 
the degree of bachelor of medicine in   
#afdf1  and after the surrender of the  
garrison applied himself to the practice
  of his profession4 ,in #affj1 shortly 

after the ,restoration1 he became       
,sedleian professor of natural          
philosophy in place of ,dr4 ,joshua     
,cross1  who was ejected1 and the same  
year he took the degree of doctor of    
physic4444 ,he was one of the first     
members of the ,royal ,society1 and  was
 elected an honorary fellow of the      
,royal ,college of ,physicians in       
#affd4 ,in #afff1 444 he removed to     
,westminster1 on the invitation of  ,dr4
 ,sheldon1 ,archbishop of               
,canterbury4444 ,he died at ,st4        
,martin's on  #aath ,november1 #afge1   
and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4  
#hb    #bb4 ,fontenelle1 ,bernard le    
,bovier de4 ,born at ,rouen1 ,france1   
,february #aa1 #afeg2 died at ,paris1   
,january #i1 #ageg4 ,a ,french advocate1
  philosopher1 poet1 and miscellaneous  
writer4 ,he was the nephew 7through  his
 mother7 of ,corneille1 and was 'one of 
the last of the ,prcieux1 or  rather the
 inventor of a new combination of       
literature and gallantry  which at first

 exposed him to not a little satire'    
7,saintsbury74 ,he  wrote ',posies      
pastorales' 7#afhh71 ',dialogues des    
morts' 7#afhc71  ',entretiens sur la    
pluralit des mondes' 7#afhf71 ',histoire
 des oracles'  7#afhg71 ',eloges des    
acadmiciens' 7delivered #afij-agdj74 #hc
    #bc4 ,in a word1 would it be        
absolutely impossible to teach the ape a
  language8 ,i do not think so4 ,compare
 with this ,haeckel's statement  of the 
relation between man's speech and that  
of apes4 ,it is of  especial interest   
that the speech of apes seems on        
physiological  comparison to be a stage 
in the formation of articulate human    
speech4 ,among living apes there is an  
,indian species which is musical2  the  
hylobates syndactylus sings a full      
octave in perfectly pure  harmonious    
half-tones4 ,no impartial philologist   
can hesitate any  longer to admit that  
our elaborate rational language has been
 slowly  and gradually developed out of 
the imperfect speech of our ,pliocene   

simian ancestors4 #hd    #bd4 ,johann   
,conrad ,amman was born at              
,schaffhausen1 in ,switzerland1  in     
#affi4 ,after his graduation at ,basle1 
he practised medicine at  ,amsterdam4   
,he devoted most of his attention to the
 instruction of deaf  mutes4 ,he taught 
them by attracting their attention to   
the motion of  his lips1 tongue1 and    
larynx1 while he was speaking1 and by   
persuading  them to imitate these       
motions4 ,in this way1 they finally     
learned to  articulate syllables and    
words1 and to talk4 ,in his works       
,surdus  ,loquens1 and ,dissertatio de  
,loquela1 he explained the mechanism of 
speech1 and made public his method of   
instruction4 ,from all accounts  it     
seems that his success with the deaf    
mutes was remarkable4 ,he died  about   
#agcj4 #he    #be4 444 the great analogy
 between ape and man4444 ,compare       
,haeckel3  ,thus comparative anatomy    
proves to the satisfaction of every     
unprejudiced and critical student the   

significant fact that the body of  man  
and that of the anthropoid ape are not  
only peculiarly similar1 but  they are  
practically one and the same in every   
important respect4 #hf    #bf4 ,sir     
,william ,temple was born in ,london in 
#afbh4 ,he attended the  ,puritan       
,college of ,emmanuel1 ,cambridge1 but  
left without taking  his degree4 ,after 
an extensive tour on the continent1 he  
settled  in ,ireland in #afee4 ,his     
political career began with the         
accession  of ,charles ,,ii in #affj4   
,he is particularly noted for concluding
 ,the  ,triple ,alliance between        
,england1 the ,united ,netherlands1 and 
,sweden1  and for his part in bringing  
about the marriage of ,william and      
,mary1  which completed the alliance of 
,england and the ,netherlands4 ,temple  
was not as successful in political work 
at home as abroad1 for he was  too      
honest to care to be concerned in the   
intrigues in ,english affairs1  at that 
time4 ,he retired from politics and died

 at ,moor ,park in #afii4    ,temple    
wrote several works on political        
subjects4 ,his ,memoirs were  begun in  
#afhb2 the first part was destroyed     
before it was published1  the second    
part was published without his consent1 
and the third part  was published by    
,swift after ,temple's death4 ,his fame 
rests more on  his diplomatic work than 
on his writings4 #hg    #bg4 ,trembley  
7,abraham7 a ,swiss naturalist1 born in 
,geneva1 the third  of ,september1      
#agjj1 died in ,geneva1 the twelfth of  
,may1 #aghd4 ,he  was educated in his   
native city1 and in the ,hague1 where he
 became  tutor of the son of an ,english
 resident1 and later the tutor of  the  
young duke of ,richmond1 with whom he   
traveled in ,germany and  ,italy4 ,in   
#agfj1 he obtained the position of      
librarian at ,geneva1  and gained a seat
 in the council of the ',two ,hundred4' 
,his admirable  works on the fresh-water
 snake procured for him his election as 
member of the ,royal ,society of        

,london1 and as correspondent of the    
,academy of ,sciences in ,paris4 ,from  
#agge to #aghb he published several     
works on natural religion1 and articles 
on natural history in the               
',philosophical ,transactions1'         
#agdb-eg4 ,his most important work is   
',mmoires pour servir  l'histoire d'un  
genre de polype d'eau douce'  7,leyden1 
#agdd2 ,paris1 #b volumes74 #hh    #bh4 
,what was man before the invention of   
words and the knowledge  of language8   
,an animal4 ,compare this with the      
statement of ,hobbes3  ,the most noble  
and profitable invention of all others  
was that of  ,speech1 consisting of     
names or appellations1 and their        
connexion1  444 without which there had 
been amongst men neither commonwealth1  
nor society1 nor contract1 nor peace1 no
 more than amongst lions1  bears1 and   
wolves4 #hi    #bi4 ,fontenelle4 ,see   
note #bb4    #cj4 ,all the faculties of 
the soul can be correctly reduced to    
pure imagination4 ,compare with this ,la

 ,mettrie's statement in  ,l'histoire   
naturelle de l'me3 ,the more one studies
 all the  intellectual faculties1 the   
more convinced one remains1 that they   
are all included in the faculty of      
sensation1 upon which they all  depend  
so essentially that without it the soul 
could never perform  any of its         
functions4 #ij ,this resembles          
,condillac's doctrine of  sensation3    
,judgment1 reflexion1 desires1 passions1
 etc41 are nothing  but sensation itself
 which is transformed in diverse ways4  
#ia  ,helvetius also says3 ,all the     
operations of the mind are reducible  to
 sensation4 #ib    #ca4 ,see to what one
 is brought by the abuse of language1   
and  by the use of those fine words     
7spirituality1 immateriality1  etc474   
,compare ,hobbes1 ,though men may put   
together words of  contradictory        
signification1 as spirit and            
incorporeal2 yet they can  never have   
the imagination of anything answering to
 them4 #ic    #cb4 ,man's preminent     

advantage is his organism4 ,luzac says3 
,this  no more proves that organization 
is the chief merit of man1 than  that   
the form of a musical instrument        
constitutes the chief merit  of the     
musician4 ,in proportion to the goodness
 of the instrument1  the musician charms
 by his art1 and the case is the same   
with the  soul4 ,in proportion to the   
soundness of the body1 the soul is in   
better condition to exert her faculties4
 #id    #cc4 ,such is1 ,i think1 the    
generation of intelligence4 ,luzac      
argues  against this statement thus3    
,but if thought and all the faculties   
of the soul depended only on the        
organization as some pretend1 how  could
 the imagination draw a long chain of   
consequences from the  objects it has   
embraced8 #ie    #cd4 ,pyrrhonism is the
 doctrine of ,pyrrho of ,elis which has 
been  transmitted chiefly by his        
disciple ,timon4 ,more generally1       
radical  ,scepticism in general4 #if    
#ce4 ,pierre ,bayle was born at ,carlat 

in #afdg4 ,although the child  of       
,protestant parents1 he was converted by
 the ,jesuits4 ,after his  reconversion 
to ,protestantism1 he was driven out of 
,france1 and  took refuge first in      
,geneva1 and then in ,holland4 ,in #afge
 he became  professor of philosophy at  
the ,protestant ,college of ,sedan1 and 
in  #afha professor of philosophy and   
history at ,rotterdam4 ,in #afic he was 
forced to resign from his position on   
account of his religious views4         
,bayle was one of the leading ,french   
sceptics of the time4 ,he was a         
,cartesian1 but questioned both the     
certainty of one's own existence1  and  
the knowledge derived from it4 ,he      
declared that religion is  contrary to  
the human reason1 but that this fact    
does not necessarily  destroy faith4 ,he
 distinguished religion not only from   
science1 but  also from morality1 and   
vigorously opposed those who considered 
a  certain religion necessary for       
morality4 ,he did not openly attack     

,christianity1 yet all that he wrote    
awakened doubt1 and his work  exerted an
 extensive influence for scepticism4    
,his principal work is the ,dictionnaire
 historique et critique1  published     
#afie-afig1 and containing a vast amount
 of knowledge1  expressed in a piquant  
and popular style4 ,this fact made the  
book  widely read both by scholars and  
by superficial readers4    #cf4         
,arnobius the ,elder was born at ,sicca 
,venerea in ,numidia1 in the  latter    
part of the third century ,a4 ,d4 ,he   
was at first an opponent of             
,christianity1 but was afterwards       
converted1 and wrote ,adversus ,gentes  
as an apology for ,christianity4 ,in    
this work1 he tries to answer the       
complaints made against ,christians on  
the ground that the disasters  of the   
time were due to their impiety2         
vindicates the divinity of  ,christ2 and
 discusses the nature of the human soul4
 ,he concludes  that the soul is not    
immortal1 for he believes that the      

belief in  the immortality of the soul  
would have a deteriorating influence  on
 morality4 ,for translation of his work 
compare ,vol4 ,,xix of the              
,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library4 #ig  
#cg4 ,there exists no soul or sensitive 
substance without  remorse4 ,condillac  
had said3 ,there is something in animals
 besides  motion4 ,they are not pure    
machines3 they feel4 #ih ,la ,mettrie   
also  attributed remorse to animals1 but
 believed that they are none the  less  
machines4 ,luzac said in comment3 ,what 
renders these systems  completely       
ridiculous1 is1 that the persons who    
pronounce men machines1  give them      
properties which belie their assertion4 
,if beings are but  machines1 why do    
they grant a natural law1 an internal   
sense1 a kind  of dread8 ,these are     
ideas which can not be excited by       
objects which  operate on our senses4   
#ii    #ch4 ,nature has created us      
solely to be happy4 ,this is a statement
 of  the doctrine1 which ,la ,mettrie   

develops in his principal ethical work  
,discours sur le ,bonheur4 ,he teaches  
that happiness rests upon bodily        
pleasure and pain4 ,in ,l'histoire      
naturelle de l'me1 ,la ,mettrie  states 
that all the passions can be developed  
from two fundamental  passions1 of which
 they are but modifications1 love and   
hatred1 or  desire and aversion4 #ajj   
,like ,la ,mettrie1 ,helvetius makes    
corporeal  pleasure and pain the ruling 
motives for man's conduct4 ,thus he     
writes3  ,pleasure and pain are and     
always will be the only principles of   
action  in man4 #aja444 ,remorse is     
nothing more than a foresight of bodily 
pain to which some crime has exposed us4
 #ajb ,he definitely makes  happiness   
the end of human action4 ,the end of man
 is self-preservation  and the          
attainment of a happy existence4444     
,man1 to find happiness1  should save up
 his pleasures1 and refuse all those    
which might change  into pains4444 ,the 
passions always have happiness as an    

object3 they  are legitimate and        
natural1 and can not be called good or  
bad except  on account of their         
influence on human beings4 ,to lead men 
to virtue1  we must show them the       
advantages of virtuous actions4 #ajc    
,holbach1  finally1 goes further than   
,la ,mettrie or ,helvetius1 and makes   
purely  mechanical impulses the motives 
of man's action4 ,the passions are  ways
 of being or modifications of the       
internal organs1 attracted or  repulsed 
by objects1 and are consequently subject
 in their own way  to the physical laws 
of attraction and repulsion4 #ajd       
#ci4 ,ixions of ,christianity4 ,ixion1  
for his treachery1 stricken  with       
madness1 was cast into ,erebus1 where he
 was continually scourged  while bound  
to a fiery wheel1 and forced to cry3    
,benefactors should  be honored4    #dj4
 ,who can be sure that the reason for   
man's existence is not  simply the fact 
that he exists8 ,luzac opposes this by  
saying3  ,if the reason of man's        

existence was in man himself1 this      
existence  would be a necessary         
consequence of his own nature2 so that  
his own  nature would contain the cause 
or reason of his existence4 ,now since  
his own nature would imply the cause of 
his existence1 it would also  imply his 
existence itself1 so that man could no  
more be considered  as non-existent than
 a circle can be considered without     
radii or a  picture without features or 
proportions4444 ,if the existence of man
  was in man himself1 he would then be  
an invariable being4 #aje    #da4       
,fnelon 7,franois de ,salignac de la    
,mothe-,fnelon71 born at  ,chteau de    
,fnelon1 ,dordogne1 ,france1 ,august #f1
 #afea1 died at ,cambrai1  ,france1     
,january #g1 #agae4 ,a celebrated       
,french prelate1 orator1 and  author4   
,he became preceptor of the sons of the 
dauphin in #afhi1  and was appointed    
archbishop of ,cambrai in #afie4 ,his   
works include  ',les aventures de       
,tlmaque' 7#afii71 ',dialogues des      

morts' 7#agab71  ',trait de l'ducation  
des filles' 7#afhh71 ',explication des  
maximes  des saints' 7#afig71 etc4 ,his 
collected works were edited by ,leclre  
7#ch vols41 #ahbg-ahcj74 #ajf    #db4   
,nieuwentyt 7,bernard71 a ,dutch        
mathematician1 born in  ,west-,graftdijk
 the tenth of ,august #afed1 died at    
,purmerend the  thirtieth of ,may1      
#agah4 ,an unrelenting ,cartesian1 he   
combated the  infinitesimal calculus1   
and wrote a polemic against ,leibnitz1  
concerning this subject4 ,he wrote a    
theological dissertation  translated    
into ,french under the title            
,l'existence de ,dieu  dmontre par les  
merveilles de la nature 7,paris1 #agbe74
 #ajg    #dc4 ,abadie1 ,james           
7,jacques71 born at ,nay1               
,basse-,pyrnes1 probably in  #afed2 died
 at ,london1 ,september #be1 #agbe4 ,a  
noted ,french ,protestant  theologian4  
,he went to ,berlin about #afhj as      
minister of the ,french  church there1  
and thence to ,england and ,ireland2 was

 for a time  minister of the ,french    
church in the ,savoy2 and settled in    
,ireland as  dean of ,killaloe in #afii4
 ,his chief work is the ',trait de la   
vrit  de la religion chrtienne' 7#afhd71
 with its continuation ',trait de  la   
divinit de ntre ,seigneur               
,jesus-,christ' 7#afhi74 #ajh    #dd4   
,derham 7,william71 ,english theologian 
and scholar1 born in  ,stoughton1 near  
,worcester1 in #afeg1 died at ,upminster
 in #agce4 ,pastor  of ,upminster in the
 county of ,essex1 he could peacefully  
devote  himself to his taste for        
mechanics and natural history4 ,besides 
making studies of watch-making1 and of  
fish1 birds1 and insects1  published in 
part in the ,transactions of the ,royal 
,society1 he  wrote several works on    
religious philosophy4 ,the most         
important1  which was popular for a long
 time and was translated into ,french   
7#agbf71 has as title                   
',physico-,theology1 or the             
,demonstration of the  ,existence and   

the ,attributes of ,god1 by the ,works  
of ,his ,creation'  7#agac74 ,he wrote  
as complement1 in #agad1 his            
',astro-,theology1 or the               
,demonstration of the ,existence and    
,attributes of ,god by the ,observation 
of the ,heavens4' #aji    #de4 ,rais1 or
 ,cardinal de ,retz 7#afad-afgi71 was a 
,french politician  and author4 ,from   
his childhood he was intended for the   
church4 ,he  took an active part in the 
movement against ,cardinal ,mazarin1 and
  later became cardinal1 but lost his   
popularity1 and was imprisoned  at      
,vincennes4 ,after escaping from there  
he returned to ,france and  settled in  
,lorraine1 where he wrote his           
',mmoires1' which tell of  the court    
life of his time4 #aaj    #df4 ,marcello
 ,malpighi 7#afbh-afid7 was a renowned  
,italian anatomist  and physiologist4   
,he held the position of lecturer on    
medicine at  ,bologna in #afef1 a few   
months later became professor at ,pisa1 
was made  professor at ,bologna in      

#affj1 went from there to ,messina1     
though he  later returned to ,bologna4  
,in #afia he became physician to ,pope  
,innocent  ,,xii4 ,malpighi is often    
known as the founder of microscopic     
anatomy4 ,he  was the first to see the  
marvelous spectacle of the circulation  
of the  blood on the surface of a frog's
 lung4 ,he discovered the vesicular     
structure of the human lung1 the        
structure of the secreting glands1  and 
the mucous character of the lower       
stratum of the epidermis4 ,he  was the  
first to undertake the finer anatomy of 
the brain1 and he  accurately described 
the distribution of grey matter1 and of 
the fibre  tracts in the cord4 ,his     
works are3 ,de pulmonibus 7,bologna1    
#affa71  ,epistolae anatomicae narc4    
,malpighi et ,car4 ,fracassati          
7,amsterdam1  #affb71 ,de ,viscerum     
,structura 7,london1 #affi71 ,anatome   
,plantarum  7,london1 #afgb71 ,de       
,structura ,glandularum conglobatarum   
7,london1  #afhi74 #aaa    #dg4 ,deism  

is a system of thought which arose in   
the latter part  of the seventeenth     
century4 ,its most important            
representatives in  ,england were       
,toland1 ,collins1 ,chubb1 ,shaftsbury1 
and ,tindal4 ,they  insisted on freedom 
of thought and speech1 and claimed that 
reason  is superior to any authority4   
,they denied the necessity of any       
supernatural revelation1 and were       
consequently vigorously opposed by  the 
church4 ,partly because of this         
opposition by the church1 many of  them 
argued against ,christianity1 and tried 
to show that an observance  of moral    
laws is the only religion necessary for 
man4 ,they taught that  happiness is    
man's chief end1 and that1 since man is 
a social being1  his happiness can best 
be gained by mutual helpfulness4        
,although  they declared that nature is 
the work of a perfect being1 they had  a
 mechanical conception of the relation  
of ,god to the world1 and did  not1 like
 later theists1 find evidence of ,god's 

presence in all the  works of nature4   
#aab    #dh4 ,vanini1 ,lucilio1         
self-styled ,julius ,csar4 ,born at     
,taurisano1  kingdom of ,naples1 about  
#aehe2 burned at the stake at ,toulouse1
 ,france1  ,february #ai1 #afai4 ,an    
,italian free thinker1 condemned to     
death as an  atheist and magician4 ,he  
studied at ,rome and ,padua1 became a   
priest1  traveled in ,germany and the   
,netherlands1 and began teaching at     
,lyons1  but was obliged to flee to     
,england1 where he was arrested4 ,after 
his  release he returned to ,lyons1 and 
about #afag settled at ,toulouse4 ,here 
he was arrested for his opinions1       
condemned1 and on the same day          
executed4 ,his chief works are3         
',amphitheatrum aeternae ,providentiae' 
7#afae71 ',de admirandis naturae reginae
 deaeque mortalium arcanis'  7#afaf74   
#aac    #di4 ,desbarreaux 7,jacques     
,valle74 ,a ,french writer1 born at     
,paris  in #afjb1 who died at           
,chalon-sur-,sane the ninth of ,may1    

#afgc4 ,he  wrote a celebrated sonnet on
 penitence1 but was rather an unbeliever
  and sceptic than a penitent4 ,guy     
,patin1 hearing of his death1 said3  ,he
 infected poor young people by his      
licence4 ,his conversation was  very    
dangerous and destructive to the public4
 #aad    #ej4 ,boindin 7,nicolas71      
,french scholar and author1 born the    
twenty-ninth  of ,may #afgf at ,paris1  
where he died the thirtieth of ,november
 #agea4 ,he  was in the army for a      
while1 but retired on account of ill    
health4 ,he  then gave himself up to    
literature1 and wrote several plays4 ,in
  #agjf he was elected ,royal censor and
 associate of the ,academy of           
,inscriptions4 ,his liberty1 or1 as it  
was then called1 license of mind1  shut 
the doors of the ,french ,academy to    
him1 and would have caused  his         
expulsion from the ,academy of          
,inscriptions if he had not been so     
old4 ,he died without retracting his    
opinions4 #aae    #ea4 ,denis ,diderot  

7#agac-aghd7 was one of the leaders of  
the  intellectual movement of the       
eighteenth century4 ,he was at first    
influenced by ,shaftsbury1 and was      
enthusiastic in his support of  natural 
religion4 ,in his ,penses philosophiques
 7#agdf7 he tries to  show that the     
discoveries of natural science are the  
strongest proofs  for the existence of  
,god4 ,the wonders of animal life are   
enough to  destroy atheism for ever4    
,yet1 while he opposes atheism1 he also 
opposes vigorously the intolerance and  
bigotry of the church4 ,he  claims that 
many of the attributes ascribed to ,god 
are contrary to  the very idea of a just
 and loving ,god4    ,later1 ,diderot   
was influenced by ,la ,mettrie and by   
,holbach1 and became  an advocate of    
materialism which he set forth in ,le   
rve d',alembert  and in the passages    
contributed to the ,systme de la nature4
 ,diderot  was the editor of the        
,encyclopdie4 #aaf    #eb4 ,trembley4   
,see note #bg4    #ec4 ,nothing which   

happens1 could have failed to happen4   
,an  enunciation of the doctrine so     
insisted upon by ,holbach4 ,the whole   
universe 444 shows us only an immense   
and uninterrupted chain of cause  and   
effect4 #aag444 ,necessity which        
regulates all the movements  of the     
physical world1 controls also those of  
the moral world4 #aah    #ed4 ,all these
 evidences of a creator1 repeated       
thousands 444 of times  444 are         
self-evident only to the                
anti-,pyrrhonians4 ,la ,mettrie holds an
  opinion contrary not only to that of  
,descartes and ,locke1 but also to  that
 of ,toland1 ,hobbes1 and ,condillac4   
,descartes1 for instance1 says3  ,thus  
,i very clearly see that the certitude  
and truth of all science  depends on the
 knowledge alone of the true ,god4 #aai 
,hobbes asserts3  ,for he that from any 
effect he seeth come to pass should     
reason to  the next and immediate cause 
thereof1 and from thence to the cause   
of that cause1 444 shall at last come to

 this1 that there must be1  as even the 
heathen philosophers confessed1 one     
first mover1 that is  a first and an    
eternal cause of all things1 which is   
that which men  mean by the name of     
,god4 #abj ,toland's words are3 ,all the
 jumbling  of atoms1 all the ,chances   
you can suppose for it1 could not bring 
the  ,parts of the ,universe into their 
present ,order1 nor continue them in    
the same1 nor cause the ,organization of
 a ,flower or a ,fly4444 ,the  ,infinity
 of ,matter 444 excludes 444 an extended
 corporeal ,god1  but not a pure ,spirit
 or immaterial ,being4 #aba ,condillac  
writes3  ,a first cause1 independent1   
unique1 infinite1 eternal1 omnipotent1  
immutable1 intelligent1 free1 and whose 
providence extends over all  things3    
that is the most perfect notion of ,god 
that we can form in  this life4 #abb    
,locke declares3 ,from what has been    
said it is plain  to me we have a more  
certain knowledge of the existence of a 
,god than  of anything our senses have  

not immediately discovered to us4 ,nay  
,i  presume ,i may say1 that we more    
certainly know that there is a ,god1    
than that there is anything else without
 us4 #abc    #ee4 ,lucretius 7,titus    
,lucretius ,carus74 ,born at ,rome1     
probably about  #if ,b4,c41 died        
,october #ae1 #ee ,b4,c4 ,a celebrated  
,roman philosophical  poet4 ,he was the 
author of ',de rerum natura1' a didactic
 and  philosophical poem in six books1  
treating of physics1 of psychology1  and
 7briefly7 of ethics from the ,epicurean
 point of view4 ,he committed  suicide  
probably in a fit of insanity4          
,according to a popular but  doubtless  
erroneous tradition1 his madness was due
 to a love-philter  administered to him 
by his wife4 #abd    #ef4 ,lamy         
7,bernard7 was born in ,mans in the year
 #afdj4 ,he studied  first in the       
college of this city4 ,he later went to 
,paris1 and  at ,saumar studied         
philosophy under ,charles de la         
,fontenelle1  and theology under ,andr  

,martin and ,jean ,leporc4 ,he was at   
length  called to teach philosophy in   
the city of ,angers4 ,he wrote a great  
many books on theological subjects4 ,his
 philosophical works are3  ',l'art de   
parler' 7#afge71 ',trait de mchanique1  
de l'quilibre1 des  solides et des      
liqueurs' 7#afgi71 ',trait de la        
grandeur en gnral'  7#afhj71            
',entretiens sur les sciences' 7#afhd71 
',elments de gomtrie1'  7#afhe74 #abe   
#eg4 ,the eye sees only because it is   
formed and placed as it is4 ,la         
,mettrie doubts whether there is any    
purpose in the world4 ,condillac1 on    
the other hand1 teaches that purpose and
 intelligence are shown forth  in the   
universe4 ,can we see the order of the  
parts of the universe1  the             
subordination among them1 and notice how
 so many different things  compose such 
a permanent whole1 and remain convinced 
that the cause  of the universe is a    
principle without any knowledge of its  
effects1  which without purpose1 without

 intelligence1 relates each being to    
particular ends1 subordinated to a      
general end8 #abf    #eh4 ,non nostrum  
inter vos tantas componere lites4       
,vergil1 ,eclogue  ,,iii1 line #ajh4    
#ei4 ,the universe will never be happy  
unless it is atheistic4 ,although  ,la  
,mettrie calls this a strange opinion it
 is clear that he  secretly sympathizes 
with it4 ,holbach affirms this doctrine 
very  emphatically4 ,experience teaches 
us that sacred opinions were the  real  
source of the evils of human beings4    
,ignorance of natural causes  created   
gods for them4 ,imposture made these    
gods terrible4 ,this idea  hindered the 
progress of reason4 #abg ,an atheist 444
 is a man who  destroys chimeras harmful
 to the human race1 in order to lead men
  back to nature1 to experience1 and to 
reason1 which has no need of  recourse  
to ideal powers1 to explain the         
operations of nature4 #abh    #fj4 ,the 
soul is therefore but an empty word4    
,contrast this with  ,descartes's       

statement3 ,and certainly the idea ,i   
have of the human  mind 444 is          
incomparably more distinct than the idea
 of any corporeal  object4 #abi ,compare
 this doctrine1 also1 with ,holbach's   
assertion3  ,those who have             
distinguished the soul from the body    
seem to have only  distinguished their  
brains from themselves4 ,truly the brain
 is the  common center1 where all the   
nerves spread in all parts of the human 
body1 terminate and join together4444   
,the more experience we have1  the more 
we are convinced that the word 'spirit' 
has no meaning even  to those who have  
invented it1 and can be of no use either
 in the  physical or in the moral world4
 #acj    #fa4 ,william ,cowper          
7#afff-agji7 was an ,english anatomist4 
,he was  drawn into a controversy with  
,bidloo1 the ,dutch physician1 by       
publishing under his own name ,bidloo's 
work on the anatomy of human  bodies4   
,his principal works are3 ,myotamia     
reformata 7,london1 #afid7  and         

,glandularum descriptio 7#agjb74 #aca   
#fb4 ,william ,harvey 7#aegh-afeg71 an  
,english physician and physiologist1  is
 renowned for his discovery of the      
circulation of the blood4 ,he was       
educated at ,canterbury and ,cambridge1 
and took his doctor's degree at         
,cambridge in #afjb4 ,during his life he
 held the position of ,lumleian         
lecturer at the ,college of ,physicians1
 and of physician extraordinary  to     
,james ,i4 ,his principal works are3    
,exercitatio de motu cordis  et         
sanguinis 7#afbh71 and ,exercitationes  
de generatione animalium  7#afea74 #acb 
#fc4 ,francis ,bacon 7#aeea-afbf7 was   
one of the first to revolt  against     
scholasticism and to introduce a new    
method into science  and philosophy4 ,he
 claimed that to know reality1 and      
consequently  to gain new power over    
reality1 man must stop studying         
conceptions1  and study matter itself4  
,yet he did not himself know how to gain
  a more accurate knowledge of nature1  

so that he could not put into  practice 
the method which he himself advocated4  
,his works are full  of scholastic      
conceptions1 though many of the         
implications of his  system are         
materialistic4 ,lange claims1 #acc      
indeed1 that if ,bacon  had been more   
consistent and daring1 he would have    
reached strictly  materialistic         
conclusions4 ,the account of the motion 
of the heart  of the dead convict is    
found in ,sylva ,sylvarum4 #acd ,this   
book1  published in #afbg1 a year after 
,bacon's death1 contains the account  of
 ,bacon's experiments1 and of his       
theories in matters of physiology1      
physics1 chemistry1 medicine1 and       
psychology4    #fd4 ,robert ,boyle1 one 
of the greatest natural philosophers of 
his age1  studied at ,eton for three    
years1 and then became the private pupil
 of  the rector of ,stalbridge4 ,he     
traveled through ,france1 ,switzerland1 
and ,italy1 and while at ,florence1     
studied the work of ,galileo4 ,he       

decided to devote his life to scientific
 work1 and in #afde became  a member of 
a society of scientific men1 which later
 grew into the  ,royal ,society of      
,london4 ,his principal work was the    
improvement of  the air-pump1 and by    
that the discovery of the laws governing
 the  pressure and volume of gases4     
,boyle was also deeply interested in    
theology4 ,he gave liberally for  the   
work of spreading ,christianity in      
,india and ,america1 and by his  will   
endowed the ,boyle ,lectures to         
demonstrate the ,christian religion     
against atheists1 theists1 pagans1      
,jews1 and ,mohammedans4 #ace    #fe4   
,nicolas ,stnon was born at ,copenhagen1
 #afca1 and died at ,schwerin  in #afhg4
 ,he studied at ,leyden and ,paris1 and 
then settled in ,florence1  where he    
became the physician of the grand duke4 
,in #afgb he became  professor of       
anatomy at ,florence1 but three years   
later he gave up  this position and     
entered the church4 ,in #afgg he was    

made ,bishop  of ,heliopolis and went to
 ,hanover1 then to ,munster1 and finally
  to ,schwerin4 ,his principal work is  
the ,discours sur l'anatomie du  cerveau
 7,paris1 #affi74 #acf    #ff4 ,la      
,mettrie's account of involuntary       
movements is much like that of          
,descartes4 ,descartes says3 ,if any one
 quickly passes his hand before  our    
eyes as if to strike us1 we shut our    
eyes1 because the machinery  of our body
 is so composed that the movement of    
this hand towards  our eyes excites     
another movement in the brain1 which    
controls the  animal spirits in the     
muscles that close the eyelids4 #acg    
#fg4 ,the brain has its muscles for     
thinking1 as the legs have muscles  for 
walking4 ,neither ,condillac nor        
,helvetius go so far4 ,helvetius        
explicitly states that it is an open    
question whether sensation is  due to a 
material or to a spiritual substance4   
#ach    #fh4 ,giovanni ,alfonso ,borelli
 7#afjh-afgj7 was the head of the       

so-called  iatro-mathematical sect4 ,he 
tried to apply mathematics to medicine  
in  the same way in which it had been   
applied to the physical sciences4 ,he   
was wise enough to restrict the         
application of his system to the motion 
of the muscles1 but his followers tried 
to extend its application and  were led 
into many absurd conjectures4 ,borelli  
was at first professor  of mathematics  
at ,pisa1 and later professor of        
medicine at ,florence4 ,he  was         
connected with the revolt of ,messina   
and was obliged to leave  ,florence4 ,he
 retired to ,rome1 where he was under   
the protection of  ,christina1 ,queen of
 ,sweden1 and remained there until his  
death in  #afgi4 #aci    #fi4 ,for one  
order that the will gives1 it bows a    
hundred times to  the yoke4 ,descartes1 
on the other hand1 teaches that the soul
 has  direct control over its voluntary 
actions and thoughts1 and indirect      
control over its passions4 #adj ,la     
,mettrie goes further than to  limit the

 extent of the will1 and questions      
whether it is ever free3  ,the          
sensations which affect us decide the   
soul either to will or  not to will1 to 
love or to hate these sensations        
according to the  pleasure or the pain  
which they cause in us4 ,this state of  
the soul  thus determined by its        
sensations is called the will4 #ada     
,holbach  insists on this point and     
contends that all freedom is a delusion3
  ,man's birth depends on causes        
entirely outside of his power2 it  is   
without his permission that he enters   
this system where he has  a place2 and  
without his consent that1 from the      
moment of his birth  to the day of his  
death1 he is continually modified by    
causes that  influence his machine in   
spite of his will1 modify his being1 and
  alter his conduct4 ,is not the least  
reflexion enough to prove that  the     
solids and fluids of which the body is  
composed1 and that the  hidden mechanism
 that he considers independent of       

external causes1  are perpetually under 
the influence of these causes1 and could
 not act  without them8 ,does he not see
 that his temperament does not depend   
on himself1 that his passions are the   
necessary consequences of his           
temperament1 that his will and his      
actions are determined by these same    
passions1 and by ideas that he has not  
given to himself8444 ,in a word1        
everything should convince man that     
during every moment of his life1  he is 
but a passive instrument in the hands of
 necessity4 #adb    #gj4 ,the theory of 
animal spirits1 held by ,galen and      
elaborated by  ,descartes1 is that the  
nerves are hollow tubes containing a    
volatile  liquid1 the animal spirits4   
,the animal spirits were supposed to    
circulate from the periphery to the     
brain and back again1 and to  perform by
 their action all the functions of the  
nerves4    #ga4 ,berkeley uses the fact 
that the color of objects varies1 as one
  argument for his idealistic           

conclusion4 #adc    #gb4 ,it is hard to 
tell what ,pythagoras himself taught1   
but it is  certain that he taught the   
kinship of animals and men1 and upon    
this kinship his rule for the abstinence
 from flesh was probably  based4 ,among 
the writings of the later ,pythagoreans 
we find strange  rules for diet which   
are plainly genuine taboos4 ,for example
 they are  commanded to abstain from    
beans1 not to break bread1 not to eat   
from  a whole loaf1 not to eat the      
heart1 etc4 #add    #gc4 ,plato forbade 
the use of wine in his ideal republic4  
#ade    #gd4 ,nature's first care1 when 
the chyle enters the blood1 is to       
excite in it a kind of fever4 ,thus1    
warmth is the first necessity  for the  
body4 ,compare with this1 ,descartes's  
statement3 ,there is a  continual warmth
 in our heart1 444 this fire is the     
bodily principle  of all the movements  
of our members4 #adf ,this is one of the
 many  instances in which ,la ,mettrie's
 account of the mechanism of the body   

is similar to that of ,descartes4       
#ge4 ,stahl 7,george ,ernst71 born at   
,ansbach1 ,bavaria1 ,october #ba1 #affj2
  died at ,berlin1 ,may #ad1 #agcd4 ,a  
noted ,german chemist1 physician of the 
,king of ,prussia from #agaf4 ,his works
 include3 ',theoria medica vera'        
7#agjg71 ',experimenta et observationes 
chemicae' 7#agca71 etc4 #adg    #gf4    
,philip ,hecquet 7#affa-agcg7 was a     
celebrated ,french physician4 ,he       
studied at ,rheims1 and in #afhh became 
the physician of the nuns of ,port      
,royal des ,champs4 ,he returned to     
,paris in #afic and took his doctor's   
degree in #afig4 ,he was twice dean of  
the faculty of ,paris4 ,in #agbg  he    
became the physician of the religious   
,carmelites of the suburb of  ,saint    
,jacques1 and remained their physician  
for thirty-two years4 #adh    #gg4 ,the 
quotation3 ,all men may not go to       
,corinth1 is translated from  ,horace1  
,ep4 #a1 #ai1 #cf4 ,non cuivis homini   
contigit adire ,corinthum4    #gh4      

,hermann ,boerhaave was born at         
,voorhout near ,leyden1 on ,december    
#ca1  #affh4 ,his father1 who belonged  
to the clerical profession1 destined    
his son for the same calling and so gave
 him a liberal education4 ,at  the      
,university of ,leyden1 he studied under
 ,gronovius1 ,ryckius and  ,frigland4   
,at the death of his father1 ,boerhaave 
was left without any  provision and     
supported himself by teaching           
mathematics4 ,vandenberg1  the          
burgomaster of ,leyden1 advised him to  
study medicine1 and he  decided to      
devote himself to this profession4 ,in  
#afic he received his  degree and began 
to practice medicine4 ,in #agja he was  
made ,lecturer  on the ,institutes of   
,medicine at the ,university of ,leyden4
 ,thirteen  years later he was appointed
 ,rector of the ,university1 and the    
same  year became ,professor of         
,practical ,medicine there4 ,he         
introduced into  the university the     
system of clinical instruction4         

,boerhaave's merit  was widely          
recognized1 and his fame attracted many 
medical students  from all ,europe to   
the ,university of ,leyden4 ,among these
 was ,la ,mettrie  whose whole          
philosophy was profoundly influenced by 
the teaching of  ,boerhaave4 ,in #agbh  
,boerhaave was elected into the ,royal  
,academy of  ,sciences of ,paris1 and   
two years later he was made a member of 
the  ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,in    
#agca his health compelled him to resign
  the ,rectorship at ,leyden4 ,at this  
time he delivered an oration1 ,de       
,honore1 ,medici ,servitute4 ,he died   
after a long illness on ,april #bc1     
#agch4 ,the city of ,leyden erected a   
monument to him in the ,church of  ,st4 
,peter1 and inscribed on it3 ,salutifero
 ,boerhaavii genio ,sacrum4             
,boerhaave was a careful and brilliant  
student1 an inspiring teacher1  and a   
skilful practitioner4 ,there are        
remarkable accounts of his skill  in    
discovering symptoms1 and in diagnosing 

diseases4 ,his chief works  are3        
,institutiones ,medicae 7,leyden1       
#agjh72 ,aphorismi de cognoscendis  et  
curandis ,morbis 7,leyden1 #agji71      
,libellus de ,materia ,medica et        
,remediorum ,formulis 7,leyden1 #agai71 
,institutiones et ,experimentae         
,chemicae 7,paris1 #agbd74 #adi    #gi4 
,willis4 7,see ,note #ba47    #hj4      
,claude ,perrault 7#afac-afhh7 was a    
,french physician and  architect4 ,he   
received his degree of doctor of        
medicine at ,paris  and practised       
medicine there4 ,in #afgc he became a   
member of the  ,royal ,academy of       
,sciences4 ,although he never abandoned 
his work in  mathematics1 in the natural
 sciences1 and in medicine1 he is more  
noted  as an architect than as a        
physician or scientist4 ,he was the     
architect  of one of the colonnades of  
the ,louvre1 and of the ,observatory4   
#aej    #ha4 ,matter is self-moved4 ,in 
,l'histoire naturelle de l'me ,la       
,mettrie claims that motion is one of   

the essential properties of  matter4    
,see ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1     
,chap4 ,v4    #hb4 ,the nature of motion
 is as unknown to us as that of  matter4
 ,unlike ,la ,mettrie1 ,toland holds    
that it is possible to  know the nature 
of matter1 and declares that motion and 
matter can  not be defined1 because     
their nature is self-evident4 #aea      
,holbach1  resembling ,la ,mettrie1     
teaches that it is futile to seek to    
know the  ultimate nature of matter1 or 
the cause for its existence4 ,thus  if  
any one shall ask whence matter came1 we
 shall say that it has  always existed4 
,if any one ask1 whence came movement in
 matter1 we  shall answer that for this 
same reason matter must have moved from 
eternity1 since motion is a necessary   
consequence of its existence1  its      
essence1 and of its primitive           
properties1 such as extent1 weight1     
impenetrability1 shape1 etc4444 ,the    
existence of matter is a fact2  the     
existence of motion is another fact4    

#aeb    #hc4 ,huyghens 7,christian7 was 
born at ,the ,hague1 #afbi1 and died    
there  in #afie4 ,he was a ,dutch       
physicist1 mathematician1 and           
astronomer4 ,he is  celebrated for the  
invention of the pendulum clock which   
could measure  the movements of the     
planets1 for the improvement of the     
telescope1  and for the development of  
the wave-theory of light4 ,his principal
  work is ,horologium ,oscillatorium    
7#afgc74 #aec    #hd4 ,julien ,leroy    
7#afhf-agei7 was a celebrated ,french   
watchmaker4 ,he  excelled in the        
construction of pendulums and of large  
clocks4 ,some  have attributed the      
construction of the first horizontal    
clock to him1  but this is doubtful4    
,among many other inventions and        
improvements  of clocks1 he invented the
 compensating pendulum which bears his  
name4 #aed    #he4 ,jacques de          
,vaucanson 7#agji-aghb7 was a ,french   
mechanist4 ,from his  childhood he was  
always interested in mechanical         

contrivances4 ,in #agch  he presented to
 the ,french ,academy his remarkable    
flute player4 ,soon  after1 he made a   
duck which could swim1 eat1 and digest1 
and an asp  which could hiss and dart on
 ,cleopatra's breast4 ,he later held the
  position of inspector of the          
manufacture of silk4 ,in #agdh he was   
admitted to the ,academy of ,sciences4  
,his machines were left to the  ,queen1 
but she gave them to the ,academy1 and  
in the disturbances which  followed the 
pieces were scattered and lost4         
,vaucanson published3  ,mcanisme d'un   
flteur automate 7,paris1 #agch74 #aee   
#hf4 ,descartes understood animal       
nature2 he was the first to prove       
completely that animals are pure        
machines4 ,contrast this with  ,la      
,mettrie's former reference in          
,l'histoire naturelle de l'me  to this  
absurd system 'that animals are pure    
machines4' ,such a  laughable opinion1  
he adds1 has never gained admittance    
among  philosophers4444 ,experience does

 not prove the faculty of feeling any   
less in animals than in men4 #aef ,it is
 evident that ,la ,mettrie's  opposition
 to this 'absurd system' was based upon 
his insistence on  the similarity of men
 and animals4 ,in ,l'homme machine he   
argues  from the same premiss1 that     
animals are machines1 that men are like 
animals1 and that therefore men also are
 machines4          ,,notes ,,on ,,the  
,,extracts ,,from ,l',,histoire         
,,naturelle ,,de ,l',,ame4    #hg4      
,matter1 according to ,la ,mettrie1 is  
endowed with extensity1  the power of   
movement1 and the faculty of sensation4 
,as ,la ,mettrie  says1 this conception 
was not held by ,descartes1 who thought 
that  the essential attribute of matter 
is extension4 ,the nature of  body      
consists not in weight1 hardness1 color1
 and the like but  in extension         
alone--in its being a substance extended
 in length1  breadth and height4 #aeg   
,hobbes's conception of matter is very  
similar to that of ,la ,mettrie4 ,he    

specifically attributes motion to       
matter3 ,motion and magnitude are the   
most common accidents of all  bodies4   
#aeh ,he does not name sensation as an  
attribute of matter1  but he reduces    
sensation to motion4 ,sense is some     
internal motion in  the sentient4 #aei  
,since motion is one of the attributes  
of matter1  and since matter is the only
 reality in the universe1 sensation must
  be attributed to matter4    #hh4 ,la  
,mettrie always insists that matter has 
the power of moving  itself1 and resents
 any attempt to show that the motion is 
due to an  outside agent4 ,in this      
opinion he is in agreement with ,toland4
 ,toland  says that those who have      
regarded matter as inert have had to    
find  some efficient cause for motion2  
and to do this1 they have held that  all
 nature is animated4 ,this pretended    
animation1 however1 is utterly  useless1
 since matter is itself endowed with    
motion4    #hi4 ,this absurd system 444 
that animals are pure machines4 7,see   

,note #hf47          ,,works ,,consulted
 ,,and ,,cited ,,in ,,the ,,notes4      
7,an asterisk indicates the edition to  
which reference is made47               
,,julien ,,offray ,,de ,,la ,,mettrie4  
#agde       ,l'histoire naturelle de    
l'me4 ,the ,hague4 7,this               
work appears as ,trait de l'me in ,la   
,mettrie's                              
collected works47             #agdh     
,l'homme machine4 ,leyden4              
,l'homme machine par ,la ,mettrie1 avec 
une                        introduction 
et des notes4 ,j4 ,asszat4 ,paris1      
#ahfe4             #agea       ,o,euvres
 philosophiques4 ,london 7,berlin74     
#agfd   99   ,o,euvres philosophiques de
 ,monsieur de la                        
,mettrie1 ,amsterdam4 ,besides ,l'homme 
machine                        and      
,trait de l'me1 the ,o,euvres           
philosophiques contain the following    
7dates of                        first  
publication added in parentheses73      
,abrg des systmes4                      

,l'homme plante 7#agdh74                
,les animaux plus que machines 7#agej74 
,l',anti-,snque 7#agdh74                
,l'art de jouir 7#agea74                
,systme d',epicure4        ,,elie       
,,luzac4               #agdh            
,l'homme plus que machine4 ,london      
7,leyden74                    99   ,man 
,more than a ,machine1 translated from  
the                        ,french of   
,elie ,luzac1 and printed with the      
translation of ,man a ,machine for ,g4  
,smith1                        #agej4   
,,ren ,,descartes4               #afcg  
,essais philosophiques1 including       
,discours de                        la  
mthode4                    99   ,the    
,discourse on ,method1 translated by    
,john                        ,veitch4   
,open ,court ,publishing ,co41 #aijc4   
#afda       ,meditationes de prima      
philosophia4             #afdd          
,principia philosophiae4                
99   ,the ,meditations and ,selections  
from the                                

,principles of ,philosophy1 translated  
by ,john                        ,veitch4
 ,open ,court ,publishing ,co41 #aije4  
#afej       ,les passions de l'me4      
99   ,o,euvres de ,descartes1 ,vol4     
,,iv4 ,edited by ,victor                
,cousin1 ,paris1 #ahbd4        ,,john   
,,toland4               #agjd   99      
,letters to ,serena4 ,london4 ,printed  
for ,bernard                            
,lintot4        ,,thomas ,,hobbes4      
#afej       ,human ,nature or the       
,fundamental ,elements of               
,policie4 ,london4             #afea    
,leviathan2 ,or the ,matter1 ,form1 and 
,power of a                             
,commonwealth1 ,ecclesiastical  ,civil4 
,london4             #afee              
,elementorum ,philosophiae ,sectio      
,prima3 ,de                             
,corpore4 ,london4                    99
   ,english ,works edited by ,sir       
,william ,molesworth1                   
#ahci-de4 ,volume ,,iii4 ,leviathan4    
,volume ,,iv4 ,human ,nature4           

,,john ,,locke4               #afij     
,an ,essay ,concerning ,human           
,understanding4                         
,london4                    99          
,edition of ,books ,,ii and ,,iv 7with  
omissions7                              
preceded by the ,english version of ,le 
,clerc's                        ,eloge  
historique de feu ,mr4 ,locke1 ed4 ,m4  
,w4                        ,calkins4    
,open ,court ,publishing ,co41 #aije4   
,,etienne ,,bonnot ,,de ,,condillac4    
#aged       ,trait des sensations4      
,paris and ,london4             #agee   
,trait des animaux4 ,paris and ,london4 
99   ,o,euvres compltes1 #bc vols4      
,edited by ,guillaume                   
,arnoux and ,mousnier4 ,paris1 #agih4   
,vol4 ,,iii4                            
,trait des sensations4 ,trait des       
animaux4        ,,baron ,p4 ,h4 ,d4     
,,von ,,holbach4               #aggj    
,systme de la nature1 par ,m4 ,mirabaud 
really                        ,von      
,holbach4                    99         

,nouvelle edition avec des notes et des 
corrections par ,diderot4 ,paris1 #ahba4
        ,c4 ,a4 ,,helvetius4            
#ageh       ,de l'esprit4 ,paris4       
99   ,de l'esprit1 or ,essays on the    
mind and its                            
several faculties1 translated from the  
,french by                              
,william ,mulford4 ,london1 #ahaj4      
#aggb       ,de l'homme1 de ses facults1
 et de son                              
ducation4 #b vols4 ,london4             
99   ,a ,treatise on ,man2 ,his         
,intellectual ,faculties                
and ,his ,education1 translated from the
 ,french1                        with   
notes1 by ,w4 ,hooper1 ,m4 ,d41 #ahaj4  
,,frederick ,,the ,,great4              
99   ,o,euvres de ,frederic ,,ii41 ,roi 
de ,prusse1 publies                     
du vivant de l'auteur4 ,berlin1 #aghi3  
,eloge de                        ,julien
 ,offray de la ,mettrie1 ,vol4 ,,iii1   
pp4 #aei                        ff4     
,,francis ,,bacon4                      

99   ,sylva ,sylvarum1 sive ,historia   
,naturalis1                             
transcripta a ,j4 ,grutero ,lug4        
,batavor4 #afdh4        ,f4 ,a4 ,,lange4
                      99   ,history of  
,materialism1 translated by ,ernest     
,chester ,thomas1 ,boston1 #ahgg4       
,w4 ,,windelband4                       
99   ,history of ,philosophy1 translated
 by ,j4 ,h4                             
,tufts1 ,new ,york1 #ahih4        ,a4   
,w4 ,,benn4                      99     
,history of ,english ,rationalism in the
 ,nineteenth                            
,century4 ,london1 #aijf4               
,la ,grande ,encyclopdie4 ,inventaire   
,raisonn des                            
,sciences1 des ,lettres1 et des ,arts1  
par une                        ,socit de
 ,savants et de ,gens de ,lettres4      
,paris1                                 
#ahhe-aijc4                        ,the 
,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ,a          
,dictionary of                          
,arts1 ,sciences1 and ,general          

,literature4 ,ninth                     
,edition4                        ,the   
,century ,dictionary and ,cyclopedia4   
,new                        ,york4      
,dictionary of ,philosophy and          
,psychology1 edited                     
by ,j4 ,m4 ,baldwin4 ,london and ,new   
,york1 #aija4                  ,,notes  
#a ,il pche evidemment par une ptition  
de principe4    #b ,l'histoire des      
animaux et des hommes prouve l'empire de
 la semence  des pres sur l'esprit et le
 corps des enfants4    #c ,l'auteur de  
l',histoire naturelle de l'me etc4    #d
 ,l'auteur de l',hist4 de l'me4    #e   
,il y a encore aujourd'hui des peuples1 
qui1 faute d'un plus grand  nombre de   
signes1 ne peuvent compter que jusqu'   
#bj4    #f ,dans un cercle1 ou  table1  
il lui fallait toujours un rempart  de  
chaises1 ou quelqu'un dans son voisinage
 du ct gauche1  pour l'empcher de voir  
des abmes pouvantables dans lesquels il 
craignait quelquefois de tomber1 quelque
 connaissance qu'il eut de ces          

illusions4 ,quel effrayant effet de     
l'imagination1 ou d'une singulire       
circulation dans un lobe du cerveau6    
,grand homme d'un ct1 il tait   moiti   
fou de l'autre4 ,la folie et la sagesse 
avaient chacun leur  dpartement1 ou leur
 lobe1 spar par la faux4 ,de quel ct    
tenait-il  si fort  ,mrs4 de            
,port-,royal8 ,j'ai lu ce fait dans un  
extrait du  trait du vertige de ,mr4 de 
la ,mettrie4    #g ,au moins par les    
vaisseaux4 ,est-il sr qu'il n'y en a    
point par  les nerfs8    #h ,haller dans
 les ,transact4 ,philosoph4    #i       
,boerhaave1 ,inst4 ,med4 et tant        
d'autres4    #aj ,he evidently errs by  
begging the question4    #aa ,the       
history of animals and of men proves how
 the mind and the  body of children are 
dominated by their inheritance from     
their fathers4    #ab ,the author of    
,the ,natural ,history of the ,soul4    
#ac ,the author of ,the ,history of the 
,soul4    #ad ,there are peoples1 even  
to-day1 who1 through lack of a greater  

number of signs1 can count only to #bj4 
#ae ,in a company1 or at table1 he      
always required a rampart of chairs  or 
else some one close to him at the left1 
to prevent his seeing  horrible abysses 
into which 7in spite of his             
understanding these  illusions7 he      
sometimes feared that he might fall4    
,what a frightful  result of            
imagination1 or of the peculiar         
circulation in a lobe of  the brain6    
,great man on one side of his nature1 on
 the other he was  half-mad4 ,madness   
and wisdom1 each had its compartment1 or
 its lobe1  the two separated by a      
fissure4 ,which was the side by which he
 was  so strongly attached to ,messieurs
 of ,port ,royal8 7,i have read this  in
 an extract from the treatise on vertigo
 by ,m4 de la ,mettrie47    #af ,haller 
in the ,transact4 ,philosoph4    #ag    
,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1 chapters 
,,xi1 ,,viii4    #ah ,man a ,machine1 p4
 #adb4 ,cf4 ,la ,mettrie's commentary on
  ,descartes's teaching in ,abrg des    

systmes philosophiques1 ,o,euvres1      
,tome #b4    #ai ,abrg des systmes1     
,descartes1 p4 #f1 ,o,euvres            
,philosophiques1  ,tome #b4    #bj ,man 
a ,machine1 page #hi4 ,cf4 ,l'histoire  
naturelle de l'me  7or ,trait de l'me71 
,o,euvres1 #agdf1 p4 #bbi4    #ba       
,descartes1 ,principles1 ,part ,,ii1    
,prop4 #d4    #bb ,man a ,machine1 pp4  
#abb-abf4    #bc ,ibid41 p4 #adb4    #bd
 ,hobbes1 ,leviathan1 ,part ,,iii1      
,chap4 #cd2 ,part ,i1 ,chap4 ,,xii1     
,open ,court ,edition1 p4 #afi4    #be  
,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1 ,chapters
 ,,iii1 ,v1 and ,,vi4    #bf ,leviathan1
 ,part ,i1 ,chap4 ,i4 ,cf4 ,concerning  
,body1 ,part ,,iv1  ,chap4 ,,xxv1 #b4   
#bg ,man a ,machine1 pp4 #ij-ia4    #bh 
,leviathan1 ,part ,i1 ,chap4 ,,vi1      
,molesworth ,ed41 p4 #dj4 ,cf4 ,man  a  
,machine1 p4 #ij4    #bi ,ibid41 ,part  
,i1 ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,cf4 ,man a ,machine1  
p4 #ajc4    #cj ,ibid41 ,part ,i1 ,chap4
 ,,xii4    #ca ,letters to ,serena1 ,v1 
p4 #afh4    #cb ,ibid41 p4 #aif4    #cc 

,ibid41 p4 #bjc4    #cd ,ibid41 p4 #aii4
    #ce ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1  
,chap4 ,v1 p4 #id4    #cf ,man a        
,machine1 p4 #aci4    #cg ,man a        
,machine1 p4 #adj4    #ch ,letters to   
,serena1 ,v1 p4 #bbg4    #ci ,ibid41 ,v1
 p4 #bcd4    #dj ,john ,locke1 ,essay   
,concerning ,human ,understanding1 ,book
 ,i1  ,book ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,i4    #da     
,locke1 ,essay1 ,book ,,ii1 ,chap4 #h4  
#db ,ibid41 ,book ,,ii1 ,chap4 #bc4     
#dc ,ibid41 ,book ,,iv1 ,chap4 #aj4 ,for
 ,la ,mettrie's summary of ,locke1  cf4 
his ,abrg des systmes1 ,o,euvres1 ,tome 
#b4    #dd ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 ,history of  
,materialism1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,ii4  
#de ,trait des sensations1 ,part ,i4    
#df ,trait des animaux1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4   
#ded4    #dg ,trait des animaux1 ,chap4 
,,vi1 p4 #egg ff4    #dh ,treatise on   
,man1 ,sect4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #if4   
#di ,ibid41 ,sect4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,ii1 p4
 #ajh4    #ej ,essays on the ,mind1     
,essay ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #ce4    #ea  
,treatise on ,man1 ,chap4 ,,xii1 p4     

#afa4    #eb ,ibid41 ,chap4 ,,ix1 p4    
#adf2 ,chap4 ,,vii1 p4 #abi4    #ec     
,systme de la nature1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4  
,i1 p4 #f4    #ed ,systme de la nature1 
,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,vi1 p4 #id4    #ee   
,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,xvi1 p4    
#dea1 and ,chap4 ,,xxvi1  p4 #dhe4 ,cf4 
,man a ,machine1 pp4 #abe-abf4    #ef   
,the references are to pages of this    
book4    #eg ,page-references are to the
 editions cited on pp4 #bje-bjg1 except 
references to ,man a ,machine which are 
to this translation4 ,the  translated or
 original title of a ,french book is    
cited according as  the editor has made 
use of translation or of ,french text4  
#eh ,man ,more than a ,machine1 pp4 #aj1
 #ab4 ,for statement of the  editions to
 which these ,notes make reference1 see 
pp4 #bje-bjg4    #ei ,locke's ,essay    
,concerning ,human ,understanding1 ,book
  ,,ii4 ,chap4 ,,xxiii1  #ae4    #fj    
,ibid41  #ca4    #fa ,condensed and     
translated from ,la ,grande             
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bf4    #fb         

,translated from a note of ,asszat in   
,l'homme machine4    #fc ,condensed and 
translated from ,la ,grande             
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #d4    #fd          
,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 #ith ed41  ,vol4 ,,xxiii4  
,all references are to this edition4    
#fe ,man ,more than a ,machine1 p4 #e4  
#ff ,discourse on ,method1 ,part4 ,v4   
#fg ,discourse on ,method1 ,part ,,iv4  
#fh ,meditations1 ,,ii4    #fi ,trait   
des sensations1 ,part ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,,ix1
  #e4    #gj ,systme de la nature1 ,vol4
 ,i1 ,chap4 ,i4    #ga ,quoted from     
,baldwin's ,dictionary of ,philosophy   
and ,psychology1  ,vol4 ,i4    #gb      
,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xi4    #gc ,les    
passions de l'me1 ,part ,i1 ,art4 ,,xv1 
and ,art4 ,,xxxix4    #gd ,ibid41 ,part 
,i1 ,art4 ,,xv4    #ge ,condensed from  
the ,century ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4   
#gf ,translated and condensed from ,la  
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bf4    #gg 
,condensed from the ,century            

,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4    #gh ,man    
,more than a ,machine1 p4 #bc4    #gi   
,discourse on ,method1 ,v1 last         
paragraph4    #hj ,systme de la nature1 
,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,vii4    #ha          
,translated from ,la ,grande            
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bf4    #hb ,quoted 
from the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1    
,vol4 ,,xxiv4    #hc ,quoted from the   
,century ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4    #hd
 ,e4 ,haeckel1 ,the ,riddle of the      
,universe1 ,chap4 ,,iii4    #he         
,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,i4    #hf ,the      
,riddle of the ,universe1 ,chap4 ,,ii4  
#hg ,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia  
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4    #hh      
,translated from ,la ,grande            
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ca4    #hi         
,leviathan1 ,part ,i1 ,chap4 ,,iv4      
#ij ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1      
,chap4 ,,xiv4 p4 #aii4    #ia ,trait des
 sensations1 p4 #ej4 ,cf4 ibid41 ,chap4 
,,xii 7#b74    #ib ,treatise on ,man1   
,sect4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #d4 ,cf4     

,essays on ,mind1  ,essay ,i1 ,chap4 ,i1
 p4 #g4    #ic ,leviathan1 ,part ,i1    
,chap4 ,,xii4    #id ,man ,more than a  
,machine1 p4 #be4    #ie ,ibid41 p4 #bf4
    #if ,quoted from ,baldwin's         
,dictionary of ,philosophy1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 
#ig ,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia  
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,ii4    #ih ,trait  
des animaux1 ,chap4 ,i1 p4 #ded4    #ii 
,man ,more than a ,machine1 p4 #fe4     
#ajj ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1     
,chap4 ,x1  ,,xii4    #aja ,treatise on 
,man1 ,chap4 ,x4    #ajb ,ibid41 ,chap4 
,,vii4    #ajc ,le vrai sens du systme  
de la nature1 ,chap4 ,,ix4    #ajd      
,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,viii1 p4     
#adj4    #aje ,man ,more than a         
,machine1 pp4 #ga and #gb4    #ajf      
,quoted from the ,century ,dictionary1  
,vol4 ,,ix4    #ajg ,translated from ,la
 ,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bd4       
#ajh ,quoted from the ,century          
,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4    #aji        
,translated from ,la ,grande            
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ad4    #aaj        

,condensed from the ,century            
,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,x4    #aaa          
,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,xv4    #aab ,cf4   
,a4 ,w4 ,benn1 ,history of ,english     
,rationalism1 ,vol4 ,i1  ,chap4 ,,iii4  
#aac ,quoted from the ,century          
,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,x4    #aad          
,translated and condensed from ,la      
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ad4    #aae
 ,translated and condensed from ,la     
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #g4    #aaf 
,condensed from ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 ,history
 of ,materialism1 ,vol4 ,,ii1  ,chap4   
,i1 and from ,w4 ,windelband1 ,history  
of ,philosophy1 ,part ,v1  ,chap4 ,i4   
#aag ,systme de la nature1 ,vol4 ,i1    
,chap4 ,i1 p4 #ab4    #aah ,ibid41 ,vol4
 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,xi4 ,cf4 ,vol4 ,i1      
,chap4 ,,vii4    #aai ,meditations1     
,,iii and ,v4    #abj ,leviathan1 ,part 
,i1 ,chap4 ,,xii4    #aba ,letters to   
,serena1 ,v1 p4 #bce4    #abb ,trait des
 animaux1 ,chap4 ,,vi1 p4 #ehe4    #abc 
,essay ,concerning ,human               

,understanding1 ,book ,,iv1 ,chap4 ,x4  
#abd ,quoted from the ,century          
,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4    #abe        
,translated and condensed from the      
,dictionnaire des ,sciences             
philosophiques1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,paris1    
#ahdg4    #abf ,trait des animaux1      
,chap4 ,,vi4    #abg ,systme de la      
nature1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,xvi1 p4    
#dea4    #abh ,ibid41 ,chap4 ,,xxvi1 p4 
#dhe4 ,cf4 ,luzac's criticism in ,man   
,more  than a ,machine1 p4 #id4    #abi 
,meditations1 ,,iv4    #acj ,systme de  
la nature1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,vii1 pp4  
#aba-abb4    #aca ,condensed and        
translated from ,la ,grande             
,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ac4    #acb        
,condensed from the ,century            
,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4    #acc ,f4 ,a4
 ,lange1 ,history of ,materialism1 ,vol4
 ,i1 ,sec4 ,,ii1  ,chap4 ,,iii4    #acd 
,sylva ,sylvarum sive ,historia         
,naturalis ,latio ,transcripta a  ,j4   
,gruteo4 ,lug4 ,batavos1 #afdh4 ,cf4    
,bk4 ,,iv1 ,experiment #djj4    #ace    

,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia      
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,iv4    #acf        
,translated and condensed from ,la      
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #cj4    #acg
 ,les passions de l'me1 ,part ,i1 ,art4 
#ac4    #ach ,essays on the ,mind1      
,essay ,i1 ,chap4 ,i1 pp4 #d;ff4    #aci
 ,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia     
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,iv4    #adj ,les   
passions de l'me1 ,part ,i1 ,art4 #da4  
#ada ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1     
,chap4 ,,xii1  p4 #afd4 ,cf4 ,chap4     
,,xii1 p4 #afg4    #adb ,systme de la   
nature1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,chap4 ,,vi1 pp4      
#hi;ff4    #adc ,dialogues ,between     
,hylas and ,philonous1 ,i1 ,open ,court 
edition2  pp4 #bg1 #bh1 #bi4 ,cf4       
,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 par4  
#aj1 #ae4    #add ,quoted from ,j4      
,burnet1 ,early ,greek ,philosophy1     
,chap4 ,,ii4    #ade ,republic1 ,,iii1  
#djc4    #adf ,les passions de l'me1    
,part ,i1 ,art4 ,,viii4    #adg ,quoted 
from the ,century ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,x4
    #adh ,translated and condensed from 

,la ,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ai4    
#adi ,condensed from the ,encyclopaedia 
,britannica1 ,vol4 ,,iii4    #aej       
,translated and condensed from ,la      
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bf4    #aea
 ,letters to ,serena1 ,v4    #aeb       
,systme de la nature1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4
 ,,ii1 p4 #cb4    #aec ,condensed from  
the ,century ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ix4   
#aed ,translated and condensed from ,la 
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #bb4    #aee
 ,translated and condensed from ,la     
,grande ,encyclopdie1 ,vol4 #ca4    #aef
 ,l'histoire naturelle de l'me1 ,chap4  
,,vi4    #aeg ,principles of            
,metaphysics1 ,part ,,ii1 ,prop4 #d4    
#aeh ,de ,corpore1 ,part ,,iii1 ,chap4  
,,xv4    #aei ,ibid41 ,part ,,iv1 ,chap4
 ,,xxv1 7#b74