,transcriber's ,note3 ,bold text is surrounded by equal signs and italic text is surrounded by underscores4 ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,a ,,monthly ,,magazine ,,devoted ,,to ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,true ,,culture4 ,,organ ,,of ,,the ,,chautauqua ,,literary ,,and ,,scientific ,,circle4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 ,,november1 #ahhc4 ,no4 #b4 ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle4 ,president--,lewis ,miller1 ,akron1 ,ohio4 ,superintendent of ,instruction--,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,counselors--,rev4 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,d4,d42 ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d42 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,d4,d42 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d4 ,office ,secretary--,miss ,kate ,f4 ,kimball1 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,general ,secretary--,albert ,m4 ,martin1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this table of contents of this periodical was created for the ,,html version to aid the reader4 ,contents ,,required ,,reading ,german ,history #fc ,german ,literature #ff ,physical ,science ,,ii4--,the ,circulation of ,water on the ,land #fg ,,sunday ,,readings ,sunday1 ,november #d4--,moral ,distinctions ,not ,sufficiently ,regarded in ,social ,intercourse #gj ,sunday1 ,november #aa4 #ga ,sunday1 ,november #ah4 #gb ,sunday1 ,november #be4 #gb ,political ,economy ,,ii4 ,production1 ,continued--,capital--,combination and ,division of ,labor #gc ,,iii4--,consumption #gd ,readings in ,art ,,ii4--,sculpture3 ,grecian and ,roman #ge ,selections from ,american ,literature #gg ,benjamin ,franklin--,extracts ,from ,poor ,richard's ,almanac #gg ,george ,washington--,account of the ,battle of ,trenton #gh ,thomas ,jefferson--,george ,washington #gi ,thoughts from ,william ,ellery ,channing #gi ,autumn ,sympathy #hj ,republican ,prospects in ,france #hj ,chautauqua to ,california #ha ,to ,my ,books #hc ,earthquakes--,ischia and ,java #hc ,low ,spirits #he ,vegetable ,villains #hf ,from the ,baltic to the ,adriatic #hg ,electricity #hi ,poachers in ,england #ij ,eight ,centuries ,with ,walter ,scott #ia ,the ,great ,organ at ,fribourg #id ,eccentric ,americans #ie ,etiquette #ii ,napoleon's ,marshals #ajj ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,work #ajb ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,stationery #ajc ,new ,england ,branch of the ,class of '#hf #ajc ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,testimony #ajc ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,reunion #ajd ,local ,circles #aje ,how to ,conduct a ,local ,circle #ajg ,questions and ,answers #aji ,outline of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,studies #aab ,chautauqua ,normal ,class #aab ,editor's ,outlook #aae ,dr4 ,haygood's ,battle for the ,negro #aae ,the ,political ,outlook #aae ,history of ,greece #aaf ,a ,college ,reform #aaf ,editor's ,note-,book #aag ,editor's ,table #aai ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes on ,required ,readings ,for ,november #abj ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,notes on ,required ,readings in 8,the ,chautaquan0 #abc ,tricks of the ,conjurors #abe ,talk ,about ,books #abf ,,required ,,reading ,,for ,,the ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle for #ahhc-d4 ,,november4 ,,german ,,history4 ,by ,,rev4 ,w4 ,g4 ,,williams1 ,a4,m4 ,,ii4 ,from the time of ,julius ,csar to the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 a period of more than four hundred years1 the greater part of the ,germans were subject to ,roman rule1 a rule maintained only by military force4 ,but the struggle against ,rome never entirely ceased--and as ,roman power gradually declined the ,germans seized every opportunity to recover their liberty and in their turn became conquerors4 ,to trace the succession of their vicissitudes during this period would be to give the narrative of a bold1 vigorous1 war-like people in their rude barbaric condition4 ,we should discover even in those early times those race characteristics of strength1 bravery and persistence which became so marked in later centuries2 we should recognize in ,hermann1 the first ,german leader1 the prophecy of the ,great ,charles who steps upon the scene nearly eight centuries later4 ,,hermann1 ,,the ,,first ,,leader4 ,he it was 7,hermann ,arminius7 who1 with a power to organize equal to that of ,william of ,orange1 bound the ,german tribes in a secret confederacy1 whose object it was to resist and repel the ,roman armies4 ,while still himself serving as an officer in the ,roman army1 he managed to rally the confederated ,germans and to attack ,varus's army of forty thousand men--the best ,roman legions--as they were marching through the ,teutoburger ,forest1 where1 aided by violent storms1 the ,germans threw the ,romans into panic and the fight was changed to a slaughter4 ,when the news of the great ,german victory reached ,rome the aged ,augustus trembled with fear2 he let his hair and beard grow for months as a sign of trouble1 and was often heard to exclaim3 8,o1 ,varus1 ,varus1 give me back my legions40 ,though ,rome1 under the able leadership of ,germanicus1 soon after defeated the ,germans1 yet she had been taught that the ,germans possessed a spirit and a power sufficient to make her tremble for her future supremacy4 ,hermann seems to have devoted himself to the creation of a permanent union of the tribes he had commanded4 ,we may guess1 but can not assert1 that his object was to establish a national organization like that of ,rome1 and in doing this he must have come into conflict with laws and customs which were considered sacred by the people4 ,but his remaining days were too few for even the beginning of a task which included such an advance in the civilization of the race4 ,we only know that he was waylaid and assassinated by members of his own family in the year #ba4 ,he was then #cg years old and had been for thirteen years the leader of his people4,a 99 99 99 99 99 ,he was undoubtedly the liberator of ,germany1 having dared to grapple with the ,roman power1 not in its beginnings1 like other kings and commanders1 but in the maturity of its strength4 ,he was not always victorious in battle1 but in war he was never subdued4 ,he still lives in the songs of the barbarians1 unknown to the annals of the ,greeks1 who only admire that which belongs to themselves--nor celebrated as he deserves by the ,romans1 who1 in praising the olden times1 neglect the events of the later years4,b ,,german ,,nationalities ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,century4 ,when we meet the ,germans at the close of the third century we are surprised to find that the tribal names which they bore in the time of ,hermann have nearly all disappeared1 and new names of wider significance have taken their places4 ,instead of thirty to forty petty tribes1 they are now consolidated into four chief nationalities with two or three inferior1 but independent branches4 ,their geographical situation is no longer the same1 migrations have taken place1 large tracts of territory have changed hands1 and many leading families have been overthrown and new ones arisen4 ,nothing but the constant clash of arms could have wrought such change4 ,as each of these new nationalities plays a prominent part in the following centuries1 a short description of them is given3 #a4 ,the ,alemanni4--,the name of this division 7,alle ,mannen1 signifying 8all men07 shows that it was composed of fragments of many tribes4 ,the ,alemanni first made their appearance along the ,main1 and gradually pushed southward over the ,tithe lands1 where the military veterans of ,rome had settled1 until they occupied the greater part of southwestern ,germany1 and eastern ,switzerland to the ,alps4 ,their descendants occupy the same territory to this day4 #b4 ,the ,franks4--,it is not known whence this name is derived1 nor what is its meaning4 ,the ,franks are believed to have been formed out of the ,sicambrians in ,westphalia1 a portion of the ,chatti and the ,batavi in ,holland1 together with other tribes4 ,we first hear of them on the ,lower ,rhine1 but they soon extended their territory over a great part of ,belgium and ,westphalia4 ,their chiefs were already called kings1 and their authority was hereditary4 #c4 ,the ,saxons4--,this was one of the small original tribes settled in ,holstein4 ,the name 8,saxon0 is derived from their peculiar weapon1 a short sword1 called sahs4 ,we find them occupying at the close of the third century nearly all the territory between the ,harz ,mountains and the ,north ,sea1 from the ,elbe westward to the ,rhine4 ,there appears to have been a natural enmity--no doubt bequeathed from the earlier tribes out of which both grew--between them and the ,franks4 #d4 ,the ,goths4--,their traditions state that they were settled in ,sweden before they were found by the ,greek navigators on the southern shore of the ,baltic in #ccj ,b4 ,c4 ,it is probable that only a portion of the tribe navigated1 and that the present ,scandinavian race is descended from the remainder4 ,they came in contact with the ,romans beyond the mouth of the ,danube about the beginning of the third century4,c ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,romans ,,on ,,the ,,germans4 ,the proximity of the ,romans on the ,rhine1 the ,danube1 and the ,neckar1 had by degrees effected alterations in the manners of the ,germans4 ,they had become acquainted with many new things1 both good and bad4 ,by means of the former they became acquainted with money1 and even luxuries4 ,the ,romans had planted the vine on the ,rhine1 and constructed roads1 cities1 manufactories1 theaters1 fortresses1 temples1 and altars4 ,roman merchants brought their wares to ,germany1 and fetched thence amber1 feathers1 furs1 slaves1 and the very hair of the ,germans2 for it became the fashion to wear light flaxen wigs1 instead of natural hair4 ,of the cities which the ,romans built there are many yet remaining1 as ,salzburg1 ,ratisbonne1 ,augsburg1 ,basle1 ,strasburg1 ,baden1 ,spires1 ,worms1 ,metz1 ,treves1 ,cologne1 ,bonn1 etc4 ,but in the interior of ,germany1 neither the ,romans nor their habits and manners had found friends1 nor were cities built there according to the ,roman style4,d ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,huns--,,attila4 ,the fourth century of our era and the first half of the fifth were characterized by the spirit of migration among all the peoples beyond the ,rhine4 ,representatives of every ,german village and district went to ,rome1 and each brought back stories of the wealth and luxury that existed there4 ,they had the keen perception and the strength to recognize the increasing weakness of the government1 and also to despise the enervation and corruption of its citizens4 ,the ,german was ambitious and restless as daily he regarded ,rome more and more as his prey4 ,the ,romans themselves saw the danger of the ,empire and lived in apprehension of overwhelming incursions long before they came4 ,in the latter part of the fourth century the great impulse was given to the people of northern and eastern ,europe by successive invasions from ,asia2 and a vast and general movement began among them which resulted in the disintegration of the ,roman ,empire1 and the transfer of the principal arena of history from the shores of the ,mediterranean ,sea to the countries in which the great powers of modern ,europe afterward grew up4 ,the first impulse to this series of events was given by disturbances and migrations in central ,asia1 of whose cause hardly anything is known4 ,long before the ,christian era there was a powerful race of ,huns in northeastern ,asia who became so dangerous to the ,chinese that the great wall of ,china was built as a defense against them 7finished ,b4 ,c4 #bdd74;,e 99 99 99 99 99 ,these ,huns1 a ,mongol race1 had migrated from the center of ,asia westward three-quarters of a century previously 7,a4 ,d4 #cge71 carrying death and devastation on their path4 ,they had nothing in common with the peoples of the ,west1 either in facial features or habits of life4 ,contemporary historians describe them as surpassing by their savagery all that can be imagined4 ,they were of low stature1 with broad shoulders1 thick-set limbs1 flat noses1 high cheek-bones1 small eyes deeply sunk in the sockets1 and yellow complexion4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus compares them1 in their monstrous ugliness1 to beasts walking on two legs1 or the grinning heads clumsily carved on the posts of bridges4 ,they had no beard1 because from infancy their faces were hideously scarred by being slashed all over1 in order to hinder its growth4 ,accustomed to lead a wandering life in their native country1 these wild hordes traversed the ,steppes1 or boundless plains which lie between ,russia and ,china1 in huge chariots1 or on small hardy horses1 changing their stations as often as fresh pasture was required for their cattle4 ,except constrained by necessity1 they never entered any kind of house1 holding them in horror as so many tombs4 ,they were accustomed from infancy to endure cold1 hunger1 and thirst4 ,as the great boots they wore deprived them of all facility in marching1 they never fought on foot2 but the skill with which they managed their horses and threw the javelin1 made them more formidable to the ,germans than even the disciplined1 but less ferocious1 legions of ,rome4 ,this was the rude race which1 bursting into ,europe in the second half of the fourth century1 shook the whole barbarian world to its center1 and precipitated it upon the ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,goths fled before them1 when they passed the ,danube1 the ,vandals when they crossed the ,rhine4 ,after a halt of half a century in the center of ,europe1 the ,huns put themselves again in motion4 ,attila1 the king of this people1 constrained all the tribes wandering between the ,rhine and the ,oural to follow him4 ,for some time he hesitated upon which of the two empires he should carry the wrath of heaven4 ,deciding upon the ,west1 he passed the ,rhine1 the ,moselle1 and the ,seine1 and marched upon ,orleans4 ,the populations fled before him in indescribable terror1 for the ,scourge of ,god1 as he was called1 left not one stone upon another wheresoever he passed4 ,metz and twenty other cities had been destroyed4 ,troyes alone had been saved by its bishop1 ,saint ,loup4 ,he wished to seize upon ,orleans1 the key of the southern provinces2 and his innumerable army surrounded the city4 ,its bishop1 ,st4 ,aignan1 sustained the courage of the inhabitants by promising them a powerful succor4 tius1 in fact1 arrived with all the barbarian nations encamped in ,gaul1 at the expense of which the new invasion was made4 ,attila for the first time fell back2 but in order to choose a battle-field favorable for his cavalry1 he halted in the ,catalaunian plains near ,mry-sur-,seine4 ,there the terrible shock of battle took place4 ,in the first onset the ,franks1 who formed the vanguard of tius1 fought with such animosity that #ae1jjj ,huns strewed the plain4 ,but next day1 when the great masses on both sides encountered1 the bodies of #afe1jjj combatants were left on that field of carnage4 ,attila was conquered4 ,the allies1 however1 not daring to drive the wild ,huns to despair1 suffered ,attila to retreat into ,germany 7#dea74 ,in the year following he made amends for his defeat by an invasion of northern ,italy1 ravaging ,aquileia1 ,milan1 and other cities in a frightful manner1 but died of an apoplectic stroke 7#dec71 soon after his return1 and his empire fell with him1 but not the terrible remembrance of his name and of his cruelties4 ,the ,visigoths1 whose king had perished in the fight1 and the ,franks of ,meroveus1 had had1 with tius1 the chief honor of that memorable day in the ,catalaunian plains4 ,for it had become a question whether ,europe should be ,german or ,mongolian1 whether the fierce ,huns or the ,germans should found an empire on the ruins of that which was then crumbling4,f ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,empire--,,manners ,,and ,,morals ,,of ,,the ,,germans ,,in ,,this ,,age4 ,the ,western ,empire had now but a short time to live4 ,the dastardly emperor ,valentinian ,,iii41 suspicious of the independent position of tius1 recalled the conqueror of ,attila from ,gaul1 and slew him with his own hand 7,a4 ,d4 #ded74 ,he was himself murdered soon after1 and his widow1 ,eudoxia1 though forced to marry the assassin1 determined to avenge her husband4 ,she invited the ,vandals1 for this purpose1 from ,africa across the sea to ,rome4 ,this ,german tribe1 still ruled by the aged ,genseric1 was the only one which possessed a fleet2 and by this means the ,vandals had already made themselves masters of the great islands of the ,mediterranean1 of ,sicily1 ,sardinia1 and ,corsica4 ,the 8sea-king0 eagerly obeyed the summons 7,a4 ,d4 #dee71 and now 8golden ,rome0 was given up for fourteen days to his soldiers1 and was sacked with such horrors that the name of ,vandal has ever since been a proverb for barbarity and destruction4 ,yet the mediation of ,leo the ,great1 then ,bishop of ,rome1 saved the city from utter ruin4 ,from this time onward the emperors1 who followed one another in quick succession1 were mere tools of the ,german generals1 and symbols of power before the common people2 for the whole imperial army now consisted of the remnants of various ,german nations1 who had sought service for pay4 ,these too1 at last1 like their kindred in the provinces1 demanded lands in ,italy1 and would have no less than one-third of the soil4 ,when this was refused1 ,odoacer1 at the head of his soldiers--,heruli1 ,sciri1 ,turcilingi1 and ,rugii1 who forced their way thither from the ,danube--put an end to the very name of the ,roman ,empire1 stripping the boy ,romulus ,augustulus1 the last emperor1 of the purple1 and ruling alone in ,italy1 as ,german general and king4 ,thus the ,western ,empire fell by ,german hands1 after they had already wrested from it all its provinces1 ,africa1 ,spain1 ,gaul and ,britain4 ,this occurred in the year #dgf4 ,ancient history ends with this event2 but in the history of the ,germans it is merely an episode4 ,at the time of the great migrations1 the ,german tribes were barbarians1 in that they were destitute alike of humanity toward enemies and inferiors1 and of scientific culture4 ,neither the pursuit of learning nor the practice of mercy to the vanquished could seem to them other than unmanly weakness4 ,their ferocity spread misery and ruin through the whole arena of history1 and made the fifth and sixth centuries of our era the crowning epoch in the annals of human suffering2 while their active1 passionate contempt for learning destroyed the existing monuments of intelligence and habits of inquiry and thought1 almost as completely as they swept away the wealth1 prosperity1 and social organization of the ,roman world4 ,their ablest kings despised clerical accomplishments4 ,even ,theodoric the ,great could not write1 and his signature was made by a black smear over a form or mould in which his name was cut4 ,nevertheless these nations were not what we mean by savages4 ,their originally beautiful and resonant language was already cultivated in poetical forms1 in heroic songs4 ,there was intercourse and trade among the several nations4 ,minstrels1 especially1 passed from one royal court to another1 and the same song which was sung to ,theodoric in ,ravenna could be heard and understood by the ,vandals in ,carthage1 by ,clovis in ,paris1 and by the ,thuringians in their fastnesses4 ,a common language was a strong bond of union among these nations4 ,messengers1 embassies1 and letters were sent to and fro between their courts2 gifts were exchanged1 and marriages and alliances entered into4 ,thus the nations were informed concerning one another1 and recognized their mutual relationship4 ,it was this international intercourse that gave rise to the heroic minstrelsy--a faithful relation of the great deeds of ,german heroes during the migrations2 but the minstrel boldly transforms the order of events1 and brings together things which in reality took place at intervals of whole generations4 ,thus they sing of ,hermanric1 of ,theodoric the ,great 7,dietrich the ,strong1 of ,berne71 and of his faithful knight ,hildebrand2 then of the fall of the ,burgundian kings1 of the far-ruling ,attila1 and of ,sigurd1 or ,siegfried1 who was originally a ,northern god of spring1 but here appears as a youthful hero1 faithful and child-like1 simple and unsuspicious1 yet the mightiest of all--the complete image of the ,german character4 ,these wild times of warfare and wandering could not1 of course1 favorably affect morals and character4 ,they did much to root out of the minds and lives of the people their ancient heathen faith and practices4 ,their old gods were associated with places1 scenes1 features of the country and the climate2 and1 with these out of sight1 the gods themselves were easily forgotten4 ,moreover1 the local deities of other places and nations were brought into notice4 ,the people's religious habits were broken up1 their minds confused1 and thus they were better prepared than before to embrace the new and universal doctrines of ,christianity4 ,but the wanderings had a bad effect on morality in all forms4 ,the upright ,german was still distinguished by his self-respect from the false1 faithless1 and cowardly 8,welshman10 whose nature had become deformed through years of servitude4 ,but ,germans1 too1 were now often guilty of faithlessness and cruelty2 and some tribes grew effeminate and corrupt1 especially the ,vandals in luxurious ,africa4 ,they imitated the style of the conquered in dress1 arms1 and manner of life2 and some adopted their language also4 ,for instance1 even ,theodoric the ,great corresponded in ,latin with foreign monarchs2 and as early as the sixth and seventh centuries1 the ,germans recorded their own laws in ,latin1 the ,west ,goths and ,burgundians introducing the practice1 which was followed by the ,franks1 ,alemanni1 ,bavarians1 and ,langobards4 ,these laws1 and the prohibitions they contain1 are the best sources of information upon the manners of the time1 and especially upon the condition of the lower orders1 the peasants1 and the slaves4 ,the most frequent cases provided are of bodily injuries1 murder1 wounds1 and mutilations1 showing that the warlike disposition had degenerated into cruelty and coarseness4 ,for all these injuries1 the weregeld1 or ransom1 was still a satisfaction4 ,the life of a nobleman1 that of a freeman1 of a slave1 and the members of the body--the eye1 ear1 nose1 and hand--were assessed each at a fixed money valuation1 to be paid by the aggressor1 if he would not expose himself to the vengeance of the wronged man or his family4 ,but crimes committed by peasants and slaves were punished by death1 sometimes at the stake1 where freemen might escape by paying a fine4 ,the oaths of parties and witnesses were heard2 and they were sustained by the oaths of others1 their friends1 relations1 or partisans1 who swore that they were to be believed4 ,if an accused party swore that he was innocent1 it was only necessary for him to obtain a sufficient number of compurgators1 or jurors1 of his own rank to swear that they believed him1 in order to secure acquittal4 ,but the number required was much larger for men of low rank than for the nobles2 and the freedmen and slaves had no rights of the kind1 but were tortured at will to compel them to confess or testify4 ,the slaves were often tried by an ordeal1 and were held guilty of any accusation if they could not put their hands into boiling water without harm4 ,for freemen1 if no other evidence were accessible1 a trial by battle was adopted1 as an appeal to ,god's judgment4 ,the heathen tribes in ,germany proper--the ,frisi1 ,saxons1 ,thuringians1 and ,alemanni--lived on in their old ways2 yet they too failed to maintain the spotless character assigned them by ,tacitus4 ,it was a time of general ferment4 ,the new elements of civilization had brought with them new vices1 and the simplicity of earlier days could not survive4,g ,to be continued4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,right well ,i know that improvement is a duty1 and as we see man strives ever after a higher point1 at least he seeks some novelty4 ,but beware6 for with these feelings ,nature has given us also a desire to continue in the old ways1 and to take pleasure in that to which we have been accustomed4 ,every condition of man is good which is natural and in accordance with reason4 ,man's desires are boundless1 but his wants are few4 ,for his days are short1 and his fate bounded by a narrow span4 ,i find no fault with the man who1 ever active and restless1 crosses every sea and braves the rude extremes of every clime1 daring and diligent in pursuit of gain1 rejoicing his heart and house by wealth4--,goethe4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,bayard ,taylor4 ,b ,tacitus4 ,c ,bayard ,taylor4 ,d ,sime4 ,e ,lewis4 ,f ,sime4 ,g ,lewis4 ,,german ,,literature4 ,among the ,germans1 as among all other nations1 the earliest literature is poetical4 ,little is preserved of their ancient poetry1 but ,tacitus tells us that the ,germans of his time had ancient songs relating to ,tuisco and ,mannus1 and to the hero ,arminius4 ,it is the opinion of many critics that the stories of 8,reynard1 the ,fox10 and 8,isengrim1 the ,wolf10 may be traced back to these remote times4 ,the legends of the 8,nibelungenlied0 have many marks of antiquity which would place them in this pre-historic age4 ,the first definite period1 however1 is3 ,i4 ,,the ,,early ,,middle ,,age4--,when the ,german tribes accepted ,christianity1 the clergy strove to replace the native poetry by the stories of the gospel4 ,in the fourth century ,bishop ,ulfilas prepared a clear1 faithful and simple translation of the ,scriptures1 which has since been of value in the study of the ,teutonic languages4 ,charles the ,great overpowered the effort the priests had made to check poetry by issuing orders to collect the old ,german ballads4 ,but few of these treasures of ,old ,high and ,low ,german literature have come down to us4 ,later the ,church still further counteracted the influences of pagan literature by a religious poetry in which the life of ,christ was sung in verse4 ,scholastic learning was also zealously cultivated in the monasteries and schools4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,chivalry4--,under the ,hohenstaufen dynasty during the period of ,middle ,high ,german the country passed through one of the greatest epochs of its literature4 ,the most characteristic outcome of this active era is a series of poetical romances produced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,in these romances the subject of whatever epoch it might be1 was treated wholly in the spirit of chivalry1 the supreme aim was to furnish an idealized picture of the virtues of knighthood4 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach was one of the most brilliant of these writers2 8,parzival10 his chief poem1 is purely imaginative4 ,the hero is made to pass from a life of dreams to one of adventure1 finally to become lord of the palace of the ,holy ,grail4 ,its object is to show the restless spirit of the ,middle ,ages1 which1 continually discontent with life1 sought a nobler place4 ,gottfried1 of ,strasburg1 was a complete contrast to ,wolfram and his greatest contemporary4 ,tristam and ,iseult is his theme4 ,medival romance bore its richest fruit in these two poets1 and most of their successors imitated either one or the other4 ,to this age belongs the famous epic1 the 8,nibelungenlied10 in which many ancient ballads have been collected and arranged4 8,gudrun0 is another epic in which a poet of this period has given form to several old legends4 ,but lyrics as well as romances and epics mark the age of chivalry4 ,the poets of this class were known as minnesnger because their favorite theme was minne or love4 ,of all the minnesnger the first place belongs to ,walther von der ,vogelweide4 ,he wrote poems of patriotism as well as on the usual subjects of lyric verse4 ,to this epoch belong the beginnings of prose in ,german literature4 ,latin was the speech of scholars1 and prose works were almost uniformly in that language4 ,the 8,sachenspiegel0 and 8,schwabenspiegel10 two collections of local laws1 aroused interest among ,germans in their language4 ,the preachers1 however1 were the chief founders of prose style4 ,dissatisfied with the abuses and mere forms under which genuine spiritual life was crushed1 they strove to awaken new and truer ideas of religion4 ,a ,franciscan monk1 ,berthold1 and ,eckhart are the two to whom most is due4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,later ,,middle ,,age4--,after the fall of the ,hohenstaufen dynasty1 chivalry died out in ,germany1 and with it the incentive to poetry4 ,during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 attempts were made to produce poetry by rule4 ,as every trade has its guild1 so there was formed a guild of poetry1 in which the members made their verses by the 8tabulatur10 and were obliged to pass through successive stages up to the 8meistersnger40 ,more important were the efforts at dramatic composition4 ,they were crude representations of scriptural subjects1 with which the clergy sought to replace the pagan festivals4 ,out of these representations grew the 8mysteries10 or 8miracle plays10 in which there was an endeavor to dramatize sacred subjects4 8,shrove ,tuesday plays0 were dialogues1 setting forth some scene of noisy fun1 and were the first attempts at comedy4 ,during the latter part of the fifteenth century there was in ,germany1 as in other ,european countries1 a great revival of intellectual life4 ,it was due to two things--the re-discovery of ,greek literature and the invention of printing4 ,in the universities a broader culture took the place of scholastic studies4 ,many books found their way to the people1 but these were mainly on social questions4 ,the tyranny of princes and abuses of the clergy were the topics for the times1 and multitudes of books were written ridiculing princes1 priests1 nobles1 and even the ,pope4 ,the greatest of these satires was 8,reineke ,vos10 by ,barkhusen1 a printer of ,rostock4 ,during this stirring period ,maximilian ,i4 was emperor1 and attempted to revive the medival romance4 ,his success was not great1 and in no sense affected popular taste4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,century ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4--,while the ,renaissance brought about a great literary movement in ,england and ,france1 and an artistic movement in ,italy1 in ,germany the ,reformation agitated the nation4 ,luther was the commanding spirit of the age in literature1 as in religion4 ,his greatest achievement was his translation of the ,bible4 ,for the first time a literary language was given to the nation4 ,luther gave to the men of all the countries of ,germany a common speech1 so that it is to him that the ,germans owe the most essential of all the conditions of a national life and literature4 ,next to ,luther stands ,ulrich ,von ,hutten1 an accomplished defender of the new culture and of the ,reformation4 ,hans ,sachs1 the meistersnger of ,nuremburg1 is now acknowledged to be the chief ,german poet of the sixteenth century4 ,he wrote more than six thousand poems4 ,his hymn1 8,warum betrbst du dich1 mein ,herz10 was soon translated into eight languages4 ,the religious lyrics of this age were of superior worth4 ,indeed1 next to the translation of the ,bible1 nothing did so much to unite the ,protestants4 ,during this century the drama made considerable progress4 ,v4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,decay4--,this period is in many respects the most dismal in ,german history4 ,during the seventeenth century little poetry of worth was produced4 ,no progress was made in the formation of the drama1 and few prose works were written that are now tolerated4 ,the one brilliant thinker of the age was ,leibnitz4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,revival4--,with the accession of ,frederick the ,great1 a stronger national life sprung up in ,germany1 and literature shared the growth4 ,several causes contributed to the advance of literature2 the revival of classical learning1 and a knowledge of ,english literature were chief4 ,several literary schools grew up4 ,important as were many of the writers in them1 they exercised slight influence on the national mind compared with founders of the ,german classical literature--,klopstock1 ,wieland1 and ,lessing4 ,klopstock's fame mainly rests on the 8,messiah10 a work now little read1 and if defective1 yet full of striking and beautiful images4 ,klopstock's odes are superior to his dramas1 the latter showing knowledge neither of the stage nor of life4 ,his influence upon intellectual life in ,germany was very marked4 ,wieland was one of the most prolific of writers4 8,oberon0 is the most pleasing of his poems to modern readers1 and by far most famous4 8,agathon0 is his best prose romance4 ,although at first a strong pietist1 ,wieland eventually became a pronounced epicurean4 ,lessing1 the third of these great poets1 is the only writer before ,goethe that ,germans now read sympathetically4 ,as an imaginative writer he was chiefly distinguished in the drama1 and his most important dramatic work is 8,minna ,von ,barnhelm40 ,superior to his imaginative works were his labors as a thinker4 ,his style ranks with the greatest ,european writers1 and his criticisms are of great value4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,classical ,,period4--,about #aggj there began in ,german literary life a curious movement called 8,sturm und ,drang0 7storm and pressure74 ,almost all young writers were under its influence4 ,its most prominent quality was discontent with the existing world4 ,the critical guide of the movement was ,herder4 ,to him is due the impulse which led to a collection of the songs and ballads of the people4 ,his most important prose work was 8,ideas ,toward the ,philosophy of the ,history of ,humanity40 ,to ,herder belongs the honor of stimulating the genius of ,goethe1 who holds in ,german literature the place of ,shakspere in ,english4 ,his extraordinary range of activity is his most wonderful characteristic4 ,goethe's first published work placed him among the writers of the 8,sturm und ,drang0 school1 as was true of the earlier works of ,schiller4 ,the lyrics of ,goethe have perhaps the most subtle charm of all his writings1 but 8,hermann und ,dorothea10 8,wilhelm ,meister10 8,faust10 etc41 are his great productions4 ,schiller1 ,goethe's great rival1 divided with him the public attention and interest4 ,schiller's literary career began when he was only twenty-two4 8,the ,robbers0 and 8,don ,carlos0 are his principal early works4 ,it was in #agid that ,goethe and ,schiller began that acquaintance which ripened into one of the most beautiful friendships in the history of literature4 ,they wrote in common on ,schiller's journal 8,die ,horen10 and many of ,schiller's works were influenced by the larger life of his friend4 ,this is particularly true of his dramas1 8,wallenstein10 8,die ,jungfrau von ,orleans10 8,maria ,stuart10 and 8,wilhelm ,tell40 ,in #agha one of the most important works of ,german literature was published--,kant's 8,kritik der ,reinen ,vernunft40 ,the philosophical systems of ,fichte1 ,schelling and ,hegel followed1 and excited even greater interest than the writings of the imaginative writers4 ,each of the leading writers of the classical period had numerous followers1 but the most important band was that which at first grew up around ,goethe--the romantic school4 ,the aim of the school was to revive medivalism--to link daily life to poetry4 ,the writer known as the prophet of the school was ,frederick von ,hardenburg1 generally called ,novalis4 ,the critical leaders were ,wilhelm and ,friedrich von ,schlegel4 ,tieck1 ,nackenroder1 ,fouqu1 and ,schleiermacher were the chief writers4 ,,viii4 ,,the ,,latest ,,period4--,in #ahcb1 with the death of ,goethe1 a new era began in ,german literature4 ,in philosophy the school of ,hegel1 who wrote during the lifetime of ,goethe1 has had many enthusiastic adherents2 among these were ,strauss1 ,ruge and ,feuerbach4 ,schopenhauer1 although he wrote his chief book during the time of ,goethe at present stirs deeper interest than any other thinker4 ,in imaginative literature the greatest writer of the latest period is ,heinrich ,heine1 whose lyrics have attracted general attention4 ,the novel has acquired the same important place in ,germany as in ,england4 ,among the chief novelists are ,freytag1 the ,countess ,ida ,hahn-,hahn1 ,paul ,heyse1 ,spielhagen and ,reuter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,everything that regards statesmanship and the interest of the world is in all outward respects of the greatest importance2 it creates and destroys in a moment the happiness1 even the very existence1 of thousands1 but when the wave of the moment has rushed past1 and the storm has abated1 its influence is lost1 and even frequently disappears without leaving a trace behind4 ,many other things that are noiselessly influencing the thoughts and feelings often make far deeper and more lasting impressions on us4 ,man can for the most part keep himself very independent of all that does not trench on his private life--a very wise arrangement of ,providence1 since it gives a much greater security to human happiness4--,william von ,humboldt4 ,,physical ,,science4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,water ,,on ,,the ,,land4 ,although air is continually evaporating water from the surface of the earth1 and continually restoring it again by condensation1 yet1 on the whole and in the course of years1 there seems to be no sensible gain or loss of water in our seas1 lakes1 and rivers2 so that the two processes of evaporation and condensation balance each other4 ,it is evident1 however1 that the moisture precipitated at any moment from the air is not at once evaporated again4 ,the disappearance of the water is due in part to evaporation1 but only in part4 ,a great deal of it goes out of sight in other ways4 ,the rain which falls upon the sea is the largest part of the whole rainfall of the globe1 because the surface of the sea is about three times greater than that of the land4 ,all this rain gradually mingles with the salt water1 and can then be no longer recognized4 ,it thus helps to make up for the loss which the sea is always suffering by evaporation4 ,for the sea is the great evaporating surface whence most of the vapor of the atmosphere is derived4 ,on the other hand1 the total amount of rain which falls upon the land of the globe must be enormous4 ,it has been estimated1 for example1 that about sixty-eight cubic miles of water annually descend as rain even upon the surface of the ,british ,isles1 and there are many much more rainy regions4 ,if you inquire about this rain which falls upon the land1 you will find that it does not at once disappear1 but begins another kind of circulation4 ,watch what happens during a shower of rain4 ,if the shower is heavy1 you will notice little runs of muddy water coursing down the streets or roads1 or flowing out of the ridges of the fields4 ,follow one of the runs4 ,it leads into some drain or brook1 that into some larger stream1 the stream into a river2 and the river1 if you follow it far enough1 will bring you to the sea4 ,now think of all the brooks and rivers of the world1 where this kind of transport of water is going on1 and you will at once see how vast must be the part of the rain which flows off the land into the ocean4 ,but does the whole of the rain flow off at once into the sea in this way8 ,a good deal of the rain which falls upon the land must sink underground and gather there4 ,you may think that surely the water which disappears in that way must be finally withdrawn from the general circulation which we have been tracing4 ,when it sinks below the surface1 how can it ever get up to the surface again8 ,yet1 if you consider for a little1 you will be convinced that whatever becomes of it underneath1 it can not be lost4 ,if all the rain which sinks into the ground be forever removed from the surface circulation1 you will at once see that the quantity of water upon the earth's surface must be constantly and visibly diminishing4 ,but no such changes1 so far as can be seen1 are really taking place4 ,in spite of the rain which disappears into the ground1 the circulation of water between the air1 the land1 and the sea continues without perceptible diminution4 ,you are driven to conclude1 therefore1 that there must be some means whereby the water underground is brought back to the surface4 ,this is done by springs1 which gush out of the earth1 and bring up water to feed the brooks and rivers1 whereby it is borne into the sea4 ,here1 then1 are two distinct courses which the rainfall takes--one below ground1 and one above4 ,it will be most convenient to follow the underground portion first4 ,a little attention to the soils and rocks which form the surface of a country is enough to show that they differ greatly from each other in hardness1 and in texture or grain4 ,some are quite loose and porous1 others are tough and close-grained4 ,they consequently differ much in the quantity of water they allow to pass through them4 ,a bed of sand1 for example1 is pervious2 that is1 will let water sink through it freely1 because the little grains of sand lie loosely together1 touching each other only at some points1 so as to leave empty spaces between4 ,the water readily finds its way among these empty spaces4 ,in fact1 the sand-bed may become a kind of sponge1 quite saturated with the water which has filtered down from the surface4 ,a bed of clay1 on the other hand1 is impervious2 it is made up of very small particles fitting closely to each other1 and therefore offering resistance to the passage of water4 ,wherever such a bed occurs1 it hinders the free passage of the water1 which1 unable to sink through it from above on the way down1 or from below on the way up to the surface again1 is kept in by the clay1 and forced to find another line of escape4 ,sandy soils are dry because the rain at once sinks through them2 clay soils are wet because they retain the water1 and prevent it from freely descending into the earth4 ,now the rocks beneath us1 besides being in many cases porous in their texture1 such as sandstone1 are all more or less traversed with cracks--sometimes mere lines1 like those of a cracked window-pane1 but sometimes wide and open clefts and tunnels4 ,these numerous channels serve as passages for the underground water4 ,hence1 although a rock may be so hard and close-grained that water does not soak through it at all1 yet if that rock is plentifully supplied with these cracks1 it may allow a large quantity of water to pass through4 ,limestone1 for example1 is a very hard rock1 through the grains of which water can make but little way2 yet it is so full of cracks or 8joints10 as they are called1 and these joints are often so wide1 that they give passage to a great deal of water4 ,in hilly districts1 where the surface of the ground has not been brought under the plow1 you will notice that many places are marshy and wet1 even when the weather has long been dry4 ,the soil everywhere around has perhaps been baked quite hard by the sun2 but these places remain still wet1 in spite of the heat4 ,whence do they get their water8 ,plainly not directly from the air1 for in that case the rest of the ground would also be damp4 ,they get it not from above1 but from below4 ,it is oozing out of the ground2 and it is this constant outcome of water from below which keeps the ground wet and marshy4 ,in other places you will observe that the water does not merely soak through the ground1 but gives rise to a little run of clear water4 ,if you follow such a run up to its source1 you will see that it comes gushing out of the ground as a spring4 ,springs are the natural outlets for the underground water4 ,but1 you ask1 why should this water have any outlets1 and what makes it rise to the surface8 ,let us suppose that a flat layer of some impervious rock1 like clay1 underlies another layer of a porous material1 like sand4 ,the rain which falls on the surface of the ground1 and sinks through the upper bed1 will be arrested by the lower one1 and made either to gather there1 or find its escape along the surface of that lower bed4 ,if a hollow or valley should have its bottom below the level of the line along which the water flows1 springs will gush out along the sides of the valley4 ,the line of escape may be either the junction between two different kinds of rock1 or some of the numerous joints already referred to4 ,whatever it be1 the water can not help flowing onward and downward1 as long as there is any passage along which it can find its way2 and the rocks underneath are so full of cracks1 that it has no difficulty in doing so4 ,but it must happen that a great deal of the underground water descends far below the level of the valleys1 and even below the level of the sea4 ,and yet1 though it should descend for several miles1 it comes at last to the surface again4 ,to realize clearly how this takes place1 let us follow a particular drop of water from the time when it sinks into the earth as rain1 to the time when1 after a long journey up and down in the bowels of the earth1 it once more reaches the surface4 ,it soaks through the soil together with other drops1 and joins some feeble trickle1 or some more ample flow of water1 which works its way through crevices and tunnels of the rocks4 ,it sinks in this way to perhaps a depth of several thousand feet1 until it reaches some rock through which it can not readily make further way4 ,unable to work its way downward1 the pent-up water must try to find escape in some other direction4 ,by the pressure from above it is driven through other cracks and passages1 winding up and down until at last it comes to the surface again4 ,it breaks out there as a gushing spring4 ,rain is water nearly in a state of purity4 ,after journeying up and down underground it comes out again in springs1 always more or less mingled with other materials1 which it gets from the rocks through which it travels4 ,they are not visible to the eye1 for they are held in what is called chemical solution4 ,when you put a few grains of salt or sugar upon a plate1 and pour water over them1 they are dissolved in the water and disappear4 ,they enter into union with the water4 ,you can not see them1 but you can still recognize their presence by the taste which they give to the water which holds them in solution4 ,so water1 sinking from the soil downward1 dissolves a little of the substance of the subterranean rocks1 and carries this dissolved material up to the surface of the ground4 ,one of the important ingredients in the air is carbonic acid gas1 and this substance is both abstracted from and supplied to the air by plants and animals4 ,in descending through the atmosphere rain absorbs a little air4 ,as ingredients of the air1 a little carbonic acid gas1 particles of dust and soot1 noxious vapors1 minute organisms1 and other substances floating in the air1 are caught up by the descending rain1 which in this way washes the air1 and tends to keep it much more wholesome than it would otherwise be4 ,but rain not merely picks up impurities from the air1 it gets a large addition when it reaches the soil4 ,armed with the carbonic acid which it gets from the air1 and with the larger quantity which it abstracts from the soil1 rainwater is prepared to attack rocks1 and to eat into them in a way which pure water could not do4 ,water containing carbonic acid has a remarkable effect on many rocks1 even on some of the very hardest4 ,it dissolves more or less of their substance1 and removes it4 ,when it falls1 for instance1 on chalk or limestone1 it almost entirely dissolves and carries away the rock in solution1 though still remaining clear and limpid4 ,in countries where chalk or limestone is an abundant rock1 this action of water is sometimes singularly shown in the way in which the surface of the ground is worn into hollows4 ,in such districts1 too1 the springs are always hard2 that is1 they contain much mineral matter in solution1 whereas rainwater and springs which contain little impurity are termed soft4 ,when a stone building has stood for a few hundred years1 the smoothly-dressed face which its walls received from the mason is usually gone4 ,again1 in the burying-ground surrounding a venerable church you see the tombstones more and more mouldered the older they are4 ,this crumbling away of hard stone with the lapse of time is a common familiar fact to you4 ,but have you ever wondered why it should be so8 ,what makes the stone decay1 and what purpose is served by the process8 ,if it seem strange to you to be told that the surface of the earth is crumbling away1 you should take every opportunity of verifying the statement4 ,examine your own district4 ,you will find proofs that1 in spite of their apparent steadfastness1 even the hardest stones are really crumbling down4 ,in short1 wherever rocks are exposed to the air they are liable to decay4 ,now let us see how this change is brought about4 ,first of all we must return for a moment to the action of carbonic acid1 which has been already described4 ,you remember that rainwater abstracts a little carbonic acid from the air1 and that1 when it sinks under the earth1 it is enabled by means of the acid to eat away some parts of the rocks beneath4 ,the same action takes place with the rain1 which rests upon or flows over the surface of the ground4 ,the rainwater dissolves out little by little such portions of the rocks as it can remove4 ,in the case of some rocks1 such as limestone1 the whole1 or almost the whole1 of the substance of the rock is carried away in solution4 ,in other kinds1 the portion dissolved is the cementing material whereby the mass of the rock was bound together2 so that when it is taken away1 the rock crumbles into mere earth or sand1 which is readily washed away by the rain4 ,hence one of the causes of the mouldering of stone is the action of the carbonic acid taken up by the rain4 ,in the second place1 the oxygen of the portion of air contained in rainwater helps to decompose rocks4 ,when a piece of iron has been exposed for a time to the weather1 in a damp climate1 it rusts4 ,this rust is a compound substance1 formed by the union of oxygen with iron4 ,what happens to an iron railing or a steel knife1 happens also1 though not so quickly nor so strongly1 to many rocks4 ,they1 too1 rust by absorbing oxygen4 ,a crust of corroded rock forms on their surface1 and1 when it is knocked off by the rain1 a fresh layer of rock is reached by the ever-present and active oxygen4 ,in the third place1 the surface of many parts of the world is made to crumble down by means of frost4 ,sometimes during winter1 when the cold gets very keen1 pipes full of water burst1 and jugs filled with water crack from top to bottom4 ,the reason of this lies in the fact that water expands in freezing4 ,ice requires more space than the water would if it remained fluid4 ,when ice forms within a confined space1 it exerts a great pressure on the sides of the vessel1 or cavity1 which contains it4 ,if these sides are not strong enough to bear the strain to which they are put1 they must yield1 and therefore they crack4 ,you have learned how easily rain finds its way through soil4 ,even the hardest rocks are more or less porous1 and take in some water4 ,hence1 when winter comes the ground is full of moisture2 not in the soil merely1 but in the rocks4 ,and so1 as frost sets in1 this pervading moisture freezes4 ,now1 precisely the same kind of action takes place with each particle of water1 as in the case of the water in the burst water-pipe or the cracked jar4 ,it does not matter whether the water is collected into some hole or crevice1 or is diffused between the grains of the rocks and the soil4 ,when it freezes it expands1 and in so doing tries to push asunder the walls between which it is confined4 ,water freezes not only between the component grains1 but in the numerous crevices or joints1 as they are called1 by which rocks are traversed4 ,you have1 perhaps1 noticed that on the face of a cliff1 or in a quarry1 the rock is cut through by lines running more or less in an upright direction1 and that by means of these lines the rock is split up by nature1 and can be divided by the quarrymen into large four-sided blocks or pillars4 ,these lines1 or joints1 have been already referred to as passages for water in descending from the surface4 ,you can understand that only a very little water may be admitted at a time into a joint4 ,but by degrees the joint widens a little1 and allows more water to enter4 ,every time the water freezes it tries hard to push asunder the two sides of the joint4 ,after many winters1 it is at last able to separate them a little2 then more water enters1 and more force is exerted in freezing1 until at last the block of rock traversed by the joint is completely split up4 ,when this takes place along the face of a cliff1 one of the loosened parts may fall and actually roll down to the bottom of the precipice4 ,in addition to carbonic acid1 oxygen1 and frost1 there are still other influences at work by which the surface of the earth is made to crumble4 ,for example1 when1 during the day1 rocks are highly heated by strong sunshine1 and then during night are rapidly cooled by radiation1 the alternate expansion and contraction caused by the extremes of temperature loosen the particles of the stone1 causing them to crumble away1 or even making successive crusts of the stone fall off4 ,again1 rocks which are at one time well soaked with rain1 and at another time are liable to be dried by the sun's rays and by wind1 are apt to crumble away4 ,if then it be true1 as it is1 that a general wasting of the surface of the land goes on1 you may naturally ask why this should be4 ,out of the crumbled stones all soil is made1 and on the formation and renewal of the soil we depend for our daily food4 ,take up a handful of soil from any field or garden1 and look at it attentively4 ,what is it made of8 ,you see little pieces of crumbling stone1 particles of sand and clay1 perhaps a few vegetable fibers2 and the whole soil has a dark color from the decayed remains of plants and animals diffused through it4 ,now let us try to learn how these different materials have been brought together4 ,every drop of rain which falls upon the land helps to alter the surface4 ,you have followed the chemical action of rain when it dissolves parts of rocks4 ,it is by the constant repetition of the process1 drop after drop1 and shower after shower1 for years together1 that the rocks become so wasted and worn4 ,but the rain has also a mechanical action4 ,watch what happens when the first pattering drops of a shower begin to fall upon a smooth surface of sand1 such as that of a beach4 ,each drop makes a little dint or impression4 ,it thus forces aside the grains of sand4 ,on sloping ground1 where the drops can run together and flow downward1 they are able to push or carry the particles of sand or clay along4 ,this is called a mechanical action2 while the actual solution of the particles1 as you would dissolve sugar or salt1 is a chemical action4 ,each drop of rain may act in either or both of these ways4 ,now you will readily see how it is that rain does so much in the destruction of rocks4 ,it not only dissolves out some parts of them1 and leaves a crumbling crust on the surface1 but it washes away this crust1 and thereby exposes a fresh surface to decay4 ,there is in this way a continual pushing along of powdered stone over the earth's surface4 ,part of this material accumulates in hollows1 and on sloping or level ground2 part is swept into the rivers1 and carried away into the sea4 ,as the mouldering of the surface of the land is always going on1 there is a constant formation of soil4 ,indeed1 if this were not the case1 if after a layer of soil had been formed upon the ground1 it were to remain there unmoved and unrenewed1 the plants would by degrees take out of it all the earthy materials they could1 and leave it in a barren or exhausted state4 ,but some of it is being slowly carried away by rain1 fresh particles from mouldering rocks are being washed over it by the same agent1 while the rock or sub-soil underneath is all the while decaying into soil4 ,the loose stones1 too1 are continually crumbling down and making new earth4 ,and thus1 day by day1 the soil is slowly renewed4 ,plants1 also1 help to form and renew the soil4 ,they send their roots among the grains and joints of the stones1 and loosen them4 ,their decaying fibers supply most of the carbonic acid by which these stones are attacked1 and furnish also most of the organic matter in the soil4 ,even the common worms1 which you see when you dig up a spadeful of earth1 are of great service in mixing the soil and bringing what lies underneath up to the surface4 ,one part of the rain sinks under the ground1 and you have traced its progress there until it comes to the surface again4 ,you have now to trace1 in a similar way1 the other portion of the rainfall which flows along the surface in brooks and rivers4 ,you can not readily meet with a better illustration of this subject than that which is furnished by a gently sloping road during a heavy shower of rain4 ,let us suppose that you know such a road1 and that just as the rain is beginning you take up your station at some part where the road has a well-marked descent4 ,at first you notice that each of the large heavy drops of rain makes in the dust1 or sand1 one of the little dints or rain-prints already described4 ,as the shower gets heavier these rain-prints are effaced1 and the road soon streams with water4 ,now mark in what manner the water moves4 ,looking at the road more narrowly1 you remark that it is full of little roughnesses--at one place a long rut1 at another a projecting stone1 with many more inequalities which your eye could not easily detect when the road was dry1 but which the water at once discloses4 ,every little dimple and projection affects the flow of the water4 ,you see how the raindrops gather together into slender streamlets of running water which course along the hollows1 and how the jutting stones and pieces of earth seem to turn these streamlets now to one side and now to another4 ,toward the top of the slope only feeble runnels of water are to be seen4 ,but further down they become fewer in number1 and at the same time larger in size4 ,they unite as they descend2 and the larger and swifter streamlets at the foot of the descent are thus made up of a great many smaller ones from the higher parts of the slope4 ,why does the water run down the sloping road8 why do rivers flow8 and why should they always move constantly in the same direction8 ,they do so for the same reason that a stone falls to the ground when it drops out of your hand2 because they are under the sway of that attraction toward the center of the earth1 to which1 as you know1 the name of gravity is given4 ,every drop of rain falls to the earth because it is drawn downward by the force of this attraction4 ,when it reaches the ground it is still1 as much as ever1 under the same influence2 and it flows downward in the readiest channel it can find4 ,its fall from the clouds to the earth is direct and rapid2 its descent from the mountains to the sea1 as part of a stream1 is often long and slow2 but the cause of the movement is the same in either case4 ,the winding to and fro of streams1 the rush of rapids1 the roar of cataracts1 the noiseless flow of the deep sullen currents1 are all proofs how paramount is the sway of the law of gravity over the waters of the globe4 ,drawn down in this way by the action of gravity1 all that portion of the rain which does not sink into the earth must at once begin to move downward along the nearest slopes1 and continue flowing until it can get no further4 ,on the surface of the land there are hollows called lakes1 which arrest part of the flowing water1 just as there are hollows on the road which serve to collect some of the rain4 ,but in most cases they let the water run out at the lower end as fast as it runs in at the upper1 and therefore do not serve as permanent resting places for the water4 ,the streams which escape from lakes go on as before1 working their way to the seashore4 ,so that the course of all streams is a downward one2 and the sea is the great reservoir into which the water of the land is continually pouring4 ,the brooks and rivers of a country are thus the natural drains1 by which the surplus rainfall1 not required by the soil or by springs1 is led back again into the sea4 ,when we consider the great amount of rain1 and the enormous number of brooks in the higher parts of the country1 it seems1 at first1 hardly possible for all these streams to reach the sea without overflowing the lower grounds4 ,but this does not take place2 for when two streams unite into one1 they do not require a channel twice as broad as either of their single water-courses4 ,on the contrary1 such an union gives rise to a stream which is not so broad as either of the two from which it flows4 ,but it becomes swifter and deeper4 ,let us return to the illustration of the roadway in rain4 ,starting from the foot of the slope1 you found the streamlets of rain getting smaller and smaller1 and when you came to the top there were none at all4 ,if1 however1 you were to descend the road on the other side of the ridge1 you would probably meet with other streamlets coursing down-hill in the opposite direction4 ,at the summit the rain seems to divide1 part flowing off to one side1 and part to the other4 ,in the same way1 were you to ascend some river from the sea1 you would watch it becoming narrower as you traced it inland1 and branching more and more into tributary streams1 and these again subdividing into almost endless little brooks4 ,but take any of the branches which unite to form the main stream1 and trace it upward4 ,you come1 in the end1 to the first beginnings of a little brook1 and going a little further you reach the summit1 down the other side of which all the streams are flowing to the opposite quarter4 ,the line which separates two sets of streams in this way is called the water-shed4 ,in ,england1 for example1 one series of rivers flows into the ,atlantic1 another into the ,north ,sea4 ,if you trace upon a map a line separating all the upper streams of the one side from those of the other1 that line will mark the water-shed of the country4 ,but there is one important point where the illustration of the road in rain quite fails4 ,it is only when rain is falling1 or immediately after a heavy shower1 that the rills are seen upon the road4 ,when the rain ceases the water begins to dry up1 till in a short time the road becomes once more firm and dusty4 ,but the brooks and rivers do not cease to flow when the rain ceases to fall4 ,in the heat of summer1 when perhaps there has been no rain for many days together1 the rivers still roll on1 smaller usually than they were in winter1 but still with ample flow4 ,what keeps them full8 ,if you remember what you have already been told about underground water1 you will answer that rivers are fed by springs as well as by rain4 ,though the weather may be rainless1 the springs continue to give out their supplies of water1 and these keep the rivers going4 ,but if great drought comes1 many of the springs1 particularly the shallow ones1 cease to flow1 and the rivers fed by them shrink up or get dry altogether4 ,the great rivers of the globe1 such as the ,mississippi1 drain such vast territories1 that any mere local rain or drought makes no sensible difference in their mass of water4 ,in some parts of the world1 however1 the rivers are larger in summer and autumn than they are in winter and spring4 ,the ,rhine1 for instance1 begins to rise as the heat of summer increases1 and to fall as the cold of winter comes on4 ,this happens because the river has its source among snowy mountains4 ,snow melts rapidly in summer1 and the water which streams from it finds its way into the brooks and rivers1 which are thereby greatly swollen4 ,in winter1 on the other hand1 the snow remains unmelted2 the moisture which falls from the air upon the mountains is chiefly snow2 and the cold is such as to freeze the brooks4 ,hence the supplies of water at the sources of these rivers are1 in winter1 greatly diminished1 and the rivers themselves become proportionately smaller4 ,to be continued4 ,,sunday ,,readings4 ,selected by ,,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d4 ,sunday1 ,november #d4 ,,moral ,,distinctions ,,not ,,sufficiently ,,regarded ,,in ,,social ,,intercourse4 8,he that walketh with wise men shall be wise2 but a companion of fools shall be destroyed40--,proverbs xiii3#bj4 ,that 8a man may be known by the company he keeps10 has passed into a proverb among all nations1 thus attesting what has been the universal experience4 ,the fact would seem to be that a man's associates either find him1 or make him like themselves4 ,an acute but severe critic of manners1 who was too often led by his disposition and circumstances to sink the philosopher in the satirist1 has said3 8,nothing is so contagious as example4 ,never was there any considerable good or ill action1 that hath not produced its like4 ,we imitate good ones through emulation2 and bad ones through that malignity in our nature1 which shame conceals1 and example sets at liberty40 ,this being the case1 or anything like it1 all1 ,i think1 must agree that moral distinctions are not sufficiently cared for in social intercourse4 ,in forming our intimacies we are sometimes determined by the mere accident of being thrown together2 sometimes by a view to connections and social position2 sometimes by the fascination of what are called companionable qualities2 seldom1 ,i fear1 by thoughtful and serious regard to the influence they are likely to have on character4 ,we forget that other attractions1 of whatsoever nature1 instead of compensating for moral unfitness in a companion1 only have the effect to make such unfitness the more to be dreaded4 ,let me introduce what ,i have to say on the importance of paying more regard to moral distinctions in the choice of friends1 by a few remarks on what are called1 by way of distinction1 companionable qualities1 and on the early manifestation of a free1 sociable1 confiding turn of mind4 ,most parents hail the latter1 ,i believe1 as the best of prognostics2 and in some respects it is4 ,it certainly makes the child more interesting as a child1 and more easily governed2 it often passes for precocity of talent2 at any rate1 men are willing to construe it into evidence of the facility with which he will make his way in the world4 ,the father is proud of such a son2 the mother idolizes him4 ,if from any cause he is brought into comparison with a reserved1 awkward1 and unyielding boy in the neighborhood1 they are ready enough to felicitate themselves1 and others are ready enough to congratulate them1 on the difference4 ,and yet ,i believe ,i keep within bounds1 when ,i say that1 of the two1 there is more than an even chance that the reserved1 awkward1 and unyielding boy will give his parents less occasion for anxiety and mortification1 and become in the end the wiser and better man4 ,the reason is1 that if a child from natural facility of disposition is easily won over to good courses1 he is also1 from the same cause1 liable at any time to be seduced from these good courses into bad ones4 ,on the contrary1 where a child1 from rigor or stubbornness of temper1 is peculiarly hard to subdue or manage1 there is this hope for a compensation3 if by early training1 or the experience of life1 or a wise foresight of consequences1 he is once set right1 he is almost sure to keep so4 ,it is not enough considered1 that1 in the present constitution of society1 men are not in so much danger from want of good dispositions1 as from want of firmness and steadiness of purpose4 ,hence it is that gentle and affectionate minds1 more perhaps than any others1 stand in need of solid principle and fixed habits of virtue and piety1 as a safeguard against the lures and fascinations of the world4 ,a man of a cold1 hard1 and ungenial nature is comparatively safe so far as the temptations of society go3 partly because of this very impracticableness of his nature1 and partly because his companionship is not likely to be desired or sought even by the bad3 he will be left to himself4 ,the corrupters of innocence in social intercourse single out for their prey men of companionable qualities4 ,through his companionable qualities the victim is approached1 and by his companionable qualities he is betrayed4 ,let me not be misunderstood4 ,companionable qualities are not objected to as such4 ,when they spring from genuine goodness of heart1 and are the ornament of an upright life1 they are as respectable as they are amiable2 and it would be well if ,christians and all good men cultivated them more than they do4 ,if we would make virtue and religion to be loved1 we must make ourselves to be loved for our virtue and religion2 which would be done if we were faithful to carry the gentleness and charity of the gospel into our manners as well as into our morals4 ,nevertheless1 we insist that companionable qualities1 when they have no better source than a sociable disposition1 or1 worse still1 an easy temper and loose principles1 are full of danger to their possessor1 and full of danger to the community2 especially where1 from any cause1 but little regard is paid to moral distinctions in social intercourse4 ,we also say1 that in such a state of society the danger will be most imminent to those whom we should naturally be most anxious to save--,i mean1 persons of a loving and yielding turn of mind4 ,sunday1 ,november #aa4 ,and this brings me back again to the position taken in the beginning of this discourse4 ,the reason why companionable qualities are attended with so much danger is1 that society itself is attended with so much danger2 and the reason why society is attended with so much danger is1 that social intercourse is not more under the control of moral principles1 moral rules1 and moral sanctions4 ,my argument does not make it necessary to exaggerate the evils and dangers of modern society4 ,i am willing to suppose that there have been times when society was much less pure than it is now2 and again1 that there are places where it is much less pure than it is here2 but it does not follow that there are no evils or dangers now and here4 ,on the contrary1 it is easy to see that there may be stages in the progressive improvement of society1 where the improvement itself will have the effect1 not to lessen1 but to increase the danger1 so far as good men are concerned4 ,in a community where vice abounds1 where the public manners are notoriously and grossly corrupt1 good men are put on their guard4 ,they will not be injured by such society1 for they will have nothing to do with it4 ,a broad line of demarcation is drawn between what is expected from good men1 and what is expected from bad men2 so that the example of the latter has no effect on the former except to admonish and to warn4 ,but let the work of refinement and reform go on in general society until vice is constrained to wear a decent exterior1 until an air of decorum and respectability is thrown over all public meetings and amusements1 and one consequence will be that the distinction between ,christians and the world will not be so clearly seen1 or so carefully observed1 as before4 ,the standard of the world1 from the very fact that it is brought nearer to the standard of the gospel1 will be more frequently confounded with it2 ,christians will feel at liberty to do whatever the world does1 and the danger is1 that they will come at length to do it from the same principles4 ,besides1 are we sure that we have not formed too favorable an opinion of the moral condition of general society--of that general society in the midst of which we are now living1 and to the influence of which we are daily and hourly exposed8 ,we should remember that in pronouncing on the character of public opinion and public sentiment1 we are very likely to be affected and determined ourselves1 not a little1 by the fact that we share in that very public opinion and public sentiment which we are called upon to judge4 ,i have no doubt that virtue1 in general1 is esteemed by the world1 or that1 other things being equal1 a man of integrity will be preferred on account of his integrity4 ,but this is not enough4 ,it shows that the multitude see1 and are willing to acknowledge1 the dignity and worth of an upright course2 but it does not prove them to have that abhorrence for sin1 which it is the purpose and the tendency of the gospel to plant in all minds4 ,if they had this settled and rooted abhorrence for sin1 which marks the ,christian1 and without which a man can not be a ,christian1 they would not prefer virtue to vice1 8other things being equal10 but they would do so whether other things were equal or not2 they would knowingly keep no terms with vice1 however recommended or glossed over by interest or worldly favor1 or refined and elegant manners4 ,now1 ,i ask whether general society1 even as it exists amongst us1 will bear this test8 ,is it not incontestable that very unscrupulous and very dangerous men1 if they happen to be men of talents1 or men of fashion1 or men of peculiarly engaging manners1 find but little difficulty in insinuating themselves into what is called good society2 nay1 are often among those who are most courted and caressed8 ,some vices1 ,i know1 are understood to put one under the social ban2 but it is because they offend1 not merely against morality and religion1 but against taste1 against good-breeding1 against certain conventions of the world4 ,to be convinced of this it is only necessary to observe that the same1 or even a much larger amount of acknowledged criminality1 manifested under other forms1 is not found to be attended with the same result4 ,the mischiefs of this state of things are felt by all2 but especially by those who are growing up in what are generally accounted the most favored walks of life4 ,on entering into society they see men of known profligacy mingling in the best circles1 and with the best people1 if not indeed on terms of entire sympathy and confidence1 at least on those of the utmost possible respect and courtesy4 ,they see all this1 and they see it every day2 and it is by such flagrant inconsistencies in those they look up to for guidance1 more perhaps than by any other one cause1 that their own principles and their own faith are undermined4 ,and besides1 being thus encouraged and countenanced in associating with dissipated and profligate men in what is called good society1 they will be apt to construe it into liberty to associate with them anywhere4 ,at any rate the intimacy is begun4 ,as society is constituted at present1 corrupting intimacies are not infrequently begun amidst all the decencies of life1 and1 it may be1 in the presence and under the countenance and sanction of parents and virtuous friends1 which are afterward renewed and consummated1 and this too by an easy1 natural1 and almost necessary gradation1 amidst scenes of excess--perhaps in the haunts of ignominy and crime4 ,sunday1 ,november #ah4 ,if one should propose a reform in this respect1 ,i am aware of the difficulties and objections that would stand in his way4 ,some would affirm it to be impracticable in the nature of things4 ,they would reason thus3 8,the circle in which a man visits and moves is made for him1 and not by him3 at any rate1 it is not1 and can not be1 determined by moral considerations alone4 ,something depends on education2 something on family connections or mere vicinity2 something on similarity in tastes and pursuits2 something also on equality or approximation in wealth and standing4 ,a poor man1 or a man having a bare competency1 if he is as virtuous and industrious1 is just as respectable as a rich man2 but it is plain that he can not pitch his style of living1 or his style of hospitality1 on the same scale of expense4 ,it is better for both1 therefore1 that they should visit in different circles40 ,perhaps it is2 but what then8 ,i am not recommending an amalgamation of the different classes in society4 ,i suppose that such an amalgamation would neither be practicable nor desirable in the existing state of things4 ,all ,i contend for is1 that in every class1 open and gross immorality of any kind should exclude a man from reputable company4 ,will any one say that this is impracticable8 ,let a man1 through untoward events1 but not by any fault or neglect of his own1 be reduced in his circumstances1--let a man become generally odious1 not in consequence of any immorality1 but because1 perhaps1 he has embraced the unpopular side in politics or religion--let a man omit some trifling formality which is construed into a vulgarity1 or a personal affront1 and people do not appear to find much difficulty in dropping the acquaintance4 ,if1 then1 it is so easy a thing to drop a man's acquaintance for other reasons1 and for no reason1--from mere prejudice1 from mere caprice1--will it still be pretended that it can not be done at the command of duty and religion8 ,again1 it may be objected that1 if you banish a man from general society for his immoralities1 you will drive him to despair1 and so destroy the only remaining hope of his reformation4 ,what6 are you going to keep society corrupt in the vain expectation that a corrupt state of society will help to reform its corrupt members8 ,besides1 ,i grant that we should have compassion on the guilty2 but ,i also hold that we should have compassion on the innocent too4 ,would you1 therefore1 allow a bad man to continue in good society1 when the chances are a thousand to one that he will make others as bad as himself1 and not more than one to a thousand that he himself will be reclaimed8 ,moreover1 this reasoning is fallacious throughout4 ,by expelling a dissipated and profligate man from good society1 instead of destroying all hope of his recovery1 you do in fact resort to the only remaining means of reforming one over whom a fear of ,god1 and a sense of character1 and the upbraidings of conscience have lost their power4 ,what cares he for principle1 or ,god1 or an hereafter8 ,nothing1 therefore1 is so likely to encourage and embolden him to go on in his guilty course1 as the belief that he will be allowed to do so without the forfeiture of the only thing he does care for1 his reputable standing in the world4 ,on the other hand1 nothing is so likely to arrest him in these courses1 and bring him to serious reflection1 as the stern and determined threat of absolute exclusion from good society1 if he persists4 ,another objection will also be made which has stronger claims on our sympathy and respect4 ,we shall be told that the innocent as well as the guilty will suffer--the guilty man's friends and connections1 who will probably feel the indignity more than he does himself4 ,god forbid that we should needlessly add to the pain of those who are thus connected6 ,but we must remember that the highest form of friendship does not consist in blindly falling in with the feelings of those whom we would serve1 but in consulting what will be for their real and permanent good4 ,if1 therefore1 the course here recommended has been shown to be not only indispensable to public morals1 but more likely than any other to reclaim the offender1 it is clearly not more a dictate of justice to the community1 than of ,christian charity to the parties more immediately concerned4 ,consider1 also1 how much is asked1 when a good man is called upon to open his doors to persons without virtue and without principle4 ,unless the social circle is presided over by a spirit which will rebuke and frown away immorality1 whatever fashionable names and disguises it may wear1--unless your sons and daughters can meet together without being in danger of having their faith disturbed by the jeers of the infidel1 or their purity sullied by the breath of the libertine1 neither they nor you are safe in the most innocent enjoyments and recreations4 ,parents at least should take a deep interest in this subject1 if they do not wish to see the virtue1 which they have reared under the best domestic discipline1 blighted and corrupted before their eyes by the temptations to which their children are almost necessarily exposed in general society--a society which they can not escape except by going out of the world1 and which they can not partake of without endangering the loss of what is of more value than a thousand worlds4 ,sunday1 ,november #be4 ,i have failed altogether in my purpose in this discourse if ,i have not done something to increase your distrust of mere companionable qualities1 when not under the control of moral and religious principle2 and also of the moral character and moral influence of general society1 as at present constituted4 ,still you may ask1 8,if ,i associate with persons worse than myself1 how can it be made out to be more probable that they will drag me down to their level1 than that ,i shall lift them up to mine80 ,the answer to this question1 ,i hardly need say1 depends1 in no small measure1 on the reason or motive which induces the association4 ,if you mix with the world1 not for purposes of pleasure or self-advantage--if you resort to society1 not for society as an end1 but as a means to a higher end1 the improvement of society itself--you do but take up the heavenly mission which ,christ began4 ,for not being able to make the distinction1 through the hollowness and corruption of their hearts1 the ,pharisees thought it to be a just ground of accusation against our ,lord1 that he was willing to be accounted the friend of publicans and sinners4 ,let the same mind be in you that was also in ,christ ,jesus1 and we can not doubt that the spirit which inspires you will preserve you wherever you may go4 ,it is of such persons that our ,lord has said3 8,behold1 ,i give unto you power to tread on serpents and scorpions1 and over all the power of the enemy2 and nothing shall by any means harm you40 ,very far am ,i1 therefore1 from denying that we may do good in society1 as well as incur danger and evil4 ,even in common friendships frequent occasions will present themselves for mutual service1 for mutual counsel and admonition4 ,let me impress upon you this duty4 ,perhaps there is not one among you all1 who has not at this moment companions on whom he can confer an infinite blessing4 ,if there is a weak place in their characters1 if to your knowledge they are contemplating a guilty purpose1 if they are on the brink of entering into dangerous connections1 by a timely1 affectionate1 and earnest remonstrance you may save them from ruin4 ,remember1 we shall all be held responsible1 not only for the evil which we do ourselves1 but for the evil which we might prevent others from doing2 it is not enough that we stand2 we must endeavor to hold up our friends4 ,very different from this1 however1 is the ordinary commerce of society2 and hence its danger4 ,if we mix with the world for the pleasure it affords1 we shall be likely to be among the first to be reconciled to the freedom and laxity it allows4 ,the world is not brought up to us1 but we sink down to the world2 the drop becomes of the consistence and color of the ocean into which it falls2 the ocean remains itself unchanged4 ,in the words of an old writer3 8,though the well-disposed will remain some good space without corruption1 yet time1 ,i know not how1 worketh a wound in him1 which weakness of ours considered1 and easiness of nature1 apt to be deceived1 looked into1 they do best provide for themselves that separate themselves as far as they can from the bad1 and draw as nigh to the good1 as by any possibility they can attain to40 8,he that walketh with wise men shall be wise2 but a companion of fools shall be destroyed40 ,,political ,,economy4 ,by ,g4 ,m4 ,,steele1 ,d4,d4 ,,ii4 ,,production1 ,,continued--,,capital--,,combination ,,and ,,division ,,of ,,labor4 #e4 ,we have already seen that an essential to any considerable production is capital4 ,we have seen the nature of capital and how it comes to exist4 ,we have also learned that though capital implies saving1 mere saving is not the sole condition of capital2 indeed1 a narrow penuriousness prevents the rapid accumulation of capital4 ,the man who is accustomed to bring his water from a spring a quarter of a mile from his house instead of digging a well at the cost of a few dollars1 or a few days' work1 acts uneconomically4 ,in the long run the bringing of the water from the spring costs him much more than the digging of the well4 ,the man who has extensive grain-fields1 and who1 for the sake of saving the expense of a reaper1 or even a cradle1 continues to use the sickle1 will find that his saving results in a loss instead of a gain4 ,a man does not need to be rich in order to be a capitalist4 ,when the savage has invented a bow and arrows he has the rudiments of capital4 ,the laborer who has reserved out of his earnings enough to buy him a set of tools1 or a few acres of land1 is as really a capitalist as the owner of factories or railroads4 ,whatever property is used for production is capital4 ,capital exists in many forms4 ,it has been generally divided into fixed and circulating1 though the limits of these divisions are not very precisely defined4 ,the main difference consists in this1 that while certain kinds of capital are used only once in the fulfillment of their purposes1 other kinds are used repeatedly4 ,fuel can be burned but once4 ,an axe may serve for years4 ,circulating capital is of two kinds3 7#a7 ,there are the stock and commodities which are to be consumed in reproduction2 7a7 the material out of which the new product is to be made1 as lumber for cabinet ware1 leather for shoes1 etc42 7b7 food and other provisions for the sustenance of the laborers4 7#b7 ,there is the stock of completed commodities on hand and ready for the market4 ,the chairs that are finished and ready for sale in the chair factory are of this character4 ,it is to be observed that the same article may be at one time circulating and at another fixed capital4 ,thus the chairs just spoken of1 while they are in the hands of the manufacturer1 or passing through those of the dealers1 are circulating capital4 ,it is only when they become fixed in use that their character changes4 ,fixed capital consists 7#a7 of all tools1 implements1 and machinery1 used in the trades4 ,here1 too1 belong all structures of every sort for productive purposes2 7#b7 all beasts of burden and draft2 7#c7 all improvements of land implied in clearing1 fencing1 draining1 fertilizing1 terracing1 etc42 7#d7 all mental acquisitions gained by labor and which give man power for productive results4 ,obviously capital1 by whomsoever owned1 is an advantage to the laborer4 ,but such capital is useless to the owner unless he can unite it with labor4 ,so1 too1 the ability to labor is of no benefit to the laborer unless he can employ it in connection with capital4 ,generally the more capital there is in a community1 other things being equal1 the better it is for the laborer2 and the more laborers there are1 other things being equal1 the better it is for the capitalist4 ,when a factory burns down it may destroy only a small part of the wealth of the owners1 and they may not palpably suffer2 but it is very likely to deprive the laborers1 who are connected with it1 of the means of securing their daily sustenance4 ,there is no natural antagonism of interests between capital and labor1 but rather the utmost concord and interdependence4 ,whatever conflicts arise between the laborers and the capitalists come from the unnatural selfishness and jealousy of the parties concerned4 #f4 ,as has been intimated1 it is only by application of principles underlying political economy that we come to the conditions of the highest production1 or1 in other words1 find how to satisfy the largest range of desires to the greatest extent at the smallest cost of labor4 ,one of the chief means of effecting this is by the combination and division of labor4 ,recalling what was said concerning association and individuality1 we shall see what principles are involved here1 and how naturally they came into operation4 ,as there was seen to be no antagonism between the two latter conceptions when carefully analyzed1 so there is none1 but rather the opposite1 between combination and division of labor4 ,it is true that there are instances where combination may take place without division1 as when men unite to effect purposes which one could not accomplish except in much more than the proportionate time2 as also in some cases to affect purposes which the individual could not effect in any length of time1 such as the moving and placing of heavy timbers and stones1 the management of ships and railway trains1 etc4 ,but for the most part men divide their labor in the process in order that they may combine the result4 ,this is done in two ways3 7#a7 ,men divide up the work of supplying human wants into different trades and occupations1 according to their several tastes and aptitudes4 ,each man needs nearly the same that every other needs4 ,but while each provides for only one kind of want1 he provides more than enough to satisfy his own desire in that particular respect1 and contributes the overplus to meet that same want in others4 ,as all others do the same1 each is contributing to meet the desires of one and all to each4 ,the shoemaker1 the tailor1 the carpenter1 the cabinet-maker1 the blacksmith1 the weaver1 the paper-maker1 the tin-man1 the miner1 the smelter1 the painter1 the glazier1 etc41 are all contributing to supply the farmer's needs1 and the farmer is contributing to all their needs4 ,the wants of all are many times more fully met in this way than if each one should undertake to supply all his own wants4 7#b7 ,in some complicated trades the work is divided into a number of processes4 ,there are men who could do every one of these parts2 but such men are few1 and their labor very costly1 because some of the parts require rare skill and talent4 ,what is needed is to organize several grades of laborers1 so that the physically strong1 the intelligent and skillful may have the work that only they can do2 the less strong and skillful may find employment in the lighter and easier parts1 and so all grades of ability down to the delicate woman or the little child1 and up to the most powerful muscle and most advanced intelligence1 can find their place4 ,it is almost incredible how great is the increase of productiveness from the mere economical arrangement of workers4 ,it is said that in so simple a matter as the making of pins1 where the work is divided into ten processes and properly distributed1 that the production will be two hundred and forty times as much as if each man did the whole work on each pin4 ,this connects itself with another important condition of large production4 ,i mean the diversification of employment in a community4 ,it is only in such a varied industry that all the varied tastes1 aptitudes and abilities of society can find scope and adaptation2 and without this1 production must fall far short of its possibilities4 ,this1 too1 is required to develop those differences which constitute individuality1 and on which association depends4 ,there are other conditions of enlarged production1 such as are implied in freedom1 good government1 and the moral character of the community1 the influence of each of which will easily suggest itself to thoughtful minds4 ,,iii4--,,consumption4 #a4 ,consumption is the destruction of values4 ,production implies consumption4 ,in general1 all material is destroyed in entering into new forms of wealth4 ,thus1 leather must be destroyed in order to the production of shoes4 ,flour must disappear in the manufacture of bread1 and wheat in the making of flour4 ,every kind of implement1 or machine or structure is consumed by use4 ,this consumption is immediate1 or by a single use2 or it is gradual4 ,the food that we eat and the fuel that we burn are examples of the former2 tools1 bridges1 buildings and aqueducts are examples of the latter4 ,it is accomplished in a few months or years2 or is protracted through centuries4 #b4 ,consumption is either voluntary or involuntary4 ,of the latter kind we have instances in the natural decay of objects1 as in wood and vegetables2 the rusting of iron1 the mildew and the moth-eating of cotton and woolen fabrics1 and the wearing away by attrition of gold1 silver1 and other metals2 also the destruction caused by vermin4 ,much of this may be prevented by the prudent foresight which sound economy enjoins2 yet much loss will inevitably take place4 ,a great deal of consumption is accidental4 ,great destruction is caused by fires1 steam-boiler explosions1 floods and tornadoes1 earthquakes and volcanic eruptions4 #c4 ,voluntary consumption is either productive or unproductive4 ,the former is when the material appears in new form and with a higher value1 as cloth made into garments and iron into hardware and cutlery4 ,unproductive consumption occurs1 both in the cases before mentioned of natural and accidental consumption1 and in cases where gratification of desire is the sole object sought and achieved1 as when one eats and drinks simply for the enjoyment1 and without reference to the waste of nature or the nourishment of the system4 ,it is not altogether easy to discriminate between these two kinds of consumption4 ,we readily see the difference between a man's drinking a quantity of whiskey1 not because it will help him in the performance of any duty1 but because he likes it1 and the scattering of a quantity of seed over the ground in spring4 ,there is no doubt that one act is productive and the other unproductive4 ,but there are cases where the distinction is less clear4 ,it is not necessarily a case of unproductive consumption when one destroys value for the sake of gratifying some desire4 ,probably a majority of men eat and drink simply because they desire food and drink1 having no thought of any ulterior object4 ,yet this eating and drinking is absolutely essential to productive labor4 ,the wealth consumed in this way reappears1 to a large extent1 in the products of human industry4 ,still there is much really unproductive consumption2 a destruction of value1 in the place of which no other value ever appears4 ,there are1 for instance1 men and women-- 99 99 99 8who creep ,into this world to eat and sleep1 ,and know no reason why they're born1 ,but simply to consume the corn40 ,vast quantities of wealth are consumed in riotous living1 in greedy and vulgar extravagance1 and unmeaning magnificence4 ,there is also much consumption designed to be productive1 but failing of its end through misdirection4 ,large amounts of property are sometimes invested in enterprises which prove failures4 ,this occurs partly from miscalculation or negligence1 and partly from a disposition to trust to chances--the gambler's calculation4 ,in these ways much wealth is consumed with no consequent product4 #d4 ,it is not easy to draw the line between the ordinary conveniences of life and its luxuries2 nor can it be stated to what extent the latter in any sense of the term are economically allowable4 ,what to one class of persons may be a luxury to another class may be almost a necessity4 ,so what might in one age have been a rare and expensive indulgence1 is in a more advanced period among the cheaper and more ordinary commodities4 ,i call special attention to three kinds of consumption3 7#a7 ,there is the consumption necessary to life and the performance of productive labor4 ,the word necessary here is used in its liberal rather than its restricted sense4 ,the absolute necessities of human life are very few4 ,it does not even require much to keep a man in working condition4 ,but to keep him where there is a larger kind of living1 and where his energies of both body and mind1 together with the moral qualities which render him most efficient1 are at their best1 the consumption must be more generous4 ,besides subsistence there must be materials1 tools1 machines1 and a variety of conditions involving the destruction of value4 ,it is desirable to sustain man not as a mere savage1 but to give him the largest volume of human life2 and the civilized man1 it will be admitted1 lives a broader life than the savage4 ,we are not to forget that ,political ,economy aims at the increase of the value of man1 more than at the multiplication of material wealth1 or the increase of commerce1 except as the latter are conditions of the former4 7#b7 ,a second kind of consumption is of such articles as minister to bodily enjoyment and meet certain mental appetencies of a lower order4 ,they are not necessary to sustain life1 nor to render it more efficient4 ,on the contrary1 they often impair the vigor and competence of the person4 ,at the best they simply gratify certain desires without adding anything to the value of the man4 ,to this category belong mere dainty food1 gold and jewels1 and other ornaments1 valued solely because of their showiness and not for any artistic excellence2 gay and costly apparel1 in which the gayety and the costliness are the main features4 ,these constitute a class of luxuries that are in nearly every sense non-productive4 ,they favorably affect neither the individual nor society1 and are for the most part hurtful to both4 7#c7 ,but not all consumption1 the object of which is to gratify desire1 is to be reckoned in this category4 ,there are certain pleasures which ennoble and really enrich those who participate in them4 ,there are desires the gratification of which enlarges the volume of one's being4 ,they are related not so much to man's productive capability as to that which is the final cause of all production1 and to which all wealth is only a means4 ,the labor1 material1 implements1 and whatever else is consumed in the production of the works or effects of genuine art1 result in the most real wealth that exists4 ,by this is meant not merely pictures1 statues1 books1 carved work1 tasteful tapestries1 and similar objects which can be bought and sold1 but also oratorios which you may hear but once2 magnificent parks to which you may be admitted1 but may never own2 great actors and singers whose genius may be exhibited to others1 but not possessed by them4 ,it is true that much which properly belongs here may be so consumed as to deserve only a place in the second class2 but it may also have those higher and nobler uses which imply production in the best sense4 #e4 ,public consumption is the expenditure of means for society in its aggregate capacity4 ,it has reference principally to the support of those agencies which are implied in the term government4 ,the reasons for the necessity of such expenditures have already been given4 ,the purposes to which such consumption is properly applied may be grouped as follows3 7a7 ,the support and administration of government4 ,this embraces compensation to executive1 legislative and judicial officers1 and expenditure for public buildings4 7b7 ,for works of public convenience4 ,here are included the paving and lighting of streets1 water-works and sewerage4 7c7 ,for advancing science and promoting intelligence1 by means of exploring expeditions1 geological surveys1 meteorological and astronomical observations1 etc4 7d7 ,for the promotion of popular education4 7e7 ,for the support of the poor and the relief of the afflicted4 7f7 ,for national defense4 #f4 ,the general law of economical consumption1 both individual and public1 is that only so much and such a quality should be consumed as is necessary to effect the purpose designed1 whether that be further production or individual gratification4 ,it is nearly the same in the case of labor4 ,in relation to the work to be done1 the character1 ability and skill of the laborer should be considered4 ,,readings ,,in ,,art4 ,,ii4--,,sculpture3 ,,grecian ,,and ,,roman4 ,while ,egyptian sculpture was losing its individuality1 and ,assyrian was wearing itself out in excessive ornamentation1 there was a new art growing up in the isles and on the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the early centuries of its growth are hidden from our knowledge4 ,the remains are so scanty1 so imperfect1 that it is with difficulty that we trace the influences which were molding the art1 and the extent to which it was taking hold of the people4 ,of this primitive period but one single work of sculpture is preserved4 8,at ,mycen1 once perhaps in the days of ,homer 7#hej-hjj8 ,b4 ,c47 the most important city of ,greece1 there are sculptural works in the remains of two lions over the entrance gate4 ,the height of these is about ten feet1 and the width fifteen feet4 ,the stone is a greenish limestone4 ,the holes show where the metal pins held the heads1 long since decayed4 ,fragments as they are1 they show an ,assyrian rather than an ,egyptian influence in the strong marking of the muscles and joints1 softened though it is by decay1 and in the erect attitude1 which denotes action1 such as is not seen in ,egyptian art of this kind4 ,of this gate of the lions1 which has long been known as the most ancient work of early ,greek sculpture1 it must be noticed that it is not in the round1 but only in high relief4 ,and this is the case with all the earliest works1 just as it is with the ,assyrian sculptures4 ,they tend to show therefore that the ,greek sculptor had not yet learnt to model and carve in the round in marble and stone40 ,in the objects found by ,cesnola in ,cyprus1 and consisting of statues and other sculptures1 incised gems1 and metal work of the hammered-out kind1 the resemblance to the art of ,assyria is remarkable4 ,three hundred years later than the 8gate of lions0 are the reliefs discovered at ,xanthus in ,lycia4 8,they belong to the ,harpy monument--a pier-shaped memorial1 along the upper edge of which is a frieze ornamented in relief40 ,the archaic is still visible in the figures4 ,the drapery falls in long straight folds1 with zigzag edges4 ,there is the stiff1 inevitable smile of the ,egyptian statue4 ,the figures are in motion1 but both feet are set flat on the ground4 ,though in profile the eyes are shown in full4 ,in spite of these primitive absurdities1 and the fact that the subjects represent foreign myths1 the statues are ,greek4 ,in the fifth century various art schools were founded4 8,in ,argos lived ,argeladas 7#eae-dee ,b4 ,c471 famous for his bronze statues of gods and ,olympic victors1 and still more famous for his three great pupils1 ,phidias1 ,myron1 and ,polycleitus4 ,in ,sicyon there lived1 at the same time1 ,canachus1 the founder of a vital and enduring school4 ,he executed the colossal statue of ,apollo at ,miletus1 and was skilled not only in casting bronze but in the use of gold and ivory and wood carving4 gina1 then a commercial island as yet not subjected1 was rendered illustrious by the two masters ,callon and ,onatas1 the latter especially known by several groups of bronze statues and warlike scenes from heroic legends4 ,lastly1 ,athens possessed among other artists ,hegias1 the teacher of ,phidias and ,critius4 ,but all of these old masters were severe1 hard1 archaic in their treatment40 ,but a period approaches when by a freer1 happier treatment of their work the way was led to the highest ,athenian sculpture4 ,we can but mention the leading sculptors1 ,calamis of ,athens1 ,pythagoras of ,rhegium1 and1 greatest of all1 ,myron of ,athens4 ,they do not belong to the epoch of the finest ,grecian art1 but they were the immediate forerunners4 8,now1 for the first time in opposition to the barbarians1 the national ,hellenic mind rose to the highest consciousness of noble independence and dignity4 ,athens concentrated within herself1 as in a focus1 the whole exuberance and many-sidedness of ,greek life1 and glorified it into beautiful utility4 ,the victory of the old time over the new was effected by the power of ,phidias1 one of the most wonderful artist minds of all times4 ,he lived in the times of ,athens' greatest prosperity1 and to him ,pericles gave the task of executing the magnificent works he had planned for adorning the city4 ,among the famous statues which ,phidias wrought in carrying out these plans was that of ,athene1 the patron goddess of the ,athenians4 ,the booty which had been taken at ,salamis was set aside for this purpose1 and forty-four talents1 equal to #ehi1hge of our money1 was spent in adorning the statue4 ,the virgin goddess was standing erect2 a golden helmet covered her beautiful and earnest head2 a coat of mail1 with the head of the ,medusa carved in ivory concealed her bosom2 and long1 flowing1 golden drapery enveloped her whole figure--a statue of ,nik1 six feet high1 stood on the outstretched hand of the goddess4 ,the undraped parts were formed of ivory2 the eyes of sparkling precious stones2 the drapery1 hair1 and weapons of gold4 ,in it ,phidias portrayed for all ages the character of ,minerva1 the serious goddess of wisdom1 the mild protectress of ,attica40 ,still more than in this statue the austere maidenliness of the goddess was elevated into noble1 intellectual beauty in a figure of ,athene placed on the ,acropolis by the ,lemnians2 so much so that an old epigram instituted a comparison with the ,aphrodite of ,praxiteles of ,cnidus1 and calls ,paris 8a mere cow-driver for not giving the apple to ,athene40 ,the still more famous colossal statue by ,phidias1 the ,zeus at ,olympia in ,elis1 was his last great work4 ,it was made between ,b4 ,c4 #dch1 the date of the consecration of the ,parthenon statue1 and ,b4 ,c4 #dcb1 the year of his death1 at ,elis4 ,this was a seated statue of ivory and gold1 #ee feet high1 including the throne4 ,strabo remarks1 that 8if the god had risen he would have carried away the roof10 and the height of the interior was about #ee feet2 the temple being built on the model of the ,parthenon at ,athens1 which was #fd feet to the point of the pediment4 ,the statue was seen in its temple by ,paulus milius in the second century ,b4 ,c41 who declared the god himself seemed present to him4 ,epictetus says that 8it was considered a misfortune for any one to die without having seen the masterpiece of ,phidias40 ,in the time of ,julian the ,apostate 7,a4 ,d4 #cfa-cfc7 8it continued to receive the homage of ,greece in spite of every kind of attack which the covert zeal of ,constantine had made against polytheism1 its temples1 and its idols40 ,this is the last notice we possess giving authentic information of this grand statue4 ,phidias is said to have executed many other statues3 thirteen in bronze from the booty of ,marathon1 consecrated at ,delphi under ,cimon--statues of ,apollo1 ,athene1 and ,miltiades1 with those ten heroes who had given their names to the ten ,athenian tribes 7,eponymi72 an ,athene for the city of ,pellene in gold and ivory2 another for the ,platans1 of the spoils of ,marathon1 made of wood gilt1 with the head1 feet1 and hands of ,pentelic marble4 8,these10 ,m4 ,rochette says1 8may be considered the productions of his youth40 ,the great national work of the time1 however1 was the ,parthenon1 and the ornamentation was entrusted to ,phidias4 ,not that all the wonderful statues were executed by him alone4 ,he had his pupils and associates4 ,the most famous of these seems to have been ,alcamenes1 a versatile and imaginative disciple of his master4 ,after him were ,agoracritus and ,ponius4 ,there were many others who assisted in the work4 ,the outside of the temple was ornamented with three classes of sculpture3 7#a7 ,the sculptures of the pediments1 being independent statues resting on the cornices4 7#b7 ,the groups of the metopes1 ninety-two in number4 ,these were in high relief4 7#c7 ,the frieze around the upper border of the cella of the ,parthenon contained a representation in low relief of the ,panathenaic procession4 ,all these classes of sculpture were in the highest style of the art4 ,the influence of the sculptures of the ,parthenon is seen in many directions in the temple of ,apollo at ,phigalia1 the temple of ,nik-,apteros on the ,acropolis at ,athens1 at ,halicarnassus1 etc4 8,the works which are known to have been executed by the sculptors contemporary with ,phidias1 and by others who formed what is spoken of as #8the later ,athenian school1' did not approach the great examples of the ,parthenon4 ,sculpture then reached the highest point in the grandest style1 whether in the treatment of the statue in the round1 or of bas-relief as in the frieze1 or alto-relievo as in the metopes4 ,as to the chryselephantine statues of ,phidias1 it may be concluded without hesitation that though we are compelled to rely upon descriptions only1 they must have been works of the great master even more beautiful than the marbles40 ,at ,argos during the time of ,phidias1 a somewhat younger school flourished under the leadership of ,polycleitus4 8,the aspiration of ,polycleitus was to depict the perfect beauty of the human form in calm repose40 ,his ,amazon and ,juno represent best his style2 so perfect are all his works in their proportions that the invention of the canon has been assigned to him4 ,in the works of the later ,athenian school1 at the head of which were ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 the sublime ideal of ,greek art was no longer sustained by any new creations that can be compared with those of the ,phidian school2 no rivalry with those great masters seemed to be attempted4 ,the severe and grand was beyond the comprehension1 or probably uncongenial to the spirit of the age1 which inclined toward the poetic1 the graceful1 the sentimental and romantic4 ,the whole range of the beautiful myths found abundant illustration in forms entirely different from the ancient archaic representations1 and in these the fancy of the sculptor was allowed the fullest and freest indulgence4 ,nymphs1 nereids1 mnads1 and bacchantes occupied the chisel of the sculptor in every form of graceful beauty4 ,after this epoch1 to which so many of the fine statues belong--repetitions in marble of famous originals in bronze--,greek sculpture took another phase in accordance with the social life and the taste of the age1 which inclined toward the feeling for display that arose with the domination of the ,macedonian power1 brought to its height by the conquests and ambition of ,alexander the ,great4 ,lysippus1 a self-taught sculptor of ,sicyon1 was the leading artist of his time4 ,he was evidently a student of nature and individual character1 as he was the first to become celebrated for his portraits1 especially those of ,alexander4 ,he departed from the severe and grand style1 and in the native conceit of all self-taught men sneered at the art of ,polycleitus in the well-known saying recorded of him1 8,polycleitus made men as they were1 but ,i make them as they ought to be40 ,he seems to have been the first great naturalistic sculptor4 ,rhodes had unquestionable right to give her name to a school of sculpture1 both from the great antiquity of the origin of the culture of the arts in the island1 and from the number1 more than one hundred1 of colossal statues in bronze4 ,the ,rhodian school is also distinguished by those remarkable examples of sculpture in marble of large groups of figures--the ,toro ,farnese and the ,laocoon4 ,in these works there is the same feeling for display of artistic accomplishment that has been noticed as characteristic of the ,macedonian age1 with that effort at the pathetic1 especially in the ,laocoon1 which belongs to the finer style of the later ,athenian school as displayed in the works of ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 in the ,niobe figures and others4 ,at ,pergamus1 another school allied in style to that of ,ephesus arose1 of which the chief sculptor was ,pyromachus1 who1 according to ,pliny1 flourished in the #abjth ,olympiad1 ,b4 ,c4 #cjj-bih4 ,a statue of sculapius by ,pyromachus was a work of some note in the splendid temple at ,pergamus1 and is to be seen on the coins of that city4 ,it is also conjectured that the well-known ,dying ,gladiator is a copy of a bronze by ,pyromachus4 ,the vigorous naturalistic style of these statues1 surpassing anything of preceding schools in the effort at expression1 may be taken as characteristic of the school of ,pergamus1 then completely under ,roman influence1 and destined to become more so4 ,but all question as to the nature of the sculptures was set at rest by the discovery of many large works in high relief by the ,german expedition at ,pergamus in #ahge4 ,these are now in the ,museum at ,berlin4 ,they are of almost colossal proportions1 representing1 as ,pliny described1 the wars of ,attalus and the ,battles with the ,giants4 ,the nude figure is especially marked by the effort to display artistic ability as well as great energy in the action4 ,in these points there is observable a connection with the well-known and very striking example of sculpture of this order--the ,fighting ,gladiator1 or more properly the ,warrior of ,agasias1 who1 as is certain from the inscription on his work1 was an ,ephesian4 ,the equally renowned statue of the ,apollo ,belvedere1 finely conceived and admirably modeled as it undoubtedly is1 bears the stamp of artistic display which removes it from the style of the great classic works of sculpture4 ,the history of ,roman sculpture is soon told4 ,if it have any real roots1 they are to be traced in the ancient ,etruscan2 for all that was really characteristic in it as art is associated with that style1 in that intense naturalism which became developed so strikingly in the production of portrait statues and busts1 and in those great monumental works in bas-relief which are marked by the same strong feeling for descriptive representation of the most direct and realistic kind1 upon their triumphal columns and arches4 ,as has already been stated1 early ,roman sculpture1 if such it can be called1 was entirely the work of ,etruscan artists1 employed by the wealth of ,rome to afford the citizens that display of pomp in their worship of the gods and the triumphs of their warriors which their ambition demanded4 ,all important works were made of colossal size4 ,some of the early ,roman 7quasi ,etruscan7 statues spoken of by the historians are a bronze colossus of ,jupiter1 an ,etruscan bronze colossus of ,apollo1 eighty feet high1 in the ,palatine ,library of the temple of ,augustus4 ,a portrait statue of an orator in the toga1 and a chimra1 both of bronze1 are in the ,florence ,museum4 ,sculpture1 from the love of it as a means of expressing the beautiful in the ideal form of the deities or the heroic and the pathetic of humanity1 never existed as a growth of ,roman civilization4 ,the inclination of the ,roman mind was toward social1 municipal1 and imperial system and ordering2 in this direction the ,romans were inventors and improvers upon that which they borrowed from the ,greeks4 ,but in art they began by hiring1 and they ended by debasing the work of the hired4 ,they took away the bronze statues of ,greece as trophies of conquest1 covered them with gold1 and set them up in the palaces and public places of ,rome4 ,they subsidized the sculptors of ,greece1 who under ,roman influence had fallen away from their high traditions2 they did nothing for the sake of art1 but simply manufactured1 as it were1 copies and imitations of ,greek statues for their own use4 ,happily we have to be grateful for the fact1 though we can not honor the motive4 ,had it not been for this bestowal of their wealth in the gratification of their taste for luxury and display1 many of the renowned statues of ancient ,greek art would have been known only by the vague mention of them by ,pausanias and ,pliny1 or the early ,christian writers of the ,church1 or the poetic allusions of the ,greek anthologists and the ,latin epigrammatists4 ,the ,column of ,trajan was the great work of ,apollodorus1 the favorite architect of the emperor1 dedicated ,a4 ,d4 #aad4 ,it is #aj feet in diameter and #abg feet high1 made of thirty-four blocks of white marble1 twenty-three being in the shaft1 nine in the base1 which is finely sculptured1 and two in the capital and torus4 ,the reliefs at the base are smaller than those toward the top1 being two feet high1 increasing to nearly four as they approach the summit2 this was1 of course1 to enable the more distant subjects to be seen equally well with the others1 a singular illustration of the intensely practical turn of ,roman art in its application4 ,there are about #b1ejj figures1 not counting horses1 representing the battles and sieges of the ,dacian war4 ,the column of ,m4 ,aurelius ,antoninus1 erected ,a4 ,d4 #agd1 is similar in height1 but the sculptures1 although in higher relief1 are not so good4 ,they represent the conquest of the ,marcomans4 ,the ,augustan age 7,b4 ,c4 #cf-;,a4 ,d4 #ad71 favorable as it was to literature1 only contributed to the multiplying of copies of the ,greek statues1 such as we see in so many instances1 some of which are of great excellence1 and inestimable as reliable evidence of fine ,greek sculpture4 ,these copies were sometimes varied by the sculptor in some immaterial point of detail4 ,nero 7,a4 ,d4 #ed-fh7 is said to have adorned his ,golden ,house with no less than #ejj statues1 brought from ,delphi4 ,in the ,baths of ,titus1 still in existence 7they were built on the ground of the house and gardens of ,mcenas71 many valuable statues have been discovered4 ,the ,arch of ,titus furnishes an excellent example of bas-relief of that time1 in it the golden candlestick and other spoils from the temple of ,jerusalem are shown4 ,hadrian 7,a4 ,d4 #aag-ach7 encouraged the reproduction of the ,greek statues1 with great success as regards execution1 for his famous villa at ,tivoli1 and besides these are the statues of his favorite ,antinous1 which are the most original works of the time4 ,hadrian's imperial and liberal promotion of sculpture1 gave an immense impetus to the production of statues of every form4 ,all the towns of ,greece which he favored made bronze portrait statues of him1 which were placed in the temple of ,jupiter ,olympius at ,athens1 and the enclosure round more than half a mile in extent was filled with its many statues4 ,the learned ,varro speaks of ,arcesilaus as the sculptor of ,venus ,genetrix1 in the forum of ,csar1 and of a beautiful marble group of ,cupids playing with a lioness1 some leading her1 others beating her with their sandals1 others offering her wine to drink from horns4 ,under the ,antonines arose the outrageous fashion of representing noble ,romans and their wives as deities1 and this was carried so far that the men are not unfrequently nude as if heroic4 ,the bas-reliefs on the arch of ,septimus ,severus at ,rome1 and that which goes by the name of ,constantine--though made chiefly of reliefs belonging to one raised in honor of ,trajan--show the poor condition of sculpture at that time4 ,the numerous sarcophagi1 some made by ,greek sculptors for the ,roman market1 and others by those working at ,rome1 are other examples of the feeble style of imitators and workmen actuated by no knowledge or feeling of art4 ,some of these are still to be seen in the collections at ,rome1 with mythological subjects1 the heads being left unfinished1 so that the portraits of the family could be carved when required4 ,the rule of ,constantine was1 however1 far more disastrous to art as the seat of the ,empire was removed to ,byzantium4 ,most of the finest statues accumulated in ,rome were removed there only to be lost forever in the plundering of wars and the fanatical rage of the ,christian iconoclasts4 ,while destroying the statues of the gods1 they may have spared those which commemorated agonistic victors2 but we may be sure that nearly all the works in metal which the ,christians spared were melted down by the barbarous hordes of ,gothic invaders1 who under ,alaric occupied the ,morea about ,a4 ,d4 #cie4 ,with this glance at the complete decadence of art and the coming darkness that preceded its revival1 we approach the subject of sculpture as connected with the rise of ecclesiastical religious art1 which is necessarily reserved for further consideration4 ,,selections ,,from ,,american ,,literature4 ,,benjamin ,,franklin4 ,i recommend the study of ,franklin to all young people2 he was a real philanthropist1 a wonderful man4 ,it was said that it was honor enough to any one country to have produced such a man as ,franklin4--,sydney ,smith4 ,a man who makes a great figure in the learned world2 and who would still make a greater figure for benevolence and candor were virtue as much regarded in this declining age as knowledge4--,lord ,kaimes4 ,he was a great experimental philosopher1 a consummate politician1 and a paragon of common sense4--,edinburgh ,review4 ,he has in no instance exhibited that false dignity by which science is kept aloof from common application2 and he has sought rather to make her an useful inmate and servant in the common habitations of man1 than to preserve her merely as an object of admiration in temples and palaces4--,sir ,humphrey ,davy4 ,his style has all the vigor1 and even conciseness of ,swift1 without any of his harshness4 ,it is in no degree more flowery1 yet both elegant and lively4--,lord ,jeffrey4 ,when he left ,passy it seemed as if the village had lost its patriarch4--,thomas ,jefferson4 ,extracts ,from ,poor ,richard's ,almanac4 8,love well1 whip well40 8,the proof of gold is fire2 the proof of woman1 gold2 the proof of man1 a woman40 8,there is no little enemy40 8,necessity never made a good bargain40 8,three may keep a secret1 if two of them are dead40 8,deny self for self's sake40 8,keep thy shop1 and thy shop will keep thee40 8,here comes the orator1 with his flood of words and his drop of reason40 8,sal laughs at everything you say2 why8 because she has fine teeth40 8,an old young man will be a young old man40 8,he is no clown that drives the plow1 but he that does clownish things40 8,diligence is the mother of good luck40 8,wealth is not his that has it1 but his that enjoys it40 8,he that can have patience can have what he will40 8,good wives and good plantations are made by good husbands40 8,god heals1 the doctor takes the fee40 8,the noblest question in the world is1 ,what good may ,i do in it80 8,there are three faithful friends1 an old wife1 an old dog1 and ready money40 8,who has deceived thee so oft as thyself80 8,fly pleasures1 and they will follow you40 8,hast thou virtue8 ,acquire also the graces and beauties of virtue40 8,keep your eyes wide open before marriage2 half shut afterward40 8,as we must account for every idle word1 so we must for every idle silence40 8,search others for their virtues1 thyself for thy vices40 8,grace thou thy house1 and let not that grace thee40 8,let thy child's first lesson be obedience1 and the second will be what thou will40 8,let thy discontents be thy secrets40 8,happy that nation1 fortunate that age1 whose history is not diverting40 8,there are lazy minds1 as well as lazy bodies40 8,tricks and treachery are the practice of fools1 who have not wit enough to be honest40 8,let no pleasure tempt thee1 no profit allure thee1 no ambition corrupt thee1 no example sway thee1 no persuasion move thee1 to do anything which thou knowest to be evil2 so shalt thou always live jollily1 for a good conscience is a continual ,christmas40 8,altho' thy teacher act not as he preaches1 ,yet ne'ertheless1 if good1 do what he teaches2 ,good counsel failing men may give1 for why8 ,he that's aground knows where the shoal doth lie4 ,my old friend ,berryman1 oft when alive1 ,taught others thrift1 himself could never thrive4 ,thus like the whetstone1 many men are wont ,to sharpen others while themselves are blunt40 ,poetry for ,december1 #ahcd4 8,he that for the sake of drink neglects his trade1 ,and spends each night in taverns till 'tis late1 ,and rises when the sun is four hours high1 ,and ne'er regards his starving family1 ,god in his mercy may do much to save him1 ,but1 woe to the poor wife1 whose lot it is to have him40 ,an ,astronomical ,notice4 ,during the first visible eclipse ,saturn is retrograde3 for which reason the crabs will go sidelong1 and the rope-makers backward4 ,mercury will have his share in these affairs1 and so confound the speech of the people1 that when a ,pennsylvanian would say panther1 he shall say painter4 ,when a ,new ,yorker thinks to say this1 he shall say diss1 and the people in ,new ,england and ,cape ,may will not be able to say cow for their lives1 but will be forced to say keow1 by a certain involuntary twist in the root of their tongues4 ,no ,connecticut man nor ,marylander will be able to open his mouth this year but sir shall be the first or last syllable he pronounces1 and sometimes both4 ,brutes shall speak in many places1 and there will be about seven and twenty irregular verbs made this year if grammar don't interpose4 ,who can help these misfortunes8 ,this year the stone-blind shall see but very little2 the deaf shall hear but poorly2 and the dumb sha'n't speak very plain4 ,as to old age1 it will be incurable this year1 because of the years past4 ,and toward the fall some people will be seized with an unaccountable inclination to roast and eat their own ears3 ,should this be called madness1 doctors8 ,i think not4 ,but the worst disease of all will be a most horrid1 dreadful1 malignant1 catching1 perverse1 and odious malady1 almost epidemical1 insomuch that many shall seem mad upon it4 ,i quake for very fear when ,i think on't2 for ,i assure you very few shall escape this disease1 which is called by the learned ,albromazer--,lacko'mony4 ,,george ,,washington4 ,his papers which have been preserved show how he gained the power of writing correctly--always expressing himself with clearness and directness1 often with felicity and grace4--,george ,bancroft4 ,no one who has not been in ,england can have an idea of the admiration expressed among all parties for ,general ,washington4--,rufus ,king1 #agig4 99 99 99 ,the great central figure of that unparalleled group1 that 8noble army0 of chieftains1 sages1 and patriots1 by whom the revolution was accomplished4--,edward ,everett4 ,he had in his composition a calm which gave him in moments of highest excitement the power of self-control1 and enabled him to excel in patience4--,bancroft4 ,account of the ,battle of ,trenton4 ,,headquarters1 ,,morristown1 ,dec4 #bg1 #aggf4 ,to the ,president of ,congress3 ,,sir--,i have the pleasure of congratulating you upon the success of an enterprise which ,i had formed against a detachment of the enemy lying in ,trenton1 and which was executed yesterday morning4 ,the evening of the twenty-fifth ,i ordered the troops intended for this service to parade back of ,mc,konkey's ferry1 that they might begin to pass as soon as it grew dark1 imagining we should be able to throw them all over1 with the necessary artillery1 by twelve o'clock1 and that we might easily arrive at ,trenton by five in the morning1 the distance being about nine miles4 ,but the quantity of ice made that night impeded the passage of the boats so much that it was three o'clock before the artillery could all be got over2 and near four before the troops took up their line of march4 ,this made me despair of surprising the town1 as ,i well knew we could not reach it before the day was fairly broke4 ,but as ,i was certain there was no making a retreat without being discovered1 and harassed on re-passing the river1 ,i determined to push on at all events4 ,i formed my detachment into two divisions1 one to march by the lower or river road1 the other by the upper or ,pennington road4 ,as the divisions had nearly the same distance to march1 ,i ordered each of them1 immediately upon forcing the out-guards1 to push directly into the town1 that they might charge the enemy before they had time to form4 ,the upper division arrived at the enemy's advanced post exactly at eight o'clock3 and in three minutes after ,i found1 from the fire on the lower road1 that that division had also got up4 ,the out-guards made but small opposition1 though1 for their numbers1 they behaved very well1 keeping up a constant retreating fire from behind houses4 ,we presently saw their main body formed2 but from their motions1 they seemed undetermined how to act4 ,being hard pressed by our troops1 who had already got possession of their artillery1 they attempted to file off by a road on their right1 leading to ,princeton4 ,but1 perceiving their intention1 ,i threw a body of troops in their way2 which immediately checked them4 ,finding1 from our disposition1 that they were surrounded1 and that they must inevitably be cut to pieces if they made any further resistance1 they agreed to lay down their arms4 ,the number that submitted in this manner was twenty-three officers and eight hundred and eighty-six men4 ,colonel ,rahl1 the commanding officer1 and seven others1 were found wounded in the town4 ,i do not exactly know how many they had killed2 but ,i fancy not above twenty or thirty1 as they never made any regular stand4 ,our loss is very trifling indeed--only two officers and one or two privates wounded4 ,i find that the detachment consisted of the three ,hessian regiments of ,lanspach1 ,kniphausen1 and ,rahl1 amounting to about fifteen hundred men1 and a troop of ,british light horse2 but immediately upon the beginning of the attack1 all those who were not killed or taken pushed directly down toward ,bordentown4 ,these would likewise have fallen into our hands could my plan have been completely carried into execution4 ,general ,ewing was to have crossed before day at ,trenton ferry1 and taken possession of the bridge leading out of town2 but the quantity of ice was so great that1 though he did every thing in his power to effect it1 he could not get over4 ,this difficulty also hindered ,general ,cadwallader from crossing with the ,pennsylvania militia from ,bristol4 ,he got part of his foot over2 but finding it impossible to embark his artillery1 he was obliged to desist4 ,i am fully confident that1 could the troops under ,generals ,ewing and ,cadwallader have passed the river1 ,i should have been able1 with their assistance1 to have driven the enemy from all their posts below ,trenton4 ,but the numbers ,i had with me being inferior to theirs below me1 and a strong battalion of light infantry being at ,princeton above me1 ,i thought it most prudent to return the same evening with the prisoners and the artillery we had taken4 ,we found no stores of any consequence in the town4 ,in justice to the officers and men1 ,i must add that their behavior upon this occasion reflects the highest honor upon them4 ,the difficulty of passing the river in a very severe night1 and their march through a violent storm of snow and hail1 did not in the least abate their ardor2 but when they came to the charge each seemed to vie with the other in pressing forward2 and were ,i to give a preference to any particular corps ,i should do great injustice to the others4 ,colonel ,baylor1 my first aid-de-camp1 will have the honor of delivering this to you2 and from him you may be made acquainted with many other particulars4 ,his spirited behavior upon every occasion requires me to recommend him to your particular notice4 ,i have the honor to be1 etc41 ,g4 ,w4 ,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,as a composition1 the ,declaration of ,independence is ,mr4 ,jefferson's4 ,it is the production of his mind1 and the high honor of it belongs to him clearly and absolutely4 ,to say that he performed his great work well would be doing him an injustice4 ,to say that he did excellently well1 admirably well1 would be inadequate and halting praise4 ,let us rather say that he so discharged the duty assigned him that all ,americans may well rejoice that the work of drawing the title-deed of their liberties devolved upon him4--,daniel ,webster4 ,after ,washington and ,franklin there is no person who fills so eminent a place among the great men of ,america as ,jefferson4--,lord ,brougham4 ,washington4 ,his mind was great and powerful1 without being of the very first order2 his penetration strong1 though not so acute as that of a ,newton1 ,bacon1 or ,locke2 and as far as he saw1 no judgment was ever sounder4 ,it was slow in operation1 being little aided by invention or imagination1 but sure in conclusion4 ,hence the common remark of his officers1 of the advantage he derived from councils of war1 where1 hearing all suggestions1 he selected whatever was best2 and certainly no general ever planned his battles more judiciously4 ,but if deranged during the course of the action1 if any member of his plan was dislocated by sudden circumstances1 he was slow in a re-adjustment4 ,the consequence was1 that he often failed in the field1 and rarely against an enemy in station1 as at ,boston and ,york4 ,he was incapable of fear1 meeting personal dangers with the calmest unconcern4 ,perhaps the strongest feature in his character was prudence1 never acting until every circumstance1 every consideration was maturely weighed2 refraining if he saw a doubt1 but when once decided1 going through with his purpose1 whatever obstacles opposed4 ,his integrity was most pure1 his justice the most inflexible ,i have ever known2 no motives of interest or consanguinity1 of friendship or hatred1 being able to bias his decision4 ,he was1 indeed1 in every sense of the word1 a wise1 a good1 and a great man4 ,his temper was naturally irritable and high-toned2 but reflection and resolution had obtained a firm and habitual ascendency over it4 ,if ever1 however1 it broke its bounds1 he was most tremendous in his wrath4 ,in his expenses he was honorable1 but exact2 liberal in contributions to whatever promised utility2 but frowning and unyielding on all visionary projects1 and all unworthy calls on his charity4 ,his heart was not warm in its affections2 but he exactly calculated every man's value1 and gave him a solid esteem proportioned to it4 ,his person1 you know1 was fine1 his stature exactly what one would wish2 his deportment easy1 erect1 and noble1 the best horseman of his age1 and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback4 ,although in the circle of his friends1 where he might be unreserved with safety1 he took a free share in conversation1 his colloquial talents were not above mediocrity1 possessing neither copiousness of ideas nor fluency of words4 ,in public1 when called on for a sudden opinion1 he was unready1 short1 and embarrassed4 ,yet he wrote readily1 rather diffusely1 in an easy and correct style4 ,this he had acquired by conversation with the world1 for his education was merely reading1 writing1 and common arithmetic1 to which he added surveying at a later day4 ,his time was employed in action chiefly1 reading little1 and that only in agriculture and ,english history4 ,his correspondence became necessarily extensive1 and with journalizing his agricultural proceedings1 occupied most of his leisure hours within doors4 ,on the whole1 his character was1 in its mass1 perfect1 in nothing bad1 in a few points indifferent2 and it may truly be said1 that never did nature and fortune combine more completely to make a man great1 and to place him in the same constellation with whatever worthies have merited from man an everlasting remembrance4 ,for his was the singular destiny and merit of leading the armies of his country successfully through an arduous war1 for the establishment of its independence2 of conducting its councils through the birth of a government1 new in its forms and principles1 until it had settled down into a quiet and orderly train2 and of scrupulously obeying the laws through the whole of his career1 civil and military1 of which the history of the world furnishes no other example4 ,,thoughts ,,from ,,william ,,ellery ,,channing4 ,,on ,,books4--,it is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds and these invaluable means of communication are in the reach of all4 ,in the best books great men talk to us1 give us their most precious thoughts1 and pour their souls into ours4 ,god be thanked for books6 ,they are the voices of the distant and the dead1 and make us heirs of the spiritual life of past ages4 ,books are the true levelers4 ,they give to all who will faithfully use them1 the society1 the spiritual presence of the best and greatest of our race4 ,no matter how poor ,i am4 ,no matter though the prosperous of my time will not enter my obscure dwelling4 ,if the sacred writers will enter and take up their abode under my roof1 if ,milton will cross my threshhold to sing to me of paradise1 and ,shakspere to open to me the worlds of imagination and the workings of the human heart1 and ,franklin to enrich me with his practical wisdom1 ,i shall not pine for want of intellectual companionship1 and ,i may become a cultivated man1 though excluded from what is called the best society in the place where ,i live4 ,,on ,,labor4--,manual labor is a great good1 but only in its just proportions4 ,in excess it does great harm4 ,it is not a good when made the sole work of life4 ,it must be joined with higher means of improvement or it degrades instead of exalting4 ,man has a various nature which requires a variety of occupation and discipline for its growth4 ,study1 meditation1 society1 and relaxation should be mixed up with his physical toil4 ,he has intellect1 heart1 imagination1 taste1 as well as bones and muscles2 and he is grievously wronged when compelled to exclusive drudgery for bodily subsistence4 ,,on ,,politics4--,to govern one's self 7not others7 is true glory4 ,to serve through love1 not to rule1 is ,christian greatness4 ,office is not dignity4 ,the lowest men1 because most faithless in principle1 most servile to opinion1 are to be found in office4 ,i am sorry to say it1 but the truth should be spoken1 that1 at the present moment1 political action in this country does little to lift up any who are concerned in it4 ,it stands in opposition to a high morality4 ,politics1 indeed1 regarded as the study and pursuit of the true1 enduring good of a community1 as the application of great unchangeable principles to public affairs1 is a noble sphere of thought and action1 but politics1 in its common sense1 or considered as the invention of temporary shifts1 as the playing of a subtle game1 as the tactics of party for gaining power and the spoils of office1 and for elevating one set of men above another is a paltry and debasing concern4 ,,on ,,self-,,denial4--,to deny ourselves is to deny1 to withstand1 to renounce whatever1 within or without1 interferes with our conviction of right1 or with the will of ,god4 ,it is to suffer1 to make sacrifice1 for duty or our principles4 ,the question now offers itself3 ,what constitutes the singular merit of this suffering8 ,mere suffering1 we all know1 is not virtue4 ,evil men often endure pain as well as the good and are evil still4 ,this1 and this alone1 constitutes the worth and importance of the sacrifice1 suffering1 which enters into self-denial1 that it springs from and manifests moral strength1 power over ourselves1 force of purpose1 or the mind's resolute determination of itself to duty4 ,it is the proof and result of inward energy4 ,difficulty1 hardship1 suffering1 sacrifices1 are tests and measures of moral force and the great means of its enlargement4 ,to withstand these is the same thing as to put forth power4 ,self-denial then is the will acting with power in the choice and prosecution of duty4 ,here we have the distinguishing glory of self-denial1 and here we have the essence and distinction of a good and virtuous man4 ,,on ,,pleasure4--,the first means of placing a people beyond the temptations to intemperance is to furnish them with the means of innocent pleasure4 ,by innocent pleasures ,i mean such as excite moderately2 such as produce a cheerful frame of mind1 not boisterous mirth2 such as refresh1 instead of exhausting1 the system2 such as are chastened by self-respect1 and are accompanied with the consciousness that life has a higher end than to be amused4 ,in every community there must be pleasures1 relaxations and means of agreeable excitement2 and if innocent ones are not furnished1 resort will be had to criminal4 ,men drink to excess very often to shake off depression1 or to satisfy the restless thirst for agreeable excitement1 and these motives are excluded in a cheerful community4 ,a gloomy state of society in which there are few innocent recreations1 may be expected to abound in drunkenness if opportunities are afforded4 ,the savage drinks to excess because his hours of sobriety are dull and unvaried1 because in losing consciousness of his condition and his existence he loses little which he wishes to retain4 ,the laboring classes are most exposed to intemperance1 because they have at present few other pleasurable excitements4 ,a man1 who1 after toil1 has resources of blameless recreation is less tempted than other men to seek self-oblivion4 ,he has too many of the pleasures of the man to take up those of the brute4 ,end of ,required ,reading for ,november4 ,,autumn ,,sympathy4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,,charlesworth4 ,the primrose and the violet1 ,the bloom on apricot and peach1 ,the marriage-song of larks in heights1 ,the south wind and the swallow's nest2 ,all born of spring1 ,i once loved best4 ,but now the dying leaf and flower1 ,the frost wind moaning in the pane1 ,the robin's plaintive latter song1 ,the early sunset in the west2 ,all born of autumn1 ,i love best4 ,tell me1 my heart1 the reason why ,thy pulse thus beats with things that die2 ,is it thine own autumnal sheaves8 ,is it thine own dead fallen leaves8 --,london ,sunday ,magazine4 ,,republican ,,prospects ,,in ,,france4 ,by ,,joseph ,,reinach4 ,on the very morrow of ,gambetta's death1 and when that catastrophe had been interpreted by the immense majority of ,european opinion1 as also by many ,frenchmen1 as the certain presage of the approaching triumph of advanced ,radicalism--triumph to be followed by violent interior discords that would infallibly bring about the fall of the ,republic and the re-establishment either of ,empire or of ,royalty--,i said that these predictions would not be realized1 and1 moreover1 that ,gambetta's death would but serve to hasten the triumph of his political ideas and party4 ,i will cite1 word for word1 what ,i wrote at the end of ,january in a paper that appeared in this ,review on ,february #a3 8,we even believe we may predict that the realization of several of ,gambetta's ideas will meet with fewer obstacles1 at least among a certain fraction of public opinion1 to-morrow than yesterday4 ,a formidable reaction will take place in favor of the great statesman whom we weep1 a reaction in favor of his theories and his principles4 ,in short1 we shall most likely witness the contrary of what has taken place for some years4 ,it was enough that ,gambetta should defend a theory for it to be attacked with fury4 ,from henceforth it will often suffice that an idea was formerly held up by ,gambetta for it to be enthusiastically acclaimed4 ,as in the story of ,cid ,campeador1 it is his corpse that leads his followers to victory40 ,what ,i foretold six months ago has been fulfilled in every point4 ,those very ,castilians who during ,cid's lifetime suspected him of the darkest designs and reviled him as a criminal--what did they do after his death8 ,they put the hero's corpse in an iron coffin1 and the black gravecloth on the bier was the standard which1 in the front rank of battle1 led the ,spanish army to victory4 ,and so has it been1 or nearly so1 with ,french ,republicans and ,gambetta4 ,the political history of our country during the last six months may be thus summed up3 ,out of ,gambetta's death-bed has arisen a first 7not complete7 victory for his ideas and friends2 from the party more specially organized by him have been chosen most men now in office1 that they may execute his will4 ,as a matter of fact1 just after the excitement of the first few days1 as soon as it became necessary for the ,republicans to unite and stop the ,royalists who thought the fruit already ripe1 what ministers did the ,president of the ,republic call for8 ,m4 ,jules ,ferry1 who for the last five years had been1 if not the direct coadjutor1 at least the most invariable and faithful political ally of ,gambetta1 was made ,prime ,minister2 ,m4 ,waldeck-,rousseau1 the late ,minister for ,home ,affairs under ,gambetta1 and ,m4 ,raynal1 the late ,minister of ,public ,works1 were both recalled to the same offices4 ,m4 ,challemel-,lacour1 ,gambetta's most esteemed and devoted friend1 was named ,minister of ,foreign ,affairs1 and ,m4 ,martin ,feuille1 ,under-,secretary of ,state for ,justice on ,november #ad1 ,minister of ,justice2 ,m4 ,margue1 ,under-,secretary of ,state for ,home ,affairs1 resumed the same post4 ,general ,campenon could have been ,minister of ,war had he wished it4 ,and a great pity it is he declined his friends' proposals4 ,thus1 in its general bearings1 the ,ferry ,ministry is the ,gambetta ,ministry without ,gambetta4 ,except some secondary modifications made necessary by the change of circumstances1 the political program is about the same4 ,abroad an active and steady diplomacy1 the regular development of our colonial politics1 the consolidation of the protectorate in ,tunis2 at home the constitution of a strong government1 the methodical realization of social and democratic reforms1 the policy of scrutin de liste1 whilst awaiting the abolition of scrutin d'arrondissement4 ,the principal bills adopted last session1 except the ,magistracy bill1 are but legacies from the ,gambetta ,cabinet4 ,both cabinets are animated by the same national spirit--national above all1 but also progressist and governmental4 ,the halo imparted by the presence of a man of genius is certainly wanting2 but ,carlyle's hero-worship is by no means a democratic necessity4 ,there is certainly reason for rejoicing when a nation acknowledges and appreciates in one of its sons1 sprung from its midst1 an intellect of the highest order4 ,but when ,alexander leaves lieutenants profoundly imbued with his spirit1 formed in his school1 most desirous and capable of continuing his work--when these men1 instead of being at variance1 remain1 on the contrary1 more strongly bound together than ever--there is certainly no reason for complaining and giving way to discouragement4 ,then it is not only in parliament that the opportunist policy is again getting the upper hand4 ,throughout the whole country it has regained the ground it had lost by the intrigues of hostile parties4 ,the great majority of ,republicans have now recovered from a number of diseases for which ,gambetta had always prescribed the remedy--remedy1 alas6 that too many refused to stretch out their hand for4 ,the mania for decentralization is forgotten4 ,the necessity for a strongly constituted and vigorous central power is almost universally understood and acknowledged4 ,demagogue charlatans are for the most part unmasked4 ,our foreign policy is steadier--we are no longer afraid of ,egyptian shadows4 ,intransigeants of the ,right and ,left still continue to see in our colonial enterprises but vulgar jobbing1 and to denounce and revile them in every possible way4 ,but the great mass of the nation is no longer to be made a fool of1 and has understood the necessity of extending ,france beyond the seas4 ,there is a story of an ,english peasant who locked the stable door after the horse had been stolen4 ,happily for ,france she has several horses in her stables4 ,if she has lost1 at least for a time1 her beautiful ,arabian steed on the borders of the ,nile1 that is but an additional reason for taking jealous care of the others4--,the ,nineteenth ,century4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in #djd ,honorius was emperor4 ,at that time1 in the remote deserts of ,libya1 there dwelt an obscure monk named ,telemachus4 ,he had heard of the awful scenes in the far-off ,coliseum at ,rome4 ,depend upon it1 they lost nothing by their transit across the ,mediterranean in the hands of ,greek and ,roman sailors4 ,in the baths and market-places of ,alexandria1 in the ,jewries of ,cyrene1 in the mouths of every itinerant ,eastern story-teller1 the festive massacres of the ,coliseum would doubtless be clothed in colors truly appalling1 yet scarcely more appalling than the truth4 ,telemachus brooded over these horrors till his mission dawned upon him4 ,he was ordained by heaven to put an end to the slaughter of human beings in the ,coliseum4 ,he made his way to ,rome4 ,he entered the ,coliseum with the throng1 what time the gladiators were parading in front of the emperor with uplifted swords and the wild mockery of homage--8,morituri te salutant40 ,elbowing his way to the barrier1 he leapt over at the moment when the combatants rushed at each other1 threw himself between them1 bidding them1 in the name of ,christ1 to desist4 ,to blank astonishment succeeded imperial contempt and popular fury4 ,telemachus fell slain by the swords of the gladiators4 ,legend may adorn the tale and fancy fill out the picture1 but the solid fact remains--there never was another gladiatorial fight in the ,coliseum4 ,one heroic soul had caught the flow of public feeling that had already begun to set in the direction of humanity1 and turned it4 ,he had embodied by his act and consecrated by his death the sentiment that already lay timidly in the hearts of thousands in that great city of ,rome4 ,in #dcj an edict was passed abolishing forever gladiatorial exhibitions4--,good ,words4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,all merit ceases the moment we perform an act for the sake of its consequences4 ,truly in this respect 8we have our reward40--,wilhelm von ,humboldt4 ,,chautauqua ,,to ,,california4 ,by ,,frances ,e4 ,,willard1 ,president ,n4 ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u4 ,i4 ,i4--,,southern ,,california4 ,in one thing ,chautauqua and ,california are alike--each is a climax1 and both are 8made up of every creature's best40 ,my sufficient consolation for missing one of them this year is1 that ,i saw the other4 ,let us speed onward1 then1 taking ,chautauqua as our point of departure1 in a ,pickwickian sense only1 unless for the further reason that it has the high prerogative of making all its happy denizens believe it to be the center of gravity 7and good times7 for one planet at least2 the meridian from which all fortunate longitude is reckoned and all lucky time-pieces set4 ,our swift train1 8outward bound10 races along through the old familiar ,east and the ,west no longer new4 8,through the kingdoms of corn1 ,through the empires of grain1 ,through dominions of forest2 ,drives the thundering train2 ,through fields where ,god's cattle ,are turned out to grass1 ,and his poultry whirl up ,from the wheels as we pass2 ,through level horizons as still as the moon ,with the wilds fast asleep and the winds in a swoon40 ,from a palace car with every eastern luxury1 we gaze out on the dappled1 pea-green hills of ,new ,mexico and the wide1 empty stretches of ,arizona1 stopping in ,santa ,fe--,columbia's ,damascus1 in ,albuquerque--a pocket edition of ,chicago1 and in ,tucson--the storm-center of semi-tropic trade4 ,but the 8,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u40 is a plant of healing as indigenous to every soil for good as the saloon for evil1 and in the first city the ,governor's wife has accepted leadership2 in the second that place is held by a lovely ,ohio girl1 the wife of a young lawyer2 and in the third a leading woman of society and church work1 whose husband is one of ,arizona's most honored pioneers1 consents to be our standard-bearer4 ,these way-side errands1 with their delightful new friendships and tender gospel lessons over1 we hasten on to ,california4 ,some token of its affluent beauty comes to us on ,easter ,sabbath in the one hundred calla-lilies sent from ,los ,angeles1 five hundred miles beyond1 to adorn the church where we worship in ,tucson1 that marvelous oasis in the desert4 8,go on1 and ,god be with you10 says the friend who escorts us to the train2 8you'll find ,los ,angeles a heaven on earth40 ,and so1 indeed1 we did1 coming up out of the wilderness on a soft spring day1 between fair1 emerald hills that stood as the fore-runners of the choicest land on which were ever mirrored the glory and the loveliness of ,god4 ,we visited the thirty leading centers of interest and activity in the great ,golden ,state during the two months of our stay1 but when the courteous mayor of this 8city of the angels0 welcomed us thither1 and children heaped about us their baskets of flowers1 rare1 save in ,california1 we told 8,his ,honor0 that of all the towns we had yet visited--and they number a thousand at least--his was the one most fitly named4 ,southern ,california1 and this its exquisite metropolis1 have been a terra incognita even to the intelligent1 until the steam horse lately caracoled this way4 ,now it is thronged by emigrants and tourists1 men and women of small means reaping from half a dozen acres here what a large farm in ,illinois could hardly yield1 and invalids hitherto only an expense to their friends1 finding the elixir of life in this balmy air1 and joyously joining once more the energetic working forces of the world4 ,flowers are so plenty here that banks and pyramids alone can satisfy the claims of decorative art2 baskets of roses are more frequent than bouquets or even boutonnieres with us4 ,heliotropes and fuchsias climb to the apex of the roof1 while the common garden trees are oranges1 lemons1 limes1 citrons1 figs1 olives and pomegranates4 ,strawberry short-cake can be had all the year round from the fresh fruit of one's own garden1 and oranges at the rate of nine thousand to one tree1 and in some cases fifteen inches in circumference1 have been raised in this vicinity4 ,riverside and ,pasadena are adjacent colonies and bear a stronger resemblance to one's ideal ,garden of ,eden than any other places ,i ever expect to see4 ,through groves of rarest semi-tropic fruit trees you ride for miles1 in the midst of beautiful1 modern homes1 for the ,american renaissance is not more manifest in the suburbs of ,boston or ,chicago than in ,southern ,california4 ,fences are nowhere visible1 the ,monterey cypress furnishing a hedge which puts to blush the choicest of old ,england2 the pepper tree with drooping branches1 and the ,australian gum tree1 tall and umbrageous1 outlining level avenues whose vistas seem unending4 ,above all this are skies that give back one's best ,italian memories1 and for a background the tranquil amplitude of the ,sierra ,madre ,mountains4 ,what would you more8 8,see ,naples and die0 is an outworn phrase4 8,see ,california and live0 has been the magic formula of how many restored and happy pilgrims6 ,the tonic of cold water has electrified this soil1 seven years ago an utter desert1 so that now three years of growth will work a transformation that fifteen would fail to bring about east of the ,mississippi4 ,to my thinking this result is but a material prototype of the heavenly estate that shall come to our ,america when its arid waste of brains and stomachs1 usurped by alcohol1 shall learn the cooling virtues of this same cold water4 ,in ,riverside my host planted in ,may of #ahhj1 two thousand grape cuttings 7not roots1 remember71 and in ,september1 #ahha1 gathered from them two hundred boxes of grapes4 ,pasadena was founded by a good man from ,maine1 and is exempt from saloons by the provisions of its charter4 ,here1 from six acres1 a gentleman realized thirteen hundred dollars1 clear of all expenses1 last year1 by drying and sacking his grapes1 instead of sending them to the winery4 8,the profits were so much larger that hereafter his pocket-book will counsel him1 if not his conscience1 to keep clear of the wine trade10 said the wide awake temperance woman who gave me the item4 ,in ,pasadena1 ,mrs4 ,jennie ,c4 ,carr1 whose fruit ranche and gardens1 largely tilled by her own hands1 disclose every imaginable variety which the most extravagant climate can produce1 sells at three thousand dollars per acre1 land purchased by her for a mere song six years ago4 ,in ,santa ,ana and ,san ,bernardino1 also near ,los ,angeles1 there is the same luxuriance and swift moving life4 ,a county superintendent of schools told me he had one school district that includes #afj miles of railroad1 and has a town of #hjj people1 where three months ago there was silence and vacancy4 ,at ,san ,diego1 the most southerly town in ,california1 we found the ne plus ultra of climate for consumptives1 its temperature ranging from fifty-five to seventy-five degrees1 and its air dry4 ,san ,diego is the oldest town in the ,state1 having been established as a ,catholic 8,mission0 in #agfi4 ,it is now altogether modernized and is ,nature's own sanitarium1 besides being a lovely land-locked harbor of the ,pacific4 ,santa ,barbara1 which we missed seeing1 has a grape vine sixty years old1 and a foot through1 which in #ahfg bore six tons of grapes1 some of whose clusters weighed five pounds each4 ,the railroad will soon make this beautiful town accessible to rapid tourists to whom the ocean is unkind4 ,twenty-one missions were founded over a century ago by ,franciscan friars in ,southern ,california4 ,they brought with them from ,spain the orange and the vine4 ,they were conquerors1 civilizers1 subduers of the soil4 ,they brought cattle1 horses1 sheep1 and--alas6 hogs4 ,they conquered the land for ,spain without cruelty1 baptizing the ,indians into the church and teaching them the arts of peace4 ,then followed the ,mexican1 then our own conquest of their territory1 and now the ,anglo-,saxon reigns supreme in a land on which ,nature has lavished all she had to give4 ,upon his victory over the alcohol habit1 depends the future of this goodly heritage4 ,if he raises grapes he will survive2 if he turns them into wine he must succumb4 ,,ii4--,,san ,,joaquin ,,valley4 ,we crossed the famous and dangerous 8,tehachapi ,pass0 at night1 and wended our way slowly through this notable valley1 three hundred miles in length by thirty-five in width1 stopping to found the ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u4 in its four chief towns1 ,fresno1 ,tulare1 ,merced1 and ,modesto4 ,irrigation is the watchword here1 and as it takes capitalists to carry this through on a scale so immense1 large farms are now the rule4 ,for instance1 we passed over one seventy-three miles in length by twenty in width4 ,later on1 it is to be hoped these immense proprietaries may be settled by men whose primary object is to establish and maintain homes4 ,at present1 in the agricultural line1 8big enterprises0 are alone attractive4 8,alfalfa10 a peculiarly hardy and luxuriant clover--imported by ,governor ,bigler from ,chili--is the first crop1 and grazing precedes grain4 ,this plant 8strikes its roots six feet or more into the soil1 and never requires a second planting1 while every year there are five crops of alfalfa and but two of wheat and barley40 ,varied indeed is the population of this valley4 ,one day we dine with a practical woman from ,massachusetts1 who declares that the sand storms1 which most people consider the heaviest discount on the valley1 are 8really not so bad1 for they polish off the house floors as nothing else could40 ,the next we meet a group of earnest1 motherly hearts from a dozen different ,states1 and almost as many religious denominations1 united to 8provide for the common defense0 of home against saloon4 ,next day a lawyer from ,charleston invites us to his cozy residence1 8because his wife knows some of our ,southern leaders in the ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u40 ,the next we make acquaintance with half a dozen school ma'ams from the ,east1 who have taken a ranche and set up housekeeping for themselves2 and in the fourth town visited an ,englishman born in ,auckland1 ,new ,zealand1 the leading criminal lawyer of the county1 and instigator of the woman's crusade in ,oakland1 who gives us a graphic description of that movement1 which was a far-off echo of the ,ohio pentecost4 ,so we move on at the rate of two meetings a day1 with the hearty support of the united clergy 7except the ,episcopal1 and often they helped us1 too71 and the warm coperation of the temperance societies1 emerging in ,san ,francisco1 ,monday1 ,april #af1 #ahhc4 ,,iii4--,,san ,,francisco4 ,i am glad we did not so far forget ourselves as to arrive on ,sunday1 for it appears that certain good1 gifted1 and famous persons1 who shall be nameless1 telegraphed to certain ,christian leaders of their intended arrival on that day1 and received answer3 8,the hour of your coming will find us at church4 ,the ,palace is the best hotel40 ,now on an overland trip1 an absent-minded traveler might fail to note the precise date of his arrival in the metropolis of the ,pacific1 but that would be no excuse to our guid folk yonder1 whose ,sunday laws have been smitten from their statute books1 and ,christians hold themselves to strict account for their example1 which now alone conserves the ,christian's worship and the poor man's rest4 ,san ,francisco is probably the most cosmopolitan city now extant4 ,its three hundred thousand people sound the gamut of nationality in the most varying and dissonant chorus that ever greeted human ears4 ,the struggle for survival is an astonishing mixture of fierceness and good-nature4 ,crowding along the streets1 ,irish and ,chinaman1 ,new ,englander and ,negro1 show kind consideration1 but in the marts of trade and at the polls 8their guns are ballots1 their bullets are ideas40 ,old-time asperities are softening1 however1 even on these battlegrounds4 ,the trend is upward1 toward higher levels of hope and brotherhood4 ,eliminate the alcohol and opium habits1 and all these would 7and will ere long7 dwell together in unity4 ,lives like those of ,rev4 ,dr4 ,otis ,gibson1 and ,mrs4 ,captain ,goodall1 invested for the ,christianizing of the ,chinese1 or like that of ,mrs4 ,sarah ,b4 ,cooper1 devoted to kindergartening the embryo 8hoodlum10 or that of ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,mc,donald1 the millionaire philanthropist1 consecrated to the temperance reform1 are mighty prophecies of the good time coming4 ,san ,francisco is the city of bay windows1 and its people1 beyond any other on this continent1 believe in sunshine and fresh air4 ,in like manner1 they are fond of ventilating every subject1 are in nowise afraid of the next thing simply because it is the next1 but have broad hospitality for new ideas4 ,rapid as the heel taps of its street life is the movement of its thought and the flame of its sympathy4 ,much as has been said in its dispraise1 ,mount ,diablo--the chief feature of its environs--is not so symbolic of its spirit as the white tomb of ,thomas ,starr ,king1 which1 standing beside one of its busiest streets1 is a perpetual reminder of noble power conserved for noblest use4 ,everybody knows ,san ,francisco's harbor is without a rival save ,puget ,sound and ,constantinople4 ,everybody has heard of its 8,palace ,hotel10 the largest in the world1 and one that includes 8eighteen acres of floor20 of its 8endless chain0 street cars1 the inevitable outgrowth of dire necessity in its up-hill streets2 of its indescribable 8,chinatown20 of 8,seal ,rock10 with its monster sea-lions1 gamboling and howling year out and year in1 for herein are the salient features of the strange city's individuality4 ,for a metropolis but thirty-four years old1 the following record is unrivaled3 ,total value of real and personal property1 #bec1jjj1jjj2 school property1 #a1jjj1jjj2 #acj1jjj buildings2 #aa1jjj streets2 #ab street car lines2 #cc libraries and reading-rooms2 #ch hospitals2 #caf benevolent societies2 #afh newspapers1 and--the best fire department in the world6 ,the two drawbacks of this wonderful city are its variable climate and its possible earthquakes4 ,a witty writer warns the intending tourist thus3 8,be sure to bring your summer clothes4 ,let me repeat3 be sure to bring your winter clothes40 ,to state the fact that in ,august one may see fur cloaks any day1 and in ,january a ,june toilet is not uncommon1 is but another way of stating that the galloping sea breeze1 unimpeded by mountains1 rushes in moist squadrons on the shore1 and has all seasons for its own1 in which to battle with the genial warmth of this most lovely climate4 ,as to earthquakes1 there have been but three since #ahdi1 and these were insignificant calamities compared with one year of our domesticated western tornadoes4 ,less than fifty lives have been lost in ,california by earthquakes1 thirty-seven of these occurring in the country outside of ,san ,francisco1 and less than a hundred thousand dollars worth of property has been destroyed1 while two millions would not cover our loss by cyclone in a single year1 to say nothing of the number of victims4 ,civilization seems to have a naturalizing effect on fleas1 snakes and earthquakes1 west of the ,sierras1 but acts as a tonic upon hurricanes east of the ,rockies4 ,will our scientists please 8rise to explain0 this mystery so close in its relation to human weal and woe8 ,to be continued4 ,,to ,,my ,,books4 ,by ,,lady ,,stirling-,,maxwell4 ,silent companions of the lonely hour1 ,friends1 who can never alter or forsake1 ,who for inconstant roving have no power1 ,and all neglect1 perforce1 must calmly take1 ,let me return to you2 this turmoil ending ,which worldly cares have in my spirit wrought1 ,and1 o'er your old familiar pages bending1 ,refresh my mind with many a tranquil thought3 ,till1 haply meeting there1 from time to time1 ,fancies1 the audible echo of my own1 ',twill be like hearing in a foreign clime ,my native language spoke in friendly tone1 ,and with a sort of welcome ,i shall dwell ,on these1 my unripe musings1 told so well4 ,,earthquakes--,,ischia ,,and ,,java4 ,,phenomena ,,and ,,probable ,,causes4 ,these violent convulsions that from time to time shake and rend the earth1 are among the most terrible calamities that come upon men1 causing immense destruction of property and of life4 ,their occurrence is often most unexpected4 ,villages1 cities1 and whole districts of densely populated countries sink beneath a sudden stroke1 overwhelmed in a common ruin4 ,if any warning is given1 the alarming premonitions rather confuse and paralyze effort1 because1 with the appalling certainty of disaster1 there is nothing to show in what form it will come1 or to indicate a place of refuge4 ,while the recent horrors at ,ischia and in ,java excite much painful interest in the public mind1 they naturally recall similar scenes of other years4 ,earthquakes of less destructive violence are very frequent1 and suggest greater power than is exerted4 ,even the slight trembling1 or vibratory motions1 that produce no material injury1 remind us of the prodigious forces that may at any moment burst their barriers with great violence4 ,in every perceptible shock we feel the mighty pulsations of the agitated molten mass whose waves dash against the walls that restrain them2 or the struggling of compressed elastic gases1 that must have vent1 though their escape rend the earth4 ,the crust between us and the seas of fire1 whose extent no man knoweth1 may be in places weakening1 cut away1 as the inner walls of a furnace by the molten metal2 so the danger may be nearer and greater than is known or feared4 ,a devout man finds refuge and a comfortable assurance in the truth1 8,the ,lord reigneth2 in his hands are the deep places of the earth4 ,the strength of the hills is his also40 ,there are records of earthquakes more ancient than any books written by men4 ,they antedate the earliest chapters of human history1 and probably belonged to the pre-adamite earth4 ,if no human ear heard their tread1 the footprints are still visible4 ,in all mountainous regions the evidence of their upheaval by some mighty force is too plain to be doubted4 ,the marine fossils found far up on their heights1 the position of strata1 often far from horizontal1 with immense fissures1 and chasms of unknown depth1 all tell of disturbances that may have taken place before the historic period4 ,if in those primitive times mountains were literally carried into the midst of the sea1 and vast tracts of the ocean's bed shoved up thousands of feet1 it was only a more terrible display of the gigantic powers still in action1 and of whose workings the centuries have borne witness4 ,no country seems to have escaped these terrible visitations1 though some suffer more than others4 ,volcanoes being of the same origin1 they are more frequent in volcanic regions1 and perhaps by their shocks the seething caldrons have been uncovered4 ,the same localities1 as ,southern ,italy1 and the neighboring island of ,sicily1 have1 from a remote period1 at times been terribly shaken4 ,from #aghc to #aghf a thousand shocks were made note of1 five hundred of which are described as having much force4 ,lyell considers them of special importance1 not because differing from like disturbances in other places1 but because observed and minutely described by men competent to collect and state such physical facts in a way to show their bearing on the science of the earth4 ,the following1 collected from ,lyell1 ,gibbon1 ,humboldt1 and the encyclopdias1 are facts respecting some of the principal earthquakes on record4 ,their statements1 much condensed1 are not given in chronological order1 but as we find them3 ,in #aae1 of the ,christian era1 ,antioch in ,syria1 8,queen of the ,east10 beautiful in itself1 and beautiful for situation1 a city of two hundred thousand inhabitants1 was utterly ruined by earthquake4 ,afterward rebuilt1 in more than all its ancient splendor1 by ,trajan1 the tide of life and wealth again flowed into it1 and for centuries we read of no serious disasters of the kind4 ,all apprehension of danger removed1 the people became famous for luxurious refinements1 and1 strangely enough1 seem to have united high intellectual qualities with a passionate fondness for amusements4 ,in #deh the city was again terribly shaken1 and twice in the sixth century4 ,each time the destruction was nearly complete2 but each time1 in less than a century1 the city was restored again1 but only to stand until #ahbb1 and from that overthrow it has never recovered1 being now a miserable town of only six thousand inhabitants4 ,the destruction of five populous cities1 on one site1 involved a fearful loss of life4 ,probably more than half a million thus perished4 ,the most destructive earthquake in that1 or any other locality1 of which we find any mention1 was in #efb4 ,an immense number of strangers being in attendance at the festival of the ,ascension1 added to the multitudes belonging to the city4 ,gibbon estimates that two hundred and fifty thousand persons were buried in the ruins4 ,among the earliest accounts of earthquakes having particular interest1 is the familiar one of that which destroyed ,herculaneum and ,pompeii in the year #fc--;about sixteen years before those cities were buried in scoria and ashes from ,vesuvius4 ,of modern earthquakes three or four are here mentioned as presenting some interesting phenomena4 ,that of ,chili1 in #ahbb1 caused the permanent elevation of the country between the ,andes and the coast4 ,the area thus raised is estimated at one hundred thousand square miles1 and the elevation from two to seven feet4 ,shore lines1 at higher levels1 indicate several previous upheavals of the same region1 along about the same lines4 ,the opposite of this1 a depression of land1 was occasioned in the island of ,jamaica in #afib1 when ,port ,royal1 the capital1 was overwhelmed4 ,a thousand acres or more thus sank in less than one minute1 the sea rolling in and driving the vessels that were in the harbor over the tops of the houses4 ,the earthquake of ,new ,madrid1 below ,st4 ,louis1 on the ,mississippi1 was in #ahaa1 and interesting as an instance of successive shocks1 and almost incessant quaking of the ground for months1 and at a distance from any volcano4 ,the agitation of the earth in ,missouri continued till near the time of the destruction of the city of ,caracas1 in ,south ,america1 and then ceased4 ,one evening1 about this time1 is described by the inhabitants of ,new ,madrid as cloudless1 and peculiarly brilliant4 ,the western sky was a continual glare from vivid flashes of lightning1 and peals of thunder were incessantly heard1 apparently proceeding1 as did the flashes1 from below the horizon4 ,comparatively little harm was done in ,missouri1 but the beautiful city of ,caracas1 with its splendid churches and palatial homes1 was made a heap of ruins1 beneath which twelve thousand of its inhabitants were buried4 ,just how these events were related we know not4 ,whether the same pent-up forces that were struggling in vain to escape in the valley of the ,mississippi1 found vent in that distant locality1 ,god only knows4 ,the supposition allowed may account for the relief that came to the greatly troubled ,new ,madrid4 ,the evils they dreaded came but in part--enough only to suggest the greater perils they escaped4 ,over an extent of country three hundred miles in length fissures were opened in the ground through which mud and water were thrown1 high as the tops of the trees4 ,from the mouth of the ,ohio to the ,st4 ,francis the ground rose and fell in great undulations4 ,lakes were formed and drained again1 and the general surface so lowered that the country along the ,white ,river and its tributaries1 for a distance of seventy miles1 is known as 8the sunk country40 ,flint1 the geographer1 seven years after the event1 noticed hundreds of chasms then closed and partially filled4 ,they may yet1 in places1 be traced1 having the appearance of artificial trenches4 ,fissures are occasionally met in different parts of the country1 which extend through solid rock to a great depth4 8,the ,rocks0 at ,panama1 ,n4 ,y41 have been elsewhere described1 and furnish a profitable study4 ,a more remarkable chasm of this kind extends from the western base of the ,shawangunk ,mountain1 near ,ellenville1 ,ulster ,county1 ,n4 ,y41 for about a mile to the summit4 ,at first one can easily step across the fissure1 but further up it becomes wider1 till the hard vertical walls of sandstone are separated by a gorge several feet wide1 and of great depth4 ,at the top an area of a hundred acres or more is rent in every direction1 the continuity of the surface being interrupted by steps of rocks1 presenting abrupt walls4 ,the gorge traced up the mountain becomes a frightful abyss1 more than a hundred feet wide4 ,among the loose stones at the bottom large trees are growing1 whose tops scarce reach half way to the edge of the precipice4 ,most such disruptions of rocks and mountains were doubtless caused by earthquakes at some unknown period4 ,the great earthquake at ,lisbon1 the capital of ,portugal1 was in #agee4 8,the ominous rumbling sound below the surface was almost immediately followed by the shock which threw down the principal part of the city2 in the short space of six minutes1 it is believed1 #fj1jjj perished4 ,the sea rolled back1 leaving the bar dry1 and then returned1 in a great tidal wave1 fifty feet1 or more1 in height4 ,the mountains around were shaken with great violence1 their rocks rent1 and thrown in fragments into the valley below4 ,multitudes of people rushed from their falling buildings to the marble quay1 which suddenly sank with them1 like a ship foundering at sea2 and when the waters closed over the place no fragments of the wreck--none of the vessels near by1 that were drawn into the whirlpool1 and not one of the thousands of the bodies that were carried down ever appeared again4 ,over the spot occupied by the quay1 the water stood six hundred feet deep2 and beneath it1 locked in fissured rocks1 and in chasms of unknown depth1 lie what was the life and wealth of the place1 in the middle of the eighteenth century40 ,earthquakes1 of especial interest1 from their recent occurrence and destructive effects1 are those of #aheg-eh1 in the kingdom of ,naples1 and in ,mexico2 but we have not room to more than mention them4 ,the past summer will be remembered as the period of at least two terrible disasters from earthquakes1 in localities distant from each other4 ,the first1 ,july #bh1 was at ,ischia1 a beautiful island at the north entrance of the bay of ,naples4 ,the principal town1 ,cassamicciola1 was mostly destroyed1 and much injury done at other places4 ,the town was a noted health resort1 and it is feared many distinguished strangers perished in it4 ,the shocks began in the night1 when a majority of the citizens1 who frequent such places1 were in the theater1 and the scene there was terrible4 ,lamps were overturned2 clouds of dust arose1 and then the walls of the building opened1 and fell1 giving no opportunity for escape4 ,the ground opened in many places1 and houses and their inhabitants were swallowed up4 ,the hotel ,picola ,sentinella sank into the earth1 with all its inmates4 ,the number destroyed1 first estimated at three thousand1 was much larger1 but how much is not yet certainly known4 ,years must elapse before the town is restored1 when it will be with a new class of inhabitants4 ,the sad tidings of disaster in ,italy were soon followed by still more startling intelligence from ,java1 where1 as in regions bordering on the ,mediterranean1 earthquakes are not a new experience with the inhabitants4 ,a recital of the calamities occurring in ,java during the last century would make a gloomy chapter in history1 suggesting the insecurity and transitory nature of all earthly possessions4 ,the island is one of the largest and1 commercially1 most important1 in the ,indian archipelago1 six hundred and sixty miles in length1 and the width varying from forty to one hundred and thirty miles4 ,it is densely populated1 and governed by a ,dutch viceroy4 ,in the mountain range extending through the center1 with a mean elevation of seven thousand feet1 are many volcanoes2 and earthquakes are of frequent occurrence1 as in other volcanic regions4 ,in #ahgh record was made of some sixteen1 in different parts of the island4 ,one of the most famous1 accompanied by a vast eruption of ,papandayang1 the largest of the volcanoes1 took place a hundred years ago1 overwhelming an area of a hundred square miles1 and destroying three thousand people--the island at that time having fewer inhabitants4 ,there were two similar eruptions from volcanoes at the same time1 respectively one hundred and thirty-four and three hundred and fifty-two miles from ,papandayang1 suggesting the fact that the power of producing them1 and the earthquakes1 may operate through a field of vast extent1 and breaks through where the barriers give way4 ,it is safe to say both have the same origin4 ,ischia and ,java1 though almost antipodes1 are companions in disaster1 and possibly felt the dashing of the same billows1 striking with violence here or there1 according as some mighty impulse drove them on4 ,the great calamities of the past summer1 besides their appeal to our humanity1 will be of interest to scientific men1 and may throw light on the relations of earthquakes and volcanoes1 and their cause1 after which they have been searching a good deal in the dark1 and with results not yet satisfactory4 ,the accounts of the last fearful disaster are yet incomplete1 and may not all be verified4 ,the latest1 and apparently most reliable reports1 place it among the most terrible calamities known in the history of the race1 since the deluge4 ,the earth trembled and shook--rocks were rent--buildings tumbled in ruins4 ,a large part of the city1 full of wealth and life1 sank out of sight4 ,tidal waves carried destruction along the coast4 ,volcanoes belched forth smoke1 ashes and lava1 overspreading fertile valleys2 and when the sulphurous clouds that hung over them1 black as night1 were lifted1 turbulent waters rolled over fifty square miles of pasture lands that the day before were covered with flocks1 and the homes of men4 ,it is estimated that seventy-five thousand people perished4 ,it may be a few thousand less1 or more1 as there are yet no data from which to form more than a proximate estimate4 ,the whole number will not be known till the graves and the sea give up their dead4 ,,low ,,spirits4 ,by ,j4 ,,mortimer ,,granville4 ,there is enough in the daily experience of life to depress the feelings and rob the mind of its buoyancy1 without having to encounter lowness of spirits as a besetting mental state or malady4 ,nevertheless1 it so frequently assumes the character of an affection essentially morbid1 attacks individuals who are not naturally disposed to despondency1 and gives so many unmistakable proofs of its close relations with the health of the physical organism1 that it must needs be included in the category of disease4 ,the constitutional melancholy which distinguishes certain types of character and development1 is a setting in the minor key rather than depression4 ,within the compass of a lower range1 individuals of this class exhibit as many changes of mood as those whose temperament is1 so to say1 pitched higher1 and who therefore seem to be capable of greater elation4 ,it is important to ascertain at the outset whether a particular person upon whom interest may be centered is not naturally characterized by this restrained or reserved tone of feeling6 ,unhealthy conditions of mind are generally to be recognized by the circumstance that they offer a contrast to some previous state4 ,the movable1 excitable temperament may become fixed and seemingly unimpressionable1 the self-possessed begin to be irritable1 the calm1 passionate4 ,it is the change that attracts attention1 and when low spirits come to afflict a mind wont to exhibit resilience and joyousness1 there must be a cause for the altered tone1 and prudence will enjoin watchfulness4 ,mischief may be done unwittingly by trying to stimulate the uncontrollable emotions4 ,there are few more common errors than that which assumes lowness of spirits to be a state in which an appeal should be made to the sufferer4 ,we constantly find intelligent and experienced persons1 who show considerable skill in dealing with other mental disorders and disturbances1 fail in the attempt to relieve the pains of melancholy4 ,they strive by entreaty1 expostulation1 firmness1 and even brusqueness1 to coerce the victim1 and prevail upon him to shake off his despondency4 ,they urge him to take an interest in what is passing around1 to bestir himself1 and put an end to his broodings4 ,this would be all very well if the burden that presses so heavily on the spirit simply lay on the surface1 but the lowness of which ,i am speaking is something far deeper than can be reached by 8rallying40 ,it is a freezing of all the energies2 a blight which destroys the vitality1 a poison which enervates and paralyzes the whole system4 ,it is no use probing the consciousness for the cause while the depression lasts--as well look for the weapon by which a man has been struck senseless to the earth1 when the victim lies faint and bleeding in need of instant succor4 ,if the cause were found at such a moment1 nothing could be done to prevent its further mischief4 ,supposing it to be discovered that the malady is the fruit of some evil-doing or wrong management of self1 the moment when a crushed spirit is undergoing the penalty of its error is not that which should be selected for remonstrance4 ,it is vain to argue with a man whose every faculty of self-control is at its lowest ebb4 ,the judgment and the will are dormant4 ,the show of feeling made by the conscience in the hour of dejection is in great part emotional1 and the purposes then formed are sterile4 ,the tears of regret1 the efforts of resolve1 elicited in the state of depression1 are worse than useless2 they are like the struggles of a man sinking in the quicksand--they bury the mind deeper instead of freeing it4 ,the state of mental collapse must be allowed to pass2 but here comes the difficulty2 the moment reaction takes place1 as shown by a slight raising of the cloud1 it will be too late to interfere4 ,the mind will then have entered on another phase not less morbid than the depression which it has replaced4 ,there is no certain indication of the right moment to make the effort for the relief of a sufferer from this progressive malady4 ,the way to help is to watch the changes of temperament narrowly1 and1 guided by time rather than symptoms1 to present some new object of interest--a trip1 an enterprise1 a congenial task--at the moment which immediately precedes the recovery4 ,the soul lies brooding--it is about to wake2 the precise time can be foreknown only by watching the course of previous attacks2 whatever engrosses the rousing faculties most powerfully on waking1 will probably hold them for awhile4 ,it is a struggle between good and healthy influences on the one hand1 and evil and morbid on the other4 ,if it be earnestly desired to rescue the sufferer1 the right method must be pursued1 and wrong and mischief-working procedures--among which preaching1 persuading1 moralizing1 and rallying are the worst and most hurtful--ought to be carefully avoided4 ,when the thoughts are revived and the faculties rebound1 they must be kept engaged with cheering and healthful subjects4 ,there is no greater error than to suppose good has been accomplished when a melancholic patient has been simply aroused4 ,the apparently bright interval of a malady of this class is even more perilous than the period of exhaustion and lowness4 ,the moment the mind resumes the active state1 it generally resumes the work of self-destruction4 ,the worst mischief is wrought in the so-called lucid interval4 ,the consciousness must be absorbed and busied with healthful exercise1 or it will re-engage in the morbid process which culminates in depression4 ,the problem is to keep off the next collapse1 and this can be accomplished only by obviating the unhealthy excitement by which it is commonly preceded and produced4 ,healthy activity promotes nutrition1 and replenishes the strength of mind and body alike2 all action that does not improve the quality of the organ acting1 deteriorates it and tends to prevent normal function4 ,,vegetable ,,villains4 ,by ,r4 ,,turner4 ,,the ,,larger ,,fungi4 ,to become acquainted with the bulkier of these villains1 we must visit their favorite haunts4 ,an occasional one may occur in any kind of place1 as has already been explained4 ,a good many1 especially of the edible sort1 and notably the common mushroom1 grow in open pastures4 ,to get among crowds of them1 however1 we must resort to close woods1 especially of fir and pine4 ,there they grow on tree-stumps1 fallen trunks1 and on the ground1 in great variety and abundance4 ,if we go at the proper season their profusion will astonish us4 ,this time of plenty varies from early to late autumn with the character of the weather4 ,clad in waterproof wraps and with leather gloves on hand1 we may make a fungus foray into the dripping woods amid russet and falling leaves with comparative comfort2 and even on a 8raw rheumatic day0 there will likely be much enjoyment for us and still more instruction4 ,it will be strange1 indeed1 if we do not find some kinds to eat and very many to think over4 ,we ought to get examples1 at least1 of nearly all the different families4 ,let us consider them in a general way as novices do4 ,a host of them have gills like the mushroom2 and so we may take that best known of them all as a type of the whole class4 ,mushroom spawn runs through the soil in a rootlike way1 absorbing the organic matter it falls in with and every here and there swelling out into roundish bodies1 each consisting of a tubercle enclosed in a wrapper4 ,the tubercle bursts through the wrapper as growth goes on1 and soon above ground appears the well-known form of the mushroom1 with a stalk supporting a fleshy head by the center1 and on the under surface of this head radiating gills1 which are at first covered by a veil that finally gives way and leaves only a ring round the stem4 ,these gills are originally flesh-colored1 but afterward become brown and mottled with numerous minute purple spores4 ,if we were to investigate further by means of the microscope1 we should find that the spores are not contained in any case1 and that they are produced in fours on little points at the tips of special cells4 ,of the other kinds belonging to this order of agarics1 some differ from the mushroom in being poisonous and others in being parasitic4 ,there is much variety1 also1 in the tints of gill and spore1 different kinds having these white1 pink1 rosy1 salmon-colored1 reddish1 or yellowish1 or darkish brown1 purple or black4 ,again1 in some the stem is not central1 but attached more or less laterally to the head2 in others there is no stem1 and the gills radiate out from the substance on which the agaric grows4 ,the ring round the stalk1 too1 often varies1 or is sometimes wanting4 ,there are many other differences1 and it is by these that we are able to distinguish the one kind from the other3 but1 of course1 little more can be done here than merely to indicate this infinite variety4 ,dr4 ,badham1 in his admirable work on the 8,esculent ,funguses of ,england10 puts this quaintly1 as he does many other facts4 8,these are stilted upon a high leg1 and those have not a leg to stand on2 some are shell-shaped1 many bell-shaped2 and some hang upon their stalks like a lawyer's wig40 ,these gill-bearers1 are1 however1 but one order in this extensive division of plants4 ,nature's plastic hand is never weary of shaping fresh forms4 ,it is lavish of variety1 and never works in a stinted or makeshift way4 ,in place of gills we find in another order tubes or pores in which the spores are produced4 ,these tubular kinds are sometimes fleshy1 as in the edible boletus1 or woody1 as in the polypores1 popularly called sap-balls1 which every one who knows anything about woods and their wonders must have seen on old tree-stumps1 often growing to a great size4 ,in yet another order1 spines1 or bristles1 or teeth1 take the place of gills and tubes4 ,in the puff-balls the spores ripen inside a roundish leathern case1 which afterward bursts and discharges them as a fine dust4 ,then there is an extensive class in which the spores are not produced in this offhand way at all1 but are carefully enclosed in little cases1 or rather1 ,i should say1 loaded into microscopic guns1 as in the pezizas2 and very beautiful objects these are under the microscope4 ,poisonous1 putrescent1 strange in shape1 or color1 or odor1 as many of the larger fungi are1 it is little to be wondered at that contempt has been a common human feeling with respect to most of them1 and a crush with disdainful heel on occasion the lot of a good many4 ,the popular loathing has run out into language4 ,under the opprobrious term 8toadstool10 a whole host of kinds is commonly included4 ,the puff-balls are known in ,scotland as 8de'il's sneeshin'-mills0 7devil's snuff-boxes71 an epithet which expresses with a certain imaginative humor1 and a dash of superstition1 the idea of something so utterly base that it ministers to the gratification of demons1 tickling their olfactory organs with satanic satisfaction4 ,indeed1 in this country the mushroom is almost the only favored exception to the popular verdict of loathing4 ,it has gained the hearts of the people through their stomachs1 and ketchup has overcome popular prejudice by its fine flavor4 ,but there are many others on which cultured palates dote4 ,truffles are dear delicacies1 which few but rich men taste1 for fine aroma and flavor command a high price4 ,the ,scotch-bonnets of the fairy rings1 besides possessing a certain bouquet of elfin romance1 cook into delicacies full of stomachic delight4 ,then there are chantarells and morels and blewitts1 and poor-men's-beef-steaks1 over which trained appetites rejoice4 ,a score of dainty little rogues at least there are1 and a still greater number of kinds that are nutritive and fairly palatable4 ,in some ,european countries the edible ones are a really valuable addition to the food of the people--not from being more plentiful than with us1 but from being more eagerly gathered and diligently cultivated4 ,one sort or other is used as food by every tribe of men4 ,not only does the edible mushroom occur in all habitable lands1 but in certain foreign parts--as in ,australia--there are forms of it very much superior in quality to our ,english ones4 ,then1 of course1 every clime has its own peculiar edible kinds4 ,the native bread of the ,australians is an instance in point2 it looks somewhat like compressed sago1 and is a fairly good article of diet4 ,the staple food of the wild ,fuegians for several months each year is supplied by a kind which they gather in great abundance from the living twigs of the evergreen beech4 ,then there are some not very pleasant1 according to our ideas1 which can be safely used1 and are thus available in times of scarcity1 as1 for instance1 the gelatinous one which the ,new ,zealand natives know as 8thunder-dirt10 and one somewhat similar that the ,chinese are said to utilize4 ,a curious trade has of late years sprung up between ,new ,zealand and ,china4 ,a brown semi-transparent fungus1 resembling the human ear1 grows abundantly in the ,north ,island4 ,this the ,maoris and others collect1 dry1 and pack into bags1 for export to ,china1 where it is highly prized for its flavor and gelatinous qualities as an ingredient in soup4 ,it is a species nearly related to our ,jew's-ear4 ,the value of this fungus exported from ,new ,zealand in #ahgg was stated at over #aa1jjj4--;,good ,words4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when we reflect how little we have done ,and add to that how little we have seen1 ,and furthermore how little we have won ,of joy or good1 how little known or been1 ,we long for other life1 more full1 more keen1 ,and yearn to change with those ,who well have run4 --,jean ,ingelow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,talent for any art is rare2 but it is given to nearly every one to cultivate a taste for art2 only it must be cultivated with earnestness4 ,the more things thou learnest to know and enjoy1 the more complete and full will be for thee the delight of living4--,platen4 ,,from ,,the ,,baltic ,,to ,,the ,,adriatic4 ,by the author of 8,german-,american ,housekeeping10 etc4 ,concluded4 ,travelers are like conchologists1 vying with one another in picking up different shells1 and herein lies the unending interest of their records4 ,in the roundabout route from the ,baltic to the ,adriatic and ,mediterranean1 ,cassel1 the electorate in former years of ,hesse-,cassel1 afforded a most suggestive visit4 ,to be sure1 its history is not altogether pleasant to an ,american1 for the fact that the old elector hired his troops to ,england to fight us during the ,revolutionary war1 is not a savory bit of ,german history4 ,even ,frederick the ,great saw the meanness of it1 for when he heard they were to take their route to ,england by ,prussian roads1 he sent word1 8if they did so1 he would levy a cattle tax on them40 ,perhaps some of the money paid by ,england at that time was laid up in the public treasury and expended afterward upon the extravagant ornamentation of the grounds of the elector's summer residence1 8,wilhelmshhe40 ,the palace is in itself one of the most magnificent in ,europe4 ,above the cascades in front of it is the highest fountain on the continent4 ,one stream1 twelve inches in diameter1 is thrown to the height of two hundred feet4 ,the colossal ,hercules which crowned the summit of this artificial grandeur was thirty feet high1 and the cascades are nine hundred feet long4 ,the whole arrangement is said to have kept two thousand men engaged for fourteen years1 and to have cost over ten million dollars6 ,jerome ,napoleon occupied this palace of ,wilhelmshhe when he was king of ,westphalia4 ,a walk of three miles under the straight and narrow road shaded by lime trees1 leads one back to ,cassel1 after this visit to ,wilhelmshhe4 ,the town is beautifully situated on either side of the river ,fulda1 and has a population of thirty-two thousand4 ,the beautiful terrace overlooking the angarten1 crowned by its new picture gallery1 offers as delightful promenades as the celebrated ,dresden ,terrace4 ,the strains of sweet music coming up from the angarten 7meadow7 while one is looking at the beautiful ,rembrandts and ,van ,dykes in the gallery1 give the enchantment which one never fails to find in a ,german town4 ,napoleon carried away many of the most valuable pictures from the ,cassel gallery--but it is redeemed from the number of horrible ,jordaens and ,teniers by possessing the 8pearl of ,rembrandts10 a portrait of 8,saskia10 his wife4 ,chemical products1 snuff included1 are manufactured in ,cassel1 and it is quite a wide-awake business place--the old town preserved for picturesque effect1 and the new town building up for enterprising manufacturers4 ,leaving ,cassel any day at one o'clock1 one can reach ,coblenz at half-past seven in the evening1 and the ,bellevue ,hotel will shelter one delightfully for the night1 provided a room on the hof1 or court1 is not given4 ,four hundred feet above the river at ,coblenz stands the old fortress of 8,ehrenbreitstein40 ,how fine its old gray stone and its commanding situation is6 ,no wonder ,auerbach1 the novelist1 in his 8,villa on the ,rhine10 devoted so many pages to ,ehrenbreitstein1 the ,gibraltar of the ,rhine4 ,it cost the government five million dollars4 ,with its four hundred cannon1 and capacity to store provision for ten years for eight thousand men in its magazine1 well may it scorn attacks 8as a tempest scorns a chain40 ,instead of driving up to see this monstrous fortress1 one may prefer to wander into ,st4 ,castor's ,church in the early morning1 and1 like a devout ,catholic1 kneel and pray4 ,it may be more restful to thus 8commune with one's own heart and be still10 than to keep up a perpetual sight-seeing4 ,charlemagne divided his empire among his grandchildren in this very church4 ,it dates to the eighth century1 and is one of the best specimens of ,lombard architecture in all the ,rhine provinces4 ,coming out in the morning about ten o'clock1 the sun will light up the severe outlines of the great old ,ehrenbreitstein across the river1 and the thought comes to one1 did ,luther compose his celebrated hymn1 8,ein feste ,burg ist unser ,gott0 7,a mighty fortress is our ,god71 while in such a moment of inspiration as this scene produces upon the mind8 ,we left ,coblenz at ten o'clock on the steamer 8,lorlei0 for ,mainz4 ,this romantic name for our boat1 the waters we were plying1 ,st4 ,castor's ,church on the left1 and ,ehrenbreitstein on the right1 brought a strange combination of war1 romance and religion to the mind4 ,the only prosaic moment which seized me was in passing the ,lorlei ,felsen on the ,rhine--when instead of remembering ,lorlei1 ,i exclaimed1 so my companions told me3 8,o6 here is where they catch the fine salmon60 ,rheinstein was to my mind the most beautiful and picturesque castle of all1 and being owned by the ,crown ,prince is kept in becoming repair4 ,the little 8panorama des ,rheins0 is a troublesome little companion1 for it leaves one not a moment for calm enjoyment and forgetfulness1 constantly pointing out the places of interest and crowding their history and romance upon one4 ,the ,dom at ,mainz is a curious study for an architect--combining as it does so many styles and containing such curious old tombs4 ,frankfort1 the birthplace of ,goethe1 and the native place of the ,rothschilds family1 has too much history to detail in an article like this4 ,when it was a free city it had1 and still retains1 ,i believe1 the reputation of being the commercial capital of that part of ,germany4 ,goethe preferred little ,weimar for the development of his poetical life4 ,his father's stately house in ,frankfort1 still to be seen1 was not equal to his own in ,weimar4 ,but let us leave the river ,main and the river ,rhine and look up ,nuremberg and ,munich before we follow our southern course to the ,adriatic4 ,an erratic journey this1 but have we not found some shells which the other conchologists overlooked8 ,nuremberg seems to have lost more in population than any ,german city we know of4 ,having once numbered #ajj1jjj1 it now claims only #ee1jjj4 ,it is a curious fact that ,nuremberg toys which were so celebrated formerly1 have been surpassed in this country1 and now ,american manufactures in this line are taken to ,nuremberg and actually sold as ,german toys4 ,this was told me by a gentleman interested in the trade4 ,but buy a lead-pencil in ,nuremberg if you want a good article very cheap--perhaps you can learn to draw or sketch with one1 being inspired with the memory of ,albert ,drer4 ,nuremberg is ,bavaria's second largest city1 and attracts more foreigners or visitors than ,munich1 perhaps1 yet to the mind of the ,bavarian ,munich is ,bavaria1 as to the ,frenchman ,paris is ,france1 and to the ,prussian ,berlin is ,prussia6 ,no traveler can be contented1 however1 without some time in ,nuremberg1 although ,i dare say many go away disappointed4 ,the old stone houses with their carved gables1 the walls and turrets1 ,st4 ,sebald ,church1 and the fortress where ,gustavus ,adolphus with his immense army was besieged by ,wallenstein1 are things which never grow tedious to the memory4 ,in this fortress now they keep the instruments of torture used in the middle ages to extract secrets from the criminal or the innocent1 as it might chance to be4 ,a ,german in ,berlin laughingly told me when ,i described the rusty torturous things1 that they were all of recent manufacture1 and were not the genuine articles at all6 ,but new or old1 genuine or reproduced1 they make one shudder as does ,fox's 8,book of ,martyrs40 ,i know of no church in ,germany more worthy of study than ,st4 ,sebald's4 ,in it one finds a curious old gold lamp1 which swings from the ceiling about half way down one aisle of the church4 ,it is called die ewige lampe1 because it has been always burning since the twelfth century4 ,it is related of one of ,nuremberg's respectable old citizens that he was returning in the darkness one stormy night to his home1 and finally almost despaired of finding his way1 when a faint light from the ,st4 ,sebald's ,church enabled him to arrive safe at his own door4 ,he gave a fund to the church afterward for the purpose of keeping there a perpetual light4 ,when the ,protestants took ,st4 ,sebald's1 as they did so many ,catholic churches in ,germany after the ,reformation1 the interest money which the old man gave had still to be used in this way according to his will4 ,so die ewige lampe still swings and gives its dim light to the passer-by at night4 ,our ,american consul told me a characteristic story of an ,american girl and her mother1 whom he was showing about ,nuremberg1 as was his social duty1 perhaps4 ,they were in ,st4 ,sebald's ,church1 and he related the story of the lamp as they stood near it4 ,underneath stands a little set of steps which the old sexton ascends to trim the lamp4 8,oh60 said this precocious ,american girl1 8,i shall blow it out1 and then their tradition that it has never been out will be upset40 ,so she climbed the steps fast1 and as she was about to do this atrocious thing our consul pulled her back1 and said she would be in custody in an hour1 and he would not help her out4 ,the mother merely laughed1 and evidently saw nothing wrong about the performance4 ,it is just such smart acts on the part of ,american girls abroad which induce a man like ,henry ,james to write novels about them4 ,the fine1 intelligent1 self-poised girls travel unnoticed1 while the 8,daisy ,millers0 cause the judgment so often passed upon all ,american girls by foreigners1 that they are 8an emancipated set40 ,it was our good fortune while in ,munich to board with most agreeable people4 ,the ,herr ,geheimrath 7privy counselor7 had retired from active life of one kind1 to enjoy the privilege of being an antiquarian and art critic4 ,he had his house full of most valuable and curious treasures4 ,the study of ceramics was his hobby1 and fayence1 porcelain1 and earthenwares of the rarest kinds were standing around on his desk1 on cabinets1 and on the floor4 ,he edited ,die ,wartburg1 a paper which was the organ of ,mnchener ,alterthum-,verein1 and wrote weekly articles ,ueber den ,standpunkt unserer heutigen ,kunst4 ,his wife was formerly the hof-singerin 7court-singer7 at the royal opera in ,munich1 but was then too old to continue4 ,every ,saturday evening she would give a home concert1 and would sing the lovely aria from 8,freischutz10 or ,schumann's songs4 ,st4 ,petersburg never looked whiter from snow than did ,munich that winter4 ,the galleries were cold1 but the new and old ,pinakothek were too rich to be forsaken4 ,fortunately the new building was just across the street from the ,herr ,geheimrath's4 ,if it had only been the old ,pinakothek ,i found myself continually saying1 for who cares for ,kaulbachs1 and modern ,german art1 compared with the rich ,van ,dykes1 the ,rubens1 the ,drers1 and the old ,byzantine school8 ,i should say the ,munich gallery is superior to the ,dresden in numbers1 but not in gems4 ,but they have fine specimens from the ,spanish1 the ,italian1 and ,german schools4 ,the ,glyptothek is ,munich's boast4 ,there is a stately grandeur in this building that suggests ,greece and her art4 ,on a frosty morning1 to wander out beyond the ,propylum and enter through the great bronze door of the ,glyptothek1 one feels like a mouse entering a marble quarry4 ,i presume there is no such collection of originals in any country but ,italy4 ,ghiberti1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,benvenuti1 ,cellini1 ,peter ,vischer1 ,thorwaldsen1 ,canova1 ,rauch1 ,schwanthaler1 are all represented by original works4 ,but it needs a warm climate to make such a collection of statuary altogether attractive4 ,going from ,germany to ,italy1 one takes the 8,brenner ,pass10 generally1 over the ,alps--the oldest way known1 and used by ,hannibal4 ,after winding around the side of these snowy peaks1 and being blinded by the mists enveloping the landscape1 trembling with admiration or fear1 as the case may be1 a glimpse of sunny ,italy is most encouraging4 ,to reach the ,adriatic and ,venice is enough earthly joy for some souls4 ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning felt so2 and all people feel so1 perhaps1 who1 as ,henry ,james and ,w4 ,d4 ,howells1 give themselves up to ,venice1 and write about her until she becomes identified with their reputation4 ,but let ,venice and the ,adriatic be silent factors in this article1 and let ,verona1 ,florence1 and ,rome substitute them4 ,we alighted at ,verona at midnight1 and in the pale moonlight1 which gave a ghastly appearance to the quaint old place4 8,the ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona0 were not to be seen that night4 ,the streets were silent1 yet ,i thought perhaps they might greet us in the morning2 but their shadowy old cloaks are only to be seen thrown around a thousand beggars1 who are as thick as bees and as ugly as bats4 8,the tomb of ,juliet0 is also a deception--a modern invention2 but the house of ,juliet's parents 7the ,capuletti71 an old palace1 stands as it did in the days when ,shakspere represents its banqueting halls and good cheer4 ,the scenery from ,verona to ,florence1 with the exception of a few views of the ,apennines1 is very tedious--nothing beyond almond orchards1 which in ,march1 the time of the year ,i saw them1 resembled dead apple trees4 ,you will be surprised to hear that the ,italian gentlemen wore fur on their coats4 ,they were1 ,i imagine1 traveled gentlemen1 for the genuine ,italian1 whether count or beggar1 has a cloak thrown over his shoulders in bewitching folds4 ,when he pulls his large felt hat over his magnificent eyes so that it casts a dark shadow over his mysterious face1 and stands in the sunshine1 he looks simply a picture4 ,verona is more ,italian in appearance than ,florence4 ,the principal street runs along either side of the river ,arno1 and is crowded for some distance with little picture and jewelry shops2 but farther on toward the cascine1 or park1 the street widens1 and is enriched with handsome modern buildings1 most of which are hotels4 ,this drive to the cascine and the grand hotel was made when ,victor ,emmanuel allowed the impression to exist that ,florence would remain the capital of ,italy4 ,this drive is thronged with carriages about four o'clock in the afternoon4 ,it was here ,i remember to have had the carriage of the ,medici family pointed out to me4 ,within sat two ladies with dark1 lustrous eyes1 jet hair1 and a great deal of lemon color on their bonnets4 ,the livery was also lemon color1 and the carriage contained the coat of arms on a lemon-colored panel4 ,the ,italians are very partial to this shade of yellow4 ,the beds are draped with material of this same intense hue--very becoming to brunettes1 but ruinous1 as the young ladies would say1 to blondes4 ,every one knows of the old ,palazzo ,vecchio1 which rises away above every object in the city of ,florence4 ,its walls are so thick that in them there are places for concealment--little cells--and in one of these the great reformer of ,florence1 ,savonarola1 was kept until they burned him at the stake in front of the palace4 8,santa ,croce0 is the name of the church which contains the tombs of ,michael ,angelo1 ,alfieri ,galileo1 and ,machiavelli4 ,byron1 moved with this idea1 writes3 8,in ,santa ,croce's holy precincts lie ,ashes which make it holier1 dust which is ,even in itself an immortality40 ,every ,american goes to ,powers's studio to see the original of the ,greek ,slave4 ,next to the ,venus of ,milo it seems the loveliest study in marble of the female figure4 ,but 8our lady of ,milo10 as ,hawthorne calls her--there is no beauty to hers6 ,the ,baptistery in ,florence is a curious octagonal church1 built in the twelfth century1 and has the celebrated bronze doors by ,ghiberti1 representing twelve eventful scenes from the ,bible4 ,those to the south are beautiful enough1 said ,michael ,angelo1 to be the gates of paradise4 ,as often as ,i had reflected upon ,rome and her seven hills1 on arriving there the hills seemed to be a new revelation to me1 and the rapid driving of the ,italians up and down the steep and narrow streets bewildered me not a little4 ,i found myself on the way from the depot1 constantly asking1 can this be ,rome8 ,everything looks so new4 ,the houses are light sandstone1 like the buildings in ,paris4 ,i was informed that this portion of ,rome was calculated to mislead me1 and that ,i would find our hotel quite like ,paris and ,new ,york houses4 ,the next morning1 instead of making a pilgrimage to the ,roman forum1 the ,colosseum1 and the palace of the ,csars1 we drove to ,st4 ,peter's1 which kept me still quite in the notion that ,rome had been whitewashed1 or something done to destroy her ancient classic aspect4 ,we spent four hours in the great church wandering around and witnessing a procession of priests1 monks1 and gorgeous cardinals4 ,there is no gewgaw1 no tinsel in ,st4 ,peter's as one sees in so many other ,catholic churches2 although gold is used in profusion1 yet it is kept in subjection to the tone of the walls4 ,the bronze altar over ,st4 ,peter's tomb is wonderfully effective in the way of concentrating color and attention4 ,it is almost necessary to find a niche in the base of some pillar and sit there awhile before plunging into the immensity of this great building1 just as a bird gets ready before darting into space4 ,but after all1 the feeling of immensity which ,st4 ,peter's gives is not so grateful to the religious sense as the ,gothic style of architecture1 with its stained window1 and deep recesses1 8,its long drawn aisles and fretted vaults40 ,there is little solemnity in ,st4 ,peter's1 little shade and no music1 only from side chapels2 but there are grand proportions1 perfect simplicity1 and the pure light of heaven sending a beam upon a golden dove above ,st4 ,peter's tomb1 which radiates in a thousand streams of light over the marble pavement4 ,nothing impressed me so much in ,rome or suggested the ancient glory so much as the ruins of the ,baths of ,caracalla4 ,the magnificence of this building must have been unparalleled4 ,it accommodated sixteen hundred bathers at once1 and some of its walls are so thick one fears to estimate the depth4 ,what would the old ,romans have thought of the buildings of the present generation1 which fall down or burn up without much warning4 ,here is solid masonry standing since the year #bab4 ,the different arches and columns of ,rome constitute one of the most attractive features to almost every traveller4 ,let those who enjoy them climb their steps or strain their eyes to decipher in a scorching ,italian sun the dates1 the seven golden candlesticks1 the shew bread1 and ,aaron's rod1 on ,titus's arch for example4 ,i shall wander off while they are so occupied into the old capitol--into the room where ,rienzi stood and exhorted the people to recover their ancient rights and into the basement below where ,st4 ,paul was imprisoned4 ,the present king had just been crowned at that time4 ,i saw the king and queen in a procession where they were driving to gratify the people1 and again we saw him unattended driving with his brother through the grounds of the ,borghese ,villa4 ,the carnival was forbidden that year in ,rome on account of the death of the ,king and ,pope1 but there were out-croppings of it on the streets4 ,the tinseled finery and humbug of it seem so incongruous in ancient classic ,rome4 ,i was glad to escape it4 ,the old ,pantheon is too important in its history for any one to write of it1 but ,i have always liked the following paragraph from ,james ,freeman ,clarke concerning it3 8,the ,romans in this church1 or temple1 worshiped their own gods1 while they allowed the ,jews1 when in ,rome1 to worship their ,jewish god1 and the ,egyptians to worship the gods of ,egypt1 and when they admitted the people of a conquered state to become citizens of ,rome their gods were admitted with them2 but in both cases the new citizens occupied a subordinate position to the old settlers4 ,the old worship of ,rome was free from idolatry4 ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and the others were not represented by idols4 ,but there was an impassable gulf between the old ,roman religion and modern ,roman thought1 and ,christianity came to the ,roman world not as a new theory but as a new life1 and now her churches stand by the side of the ruins of the ,temple of ,vesta and the old empty ,pantheon40 ,,electricity4 ,what is it8 and what some of its manifestations8 ,the name was given to an occult1 but everywhere present1 property of material things4 ,first discovered by the ancients in amber 7,gr4 electron7 and brought into evidence by friction4 ,it is generally spoken of as a highly elastic1 imponderable fluid1 or fluids1 with which all matter is supposed to be in a greater or less degree charged4 ,though such fluids have never been discovered as entities1 and their existence may be but imaginary1 it was asserted to account for facts that otherwise seemed inexplicable4 ,definitions of electricity are at hand1 and could be easily given2 but they do not define or accurately point out that which they designate4 ,all that can be said1 with confidence1 is that certain phenomena which come within our observation suggest the presence of such fluids1 and are not otherwise explained4 ,the answer to the question1 8,what is it80 must be the honest confession1 we do not know4 ,but1 if ignorant of what it is1 we may yet intelligently study its manifestations4 ,the phenomena are not less capable of satisfactory discussion because the efficient agent producing them is unknown4 ,the theory of two imponderable fluids or electricities having strong attractive and repellant forces1 is adopted because probable1 and it helps make the discussion intelligible4 ,the awakened interest now so widely felt in this branch of natural science is more than just the desire to know what is knowable of the world we live in4 ,at first1 and indeed for ages1 only the curious studied electricity1 and practical men asked 8,cui bono80 ,but in the present century it has become an applied science4 ,in no other field have our studies of nature been more fruitful of discoveries practically affecting the multiform industries1 and improving the rapidly advancing civilization of the age4 ,some of the skillful inventions for controlling and utilizing this power lying all about us will be mentioned hereafter4 ,it will be well first to state a few facts that are known and mostly established by experimental tests3 7#a7 ,the earth1 and all bodies on its surface1 with the atmosphere surrounding it1 are charged with electricity of greater or less potency4 ,this seems their permanent state1 though in some cases1 its presence is not easily detected4 7#b7 ,in quantity or intensity it is very different in different bodies1 as also in the same under different conditions4 ,in some portions of vast objects1 as the earth and its atmosphere1 it accumulates1 immense currents being poured into them1 while others are perhaps to the same extent drained4 7#c7 ,through some bodies the subtle fluid may pass with but slight obstruction--and they are called conductors4 ,in others the hindrance is greater1 and we call them insulators4 ,but the difference is only of degrees2 as the best conductors offer some obstruction1 and the most perfect insulators do not completely insulate4 ,the metals1 charcoal1 water1 and most moist substances1 as the earth and animal bodies1 offer but little resistance4 ,the atmosphere1 most kinds of glass1 sulphur1 india rubber1 vulcanite1 shellac1 and other resins1 with dry silk and cotton1 are our best insulators4 ,friction used to secure electrical manifestations is the occasion rather than the cause of the electricity thus developed or set free4 ,that it does not cause it1 even in the sense that it causes heat is evident1 since the quantity of electricity bears no proportion to the amount of friction used to produce it4 ,though1 really1 there are not several distinct kinds of electricity1 as statical1 dynamic1 magnetic1 frictional1 and atmospheric1 the nomenclature of the science is at least convenient1 and will not mislead4 ,it indicates the methods of production1 and makes the discussion of the subject more intelligible4 ,and then the electricity developed or set free by the different methods of excitement1 though of the same kind1 differs much in degree and intensity4 ,what is called statical electricity is the condition of the subtle force in a state of electrical quiescence2 and all electricity in motion1 however excited by friction1 heat1 chemical action1 or otherwise1 is dynamic4 ,perpetual modifications are taking place in electrical condition of all matter1 that when made apparent1 at first may seem quite inexplicable4 ,the excited currents flow with amazing rapidity4 ,their actions and re-actions baffle our calculations1 and the imagination itself is bewildered by their extent and complexity4 ,yet by electrical tests and laboratory experiments1 carefully employed1 the laws of electricity are now as well known as those of any other branch of physical science1 and the phenomena1 if more startling1 are no more mysterious than the manifestations of heat1 light and gravitation4 ,atmospheric electricity is not different in kind from that brought into evidence by the methods of the experimenter in the laboratory1 subject to his control1 and much used in the arts and industries of life4 ,the lightning that shineth from the one part under heaven to the other part under heaven1 a bright light in the cloud1 is the same as the electric spark from the moderately charged receiver1 when the positive and negative poles are brought into contact--the same as the less intense spark excited by passing the hand rapidly over the fur on the cat's back when the electrical conditions are favorable4 ,the storm cloud is a vast receiver and by induction becomes at times highly charged with electricity4 ,if the cloud is at rest1 and the heated air grows moist1 that which is known as sheet or heat lightning appears in frequent flashes4 ,the imprisoned electricity leaps forth from the bosom or edge of the cloud1 but as instantly gathers itself back to its source1 and apparently without tension or force enough to crash through the atmosphere to any distant object4 ,the flashes are unaccompanied by the noise of thunder1 and may be but reflections on the cloud from a source far beyond4 ,we watch them without fear of danger1 and the subdued impression is that of the beautiful4 ,amidst the terrific grandeur of the violent thunder storm another form of lightning is seen2 either the vivid flash that seems to envelop us1 or zigzag1 sometimes forked lines that dash across the cloud earthward1 and occasionally1 as in a return stroke1 from the earth to the cloud4 ,in about the middle of the eighteenth century the identity of lightning with electricity was fully ascertained1 and since then the most sublime and startling phenomena of our thunder storms are better understood4 ,under certain contingencies they must occur4 ,since the different clouds or portions of the same cloud are charged with different electricities1 positive and negative1 when these by the winds are brought near each other1 or rolled together1 fierce explosions follow1 and great electrical changes take place in the clouds4 ,vast supplies of the imprisoned fiery fluid leap from strata to strata1 or1 if the distance is not too great1 and the earth is at the same time strongly electrified1 crash down to it through whatever sufficient conductors are found4 ,if those not sufficient to receive and convey the charge be in the path they are dashed aside2 men and beasts are killed by the shock1 trees and other less perfect conductors are scattered in fragments4 ,usually the more prominent objects as masts of ships1 trees1 and buildings are struck in the lightning's course from the cloud1 but occasionally those lowest down1 near trees1 and even in cellars receive the shock4 ,in these cases the current is probably from the earth1 whose electric condition is negative with respect to the clouds that pass over it4 ,in either case the opposite electricities that strongly attract each other1 and whose concurrence produces the destructive discharge near the earth's surface are held apart by the stratum of air between them4 ,when the attraction becomes too strong to be resisted by the insulating medium they rush together1 in their fiery embrace1 the flash and concussion being in proportion to the intensity of the charge4 ,do lightning rods protect8 ,yes2 but not perfectly4 ,if properly constructed1 and of sufficient conducting capacity1 they are a source of safety1 and to discard them as useless is not wise4 ,the instances in which buildings provided with rods have been struck do not prove them useless2 or1 as some say1 that the rods do harm by attracting the lightning that they are unable to conduct to the earth without injury to the building4 ,the point does not attract1 but only catches the electricity that sweeps over it4 ,when violent shocks or explosions occur the rod may be of little service4 ,its office is to prevent these by silently conducting the excess of electricity from the air4 ,the rod1 rightly placed1 conducts to the earth all it can1 lessening the evil it does not entirely prevent4 ,but all danger is not removed4 ,the position of the opposite poles in the immense battery may be such as to give the stroke a horizontal direction1 and far below the point of the rod2 such currents have been known to pass long distances through atmosphere and smite with destructive violence objects lying in their path4 ,against these lateral attacks rods above our roofs are probably little or no protection4 ,still the more good conductors there are in any locality the less danger1 as they prevent the accumulation of electricity4 ,,poachers ,,in ,,england4 ,by ,,james ,,turves4 ,it is somewhat surprising that none of our present-day novelists1 like ,charles ,reade or ,thomas ,hardy1 who are always on the outlook for romantic realism1 whether it be in incident or in fact1 have had their eyes directed to the rural poachers who abound in every shire4 ,poachers1 though neither quite respectable members of the church nor of society1 are more interesting characters than burglars or ticket-of-leave men1 who figure frequently in the novelist's pages4 ,and1 very strange to say1 it has been left to a lady to write the first accounts of poaching episodes1 episodes remarkable for their masculine touches and their wonderful grip of open-air reality2 ,harriet ,martineau1 in her 8,forest and ,game ,law ,tales10 astonishes us by her graphic realism and her delicacy of treatment2 ,charles ,kingsley wrote one or two of his pathetic ballads on the subject of a poacher and his wife2 ,norman ,macleod made a ,highland poacher the subject of a character sketch2 and in our own times ,mr4 ,richard ,jefferies1 a writer who finds pleasure in minute description and vivid realism1 has in his own style of exact word-painting given us a pleasant book about his own experiences as an amateur poacher4 ,but the real poacher1 the rural vagabond1 the parish character1 the ne'er-do-weel1 whose life is a living protest against the game-laws1 is of more lasting interest than any amateur can ever be4 ,viewed from the serene vantage-ground of the philosophy of life1 poaching is mean and ignoble1 and demoralizing sport to you or me1 and is not worth the powder and shot1 while the fines and punishments are out of all proportion to the joys2 yet there are not wanting apologists for it in this apologetic century4 8,poaching6 ,man1 there's no sin in catching a rabbit or snaring a hare4 ,they belong to naebody4 ,bless you6 it's a gentleman's trick1 shooting40 ,this is the opinion of any ,northern lowland ploughman's wife1 as she looks from her red-tiled cottage-door out upon the face of the corn-growing mother earth1 which has given her sweet memories and a host of country neighbors and friends4 ,sixty years ago peasants could use their guns without let or hindrance1 and it was then a common thing for a farm-laborer to go out and have a shot when no sportsman was in the way4 ,taking an odd shot now and then was never1 and is not even now1 looked upon by them as poaching4 ,but a noted poacher1 nicknamed the ,otter1 tells me1 with a sigh1 8,poaching is not what it once was60 ,and it is true4 ,not so very long ago it was a very profitable occupation1 and comparatively respectable1 before railways and telegraph wires and penny newspapers stereotyped metropolitan ideas into all and sundry4 ,an old farmer is pointed out as having made all his money by systematic poaching1 and an influential city official is said to have laid his early nest-egg by no other means than being a good shot where he had no invitation to be4 ,to-day even rural society would look down upon a young farmer engaged in poaching4 ,it is no longer sport to gentlemen1 says the ,otter1 and is left to moral vagabonds1 the waifs and strays1 the parish loafers4 ,the great strides of agriculture1 the game-laws1 and the artificial breeding of game have driven it into sneaking ways1 and robbed it of its robust picturesque adventures4 ,to excel in it a man must give up his nights and days to it--in short1 he must become a specialist1 and even then it hardly pays4 ,a genuine poacher has great force of character2 he has a genius for field and woodcraft4 ,he is the eldest survivor of rustic romance4 ,his wild life is tinged with the love of adventure1 the love of moon and stars1 the knowledge of the seasons1 the haunts and habits of game1 and the power of trapping rabbits in dark woodland glades4 ,no man knows more intimately the night-side of ,nature between the chilly hours of midnight and sunrise4 ,in this cold-blooded age there are always some ,quixotic individuals1 born in the outwardly sleepy villages and lifeless farmsteads1 with the love of midnight adventure1 who wage long warfare against the game-laws1 and who only knuckle under to the law's severity when their health gives way or an enemy turns informer4 8,rheumatics plays the mischief with poaching60 exclaims the ,otter1 referring to the long night-watches in wet ditches and beside hedges for hares on the lea fields4 ,irrespective of all thought of gain1 there is an infatuation to eager spirits in this midnight sport4 ,it appeals to strong1 healthy1 brave men4 ,charles ,kingsley1 in 8,the ,bad ,squire10 with its strong sympathy and feeling1 and its cry of 8blood0 on all the squire owned1 from the foreign shrub to the game he sold1 gives us the poacher's wife view1 a view we are too apt to ignore or forget1 with the weary eyes and heavy heart1 that grow light only with weeping1 and go wandering into the night4 ,we forget too often that in the hearts of common folk there is the glamor of poetic romance about poaching1 and a bitter hatred toward the game-laws4 ,like ,rizpah's son1 many a lad has had no other incentive than that 8,the farmer dared us to do it10 and that he found it sweetened by the secret sympathy of the people4 ,too often1 ,i fear1 the game-laws dare a brave rustic into poaching3 he has only this one way left to satisfy the insatiable ,british thirst for field sport4 ,it is gravely whispered that some of the most striking men have tasted its romance2 and if all stories be true1 the master of the ,english drama owes to an unlucky deer-poaching incident the lucky turn in his career which sent him to ,london and to writing plays1 and poachers may reasonably claim ,shakspere as their patron saint4 ,when the strong1 sweet ale warms his heart1 the poacher boasts of dreadful adventures in the night1 of leaping broad mill-dams when chased1 of giving fight in the dark1 and discomfiting gamekeepers by clever tricks4 ,he paints his exploits in such heroical glory1 that the seat next the fire in the ale-house is given him by admiring and fearing rustics4 ,honesty he ascribes to practicedness in the world's ways1 and he looks upon keeping out of jail as the greatest victory that man can achieve4 ,he is the type of man that makes our best soldiers1 or1 as he phrases it1 is paid to stop the gun-shots4 ,he requires no almanac to tell him when the moon is to rise to-morrow1 and he could give the gamekeepers lessons4 ,he is to be envied for his quick feeling of life and his sympathy for field and forest sport1 and that wild exuberance of spirits which he seems to catch with his hares4 ,it is this rural vagabond--and not ,mr4 ,commonplace ,respectability--who rivets young folks' attention2 his energy anywhere would achieve success2 and he is free from that unpardonable fault1 dulness4 ,in the rustic drama of life he is the character that takes hold of us in our best impulses--and is not that the best world of the ideal8 ,he disdains to shoot starlings or black-birds2 he is too much a sportsman to pay attention to such small game4 ,he can put his hands to various ways of living2 he can collect bird's eggs1 shoot wild rock-pigeons for a farmers' club1 gather blackberries1 or1 as they say in ,scotland1 8brambles10 pull young ash-saplings in plantations1 and sell them to grooms in the livery stables in town4--,the ,contemporary ,review4 ,,eight ,,centuries ,,with ,,walter ,,scott4 ,by ,,wallace ,,bruce4 8,the burning sun of ,syria had not yet attained its highest point in the horizon1 when a knight of the ,red ,cross1 who had left his distant northern home1 and joined the host of the ,crusaders in ,palestine1 was pacing slowly along the sandy deserts which lie in the vicinity of the ,dead ,sea1 or as it is called1 the ,lake ,asphalites1 where the waves of the ,jordan pour themselves into an inland sea1 from which there is no discharge of waters40 ,this is the graphic opening of 8,the ,talisman40 ,the steel clad pilgrim was entering upon that great plain1 once watered even as the ,garden of the ,lord1 now an arid and sterile wilderness1 sloping away to the ,dead ,sea1 which hides beneath its sluggish waves the once proud cities of ,sodom and ,gomorrah2--a dark mass of water 8,which holds no living fish in its bosom1 bears no skiff on its surface1 and sends no tribute to the ocean40 ,it was a scene of desolation still testifying to the just wrath of the ,almighty4 ,as in the days of ,moses1 8,the whole land was brimstone and salt2 it is not sown1 nor beareth1 nor any grass groweth thereon40 ,the first sentence of the chapter revealed the descriptive and artistic power of the novelist1 for the desolation is made more desolate by the introduction of the solitary horseman1 journeying slowly through the flitting sand1 under the noontide splendor of the eastern sun4 ,almost a century has passed since the triumph of the first crusade4 ,the ,latin ,kingdom1 founded by its leaders1 had lasted only eighty-eight years4 ,jerusalem is again in the hands of the ,saracens4 ,the crescent gleams on the ,mosque of ,st4 ,omar4 ,the cross has been torn from her temples1 her shrines profaned1 and the worshipers of the ,holy ,sepulcher murdered or exiled4 ,the second crusade had been a failure1 and its history a series of disasters4 ,thousands perished in the long march across ,asia ,minor4 ,those who reached ,palestine undertook the siege of ,damascus1 but the attempt was disastrous4 ,in #aahg a powerful leader of the ,east appeared in the high-souled and chivalrous ,saladin4 ,by wise counsel he united the factions of the ,mohammedans1 which had been at variance for two hundred years2 and on the arrival of the third crusade1 with which event we are now dealing1 he was enabled to present a solid front of warriors 8like unto the sand of the desert in multitude40 ,the land1 where 8peace and good will to men0 had been proclaimed by the voices of angels1 and emphasized by the blessed words of the ,son of ,god1 was again converted into a vast tournament field for the armies of ,europe and ,asia3 aye more1 even in the mountain passes that guard the ,holy ,city1 the mission of the crusaders was sacrificed to petty insults and rivalries4 ,richard the ,lion-hearted and ,king ,philip of ,france were repeating the old story of ,achilles and ,agamemnon4 ,the military orders of the ,knights of the ,temple and the ,knights of ,st4 ,john1 which had grown up in ,jerusalem1 founded as fraternities devoted to works of mercy in behalf of poor pilgrims1 had become powerful rivals of each other and the clergy1 and by intrigue and dissension purposely fomented the discord4 ,according to the historian ,michaud1 8,on the one side were the ,french1 the ,german1 the ,templars and the ,genoese2 on the other the ,english1 the ,pisans1 and the ,knights of ,st4 ,john40 ,these are the historical circumstances with which ,scott has to deal2 and it is on a mission from such a council1 made up of discordant factions1 convened during the sickness of ,richard1 that we find the ,knight of the ,red ,cross1 or as he is afterward styled1 ,kenneth the ,scot1 bearing a message to the celebrated ,hermit of ,engaddi4 ,his adventures by the way are as romantic as any recorded in the ,knights of the ,round-,table2 for1 as he directed his course toward a cluster of palm trees1 he saw suddenly emerge therefrom a ,saracen chief mounted on a fleet ,arabian horse4 ,as they drew near each other they prepared for battle1 each after the manner of his own country4 8,on the desert10 according to an ,eastern proverb1 8no man meets a friend40 ,the heavy armor of the crusader and his powerful horse are more than an even match for the wily ,saracen4 ,the ,scottish knight might have been likened in the conflict to a bold rock in the sea1 and the swift assaults of the ,eastern warrior to the waves dashing against it only to be broken into foam4 ,after a long struggle1 which was worthy of a larger audience1 the ,saracen calls a truce1 and the ,mohammedan and ,christian1 so lately in deadly conflict1 make their way side by side1 each respecting the other's courage1 to the well under the clustered palms4 ,the student of history will find in the description of this hand-to-hand conflict an object-lesson of the garb and manners of the ,eastern and ,western races2 and will learn more in the conversation that follows1 as they partake of their scanty meal1 of the sentiments and customs of the hostile races than can be gathered from the pages of any history with which ,i am acquainted3 for ,sir ,walter had the marvelous faculty of absorbing history4 ,he saw everything so vividly that he was able to reproduce it in living forms4 ,as we read his description1 we sit with them under the palms2 we hear them now responding in courtesy1 and again in sharp discussion1 as allusion is made to their respective religions or modes of life2 and1 as they resume their journey1 we feel grateful to the novelist for the beautiful figure which he puts in the mouth of the ,scottish knight in answer to the ,saracen's boast of harem-life as contrasted with a ,christian household4 8,that diamond signet10 says the knight1 8which thou wearest on thy finger1 thou holdest it doubtless of inestimable value80 8,bagdad can not show the like10 replied the ,saracen2 8,but what avails it to our purpose80 8,much10 replied the ,frank1 8as thou shalt thyself confess4 ,take my war-axe and dash the stone into twenty shivers2 would each fragment be as valuable as the original gem1 or would they1 all collected1 bear the tenth part of its estimation80 8,that is a child's question10 answered the ,saracen2 8the fragments of a stone would not equal the entire jewel in the degree of hundreds to one40 8,saracen10 replied the ,christian warrior1 8the love which a true knight binds on one only1 fair and faithful1 is the gem entire2 the affection thou flingest among thy enslaved wives1 and half-wedded slaves1 is worthless1 comparatively1 as the sparkling shivers of the broken diamond40 ,we find both soldiers courteous in conversation1 and their example teaches a good lesson to modern controversy2 but the 8courtesy of the ,christian seemed to flow rather from a good natured sense of what was due to others2 that of the ,moslem1 from a high feeling of what was to be expected from himself4 ,the manners of the ,eastern warrior were grave1 graceful and decorous20 he might have been compared to 8his sheeny and crescent-shaped saber1 with its narrow and light1 but bright and keen1 ,damascus blade1 contrasted with the long and ponderous ,gothic war-sword which was flung unbuckled on the same sod40 ,they pursue their march to the grotto of the ,hermit of ,engaddi2 a man respected alike by ,christian and ,mohammedan2 revered by the ,latins for his austere devotion1 and by the ,arabs on account of his symptoms of insanity1 which they ascribed to inspiration4 ,the hermit1 once a crusader1 was the man whom ,kenneth was to meet4 ,he delivers his message2 but at night1 while the ,saracen slept1 ,kenneth is conducted to a subterraneous1 but elegantly carved chapel1 where he meets by chance with the noble sister of ,king ,richard1 who with ,richard's newly wedded wife1 had come hither to pray for the king's recovery4 ,she drops a rose at the knight's feet confirming the approbation which her smiles had already expressed to him in camp1 and the story of true love1 not destined to run smoothly1 is fairly commenced4 ,but as with 8,count ,robert of ,paris10 8,the ,talisman0 is not so much a romance as a picture of the strife and jealousy of haughty and rival leaders4 ,its value1 as a historical novel1 lies in the portrayal of these discordant elements4 ,we may read the best history of the crusades1 page by page1 line by line1 only to forget the next month1 or the next year1 everything save the issue of the long struggle2 but 8,the ,talisman10 by its wondrous reality1 makes a lasting impression upon our minds4 ,we see ,richard tossing upon his couch1 impatient of his fever and protracted delays4 ,we see the ,marquis of ,montserrat1 and the ,grand ,master of the ,knights ,templar walking together in close-whispered conspiracy4 ,we see ,leopold1 the ,grand ,duke of ,austria1 lifting his own banner1 with overweening pride1 by the side of ,england's standard4 ,we see ,richard dashing aside the attendants of his sick bed1 half-clad1 rushing forth to avenge the insult1 splintering the staff1 and trampling upon the ,austrian flag4 ,we stand with ,kenneth under the starlight1 guarding alone the dignity of ,england's banner1 but decoyed away in an unlucky hour by the ring of ,king ,richard's sister1 which had been obtained by artifice4 ,we see the flag stolen in that fatal absence1 and the noble knight condemned to death1 to be saved only by miracle from the fierce wrath of ,richard4 ,he is given as a present to the ,arabian physician whose art had restored the king to health4 ,we see him again with ,richard in the disguise of a ,nubian slave4 ,we see a strolling ,saracen with poisoned dagger attempting the life of ,richard1 but saved by the faithful ,kenneth4 ,we find ,richard considering in his mind the giving of his royal sister in marriage to ,saladin2 an affair which fortunately needed the lady's consent1 who had in her veins too much of the proud ,plantagenet blood to know the meaning of compulsion4 ,we see the tournament which decided the treachery of ,conrad1 and the triumph of ,kenneth1 who turns out to be no other than the ,earl of ,huntingdon1 heir of the ,scottish throne4 ,the comrade of ,kenneth1 and the physician who waited upon the king1 chances to be the same person1 and no less renowned a hero than the ,emperor ,saladin1 who sends as a nuptial present to ,kenneth and ,edith ,plantagenet the celebrated talisman by which he had wrought so many notable cures2 which1 according to ,scott1 is still in existence in the family of ,sir ,simon of ,lee4 ,this tale of the crusaders is so complete that we need after closing the volume only a few lines of history to complete the record4 ,the city of ,ptolemais was captured after a three years' siege4 ,more than one hundred skirmishes and nine great battles were fought under its walls4 ,both parties were animated by religious zeal4 ,it is said that the ,king of ,jerusalem marched to battle with the books of the ,evangelists borne before him2 and that ,saladin often paused upon the field of battle to recite a prayer1 or read a chapter from the ,koran4 ,philip finally returns to ,france4 ,richard remains in command of one hundred thousand soldiers4 ,he conquers the ,saracens in battle1 repairs the fortifications of ,jaffa and ,ascalon1 but in the intoxication of pleasure forgets the conquest of ,jerusalem4 ,his victories were fruitless4 ,he obtained from ,saladin merely a truce of three years and eight months1 8which insured to pilgrims the right of entering ,jerusalem untaxed10 and1 without fulfilling his promise of striking his lance against the gates of the ,holy ,city1 sets off on his homeward journey1 to be taken captive and held a prisoner in a ,tyrolese castle4 ,in brief the history of the ,third ,crusade is that of a house divided against itself4 ,as 8,the ,betrothed0 brought us back from ,constantinople and ,palestine to ,merrie ,england1 so 8,ivanhoe0 transports the reader1 and some of the prominent actors of the drama1 from the eastern shores of the ,mediterranean to the pleasant district of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 watered by the river ,don1 8where flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws1 whose deeds have been rendered so popular in ,english song40 ,the prominent historical features which ,scott illustrates in the romantic story of 8,ivanhoe0 are the domestic and civil relations existing between the ,saxon and the ,norman about the year #aaif1 when the return of ,richard the ,first from ,palestine and captivity was an event rather hoped for than expected2 and an event not hoped for by ,king ,john and his followers4 ,the ,saxon spirit had been well nigh subdued by the strict and unjust laws imposed by the ,norman kings4 ,for one hundred and thirty years ,norman-,french had been the language of the court1 the language of law1 of chivalry and justice4 ,the laws of the chase and the curfew1--and many others unknown to the ,saxon constitution1--had been placed upon the necks of the inhabitants of the soil4 ,with few exceptions the race of ,saxon princes had been extirpated2 and it was not until the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 that ,england became thoroughly united as one people4 ,the ,english language at the close of the twelfth century was not yet born4 ,the ,saxon mother and ,norman father were not yet wedded2 the two languages were gradually getting acquainted with each other2 or1 as ,scott has logically expressed it1 8the necessary intercourse between the lords of the soil1 and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was cultivated1 occasioned the formation of a dialect1 compounded betwixt the ,french and the ,anglo-,saxon1 in which they could render themselves mutually intelligible to each other2 and from this necessity arose by degrees the structure of our present ,english language1 in which the speech of the victors and the vanquished has been so happily blended together1 and which has since been so richly improved by importations from the classical languages1 and from those spoken by the southern nations of ,europe40 ,in the first chapter--and it is always well to read carefully the first chapter of ,scott--we are introduced to a swine-herd1 born thrall of ,cedric of ,rotherwood1 one of the few powerful ,saxon families existing in ,england at the time of our story4 ,he is attended by a domestic clown1 or jester1 maintained at that time in the houses of the wealthy4 ,with an art and unity like ,shakspere1 ,scott emphasizes at the very outset the chief historic feature of his story1 by putting the following conversation in the mouths of these ,saxon menials3 8,how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four legs80 demanded ,wamba1 the jester4 8,swine10 said the herd4 8,and swine is good ,saxon10 said the jester2 8but how call you it when quartered80 8,pork10 answered the cow-herd4 8,and pork10 said ,wamba1 8is good ,norman-,french2 and so when the brute lives1 and is in the charge of a ,saxon slave1 she goes by her ,saxon name2 but becomes a ,norman1 and is called pork1 when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles4 ,nay1 ,i can tell you more10 said ,wamba1 in the same tone1 8there is ,alderman ,ox1 who continues to hold his ,saxon epithet1 while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou1 but becomes beef1 a fiery ,french gallant1 when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him4 ,mynheer ,calf1 too1 becomes ,monsieur de ,veau in the like manner2 he is ,saxon when he requires tendance1 and takes a ,norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment40 ,the third chapter brings together a strange gathering under the roof of the hospitable ,cedric3 ,brian de ,bois ,gilbert1 a haughty ,templar2 ,prior ,aymer1 of free and jovial character2 a poor ,palmer1 just returned from the ,holy ,land1 and a ,jew known as ,isaac of ,york2 all journeying on their way to a tournament to be held a few miles distant at ,ashby de la ,zouche4 ,lady ,rowena1 descended from the noble line of ,alfred1 graced the table with her presence1 a ward destined by ,cedric1 but not by fate1 to be the wife of ,athelstane1--a ,saxon descended from ,edward the ,confessor3 in the furtherance of which idea his only son had been exiled1 when it became known that he aspired to the hand of the ,saxon beauty4 ,at the tournament the remaining characters of the drama are introduced3 ,king ,john1 with his retinue2 ,richard the ,lion-,hearted1 under the disguise of the 8,black ,knight20 ,rebecca1 the ,jewess2 the proud baron ,front de ,buf2 ,robin ,hood1 the brave outlaw1 under the name of ,loxley2 and ,ivanhoe1 the poor pilgrim1 who wins the prize at the tournament and crowns ,rowena ,queen of ,beauty4 ,at the close of the second day's tournament1 in which ,ivanhoe is again successful1 a letter is handed to ,king ,john with the brief sentence1 8,take heed to yourself1 for the devil is unchained40 ,it was like the handwriting on the wall of ,belshazzar's palace1 and proclaimed the end of his kingdom4 ,cedric1 ,rowena1 ,isaac1 ,rebecca1 ,athelstane and ,ivanhoe depart their several ways from the tournament1 but are captured and taken to ,front de ,buf's castle4 ,cedric escapes in the guise of a monk4 ,the castle is stormed1 and now occurs one of the most dramatic pictures in the pages of romantic literature1 destined to reveal to all time the undying hate between the ,saxon and the ,norman4 ,a ,saxon woman1 by name ,ulrica1 had lived for years in ,front de ,buf's castle4 ,she had seen her father and seven brothers killed in defending their home1 but she 8remained to administer ignominiously to the murderers of her family4 ,she used the seductions of her beauty to arm the son against the father2 she heated drunken revelry into murderous broil1 and stained with a parricide the banqueting hall of the conquerors40 ,she had sold body and soul to obtain revenge for ,norman cruelties2 and now1 grown old in servitude1 incensed by the contempt of her masters1 she determines upon a deed1 which will make the ears of men tingle while the name of ,saxon is remembered4 ,she fires the castle and appears on a turret in the guise of one of the ancient furies1 yelling forth a war-song4 8,her long1 dishevelled grey hair flows back from her uncovered head2 the inebriated delight of gratified vengeance contends in her eyes with the fire of insanity2 and she brandishes the distaff which she holds in her hand1 as if she were one of the fatal sisters1 who spin and abridge the thread of human life4 ,at length1 with a terrific crash1 the whole turret gives way1 and she perishes in the flames which consume her tyrant40 ,there is another historic feature of the times emphasized in this romance3 the oppression of the ,jews in ,england during these cruel and adventurous times4 ,the character of the race is vividly portrayed in ,isaac of ,york1 in which masterly delineation ,scott seems truer to nature than ,shakspere in the character of ,shylock4 ,rebecca1 his noble and beautiful daughter1 is the type of all that is pure and womanly4 ,her words have the eloquence of the poets and prophets of old3 8,know proud knight10 she says1 8we number names amongst us to which your boasted ,northern nobility is as the gourd compared with the cedar--names that ascend far back to those high times when the ,divine ,presence shook the mercy seat between the cherubim1 and which derive their splendor from no earthly prince1 but from the awful ,voice1 which bade their fathers be nearest of the congregation to the vision2 such were the princes of the house of ,jacob2 now such no more4 ,they are trampled down like the shorn grass1 and mixed with the mire of the ways2 yet there are those among them who shame not such high descent1 and of such shall be the daughter of ,isaac1 the son of ,adonikam4 ,farewell6 ,i envy not thy blood-won honors2 ,i envy not thy barbarous descent from northern heathens2 ,i envy not thy faith1 which is ever in thy mouth1 but never in thy heart nor in thy practice40 ,the description of ,friar ,tuck entertaining ,king ,richard in disguise is in ,scott's happiest vein2 and ,robin ,hood1 with his bold outlaws1 shares the honors gracefully with knights and nobles4 ,but it is alike unnecessary and unprofitable to attempt a condensation of 8,ivanhoe40 ,no outline can convey the beauty of a finished picture4 ,it is not to be taken at second hand4 ,it is only for us to indicate its relation to history2 and it will suffice to say that ,king ,richard was gladly welcomed by the ,english people1 and that ,ivanhoe was wedded to the beautiful ,rowena4 ,but1 do ,i hear the reader ask1 what becomes of the fair ,jewess8 ,scott has answered the question so beautifully in his preface that ,i borrow his own words--a passage to my mind unsurpassed in ,english prose3 8,the character of the fair ,jewess found so much favor in the eyes of some fair readers1 that the writer was censured1 because1 when arranging the fates of the characters of the drama1 he had not assigned the hand of ,wilfred to ,rebecca1 rather than the less interesting ,rowena4 ,but1 not to mention that the prejudices of the age rendered such an union almost impossible1 the author may1 in passing1 observe1 that he thinks a character of a highly virtuous and lofty stamp1 is degraded rather than exalted by an attempt to reward virtue with temporal prosperity4 ,such is not the recompense which ,providence has deemed worthy of suffering merit1 and it is a dangerous and fatal doctrine to teach young persons1 the most common readers of romance1 that rectitude of conduct and of principle are either naturally allied with1 or adequately rewarded by1 the gratification of our passions1 or attainment of our wishes4 ,in a word1 if a virtuous and self-denied character is dismissed with temporal wealth1 greatness1 rank1 or the indulgence of such a rashly formed or ill-assorted passion as that of ,rebecca for ,ivanhoe1 the reader will be apt to say1 #8,verily1 virtue has had its reward4' ,but a glance on the great picture of life will show that the duties of self-denial and the sacrifice of passion to principle are seldom thus remunerated2 and that the internal consciousness of their high-minded discharge of duty produces on their own reflections a more adequate recompense in the form of that peace which the world can not give or take away40 ,,the ,,great ,,organ ,,at ,,fribourg4 ,by ,,edith ,,sessions ,,tupper4 ,after thoroughly 8doing0 ,berne in most approved guide-book fashion2 feeding the bears--hot1 dusty looking creatures2 standing in the middle of the street1 heads thrown back at the risk of dislocating our necks to watch the celebrated clock strike1 we stand one evening on the hotel terrace and take our farewell look at the ,bernese ,alps4 ,sharply defined against a sunset-flushed sky1 as if cut from alabaster1 glittering fair and white like the pinnacles and domes of a city celestial1 rise the ,mnch1 ,eiger1 ,wetterhorn1 and1 serene and august in her icy virgin beauty1 the ,jungfrau4 8,too soon the light began to fade1 ,tho' lingering soft and tender2 ,and the snow giants sank again ,into their calm dead splendor40 ,leaving ,berne1 we take our way to ,fribourg1 to see its wonderful gorges and skeleton bridges1 and hear its more wonderful organ4 ,on our arrival at this quaint old ,romanesque town1 we are driven to the most delightful little hotel1 hanging on the very edge of the great ravine1 upon the sides of which the town is built4 ,through the more closely-built region of the town runs the old stone wall with its high watch-towers4 ,spanning the great gulf are the bridges--mere phantoms of bridges they seem from our windows4 ,a dreary1 drizzling rain sets in soon after we arrive1 and some ,american lads across the court-yard from time to time send forth in their sweet untrained voices the refrain of that mournful ballad1 the 8,soldier's ,farewell10 8,farewell1 farewell1 my own true love40 ,a prevalent tone of heimweh is in the air2 eyes are filling1 and memory is stretching longing hands over the ocean1 when fortunately comes the summons to table d'hote4 ,at our plates we find programs in very bad ,english of a concert to be given this evening upon the great organ in the cathedral4 ,thither we go at dusk1 pausing a moment to look at the grotesque carving of the last judgment over the great door4 ,thereon the good1 with most satisfied faces1 are being admitted to heaven by ,st4 ,peter1 a stout old gentleman in a short gown1 jingling a bunch of keys2 while the wicked are being carried in ,swiss baskets to a great cauldron over a blazing fire1 therein to be deposited1 and to be stirred up by devils armed with pitchforks for that purpose4 ,we enter4 ,without1 the ceaseless drip of the rain2 within1 gloom1 darkness--save for the never-ceasing light before the altar1 decay4 ,the air is chill and damp4 ,around us stretch dark1 shadowed aisles4 ,tombs of those long dust are on every hand4 ,the air seems peopled with ghosts4 ,we are seated1 and patiently wait for life to be breathed into that mighty monster looming up in the darkness1 above our heads4 ,suddenly1 with a crash that shakes the building1 the organ speaks4 ,silenced1 overwhelmed1 we listen1 possessing our souls in patience for the 8,pastorale10 representing a thunder storm among the ,alps1 which is to close the evening's entertainment4 ,we have but recently come from the everlasting hills1 and our souls are still under their magic enchantment4 ,at last the moment comes4 ,a pause1 and there steals upon the ear a light1 sweet refrain4 ,it is spring1 the old1 ideal spring2 the trees are budding2 flowers are smiling from the meadows2 we feel warm south winds blowing2 afar in the woods we hear the sylvan pipe of the shepherd and the songs of birds4 ,a peace is upon everything4 ,nature is calm1 happy1 and full of promise of glad fruition4 ,to this succeeds a languid1 dreary strain--it is a drowsy summer afternoon4 ,a delicious languor pervades the air2 we hear the trees whispering to each other of their perfect foliage2 we hear the laughing waters leaping and calling to each other through their rocky passes2 the flocks are asleep in the shade2 the shadows are stealing and playing over the sides of the mountains1 and the whole world swims in a misty1 golden haze4 ,now listen closely4 ,do not we catch the mutter of distant thunder8 ,and again1 do not we hear that clear1 bell-like bird-call for rain8 ,the distant muttering grows louder1 a stronger breeze sways the trees2 still we hear distinctly that bird-call4 ,now louder rolls the thunder1 the wind has arisen1 the trees are bending to meet it1 and in rage are tossing their boughs to the overcast sky2 and ah6 here comes the rain4 ,patter1 patter1 at first1 now fast and faster1 and now with a mad rush down it comes in one tremendous1 outpouring sheet1 and now with a terrific rumble and crash1 8,from peak to peak the rattling crags among1 ,leaps the live thunder3 ,not from one lone cloud1 ,but every mountain now hath found a tongue1 ,and ,jura answers from her misty shroud ,back to the joyous ,alps who call on her aloud40 ,the wind shrieks and howls1 and yet above all this tumult and roar of the elements1 clearly and unmistakably rings that sweet flute-like bird-call4 ,the storm rages1 spends its fury1 and dies away1 and from a neighboring cloister come the voices of an unseen choir1 raising a 8,te ,deum0 to him who holds the storms in his hands4 ,silently we rise and go1 a great peace upon us1 for divine notes from the soul of the organ have entered into ours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,it is not the nature of man to be always moving forward2 it has its comings and goings4 ,fever has its cold and hot fits1 and the cold shiver proves the height of the fever quite as much as the hot fit4 ,the inventions of man from age to age proceed much in the same way4 ,the good nature and the malice of the world in general have the same ebbs and flows4 8,change of living is generally agreeable to the rich40--,pascal4 ,,eccentric ,,americans4 ,by ,,coleman ,e4 ,,bishop4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,statesman ,,in ,a ,,state ,,of ,,nature4 ,david ,crockett was born in the wilds of ,tennessee1 ,august #ag1 #aghf4 ,he toughened rapidly1 like a bear's cub1 but he showed in addition to the usual woodsman's instincts the unusual qualities of great tenderness of feeling and generosity1 with a remarkable gift of wit and love of fun4 ,the incredible stories of his hardships at the age of twelve and thereafter we have not room to recount4 ,in the best sense he was a tough boy4 ,the closing scene of his home life--if a hut presided over by a drunken father1 and a mother who left no impression on the boy's character that showed itself in after years can be by any courtesy called a home--was a dissolving view of a ragged1 bare-footed urchin of fourteen chased through the brush by a father with a large goad and a large load of liquor4 ,thus ,david ,crockett set out upon the world for himself4 ,with ,crockett's story as a bear-hunter1 nomadic woodsman1 soldier and ,indian-fighter1 exciting and marvelous as are these incidents of the first thirty years of his life1 we shall not much concern ourselves4 ,but ,i do wonder that his life-like1 quaint narrative of these has not become standard juvenile literature1 along with ,robinson ,crusoe and ,mayne ,reid's stories of adventure4 ,through all these exciting though isolated years1 the young woodsman picked up a good deal of practical knowledge1 not one scrap of which he ever forgot2 and withal was developing a strange quality of unpretentious self-esteem4 8,the idea seemed never to have entered his mind that there was any one superior to ,david ,crockett1 or any one so humble that ,crockett was entitled to look down upon him with condescension4 ,he was a genuine democrat1 and all were in his view equal4 ,and this was not the result of thought1 of any political or moral principle4 ,it was a part of his nature1 like his stature or complexion4 ,this is one of the rarest qualities to be found in any man40,h ,he also was developing oratorical powers4 ,he acquired unbounded popularity at musters and frolics1 in camp and in the chase by his fun-making qualities1 his homely1 kindly1 keen wit4 ,his retentive memory was an inexhaustible store-house of anecdote1 and he always had an apt illustration for any point he wanted to make4 ,he began to taste the sweet consciousness of power over his fellows1 and to easily fall into the position of leadership1 for which nature designed him4 ,his first official position came to him at about the age of thirty4 ,there were a good many outlaws in the region where he at that time had his cabin and claim1 and society began to cohere for self-protection4 ,the settlers convened and appointed ,crockett and others to be justices of the peace1 and a corps of stalwart young men to be constables4 ,these justices were really provost-marshals in power4 ,there were no statute laws nor courts2 but there was authority enough1 and ,crockett says everybody made laws according to his own notions of right4 ,for shooting and appropriating a hog running at large1 for instance1 the sentence was to strip the thief1 tie him to a tree and give him a flogging1 burn down his cabin and drive him out of the country4 ,soon after1 the new territory was organized into counties and ,crockett was regularly commissioned a justice by the legislature4 ,his account of his administration is interesting3 8,i was made a squire according to law2 though now the honor rested on me more heavily than before4 ,for1 at first1 whenever ,i told my constable1 says ,i1 #8catch that fellow and bring him up for trial6' away he went1 and the fellow must come1 dead or alive4 ,for we considered this a good warrant1 though it was only in verbal writing4 ,but after ,i was appointed by the ,assembly1 they told me my warrants must be in real writing and signed2 and that ,i must keep a book and write my proceedings in it4 ,this was a hard business on me1 for ,i could just barely write my own name4 ,but to do this1 and write the warrants too1 was at least a huckleberry over my persimmon4 ,i had a pretty well informed constable however1 and ,i told him when he should happen to be out anywhere and see that a warrant was necessary and would have a good effect1 he needn't take the trouble to come all the way to me to get one1 but he could just fill one out1 and then on the trial ,i could correct the whole business if he had committed any error4 ,in this way ,i got on pretty well1 till by care and attention ,i improved my handwriting in such a manner as to be able to prepare my warrants and keep my record books without much difficulty4 ,my judgments were never appealed from3 and if they had been they would have stuck like wax1 as ,i gave my decisions on the principles of common justice and honesty between man and man1 and relied on natural born sense1 and not on law learning1 to guide me2 for ,i had never read a page in a law-book in all my life40 ,crockett made his first stump speech when he was about thirty-four years old4 ,a militia regiment was to be organized1 and a ,captain ,mathews1 after promising ,crockett the majority of the regiment if he would support him for its colonel1 turned against ,crockett in favor of his own son4 ,at a great muster prepared by ,mathews1 he made a stump speech in his own and his son's favor4 ,crockett1 entirely unabashed1 mounted the stump as soon as ,mathews finished1 and on the captain's own grounds proceeded to expose his duplicity and argue the total unfitness of both him and his son for the command4 ,the speech was fluent1 witty1 full of anecdote1 and carried the rude audience by storm4 ,it effectually beat both father and son4 ,the fame of this maiden effort traveled fast in a community where oratory was the great1 if not the only engine of popular control1 and the result was that a committee soon waited on ,crockett and asked him to stand for the legislature then about to be elected 7#ahba74 ,some of his first electioneering adventures illustrate the frankness and tact so queerly combined in him1 and also show how he got his education in politics4 ,hickman county wanted to change its county seat4 ,he says3 8,here they told me that they wanted to move their town nearer to the center of the county1 and ,i must come out in favor of it4 ,i did not know what this meant1 or how the town was to be moved1 and so ,i kept dark1 going on the same identical plan that ,i now find is called non-committal40 ,on one occasion the candidates for governor of the ,state1 ,congress1 and several for legislature1 some of them able stump-speakers1 were announced4 ,as he listened1 a sense of inferiority for the first time1 probably1 penetrated him2 he drank in all they said1 and remembered it4 ,he says3 8,the thought of having to make a speech made my knees feel mighty weak1 and set my heart to fluttering almost as bad as my first love scrape with the ,quaker's niece4 ,but as luck would have it1 these big candidates spoke nearly all day1 and when they quit the people were worn out with fatigue1 which afforded me a good apology for not discussing the government4 ,but ,i listened mighty close to them1 and was learning pretty fast about political matters4 ,when they were all done ,i got up and told some laughable story and quit40 ,he was elected1 and in the legislature proved a good story-teller1 a formidable antagonist in repartee1 and above all a good listener4 ,he says the first thing that he took pains to learn was the meaning of the words 8judiciary0 and 8government10 as up to that time he had 8never heard that there was any such thing in all nature as a judiciary40 ,the halls of the ,tennessee legislature were again brightened in #ahbc-bd by the wit and good sense of 8the gentleman from the cane0 as an opponent derisively dubbed him1 very much to his subsequent regret4 ,crockett was now so well known that he was put forward for ,congress4 ,his rapid advancement staggered even his self-sufficiency1 and he objected1 saying he 8knowed nothing about ,congress matters40 ,fortunately1 perhaps1 he was given time to learn more1 for he was beaten at the polls this time4 ,it was claimed by his supporters the result was obtained by fraud1 and as the adverse majority was small1 he was urged to contest the election2 but he declined1 saying he did not care enough for office to take it unless the clearly expressed will of the people called him thereto4 ,from hunting for men he turned with zest to hunting for bears2 his endurance1 hardihood and success1 and the never-failing benevolence with which he divided the fruits of the hunt with poor settlers1 or lent a helping hand in many other ways1 made him more political capital than the best stump speeches could have done4 ,he killed one hundred and five bears one season4 ,two years later 7#ahbg7 he ran for ,congress again and was triumphantly elected over two strong opponents4 ,thus the bear-hunting1 ,indian-fighting 8gentleman from the cane10 barely able to write his name1 so poor that he had to borrow money to pay his traveling expenses to ,washington1 became a law-maker of a great nation by sheer force of native talent and goodness of heart4 ,his fame preceded him to ,washington4 ,his prowess in arms1 his dexterity in politics1 and his quaint wit had been in the papers2 all his sayings had been1 as is the style of ,american journalism1 exaggerated and embellished and distorted1 until the general impression of him was that of a coarse1 outlandish1 swaggering yahoo4 ,his appearance in ,washington dispersed these illusions thence1 but the misrepresentations did not cease in the prints4 ,as in the case of ,lincoln1 every profane and vulgar thing that cheap wit could invent was attributed to ,crockett1 and received as his4 ,many of these false impressions survive to this day2 it is therefore proper here to give a picture of the man as he was seen at home4 ,it is thus reported by an intelligent gentleman who visited his cabin just after his election4 ,the visitor penetrated to ,crockett's cabin eight miles through unbroken wilderness by a path blazed on the trees4 ,he says3 ,two men were seated on stools at the door1 both in their shirt-sleeves1 engaged in cleaning their rifles4 ,as the stranger rode up1 one of the men came forward to meet him4 ,he was dressed in very plain homespun attire1 with a black fur cap upon his head4 ,he was a finely proportioned man1 about six feet high1 apparently forty-five years of age1 and of very frank1 pleasing1 open countenance4 ,he held his rifle in his hand1 and from his right shoulder hung a bag made of raccoon-skin1 to which there was a sheath attached containing a large butcher-knife4 8,this is ,colonel ,crockett's residence1 ,i presume10 said the stranger4 8,yes10 was the reply1 with a smile as of welcome4 8,have ,i the pleasure of seeing that gentleman before me80 the stranger added4 8,if it be a pleasure10 was the courteous reply1 8you have1 sir40 8,well1 ,colonel10 responded the stranger1 8,i have ridden much out of my way to spend a day or two with you1 and take a hunt40 8,get down1 sir10 said the ,colonel1 cordially4 8,i am delighted to see you4 ,i like to see strangers4 ,and the only care ,i have is that ,i can not accommodate them as well as ,i could wish4 ,i have no corn1 but my little boy will take your horse over to my son-in-law's4 ,he is a good fellow1 and will take care of him40 ,leading the stranger into his cabin1 ,crockett very courteously introduced him to his brother1 his wife1 and his daughters4 ,he then added3 8,you see we are mighty rough here4 ,i am afraid you will think it hard times4 ,but we have to do the best we can4 ,i started mighty poor1 and have been rooting 'long ever since4 ,but ,i hate apologies4 ,what ,i live upon always1 ,i think a friend can for a day or two4 ,i have but little1 but that little is as free as the water that runs4 ,so make yourself at home40 ,he seemed to have a great horror of binding himself to any man or party4 8,i will pledge myself to no administration10 he said4 8,when the will of my constituents is known1 that will be my law2 when it is unknown my own judgment shall be my guide40 ,so clear and lofty an idea had this unlearned man formed of the duties of a representative6 ,well for the country if as high a standard of political duty even now prevailed among the best and wisest legislators6 ,nothing is recorded of his first term in ,congress except that he 8brought down the house0 every time he spoke1 and once so discomfited a colleague that a duel was talked of2 upon which ,crockett gave out that if any one challenged him he should select as their weapons bows and arrows4 ,he was re-elected in #ahbi4 ,this was the ,jackson tidal wave--the inauguration of that craze of hero-worship and spoils-grabbing which entailed its curse upon our politics1 even to this day4 ,during this term came the turning point in ,crockett's career and a triumphant test of the strength of his character4 ,at first he supported ,jackson's administration and acted with the party4 ,but when that 8constitutional democrat0 blossomed out into an unconstitutional autocrat1 one man of his party was found manly enough to act upon his own convictions4 ,one of these unconstitutional measures was an act to vote half a million of dollars for disbursements made without color of law1 and ,crockett opposed it4 ,the result is best told in his own words3 8,soon after the commencement of this second term1 ,i saw1 or thought ,i did1 that it was expected of me that ,i would bow to the name of ,andrew ,jackson1 and follow him in all his motions1 and mindings1 and turnings1 even at the expense of my conscience and judgment4 ,such a thing was new to me1 and a total stranger to my principles4 ,i know'd well enough1 though1 that if ,i didn't #8hurrah' for his name1 the hue and cry was to be raised against me1 and ,i was to be sacrificed1 if possible4 ,his famous1 or rather ,i should say his infamous ,indian bill was brought forward1 and ,i opposed it from the purest motives in the world4 ,several of my colleagues got around me1 and told me how well they loved me1 and that ,i was ruining myself4 ,they said this was a favorite measure of the ,president1 and ,i ought to go for it4 ,i told them ,i believed it was a wicked1 unjust measure1 and that ,i should go against it1 let the cost to myself be what it might2 that ,i was willing to go with ,general ,jackson in everything ,i believed was honest and right2 but1 further than this1 ,i wouldn't go for him or any other man in the whole creation4 8,i had been elected by a majority of three thousand five hundred and eighty-five votes1 and ,i believed they were honest men1 and wouldn't want me to vote for any unjust notion1 to please ,jackson or any one else2 at any rate1 ,i was of age1 and determined to trust them4 ,i voted against this ,indian bill1 and my conscience yet tells me that ,i gave a good1 honest vote1 and one that ,i believe will not make me ashamed in the day of judgment4 ,i served out my term1 and though many amusing things happened1 ,i am not disposed to swell my narrative by inserting them4 8,when it closed1 and ,i returned home1 ,i found the storm had raised against me sure enough2 and it was echoed from side to side1 and from end to end of my district1 that ,i had turned against ,jackson4 ,this was considered the unpardonable sin4 ,i was hunted down like a wild varment1 and in this hunt every little newspaper in the district1 and every little pin-hook lawyer was engaged4 ,indeed1 they were ready to print anything and everything that the ingenuity of man could invent against me40 ,it proved as he had anticipated2 he failed of re-election1 but only by a majority of seventy votes4 ,two years of bear-hunting followed1 during which ,crockett thirsted for the nobler pursuit of ambition of which he had had a taste4 ,some of his predictions as to ,jackson's course had been verified1 and many things conspired to open his constituents' eyes to the high character of their representative's course4 ,in the canvass of #ahcc he was elected the third time1 winning one of the most remarkable political triumphs ever known in this country4 ,he had against him all the education1 talent and wealth of his district2 the administration made it a test vote1 and all that promises of reward1 threats of punishment1 political and social1 unlimited money1 the influence of the national banks1 and every appliance that the most tyrannical disposition ever dominant in our affairs could bring to bear were used4 ,men of genius1 eloquence1 influence and fortune rode the district2 whiskey was free as water4 ,the entire press opposed ,crockett with the ingenuity and abandon which only 8patronage0 can inspire4 ,more than all this the common people of the district1 with whom lay ,crockett's influence1 if he had any1 worshiped 8,old ,hickory10 under whom many of them had fought4 ,against these odds the impoverished1 uneducated hunter1 with no aid but his natural gifts and a clean record1 canvassed the district of seventeen counties and #ajj1jjj inhabitants and won4 ,this remarkable victory in ,jackson's own ,state1 when his popularity was at its height1 gave ,crockett a new and better title to respect than any he had before presented2 and it increased the mystery hanging about this strange1 uncultured genius4 ,the world abandoned its preconceived notions of the back-woodsman when it saw his power2 but it was at loss to conceive a true idea of him4 ,during this session of ,congress 7#ahcc-cd7 ,crockett wrote his autobiography4 ,as might be expected1 it is a very unique work4 ,its style is simple and vigorous2 the language is ,shaksperian in its monosyllables and short sentences1 but the ensemble is graphic1 and as the events narrated are of the most extraordinary kind1 it makes very exciting reading4 ,on the title page appears his famous motto3 8,i leave these words for others when ,i'm dead2 ,be always sure you're right1 then ,,go ,,ahead60 ,crockett submitted the manuscript of this work to a critic for revision2 but he declared afterward that the reviser had not improved the work--probably because he toned down its vigorous language4 ,such expressions as 8my son and me went10 occur1 and spelling like this3 8hawl10 8tuff10 8scaffled10 8clomb0 7for climbed72 8flower0 7for flour74 ,but he positively objected to some of the orthographical corrections1 as he said 8such spelling was contrary to nature40 ,he brought the narrative of his life up to the date1 and concluded it as follows3 8,i am now here in ,congress1 this #bhth day of ,january1 in the year of our ,lord #ahcd2 and1 what is more agreeable to my feelings1 as a free man4 ,i am at liberty to vote as my conscience and judgment dictate to be right1 without the yoke of any party on me or the driver at my heels with the whip in hand commanding me to #8gee-wo-haw6' just at his pleasure4 ,look at my arms3 you will find no party handcuffs on them6 ,look at my neck3 you will not find there any collar with the engraving1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,my ,,dog4--,,andrew ,,jackson4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,but you will find me standing up to my rack as the people's faithful representative1 and the public's most obedient1 very humble servant1 8,,david ,,crockett40 ,what would not senators and representatives of to-day give for the same independence8 ,what health and manliness it would impart to public life1 if every legislator were thus free of handcuffs and collars6 ,in the spring of #ahcd1 ,crockett made his famous 8starring tour0 through the ,east4 ,from ,philadelphia to ,portland1 and back to ,washington1 it was a continuous ovation4 ,crockett and the populace were mutually astonished2 he at his receptions1 and they at the actions1 appearance1 and utterances of the man who had been represented to them by his political opponents as a buffoon and semi-savage4 ,he was more than all impressed with the developments of wealth and enterprise in the ,north2 he frankly confessed the prejudices he had formed against the ,yankees1 and praised their thrift and principles4 ,he spoke well and appropriately on each occasion1 though--strange change in him6--with evident confusion at the lionizing4 ,he wrote of the ovation he received on landing in ,philadelphia3 8,it struck me strangely to hear a strange people huzzaing for me2 it took me so uncommon unexpected1 as ,i had no idea of attracting attention4 ,the folks came crowding around me1 saying1 #8,give me the hand of an honest man4' ,i thought ,i had rather be in the wilderness with my gun and dogs1 than to be attracting all that fuss40 ,in a happy little speech here1 from the hotel balcony1 he said3 8,i am almost induced to believe this flattery--perhaps a burlesque4 ,this is new to me1 yet ,i see nothing but friendship in your faces40 ,at a grand banquet in ,new ,york ,city1 ,crockett having been toasted as 8,the undeviating supporter of the constitution and the laws10 made this neat and characteristic hit1 as he reports it3 8,i made a short speech1 and concluded with the story of the red cow1 which was1 that as long as ,general ,jackson went straight1 ,i followed him2 but when he began to go this way1 and that way1 and every way1 ,i wouldn't go after him2 like the boy whose master ordered him to plough across the field to the red cow4 ,well1 he began to plough1 and she began to walk2 and he ploughed all forenoon after her4 ,so when the master came1 he swore at him for going so crooked4 #8,why1 sir1' said the boy1 #8you told me to plough to the red cow1 and ,i kept after her1 but she always kept moving4'0 ,most enthusiastic of all was his reception in ,boston1 where ,president ,jackson's policy was most unpopular4 ,it was even proposed to confer on ,crockett the degree of ,,ll4,d41 an honor that had been awarded to ,jackson3 but1 unlike ,jackson1 ,crockett had the wit to decline an honor which neither of the two deserved4 ,the more he saw and heard the more humble he became4 ,when called up for an after-dinner speech in ,boston he burst out in his honest way--8,i never had but six months' schooling in all my life1 and ,i confess ,i consider myself a poor tyke to be here addressing the most intelligent people in the world40 ,if he had not culture1 he had what was far more rare in that age of truckling to one-man power--manhood4 ,it seemed as if unlettered ,david ,crockett was the only man in public life to stand up straight1 and people acknowledged the power of true character4 ,the culture and wealth of the ,east bowed to unspoiled manhood2 it was a revelation fresh from ,nature's hand4 ,a few extracts from one of his more sustained and dignified efforts will illustrate the development ,crockett had attained by simple observation4 ,after praising ,new ,england he said3 8,i don't mean that because ,i eat your bread and drink your liquor1 that ,i feel so4 ,no2 that don't make me see clearer than ,i did4 ,it is your habits1 and manners1 and customs2 your industry2 your proud1 independent spirits2 your hanging on to the eternal principles of right and wrong2 your liberality in prosperity1 and your patience when you are ground down by legislation1 which1 instead of crushing you1 whets your invention to strike a path without a blaze on a tree to guide you2 and above all1 your never-dying1 deathless grip to our glorious ,constitution4 ,these are the things that make me think you are a mighty good people4 8,i voted for ,andrew ,jackson because ,i believed he possessed certain principles1 and not because his name was ,andrew ,jackson1 or the #8,hero1' or #8,old ,hickory4' ,and when he left those principles which induced me to support him1 ,i considered myself justified in opposing him4 ,this thing of man-worship ,i am a stranger to2 ,i don't like it2 it taints every action of life4 8,i know nothing1 by experience1 of party discipline4 ,i would rather be a raccoon-dog1 and belong to a ,negro in the forest1 than to belong to any party1 further than to do justice to all1 and to promote the interests of my country4 ,the time will and must come1 when honesty will receive its reward1 and when the people of this nation will be brought to a sense of their duty1 and will pause and reflect how much it cost us to redeem ourselves from the government of one man4 ,it cost the lives and fortunes of thousands of the best patriots that ever lived4 ,yes1 gentlemen1 hundreds of them fell in sight of your own city4 8,gentlemen1 if it is for opposing those high-handed measures that you compliment me1 ,i say ,i have done so1 and will do so1 now and forever4 ,i will be no man's man1 and no party's man1 other than to be the people's faithful representative3 and ,i am delighted to see the noble spirit of liberty retained so boldly here1 where the first spark was kindled2 and ,i hope to see it shine and spread over our whole country40 ,he took his seat in ,congress1 a central object in the political field4 ,his position was anomalous4 ,party ties were closely drawn1 and party rancor bitter as it can be only when nothing but plunder is at stake between parties4 ,the ,democrats could not claim ,crockett so long as he antagonized their god1 ,jackson2 and the alliance of the ,whigs he most distinctly repudiated4 ,he was an independent1 an 8unattached statesman20 the prototype of an element which has now become formidable in our politics1 but a character for whom there was no place in those times4 ,he was1 like all eccentrics1 ahead or apart from his age1 and was at first feared1 then shunned1 and then called crazy by the great body of public men1 whose standard of sanity was to sacrifice manhood to party1 to betray the ,republic for spoils4 ,it was during this ,congress that he created a sensation by antagonizing benevolence of representatives at government expense4 ,a bill had been reported and was about to pass1 appropriating a gratuity to a naval officer's widow4 ,crockett made an unanswerable argument on the unconstitutionality of this and other such appropriations1 and closed by offering1 with other friends of the widow1 to give her a week of his salary as congressman4 ,not a member dared to answer or to vote for the bill1 and not one followed ,crockett's example of charity at his own expense4 ,but the independent1 honest eccentric had reached the end of his public career4 ,in the next congressional election he was beaten by tricks such as would not be tolerated at this time4 ,one of these devices was to announce fictitiously a large number of public meetings in ,crockett's name on the same day4 ,when he failed to appear1 as announced1 speakers of the ,jackson party1 who would always arrange to be present1 denounced ,crockett as afraid to face his constituents upon his 8treacherous and corrupt record in ,congress40 ,the defeat was a surprise to him2 more1 it almost broke his heart4 ,he wrote1 manfully1 but pathetically1 8,i have suffered myself to be politically sacrificed to save my country from ruin and disgrace40 ,i may add1 like the man in the play1 8,crockett's occupation's gone40 ,shortly after he made a farewell address to his constituents1 into which he compressed a good deal of plain speaking1 or as he says1 8,i put the ingredients in the cup pretty strong1 ,i tell you3 and ,i concluded by telling them that ,i was done with politics for the present1 and that they might all go to hell and ,i would go to ,texas40 8,when ,i returned home10 he adds1 8,i felt sort of cast down at the change that had taken place in my fortunes2 sorrow1 it is said1 will make even an oyster feel poetical4 ,such was my state of feeling that ,i began to fancy myself inspired2 so ,i took my pen in hand1 and as usual1 ,i went ahead40 ,this is ,,crockett',s ,,farewell ,,to ,,home4 8,farewell to the mountains whose mazes to me ,were more beautiful far than ,eden could be2 ,no fruit was forbidden1 but ,nature had spread ,her bountiful board1 and her children were fed4 ,the hills were our garners--our herds wildly grew ,and ,nature was shepherd and husbandman too4 ,i felt like a monarch1 yet thought like a man1 ,as ,i thanked the ,great ,giver1 and worshiped his plan4 8,the home ,i forsake where my offspring arose2 ,the graves ,i forsake where my children repose4 ,the home ,i redeemed from the savage and wild2 ,the home ,i have loved as a father his child2 ,the corn that ,i planted1 the fields that ,i cleared1 ,the flocks that ,i raised1 and the cabin ,i reared2 ,the wife of my bosom--,farewell to ye all6 ,in the land of the stranger ,i rise or ,i fall4 8,farewell to my country6 ,i fought for thee well1 ,when the savage rushed forth like the demons from hell4 ,in peace or in war ,i have stood by thy side-- ,my country1 for thee ,i have lived1 would have died6 ,but ,i am cast off1 my career now is run1 ,and ,i wander abroad like the prodigal son-- ,where the wild savage roves1 and the broad prairies spread1 ,the fallen--despised--will again go ahead40 ,we can not follow our hero--for he was a moral hero--in his adventures while going across the country to ,texas4 ,only one incident have we room for4 ,on the way he rode apace with a circuit preacher1 a man not less a hardy adventurer than himself4 ,he narrates this3 8,we talked about politics1 religion1 and nature1 farming1 and bear-hunting1 and the many blessings that an all-bountiful ,providence had bestowed upon our happy country4 ,he continued to talk on this subject1 traveling over the whole ground1 as it were1 until his imagination glowed1 and his soul became full to overflowing2 and he checked his horse1 and ,i stopped mine also1 and a stream of eloquence burst forth from his aged lips1 such as ,i have seldom listened to3 it came from the overflowing fountain of a pure and grateful heart4 ,we were alone in the wilderness1 but as he proceeded1 it seemed to me as if the tall trees bent their tops to listen2 that the mountain stream laughed out joyfully as it bounded on like some living thing2 that the fading flowers of autumn smiled1 and sent forth their fresher fragrance1 as if conscious that they would revive in spring2 and even the sterile rocks seemed to be endued with some mysterious influence4 ,we were alone in the wilderness1 but all things told me that ,god was there4 ,the thought renewed my strength and courage4 ,i had left my country1 felt somewhat like an outcast1 believed that ,i had been neglected and lost sight of4 ,but ,i was now conscious that there was one watchful eye over me2 no matter whether ,i dwelt in the populous cities1 or threaded the pathless forests alone2 no matter whether ,i stood in the high places among men1 or made my solitary lair in the untrodden wild1 that eye was still upon me4 ,my very soul leaped joyfully at the thought4 ,i never felt so grateful in all my life4 ,i never loved my ,god so sincerely in all my life4 ,i felt that ,i still had a friend4 8,when the old man finished1 ,i found that my eyes were wet with tears4 ,i approached and pressed his hand1 and thanked him1 and says ,i1 #8,now let us take a drink4' ,i set him the example1 and he followed it1 and in a style too that satisfied me1 that if he had ever belonged to the temperance society1 he had either renounced membership1 or obtained a dispensation40 ,crockett reached ,texas just in time to take part with the ,american filibusters in the famous defense of the fortress of the ,alamo1 against ,santa ,anna's army4 ,on the #fth of ,march1 #ahcf1 the citadel was carried by the ,mexicans by assault1 only six of the little garrison surviving1 of whom ,crockett was one4 ,when captured he stood at bay in an angle of the fort1 his shattered rifle in one hand and a bloody bowie-knife in the other2 twenty ,mexicans1 dead or dying1 were at his feet4 ,his face was covered with blood flowing from a deep gash across his forehead4 ,santa ,anna ordered the prisoners to be put to the sword4 ,crockett1 hearing the order1 though entirely unarmed1 sprang like a tiger at the throat of the ,mexican general1 but a dozen swords interrupted him and cut off his life4 ,thus in its prime was thrown away a life that in many respects was one of the most extraordinary in our annals4 ,if he had enjoyed early advantages1 he would have been one of the greatest of ,americans4 ,nay1 it is possible that if he had not been so deeply wounded by ingratitude1 treachery and defeat1 and had remained at home1 he1 instead of ,general ,harrison1 would have been the one to lead the popular revolution1 when came the reaction from the unlicensed regime of ,jackson and ,van ,buren4 ,david ,crockett's courage1 independence1 honesty1 goodness of heart1 made him shine 8like a good deed in a naughty world40 ,he ought not to be forgotten by his countrymen1 for a noble illustration of the capabilities that may be found among the common people1 and of the career possible to even the lowliest-born ,american citizen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,when a man is called feeble1 what is meant by the expression8 ,feebleness denotes a relative state2 a relative state of the being to whom it is applied4 ,he whose strength exceeds his necessities1 though an insect1 a worm1 is a strong being2 he whose necessities exceed his strength1 though an elephant1 a lion1 a conqueror1 a hero1 though a god1 is a feeble being4--,,rousseau4 ,,footnote3 ,h ,abbott4 ,,etiquette4 ,etiquette is from the ,french word for ticket1 and its present use in ,english suggests the old custom of distributing tickets or cards on which the ceremonies to be observed at any formal proceedings are fully set forth--a kind of program for important social gatherings of distinguished persons4 ,modern usage has given the word a much wider significance4 ,it means the manners or deportment of cultured people2 their bearing toward1 or treatment of others4 ,the suggestions in a recent number of ,,the ,,chautauquan1 respecting 8street etiquette10 or things proper to be observed in riding1 driving and walking1 will not now be repeated1 though many of our younger readers might profit by having1 on so familiar a subject1 8line upon line1 precept upon precept40 ,the etiquette proper for the home and every-day life1 in town and country1 is quite as important1 and embraces more things than there is space to notice4 ,,calls ,,and ,,cards4 ,home1 the dearest spot on earth1 would be no fit abode for social beings if closed against the entrance and friendly offices of those without4 ,the courtesies and kindness of neighbors must be received and reciprocated to make the home comforts complete4 ,by simple methods the most important amicable relations in society are established and maintained4 ,calls may be distinguished as ceremonious or friendly4 ,the latter among intimate friends may1 and ought to be quite informal1 and for them no rules need be prescribed4 ,common-sense may be safely trusted1 as to their manner1 frequency1 and the time spent in making them4 ,but well-disposed1 cultured people will usually have friendly relations with a much larger number than can be received on terms of close intimacy4 ,as a means of establishing and maintaining such relations1 mere formal calls are made4 ,in the country and in small towns residents are expected to call on new-comers without having any previous acquaintance with them1 or even having met them before4 ,ordinarily the new-comer1 of whatever rank1 should not call formally on a resident first1 but wait till the other has taken the initiative4 ,if after the first meeting1 for any reason1 the resident does not care to pursue the acquaintance1 it will be discontinued by not leaving cards or calling again4 ,the newcomer in like manner if not wishing to extend or continue the acquaintance1 will politely return the first call1 leaving cards only if the neighbors are not at home4 ,in some sections of the country calling on newcomers is done rather indiscriminately and with little regard to the real1 or supposed social standing of the persons4 ,this accords best with our ,american ideas of equality1 and is consistent for those whose friendships are decided by character and personal accomplishments1 rather than by the accidents of birth or wealth4 ,the good society for which all may rightly aspire claims as among its brightest jewels some who financially rank with the lowly--rich only in the nobler qualities of mind and heart4 ,the etiquette that1 in any way1 closes the door to exclude them is more nice than wise4 ,those in high esteem in their community and most worthy will naturally1 if circumstances permit1 take the responsibility of first calls on strangers who come to reside among them4 ,the call itself is a tender of friendship1 and friendly offices1 even though intimacy is not found practicable or desirable4 ,custom does not require the residents of large cities to formally call on all new-comers in their neighborhood1 which would be impracticable1 only those quite near and having apparently about the same social status are entitled to this courtesy4 ,some discrimination is not only allowable but necessary4 ,a desirable acquaintance once formed1 however initiated1 is maintained by calls more or less frequent1 as circumstances may decide1 or by leaving cards when for either party that is more convenient4 ,visiting cards must be left in person1 not sent by mail or by the hand of a servant1 unless in exceptional cases4 ,distance1 unfavorable weather or delicate health might be sufficient reasons for sending the cards1 but1 as a rule1 ladies leave their cards themselves1 this being found more acceptable4 ,a lady's visiting card should be plain1 printed in clear type1 with no ornamental or old ,english letters4 ,the name printed on the middle of the card4 ,the place of residence on the left-hand corner4 ,a married lady would never use her christian name on a card1 but that of her husband after ,mrs41 before her surname4 ,in most places it is customary and considered in good taste for husbands and wives to have their names printed on the same card3 8,mr4 and ,mrs410 but each would still need separate cards of their own4 ,the title 8,honorable0 is not used on cards4 ,other titles are1 omitting the 8,the0 preceding the title4 ,it is not in accordance with etiquette in most places for young ladies to have visiting cards of their own4 ,their names are printed beneath that of their mother1 on her card1 either 8,miss0 or 8the ,misses10 as the case may be4 ,if the mother is not living1 the daughter's name would be printed beneath that of her father1 or of her brother1 in case of a brother and sister residing alone4 ,if a young lady is taken into society by a relative or friend1 her name would properly be written in pencil under that of her friend4 ,if a lady making calls finds the mistress of the house 8not at home0 she will leave her card and also one of her husband's for each1 the mistress and her husband2 but if she have a card with her own and her husband's name on it1 she leaves but one of his separate cards4 ,if a lady were merely leaving cards1 and not intending to call she would hand the three cards to the person answering at the door1 saying1 8,for ,mrs4 ----10 without asking whether she is at home or not4 ,if a lady is sufficiently intimate to call1 asks for and finds her friend at home1 she should1 on leaving the house1 leave two of her husband's cards in a conspicuous place on the table in the hall4 ,she should not drop them in the card-basket or hand them to the hostess1 though she might silently hand them to the servant in the hall4 ,she will on no account leave her own card1 having seen the lady which removes all occasion for leaving her card4 ,if the lady were accompanied by her husband and the lady of the house at home1 the husband would leave one of his own cards for the master of the house1 but if he also is at home no cards are left4 ,a lady leaves her card for a lady only1 while a gentleman leaves his for both husband and wife4 ,a gentleman when calling takes his hat in his hand into the room and holds it until he has met the mistress of the house2 he may then either place it on a chair or table near him1 or hold it in his hand till he takes his leave4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dreams1 books1 are each a world3 and books we know1 ,are a substantial world1 both pure and good2 ,round these1 with tendrils strong as flesh and blood1 ,our pastime and our happiness will grow4 ,there find ,i personal themes1 a plenteous store1 ,matter wherein right voluble ,i am1 ,to which ,i listen with a ready ear2 ,two shall be named1 preminently dear1-- ,the gentle lady married to the ,moor2 ,and heavenly ,una1 with her milk-white lamb4 ,blessings be with them1 and eternal praise1 ,who gave us nobler loves and nobler cares-- ,the poets1 who on earth have made us heirs ,of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays6 ,oh6 might my name be numbered among theirs1 ,then gladly would ,i end my mortal days4 --,wordsworth's 8,personal ,talk40 ,,napoleon',s ,,marshals4 ,napoleon's marshals were twenty-six in number1 of whom seven only were born in a rank which would have entitled them to become general officers under the old ,monarchy4 ,these were ,kellermann1 ,berthier1 ,davoust1 ,macdonald1 ,marmont1 ,grouchy1 and ,poniatowski1 a ,pole4 ,of the others1 ,murat was the son of an innkeeper1 ,lefbvre of a miller1 ,augereau of a mason1 ,bernadotte of a weaver1 and ,ney of a cooper4 ,massna's father1 like ,murat's1 kept a village wine-shop2 ,lannes was the son of an ostler1 and was himself apprenticed to a dyer2 ,victor1 whose real name was ,perrin1 was the son of an invalided private soldier1 who after leaving the service became a market-crier2 while ,soult's mother kept a mercer's shop1 and ,oudinot's a small caf with a circulating library4 ,the marshals sprung from the bourgeoisie or middle class were ,serrurier1 whose father was an officer1 but never rose above the rank of captain2 ,bessires1 whose father1 though a poor clerk in a lawyer's office1 was the son of a doctor2 ,suchet1 who was the son of a silk-merchant2 ,moncey1 the son of a barrister2 ,gouvion1 who assumed the name of ,saint-,cyr1 and whose father practiced as an attorney2 and ,brune1 who started in life as a journalist4 ,it is curious to trace through the lives of the different men the effect which their earliest associations had upon them4 ,some grew ashamed of their parentage2 whilst others bragged overmuch of being self-made men4 ,only one or two bore their honors with perfect modesty and tact4 ,the noblest character among ,napoleon's marshals was beyond doubt ,adrien ,moncey1 ,duc de ,congliano4 ,he was born at ,besanon in #aged1 and enlisted at the age of fifteen1 simply that he might not be a charge to his parents4 ,from his father1 the barrister1 he had picked up a smattering of education1 while ,nature had given him a talent for drawing4 ,he looked so small and young when he was brought before the colonel of the ,franche ,comt regiment for enrollment1 that the latter1 who was quite a young man--the ,count de ,survilliers--asked him1 laughing1 whether he had been tipsy from 8drinking too much milk0 when he fell into the hands of the recruiting sergeant4 ,the sergeant1 by way of proving that young ,moncey had been quite sober when he had put on the white cockade 7which was like taking the king's shilling in ,england71 produced a cleverly executed caricature of himself which the boy had drawn2 upon which ,m4 de ,survilliers predicted that so accomplished a recruit would quickly win an epaulette4 ,this promise came to nothing1 for in #aghi1 after twenty years' service1 ,moncey was only a lieutenant4 ,it was a noble trait in him that in after years he never spoke resentfully of his slow promotion4 ,he used to say that he had been thoroughly well-trained1 and he alluded kindly to all his former officers4 ,after ,napoleon's overthrow1 ,moncey's conduct was most chivalrous2 he privately blamed ,ney's betrayal of the ,bourbons1 for it was not in his nature to approve of double-dealing1 but he refused to sit in judgment upon his former comrade4 ,marshal ,victor was sent to shake his resolution1 but ,moncey repeated two or three times3 8,i do not think ,i should have acted as ,ney did1 but ,i believe he acted according to his conscience and did well2 ordinary rules do not apply to this case40 ,he eventually became governor of the ,invalides1 and it fell to him in #ahdj to receive ,napoleon's body when it was brought from ,st4 ,helena4 ,it was remarked at the time that if ,napoleon himself could have designated the man who was to discharge this pious duty1 he would have chosen none other than ,moncey1 or ,oudinot1 who by a happy coincidence became governor of the ,invalides in #ahdb after ,moncey's death4 ,nicolas ,oudinot1 ,duc de ,reggio1 was surnamed the ,modern ,bayard4 ,he was born in #agfg1 and like ,moncey enlisted in his sixteenth year4 ,he was wounded thirty-two times in action1 but was so little of a braggart that in going among the old pensioners of the ,invalides he was never heard to allude to his own scars4 ,at ,friedland a bullet went through both his cheeks1 breaking two molars4 8,these ,russians do not know how to draw teeth10 was his only remark1 as his wound was being dressed4 ,after ,friedland he received with the title of count a grant of #dj1jjj1 and he began to distribute money at such a rate among his poor relations1 that the emperor remonstrated with him4 8,you keep the lead for yourself1 and you give the gold away10 said ,his ,majesty in allusion to two bullets which remained in the marshal's body4 ,macdonald comes next among the marshals for nobility of character4 ,he was of ,irish extraction1 born at ,sancerre in #agfe1 and served under ,louis ,,xvi4 in ,dillon's ,irish ,regiment4 ,macdonald won his colonelcy at ,jemmapes4 ,in #ahjd1 however1 all his prospects were suddenly marred through his generous espousal of ,moreau's cause4 ,moreau had been banished on an ill-proven charge of conspiracy2 and ,macdonald thought1 like most honest men1 that he had been very badly treated4 ,but by saying aloud what most honest men were afraid even to whisper1 ,macdonald incurred the ,corsican's vindictive hatred1 and during five years he was kept in disgrace1 being deprived of his command1 and debarred from active service4 ,he thus missed the campaigns of ,austerlitz and ,jna1 and this was a bitter chagrin to him4 ,he retired to a small country-house near ,brunoy1 and one of his favorite occupations was gardening4 ,he was much interested in the projects for manufacturing sugar out of beetroot1 which were to render ,france independent of ,west ,india sugar--a matter of great consequence after the destruction of ,france's naval power at ,trafalgar3 and he had an intelligent gardener who helped him in his not very successful efforts to raise fine beetroots4 ,this man turned out to be a police-spy4 ,napoleon in his jealousy of ,moreau and hatred of all who sympathized with the latter1 had thought it good to have ,macdonald watched1 and he appears to have suspected at one time that the hero of ,otricoli contemplated taking service in the ,english army4 ,there were other marshals besides ,macdonald who had reasons to complain of ,napoleon2 ,victor's hatred of him was very lively1 and arose out of a practical joke4 ,victor was the vainest of men2 he had entered ,louis ,,xvi4's service at fifteen as a drummer1 but when he became an officer under the ,republic he was weak enough to be ashamed of his humble origin and assumed his ,christian name of ,victor as a surname instead of his patronymic of ,perrin4 ,he might have pleaded1 to be sure1 that ,victor was a name of happy augury to a soldier1 but he does not appear to have behaved well toward his ,perrin connections4 ,he was a little man with a waist like a pumpkin1 and a round1 rosy1 jolly face1 which had caused him to be nicknamed ,beau ,soleil4 ,a temperate fondness for red wine added occasionally to the luster of his complexion4 ,he was not a general of the first order1 but brave and faithful in carrying out his master's plans2 he had an honorable share in the victory of ,friedland1 and after this battle was promoted to the marshalate and to a dukedom4 ,now ,victor would have liked to be made ,duke of ,marengo2 but ,napoleon's sister ,pauline suggested that his services in the two ,italian wars could be commemorated as well by the title of ,belluno--pronounced in ,french1 ,bellune4 ,it was not until after ,napoleon had innocently acceded to this suggestion that he learned his facetious sister had in choosing the title of ,bellune 7,belle ,lune7 played upon the sobriquet of ,beau ,soleil4 ,he was at first highly displeased at this1 but ,victor himself took the joke so very badly that the emperor ended by joining in the laughter1 and said that if the marshal did not like the title that had been given him1 he should have no other4 ,wounds in vanity seldom heal1 and ,victor1 as soon as he could safely exhibit his resentment1 showed himself one of ,napoleon's bitterest enemies4 ,during the ,hundred ,days he accompanied ,louis ,,xviii4 to ,ghent1 and he figured in full uniform at the ,te ,deum celebrated in the ,cathedral of ,saint ,bavon in honor of ,waterloo4 ,augereau1 ,duc de ,castiglione1 was of all the marshals the one in whom there is least to admire2 yet he was for a time the most popular among them1 having been born in ,paris and possessing the devil-may-care impudence of ,parisians4 ,he was the son of a mason and of a street fruit-vendor1 and he began life as apprentice to his father's trade4 ,soon after he enlisted1 and proved a capital soldier2 but his character was only good in the military sense4 ,he was thirty-two when the ,revolution broke out1 and was then wearing a sergeant's stripes2 in the following year he got a commission2 in #agic he was a colonel2 in #agie a general4 ,his rapid promotion was not won by valor only1 but by sending to the war office bombastic despatches in which he magnified every achievement of his twenty-fold1 and related it with a rigmarole of patriotic sentiments and compliments to the convention4 ,there was one great point of resemblance between ,augereau and ,massna3 they were both inveterate looters4 ,in #agih1 when ,massna was sent to ,rome to establish a republic1 his own soldiers were disgusted by the shameless way in which he plundered palaces and churches1 and he actually had to resign his command owing to their murmurs4 ,augereau was a more wily spoiler1 for he gave his men a good share of what he took1 and kept another share for ,parisian museums1 but he always reserved enough for himself to make his soldiering a very profitable business4 ,it was politic of ,napoleon to make of ,augereau a marshal-duke1 for apart from the man's intrepidity1 which was unquestionable 7though he was a poor general71 the honors conferred upon him were a compliment to the whole class of ,parisian ouvriers4 ,augereau's mother1 the costerwoman1 lived to see him in all his glory1 and he was good to her1 for once1 at a state pageant1 when he was wearing the plumed hat of a senator1 and the purple velvet mantle with its semis of golden bees1 he gave her his arm in public4 ,this incident delighted all the market-women of ,paris1 and helped to make ,napoleon's court popular2 but in general respects ,augereau proved an unprofitable1 ungrateful servant4 ,he was one of the first marshals to grumble against his master's repeated campaigns1 and he deserted him in #ahad under circumstances which looked suspicious4 ,napoleon accused him of letting himself be purposely beaten by the ,allies4 ,after the escape from ,elba1 ,augereau first pronounced himself vehemently against the 8usurper20 then proffered him his services1 which were contemptuously spurned4 ,the ,duc de ,castiglione's career ended then1 for he retired to his estate at ,houssaye1 and died a year afterward1 little regretted by anybody4 ,massna1 who had been born the year after ,augereau1 died the year after him1 in #ahag4 ,he too had enlisted very young1 but finding he could get no promotion1 had asked his friends to buy his discharge1 and during the five years that preceded the ,revolution1 he served as potman in his father's tavern at ,leven4 ,re-enlisting in #aghi1 he became a general in less than four years4 ,after ,rivoli1 ,bonaparte dubbed him 8,the darling of victory20 but it was a curious feature in ,massna that his talents only came out on the battle-field4 ,usually he was a dull dog1 with no faculty for expressing his ideas1 and he wore a morose look4 ,napoleon said that 8the noise of cannon cleared his mind10 endowing him with penetration and gaiety at the same time4 ,the din of war had just the contrary effect upon ,brune1 who1 but for his tragic death1 would have remained the most obscure of the marshals1 though he is conspicuous from being almost the only one of the twenty-six who had no title of nobility4 ,brune was a notable example of what strong will-power can do to conquer innate nervousness4 ,he was the son of a barrister1 and having imbibed the hottest revolutionary principles1 vapored them off by turning journalist4 ,he went to ,paris1 and was introduced to ,danton1 for whom he conceived an enthusiastic admiration4 ,he became the demagogue's disciple1 letter-writer1 and boon companion1 and it is pretty certain that he would eventually have kept him company on the guillotine1 had it not been for a lucky sneer from a woman's lips which drove him into the army4 ,brune had written a pamphlet on military operations1 and it was being talked of at ,danton's table1 when ,mdlle4 ,gerfault1 an actress of the ,palais ,royal1 better known as 8,egl10 said mockingly1 8,you will be a general when we fight with pens40 ,stung to the quick1 ,brune applied for a commission1 was sent into the army with the rank of major1 and in about a year1 through ,danton's patronage1 became a brigade-general2 meanwhile poor ,egl1 having wagged her pert tongue at ,robespierre1 lost her head in consequence4 ,the marshal on whom ducal honors seemed to sit most queerly was ,franois ,lefbvre1 ,duc de ,dantzig4 ,he was born in #agee1 the son of a miller1 and was a sergeant in the ,french guards at the time of the ,revolution4 ,he had then just married a vivandire4 ,the anecdotes of ,madame ,lefbvre's incongruous sayings at the consular and imperial courts are so many as to remind one of the proverb1 8,we yield only to riches40 ,everything that could be imagined in the way of a lapsus lingu or a bull was attributed to this good-natured ,mrs4 ,malaprop1 whose oddities amused ,josephine1 but not always ,napoleon4 ,once ,lefbvre fell ill of ague1 and his servant1 an old soldier1 caught the malady at the same time4 ,the servant was quickly cured2 but the fever clung to the marshal until it occurred to his energetic duchess that the doctor had blundered by giving to a marshal the same doses as to a private soldier4 ,she rapidly counted on her fingers the different rungs of the military ladder4 8,here1 drink1 this suits your rank10 she said1 putting a full tumbler to her husband's lips1 and the duke having swallowed a dozen doses at one gulp1 was soon on his legs again4 8,you have much to learn1 my friend10 was the lady's subsequent remark to the astonished doctor4 ,napoleon was a great stickler for appearances1 and for this reason loathed the dirtiness and slovenliness of ,davoust4 ,madame ,junot1 in her amusing 8,memoirs10 relates that the ,duc d',auerstadt1 having some facial resemblance to ,napoleon1 was fond of copying him in dress and manners2 but she adds that ,napoleon himself was very neat4 ,a marshal had no excuse for being untidy4 ,davoust had been at ,brienne with ,bonaparte1 and had thus a longer experience of his master's character than any of the other marshals4 ,had he been wise he would have turned it to account1 not only by cultivating the graces1 but by giving the emperor that ungrudging1 demonstrative loyalty which ,napoleon valued above all things1 and rewarded by constant favor4 ,but ,davoust was a caballer1 a grievance-monger1 and a grognard2 and it must have been rather diverting to see him aping the manners of a master at whom he was always carping in holes and corners4 ,on the other hand1 it must be said that ,davoust proved faithful in the hour of misfortune1 and did not rally to the ,bourbons till #ahah2 that is1 when all chances of an imperial restoration were gone2 moreover1 every time he held an important command he did his duty with courage1 talent1 and fidelity4 ,his affected brusqueness of speech was an unfortunate mannerism1 for it made him many enemies1 and sometimes exposed him to odd reprisals4 ,the roughness of tongue which was affected in ,davoust was natural in ,soult4 ,this marshal had an excellent heart1 but he could not1 for the life of him1 refrain from snarling at anybody whom he heard praised4 ,the proverb about bite and bark might have been invented for him1 as the men at whom he grumbled most were often those whom he most favored4 ,soult was born in the same year as ,napoleon1 #agfi1 and out-lived all his brother marshals1 dying in #aheb1 when the second empire was already an impending fact4 ,he had been a private soldier under ,louis ,,xvi41 he passed through every grade in the service1 he became prime minister1 and when he voluntarily resigned office in #ahdg1 owing to the infirmities of age1 ,louis ,philippe created him marshal-general--a title which had only been borne by three marshals before him1 ,turenne1 ,villars1 and ,maurice de ,saxe4 ,but these honors never quite consoled ,soult for having failed to become king of ,portugal4 ,he could not stomach the luck of his comrade ,bernadotte1 the son of a weaver1 who was wearing the crown of ,sweden4 ,bernadotte1 whom ,soult envied1 has some affinities with ,m4 ,grvy4 ,this president of the republic first won renown by a parliamentary motion to the effect that a republic did not want a president2 so ,bernadotte came to be a king1 after a long and steadfast profession of republican principles4 ,born in #agfd1 he enlisted at eighteen1 and was sergeant-major in #aghi4 ,he was very nearly court-martialed at that time for haranguing a crowd in revolutionary terms4 ,five years later he was a general1 and in #agih ambassador at ,vienna4 ,he was an able1 thoughtful1 hardy1 handsome man1 who1 having received no education as a boy1 made up for it by diligent study in after years2 and no man ever so well corrected1 in small or great things1 the imperfections of early training4 ,tallyrand said of him1 8,he is a man who learns and unlearns every day40 ,one thing he learned was to read the character of ,napoleon and not to be afraid of him1 for the act which led to his becoming king of ,sweden was one of rare audacity4 ,commanding an army sent against the ,swedes in #ahjh1 he suspended operations on learning the overthrow by revolution of ,gustavus ,,iv41 against whom war had been declared4 ,the ,swedes were profoundly grateful for this1 and ,napoleon dared not say much1 because he was supposed to have no quarrel with the ,swedes as a people2 but ,bernadotte was marked down in his bad books from that day1 and he was in complete disgrace when in #ahaj ,charles ,,xiii4 adopted him as crown prince with the approval of the ,swedish people4 ,bernadotte made an excellent king1 but remembering his austere advocacy of republicanism1 it is impossible not to smile and ask whether there is not some truth in ,madame de ,girardin's definition of equality as le privilge pour tous4 ,napoleon always valued ,kellerman as having been a general in the old royal army4 ,born in #agce1 he was a marchal de camp 7brigadier7 when the war broke out4 ,the emperor would have been glad to have had more of such men at his court2 but it was creditable to the king's general officers that very few of them forgot their duties as soldiers during the troublous period when so many temptations to commit treason beset men holding high command4 ,grouchy1 who in #aghi was a lieutenant in the king's body-guard1 hardly cuts a fine figure as a revolutionist accepting a generalship in #agic from the convention which had beheaded his king4 ,he was an uncanny person altogether2 the convention having voted that all noblemen should be debarred from commissions1 he enlisted as a private soldier1 and this was imputed to him as an act of patriotism2 but he had friends in high quarters who promised that he should quickly regain his rank if he formally renounced his titles2 and this he did1 getting his generalship restored in consequence4 ,in after years he resumed his marquisate1 and denied that he had ever abjured it4 ,napoleon created him marshal during the ,hundred ,days for having taken the ,duc d',angoulme prisoner2 but the ,bourbons declined to recognize his title to the bton1 and he had to wait till ,louis ,philippe's reign before it was confirmed to him4 ,grouchy was never a popular marshal1 though he fought well in #ahad in the campaign of ,france4 ,his inaction on the day of ,waterloo has been satisfactorily explained1 but somehow all his acts have required explanation2 he was one of those men whose records are never intelligible without footnotes4 ,but how many of the marshals remained faithful to their master when his sun had set8 ,at ,st4 ,helena ,napoleon alluded most often to ,lannes and ,bessires1 who both died whilst he was in the heyday of his power1 the first at ,essling1 the second at ,ltzen4 ,as to these two ,napoleon could cherish illusions1 and he loved to think that ,lannes especially--his brave1 hot-headed1 hot-hearted 8,jean-,jean0--would have clung to him like a brother in misfortune4 ,perhaps it was as well that ,lannes was spared an ordeal to which ,murat1 hot-headed and hot-hearted too1 succumbed4 ,it is at all events a bitter subject for reflection that the great emperor found among his marshals and dukes no such friend as he had among the hundreds of humbler officers1 captains1 and lieutenants1 who threw up their commissions sooner than serve the ,bourbons4--,temple ,bar4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,work4 ,by ,,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,instruction ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,the ,class of '#hd rules the year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the readings for ,november are3 8,history of ,greece10 ,timayenis1 volume ,,ii1 parts #aj and #aa1 or 7for the new ,class of #ahgg7 8,brief ,history of ,greece20 ,chautauqua ,text-,book ,no4 #e1 8,greek ,history20 ,required ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 99 99 99 99 99 ,memorial ,day for ,november1 ,special ,sunday1 ,november #aa4 ,read ,job1 twenty-eighth chapter4 ,one of the finest passages in all literature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,talk much about the subject of your reading4 ,you know what you have by your speech caused others to know4 99 99 99 99 99 ,have you ever tried to control conversation at a table in the interest of some sensible subject8 ,it will be a curious study for you to see how this mind and that will run away with or from the topic you have proposed4 ,it will tax your ingenuity to bring the company back to the original topic4 ,the measures of your success will be the interest you can awaken in others1 the amount of information on the subject which you can elicit from them1 and the amount1 also1 which you can give them without seeming to be a lecturer or preacher for the occasion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we must insist upon the observance of the ,memorial ,days4 ,put up your list of ,memorial ,days in plain sight1 so that you may not forget them4 ,order a copy of the little volume of 8,memorial ,days0 from ,phillips ,hunt1 #hje ,broadway1 ,new ,york1 or ,walden ,stowe1 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,price1 #aj cents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is proposed that 8the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 as a body organize a lecture bureau1 to be entirely or partially sustained by small contributions from each member1 thereby enabling weak circles to obtain one or two good lectures during the year at reasonable prices40 ,a proposition to be considered4 99 99 99 99 99 8,will ,i be required to read the #8,preparatory ,latin ,course in ,english' next year8 ,i have studied the same thing in the original very lately40 ,answer3 ,you will be required to read the 8,preparatory ,latin ,course in ,english40 ,you can not have studied1 except under such a teacher as ,dr4 ,wilkinson1 the ,latin ,course in ,english as we require it under the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,the book must be read4 99 99 99 99 99 8,does the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 confer a degree8 ,if so1 what is it80 ,answer3 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is not a university or college4 ,it has no charter1 consequently it has no power to confer degrees4 ,there is a university charter in the hands of the ,chautauqua management--a university to be4 ,in this university there will be non-resident courses of study1 with a rigid annual examination1 to be followed by degrees and diplomas4 ,there may sometime in the future be a permanent ,chautauqua ,university at ,chautauqua4 ,further than this ,i can say nothing now4 ,it is to be hoped the ,chautauqua ,university will never confer honorary degrees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,correspond with some one on the studies of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,make your letter a means of self-improvement4 ,congratulate yourself if your friend1 in reply1 shows where you made two or three mistakes in your letter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,will you find out the names of the latest graduating class of the high school in your town1 and send them to me8 ,i may interest them in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course of study1 by sending a 8,popular ,education ,circular40 ,address ,drawer #ge1 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 99 99 99 99 99 ,are you willing wisely to distribute from ten to a hundred copies of the 8,popular ,education ,circular10 and would you scatter copies of the tiny ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 advertisement1 if they were sent you8 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most indefatigable worker in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 next to our worthy secretary1 ,miss ,kimball1 is the secretary of the new class--the ,class of #ahhg--,mr4 ,kingsley ,a4 ,burnell1 who is making a remarkable record as he travels to and fro in the far ,west1 visiting editors of papers1 offices of railroad superintendents1 cabins of employes1 and on the cars1 urging persons to adopt this new plan of self-culture4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,stationery4 ,a promise was made at the ,round-,table at ,chautauqua that in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,november there should be something said about all kinds of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 stationery known to the writer4 ,william ,briggs1 #hj ,king ,st41 ,e41 ,toronto1 ,ont41 sells several styles of stationery1 sheets and envelopes1 with a monogram printed in blue1 mauve1 or crimson4 ,information can be obtained by addressing him at ,toronto4 ,by the time this number has reached the hands of its readers1 or within a few days after1 there will be for sale at the various book stores dealing in the 8,required ,reading0 of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 a variety of papeterie stationery1 having on the front page a beautiful design most artistically engraved1 showing ,chautauqua ,lake1 with the ,chautauqua landing on the right1 as seen from the railroad station1 and in the upper left hand corner an oval1 or circle1 with the ,hall of ,philosophy very tastily enshrined therein4 ,in the foliage drooping into the lake there is inwrought the monogram of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,a box of this very fine paper and envelopes will cost about fifty cents4 ,it will be sent by mail from ,messrs4 ,fairbanks1 ,palmer ,co41 #acc ,wabash ,avenue1 ,chicago1 ,ill41 or from ,j4 ,p4 ,magee1 #ch ,bromfield ,st41 ,boston1 ,mass41 or from ,h4 ,h4 ,otis1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4 ,an advertisement of this stationery will be found in the ,december number of ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,another style of stationery can be had of ,messrs4 ,fairbanks1 ,palmer ,co41 for the class of #ahhd1 with a beautiful design especially arranged for that class4 ,forty cents for a quire of paper and envelopes to match4 ,ten thousand sheets prepared for general use by the members and officers of the several classes1 specially designed to be used by gentlemen1 can be had by addressing the several class officers4 ,for further information write to ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,bridge1 #gah ,state ,st41 ,new ,haven1 ,conn4 ,,new ,,england ,,branch ,,of ,,the ,,class ,,of '#hf4 ,while at ,lake ,view a ,new ,england ,branch of the ,class of '#hf was organized1 with the following officers3 ,president1 ,rev4 ,b4 ,t4 ,snow1 ,biddeford1 ,me42 vice-presidents1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,clark1 ,south ,norridgewock1 ,me41 ,edwin ,f4 ,reeves1 ,laconia1 ,n4 ,h41 ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,babbitt1 ,swanton1 ,vt41 ,charles ,wainwright1 ,lawrence1 ,mass41 ,miss ,lousia ,e4 ,french1 ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 ,rev4 ,a4 ,gardner1 ,buckingham1 ,ct42 secretary and treasurer1 ,mary ,r4 ,hinckley1 ,bedford1 ,mass4 ,the above officers were authorized to act also as an executive board4 ,the badge of ,class of '#hf can be obtained of the ,president4 ,it has been decided to use in private correspondence a certain style of letter paper marked with 8,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 '#hf0 in a neat monogram4 ,further particulars in regard to this paper will soon be given4 ,just before leaving ,chautauqua the ,class of '#hf adopted a motto3 8,we study for light1 to bless with light40 ,the ,new ,england branch adopts this motto1 in addition to the one chosen at ,lake ,view3 8,let us keep our ,heavenly ,father in the midst40 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,testimony4 ,canada4--,it was a bitter disappointment to me that ,i was compelled to leave school at fourteen and earn my own living1 giving up the idea of a college course4 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has been to me therefore an unspeakable boon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vermont4--,i have received large benefit as well as pleasure during the year that ,i have been a member of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,the course of reading has taken me into broader fields1 opened new avenues of thought and reflection1 widened my field of vision1 and altogether made me a better man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,vermont4--,according to ,isaiah xxx3#g1 ,i have been trying to show my strength by 8sitting still0 four years4 ,i often ask myself1 what should ,i have done had ,i not had this interesting course--the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,during these four years of deprivation how many sorrows have been almost forgotten while reading the many interesting thoughts that are presented in our reading4 ,i thank ,god many times for this glorious enterprise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,connecticut4--,i have been very much interested in the studies of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 during the first year4 ,it is an honor as well as a privilege to be a member4 99 99 99 99 99 ,rhode ,island4--,many times home duties have occupied time and thought so fully as to discourage me4 ,but realizing that ,i am to live 8heartily as to the ,lord10 and viewing the course as his special blessing1 ,i have gathered inspiration and journeyed on patiently4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york4--,i have enjoyed my four years' course very much1 and hope that it has been profitable to me4 ,though having reached the age of sixty years my love for improvement has not been gratified1 and ,i purpose to continue the course that is marked out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york4--,i am surprised at the pleasure and advantage the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has been to me4 ,i have read no more than usual1 but have read more systematically1 and received greater benefit4 ,there is inspiration in being 8one of many40 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york4--,i have taken great pleasure in the reading4 ,am very enthusiastic over the course1 and will try my best to graduate4 ,i do it a great deal for my children1 hoping that ,i may be a better mother1 and train their minds so that they will make better men and women than they would have been had ,i not become a member of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,am all alone in my reading1 except what my boy of fourteen does with me2 even my little girl just turned seven studies geology with me1 and is much interested in finding specimens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pennsylvania4--,i have only been a member of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 for about four months and in that time ,i have done most of my reading at night1 reading usually from eight o'clock until eleven4 ,as ,i have to work hard all day1 ,i have little time for reading except at night1 ,i find the course very interesting1 and ,i am deriving a great amount of good from it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pennsylvania4--,for almost two years my work has required my presence twelve hours every week day1 and part of the time sixteen and eighteen hours4 ,i gave up last summer1 thinking ,i could not finish the course1 but after being present at ,chautauqua ,i had a greater desire than ever to continue4 ,i have at leisure moments read up for the two years1 and must ever feel grateful to ,chautauqua influence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio4--,i am a farmer's wife1 but with all the care of the work that position in life brings 7and a good share of the work too71 ,i still find time to read the regular four years' course of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and desire to do as thorough work as ,i am capable of doing4 ,am reading not merely for pleasure1 far less to criticise1 but for instruction1 and have been greatly helped by this first year's study4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio4--,in many ways ,i think the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has been of benefit to the little ones4 ,this last winter my eldest daughter said3 8,why can't we have a society of our own80 8,we10 meant the family4 ,i seconded it gladly1 and my husband also1 and we resolved ourselves into the 8,clio ,clique0 and took as our work 8,art and ,artists10 as mapped out in the ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,each member pledged themselves to take the work given them by the president 7who was our only officer71 and also to commit not less than eight lines of some poem to memory4 ,we had no outside members1 and we did our work right well1 ,i think4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illinois4--,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 has done much for me4 ,life has been brighter1 sweeter and better than it might otherwise have been4 ,friendships have been formed which ,i am sure will survive life1 and add another link in the golden chain that binds us to another world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michigan4--,to the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,i owe everything4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michigan4--,were it not that ,i still may keep a place in the ,circle1 ,i should be sorry the four years were over4 ,they have been pleasant ones1 so far as the ,circle was concerned1 and have passed swiftly4 ,it seemed a great undertaking to me four years ago1 when ,i commenced the course4 ,for one thing1 ,i did not see my way clear to get the books1 but ,i resolved to try1 and it has seemed all along that it was ,god's way of helping me to the knowledge ,i had so much desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wisconsin4--,a lady writes3 ,the regular methods of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 have suggested to me the plan of having a little home monthly1 contributed to only by members of the family1 written1 and read aloud on a specified evening each month4 ,the children write prose and poetry that are a surprise1 but only the effect of a regular course of reading and conversations by one member of the family4 ,while reading astronomy1 one of the little girls1 aged ten years1 took two looking-glasses and illustrated1 in play1 the motions of a planet4 ,she held them by the window in the sun1 so as to throw the reflection on the ceiling4 ,one she had stationary1 for the sun1 the other she caused to go around it1 causing the motion to hasten at perihelion1 and to become slow at aphelion1 describing the motions correctly4 ,then she imagined a comet1 causing it to go out of sight1 then return1 and upon its approach to the sun rushing it past with lightning speed4 ,i called the attention of their father to their play with much delight1 for ,i had no idea they understood the motions so well1 simply from conversations on the subject in the family circle4 ,they all joined in the conversation at play1 and seemed to comprehend it all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa4--,the studies have benefited me much more than ,i can express in words4 ,may heaven's choicest blessings rest upon the officers and everyone connected with the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,kansas4--,i am one of the busy housekeepers1 but always find time to read4 ,my reading has uplifted my soul1 and led me to a fuller appreciation of the power and love of ,god1 and ,i feel thankful that ,i am numbered with the army of ,chautauquans4 99 99 99 99 99 ,california4--,when ,i read the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 testimony in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 ,i always think ,chautauqua has been all that and more to me1 for it has led me from cold1 dark skepticism to my ,bible and my ,father in heaven1 and it is gradually leading some of my friends into the light4 ,i prize my ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 books more highly that they are worn and soiled by many readers1 and ,i believe ,i can do no better missionary work than by enlarging the ,circle4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,reunion4 ,on the afternoon of ,june #bg1 at ,pendleton1 ,indiana1 a delightful ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 reunion was held4 ,the circle of ,pendleton invited the circle from the neighboring village of ,greenfield to join with them in their last meeting for the year4 ,a goodly number of visitors were present4 ,after an entertaining program of speeches1 songs1 toasts1 etc41 had been carried out1 the following class histories were read3 ,,pendleton ,,local ,,circle4 ,on the evening of the #bhth of ,december1 #ahha1 a little company of eight ladies and five gentlemen assembled at the home of ,dr4 ,huston1 ,pendleton1 ,indiana1 for the purpose of more fully discussing the ,chautauqua ,idea1 and if possible to organize a branch of the great ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle4 ,three months behind in the year's studies1 the outlook was not as encouraging as could have been wished1 but finding one of the class mottoes to be 8,never be discouraged10 it was unanimously agreed that we organize4 ,teachers were also chosen for the principal studies1 and it was thought best that they should present the lessons to the class in the form of questions4 ,this method was generally observed throughout the year1 with the exception of some lectures on geology4 ,at each session two of the members were appointed to write papers for the following week1 on some subject pertaining to the lessons4 ,longfellow's birthday was the only memorial observed4 ,besides the usual exercises of the evening a short sketch of the life of the poet was read1 followed by the reading of two of his poems4 ,our weekly meetings were well kept up1 and much interest manifested in the studies until the first of ,may1 when owing to summer heat1 and many calls on the time of the different members1 it was thought best to meet once a month1 each member being given a portion of the studies to be brought forward at the next session4 ,this plan was found to be a good one for the summer months1 and was continued until the beginning of the new year's studies1 when the weekly meetings were again resumed1 and the meetings were spent in much the same manner as the first year with the exception of the evening of the thirtieth of ,november1 when a complete change was made in the program1 by having a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 thanksgiving supper and a general good time at the residence of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,whitney4 ,since that time our circle has lost several of its members either from sickness or change of residence1 but we hope ere the beginning of another year to be fully reinforced and ready to continue the good work4 ,,greenfield ,,local ,,circle4 ,although we have met to-day as strangers1 we find that the unity of thought and purpose that has characterized our work the past year has made us friends4 ,the history of our circle is necessarily brief because of the short time it has been in existence4 ,when we first organized in the fall of '#hb1 a part of us supposed we were entering the society temporarily and did not expect to matriculate and become regular members of the mystic tie1 but we only met a few times till we perceived the advantages we were deriving from the association1 one with another1 and saw the necessity of a permanent organization4 ,now there are ten of us enrolled as students of the 8,university of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c40 ,we pursued the course with a great deal of enthusiasm and delight1 and if it were possible1 each study seemed more interesting than the preceding4 ,with a great deal of reluctance we laid aside geology and ,greek history for astronomy and ,english history1 but we soon saw we were susceptible of inspiration from the latter as well as the former4 ,our circle1 except two1 is composed of married ladies4 ,as housewives we feel that the course has been very beneficial--it has relieved the monotony and tedium of housekeeping because it has given us something ennobling to think of--it has also given us a taste for something else than the last novel and the latest piece of gossip in the daily papers4 ,we feel as though we could adopt the sentiment of ,plato4 ,a friend who observed that he seemed as desirous to learn himself as to teach others1 asked him how long he expected to remain a student8 ,plato replied1 8,as long as ,i am not ashamed to grow wiser and better40 99 99 99 99 99 ,,temperance and labor are the two best physicians of man2 labor sharpens the appetite1 and temperance prevents him from indulging to excess4--,rousseau4 ,,local ,,circles4 ,province of ,quebec 7,bedford74--,the ,harmony ,circle was organized here last ,september4 ,we are seven in number1 all having so many cares that the ,chautauqua work has to be done by improving the spare moments1 and often by giving up some pleasure or recreation2 but the sacrifice is made willingly4 ,each member prepares seven questions2 the number to be chosen from each subject in hand is determined at the previous meeting4 ,each in turn puts a question to his or her nearest neighbor1 then the second time round to the nearest but one1 and so on2 thus each member puts a question to every other member4 ,this1 with discussions and conversations which arise from the lesson1 occupies more than two hours in a very enjoyable manner4 ,we have derived profit from the work1 both in increase of knowledge and improvement of literary taste4 ,our circle has also been the source of much kindly feeling and mutual interest1 and a strong bond of friendship amongst us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,maine 7,brownfield74--,our circle was organized early in ,october1 #ahhb1 with ten regular members1 five gentlemen and five ladies4 ,we arranged to meet once in two weeks1 and enjoyed our evenings together so much that it was extremely difficult to keep the length of our sessions within reasonable bounds4 ,we congratulated ourselves constantly on the pleasure afforded us by our studies1 and on the obvious improvement1 from month to month1 in the work of individual members4 ,it was decided1 for the present year at least1 to change the whole board of officers once in three months1 that the educating influences of the responsibilities connected with the various offices might be shared1 in turn1 by all who were willing to accept them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,maine 7,fairfield74--,a local circle was organized here in ,october1 #ahhb1 and now numbers fifteen members1 nearly all of whom have completed the required readings to date4 ,teachers are assigned to each of the subjects as they are taken up1 and recitations are conducted with excellent system and thoroughness4 ,in addition to this we have numerous essays and readings1 and the enthusiasm is such that1 notwithstanding our regular meetings occur fortnightly1 we have many special meetings4 ,it is the custom at all of our meetings to criticize freely1 and this leads to an exactness of pronunciation when reading1 not otherwise to be attained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,maine 7,brownfield74--,our circle meets once in two weeks1 takes up questions in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 and then devotes a short time to questions of our own asking1 using a question-box4 ,we think this an excellent plan4 ,after this we generally have short essays on the subjects we are reading1 often closing with general conversation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,massachusetts 7,wareham74--,the ,pallas ,circle closed for the season with a lawn party1 ,june #ah4 ,,program4 ,singing--8,a ,song of ,to-day40 ,roll-,call--,responses of quotations from any of the reading of the past year4 ,secretary's report4 ,selected questions in ,astronomy1 answered by members of the circle4 ,reading--8,the ,vision of ,mirza40 ,essay--8,the ,mythological ,story of ,ursa ,major and ,ursa ,minor40 ,reading--,selections from 8,evangeline40 ,reading--8,the ,fan-drill40--7,addison47 ,singing--,chautauqua ,carols4 ,supper--,toasts and ,responses1 including two original poems4 ,though small in numbers the circle is very enthusiastic in its work4 ,new members for the coming year were enrolled from the invited guests of the occasion1 and the readings will be commenced in ,october with fresh vigor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,massachusetts 7,haverhill74--,a local circle was organized in ,haverhill1 ,march #ad1 #ahhc1 with the following officers3 ,r4 ,d4 ,trask1 president2 ,george ,h4 ,foster1 vice president2 ,delia ,drew1 secretary4 ,whole membership numbers seventeen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,massachusetts 7,natick74--,the ,natick local circle was organized ,september #bj1 #ahgi4 ,eight of the original members1 keeping in view the motto1 8never be discouraged10 have completed the four years' course4 ,at the commencement of the present year our local circle numbered twenty-five4 ,we enjoy our reading greatly1 and consider the ,natick ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 a success4 99 99 99 99 99 ,connecticut 7,west ,haven74--,our circle was organized ,november #ad1 #ahha1 and numbers seventeen members4 ,we meet once a week4 ,our circle is divided into committees of three and four to arrange programs for the month's entertainments4 ,they include reviews1 essays on different subjects connected with the course1 readings and recitations4 8,shakspere's ,day0 was observed by reading a portion of the play1 8,merchant of ,venice10 the committee having previously assigned the different characters to the members present4 ,we are very social at our meetings1 and occasionally have a little collation at the close of the exercises4 ,most of us are well up with the class1 and find the ,chautauqua evenings not only instructive1 but exceedingly enjoyable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,york 7,angola74--,a local circle was organized here ,february #e1 #ahhc1 and consists of eighteen members4 ,we usually do the reading in ,,the ,,chautauquan at our meetings1 information being given1 and questions asked by all4 ,we have made use of the questions and answers in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 and found them to be of much assistance4 ,occasionally topics are assigned1 upon which we are to read or speak at the next meeting4 ,criticism upon pronunciation is unsparingly given to all4 ,we intend to continue our meetings1 and hope that another year may bring us a larger membership4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pennsylvania 7,allegheny ,city74--,in ,november1 #ahhb1 the ,woodlawn segment of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 was organized and officers elected4 ,the president having drawn up a constitution1 it was read and unanimously adopted4 ,our constitution regulates the manner of conducting the society1 prescribes parliamentary rules1 etc4 ,during our study of geology1 we were favored with an interesting and instructive lecture by ,a4 ,m4 ,martin1 ,esq41 ,general ,secretary of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,our membership now consists of seventeen persons1 six being ladies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,pennsylvania 7,gillmor74--,our circle owes its being to the earnest1 persistent efforts of two or three persons who had read one year alone4 ,the first meeting was held ,october #bd1 #ahhb1 and the circle organized with fifteen members4 ,we labor under some peculiar difficulties4 ,our members represent several little villages1 and are so scattered that it is some times hard to get together4 ,then we are in the oil country where people stay rather than live1 so they gather around them only such things as are needful for comfortable living4 ,the majority have but few books of reference1 or other helps to study4 ,our meetings were opened with prayer and the singing of a ,chautauqua song1 and sometimes repeating the ,chautauqua mottoes1 any items of business being attended to before beginning the regular work of the circle4 ,before closing members were appointed by the president to conduct the various exercises in the succeeding meeting4 ,in the latter part of the winter the president proposed a course of lectures4 ,it was a decided success4 ,our lecturers were ,j4 ,t4 ,edwards1 ,d4,d41 ,randolph1 ,n4 ,y4--subject3 8,oratory and ,eloquence20 ,d4 ,w4 ,c4 ,huntington1 ,bradford1 ,pa41 8,rambles in ,europe20 ,c4 ,w4 ,winchester1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y41 8,eight ,wonders of the ,world40 ,this course closed with a home entertainment1 consisting of vocal and instrumental music1 readings1 essays1 etc41 mostly by members of the circle4 ,our number is at present nineteen1 and we are happy to have proved those to be false prophets who predicted that three months would be the limit of our existence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,district of ,columbia 7,washington74--,the ,parker ,circle has been reorganized for the course of #ahhc-hd4 ,several new members were received1 and the circle now numbers about thirty-six4 ,on ,tuesday evening1 the #ahth1 ,dr4 ,dobson1 our president1 will organize a new circle in another part of the city1 beginning with a dozen members4 ,foundry ,circle reorganizes the same night1 and several new circles will be organized during the fall4 ,there is considerable interest manifested in the course4 99 99 99 99 99 ,maryland 7,baltimore74--,the ,class of #ahhg was organized on ,thursday evening1 ,september #bj1 at the ,young ,men's ,christian ,association ,hall4 ,the membership for the coming year will be about thirty4 ,the officers constitute the committee on instruction4 ,the class of the past year1 the fourth since its organization1 was one of the best2 the method adopted was that of the question box2 each member placing such questions of interest in the box as he had met with in his reading4 ,the director1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,rendell ,harris1 would read the questions one at a time1 and open the discussion upon them1 in which all joined4 ,two meetings each month from ,october to ,june were held1 and the entire time spent on the three books1 the rest of the books being used for home reading only4 ,this plan was considered preferable to the study of two or three at one time4 ,the outlook for the new class is good4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ohio 7,harrisburg74--,we have eleven members1 of whom ten are regular members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,our method of work thus far has consisted of essays1 readings1 and conversations4 ,the interest in the work increases with each meeting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illinois 7,fairburg74--,we have here a small circle of eight members4 ,we have met regularly once a week1 taking each study in its course1 and in an informal way have discussed the various subjects presented4 ,much interest has been felt and expressed1 and we all feel that a prescribed course of reading is by all means the best and most direct means of self-culture4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illinois 7,yorkville74--,for the past two years quite a number of our people have pursued the course of studies1 but not until last year did we see proper to unite with the home society4 ,our class comprised lawyers1 bankers1 insurance agents1 carriage trimmers1 preachers1 teachers and farmers4 ,all feel that it has been two years of very profitable study for us4 ,we closed our last year's study by a meeting at the residence of one of the members1 where we were entertained by a program consisting of essays1 character sketches1 class history1 music1 and last1 but not least1 refreshments for the inner man4 ,it was indeed an enjoyable occasion4 ,we hope to organize a much larger class for the coming year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,tennessee 7,knoxville74--,the local circle at this place reorganized this year with a membership of twenty-eight1 an increase of twenty over last year4 ,how was this accomplished8 ,the secret can be given in just two words3 personal influence4 ,at the close of last year we felt that our circle here was dying4 ,the members were negligent about the preparation of lessons1 careless and indifferent about attendance1 and we disbanded for the summer feeling almost discouraged1 yet in the heart of each member was a secret determination to do something to make the circle more interesting next year4 ,one of our members went to ,monteagle1 another to ,europe1 and another to ,chautauqua4 ,those who remained at home worked also for the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and all worked earnestly and with enthusiasm4 ,we thought1 wrote and talked ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 until our friends laughingly called us 8people of one idea40 ,we sent for circulars1 which we gave to every one whom we could betray into the slightest expression of interest4 ,we loaned our books and magazine with the request1 8please just look it over and tell us what you think of it40 ,the seventh of ,september we held a meeting at the ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 rooms1 kindly tendered to us for that purpose4 ,all who were interested in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 were invited1 and two of the ministers of our city also encouraged us by their presence and cheering words4 ,then we began to reap the fruits of our summer's work4 ,seven new members were reported and two more asked for membership4 ,another meeting was held ,september #ba for reorganization1 at which six new names were reported and five more requested admission to the circle1 making our number twenty-eight4 ,the circle will meet once a week1 and we hope to accomplish results worthy of our enthusiasm4 ,we send greeting to our sister circles1 especially to the weak1 to whom we would say3 ,use your influence as a society and as individuals1 and success is yours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michigan 7,niles74--,our circle was organized last ,october1 with thirteen members4 ,we have held thirty-three meetings1 at which reviews upon the topics studied and readings from ,,the ,,chautauquan have formed part of the program4 ,in addition1 we have read ,bryant's translation of the 8,iliad10 and 8,evangeline40 ,all the ,memorial ,days have been kept4 ,selections from the author1 sketches of his life and home1 responses to roll-call with quotations from the same1 and familiar talks upon the subject of the memorial1 have made these occasions of unusual interest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,michigan 7,imlay ,city74--,on ,tuesday evening1 ,november #bh1 #ahhb1 we organized a local circle of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,we have eight regular and three local members4 ,the meetings have been held once in two weeks1 at the houses of the members1 and from the interest manifested in the work1 we have every reason to hope for a large increase in numbers next year4 ,on the evening of ,february #bg we observed ,longfellow's birthday by an interesting program of essays1 readings1 recitations and songs4 ,we closed with a sentiment from each one present1 from ,longfellow4 99 99 99 99 99 ,wisconsin 7,la ,crosse74--,a local circle was organized here last ,january4 ,the membership is small1 but we have been faithful to the work4 ,although we began very late1 we have nearly completed the year's work4 ,we are all glad we began such a course of study1 and have found much pleasure in gathering round our 8round-table40 ,the prospects for an increase in numbers and interest for the coming year are encouraging4 99 99 99 99 99 ,minnesota 7,minneapolis74--,the ,centenary ,circle has just finished the work of the year4 ,our circle has numbered forty-two in all1 with six local members1 though six1 at least1 have been unable to attend the meetings on account of distance1--one even living in another ,state--but most are keeping up their work4 ,there has been more interest and enthusiasm all through the year than during our first year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,minnesota 7,albert ,lea74--,this is the first year of our local circle1 and we number five1 all ladies with home cares4 ,we have short sketches of the 8,required ,history ,readings0 in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 which we think make us remember them better4 ,we are reading the 8,white ,seal ,course0 aloud1 and enjoy it so much4 ,can not be glad enough that we have taken up this course4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,muscatine47--,the ,acme ,circle is composed of fifty-five members1 with an average attendance of thirty-five4 ,we are very enthusiastic1 and expect to take the examinations4 ,we recite the lesson1 occasionally reading a part which it does not seem worth while to commit to memory4 ,our exercises are varied by essays on topics of importance in connection with the lesson4 99 99 99 99 99 ,iowa 7,st4 ,charles74--,i wish to report from our town a circle of three 7myself and family74 ,we hold no regular meetings4 ,although we began the first year's course late last ,december1 we have completed the reading up to this month4 ,it has been very profitable and entertaining to us4 ,we are each determined to complete the course4 ,we will advertise it in our county papers1 and do our utmost to solicit members and get up local circles4 ,we do not think any better plan than the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 could be devised for furnishing those who have not the privilege of an academic or collegiate course an opportunity to acquire a good practical education4 99 99 99 99 99 ,texas 7,palestine47--,the ,houston ,daily ,post gives the following history of the local circle in ,palestine3 ,some young people and some adults of ,palestine have formed themselves into a branch of the now world-renowned ,chautauqua ,literary and ,scientific ,circle1 and have entered upon the four years' course of study prescribed by that institution4 ,the circle was organized in ,october1 #ahhb1 and now has a membership of twenty-three4 ,meetings are held every week at the homes of the members4 ,the evenings thus spent are highly profitable to the members1 socially and intellectually4 ,dr4 ,yoakum has assisted the circle greatly by lectures and talks on geology1 astronomy1 botany and history4 ,the program of exercises is varied semi-occasionally from the regular channel1 and the evening is spent in purely a literary way4 ,such seasons of refreshment occur on the birth anniversaries of popular authors4 ,on the #bc;d of ,april a ,shakspere memorial meeting was held at ,sterne's ,hotel1 on which occasion ,mrs4 ,overall read 8,the ,fall of ,cardinal ,wolsey40 ,miss ,kate ,colding rendered 8,hamlet's ,soliloquy0 most admirably4 ,miss ,florence ,finch presided at the organ and lead in the ,chautauqua songs4 ,on ,may #a the circle did honor to the life and memory of ,addison4 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,c4 ,bradford read a sketch of his life and writings1 ,miss ,ena ,sawyers read 8,the ,omnipresence and ,omniscience of the ,deity10 and ,miss ,fannie ,reese read 8,the ,vision of ,mirza40 99 99 99 99 99 ,california 7,brooklyn74--,our circle is an informal quartet of congenial spirits who have been close friends and companions for some time past4 ,we meet every ,monday evening and have a delightful free and easy discussion over what we have read during the week1 with ,webster's ,unabridged in its post of honor--the piano stool1 and the encyclopdia rack within reachable distance4 ,we are enjoying the course very much1 and feel that it is just what we need4 ,,how ,,to ,,conduct ,a ,,local ,,circle4,i ,,the ,,troy ,,method ,,of ,,organizing ,a ,,circle4 ,the 8,rock of ,ages0 was sung1 a prayer was offered by ,mr4 ,martin1 after which ,mr4 ,farrar said3 ,i desire to give you a little history of the inauguration of our circle work in ,troy4 ,i do so because ,i am confident that what was done there last year may be done in every city1 in every village1 and may be multiplied a thousand times4 ,about the middle of last ,september ,i wrote an article on 8,reading1 ,circles for ,reading1 and ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c410 and published it in the ,troy ,daily ,times4 ,i wrote this article1 published it on ,wednesday1 calling a meeting at my church for ,thursday evening1 inviting anybody and everybody who desired1 to be present4 ,the evening was quite unfavorable4 ,i expected about twenty4 ,i was exceedingly surprised and gratified in the interests of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 work when ,i found nearly three hundred people present4 ,being inspired by their presence1 ,i began to talk to them on reading1 the importance of it1 the value of it to-day1 and the cheapness of literature4 ,i unfolded to them the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 plan1 the numbers that were taking it up1 the enthusiasm that prevailed here at ,chautauqua1 and how the ,circle was spreading all over the world1 not only in this country but in other countries4 ,it was all new to many of them4 ,at the conclusion of my half hour's talk ,i asked how many persons wanted to join some such circle as this4 ,about every hand in the audience went up4 ,i was surprised again4 ,looking over the audience1 ,i knew nearly every one of them1 for ,i was back the second time as pastor of the same church1 and knowing that four or five denominations were represented there1 ,i suggested that there ought to be a circle in every church4 ,i did not want to 8scoop up0 the whole right there in our church1 and ,i was generous enough to say that there ought to be a dozen circles established in our city1 one in connection with every church1 and in the suburbs4 ,i said that a week from that night we would organize a circle there1 and any who desired to be connected with that circle would be gladly welcomed4 ,during the week ,i received several letters from parties in the city1 and out of the city1 asking about the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 what its course of reading was1 etc4 ,i followed it in the ,daily ,times with another letter on ,wednesday1 saying that our circle was to meet on ,thursday1 and explaining the text books that we were to take up for the year1 and more fully entering into the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 idea4 ,our evening came1 and we had over three hundred present4 ,i had the whole list of books with me4 ,i took them up and showed them to each person4 ,i said1 8this is the course40 ,i went on unfolding the whole idea of the course1 the amount of time each year1 the examinations at the end of the year1 and the outlook of the four years' course4 ,i told them that this was the student's outlook from college halls1 with the exception of the mathematics and the languages to be translated4 ,then ,i asked how many desired to join this ,circle4 ,over two hundred hands went up4 ,immediately we fell to organization4 ,fortunately1 or unfortunately1 ,i was elected president1 and a ,protestant ,episcopal clergyman1 rector of ,christ ,church1 close by me1 was elected vice-president4 ,we have in our organization a president1 vice-president1 secretary1 treasurer1 and a board of managers consisting of five4 ,i found on inspecting the number that joined our circle that we were about equally divided ,baptists1 ,protestant ,episcopalians1 ,presbyterians1 and ,methodist ,episcopalians4 ,our board of managers was wisely selected from these various churches1 so that there might be the largest remove possible from anything like an organization confined to our church4 ,i say this because ,i believe that people are hungry for just such an organization as this4 ,there are thousands in our communities who are tired of idle gossip4 ,they want something to talk about1 and the only way to stop gossip is to put something into their heads on a higher plane4 ,i have had testimony from our members repeatedly1 8,now we have so little time to talk about these other things40 ,whenever they come together they talk about these wonders found in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 work4 ,this board of five managers arranges our monthly plan4 ,our large meetings are monthly4 ,our circle divides itself up2 six or a dozen1 or twenty1 form little organizations1 read together1 meet once a week1 and then we meet as a large circle monthly and review our work4 ,this board of managers lays out the month's work4 ,the first week after our monthly meeting this board of managers is called together4 ,they make out their plan1 print it on a postal card1 and send it out at once to every member of the circle1 so that every member knows what the plan is to be three weeks before the meeting4 ,our method in the large meeting is to review our work by the essay method4 ,let me give you a program4 ,first1 singing4 ,i was fortunate enough to have an enthusiastic singer in our number1 and ,i gave him the work of organizing a glee club4 ,he gathered twenty or twenty-five of the very best young people in the number1 and formed a glee club1 and they led our devotions4 ,we followed with scripture and prayer4 ,and then began our essays4 ,we usually have three1 four1 sometimes five essays1 and no essay is over ten minutes in length4 ,we desire that the essays shall not exceed eight minutes4 ,it requires a deal of skill and practice to reduce our thoughts on a subject to a six or eight minutes essay1 but it is practicable4 ,then we are all interested in the subject which we have been studying for a month4 ,when an individual rises and reads1 we feel that we have gone over the same subject1 and it is like a review to us1 and helps to fasten it more definitely in our minds4 ,following each essay we have remarks and questions4 ,we never criticise an essay4 ,that would be unkind4 ,you could not do it4 ,you would intimidate everybody4 ,we ask questions and throw in additional remarks4 ,we take up half an hour1 or three-quarters at most1 devoted to the three1 four or five essays4 ,following these we appoint some person to ask the questions which are printed in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,any person who will ask and answer these questions will find that he has a wonderfully clear rsum of the whole subject in his mind4 ,i suppose that we are indebted to ,mr4 ,martin for them4 ,they are very clear1 very concise1 and greatly appreciated by the ,troy members4 ,following these questions we have a recess of twenty minutes1 in which it is the custom of our circle to shake hands1 make each others' acquaintance1 encourage each other1 find out about each other1 and inquire about the work4 ,upon the recall the ,glee ,club gives a song4 ,then follows the round-table4 ,i need not explain this because you are all familiar with the round-table4 ,after that a conversazione on some prominent character of the world1 old or new4 ,we desire that every member will give us some extract of five lines1 not to exceed five lines1 unless it would break the harmony of the thought1 from every person brought before us4 ,we have had ,shakspere1 ,longfellow1 ,bryant1 and a variety of persons4 ,immediately after this conversazione follows 8a miscellaneous exercise0--anything that needs to be taken up4 ,while we were studying geology1 we went down to the village of ,albany where the capital is located4 ,they have a very fine series of geological rooms arranged by ,prof4 ,hall1 the ,state ,geologist4 ,as you enter the room1 there are the very lowest specimens of the rocks with their fossils4 ,as you go up story after story you reach the highest rocks4 ,prof4 ,hall1 by previous appointment1 met our large circle of about two hundred4 ,we chartered a car or two and went down4 ,he met us and gave us a very satisfactory lecture4 ,we appreciated it4 ,when we came to astronomy1 we found out where we could find an astronomer4 ,we invited him1 and he came and gave us a lecture4 ,then we had a teacher of the high school stand before us1 and allow us to question him to our heart's content4 ,we found it available to work in all the outside force possible4 ,when we studied the subject of art we got together all the pictures of the town that we could find4 ,i was in ,gloversville as pastor at that time4 ,we arranged them1 and spent two or three very delightful evenings4 ,you have two or three1 another has one1 another has six2 bring them all together and discuss the whole subject of art4 ,we found it very profitable4 ,in ,troy our circle is so enthusiastic in its work that there is a constant clamor of outside people to get in4 ,we sometimes allow a few outsiders1 and there is hardly a session that we do not have four to five hundred in our gathering1 but the front seats are always reserved for members1 and visitors1 if there be any1 must take the back seats4 ,there are anywhere from fifty to one hundred and fifty clamoring to be admitted into the circle this fall4 ,i do not know what we shall do4 ,if we admit them1 we shall go into the audience room4 ,i think it is better to divide up4 ,i have given you our work4 ,i said in the outset1 it is possible for any young man or woman1 pastor or superintendent1 through your village paper1 to write a short article calling the attention of the people to it1 saying that in such a place there will be an organization of this work4 ,i have the impression that you can gather quite a large circle in every place1 two or three of them4 ,but my conviction is from the work as ,i have observed it through ,troy and vicinity1 that you need somebody in that circle1 at the head of it1 who loves it4 ,you can make nothing in this world grow without love4 ,not even the flowers you may plant in your garden will grow unless you love them4 ,as the result of the article in the ,troy ,times1 eight circles were organized in our city4 ,as the result of those two articles1 twenty-six circles were organized around ,troy4 ,i would be glad to hear from you to-day4 ,criticise my plan as much as you please4 ,i have taken more time because ,dr4 ,vincent urged me to do so4 ,he urged me to take twenty-five minutes4 ,i have only taken twenty4 ,give me your plans1 any suggestions1 any practical idea that you have worked out in your circles4 ,,mr4 ,,martin3 ,i can say that ,i commend every feature that has been mentioned here by ,mr4 ,farrar in the method of conducting local circles4 ,i believe we have tested in ,pittsburgh every one he has mentioned4 ,there are several others we have tried1 to which ,i would like to refer4 ,for instance1 ,i think it well for persons to start with the inspiration and a love of the ,circle right here at ,chautauqua4 ,a great many persons have come to me on the ground1 and asked me how to form a local circle1 saying they had no local circles in their vicinity4 ,i say to them if they have two or three members on the ground here who belong together in a circle1 meet under the trees and start your organization here4 ,we started with seven members under these trees by the ,hall of ,philosophy1 in the year #ahgh1 and we had somewhere between three and four hundred before the following ,january1 and have as many more since4 ,last year about half a dozen who graduated in the class of '#hb met under the trees here1 and we formed our preliminary organization4 ,we carried the spirit and love of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 home with us1 and we formed in ,pittsburgh an alumni association of nearly sixty members4 ,we expect to increase the number largely during the coming year4 ,one word with reference to the use of newspapers4 ,our executive committee apportion the different papers of the city between them4 ,we have five members1 and each member looks after a paper to see that the paper looks after ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 matters4 ,we make each member the editor of a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 department in a newspaper1 and it is his duty to get in as many notices about the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 as possible4 ,our press has very generously opened to us its columns4 ,every monthly meeting is noticed before and after in the papers4 ,i am glad to say that we have got into many considerable controversies in the newspapers4 ,we like them because they bring our organization into notice4 ,we avail ourselves of the papyrograph1 the electric pen1 the type writer1 and the various plans for duplicating that we now have1 in the way of sending out notices1 preparing the programs1 etc4 ,any of you who know how cheaply any of these appliances can be used for printing1 will see how efficiently they can be employed for the use of the circle4 ,another point3 ,if we get a little depressed1 or a little behind1 we get ,dr4 ,vincent or one of the counselors to come and give us a rousing lecture4 ,we have given them good audiences1 and they have spread a new enthusiasm4 ,what an amount of enthusiasm can be developed about the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,if you will have the patience to answer clearly and fully all questions that are asked you about the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 you will find that you are doing a grand missionary work4 ,i know my business is often interrupted by people who come in and ask about the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 but ,i am always sorry if ,i ever have to turn any one away without information4 ,if ,i give them full information1 and they go away and join the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 and form a local circle afterward1 ,i feel that ,i have done a missionary work4 ,,mr4 ,,farrar3 ,any suggestions8 ,a ,,voice3 ,did you permit persons to become members of your local circle who did not belong to the parent society8 ,,mr4 ,,farrar3 ,yes4 ,but we requested them1 if they did not wish to take up the full course of reading1 to join the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 and pay their fifty cents1 and take ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,we honored the home office4 ,but they need not fill out the questions unless they choose4 ,,mr4 ,,bridge3 ,in that way you will get a great many members of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 who are not doing the work4 ,,mr4 ,,farrar3 ,very few4 ,we took a few husbands who wanted to come with their wives4 8,very good10 ,i said1 8pay your fifty cents and take ,,the ,,chautauquan40 ,,rev4 ,j4 ,o4 ,,foster3 ,we had a large circle where ,i was last appointed4 ,we found in the school a man well posted in geology4 ,we found the depot agent was an astronomer1 and he was very enthusiastic over the invitation that we gave him4 ,he came down and spattered the blackboard all over with facts4 ,he got a long strip of paper and stuck up around the room1 and marked out the planets4 ,he gave us a very fine lecture on astronomy1 so good that the people requested him to repeat it before the whole congregation4 ,we had this 8jelly-pad business10 and struck off our programs the week before4 ,every one knew what he was expected to do4 ,we secured plenty of books1 if any one was at a loss for books4 ,we had about twenty in the circle1 and that circle is now running4 ,i think it is three and a half years old4 ,i do not know of any older than that4 ,,mr4 ,,martin3 ,we have one five years old4 ,,mr4 ,,foster3 ,very good4 ,dr4 ,goodfellow organized this4 ,another member and ,i went to people in the city and asked them to lend us their pictures upon several subjects4 ,you will be astonished at the amount of material you can gather together in a single afternoon to illustrate any subject4 ,,dr4 ,,vincent3 ,i have no doubt that some small local circles have quite unique plans which they have adopted1 and ,i hope if they hesitate to speak out1 that they will write out their plans for us4 ,a ,,lady3 ,i was about to speak for a small circle4 ,i am very positive in our circle of twenty it would be almost impossible to have essays1 except occasionally4 ,the members generally would be so frightened at the idea of having to write an essay that we should lose the circle entirely4 ,we have to pet them a little1 and we use the conversational method as freely as possible to get them to express themselves4 ,what they can not tell we tell them4 ,in my experience--,i have been conductor four years--,i find the essay method frightens small circles4 ,where you have circles of two hundred1 where they have a great many ministers1 and lawyers1 you can get them to write essays4 ,a ,,lady3 ,i would say that ,i belong to a circle out ,west of six members4 ,we pursued the essay work for the first two years entirely4 ,every one of us for the first two years wrote an essay every week4 ,applause4 ,,dr4 ,,eaton3 ,i would like to speak for another small circle4 ,we had a program4 ,we opened with singing and prayer1 and then the leader1 who had prepared himself thoroughly1 or tried to prepare himself thoroughly on the lesson1 particularly in science and in history1 examined every class by questioning and removing every difficulty connected with them4 ,the whole circle replied at once1 answering the questions4 ,if there were any in the circle that could not answer a question1 they had it answered for them1 and were not placed under any embarrassment by the sense of failure4 ,a great many said of these meetings every two weeks1 that they obtained a better knowledge by this thorough drill than by reading privately at home4 ,likewise we had essays1 but not very frequently4 ,we had essays in the first part of the evening4 ,sometimes there was a failure to respond1 but generally the subject was assigned to particular individuals1 and a great many facts in connection with the difficulties in history were brought in that way4 ,i think we commenced with a circle of about twenty or thirty1 and we graduated here a year ago some sixteen members1 ,i think4 ,and others are coming in1 but with what success ,i am unable to say1 as ,i have not been in that place all the time4 ,i think that every one in that circle would bear testimony that in this way--by close examination1 the plan of a regular class drill--we have obtained a better knowledge than in any other way1 and that they were satisfied at the end of the year they had accomplished more and better work than they would under any other circumstances4 ,a ,,voice3 ,i would like to say we consider that the writing of these essays and insisting upon it1 was as much for the advantage of the persons writing these essays as for that of those who listened to them4 ,therefore1 we had a critic who was to write the criticisms1 and had them read by the president4 ,do you think that was a good way8 ,,mr4 ,,farrar3 ,we thought it was not the best way4 ,dr4 ,vincent suggests that the criticisms might be given privately to the writer4 ,i found it quite difficult to get essays4 ,many young ladies and gentlemen looked upon it as a fearful task4 ,many times ,i had to call on them1 and sit down with them1 and talk them into it1 showing them how they could do it4 ,and never one wrote an essay in our circle but said 8,when you want me to write an essay1 call on me again40 ,i have tried a dozen others who persisted in refusing1 but at the close of the year they came to me and said3 8,if you will forgive us for our refusing to write you may call upon us next year40 ,after singing1 the benediction was pronounced by ,dr4 ,vincent4 ,,footnote3 ,i ,round-,table held in the ,hall of ,philosophy1 at ,chautauqua1 ,august #afth1 #ahhc1 conducted by ,rev4 ,h4 ,c4 ,farrar1 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y4 ,not required4 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers4 ,,one ,,hundred ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,on 8,,history ,,of ,,greece10 ,,volume ,,ii1 ,,parts #aj ,,and #aa--8,,the ,,roman ,,supremacy1 ,,and ,,byzantine ,,hellenism40 ,by ,a4 ,m4 ,,martin1 ,,general ,,secretary ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 #a4 ,q4 ,when is it generally said by historians that ,hellas fell under the ,roman rule8 ,a4 ,in #ade ,b4 ,c41 when ,mummius captured ,corinth4 #b4 ,q4 ,strictly speaking1 when did ,hellas become a ,roman province8 ,a4 ,during the reign of ,augustus4 #c4 ,q4 ,where was the principal theater of the ,mithridatic war8 ,a4 ,hellas1 transplanted thither by the daring king of ,pontus4 #d4 ,q4 ,whom did the ,romans finally find it necessary to send against him8 ,a4 ,sulla4 #e4 ,q4 ,during this war what ,hellenic city did ,sulla capture after a long siege8 ,a4 ,athens4 #f4 ,q4 ,what is the assertion of several modern historians in regard to the devastation of the land and the slaughter of the inhabitants during this war1 which ended in #hd ,b4 ,c48 ,a4 ,they did their work so effectually that ,asia never thereafter recovered from the ,roman wounds4 #g4 ,q4 ,by what was the moral decay of the nation which began long before now followed8 ,a4 ,by a corresponding material ruin4 #h4 ,q4 ,by what was the gean ,sea from the earliest times infested8 ,a4 ,by pirates1 who boldly attacked the coasts1 islands and harbors1 seizing vessels and plundering property4 #i4 ,q4 ,in the year #gh ,b4 ,c41 what action did the ,romans take against these pirates8 ,a4 ,they declared war against them1 and entrusted the conduct of hostilities to ,pompey4 #aj4 ,q4 ,what was the result of ,pompey's expedition against them8 ,a4 ,ten thousand of them were put to death1 twenty thousand captured1 and one hundred and twenty of their harbors and fortifications were destroyed4 #aa4 ,q4 ,in the great struggle between ,pompey and ,csar for the supremacy of the world1 whom did ,hellas furnish with every possible assistance8 ,a4 ,pompey4 #ab4 ,q4 ,in the year #dd ,b4 ,c41 what ,hellenic city did ,csar rebuild that had been destroyed a hundred years before by ,mummius8 ,a4 ,corinth4 #ac4 ,q4 ,in the ,roman civil wars which followed the death of ,csar1 with whom did ,athens ally herself8 ,a4 ,with ,brutus and ,cassius4 #ad4 ,q4 ,after the defeat of ,brutus and ,cassius by ,octavius and ,anthony1 followed by hostilities between the latter two1 for whom did the greater part of ,hellas declare8 ,a4 ,for ,anthony4 #ae4 ,q4 ,shortly after ,octavius assumed the name of ,augustus to what did he reduce ,hellas8 ,a4 ,to a ,roman province4 #af4 ,q4 ,what is said of the jurisdiction of the ,roman proconsul thereafter sent annually to rule ,hellas8 ,a4 ,many cities and countries continued still to be regarded as 8freed and allied40 ,the subject territory was designated by the name of ,achaia as if it did not remain an integral part of 8free ,hellas40 #ag4 ,q4 ,during the reign of ,tiberias what did both ,achaia and ,macedonia become by reason of the harsh treatment received from the proconsuls8 ,a4 ,csarean instead of public provinces4 #ah4 ,q4 ,what was the course of ,nero toward ,hellas8 ,a4 ,in the year #ff he declared the country autonomous1 and at the same time plundered ,hellas1 inflicting far greater misfortunes on it than those sustained through the invasion of ,xerxes4 #ai4 ,q4 ,when ,vespasian ascended the throne what political change did he make8 ,a4 ,he reduced the country again to a ,roman province4 #bj4 ,q4 ,during the reign of ,vespasian what action was taken in regard to the ,greek philosophers8 ,a4 ,nearly all the ,greek philosophers were banished from ,rome4 #ba4 ,q4 ,how did ,trajan prove to be one of the greatest benefactors of the ,hellenic nation8 ,a4 ,he sent ,maximus to ,hellas as plenipotentiary and reorganizer of the free ,hellenic cities1 with instructions to honor the gods and ancient renown of the nation1 and revere the sacred antiquity of the cities4 #bb4 ,q4 ,what was ,hadrian's treatment of ,hellas8 ,a4 ,he visited ,athens five times2 sought to ameliorate the condition of the people1 and adorned ,athens and other cities with temples and buildings4 #bc4 ,q4 ,what political rights did he give the ,hellenes8 ,a4 ,the rights of ,roman citizenship4 #bd4 ,q4 ,during the reigns of what two ,roman emperors did ,hellas pre-eminently flourish8 ,a4 ,the ,emperors ,antoninus ,pius and ,marcus ,aurelius4 #be4 ,q4 ,notwithstanding the benefits received from the ,roman emperors what did ,hellas continue to do8 ,a4 ,to wither and decline4 #bf4 ,q4 ,during the latter part of the third century what destructive invasion of ,hellas took place8 ,a4 ,the invasion of the ,goths and other northern barbarians1 who overran the country like a deluge1 depopulating cities and destroying everything in their path4 #bg4 ,q4 ,what relation does our author give ,hellenism to ,christianity8 ,a4 ,he makes it the first herald of ,christianity4 #bh4 ,q4 ,who was the first ,roman emperor that issued a decree in favor of ,christianity8 ,a4 ,constantine the ,great4 #bi4 ,q4 ,what discussions led ,constantine to the convocation of the first ,general ,council of the ,christian ,church1 which assembled at ,nice in ,a4 ,d4 #cbe8 ,a4 ,the discussions of ,arianism1 or opinions concerning the nature of the second person of the ,trinity4 #cj4 ,q4 ,who was the most noted opponent of ,arianism8 ,a4 ,athanasius4 #ca4 ,q4 ,what city did ,constantine dedicate as the capital of his empire8 ,a4 ,constantinople4 #cb4 ,q4 ,during the general slaughter of the relatives of ,constantine that took place after his death1 what cousin of his escaped and was assigned to the city of ,athens for his place of habitation8 ,a4 ,julian4 #cc4 ,q4 ,by comparing the present with the past1 to what conclusion did ,julian arrive as to the cause of the decline of the empire8 ,a4 ,that ,christianity was the cause of the decline1 or was not adapted to prevent the demoralization of the empire2 that the change of affairs resulted from the debasement of the ancient religion and life1 and that the reformation of the world could only be accomplished through their restablishment4 #cd4 ,q4 ,by what class of philosophers was ,julian sustained in his views8 ,a4 ,by the ,neapolitanists4 #ce4 ,q4 ,after ,julian was recognized as emperor what was his main object on entering ,constantinople8 ,a4 ,the restoration of the ancient religion4 #cf4 ,q4 ,what were some of the steps he took to accomplish this object8 ,a4 ,he restored the ancient temples and caused new ones to be erected to the gods2 the games were celebrated with magnificence1 and the schools of philosophy were especially protected4 #cg4 ,q4 ,who was the successor to ,julian8 ,a4 ,jovian4 #ch4 ,q4 ,what was his course toward ,christianity8 ,a4 ,he abolished the decrees enacted by ,julian on behalf of idolatry1 and seemed favorably inclined toward ,christianity1 but he died suddenly on his way to ,constantinople4 #ci4 ,q4 ,about this time what two names became prominent in theological controversies8 ,a4 ,basil the ,great and ,gregory the theologian4 #dj4 ,q4 ,what new invasion of the northern barbarians took place in the latter part of the fourth century8 ,a4 ,that of the ,goths1 who overran ,thrace1 ,macedonia and ,thessaly1 ravaged the country1 killed the inhabitants1 and destroyed the cities that were not strongly fortified4 #da4 ,q4 ,to what did ,theodosius first direct his attention after he became emperor8 ,a4 ,to the pacification of the ,goths1 and succeeded within the space of four years in rendering them if not fully submissive to his scepter1 at least anxious to seek terms of peace4 #db4 ,q4 ,what did the solemn edict which ,theodosius dictated in #chj proclaim8 ,a4 ,the ,athanasian doctrine of the ,trinity1 branded all who denied it with the name of heretics1 and handed over the churches in ,constantinople to the exclusive use of the orthodox party4 #dc4 ,q4 ,what synod did he convene at ,constantinople a few months afterward1 in the year #cha8 ,a4 ,the second ,general ,council of the ,christian ,church1 which completed the theological system established by the ,council of ,nice4 #dd4 ,q4 ,after the death of ,theodosius1 who were the nominal rulers of the ,roman empire8 ,a4 ,arcadius in the ,east1 and ,honorius in the ,west1 both sons of ,theodosius4 #de4 ,q4 ,who1 however1 were the real rulers of the empire8 ,a4 ,rufinus in the ,east and ,stilicho in the ,west4 #df4 ,q4 ,how are each characterized8 ,a4 ,stilicho was noted for his military virtues1 but ,rufinus became notorious only for his wickedness4 #dg4 ,q4 ,failing in his project of marrying his daughter ,maria to ,arcadius1 how did ,rufinus seek to revenge himself8 ,a4 ,by plotting the destruction of the empire itself4 #dh4 ,q4 ,what barbarians is it said he called into the empire8 ,a4 ,the ,huns1 who laid waste many provinces in ,asia2 and ,alaric1 the daring general of the ,goths1 who invaded ,hellas1 plundering and destroying everything in his path4 #di4 ,q4 ,who1 called the greatest orator of ,christianity1 became archbishop of ,constantinople near the close of the fourth century8 ,a4 ,john ,chrysostom4 #ej4 ,q4 ,after the death of ,arcadius1 who virtually assumed the government of the empire8 ,a4 ,pulcheria1 the daughter of ,arcadius4 #ea4 ,q4 ,what are we told as to the kind of life she led8 ,a4 ,that she embraced a life of celibacy1 renounced all vanity in dress1 interrupted by frequent fasts her simple and frugal diet1 and devoted several hours of the day and night to the exercises of prayer and psalmody4 #eb4 ,q4 ,how did her brother ,theodosius1 who was the nominal emperor1 spend his time8 ,a4 ,his days in riding and hunting1 and his evenings in modeling and copying sacred books4 #ec4 ,q4 ,how long did ,pulcheria continue to reign8 ,a4 ,for nearly forty years4 #ed4 ,q4 ,what is said of the condition of ,hellenism in the meantime8 ,a4 ,it continued to wither in ,hellas1 while the modern began to spread and strengthen itself in ,constantinople4 #ee4 ,q4 ,what is said of ,hellenic literature from this time onward8 ,a4 ,it produced none of those works by which the memory of nations is honored and perpetuated4 #ef4 ,q4 ,to what is its intellectual decline mainly due8 ,a4 ,to the incursions of the barbarians1 by which society was shaken to its very foundations1 and the genius and enterprise of the nation almost paralyzed4 #eg4 ,q4 ,under what leader did the ,huns ravage without restraint and without mercy the suburbs of ,constantinople and the provinces of ,thrace and ,macedonia8 ,a4 ,attila1 called the 8,scourge of ,god40 #eh4 ,q4 ,with the dethronement of what emperor did all political relations between ,rome and the ,eastern ,empire cease8 ,a4 ,romulus ,augustulus in #dgf4 #ei4 ,q4 ,how did the emperors of the ,east continue to be styled8 ,a4 ,they continued to be styled emperors of the ,romans1 but legislation1 government1 and customs became thoroughly ,hellenized4 #fj4 ,q4 ,what was the mainspring of the success in life of ,justinian who became emperor in #ebg8 ,a4 ,an unrestrained desire for great deeds and his wonderful good fortune in the choice of ministers4 #fa4 ,q4 ,what military victories glorified the early years of his reign8 ,a4 ,splendid victories over the ,persians4 #fb4 ,q4 ,what general began his career in this war8 ,a4 ,belisarius1 the general who imparted such eminent distinction to the reign of ,justinian4 #fc4 ,q4 ,what were ,justinian's most glorious and useful memorials8 ,a4 ,the composition of the celebrated collection of laws comprising the ,institutes1 the ,digest or ,pandects1 and the ,code4 #fd4 ,q4 ,to whom was the work entrusted8 ,a4 ,to ten law-teachers1 over whom the famous ,tribonian presided4 #fe4 ,q4 ,what are of special importance as among other memorable events which signalized the reign of ,justinian8 ,a4 ,the successful wars which he waged against the ,vandals in ,africa and the ,goths in ,italy1 and his expeditions to ,sicily and ,spain4 #ff4 ,q4 ,among the many edifices erected during the reign of ,justinian which is the most famous8 ,a4 ,that of ,st4 ,sophia4 #fg4 ,q4 ,to what epoch does the reign of ,justinian partly belong8 ,a4 ,to the ,roman epoch of the ,eastern ,empire4 #fh4 ,q4 ,what does the reign of ,heraklius from #faj to #fda form8 ,a4 ,an integral part of medival ,hellenism4 #fi4 ,q4 ,by what was ,heraklius invited to ascend the throne1 and how long did his posterity continue to reign over the empire of the ,east8 ,a4 ,the voice of the clergy1 the senate1 and the people invited him to ascend the throne1 and his posterity till the fourth generation continued to reign over the empire of the ,east4 #gj4 ,q4 ,in #fbg1 after many brilliant actions1 what defeat did ,heraklius inflict upon the ,persians8 ,a4 ,so severe a defeat that their empire was nearly crushed4 #ga4 ,q4 ,almost at the same time what unexpected and more terrible opponent arose in the ,arabian peninsula whose conflict with ,hellenism continues to the present day8 ,a4 ,mohammedanism4 #gb4 ,q4 ,what did the ,mohammedans of ,arabia wrest from the empire8 ,a4 ,syria1 ,egypt1 and ,northern ,africa4 #gc4 ,q4 ,what was the ,mohammedan religion called1 and to what two dogmas was it limited8 ,a4 ,islam1 meaning devotion2 its dogmas were the belief in a future life1 and the unity of ,god4 #gd4 ,q4 ,in what words was the latter expressed8 ,a4 8,there is only one ,god1 and ,mohammed is the apostle of ,god40 #ge4 ,q4 ,who was the next emperor of real historic value after the death of ,heraklius8 ,a4 ,constantine ,,iv41 surnamed ,poganatus1 or the ,bearded4 #gf4 ,q4 ,for what was the reign of ,constantine especially memorable8 ,a4 ,for the first siege of ,constantinople by the ,mohammedans4 #gg4 ,q4 ,how long did this siege last8 ,a4 ,for seven years1 but was not carried on uninterruptedly throughout this time4 #gh4 ,q4 ,what was the result of the siege8 ,a4 ,the ,mohammedans were finally forced to relinquish the fruitless enterprise in #fge4 #gi4 ,q4 ,what formidable weapon did the ,byzantines employ during this siege1 the composition of which is now unknown8 ,a4 ,the ,greek fire4 #hj4 ,q4 ,what declarations of an cumenical council he convoked at ,constantinople in #fhj did ,constantine sanction by a royal edict1 and thus restablish religious union in the empire8 ,a4 ,that the church has always recognized in ,christ two natures1 united but not confounded--two wills1 distinct1 but not antagonistic4 #ha4 ,q4 ,when did the next siege of ,constantinople by the ,mohammedans take place8 ,a4 ,in the year #gag1 during the reign of ,leo ,,iii4 #hb4 ,q4 ,what was the result8 ,a4 ,in the following year the ,arabs were driven away1 having suffered a loss of twenty-five hundred ships and more than five hundred thousand warriors4 #hc4 ,q4 ,what decrees did ,leo ,,iii4 issue in #gbf and #gcj8 ,a4 ,a decree forbidding the worship of images1 and another banishing them entirely from the churches4 #hd4 ,q4 ,how did these decrees divide the nation8 ,a4 ,into two intensely hostile parties1 of iconoclasts or image-breakers1 and image-worshipers1 by whose contests it was long distracted4 #he4 ,q4 ,what action did ,leo ,v4 take in regard to image-worship8 ,a4 ,he not only banished the images from the churches1 but also destroyed the songs and prayers addressed to them4 #hf4 ,q4 ,what further order was made in regard to their worship by ,theophilus who became emperor in #hbi8 ,a4 ,he forbade the word 8holy0 to be inscribed on the images1 and also that they should be honored by prayers1 kissing1 or lighted tapers4 #hg4 ,q4 ,after the death of ,theophilus what action did the empress ,theodora1 into whose hands the positive power of the government passed1 take in regard to the images8 ,a4 ,she herself worshiped images4 ,the pictures were again hung in the churches1 and the monastic order more than ever became potent both in society and government4 #hh4 ,q4 ,during the reign of ,alexius what storm suddenly burst from the west8 ,a4 ,the so-called ,first ,crusade4 #hi4 ,q4 ,who was the ,pope at this time8 ,a4 ,urban ,,ii4 #ij4 ,q4 ,by whom were the crusades first incited8 ,a4 ,peter the ,hermit4 #ia4 ,q4 ,when did ,jerusalem fall into the hands of the crusaders8 ,a4 ,july #ae1 #ajii4 #ib4 ,q4 ,who were the leaders of the second crusade8 ,a4 ,conrad ,,iii41 king of ,germany1 and ,louis ,,vii41 king of ,france4 #ic4 ,q4 ,what was the ostensible intention of the crusaders8 ,a4 ,to free ,eastern ,christianity from the oppression of the ,turks4 #id4 ,q4 ,what does our author say was their ultimate object8 ,a4 ,the capture of ,constantinople and the abolition of the ,byzantine empire4 #ie4 ,q4 ,what was the result of the second crusade8 ,a4 ,it was wholly inglorious1 being relieved by no heroic deeds whatever4 #if4 ,q4 ,what took place in ,syria during #aahg8 ,a4 ,the ,christian authority was overthrown in ,syria1 and ,jerusalem was captured by ,saladin1 the sultan of ,egypt4 #ig4 ,q4 ,what occurred to ,constantinople during the fourth crusade1 in the year #abjd8 ,a4 ,after a siege of five months it fell into the hands of the crusaders4 #ih4 ,q4 ,when and by whom was ,constantinople recovered8 ,a4 ,in #abfa1 under the leadership of ,michael ,palologus4 #ii4 ,q4 ,when was ,constantinople again attacked by the ,turks8 ,a4 ,in #adec1 under the famous ,mohammed ,,ii4 #ajj4 ,q4 ,what was the result of the final decisive engagement8 ,a4 ,the city fell before overwhelming numbers1 and passed under ,turkish rule4 ,,outline ,,of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,studies4 ,,november1 #ahhc4 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 readings for ,november include parts #aj and #aa of ,timayenis's 8,history of ,greece10 for students having read the first volume2 or from page #ic to the end of 8,brief ,history of ,greece10 for students of ,class of '#hg4 ,chautauqua ,text-,book1 ,no4 #e1 8,greek ,history40 ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,first week 7ending ,november #h7--a4 8,history of ,greece10 from page #beh to 8,arius10 page #bic2 or1 8,brief ,history of ,greece10 from page #ic to 8,the ,battle of ,salamis10 page #aah4 #b4 ,readings in ,german ,history and ,literature in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 for ,november #d4 ,second ,week 7ending ,november #ae7--a4 8,history of ,greece10 from 8,arius10 page #bic1 to chapter viii1 page #cbh2 or1 8,brief ,history of ,greece10 from 8,the ,battle of ,salamis10 page #aah1 to 8,life of ,socrates10 page #adc4 #b4 ,readings in ,physical ,science and ,political ,economy in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 for ,november #aa4 ,third ,week 7ending ,november #bb7--a4 8,history of ,greece10 from chapter viii1 page #cbh1 to chapter iii1 page #cei2 or1 8,brief ,history of ,greece10 from 8,life of ,socrates10 page #adc1 to 8,causes of the ,sacred ,war10 page #afi4 #b4 ,readings in ,art1 in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 for ,november #ah4 ,fourth ,week 7ending ,november #bi7--a4 8,history of ,greece10 from chapter iii1 page #cei1 to the end of part #aa1 page #cdb2 or1 8,brief ,history of ,greece10 from 8,causes of the ,sacred ,war10 page #afi1 to the end of the book4 #b4 ,readings in ,american ,literature in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #c4 ,sunday ,readings in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 for ,november #be4 ,,chautauqua ,,normal ,,class4 ,season of #ahhd4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,hurlbut1 ,d4,d41 and ,r4 ,s4 ,,holmes1 ,a4,m41 ,,instructors4 ,i4 ,the course of instruction to be pursued in the ,sunday-school ,normal ,department of the ,chautauqua ,assembly1 at its session in #ahhd1 will embrace lessons upon the following subjects1 prepared by the instructors in the department4 ,the full text of these lessons will be printed during the year in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 which should be taken by all who desire to prepare for the ,normal ,department4 ,twelve ,lessons on the ,bible4--7#a7 ,the ,divine ,revelation2 7#b7 ,the ,bible from ,god through ,man2 7#c7 ,the ,bible as an ,english ,book2 7#d7 ,the ,canon of ,scripture2 7#e7 ,the ,world of the ,bible2 7#f7 ,the ,land of the ,bible2 7#g7 ,the ,history in the ,bible2 7#h7 ,the ,golden ,age of ,bible ,history2 7#i7 ,the ,house of the ,lord2 7#aj7 ,the ,doctrines of the ,bible2 7#aa7 ,immanuel2 7#ab7 ,the ,interpretation of the ,bible4 ,twelve ,lessons on the ,sunday-school and the ,teacher's ,work4--7#a7 ,the ,sunday-school--its ,purpose1 ,place1 and ,prerogatives2 7#b7 ,the ,superintendent--his ,qualifications1 ,duties1 and ,responsibility2 7#c7 ,the ,teacher's ,office and ,work2 7#d7 ,the ,teacher's ,week-day ,work2 7#e7 ,the ,teacher's ,preparation2 7#f7 ,the ,teacher's ,mistakes2 7#g7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,adaptation2 7#h7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,approach2 7#i7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,attention2 7#aj7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,illustration2 7#aa7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,interrogation2 7#ab7 ,the ,teaching ,process--,reviews4 ,,ii4 ,students of the ,normal ,course should study in addition to the outlines in ,,the ,,chautauquan1 the following ,chautauqua ,text-,books 7ten cents each73 ,no4 #ah1 8,christian ,evidences20 ,no4 #ai1 8,the ,book of ,books20 ,no4 #cf1 8,assembly ,bible ,outlines20 ,no4 #cg1 8,assembly ,normal ,outlines20 ,no4 #ch1 8,the ,life of ,christ20 ,no4 #ci1 8,the ,sunday-school ,normal ,class0 7including the preparation of the ,normal ,praxes72 and ,no4 #da1 8,the ,teacher ,before his ,class40 ,,iii4 ,students of the ,normal ,course are also desired to read the following books3 ,chautauqua ,text-,book ,no4 #a1 8,bible ,exploration20 ,no4 #h1 8,what ,noted ,men ,think of the ,bible20 ,no4 #aj1 8,what is ,education80 ,no4 #aa1 8,socrates20 and 8,normal ,outlines of ,christian ,theology10 by ,l4 ,t4 ,townsend 7price1 forty cents74 ,these books may be obtained of ,phillips ,hunt1 #hje ,broadway1 ,new ,york2 or of ,walden ,stowe1 ,cincinnati or ,chicago4 ,,iv4 ,students in special classes in churches or schools1 or individual students who prosecute the course as given above1 may receive by mail outline memoranda for examination1 and if they can certify to having studied the lessons and text-books1 and will also prepare the ,normal ,praxes named in ,chautauqua ,text-,book ,no4 #ci1 and fill out the ,outline ,memoranda1 may receive the diploma of the ,chautauqua ,teachers' ,union1 and will be enrolled as members of the ,chautauqua ,society4 ,such students will send name and address1 with twenty-five cents1 to ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,hurlbut1 ,d4,d41 ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j4 ,,chautauqua ,,normal ,,class--,,bible ,,section4 ,twelve ,lessons on ,bible ,themes4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,the ,,divine ,,revelation4 ,i4 ,there is in me a something which is called mind4 ,i do not know what it is4 ,i can neither tell whence it came1 nor whither it will go when it ceases to inhabit this body4 ,that in me1 which is thus ignorant concerning the mind1 is the mind itself4 ,there are therefore matters beyond my mental range4 ,that is1 my mind is limited1 bounded1 finite in its powers4 ,what is true of my mind is true of all human mind4 ,here then is one of the first results of consciousness3 ,,finite ,,mind ,,in ,,the ,,world4 ,,ii4 ,this finite mind did not produce itself2 it sees in the body which it controls evidence of a design of which it is not the author4 ,it turns to the phenomena of the universe and discovers in them the same evidences of design4 ,it seeks the attributes and character of the designer or designers of human body and of natural phenomena1 and finds them to be unlimited in action1 unbounded by time or space1 infinite in power1 and uniform in manifestation4 ,it therefore concludes that there is but one designer of all the phenomena of created nature1 and that he is both intelligent and infinite4 ,here then is a second result of consciousness3 ,,infinite ,,mind ,,in ,,the ,,universe4 ,,iii4 ,we have so far brought to view two powers1 infinite mind in the universe and finite mind in the world1 and between them a distance immeasurable and impassable from the finite side4 ,they are extremes in the progression of the universe4 ,let us notice some facts concerning each of these powers3 #a4 ,the infinite mind is self-existent2 eternal4 #b4 ,the infinite mind created finite mind in its own likeness4 ,both these points will be considered in our lesson on the 8,doctrines of the ,bible40 #c4 ,the infinite mind has provided a means of passing the distance between itself and the finite mind1 so that the finite might know the infinite2 i4 e4 it has revealed itself to the finite mind4 #d4 ,the finite mind is the highest created existence4 ,this is left without discussion for the student to amplify4 #e4 ,the finite mind exists because of the infinite mind4 ,the gas jet burning above my head affords an illustration4 ,it exists because of a well-stored gasometer two miles away2 because of complicated machinery by which coal has been caused to yield up its hidden stores of light2 because of a system of underground conductors that terminates in the burner on the wall4 ,without the burner and the light all these appliances would be useless2 and they in turn exist only that there may be light4 ,so the finite mind exists because of the infinite--nor can we think with satisfaction of infinite mind in the universe and no creation or correlated force4 #f4 ,the finite mind hungers to know the infinite2 it peers into the measureless space which its eye can not pierce1 and longs for the infinite to reveal itself4 ,this fact is historical1 8,canst thou by searching find out ,god80 has been the question of the ages2 and the answer has been 8the world by wisdom knew not ,god40 ,the cry of multitudes of hungering souls has been3 8,o1 that ,i knew where ,i might find him40 ,as light is necessary to the eye1 and air to the bird's wing1 and sound to the ear1 that each may perform the work for which it is adapted1 so a knowledge of the infinite mind that is of ,god1 is essential that the finite mind--that is1 man--may fulfill its destiny4 ,and this knowledge is possible only through self-revelation by ,god to man4 ,that such a revelation has been made we have already asserted4 ,that the ,bible is that revelation is our claim1 which we will discuss in a future lesson4 ,the present lesson will be content to inquire simply1 how that revelation has been effected4 ,we answer3 ,god wrought it out in the presence of the race in ways unmistakable1 exhibiting every attribute of his character1 even to those of mercy and forgiveness4 ,god wrought 7not wrote74 ,what we call the inspired ,word is a mediate1 not an immediate act of ,god4 ,god wrought1 the work extending through many ages1 perhaps not even yet finished4 ,wrought 7a7 in nature1 so that 8the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen1 being perceived through the things that are made40 ,creation then is itself a part of the revelation1 but only a part2 for out of it comes no hint of forgiveness or redemption4 7b7 ,in man1 by spiritual manifestations1 by intellectual enlightenments1 by illuminations of conscience1 such as could not originate in the human soul4 ,these revelations or workings of ,god in man mark a large portion of the history of thought through the ages2 and in that dim twilight of the race1 when men like ,enoch walked with ,god1 though history is but a shadow1 yet it is the shadow of ,god working in man4 7c7 ,in ,providence--that is1 in his ordering the work of the world4 ,he not only 8produced a supernatural history extending through centuries1 444 and working out results which human wisdom could never have conceived1 nor human power executed10,j but also he has directed all the workings of all history in accordance with the central purpose of his revelation4 7d7 ,in grace1 by his spirit revealing what the human mind could never have discovered for itself1 redemption and atonement through forgiveness of sin4 ,,iv4 ,this divine revelation so wrought by ,god has been1 and is being reported that all the world may know and confess that 8the ,lord1 he is the ,god40 ,reported3 #a4 ,through ,tradition4--,there was an unwritten ,bible before the written word1 handed down from patriarchs to scribes2 and even in lands destitute of the ,scriptures1 we trace the dim outlines of truth transmitted from ancient authority4 #b4 ,through ,philosophy4--,wise men and thinkers have read the revelation in nature and gathered it up from human thought1 and the highest philosophy1 as that of a ,socrates and a ,plato1 finds ,god4 #c4 ,through ,prophecy4--,in the earlier ages1 and perhaps through all the ages1 ,god has communed with chosen men who have lived in fellowship with himself2 and has made them the mouthpiece uttering his will to the world4 #d4 ,through ,preaching4--,the pulpit1 when it is true to its mission1 voices the message of ,god to man4 ,v4 ,we find also that this divine revelation has been written out1 under a divine direction3 #a4 ,in ,various ,books4--,the ,bible is not one book1 but sixty-six books1 a whole library1 presenting the divine revelation under varied aspects1 but all under one divine origin and supervision4 #b4 ,by ,various ,writers4--,not less than thirty authors1 and probably many more1 shared in the composition of the ,scriptures1 but all wrote under a divine control1 and expressed1 each in his own style1 the mind of the ,spirit4 #c4 ,through ,various ,ages4--,moses may have begun the writing1 doubtless from earlier documents4 ,samuel1 ,david1 ,solomon1 ,isaiah1 ,ezra1 ,matthew1 ,paul1 ,john1 each in turn carried on the work through a period of sixteen hundred years4 ,the book grew like a cathedral1 rising through the centuries1 under many successive master-builders1 yet according to one plan of one divine ,architect4 #d4 ,in ,various ,languages4--,two great tongues1 one ,semitic1 the other ,aryan1 were employed1 the ,hebrew in the ,old ,testament1 the ,greek in the new2 but the ,hebrew of ,moses is not that of ,daniel a thousand years later4 ,,vi4 ,we find this divine revelation preserved3 #a4 ,by being stereotyped into ,dead ,languages4--,a living language is ever changing the meaning of its words2 and truth written in it is in danger of being misunderstood by another generation4 ,but the words of a dead language1 like the ,hebrew and the ,greek1 are fixed in their meaning1 and once understood are not likely to be perverted4 ,soon after the ,bible was completed1 both its languages ceased to be spoken1 and have been kept since as the shrine for the great truths contained in the ,word4 #b4 ,by being translated into ,living ,languages4--,the ,bible has been translated into all the tongues of earth1 and thus its perpetuation to the end of time has been assured4 ,no other work has been read by so many races1 and no other is so capable of being understood by the masses of mankind4 #c4 ,by being incorporated into ,literature4--,if every copy of the ,scriptures in the whole world were destroyed every sentence of it could be reproduced from the writings of men1 since it has become an integral part of the thought of the world4 #d4 ,by being perpetuated in ,institutions4--,the ,jewish church perpetuates the ,old ,testament2 the ,christian church the ,new2 and while either endures1 the ,bible containing the divine revelation must endure4 ,,vii4 ,we find this divine revelation proved3 #a4 ,by ,testimonies4--,the child looking upon the opened page of the ,bible at his mother's knee1 accepts her testimony that it is the word of ,god1 and thus each generation receives the book from the preceding generation with a declaration of its divine origin4 #b4 ,by ,probabilities4--,such has been the history of this book in its relation to the world1 and its triumph over opposing forces2 such has been its early1 continuous and present acceptance2 that there is every probability in favor of its being1 what it appears to be1 a divine book4 #c4 ,by ,experience4--,there are many who have put this book to the test in their own lives2 have tried its promises2 have tasted its spiritual experience2 have brought it into contact with their own hearts2 and have obtained from it a certain assurance that it comes from ,god4 #d4 ,by ,evidences4--,if any reader will not accept the ,bible upon the testimonies of others2 if he fails to see in its behalf the weight of probability2 if he has not been able to put it to the test in his own experience1 there is yet a strong line of argument appealing to his reason1 and proving the book divine4 ,,viii4 ,we find this divine revelation searched3 #a4 ,through ,curiosity4--,there are some who read and study the ,bible from no higher motive than desire to know its contents4 #b4 ,through ,literary ,taste4--,there are others who read the ,bible from an appreciation of its value as a work of literature1 recognizing the high poetic rank of ,david and ,isaiah1 the historic worth of ,joshua and ,samuel1 the philosophic thought of ,paul4 #c4 ,through ,opposition4--,in every age there have been searchers of the ,bible actuated by the motive of unbelief2 men trying to find in it the weapons for its own destruction4 ,yet even their study has often proved serviceable to the believer in the divine revelation4 #d4 ,through ,spiritual ,desire4--,multitudes have studied the ,bible1 multitudes are studying it now because they find in it that which their spiritual nature craves1 the knowledge of ,god4 ,they feed upon the ,word because it satisfies the hunger of their spirits4 ,,ix4 ,we find this divine revelation circulated among men4 ,the history of the ,bible since its translation into ,english has been the history of multiplication4 ,language after language has had the ,bible added to the library of its language4 ,unwritten languages have had characters invented for them to represent their words and the ,bible has thus become the first book of the new-made written language of the people4 ,all the leading languages of the world have thus been put in possession of the ,bible1 and the signs of the times point to a speedy realization of the hope that soon all the nations of the earth will know the divine revelation of our ,father which is in heaven4 ,,chautauqua ,,normal ,,class4 ,twelve ,lessons on the ,sunday-school and the ,teacher's ,work4 ,,lesson ,i4--,,the ,,place1 ,,purpose ,,and ,,prerogatives ,,of ,,the ,,sunday-,,school4 ,i4 ,the place of the ,sunday-school4 #a4 ,the ,sunday-school is one of the means employed by the ,church of ,christ for bringing men under the influence of the ,gospel4 ,it is not designed to fill the place of any of the other accepted agencies of the church4 #b4 ,the ,sunday-school does not1 and should not accomplish the work belonging to the pulpit and the pastor1 nor does it subserve the purpose of the church meeting for prayer and interchange of ,christian experience4 #c4 ,the ,sunday-school can in no sense do the work of the ,christian home4 ,it is an agency differing from all other agencies of the church1 and is made necessary by the nature and extent of the body of truth accepted by the church1 so necessary that without it the church would be to a certain extent crippled4 #d4 ,it is a school1 organized and officered as such2 occupying a well defined place in the religious system of the church1 having a specific purpose1 and entitled to certain prerogatives4 #e4 ,as a school1 its constituency is a body of teachers and pupils1 associated together voluntarily1 but not without responsibility and accountability4 #f4 ,the ,sunday-school in its theoretic constitution is the parallel of the secular school4 7a7 ,as the latter derives its life from the community1 so the ,sunday-school derives its life from the religious community1 the church4 7b7 ,as the community delegates the power of control over the secular school to a representative body which exercises supreme authority over its affairs1 so the church entrusts the management of the ,sunday-school to her representative executive body1 by whatever name known4 7c7 ,as the representative body controlling the secular school places the oversight of the system and its details of management in the hands of a general executive officer1 or superintendent1 so the governing power of the church entrusts the management of the ,sunday-school to one of similar name--a superintendent4 7d7 ,as the secular school is within and subordinate to the community1 and alongside of the home as its aid and supplement1 so the ,sunday-school is within and subordinate to the church1 and beside the ,christian home as its supplement4 ,let us gather up these propositions concerning the ,sunday-school into a general definition4 ,definition4 ,the ,sunday-school is a department of the church of ,christ1 in which the word of ,christ is taught for the purpose of bringing souls to ,christ and building up souls in ,christ4 ,as suggested by this definition1 we make the following propositions3 7#a7 ,the ,sunday-school is a school4 7#b7 ,the ,sunday-school is not a substitute for the church4 7#c7 ,the ,sunday-school is not a substitute for the prayer meeting4 7#d7 ,the ,sunday-school is not a substitute for home training4 7#e7 ,the ,sunday-school is in the church as an integral part4 7#f7 ,the ,sunday-school is subordinate to the church4 7#g7 ,the ,sunday-school is an aid to the ,christian home4 ,,ii4 ,the ,purpose of the ,sunday-school4 #a4 ,the chief purpose of the ,sunday-school is the spiritual education of the soul4 ,by education we do not mean the mere putting in possession of knowledge4 ,there have been learned men who were not educated men2 men of wide knowledge1 but with the power of self-control and self-use undeveloped4 ,by education we mean leading the soul out of its natural condition1 into a condition where it can do what ,god meant it to do1 and be what ,god meant it to be4 ,spiritual education will therefore be the development of a soul by nature averse to divine control1 into a condition of oneness with the divine will1 such as is made possible by the at-one-ment of ,jesus ,christ4 ,this process involves1 7#a7 conversion1 and 7#b7 upbuilding in ,christ1 and would produce1 if unhindered1 a character that would reach toward the measure of the fulness of ,christ4 ,but many souls in the church have never reached farther than the first or preparatory step in spiritual education--the step which we call conversion4 ,hence1 #b4 ,a second purpose of the ,sunday-school is upbuilding in ,christ1 and this is possible only through searching study of the ,word of ,god4 ,as the astronomer must know all the intricacies of his science1 and be able with the telescope to read the heavens as an open book1 and scan their farthest depths1 so the ,christian must know the hidden mysteries and deep things of ,god as revealed in the ,bible1 which is both text-book and telescope to the soul4 #c4 ,a third purpose of the ,sunday-school is the development of the teaching power in the church4 8,go teach10 in the ,revised version becomes 8,go disciple40 ,sunday-school teaching therefore becomes disciple-making4 ,in this respect its aim is the same as that of the church4 ,to accomplish it by preaching1 the church provides years of careful training for her ministers in special schools4 ,as careful training is needed by the ,sunday-school teacher1 and the school itself is the only means by which the end can be secured4 ,,iii4 ,the ,prerogatives of the ,sunday-school4 ,the ,sunday-school exists within the church and because of the church4 ,yet though a part of the church1 it maintains a separate organic life4 ,as a member of the body it has certain rights which we call ,prerogatives4 ,we name the most important4 #a4 ,care4--,as no member of the body can be neglected without physical loss1 so if any part of the body of ,christ be left without watchful care1 spiritual loss must ensue4 ,the ,sunday-school has a right to the care of the church1 exercised 7a7 officially by the governing body1 that no want may be left unsupplied1 and 7b7 individually that sympathy1 help1 prayer and interest may never be lacking1 and that ample provision may be made for the efficient working of the school4 #b4 ,support4--,the ,sunday-school has a right to the pecuniary support of the church4 ,it never should be crippled by lack of means to carry out its plans4 ,the school should not be expected to provide for its own necessary expenses4 ,the voluntary contributions of the school should never be applied to the support of the school as such4 ,systematic giving should be taught1 and should include all the benevolent operations of the church1 even to the extent of contributing toward the general church expenses1 but that the school should use its funds for defraying its own expenses is clearly an evil4 7#c7 ,recognition4--,the school has a right to be recognized as an established agency of the church4 ,this recognition should include 7#a7 regular notice from the pulpit of the time and place of holding its sessions2 7#b7 the same prominence to the annual meeting for the choice of officers that is given to the same meetings of the church1 and 7#c7 its importance as a church agency should be recognized by giving to the school official recognition in the governing body of the church4 7#d7 ,pastoral ,supervision4--,the school has a right to the watchful oversight and regular presence of the pastor4 ,it is not necessary that he should superintend the school--it is better not4 ,it is not necessary that he should be burdened with its cares4 ,but it is essential 7#a7 that he use it as a field of pastoral labor2 7#b7 that he give to it the encouragement of his commendation2 7#c7 that he extend to it the sympathy of his presence2 7#d7 that he know as to the character of the work being done within it4 7#e7 ,coperation4--,the ,sunday-school has a right to the hearty coperation of the whole church1 so that 7#a7 there may be no lack of teachers to do the work of the school1 and 7#b7 that the work of the teacher may be understood and appreciated in the ,christian family1 which is the church unit2 and 7#c7 that teacher and parent may work in perfect harmony4 ,this is not intended as an exhaustive treatment of this subject4 ,it presents in outline some salient points concerning the ,sunday-school1 and leaves the student to continue by himself the line of thought suggested1 and to this end reference is made to 8,hart's ,thoughts on ,sunday-schools10 8,pardee's ,sunday-school ,index10 and the 8,chautauqua ,normal ,guide10 by ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 #ahhj4 ,,footnote3 ,j ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d4 ,,editor',s ,,outlook4 ,,dr4 ,,haygood',s ,,battle ,,for ,,the ,,negro4 ,there is something sublime in the spectacle of an earnest man contending for his cause4 ,the sublimity is heightened when we remember that his cause and his convictions are identical1 without any reckoning of the cost4 ,of this character was the figure of ,dr4 ,atticus ,g4 ,haygood on the ,chautauqua platform1 uttering brave words for the ,negro1 his former slave1 but present fellow-citizen4 ,nor did we have to wait till opportunity made him heard at ,chautauqua4 ,from the close of the war until now1 he has been a moulder and leader of the best sentiment in the ,south1 and has occupied advanced ground upon all questions relating to the education and welfare of the liberated slave4 ,his recent book1 8,our ,brother in ,black10 is the ablest contribution we have had to the 8,negro question40 ,it breathes throughout the same generous1 ,christian sentiment and sympathy that characterize all his utterances and his work elsewhere4 ,nor is the word 8battle0 too strong a term to be used4 ,when we remember the jealousies1 hates1 and prejudices of long standing1 and greatly intensified by the war2 and how they have been kept alive by designing men on both sides2 when we bear these things in mind1 it is easy to see that it has required no little courage for a ,southern man1 in the midst of ,southern people1 with their sentiments and feelings1 to take up the black man's cause and advocate it in words of bold1 plain truth4 ,dr4 ,haygood is the ,christian1 and not the politician4 ,when he praises1 as he does without stint1 the work accomplished for the ,negro by the people of the ,north1 it is not the work of that particular politician1 with his promise of 8a mule1 forty acres1 and provisions for a year10 but of teachers1 secular and religious1 who1 with a motive higher than the personal1 have sought the elevation1 moral and intellectual1 of the ,negro4 ,he pleads no apology for his ,southern brethren who have met these benevolent workers with opposition1 social ostracism1 and other forms of persecution1 but utters his condemnation of this spirit whenever and wherever manifested4 ,and the results of the first twenty years' history have justified his high and hopeful views4 ,it is only two years since ,senator ,brown1 of ,georgia1 said of the ,negro1 in a speech delivered in the ,united ,states ,senate3 8,he has shown a capacity to receive education1 and a disposition to elevate himself that is exceedingly gratifying1 not only to me1 but to every right-thinking ,southern man40 ,the results show that the ,negro has a real hunger for the education he so greatly needs4 ,it is shown that in the year #ahha1 forty-seven per cent4 of the colored school population was enrolled as attending the public schools1 whilst in the same year there was enrolled fifty-two per cent4 of the white population4 ,though both figures are painfully low1 and suggest a condition of great illiteracy1 yet1 when we remember the past of the ,negro--how he has been trampled down and trodden under--the figure #dg at the end of his first twenty years1 is both encouraging and significant4 ,but ,dr4 ,haygood finds his strongest hope in the religious nature of the ,negro4 ,the religious element of the race was very manifest in the days of slavery1 and since its freedom still more so4 ,the moral and religious progress of twenty years is encouraging4 ,of seven millions1 the entire colored population1 a million and a half are communicants of the various churches4 ,whilst their notions are crude1 their conceptions of religious truth often painfully realistic and grotesque1 yet their religion is real and worthy of confidence4 ,more than to all other influences combined1 to the black man's religion is due the shaping of his better character4 ,it is from this basis1 and working along this line1 that ,dr4 ,haygood sees the success of the future4 ,his closing word at ,chautauqua is a statement of the whole theory which will commend itself to the sympathy and judgment of right-thinking ,christian men everywhere3 8,mere statesmanship can not solve this hard problem4 ,it is not given to the wisdom of man2 but ,god reigns1 and ,god does not fail4 ,we are workers with him in his great designs4 ,when we stand by the cross of ,jesus ,christ we will know what to do4 ,we can solve our problem1 ,god being our helper4 ,but on no lower platform than this--the platform of the ,ten ,commandments and of the ,sermon on the ,mount40 ,,the ,,political ,,outlook4 ,in a few months we shall be in the midst of another presidential campaign1 and one as exciting1 perhaps1 as the country has known4 ,already we see earnest preparations for the fray4 ,the party managers are busily laying their schemes2 the question of candidates and the measures to secure victory are being thoroughly canvassed by the rival parties4 ,what now strikes the thoughtful person as he considers the political outlook is the lack of party issues4 ,two great parties are seen on the eve of a tremendous struggle for the reins of government2 but when the question is asked1 what are the living issues at the bottom of this fight8 one is puzzled for a reply4 ,the situation is about this3 instead of coming before the people with certain great principles as a ground of contention1 one party has for its cry1 8,put the rascals out20 and the other1 8,let us keep the rascals from coming in40 ,our feeling is that the case should be different4 ,are there no living issues important enough to serve as the rallying cry of political parties8 ,must parties live on a past record8 ,is there nothing for them to do but to glory in what they have done1 and point a finger of contempt at the other side8 ,by no means is this the case4 ,there are to-day vitally important matters pertaining to the public welfare which call loudly to our political leaders for attention2 and the party which shall take hold of these matters in an earnest way1 and boldly present itself as the champion of principles of truth and justice and purity1 ought to be1 and must be1 the party of the future4 ,the reform of the civil service might very well be a party issue1 but it is not4 ,neither of the great parties shows a disposition to take a hearty and united stand in favor of such reform4 ,some prominent men in both parties have it at heart1 and the movement which has been seen can not be claimed as a party movement4 ,the reform of the tariff wise men see to be one of the crying needs of the hour2 but how hopelessly at sea seem our party leaders in dealing with the question4 ,it can not be said that any principles of tariff are a party issue4 ,there is a wide diversity of sentiment among those who have the management of the parties2 on either side are seen free-trade men and protective tariff men2 and probably some have their opinions yet to form upon a subject so live and important as the tariff4 ,the nation has a yearly surplus revenue of #ajj1jjj1jjj1 to get rid of which extravagant and needless appropriations are made2 the embarrassment of certain branches of industry in our land1 as things are1 is evident2 but to which party can we point as the one intelligently and earnestly bent on tariff reform8 ,the time may come when the prohibition of the liquor traffic will be the underlying principle of a great political party1 but it is not now4 ,we may have our opinions as to which of the great parties bidding for the suffrages of the people is the more a temperance party1 but either is a great way from being ready to adopt as an issue the righteous principle of prohibition4 ,in just one ,state to-day 7,iowa71 one of the parties appears as the supporter of this principle4 ,turn to another ,state 7,massachusetts71 which sometimes is thought to lead all the rest in moral ideas1 and see the same party fighting neither for this principle nor any other1 but simply to wrest the power from ,governor ,butler4 ,we judge of the coming national campaign by that now in progress in different ,states1 and we see it is to be marked by a lack of high and worthy party issues4 ,it will be--what it should not be--a contest without great underlying principles4 ,let whichever party may triumph1 the victory can not be regarded one of living principles2 it will be rather the success of individuals to whom the majority of the people choose to commit the reins of authority1 or the triumph of a party which the people prefer for its record1 or to which they give a blind and unthinking preference4 ,whatever the outcome of the impending political struggle1 we have faith in the perpetuity of our institutions1 and that there is a nobler destiny for the ,american people than they have yet attained4 ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,the installment of ,grecian ,history required in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course is not extensive1 but has been prepared with much care1 and is adapted to its purpose4 ,a careful study--enough to give possession of the principal facts stated1 can hardly fail to kindle the desire for further knowledge of a people who had so many elements of greatness1 and for centuries surpassed all others in knowledge and culture4 ,the most advanced nations of to-day are largely indebted to the ,greeks4 ,modern art and literature bear witness to the indebtedness4 ,the race had wonderful capabilities4 ,their country1 climate1 blood1 early habits of self-control1 or all these together1 secured in that corner of ,europe a class of stalwart men1 physically and intellectually capable of great deeds4 ,much of their early history is1 of course1 fabulous4 ,the gods1 goddesses1 heroes and kings1 whose councils and exploits are rehearsed1 were but myths4 ,yet the legendary traditions respecting them have charms that attract and hold the reader4 ,we may utterly discredit the story1 but pay homage to the ability and versatile genius of the writer1 whose glowing words so paint the scenes described4 ,only a slight basis of fact is conceded to some of the most captivating ,homeric descriptions2 yet they are in an important sense true4 ,false in history1 but sublimely true to the conceptions of the greatest of poets1 as a bold delineator1 peerless in his own1 or any other age4 ,if the ideal of the divinities thought to be interested in the affairs of men falls far below the conceptions of a monotheist1 and seems unworthy of a philanthropic heathen1 the portraiture is both complete and captivating4 ,when the mists1 that for centuries shrouded ,greece and the neighboring isles1 are dispersed1 and we recognize the certain dawn of the historic period1 though the descendants of those mighty heroes and kings that were deified as sons of the gods1 shrink to the proportions of men1 they are still found to be mighty men1 whose noble deeds and achievements have been an inspiration to millions in the generations since4 ,excepting only such as have the true light1 and are blest with ,christian civilization1 we adopt the statement 8,no other race ever did so many things well as the ,greeks40 ,let the book be closely studied4 ,if the cursory1 objectless reader lacks interest1 and tires in the work1 the student feels more than compensated for his toil4 ,a ,,college ,,reform4 ,the present agitation touching college courses of study is one from which good is likely to come4 ,there is danger1 however1 that we swing to the other extreme4 ,that undue prominence in the ordinary college curriculum has hitherto been given to classical studies1 and too little room made for the modern languages1 natural science1 and ,english literature is coming to be widely felt4 ,but the true reform is not utterly to eliminate the classics2 it is not the part of wisdom to decry as folly the study of the dead tongues4 ,the oration of ,charles ,francis ,adams1 ,jr41 last summer at ,harvard1 published under the title of 8,a ,college ,fetich10 was quite as unexpected and sensational as that of ,wendell ,phillips on another similar occasion4 ,mr4 ,phillips arraigned his alma mater that her sons were no more active in social reforms1 while ,mr4 ,adams charged upon her that1 in retaining the dead languages as a required part of the course of study1 she was guilty of worshiping a fetich4 ,this grandson and great-grandson of a ,president1 whose illustrious ancestors one after another were inmates of ,harvard's halls1 makes against the venerable institution1 the most serious charge that her graduates1 upon leaving her1 are not fitted as they should be for practical life4 ,she sends them forth1 he affirms1 with a smattering of the dead languages1 which is quite without advantage1 instead of with a thorough knowledge of what can be turned to practical account and will qualify them for the duties of active life4 ,he would have a drill in the classics no longer required of the college student2 but would allow him to win his ,a4 ,b4 by pursuing other and more useful branches of study4 ,mr4 ,adams's bold claim against ,harvard1 if sustained1 would of course hold against other colleges1 and against some others would hold in a higher degree4 ,but we think his statements are too sweeping1 and the reform he advocates1 because it goes too far1 would not be a wise reform4 ,we would not abolish the study of ,latin and ,greek in our colleges4 ,they are dead tongues1 but it does not follow that time spent in their study is wasted4 ,on the contrary1 we would have them taught with such thoroughness1 by such qualified and skillful teachers that the college graduate will go out with something more than a smattering of them4 ,it is a fact which can not be disproved1 that from a study of the classics comes a mental discipline and a mastery of good ,english1 such as can be acquired from nothing else4 ,but that too much comparative attention has been given to these branches is freely conceded4 ,there is a want of more thorough study in our higher institutions of the natural science1 the modern tongues1 and the models of our own language4 ,the true reform is to cease to magnify ,latin and ,greek at the expense of these other things1 and to give to the latter their due attention4 ,of the wisdom of elective college courses there can be no doubt4 ,it may not be always best for the young man who has not in view one of the learned professions1 but a business life1 to spend years in the study of the ancient languages4 ,but it is our judgment that a knowledge of these should always be required of the candidate for the ,bachelor of ,art's degree4 ,certain things are in the air1 and we rejoice4 ,natural science1 that field of study in richness so exhaustless1 is attracting the student as never before4 ,the importance of gaining a knowledge of languages now spoken1 other than our own1 is being felt as it was not once4 ,we welcome the indications that promise a college reform4 ,let us have it without over-shooting the mark4 ,,editor',s ,,note-,,book4 ,the trustees of the ,garfield monument to be erected in ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 have more than one hundred and thirty thousand dollars on hand1 and they expect to secure a sufficient increase to this sum1 at an early day1 to complete the work4 ,this1 with the fund of more than three hundred thousand dollars which the ,american people contributed and presented to the widow of the lamented ,garfield1 is positive proof that our republic is not ungrateful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the old statement that a low grade of moral character may exist in the same community with a high grade of mental culture may be true of any type of the best modern civilizations1 but it is not necessarily true4 ,education1 like the gospel1 may be the savor of death unto death1 but moral death need not be its effect4 ,a good illustration of the elevating tendencies of education in the community is found in the fact that since the compulsory school law went into operation in ,new ,york1 juvenile crime in that city has been reduced by more than thirty-six per cent4 ,and yet it is said the law has been only partially enforced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,scientific temperance education has been by legislative action introduced into the public schools of ,vermont and ,michigan1 and at the last session of the legislature in ,new ,hampshire it was by a unanimous vote introduced into the schools of that ,state4 ,the ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u4 is laying its hand on legislatures in a very effective way1 and we may look for an abundant harvest in the next generation4 8,long voyages make rich returns40 99 99 99 99 99 ,prince ,bismarck is a timber merchant1 and why should not a dealer in timber be called a merchant8 ,but this is not all4 ,he is a large distiller of spirituous liquors4 ,the ,germans do not object to his occupation as a distiller1 for their drinking customs are on a low grade4 ,public opinion1 in this country1 would not long tolerate a statesman1 even of great abilities1 who manufactured distilled liquors for sale as a beverage4 ,and herein we see one point of difference between these two nations on a great moral reform4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,scientific ,american of a recent date says3 8,too much reliance is placed on the sense of taste1 sight and smell in determining the character of drinking water4 ,it is a fact which has been repeatedly illustrated that water may be odorless1 tasteless and colorless1 and yet be full of danger to those who use it4 ,the recent outbreak of typhoid fever in ,newburg1 ,n4 ,y41 is an example1 having been caused by water which was clear1 and without taste or smell4 ,it is also a fact that even a chemical analysis sometimes will fail to show a dangerous contamination of the water1 and will always fail to detect the specific poison if the water is infected with discharges of an infectious nature4 ,it is therefore urged that the source of the water supply should be kept free from all possible means of contamination by sewage4 ,it is only in the knowledge of perfect cleanliness that safety is guaranteed40 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,henry ,hart1 of ,brockport1 ,n4 ,y41 manufactures a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 gold pin of beautiful design for gentlemen1 and another one attached to an arrow1 which is equally handsome1 for ladies4 ,either one makes an appropriate badge for members of the ,circle to wear in everyday life1 and at times it will serve to introduce strangers when traveling or in strange places1 who have a common sympathy in a great work1 and thus aid the possessor in extending his circle of acquaintances4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the most embarrassing questions in the management of colleges and universities is1 how shall trustees superannuate a certain class of professors1 whose days of usefulness in the recitation room are past4 ,when that problem is solved the unity and peace of the management will1 as a rule1 be secured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,new ,york ,herald is led to pronounce against capital punishment because in many cases the law against murder is a dead letter1 and produces the following historical reference to confirm the statement3 8,it appears that from #ahfj to #ahhb a hundred and seventy persons were tried in ,massachusetts for murder in the first degree4 ,of this number only twenty-nine were convicted1 and only sixteen paid the extreme penalty of the law4 ,of those convicted one committed suicide1 and twelve got their sentences commuted4 ,here1 then1 during a period of little more than twenty years were a hundred and seventy murders in one ,state1 and only sixteen executions40 99 99 99 99 99 ,they have one hundred and fifty miles of electric railway in operation in ,europe4 ,active preparations are making by rival inventors and corporations in ,new ,york ,city to introduce electricity on a large scale as a safe1 rapid1 and cheap motor4 ,as in lighting houses1 towns1 and cities we have passed from the tallow candle to kerosene1 and then to gas1 and on to the electric light1 so by many steps and advances we are almost ready to accept electricity as the moving power of railway trains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the pardoning power of the general government is liable to work pernicious results in the regular army4 ,cases of embezzlement and fraud among army officers have been growing in number since our civil war1 and laxity in the enforcement of the laws against these offenders is a growing evil4 ,general ,j4 ,b4 ,fry1 an officer of repute1 and a graduate of ,west ,point1 thus points out the evil3 8,the interposition of higher authority in favor of offenders has been so frequent since the war1 especially from #ahgf to #ahhj1 as to be a great injury to the service4 ,many of the evils which have been exposed recently are fairly chargeable to executive and legislative reversal of army action4 99 99 99 ,when the strong current of military justice is dammed by the authorities set over the army1 stagnant pools are formed which breed scandal1 fraud1 disobedience1 dissipation1 and disgrace1 sometimes even among those educated for the service40 99 99 99 99 99 ,cable intelligence1 received ,september #c1 shows that the ,baron ,nordenskjld1 as a ,greenland explorer1 has accomplished a large part of his original purpose4 ,the expedition entered ,west ,greenland in latitude #fh1 and proceeded #bbj miles inland1 attained an altitude of seven thousand feet above the sea level4 ,in #ahgh ,lieutenant ,jansen1 of the ,danish navy1 penetrated fifty miles from the coast1 and reached an 8icy mountain1 in lat4 #fb #dj1 five thousand feet high40 ,but no explorer has since done anything worth mention toward solving the mystery of ,greenland's interior physical geography4 ,the expedition with ,professor ,nordenskjld has gone farther and seen more of the 8immense desert of ice20 and the latest telegrams claim that some important scientific data have been obtained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the prohibition amendment1 submitted to the voters of ,ohio1 is defeated1 and our cherished hopes of its success1 for the present1 sadly disappointed4 ,the non-partisan temperance people1 everywhere1 felt deeply interested in the issue1 and will hear the result with profound sorrow4 ,multitudes of ,ohio's best men and women1 who had prayed1 worked1 and hoped that deliverance might come in that way1 and that from the #ith of ,october we would see the unspeakable curse of the liquor traffic placed where it ought to be1 under the ban of the constitution1 from which corrupt tinkering politicians would be unable to protect it1 will confess their disappointment1 but neither suppress their prayers nor cease their efforts4 ,they are clearly in the majority1 and when united will succeed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,telegraphic report says the ,vicar of ,stratford has authorized the exhumation of the remains of ,shakspere that they may compare the skull with the bust that stands over the grave4 ,dr4 ,ingleby1 of ,london1 who is a trustee of the ,shakspere ,museum at ,stratford1 wishes1 it seems1 to photograph the face and take a cast of the skull4 ,the absurdity of the proposal makes it almost incredible1 and should itself prevent the desecration4 ,we are not surprised that the bishop and local authorities have protested1 and the intended outrage will hardly be perpetrated4 ,by the terms of the deed of interment the consent of the ,mayor of ,stratford-on-,avon must first be given before the body can be moved4 ,to this proposal1 that official has given a decided refusal1 and the dust of the poet will not be disturbed4 ,shakspere has been dead two hundred and sixty-seven years4 ,the type of face and head1 universally accepted as his1 is sufficiently accurate4 ,if it were not the correction of any fault in that likeness is now impossible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,pittsburgh ,exposition building1 with most of its contents1 was entirely consumed by fire during the exposition week4 ,the principal loss was the goods on exhibition1 including many articles of exquisite workmanship1 and valuable relics that can not be replaced4 ,the building itself1 though a wooden structure1 was large1 and seemed suitable for the purpose4 ,it was valued at #aej1jjj and not heavily insured4 ,perhaps sufficient care was not taken to secure the property against the calamity that1 in so short a time1 destroyed the whole4 ,the company1 who had before suffered some reverses and losses1 and were struggling into what seemed a safe condition1 with hopes of future prosperity1 have the sympathy of the public4 99 99 99 99 99 ,during the last decade1 and especially since the great ,centennial1 expositions have been numerous1 and1 in many cases1 attended with most gratifying results4 ,when the associations providing them are controlled by men of culture1 they are generously sustained4 ,the articles they have to exhibit are not only numerous1 but in kind and quality1 worthy of our advanced civilization4 ,these ,american expositions are becoming notably rich in manufactured articles1 and in the extent and variety of useful machinery4 ,for inventive genius the ,yankee nation is unrivaled1 while in the mechanical execution of the designs our skilled artisans have few1 if any1 superiors4 ,in the principal western cities the holding of at least annual expositions is no longer a tentative measure4 ,the institutions are established1 and their continuance1 in most cases1 pretty well assured4 ,an example of these is the 8,detroit ,art and ,loan ,exposition0 of recent origin4 ,already it has fair proportions1 being from the commencement1 in most respects1 equal to the best4 ,evidently the project for having there a creditable1 first-class exposition was clearly conceived1 generously sustained1 and most successfully executed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,before ,congress opens ,general ,w4 ,t4 ,sherman will close up the affairs of his office1 and ,general ,sheridan will succeed him as commander of the ,united ,states ,army4 ,general ,sherman has made a good officer1 but his reputation in history will rest chiefly on his bravery and skill as a general in his famous march to the sea4 ,the ,sherman family have served their country well4 ,john ,sherman1 in the ,senate1 and as ,secretary of the ,treasury1 in times when great abilities were in demand1 has made a name as great in his line as the general in the army4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the receipts of the great ,brooklyn bridge for nineteen weeks from the opening1 were3 ,for passengers1 #cd1dfd2 for vehicles1 #ca1efc2 for cars1 #c1icf4 ,total receipts1 #fi1afc4 ,the average per day was #ebf4jd4 ,the total expenses during the nineteen weeks were #ea1dah4jh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 continues to grow with great rapidity in all parts of the country4 ,there is no sign of the interest waning in any community from which we have heard4 ,from ,plainfield1 ,n4 ,j41 the central office1 we receive news that the new class will be the largest of our history4 ,new ,england is rolling up a large membership4 ,all over the ,west and ,northwest there is an interest among the people amounting to enthusiasm4 ,mr4 ,lewis ,peake1 of ,toronto1 reports a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 revival in ,canada4 ,this is the time to circulate ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 circulars1 and to use your town1 city1 and county papers to call the attention of the people to the aims and methods of work4 ,by these means a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 fire may be kindled on every street in every town and city in the land4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the recent pastoral letter of the ,cardinal and other high officials in the ,romish ,church1 caused a reporter to ask one of these officers some questions about marriage and divorce1 to which he replied as follows4 ,it is wholesome truth3 8,marriage is a divine institution1 and the ,catholic ,church under no circumstances whatever permits the sacred contract to be broken40 ,to the question1 8,is there no such thing as separation between husband and wife recognized in the ,catholic ,church80 he answered3 8,separation1 yes1 for the gravest reasons and under restrictions that do not admit of the remarriage of either of the parties to the original contract while both are living4 ,but divorce in the sense generally accepted1 never4 ,rather than permit divorce1 the ,church let ,england separate from the ,holy ,see4 ,the same question was raised by the first ,napoleon1 and it was ruled against him by the ,pope4 ,you will find that if anything bearing the appearance of divorce has been allowed in the ,catholic ,church1 it has always been a case where the most careful investigation showed that the marriage was originally invalid40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,germans on ,october #h in many towns and cities celebrated the bi-centennial of the arrival of the first ,german immigrants in this country1 on the ship 8,concord40 ,their singing1 secret1 and literary societies paraded in regalia1 with banners and music4 ,it was a notable day among the ,germans of ,america4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bishop ,paddock1 of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church1 in charge of the diocese of ,washington ,territory1 when speaking of his field of labor before the ,episcopal ,council in ,philadelphia last month1 said3 8,i am decidedly opposed to separating the colored people in their worship from the whites40 99 99 99 99 99 ,we learn from an exchange that the authorities of the ,erie ,railway have decided to discharge every employe who uses liquor as a beverage1 whether he gets drunk or not4 ,it is plain that for the safety of passengers a drinking man should not be entrusted with an engine1 the care of a switch1 with messages as a telegraph operator1 or as a superintendent in charge of a division4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,methodists of ,canada have eliminated the words 8serve0 and 8obey0 from the woman's part of the marriage ceremony4 ,even the argument that the ,new ,testament enjoins this kind of obedience on wives1 did not preserve the words in the ritual4 ,we congratulate the wives on the change4 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,w4 ,f4 ,sherwin has been appointed by ,dr4 ,e4 ,tourjee chorus director in that prosperous institution1 the ,new ,england ,conservatory of ,music1 in ,boston1 ,massachusetts4 ,the ,professor will make ,boston his home1 and continue to lecture and conduct musical conventions1 as heretofore4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,cooper ,union was crowded one evening last month to welcome ,francis ,murphy home from ,england and his own native ,ireland4 ,judge ,noah ,davis presided and delivered the address of welcome4 8,in speaking of ,mr4 ,murphy's work in ,england and ,scotland he quoted the statistics of the ,united ,kingdom to prove that ,mr4 ,murphy's efforts had been effectual in reducing the excise revenues many thousands of pounds sterling4 ,he said that during his two years' stay in ,england and ,scotland he had obtained half a million signers to the pledge4 ,mr4 ,murphy responded in a few brief words1 declaring that the occasion was the happiest of his whole life4 ,a number of short addresses were made by clergymen1 and with the singing of songs and choruses1 in which the whole assembly engaged1 the ceremonies were prolonged until about half-past ten o'clock40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 is rapidly becoming an established institution among ,new ,england people4 ,this is to be accounted for in part by the fact that the religious press of ,boston and other ,new ,england cities has favored the work with earnest1 strong words4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,b4 ,k4 ,pierce1 editor of ,zion's ,herald1 closes a leading editorial on the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 in his paper of a recent date1 with these words3 8,there is another reason why we look with great satisfaction upon this widely-extended home-university4 ,we have fallen upon an era of doubt4 ,the literature of the hour is full of sneers at revealed religion and of arrogant and destructive criticism upon the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the daily1 weekly and monthly press is strongly flavored with this4 ,our young people breathe it in the atmosphere of the school and of the streets4 ,here is one of the best1 silent1 powerful1 positive correctives4 ,this carefully-arranged plan of study and reading for successive years is entirely in the interest of the #8truth as it is in ,jesus4' ,it is not narrow1 nor dogmatic1 nor polemical1 nor confined to purely religious subjects1 but the whole system is arranged and followed out upon the presumption of the inspiration of the ,bible1 the divine origin of ,christianity1 and its ultimate triumph upon the earth4 ,it will powerfully strengthen the faith of young ,christians1 preserve them from the insidious attacks of infidelity1 and enable them to have1 and to give to any serious inquirer1 an answer for the hope that is in them40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the jury system has some glaring defects which should be laid bare and made the subject of agitation till they are corrected4 ,recently in a famous bribery case 7so called7 at ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 when jurors were being called and questioned1 one of them said1 8,i don't know who were the ,united ,states ,senators two years ago from ,new ,york40 ,yet this ignorant man was accepted as a juror4 ,this is a common custom in the selection of jurors4 ,it is exalting ignorance at the expense of intelligence and justice4 ,some remedy should be found for this growing and terrible evil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a new field of artistic ability is being developed in the ,east4 ,it is the decoration of the interior of private residences4 ,already in ,new ,york a number of young artists1 who find it difficult to sell all the pictures they paint1 are giving their attention to this work1 which promises to be very remunerative and very extensive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,chicago agency of ,alice ,h4 ,birch has been abandoned1 and her old patrons may order any game previously advertised by her1 at her home1 ,portland1 ,traill ,co41 ,dakota4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,commissioner of ,education has prepared a table showing the illiteracy among voters in the ,south1 which presents a painfully interesting study for educators and statesmen4 ,in the formerly slaveholding ,states there are #d1aed1abe men legally entitled to vote4 ,of these1 #dji1efc whites1 and #ihb1hid colored1 are unable to write even their names1 and their ability to read is very limited4 ,many1 who profess to be able to read1 can only with difficulty spell out a few simple sentences in their primers1 and really get no knowledge1 such as the citizen needs1 from either books or papers4 ,thousands of them have neither books nor papers1 and could not read them if they had4 ,surely a great work must be done for these freed men and poor whites before they are quite equal to all the duties of citizens in a country like ours4 ,,editor',s ,,table4 ,q4 ,decorus or decorus1 which8 ,a4 ,webster authorizes both1 giving preference to the latter4 ,the former has the advantage of placing the accent on the root syllable1 a rule that is very helpful in settling questions of pronunciation1 and conforms to usage in the accentuation of cognate words1 as 8decorate10 8decoration10 etc4 ,we prefer it4 ,q4 ,what is the meaning of 8liberal10 in the phrases1 8liberal education10 and 8liberal religious views80 ,a4 ,an education extended much beyond the practical necessities of our every-day business and social life1 is liberal4 ,it is not a possession belonging alone to the alumni of colleges and universities4 ,any person of culture1 who1 with or without the aid of teachers1 has mastered the curriculum of studies prescribed by colleges1 or its equivalent1 is liberally educated4 ,in the best sense1 a man of 8liberal religious views0 is generous1 freely according to others the right to their opinions on all subjects about which good men may differ4 ,he is not creedless1 but not bigoted2 and cordially approves 8things that are most excellent10 wherever they are found4 ,the claim to great liberality1 set up by those who have no rule of faith1 and no views they are willing to formulate1 does not seem well founded4 ,q4 ,where is the line1 8,far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife0 found8 and should not the word 8madding0 be 8maddening80 ,a4 ,the line is from ,gray's ,elegy 7#gc74 ,the adjective 8mad0 is made a causative verb1 without the usual suffix1 8en40 ,we do not find the form in prose1 and would not use it4 ,q4 ,are there any books purporting to prove scientifically the immortality of the soul8 ,a4 ,if by 8scientifically10 the querist means1 as we suppose1 rationally1 philosophically1 our answer is1 yes1 very many4 ,more books have been written upon this one subject than one could read carefully in a lifetime4 ,several thousand distinct works1 written in ,greek1 ,latin1 ,english1 and the principal languages of ,europe1 have been catalogued by ,ezra ,abbott4 ,the catalogue itself1 published as an appendix to ,alger's 8,doctrine of a ,future ,life10 would make a respectable volume1 containing1 as it does1 a list of more than five thousand books1 by almost as many authors1 who discuss1 more or less satisfactorily1 the great problem of the soul4 ,some propose1 not argument1 but only a history of the doctrine of a future1 immortal life as held by the different races of men1 with various shades of opinion respecting it4 ,some doubt1 some disbelieve1 and some1 discarding all rational processes1 accept the dogma as a matter of faith alone1 lying beyond the field of our reason4 ,but many ,christian writers1 thankful for the 8more sure word of prophecy10 and that 8life and immortality are brought to light by the gospel10 hold also that outside the realm of faith1 it is a fit subject for rational investigation1 and as capable of proof or demonstration as other moral and psychical problems4 ,perhaps most of the works named in the catalogue consulted1 treat of the soul and its immortality in connection with other principles and facts of the religious systems accepted by the authors1 and are too voluminous for common use4 ,drew's 8,essay on the ,immateriality and ,immortality of the ,soul0 founded wholly on psychological and rational principles is regarded a masterpiece of metaphysical argument--clear1 logical1 satisfactory4 ,q4 ,is the expression 8as though0 ever correct8 ,a4 8,though0 is often used in ,english1 taking the place of the conditional if1 especially in the phrases as though and what though1 which interchange with as if and what if2 e4 g43 8,if she bid me pack1 ,i'll give her thanks as though she bid me stay by her a week40--,shakspere4 8,a ,tartar1 who looked as though the speed of thought were in his limbs40--,byron4 ,other examples need not be given4 ,these approve the expression as correct1 though not much used at present4 ,q4 ,will the firing of cannon over water bring a dead body at the bottom to the surface2 if so1 why1 or how8 ,a4 ,the concussion or violent agitation of the water may loosen a body slightly held at the bottom1 when1 if specifically lighter than water1 it will rise4 ,q4 ,in 8,recreations in ,astronomy10 p4 #afc1 it is said #aib asteroides have been discovered1 with diameters from #bj to #djj miles2 and on the next page it is 8estimated0 that if all these were put into one planet1 it would not be over #djj miles in diameter4 ,how can that be8 ,a4 ,allowing1 as the author does1 that the density of the masses remains the same1 it would1 of course1 be impossible4 ,we have not the means at hand to either verify or correct the diameters given1 and can not locate the error4 ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,for ,,november4 ,,timayenis',s ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,,parts #aj ,,and #aa4 ,p4 #beh4--8,mummius10 mummi-us4 ,see ,timayenis1 p4 #bea1 vol4 ,,ii4 8,delos10 delos4 8,mithradatic10 mithra-datic4 ,for history of ,mithradates see ,timayenis1 vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bed4 ,p4 #bei4--8,sulla10 sulla4 7,b4 ,c4 #ach-gh74 ,a ,roman general1 the rival of ,marius4 ,after the close of this war ,sulla went to ,italy1 defeated the ,marian party and issued a proscription by which many thousands of his enemies perished4 ,for the two years following he held the office of dictator1 which in #gi he resigned to retire to private life4 8,epidaurus10 epi-daurus4 ,one of the most magnificent temples in all ,greece1 that of the god sculapius1 was situated there4 8,peiran10 pei-ran4 ,through this gate ran the road to the ,pirus1 and at the ,sacred ,gate began the sacred road to ,eleusis where the festivals and mysteries were celebrated4 8,bithynia10 bi-thyni-a2 8,kappadokia10 cappa-doci-a2 8,paphlagonia10 paphla-goni-a4 ,p4 #bfj4--8;,chrysostom10 krsos-tom4 ,see ,timayenis1 vol4 ,,ii41 #cai sq4 8,anthemius10 an-themi-us2 8,isidorus10 isi-dorus4 ,eminent architects4 ,p4 #bfa4--8,pompey40 7,b4 ,c4 #ajf-dh47 ,pompey had been a successful general from early life1 receiving from ,sulla the surname of ,magnus4 ,p4 #bfb4--8,soli10 soli4 ,the word solecism 7to speak incorrectly7 is said to have been first used in regard to the dialect of the inhabitants of this city4 8,pompeiopolis10 pompe-i-opo-lis2 8,armenia10 ar-meni-a4 8,tigranes10 ti-granes4 ,the king of ,armenia from ,b4 ,c4 #if-ee4 ,he was an ally of ,mithradates until this invasion by ,pompey1 when he hastened to submit to the latter1 thus winning favor and receiving the kingdom with the title of king4 ,p4 #bfc4--8,phillippi10 phil-lippi2 8,octavius10 oc-tavi-us4 8,philhellenist10 phl-hllen-ist4 ,a friend to ,greece4 8,philathenian10 phl-a-theni-an4 ,a friend to ,athens4 8,actium10 acti-um4 ,p4 #bfd4--8;gina10 -gina2 8,eretria10 e-retri-a4 8,stoa10 stoa4 ,halls or porches supported by pillars1 and used as places of resort in the heat of the day4 8,athene ,archegetes10 a-thene ar-chege-tes2 8,peisistratus10 pi-sistra-tus2 8,nikopolis10 ni-copo-lis4 ,p4 #bfe4--8;,csarean10 c-sre-an4 8,seneca40 7,b4 ,c4 #e8-;,a4 ,d4 #fe47 ,a ,roman ,stoic philosopher4 ,the tutor and afterward adviser of ,nero4 ,when the excesses of the latter had made ,seneca's presence irksome to him1 he was dismissed and soon after1 by order of ,nero1 put to death4 ,his writings were mainly philosophical treatises4 8,agrippina10 ag-rip-pina4 ,nero was the son of ,agrippina by her first husband4 ,on her marriage with her third husband1 the ,emperor ,claudius1 she prevailed upon the latter to adopt ,nero as his son4 ,in order to secure the succession she murdered ,claudius and governed the empire in ,nero's name until he1 tired of her authority1 caused her to be put to death4 8,isthmian10 sm-an2 8,pythian10 pythi-an2 8,nemean10 nme-an2 8,olympian10 o-lympi-an4 ,see author for accounts of these games4 8,pythia10 pythi-a4 ,see ,timayenis1 p4 #dd-de1 vol4 ,i4 ,p4 #bff4--8,vespasian10 ves-pzh-an2 8,lollianus10 lol-li-anus4 8,aristomenes10 ar-is-tome-nes4 ,the legendary hero of the ,second ,messenian ,war4 ,in #hfe ,b4 ,c4 he began hostilities and defeated ,sparta several times but was at last taken prisoner4 ,the legends tell that he was rescued1 from the pit where he had been confined1 by an eagle and led home by a fox4 ,when at last ,ira fell1 ,aristomenes went to ,rhodes1 where he died4 8,aratus10 a-ratus2 8,achan10 a-chan4 ,see ,timayenis1 vol ,,ii41 p4 #bdb-bdc4 ,p4 #bfg4--8,zeno40 ,the founder of the ,stoic philosophy4 ,a native of ,cyprus4 ,he lived1 probably1 about #bfj ,b4 ,c4 ,he is said to have spent twenty years in study1 after which time he opened his school in a stoa of ,athens4 ,from this place his disciples received the name of ,stoics4 ,translation of foot-notes3 8,they call those sophists who for money offer knowledge to whomsoever wishes it40 8,a sophist is one who seeks the money of rich young men40 8,sophistry consists in appearing wise1 not in being so2 and the sophist becomes wealthy by an appearance of wisdom1 not by being wise40 8,gorgias10 gorgi-as4 8,leontine10 le-ontine4 ,an inhabitant of ,leontini in ,sicily4 ,p4 #bfh4--8;,dion10 dion chry-sosto-mus1 or ,dion1 the golden mouthed1 so called from his eloquence4 8,strabo10 strabo4 ,his geography is contained in seventeen books4 ,it gives descriptions of the physical features of the country1 accounts of political events1 and notices of the chief cities and men4 8,plutarch40 ,his 8,parallel ,lives0 is a history of forty-eight different ,greeks and ,romans4 ,they are arranged in pairs1 and each pair is followed by a comparison of the two men4 8,appianus10 ap-pi-anus4 ,the author of a history of ,rome4 8,dion ,cassius40 7,a4 ,d4 #aee47 ,the grandson of ,dion ,chrysostomus4 8,herodianus10 hero-di-anus4 8,epiktetus10 epic-tetus4 ,few circumstances of his life are known4 ,only those of his works collected by ,arrian are extant4 ,as a teacher it is said that no one was able to resist his appeals to turn their minds to the good4 8,hierapolis10 hie-rapo-lis4 8,longinus10 lon-ginus4 ,the most distinguished adherent of the ,platonic philosophy in the third century4 ,his learning was so great that he was called 8a living library40 ,he taught many years at ,athens1 but at last left to go to ,palmyra1 as the teacher of ,zenobia4 ,when she was afterward defeated by the ,romans and captured1 ,longinus was put to death 7#bgc74 8,lucian40 ,see notes in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,may1 #ahhc4 8,samosata10 sa-mosa-ta4 ,p4 #bgj4--8,thesmopolis10 thes-mopo-lis4 8,sappho10 sappho4 8,domitian10 do-mish-an4 ,p4 #bga4--8,pliny10 pln4 7#fa8-aae87 ,the nephew of the elder ,pliny4 ,his life was largely spent in literary pursuits4 ,his works extant are the ,panegyricus1 an eulogium on ,trajan1 and his letters4 8,seleukid10 se-leuci-d4 ,so named from ,seleucus1 the first ruler of the ,syrian kingdom1 one of the four into which ,alexander's kingdom was divided on his death4 ,p4 #bgb4--8;,archon ,eponymus10 archon e-pony-mus4 ,the first in rank of the nine ,athenian ,archons1 so called because the year was named after him4 8,favorinus10 favo-rinus4 ,he is known as a friend of ,plutarch and ,herodes4 ,although he wrote much1 none of his books have come down to us4 8,herodes10 he-rodes4 8,mnesikles10 mnesi-cles4 ,the architect of the ,propyla4 8,ilissus10 i-lissus4 ,a small river of ,attica4 ,translations of ,greek inscriptions3 8,this is ,athens the former city of ,theseus40 8,here stands the city of ,adrian1 not of ,theseus40 ,p4 #bgc4--8,stymphalus10 stym-phalus4 ,a lake of ,arcadia4 8,patr10 patr4 ,p4 #bge4--8,pliny40 7#bc-ge47 ,although he held various civil and military positions1 and during his whole life was the intimate friend and adviser of ,vespasian1 he applied himself so incessantly to study that he left one hundred and sixty volumes of notes4 ,pliny1 the younger1 says that the lives of those who have devoted themselves to study seem to have been passed in idleness and sleep when compared with the wonderful activity of his uncle4 ,the only work of value come down to us is his 8,historia ,naturalis40 8,lebadeia10 leba-deia4 8,stoa ,pkile40 ,the painted porch1 so-called from the variety of curious pictures which it contained4 8,theseum10 the-seum4 ,the temple erected in ,athens in honor of the hero ,theseus4 ,to-day it is the best preserved monument of the splendor of the ancient city4 8,kerameikus10 cera-micus4 ,a district of ,athens1 so called from ,ceramus1 the son of ,bacchus1 some say1 but more probably from the potter's art invented there4 ,p4 #bgg4--8;,commodus10 commo-dus2 8,caracalla10 cara-calla2 8,dacia10 daci-a2 8,msia10 msi-a2 8,decius10 deci-us4 ,p4 #bgh4--8;,gallienus10 galli-enus2 8,valerianus10 va-leri-anus4 8,pityus10 pity-us2 8,trapezus10 tra-pezus2 8,chrysopolis10 chry-sopo-lis2 8,kyzikus10 cyzi-cus4 8,dexippus10 dex-ippus4 ,he held the highest official position at ,athens4 ,was the author of histories1 only fragments of which remain4 ,p4 #bgi4--8;,artemis10 arte-mis4 ,this temple of ,artemis1 or ,diana1 ,lbke calls the 8famous wonder of the ancient world40 ,its dimensions were enormous1 being #bbe feet broad and #dbe feet long4 8,aurelian10 au-reli-an4 ,p4 #bhj4--8;,flavius ,josephus10 flavi-us jo-sephus4 7#cg8-ajj87 ,the author of 8,history of the ,jewish ,war0 and 8,jewish ,antiquities40 8,philo ,judus10 philo ju-dus4 ,his chief works are an attempt to reconcile the ,scriptures with ,greek philosophy4 ,p4 #bha4--8,nikolaus10 nico-laus2 8,nikomedeia10 nico-me-dia2 8,claudius ,ptolemus10 claudi-us ptole-mus2 8,pelusium10 pe-lusi-um2 8,plotinus10 plo-tinus2 8,lykopolis10 ly-copo-lis4 ,p4 #bhb4--8,zenobia10 ze-nobi-a2 8,palmyra10 pal-myra4 ,p4 #bhf4--8,maximian10 max-imi-an4 ,p4 #bhg4--8;,constantius10 con-stanti-us4 8,chlorus10 chlorus1 8the pale20 8,naissus10 naissus2 8,galerius10 ga-leri-us4 ,p4 #bhh4--8;,eboracum10 ebo-racum2 8,licinius10 li-cini-us2 8,maxentius10 max-enti-us4 ,p4 #bij4--8,labarum10 lba-rm4 ,the word is supposed by many to have been derived from the ,celtic word lavar1 meaning command1 sentence4 ,p4 #bib4--8,zosimus10 zosi-mus2 8,adrianopolis10 adri-an-opo-lis4 8,st4 ,jerome40 7#cdj-dbj47 ,the most famous of the ,christian fathers4 ,he spent many years in study and travel1 was the friend of ,gregory of ,nazianzus and ,pope ,damascus4 ,much of his labor was given to obtain converts to his theories of monastic life4 ,his commentaries on the ,scriptures and translations into ,latin of the ,new and ,old ,testaments are his most valuable works4 ,p4 #bid4--8;,athanasius10 atha-nasi-us4 ,translations of ,greek in foot-note2 8,speech against the ,greeks40 8,concerning the incarnation of ,christ and his appearance to us40 ,p4 #bie4--8;,eusebius10 eu-sebi-us4 ,he afterward signed the creed of the ,council of ,nice4 8,porphyrius10 por-phyri-us4 ,p4 #big4--8,tanais10 tana-is4 ,now the ,don4 8,borysthenes10 bo-rysthe-nes2 the ,dneiper4 ,p4 #bii4--8;,arianism10 ari-an-ism4 ,p4 #cjb4--8,magnentius10 mag-nenti-us4 ,p4 #cjc4--8,sapor10 sapor4 8,nisibis10 nisi-bis4 ,p4 #cjd4--8;,eusebia10 eu-sebi-a4 8,eleusinian10 elu-sini-an4 ,see foot-note p4 #bae1 vol4 ,,ii4 ,timayenis4 ,p4 #cje4--8;,aedesius10 ae-desi-us4 8,chrysanthius10 chry-santhi-us4 ,p4 #cjf4--8,ochlus10 ochlus4 ,the crowd1 the populace4 8,thaumaturgy10 thauma-turgy4 ,the act of performing miracles1 wonders4 ,p4 #cjg4--8;,gregory ,nazianzen10 grego-ry na-zi-anzen2 8,basil40 ,see page #cab for sketches of these men4 ,p4 #cjh4--8;,hierophant10 h-ero-phnt1 a priest2 8,oribasius10 or-i-basi-us4 ,p4 #caa4--8;,dadastana10 dad-as-tana4 ,p4 #cab4--8,valentinian10 va-len-tini-an4 ,p4 #cac4--8;,eleemosynary10 lee-msy-na-ry4 ,relating to charity4 ,p4 #cae4--8;,gratian10 grati-an2 8,theodosius10 theo-dosi-us2 8,eugenius10 eu-geni-us4 ,p4 #cag4--8,rufinus10 ru-finus2 8,stilicho10 stili-cho4 8,claudian10 claudi-an4 ,the last of the classic poets of ,rome4 ,during the reigns of ,honorius and ,arcadius he held high positions in court1 and from ,stilicho he received many honors4 ,many of his poems are extant1 all of them characterized by purity of expression and poetical genius4 ,p4 #cah4--8;,eutropius10 eu-tropi-us2 8,eudoxia10 eu-doxi-a2 8,bauto10 bauto2 8,gainas10 gainas4 8,alaric10 ala-ric 7all rich74 ,alaric made a second invasion into ,italy in #daj1 taking and plundering ,rome4 ,his death occurred soon after4 ,p4 #cai4--8,libanius10 li-bani-us4 ,the emperors ,julian1 ,valens and ,theodosius showed much respect to ,libanius1 but his life was embittered by the jealousies of the professors of ,constantinople1 and by continual dispute with the ,sophists4 ,his orations and a quantity of letters addressed to the eminent men of the times are still in existence4 ,p4 #cbj4--8,nectarius10 nec-tari-us4 ,p4 #cba4--8,theophilus10 the-ophi-lus2 8,chalkedon10 chal-cedon4 ,p4 #cbb4--8;,cucusus10 cucu-sus2 8,comana10 co-mana4 ,p4 #cbc4--8;,anthemius10 an-themi-us4 8,pulcheria10 pul-cheri-a4 ,p4 #cbd4--8,kalligraphos10 cal-ligra-phos2 8,athenais10 athe-nais2 8,leontius10 le-onti-us4 ,p4 #cbf4--8,nestorius10 nes-tori-us2 8,germanikeia10 ger-mani-cia2 8,marcian10 marci-an2 8,yezdegerd10 yezde-jerd4 8,successor40 ,this successor was ,varanes ,i4 ,he waged wars with the ,huns1 ,turks and ,indians1 performing deeds which ever since have made him a favorite hero in ,persian verse4 ,p4 #cbg4--8;,attila10 atti-la2 8,aetius10 a-ti-us4 ,p4 #cbh4--8;,aspar10 aspar2 8,basiliscus10 bas-i-liscus2 8,verina10 ve-rina4 ,p4 #cbi4--8,odoacer10 o-doa-cer2 8,ariadne10 a-ri-adne2 8,isaurian10 i-sauri-an2 8,anastasius10 an-as-tasi-us4 ,p4 #ccj4--8,sardica10 sardi-ca4 8,prokopius10 pro-copi-us4 7#ejj-efe47 ,an historian as well as rhetorician4 ,his talents early attracted the attention of ,belisarius1 who made him his secretary4 ,afterward ,justinian raised him to the position of prefect of ,constantinople4 ,among his extant works are several volumes of histories and orations1 besides a collection of anecdotes1 mainly court gossip about ,justinian1 the empress ,theodora1 ,belisarius1 etc4 ,p4 #cca4--8;,belisarius10 bel-i-sari-us4 8,collection of ,laws40 ,justinian first ordered a collection of the various imperial constitutiones which he named 8,justinianeus ,codex40 ,the second collection was of all that was important in the works of jurists1 and was called the 8,digest40 ,this work contained nine thousand extracts1 and the compilers are said to have consulted over two thousand different books in their work4 ,but for ordinary reference these volumes were of little value1 so that the 8,institutes0 were written1 similar in contents1 but condensed4 ,a new code was afterward promulgated2 also several new constitutiones--together these books form the ,roman law4 8,tribonian10 tri-boni-an2 8,side10 side4 ,p4 #ccc4--8,kalydonian ,kapros40 ,the ,calydonian wild boar4 8,bronze-eagle40 ,in every race-course of the ancient ,greeks a bronze eagle and a dolphin were used for signals in starting4 ,the eagle was raised in the air and the dolphin lowered4 ,p4 #ccd4--8;,chosroes10 chosro-es4 8,the generous mind40 ,one of the most noteworthy of the kings of ,persia4 ,he carried on several wars with the ,romans and extended his domain until he received homage from the most distant kings of ,africa and ,asia4 ,although despotic1 his stern justice made him the pride of the ,persians4 ,p4 #cce4--8;,hmus10 hmus2 8,aristus10 a-ristus2 8,antes10 antes4 ,p4 #ccf4--8,melanthias10 me-lanthi-as4 ,p4 #cch4--8;,fallmerayer10 flmeh-r-er4 7#agia-ahfb47 ,a ,german historian and traveller4 ,among his important works are 8,fragments from the ,east10 in which he publishes the results of his studies and travels there1 and 8,the ,history of the ,peninsula of ,morea in the ,middle ,ages40 ,it is in this latter work that he advances the strange views here mentioned4 8,malelas10 male-las4 ,a ,byzantine historian who lived soon after ,justinian4 ,he wrote a chronological history from the creation of the world to the reign of ,justinian1 inclusive4 ,p4 #cdb4--8;,heraclius10 hera-clius2 8,mauricius10 mau-rici-us4 ,p4 #cde4--8;,ayesha10 ye-sha4 ,the favorite wife of ,mohammed and daughter of ,abubeker1 who succeeded him4 ,the twenty-fourth chapter of the ,koran treats of the purity of ,ayesha4 ,after her husband's death she in many ways supported the religion4 8,fatima10 fte-ma4 ,the only child living at the time of the ,prophet's death4 ,she became the ancestress of the powerful dynasty of the ,fatimites4 ,p4 #cdg4--8;,aiznadin10 aizna-din2 8,yermuk10 yermuk2 8,khaled10 khaled4 ,p4 #cdh4--8;,herakleonas10 her-ac-le-onas2 8,pogonatus10 pog-o-natus2 8,moawiyah10 mo--wy4 ,p4 #cdi4--8;,charles ,martel40 7#fij-gda47 ,the duke of ,austrasia1 and the mayor of the palace of the ,frankish kings4 ,the name ,martel1 or 8the hammer10 was given to him from his conduct in this battle4 ,p4 #cej4--8,kallinikus10 cal-li-nicus4 8,naphtha40 ,a volatile1 bituminous liquid1 very inflammable4 ,p4 #ceb4--8,rhinotmetus10 rhin-ot-metus4 ,p4 #cec4--8;,chersonites10 cher-soni-tes4 8,crim-,tartary40 ,the ,crimea1 also called ,little ,tartary4 8,absimarus10 ab-sima-rus2 8,khazars10 khazars4 ,p4 #ced4--8,terbelis10 terbe-lis4 ,p4 #cef4--8;,bardanes10 bar-danes2 8,phillippicus10 phil-lippi-cus4 ,p4 #ceg4--8,moslemas10 mosle-mas4 ,p4 #cfe4--8;,haroun al-,rashid10 h-roon l-rshid4 7#gfe-hji47 ,aaron the ,just1 the fifth caliph of the dynasty of the ,abassides4 ,his conquests and administration were such that his reign is called the golden age of the ,mohammedan nations4 ,poetry1 science and art were cultivated by him4 ,haroun is the chief hero of ,arabian tales4 8,nikephorus10 ni-cepho-rus4 ,p4 #cfh4--8,theophilus10 the-ophi-lus4 ,p4 #cfi4--8;,armorium10 ar-mori-um4 ,p4 #cgj4--8;,bardas10 bardas2 8,theoktistus10 the-oktis-tus4 8,john ,grammatikus40 ,john the grammarian4 ,it was he that held that there were three ,gods and rejected the word unity from the doctrine of the being of ,god4 ,p4 #cga4--8,photius10 fosh-us4 ,he played a distinguished part in the political1 religious and literary affairs of the ninth century4 ,after holding various offices1 he was made patriarch by ,bardas1 deposing ,ignatius4 ,this incensed the ,romish ,church1 and the controversy which arose did much to widen the gulf between the ,eastern and ,western ,churches4 ,photius was deposed from his position1 but replaced until the death of ,basil1 when he was driven into exile4 ,among his writings the most valuable is a review of ancient ,greek literature4 ,many books are described in it of which we have no other knowledge4 ,p4 #cgb4--8;,arsacid10 ar-saci-d4 ,so called from ,arsaces1 the founder of the ,parthian empire4 ,about #bej ,b4 ,c4 ,arsaces induced the ,parthians to revolt from the ,syrian empire1 of the ,seleucid4 ,the family existed four hundred and seventy-six years1 being obliged in #bbf ,a4 ,d4 to submit to ,artaxerxes1 the founder of the dynasty of the ,sassanid4 ,p4 #cgc4--8,porphyrogenitus10 por-phy-ro-geni-tus4 ,p4 #cgd4--8,seljuks10 sel-jooks2 8,commeni10 com-meni4 ,p4 #cge4--8,robert ,guiscard10 geskar4 ,robert1 the prudent4 7#ajae-ajhe47 ,the founder of the kingdom of ,naples4 ,he had come from ,normandy to ,italy1 where by his wit and energy he had been appointed ,count of ,apulia in #ajeg4 ,soon after he added other provinces to his kingdom1 conquered ,sicily1 and drove the ,saracens from ,southern ,italy4 ,his hasty departure from ,thessaly was to relieve the ,pope from the siege of ,henry ,,iv4 ,after accomplishing this he immediately undertook the second expedition against ,constantinople4 ,p4 #cgf4--8,kephallenia10 cephal-leni-a2 8,durazzo10 doo-rtso4 ,p4 #cgg4--8;,anna ,commena40 ,the daughter of ,alexis ,i4 ,she wrote a full history of her father's life2 one of the most interesting and valuable books of ,byzantine literature4 ,p4 #cgi4--8,piacenza10 pe--chenz4 ,the capital of the province of the same name in the north of ,italy4 ,p4 #chb4--8,nureddin10 noor-ed-deen4 ,a ,mohammedan ruler of ,syria and ,egypt4 ,p4 #chc4--8;,dandolo10 dndo-lo4 ,p4 #che4--8,scutari10 skoot-ree4 ,p4 #chf4--8,morisini10 mo-ri-sini4 ,p4 #chg4--8;,boniface10 bne-fss2 8,montferrat10 mnt-fer-rt2 8,bouillon10 booyon2 8,laskaris10 lasca-ris4 ,p4 #chh4--8,palologus10 pa-l-olo-gus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brief ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 ,the ,november readings in the 8,brief ,history of ,greece0 are almost identical with the ,october readings in ,timayenis's history4 ,for this reason no notes have been made out on the work4 ,by consulting the notes on ,timayenis's history in ,,the ,,chautauquan for ,october1 all necessary help will be obtained4 ,the papers on ,physical ,science and ,political ,economy1 also the ,sunday ,readings1 are too clear to need annotating4 ,,notes ,,on ,,required ,,readings ,,in 8,,the ,,chautauquan40 ,,german ,,history4 ,p4 #fc1 c4 #a4--8;,hermann40 ,the ,latinized form of whose name was ,arminius4 ,he had learned the language and the military discipline of the ,romans when he led his tribe as auxiliaries to their legions4 8,varus10 varus4 ,he had been consul at ,rome in ,b4 ,c4 #ac1 and afterward governor of ,syria1 where he accumulated great wealth4 ,after this battle ,varus put an end to his life4 ,p4 #fc1 c4 #b4--8;,alemanni10 al-e-manni4 8,sicambrians10 si-cambri-ans4 ,in early ,german history one of the most powerful tribes4 ,they lived in ,westphalia1 between the ,rhine and ,weser4 8,chatti10 or 8,catti10 so called from an old ,german word cat or cad1 meaning 8war40 ,they dwelt south of the ,sicambrians in the modern state of ,hesse4 8,batavi40 ,a ,celtic people who had settled in the portion of the present ,netherlands lying at the mouth of the ,rhine4 ,their chief city was ,leyden4 ,the country was afterward extended and called ,batavia4 ,p4 #fd1 c4 #a4--8,salzburg10 sltsboorg2 8,ratisbonne10 ratis-bon2 8,augsburg10 owgsboorg2 8,basle10 bl1 or 8,basel10 bzel2 8,baden10 bden2 8,spires10 spres2 8,metz10 mts2 8,treves10 treevz4 8,ammianus10 ammi-anus marcel-linus4 ,a ,greek serving under the emperor ,julian #cfc4 ,later we find him in ,rome where he wrote a history from the time of ,nerva1 #if1 to the death of ,valens1 #cgh4 ,many of the events were contemporaneous1 so that the descriptions and incidents are particularly valuable4 ,p4 #fd1 c4 #b4--8,vandals40 ,this tribe first appeared in the north of ,germany1 from whence they went to the ,reisengebirge1 sometimes called from them the ,vandal ,mountains4 ,in the fifth century they worked their way from ,pannonia into ,spain1 marched southward and founded the once powerful kingdom of ,andalusia 7,vandalusia74 ,in #dbi they conquered ,africa4 ,an hundred years afterward ,belisarius overthrew their power1 and the race disappeared4 ,many claim that descendants of the ,vandals are to be seen among the ,berber race1 with blue eyes and light hair4 8,troyes10 trw4 8,catalaunian10 cata-launi-an4 ,a people formerly living in northeastern ,france1 their capital the present ,chlons-sur-,marne4 8,mry-sur-,seine10 m-r-sur-sane4 8,visigoths40 ,in the fourth century the ,goths were divided into the ,ostrogoths and ,visigoths or the ,eastern and ,western ,goths2 the latter worked their way from the ,danube westward to ,france and ,spain where they built up a splendid kingdom which lasted until #gaa1 when it was overthrown by the ,moors4 ,p4 #fe1 c4 #a4--8;,genseric10 jnser-ik4 ,a king of the ,vandals under whom the tribe invaded ,africa in #dbi4 ,they conquered the entire country1 capturing ,carthage in #dci and making it their capital4 ,after the sack of ,rome1 the entire coast of the ,mediterranean was pillaged4 ,genseric ruled until his death in #dgg4 8,heruli10 heru-li2 8,sciri10 siri2 8,turcilingi10 tur-cil-ingi2 8,rugii10 rugi-i4 8,theodoric40 ,the king of the ,visigoths1 who in #dhi undertook to expel ,odoacer from ,italy4 ,he defeated him in several battles and finally laid siege to ,ravenna1 where ,odoacer had taken refuge4 ,after holding out three years1 ,odoacer submitted on condition that he rule jointly with ,theodoric1 but the latter soon murdered his rival4 ,for thirty-three years ,theodoric ruled the country4 ,he was a patron of art and learning and his sway was very prosperous4 ,the porphyry vase in which his ashes were deposited is still shown at ,ravenna4 8,thuringians10 thu-ringi-ans4 ,dwellers in the central part of ,germany between the ,harz ,mountains and the ,thuringian forest4 8,dietrich10 d-trich2 8,hildebrand10 hlde-brand4 8,siegfried10 seegfreed4 ,see notes on 8,nibelungenlied0 in this number4 ,p4 #fe1 c4 #b4--8,langobardi0 or ,lombards4 ,a ,german tribe which migrated southward from the river ,elbe4 ,in #efh they conquered the plains of northern ,italy and founded a kingdom which lasted two centuries4 ,,german ,,literature4 ,the article on ,german ,literature is abridged from ,sime's article on this subject in the 8,encyclopdia ,britannica40 ,p4 #ff1 c4 #a4--8,nibelungelied40 ,the song of the ,nibelungen4 8,the work includes the legends of ,siegfried1 of ,gnther1 of ,dietrich1 and of ,attila2 and the motives which bind them into a whole are the love and revenge of ,kriemhild1 the sister of ,gnther and ,siegfried's wife4 ,she excites the envy of ,brunhild1 the ,burgundian queen1 whose friend ,hagen discovers the vulnerable point in ,siegfried's enchanted body1 treacherously slays him1 and buries in the ,rhine the treasure he has long before conquered from the race of the ,nibelungen4 ,there is then a pause of thirteen years1 after which ,kriemhild1 the better to effect her fatal purpose1 marries ,attila4 ,thirteen years having again passed away her thirst for vengeance is satiated by slaying the entire ,burgundian court4 ,the ,germans justly regard this epic as one of the most precious gems of their literature40--,sime4 8,ulfilas10 lf-las4 7#caj-cha47 ,the family of ,ulfilas were ,christians supposed to have been carried away by the ,goths4 ,in #cda he became the bishop of these people and soon induced a number of them to leave their warlike life to settle a colony in ,msia4 ,here he cultivated the arts of peace1 doing much to civilize the people4 ,he introduced an alphabet of twenty-four letters and translated all of the ,bible except the book of ,kings4 ,this work is the earliest known specimen of the ,teutonic language4 8,wolfram von ,eschenbach10 fon eshen-bk4 ,he lived at the close of the twelfth century4 ,a nobleman by birth and a soldier in the civil wars4 ,he joined the court of ,hermann of ,thuringia in the castle of ,wartburg 7where ,luther escaped after the ,diet of ,worms7 and was a contestant in the famous musical contest called 8,the war of the ,wartburg40 ,leaving here he afterward sang at many other courts1 dying in #abbe4 8,parzival0 or ,parcival1 parci-val4 8,holy ,grail40 ,the chalice said to have been used by ,christ at the ,last ,supper and in which the wine was changed to blood4 ,as the legend runs it fell into the hands of ,joseph of ,arimathea1 by whom it was held for centuries1 but finally1 at his death1 it passed to his descendants1 with whom it remained until its possessor sinned2 then the cup disappeared4 ,the ,knights of the ,round-,table sought it1 but until ,sir ,galahad no man was found so pure in heart and life that he could look upon it4 ,sir ,galahad in some romances is called ,sir ,percival or ,parzival4 ,eisenbach wrote another romance1 8,titural10 founded on the same legend4 8,gottfried10 gottfreed2 8,tristram and ,iseult10 trstram1 iseult2 8,gudrun10 gudrun4 8,walther von der ,vogelweide10 wlter fon der fgel-wdeh4 7#aafe8-abbh87 ,walter 8from the bird meadow40 ,he lived some time at ,wartburg and was a friend of ,king ,philip and of ,frederick ,,ii4 ,he died on a little estate the latter had given him4 8,sachenspiegel40 ,codex of the ,saxon law4 8,schwabenspiegel40 ,codex of the ,swabian law4 8,berthold10 brtlt4 7#abae-abgb47 ,his love for the poor led him to zealous work in their behalf4 ,through many years he preached in the open air in ,germany1 ,switzerland and ,hungary4 8,eckhart10 khart4 ,the father of ,german speculative thought1 as ,bach calls him1 was a ,dominician monk who attempted to reform his order but preached so exalted a philosophy that the ,pope demanded a recantation4 ,eckhart never gave this but claimed that his views were entirely orthodox4 ,his prose is among the purest specimens in the ,german language4 8,meistersnger40 ,master-singer4 ,p4 #ff1 c4 #b4--8,shrove-,tuesday10 or confession ,tuesday is the day before ,lent4 ,although originally a day of preparation for the ,lenten fast1 it was soon changed to one of merry-making and feasting4 ,as everything was devised to increase the gaiety of the occasion1 these plays soon became a regular feature4 8,reineke ,vos40 ,reynard the fox4 8,barkhusen10 barkhu-sen2 8,rostock10 rostck4 8,ulrich von ,hutten10 ulrich fon hooten4 7#adhh-aebc47 ,his life was spent in hot contests with the enemies of his reforms4 ,as an advocate of the new learning1 he went from city to city teaching and writing2 8,epistol ,obscurorum ,virorum0 was written in defense of this theory4 ,he espoused the cause of the ,reformation more because it favored religious and secular progress than from sympathy with its principles4 8,hans ,sachs40 7#adid-aegf47 8,honest ,hans ,sachs10 as he was called1 was a cobbler of ,nuremberg1 who had learned verse-making from a meistersnger of ,munich4 ,his verses included every style of poetry known1 but the 8,shrove-,tuesday plays0 were the best1 being full of strong characters and striking situations4 ,the hymn mentioned1 8,why art thou cast down1 ,o1 my soul80 is but one of several by him4 8,leibnitz10 lpnits4 7#afdf-agaf47 ,educated at ,leipsic1 he says of himself1 that before he was twelve1 he 8understood the ,latin authors1 had begun to lisp ,greek and wrote verses with singular success40 ,after taking his degree he went to ,frankfort under the patronage of a wealthy gentleman2 here he devoted himself to composing treatises on religion1 philosophy1 law1 etc4 ,all manner of projects interested him4 ,he tried to bring about a union between the ,catholic and ,lutheran ,churches1 to introduce a common alphabet for all languages1 to urge the king of ,france to conquer ,egypt1 and other plans1 more or less ,utopian4 ,in the latter part of his life he received high honor from ,hanover1 ,vienna1 and ,peter the ,great4 ,his correspondence was voluminous1 and his works covered almost the whole field of human thought4 8,klopstock10 klopstok4 7#agbd-ahjc47 8,wieland10 weeland4 7#agcc-ahac47 8,lessing10 lsng4 7#agbi-agha47 8,oberon10 ber-on4 ,the ,oberon of ,shakspere4 ,the king of the fairies and the husband of ,queen ,titania4 8,agathon10 aga-thon4 ,a tragic poet of ,athens1 who died about #djj ,b4 ,c4 8,pietist10 pe-tist4 ,the name was applied to a certain class of religious reformers in ,germany1 who sought to restore purity to the ,church4 ,p4 #fg1 c4 #a4--8;,herder10 hrder4 7#agdd-ahjc47 8,kant40 7#agbd-ahjd47 8,kritik40 ,critique of pure reason4 8,fichte10 fikteh4 7#agig-ahgi47 8,hardenburg40 7#aggb-ahja47 8,wilhelm von ,schlegel10 shlgel4 7#agfg-ahde47 8,friedrich40 7#aggb-ahbi47 8,tieck10 teek4 7#aggc-ahec47 8,fouqu10 fooka4 7#aggg-ahdc47 8,schleiermacher10 shler-m-ker4 7#agfh-ahcd47 8,feuerbach10 foier-bk4 7#ahjd-ahgb47 8,schopenhauer10 shopen-hower4 7#aghh-ahfj47 8,freytag10 frtg2 8,heyse10 hzeh2 8,spielhagen10 speelh-gen2 8,reuter10 roiter4 ,,readings ,,in ,,art4 ,the papers on ,sculpture are compiled from ,redford's 8,ancient ,sculpture0 and ,lbke's 8,history of ,art40 ,p4 #ge1 c4 #a4--8,mycen10 my-cen4 8,cesnola10 chesno-la4 ,born in ,turin in #ahcb4 ,he served in the ,crimean war1 and afterward in the war of the ,rebellion4 ,having been made an ,american citizen he was appointed consul to ,cyprus1 where he discovered the necropolis of ,idalium1 a city which ceased to exist two thousand years ago4 ,he began excavations1 opening some eight thousand tombs1 but an edict from the sultan stopped the work4 ,cesnola had already1 however1 gathered a magnificent collection of antiquities1 which1 in #ahgb was purchased for the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,new ,york4 8,harpy40 ,the reliefs on this monument represent harpies1 fabulous monsters in ,greek mythology1 carrying off children4 8,frieze10 freez4 ,the broad band resting upon the columns of a porch is called the entablature4 ,it is divided into three portions2 the central one is the frieze4 ,p4 #ge1 c4 #b4--8;,ageladas10 age-ladas4 ,not ,argeladas4 8,myron40 ,a ,botian1 born about #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,his master-pieces were all in bronze4 ,the 8quoit-player0 and the 8cow0 are most famous4 ,myron excelled in animals and figures in action4 8,canachus10 cana-chus4 7,b4 ,c4 #edj-ejh47 ,he executed the colossal statue of ,apollo at ,miletus1 was skilled in casting bronze1 in gold and silver1 and in wood carving4 8,callon10 callon4 7,b4 ,c4 #eaf47 8,onatus10 o-natus4 7,b4 ,c4 #dfj47 8,hegias10 hegi-as2 8,critius10 criti-us4 8,calamis10 cala-mis4 7,b4 ,c4 #dfg-dbi47 ,he worked in marble1 gold and ivory4 ,his horses are said to have been unsurpassable1 and his heroic female figures superior to those of his predecessors4 8,pythagoras40 ,lived about #dgj in ,magna ,grcia4 ,he executed life-like figures in bronze4 8,lemnians10 lemni-ans4 8,paris40 ,at a certain wedding feast to which all the gods had been invited except the goddess of ,strife1 she1 angry at the slight1 threw an apple into their midst with the inscription 8to the fairest40 ,juno1 ,minerva and ,venus claimed it1 and ,jupiter ordered that ,paris1 then a shepherd on ,mount ,ida1 should decide the dispute4 ,as ,venus promised him the most beautiful of women for his wife1 he gave her the apple4 ,p4 #gf1 c4 #a4--8,pellene10 pel-lene4 ,a city of ,achaia4 8,rochette10 rosht4 7#agij-ahed47 ,a ,french archologist4 8,alcamenes10 al-came-nes4 7,b4,c4 #ddd-djj47 ,his greatest work was a statue of ,venus4 8,agoracritus10 ago-racri-tus4 7,b4 ,c4 #ddj-dbh47 ,his most famous work was also a ,venus1 which he changed into a statue of ,nemesis and sold because the people of ,athens preferred the statue of ,alcamenes4 8,ponius10 p-oni-us4 8,pediment40 ,the triangular facing or top over a portico1 window1 gate1 etc4 8,metope10 meto-pe4 ,in the ,doric style of architecture1 the frieze was divided at intervals by ornaments called triglyphs4 ,the spaces between these ornaments were called metopes4 8,cella40 ,the interior space of a temple4 8,phigalia10 phi-gali-a4 8,nik-,apteros40 ,the wingless goddess of victory4 ,wingless1 to signify that the prayer of the ,athenians was that victory might never leave their city4 8,scopas10 scopas4 7#cie-cej47 ,an architect and statuary1 as well as sculptor4 ,he was the architect of the temple of ,minerva at ,tegea1 and assisted in the bas-reliefs of the mausoleum at ,halicarnassus4 ,the famous group of ,niobe and her children is supposed to have been the work of ,scopas4 8,praxiteles10 prax-ite-les4 ,born at ,athens ,b4 ,c4 #cib4 ,he worked in both marble and bronze4 ,about fifty different works by him are mentioned4 ,first in fame stands the ,cnidian ,venus1 8one of the most famous art creations of antiquity40 ,apollo as the lizard-killer1 his faun and a representation of ,eros are probably best-known4 8,nereid10 nre-id4 ,a sea nymph4 8,mnad10 mnad4 ,a priestess or votary of ,bacchus4 ,p4 #gf1 c4 #b4--8,toro ,farnese0 or ,farnese ,bull4 ,was discovered in the sixteenth century and is now in the ,naples museum4 ,it represents the sons of ,antiope tying ,dirce to a bull by which she is to be dragged to death4 ,the work when discovered went to the ,farnese palace in ,rome1 hence the name of ,farnese bull4 8,laocoon10 la-oco-on4 ,one of the chief groups in the ,vatican collection2 discovered at ,rome in #aejf4 ,laocoon was a priest of ,apollo1 who having blasphemed the god was destroyed at the altar with his two sons by a serpent sent by the deity4 8,niobe10 nio-be4 ,the group of ,niobe and her children was probably first an ornament of the pediment of a temple4 ,the subject is the vengeance of ,apollo and ,artemis upon the ,theban queen ,niobe1 who had boasted because of her fourteen children1 that she was superior to ,leda who had but two4 ,as a punishment all her children were destroyed4 8,pyromachus10 py-roma-chus4 8sculapius10 s-cu-lapi-us4 ,the god of the medical art4 8,apollo ,belvedere10 bel-v-dr1 or blve-deer4 ,this statue by many is considered the greatest existing work of ancient art4 ,the subject is the god ,apollo at the moment of his victory over the ,python4 ,it was discovered in #aejc1 and takes its name from its position in the belvedere of the ,vatican1 a gallery or open corridor of the ,vatican which is called belvedere1 7beautiful view7 from the fine views it commands4 ,it is of heroic size1 and is considered the very type of manly beauty4 ,p4 #gg1 c4 #a4--8,torus10 torus4 ,a large moulding used in the base of columns4 8,mcenas10 m-cenas4 7,b4 ,c4 #gc8-h47 ,a ,roman statesman4 ,his fame rests on his patronage of literature4 ,he was a patron of both ,horace and ,virgil4 8,tivoli10 tivo-le4 8,varro40 7,b4 ,c4 #aaf-bh47 8,the most learned of the ,romans and the most voluminous of ,roman writers40 ,he composed no less than #dij books2 but two of these have come down to us4 8,arcesilaus10 ar-cesi-laus4 8,genetrix40 ,a mother4 8,septimius ,severus10 sep-timi-us se-verus4 7,a4 ,d4 #adf-baa47 ,roman ,emperor4 ,,american ,,literature4 ,p4 #gg1 c4 #b4--8,sydney ,smith40 7#agga-ahde47 ,educated at ,oxford1 he took orders and became a curate in #agid4 ,afterward he taught1 and in #ahjb assisted in establishing the ,edinburgh ,review1 of which he was the first editor4 ,although he had charge1 during his life1 of various parishes1 he was active in literary work2 for twenty-five years he contributed to the ,edinburgh ,review2 he published 8,sketches of ,moral ,philosophy10 several volumes of sermons1 papers on 8,american ,debt10 and many miscellaneous articles1 all characterized by humor and sound sense4 8,kaimes10 or ,kames1 kmz4 7#afif-aghb47 ,a ,scottish jurist1 educated at ,edinburgh1 and for thirty years practiced law2 was then made ,lord ,chief ,justice4 ,he wrote many works on law1 metaphysics1 criticism1 etc4 8,davy40 7#aggh-ahbi47 ,the ,english chemist4 ,his attention was first directed to chemistry by his medical studies1 and he made such progress in original investigation that at twenty-three he was made lecturer on chemistry in the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,in #ahag he became a member of the ,french ,institute1 and his reputation as a chemist was second to that of no one in ,europe4 ,he wrote much and among his discoveries were the bases potassium1 sodium1 and iodine as a simple substance4 ,his most valuable invention was the miner's safety lamp4 8,jeffrey40 7#aggc-ahej47 ,educated for the law1 but was deeply interested in literature4 ,after being admitted to the bar this division of interest for a long time hindered his success4 ,he was one of the original founders of the ,edinburgh ,review1 and became its editor with the fourth number4 ,he soon made the magazine an organ of liberal thought on every theme4 ,his most valuable contributions were his literary criticisms4 ,his work at the bar improved with his literary ability1 and in #ahcd he was made a judge1 a position he held until his death4 8,passy10 psse4 ,p4 #gh1 c4 #a4--8;,bancroft10 bngkroft4 7#ahjj47 ,see ,american ,literature4 8,rufus ,king40 7#agee-ahbg47 ,american statesman4 8,everett40 7#agid-ahfe47 ,american orator and statesman4 ,p4 #gh1 c4 #b4--8;,hessian10 hshan4 ,the troops were from ,hesse-,cassel4 ,the king1 ,frederick ,,ii41 between #aggf and #aghd1 received over #c1jjj1jjj by hiring these soldiers to the ,english government to fight against the ,americans4 8,lanspach10 lanzpk2 8,kniphausen10 kniphowzen4 ,p4 #gi1 c4 #a4--8;,brougham10 brooam4 7#aggi-ahfh47 ,a ,british statesman and author4 ,after leaving school he spent some time in traveling and writing before being admitted to the bar4 ,in #ahaj he entered ,parliament1 and his first resolution was to petition the king to abolish slavery4 ,from this time he was allied with the reforms of the age3 the emancipation of ,roman ,catholics1 government reforms1 etc4 ,the education of working people and charity schemes received the aid of his pen and voice1 and he was instrumental in founding several societies since very powerful4 ,in #ahcd the change of ministry ended his official life1 but his interest and zeal in public works never ceased4 ,,tricks ,,of ,,the ,,conjurors4 ,by ,,thomas ,,frost4 ,the dense ignorance which prevailed during the seventeenth century on the subject of conjuring1 as the word is now understood1 would be scarcely credible at the present day1 if instances did not even now occur at intervals to show that there are still minds which the light of knowledge has not yet penetrated4 ,books did not reach the masses in those days1 and hence the beginning of the eighteenth century found people as ready to drown a wizard as their ancestors had been4 ,a book which was published in #agaf1 by ,richard ,neve1 whose name is the first which we meet with in the conjuring annals of the eighteenth century1 bears traces of the lingering fear of diabolical agency which still infected the minds of the people4 ,having stated1 in his preface1 that his book contained directions for performing thirty-three legerdemain tricks1 besides many arithmetical puzzles and many jests1 ,neve says3 8,i dare not say that ,i have here set down all that are or may be performed by legerdemain1 but thou hast here the most material of them2 and if thou rightly understandest these1 there is not a trick that any juggler in the world can show thee1 but thou shalt be able to conceive after what manner it is done1 if he do it by sleight of hand1 and not by unlawful and detestable means1 as too many do at this day40 ,the following are a few of the tricks which puzzled the people of those days3 ,the tricks of the fakirs1 or religious mendicants of ,india were remarkable4 ,one of these fellows boasted that he would appear at ,amadabant a town about two hundred miles from ,surat1 within fifteen days after being buried1 ten feet deep1 at the latter place4 ,the ,governor of ,surat resolved to test the fellow's powers1 and had a grave dug1 in which the fakir placed himself1 stipulating that a layer of reeds should be interposed between his body and the superincumbent earth1 with a space of two feet between his body and the reeds4 ,this was done1 and the grave was then filled up1 and a guard was placed at the spot to prevent trickery4 ,a large tree stood ten or twelve yards from the grave1 and beneath its shade several fakirs were grouped around a large earthern jar1 which was filled with water4 ,the officer of the guard1 suspecting that some trick was to be played1 ordered the jar to be moved1 and1 this being done by the soldiers1 after some opposition on the part of the fellows assembled round it1 a shaft was discovered1 with a subterranean gallery from its bottom to within two feet of the grave4 ,the impostor was thereupon made to ascend1 and a riot ensued1 in which he and several other persons were slain4 ,this trick has been repeated several times in ,india1 under different circumstances1 one of the most remarkable instances being that related by an engineer officer named ,boileau1 who was employed about forty years ago in the trigonometrical survey of that country4 ,i shall relate this story in the officer's own words1 premising that he did not witness either the interment or the exhumation of the performer1 but was told that they took place in the presence of ,esur ,lal1 one of the ministers of the ,muharwul of ,jaisulmer4 8,the man is said1 by long practice1 to have acquired the art of holding his breath by shutting the mouth1 and stopping the interior opening of the nostrils with his tongue2 he also abstains from solid food for some days previous to his interment1 so that he may not be inconvenienced by the contents of his stomach1 while put up in his narrow grave2 and1 moreover1 he is sewn up in a bag of cloth1 and the cell is lined with masonry1 and floored with cloth1 that the white ants and other insects may not easily be able to molest him4 ,the place in which he was buried at ,jaisulmer is a small building about twelve feet by eight1 built of stone2 and in the floor was a hole1 about three feet long1 two and a half feet wide1 and the same depth1 or perhaps a yard deep1 in which he was placed in a sitting posture1 sewed up in his shroud1 with his feet turned inward toward the stomach1 and his hands also pointed inward toward the chest4 ,two heavy slabs of stone1 five or six feet long1 several inches thick1 and broad enough to cover the mouth of the grave1 so that he could not escape1 were then placed over him1 and ,i believe a little earth was plastered over the whole1 so as to make the surface of the grave smooth and compact4 ,the door of the house was also built up1 and people placed outside1 that no tricks might be played1 nor deception practised4 8,at the expiration of a full month1 the walling of the door was broken1 and the buried man dug out of the grave2 ,trevelyan's moonshee only running there in time to see the ripping open of the bag in which the man had been inclosed4 ,he was taken out in a perfectly senseless state1 his eyes closed1 his hands cramped and powerless1 his stomach shrunk very much1 and his teeth jammed so fast together that they were forced to open his mouth with an iron instrument to pour a little water down his throat4 ,he gradually recovered his senses and the use of his limbs2 and when we went to see him he was sitting up1 supported by two men1 and conversed with us in a low1 gentle tone of voice1 saying that #8we might bury him again for a twelvemonth1 if we pleased4'0 ,a conjuror was exhibiting a mimic swan1 which floated on real water1 and followed his motions1 when the bird suddenly became stationary4 ,he approached it more closely1 but the swan did not move4 8,there is a person in the company10 said he1 8who understands the principle upon which this trick is performed1 and who is counteracting me4 ,i appeal to the company whether this is fair1 and ,i beg the gentleman will desist40 ,the trick was performed by magnetism1 and the counteracting agency was a magnet in the pocket of ,sir ,francis ,blake ,delaval4 ,in #aghe the celebrated automatic chess player was first exhibited in ,london1 having previously been shown in various cities of ,germany and ,france4 ,it had been invented about fifteen years before by a ,hungarian noble1 the ,baron von ,kempelen1 who had until then1 however1 declined to permit its exhibition in public4 ,having witnessed some experiments in magnetism by a ,frenchman1 performed before the ,court of ,maria ,theresa1 ,kempelen had observed to the empress that he thought himself able to construct a piece of mechanism the operations of which would be far more surprising than the experiments they had witnessed4 ,the curiosity of the empress was excited1 and she exacted a promise from ,kempelen to make the attempt4 ,the result was the automatic chess-player4 ,the figure was of the size of life1 dressed as a ,turk1 and seated behind a square piece of cabinet work4 ,it was fixed upon castors1 so as to run over the floor1 and satisfy beholders that there was no access to it from below4 ,on the top1 in the center1 was a fixed chess-board1 toward which the eyes of the figure were directed4 ,its right hand and arm were extended toward the board1 and its left1 somewhat raised1 held a pipe4 ,the spectators1 having examined the figure1 the exhibitor wound up the machinery1 placed the cushion under the arm of the figure1 and challenged any gentleman present to play4 ,the ,turk always chose the white men1 and made the first move4 ,the fingers opened as the hand was extended toward the board1 and the piece was deftly picked up1 and removed to the proper square4 ,if a false move was made by its opponent1 it tapped on the table impatiently1 replaced the piece1 and claimed the move for itself4 ,if a human player hesitated long over a move1 the ,turk tapped sharply on the table4 ,the mind fails to comprehend any mechanism capable of performing with such accuracy movements which require knowledge and reflection4 ,beckman says indeed that a boy was concealed in the figure1 and prompted by the best chess-player whose services the proprietor could obtain4 ,,talk ,,about ,,books4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes is a philanthropist in the world of letters4 ,since his college days at ,harvard1 where he distinguished himself by his contributions to the ,collegian1 he has been giving to his wide circle of readers strong1 clean1 good thoughts1 mixed with the happiest humor4 ,his essays have been among the most enjoyable of his writings4 ,his publishers have recognized this and collected a dozen of them into 8,pages from an ,old ,volume of ,life40,k ,there are many subjects touched1 but his 8,phi ,beta ,kappa0 oration of #ahgj1 8,mechanism in ,thought and ,morals10 is1 perhaps1 the best in the collection4 ,the two essays1 written during the war for ,the ,atlantic readers1 have a pathos so touching1 it completely does away with the false idea that ,holmes is only a humorist4 ,the volume is a pleasant book for an hour's reading2 indeed1 it may well be classed along with what the author himself has aptly called 8pillow-smoothing authors20 not a dull1 heavy book1 but one whose easily-flowing thoughts and continued good humor1 quiet the mind and allow the reader to pass into dreamy forgetfulness4 8,things that have to be done1 should be learned by doing them40 ,teachers know as well1 perhaps1 as any class of people how applicable this old truism is to their work4 ,they only learn by doing2 but too often they learn the routine1 not the science4 ,a little book just published by ,a4 ,lovell ,co41,l is sent out in the interest of thoughtful teaching4 ,there are some excellent development lessons1 in which1 simply by questions1 and a few simple materials1 are developed ideas of the senses1 of forms1 flat and solid1 ideas of right and left1 etc4 ,a series of lessons on plants and insects have for their object 8to bring the child into contact with nature1 to teach him to observe1 think1 reason1 and to express himself naturally40 ,the book contains an excellent paper on the much-discussed 8,quincy ,school ,work40 ,no new departure in the educational world has caused more talk4 ,that there is something in it no one doubts that knows of the results of ,superintendent ,parker's system1 but how to use it is not easily explained4 ,this essay will help teachers to understand the method and show them how it may be used4 ,during this year ,messrs4 ,harper ,brothers have added to the biographies of eminent ,americans three very valuable works4 ,following ,mr4 ,godwin's life of ,bryant1 is the 8,memoirs of ,john ,a4 ,dix40,m ,in so pretentious a work as the latter it is unfortunate that the compilation should have been made by his son4 ,the unbiased1 impersonal judgment that makes a biography trustworthy1 is wanting4 ,the fondness of the writer is continually evident to the reader4 ,the book1 however1 is valuable from its fullness and exactness4 ,it is really an epitome of the history of the most exciting times in our annals4 ,general ,dix's part in the stirring events before and after the rebellion1 his work as secretary of the treasury1 as military commander during the ,new ,york riots in '#fc1 and his position upon various questions of national policy1 are all explained minutely1 and his correspondence is given in full4 ,although so voluminous1 the work is never fatiguing4 ,a feature which adds to the interest of the book is the selections from his translations1 sketches1 etc4 ,general ,dix added to his political and military ability a literary taste that led him to cultivate letters4 ,his translations are particularly good4 ,stabat ,mater1 his son has seen fit to publish2 it seems a pity that ,dies ,ir was not also given4 ,the third of these biographies is the 8,life of ,james ,buchanan40,n ,the author himself says of this work1 that 8it was followed within a week by an amount of criticism such as ,i do not remember to have seen bestowed on any similar book in the same space of time40 ,mr4 ,curtis was assigned a task from which most men would have shrunk4 ,mr4 ,buchanan's administration as ,president of the ,united ,states was not popular4 ,the belief that he favored the secession of the ,southern ,states has been general4 ,for his biographer to treat him as a conscientious actor in the struggle before the war has necessarily entailed criticism4 ,mr4 ,curtis says in his preface1 8,my estimate of his abilities and powers as a statesman has arisen with every investigation ,i have made and it is1 in my judgment1 not too much to say of him as a ,president of the ,united ,states1 that he is entitled to stand very high in the catalogue--not a large one--of those who have had the moral courage to encounter misrepresentation and obloquy1 rather than swerve from the line of duty which their convictions marked out for them40 ,mr4 ,curtis will not change the popular opinion on the ,buchanan administration1 but he must modify that opinion4 ,this treatment alone makes the work worth reading by both friend and foe4 ,the most entertaining part of the book is the voluminous private correspondence1 which well portray ,mr4 ,buchanan's social and friendly nature4 ,one of the most delightful books of the season is 8,spanish ,vistas10,o by ,mr4 ,lathrop4 ,the publishers have given us a genuine dition de luxe1 heavy paper1 numberless choice illustrations1 and beautiful binding4 ,the book is the joint product of two artists1 and if one wields the quill instead of the pencil he is no less artistic4 ,two things are particularly noticeable in ,mr4 ,lathrop's fine descriptions of scenery1 of architecture1 city sights and peasant gatherings3 the skill with which he chooses his point and time of observation1 and his really superior coloring4 ,he knows at what hour the ,alhambra will exercise its supreme spell1 where the picturesque vagabondism of these handsome ,spanish rascals will be most striking4 ,to this power add his ability in colors and there is not a page but glows with effective pictures4 ,character sketches enliven the volume4 ,the commonplace ,american abroad is introduced in ,whetstone1 a man of 8iron persistence and intense prejudice10 who continually exclaims 8,i don't see what ,i came to ,spain for4 ,if there ever was a ,god-forsaken country10 and who amid the grandeur of the cathedral of ,seville squints along the cornice to see if it is straight4 ,the writer has been ably assisted by his 8,velveteen10 alias ,mr4 ,c4 ,s4 ,reinhart1 whose pictures give doubled value to the book4 ,to all contemplating a trip to ,spain the chapter on 8,hints to ,travelers0 will be valuable4 8,spanish ,vistas0 represents one class of books on travels4 ,there is another more interesting to the majority of people1 in which facts and adventures are the chief elements4 ,such a work is 8,the ,golden ,chersonese10,p by ,isabella ,bird4 ,after having traveled on horseback through the interior of ,japan1 and braved the roughest passes of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and spent six months among the wonders of the ,sandwich ,islands1 this indefatigable woman penetrates that terra incognita1 the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,the dangers and inconveniences which she undergoes to get there and get through are remarkable4 ,she sailed from ,hong ,kong not long after a party of piratical ,chinese1 shipping as steerage passengers on board a river steamer1 had massacred the officers and captured the boat4 ,there was but one ,english passenger on board besides herself1 and some two thousand ,chinese imprisoned in the steerage1 an iron grating over each exit1 and an officer ready to shoot the first man who attempted to force it4 ,the decorations of the saloons consisted of stands of loaded rifles and unsheathed bayonets4 ,she penetrates the country where the mosquitoes are a terror to life2 snakes1 land-leeches and centipedes are everywhere1 but the enthusiastic traveler mentions them but casually4 ,the dangers and bravery of the writer of course add piquancy to the interesting description of the scenes1 the customs and peculiarities of 8,the ,golden ,chersonese40 ,along with these fresh works comes out a new edition of one of the pioneers in this field of literature4 ,we refer to ,dr4 ,hayes' 8,arctic ,boat ,journey40,q ,in #ahfj it was first published1 and speedily took its place as an authority on ,arctic travels4 ,the fresh interest given to this subject by the sad fate of the 8,jeannette0 has led to a new edition4 ,the accounts lose nothing of interest by time1 but rather become clearer from the added knowledge we have of the frozen seas and icy lands4 ,no work will be found a more valuable addition to a ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 library than ,lbke's 8,history of ,art40,r ,in connection with the art readings it will be found invaluable4 ,since its first publication in #ahfj it has gone through seven editions1 and that1 too1 in critical ,germany4 ,the new translation from the latest ,german edition is the best4 ,,books ,,received4 8,bible ,stories for ,young ,children10 by ,caroline ,hoadley4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott4 ,co4 8,ancient ,egypt in the ,light of ,modern ,discoveries10 by ,professor ,h4 ,s4 ,osborn1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cincinnati3 ,robert ,clark ,co41 #ahhc4 8,woman and ,temperance2 or1 ,the ,work and the ,workers of ,the ,woman's ,christian ,temperance ,union10 by ,frances ,e4 ,willard1 ,president of the ,w4 ,c4 ,t4 ,u4 ,hartford1 ,conn43 ,park ,publishing ,co41 #ahhc4 8,the ,soul ,winner40 ,a ,sketch of ,facts and ,incidents in the ,life and ,labors of ,edmund ,j4 ,zard1 for sixty-three years a class-leader and hospital visitor in ,philadelphia4 ,by his sister1 ,mrs4 ,mary ,d4 ,james4 ,new ,york3 ,phillip ,hunt2 ,cincinnati3 ,walden ,stowe1 #ahhc4 8,the ,preacher and ,his ,sermon40 ,a ,treatise on ,homiletics4 ,by ,rev4 ,john ,w4 ,etter1 ,b4,d4 ,dayton1 ,o43 ,united ,brethren ,publishing ,house1 #ahhc4 8,seven ,stories1 with ,basement and ,attic40 ,by the author of 8,reveries of a ,bachelor40 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 8,reveries of ,a ,bachelor2 or1 ,a ,book of the ,heart10 by ,ik ,marvel4 ,new and revised edition4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhd4 8,the ,story of ,roland10 by ,james ,baldwin4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhc4 8,our ,young ,folks' ,plutarch20 edited by ,rosalie ,kaufman4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co41 #ahhc4 8,young ,folks' ,whys and ,wherefores40 ,a ,story by ,uncle ,lawrence4 ,philadelphia3 ,j4 ,b4 ,lippincott ,co41 #ahhd4 8,mrs4 ,gilpin's ,frugalities40 ,remnants1 and ,two ,hundred ,ways of using them4 ,by ,susan ,anna ,brown1 author of 8,the ,book of ,forty ,puddings40 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,,footnotes3 ,k ,pages from an ,old ,volume of ,life2 a collection of essays 7#aheg-ahha7 by ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes4 ,boston3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co41 #ahhc4 ,l ,development ,lessons for ,teachers1 by ,esmond ,v4 ,de,graff and ,margaret ,k4 ,smith4 ,new ,york3 ,h4 ,lovell ,co41 #ahhc4 ,m ,memoirs of ,john ,a4 ,dix2 compiled by his son1 ,morgan ,dix4 ,in two volumes4 ,new ,york1 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhc4 ,n ,life of ,james ,buchanan1 ,fifteenth ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,george ,ticknor ,curtis4 ,in two volumes4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhc4 ,o ,spanish ,vistas1 by ,george ,parsons ,lathrop1 illustrated by ,charles ,s4 ,reinhart4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers1 #ahhc4 ,p ,the ,golden ,chersonese1 by ,isabella ,bird4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #ahhc4 ,q ,an ,arctic ,boat ,journey in the ,autumn of #ahed1 by ,isaac ,i4 ,hayes1 ,m4 ,d4 ,new edition1 enlarged and illustrated4 ,boston3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,company1 #ahhc4 ,r ,outlines of the ,history of ,art1 by ,dr4 ,wilhelm ,lbke4 ,a new translation from the seventh ,german edition1 edited by ,clarence ,cook4 ,new ,york3 ,dodd1 ,mead ,co41 #ahha4 ,illustration3 ,,royal ,,baking ,,powder ,absolutely ,pure4 ,this powder never varies4 ,a marvel of purity1 strength and wholesomeness4 ,more economical than the ordinary kinds1 and can not be sold in competition with the multitude of low test1 short weight1 alum or phosphate powders4 ,sold only in cans4 ,,royal ,,baking ,,powder ,,co41 #ajf ,wall ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,chautauquan4 #ahhc-ahhd4 ,the ,fourth ,volume ,begins with ,october1 #ahhc4 ,a monthly magazine1 #gf pages1 ten numbers in the volume1 beginning with ,october and closing with ,july4 ,,the ,,chautauquan is the official organ of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c41 adopted by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,d4,d41 ,lewis ,miller1 ,esq41 ,lyman ,abbott1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d41 and ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,gibson1 ,d4,d41 ,counselors of the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,one-half of the 8,required ,readings0 in the ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 course of study for #ahhc-hd will be published only in ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,our columns will contain articles on ,roman1 ,german1 ,french and ,american ,history1 together with 8,sunday ,readings10 articles on ,political ,economy1 ,civil ,law1 ,physical ,science1 ,sculpture and ,sculptors1 ,painting and ,painters1 ,architecture and ,architects4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent will continue his department of ,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,work4 ,we shall publish 8,questions and ,answers0 on every book in the course of study for the year4 ,the work of each week and month will be divided for the convenience of our readers4 ,stenographic reports of the 8,round-,tables0 held in the ,hall of ,philosophy during ,august will be given4 ,special features of this volume will be the 8,c4 ,l4 ,s4 ,c4 ,testimony0 and 8,local ,circles40 ,,the ,,editor',s ,,outlook1 ,,editor',s ,,note-,,book ,,and ,,editor',s ,,table1 ,,will ,,be ,,improved4 ,the new department of ,notes on the ,required ,readings will be continued4 ,the notes have met with universal favor1 and will be improved the coming year4 ,miscellaneous articles on ,travel1 ,science1 ,philosophy1 ,literature1 ,religion1 ,art1 etc41 will be prepared to meet the needs of our readers4 ,prof4 ,wallace ,bruce will furnish a series of ten articles1 especially for this ,magazine1 on ,sir ,walter ,scott's 8,waverley ,novels10 in which he will give our readers a comprehensive view of the writings of this prince of novelists4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,vincent1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,m4 ,steele1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,c4 ,wilkinson1 ,d4,d41 ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,williams1 ,a4,m41 ,bishop ,h4 ,w4 ,warren1 ,a4 ,m4 ,martin1 ,esq41 ,rev4 ,c4 ,e4 ,hall1 ,a4,m41 ,rev4 ,e4 ,d4 ,mc,creary1 ,a4,m41 and others1 will contribute to the current volume4 ,the character of ,,the ,,chautauquan in the past is our best promise of what we shall do for our readers in the future4 ,,the ,,chautauquan1 one year1 #a4ej ,,club ,,rates ,,for ,,the ,,chautauquan4 ,five subscriptions at one time1 each1 #a4ce ,or1 for the five #f4ge ,in clubs1 the ,magazine must go to one postoffice4 ,remittances should be made by postoffice money order on ,meadville1 or draft on ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia or ,pittsburgh1 to avoid loss4 ,address1 ,,theodore ,l4 ,,flood1 ,editor and ,proprietor1 ,,meadville1 ,,pa4 ,complete sets of the ,chautauqua ,assembly ,herald for #ahhc furnished at #a4jj4 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons' ,,new ,,books4 ,biblical ,study4 ,its ,principles1 ,methods1 and a ,history of its ,branches4 ,together with a ,catalogue of a ,reference ,library of ,biblical ,study4 ,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,briggs1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,hebrew and ,cognate ,languages in ,union ,theological ,seminary4 #a vol4 #abmo1 #b4ej4 ,professor ,briggs' book is admirably adapted for the use of the great number of readers and ,bible students who desire to know the results of the most recent investigation and the best modern scholarship in the field of ,biblical ,study4 ,without such a guide it is impossible to comprehend the discussions which now agitate the religious world as to the canon1 the languages1 the style1 the text1 the interpretation1 and the criticism of ,scripture4 ,each of these departments1 with other kindred topics1 is treated in a brief but thorough and comprehensive manner1 and their history and literature are presented together with their present aspect4 ,the ,scriptural ,idea of ,man4 ,by ,,mark ,,hopkins1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 #a vol41 #abmo1 #a4jj4 8,we wish every theological student in the land might have the chance1 at least1 of reading this book4 ,the doctrines of the ,bible in relation to man in his original nature have seldom been more powerfully enforced1 and the different schools of modern infidelity have seldom been exposed more completely in all their weakness4 ,it is like taking a tonic or a breath of mountain air for one to listen to such teachings as the pen of ,doctor ,hopkins here gives to the younger race of ministers40--,the ,christian ,intelligencer4 ,the ,grounds of ,theistic and ,christian ,belief4 ,by ,,george ,p4 ,,fisher1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,ecclesiastical ,history in ,yale ,college1 #a vol41 crown #hvo4 #b4ej4 ,this volume embraces a discussion of the evidences of both natural and revealed religion1 and prominence is given to topics having special interest at present from their connection with modern theories and difficulties4 ,professor ,fisher's learning1 skill in argument1 and power of language have given him the position of one of the foremost defenders of the faith now living1 and this volume will be useful to many in clearing up perplexities and throwing new light upon the nature of the ,christian faith and its relation to modern thought4 ,christian ,charity in the ,ancient ,church4 ,by ,dr4 ,,gerhard ,,uhlhorn1 author of 8,the ,conflict of ,christianity with ,heathenism40 #a vol4 crown #hvo1 #b4ej4 ,dr4 ,uhlhorn is favorably known on this side of the ,atlantic by his able and fascinating treatment of one of the most important chapters in history1 8,the ,conflict of ,christianity with ,heathenism40 ,the ,life of ,luther4 ,by ,,julius ,,kostlin1 ,professor in the ,university of ,halle4 ,with more than #fj illustrations from original portraits1 documents1 etc4 #a vol4 #hvo4 8,at last we have a life of ,luther which deserves the name4444 ,the ,herr ,kostlin1 in a single well-composed volume1 has produced a picture which leaves little to be desired4 ,a student who has read these six hundred pages attentively will have no question left to ask40--,,james ,,anthony ,,froude in ,the ,contemporary ,review4 ,the ,middle ,kingdom4 ,a survey of the ,geography1 ,government1 ,literature1 ,social ,life1 ,arts1 and ,history of the ,chinese ,empire and its inhabitants4 ,with illustrations and a new map of the ,empire4 ,by ,s4 ,,wells ,,williams1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols4 royal #hvo1 #i4jj4 ,this new issue of ,dr4 ,s4 ,wells ,williams's standard and important work1 8,the ,middle ,kingdom10 is practically a new book4 ,the text of the old edition has been largely rewritten1 and the work has been expanded so as to include a vast amount of new material collected by ,dr4 ,williams during the later years of his residence in ,china1 as well as the most recent information regarding all the departments of the ,empire4 ,the ,story of ,roland4 ,by ,,james ,,baldwin4 ,with a series of illustrations by ,r4 ,b4 ,birch4 #a vol4 square #abmo1 #b4jj4 ,this volume is intended as a companion to 8,the ,story of ,siegfried40 ,as 8,siegfried0 was an adaptation of ,northern myths and romances to the wants and understanding of young readers1 so is this story a similar adaptation of the ,middle ,age romances relating to ,charlemagne and his paladins4 ,the ,hoosier ,school-,boy4 ,by ,,edward ,,eggleston1 author of 8,the ,hoosier ,school-,master10 etc4 ,with full-page illustrations4 #a vol4 #abmo1 #a4jj4 8,those who have read #8,the ,hoosier ,school-master'--and who has not8--will feel that they must have this companion volume4 ,mr4 ,eggleston is a writer of very charming stories of a peculiar character4 ,his stories always mean something1 and are pervaded by a ,christian tone of thought and feeling40--,christian ,secretary1 ,hartford4 ,mrs4 ,gilpin's ,frugalities4 ,remnants1 and #bjj ,ways of ,using ,them4 ,by ,,susan ,,anna ,,brown1 author of 8,the ,book of ,forty ,puddings40 #a vol4 illuminated1 #a4 ,this little volume1 which in the range of cook-book literature occupies a new and unoccupied field1 aims to combat the spirit of wastefulness that is the besetting sin of ,american housekeeping4 ,miss ,brown provides a multitude of receipts for transforming these remnants into savory and nutritious plats1 side dishes1 entrees1 etc4 ,some of these receipts are from the ,french1 but most of them are from the author's own experiments4 ,these books are for sale by all book-sellers1 or will be sent1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1 ,publishers1 #gdc and #gde ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,obvious punctuation errors repaired4 ,page #ff1 8,muremburg0 changed to 8,nuremburg0 7of ,nuremburg1 is now7 ,page #ha1 8,lybia0 changed to 8,libya0 7deserts of ,libya1 there dwelt7 ,page #hb1 8,fresho0 changed to 8,fresno0 7four chief towns1 ,fresno7 ,page #hh1 8,propylnm0 changed to 8,propylum0 7the ,propylum and enter7 ,page #ig1 8ti0 changed to 8it0 7huzzaing for me2 it7 ,page #ih1 stanza break placed between first and second stanza of poem4 ,page #ajc1 8,lousta0 changed to 8,louisa0 7,lousia ,e4 ,french7 ,page #ajh1 8be0 changed to 8he0 7he came and gave7 ,page #aji1 8invested0 changed to 8infested0 7earliest times infested7 ,page #aaf1 8city0 changed to 8,city0 7,new ,york ,city to introduce7 ,page #abh1 8cannon0 changed to 8canon0 7as to the canon7 ,page #abh1 8,ulhorn0 changed to 8,uhlhorn0 7,dr4 ,uhlhorn is favorably7 ,page #abh1 8adaption0 changed to 8adaptation0 7an adaptation of ,northern7