,,human ,,all-,,too-,,human ,a ,,book ,,for ,,free ,,spirits ,,part ,i ,by ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche ,,translated ,,by ,,helen ,,zimmern ,,with ,,introduction ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,kennedy ,the ,complete ,works of ,friedrich ,nietzsche ,the ,first ,complete and ,authorised ,english ,translation ,edited by ,dr ,oscar ,levy ,volume ,six ,t4,n4 ,,foulis #ac #ae ,,frederick ,,street ,,edinburgh3 ,,and ,,london #aiji ,,contents4 ,,introduction ,,author',s ,,preface ,,first ,,division3 ,,first ,,and ,,last ,,things ,,second ,,division3 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,sentiment ,,third ,,division3 ,,the ,,religious ,,life ,,fourth ,,division3 ,,concerning ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,artists ,,and ,,authors ,,fifth ,,division3 ,,the ,,signs ,,of ,,higher ,,and ,,lower ,,culture ,,sixth ,,division3 ,,man ,,in ,,society ,,seventh ,,division3 ,,wife ,,and ,,child ,,eighth ,,division3 ,a ,,glance ,,at ,,the ,,state ,,an ,,epode--,,among ,,friends ,,introduction4 ,nietzsche's essay1 ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth1 appeared in #ahgf1 and his next publication was his present work1 which was issued in #ahgh4 ,a comparison of the books will show that the two years of meditation intervening had brought about a great change in ,nietzsche's views1 his style of expressing them1 and the form in which they were cast4 ,the ,dionysian1 overflowing with life1 gives way to an ,apollonian thinker with a touch of pessimism4 ,the long essay form is abandoned1 and instead we have a series of aphorisms1 some tinged with melancholy1 others with satire1 several1 especially towards the end1 with ,nietzschian wit at its best1 and a few at the beginning so very abstruse as to require careful study4 ,since the ,bayreuth festivals of #ahgf1 ,nietzsche had gradually come to see ,wagner as he really was4 ,the ideal musician that ,nietzsche had pictured in his own mind turned out to be nothing more than a rather dilettante philosopher1 an opportunistic decadent with a suspicious tendency towards ,christianity4 ,the young philosopher thereupon proceeded to shake off the influence which the musician had exercised upon him4 ,he was successful in doing so1 but not without a struggle1 just as he had formerly shaken off the influence of ,schopenhauer4 ,hence he writes in his autobiography3#a ,human1 all-too-,human1 is the monument of a crisis4 ,it is entitled3 ',a book for free spirits1' and almost every line in it represents a victory--in its pages ,i freed myself from everything foreign to my real nature4 ,idealism is foreign to me3 the title says1 ',where you see ideal things1 ,i see things which are only--human alas6 all-too-human6' ,i know man better--the term 'free spirit' must here be understood in no other sense than this3 a freed man1 who has once more taken possession of himself4 ,the form of this book will be better understood when it is remembered that at this period ,nietzsche was beginning to suffer from stomach trouble and headaches4 ,as a cure for his complaints1 he spent his time in travel when he could get a few weeks' respite from his duties at ,basel ,university2 and it was in the course of his solitary walks and hill-climbing tours that the majority of these thoughts occurred to him and were jotted down there and then4 ,a few of them1 however1 date further back1 as he tells us in the preface to the second part of this work4 ,many of them1 he says1 occupied his mind even before he published his first book1 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy and several others1 as we learn from his notebooks and posthumous writings1 date from the period of the ,thoughts out of ,season4 ,it must be clearly understood1 however1 that ,nietzsche's disease must not be looked upon in the same way as that of an ordinary man4 ,people are inclined to regard a sick man as rancorous2 but any one who rights with and conquers his disease1 and even exploits it1 as ,nietzsche did1 benefits thereby to an extraordinary degree4 ,in the first place1 he has passed through several stages of human psychology with which a healthy man is entirely unacquainted2 e4g4 he has learnt by introspection the spiteful and revengeful spirit of the sick man and his religion4 ,secondly1 in his moments of freedom from pain and gloom his thoughts will be all the more brilliant4 ,in support of this last statement1 one instance may be selected out of hundreds that could be adduced4 ,heinrich ,heine spent the greater part of his life in exile from his native country1 tortured by headaches1 and finally dying in a foreign land as the result of a spinal disease4 ,his splendid works were composed in his moments of respite from illness1 and during the last years of his life1 when his health was at its worst1 he gave to the world his famous ,romancero4 ,we would likewise do well to recollect ,goethe's saying3 ,zart ,gedicht1 wie ,regenbogen1 ,wird nur auf dunkelm ,grund gezogen4#b ,thus neither the form of this book--so startling at first to those who have been brought up in the traditions of our own school--nor the treat all men as equals1 and proclaim the establishment of equal rights3 so far a socialistic mode of thought which is based on justice is possible2 but1 as has been said1 only within the ranks of the governing classes1 which in this case practises justice with sacrifices and abnegations4 ,on the other hand1 to demand equality of rights1 as do the ,socialists of the subject caste1 is by no means the outcome of justice1 but of covetousness4 ,if you expose bloody pieces of flesh to a beast1 and then withdraw them again until it finally begins to roar1 do you think that the roaring implies justice8 ,theologians on the other hand1 as may be expected1 will find no such ready help in their difficulties from ,nietzsche4 ,they must1 on the contrary1 be on their guard against so alert an adversary--a duty which they are apparently not going to shirk2 for theologians are amongst the most ardent students of ,nietzsche in this country4 ,their attention may therefore be drawn to aphorism #fcj of this book1 dealing with convictions and their origin1 which will no doubt be successfully refuted by the defenders of the true faith4 ,in fact1 there is not a single paragraph in the book that does not deserve careful study by all serious thinkers4 ,on the whole1 however1 this is a calm book1 and those who are accustomed to ,nietzsche the out-spoken ,immoralist1 may be somewhat astonished at the calm tone of the present volume4 ,the explanation is that ,nietzsche was now just beginning to walk on his own philosophical path4 ,his life-long aim1 the uplifting of the type man1 was still in view1 but the way leading towards it was once more uncertain4 ,hence the peculiarly calm1 even melancholic1 and what ,nietzsche himself would call ,apollonian1 tinge of many of these aphorisms1 so different from the style of his earlier and later writings4 ,for this very reason1 however1 the book may appeal all the more to ,english readers1 who are of course more ,apollonian than ,dionysian4 ,nietzsche is feeling his way1 and these aphorisms represent his first steps4 ,as such--besides having a high intrinsic value of themselves--they are enormous aids to the study of his character and temperament4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,kennedy4 ,footnote #a3 ,ecce ,homo1 p4 #ge4 ,footnote #b3 ,tender poetry1 like rainbows1 can appear only on a dark and sombre background4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,preface #a4 ,i have been told frequently1 and always with great surprise1 that there is something common and distinctive in all my writings1 from the ,birth of ,tragedy to the latest published ,prelude to a ,philosophy of the ,future4 ,they all contain1 ,i have been told1 snares and nets for unwary birds1 and an almost perpetual unconscious demand for the inversion of customary valuations and valued customs4 ,what8 ,everything only--human-all-too-human8 ,people lay down my writings with this sigh1 not without a certain dread and distrust of morality itself1 indeed almost tempted and encouraged to become advocates of the worst things3 as being perhaps only the best disparaged8 ,my writings have been called a school of suspicion and especially of disdain1 more happily1 also1 a school of courage and even of audacity4 ,indeed1 ,i myself do not think that any one has ever looked at the world with such a profound suspicion2 and not only as occasional ,devil's ,advocate1 but equally also1 to speak theologically1 as enemy and impeacher of ,god2 and he who realises something of the consequences involved1 in every profound suspicion1 something of the chills and anxieties of loneliness to which every uncompromising difference of outlook condemns him who is affected therewith1 will also understand how often ,i sought shelter in some kind of reverence or hostility1 or scientificality or levity or stupidity1 in order to recover from myself1 and1 as it were1 to obtain temporary self-forgetfulness2 also why1 when ,i did not find what ,i needed1 ,i was obliged to manufacture it1 to counterfeit and to imagine it in a suitable manner 7and what else have poets ever done8 ,and for what purpose has all the art in the world existed874 ,what ,i always required most1 however1 for my cure and self-recovery1 was the belief that ,i was not isolated in such circumstances1 that ,i did not see in an isolated manner--a magic suspicion of relationship and similarity to others in outlook and desire1 a repose in the confidence of friendship1 a blindness in both parties without suspicion or note of interrogation1 an enjoyment of foregrounds1 and surfaces of the near and the nearest1 of all that has colour1 epidermis1 and outside appearance4 ,perhaps ,i might be reproached in this respect for much art and fine false coinage2 for instance1 for voluntarily and knowingly shutting my eyes to ,schopenhauer's blind will to morality at a time when ,i had become sufficiently clear-sighted about morality2 also for deceiving myself about ,richard ,wagner's incurable romanticism1 as if it were a beginning and not an end2 also about the ,greeks1 also about the ,germans and their future--and there would still probably be quite a long list of such alsos8 ,supposing however1 that this were all true and that ,i were reproached with good reason1 what do you know1 what could you know as to how much artifice of self-preservation1 how much rationality and higher protection there is in such self-deception1--and how much falseness ,i still require in order to allow myself again and again the luxury of my sincerity8 444 ,in short1 ,i still live2 and life1 in spite of ourselves1 is not devised by morality2 it demands illusion1 it lives by illusion 444 but----,there6 ,i am already beginning again and doing what ,i have always done1 old immoralist and bird-catcher that ,i am1--,i am talking un-morally1 ultra-morally1 beyond good and evil8444 #b4 ,thus then1 when ,i found it necessary1 ,i invented once on a time the free spirits1 to whom this discouragingly encouraging book with the title ,human1 all-too-,human1 is dedicated4 ,there are no such free spirits nor have there been such1 but1 as already said1 ,i then required them for company to keep me cheerful in the midst of evils 7sickness1 loneliness1 foreignness1--acedia1 inactivity7 as brave companions and ghosts with whom ,i could laugh and gossip when so inclined and send to the devil when they became bores1--as compensation for the lack of friends4 ,that such free spirits will be possible some day1 that our ,europe will have such bold and cheerful wights amongst her sons of to-morrow and the day after to-morrow1 as the shadows of a hermit's phantasmagoria--,i should be the last to doubt thereof4 ,already ,i see them coming1 slowly1 slowly2 and perhaps ,i am doing something to hasten their coming when ,i describe in advance under what auspices ,i see them originate1 and upon what paths ,i see them come4 #c4 ,one may suppose that a spirit in which the type free spirit is to become fully mature and sweet1 has had its decisive event in a great emancipation1 and that it was all the more fettered previously and apparently bound for ever to its corner and pillar4 ,what is it that binds most strongly8 ,what cords are almost unrendable8 ,in men of a lofty and select type it will be their duties2 the reverence which is suitable to youth1 respect and tenderness for all that is time-honoured and worthy1 gratitude to the land which bore them1 to the hand which led them1 to the sanctuary where they learnt to adore1--their most exalted moments themselves will bind them most effectively1 will lay upon them the most enduring obligations4 ,for those who are thus bound the great emancipation comes suddenly1 like an earthquake2 the young soul is all at once convulsed1 unloosened and extricated--it does not itself know what is happening4 ,an impulsion and-compulsion sway and over-master it like a command2 a will and a wish awaken1 to go forth on their course1 anywhere1 at any cost2 a violent1 dangerous curiosity about an undiscovered world flames and flares in every sense4 ,better to die than live here--says the imperious voice and seduction1 and this here1 this at home is all that the soul has hitherto loved6 ,a sudden fear and suspicion of that which it loved1 a flash of disdain for what was called its duty1 a rebellious1 arbitrary1 volcanically throbbing longing for travel1 foreignness1 estrangement1 coldness1 disenchantment1 glaciation1 a hatred of love1 perhaps a sacrilegious clutch and look backwards1 to where it hitherto adored and loved1 perhaps a glow of shame at what it was just doing1 and at the same time a rejoicing that it was doing it1 an intoxicated1 internal1 exulting thrill which betrays a triumph--a triumph8 ,over what8 ,over whom8 ,an enigmatical1 questionable1 doubtful triumph1 but the first triumph nevertheless2--such evil and painful incidents belong to the history of the great emancipation4 ,it is1 at the same time1 a disease which may destroy the man1 this first outbreak of power and will to self-decision1 self-valuation1 this will to free will2 and how much disease is manifested in the wild attempts and eccentricities by which the liberated and emancipated one now seeks to demonstrate his mastery over things6 ,he roves about raging with unsatisfied longing2 whatever he captures has to suffer for the dangerous tension of his pride2 he tears to pieces whatever attracts him4 ,with a malicious laugh he twirls round whatever he finds veiled or guarded by a sense of shame2 he tries how these things look when turned upside down4 ,it is a matter of arbitrariness with him1 and pleasure in arbitrariness1 if he now perhaps bestow his favour on what had hitherto a bad repute1--if he inquisitively and temptingly haunt what is specially forbidden4 ,in the background of his activities and wanderings --for he is restless and aimless in his course as in a desert--stands the note of interrogation of an increasingly dangerous curiosity4 ,cannot all valuations be reversed8 ,and is good perhaps evil8 ,and ,god only an invention and artifice of the devil8 ,is everything1 perhaps1 radically false8 ,and if we are the deceived1 are we not thereby also deceivers8 ,must we not also be deceivers8--,such thoughts lead and mislead him more and more1 onward and away4 ,solitude encircles and engirdles him1 always more threatening1 more throttling1 more heart-oppressing1 that terrible goddess and mater sva cupidinum--but who knows nowadays what solitude is8444 #d4 ,from this morbid solitariness1 from the desert of such years of experiment1 it is still a long way to the copious1 overflowing safety and soundness which does not care to dispense with disease itself as an instrument and angling-hook of knowledge2--to that mature freedom of spirit which is equally self-control and discipline of the heart1 and gives access to many and opposed modes of thought2--to that inward comprehensiveness and daintiness of superabundance1 which excludes any danger of the spirit's becoming enamoured and lost in its own paths1 and lying intoxicated in some corner or other2 to that excess of plastic1 healing1 formative1 and restorative powers1 which is exactly the sign of splendid health1 that excess which gives the free spirit the dangerous prerogative of being entitled to live by experiments and offer itself to adventure2 the free spirit's prerogative of mastership6 ,long years of convalescence may lie in between1 years full of many-coloured1 painfully-enchanting magical transformations1 curbed and led by a tough will to health1 which often dares to dress and disguise itself as actual health4 ,there is a middle condition therein1 which a man of such a fate never calls to mind later on without emotion2 a pale1 delicate light and a sunshine-happiness are peculiar to him1 a feeling of bird-like freedom1 prospect1 and haughtiness1 a tertium quid in which curiosity and gentle disdain are combined4 ,a free spirit--this cool expression does good in every condition1 it almost warms4 ,one no longer lives1 in the fetters of love and hatred1 without ,yea1 without ,nay1 voluntarily near1 voluntarily distant1 preferring to escape1 to turn aside1 to flutter forth1 to fly up and away2 one is fastidious like every one who has once seen an immense variety beneath him1--and one has become the opposite of those who trouble themselves about things which do not concern them4 ,in fact1 it is nothing but things which now concern the free spirit1--and how many things6--which no longer trouble him6 #e4 ,a step further towards recovery1 and the free spirit again draws near to life2 slowly1 it is true1 and almost stubbornly1 almost distrustfully4 ,again it grows warmer around him1 and1 as it were1 yellower2 feeling and sympathy gain depth14 thawing winds of every kind pass lightly over him4 ,he almost feels as if his eyes were now first opened to what is near4 ,he marvels and is still2 where has he been8 ,the near and nearest things1 how changed they appear to him6 ,what a bloom and magic they have acquired meanwhile6 ,he looks back gratefully1--grateful to his wandering1 his austerity and self-estrangement1 his far-sightedness and his bird-like flights in cold heights4 ,what a good thing that he did not always stay at home1 by himself1 like a sensitive1 stupid tenderling4 ,he has been beside himself1 there is no doubt4 ,he now sees himself for the first time1--and what surprises he feels thereby6 ,what thrills unexperienced hitherto6 ,what joy even in the weariness1 in the old illness1 in the relapses of the convalescent6 ,how he likes to sit still and suffer1 to practise patience1 to lie in the sun6 ,who is as familiar as he with the joy of winter1 with the patch of sunshine upon the wall6 ,they are the most grateful animals in the world1 and also the most unassuming1 these lizards of convalescents with their faces half-turned towards life once more3--there are those amongst them who never let a day pass without hanging a little hymn of praise on its trailing fringe4 ,and1 speaking seriously1 it is a radical cure for all pessimism 7the well-known disease of old idealists and falsehood-mongers7 to become ill after the manner of these free spirits1 to remain ill a good while1 and then grow well 7,i mean better7 for a still longer period4 ,it is wisdom1 practical wisdom1 to prescribe even health for one's self for a long time only in small doses4 #f4 ,about this time it may at last happen1 under the sudden illuminations of still disturbed and changing health1 that the enigma of that great emancipation begins to reveal itself to the free1 and ever freer1 spirit1--that enigma which had hitherto lain obscure1 questionable1 and almost intangible1 in his memory4 ,if for a long time he scarcely dared to ask himself1 ,why so apart8 ,so alone8 denying everything that ,i revered8 denying reverence itself8 ,why this hatred1 this suspicion1 this severity towards my own virtues8--he now dares and asks the questions aloud1 and already hears something like an answer to them-- ,thou shouldst become master over thyself and master also of thine own virtues4 ,formerly they were thy masters2 but they are only entitled to be thy tools amongst other tools4 ,thou shouldst obtain power over thy pro and contra1 and learn how to put them forth and withdraw them again in accordance with thy higher purpose4 ,thou shouldst learn how to take the proper perspective of every valuation--the shifting1 distortion1 and apparent teleology of the horizons and everything that belongs to perspective2 also the amount of stupidity which opposite values involve1 and all the intellectual loss with which every pro and every contra has to be paid for4 ,thou shouldst learn how much necessary injustice there is in every for and against1 injustice as inseparable from life1 and life itself as conditioned by the perspective and its injustice4 ,above all thou shouldst see clearly where the injustice is always greatest3--namely1 where life has developed most punily1 restrictedly1 necessitously1 and incipiently1 and yet cannot help regarding itself as the purpose and standard of things1 and for the sake of self-preservation1 secretly1 basely1 and continuously wasting away and calling in question the higher1 greater1 and richer1--thou shouldst see clearly the problem of gradation of rank1 and how power and right and amplitude of perspective grow up together4 ,thou shouldst---- ,but enough2 the free spirit knows henceforth which thou shalt he has obeyed1 and also what he can now do1 what he only now--may do4444 #g4 ,thus doth the free spirit answer himself with regard to the riddle of emancipation1 and ends therewith1 while he generalises his case1 in order thus to decide with regard to his experience4 ,as it has happened to me1 he says to himself1 so must it happen to every one in whom a mission seeks to embody itself and to 'come into the world4' ,the secret power and necessity of this mission will operate in and upon the destined individuals like an unconscious pregnancy1--long before they have had the mission itself in view and have known its name4 ,our destiny rules over us1 even when we are not yet aware of it2 it is the future that makes laws for our to-day4 ,granted that it is the problem of the gradations of rank1 of which we may say that it is our problem1 we free spirits2 now only in the midday of our life do we first understand what preparations1 detours1 tests1 experiments1 and disguises the problem needed1 before it was permitted to rise before us1 and how we had first to experience the most manifold and opposing conditions of distress and happiness in soul and body1 as adventurers and circumnavigators of the inner world called man1 as surveyors of all the higher and the one-above-another1 also called man--penetrating everywhere1 almost without fear1 rejecting nothing1 losing nothing1 tasting everything1 cleansing everything from all that is accidental1 and1 as it were1 sifting it out--until at last we could say1 we free spirits1 ,here--a new problem6 ,here a long ladder1 the rungs of which we ourselves have sat upon and mounted1--which we ourselves at some time have been6 ,here a higher place1 a lower place1 an under-us1 an immeasurably long order1 a hierarchy which we see2 here--our problem6 #h4 ,no psychologist or augur will be in doubt for a moment as to what stage of the development just described the following book belongs 7or is assigned to74 ,but where are these psychologists nowadays8 ,in ,france1 certainly2 perhaps in ,russia2 assuredly not in ,germany4 ,reasons are not lacking why the present-day ,germans could still even count this as an honour to them--bad enough1 surely1 for one who in this respect is un-,german in disposition and constitution6 ,this ,german book1 which has been able to find readers in a wide circle of countries and nations--it has been about ten years going its rounds--and must understand some sort of music and piping art1 by means of which even coy foreign ears are seduced into listening1--it is precisely in ,germany that this book has been most negligently read1 and worst listened to2 what is the reason8 ,it demands too much1 ,i have been told1 it appeals to men free from the pressure of coarse duties1 it wants refined and fastidious senses1 it needs superfluity--superfluity of time1 of clearness of sky and heart1 of otium in the boldest sense of the term3--purely good things1 which we ,germans of to-day do not possess and therefore cannot give4 ,after such a polite answer my philosophy advises me to be silent and not to question further2 besides1 in certain cases1 as the proverb points out1 one only remains a philosopher by being--silent4#a ,,nice1 ,spring #ahhf4 ,footnote #a3 ,an allusion to the medival ,latin distich3 ,o si tacuisses1 ,philosophus mansisses4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,human1 ,,all-,,too-,,human4 ,,first ,,division4 ,,first ,,and ,,last ,,things4 #a4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,ideas ,,and ,,sensations4--,philosophical problems adopt in almost all matters the same form of question as they did two thousand years ago2 how can anything spring from its opposite8 for instance1 reason out of unreason1 the sentient out of the dead1 logic out of unlogic1 disinterested contemplation out of covetous willing1 life for others out of egoism1 truth out of error8 ,metaphysical philosophy has helped itself over those difficulties hitherto by denying the origin of one thing in another1 and assuming a miraculous origin for more highly valued things1 immediately out of the kernel and essence of the thing in itself4 ,historical philosophy1 on the contrary1 which is no longer to be thought of as separate from physical science1 the youngest of all philosophical methods1 has ascertained in single cases 7and presumably this will happen in everything7 that there are no opposites except in the usual exaggeration of the popular or metaphysical point of view1 and that an error of reason lies at the bottom of the opposition3 according to this explanation1 strictly understood1 there is neither an unegoistical action nor an entirely disinterested point of view1 they are both only sublimations in which the fundamental element appears almost evaporated1 and is only to be discovered by the closest observation4 ,all that we require1 and which can only be given us by the present advance of the single sciences1 is a chemistry of the moral1 religious1 sthetic ideas and sentiments1 as also of those emotions which we experience in ourselves both in the great and in the small phases of social and intellectual intercourse1 and even in solitude2 but what if this chemistry should result in the fact that also in this case the most beautiful colours have been obtained from base1 even despised materials8 ,would many be inclined to pursue such examinations8 ,humanity likes to put all questions as to origin and beginning out of its mind2 must one not be almost dehumanised to feel a contrary tendency in one's self8 #b4 ,,inherited ,,faults ,,of ,,philosophers4--,all philosophers have the common fault that they start from man in his present state and hope to attain their end by an analysis of him4 ,unconsciously they look upon man as an cetema ,veritas1 as a thing unchangeable in all commotion1 as a sure standard of things4 ,but everything that the philosopher says about man is really nothing more than testimony about the man of a very limited space of time4 ,a lack of the historical sense is the hereditary fault of all philosophers2 many1 indeed1 unconsciously mistake the very latest variety of man1 such as has arisen under the influence of certain religions1 certain political events1 for the permanent form from which one must set out4 ,they will not learn that man has developed1 that his faculty of knowledge has developed also2 whilst for some of them the entire world is spun out of this faculty of knowledge4 ,now everything essential in human development happened in pre-historic times1 long before those four thousand years which we know something of2 man may not have changed much during this time4 ,but the philosopher sees instincts in the present man and takes it for granted that this is one of the unalterable facts of mankind1 and1 consequently1 can furnish a key to the understanding of the world2 the entire teleology is so constructed that man of the last four thousand years is spoken of as an eternal being1 towards which all things in the world have from the beginning a natural direction4 ,but everything has evolved2 there are no eternal facts1 as there are likewise no absolute truths4 ,therefore1 historical philosophising is henceforth necessary1 and with it the virtue of diffidence4 #c4 ,,appreciation ,,of ,,unpretentious ,,truths4--,it is a mark of a higher culture to value the little unpretentious truths1 which have been found by means of strict method1 more highly than the joy-diffusing and dazzling errors which spring from metaphysical and artistic times and peoples4 ,first of all one has scorn on the lips for the former1 as if here nothing could have equal privileges with anything else1 so unassuming1 simple1 bashful1 apparently discouraging are they1 so beautiful1 stately1 intoxicating1 perhaps even animating1 are the others4 ,but the hardly attained1 the certain1 the lasting1 and therefore of great consequence for all wider knowledge1 is still the higher2 to keep one's self to that is manly and shows bravery1 simplicity1 and forbearance4 ,gradually not only single individuals but the whole of mankind will be raised to this manliness1 when it has at last accustomed itself to the higher appreciation of durable1 lasting knowledge1 and has lost all belief in inspiration and the miraculous communication of truths4 ,respecters of forms1 certainly1 with their standard of the beautiful and noble1 will first of all have good reasons for mockery1 as soon as the appreciation of unpretentious truths1 and the scientific spirit1 begin to obtain the mastery2 but only because their eye has either not yet recognised the charm of the simplest form1 or because men educated in that spirit are not yet completely and inwardly saturated by it1 so that they still thoughtlessly imitate old forms 7and badly enough1 as one does who no longer cares much about the matter74 ,formerly the spirit was not occupied with strict thought1 its earnestness then lay in the spinning out of symbols and forms4 ,this is changed2 that earnestness in the symbolical has become the mark of a lower culture4 ,as our arts themselves grow evermore intellectual1 our senses more spiritual1 and as1 for instance1 people now judge concerning what sounds well to the senses quite differently from how they did a hundred years ago1 so the forms of our life grow ever more spiritual1 to the eye of older ages perhaps uglier1 but only because it is incapable of perceiving how the kingdom of the inward1 spiritual beauty constantly grows deeper and wider1 and to what extent the inner intellectual look may be of more importance to us all than the most beautiful bodily frame and the noblest architectural structure4 #d4 ,,astrology ,,and ,,the ,,like4--,it is probable that the objects of religious1 moral1 sthetic and logical sentiment likewise belong only to the surface of things1 while man willingly believes that here1 at least1 he has touched the heart of the world2 he deceives himself1 because those things enrapture him so profoundly1 and make him so profoundly unhappy1 and he therefore shows the same pride here as in astrology4 ,for astrology believes that the firmament moves round the destiny of man2 the moral man1 however1 takes it for granted that what he has essentially at heart must also be the essence and heart of things4 #e4 ,,misunderstanding ,,of ,,dreams4--,in the ages of a rude and primitive civilisation man believed that in dreams he became acquainted with a second actual world2 herein lies the origin of all metaphysics4 ,without dreams there could have been found no reason for a division of the world4 ,the distinction1 too1 between soul and body is connected with the most ancient comprehension of dreams1 also the supposition of an imaginary soul-body1 therefore the origin of all belief in spirits1 and probably also the belief in gods4 ,the dead continues to live1 for he appears to the living in a dream3 thus men reasoned of old for thousands and thousands of years4 #f4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,spirit ,,partially ,,but ,,not ,,wholly ,,powerful4--,the smallest subdivisions of science taken separately are dealt with purely in relation to themselves1--the general1 great sciences1 on the contrary1 regarded as a whole1 call up the question--certainly a very non-objective one--,wherefore8 ,to what end8 ,it is this utilitarian consideration which causes them to be dealt with less impersonally when taken as a whole than when considered in their various parts4 ,in philosophy1 above all1 as the apex of the entire1 pyramid of science1 the question as to the utility of knowledge is involuntarily brought forward1 and every philosophy has the unconscious intention of ascribing to it the greatest usefulness4 ,for this reason there is so much high-flying metaphysics in all philosophies and such a shyness of the apparently unimportant solutions of physics2 for the importance of knowledge for life must appear as great as possible4 ,here is the antagonism between the separate provinces of science and philosophy4 ,the latter desires1 what art does1 to give the greatest possible depth and meaning to life and actions2 in the former one seeks knowledge and nothing further1 whatever may emerge thereby4 ,so far there has been no philosopher in whose hands philosophy has not grown into an apology for knowledge2 on this point1 at least1 every one is an optimist1 that the greatest usefulness must be ascribed to knowledge4 ,they are all tyrannised over by logic1 and this is optimism--in its essence4 #g4 ,,the ,,kill-,,joy ,,in ,,science4--,philosophy separated from science when it asked the question1 ,which is the knowledge of the world and of life which enables man to live most happily8 ,this happened in the ,socratic schools2 the veins of scientific investigation were bound up by the point of view of happiness1--and are so still4 #h4 ,,pneumatic ,,explanation ,,of ,,nature4--,metaphysics explains the writing of ,nature1 so to speak1 pneumatically1 as the ,church and her learned men formerly did with the ,bible4 ,a great deal of understanding is required to apply to ,nature the same method of strict interpretation as the philologists have now established for all books with the intention of clearly understanding what the text means1 but not suspecting a double sense or even taking it for granted4 ,just1 however1 as with regard to books1 the bad art of interpretation is by no means overcome1 and in the most cultivated society one still constantly comes across the remains of allegorical and mystic interpretation1 so it is also with regard to ,nature1 indeed it is even much worse4 #i4 ,,the ,,metaphysical ,,world4--,it is true that there might be a metaphysical world2 the absolute possibility of it is hardly to be disputed4 ,we look at everything through the human head and cannot cut this head off2 while the question remains1 ,what would be left of the world if it had been cut off8 ,this is a purely scientific problem1 and one not very likely to trouble mankind2 but everything which has hitherto made metaphysical suppositions valuable1 terrible1 delightful for man1 what has produced them1 is passion1 error1 and self-deception2 the very worst methods of knowledge1 not the best1 have taught belief therein4 ,when these methods have been discovered as the foundation of all existing religions and metaphysics1 they have been refuted4 ,then there still always remains that possibility2 but there is nothing to be done with it1 much less is it possible to let happiness1 salvation1 and life depend on the spider-thread of such a possibility4 ,for nothing could be said of the metaphysical world but that it would be a different condition1 a condition inaccessible and incomprehensible to us2 it would be a thing of negative qualities4 ,were the existence of such a world ever so well proved1 the fact would nevertheless remain that it would be precisely the most irrelevant of all forms of knowledge3 more irrelevant than the knowledge of the chemical analysis of water to the sailor in danger in a storm4 #aj4 ,,the ,,harmlessness ,,of ,,metaphysics ,,in ,,the ,,future4--,directly the origins of religion1 art1 and morals have been so described that one can perfectly explain them without having recourse to metaphysical concepts at the beginning and in the course of the path1 the strongest interest in the purely theoretical problem of the thing-in-itself and the phenomenon ceases4 ,for however it may be here1 with religion1 art1 and morals we do not touch the essence of the world in itself2 we are in the domain of representation1 no intuition can carry us further4 ,with the greatest calmness we shall leave the question as to how our own conception of the world can differ so widely from the revealed essence of the world1 to physiology and the history of the evolution of organisms and ideas4 #aa4 ,,language ,,as ,a ,,presumptive ,,science4--,the importance of language for the development of culture lies in the fact that in language man has placed a world of his own beside the other1 a position which he deemed so fixed that he might therefrom lift the rest of the world off its hinges1 and make himself master of it4 ,inasmuch as man has believed in the ideas and names of things as tern veritates for a great length of time1 he has acquired that pride by which he has raised himself above the animal2 he really thought that in language he possessed the knowledge of the world4 ,the maker of language was not modest enough to think that he only gave designations to things1 he believed rather that with his words he expressed the widest knowledge of the things2 in reality language is the first step in the endeavour after science4 ,here also it is belief in ascertained truth1 from which the mightiest sources of strength have flowed4 ,much later--only now--it is dawning upon men that they have propagated a tremendous error in their belief in language4 ,fortunately it is now too late to reverse the development of reason1 which is founded upon that belief4 ,logic1 also1 is founded upon suppositions to which nothing in the actual world corresponds1--for instance1 on the supposition of the equality of things1 and the identity of the same thing at different points of time1--but that particular science arose out of the contrary belief 7that such things really existed in the actual world74 ,it is the same with mathematics1 which would certainly not have arisen if it had been known from the beginning that in ,nature there are no exactly straight lines1 no real circle1 no absolute standard of size4 #ab4 ,,dream ,,and ,,culture4--,the function of the brain which is most influenced by sleep is the memory2 not that it entirely ceases2 but it is brought back to a condition of imperfection1 such as everyone may have experienced in pre-historic times1 whether asleep or awake4 ,arbitrary and confused as it is1 it constantly confounds things on the ground of the most fleeting resemblances2 but with the same arbitrariness and confusion the ancients invented their mythologies1 and even at the present day travellers are accustomed to remark how prone the savage is to forgetfulness1 how1 after a short tension of memory1 his mind begins to sway here and there from sheer weariness and gives forth lies and nonsense4 ,but in dreams we all resemble the savage2 bad recognition and erroneous comparisons are the reasons of the bad conclusions1 of which we are guilty in dreams3 so that1 when we clearly recollect what we have dreamt1 we are alarmed at ourselves at harbouring so much foolishness within us4 ,the perfect distinctness of all dream-representations1 which pre-suppose absolute faith in their reality1 recall the conditions that appertain1 to primitive man1 in whom hallucination was extraordinarily frequent1 and sometimes simultaneously seized entire communities1 entire nations4 ,therefore1 in sleep and in dreams we once more carry out the task of early humanity4 #ac4 ,,the ,,logic ,,of ,,dreams4--,in sleep our nervous system is perpetually excited by numerous inner occurrences2 nearly all the organs are disjointed and in a state of activity1 the blood runs its turbulent course1 the position of the sleeper causes pressure on certain limbs1 his coverings influence his sensations in various ways1 the stomach digests and by its movements it disturbs other organs1 the intestines writhe1 the position of the head occasions unaccustomed play of muscles1 the feet1 unshod1 not pressing upon the floor with the soles1 occasion the feeling of the unaccustomed just as does the different clothing of the whole body3 all this1 according to its daily change and extent1 excites by its extraordinariness the entire system to the very functions of the brain1 and thus there are a hundred occasions for the spirit to be surprised and to seek for the reasons of this excitation2--the dream1 however1 is the seeking and representing of the causes of those excited sensations1--that is1 of the supposed causes4 ,a person who1 for instance1 binds his feet with two straps will perhaps dream that two serpents are coiling round his feet2 this is first hypothesis1 then a belief1 with an accompanying mental picture and interpretation-- ,these serpents must be the causa of those sensations which ,i1 the sleeper1 experience1--so decides the mind of the sleeper4 ,the immediate past1 so disclosed1 becomes to him the present through his excited imagination4 ,thus every one knows from experience how quickly the dreamer weaves into his dream a loud sound that he hears1 such as the ringing of bells or the firing of cannon1 that is to say1 explains it from afterwards so that he first thinks he experiences the producing circumstances and then that sound4 ,but how does it happen that the mind of the dreamer is always so mistaken1 while the same mind when awake is accustomed to be so temperate1 careful1 and sceptical with regard to its hypotheses8 so that the first random hypothesis for the explanation of a feeling suffices for him to believe immediately in its truth8 7,for in dreaming we believe in the dream as if it were a reality1 i4e4 we think our hypothesis completely proved47 ,i hold1 that as man now still reasons in dreams1 so men reasoned also when awake through thousands of years2 the first causa which occurred to the mind to explain anything that required an explanation1 was sufficient and stood for truth4 7,thus1 according to travellers' tales1 savages still do to this very day47 ,this ancient element in human nature still manifests itself in our dreams1 for it is the foundation upon which the higher reason has developed and still develops in every individual2 the dream carries us back into remote conditions of human culture1 and provides a ready means of understanding them better4 ,dream-thinking is now so easy to us because during immense periods of human development we have been so well drilled in this form of fantastic and cheap explanation1 by means of the first agreeable notions4 ,in so far1 dreaming is a recreation for the brain1 which by day has to satisfy the stern demands of thought1 as they are laid down by the higher culture4 ,we can at once discern an allied process even in our awakened state1 as the door and ante-room of the dream4 ,if we shut our eyes1 the brain produces a number of impressions of light and colour1 probably as a kind of after-play and echo of all those effects of light which crowd in upon it by day4 ,now1 however1 the understanding1 together with the imagination1 instantly works up this play of colour1 shapeless in itself1 into definite figures1 forms1 landscapes1 and animated groups4 ,the actual accompanying process thereby is again a kind of conclusion from the effect to the cause3 since the mind asks1 ,whence come these impressions of light and colour8 it supposes those figures and forms as causes2 it takes them for the origin of those colours and lights1 because in the daytime1 with open eyes1 it is accustomed to find a producing cause for every colour1 every effect of light4 ,here1 therefore1 the imagination constantly places pictures before the mind1 since it supports itself on the visual impressions of the day in their production1 and the dream-imagination does just the same thing1--that is1 the supposed cause is deduced from the effect and represented after the effect2 all this happens with extraordinary rapidity1 so that here1 as with the conjuror1 a confusion of judgment may arise and a sequence may look like something simultaneous1 or even like a reversed sequence4 ,from these circumstances we may gather how lately the more acute logical thinking1 the strict discrimination of cause and effect has been developed1 when our reasoning and understanding faculties still involuntarily hark back to those primitive forms of deduction1 and when we pass about half our life in this condition4 ,the poet1 too1 and the artist assign causes for their moods and conditions which are by no means the true ones2 in this they recall an older humanity and can assist us to the understanding of it4 #ad4 ,,co-,,echoing4--,all stronger moods bring with them a co-echoing of kindred sensations and moods1 they grub up the memory1 so to speak4 ,along with them something within us remembers and becomes conscious of similar conditions and their origin4 ,thus there are formed quick habitual connections of feelings and thoughts1 which eventually1 when they follow each other with lightning speed1 are no longer felt as complexes but as unities4 ,in this sense one speaks of the moral feeling1 of the religious feeling1 as if they were absolute unities3 in reality they are streams with a hundred sources and tributaries4 ,here also1 as so often happens1 the unity of the word is no security for the unity of the thing4 #ae4 ,,no ,,internal ,,and ,,external ,,in ,,the ,,world4--,as ,democritus transferred the concepts above and below to endless space where they have no sense1 so philosophers in general have transferred the concepts ,internal and ,external to the essence and appearance of the world2 they think that with deep feelings one can penetrate deeply into the internal and approach the heart of ,nature4 ,but these feelings are only deep in so far as along with them1 barely noticeable1 certain complicated groups of thoughts1 which we call deep1 are regularly excited2 a feeling is deep because we think that the accompanying thought is deep4 ,but the deep thought can nevertheless be very far from the truth1 as1 for instance1 every metaphysical one2 if one take away from the deep feeling the commingled elements of thought1 then the strong feeling remains1 and this guarantees nothing for knowledge but itself1 just as strong faith proves only its strength and not the truth of what is believed in4 #af4 ,,phenomenon ,,and ,,thing-,,in-,,itself4--,philosophers are in the habit of setting themselves before life and experience--before that which they call the world of appearance--as before a picture that is once for all unrolled and exhibits unchangeably fixed the same process1--this process1 they think1 must be rightly interpreted in order to come to a conclusion about the being that produced the picture3 about the thing-in-itself1 therefore1 which is always accustomed to be regarded as sufficient ground for the world of phenomenon4 ,on the other hand1 since one always makes the idea of the metaphysical stand definitely as that of the unconditioned1 consequently also unconditioning1 one must directly disown all connection between the unconditioned 7the metaphysical world7 and the world which is known to us2 so that the thing-in-itself should most certainly not appear in the phenomenon1 and every conclusion from the former as regards the latter is to be rejected4 ,both sides overlook the fact that that picture--that which we now call human life and experience--has gradually evolved1--nay1 is still in the full process of evolving1--and therefore should not be regarded as a fixed magnitude from which a conclusion about its originator might be deduced 7the sufficing cause7 or even merely neglected4 ,it is because for thousands of years we have looked into the world with moral1 sthetic1 and religious pretensions1 with blind inclination1 passion1 or fear1 and have surfeited ourselves in the vices of illogical thought1 that this world has gradually become so marvellously motley1 terrible1 full of meaning and of soul1 it has acquired colour--but we were the colourists2 the human intellect1 on the basis of human needs1 of human emotions1 has caused this phenomenon to appear and has carried its erroneous fundamental conceptions into things4 ,late1 very late1 it takes to thinking1 and now the world of experience and the thing-in-itself seem to it so extraordinarily different and separated1 that it gives up drawing conclusions from the former to the latter--or in a terribly mysterious manner demands the renunciation of our intellect1 of our personal will1 in order thereby to reach the essential1 that one may become essential4 ,again1 others have collected all the characteristic features of our world of phenomenon1--that is1 the idea of the world spun out of intellectual errors and inherited by us1--and instead of accusing the intellect as the offenders1 they have laid the blame on the nature of things as being the cause of the hard fact of this very sinister character of the world1 and have preached the deliverance from ,being4 ,with all these conceptions the constant and laborious process of science 7which at last celebrates its greatest triumph in a history of the origin of thought7 becomes completed in various ways1 the result of which might perhaps run as follows3--,that which we now call the world is the result of a mass of errors and fantasies which arose gradually in the general development of organic being1 which are inter-grown with each other1 and are now inherited by us as the accumulated treasure of all the past1--as a treasure1 for the value of our humanity depends upon it4 ,from this world of representation strict science is really only able to liberate us to a very slight extent--as it is also not at all desirable--inasmuch as it cannot essentially break the power of primitive habits of feeling2 but it can gradually elucidate the history of the rise of that world as representation1--and lift us1 at least for moments1 above and beyond the whole process4 ,perhaps we shall then recognise that the thing in itself is worth a ,homeric laugh2 that it seemed so much1 indeed everything1 and is really empty1 namely1 empty of meaning4 #ag4 ,,metaphysical ,,explanations4--,the young man values metaphysical explanations1 because they show him something highly significant in things which he found unpleasant or despicable1 and if he is dissatisfied with himself1 the feeling becomes lighter when he recognises the innermost world-puzzle or world-misery in that which he so strongly disapproves of in himself4 ,to feel himself less responsible and at the same time to find things more interesting--that seems to him a double benefit for which he has to thank metaphysics4 ,later on1 certainly1 he gets distrustful of the whole metaphysical method of explanation2 then perhaps it grows clear to him that those results can be obtained equally well and more scientifically in another way3 that physical and historical explanations produce the feeling of personal relief to at least the same extent1 and that the interest in life and its problems is perhaps still more aroused thereby4 #ah4 ,,fundamental ,,questions ,,of ,,metaphysics4--,when the history of the rise of thought comes to be written1 a new light will be thrown on the following statement of a distinguished logician3--,the primordial general law of the cognisant subject consists in the inner necessity of recognising every object in itself in its own nature1 as a thing identical with itself1 consequently self-existing and at bottom remaining ever the same and unchangeable3 in short1 in recognising everything as a substance4 ,even this law1 which is here called primordial1 has evolved3 it will some day be shown how gradually this tendency arises in the lower organisms1 how the feeble mole-eyes of their organisations at first see only the same thing1--2how then1 when the various awakenings of pleasure and displeasure become noticeable1 various substances are gradually distinguished1 but each with one attribute1 i4e4 one single relation to such an organism4 ,the first step in logic is the judgment1--the nature of which1 according to the decision of the best logicians1 consists in belief4 ,at the bottom of all belief lies the sensation of the pleasant or the painful in relation to the sentient subject4 ,a new third sensation as the result of two previous single sensations is the judgment in its simplest form4 ,we organic beings have originally no interest in anything but its relation to us in connection with pleasure and pain4 ,between the moments 7the states of feeling7 when we become conscious of this connection1 lie moments of rest1 of non-feeling2 the world and everything is then without interest for us1 we notice no change in it 7as even now a deeply interested person does not notice when any one passes him74 ,to the plant1 things are as a rule tranquil and eternal1 everything like itself4 ,from the period of the lower organisms man has inherited the belief that similar things exist 7this theory is only contradicted by the matured experience of the most advanced science74 ,the primordial belief of everything organic from the beginning is perhaps even this1 that all the rest of the world is one and immovable4 ,the point furthest removed from those early beginnings of logic is the idea of ,causality1--indeed we still really think that all sensations and activities are acts of the free will2 when the sentient individual contemplates himself1 he regards every sensation1 every alteration as something isolated1 that is to say1 unconditioned and disconnected1--it rises up in us without connection with anything foregoing or following4 ,we are hungry1 but do not originally think that the organism must be nourished2 the feeling seems to make itself felt without cause and purpose1 it isolates itself and regards itself as arbitrary4 ,therefore1 belief in the freedom of the will is an original error of everything organic1 as old as the existence of the awakenings of logic in it2 the belief in unconditioned substances and similar things is equally a primordial as well as an old error of everything organic4 ,but inasmuch as all metaphysics has concerned itself chiefly with substance and the freedom of will1 it may be designated as the science which treats of the fundamental errors of mankind1 but treats of them as if they were fundamental truths4 #ai4 ,,number4--,the discovery of the laws of numbers is made upon the ground of the original1 already prevailing error1 that there are many similar things 7but in reality there is nothing similar71 at least1 that there are things 7but there is no thing74 ,the supposition of plurality always presumes that there is something which appears frequently1--but here already error reigns1 already we imagine beings1 unities1 which do not exist4 ,our sensations of space and time are false1 for they lead--examined in sequence--to logical contradictions4 ,in all scientific determinations we always reckon inevitably with certain false quantities1 but as these quantities are at least constant1 as1 for instance1 our sensation of time and space1 the conclusions of science have still perfect accuracy and certainty in their connection with one another2 one may continue to build upon them--until that final limit where the erroneous original suppositions1 those constant faults1 come into conflict with the conclusions1 for instance in the doctrine of atoms4 ,there still we always feel ourselves compelled to the acceptance of a thing or material sub-stratum that is moved1 whilst the whole scientific procedure has pursued the very task of resolving everything substantial 7material7 into motion2 here1 too1 we still separate with our sensation the mover and the moved and cannot get out of this circle1 because the belief in things has from immemorial times been bound up with our being4 ,when ,kant says1 ,the understanding does not derive its laws from ,nature1 but dictates them to her1 it is perfectly true with regard to the idea of ,nature which we are compelled to associate with her 7,nature ,world as representation1 that is to say as error71 but which is the summing up of a number of errors of the understanding4 ,the laws of numbers are entirely inapplicable to a world which is not our representation--these laws obtain only in the human world4 #bj4 ,a ,,few ,,steps ,,back4--,a degree of culture1 and assuredly a very high one1 is attained when man rises above superstitious and religious notions and fears1 and1 for instance1 no longer believes in guardian angels or in original sin1 and has also ceased to talk of the salvation of his soul1--if he has attained to this degree of freedom1 he has still also to overcome metaphysics with the greatest exertion of his intelligence4 ,then1 however1 a retrogressive movement is necessary2 he must understand the historical justification as well as the psychological in such representations1 he must recognise how the greatest advancement of humanity has come therefrom1 and how1 without such a retrocursive movement1 we should have been robbed of the best products of hitherto existing mankind4 ,with regard to philosophical metaphysics1 ,i always see increasing numbers who have attained to the negative goal 7that all positive metaphysics is error71 but as yet few who climb a few rungs backwards2 one ought to look out1 perhaps1 over the last steps of the ladder1 but not try to stand upon them4 ,the most enlightened only succeed so far as to free themselves from metaphysics and look back upon it with superiority1 while it is necessary here1 too1 as in the hippodrome1 to turn round the end of the course4 #ba4 ,,conjectural ,,victory ,,of ,,scepticism4--,for once let the sceptical starting-point be accepted1--granted that there were no other metaphysical world1 and all explanations drawn from metaphysics about the only world we know were useless to us1 in what light should we then look upon men and things8 ,we can think this out for ourselves1 it is useful1 even though the question whether anything metaphysical has been scientifically proved by ,kant and ,schopenhauer were altogether set aside4 ,for it is quite possible1 according to historical probability1 that some time or other man1 as a general rule1 may grow sceptical2 the question will then be this3 ,what form will human society take under the influence of such a mode of thought8 ,perhaps the scientific proof of some metaphysical world or other is already so difficult that mankind will never get rid of a certain distrust of it4 ,and when there is distrust of metaphysics1 there are on the whole the same results as if it had been directly refuted and could no longer be believed in4 ,the historical question with regard to an unmetaphysical frame of mind in mankind remains the same in both cases4 #bb4 ,,unbelief ,,in ,,the ,,monumentum ,,re ,,perennius4--,an actual drawback which accompanies the cessation of metaphysical views lies in the fact that the individual looks upon his short span of life too exclusively and receives no stronger incentives to build durable institutions intended to last for centuries1--he himself wishes to pluck the fruit from the tree which he plants1 and therefore he no longer plants those trees which require regular care for centuries1 and which are destined to afford shade to a long series of generations4 ,for metaphysical views furnish the belief that in them the last conclusive foundation has been given1 upon which henceforth all the future of mankind is compelled to settle down and establish itself2 the individual furthers his salvation1 when1 for instance1 he founds a church or convent1 he thinks it will be reckoned to him and recompensed to him in the eternal life of the soul1 it is work for the soul's eternal salvation4 ,can science also arouse such faith in its results8 ,as a matter of fact1 it needs doubt and distrust as its most faithful auxiliaries2 nevertheless in the course of time1 the sum of inviolable truths--those1 namely1 which have weathered all the storms of scepticism1 and all destructive analysis--may have become so great 7in the regimen of health1 for instance71 that one may determine to found thereupon eternal works4 ,for the present the contrast between our excited ephemeral existence and the long-winded repose of metaphysical ages still operates too strongly1 because the two ages still stand too closely together2 the individual man himself now goes through too many inward and outward developments for him to venture to arrange his own lifetime permanently1 and once and for all4 ,an entirely modern man1 for instance1 who is going to build himself a house1 has a feeling as if he were going to immure himself alive in a mausoleum4 #bc4 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,comparison4--,the less men are fettered by tradition1 the greater becomes the inward activity of their motives2 the greater1 again1 in proportion thereto1 the outward restlessness1 the confused flux of mankind1 the polyphony of strivings4 ,for whom is there still an absolute compulsion to bind himself and his descendants to one place8 ,for whom is there still anything strictly compulsory8 ,as all styles of arts are imitated simultaneously1 so also are all grades and kinds of morality1 of customs1 of cultures4 ,such an age obtains its importance because in it the various views of the world1 customs1 and cultures can be compared and experienced simultaneously1--which was formerly not possible with the always localised sway of every culture1 corresponding to the rooting of all artistic styles in place and time4 ,an increased sthetic feeling will now at last decide amongst so many forms presenting themselves for comparison2 it will allow the greater number1 that is to say all those rejected by it1 to die out4 ,in the same way a selection amongst the forms and customs of the higher moralities is taking place1 of which the aim can be nothing else than the downfall of the lower moralities4 ,it is the age of comparison6 ,that is its pride1 but more justly also its grief4 ,let us not be afraid of this grief6 ,rather will we comprehend as adequately as possible the task our age sets us3 posterity will bless us for doing so1--a posterity which knows itself to be as much above the terminated original national cultures as above the culture of comparison1 but which looks back with gratitude on both kinds of culture as upon antiquities worthy of veneration4 #bd4 ,,the ,,possibility ,,of ,,progress4--,when a scholar of the ancient culture forswears the company of men who believe in progress1 he does quite right4 ,for the greatness and goodness of ancient culture lie behind it1 and historical education compels one to admit that they can never be fresh again2 an unbearable stupidity or an equally insufferable fanaticism would be necessary to deny this4 ,but men can consciously resolve to develop themselves towards a new culture2 whilst formerly they only developed unconsciously and by chance1 they can now create better conditions for the rise of human beings1 for their nourishment1 education and instruction2 they can administer the earth economically as a whole1 and can generally weigh and restrain the powers of man4 ,this new1 conscious culture kills the old1 which1 regarded as a whole1 has led an unconscious animal and plant life2 it also kills distrust in progress1--progress is possible4 ,i must say that it is over-hasty and almost nonsensical to believe that progress must necessarily follow2 but how could one deny that it is possible8 ,on the other hand1 progress in the sense and on the path of the old culture is not even thinkable4 ,even if romantic fantasy has also constantly used the word progress to denote its aims 7for instance1 circumscribed primitive national cultures71 it borrows the picture of it in any case from the past2 its thoughts and ideas on this subject are entirely without originality4 #be4 ,,private ,,and ,,cumenical ,,morality4--,since the belief has ceased that a ,god directs in general the fate of the world and1 in spite of all apparent crookedness in the path of humanity1 leads it on gloriously1 men themselves must set themselves cumenical aims embracing the whole earth4 ,the older morality1 especially that of ,kant1 required from the individual actions which were desired from all men1--that was a delightfully nave thing1 as if each one knew off-hand what course of action was beneficial to the whole of humanity1 and consequently which actions in general were desirable2 it is a theory like that of free trade1 taking for granted that the general harmony must result of itself according to innate laws of amelioration4 ,perhaps a future contemplation of the needs of humanity will show that it is by no means desirable that all men should act alike2 in the interest of cumenical aims it might rather be that for whole sections of mankind1 special1 and perhaps under certain circumstances even evil1 tasks would have to be set4 ,in any case1 if mankind is not to destroy itself by such a conscious universal rule1 there must previously be found1 as a scientific standard for cumenical aims1 a knowledge of the conditions of culture superior to what has hitherto been attained4 ,herein lies the enormous task of the great minds of the next century4 #bf4 ,,reaction ,,as ,,progress4--,now and again there appear rugged1 powerful1 impetuous1 but nevertheless backward-lagging minds which conjure up once more a past phase of mankind2 they serve to prove that the new tendencies against which they are working are not yet sufficiently strong1 that they still lack something1 otherwise they would show better opposition to those exorcisers4 ,thus1 for example1 ,luther's ,reformation bears witness to the fact that in his century all the movements of the freedom of the spirit were still uncertain1 tender1 and youthful2 science could not yet lift up its head4 ,indeed the whole ,renaissance seems like an early spring which is almost snowed under again4 ,but in this century also1 ,schopenhauer's ,metaphysics showed that even now the scientific spirit is not yet strong enough2 thus the whole medival ,christian view of the world and human feeling could celebrate its resurrection in ,schopenhauer's doctrine1 in spite of the long achieved destruction of all ,christian dogmas4 ,there is much science in his doctrine1 but it does not dominate it3 it is rather the old well-known metaphysical requirement that does so4 ,it is certainly one of the greatest and quite invaluable advantages which we gain from ,schopenhauer1 that he occasionally forces our sensations back into older1 mightier modes of contemplating the world and man1 to which no other path would so easily lead us4 ,the gain to history and justice is very great1--,i do not think that any one would so easily succeed now in doing justice to ,christianity and its ,asiatic relations without ,schopenhauer's assistance1 which is specially impossible from the basis of still existing ,christianity4 ,only after this great success of justice1 only after we have corrected so essential a point as the historical mode of contemplation which the age of enlightenment brought with it1 may we again bear onward the banner of enlightenment1 the banner with the three names1 ,petrarch1 ,erasmus1 ,voltaire4 ,we have turned reaction into progress4 #bg4 ,a ,,substitute ,,for ,,religion4--,it is believed that something good is said of philosophy when it is put forward as a substitute for religion for the people4 ,as a matter of fact1 in the spiritual economy there is need1 at times1 of an intermediary order of thought3 the transition from religion to scientific contemplation is a violent1 dangerous leap1 which is not to be recommended4 ,to this extent the recommendation is justifiable4 ,but one should eventually learn that the needs which have been satisfied by religion and are now to be satisfied by philosophy are not unchangeable2 these themselves can be weakened and eradicated4 ,think1 for instance1 of the ,christian's distress of soul1 his sighing over inward corruption1 his anxiety for salvation1--all notions which originate only in errors of reason and deserve not satisfaction but destruction4 ,a philosophy can serve either to satisfy those needs or to set them aside2 for they are acquired1 temporally limited needs1 which are based upon suppositions contradictory to those of science4 ,here1 in order to make a transition1 art is far rather to be employed to relieve the mind overburdened with emotions2 for those notions receive much less support from it than from a metaphysical philosophy4 ,it is easier1 then1 to pass over from art to a really liberating philosophical science4 #bh4 ,,ill-,,famed ,,words4--,away with those wearisomely hackneyed terms ,optimism and ,pessimism6 ,for the occasion for using them becomes less and less from day to day2 only the chatterboxes still find them so absolutely necessary4 ,for why in all the world should any one wish to be an optimist unless he had a ,god to defend who must have created the best of worlds if he himself be goodness and perfection1--what thinker1 however1 still needs the hypothesis of a ,god8 ,but every occasion for a pessimistic confession of faith is also lacking when one has no interest in being annoyed at the advocates of ,god 7the theologians1 or the theologising philosophers71 and in energetically defending the opposite view1 that evil reigns1 that pain is greater than pleasure1 that the world is a bungled piece of work1 the manifestation of an ill-will to life4 ,but who still bothers about the theologians now--except the theologians8 ,apart from all theology and its contentions1 it is quite clear that the world is not good and not bad 7to say nothing of its being the best or the worst71 and that the terms good and bad have only significance with respect to man1 and indeed1 perhaps1 they are not justified even here in the way they are usually employed2 in any case we must get rid of both the calumniating and the glorifying conception of the world4 #bi4 ,,intoxicated ,,by ,,the ,,scent ,,of ,,the ,,blossoms4--,it is supposed that the ship of humanity has always a deeper draught1 the heavier it is laden2 it is believed that the deeper a man thinks1 the more delicately he feels1 the higher he values himself1 the greater his distance from the other animals1--the more he appears as a genius amongst the animals1--all the nearer will he approach the real essence of the world and its knowledge2 this he actually does too1 through science1 but he means to do so still more through his religions and arts4 ,these certainly are blossoms of the world1 but by no means any nearer to the root of the world than the stalk2 it is not possible to understand the nature of things better through them1 although almost every one believes he can4 ,error has made man so deep1 sensitive1 and inventive that he has put forth such blossoms as religions and arts4 ,pure knowledge could not have been capable of it4 ,whoever were to unveil for us the essence of the world would give us all the most disagreeable disillusionment4 ,not the world as thing-in-itself1 but the world as representation 7as error7 is so full of meaning1 so deep1 so wonderful1 bearing happiness and unhappiness in its bosom4 ,this result leads to a philosophy of the logical denial of the world1 which1 however1 can be combined with a practical world-affirming just as well as with its opposite4 #cj4 ,,bad ,,habits ,,in ,,reasoning4--,the usual false conclusions of mankind are these3 a thing exists1 therefore it has a right to exist4 ,here there is inference from the ability to live to its suitability2 from its suitability to its rightfulness4 ,then3 an opinion brings happiness2 therefore it is the true opinion4 ,its effect is good2 therefore it is itself good and true4 ,to the effect is here assigned the predicate beneficent1 good1 in the sense of the useful1 and the cause is then furnished with the same predicate good1 but here in the sense of the logically valid4 ,the inversion of the sentences would read thus3 an affair cannot be carried through1 or maintained1 therefore it is wrong2 an opinion causes pain or excites1 therefore it is false4 ,the free spirit who learns only too often the faultiness of this mode of reasoning1 and has to suffer from its consequences1 frequently gives way to the temptation to draw the very opposite conclusions1 which1 in general1 are naturally just as false3 an affair cannot be carried through1 therefore it is good2 an opinion is distressing and disturbing1 therefore it is true4 #ca4 ,,the ,,illogical ,,necessary4--,one of those things that may drive a thinker into despair is the recognition of the fact that the illogical is necessary for man1 and that out of the illogical comes much that is good4 ,it is so firmly rooted in the passions1 in language1 in art1 in religion1 and generally in everything that gives value to life1 that it cannot be withdrawn without thereby hopelessly injuring these beautiful things4 ,it is only the all-too-nave people who can believe that the nature of man can be changed into a purely logical one2 but if there were degrees of proximity to this goal1 how many things would not have to be lost on this course6 ,even the most rational man has need of nature again from time to time1 i4e4 his illogical fundamental attitude towards all things4 #cb4 ,,injustice ,,necessary4--,all judgments on the value of life are illogically developed1 and therefore unjust4 ,the inexactitude of the judgment lies1 firstly1 in the manner in which the material is presented1 namely very imperfectly2 secondly1 in the manner in which the conclusion is formed out of it2 and thirdly1 in the fact that every separate element of the material is again the result of vitiated recognition1 and this1 too1 of necessity4 ,for instance1 no experience of an individual1 however near he may stand to us1 can be perfect1 so that we could have a logical right to make a complete estimate of him2 all estimates are rash1 and must be so4 ,finally1 the standard by which we measure1 our nature1 is not of unalterable dimensions1--we have moods and vacillations1 and yet we should have to recognise ourselves as a fixed standard in order to estimate correctly the relation of any thing whatever to ourselves4 ,from this it will1 perhaps1 follow that we should make no judgments at all2 if one could only live without making estimations1 without having likes and dislikes6 ,for all dislike is connected with an estimation1 as well as all inclination4 ,an impulse towards or away from anything without a feeling that something advantageous is desired1 something injurious avoided1 an impulse without any kind of conscious valuation of the worth of the aim does not exist in man4 ,we are from the beginning illogical1 and therefore unjust beings1 and can recognise this2 it is one of the greatest and most inexplicable discords of existence4 #cc4 ,,error ,,about ,,life ,,necessary ,,for ,,life4--,every belief in the value and worthiness of life is based on vitiated thought2 it is only possible through the fact that sympathy for the general life and suffering of mankind is very weakly developed in the individual4 ,even the rarer people who think outside themselves do not contemplate this general life1 but only a limited part of it4 ,if one understands how to direct one's attention chiefly to the exceptions1--,i mean to the highly gifted and the rich souls1--if one regards the production of these as the aim of the whole world-development and rejoices in its operation1 then one may believe in the value of life1 because one thereby overlooks the other men--one consequently thinks fallaciously4 ,so too1 when one directs one's attention to all mankind1 but only considers one species of impulses in them1 the less egoistical ones1 and excuses them with regard to the other instincts1 one may then again entertain hopes of mankind in general and believe so far in the value of life1 consequently in this case also through fallaciousness of thought4 ,let one1 however1 behave in this or that manner3 with such behaviour one is an exception amongst men4 ,now1 most people bear life without any considerable grumbling1 and consequently believe in the value of existence1 but precisely because each one is solely self-seeking and self-affirming1 and does not step out of himself like those exceptions2 everything extra-personal is imperceptible to them1 or at most seems only a faint shadow4 ,therefore on this alone is based the value of life for the ordinary everyday man1 that he regards himself as more important than the world4 ,the great lack of imagination from which he suffers is the reason why he cannot enter into the feelings of other beings1 and therefore sympathises as little as possible with their fate and suffering4 ,he1 on the other hand1 who really could sympathise therewith1 would have to despair of the value of life2 were he to succeed in comprehending and feeling in himself the general consciousness of mankind1 he would collapse with a curse on existence2 for mankind as a whole has no goals1 consequently man1 in considering his whole course1 cannot find in it his comfort and support1 but his despair4 ,if1 in all that he does1 he considers the final aimlessness of man1 his own activity assumes in his eyes the character of wastefulness4 ,but to feel one's self just as much wasted as humanity 7and not only as an individual7 as we see the single blossom of nature wasted1 is a feeling above all other feelings4 ,but who is capable of it8 ,assuredly only a poet1 and poets always know how to console themselves4 #cd4 ,,for ,,tranquillity4--,but does not our philosophy thus become a tragedy8 ,does not truth become hostile to life1 to improvement8 ,a question seems to weigh upon our tongue and yet hesitate to make itself heard3 whether one can consciously remain in untruthfulness8 or1 supposing one were obliged to do this1 would not death be preferable8 ,for there is no longer any must2 morality1 in so far as it had any must or shalt1 has been destroyed by our mode of contemplation1 just as religion has been destroyed4 ,knowledge can only allow pleasure and pain1 benefit and injury to subsist as motives2 but how will these motives agree with the sense of truth8 ,they also contain errors 7for1 as already said1 inclination and aversion1 and their very incorrect determinations1 practically regulate our pleasure and pain74 ,the whole of human life is deeply immersed in untruthfulness2 the individual cannot draw it up out of this well1 without thereby taking a deep dislike to his whole past1 without finding his present motives--those of honour1 for instance--inconsistent1 and without opposing scorn and disdain to the passions which conduce to happiness in the future4 ,is it true that there remains but one sole way of thinking which brings after it despair as a personal experience1 as a theoretical result1 a philosophy of dissolution1 disintegration1 and self-destruction8 ,i believe that the decision with regard to the after-effects of the knowledge will be given through the temperament of a man2 ,i could imagine another after-effect1 just as well as that one described1 which is possible in certain natures1 by means of which a life would arise much simpler1 freer from emotions than is the present one1 so that though at first1 indeed1 the old motives of passionate desire might still have strength from old hereditary habit1 they would gradually become weaker under the influence--of purifying knowledge4 ,one would live at last amongst men1 and with one's self as with ,nature1 without praise1 reproach1 or agitation1 feasting one's eyes1 as if it were a play1 upon much of which one was formerly afraid4 ,one would be free from the emphasis1 and would no longer feel the goading1 of the thought that one is not only nature or more than nature4 ,certainly1 as already remarked1 a good temperament would be necessary for this1 an even1 mild1 and naturally joyous soul1 a disposition which would not always need to be on its guard against spite and sudden outbreaks1 and would not convey in its utterances anything of a grumbling or sudden nature1--those well-known vexatious qualities of old dogs and men who have been long chained up4 ,on the contrary1 a man from whom the ordinary fetters of life have so far fallen that he continues to live only for the sake of ever better knowledge must be able to renounce without envy and regret3 much1 indeed almost everything that is precious to other men1 he must regard as the all-sufficing and the most desirable condition2 the free1 fearless soaring over men1 customs1 laws1 and the traditional valuations of things4 ,the joy of this condition he imparts willingly1 and he has perhaps nothing else to impart1--wherein1 to be sure1 there is more privation and renunciation4 ,if1 nevertheless1 more is demanded from him1 he will point with a friendly shake of his head to his brother1 the free man of action1 and will perhaps not conceal a little derision1 for as regards this freedom it is a very peculiar case4 ,,second ,,division4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,moral ,,sentiments4 #ce4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,psychological ,,observation4--,that reflection on the human1 all-too-human--or1 according to the learned expression1 psychological observation--is one of the means by which one may lighten the burden of life1 that exercise in this art produces presence of mind in difficult circumstances1 in the midst of tiresome surroundings1 even that from the most thorny and unpleasant periods of one's own life one may gather maxims and thereby feel a little better3 all this was believed1 was known in former centuries4 ,why was it forgotten by our century1 when in ,germany at least1 even in all ,europe1 the poverty of psychological observation betrays itself by many signs8 ,not exactly in novels1 tales1 and philosophical treatises1--they are the work of exceptional individuals1--rather in the judgments on public events and personalities2 but above all there is a lack of the art of psychological analysis and summing-up in every rank of society1 in which a great deal is talked about men1 but nothing about man4 ,why do we allow the richest and most harmless subject of conversation to escape us8 ,why are not the great masters of psychological maxims more read8 ,for1 without any exaggeration1 the educated man in ,europe who has read ,la ,rochefoucauld and his kindred in mind and art1 is rarely found1 and still more rare is he who knows them and does not blame them4 ,it is probable1 however1 that even this exceptional reader will find much less pleasure in them than the form of this artist should afford him2 for even the clearest head is not capable of rightly estimating the art of shaping and polishing maxims unless he has really been brought up to it and has competed in it4 ,without this practical teaching one deems this shaping and polishing to be easier than it is2 one has not a sufficient perception of fitness and charm4 ,for this reason the present readers of maxims find in them a comparatively small pleasure1 hardly a mouthful of pleasantness1 so that they resemble the people who generally look at cameos1 who praise because they cannot love1 and are very ready to admire1 but still more ready to run away4 #cf4 ,,objection4--,or should there be a counter-reckoning to that theory that places psychological observation amongst the means of charming1 curing1 and relieving existence8 ,should one have sufficiently convinced one's self of the unpleasant consequences of this art to divert from it designedly the attention of him who is educating himself in it8 ,as a matter of fact1 a certain blind belief in the goodness of human nature1 an innate aversion to the analysis of human actions1 a kind of shame-facedness with respect to the nakedness of the soul may really be more desirable for the general well-being of a man than that quality1 useful in isolated cases1 of psychological sharp-sightedness2 and perhaps the belief in goodness1 in virtuous men and deeds1 in an abundance of impersonal goodwill in the world1 has made men better inasmuch as it has made them less distrustful4 ,when one imitates ,plutarch's heroes with enthusiasm1 and turns with disgust from a suspicious examination of the motives for their actions1 it is not truth which benefits thereby1 but the welfare of human society2 the psychological mistake and1 generally speaking1 the insensibility on this matter helps humanity forwards1 while the recognition of truth gains more through the stimulating power of hypothesis than ,la ,rochefoucauld has said in his preface to the first edition of his ,sentences et maximes morales4 444 ,ce que le monde nomme vertu n'est d'ordinaire qu'un fantme form par nos passions1 qui on donne un nom honnte pour faire impunment ce qu'on veut4 ,la ,rochefoucauld and those other ,french masters of soul-examination who have lately been joined by a ,german1 the author of ,psychological ,observations#a resemble good marksmen who again and again hit the bull's-eye2 but it is the bull's-eye of human nature4 ,their art arouses astonishment2 but in the end a spectator who is not led by the spirit of science1 but by humane intentions1 will probably execrate an art which appears to implant in the soul the sense of the disparagement and suspicion of mankind4 #cg4 ,,nevertheless4--,however it may be with reckoning and counter-reckoning1 in the present condition of philosophy the awakening of moral observation is necessary4 ,humanity can no longer be spared the cruel sight of the psychological dissecting-table with its knives and forceps4 ,for here rules that science which inquires into the origin and history of the so-called moral sentiments1 and which1 in its progress1 has to draw up and solve complicated sociological problems3--the older philosophy knows the latter one not at all1 and has always avoided the examination of the origin and history of moral sentiments on any feeble pretext4 ,with what consequences it is now very easy to see1 after it has been shown by many examples how the mistakes of the greatest philosophers generally have their starting-point in a wrong explanation of certain human actions and sensations1 just as on the ground of an erroneous analysis--for instance1 that of the so-called unselfish actions a false ethic is built up2 then1 to harmonise with this again1 religion and mythological confusion are brought in to assist1 and finally the shades of these dismal spirits fall also over physics and the general mode of regarding the world4 ,if it is certain1 however1 that superficiality in psychological observation has laid1 and still lays1 the most dangerous snares for human judgments and conclusions1 then there is need now of that endurance of work which does not grow weary of piling stone upon stone1 pebble on pebble2 there is need of courage not to be ashamed of such humble work and to turn a deaf ear to scorn4 ,and this is also true1--numberless single observations on the human and all-too-human have first been discovered1 and given utterance to1 in circles of society which were accustomed to offer sacrifice therewith to a clever desire to please1 and not to scientific knowledge1--and the odour of that old home of the moral maxim1 a very seductive odour1 has attached itself almost inseparably to the whole species1 so that on its account the scientific man involuntarily betrays a certain distrust of this species and its earnestness4 ,but it is sufficient to point to the consequences1 for already it begins to be seen what results of a serious kind spring from the ground of psychological observation4 ,what1 after all1 is the principal axiom to which the boldest and coldest thinker1 the author of the book ,on the ,origin of ,moral ,sensations#b has attained by means of his incisive and decisive analyses of human actions8 ,the moral man1 he says1 is no nearer to the intelligible 7metaphysical7 world than is the physical man4 ,this theory1 hardened and sharpened under the hammer-blow of historical knowledge1 may some time or other1 perhaps in some future period1 serve as the axe which is applied to the root of the metaphysical need of man1--whether more as a blessing than a curse to the general welfare it is not easy to say1 but in any case as a theory with the most important consequences1 at once fruitful and terrible1 and looking into the world with that ,janus-face which all great knowledge possesses4 #ch4 ,,how ,,far ,,useful4--,it must remain for ever undecided whether psychological observation is advantageous or disadvantageous to man2 but it is certain that it is necessary1 because science cannot do without it4 ,science1 however1 has no consideration for ultimate purposes1 any more than ,nature has1 but just as the latter occasionally achieves things of the greatest suitableness without intending to do so1 so also true science1 as the imitator of nature in ideas1 will occasionally and in many ways further the usefulness and welfare of man1--but also without intending to do so4 ,but whoever feels too chilled by the breath of such a reflection has perhaps too little fire in himself2 let him look around him meanwhile and he will become aware of illnesses which have need of ice-poultices1 and of men who are so kneaded together of heat and spirit that they can hardly find an atmosphere that is cold and biting enough4 ,moreover1 as individuals and nations that are too serious have need of frivolities1 as others too mobile and excitable have need occasionally of heavily oppressing burdens for the sake of their health1 should not we1 the more intellectual people of this age1 that grows visibly more and more inflamed1 seize all quenching and cooling means that exist1 in order that we may at least remain as constant1 harmless1 and moderate as we still are1 and thus1 perhaps1 serve some time or other as mirror and self-contemplation for this age8 #ci4 ,,the ,,fable ,,of ,,intelligible ,,freedom4--,the history of the sentiments by means of which we make a person responsible consists of the following principal phases4 ,first1 all single actions are called good or bad without any regard to their motives1 but only on account of the useful or injurious consequences which result for the community4 ,but soon the origin of these distinctions is forgotten1 and it is deemed that the qualities good or bad are contained in the action itself without regard to its consequences1 by the same error according to which language describes the stone as hard1 the tree as green1--with which1 in short1 the result is regarded as the cause4 ,then the goodness or badness is implanted in the motive1 and the action in itself is looked upon as morally ambiguous4 ,mankind even goes further1 and applies the predicate good or bad no longer to single motives1 but to the whole nature of an individual1 out of whom the motive grows as the plant grows out of the earth4 ,thus1 in turn1 man is made responsible for his operations1 then for his actions1 then for his motives1 and finally for his nature4 ,eventually it is discovered that even this nature cannot be responsible1 inasmuch as it is an absolutely necessary consequence concreted out of the elements and influences of past and present things1--that man1 therefore1 cannot be made responsible for anything1 neither for his nature1 nor his motives1 nor his actions1 nor his effects4 ,it has therewith come to be recognised that the history of moral valuations is at the same time the history of an error1 the error of responsibility1 which is based upon the error of the freedom of will4 ,schopenhauer thus decided against it3 because certain actions bring ill humour 7consciousness of guilt7 in their train1 there must be a responsibility2 for there would be no reason for this ill humour if not only all human actions were not done of necessity1--which is actually the case and also the belief of this philosopher1--but man himself from the same necessity is precisely the being that he is--which ,schopenhauer denies4 ,from the fact of that ill humour ,schopenhauer thinks he can prove a liberty which man must somehow have had1 not with regard to actions1 but with regard to nature2 liberty1 therefore1 to be thus or otherwise1 not to act thus or otherwise4 ,from the esse1 the sphere of freedom and responsibility1 there results1 in his opinion1 the operari1 the sphere of strict causality1 necessity1 and irresponsibility4 ,this ill humour is apparently directed to the operari1--in so far it is erroneous1--but in reality it is directed to the esse1 which is the deed of a free will1 the fundamental cause of the existence of an individual1 man becomes that which he wishes to be1 his will is anterior to his existence4 ,here the mistaken conclusion is drawn that from the fact of the ill humour1 the justification1 the reasonable admissableness of this ill humour is presupposed2 and starting from this mistaken conclusion1 ,schopenhauer arrives at his fantastic sequence of the so-called intelligible freedom4 ,but the ill humour after the deed is not necessarily reasonable1 indeed it is assuredly not reasonable1 for it is based upon the erroneous presumption that the action need not have inevitably followed4 ,therefore1 it is only because man believes himself to be free1 not because he is free1 that he experiences remorse and pricks of conscience4 ,moreover1 this ill humour is a habit that can be broken off2 in many people it is entirely absent in connection with actions where others experience it4 ,it is a very changeable thing1 and one which is connected with the development of customs and culture1 and probably only existing during a comparatively short period of the world's history4 ,nobody is responsible for his actions1 nobody for his nature2 to judge is identical with being unjust4 ,this also applies when an individual judges himself4 ,the theory is as clear as sunlight1 and yet every one prefers to go back into the shadow and the untruth1 for fear of the consequences4 #dj4 ,,the ,,super-,,animal4--,the beast in us wishes to be deceived2 morality is a lie of necessity in order that we may not be torn in pieces by it4 ,without the errors which lie in the assumption of morality1 man would have remained an animal4 ,thus1 however1 he has considered himself as something higher and has laid strict laws upon himself4 ,therefore he hates the grades which have remained nearer to animalness1 whereby the former scorn of the slave1 as a not-yet-man1 is to be explained as a fact4 #da4 ,,the ,,unchangeable ,,character4--,that the character is unchangeable is not true in a strict sense2 this favourite theory means1 rather1 that during the short lifetime of an individual the new influencing motives cannot penetrate deeply enough to destroy the ingrained marks of many thousands of years4 ,but if one were to imagine a man of eighty thousand years1 one would have in him an absolutely changeable character1 so that a number of different individuals would gradually develop out of him4 ,the shortness of human life misleads us into forming many erroneous ideas about the qualities of man4 #db4 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,possessions ,,and ,,morality4--,the once-accepted hierarchy of possessions1 according as this or the other is coveted by a lower1 higher1 or highest egoism1 now decides what is moral or immoral4 ,to prefer a lesser good 7for instance1 the gratification of the senses7 to a more highly valued good 7for instance1 health7 is accounted immoral1 and also to prefer luxury to liberty4 ,the hierarchy of possessions1 however1 is not fixed and equal at all times2 if any one prefers vengeance to justice he is moral according to the standard of an earlier civilisation1 but immoral according to the present one4 ,to be immoral1 therefore1 denotes that an individual has not felt1 or not felt sufficiently strongly1 the higher1 finer1 spiritual motives which have come in with a new culture2 it marks one who has remained behind1 but only according to the difference of degrees4 ,the order of possessions itself is not raised and lowered according to a moral point of view2 but each time that it is fixed it supplies the decision as to whether an action is moral or immoral4 #dc4 ,,cruel ,,people ,,as ,,those ,,who ,,have ,,remained ,,behind4--,people who are cruel nowadays must be accounted for by us as the grades of earlier civilisations which have survived2 here are exposed those deeper formations in the mountain of humanity which usually remain concealed4 ,they are backward people whose brains1 through all manner of accidents in the course of inheritance1 have not been developed in so delicate and manifold a way4 ,they show us what we all were and horrify us1 but they themselves are as little responsible as is a block of granite for being granite4 ,there must1 too1 be grooves and twists in our brains which answer to that condition of mind1 as in the form of certain human organs there are supposed to be traces of a fish-state4 ,but these grooves and twists are no longer the bed through which the stream of our sensation flows4 #dd4 ,,gratitude ,,and ,,revenge4--,the reason why the powerful man is grateful is this3 his benefactor1 through the benefit he confers1 has mistaken and intruded into the sphere of the powerful man1--now the latter1 in return1 penetrates into the sphere of the benefactor by the act of gratitude4 ,it is a milder form of revenge4 ,without the satisfaction of gratitude1 the powerful man would have shown himself powerless1 and would have been reckoned as such ever after4 ,therefore every society of the good1 which originally meant the powerful1 places gratitude amongst the first duties4--,swift propounded the maxim that men were grateful in the same proportion as they were revengeful4 #de4 ,,the ,,twofold ,,early ,,history ,,of ,,good ,,and ,,evil4--,the conception of good and evil has a twofold early history1 namely1 once in the soul of the ruling tribes and castes4 ,whoever has the power of returning good for good1 evil for evil1 and really practises requital1 and who is1 therefore1 grateful and revengeful1 is called good2 whoever is powerless1 and unable to requite1 is reckoned as bad4 ,as a good man one is reckoned among the good1 a community which has common feelings because the single individuals are bound to one another by the sense of requital4 ,as a bad man one belongs to the bad1 to a party of subordinate1 powerless people who have no common feeling4 ,the good are a caste1 the bad are a mass like dust4 ,good and bad have for a long time meant the same thing as noble and base1 master and slave4 ,on the other hand1 the enemy is not looked upon as evil1 he can requite4 ,in ,homer the ,trojan and the ,greek are both good4 ,it is not the one who injures us1 but the one who is despicable1 who is called bad4 ,good is inherited in the community of the good2 it is impossible that a bad man could spring from such good soil4 ,if1 nevertheless1 one of the good ones does something which is unworthy of the good1 refuge is sought in excuses2 the guilt is thrown upon a god1 for instance2 it is said that he has struck the good man with blindness and madness4-- ,then in the soul of the oppressed and powerless4 ,here every other man is looked upon as hostile1 inconsiderate1 rapacious1 cruel1 cunning1 be he noble or base2 evil is the distinguishing word for man1 even for every conceivable living creature1 e4g4 for a god2 human1 divine1 is the same thing as devilish1 evil4 ,the signs of goodness1 helpfulness1 pity1 are looked upon with fear as spite1 the prelude to a terrible result1 stupefaction and out-witting1--in short1 as refined malice4 ,with such a disposition in the individual a community could hardly exist1 or at most it could exist only in its crudest form1 so that in all places where this conception of good and evil obtains1 the downfall of the single individuals1 of their tribes and races1 is at hand4--,our present civilisation has grown up on the soil of the ruling tribes and castes4 #df4 ,,sympathy ,,stronger ,,than ,,suffering4--,there are cases when sympathy is stronger than actual suffering4 ,for instance1 we are more pained when one of our friends is guilty of something shameful than when we do it ourselves4 ,for one thing1 we have more faith in the purity of his character than he has himself2 then our love for him1 probably on account of this very faith1 is stronger than his love for himself4 ,and even if his egoism suffers more thereby than our egoism1 inasmuch as it has to bear more of the bad consequences of his fault1 the un-egoistic in us--this word is not to be taken too seriously1 but only as a modification of the expression--is more deeply wounded by his guilt than is the un-egoistic in him4 #dg4 ,,hypochondria4--,there are people who become hypochondriacal through their sympathy and concern for another person2 the kind of sympathy which results therefrom is nothing but a disease4 ,thus there is also a ,christian hypochondria1 which afflicts those solitary1 religiously-minded people who keep constantly before their eyes the sufferings and death of ,christ4 #dh4 ,,economy ,,of ,,goodness4--,goodness and love1 as the most healing herbs and powers in human intercourse1 are such costly discoveries that one would wish as much economy as possible to be exercised in the employment of these balsamic means2 but this is impossible4 ,the economy of goodness is the dream of the most daring ,utopians4 #di4 ,,goodwill4--,amongst the small1 but countlessly frequent and therefore very effective1 things to which science should pay more attention than to the great1 rare things1 is to be reckoned goodwill2 ,i mean that exhibition of a friendly disposition in intercourse1 that smiling eye1 that clasp of the hand1 that cheerfulness with which almost all human actions are usually accompanied4 ,every teacher1 every official1 adds this to whatever is his duty2 it is the perpetual occupation of humanity1 and at the same time the waves of its light1 in which everything grows2 in the narrowest circle1 namely1 within the family1 life blooms and flourishes only through that goodwill4 ,kindliness1 friendliness1 the courtesy of the heart1 are ever-flowing streams of un-egoistic impulses1 and have given far more powerful assistance to culture than even those much more famous demonstrations which are called pity1 mercy1 and self-sacrifice4 ,but they are thought little of1 and1 as a matter of fact1 there is not much that is un-egoistic in them4 ,the sum of these small doses is nevertheless mighty1 their united force is amongst the strongest forces4 ,thus one finds much more happiness in the world than sad eyes see1 if one only reckons rightly1 and does not forget all those moments of comfort in which every day is rich1 even in the most harried of human lives4 #ej4 ,,the ,,wish ,,to ,,arouse ,,pity4--,in the most remarkable passage of his auto--portrait 7first printed in #afeh71 ,la ,rochefoucauld assuredly hits the nail on the head when he warns all sensible people against pity1 when he advises them to leave that to those orders of the people who have need of passion 7because it is not ruled by reason71 and to reach the point of helping the suffering and acting energetically in an accident2 while pity1 according to his 7and ,plato's7 judgment1 weakens the soul4 ,certainly we should exhibit pity1 but take good care not to feel it1 for the unfortunate are so stupid that to them the exhibition of pity is the greatest good in the world4 ,one can1 perhaps1 give a more forcible warning against this feeling of pity if one looks upon that need of the unfortunate not exactly as stupidity and lack of intellect1 a kind of mental derangement which misfortune brings with it 7and as such1 indeed1 ,la ,rochefoucauld appears to regard it71 but as something quite different and more serious4 ,observe children1 who cry and scream in order to be pitied1 and therefore wait for the moment when they will be noticed2 live in intercourse with the sick and mentally oppressed1 and ask yourself whether that ready complaining and whimpering1 that making a show of misfortune1 does not1 at bottom1 aim at making the spectators miserable2 the pity which the spectators then exhibit is in so far a consolation for the weak and suffering in that the latter recognise therein that they possess still one power1 in spite of their weakness1 the power of giving pain4 ,the unfortunate derives a sort of pleasure from this feeling of superiority1 of which the exhibition of pity makes him conscious2 his imagination is exalted1 he is still powerful enough to give the world pain4 ,thus the thirst for pity is the thirst for self-gratification1 and that1 moreover1 at the expense of his fellow-men2 it shows man in the whole inconsiderateness of his own dear self1 but not exactly in his stupidity1 as ,la ,rochefoucauld thinks4 ,in society-talk three-fourths of all questions asked and of all answers given are intended to cause the interlocutor a little pain2 for this reason so many people pine for company2 it enables them to feel their power4 ,there is a powerful charm of life in such countless but very small doses in which malice makes itself felt1 just as goodwill1 spread in the same way throughout the world1 is the ever-ready means of healing4 ,but are there many honest people who will admit that it is pleasing to give pain8 that one not infrequently amuses one's self--and amuses one's self very well--in causing mortifications to others1 at least in thought1 and firing off at them the grape-shot of petty malice8 ,most people are too dishonest1 and a few are too good1 to know anything of this pudendum these will always deny that ,prosper ,mrime is right when he says1 ,sachez aussi qu'il n'y a rien de plus commun que de faire le mal pour le plaisir de le faire4 #ea4 ,,how ,,appearance ,,becomes ,,actuality4--,the actor finally reaches such a point that even in the deepest sorrow he cannot cease from thinking about the impression made by his own person and the general scenic effect2 for instance1 even at the funeral of his child1 he will weep over his own sorrow and its expression like one of his own audience4 ,the hypocrite1 who always plays one and the same part1 ceases at last to be a hypocrite2 for instance1 priests1 who as young men are generally conscious or unconscious hypocrites1 become at last natural1 and are then really without any affectation1 just priests2 or if the father does not succeed so far1 perhaps the son does1 who makes use of his father's progress and inherits his habits4 ,if any one long and obstinately desires to appear something1 he finds it difficult at last to be anything else4 ,the profession of almost every individual1 even of the artist1 begins with hypocrisy1 with an imitating from without1 with a copying of the effective4 ,he who always wears the mask of a friendly expression must eventually obtain a power over well-meaning dispositions without which the expression of friendliness is not to be compelled1--and finally1 these1 again1 obtain a power over him1 he is well-meaning4 #eb4 ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,honour ,,in ,,deception4--,in all great deceivers one thing is noteworthy1 to which they owe their power4 ,in the actual act of deception1 with all their preparations1 the dreadful voice1 expression1 and mien1 in the midst of their effective scenery they are overcome by their belief in themselves it is this1 then1 which speaks so wonderfully and persuasively to the spectators4 ,the founders of religions are distinguished from those great deceivers in that they never awake from their condition of self-deception2 or at times1 but very rarely1 they have an enlightened moment when doubt overpowers them2 they generally console themselves1 however1 by ascribing these enlightened moments to the influence of the ,evil ,one4 ,there must be self-deception in order that this and that may produce great effects4 ,for men believe in the truth of everything that is visibly1 strongly believed in4 #ec4 ,,the ,,nominal ,,degrees ,,of ,,truth4--,one of the commonest mistakes is this3 because some one is truthful and honest towards us1 he must speak the truth4 ,thus the child believes in its parents' judgment1 the ,christian in the assertions of the ,founder of the ,church4 ,in the same way men refuse to admit that all those things which men defended in former ages with the sacrifice of life and happiness were nothing but errors2 it is even said1 perhaps1 that they were degrees of the truth4 ,but what is really meant is that when a man has honestly believed in something1 and has fought and died for his faith1 it would really be too unjust if he had only been inspired by an error4 ,such a thing seems a contradiction of eternal justice2 therefore the heart of sensitive man ever enunciates against his head the axiom3 between moral action and intellectual insight there must absolutely be a necessary connection4 ,it is unfortunately otherwise2 for there is no eternal justice4 #ed4 ,,falsehood4--,why do people mostly speak the truth in daily life8--,assuredly not because a god has forbidden falsehood4 ,but1 firstly1 because it is more convenient1 as falsehood requires invention1 deceit1 and memory4 7,as ,swift says1 he who tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes2 for in order to uphold one lie he must invent twenty others47 ,therefore1 because it is advantageous in upright circumstances to say straight out1 ,i want this1 ,i have done that1 and so on2 because1 in other words1 the path of compulsion and authority is surer than that of cunning4 ,but if a child has been brought up in complicated domestic circumstances1 he employs falsehood1 naturally and unconsciously says whatever best suits his interests2 a sense of truth and a hatred of falsehood are quite foreign and unknown to him1 and so he lies in all innocence4 #ee4 ,,throwing ,,suspicion ,,on ,,morality ,,for ,,faith',s ,,sake4--,no power can be maintained when it is only represented by hypocrites2 no matter how many worldly elements the ,catholic ,church possesses1 its strength lies in those still numerous priestly natures who render life hard and full of meaning for themselves1 and whose glance and worn bodies speak of nocturnal vigils1 hunger1 burning prayers1 and perhaps even of scourging2 these move men and inspire them with fear4 ,what if it were necessary to live thus8 ,this is the terrible question which their aspect brings to the lips4 ,whilst they spread this doubt they always uprear another pillar of their power2 even the free-thinker does not dare to withstand such unselfishness with hard words of truth1 and to say1 ,thyself deceived1 deceive not others6 ,only the difference of views divides them from him1 certainly no difference of goodness or badness2 but men generally treat unjustly that which they do not like4 ,thus we speak of the cunning and the infamous art of the ,jesuits1 but overlook the self-control which every individual ,jesuit practises1 and the fact that the lightened manner of life preached by ,jesuit books is by no means for their benefit1 but for that of the laity4 ,we may even ask whether1 with precisely similar tactics and organisation1 we enlightened ones would make equally good tools1 equally admirable through self-conquest1 indefatigableness1 and renunciation4 #ef4 ,,victory ,,of ,,knowledge ,,over ,,radical ,,evil4--,it is of great advantage to him who desires to be wise to have witnessed for a time the spectacle of a thoroughly evil and degenerate man2 it is false1 like the contrary spectacle1 but for whole long periods it held the mastery1 and its roots have even extended and ramified themselves to us and our world4 ,in order to understand ourselves we must understand it but then1 in order to mount higher we must rise above it4 ,we recognise1 then1 that there exist no sins in the metaphysical sense2 but1 in the same sense1 also no virtues2 we recognise that the entire domain of ethical ideas is perpetually tottering1 that there are higher and deeper conceptions of good and evil1 of moral and immoral4 ,he who does not desire much more from things than a knowledge of them easily makes peace with his soul1 and will make a mistake 7or commit a sin1 as the world calls it7 at the most from ignorance1 but hardly from covetousness4 ,he will no longer wish to excommunicate and exterminate desires2 but his only1 his wholly dominating ambition1 to know as well as possible at all times1 will make him cool and will soften all the savageness in his disposition4 ,moreover1 he has been freed from a number of tormenting conceptions1 he has no more feeling at the mention of the words punishments of hell1 sinfulness1 incapacity for good1 he recognises in them only the vanishing shadow-pictures of false views of the world and of life4 #eg4 ,,morality ,,as ,,the ,,self-,,disintegration ,,of ,,man4--,a good author1 who really has his heart in his work1 wishes that some one could come and annihilate him by representing the same thing in a clearer way and answering without more ado the problems therein proposed4 ,the loving girl wishes she could prove the self-sacrificing faithfulness of her love by the unfaithfulness of her beloved4 ,the soldier hopes to die on the field of battle for his victorious fatherland2 for his loftiest desires triumph in the victory of his country4 ,the mother gives to the child that of which she deprives herself--sleep1 the best food1 sometimes her health and fortune4 ,but are all these un-egoistic conditions8 ,are these deeds of morality miracles1 because1 to use ,schopenhauer's expression1 they are impossible and yet performed8 ,is it not clear that in all four cases the individual loves something of himself1 a thought1 a desire1 a production1 better than anything else of himself2 that he therefore divides his nature and to one part sacrifices all the rest8 ,is it something entirely different when an obstinate man says1 ,i would rather be shot than move a step out of my way for this man8 ,the desire for something 7wish1 inclination1 longing7 is present in all the instances mentioned2 to give way to it1 with all its consequences1 is certainly not un-egoistic4--,in ethics man does not consider himself as ,individuum but as dividuum4 #eh4 ,,what ,,one ,,may ,,promise4--,one may promise actions1 but no sentiments1 for these are involuntary4 ,whoever promises to love or hate a person1 or be faithful to him for ever1 promises something which is not within his power2 he can certainly promise such actions as are usually the results of love1 hate1 or fidelity1 but which may also spring from other motives2 for many ways and motives lead to one and the same action4 ,the promise to love some one for ever is1 therefore1 really3 ,so long as ,i love you ,i will act towards you in a loving way2 if ,i cease to love you1 you will still receive the same treatment from me1 although inspired by other motives1 so that our fellow-men will still be deluded into the belief that our love is unchanged and ever the same4 ,one promises1 therefore1 the continuation of the semblance of love1 when1 without self-deception1 one speaks vows of eternal love4 #ei4 ,,intellect ,,and ,,morality4--,one must have a good memory to be able to keep a given promise4 ,one must have a strong power of imagination to be able to feel pity4 ,so closely is morality bound to the goodness of the intellect4 #fj4 ,,to ,,wish ,,for ,,revenge ,,and ,,to ,,take ,,revenge4--,to have a revengeful thought and to carry it into effect is to have a violent attack of fever1 which passes off1 however1--but to have a revengeful thought without the strength and courage to carry it out is a chronic disease1 a poisoning of body and soul which we have to bear about with us4 ,morality1 which only takes intentions into account1 considers the two cases as equal2 usually the former case is regarded as the worse 7because of the evil consequences which may perhaps result from the deed of revenge74 ,both estimates are short-sighted4 #fa4 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,waiting4--,waiting is so difficult that even great poets have not disdained to take incapability of waiting as the motive for their works4 ,thus ,shakespeare in ,othello or ,sophocles in ,ajax1 to whom suicide1 had he been able to let his feelings cool down for one day1 would no longer have seemed necessary1 as the oracle intimated2 he would probably have snapped his fingers at the terrible whisperings of wounded vanity1 and said to himself1 ,who has not already1 in my circumstances1 mistaken a fool for a hero8 ,is it something so very extraordinary8 ,on the contrary1 it is something very commonly human2 ,ajax might allow himself that consolation4 ,passion will not wait2 the tragedy in the lives of great men frequently lies not in their conflict with the times and the baseness of their fellow-men1 but in their incapacity of postponing their work for a year or two2 they cannot wait4 ,in all duels advising friends have one thing to decide1 namely whether the parties concerned can still wait awhile2 if this is not the case1 then a duel is advisable1 inasmuch as each of the two says1 ,either ,i continue to live and that other man must die immediately1 or vice versa4 ,in such case waiting would mean a prolonged suffering of the terrible martyrdom of wounded honour in the face of the insulter1 and this may entail more suffering than life is worth4 #fb4 ,,revelling ,,in ,,vengeance4--,coarser individuals who feel themselves insulted1 make out the insult to be as great as possible1 and relate the affair in greatly exaggerated language1 in order to be able to revel thoroughly in the rarely awakened feelings of hatred and revenge4 #fc4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,disparagement4--,in order to maintain their self-respect in their own eyes and a certain thoroughness of action1 not a few men1 perhaps even the majority1 find it absolutely necessary to run down and disparage all their acquaintances4 ,but as mean natures are numerous1 and since it is very important whether they possess that thoroughness or lose it1 hence---- #fd4 ,,the ,,man ,,in ,a ,,passion4--,we must beware of one who is in a passion against us as of one who has once sought our life2 for the fact that we still live is due to the absence of power to kill1--if looks would suffice1 we should have been dead long ago4 ,it is a piece of rough civilisation to force some one into silence by the exhibition of physical savageness and the inspiring of fear4 ,that cold glance which exalted persons employ towards their servants is also a relic of that caste division between man and man1 a piece of rough antiquity2 women1 the preservers of ancient things1 have also faithfully retained this survival of an ancient habit4 #fe4 ,,whither ,,honesty ,,can ,,lead4--,somebody had the bad habit of occasionally talking quite frankly about the motives of his actions1 which were as good and as bad as the motives of most men4 ,he first gave offence1 then aroused suspicion1 was then gradually excluded from society and declared a social outlaw1 until at last justice remembered such an abandoned creature1 on occasions when it would otherwise have had no eyes1 or would have closed them4 ,the lack of power to hold his tongue concerning the common secret1 and the irresponsible tendency to see what no one wishes to see--himself--brought him to a prison and an early death4 #ff4 ,,punishable1 ,,but ,,never ,,punished4--,our crime against criminals lies in the fact that we treat them like rascals4 #fg4 ,,sancta ,,simplicitas ,,of ,,virtue4--,every virtue has its privileges2 for example1 that of contributing its own little faggot to the scaffold of every condemned man4 #fh4 ,,morality ,,and ,,consequences4--,it is not only the spectators of a deed who frequently judge of its morality or immorality according to its consequences1 but the doer of the deed himself does so4 ,for the motives and intentions are seldom sufficiently clear and simple1 and sometimes memory itself seems clouded by the consequences of the deed1 so that one ascribes the deed to false motives or looks upon unessential motives as essential4 ,success often gives an action the whole honest glamour of a good conscience2 failure casts the shadow of remorse over the most estimable deed4 ,hence arises the well-known practice of the politician1 who thinks1 ,only grant me success1 with that ,i bring all honest souls over to my side and make myself honest in my own eyes4 ,in the same way success must replace a better argument4 ,many educated people still believe that the triumph of ,christianity over ,greek philosophy is a proof of the greater truthfulness of the former1--although in this case it is only the coarser and more powerful that has triumphed over the more spiritual and delicate4 ,which possesses the greater truth may be seen from the fact that the awakening sciences have agreed with ,epicurus' philosophy on point after point1 but on point after point have rejected ,christianity4 #fi4 ,,love ,,and ,,justice4--,why do we over-estimate love to the disadvantage of justice1 and say the most beautiful things about it1 as if it were something very much higher than the latter8 ,is it not visibly more stupid than justice8 ,certainly1 but precisely for that reason all the pleasanter for every one4 ,it is blind1 and possesses an abundant cornucopia1 out of which it distributes its gifts to all1 even if they do not deserve them1 even if they express no thanks for them4 ,it is as impartial as the rain1 which1 according to the ,bible and experience1 makes not only the unjust1 but also occasionally the just wet through to the skin4 #gj4 ,,execution4--,how is it that every execution offends us more than does a murder8 ,it is the coldness of the judges1 the painful preparations1 the conviction that a human being is here being used as a warning to scare others4 ,for the guilt is not punished1 even if it existed--it lies with educators1 parents1 surroundings1 in ourselves1 not in the murderer--,i mean the determining circumstances4 #ga4 ,,hope4--,pandora brought the box of ills and opened it4 ,it was the gift of the gods to men1 outwardly a beautiful and seductive gift1 and called the ,casket of ,happiness4 ,out of it flew all the evils1 living winged creatures1 thence they now circulate and do men injury day and night4 ,one single evil had not yet escaped from the box1 and by the will of ,zeus ,pandora closed the lid and it remained within4 ,now for ever man has the casket of happiness in his house and thinks he holds a great treasure2 it is at his disposal1 he stretches out his hand for it whenever he desires2 for he does not know the box which ,pandora brought was the casket of evil1 and he believes the ill which remains within to be the greatest blessing1--it is hope4 ,zeus did not wish man1 however much he might be tormented by the other evils1 to fling away his life1 but to go on letting himself be tormented again and again4 ,therefore he gives man hope1--in reality it is the worst of all evils1 because it prolongs the torments of man4 #gb4 ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,moral ,,inflammability ,,unknown4--,according to whether we have or have not had certain disturbing views and impressions--for instance1 an unjustly executed1 killed1 or martered father2 a faithless wife2 a cruel hostile attack--it depends whether our passions reach fever heat and influence our whole life or not4 ,no one knows to what he may be driven by circumstances1 pity1 or indignation2 he does not know the degree of his own inflammability4 ,miserable little circumstances make us miserable2 it is generally not the quantity of experiences1 but their quality1 on which lower and higher man depends1 in good and evil4 #gc4 ,,the ,,martyr ,,in ,,spite ,,of ,,himself4--,there was a man belonging to a party who was too nervous and cowardly ever to contradict his comrades2 they made use of him for everything1 they demanded everything from him1 because he was more afraid of the bad opinion of his companions than of death itself2 his was a miserable1 feeble soul4 ,they recognised this1 and on the ground of these qualities they made a hero of him1 and finally even a martyr4 ,although the coward inwardly always said ,no1 with his lips he always said ,yes1 even on the scaffold1 when he was about to die for the opinions of his party2 for beside him stood one of his old companions1 who so tyrannised over him by word and look that he really suffered death in the most respectable manner1 and has ever since been celebrated as a martyr and a great character4 #gd4 ,i ,,the ,,every-,,day ,,standard4--,one will seldom go wrong if one attributes extreme actions to vanity1 average ones to habit1 and petty ones to fear4 #ge4 ,,misunderstanding ,,concerning ,,virtue4--,whoever has known immorality in connection with pleasure1 as is the case with a man who has a pleasure-seeking youth behind him1 imagines that virtue must be connected with absence of pleasure4--,whoever1 on the contrary1 has been much plagued by his passions and vices1 longs to find in virtue peace and the soul's happiness4 ,hence it is possible for two virtuous persons not to understand each other at all4 #gf4 ,,the ,,ascetic4--,the ascetic makes a necessity of virtue4 #gg4 ,,transferring ,,honour ,,from ,,the ,,person ,,to ,,the ,,thing4--,deeds of love and sacrifice for the benefit of one's neighbour are generally honoured1 wherever they are manifested4 ,thereby we multiply the valuation of things which are thus loved1 or for which we sacrifice ourselves1 although perhaps they are not worth much in themselves4 ,a brave army is convinced of the cause for which it fights4 #gh4 ,,ambition ,a ,,substitute ,,for ,,the ,,moral ,,sense4--,the moral sense must not be lacking in those natures which have no ambition4 ,the ambitious manage without it1 with almost the same results4 ,for this reason the sons of unpretentious1 unambitious families1 when once they lose the moral sense1 generally degenerate very quickly into complete scamps4 #gi4 ,,vanity ,,enriches4--,how poor would be the human mind without vanity6 ,thus1 however1 it resembles a well-stocked and constantly replenished bazaar which attracts buyers of every kind4 ,there they can find almost everything1 obtain almost everything1 provided that they bring the right sort of coin1 namely admiration4 #hj4 ,,old ,,age ,,and ,,death4--,apart from the commands of religion1 the question may well be asked1 ,why is it more worthy for an old man who feels his powers decline1 to await his slow exhaustion and extinction than with full consciousness to set a limit to his life8 ,suicide in this case is a perfectly natural1 obvious action1 which should justly arouse respect as a triumph of reason1 and did arouse it in those times when the heads of ,greek philosophy and the sturdiest patriots used to seek death through suicide4 ,the seeking1 on the contrary1 to prolong existence from day to day1 with anxious consultation of doctors and painful mode of living1 without the power of drawing nearer to the actual aim of life1 is far less worthy4 ,religion is rich in excuses to reply to the demand for suicide1 and thus it ingratiates itself with those who wish to cling to life4 #ha4 ,,errors ,,of ,,the ,,sufferer ,,and ,,the ,,doer4--,when a rich man deprives a poor man of a possession 7for instance1 a prince taking the sweetheart of a plebeian71 an error arises in the mind of the poor man2 he thinks that the rich man must be utterly infamous to take away from him the little that he has4 ,but the rich man does not estimate so highly the value of a single possession1 because he is accustomed to have many2 hence he cannot imagine himself in the poor man's place1 and does not commit nearly so great a wrong as the latter supposes4 ,they each have a mistaken idea of the other4 ,the injustice of the powerful1 which1 more than anything else1 rouses indignation in history1 is by no means so great as it appears4 ,alone the mere inherited consciousness of being a higher creation1 with higher claims1 produces a cold temperament1 and leaves the conscience quiet2 we all of us feel no injustice when the difference is very great between ourselves and another creature1 and kill a fly1 for instance1 without any pricks of conscience4 ,therefore it was no sign of badness in ,xerxes 7whom even all ,greeks describe as superlatively noble7 when he took a son away from his father and had him cut in pieces1 because he had expressed a nervous1 ominous distrust of the whole campaign2 in this case the individual is put out of the way like an unpleasant insect2 he is too lowly to be allowed any longer to cause annoyance to a ruler of the world4 ,yes1 every cruel man is not so cruel as the ill-treated one imagines the idea of pain is not the same as its endurance4 ,it is the same thing in the case of unjust judges1 of the journalist who leads public opinion astray by small dishonesties4 ,in all these cases cause and effect are surrounded by entirely different groups of feelings and thoughts2 yet one unconsciously takes it for granted that doer and sufferer think and feel alike1 and according to this supposition we measure the guilt of the one by the pain of the other4 #hb4 ,,the ,,skin ,,of ,,the ,,soul4--,as the bones1 flesh1 entrails1 and blood-vessels are enclosed within a skin1 which makes the aspect of man endurable1 so the emotions and passions of the soul are enwrapped with vanity1--it is the skin of the soul4 #hc4 ,,the ,,sleep ,,of ,,virtue4--,when virtue has slept1 it will arise again all the fresher4 #hd4 ,,the ,,refinement ,,of ,,shame4--,people are not ashamed to think something foul1 but they are ashamed when they think these foul thoughts are attributed to them4 #he4 ,,malice ,,is ,,rare4--,most people are far too much occupied with themselves to be malicious4 #hf4 ,,the ,,tongue ,,in ,,the ,,balance4--,we praise or blame according as the one or the other affords more opportunity for exhibiting our power of judgment4 #hg4 ,,st4 ,,luke ,,xviii4 #ad1 ,,improved4--,he that humbleth himself wishes to be exalted4 #hh4 ,,the ,,prevention ,,of ,,suicide4--,there is a certain right by which we may deprive a man of life1 but none by which we may deprive him of death2 this is mere cruelty4 #hi4 ,,vanity4--,we care for the good opinion of men1 firstly because they are useful to us1 and then because we wish to please them 7children their parents1 pupils their teachers1 and well-meaning people generally their fellow-men74 ,only where the good opinion of men is of importance to some one1 apart from the advantage thereof or his wish to please1 can we speak of vanity4 ,in this case the man wishes to please himself1 but at the expense of his fellow-men1 either by misleading them into holding a false opinion about him1 or by aiming at a degree of good opinion which must be painful to every one else 7by arousing envy74 ,the individual usually wishes to corroborate the opinion he holds of himself by the opinion of others1 and to strengthen it in his own eyes2 but the strong habit of authority--a habit as old as man himself --induces many to support by authority their belief in themselves3 that is to say1 they accept it first from others2 they trust the judgment of others more than their own4 ,the interest in himself1 the wish to please himself1 attains to such a height in a vain man that he misleads others into having a false1 all too elevated estimation of him1 and yet nevertheless sets store by their authority1--thus causing an error and yet believing in it4 ,it must be confessed1 therefore1 that vain people do not wish to please others so much as themselves1 and that they go so far therein as to neglect their advantage1 for they often endeavour to prejudice their fellow-men unfavourably1 inimicably1 enviously1 consequently injuriously against themselves1 merely in order to have pleasure in themselves1 personal pleasure4 #ij4 ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,human ,,love4--,a man who has declared that another is an idiot and a bad companion1 is angry when the latter eventually proves himself to be otherwise4 #ia4 ,,moralit ,,larmoyante4--,what a great deal of pleasure morality gives6 ,only think what a sea of pleasant tears has been shed over descriptions of noble and unselfish deeds6 ,this charm of life would vanish if the belief in absolute irresponsibility were to obtain supremacy4 #ib4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,justice4--,justice 7equity7 has1 its origin amongst powers which are fairly equal1 as ,thucydides 7in the terrible dialogue between the ,athenian and ,melian ambassadors7 rightly comprehended3 that is to say1 where there is no clearly recognisable supremacy1 and where a conflict would be useless and would injure both sides1 there arises the thought of coming to an understanding and settling the opposing claims2 the character of exchange is the primary character of justice4 ,each party satisfies the other1 as each obtains what he values more than the other4 ,each one receives that which he desires1 as his own henceforth1 and whatever is desired is received in return4 ,justice1 therefore1 is recompense and exchange based on the hypothesis of a fairly equal degree of power1--thus1 originally1 revenge belongs to the province of justice1 it is an exchange4 ,also gratitude4--,justice naturally is based on the point of view of a judicious self-preservation1 on the egoism1 therefore1 of that reflection1 ,why should ,i injure myself uselessly and perhaps not attain my aim after all8 ,so much about the origin of justice4 ,because man1 according to his intellectual custom1 has forgotten the original purpose of so-called just and reasonable actions1 and particularly because for hundreds of years children have been taught to admire and imitate such actions1 the idea has gradually arisen that such an action is un-egoistic2 upon this idea1 however1 is based the high estimation in which it is held3 which1 moreover1 like all valuations1 is constantly growing1 for something that is valued highly is striven after1 imitated1 multiplied1 and increases1 because the value of the output of toil and enthusiasm of each individual is added to the value of the thing itself4 ,how little moral would the world look without this forgetfulness6 ,a poet might say that ,god had placed forgetfulness as door-keeper in the temple of human dignity4 #ic4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,the ,,weaker4--,when any one submits under certain conditions to a greater power1 as a besieged town for instance1 the counter-condition is that one can destroy one's self1 burn the town1 and so cause the mighty one a great loss4 ,therefore there is a kind of equalisation here1 on the basis of which rights may be determined4 ,the enemy has his advantage in maintaining it4 ,in so far there are also rights between slaves and masters1 that is1 precisely so far as the possession of the slave is useful and important to his master4 ,the right originally extends so far as one appears to be valuable to the other1 essentially unlosable1 unconquerable1 and so forth4 ,in so far the weaker one also has rights1 but lesser ones4 ,hence the famous unusquisque tantum juris habet1 quantum potentia valet 7or more exactly1 quantum potentia valere creditur74 #id4 ,,the ,,three ,,phases ,,of ,,hitherto ,,existing ,,morality4--,it is the first sign that the animal has become man when its actions no longer have regard only to momentary welfare1 but to what is enduring1 when it grows useful and practical2 there the free rule of reason first breaks out4 ,a still higher step is reached when he acts according to the principle of honour by this means he brings himself into order1 submits to common feelings1 and that exalts him still higher over the phase in which he was led only by the idea of usefulness from a personal point of view2 he respects and wishes to be respected1 i4e4 he understands usefulness as dependent upon what he thinks of others and what others think of him4 ,eventually he acts1 on the highest step of the hitherto existing--morality1 according to his standard of things and men2 he himself decides for himself and others what is honourable1 what is useful2 he has become the law-giver of opinions1 in accordance with the ever more highly developed idea of what is useful and honourable4 ,knowledge enables him to place that which is most useful1 that is to say the general1 enduring usefulness1 above the personal1 the honourable recognition of general1 enduring validity above the momentary2 he lives and acts as a collective individual4 #ie4 ,,the ,,morality ,,of ,,the ,,mature ,,individual4--,the impersonal has hitherto been looked upon as the actual distinguishing mark of moral action2 and it has been pointed out that in the beginning it was in consideration of the common good that all impersonal actions were praised and distinguished4 ,is not an important change in these views impending1 now when it is more and more recognised that it is precisely in the most personal possible considerations that the common good is the greatest1 so that a strictly personal action now best illustrates the present idea of morality1 as utility for the mass8 ,to make a whole personality out of ourselves1 and in all that we do to keep that personality's highest good in view1 carries us further than those sympathetic emotions and actions for the benefit of others4 ,we all still suffer1 certainly1 from the too small consideration of the personal in us2 it is badly developed1--let us admit it2 rather has our mind been forcibly drawn away from it and offered as a sacrifice to the ,state1 to science1 or to those who stand in need of help1 as if it were the bad part which must be sacrificed4 ,we are still willing to work for our fellow-men1 but only so far as we find our own greatest advantage in this work1 no more and no less4 ,it is only a question of what we understand as our advantage2 the unripe1 undeveloped1 crude individual will understand it in the crudest way4 #if4 ,,custom ,,and ,,morality4--,to be moral1 correct1 and virtuous is to be obedient to an old-established law and custom4 ,whether we submit with difficulty or willingly is immaterial1 enough that we do so4 ,he is called good who1 as if naturally1 after long precedent1 easily and willingly1 therefore1 does what is right1 according to whatever this may be 7as1 for instance1 taking revenge1 if to take revenge be considered as right1 as amongst the ancient ,greeks74 ,he is called good because he is good for something2 but as goodwill1 pity1 consideration1 moderation1 and such like1 have come1 with the change in manners1 to be looked upon as good for something1 as useful1 the good-natured and helpful have1 later on1 come to be distinguished specially as good4 7,in the beginning other and more important kinds of usefulness stood in the foreground47 ,to be evil is to be not moral 7immoral71 to be immoral is to be in opposition to tradition1 however sensible or stupid it may be2 injury to the community 7the neighbour being understood thereby7 has1 however1 been looked upon by the social laws of all different ages as being eminently the actual immorality1 so that now at the word evil we immediately think of voluntary injury to one's neighbour4 ,the fundamental antithesis which has taught man the distinction between moral and immoral1 between good and evil1 is not the egoistic and un-egoistic1 but the being bound to the tradition1 law1 and solution thereof4 ,how the tradition has arisen is immaterial1 at all events without regard to good and evil or any immanent categorical imperative1 but above all for the purpose of preserving a community1 a generation1 an association1 a people2 every superstitious custom that has arisen on account of some falsely explained accident1 creates a tradition1 which it is moral to follow2 to separate one's self from it is dangerous1 but more dangerous for the community than for the individual 7because the ,godhead punishes the community for every outrage and every violation of its rights1 and the individual only in proportion74 ,now every tradition grows continually more venerable1 the farther off lies its origin1 the more this is lost sight of2 the veneration paid it accumulates from generation to generation1 the tradition at last becomes holy and excites awe2 and thus in any case the morality of piety is a much older morality than that which requires un-egoistic actions4 #ig4 ,,pleasure ,,in ,,traditional ,,custom4--,an important species of pleasure1 and therewith the source of morality1 arises out of habit4 ,man does what is habitual to him more easily1 better1 and therefore more willingly2 he feels a pleasure therein1 and knows from experience that the habitual has been tested1 and is therefore useful2 a custom that we can live with is proved to be wholesome and advantageous in contrast to all new and not yet tested experiments4 ,according to this1 morality is the union of the pleasant and the useful2 moreover1 it requires no reflection4 ,as soon as man can use compulsion1 he uses it to introduce and enforce his customs2 for in his eyes they are proved as the wisdom of life4 ,in the same way a company of individuals compels each single one to adopt the same customs4 ,here the inference is wrong2 because we feel at ease with a morality1 or at least because we are able to carry on existence with it1 therefore this morality is necessary1 for it seems to be the only possibility of feeling at ease2 the ease of life seems to grow out of it alone4 ,this comprehension of the habitual as a necessity of existence is pursued even to the smallest details of custom1--as insight into genuine causality is very small with lower peoples and civilisations1 they take precautions with superstitious fear that everything should go in its same groove2 even where custom is difficult1 hard1 and burdensome1 it is preserved on account of its apparent highest usefulness4 ,it is not known that the same degree of well-being can also exist with other customs1 and that even higher degrees may be attained4 ,we become aware1 however1 that all customs1 even the hardest1 grow pleasanter and milder with time1 and that the severest way of life may become a habit and therefore a pleasure4 #ih4 ,,pleasure ,,and ,,social ,,instinct4--,out of his relations with other men1 man obtains a new species of pleasure in addition to those pleasurable sensations which he derives from himself2 whereby he greatly increases the scope of enjoyment4 ,perhaps he has already taken too many of the pleasures of this sphere from animals1 which visibly feel pleasure when they play with each other1 especially the mother with her young4 ,then consider the sexual relations1 which make almost every female interesting to a male with regard to pleasure1 and vice versa4 ,the feeling of pleasure on the basis of human relations generally makes man better2 joy in common1 pleasure enjoyed together is increased1 it gives the individual security1 makes him good-tempered1 and dispels mistrust and envy1 for we feel ourselves at ease and see others at ease4 ,similar manifestations of pleasure awaken the idea of the same sensations1 the feeling of being like something2 a like effect is produced by common sufferings1 the same bad weather1 dangers1 enemies4 ,upon this foundation is based the oldest alliance1 the object of which is the mutual obviating and averting of a threatening danger for the benefit of each individual4 ,and thus the social instinct grows out of pleasure4 #ii4 ,,the ,,innocent ,,side ,,of ,,so-,,called ,,evil ,,actions4--,all evil actions are prompted by the instinct of preservation1 or1 more exactly1 by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain on the part of the individual2 thus prompted1 but not evil4 ,to cause pain per se does not exist1 except in the brains of philosophers1 neither does to give pleasure per se 7pity in ,schopenhauer's meaning74 ,in the social condition before the ,state we kill the creature1 be it ape or man1 who tries to take from us the fruit of a tree when we are hungry and approach the tree1 as we should still do with animals in inhospitable countries4 ,the evil actions which now most rouse our indignation1 are based upon the error that he who causes them has a free will1 that he had the option1 therefore1 of not doing us this injury4 ,this belief in option arouses hatred1 desire for revenge1 spite1 and the deterioration of the whole imagination1 while we are much less angry with an animal because we consider it irresponsible4 ,to do injury1 not from the instinct of preservation1 but as requital1 is the consequence of a false judgment and therefore equally innocent4 ,the individual can in the condition which lies before the ,state1 act sternly and cruelly towards other creatures for the purpose of terrifying1 to establish his existence firmly by such terrifying proofs of his power4 ,thus act the violent1 the mighty1 the original founders of ,states1 who subdue the weaker to themselves4 ,they have the right to do so1 such as the ,state still takes for itself2 or rather1 there is no right that can hinder this4 ,the ground for all-morality can only be made ready when a stronger individual or a collective individual1 for instance society or the ,state1 subdues the single individuals14draws them out of their singleness1 and forms them into an association44 ,compulsion precedes morality1 indeed morality itself is compulsion for a time1 to which one submits for the avoidance of pain4 ,later on it becomes custom1--later still1 free obedience1 and finally almost instinct1--then1 like everything long accustomed and natural1 it is connected with pleasure--and is henceforth called virtue4 #ajj4 ,,shame4--,shame exists everywhere where there is a mystery2 this1 however1 is a religious idea1 which was widely extended in the older times of human civilisation4 ,everywhere were found bounded domains to which access was forbidden by divine right1 except under certain conditions 2 at first locally1 as1 for example1 certain spots that ought not to be trodden by the feet of the uninitiated1 in the neighbourhood of which these latter experienced horror and fear4 ,this feeling was a good deal carried over into other relations1 for instance1 the sex relations1 which1 as a privilege and o of riper years1 had to be withheld from the knowledge of the young for their advantage1 relations for the protection and sanctification of which many gods were invented and were set up as guardians in the nuptial chamber4 7,in ,turkish this room is on this account called harem1 sanctuary1 and is distinguished with the same name1 therefore1 that is used for the entrance courts of the mosques47 ,thus the kingdom is as a centre from which radiate power and glory1 to the subjects a mystery full of secrecy and shame1 of which many after-effects may still be felt among nations which otherwise do not by any means belong to the bashful type4 ,similarly1 the whole world of inner conditions1 the so-called soul1 is still a mystery for all who are not philosophers1 after it has been looked upon for endless ages as of divine origin and as worthy of divine intercourse2 according to this it is an o and arouses shame4 #aja4 ,,judge ,,not4--,in considering earlier periods1 care must be taken not to fall into unjust abuse4 ,the injustice in slavery1 the cruelty in the suppression of persons and nations1 is not to be measured by our standard4 ,for the instinct of justice was not then so far developed4 ,who dares to reproach the ,genevese ,calvin with the burning of the physician ,servet8 ,it was an action following and resulting from his convictions1 and in the same way the ,inquisition had a good right2 only the ruling views were false1 and produced a result which seems hard to us because those views have now grown strange to us4 ,besides1 what is the burning of a single individual compared with eternal pains of hell for almost all6 ,and yet this idea was universal at that time1 without essentially injuring by its dreadfulness the conception of a ,god4 ,with us1 too1 political sectarians are hardly and cruelly treated1 but because one is accustomed to believe in the necessity of the ,state1 the cruelty is not so deeply felt here as it is where we repudiate the views4 ,cruelty to animals in children and ,italians is due to ignorance1 i4e4 the animal1 through the interests of ,church teaching1 has been placed too far behind man4 ,much that is dreadful and inhuman in history1 much that one hardly likes to believe1 is mitigated by the reflection that the one who commands and the one who carries out are different persons1--the former does not behold the right and therefore does not experience the strong impression on the imagination2 the latter obeys a superior and therefore feels no responsibility4 ,most princes and military heads1 through lack of imagination1 easily appear hard and cruel without really being so4 ,egoism is not evil1 because the idea of the neighbour--the word is of ,christian origin and does not represent the truth--is very weak in us2 and we feel ourselves almost as free and irresponsible towards him as towards plants and stones4 ,we have yet to learn that others suffer1 and this can never be completely learnt4 #ajb4 ,,man ,,always ,,acts ,,rightly4--,we do not complain of nature as immoral because it sends a thunderstorm and makes us wet1--why do we call those who injure us immoral8 ,because in the latter case we take for granted a free will functioning voluntarily2 in the former we see necessity4 ,but this distinction is an error4 ,thus we do not call even intentional injury immoral in all circumstances2 for instance1 we kill a fly unhesitatingly and intentionally1 only because its buzzing annoys us2 we punish a criminal intentionally and hurt him in order to protect ourselves and society4 ,in the first case it is the individual who1 in order to preserve himself1 or even to protect himself from worry1 does intentional injury2 in the second case it is the ,state4 ,all morals allow intentional injury in the case of necessity1 that is1 when it is a matter of self-preservation6 ,but these two points of view suffice to explain all evil actions committed by men against men1 we are desirous of obtaining pleasure or avoiding pain2 in any case it is always a question of self-preservation4 ,socrates and ,plato are right3 whatever man does he always does well1 that is1 he does that which seems to him good 7useful7 according to the degree of his intellect1 the particular standard of his reasonableness4 #ajc4 ,,the ,,harmlessness ,,of ,,malice4--,the aim of malice is not the suffering of others in itself1 but our own enjoyment2 for instance1 as the feeling of revenge1 or stronger nervous excitement4 ,all teasing1 even1 shows the pleasure it gives to exercise our power on others and bring it to an enjoyable feeling of preponderance4 ,is it immoral to taste pleasure at the expense of another's pain8 ,is malicious joy#c devilish1 as ,schopenhauer says8 ,we give ourselves pleasure in nature by breaking off twigs1 loosening stones1 fighting with wild animals1 and do this in order to become thereby conscious of our strength4 ,is the knowledge1 therefore1 that another suffers through us1 the same thing concerning which we otherwise feel irresponsible1 supposed to make us immoral8 ,but if we did not know this we would not thereby have the enjoyment of our own superiority1 which can only manifest itself by the suffering of others1 for instance in teasing4 ,all pleasure per se is neither good nor evil2 whence should come the decision that in order to have pleasure ourselves we may not cause displeasure to others8 ,from the point of view of usefulness alone1 that is1 out of consideration for the consequences1 for possible displeasure1 when the injured one or the replacing ,state gives the expectation of resentment and revenge3 this only can have been the original reason for denying ourselves such actions4 ,pity aims just as little at the pleasure of others as malice at the pain of others per se4 ,for it contains at least two 7perhaps many more7 elements of a personal pleasure1 and is so far self-gratification2 in the first place as the pleasure of emotion1 which is the kind of pity that exists in tragedy1 and then1 when it impels to action1 as the pleasure of satisfaction in the exercise of power4 ,if1 besides this1 a suffering person is very dear to us1 we lift a sorrow from ourselves by the exercise of sympathetic actions4 ,except by a few philosophers1 pity has always been placed very low in the scale of moral feelings1 and rightly so4 #ajd4 ,,self-,,defence4--,if self-defence is allowed to pass as moral1 then almost all manifestations of the so-called immoral egoism must also stand2 men injure1 rob1 or kill in order to preserve or defend themselves1 to prevent personal injury2 they lie where cunning and dissimulation are the right means of self-preservation4 ,intentional injury1 when our existence or safety 7preservation of our comfort7 is concerned1 is conceded to be moral2 the ,state itself injures1 according to this point of view1 when it punishes4 ,in unintentional injury1 of course1 there can be nothing immoral1 that is ruled by chance4 ,is there1 then1 a kind of intentional injury where our existence or the preservation of our comfort is not concerned8 ,is there an injuring out of pure malice1 for instance in cruelty8 ,if one does not know how much an action hurts1 it is no deed of malice2 thus the child is not malicious towards the animal1 not evil2 he examines and destroys it like a toy4 ,but do we ever know entirely how an action hurts another8 ,as far as our nervous system extends we protect ourselves from pain2 if it extended farther1 to our fellow-men1 namely1 we should do no one an injury 7except in such cases as we injure ourselves1 where we cut ourselves for the sake of cure1 tire and exert ourselves for the sake of health74 ,we conclude by analogy that something hurts somebody1 and through memory and the strength of imagination we may suffer from it ourselves4 ,but still what a difference there is between toothache and the pain 7pity7 that the sight of toothache calls forth6 ,therefore1 in injury out of so-called malice the degree of pain produced is always unknown to us2 but inasmuch as there is pleasure in the action 7the feeling of one's own power1 one's own strong excitement71 the action is committed1 in order to preserve the comfort of the individual1 and is regarded1 therefore1 from a similar point of view as defence and falsehood in necessity4 ,no life without pleasure2 the struggle for pleasure is the struggle for life4 ,whether the individual so fights this fight that men call him good1 or so that they call him evil1 is determined by the measure and the constitution of his intellect4 #aje4 ,,recompensing ,,justice4--,whoever has completely comprehended the doctrine of absolute irresponsibility can no longer include the so-called punishing and recompensing justice in the idea of justice1 should this consist of giving to each man his due4 ,for he who is punished does not deserve the punishment1 he is only used as a means of henceforth warning away from certain actions2 equally so1 he who is rewarded does not merit this reward1 he could not act otherwise than he did4 ,therefore the reward is meant only as an encouragement to him and others1 to provide a motive for subsequent actions2 words of praise are flung to the runners on the course1 not to the one who has reached the goal4 ,neither punishment nor reward is anything that comes to one as one's own2 they are given from motives of usefulness1 without one having a right to claim them4 ,hence we must say1 ,the wise man gives no reward because the deed has been well done1 just as we have said1 ,the wise man does not punish because evil has been committed1 but in order that evil shall not be committed4 ,if punishment and reward no longer existed1 then the strongest motives which deter men from certain actions and impel them to certain other actions1 would also no longer exist2 the needs of mankind require their continuance2 and inasmuch as punishment and reward1 blame and praise1 work most sensibly on vanity1 the same need requires the continuance of vanity4 #ajf4 ,,at ,,the ,,waterfall4--,in looking at a water-fall we imagine that there is freedom of will and fancy in the countless turnings1 twistings1 and breakings of the waves2 but everything is compulsory1 every movement can be mathematically calculated4 ,so it is also with human actions2 one would have to be able to calculate every single action beforehand if one were all-knowing2 equally so all progress of knowledge1 every error1 all malice4 ,the one who acts certainly labours under the illusion of voluntariness2 if the world's wheel were to stand still for a moment and an all-knowing1 calculating reason were there to make use of this pause1 it could foretell the future of every creature to the remotest times1 and mark out every track upon which that wheel would continue to roll4 ,the delusion of the acting agent about himself1 the supposition of a free will1 belongs to this mechanism which still remains to be calculated4 #ajg4 ,,irresponsibility ,,and ,,innocence4--,the complete irresponsibility of man for his actions and his nature is the bitterest drop which he who understands must swallow if he was accustomed to see the patent of nobility of his humanity in responsibility and duty4 ,all his valuations1 distinctions1 disinclinations1 are thereby deprived of value and become false1--his deepest feeling for the sufferer and the hero was based on an error2 he may no longer either praise or blame1 for it is absurd to praise and blame nature and necessity4 ,in the same way as he loves a fine work of art1 but does not praise it1 because it can do nothing for itself2 in the same way as he regards plants1 so must he regard his own actions and those of mankind4 ,he can admire strength1 beauty1 abundance1 in themselves2 but must find no merit therein1--the chemical progress and the strife of the elements1 the torments of the sick person who thirsts after recovery1 are all equally as little merits as those struggles of the soul and states of distress in which we are torn hither and thither by different impulses until we finally decide for the strongest--as we say 7but in reality it is the strongest motive which decides for us74 ,all these motives1 however1 whatever fine names we may give them1 have all grown out of the same root1 in which we believe the evil poisons to be situated2 between good and evil actions there is no difference of species1 but at most of degree4 ,good actions are sublimated evil ones2 evil actions are vulgarised and stupefied good ones4 ,the single longing of the individual for self-gratification 7together with the fear of losing it7 satisfies itself in all circumstances3 man may act as he can1 that is as he must1 be it in deeds of vanity1 revenge1 pleasure1 usefulness1 malice1 cunning2 be it in deeds of sacrifice1 of pity1 of knowledge4 ,the degrees of the power of judgment determine whither any one lets himself be drawn through this longing2 to every society1 to every individual1 a scale of possessions is continually present1 according to which he determines his actions and judges those of others4 ,but this standard changes constantly2 many actions are called evil and are only stupid1 because the degree of intelligence which decided for them was very low4 ,in a certain sense1 even1 all actions are still stupid2 for the highest degree of human intelligence which can now be attained will assuredly be yet surpassed1 and then1 in a retrospect1 all our actions and judgments will appear as limited and hasty as the actions and judgments of primitive wild peoples now appear limited and hasty to us4 ,to recognise all this may be deeply painful1 but consolation comes after2 such pains are the pangs of birth4 ,the butterfly wants to break through its chrysalis3 it rends and tears it1 and is then blinded and confused by the unaccustomed light1 the kingdom of liberty4 ,in such people as are capable of such sadness--and how few are6--the first experiment made is to see whether mankind can change itself from a moral into a wise mankind4 ,the sun of a new gospel throws its rays upon the highest point in the soul of each single individual1 then the mists gather thicker than ever1 and the brightest light and the dreariest shadow lie side by side4 ,everything is necessity--so says the new knowledge1 and this knowledge itself is necessity4 ,everything is innocence1 and knowledge is the road to insight into this innocence4 ,are pleasure1 egoism1 vanity necessary for the production of the moral phenomena and their highest result1 the sense for truth and justice in knowledge2 were error and the confusion of the imagination the only means through which mankind could raise itself gradually to this degree of self-enlightenment and self-liberation--who would dare to undervalue these means8 ,who would dare to be sad if he perceived the goal to which those roads led8 ,everything in the domain of morality has evolved1 is changeable1 unstable1 everything is dissolved1 it is true2 but everything is also streaming towards one goal4 ,even if the inherited habit of erroneous valuation1 love and hatred1 continue to reign in us1 yet under the influence of growing knowledge it will become weaker2 a new habit1 that of comprehension1 of not loving1 not hating1 of overlooking1 is gradually implanting itself in us upon the same ground1 and in thousands of years will perhaps be powerful enough to give humanity the strength to produce wise1 innocent 7consciously innocent7 men1 as it now produces unwise1 guilt-conscious men1--that is the necessary preliminary step1 not its opposite4 ,footnote #a3 ,dr4 ,paul ,re4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,dr4 ,paul ,re4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #c3 ,this is the untranslatable word ,schadenfreude1 which means joy at the misfortune of others4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,third ,,division4 ,,the ,,religious ,,life4 #ajh4 ,,the ,,double ,,fight ,,against ,,evil4--,when misfortune overtakes us we can either pass over ,i it so lightly that its cause is removed1 or so that the result which it has on our temperament is altered1 through a changing1 therefore1 of the evil into a good1 the utility of which is perhaps not visible until later on4 ,religion and art 7also metaphysical philosophy7 work upon the changing of the temperament1 partly through the changing of our judgment on events 7for instance1 with the help of the phrase whom the ,lord loveth ,he chasteneth71 partly through the awakening of a pleasure in pain1 in emotion generally 7whence the tragic art takes its starting-point74 ,the more a man is inclined to twist and arrange meanings the less he will grasp the causes of evil and disperse them2 the momentary mitigation and influence of a narcotic1 as for example in toothache1 suffices him even in more serious sufferings4 ,the more the dominion of creeds and all arts dispense with narcotics1 the more strictly men attend to the actual removing of the evil1 which is certainly bad for writers of tragedy2 for the material for tragedy is growing scarcer because the domain of pitiless1 inexorable fate is growing ever narrower1--but worse still for the priests1 for they have hitherto lived on the narcotisation of human woes4 #aji4 ,,sorrow ,,is ,,knowledge4--,how greatly we should like to exchange the false assertions of the priests1 that there is a god who desires good from us1 a guardian and witness of every action1 every moment1 every thought1 who loves us and seeks our welfare in all misfortune1--how greatly we would like to exchange these ideas for truths which would be just as healing1 pacifying and beneficial as those errors6 ,but there are no such truths2 at most philosophy can oppose to them metaphysical appearances 7at bottom also untruths74 ,the tragedy consists in the fact that we cannot believe those dogmas of religion and metaphysics1 if we have strict methods of truth in heart and brain3 on the other hand1 mankind has1 through development1 become so delicate1 irritable and suffering1 that it has need of the highest means of healing and consolation2 whence also the danger arises that man would bleed to death from recognised truth1 or1 more correctly1 from discovered error4 ,byron has expressed this in the immortal lines3-- ,sorrow is knowledge3 they who know the most ,must mourn the deepest o'er the fatal truth1 ,the ,tree of ,knowledge is not that of ,life4 ,for such troubles there is no better help than to recall the stately levity of ,horace1 at least for the worst hours and eclipses of the soul1 and to say with him3 444 quid ternis minorem consiliis animum fatigas8 cur non sub alta vel platano vel hac pinu jacentes4#a ,but assuredly frivolity or melancholy of every degree is better than a romantic retrospection and desertion of the flag1 an approach to ,christianity in any form2 for according to the present condition of knowledge it is absolutely impossible to approach it without hopelessly soiling our intellectual conscience and giving ourselves away to ourselves and others4 ,those pains may be unpleasant enough1 but we cannot become leaders and educators of mankind without pain2 and woe to him who would wish to attempt this and no longer have that clear conscience6 #aaj4 ,,the ,,truth ,,in ,,religion4--,in the period of rationalism justice was not done to the importance of religion1 of that there is no doubt1 but equally there is no doubt that in the reaction that followed this rationalism justice was far overstepped2 for religions were treated lovingly1 even amorously1 and1 for instance1 a deeper1 even the very deepest1 understanding of the world was ascribed to them2 which science has only to strip of its dogmatic garment in order to possess the truth in unmythical form4 ,religions should1 therefore1--this was the opinion of all opposers of rationalism1--sensu allegorico1 with all consideration for the understanding of the masses1 give utterance to that ancient wisdom which is wisdom itself1 inasmuch as all true science of later times has always led up to it instead of away from it1 so that between the oldest wisdom of mankind and all later harmonies similarity of discernment and a progress of knowledge--in case one should wish to speak of such a thing--rests not upon the nature but upon the way of communicating it4 ,this whole conception of religion and science is thoroughly erroneous1 and none would still dare to profess it if ,schopenhauer's eloquence had not taken it under its protection2 this resonant eloquence which1 however1 only reached its hearers a generation later4 ,as surely as from ,schopenhauer's religious-moral interpretations of men and the world much may be gained for the understanding of the ,christian and other religions1 so surely also is he mistaken about the value of religion for knowledge4 ,therein he himself was only a too docile pupil of the scientific teachers of his time1 who all worshipped romanticism and had forsworn the spirit of enlightenment2 had he been born in our present age he could not possibly have talked about the sensus allegoricus of religion2 he would much rather have given honour to truth1 as he used to do1 with the words1 no religion1 direct or indirect1 either as dogma or as allegory1 has ever contained a truth4 ,for each has been born of fear and necessity1 through the byways of reason did it slip into existence2 once1 perhaps1 when imperilled by science1 some philosophic doctrine has lied itself into its system in order that it may be found there later1 but this is a theological trick of the time when a religion already doubts itself4 ,these tricks of theology 7which certainly were practised in the early days of ,christianity1 as the religion of a scholarly period steeped in philosophy7 have led to that superstition of the sensus allegoricus1 but yet more the habits of the philosophers 7especially the half-natures1 the poetical philosophers and the philosophising artists71 to treat all the sensations which they discovered in themselves as the fundamental nature of man in general1 and hence to allow their own religious feelings an important influence in the building up of their systems4 ,as philosophers frequently philosophised under the custom of religious habits1 or at least under the anciently inherited power of that metaphysical need1 they developed doctrinal opinions which really bore a great resemblance to the ,jewish or ,christian or ,indian religious views1--a resemblance1 namely1 such as children usually bear to their mothers1 only that in this case the fathers were not clear about that motherhood1 as happens sometimes1--but in their innocence romanced about a family likeness between all religion and science4 ,in reality1 between religions and real science there exists neither relationship nor friendship1 nor even enmity2 they live on different planets4 ,every philosophy which shows a religious comet's tail shining in the darkness of its last prospects makes all the science it contains suspicious2 all this is presumably also religion1 even though in the guise of science4 ,moreover1 if all nations were to agree about certain religious matters1 for instance the existence of a ,god 7which1 it may be remarked1 is not the case with regard to this point71 this would only be an argument against those affirmed matters1 for instance the existence of a ,god2 the consensus gentium and hominum in general can only take place in case of a huge folly4 ,on the other hand1 there is no consensus omnium sapientium1 with regard to any single thing1 with that exception mentioned in ,goethe's lines3 ,alle die ,weisesten aller der ,zeiten ,lcheln und winken und stimmen mit ein3 ,thricht1 auf ,bess'rung der ,thoren zu harren6 ,kinder der ,klugheit1 o habet die ,narren ,eben zum ,narren auch1 wie sich's gehrt6#b ,spoken without verse and rhyme and applied to our case1 the consensus sapientium consists in this3 that the consensus gentium counts as a folly4 #aaa4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,cult4--,if we go back to the times in which the religious life flourished to the greatest extent1 we find a fundamental conviction1 which we now no longer share1 and whereby the doors leading to a religious life are closed to us once for all1--it concerns ,nature and intercourse with her4 ,in those times people knew nothing of natural laws2 neither for earth nor for heaven is there a must2 a season1 the sunshine1 the rain may come or may not come4 ,in short1 every idea of natural causality is lacking4 ,when one rows1 it is not the rowing that moves the boat1 but rowing is only a magical ceremony by which one compels a dmon to move the boat4 ,all maladies1 even death itself1 are the result of magical influences4 ,illness and death never happen naturally2 the whole conception of natural sequence is lacking1--it dawned first amongst the older ,greeks1 that is1 in a very late phase of humanity1 in the conception of ,moira1 enthroned above the gods4 ,when a man shoots with a bow1 there is still always present an irrational hand and strength2 if the wells suddenly dry up1 men think first of subterranean dmons and their tricks2 it must be the arrow of a god beneath whose invisible blow a man suddenly sinks down4 ,in ,india 7says ,lubbock7 a carpenter is accustomed to offer sacrifice to his hammer1 his hatchet1 and the rest of his tools2 in the same way a ,brahmin treats the pen with which he writes1 a soldier the weapons he requires in the field of battle1 a mason his trowel1 a labourer his plough4 ,in the imagination of religious people all nature is a summary of the actions of conscious and voluntary creatures1 an enormous complex of arbitrariness4 ,no conclusion may be drawn with regard to everything that is outside of us1 that anything will be so and so1 must be so and so2 the approximately sure1 reliable are we1--man is the rule1 nature is irregularity1--this theory contains the fundamental conviction which obtains in rude1 religiously productive primitive civilisations4 ,we latter-day men feel just the contrary1--the richer man now feels himself inwardly1 the more polyphonous is the music and the noise of his soul the more powerfully the symmetry of nature works upon him2 we all recognise with ,goethe the great means in nature for the appeasing of the modern soul2 we listen to the pendulum swing of this greatest of clocks with a longing for rest1 for home and tranquillity1 as if we could absorb this symmetry into ourselves and could only thereby arrive at the enjoyment of ourselves4 ,formerly it was otherwise2 if we consider the rude1 early condition of nations1 or contemplate present-day savages' at close quarters1 we find them most strongly influenced by law and by tradition3 the individual is almost automatically bound to them1 and moves with the uniformity of a pendulum4 ,to him ,nature--uncomprehended1 terrible1 mysterious ,nature--must appear as the sphere of liberty1 of voluntariness1 of the higher power1 even as a superhuman degree of existence1 as ,god4 ,in those times and conditions1 however1 every individual felt that his existence1 his happiness1 and that of the family and the ,state1 and the success of all undertakings1 depended on those spontaneities of nature2 certain natural events must appear at the right time1 others be absent at the right time4 ,how can one have any influence on these terrible unknown things1 how can one bind the sphere of liberty8 ,thus he asks himself1 thus he inquires anxiously2--is there1 then1 no means of making those powers as regular through tradition and law as you are yourself8 ,the aim of those who believe in magic and miracles is to impose a law on nature1--and1 briefly1 the religious cult is a result of this aim4 ,the problem which those people have set themselves is closely related to this3 how can the weaker race dictate laws to the stronger1 rule it1 and guide its actions 7in relation to the weaker78 ,one would first remember the most harmless sort of compulsion1 that compulsion which one exercises when one has gained any one's affection4 ,by imploring and praying1 by submission1 by the obligation of regular taxes and gifts1 by flattering glorifications1 it is also possible to exercise an influence upon the powers of nature1 inasmuch as one gains the affections2 love binds and becomes bound4 ,then one can make compacts by which one is mutually bound to a certain behaviour1 where one gives pledges and exchanges vows4 ,but far more important is a species of more forcible compulsion1 by magic and witchcraft4 ,as with the sorcerer's help man is able to injure a more powerful enemy and keep him in fear1 as the love-charm works at a distance1 so the weaker man believes he can influence the mightier spirits of nature4 ,the principal thing in all witchcraft is that we must get into our possession something that belongs to some one1 hair1 nails1 food from their table1 even their portrait1 their name4 ,with such apparatus we can then practise sorcery2 for the fundamental rule is1 to everything spiritual there belongs something corporeal2 with the help of this we are able to bind the spirit1 to injure it1 and destroy it2 the corporeal furnishes the handles with which we can grasp the spiritual4 ,as man controls man1 so he controls some natural spirit or other2 for this has also its corporeal part by which it may be grasped4 ,the tree and1 compared with it1 the seed from which it sprang1--this enigmatical contrast seems to prove that the same spirit embodied itself in both forms1 now small1 now large4 ,a stone that begins to roll suddenly is the body in which a spirit operates2 if there is an enormous rock lying on a lonely heath it seems impossible to conceive human strength sufficient to have brought it there1 consequently the stone must have moved there by itself1 that is1 it must be possessed by a spirit4 ,everything that has a body is susceptible to witchcraft1 therefore also the natural spirits4 ,if a god is bound to his image we can use the most direct compulsion against him 7through refusal of sacrificial food1 scourging1 binding in fetters1 and so on74 ,in order to obtain by force the missing favour of their god the lower classes in ,china wind cords round the image of the one who has left them in the lurch1 pull it down and drag it through the streets in the dust and the dirt3 ,you dog of a spirit1 they say1 we gave you a magnificent temple to live in1 we gilded you prettily1 we fed you well1 we offered you sacrifice1 and yet you are so ungrateful4 ,similar forcible measures against pictures of the ,saints and ,virgin when they refused to do their duty in pestilence or drought1 have been witnessed even during the present century in ,catholic countries4 ,through all these magic relations to nature1 countless ceremonies have been called into life2 and at last1 when the confusion has grown too great1 an endeavour has been made to order and systematise them1 in order that the favourable course of the whole progress of nature1 i4e4 of the great succession of the seasons1 may seem to be guaranteed by a corresponding course of a system of procedure4 ,the essence of the religious cult is to determine and confine nature to human advantage1 to impress it with a legality1 therefore1 which it did not originally possess2 while at the present time we wish to recognise the legality of nature in order to adapt ourselves to it4 ,in short1 then1 the religious cult is based upon the representations of sorcery between man and man1--and the sorcerer is older than the priest4 ,but it is likewise based upon other and nobler representations2 it premises the sympathetic relation of man to man1 the presence of goodwill1 gratitude1 the hearing of pleaders1 of treaties between enemies1 the granting of pledges1 and the claim to the protection of property4 ,in very low stages of civilisation man does not stand in the relation of a helpless slave to nature1 he is not necessarily its involuntary1 bondsman4 ,in the ,greek grade of religion1 particularly in relation to the ,olympian gods1 there may even be imagined a common life between two castes1 a nobler and more powerful one1 and one less noble2 but in their origin both belong to each other somehow1 and are of one kind2 they need not be ashamed of each other4 ,that is the nobility of the ,greek religion4 #aab4 ,,at ,,the ,,sight ,,of ,,certain ,,antique ,,sacrificial ,,implements4--,the fact of how many feelings are lost to us may be seen1 for instance1 in the mingling of the droll1 even of the obscene1 with the religious feeling4 ,the sensation of the possibility of this mixture vanishes1 we only comprehend historically that it existed in the feasts of ,demeter and ,dionysus1 in the ,christian ,easter-plays and ,mysteries4 ,but we also know that which is noble in alliance with burlesque and such like1 the touching mingled with the laughable1 which perhaps a later age will not be able to understand4 #aac4 ,,christianity ,,as ,,antiquity4--,when on a ,sunday morning we hear the old bells ring out1 we ask ourselves1 ,is it possible6 ,this is done on account of a ,jew crucified two thousand years ago who said he was the ,son of ,god4 ,the proof of such an assertion is wanting4 ,certainly in our times the ,christian religion is an antiquity that dates from very early ages1 and the fact that its assertions are still believed1 when otherwise all claims are subjected to such strict examination1 is perhaps the oldest part of this heritage4 ,a ,god who creates a son from a mortal woman2 a sage who requires that man should no longer work1 no longer judge1 but should pay attention to the signs of the approaching end of the world2 a justice that accepts an innocent being as a substitute in sacrifice2 one who commands his disciples to drink his blood2 prayers for miraculous intervention2 sins committed against a ,god and atoned for through a ,god2 the fear of a future to which death is the portal2 the form of the cross in an age which no longer knows the signification and the shame of the cross1#c how terrible all this appears to us1 as if risen from the grave of the ancient past6 ,is it credible that such things are still believed8 #aad4 ,,what ,,is ,,un-,,greek ,,in ,,christianity4--,the ,greeks did not regard the ,homeric gods as raised above them like masters1 nor themselves as being under them like servants1 as the ,jews did4 ,they only saw1 as in a mirror1 the most perfect examples of their own caste2 an ideal1 therefore1 and not an opposite of their own nature4 ,there is a feeling of relationship1 a mutual interest arises1 a kind of symmachy4 ,man thinks highly of himself when he gives himself such gods1 and places himself in a relation like that of the lower nobility towards the higher2 while the ,italian nations hold a genuine peasant-faith1 with perpetual fear of evil and mischievous powers and tormenting spirits4 ,wherever the ,olympian gods retreated into the background1 ,greek life was more sombre and more anxious4 ,christianity1 on the contrary1 oppressed man and crushed him utterly1 sinking him as if in deep mire2 then into the feeling of absolute depravity it suddenly threw the light of divine mercy1 so that the surprised man1 dazzled by forgiveness1 gave a cry of joy and for a moment believed that he bore all heaven within himself4 ,all psychological feelings of ,christianity work upon this unhealthy excess of sentiment1 and upon the deep corruption of head and heart it necessitates2 it desires to destroy1 break1 stupefy1 confuse1--only one thing it does not desire1 namely moderation1 and therefore it is in the deepest sense barbaric1 ,asiatic1 ignoble and un-,greek4 #aae4 ,,to ,,be ,,religious ,,with ,,advantage4--,there are sober and industrious people on whom religion is embroidered like a hem of higher humanity2 these do well to remain religious1 it beautifies them4 ,all people who do not understand some kind of trade in weapons--tongue and pen included as weapons--become servile2 for such the ,christian religion is very useful1 for then servility assumes the appearance of ,christian virtues and is surprisingly beautified4 ,people to whom their daily life appears too empty and monotonous easily grow religious2 this is comprehensible and excusable1 only they have no right to demand religious sentiments from those whose daily life is not empty and monotonous4#d #aaf4 ,,the ,,commonplace ,,christian4--,if ,christianity were right1 with its theories of an avenging ,god1 of general sinfulness1 of redemption1 and the danger of eternal damnation1 it would be a sign of weak intellect and lack of character not to become a priest1 apostle or hermit1 and to work only with fear and trembling for one's own salvation2 it would be senseless thus to neglect eternal benefits for temporary comfort4 ,taking it for granted that there is belief1 the commonplace ,christian is a miserable figure1 a man that really cannot add two and two together1 and who1 moreover1 just because of his mental incapacity for responsibility1 did not deserve to be so severely punished as ,christianity has decreed4 #aag4 ,,of ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,christianity4--,it is a clever stroke on the part of ,christianity to teach the utter unworthiness1 sinfulness1 and despicableness of mankind so loudly that the disdain of their fellow-men is no longer possible4 ,he may sin as much as he likes1 he is not essentially different from me1--it is ,i who am unworthy and despicable in every way1 says the ,christian to himself4 ,but even this feeling has lost its sharpest sting1 because the ,christian no longer believes in his individual despicableness2 he is bad as men are generally1 and comforts himself a little with the axiom1 ,we are all of one kind4 #aah4 ,,change ,,of ,,front4--,as soon as a religion triumphs it has for its enemies all those who would have been its first disciples4 #aai4 ,,the ,,fate ,,of ,,christianity4--,christianity arose for the purpose of lightening the heart2 but now it must first make the heart heavy in order afterwards to lighten it4 ,consequently it will perish4 #abj4 ,,the ,,proof ,,of ,,pleasure4--,the agreeable opinion is accepted as true1--this is the proof of the pleasure 7or1 as the ,church says1 the proof of the strength71 of which all religions are so proud when they ought to be ashamed of it4 ,if ,faith did not make blessed it would not be believed in2 of how little value must it be1 then6 #aba4 ,a ,,dangerous ,,game4--,whoever now allows scope to his religious feelings must also let them increase1 he cannot do otherwise4 ,his nature then gradually changes2 it favours whatever is connected with and near to the religious element1 the whole extent of judgment and feeling becomes clouded1 overcast with religious shadows4 ,sensation cannot stand still2 one must therefore take care4 #abb4 ,,the ,,blind ,,disciples4--,so long as one knows well the strength and weakness of one's doctrine1 one's art1 one's religion1 its power is still small4 ,the disciple and apostle who has no eyes for the weaknesses of the doctrine1 the religion1 and so forth1 dazzled by the aspect of the master and by his reverence for him1 has on that account usually more power than the master himself4 ,without blind disciples the influence of a man and his work has never yet become great4 ,to help a doctrine to victory often means only so to mix it with stupidity that the weight of the latter carries off also the victory for the former4 #abc4 ,,church ,,disestablishment4--,there is not enough religion in the world even to destroy religions4 #abd4 ,,the ,,sinlessness ,,of ,,man4--,if it is understood how sin came into the world1 namely through errors of reason by which men held each other1 even the single individual held himself1 to be much blacker and much worse than was actually the case1 the whole sensation will be much lightened1 and man and the world will appear in a blaze of innocence which it will do one good to contemplate4 ,in the midst of nature man is always the child per se4 ,this child sometimes has a heavy and terrifying dream1 but when it opens its eyes it always finds itself back again in ,paradise4 #abe4 ,,the ,,irreligiousness ,,of ,,artists4--,homer is so much at home amongst his gods1 and is so familiar with them as a poet1 that he must have been deeply irreligious2 that which the popular faith gave him--a meagre1 rude1 partly terrible superstition--he treated as freely as the sculptor does his clay1 with the same unconcern1 therefore1 which schylus and ,aristophanes possessed1 and by which in later times the great artists of the ,renaissance distinguished themselves1 as also did ,shakespeare and ,goethe4 #abf4 ,,the ,,art ,,and ,,power ,,of ,,false ,,interpretations4--,all the visions1 terrors1 torpors1 and ecstasies of saints are well-known forms of disease1 which are only1 by reason of deep-rooted religious and psychological errors1 differently explained by him1 namely not as diseases4 ,thus1 perhaps1 the ,daimonion of ,socrates was only an affection of the ear1 which he1 in accordance with his ruling moral mode of thought1 expounded differently from what would be the case now4 ,it is the same thing with the madness and ravings of the prophets and soothsayers2 it is always the degree of knowledge1 fantasy1 effort1 morality in the head and heart of the interpreters which has made so much of it4 ,for the greatest achievements of the people who are called geniuses and saints it is necessary that they should secure interpreters by force1 who misunderstand them for the good of mankind4 #abg4 ,,the ,,veneration ,,of ,,insanity4--,because it was remarked that excitement frequently made the mind clearer and produced happy inspirations it was believed that the happiest inspirations and suggestions were called forth by the greatest excitement2 and so the insane were revered as wise and oracular4 ,this is based on a false conclusion4 #abh4 ,,the ,,promises ,,of ,,science4--,the aim of modern science is3 as little pain as possible1 as long a life as possible1--a kind of eternal blessedness1 therefore2 but certainly a very modest one as compared with the promises of religions4 #abi4 ,,forbidden ,,generosity4--,there is not sufficient love and goodness in the world to permit us to give some of it away to imaginary beings4 #acj4 ,,the ,,continuance ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,cult ,,in ,,the ,,feelings4--,the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 and before that all antique cults1 dominated the entire range of means by which man was put into unaccustomed moods and rendered incapable of the cold calculation of judgment or the clear thinking of reason4 ,a church quivering with deep tones2 the dull1 regular1 arresting appeals of a priestly throng1 unconsciously communicates its tension to the congregation and makes it listen almost fearfully1 as if a miracle were in preparation2 the influence of the architecture1 which1 as the dwelling of a ,godhead1 extends into the uncertain and makes its apparition to be feared in all its sombre spaces1--who would wish to bring such things back to mankind if the necessary suppositions are no longer believed8 ,but the results of all this are not lost1 nevertheless2 the inner world of noble1 emotional1 deeply contrite dispositions1 full of presentiments1 blessed with hope1 is inborn in mankind mainly through this cult2 what exists of it now in the soul was then cultivated on a large scale as it germinated1 grew up and blossomed4 #aca4 ,,the ,,painful ,,consequences ,,of ,,religion4--,however much we may think we have weaned ourselves from religion1 it has nevertheless not been done so thoroughly as to deprive us of pleasure in encountering religious sensations and moods in music1 for instance2 and if a philosophy shows us the justification of metaphysical hopes and the deep peace of soul to be thence acquired1 and speaks1 for instance1 of the whole1 certain gospel in the gaze of ,raphael's ,madonnas1 we receive such statements and expositions particularly warmly2 here the philosopher finds it easier to prove2 that which he desires to give corresponds to a heart that desires to receive4 ,hence it may be observed how the less thoughtful free spirits really only take offence at the dogmas1 but are well acquainted with the charm of religious sensations2 they are sorry to lose hold of the latter for the sake of the former4 ,scientific philosophy must be very careful not to smuggle in errors on the ground of that need1--a need which has grown up and is consequently temporary1--even logicians speak of presentiments of truth in ethics and in art 7for instance1 of the suspicion that the nature of things is one71 which should be forbidden to them ,between the carefully established truths and such presaged things there remains the unbridgable chasm that those are due to intellect and these to requirement ,hunger does not prove that food exists to satisfy it1 but that it desires food4 ,to presage does not mean the acknowledgment of the existence of a thing in any one degree1 but its possibility1 in so far as it is desired or feared2 presage does not advance one step into the land of certainty4 ,we believe involuntarily that the portions of a philosophy which are tinged with religion are better proved than others2 but actually it is the contrary1 but we have the inward desire that it may be so1 that that which makes blessed1 therefore1 may be also the true4 ,this desire misleads us to accept bad reasons for good ones4 #acb4 ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,need ,,of ,,redemption4--,with careful reflection it must be possible to obtain an explanation free from mythology of that process in the soul of a ,christian which is called the need of redemption1 consequently a purely psychological explanation4 ,up to the present1 the psychological explanations of religious conditions and processes have certainly been held in some disrepute1 inasmuch as a theology which called itself free carried on its unprofitable practice in this domain2 for here from the beginning 7as the mind of its founder1 ,schleiermacher1 gives us reason to suppose7 the preservation of the ,christian religion and the continuance of ,christian theology was kept in view2 a theology which was to find a new anchorage in the psychological analyses of religious facts1 and above all a new occupation4 ,unconcerned about such predecessors we hazard the following interpretation of the phenomenon in question4 ,man is conscious of certain actions which stand far down in the customary rank of actions2 he even discovers in himself a tendency towards similar actions1 a tendency which appears to him almost as unchangeable as his whole nature4 ,how willingly would he try himself in that other species of actions which in the general valuation are recognised as the loftiest and highest1 how gladly would he feel himself to be full of the good consciousness which should follow an unselfish mode of thought6 ,but unfortunately he stops short at this wish1 and the discontent at not being able to satisfy it is added to all the other discontents which his lot in life or the consequences of those above-mentioned evil actions have aroused in him2 so that a deep ill-humour is the result1 with the search for a physician who could remove this and all its causes4 ,this condition would not be felt so bitterly if man would only compare himself frankly with other men1--then he would have no reason for being dissatisfied with himself to a particular extent1 he would only bear his share of the common burden of human dissatisfaction and imperfection4 ,but he compares himself with a being who is said to be capable only of those actions which are called un-egoistic1 and to live in the perpetual consciousness of an unselfish mode of thought1 i4e4 with ,god2 it is because he gazes into this clear mirror that his image appears to him so dark1 so unusually warped4 ,then he is alarmed by the thought of that same creature1 in so far as it floats before his imagination as a retributive justice2 in all possible small and great events he thinks he recognises its anger and menaces1 that he even feels its scourge-strokes as judge and executioner4 ,who will help him in this danger1 which1 by the prospect of an immeasurable duration of punishment1 exceeds in horror all the other terrors of the idea8 #acc4 ,before we examine the further consequences of this mental state1 let us acknowledge that it is not through his guilt and sin that man has got into this condition1 but through a series of errors of reason2 that it was the fault of the mirror if his image appeared so dark and hateful to him1 and that that mirror was his work1 the very imperfect work of human imagination and power of judgment4 ,in the first place1 a nature that is only capable of purely un-egoistic actions is more fabulous than the phnix2 it cannot even be clearly imagined1 just because1 when closely examined1 the whole idea un-egoistic action vanishes into air4 ,no man ever did a thing which was done only for others and without any personal motive2 how should he be able to do anything which had no relation to himself1 and therefore without inward obligation 7which must always have its foundation in a personal need78 ,how could the ego act without ego ,a ,god who1 on the contrary1 is all love1 as such a one is often represented1 would not be capable of a single un-egoistic action1 whereby one is reminded of a saying of ,lichtenberg's which is certainly taken from a lower sphere3 ,we cannot possibly feel for others1 as the saying is2 we feel only for ourselves4 ,this sounds hard1 but it is not so really if it be rightly understood4 ,we do not love father or mother or wife or child1 but the pleasant sensations they cause us2 or1 as ,rochefoucauld says3 ,si on croit aimer sa matresse pour l'amour d'elle1 on est bien tromp4 ,to know the reason why actions of love are valued more than others1 not on account of their nature1 namely1 but of their usefulness1 we should compare the examinations already mentioned1 ,on the ,origin of ,moral ,sentiments4 ,but should a man desire to be entirely like that ,god of ,love1 to do and wish everything for others and nothing for himself1 the latter is impossible for the reason that he must do very much for himself to be able to do something for the love of others4 ,then it is taken for granted that the other is sufficiently egoistic to accept that sacrifice again and again1 that living for him1--so that the people of love and sacrifice have an interest in the continuance of those who are loveless and incapable of sacrifice1 and1 in order to exist1 the highest morality would be obliged positively to compel the existence of un-morality 7whereby it would certainly annihilate itself74 ,further3 the conception of a ,god disturbs and humbles so long as it is believed in2 but as to how it arose there can no longer be any doubt in the present state of the science of comparative ethnology2 and with a comprehension of this origin all belief falls to the ground4 ,the ,christian who compares his nature with ,god's is like ,don ,quixote1 who under-valued his own bravery because his head was full of the marvellous deeds of the heroes of the chivalric2 romances1--the standard of measurement in both cases belongs to the domain of fable4 ,but if the idea of ,god is removed1 so is also the feeling of sin as a trespass against divine laws1 as a stain in a creature vowed to ,god4 ,then1 perhaps1 there still remains that dejection which is intergrown and connected with the fear of the punishment of worldly justice or of the scorn of men2 the dejection of the pricks of conscience1 the sharpest thorn in the consciousness of sin1 is always removed if we recognise that though by our own deed we have sinned against human descent1 human laws and ordinances1 still that we have not imperilled the eternal salvation of the ,soul and its relation to the ,godhead4 ,and if man succeeds in gaining philosophic conviction of the absolute necessity of all actions and their entire irresponsibility1 and absorbing this into his flesh and blood1 even those remains of the pricks of conscience vanish4 #acd4 ,now if the ,christian1 as we have said1 has fallen into the way of self-contempt in consequence of certain errors through a false1 unscientific interpretation of his actions and sensations1 he must notice with great surprise how that state of contempt1 the pricks of conscience and displeasure generally1 does not endure1 how sometimes there come hours when all this is wafted away from his soul and he feels himself once more free and courageous4 ,in truth1 the pleasure in himself1 the comfort of his own strength1 together with the necessary weakening through time of every deep emotion1 has usually been victorious2 man loves himself once again1 he feels it1--but precisely this new love1 this self-esteem1 seems to him incredible1 he can only see in it the wholly undeserved descent of a stream of mercy from on high4 ,if he formerly believed that in every event he could recognise warnings1 menaces1 punishments1 and every kind of manifestation of divine anger1 he now finds divine goodness in all his experiences1 --this event appears to him to be full of love1 that one a helpful hint1 a third1 and1 indeed1 his whole happy mood1 a proof that ,god is merciful4 ,as formerly1 in his state of pain1 he interpreted his actions falsely1 so now he misinterprets his experiences2 his mood of comfort he believes to be the working of a power operating outside of himself1 the love with which he really loves himself seems to him to be divine love2 that which he calls mercy1 and the prologue to redemption1 is actually self-forgiveness1 self-redemption4 #ace4 ,therefore3 ,a certain false psychology1 a certain kind of imaginative interpretation of motives and experiences1 is the necessary preliminary for one to become a ,christian and to feel the need of redemption4 ,when this error of reason and imagination is recognised1 one ceases to be a ,christian4 #acf4 ,,of ,,christian ,,asceticism ,,and ,,holiness4--,as greatly as isolated thinkers have endeavoured to depict as a miracle the rare manifestations of morality1 which are generally called asceticism and holiness1 miracles which it would be almost an outrage and sacrilege to explain by the light of common sense1 as strong also is the inclination towards this outrage4 ,a mighty impulse of nature has at all times led to a protest against those manifestations2 science1 in so far as it is an imitation of nature1 at least allows itself to rise against the supposed inexplicableness and unapproachableness of these objections4 ,so far it has certainly not succeeded3 those appearances are still unexplained1 to the great joy of the above-mentioned worshippers of the morally marvellous4 ,for1 speaking generally1 the unexplained must be absolutely inexplicable1 the inexplicable absolutely unnatural1 supernatural1 wonderful1--thus runs the demand in the souls of all religious and metaphysical people 7also of artists1 if they should happen to be thinkers at the same time72 whilst the scientist sees in this demand the evil principle in itself4 ,the general1 first probability upon which one lights in the contemplation of holiness and asceticism is this1 that their nature is a complicated one1 for almost everywhere1 within the physical world as well as in the moral1 the apparently marvellous has been successfully traced back to the complicated1 the many-conditioned4 ,let us venture1 therefore1 to isolate separate impulses from the soul of saints and ascetics1 and finally to imagine them as intergrown4 #acg4 ,there is a defiance of self1 to the sublimest manifestation of which belong many forms of asceticism4 ,certain individuals have such great need of exercising their power and love of ruling that1 in default of other objects1 or because they have never succeeded otherwise1 they finally ex-cogitate the idea of tyrannising over certain parts of their own nature1 portions or degrees of themselves4 ,thus many a thinker confesses to views which evidently do not serve either to increase or improve his reputation2 many a one deliberately calls down the scorn of others when by keeping silence he could easily have remained respected2 others contradict former opinions and do not hesitate to be called inconsistent--on the contrary1 they strive after this1 and behave like reckless riders who like a horse best when it has grown wild1 unmanageable1 and covered with sweat4 ,thus man climbs dangerous paths up the highest mountains in order that he may laugh to scorn his own fear and his trembling knees2 thus the philosopher owns to views on asceticism1 humility1 holiness1 in the brightness of which his own picture shows to the worst possible disadvantage4 ,this crushing of one's self1 this scorn of one's own nature1 this spernere se sperm1 of which religion has made so much1 is really a very high degree of vanity4 ,the whole moral of the ,sermon on the ,mount belongs here2 man takes a genuine delight in doing violence to himself by these exaggerated claims1 and afterwards idolising these tyrannical demands of his soul4 ,in every ascetic morality man worships one part of himself as a ,god1 and is obliged1 therefore1 to diabolise the other parts4 #ach4 ,man is not equally moral at all hours1 this is well known4 ,if his morality is judged to be the capability for great self-sacrificing resolutions and self-denial 7which1 when continuous and grown habitual1 are called holiness71 he is most moral in the passions2 the higher emotion provides him with entirely new motives1 of which he1 sober and cold as usual1 perhaps does not even believe himself capable4 ,how does this happen8 ,probably because of the proximity of everything great and highly exciting2 if man is once wrought up to a state of extraordinary suspense1 he is as capable of carrying out a terrible revenge as of a terrible crushing of his need for revenge4 ,under the influence of powerful emotion1 he desires in any case the great1 the powerful1 the immense2 and if he happens to notice that the sacrifice of himself satisfies him as well as1 or better than1 the sacrifice of others1 he chooses that4 ,actually1 therefore1 he only cares about discharging his emotion2 in order to ease his tension he seizes the enemy's spears and buries them in his breast4 ,that there was something great in self-denial and not in revenge had to be taught to mankind by long habit2 a ,godhead that sacrificed itself was the strongest1 most effective symbol of this kind of greatness4 ,as the conquest of the most difficult enemy1 the sudden mastering of an affection--thus this denial appears2 and so far it passes for the summit of morality4 ,in reality it is a question of the confusion of one idea with another1 while the temperament maintains an equal height1 an equal level4 ,temperate men who are resting from their passions no longer understand the morality of those moments2 but the general admiration of those who had the same experiences upholds them2 pride is their consolation when affection and the understanding of their deed vanish4 ,therefore1 at bottom even those actions of self-denial are not moral1 inasmuch as they are not done strictly with regard to others2 rather the other only provides the highly-strung temperament with an opportunity of relieving itself through that denial4 #aci4 ,in many respects the ascetic seeks to make life easy for himself1 usually by complete subordination to a strange will or a comprehensive law and ritual2 something like the way a ,brahmin leaves nothing whatever to his own decision but refers every moment to holy precepts4 ,this submission is a powerful means of attaining self-mastery3 man is occupied and is therefore not bored1 and yet has no incitement to self-will or passion2 after a completed deed there is no feeling of responsibility and with it no tortures of remorse4 ,we have renounced our own will once and for ever1 and this is easier than only renouncing it occasionally2 as it is also easier to give up a desire entirely than to keep it within bounds4 ,when we remember the present relation of man to the ,state1 we find that1 even here1 unconditional obedience is more convenient than conditional4 ,the saint1 therefore1 makes his life easier by absolute renunciation of his personality1 and we are mistaken if in that phenomenon we admire the loftiest heroism of morality4 ,in any case it is more difficult to carry one's personality through without vacillation and unclearness than to liberate one's self from it in the above-mentioned manner2 moreover1 it requires far more spirit and consideration4 #adj4 ,after having found in many of the less easily explicable actions manifestations of that pleasure in emotion per se1 ,i should like to recognise also in self-contempt1 which is one of the signs of holiness1 and likewise in the deeds of self-torture 7through hunger and scourging1 mutilation of limbs1 feigning of madness7 a means by which those natures fight against the general weariness of their life-will 7their nerves72 they employ the most painful irritants and cruelties in order to emerge for a time1 at all events1 from that dulness and boredom into which they so frequently sink through their great mental indolence and that submission to a strange will already described4 #ada4 ,the commonest means which the ascetic and saint employs to render life still endurable and amusing consists in occasional warfare with alternate victory and defeat4 ,for this he requires an opponent1 and finds it in the so-called inward enemy4 ,he principally makes use of his inclination to vanity1 love of honour and rule1 and of his sensual desires1 that he may be permitted to regard his life as a perpetual battle and himself as a battlefield upon which good and evil spirits strive with alternating success4 ,it is well known that sensual imagination is moderated1 indeed almost dispelled1 by regular sexual intercourse1 whereas1 on the contrary1 it is rendered unfettered and wild by abstinence or irregularity4 ,the imagination of many ,christian saints was filthy to an extraordinary degree2 by virtue of those theories that these desires were actual demons raging within them they did not feel themselves to be too responsible2 to this feeling we owe the very instructive frankness of their self-confessions4 ,it was to their interest that this strife should always be maintained in one degree or another1 because1 as we have already said1 their empty life was thereby entertained4 ,but in order that the strife might seem sufficiently important and arouse the enduring sympathy and admiration of non-saints1 it was necessary that sensuality should be ever more reviled and branded1 the danger of eternal damnation was so tightly bound up with these things that it is highly probable that for whole centuries ,christians generated children with a bad conscience1 wherewith humanity has certainly suffered a great injury4 ,and yet here truth is all topsy-turvy1 which is particularly unsuitable for truth4 ,certainly ,christianity had said that every man is conceived and born in sin1 and in the insupportable superlative-,christianity of ,calderon this thought again appears1 tied up and twisted1 as the most distorted paradox there is1 in the well-known lines-- ,the greatest sin of man ,is that he was ever born4 ,in all pessimistic religions the act of generation was looked upon as evil in itself4 ,this is by no means the verdict of all mankind1 not even of all pessimists4 ,for instance1 ,empedocles saw in all erotic things nothing shameful1 diabolical1 or1 sinful2 but rather1 in the great plain of disaster he saw only one hopeful and redeeming figure1 that of ,aphrodite2 she appeared to him as a guarantee that the strife should not endure eternally1 but that the sceptre should one day be given over to a gentler dmon4 ,the actual ,christian pessimists had1 as has been said1 an interest in the dominance of a diverse opinion2 for the solitude and spiritual wilderness of their lives they required an ever living enemy1 and a generally recognised enemy1 through whose fighting and overcoming they could constantly represent themselves to the non-saints as incomprehensible1 half--supernatural beings4 ,but when at last this enemy took to flight for ever in consequence of their mode of life and their impaired health1 they immediately understood how to populate their interior with new dmons4 ,the rising and falling of the scales of pride and humility sustained their brooding minds as well as the alternations of desire and peace of soul4 ,at that time psychology served not only to cast suspicion upon everything human1 but to oppress1 to scourge1 to crucify2 people wished to find themselves as bad and wicked as possible1 they sought anxiety for the salvation of their souls1 despair of their own strength4 ,everything natural with which man has connected the idea of evil and sin 7as1 for instance1 he is still accustomed to do with regard to the erotic7 troubles and clouds the imagination1 causes a frightened glance1 makes man quarrel with himself and uncertain and distrustful of himself4 ,even his dreams have the flavour of a restless conscience4 ,and yet in the reality of things this suffering from what is natural is entirely without foundation1 it is only the consequence of opinions about things4 ,it is easily seen how men grow worse by considering the inevitably-natural as bad1 and afterwards always feeling themselves made thus4 ,it is the trump-card of religion and metaphysics1 which wish to have man evil and sinful by nature1 to cast suspicion on nature and thus really to make him bad1 for he learns to feel himself evil since he cannot divest himself of the clothing of nature4 ,after living for long a natural life1 he gradually comes to feel himself weighed down by such a burden of sin that supernatural powers are necessary to lift this burden1 and therewith arises the so-called need of redemption1 which corresponds to no real but only to an imaginary sinfulness4 ,if we survey the separate moral demands of the earliest times of ,christianity it will everywhere be found that requirements are exaggerated in order that man cannot satisfy them2 the intention is not that he should become more moral1 but that he should feel himself as sinful as possible4 ,if man had not found this feeling agreeable--why would he have thought out such an idea and stuck to it so long8 ,as in the antique world an immeasurable power of intellect and inventiveness was expended in multiplying the pleasure of life by festive cults1 so also in the age of ,christianity an immeasurable amount of intellect has been sacrificed to another endeavour1--man must by all means be made to feel himself sinful and thereby be excited1 enlivened1 en-souled4 ,to excite1 enliven1 en-soul at all costs--is not that the watchword of a relaxed1 over-ripe1 over-cultured age8 ,the range of all natural sensations had been gone over a hundred times1 the soul had grown weary1 whereupon the saint and the ascetic invented a new species of stimulants for life4 ,they presented themselves before the public eye1 not exactly as an example for the many1 but as a terrible and yet ravishing spectacle1 which took place on that border-land between world and over-world1 wherein at that time all people believed they saw now rays of heavenly light and now unholy tongues of flame glowing in the depths4 ,the saint's eye1 fixed upon the terrible meaning of this short earthly life1 upon the nearness of the last decision concerning endless new spans of existence1 this burning eye in a half-wasted body made men of the old world tremble to their very depths2 to gaze1 to turn shudderingly away1 to feel anew the attraction of the spectacle and to give way to it1 to drink deep of it till the soul quivered with fire and ague1--that was the last pleasure that antiquity invented after it had grown blunted even at the sight of beast-baitings and human combats4 #adb4 ,now to sum up4 ,that condition of soul in which the saint or embryo saint rejoiced1 was composed of elements which we all know well1 only that under the influence of other than religious conceptions they exhibit themselves in other colours and are then accustomed to encounter man's blame as fully as1 with that decoration of religion and the ultimate meaning of existence1 they may reckon on receiving admiration and even worship1--might reckon1 at least1 in former ages4 ,sometimes the saint practises that defiance of himself which is a near relative of domination at any cost and gives a feeling of power even to the most lonely2 sometimes his swollen sensibility leaps from the desire to let his passions have full play into the desire to overthrow them like wild horses under the mighty pressure of a proud spirit2 sometimes he desires a complete cessation of all disturbing1 tormenting1 irritating sensations1 a waking sleep1 a lasting rest in the lap of a dull1 animal1 and plant-like indolence2 sometimes he seeks strife and arouses it within himself1 because boredom has shown him its yawning countenance4 ,he scourges his self-adoration with self-contempt and cruelty1 he rejoices in the wild tumult of his desires and the sharp pain of sin1 even in the idea of being lost2 he understands how to lay a trap for his emotions1 for instance even for his keen love of ruling1 so that he sinks into the most utter abasement and his tormented soul is thrown out of joint by this contrast2 and finally1 if he longs for visions1 conversations with the dead or with divine beings1 it is at bottom a rare kind of delight that he covets1 perhaps that delight in which all others are united4 ,novalis1 an authority on questions of holiness through experience and instinct1 tells the whole secret with nave joy3 ,it is strange enough that the association of lust1 religion1 and cruelty did not long ago draw men's attention to their close relationship and common tendency4 #adc4 ,that which gives the saint his historical value is not the thing he is1 but the thing he represents in the eyes of the unsaintly4 ,it was through the fact that errors were made about him1 that the state of his soul was falsely interpreted1 that men separated themselves from him as much as possible1 as from something incomparable and strangely superhuman1 that he acquired the extraordinary power which he exercised over the imagination of whole nations and whole ages4 ,he did not know himself2 he himself interpreted the writing of his moods1 inclinations1 and actions according to an art of interpretation which was as exaggerated and artificial as the spiritual interpretation of the ,bible4 ,the distorted and diseased in his nature1 with its combination of intellectual poverty1 evil knowledge1 ruined health1 and over-excited nerves1 remained hidden from his own sight as well as from that of his spectators4 ,he was not a particularly good man1 and still less was he a particularly wise one2 but he represented something that exceeded the human standard in goodness and wisdom4 ,the belief in him supported the belief in the divine and miraculous1 in a religious meaning of all existence1 in an impending day of judgment4 ,in the evening glory of the world's sunset1 which glowed over the ,christian nations1 the shadowy form of the saint grew to vast dimensions1 it grew to such a height that even in our own age1 which no longer believes in ,god1 there are still thinkers who believe in the saint4 #add4 ,it need not be said that to this description of the saint which has been made from an average of the whole species1 there may be opposed many a description which could give a more agreeable impression4 ,certain exceptions stand out from among this species1 it may be through great mildness and philanthropy1 it may be through the magic of unusual energy2 others are attractive in the highest degree1 because certain wild ravings have poured streams of light on their whole being1 as is the case1 for instance1 with the famous founder of ,christianity1 who thought he was the ,son of ,god and therefore felt himself sinless--so that through this idea--which we must not judge too hardly because the whole antique world swarms with sons of ,god--he reached that same goal1 that feeling of complete sinlessness1 complete irresponsibility1 which every one can now acquire by means of science4 ,neither have ,i mentioned the ,indian saints1 who stand midway between the ,christian saint and the ,greek philosopher1 and in so far represent no pure type4 ,knowledge1 science--such as existed then--the uplifting above other men through logical discipline and training of thought1 were as much fostered by the ,buddhists as distinguishing signs of holiness as the same qualities in the ,christian world are repressed and branded as signs of unholiness4 ,footnote #a3 ,why harass with eternal designs a mind too weak to compass them8 ,why do we not1 as we lie beneath a lofty plane-tree or this pine drink while we may8 ,,hor41 ,odes ,,iii4 ii4 #aa-ad4--;,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,all greatest sages of all latest ages ,will chuckle and slily agree1 ',tis folly to wait till a fool's empty pate ,has learnt to be knowing and free3 ,so children of wisdom1 make use of the fools ,and use them whenever you can as your tools4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #c3 ,it may be remembered that the cross was the gallows of the ancient world4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #d3 ,this may give us one of the reasons for the religiosity still happily prevailing in ,england and the ,united ,states4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,fourth ,,division4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,artists ,,and ,,authors4 #ade4 ,,the ,,perfect ,,should ,,not ,,have ,,grown4--,with regard to everything that is perfect we are accustomed to omit the question as to how perfection has been acquired1 and we only rejoice in the present as if it had sprung out of the ground by magic4 ,probably with regard to this matter we are still under the effects of an ancient mythological feeling4 ,it still almost seems to us 7in such a ,greek temple1 for instance1 as that of ,pstum7 as if one morning a god in sport had built his dwelling of such enormous masses1 at other times it seems as if his spirit had suddenly entered into a stone and now desired to speak through it4 ,the artist knows that his work is only fully effective if it arouses the belief in an improvisation1 in a marvellous instantaneousness of origin2 and thus he assists this illusion and introduces into art those elements of inspired unrest1 of blindly groping disorder1 of listening dreaming at the beginning of creation1 as a means of deception1 in order so to influence the soul of the spectator or hearer that it may believe in the sudden appearance of the perfect4 ,it is the business of the science of art to contradict this illusion most decidedly1 and to show up the mistakes and pampering of the intellect1 by means of which it falls into the artist's trap4 #adf4 ,,the ,,artist',s ,,sense ,,of ,,truth4--,with regard to recognition of truths1 the artist has a weaker morality than the thinker2 he will on no account let himself be deprived of brilliant and profound interpretations of life1 and defends himself against temperate and simple methods and results4 ,he is apparently fighting for the higher worthiness and meaning of mankind2 in reality he will not renounce the most effective suppositions for his art1 the fantastical1 mythical1 uncertain1 extreme1 the sense of the symbolical1 the over-valuation of personality1 the belief that genius is something miraculous1--he considers1 therefore1 the continuance of his art of creation as more important than the scientific devotion to truth in every shape1 however simple this may appear4 #adg4 ,,art ,,as ,,raiser ,,of ,,the ,,dead4--,art also fulfils the task of preservation and even of brightening up extinguished and faded memories2 when it accomplishes this task it weaves a rope round the ages and causes their spirits to return4 ,it is1 certainly1 only a phantom-life that results therefrom1 as out of graves1 or like the return in dreams of our beloved dead1 but for some moments1 at least1 the old sensation lives again and the heart beats to an almost forgotten time4 ,hence1 for the sake of the general usefulness of art1 the artist himself must be excused if he does not stand in the front rank of the enlightenment and progressive civilisation of humanity2 all his life long he has remained a child or a youth1 and has stood still at the point where he was overcome by his artistic impulse2 the feelings of the first years of life1 however1 are acknowledged to be nearer to those of earlier times than to those of the present century4 ,unconsciously it becomes his mission to make mankind more childlike2 this is his glory and his limitation4 #adh4 ,,poets ,,as ,,the ,,lighteners ,,of ,,life4--,poets1 inasmuch as they desire to lighten the life of man1 either divert his gaze from the wearisome present1 or assist the present to acquire new colours by means of a life which they cause to shine out of the past4 ,to be able to do this1 they must in many respects themselves be beings who are turned towards the past1 so that they can be used as bridges to far distant times and ideas1 to dying or dead religions and cultures4 ,actually they are always and of necessity epigoni4 ,there are1 however1 certain drawbacks to their means of lightening life1--they appease and heal only temporarily1 only for the moment2 they even prevent men from labouring towards a genuine improvement in their conditions1 inasmuch as they remove and apply palliatives to precisely that passion of discontent that induces to action4 #adi4 ,,the ,,slow ,,arrow ,,of ,,beauty4--,the noblest kind of beauty is that which does not transport us suddenly1 which does not make stormy and intoxicating impressions 7such a kind easily arouses disgust71 but that which slowly filter into our minds1 which we take away with us almost unnoticed1 and which we encounter again in our dreams2 but which1 however1 after having long lain modestly on our hearts1 takes entire possession of us1 fills our eyes with tears and our hearts with longing4 ,what is it that we long for at the sight of beauty8 ,we long to be beautiful1 we fancy it must bring much happiness with it4 ,but that is a mistake4 #aej4 ,,the ,,animation ,,of ,,art4--,art raises its head where creeds relax4 ,it takes over many feelings and moods engendered by religion1 lays them to its heart1 and itself becomes deeper1 more full of soul1 so that it is capable of transmitting exultation and enthusiasm1 which it previously was not able to do4 ,the abundance of religious feelings which have grown into a stream are always breaking forth again and desire to conquer new kingdoms1 but the growing enlightenment has shaken the dogmas of religion and inspired a deep mistrust1--thus the feeling1 thrust by enlightenment out of the religious sphere1 throws itself upon art1 in a few cases into political life1 even straight into science4 ,everywhere where human endeavour wears a loftier1 gloomier aspect1 it may be assumed that the fear of spirits1 incense1 and church-shadows have remained attached to it4 #aea4 ,,how ,,rhythm ,,beautifies4--,rhythm casts a veil over reality2 it causes various artificialities of speech and obscurities of thought2 by the shadow it throws upon thought it sometimes conceals it1 and sometimes brings it into prominence4 ,as shadow is necessary to beauty1 so the dull is necessary to lucidity4 ,art makes the aspect of life endurable by throwing lover it the veil of obscure thought4 #aeb4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,the ,,ugly ,,soul4--,art is confined within too narrow limits if it be required that only the orderly1 respectable1 well-behaved soul should be allowed to express itself therein4 ,as in the plastic arts1 so also in music and poetry3 there is an art of the ugly soul side by side with the art of the beautiful soul2 and the mightiest effects of art1 the crushing of souls1 moving of stones and humanising of beasts1 have perhaps been best achieved precisely by that art4 #aec4 ,,art ,,makes ,,heavy ,,the ,,heart ,,of ,,the ,,thinker4--,how strong metaphysical need is and how difficult nature renders our departure from it may be seen from the fact that even in the free spirit1 when he has cast off everything metaphysical1 the loftiest effects of art can easily produce a resounding of the long silent1 even broken1 metaphysical string1--it may be1 for instance1 that at a passage in ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony he feels himself floating above the earth in a starry dome with the dream of immortality in his heart2 all the stars seem to shine round him1 and the earth to sink farther and farther away4--,if he becomes conscious of this state1 he feels a deep pain at his heart1 and sighs for the man who will lead back to him his lost darling1 be it called religion or metaphysics4 ,in such moments his intellectual character is put to the test4 #aed4 ,,playing ,,with ,,life4--,the lightness and frivolity of the ,homeric imagination was necessary to calm and occasionally to raise the immoderately passionate temperament and acute intellect of the ,greeks4 ,if their intellect speaks1 how harsh and cruel does life then appear6 ,they do not deceive themselves1 but they intentionally weave lies round life4 ,simonides advised his countrymen to look upon life as a game2 earnestness was too well-known to them as pain 7the gods so gladly hear the misery of mankind made the theme of song71 and they knew that through art alone misery might be turned into pleasure4 ,as a punishment for this insight1 however1 they were so plagued with the love of romancing that it was difficult for them in everyday life to keep themselves free from falsehood and deceit2 for all poetic nations have such a love of falsehood1 and yet are innocent withal4 ,probably this occasionally drove the neighbouring nations to desperation4 #aee4 ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,inspiration4--,it is to the interest of the artist that there should be a belief in sudden suggestions1 so-called inspirations2 as if the idea of a work of art1 of poetry1 the fundamental thought of a philosophy shone down from heaven like a ray of grace4 ,in reality the imagination of the good artist or thinker constantly produces good1 mediocre1 and bad1 but his judgment1 most clear and practised1 rejects and chooses and joins together1 just as we now learn from ,beethoven's notebooks that he gradually composed the most beautiful melodies1 and in a manner selected them1 from many different attempts4 ,he who makes less severe distinctions1 and willingly abandons himself to imitative memories1 may under certain circumstances become a great improvisatore2 but artistic improvisation ranks low in comparison with serious and laboriously chosen artistic thoughts4 ,all great men were great workers1 unwearied not only in invention but also in rejection1 reviewing1 transforming1 and arranging4 #aef4 ,,inspiration ,,again4--,if the productive power has been suspended for a length of time1 and has been hindered in its outflow by some obstacle1 there comes at last such a sudden out-pouring1 as if an immediate inspiration were taking place without previous inward working1 consequently a miracle4 ,this constitutes the familiar deception1 in the continuance of which1 as we have said1 the interest of all artists is rather too much concerned4 ,the capital has only accumulated1 it has not suddenly fallen down from heaven4 ,moreover1 such apparent inspirations are seen elsewhere1 for instance in the realm of goodness1 of virtue and of vice4 #aeg4 ,,the ,,suffering ,,of ,,genius ,,and ,,its ,,value4--,the artistic genius desires to give pleasure1 but if his mind is on a very high plane he does not easily find any one to share his pleasure2 he offers entertainment but nobody accepts it4 ,this gives him1 in certain circumstances1 a comically touching pathos2 for he has really no right to force pleasure on men4 ,he pipes1 but none will dance3 can that be tragic8 ,perhaps4--,as compensation for this deprivation1 however1 he finds more pleasure in creating than the rest of mankind experiences in all other species of activity4 ,his sufferings are considered as exaggerated1 because the sound of his complaints is louder and his tongue more eloquent2 and yet sometimes his sufferings are really very great2 but only because his ambition and his envy are so great4 ,the learned genius1 like ,kepler and ,spinoza1 is usually not so covetous and does not make such an exhibition of his really greater sufferings and deprivations4 ,he can reckon with greater certainty on future fame and can afford to do without the present1 whilst an artist who does this always plays a desperate game that makes his heart ache4 ,in very rare cases1 when in one and the same individual are combined the genius of power and of knowledge and the moral genius1 there is added to the above-mentioned pains that species of pain which must be regarded as the most curious exception in the world2 those extra- and super-personal sensations which are experienced on behalf of a nation1 of humanity1 of all civilisation1 all suffering existence1 which acquire their value through the connection with particularly difficult and remote perceptions 7pity in itself is worth but little74 ,but what standard1 what proof is there for its genuineness8 ,is it not almost imperative to be mistrustful of all who talk of feeling sensations of this kind8 #aeh4 ,,the ,,destiny ,,of ,,greatness4--,every great phenomenon is followed by degeneration1 especially in the world of art4 ,the example of the great tempts vainer natures to superficial imitation or exaggeration2 all great gifts have the fatality of crushing many weaker forces and germs1 and of laying waste all nature around them4 ,the happiest arrangement in the development of an art is for several geniuses mutually to hold one another within bounds2 in this strife it generally happens that light and air are also granted to the weaker and more delicate natures4 #aei4 ,,art ,,dangerous ,,for ,,the ,,artist4--,when art takes strong hold of an individual it draws him back to the contemplation of those times when art flourished best1 and it has then a retrograde effect4 ,the artist grows more and more to reverence sudden inspirations2 he believes in gods and dmons1 he spiritualises all nature1 hates science1 is changeable in his moods like the ancients1 and longs for an overthrow of all existing conditions which are not favourable to art1 and does this with the impetuosity and unreasonableness of a child4 ,now1 in himself1 the artist is already a backward nature1 because he halts at a game that belongs properly to youth and childhood2 to this is added the fact that he is educated back into former times4 ,thus there gradually arises a fierce antagonism between him and his contemporaries1 and a sad ending2 according to the accounts of the ancients1 ,homer and schylus spent their last years1 and died1 in melancholy4 #afj4 ,,created ,,individuals4--,when it is said that the dramatist 7and the artist above all7 creates real characters1 it is a fine deception and exaggeration1 in the existence and propagation of which art celebrates one of its unconscious but at the same time abundant triumphs4 ,as a matter of fact1 we do not understand much about a real1 living man1 and we generalise very superficially when we ascribe to him this and that character2 this very imperfect attitude of ours towards man is represented by the poet1 inasmuch as he makes into men 7in this sense creates7 outlines as superficial as our knowledge of man is superficial4 ,there is a great deal of delusion about these created characters of artists2 they are by no means living productions of nature1 but are like painted men1 somewhat too thin1 they will not bear a close inspection4 ,and when it is said that the character of the ordinary living being contradicts itself frequently1 and that the one created by the dramatist is the original model conceived by nature1 this is quite wrong4 ,a genuine man is something absolutely necessary 7even in those so-called contradictions71 but we do not always recognise this necessity4 ,the imaginary man1 the phantasm1 signifies something necessary1 but only to those who understand a real man only in a crude1 unnatural simplification1 so that a few strong1 oft-repeated traits1 with a great deal of light and shade and half-light about them1 amply satisfy their notions4 ,they are1 therefore1 ready to treat the phantasm as a genuine1 necessary man1 because with real men they are accustomed to regard a phantasm1 an outline1 an intentional abbreviation as the whole4 ,that the painter and the sculptor express the idea of man is a vain imagination and delusion2 whoever says this is in subjection to the eye1 for this only sees the' surface1 the epidermis of the human body1--the inward body1 however1 is equally a part of the idea4 ,plastic art wishes to make character visible on the surface2 histrionic art employs speech for the same purpose1 it reflects character in sounds4 ,art starts from the natural ignorance of man about his interior condition 7in body and character72 it is not meant for philosophers or natural scientists4 #afa4 ,,the ,,over-,,valuation ,,of ,,self ,,in ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,artists ,,and ,,philosophers4--,we are all prone to think that the excellence of a work of art or of an artist is proved when it moves and touches us4 ,but there our own excellence in judgment and sensibility must have been proved first1 which is not the case4 ,in all plastic art1 who had greater power to effect a charm than ,bernini1 who made a greater effect than the orator that appeared after ,demosthenes introduced the ,asiatic style and gave it a predominance which lasted throughout two centuries8 ,this predominance during whole centuries is not a proof of the excellence and enduring validity of a style2 therefore we must not be too certain in our good opinion of any artist1--this is not only belief in the truthfulness of our sensations but also in the infallibility of our judgment1 whereas judgment or sensation1 or even both1 may be too coarse or too fine1 exaggerated or crude4 ,neither are the blessings and blissfulness of a philosophy or of a religion proofs of its truth2 just as little as the happiness which an insane person derives from his fixed idea is a proof of the reasonableness of this idea4 #afb4 ,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,genius ,,for ,,the ,,sake ,,of ,,vanity4--,because we think well of ourselves1 but nevertheless do not imagine that we are capable of the conception of one of ,raphael's pictures or of a scene such as those of one of ,shakespeare's dramas1 we persuade ourselves that the faculty for doing this is quite extraordinarily wonderful1 a very rare case1 or1 if we are religiously inclined1 a grace from above4 ,thus the cult of genius fosters our vanity1 our self-love1 for it is only when we think of it as very far removed from us1 as a miraculum1 that it does not wound us 7even ,goethe1 who was free from envy1 called ,shakespeare a star of the farthest heavens1 whereby we are reminded of the line die ,sterne1 die begehrt man nicht4#a7 ,but1 apart from those suggestions of our vanity1 the activity of a genius does not seem so radically different from the activity of a mechanical inventor1 of an astronomer or historian or strategist4 ,all these forms of activity are explicable if we realise men whose minds are active in one special direction1 who make use of everything as material1 who always eagerly study their own inward life and that of others1 who find types and incitements everywhere1 who never weary in the employment of their means4 ,genius does nothing but learn how to lay stones1 then to build1 always to seek for material and always to work upon it4 ,every human activity is marvellously complicated1 and not only that of genius1 but it is no miracle4 ,now whence comes the belief that genius is found only in artists1 orators1 and philosophers1 that they alone have intuition 7by which we credit them with a kind of magic glass by means of which they see straight into one's being78 ,it is clear that men only speak of genius where the workings of a great intellect are most agreeable to them and they have no desire to feel envious4 ,to call any one divine is as much as saying here we have no occasion for rivalry4 ,thus it is that everything completed and perfect is stared at1 and everything incomplete is undervalued4 ,now nobody can see how the work of an artist has developed2 that is its advantage1 for everything of which the development is seen is looked on coldly ,the perfected art of representation precludes all thought of its development1 it tyrannises as present perfection4 ,for this reason artists of representation are especially held to be possess of genius1 but not scientific men4 ,in reality1 however1 the former valuation and the latter under-valuation are only puerilities of reason4 #afc4 ,,the ,,earnestness ,,of ,,handicraft4--,do not talk of gifts1 of inborn talents6 ,we could mention great men of all kinds who were but little gifted4 ,but they obtained greatness1 became geniuses 7as they are called71 through qualities of the lack of which nobody who is conscious of them likes to speak4 ,they all had that thorough earnestness for work which learns first how to form the different parts perfectly before it ventures to make a great whole2 they gave themselves time for this1 because they took more pleasure in doing small1 accessory things well than in the effect of a dazzling whole4 ,for instance1 the recipe for becoming a good novelist is easily given1 but the carrying out of the recipe presupposes qualities which we are in the habit of overlooking when we say1 ,i have not sufficient talent4 ,make a hundred or more sketches of novel-plots1 none more than two pages long1 but of such clearness that every word in them is necessary2 write down anecdotes every day until you learn to find the most pregnant1 most effective form2 never weary of collecting and delineating human types and characters2 above all1 narrate things as often as possible and listen to narrations with a sharp eye and ear for the effect upon other people present2 travel like a landscape painter and a designer of costumes2 take from different sciences everything that is artistically effective1 if it be well represented2 finally1 meditate on the motives for human actions1 scorn not even the smallest point of instruction on this subject1 and collect similar matters by day and night4 ,spend some ten years in these various exercises3 then the creations of your study may be allowed to see the light of day4 ,but what do most people do1 on the contrary8 ,they do not begin with the part1 but with the whole4 ,perhaps they make one good stroke1 excite attention1 and ever afterwards their work grows worse and worse1 for good1 natural reasons4 ,but sometimes1 when intellect and character are lacking for the formation of such an artistic career1 fate and necessity take the place of these qualities and lead the future master step by step through all the phases of his craft4 #afd4 ,,the ,,danger ,,and ,,the ,,gain ,,in ,,the ,,cult ,,of ,,genius4--,the belief in great1 superior1 fertile minds is not necessarily1 but still very frequently1 connected with that wholly or partly religious superstition that those spirits are of superhuman origin and possess certain marvellous faculties1 by means of which they obtained their knowledge in ways quite different from the rest of mankind4 ,they are credited with having an immediate insight into the nature of the world1 through a peep-hole in the mantle of the phenomenon as it were1 and it is believed that1 without the trouble and severity of science1 by virtue of this marvellous prophetic sight1 they could impart something final and decisive about mankind and the world4 ,so long as there are still believers in miracles in the world of knowledge it may perhaps be admitted that the believers themselves derive a benefit therefrom1 inasmuch as by their absolute subjection to great minds they obtain the best discipline and schooling for their own minds during the period of development4 ,on the other hand1 it may at least be questioned whether the superstition of genius1 of its privileges and special faculties1 is useful for a genius himself when it implants itself in him4 ,in any case it is a dangerous sign when man shudders at his own self1 be it that famous ,csarian shudder or the shudder of genius which applies to this case1 when the incense of sacrifice1 which by rights is offered to a ,god alone1 penetrates into the brain of the genius1 so that he begins to waver and to look upon himself as something superhuman4 ,the slow consequences are3 the feeling of irresponsibility1 the exceptional rights1 the belief that mere intercourse with him confers a favour1 and frantic rage at any attempt to compare him with others or even to place him below them and to bring into prominence whatever is unsuccessful in his work4 ,through the fact that he ceases to criticise himself one pinion after another falls out of his plumage1--that superstition undermines the foundation of his strength and even makes him a hypocrite after his power has failed him4 ,for great minds it is1 therefore1 perhaps better when they come to an understanding about their strength and its source1 when they comprehend what purely human qualities are mingled in them1 what a combination they are of fortunate conditions3 thus once it was continual energy1 a decided application to individual aims1 great personal courage1 and then the good fortune of an education1 which at an early period provided the best teachers1 examples1 and methods4 ,assuredly1 if its aim is to make the greatest possible effect1 abstruseness has always done much for itself and that gift of partial insanity2 for at all times that power has been admired and envied by means of which men were deprived of will and imbued with the fancy that they were preceded by supernatural leaders4 ,truly1 men are exalted and inspired by the belief that some one among them is endowed with supernatural powers1 and in this respect insanity1 as ,plato says1 has brought the greatest blessings to mankind4 ,in a few rare cases this form of insanity may also have been the means by which an all-round exuberant nature was kept within bounds2 in individual life the imaginings of frenzy frequently exert the virtue of remedies which are poisons in themselves2 but in every genius that believes in his own divinity the poison shows itself at last in the same proportion as the genius grows old2 we need but recollect the example of ,napoleon1 for it was most assuredly through his faith in himself and his star1 and through his scorn of mankind1 that he grew to that mighty unity which distinguished him from all modern men1 until at last1 however1 this faith developed into an almost insane fatalism1 robbed him of his quickness of comprehension and penetration1 and was the cause of his downfall4 #afe4 ,,genius ,,and ,,nullity4--,it is precisely the original artists1 those who create out of their own heads1 who in certain circumstances can bring forth complete emptiness and husk1 whilst the more dependent natures1 the so-called talented ones1 are full of memories of all manner of goodness1 and even in a state of weakness produce something tolerable4 ,but if the original ones are abandoned by themselves1 memory renders them no assistance2 they become empty4 #aff4 ,,the ,,public4--,the people really demands nothing more from tragedy than to be deeply affected1 in order to have a good cry occasionally2 the artist1 on the contrary1 who sees the new tragedy1 takes pleasure in the clever technical inventions and tricks1 in the management and distribution of the material1 in the novel arrangement of old motives and old ideas4 ,his attitude is the sthetic attitude towards a work of art1 that of the creator2 the one first described1 with regard solely to the material1 is that of he people4 ,of the individual who stands between the two nothing need be said3 he is neither people nor artist1 and does not know what he wants--therefore his pleasure is also clouded and insignificant4 #afg4 ,,the ,,artistic ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,public4--,if the same motif is not employed in a hundred ways by different masters1 the public never learns to get beyond their interest in the subject2 but at last1 when it is well acquainted with the motif through countless different treatments1 and no longer finds in it any charm of novelty or excitement1 it will then begin to grasp and enjoy the various shades and delicate new inventions in its treatment4 #afh4 ,,the ,,artist ,,and ,,his ,,followers ,,must ,,keep ,,in ,,step4--,the progress from one grade of style to another must be so slow that not only the artists but also the auditors and spectators can follow it and know exactly what is going on4 ,otherwise there will suddenly appear that great chasm between the artist1 who creates his work upon a height apart1 and the public1 who cannot rise up to that height and finally sinks discontentedly deeper4 ,for when the artist no longer raises his public it rapidly sinks downwards1 and its fall is the deeper and more dangerous in proportion to the height to which genius has carried it1 like the eagle1 out of whose talons a tortoise that has been borne up into the clouds falls to its destruction4 #afi4 ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,the ,,comic ,,element4--,if we consider that for many thousands of years man was an animal that was susceptible in the highest degree to fear1 and that everything sudden and unexpected had to find him ready for battle1 perhaps even ready for death2 that even later1 in social relations1 all security was based on the expected1 on custom in thought and action1 we need not be surprised that at everything sudden and unexpected in word and deed1 if it occurs without danger or injury1 man becomes exuberant and passes over into the very opposite of fear--the terrified1 trembling1 crouching being shoots upward1 stretches itself3 man laughs4 ,this transition from momentary fear into short-lived exhilaration is called the ,comic4 ,on the other hand1 in the tragic phenomenon1 man passes quickly from great enduring exuberance into great fear2 but as amongst mortals great and lasting exuberance is much rarer than the cause for fear1 there is far more comedy than tragedy in the world2 we laugh much offener than we are agitated4 #agj4 ,,the ,,artist',s ,,ambition4--,the ,greek artists1 the tragedians for instance1 composed in order to conquer2 their whole art cannot be imagined without rivalry1--the good ,hesiodian ,eris1 ,ambition1 gave wings to their genius4 ,this ambition further demanded that their work should achieve the greatest excellence in their own eyes1 as they understood excellence1 without any regard for the reigning taste and the general opinion about excellence in a work of art2 and thus it was long before schylus and ,euripides achieved any success1 until at last they educated judges of art1 who valued their work according to the standards which they themselves appointed4 ,hence they strove for victory over rivals according to their own valuation1 they really wished to be more excellent2 they demanded assent from without to this self-valuation1 the confirmation of this verdict4 ,to achieve honour means in this case to make one's self superior to others1 and to desire that this should be recognised publicly4 ,should the former condition be wanting1 and the latter nevertheless desired1 it is then called vanity4 ,should the latter be lacking and not missed1 then it is named pride4 #aga4 ,,what ,,is ,,needful ,,to ,a ,,work ,,of ,,art4--,those who talk so much about the needful factors of a work of art exaggerate2 if they are artists they do so in majorem artis gloriam1 if they are laymen1 from ignorance4 ,the form of a work of art1 which gives speech to their thoughts and is1 therefore1 their mode of talking1 is always somewhat uncertain1 like all kinds of speech4 ,the sculptor can add or omit many little traits1 as can also the exponent1 be he an actor or1 in music1 a performer or conductor4 ,these many little traits and finishing touches afford him pleasure one day and none the next1 they exist more for the sake of the artist than the art2 for he also has occasionally need of sweetmeats and playthings to prevent him from becoming morose with the severity and self-restraint which the representation of the dominant idea demands from him4 #agb4 ,,to ,,cause ,,the ,,master ,,to ,,be ,,forgotten4--,the pianoforte player who executes the work of a master will have played best if he has made his audience forget the master1 and if it seemed as if he were relating a story from his own life or just passing through some experience4 ,assuredly1 if he is of no importance1 every one will abhor the garrulity with which he talks about his own life4 ,therefore he must know how to influence his hearer's imagination favourably towards himself4 ,hereby are explained all the weaknesses and follies of the virtuoso4 #agc4 ,,corriger ,,la ,,fortune4--,there are unfortunate accidents in the lives of great artists1 which compel the painter1 for instance1 to sketch out his most important picture only as a passing thought1 or such as obliged ,beethoven to leave behind him only the insufficient pianoforte score of many great sonatas 7as in the great ,b flat74 ,in these cases the artist of a later day must endeavour to fill out the life of the great man1--of all orchestral effects1 would call into life that symphony which has fallen into the piano-trance4 #agd4 ,,reducing4--,many things1 events1 or persons1 cannot bear treatment on a small scale4 ,the ,laocoon group cannot be reduced to a knick-knack2 great size is necessary to it4 ,but more seldom still does anything that is naturally small bear enlargement2 for which reason biographers succeed far oftener in representing a great man as small than a small one as great4 #age4 ,,sensuousness ,,in ,,present-,,day ,,art4--,artists nowadays frequently miscalculate when they count on the sensuous effect of their works1 for their spectators or hearers have no longer a fully sensuous nature1 and1 quite contrary to the artist's intention1 his work produces in them a holiness of feeling which is closely related to boredom4 ,their sensuousness begins1 perhaps1 just where that of the artist ceases2 they meet1 therefore1 only at one point at the most4 #agf4 ,,shakespeare ,,as ,a ,,moralist4--,shakespeare meditated much on the passions1 and on account of his temperament had probably a close acquaintance with many of them 7dramatists are in general rather wicked men74 ,he could1 however not talk on the subject1 like ,montaigne1 but put his observations thereon into the mouths of impassioned figures1 which is contrary to nature1 certainly1 but makes his dramas so rich in thought that they cause all others to seem poor in comparison and readily arouse a general aversion to them4 ,schiller's reflections 7which are almost always based on erroneous or trivial fancies7 are just theatrical ,reflections1 and as such are very effective2 whereas ,shakespeare's reflections do honour to his model1 ,montaigne1 and contain quite serious thoughts in polished form1 but on that account are too remote and refined for the eyes of the theatrical public1 and are consequently ineffective4 #agg4 ,,securing ,a ,,good ,,hearing4--,it is not sufficient to know how to play well2 one must also know how to secure a good hearing4 ,a violin in the hand of the greatest master gives only a little squeak when the place where it is heard is too large2 the master may then be mistaken for any bungler4 #agh4 ,,the ,,incomplete ,,as ,,the ,,effective4--,just as figures in relief make such a strong impression on the imagination because they seem in the act of emerging from the wall and only stopped by some sudden hindrance2 so the relief-like1 incomplete representation of a thought1 or a whole philosophy1 is sometimes more effective than its exhaustive amplification1--more is left for the investigation of the onlooker1 he is incited to the further study of that which stands out before him in such strong light and shade2 he is prompted to think out the subject1 and even to overcome the hindrance which hitherto prevented it from emerging clearly4 #agi4 ,,against ,,the ,,eccentric4--,when art arrays itself in the most shabby material it is most easily recognised as art4 #ahj4 ,,collective ,,intellect4--,a good author possesses not only his own intellect1 but also that of his friends4 #aha4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,mistakes4--,the misfortune of acute and clear authors is that people consider them as shallow and therefore do not devote any effort to them2 and the good fortune of obscure writers is that the reader makes an effort to understand them and places the delight in his own zeal to their credit4 #ahb4 ,,relation ,,to ,,science4--,none of the people have any real interest in a science1 who only begin to be enthusiastic about it when they themselves lave made discoveries in it4 #ahc4 ,,the ,,key4--,the single thought on which an eminent man sets a great value1 arousing the derision and laughter of the masses1 is for him a key to hidden treasures2 for them1 however1 it is nothing more than a piece of old iron4 #ahd4 ,,untranslatable4--,it is neither the best nor the worst parts of a book which are untranslatable4 #ahe4 ,,authors' ,,paradoxes4--,the so-called paradoxes of an author to which a reader objects are often not in the author's book at all1 but in the reader's head4 #ahf4 ,,wit4--,the wittiest authors produce a scarcely noticeable smile4 #ahg4 ,,antithesis4--,antithesis is the narrow gate through which error is fondest of sneaking to the truth4 #ahh4 ,,thinkers ,,as ,,stylists4--,most thinkers write badly1 because they communicate not only their thoughts1 but also the thinking of them4 #ahi4 ,,thoughts ,,in ,,poetry4--,the poet conveys his thoughts ceremoniously in the vehicle of rhythm1 usually because they are not able to go on foot4 #aij4 ,,the ,,sin ,,against ,,the ,,reader',s ,,intellect4--,when an author renounces his talent in order merely to put himself on a level with the reader1 he commits the only deadly sin which the latter will never forgive1 should he notice anything of it4 ,one may say everything that is bad about a person1 but in the manner in which it is said one must know how to revive his vanity anew4 #aia4 ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,uprightness4--,even the most upright author lets fall a word too much when he wishes to round off a period4 #aib4 ,,the ,,best ,,author1--,the best author will be he who is ashamed to become one4 #aic4 ,,draconian ,,law ,,against ,,authors4--,one should regard authors as criminals who only obtain acquittal or mercy in the rarest cases1--that would be a remedy for books becoming too rife4 #aid4 ,,the ,,fools ,,of ,,modern ,,culture4--,the fools of medival courts correspond to our feuilleton writers2 they are the same kind of men1 semi-rational1 witty1 extravagant1 foolish1 sometimes there only for the purpose of lessening the pathos of the outlook with fancies and chatter1 and of drowning with their clamour the far too deep and solemn chimes of great events2 they were formerly in the service of princes and nobles1 now they are in the service of parties 7since a large portion of the old obsequiousness in the intercourse of the people with their prince still survives in party-feeling and party-discipline74 ,modern literary men1 however1 are generally very similar to the feuilleton writers1 they are the fools of modern culture1 whom one judges more leniently when one does not regard them as fully responsible beings4 ,to look upon writing as a regular profession should justly be regarded as a form of madness4 #aie4 ,,after ,,the ,,example ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4--,it is a great hindrance to knowledge at present that1 owing to centuries of exaggeration of feeling1 all words have become vague and inflated4 ,the higher stage of culture1 which is under the sway 7though not under the tyranny7 of knowledge1 requires great sobriety of feeling and thorough concentration of words--on which points the ,greeks in the time of ,demosthenes set an example to us4 ,exaggeration is a distinguishing mark of all modern writings1 and even when they are simply written the expressions therein are still felt as too eccentric4 ,careful reflection1 conciseness1 coldness1 plainness1 even carried intentionally to the farthest limits1--in a word1 suppression of feeling and taciturnity1--these are the only remedies4 ,for the rest1 this cold manner of writing and feeling is now very attractive1 as a contrast2 and to be sure there is a new danger therein4 ,for intense cold is as good a stimulus as a high degree of warmth4 #aif4 ,,good ,,narrators1 ,,bad ,,explainers4--,in good narrators there is often found an admirable psychological sureness and logicalness1 as far as these qualities can be observed in the actions of their personages1 in positively ludicrous contrast to their inexperienced psychological reasoning1 so that their culture appears to be as extraordinarily high one moment as it seems regrettably defective the next4 ,it happens far too frequently that they give an evidently false explanation of their own heroes and their actions1--of this there is no doubt1 however improbable the thing may appear4 ,it is quite likely that the greatest pianoforte player has thought but little about the technical conditions and the special virtues1 drawbacks1 usefulness1 and tractability of each finger 7dactylic ethics71 and makes big mistakes whenever he speaks of such things4 #aig4 ,,the ,,writings ,,of ,,acquaintances ,,and ,,their ,,readers4--,we read the writings of our acquaintances 7friends and enemies7 in a double sense1 inasmuch as our perception constantly whispers1 ,that is something of himself1 a remembrance of his inward being1 his experiences1 his talents1 and at the same time another kind of perception endeavours to estimate the profit of the work in itself1 what valuation it merits apart from its author1 how far it will enrich knowledge4 ,these two manners of reading and estimating interfere with each other1 as may naturally be supposed4 ,and a conversation with a friend will only bear good fruit of knowledge when both think only of the matter under consideration and forget that they are friends4 #aih4 ,,rhythmical ,,sacrifice4--,good writers alter the rhythm of many a period merely because they do not credit the general reader with the ability to comprehend the measure followed by the period in its first version2 thus they make it easier for the reader1 by giving the preference to the better known rhythms44 ,this regard for the rhythmical incapacity of the modern reader has already called forth many a sigh1 for much has been sacrificed to it4 ,does not the same thing happen to good musicians8 #aii4 ,,the ,,incomplete ,,as ,,an ,,artistic ,,stimulus4--,the incomplete is often more effective than perfection1 and this is the case with eulogies4 ,to effect their purpose a stimulating incompleteness is necessary1 as an irrational element1 which calls up a sea before the hearer's imagination1 and1 like a mist1 conceals the opposite coast1 i4e4 the limits of the object of praise4 ,if the well-known merits of a person are referred to and described at length and in detail1 it always gives rise to the suspicion that these are his only merits4 ,the perfect eulogist takes his stand above the person praised1 he appears to overlook him4 ,therefore complete praise has a weakening effect4 #bjj4 ,,precautions ,,in ,,writing ,,and ,,teaching4--,whoever has once written and has been seized with the passion for writing learns from almost all that he does and experiences that which is literally communicable4 ,he thinks no longer of himself1 but of the author and his public2 he desires insight into things2 but not for his own use4 ,he who teaches is mostly incapable of doing anything for his own good3 he is always thinking of the good of his scholars1 and all knowledge delights him only in so far as he is able to teach it4 ,he comes at last to regard himself as a medium of knowledge1 and above all as a means thereto1 so that he has lost all serious consideration for himself4 #bja4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,for ,,bad ,,authors4--,there will always be a need of bad authors2 for they meet the taste of readers of an undeveloped1 immature age--these have their requirements as well as mature readers4 ,if human life were of greater length1 the number of mature individuals would be greater than that of the immature1 or at least equally great2 but1 as it is1 by far the greater number die too young3 i4e4 there are always many more undeveloped intellects with bad taste4 ,these demand1 with the greater impetuosity of youth1 the satisfaction of their needs1 and they insist on having bad authors4 #bjb4 ,too ,,near ,,and ,,too ,,far4--,the reader and the author very often do not understand each other1 because the author knows his theme too well and finds it almost slow1 so that he omits the examples1 of which he knows hundreds2 the reader1 however1 is interested in the subject1 and is liable to consider it as badly proved if examples are lacking4 #bjc4 ,a ,,vanished ,,preparation ,,for ,,art4--,of everything that was practised in public schools1 the thing of greatest value was the exercise in ,latin style1--this was an exercise in art1 whilst all other occupations aimed only at the acquirement of knowledge4 ,it is a barbarism to put ,german composition before it1 for there is no typical ,german style developed by public oratory2 but if there is a desire to advance practice in thought by means of ,german composition1 then it is certainly better for the time being to pay no attention to style1 to separate the practice in thought1 therefore1 from the practice in reproduction4 ,the latter should confine itself to the various modes of presenting a given subject1 and should not concern itself with the independent finding of a subject4 ,the mere presentment of given subject was the task of the ,latin style1 for which the old teachers possessed a long vanished delicacy of ear4 ,formerly1 whoever learned to write well in a modern language had to thank this practice for the acquirement 7now we are obliged to go to school to the older ,french writers74 ,but yet more3 he obtained an idea of the loftiness and difficulty of form1 and was prepared for art in the only right way3 by practice4 #bjd4 ,,darkness ,,and ,,over-,,brightness ,,side ,,by ,,side4--,authors who1 in general1 do not understand how to express their thoughts clearly are fond of choosing1 in detail1 the strongest1 most exaggerated distinctions and superlatives1--thereby is produced an effect of light1 which is like torchlight in intricate forest paths4 #bje4 ,,literary ,,painting4--,an important object will be best described if the colours for the painting are taken out of the object itself1 as a chemist does1 and then employed like an artist1 so that the drawing develops from the outlines and transitions of the colours4 ,thus the painting acquires something of the entrancing natural element which gives such importance to the object itself4 #bjf4 ,,books ,,which ,,teach ,,how ,,to ,,dance4--,there are authors who1 by representing the impossible as possible1 and by talking of morality and cleverness as if both were merely moods and humours assumed at will1 produce a feeling of exuberant freedom1 as if man stood on tiptoe and were compelled to dance from sheer1 inward delight4 #bjg4 ,,unfinished ,,thoughts4--,just as not only manhood1 but also youth and childhood have a value per se1 and are not to be looked upon merely as passages and bridges1 so also unfinished thoughts have their value4 ,for this reason we must not torment a poet with subtle explanations1 but must take pleasure in the uncertainty of his horizon1 as if the way to further thoughts were still open4 ,we stand on the threshold2 we wait as for the digging up of a treasure1 it is as if a well of profundity were about to be discovered4 ,the poet anticipates something of the thinker's pleasure in the discovery of a leading thought1 an makes us covetous1 so that we give chase to it2 but it flutters past our head and exhibits the loveliest butterfly-wings1--and yet it escapes us4 #bjh4 ,,the ,,book ,,grown ,,almost ,,into ,a ,,human ,,being4--,every author is surprised anew at the way in which his book1 as soon as he has sent it out1 continues to live a life of its own2 it seems to him as if one part of an insect had been cut off and now went on its own way4 ,perhaps he forgets it almost entirely1 perhaps he rises above the view expressed therein1 perhaps even he understands it no longer1 and has lost that impulse upon which he soared at the time he conceived the book2 meanwhile it seeks its readers1 inflames life1 pleases1 horrifies1 inspires new works1 becomes the soul of designs and actions1--in short1 it lives like a creature endowed with mind and soul1 and yet is no human being4 ,the happiest fate is that of the author who1 as an old man1 is able to say that all there was in him of life-inspiring1 strengthening1 exalting1 enlightening thoughts and feelings still lives on in his writings1 and that he himself now only represents the gray ashes1 whilst the fire has been kept alive and spread out4 ,and if we consider that every human action1 not only a book1 is in some way or other the cause of other actions1 decisions1 and thoughts2 that everything that happens is inseparably connected with everything that is going to happen1 we recognise the real immortality1 that of movement1--that which has once moved is enclosed and immortalised in the general union of all existence1 like an insect within a piece of amber4 #bji4 ,,joy ,,in ,,old ,,age4--,the thinker1 as likewise the artist1 who has put his best self into his works1 feels an almost malicious joy when he sees how mind and body are being slowly damaged and destroyed by time1 as if from a dark corner he were spying a thief at his money-chest1 knowing all the time that it was empty and his treasures in safety4 #baj4 ,,quiet ,,fruitfulness4--,the born aristocrats of the mind are not in too much of a hurry2 their creations appear and fall from the tree on some quiet autumn evening1 without being rashly desired1 instigated1 or pushed aside by new matter4 ,the unceasing desire to create is vulgar1 and betrays envy1 jealousy1 and ambition4 ,if a man is something1 it is not really necessary for him to do anything--and yet he does a great deal4 ,there is a human species higher even than wie productive man4 #baa4 ,,achilles ,,and ,,homer4--,it is always like the case of ,achilles and ,homer1--the one has the experiences and sensations1 the other describes them4 ,a genuine author only puts into words the feelings and adventures of others1 he is an artist1 and divines much from the little he has experienced4 ,artists are by no means creatures of great passion2 but they frequently represent themselves as such with the unconscious feeling that their depicted passion will be better believed in if their own life gives credence to their experience in these affairs4 ,they need only let themselves go1 not control themselves1 and give free play to their anger and their desires1 and every one will immediately cry out1 ,how passionate he is6 ,but the deeply stirring passion that consumes and often destroys the individual is another matter3 those who have really experienced it do not describe it in dramas1 harmonies or romances4 ,artists are frequently unbridled individuals1 in so far as they are not artists1 but that is a different thing4 #bab4 ,,old ,,doubts ,,about ,,the ,,effect ,,of ,,art4--,should pity and fear really be unburdened through tragedy1 as ,aristotle would have it1 so that the hearers return home colder and quieter8 ,should ghost-stories really make us less fearful and superstitious8 ,in the case of certain physical processes1 in the satisfaction of love1 for instance1 it is true that with the fulfilment of a need there follows an alleviation and temporary decrease in the impulse4 ,but fear and pity are not in this sense the needs of particular organs which require to be relieved4 ,and in time every instinct is even strengthened by practice in its satisfaction1 in spite of that periodical mitigation4 ,it might be possible that in each single case pity and fear would be soothed and relieved by tragedy2 nevertheless1 they might1 on the whole1 be increased by tragic influences1 and ,plato would be right in saying that tragedy makes us altogether more timid and susceptible4 ,the tragic poet himself would then of necessity acquire a gloomy and fearful view of the world1 and a yielding1 irritable1 tearful soul2 it would also agree with ,plato's view if the tragic poets1 and likewise the entire part of the community that derived particular pleasure from them1 degenerated into ever greater licentiousness and intemperance4 ,but what right1 indeed1 has our age to give an answer to that great question of ,plato's as to the moral influence of art8 ,if we even had art1--where have we an influence1 any kind of an art-influence8 #bac4 ,,pleasure ,,in ,,nonsense4--,how can we take pleasure in nonsense8 ,but wherever there is laughter in the world this is the case3 it may even be said that almost everywhere where there is happiness1 there is found pleasure in nonsense4 ,the transformation of experience into its opposite1 of the suitable into the unsuitable1 the obligatory into the optional 7but in such a manner that this process produces no injury and is only imagined in jest71 is a pleasure2 for it temporarily liberates us from the yoke of the obligatory1 suitable and experienced1 in which we usually find our pitiless masters2 we play and laugh when the expected 7which generally causes fear and expectancy7 happens without bringing any injury4 ,it is the pleasure felt by slaves in the ,saturnalian feasts4 #bad4 ,,the ,,ennobling ,,of ,,reality4--,through the fact that in the aphrodisiac impulse men discerned a godhead and with adoring gratitude felt it working within themselves1 this emotion has in the course of time become imbued with higher conceptions1 and has thereby been materially ennobled4 ,thus certain nations1 by virtue of this art of idealisation1 have created great aids to culture out of diseases1--the ,greeks1 for instance1 who in earlier centuries suffered from great nervous epidemics 7like epilepsy and ,st4 ,vitus' ,dance71 and developed out of them the splendid type of the ,bacchante4 ,the ,greeks1 however1 enjoyed an astonishingly high degree of health--their secret was1 to revere even disease as a god1 if it only possessed power4 #bae4 ,music4--,music by and for itself is not so portentous for our inward nature1 so deeply moving1 that it ought to be looked upon as the direct language of the feelings2 but its ancient union with poetry has infused so much symbolism into rhythmical movement1 into loudness and softness of tone1 that we now imagine it speaks directly to and comes from the inward nature4 ,dramatic music is only possible when the art of harmony has acquired an immense range of symbolical means1 through song1 opera1 and a hundred attempts at description by sound4 ,absolute music is either form per se1 in 'the rude condition of music1 when playing in time and with various degrees of strength gives pleasure1 or the symbolism of form which speaks to the understanding even without poetry1 after the two arts were joined finally together after long development and the musical form had been woven about with threads of meaning and feeling4 ,people who are backward in musical development can appreciate a piece of harmony merely as execution1 whilst those who are advanced will comprehend it symbolically4 ,no music is deep and full of meaning in itself1 it does not speak of will1 of the thing-in-itself2 that could be imagined by the intellect only in an age which had conquered for musical symbolism the entire range of inner life4 ,it was the intellect itself that first gave this meaning to sound1 just as it also gave meaning to the relation between lines and masses in architecture1 but which in itself is quite foreign to mechanical laws4 #baf4 ,,gesture ,,and ,,speech4--,older than speech is the imitation of gestures1 which is carried on unconsciously and which1 in the general repression of the language of gesture and trained control of the muscles1 is still so great that we cannot look at a face moved by emotion without feeling an agitation of our own face 7it may be remarked that feigned yawning excites real yawning in any one who sees it74 ,the imitated gesture leads the one who imitates back to the sensation it expressed in the face or body of the one imitated4 ,thus men learned to understand one another1 thus the child still learns to understand the mother4 ,generally speaking1 painful sensations may also have been expressed by gestures1 and the pain which caused them 7for instance1 tearing the hair1 beating the breast1 forcible distortion and straining of the muscles of the face74 ,on the other hand1 gestures of joy were themselves joyful and lent themselves easily to the communication of the understanding2 7laughter1 as the expression of the feeling when being tickled1 serves also for the expression of other pleasurable sensations74 ,as soon as men understood each other by gestures1 there could be established a symbolism of gestures2 ,i mean1 an understanding could be arrived at respecting the language of accents1 so that first accent and gesture 7to which it was symbolically added7 were produced1 and later on the accent alone4 ,in former times there happened very frequently that which now happens in the development of music1 especially of dramatic music1--while music1 without explanatory dance and pantomime 7language of gesture71 is at first only empty sound1 but by long familiarity with that combination of music and movement the ear becomes schooled into instant interpretation of the figures of sound1 and finally attains a height of quick understanding1 where it has no longer any need of visible movement and understands the sound-poet without it4 ,it is then called absolute music1 that is music in which1 without further help1 everything is symbolically understood4 #bag4 ,,the ,,spiritualising ,,of ,,higher ,,art4--,by virtue of extraordinary intellectual exercise through the art-development of the new music1 our ears have been growing more intellectual4 ,for this reason we can now endure a much greater volume of sound1 much more noise1 because we are far better practised in listening for the sense in it than were our ancestors4 ,as a matter of fact1 all our senses have been somewhat blunted1 because they immediately look for the sense2 that is1 they ask what it means and not what it is1--such a blunting betrays itself1 for instance1 in the absolute dominion of the temperature of sounds2 for ears which still make the finer distinctions1 between eis and des1 for instance1 are now amongst the exceptions4 ,in this respect our ear has grown coarser4 ,and then the ugly side of the world1 the one originally hostile to the senses1 has been conquered for music2 its power has been immensely widened1 especially in the expression of the noble1 the terrible1 and the mysterious3 our music now gives utterance to things which had formerly no tongue4 ,in the same way certain painters have rendered the eye more intellectual1 and have gone far beyond that which was formerly called pleasure in colour and form4 ,here1 too1 that side of the world originally considered as ugly has been conquered by the artistic intellect4 ,what results from all this8 ,the more capable of thought that eye and ear become1 the more they approach the limit where they become senseless1 the seat of pleasure is moved into the brain1 the organs of the senses themselves become dulled and weak1 the symbolical takes more and more the place of the actual1--and thus we arrive at barbarism in this way as surely as in any other4 ,in the meantime we may say3 the world is uglier than ever1 but it represents a more beautiful world than has ever existed4 ,but the more the amber-scent of meaning is dispersed and evaporated1 the rarer become those who perceive it1 and the remainder halt at what is ugly and endeavour to enjoy it direct1 an aim1 however1 which they never succeed in attaining4 ,thus1 in ,germany there is a twofold direction of musical development1 here a throng of ten thousand with ever higher1 finer demands1 ever listening more and more for the it means1 and there the immense countless mass which yearly grows more incapable of understanding what is important even in the form of sensual ugliness1 and which therefore turns ever more willingly to what in music is ugly and foul in itself1 that is1 to the basely sensual4 #bah4 ,a ,,stone ,,is ,,more ,,of ,a ,,stone ,,than ,,formerly4--,as a general rule we no longer understand architecture1 at least by no means in the same way as we understand music4 ,we have outgrown the symbolism of lines and figures1 just as we are no longer accustomed to the sound-effects of rhetoric1 and have not absorbed this kind of mother's milk of culture since our first moment of life4 ,everything in a ,greek or ,christian building originally had a meaning1 and referred to a higher order of things2 this feeling of inexhaustible meaning enveloped the edifice like a mystic veil4 ,beauty was only a secondary consideration in the system1 without in any way materially injuring the fundamental sentiment of the mysteriously-exalted1 the divinely and magically consecrated2 at the most1 beauty tempered horror--but this horror was everywhere presupposed4 ,what is the beauty of a building now8 ,the same thing as the beautiful face of a stupid woman1 a kind of mask4 #bai4 ,,the ,,religious ,,source ,,of ,,the ,,newer ,,music4--,soulful music arose out of the ,catholicism re-established after the ,council of ,trent1 through ,palestrina1 who endowed the newly-awakened1 earnest1 and deeply moved spirit with sound2 later on1 in ,bach1 it appeared also in ,protestantism1 as far as this had been deepened by the ,pietists and released from its originally dogmatic character4 ,the supposition and necessary preparation for both origins is the familiarity with music1 which existed during and before the ,renaissance1 namely that learned occupation with music1 which was really scientific pleasure in the masterpieces of harmony and voice-training4 ,on the other hand1 the opera must have preceded it1 wherein the layman made his protest against a music that had grown too learned and cold1 and endeavoured to re-endow ,polyhymnia with a soul4 ,without the change to that deeply religious sentiment1 without the dying away of the inwardly moved temperament1 music would have remained learned or operatic2 the spirit of the counter-reformation is the spirit of modern music 7for that pietism in ,bach's music is also a kind of counter-reformation74 ,so deeply are we indebted to the religious life4 ,music was the counter-reformation in the field of art2 to this belongs also the later painting of the ,caracci and ,caravaggi1 perhaps also the baroque style1 in any case more than the architecture of the ,renaissance or of antiquity4 ,and we might still ask3 if our newer music could move stones1 would it build them up into antique architecture8 ,i very much doubt it4 ,for that which predominates in this music1 affections1 pleasure in exalted1 highly-strained sentiments1 the desire to be alive at any cost1 the quick change of feeling1 the strong relief-effects of light and shade1 the combination of the ecstatic and the nave1--all this has already reigned in the plastic arts and created new laws of style3--but it was neither in the time of antiquity nor of the ,renaissance4 #bbj4 ,,the ,,beyond ,,in ,,art4--,it is not without deep pain that we acknowledge the fact that in their loftiest soarings1 artists of all ages have exalted and divinely transfigured precisely those ideas which we now recognise as false2 they are the glorifiers of humanity's religious and philosophical errors1 and they could not have been this without belief in the absolute truth of these errors4 ,but if the belief in such truth diminishes at all1 if the rainbow colours at the farthest ends of human knowledge and imagination fade1 then this kind of art can never re-flourish1 for1 like the ,divina ,commedia1 ,raphael's paintings1 ,michelangelo's frescoes1 and ,gothic cathedrals1 they indicate not only a cosmic but also a metaphysical meaning in the work of art4 ,out of all this will grow a touching legend that such an art and such an artistic faith once existed4 #bba4 ,,revolution ,,in ,,poetry4--,the strict limit which the ,french dramatists marked out with regard to unity of action1 time and place1 construction of style1 verse and sentence1 selection of words and ideas1 was a school as important as that of counterpoint and fugue in the development of modern music or that of the ,gorgianic figures in ,greek oratory4 ,such a restriction may appear absurd2 nevertheless there is no means of getting out of naturalism except by confining ourselves at first to the strongest 7perhaps most arbitrary7 means4 ,thus we gradually learn to walk gracefully on the narrow paths that bridge giddy abysses1 and acquire great suppleness of movement as a result1 as the history of music proves to our living eyes4 ,here we see how1 step by step1 the fetters get looser1 until at last they may appear to be altogether thrown off2 this appearance is the highest achievement of a necessary development in art4 ,in the art of modern poetry there existed no such fortunate1 gradual emerging from self-imposed fetters4 ,lessing held up to scorn in ,germany the ,french form1 the only modern form of art1 and pointed to ,shakespeare2 and thus the steadiness of that unfettering was lost and a spring was made into naturalism--that is1 back into the beginnings of art4 ,from this ,goethe endeavoured to save himself1 by always trying to limit himself anew in different ways2 but even the most gifted only succeeds by continuously experimenting1 if the thread of development has once been broken4 ,it is to the unconsciously revered1 if also repudiated1 model of ,french tragedy that ,schiller owes his comparative sureness of form1 and he remained fairly independent of ,lessing 7whose dramatic attempts he is well known to have rejected74 ,but after ,voltaire the ,french themselves suddenly lacked the great talents which would have led the development of tragedy out of constraint to that apparent freedom2 later on they followed the ,german example and made a spring into a sort of ,rousseau-like state of nature and experiments4 ,it is only necessary to read ,voltaire's ,mahomet from time to time in order to perceive clearly what ,european culture has lost through that breaking down of tradition4 ,once for all1 ,voltaire was the last of the great dramatists who with ,greek proportion controlled his manifold soul1 equal even to the greatest storms of tragedy1--he was able to do what no ,german could1 because the ,french nature is much nearer akin to the ,greek than is the ,german2 he was also the last great writer who in the wielding of prose possessed the ,greek ear1 ,greek artistic conscientiousness1 and ,greek simplicity and grace2 he was1 also1 one of the last men able to combine in himself the greatest freedom of mind and an absolutely unrevolutionary way of thinking without being inconsistent and cowardly4 ,since that time the modern spirit1 with its restlessness and its hatred of moderation and restrictions1 has obtained the mastery on all sides1 let loose at first by the fever of revolution1 and then once more putting a bridle on itself when it became filled with fear and horror at itself1--but it was the bridle of rigid logic1 no longer that of artistic moderation4 ,it is true that through that unfettering for a time we are able to enjoy the poetry of all nations1 everything that has sprung up in hidden places1 original1 wild1 wonderfully beautiful and gigantically irregular1 from folk-songs up to the great barbarian ,shakespeare2 we taste the joys of local colour and costume1 hitherto unknown to all artistic nations2 we make liberal use of the barbaric advantages of our time1 which ,goethe accentuated against ,schiller in order to place the formlessness of his ,faust in the most favourable light4 ,but for how much longer8 ,the encroaching flood of poetry of all styles and all nations must gradually sweep away that magic garden upon which a quiet and hidden growth would still have been possible2 all poets must become experimenting imitators1 daring copyists1 however great their primary strength may be4 ,eventually1 the public1 which has lost the habit of seeing the actual artistic fact in the controlling of depicting power1 in the organising mastery over all art-means1 must come ever more and more to value power for power's sake1 colour for colour's sake1 idea for idea's sake1 inspiration for inspiration's sake2 accordingly it will not enjoy the elements and conditions of the work of art1 unless isolated1 and finally will make the very natural demand that the artist must deliver it to them isolated4 ,true1 the senseless fetters of ,franco-,greek art have been thrown off1 but unconsciously we have grown accustomed to consider all fetters1 all restrictions as senseless2--and so art moves towards its liberation1 but1 in so doing1 it touches--which is certainly highly edifying--upon all the phases of its beginning1 its childhood1 its incompleteness1 its sometime boldness and excesses1--in perishing it interprets its origin and growth4 ,one of the great ones1 whose instinct may be relied on and whose theory lacked nothing but thirty years more of practice1 ,lord ,byron1 once said3 that with regard to poetry in general1 the more he thought about it the more convinced he was that one and all we are entirely on a wrong track1 that we are following an inwardly false revolutionary system1 and that either our own generation or the next will yet arrive at this same conviction4 ,it is the same ,lord ,byron who said that he looked upon ,shakespeare as the very worst model1 although the most extraordinary poet4 ,and does not ,goethe's mature artistic insight in the second half of his life say practically the same thing8--that insight by means of which he made such a bound in advance of whole generations that1 generally speaking1 it may be said that ,goethe's influence has not yet begun1 that his time has still to come4 ,just because his nature held him fast for a long time in the path of the poetical revolution1 just because he drank to the dregs of whatsoever new sources1 views and expedients had been indirectly discovered through that breaking down of tradition1 of all that had been unearthed from under the ruins of art1 his later transformation and conversion carries so much weight2 it shows that he felt the deepest longing to win back the traditions of art1 and to give in fancy the ancient perfection and completeness to the abandoned ruins and colonnades of the temple1 with the imagination of the eye at least1 should the strength of the arm be found too weak to build where such tremendous powers were needed even to destroy4 ,thus he lived in art as in the remembrance of the true art1 his poetry had become an aid to remembrance1 to the understanding of old and long-departed ages of art4 ,with respect to the strength of the new age1 his demands could not be satisfied2 but the pain this occasioned was amply balanced by the joy that they have been satisfied once1 and that we ourselves can still participate in this satisfaction4 ,not individuals1 but more or less ideal masks2 no reality1 but an allegorical generality2 topical characters1 local colours toned down and rendered mythical almost to the point of invisibility2 contemporary feeling and the problems of contemporary society reduced to the simplest forms1 stripped of their attractive1 interesting pathological qualities1 made ineffective in every other but the artistic sense2 no new materials and characters1 but the old1 long-accustomed ones in constant new animation and transformation2 that is art1 as ,goethe understood it later1 as the ,greeks and even the ,french practised it4 #bbb4 ,,what ,,remains ,,of ,,art4--,it is true that art has a much greater value in the case of certain metaphysical hypotheses1 for instance when the belief obtains that the character is unchangeable and that the essence of the world manifests itself continually in all character and action2 thus the artist's work becomes the symbol of the eternally constant1 while according to our views the artist can only endow his picture with temporary value1 because man on the whole has developed and is mutable1 and even the individual man has nothing fixed and constant4 ,the same thing holds good with another metaphysical hypothesis3 assuming that our visible world were only a delusion1 as metaphysicians declare1 then art would come very near to the real world1 for there would then be far too much similarity between the world of appearance and the dream-world of the artist2 and the remaining difference would place the meaning of art higher even than the meaning of nature1 because art would represent the same forms1 the types and models of nature4 ,but those suppositions are false2 and what position does art retain after this acknowledgment8 ,above all1 for centuries it has taught us to look upon life in every shape with interest and pleasure and to carry our feelings so far that at last we exclaim1 ,whatever it may be1 life is good4 ,this teaching of art1 to take pleasure in existence and to regard human life as a piece of nature1 without too vigorous movement1 as an object of regular development1--this teaching has grown into us2 it reappears as an all-powerful need of knowledge4 ,we could renounce art1 but we should not therewith forfeit the ability it has taught us1--just as we have given up religion1 but not the exalting and intensifying of temperament acquired through religion4 ,as the plastic arts and music are the standards of that wealth of feeling really acquired and obtained through religion1 so also1 after a disappearance of art1 the intensity and multiplicity of the joys of life which it had implanted in us would still demand satisfaction4 ,the scientific man is the further development of the artistic man4 #bbc4 ,,the ,,after-,,glow ,,of ,,art4--,just as in old age we remember our youth and celebrate festivals of memory1 so in a short time mankind will stand towards art3 its relation will be that of a touching memory of the joys of youth4 ,never1 perhaps1 in former ages was art dealt with so seriously and thoughtfully as now when it appears to be surrounded by the magic influence of death4 ,we call to mind that ,greek city in southern ,italy1 which once a year still celebrates its ,greek feasts1 amidst tears and mourning1 that foreign barbarism triumphs ever more and more over the customs its people brought with them into the land2 and never has ,hellenism been so much appreciated1 nowhere has this golden nectar been drunk with so great delight1 as amongst these fast disappearing ,hellenes4 ,the artist will soon come to be regarded as a splendid relic1 and to him1 as to a wonderful stranger on whose power and beauty depended the happiness of former ages1 there will be paid such honour as is not often enjoyed by one of our race4 ,the best in us is perhaps inherited from the sentiments of former times1 to which it is hardly possible for us now to return by direct ways2 the sun has already disappeared1 but the heavens of our life are still glowing and illumined by it1 although we can behold it no longer4 ,footnote #a3 ,the allusion is to ,goethe's lines3 ,die ,sterne1 die begehrt man nicht1 ,man freut sich ihrer ,pracht4 ,we do not want the stars themselves1 ,their brilliancy delights our hearts4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,fifth ,,division4 ,,the ,,signs ,,of ,,higher ,,and ,,lower ,,culture4 #bbd4 ,,ennoblement ,,through ,,degeneration4--,history teaches that a race of people is best preserved where the greater number hold one common spirit in consequence of the similarity of their accustomed and indisputable principles3 in consequence1 therefore1 of their common faith4 ,thus strength is afforded by good and thorough customs1 thus is learnt the subjection of the individual1 and strenuousness of character becomes a birth gift and afterwards is fostered as a habit4 ,the danger to these communities founded on individuals of strong and similar character is that gradually increasing stupidity through transmission1 which follows all stability like its shadow4 ,it is on the more unrestricted1 more uncertain and morally weaker individuals that depends the intellectual progress of such communities1 it is they who attempt all that is new and manifold4 ,numbers of these perish on account of their weakness1 without having achieved any specially visible effect2 but generally1 particularly when they have descendants1 they flare up and from time to time inflict a wound on the stable element of the community4 ,precisely in this sore and weakened place the community is inoculated with something new2 but its general strength must be great enough to absorb and assimilate this new thing into its blood4 ,deviating natures are of the utmost importance wherever there is to be progress4 ,every wholesale progress must be preceded by a partial weakening4 ,the strongest natures retain the type1 the weaker ones help it to develop4 ,something similar happens in the case of individuals2'a deterioration1 a mutilation1 even a vice and1 above all1 a physical or moral loss is seldom without its advantage4 ,for instance1 a sickly man in the midst of a warlike and restless race will perhaps have more chance of being alone and thereby growing quieter and wiser1 the one-eyed man will possess a stronger eye1 the blind man will have a deeper inward sight and will certainly have a keener sense of hearing4 ,in so far it appears to me that the famous ,struggle for ,existence is not the only point of view from which an explanation can be given of the progress or strengthening of an individual or a race4 ,rather must two different things converge3 firstly1 the multiplying of stable strength through mental binding in faith and common feeling2 secondly1 the possibility of attaining to higher aims1 through the fact that there are deviating natures and1 in consequence1 partial weakening and wounding of the stable strength2 it is precisely the weaker nature1 as the more delicate and free1 that makes all progress at all possible4 ,a people that is crumbling and weak in any one part1 but as a whole still strong and healthy1 is able to absorb the infection of what is new and incorporate it to its advantage4 ,the task of education in a single individual is this3 to plant him so firmly and surely that1 as a whole1 he can no longer be diverted from his path4 ,then1 however1 the educator must wound him1 or else make use of the wounds which fate inflicts1 and when pain and need have thus arisen1 something new and noble can be inoculated into the wounded places4 ,with regard to the ,state1 ,machiavelli says that1 the form of ,government is of very small importance1 although halfeducated people think otherwise4 ,the great aim of ,state-craft should be duration1 which out-weighs all else1 inasmuch as it is more valuable than liberty4 ,it is only with securely founded and guaranteed duration that continual development and ennobling inoculation are at all possible4 ,as a rule1 however1 authority1 the dangerous companion of all duration1 will rise in opposition to this4 #bbe4 ,,free-,,thinker ,a ,,relative ,,term4--,we call that man a free-thinker who thinks otherwise than is expected of him in consideration of his origin1 surroundings1 position1 and office1 or by reason of the prevailing contemporary views4 ,he is the exception1 fettered minds are the rule2 these latter reproach him1 saying that his free principles either have their origin in a desire to be remarkable or else cause free actions to inferred1--that is to say1 actions which are not compatible with fettered morality4 ,sometimes it is also said that the cause of such and such free principles may be traced to mental perversity and extravagance2 but only malice speaks thus1 nor does it believe what it says1 but wishes thereby to do an injury1 for the free-thinker2 usually bears the proof of his greater goodness and keenness of intellect written in his face so plainly that the fettered spirits understand it well enough4 ,but the two other derivations of free-thought are honestly intended2 as a matter of fact1 many free-thinkers are created in one or other of these ways4 ,for this reason1 however1 the tenets to which they attain in this manner might be truer and more reliable than those of the fettered spirits4 ,in the knowledge of truth1 what really matters is the possession of it1 not the impulse under which it was sought1 the way in which it was found4 ,if the free-thinkers are right then the fettered spirits are wrong1 and it is a matter of indifference whether the former have reached truth through immorality or the latter hitherto retained hold of untruths through morality4 ,moreover1 it is not essential to the free-thinker that he should hold more correct views1 but that he should have liberated himself from what was customary1 be it successfully or disastrously4 ,as a rule1 however1 he will have truth1 or at least the spirit of truth-investigation1 on his side2 he demands reasons1 the others demand faith4 #bbf4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,faith4--,the fettered spirit does not take up his position from conviction1 but from habit2 he is a ,christian1 for instance1 not because he had a comprehension of different creeds and could take his choice2 he is an ,englishman1 not because he decided for ,england1 but he found ,christianity and ,england ready-made and accepted them without any reason1 just as one who is born in a wine-country becomes a wine-drinker4 ,later on1 perhaps1 as he was a ,christian and an ,englishman1 he discovered a few reasons in favour of his habit2 these reasons may be upset1 but he is not therefore upset in his whole position4 ,for instance1 let a fettered spirit be obliged to bring forward his reasons against bigamy and then it will be seen whether his holy zeal in favour of monogamy is based upon reason or upon custom4 ,the adoption of guiding principles without reasons is called faith4 #bbg4 ,,conclusions ,,drawn ,,from ,,the ,,consequences ,,and ,,traced ,,back ,,to ,,reason ,,and ,,un-,,reason4--,all states and orders of society1 professions1 matrimony1 education1 law3 all these find strength and duration only in the faith which the fettered spirits repose in them1--that is1 in the absence of reasons1 or at least in the averting of inquiries as to reasons4 ,the restricted spirits do not willingly acknowledge this1 and feel that it is a pudendum4 ,christianity1 however1 which was very simple in its intellectual ideas1 remarked nothing of this pudendum1 required faith and nothing but faith1 and passionately repulsed the demand for reasons2 it pointed to the success of faith3 ,you will soon feel the advantages of faith1 it suggested1 and through faith shall ye be saved4 ,as an actual fact1 the ,state pursues the same course1 and every father brings up his son in the same way3 ,only believe this1 he says1 and you will soon feel the good it does4 ,this implies1 however1 that the truth of an opinion is proved by its personal usefulness2 the wholesomeness of a doctrine must be a guarantee for its intellectual surety and solidity4 ,it is exactly as if an accused person in a court of law were to say1 ,my counsel speaks the whole truth1 for only see what is the result of his speech3 ,i shall be acquitted4 ,because the fettered spirits retain their principles on account of their usefulness1 they suppose that the free spirit also seeks his own advantage in his views and only holds that to be true which is profitable to him4 ,but as he appears to find profitable just the contrary of that which his compatriots or equals find profitable1 these latter assume that his principles are dangerous to them2 they say or feel1 ,he must not be right1 for he is injurious to us4 #bbh4 ,,the ,,strong1 ,,good ,,character4--,the restriction of views1 which habit has made instinct1 leads to what is called strength of character4 ,when any one acts from few but always from the same motives1 his actions acquire great energy2 if these actions accord with the principles of the fettered spirits they are recognised1 and they produce1 moreover1 in those who perform them the sensation of a good conscience4 ,few motives1 energetic action1 and a good conscience compose what is called strength of character4 ,the man of strong character lacks a knowledge of the many possibilities and directions of action2 his intellect is fettered and restricted1 because in a given case it shows him1 perhaps1 only two possibilities2 between these two he must now of necessity choose1 in accordance with his whole nature1 and he does this easily and quickly because he has not to choose between fifty possibilities4 ,the educating surroundings aim at fettering every individual1 by always placing before him the smallest number of possibilities4 ,the individual is always treated by his educators as if he were1 indeed1 something new1 but should become a duplicate4 ,if he makes his first appearance as something unknown1 unprecedented1 he must be turned into something known and precedented4 ,in a child1 the familiar manifestation of restriction is called a good character2 in placing itself on the side of the fettered spirits the child first discloses its awakening common feeling2 with this foundation of common sentiment1 he will eventually become useful to his ,state or rank4 #bbi4 ,,the ,,standards ,,and ,,values ,,of ,,the ,,fettered ,,spirits4--,there are four species of things concerning which the restricted spirits say they are in the right4 ,firstly3 all things that last are right2 secondly3 all things that are not burdens to us are right2 thirdly3 all things that are advantageous for us are right2 fourthly3 all things for which we have made sacrifices are right4 ,the last sentence1 for instance1 explains why a war that was begun in opposition to popular feeling is carried on with enthusiasm directly a sacrifice has been made for it4 ,the free spirits1 who bring their case before the forum of the fettered spirits1 must prove that free spirits always existed1 that free-spiritism is therefore enduring1 that it will not become a burden1 and1 finally1 that on the whole they are an advantage to the fettered spirits4 ,it is because they cannot convince the restricted spirits on this last point that they profit nothing by having proved the first and second propositions4 #bcj4 ,,esprit ,,fort4--,compared with him who has tradition on his side and requires no reasons for his actions1 the free spirit is always weak1 especially in action2 for he is acquainted with too many motives and points of view1 and has1 therefore1 an uncertain and unpractised hand4 ,what means exist of making him strong in spite of this1 so that he will1 at least1 manage to survive1 and will not perish ineffectually8 ,what is the source of the strong spirit 7esprit fort76 ,this is especially the question as to the production of genius4 ,whence comes the energy1 the unbending strength1 the endurance with which the one1 in opposition to accepted ideas1 endeavours to obtain an entirely individual knowledge of the world8 #bca4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,genius4--,the ingenuity with which a prisoner seeks the means of freedom1 the most cold-blooded and patient employment of every smallest advantage1 can teach us of what tools ,nature sometimes makes use in order to produce ,genius1--a word which ,i beg will be understood without any mythological and religious flavour2 she1 ,nature1 begins it in a dungeon and excites to the utmost its desire to free itself4 ,or to give another picture3 some one who has completely lost his way in a wood1 but who with unusual energy strives to reach the open in one direction or another1 will sometimes discover a new path which nobody knew previously1 thus arise geniuses1 who are credited with originality4 ,it has already been said that mutilation1 crippling1 or the loss of some important organ1 is frequently the cause of the unusual development of another organ1 because this one has to fulfil its own and also another function4 ,this explains the source of many a brilliant talent4 ,these general remarks on the origin of genius may be applied to the special case1 the origin of the perfect free spirit4 #bcb4 ,,conjecture ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,free-,,spiritism4--,just as the glaciers increase when in equatorial regions the sun shines upon the seas with greater force than hitherto1 so may a very strong and spreading free-spiritism be a proof that somewhere or other the force of feeling has grown extraordinarily4 #bcc4 ,,the ,,voice ,,of ,,history4--,in general1 history appears to teach the following about the production of genius3 it ill-treats and torments mankind--calls to the passions of envy1 hatred1 and rivalry--drives them to desperation1 people against people1 throughout whole centuries6 ,then1 perhaps1 like a stray spark from the terrible energy thereby aroused1 there flames up suddenly the light of genius2 the will1 like a horse maddened by the rider's spur1 thereupon breaks out and leaps over into another domain4 ,he who could attain to a comprehension of the production of genius1 and desires to carry out practically the manner in which ,nature usually goes to work1 would have to be just as evil and regardless as ,nature itself4 ,but perhaps we have not heard rightly4 #bcd4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,road4--,it is possible that the production of genius is reserved to a limited period of mankind's history4 ,for we must not expect from the future everything that very defined conditions were able to produce2 for instance1 not the astounding effects of religious feeling4 ,this has had its day1 and much that is very8 good can never grow again1 because it could grow out of that alone4 ,there will never again be a horizon of life and culture that is bounded by religion4 ,perhaps even the type of the saint is only possible with that certain narrowness of intellect1 which apparently has completely disappeared4 ,and thus the greatest height of intelligence has perhaps been reserved for a single age2 it appeared--and appears1 for we are still in that age--when an extraordinary1 long-accumulated energy of will concentrates itself1 as an exceptional case1 upon intellectual aims4 ,that height will no longer exist when this wildness and energy cease to be cultivated4 ,mankind probably approaches nearer to its actual aim in the middle of its road1 in the middle time of its existence than at the end4 ,it may be that powers with which1 for instance1 art is a condition1 die out altogether2 the pleasure in lying1 in the undefined1 the symbolical1 in intoxication1 in ecstasy might fall into disrepute4 ,for certainly1 when life is ordered in the perfect ,state1 the present will provide no more motive for poetry1 and it would only be those persons who had remained behind who would ask for poetical unreality4 ,these1 then1 would assuredly look longingly backwards to the times of the imperfect ,state1 of half-barbaric society1 to our times4 #bce4 ,,genius ,,and ,,the ,,ideal ,,state ,,in ,,conflict4--,the ,socialists demand a comfortable life for the greatest possible number4 ,if the lasting house of this life of comfort1 the perfect ,state1 had really been attained1 then this life of comfort would have destroyed the ground out of which grow the great intellect and the mighty individual generally1 #aa mean powerful energy4 ,were this ,state reached1 mankind would have grown too weary to be still capable of producing genius4 ,must we not hence wish that life should retain its forcible character1 and that wild forces and energies should continue1 to be called forth afresh8 ,but warm and sympathetic hearts desire precisely the removal of that wild and forcible character1 and the warmest hearts we can imagine desire it the most passionately of all1 whilst all the time its passion derived its fire1 its warmth1 its very existence precisely from that wild and forcible character2 the warmest heart1 therefore1 desires the removal of its own foundation1 the destruction of itself1--that is1 it desires something illogical1 it is not intelligent4 ,the highest intelligence and the warmest heart cannot exist together in one person1 and the wise man who passes judgment upon life looks beyond goodness and only regards it as something which is not without value in the general summing-up of life4 ,the wise man must oppose those digressive wishes of unintelligent goodness1 because he has an interest in the continuance of his type and in the eventual appearance of the highest intellect2 at least1 he will not advance the founding of the perfect ,state1 inasmuch as there is only room in it for wearied individuals4 ,christ1 on the contrary1 he whom we may consider to have had the warmest heart1 advanced the process of making man stupid1 placed himself on the side of the intellectually poor1 and retarded the production of the greatest intellect1 and this was consistent4 ,his opposite1 the man of perfect wisdom1--this may be safely prophesied--will just as necessarily hinder the production of a ,christ4 ,the ,state is a wise arrangement for the protection of one individual against another2 if its ennobling is exaggerated the individual will at last be weakened by it1 even effaced1 --thus the original purpose of the ,state will be most completely frustrated4 #bcf4 ,,the ,,zones ,,of ,,culture4--,it may be figuratively said that the ages of culture correspond to the zones of the various climates1 only that they lie one behind another and not beside each other like the geographical zones4 ,in comparison with the temperate zone of culture1 which it is our object to enter1 the past1 speaking generally1 gives the impression of a tropical climate4 ,violent contrasts1 sudden changes between day and night1 heat and colour-splendour1 the reverence of all that was sudden1 mysterious1 terrible1 the rapidity with which storms broke3 everywhere that lavish abundance of the provisions of nature2 and opposed to this1 in our culture1 a clear but by no means bright sky1 pure but fairly unchanging air1 sharpness1 even cold at times2 thus the two zones are contrasts to each other4 ,when we see how in that former zone the most raging passions are suppressed and broken down with mysterious force by metaphysical representations1 we feel as if wild tigers were being crushed before our very eyes in the coils of mighty serpents2 our mental climate lacks such episodes1 our imagination is temperate1 even in dreams there does not happen to us what former peoples saw waking4 ,but should we not rejoice at this change1 even granted that artists are essentially spoiled by the disappearance of the tropical culture and find us non-artists a little too timid8 ,in so far artists are certainly right to deny progress1 for indeed it is doubtful whether the last three thousand years show an advance in the arts4 ,in the same way1 a metaphysical philosopher like ,schopenhauer would have no cause to acknowledge progress with a regard to metaphysical philosophy and religion if he glanced back over the last four thousand years4 ,for us1 however1 the existence even of the temperate zones of culture is progress4 #bcg4 ,,renaissance ,,and ,,reformation4--,the ,italian ,renaissance contained within itself all the positive forces to which we owe modern culture4 ,such were the liberation of thought1 the disregard of authorities1 the triumph of education over the darkness of tradition1 enthusiasm for science and the scientific past of mankind1 the unfettering of the ,individual1 an ardour for truthfulness and a dislike of delusion and mere effect 7which ardour blazed forth in an entire company of artistic characters1 who with the greatest moral purity required from themselves perfection in their works1 and nothing but perfection72 yes1 the ,renaissance had positive forces1 which have1 as yet1 never become so mighty again in our modern culture4 ,it was the ,golden ,age of the last thousand years1 in spite of all its blemishes and vices4 ,on the other hand1 the ,german ,reformation stands out as an energetic protest of antiquated spirits1 who were by no means tired of medival views of life1 and who received the signs of its dissolution1 the extraordinary flatness and alienation of the religious life1 with deep dejection instead of with the rejoicing that would have been seemly4 ,with their northern strength and stiff-neckedness they threw mankind back again1 brought about the counter-reformation1 that is1 a ,catholic ,christianity of self-defence1 with all the violences of a state of siege1 and delayed for two or three centuries the complete awakening and mastery of the sciences2 just as they probably made for ever impossible the complete inter-growth of the antique and the modern spirit4 ,the great task of the ,renaissance could not be brought to a termination1 this was prevented by the protest of the contemporary backward ,german spirit 7which1 for its salvation1 had had sufficient sense in the ,middle ,ages to cross the ,alps again and again74 ,it was the chance of an extraordinary constellation of politics that ,luther was preserved1 and that his protest2 gained strength1 for the ,emperor protected him in order to employ him as a weapon against the ,pope1 and in the same way he was secretly favoured by the ,pope in order to use the ,protestant princes as a counter-weight against the ,emperor4 ,without this curious counter-play of intentions1 ,luther would have been burnt like ,huss1--and the morning sun of enlightenment would probably have risen somewhat earlier1 and with a splendour more beauteous than we can now imagine4 #bch4 ,,justice ,,against ,,the ,,becoming ,,god4-- ,when the entire history of culture unfolds itself to our gaze1 as a confusion of evil and noble1 of true and false ideas1 and we feel almost seasick at the sight of these tumultuous waves1 we then under stand what comfort resides in the conception of a becoming ,god4 ,this ,deity is unveiled ever more and more throughout the changes and fortunes of mankind2 it is not all blind mechanism1 a senseless and aimless confusion of forces4 ,the deification of the process of being is a metaphysical outlook1 seen as from a lighthouse overlooking the sea of history1 in which a far-too historical generation of scholars found their comfort4 ,this must not arouse anger1 however erroneous the view may be4 ,only those who1 like ,schopenhauer1 deny development also feel none of the misery of this historical wave1 and therefore1 because they know nothing of that becoming ,god and the need of ,his supposition1 they should in justice withhold their scorn4 #bci4 ,,the ,,fruits ,,according ,,to ,,their ,,seasons4--,every better future that is desired for mankind is necessarily in many respects also a worse future1 for it is foolishness to suppose that a new1 higher grade of humanity will combine in itself all the good points of former grades1 and must produce1 for instance1 the highest form of art4 ,rather has every season its own advantages and charms1 which exclude those of the other seasons4 ,that which has grown out of religion and in its neighbourhood cannot grow again if this has been destroyed2 at the most1 straggling and belated off-shoots may lead to deception on that point1 like the occasional outbreaks of remembrance of the old art1 a condition that probably betrays the feeling of loss and deprivation1 but which is no proof of the power from which a new art might be born4 #bdj4 ,,the ,,increasing ,,severity ,,of ,,the ,,world4--,the higher culture an individual attains1 the less field there is left for mockery and scorn4 ,voltaire thanked ,heaven from his heart for the invention of marriage and the ,church1 by which it had so well provided for our cheer4 ,but he and his time1 and before him the sixteenth century1 had exhausted their ridicule on this theme2 everything that is now made fun of on this theme is out of date1 and above all too cheap to tempt a purchaser4 ,causes are now inquired after2 ours is an age of seriousness4 ,who cares now to discern1 laughingly1 the difference between reality and pretentious sham1 between that which man is and that which he wishes to represent2 the feeling of this contrast has quite a different effect if we seek reasons4 ,the more thoroughly any one understands life1 the less he will mock1 though finally1 perhaps1 he will mock at the thoroughness of his understanding4 #bda4 ,,the ,,genius ,,of ,,culture4--,if any one wished to imagine a genius of culture1 what would it be like8 ,it handles as its tools falsehood1 force1 and thoughtless selfishness so surely that ,i could only be called an evil1 demoniacal being but its aims1 which are occasionally transparent1 are great and good4 ,it is a centaur1 half-beast1 half-man1 and1 in addition1 has angel's wings upon its head4 #bdb4 ,,the ,,miracle-,,education4--,interest in ,education will acquire great strength only from the moment when belief in a ,god and ,his care is renounced1 just as the art of healing you only flourish when the belief in miracle-cures ceased4 ,so far1 however1 there is universal belief in the miracle-education2 out of the greatest disorder and confusion of aims and unfavourableness of conditions1 the most fertile and mighty men have been seen to grow2 could this happen naturally8 ,soon these cases will be more closely looked into1 more carefully examined2 but miracles will never be discovered4 ,in similar circumstances countless persons perish constantly2 the few saved have1 therefore1 usually grown stronger1 because they endured these bad conditions by virtue of an inexhaustible inborn strength1 and this strength they had also exercised and increased by fighting against these circumstances2 thus the miracle is explained4 ,an education that no longer believes in miracles must pay attention to three things3 first1 how much energy is inherited8 secondly1 by what means can new energy be aroused8 thirdly1 how can the individual be adapted to so many and manifold claims of culture without being disquieted and destroying his personality1--in short1 how can the individual be initiated into the counterpoint of private and public culture1 how can he lead the melody and at the same time ,accompany it8 #bdc4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,physician4--,there is now no profession which would admit of such an enhancement as that of the physician2 that is1 after the spiritual physicians the so-called pastors1 are no longer allowed to practise their conjuring tricks to public applause1 and a cultured person gets out of their way4 ,the highest mental development of a physician has not yet been reached1 even if he understands the best and newest methods1 is practised in them1 and knows how to draw those rapid conclusions from effects to causes for which the diagnostics are celebrated2 besides this1 he must possess a gift of eloquence that adapts itself to every individual and draws his heart out of his body2 a manliness1 the sight of which alone drives away all despondency 7the canker of all sick people71 the tact and suppleness of a diplomatist in negotiations between such as have need of joy for their recovery and such as1 for reasons of health1 must 7and can7 give joy2 the acuteness of a detective and an attorney to divine the secrets of a soul without betraying them1--in short1 a good physician now has need of all the artifices and artistic privileges of every other professional class4 ,thus equipped1 he is then ready to be a benefactor to the whole of society1 by increasing good works1 mental joys and fertility1 by preventing evil thoughts1 projects and villainies 7the evil source of which is so often the belly71 by the restoration of a mental and physical aristocracy 7as a maker and hinderer of marriages71 by judiciously checking all so-called soul-torments and pricks of conscience4 ,thus from a medicine man he becomes a saviour1 and yet need work no miracle1 neither is he obliged to let himself be crucified4 #bdd4 ,,in ,,the ,,neighbourhood ,,of ,,insanity4--,the sum of sensations1 knowledge and experiences1 the whole burden of culture1 therefore1 has become so great that an overstraining of nerves and powers of thought is a common danger1 indeed the cultivated classes of ,european countries are throughout neurotic1 and almost every one of their great families is on the verge of insanity in one of their branches4 ,true1 health is now sought in every possible way2 but in the main a diminution of that tension of feeling1 of that oppressive burden of culture1 is needful1 which1 even though it might be bought at a heavy sacrifice1 would at least give us room for the great hope of a new ,renaissance4 ,to ,christianity1 to the philosophers1 poets1 and musicians we owe an abundance of deeply emotional sensations2 in order that these may not get beyond our control we must invoke the spirit of science1 which on the whole makes us somewhat colder and more sceptical1 and in particular cools the faith in final and absolute truths2 it is chiefly through ,christianity that it has grown so wild4 #bde4 ,,the ,,bell-,,founding ,,of ,,culture4--,culture has been made like a bell1 within a covering of coarser1 commoner material1 falsehood1 violence1 the boundless extension of every individual ,i1 of every separate people--this was the covering4 ,is it time to take it off8 ,has the liquid set1 have the good and useful impulses1 the habits of the nobler nature become so certain and so general that they no longer require to lean on metaphysics and the errors of religion1 no longer have need of hardnesses and violence as powerful bonds between man and man1 people and people8 ,no sign from any ,god can any longer help us to answer this question2 our own insight must decide4 ,the earthly rule of man must be taken in hand by man himself1 his omniscience must watch over the further fate of culture with a sharp eye4 #bdf4 ,,the ,,cyclopes ,,of ,,culture4--,whoever has seen those furrowed basins which once contained glaciers1 will hardly deem it possible that a time will come when the same spot will be a valley of woods and meadows and streams4 ,it is the same in the history of mankind2 the wildest forces break the way1 destructively at first1 but their activity was nevertheless necessary in order that later on a milder civilisation might build up its house ,these terrible energies--that which is called ,evil--are the cyclopic architects and road-makers of humanity4 #bdg4 ,,the ,,circulation ,,of ,,humanity4--,it is possible that all humanity is only a phase of development of a certain species of animal of limited duration4 ,man may have grown out of the ape and will return to the ape again1#a without anybody taking an interest in the ending of this curious comedy4 ,just as with the decline of ,roman civilisation and its most important cause1 the spread of ,christianity1 there was a general uglification of man within the ,roman ,empire1 so1 through the eventual decline of general culture1 there might result a far greater uglification and finally an animalising of man till he reached the ape4 ,but just because we are able to face this prospect1 we shall perhaps be able to avert such an end4 #bdh4 ,,the ,,consoling ,,speech ,,of ,a ,,desperate ,,advance4--,our age gives the impression of an intermediate condition2 the old ways of regarding the world1 the old cultures still partially exist1 the new are not yet sure and customary and hence are without decision and consistency4 ,it appears as if everything would become chaotic1 as if the old were being lost1 the new worthless and ever becoming weaker4 ,but this is what the soldier feels who is learning to march2 for a time he is more uncertain and awkward1 because his muscles are moved sometimes according to the old system and sometimes according to the new1 and neither gains a' decisive victory4 ,we waver1 but it is necessary not to lose courage and give up what we have newly gained4 ,moreover1 we cannot go back to the old1 we have burnt our boats2 there remains nothing but to be brave whatever happen4--,march ahead1 only get forward6 ,perhaps our behaviour looks like progress2 but if not1 then the words of ,frederick the ,great may also be applied to us1 and indeed as a consolation3 ,ah1 mon cher ,sulzer1 vous ne connaissez pas assez cette race maudite1 laquelle nous appartenons4 #bdi4 ,,suffering ,,from ,,past ,,culture4--,whoever has solved the problem of culture suffers from a feeling similar to that of one who has inherited unjustly-gotten riches1 or of a prince who reigns thanks to the violence of his ancestors4 ,he thinks of their origin with grief and is often ashamed1 often irritable4 ,the whole sum of strength1 joy1 vigour1 which he devotes to his possessions1 is often balanced by a deep weariness1 he cannot forget their origin4 ,he looks despondingly at the future2 he knows well that his successors will suffer from the past as he does4 #bej4 ,,manners4--,good manners disappear in proportion as the influence of a ,court and an exclusive aristocracy lessens2 this decrease can be plainly observed from decade to decade by those who have an eye for public behaviour1 which grows visibly more vulgar4 ,no one any longer knows how to court and flatter intelligently2 hence arises the ludicrous fact that in cases where we must render actual homage 7to a great statesman or artist1 for instance71 the words of deepest feeling1 of simple1 peasant-like honesty1 have to be borrowed1 owing to the embarrassment resulting from the lack of grace and wit4 ,thus the public ceremonious meeting of men appears ever more clumsy1 but more full of feeling and honesty without really being so4 ,but must there always be a decline in manners8 ,it appears to me1 rather1 that manners take a deep curve and that we are approaching their lowest point4 ,when society has become sure of its intentions and principles1 so that they have a moulding effect 7the manners we have learnt from former moulding conditions are now inherited and always more weakly learnt71 there will then be company manners1 gestures and social expressions1 which must appear as necessary and simply natural because they are intentions and principles4 ,the better division of time and work1 the gymnastic exercise transformed into the accompaniment of all beautiful leisure1 increased and severer meditation1 which brings wisdom and suppleness even to the body1 will bring all this in its train4 ,here1 indeed1 we might think with a smile of our scholars1 and consider whether1 as a matter of fact1 they who wish to be regarded as the forerunners of that new culture are distinguished by their better manners8 ,this is hardly the case2 although their spirit may be willing enough their flesh is weak4 ,the past of culture is still too powerful in their muscles1 they still stand in a fettered position1 and are half worldly priests and half dependent educators of the upper classes1 and besides this they have been rendered crippled and lifeless by the pedantry of science and by antiquated1 spiritless methods4 ,in any case1 therefore1 they are physically1 and often three-fourths mentally1 still the courtiers of an old1 even antiquated culture1 and as such are themselves antiquated2 the new spirit that occasionally inhabits these old dwellings often serves only to make them more uncertain and frightened4 ,in them there dwell the ghosts of the past as well as the ghosts of the future2 what wonder if they do not wear the best expression or show the most pleasing behaviour8 #bea4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,science4--,to him who works and seeks in her1 ,science gives much pleasure1--to him who learns her facts1 very little4 ,but as all important truths of science must gradually become commonplace and everyday matters1 even this small amount of pleasure ceases1 just as we have long ceased to take pleasure in learning the admirable multiplication table4 ,now if ,science goes on giving less pleasure in herself1 and always takes more pleasure in throwing suspicion on the consolations of metaphysics1 religion and art1 that greatest of all sources of pleasure1 to which mankind owes almost its whole humanity1 becomes impoverished4 ,therefore a higher culture must give man a double brain1 two brain-chambers1 so to speak1 one to feel science and the other to feel non-science1 which can lie side by side1 without confusion1 divisible1 exclusive2 this is a necessity of health4 ,in one part lies the source of strength1 in the other lies the regulator2 it must be heated with illusions1 onesidednesses1 passions2 and the malicious and dangerous consequences of over-heating must be averted by the help of conscious ,science4 ,if this necessity of the higher culture is not satisfied1 the further course of human development can almost certainly be foretold3 the interest in what is true ceases as it guarantees less pleasure2 illusion1 error1 and imagination reconquer step by step the ancient territory1 because they are united to pleasure2 the ruin of science3 the relapse into barbarism is the next result2 mankind must begin to weave its web afresh after having1 like ,penelope1 destroyed it during the night4 ,but who will assure us that it will always find the necessary strength for this8 #beb4 ,,the ,,pleasure ,,in ,,discernment4--,why is discernment1 that essence of the searcher and the philosopher1 connected with pleasure8 ,firstly1 and above all1 because thereby we become conscious of our strength1 for the same reason that gymnastic exercises1 even without spectators1 are enjoyable4 ,secondly1 because in the course of knowledge we surpass older ideas and their representatives1 and become1 or believe ourselves to be1 conquerors4 ,thirdly1 because even a very little new knowledge exalts us above every one1 and makes us feel we are the only ones who know the subject aright4 ,these are the three most important reasons of the pleasure1 but there are many others1 according to the nature of the discerner4 ,a not inconsiderable index of such is given1 where no one would look for it1 in a passage of my parenetic work on ,schopenhauer1#b with the arrangement of which every experienced servant of knowledge may be satisfied1 even though he might wish to dispense with the ironical touch that seems to pervade those pages4 ,for if it be true that for the making of a scholar a number of very human impulses and desires must be thrown together1 that the scholar is indeed a very noble but not a pure metal1 and consists of a confused blending of very different impulses and attractions1 the same thing may be said equally of the making and nature of the artist1 the philosopher and the moral genius--and whatever glorified great names there may be in that list4 ,everything human deserves ironical consideration with respect to its origin1--therefore irony is so superfluous in the world4 #bec4 ,,fidelity ,,as ,a ,,proof ,,of ,,validity4--,it is a perfect sign of a sound theory if during forty years its originator does not mistrust it2 but ,i maintain that there has never yet been a philosopher who has not eventually deprecated the philosophy of his youth4 ,perhaps1 however1 he has not spoken publicly of this change of opinion1 for reasons of ambition1 or1 what is more probable in noble natures1 out of delicate consideration for his adherents4 #bed4 ,,the ,,increase ,,of ,,what ,,is ,,interesting4--,in the course of higher education everything becomes interesting to man1 he knows how to find the instructive side of a thing quickly and to put his finger on the place where it can fill up a gap in his ideas1 or where it may verify a thought4 ,through this boredom disappears more and more1 and so does excessive excitability of temperament4 ,finally he moves among men like a botanist among plants1 and looks upon himself as a phenomenon1 which only greatly excites his discerning instinct4 #bee4 ,,the ,,superstition ,,of ,,the ,,simultaneous4--,simultaneous things hold together1 it is said4 ,a relative dies far away1 and at the same time we dream about him1--,consequently6 ,but countless relatives die and we do not dream about them4 ,it is like shipwrecked people who make vows2 afterwards1 in the temples1 we do not see the votive tablets of those who perished4 ,a man dies1 an owl hoots1 a clock stops1 all at one hour of the night1--must there not be some connection8 ,such an intimacy with nature as this supposition implies is flattering to mankind4 ,this species of superstition is found again in a refined form in historians and delineators of culture1 who usually have a kind of hydrophobic horror of all that senseless mixture1 in which individual and national life is so rich4 #bef4 ,,action ,,and ,,not ,,knowledge ,,exercised ,,by ,,science4--,the value of strictly pursuing science for a time does not lie precisely in its results1 for these1 in proportion to the ocean of what is worth knowing1 are but an infinitesimally small drop4 ,but it gives an additional energy1 decisiveness1 and toughness of endurance2 it teaches how to attain an aim suitably4 ,in so far it is very valuable1 with a view to all that is done later on1 to have once been a scientific man4 #beg4 ,,the ,,youthful ,,charm ,,of ,,science4--,the search for truth still retains the charm of being in strong contrast to gray and now tiresome error2 but this charm is gradually disappearing4 ,it is true we still live in the youthful age of science and are accustomed to follow truth as a lovely girl2 but how will it be when one day she becomes an elderly1 ill-tempered looking woman8 ,in almost all sciences the fundamental knowledge is either found in earliest times or is still being sought2 what a different attraction this exerts compared to that time when everything essential has been found and there only remains for the seeker a scanty gleaning 7which sensation may be learnt in several historical disciplines74 #beh4 ,,the ,,statue ,,of ,,humanity4--,the genius of culture fares as did ,cellini when his statue of ,perseus was being cast2 the molten mass threatened to run short1 but it had to suffice1 so he flung in his plates and dishes1 and whatever else his hands fell upon4 ,in the same way genius flings in errors1 vices1 hopes1 ravings1 and other things of baser as well as of nobler metal1 for the statue of humanity must emerge and be finished2 what does it matter if commoner material is used here and there8 #bei4 ,a ,,male ,,culture4--,the ,greek culture of the classic age is a male culture4 ,as far as women are concerned1 ,pericles expresses everything in the funeral speech3 ,they are best when they are as little spoken of as possible amongst men4 ,the erotic relation of men to youths was the necessary and sole preparation1 to a degree unattainable to our comprehension1 of all manly education 7pretty much as for a long time all higher education of women was only attainable through love and marriage74 ,all idealism of the strength of the ,greek nature threw itself into that relation1 and it is probable that never since have young men been treated so attentively1 so lovingly1 so entirely with a view to their welfare 7virtus7 as in the fifth and sixth centuries ,b4,c4--according to the beautiful saying of ,hlderlin3 denn liebend giebt der ,sterbliche vom ,besten4#c ,the higher the light in which this relation was regarded1 the lower sank intercourse with woman2 nothing else was taken into consideration than the production of children and lust2 there was no intellectual intercourse1 not even real love-making4 ,if it be further remembered that women were even excluded from contests and spectacles of every description1 there only remain the religious cults as their sole higher occupation4 ,for although in the tragedies ,electra and ,antigone were represented1 this was only tolerated in art1 but not liked in real life1--just as now we cannot endure anything pathetic in life but like it in art4 ,the women had no other mission than to produce beautiful1 strong bodies1 in which the father's character lived on as unbrokenly as possible1 and therewith to counteract the increasing nerve-tension of such a highly developed culture4 ,this kept the ,greek culture young for a relatively long time2 for in the ,greek mothers the ,greek genius always returned to nature4 #bfj4 ,,the ,,prejudice ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,greatness4--,it is clear that men overvalue everything great and prominent4 ,this arises from the conscious or unconscious idea that they deem it very useful when one person throws all his strength into one thing and makes himself into a monstrous organ4 ,assuredly1 an equal development of all his powers is more useful and happier for man2 for every talent is a vampire which sucks blood and strength from other powers1 and an exaggerated production can drive the most gifted almost to madness4 ,within the circle of the arts1 too1 extreme natures excite far too much attention2 but a much lower culture is necessary to be captivated by them4 ,men submit from habit to everything that seeks power4 #bfa4 ,,the ,,tyrants ,,of ,,the ,,mind4--,it is only where the ray of myth falls that the life of the ,greeks shines2 otherwise it is gloomy4 ,the ,greek philosophers are now robbing themselves of this myth2 is it not as if they wished to quit the sunshine for shadow and gloom8 ,yet no plant avoids the light2 and1 as a matter of fact1 those philosophers were only seeking a brighter sun2 the myth--was not pure enough1 not shining enough for them4 ,they found this light in their knowledge1 in that which each of them called his truth4 ,but in those times knowledge shone with a greater glory2 it was still young and knew but little of all the difficulties and dangers of its path2 it could still hope to reach in one single bound the central point of all being1 and from thence to solve the riddle of the world4 ,these philosophers had a firm belief in themselves and their truth1 and with it they overthrew all their neighbours and predecessors2 each one was a warlike1 violent tyrant4 ,the happiness in believing themselves the possessors of truth was perhaps never greater in the world1 but neither were the hardness1 the arrogance1 and the tyranny and evil of such a belief4 ,they were tyrants1 they were that1 therefore1 which every ,greek wanted to be1 and which every one was if he was able4 ,perhaps ,solon alone is an exception2 he tells in his poems how he disdained personal tyranny4 ,but he did it for love of his works1 of his law-giving2 and to be a law-giver is a sublimated form of tyranny4 ,parmenides also made laws4 ,pythagoras and ,empedocles probably did the same2 ,anaximander founded a city4 ,plato was the incarnate wish to become the greatest philosophic law-giver and founder of ,states2 he appears to have suffered terribly over the non-fulfilment of his nature1 and towards his end his soul was filled with the bitterest gall4 ,the more the ,greek philosophers lost in power the more they suffered inwardly from this bitterness and malice2 when the various sects fought for their truths in the street1 then first were the souls of these wooers of truth completely clogged through envy and spleen2 the tyrannical element then raged like poison within their bodies4 ,these many petty tyrants would have liked to devour each other2 there survived not a single spark of love and very little joy in their own knowledge4 ,the saying that tyrants are generally murdered and that their descendants are short-lived1 is true also of the tyrants of the mind4 ,their history is short and violent1 and their after-effects break off suddenly4 ,it may be said of almost all great ,hellenes that they appear to have come too late3 it was thus with schylus1 with ,pindar1 with ,demosthenes1 with ,thucydides3 one generation--and then it is passed for ever4 ,that is the stormy and dismal element in ,greek history4 ,we now1 it is true1 admire the gospel of the tortoises4 ,to think historically is almost the same thing now as if in all ages history had been made according to the theory ,the smallest possible amount in the longest possible time6 ,oh6 how quickly ,greek history runs on6 ,since then life has never been so extravagant--so unbounded4 ,i cannot persuade myself that the history of the ,greeks followed that natural course for which it is so celebrated4 ,they were much too variously gifted to be gradual the orderly manner of the tortoise when running a race with ,achilles1 and that is called natural development4 ,the ,geeks went rapidly forward1 but equally rapidly downwards2 the movement of the whole machine is so intensified that a single stone thrown amid its wheels was sufficient to break it4 ,such a stone1 for instance1 was ,socrates2 the hitherto so wonderfully regular1 although certainly too rapid1 development of the philosophical science was destroyed in one night4 ,it is no idle question whether ,plato1 had he remained free from the ,socratic charm1 would not have discovered a still higher type of the philosophic man1 which type is for ever lost to us4 ,we look into the ages before him as into a sculptor's workshop of such types4 ,the fifth and sixth centuries ,b4,c4 seemed to promise something more and higher even than they produced2 they stopped short at promising and announcing4 ,and yet there is hardly a greater loss than the loss of a type1 of a new1 hitherto undiscovered highest possibility of the philosophic life3--,even of the older type the greater number are badly transmitted2 it seems to me that all philosophers1 from ,thales to ,democritus1 are remarkably difficult to recognise1 but whoever succeeds in imitating these figures walks amongst specimens of the mightiest and purest type4 ,this ability is certainly rare1 it was even absent in those later ,greeks1 who occupied themselves with the knowledge of the older philosophy2 ,aristotle1 especially1 hardly seems to have had eyes in his head when he stands before these great ones4 ,and thus it appears as if these splendid philosophers had lived in vain1 or as if they had only been intended to prepare the quarrelsome and talkative followers of the ,socratic schools4 ,as ,i have said1 here is a gap1 a break in development2 some great misfortune must have happened1 and the only statue which might have revealed the meaning and purpose of that great artistic training was either broken or unsuccessful2 what actually happened has remained for ever a secret of the workshop4 ,that which happened amongst the ,greeks--namely1 that every great thinker who believed himself to be in possession of the absolute truth became a tyrant1 so that even the mental history of the ,greeks acquired that violent1 hasty and dangerous character shown by their political history1--this type of event was not therewith exhausted1 much that is similar has happened even in more modern times1 although gradually becoming rarer and now but seldom showing the pure1 nave conscience of the ,greek philosophers4 ,for on the whole1 opposition doctrines and scepticism now speak too powerfully1 too loudly4 ,the period of mental tyranny is past4 ,it is true that in the spheres of higher culture there must always be a supremacy1 but henceforth this supremacy lies in the hands of the oligarchs of the mind4 ,in spite of local and political separation they form a cohesive society1 whose members recognise and acknowledge each other1 whatever public opinion and the verdicts of review and newspaper writers who influence the masses may circulate in favour of or against them4 ,mental superiority1 which formerly divided and embittered1 nowadays generally unites2 how could the separate individuals assert themselves and swim through life on their own course1 against all currents1 if they did not see others like them living here and there under similar conditions1 and grasped their hands in the struggle as much against the ochlocratic character of the half mind and half culture as against the occasional attempts to establish a tyranny with the help of the masses8 ,oligarchs are necessary to each other1 they are each other's best joy1 they understand their signs1 but each is nevertheless free1 he fights and conquers in his place and perishes rather than submit4 #bfb4 ,,homer4--,the greatest fact in ,greek culture remains this1 that ,homer became so early ,pan-,hellenic4 ,all mental and human freedom to which the ,greeks attained is traceable to this fact4 ,at the same time it has actually been fatal to ,greek culture1 for ,homer levelled1 inasmuch as he centralised1 and dissolved the more serious instincts of independence4 ,from time to time there arose from the depths of ,hellenism an opposition to ,homer3 but he always remained victorious4 ,all great mental powers have an oppressing effect as well as a liberating one2 but it certainly makes a difference whether it is ,homer or the ,bible or ,science that tyrannises over mankind4 #bfc4 ,,talents4--,in such a highly developed humanity as the present1 each individual naturally has access to many talents4 ,each has an inborn talent1 but only in a few is that degree of toughness1 endurance1 and energy born and trained that he really becomes a talent1 becomes what he is1 that is1 that he discharges it in works and actions4 #bfd4 ,,the ,,witty ,,person ,,either ,,overvalued ,,or ,,undervalued4--,unscientific but talented people value every mark of intelligence1 whether it be on a true or a false track2 above all1 they want the person with whom they have intercourse to entertain them with his wit1 to spur them on1 to inflame them1 to carry them away in seriousness and play1 and in any case to be a powerful amulet to protect them against boredom4 ,scientific natures1 on the other hand1 know that the gift of possessing all manner of notions should be strictly controlled by the scientific spirit3 it is not that which shines1 deludes and excites1 but the often insignificant truth that is the fruit which he knows how to shake down from the tree of knowledge4 ,like ,aristotle1 he is not permitted to make any distinction between the bores and the wits1 his dmon leads him through the desert as well as through tropical vegetation1 in order that he may only take pleasure in the really actual1 tangible1 true4 ,in insignificant scholars this produces a general disdain and suspicion of cleverness1 and1 on the other hand1 clever people frequently have an aversion to science1 as have1 for instance1 almost all artists4 #bfe4 ,,sense ,,in ,,school4--,school has no task more important than to teach strict thought1 cautious judgment1 and logical conclusions1 hence it must pay no attention to what hinders these operations1 such as religion1 for instance4 ,it can count on the fact that human vagueness1 custom1 and need will later on unstring the bow of all-too-severe thought4 ,but so long as its influence lasts it should enforce that which is the essential and distinguishing point in man3 ,sense and ,science1 the very highest power of man--as ,goethe judges4 ,the great natural philosopher1 ,von ,baer1 thinks that the superiority of all ,europeans1 when compared to ,asiatics1 lies in the trained capability of giving reasons for that which they believe1 of which the latter are utterly incapable4 ,europe went to the school of logical and critical thought1 ,asia still fails to know how to distinguish between truth and fiction1 and is not ,conscious whether its convictions spring from individual observation and systematic thought or from imagination4 ,sense in the school has made ,europe what it is2 in the ,middle ,ages it was on the road to become once more a part and dependent of ,asia1--forfeiting1 therefore1 the scientific mind which it owed to the ,greeks4 #bff4 ,,the ,,undervalued ,,effect ,,of ,,public ,,school ,,teaching4--,the value of a public school is seldom sought in those things which are really learnt there and are carried away never to be lost1 but in those things which are learnt and which the pupil only acquires against his will1 in order to get rid of them again as soon as possible4 ,every educated person acknowledges that the reading of the classics1 as now practised1 is monstrous proceeding carried on before you people are ripe enough for it by teachers who with every word1 often by their appearance alone1 throw a mildew on a good author4 ,but therein lies the value1 generally unrecognised1 of these teachers who speak the abstract language of the higher culture1 which1 though dry and difficult to understand1 is yet a sort of higher gymnastics of the brain2 and there is value in the constant recurrence in their language of ideas1 artistic expressions1 methods and allusions which the young people hardly ever hear in the conversations of their relatives and in the street4 ,even if the pupils only hear1 their intellect is involuntarily trained to a scientific mode of regarding things4 ,it is not possible to emerge from this discipline entirely untouched by its abstract character1 and to remain a simple child of nature4 #bfg4 ,,learning ,,many ,,languages4--,the learning of many languages fills the memory with words instead of with facts and thoughts1 and this is a vessel which1 with every person1 can only contain a certain limited amount of contents4 ,therefore the learning of many languages is injurious1 inasmuch as it arouses a belief in possessing dexterity and1 as a matter of fact1 it lends a kind of delusive importance to social intercourse4 ,it is also indirectly injurious in that it opposes the acquirement of solid knowledge and the intention to win the respect of men in an honest way4 ,finally1 it is the axe which is laid to the root of a delicate sense of language in our mother-tongue1 which thereby is incurably injured and destroyed4 ,the two nations which produced the greatest stylists1 the ,greeks and the ,french1 learned no foreign languages4 ,but as human intercourse must always grow more cosmopolitan1 and as1 for instance1 a good merchant in ,london must now be able to read and write eight languages1 the learning of many tongues has certainly become a necessary evil2 but which1 when finally carried to an extreme1 will compel mankind to find a remedy1 and in some far-off future there will be a new language1 used at first as a language of commerce1 then as a language of intellectual intercourse generally1 then for all1 as surely as some time or other there will be aviation4 ,why else should philology have studied the laws of languages for a whole century1 and have estimated the necessary1 the valuable1 and the successful portion of each separate language8 #bfh4 ,,the ,,war ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,individual4--,in a single human life that passes through many styles of culture we find that struggle condense which would otherwise have been played out between two generations1 between father and son2 the closeness of the relationship sharpens this struggle1 because each party ruthlessly drags in the familiar inward nature of the other party2 and thus this struggle in the single individual becomes most embittered here every new phase disregards the earlier ones with cruel injustice and misunderstanding of their means and aims4 #bfi4 ,a ,,quarter ,,of ,,an ,,hour ,,earlier4--,a mark is found occasionally whose views are beyond his time1 but only to such an extent that he anticipates the common views of the next decade4 ,he possesses public opinion before it is public2 that is1 he has fallen into the arms of a view that deserves to be trivial a quarter of an hour sooner than other people4 ,but his fame is usually far noisier than the fame of those who are really great and prominent4 #bgj4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,reading4--,every strong tendency is one-sided2 it approaches the aim of the straight line and1 like this1 is exclusive1 that is1 it does not touch many other aims1 as do weak parties and natures in their wave-like rolling to-and-fro2 it must also be forgiven to philologists that they are one-sided4 ,the restoration and keeping pure of texts1 besides their explanation1 carried on in common for hundreds of years1 has finally enabled the right methods to be found2 the whole of the ,middle ,ages was absolutely incapable of a strictly philological explanation1 that is1 of the simple desire to comprehend what an author says--it was an achievement1 finding these methods1 let it not be undervalued6 ,through this all science first acquired continuity and steadiness1 so that the art of reading rightly1 which is called philology1 attained its summit4 #bga4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,reasoning4--,the greatest advance that men have made lies in their acquisition of the art to reason rightly4 ,it is not so very natural1 as ,schopenhauer supposes when he says1 ,all are capable of reasoning but few of judging1 it is learnt late and has not yet attained supremacy4 ,false conclusion are the rule in older ages2 and the mythologies of all peoples1 their magic and their superstition1 their religious cult and their law are the inexhaustible sources of proof of this theory4 #bgb4 ,,phases ,,of ,,individual ,,culture4--,th strength and weakness of mental productiveness depend far less on inherited talents than on the accompanying amount of elasticity4 ,most educated young people of thirty turn round at this solstice of their lives and are afterwards disinclined for new mental turnings4 ,therefore1 for the salvation of a constantly increasing culture1 a new generation is immediately necessary1 which will not do very much either1 for in order to come up with the father's culture the son must exhaust almost all the inherited energy which the father himself possessed at that stage of life when his son was born2 with the little addition he gets further on 7for as here the road is being traversed for the second time progress is--a little quicker2 in order to learn that which the father knew1 the son does not consume quite so much strength74 ,men of great elasticity1 like ,goethe1 for instance1 get through almost more than four generations in succession would be capable of2 but then they advance too quickly1 so that the rest of mankind only comes up with them in the next century1 and even then perhaps not completely1 because the exclusiveness of culture and the consecutiveness of development have been weakened by the frequent interruptions4 ,men catch up more quickly with the ordinary phases of intellectual culture which has been acquired in the course of history4 ,nowadays they begin to acquire culture as religiously inclined children1 and perhaps about their tenth year these sentiments attain to their highest point1 and are then changed into weakened forms 7pantheism71 whilst they draw near to science2 they entirely pass by ,god1 immortality1 and such-like things1 but are overcome by the witchcraft of a metaphysical philosophy4 ,eventually they find even this unworthy of belief2 art1 on the contrary1 seems to vouchsafe more and more1 so that for a time metaphysics is metamorphosed and continues to exist either as a transition to art or as an artistically transfiguring temperament4 ,but the scientific sense grows more imperious and conducts man to natural sciences and history1 and particularly to the severest methods of knowledge1 whilst art has always a milder and less exacting meaning4 ,all this usually happens within the first thirty years of a man's life4 ,it is the recapitulation of a pensum1 for which humanity had laboured perhaps thirty thousand years4 #bgc4 ,,retrograded1 ,,not ,,left ,,behind4--,whoever1 in the present day1 still derives his development from religious sentiments1 and perhaps lives for some length of time afterwards in metaphysics and art1 has assuredly gone back a considerable distance and begins his race with other modern men under unfavourable conditions2 he apparently loses time and space4 ,but because he stays in those domains where ardour and energy are liberated and force flows continuously as a volcanic stream out of an inexhaustible source1 he goes forward all the more quickly as soon as he has freed himself at the right moment from those dominators2 his feet are winged1 his breast has learned quieter1 longer1 and more enduring breathing4 ,he has only retreated in order to have sufficient room to leap2 thus something terrible and threatening may lie in this retrograde movement4 #bgd4 ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,our ,,ego ,,as ,,an ,,artistic ,,object4--,it is a sign of superior culture consciously to retain and present a true picture of certain phases of development which commoner men live through almost thoughtlessly and then efface from the tablets of their souls3 this is a higher species of the painter's art which only the few understand4 ,for this it is necessary to isolate those phases artificially4 ,historical studies form the qualification for this painting1 for they constantly incite us in regard to a portion of history1 a people1 or a human life1 to imagine for ourselves a quite distinct horizon of thoughts1 a certain strength of feelings1 the prominence of this or the obscurity of that4 ,herein consists the historic sense1 that out of given instances we can quickly reconstruct such systems of thoughts and feelings1 just as we can mentally reconstruct a temple out of a few pillars and remains of walls accidentally left standing4 ,the next result is that we understand our fellow-men as belonging to distinct systems and representatives of different cultures--that is1 as necessary1 but as changeable2 and1 again1 that we can separate portions of our own development and put them down independently4 #bge4 ,,cynics ,,and ,,epicureans4--,the cynic recognises the connection between the multiplied and stronger pains of the more highly cultivated man and the abundance of requirements2 he comprehends1 therefore1 that the multitude of opinions about what is beautiful1 suitable1 seemly and pleasing1 must also produce very rich sources of enjoyment1 but also of displeasure4 ,in accordance with this view he educates himself backwards1 by giving up many of these opinions and withdrawing from certain demands of culture2 he thereby gains a feeling of freedom and strength2 and gradually1 when habit has made his manner of life endurable1 his sensations of displeasure are1 as a matter of fact1 rarer and weaker than those of cultivated people1 and approach those of the domestic animal2 moreover1 he experiences everything with the charm of contrast1 and--he can also scold to his heart's content2 so that thereby he again rises high above the sensation-range of the animal4 ,the ,epicurean has the same point of view as the cynic2 there is usually only a difference of temperament between them4 ,then the ,epicurean makes use of his higher culture to render himself independent of prevailing opinions1 he raises himself above them1 whilst the cynic only remains negative4 ,he walks1 as it were1 in wind-protected1 well-sheltered1 half-dark paths1 whilst over him1 in the wind1 the tops of the trees rustle and show him how violently agitated is the world out there4 ,the cynic1 on the contrary1 goes1 as it were1 naked into the rushing of the wind and hardens himself to the point of insensibility4 #bgf4 ,,microcosm ,,and ,,macrocosm ,,of ,,culture4--,the best discoveries about culture man makes within himself when he finds two heterogeneous powers ruling therein4 ,supposing some one were living as much in love for the plastic arts or for music as he was carried away by the spirit of science1 and that he were to regard it as impossible for him to end this contradiction by the destruction of one and complete liberation of the other power1 there would therefore remain nothing for him to do but to erect around himself such a large edifice of culture that those two powers might both dwell within it1 although at different ends1 whilst between them there dwelt reconciling1 intermediary powers1 with predominant strength to quell1 in case of need1 the rising conflict4 ,but such an edifice of culture in the single individual will bear a great resemblance to the culture of entire periods1 and will afford consecutive analogical teaching concerning it4 ,for wherever the great architecture of culture manifested itself it was its mission to compel opposing powers to agree1 by means of an overwhelming accumulation of other less unbearable powers1 without thereby oppressing and fettering them4 #bgg4 ,,happiness ,,and ,,culture4--,we are moved at the sight of our childhood's surroundings1--the arbour1 the church with its graves1 the pond and the wood1--all this we see again with pain4 ,we are seized with pity for ourselves2 for what have we not passed through since then6 ,and everything here is so silent1 so eternal1 only we are so changed1 so moved2 we even find a few human beings1 on whom ,time has sharpened his teeth no more than on an oak tree1--peasants1 fishermen1 woodmen--they are unchanged4 ,emotion and self-pity at the sight of lower culture is the sign of higher culture2 from which the conclusion may be drawn that happiness has certainly not been increased by it4 ,whoever wishes to reap happiness and comfort in life should always avoid higher culture4 #bgh4 ,,the ,,simile ,,of ,,the ,,dance4--,it must now be regarded as a decisive sign of great culture if some one possesses sufficient strength and flexibility to be as pure and strict in discernment as1 in other moments1 to be capable of giving poetry1 religion1 and metaphysics a hundred paces' start and then feeling their force and beauty4 ,such a position amid two such different demands is very difficult1 for science urges the absolute supremacy of its methods1 and if this insistence is not yielded to1 there arises the other danger of a weak wavering between different impulses4 ,meanwhile1 to cast a glance1 in simile at least1 on a solution of this difficulty1 it may be remembered that dancing is not the same as a dull reeling to and fro between different impulses4 ,high culture will resemble a bold dance1--wherefore1 as has been said1 there is need of much strength and suppleness4 #bgi4 ,,of ,,the ,,relieving ,,of ,,life4--,a primary way of lightening life is the idealisation of all its occurrences2 and with the help of painting we should make it quite clear to ourselves what idealising means4 ,the painter requires that the spectator should not observe too closely or too sharply1 he forces him back to a certain distance from whence to make his observations2 he is obliged to take for granted a fixed distance of the spectator from the picture1--he must even suppose an equally certain amount of sharpness of eye in his spectator2 in such things he must on no account waver4 ,every one1 therefore1 who desires to idealise his life must not look at it too closely1 and must always keep his gaze at a certain distance4 ,this was a trick that ,goethe1 for instance1 understood4 #bhj4 ,,aggravation ,,as ,,relief1 ,,and ,,vice ,,versa4--,much that makes life more difficult in certain grades of mankind serves to lighten it in a higher grade1 because such people have become familiar with greater aggravations of life4 ,the contrary also happens2 for instance1 religion has a double face1 according to whether a man looks up to it to relieve him of his burden and need1 or looks down upon it as-upon fetters laid on him to prevent him from soaring too high into the air4 #bha4 ,,the ,,higher ,,culture ,,is ,,necessarily ,,misunderstood4--,he who has strung his instrument with only two strings1 like the scholars who1 besides the instinct of knowledge possess only an acquired religious instinct1 does not understand people who can play upon more strings4 ,it lies in the nature of the higher1 many-stringed culture that it should always be falsely interpreted by the lower2 an example of this is when art appears as a disguised form of the religious4 ,people who are only religious understand even science as a searching after the religious sentiment1 just as deaf mutes do not know what music is1 unless it be visible movement4 #bhb4 ,,lamentation4--,it is1 perhaps1 the advantages of our epoch that bring with them a backward movement and an occasional undervaluing of the vita contemplativa4 ,but it must be acknowledged that our time is poor in the matter of great moralists1 that ,pascal1 ,epictetus1 ,seneca1 and ,plutarch are now but little read1 that work and industry--formerly in the following of the great goddess ,health--sometimes appear to rage like a disease4 ,because time to think and tranquillity in thought are lacking1 we no longer ponder over different views1 but content ourselves with hating them4 ,with the enormous acceleration of life1 mind and eye grow accustomed to a partial and false sight and judgment1 and all people are like travellers whose only acquaintance with countries and nations is derived from the railway4 ,an independent and cautious attitude of knowledge is looked upon almost as a kind of madness2 the free spirit is brought into disrepute1 chiefly through scholars1 who miss their thoroughness and ant-like industry in his art of regarding things and would gladly banish him into one single corner of science1 while it has the different and higher mission of commanding the battalion rear-guard of scientific and learned men from an isolated position1 and showing them the ways and aims of culture4 ,a song of lamentation such as that which has just been sung will probably have its own period1 and will cease of its own accord on a forcible return of the genius of meditation4 #bhc4 ,,the ,,chief ,,deficiency ,,of ,,active ,,people4--,active people are usually deficient in the higher activity1 ,i mean individual activity4 ,they are active as officials1 merchants1 scholars1 that is as a species1 but not as quite distinct separate and single individuals2 in this respect they are idle4 ,it is the misfortune of the active that their activity is almost always a little senseless4 ,for instance1 we must not ask the money-making banker the reason of his restless activity1 it is foolish4 ,the active roll as the stone rolls1 according to the stupidity of mechanics4 ,all mankind is divided1 as it was at all times and is still1 into slaves and freemen2 for whoever has not two-thirds of his day for himself is a slave1 be he otherwise whatever he likes1 statesman1 merchant1 official1 or scholar4 #bhd4 ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,the ,,idle4--,as a sign that the value of a contemplative life has decreased1 scholars now vie with active people in a sort of hurried enjoyment1 so that they appear to value this mode of enjoying more than that which really pertains to them1 and which1 as a matter of fact1 is a far greater enjoyment4 ,scholars are ashamed of otium4 ,but there is one noble thing about idleness and idlers4 ,if idleness is really the beginning of all vice1 it finds itself1 therefore1 at least in near neighbourhood of all the virtues2 the idle man is still a better man than the active4 ,you do not suppose that in speaking of idleness and idlers ,i am alluding to you1 you sluggards8 #bhe4 ,,modern ,,unrest4--,modern restlessness increases towards the west1 so that ,americans look upon the inhabitants of ,europe as altogether peace-loving and enjoying beings1 whilst in reality they swarm about like wasps and bees4 ,this restlessness is so great that the higher culture cannot mature its fruits1 it is as if the seasons followed each other too quickly4 ,for lack of rest our civilisation is turning into a new barbarism4 ,at no period have the active1 that is1 the restless1 been of more importance4 ,one of the necessary corrections1 therefore1 which must be undertaken in the character of humanity is to strengthen the contemplative element on a large scale4 ,but every individual who is quiet and steady in heart and head already has the right to believe that he possesses not only a good temperament1 but also a generally useful virtue1 and even fulfils a higher mission by the preservation of this virtue4 #bhf4 ,to ,,what ,,extent ,,the ,,active ,,man ,,is ,,lazy4--,i believe that every one must have his own opinion about everything concerning which opinions are possible1 because he himself is a peculiar1 unique thing1 which assumes towards all other things a new and never hitherto existing attitude4 ,but idleness1 which lies at the bottom of the active man's soul1 prevents him from drawing water out of his own well4 ,freedom of opinion is like health2 both are individual1 and no good general conception can be set up of either of them4 ,that which is necessary for the health of one individual is the cause of disease in another1 and many means and ways to the freedom of the spirit are for more highly developed natures the ways and means to confinement4 #bhg4 ,,censor ,,vit--,alternations of love and hatred for a long period distinguish the inward condition of a man who desires to be free in his judgment of life2 he does not forget1 and bears everything a grudge1 for good and evil4 ,at last1 when the whole tablet of his soul is written full of experiences1 he will not hate and despise existence1 neither will he love it1 but will regard it sometimes with a joyful1 sometimes with a sorrowful eye1 and1 like nature1 will be now in a summer and now in an autumn mood4 #bhh4 ,,the ,,secondary ,,result4--,whoever earnestly desires to be free will therewith and without any compulsion lose all inclination for faults and vices2 he will also be more rarely overcome by anger and vexation4 ,his will desires nothing more urgently than to discern1 and the means to do this1--that is1 the permanent condition in which he is best able to discern4 #bhi4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,disease4--,the man who is bed-ridden often perceives that he is usually ill of his position1 business1 or society1 and through them has lost all self-possession4 ,he gains this piece of knowledge from the idleness to which his illness condemns him4 #bij4 ,,sensitiveness ,,in ,,the ,,country4--,if there are no firm1 quiet lines on the horizon of his life1 a species of mountain and forest line1 man's inmost will itself becomes restless1 inattentive1 and covetous1 as is the nature of a dweller in towns2 he has no happiness and confers no happiness4 #bia4 ,,prudence ,,of ,,the ,,free ,,spirits4--,free-thinkers1 those who live by knowledge alone1 will soon attain the supreme aim of their life and their ultimate position towards society and ,state1 and will gladly content themselves1 for instance1 with a small post or an income that is just sufficient to enable them to live2 for they will arrange to live in such a manner that a great change of outward prosperity1 even an overthrow of the political order1 would not cause an overthrow of their life4 ,to all these things they devote as little energy as possible in order that with their whole accumulated strength1 and with a long breath1 they may dive into the element of knowledge4 ,thus they can hope to dive deep and be able to see the bottom4 ,such a spirit seizes only the point of an event1 he does not care for things in the whole breadth and prolixity of their folds1 for he does not wish to entangle himself in them4 ,he1 too1 knows the weekdays of restraint1 of dependence and servitude4 ,but from time to time there must dawn for him a ,sunday of liberty1 otherwise he could not endure life4 ,it is probable that even his love for humanity will be prudent and somewhat short-winded1 for he desires to meddle with the world of inclinations and of blindness only as far as is necessary for the purpose of knowledge4 ,he must trust that the genius of justice will say something for its disciple and protege if accusing voices were to call him poor in love4 ,in his mode of life and thought there is a refined heroism1 which scorns to offer itself to the great mob-reverence1 as its coarser brother does1 and passes quietly through and out of the world4 ,whatever labyrinths it traverses1 beneath whatever rocks its stream has occasionally worked its way--when it reaches the light it goes clearly1 easily1 and almost noiselessly on its way1 and lets the sunshine strike down to its very bottom4 #bib4 ,,forward4--,and thus forward upon the path of wisdom1 with a firm step and good confidence6 ,however you may be situated1 serve yourself as a source of experience6 ,throw off the displeasure at your nature1 forgive yourself your own individuality1 for in any case you have in yourself a ladder with a hundred steps upon which you can mount to knowledge4 ,the age into which with grief you feel yourself thrown thinks you happy because of this good fortune2 it calls out to you that you shall still have experiences which men of later ages will perhaps be obliged to forego4 ,do not despise the fact of having been religious2 consider fully how you have had a genuine access to art4 ,can you not1 with the help of these experiences1 follow immense stretches of former humanity with a clearer understanding8 ,is not that ground which sometimes displeases you so greatly1 that ground of clouded thought1 precisely the one upon which have grown many of the most glorious fruits of older civilisations8 ,you must have loved religion and art as you loved mother and nurse1--otherwise you cannot be wise4 ,but you must be able to see beyond them1 to outgrow them2 if you1 remain under their ban you do not understand them4 ,you must also be familiar with history and that cautious play with the balances3 ,on the one hand--on the other hand4 ,go back1 treading in the footsteps made by mankind in its great and painful journey through the desert of the past1 and you will learn most surely whither it is that all later humanity never can or may go again4 ,and inasmuch as you wish with all your strength to see in advance how the knots of the future are tied1 your own life acquires the value of an instrument and means of knowledge4 ,it is within your power to see that all you have experienced1 trials1 errors1 faults1 deceptions1 passions1 your love and your hope1 shall be merged wholly in your aim4 ,this aim is to become a necessary chain of culture-links yourself1 and from this necessity to draw a conclusion as to the necessity in the progress of general culture4 ,when your sight has become strong enough to see to the bottom of the dark well of your nature and your knowledge1 it is possible that in its mirror you may also behold the far-away visions of future civilisations4 ,do you think that such a life with such an aim is too wearisome1 too empty of all that is agreeable8 ,then you have still to learn that no honey is sweeter than that of knowledge1 and that the overhanging clouds of trouble must be to you as an udder from which you shall draw milk for your refreshment4 ,and only when old age approaches will you rightly perceive how you listened to the voice of nature1 that nature which rules the whole world through pleasure2 the same life which has its zenith in age has also its zenith in wisdom1 in that mild sunshine of a constant mental joyfulness2 you meet them both1 old age and wisdom1 upon one ridge of life1--it was thus intended by ,nature4 ,then it is time1 and no cause for anger1 that the mists of death approach4 ,towards the light is your last movement2 a joyful cry of knowledge is your last sound4 ,footnote #a3 ,this may remind one of ,gobineau's more jocular saying3 ,nous ne descendons pas du singe1 mais nous y allons4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,this refers to his essay1 ,schopenhauer as ,educator1 in ,thoughts ,out of ,season1 vol4 ii4 of the ,english edition4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #c3 ,for it is when loving that mortal man gives of his best4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,sixth ,,division4 ,,man ,,in ,,society4 #bic4 ,,well-,,meant ,,dissimulation4--,in intercourse with men a well-meant dissimulation is often necessary1 as if we did not see through the motives of their actions4 #bid4 ,,copies4--,we not unfrequently meet with copies of prominent persons2 and as in the case of pictures1 so also here1 the copies please more than the originals4 #bie4 ,,the ,,public ,,speaker4--,one may speak with the greatest appropriateness1 and yet so that everybody cries out to the contrary1--that is to say1 when one does not speak to everybody4 #bif4 ,,want ,,of ,,confidence4--,want of confidence among friends is a fault that cannot be censured without becoming incurable4 #big4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,giving4--,to have to refuse a gift1 merely because it has not been offered in the right way1 provokes animosity against the giver4 #bih4 ,,the ,,most ,,dangerous ,,partisan4--,in every party there is one who1 by his far too dogmatic expression of the party-principles1 excites defection among the others4 #bii4 ,,advisers ,,of ,,the ,,sick4--,whoever gives advice to a sick person acquires a feeling of superiority over him1 whether the advice be accepted or rejected4 ,hence proud and sensitive sick persons hate advisers more than their sickness4 #cjj4 ,,double ,,nature ,,of ,,equality4--,the rage for equality may so manifest itself that we seek either to draw all others down to ourselves 7by belittling1 disregarding1 and tripping up71 or ourselves and all others upwards 7by recognition1 assistance1 and congratulation74 #cja4 ,,against ,,embarrassment4--,the best way to relieve and calm very embarrassed people is to give them decided praise4 #cjb4 ,,preference ,,for ,,certain ,,virtues4--,we set no special value on the possession of a virtue until we perceive that it is entirely lacking in our adversary4 #cjc4 ,,why ,,we ,,contradict4--,we often contradict an opinion when it is really only the tone in which it is expressed that is unsympathetic to us4 #cjd4 ,,confidence ,,and ,,intimacy4--,whoever proposes to command the intimacy of a person is usually uncertain of possessing his confidence4 ,whoever is sure of a person's confidence attaches little value to intimacy with him4 #cje4 ,,the ,,equilibrium ,,of ,,friendship4--,the right equilibrium of friendship in our relation to other men is sometimes restored when we put a few grains of wrong on our own side of the scales4 #cjf4 ,,the ,,most ,,dangerous ,,physicians4--,the most dangerous physicians are those who1 like born actors1 imitate the born physician with the perfect art of imposture4 #cjg4 ,,when ,,paradoxes ,,are ,,permissible4--,in order to interest clever persons in a theory1 it is sometimes only necessary to put it before them in the form of a prodigious paradox4 #cjh4 ,,how ,,courageous ,,people ,,are ,,won ,,over4--,courageous people are persuaded to a course of action by representing it as more dangerous than it really is4 #cji4 ,,courtesies4--,we regard the courtesies show us by unpopular persons as offences4 #caj4 ,,keeping ,,people ,,waiting4--,a sure way of exasperating people and of putting bad thoughts into their heads is to keep them waiting long4 ,that makes them immoral4 #caa4 ,,against ,,the ,,confidential4--,persons who give us their full confidence think they hay thereby a right to ours4 ,that is a mistake people acquire no rights through gifts4 #cab4 ,a ,,mode ,,of ,,settlement4--,it often suffices to give a person whom we have injured an opportunity to make a joke about us to give him personal satisfaction1 and even to make him favourably disposed to us4 #cac4 ,,the ,,vanity ,,of ,,the ,,tongue4--,whether man conceals his bad qualities and vices1 or frankly acknowledges them1 his vanity in either case seeks its advantage thereby1--only let it be observed how nicely he distinguishes those from whom he conceals such qualities from those with whom he is frank and honest4 #cad4 ,,considerate4--,to have no wish to offend or injure any one may as well be the sign of a just as of a timid nature4 #cae4 ,,requisite ,,for ,,disputation4--,he who cannot put his thoughts on ice should not enter into the heat of dispute4 #caf4 ,,intercourse ,,and ,,pretension4--,we forget our pretensions when we are always conscious of being amongst meritorious people2 being alone implants presumption in us4 ,the young are pretentious1 for they associate with their equals1 who are all ciphers but would fain have a great significance4 #cag4 ,,motives ,,of ,,an ,,attack4--,one does not attack a person merely to hurt and conquer him1 but perhaps merely to become conscious of one's own strength4 #cah4 ,,flattery4--,persons who try by means of flattery to put us off our guard in intercourse with them1 employ a dangerous expedient1 like a sleeping-draught1 which1 when it does not send the patient to sleep1 keeps him all the wider awake4 #cai4 ,a ,,good ,,letter-,,writer4--,a person who does not write books1 thinks much1 and lives in unsatisfying society1 will usually be a good letter-writer4 #cbj4 ,,the ,,ugliest ,,of ,,all4--,it may be doubted whether a person who has travelled much has found anywhere in the world uglier places than those to be met with in the human face4 #cba4 ,,the ,,sympathetic ,,ones4--,sympathetic natures1 ever ready to help in misfortune1 are seldom those that participate in joy2 in the happiness of others they have nothing to occupy them1 they are superfluous1 they do not feel themselves in possession of their superiority1 and hence readily show their displeasure4 #cbb4 ,,the ,,relatives ,,of ,a ,,suicide4--,the relatives of a suicide take it in ill part that he did not remain alive out of consideration for their reputation4 #cbc4 ,,ingratitude ,,foreseen4--,he who makes a large gift gets no gratitude2 for the recipient is already overburdened by the acceptance of the gift4 #cbd4 ,,in ,,dull ,,society4--,nobody thanks a witty man for politeness when he puts himself on a par with a society in which it would not be polite to show one's wit4 #cbe4 ,,the ,,presence ,,of ,,witnesses4--,we are doubly willing to jump into the water after some one who has fallen in1 if there are people present who have not the courage to do so4 #cbf4 ,,being ,,silent4--,for both parties in a controversy1 the most disagreeable way of retaliating is to be vexed and silent2 for the aggressor usually regards the silence as a sign of contempt4 #cbg4 ,,friends' ,,secrets4--,few people will not expose the private affairs of their friends when at a loss for a subject of conversation4 #cbh4 ,,humanity4--,the humanity of intellectual celebrities consists in courteously submitting to unfairness in intercourse with those who are ,i not celebrated4 #cbi4 ,,the ,,embarrassed4--,people who do not feel sure of themselves in society seize every opportunity of publicly showing their superiority to close friends1 for instance by teasing them4 #ccj4 ,,thanks4--,a refined nature is vexed by knowing that some one owes it thanks1 a coarse nature by knowing that it owes thanks to some one4 #cca4 ,a ,,sign ,,of ,,estrangement4--,the surest sign of the estrangement of the opinions of two persons is when they both say something ironical to each other and neither of them feels the irony4 #ccb4 ,,presumption ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,merit4--,presumption in connection with merit offends us even more than presumption in persons devoid of merit1 for merit in itself offends us4 #ccc4 ,,danger ,,in ,,the ,,voice4--,in conversation we are sometimes confused by the tone of our own voice1 and misled to make assertions that do not at all correspond to our opinions4 #ccd4 ,,in ,,conversation4--,whether in conversation with others we mostly agree or mostly disagree with them is a matter of habit2 there is sense in both cases4 #cce4 ,,fear ,,of ,,our ,,neighbour4--,we are afraid of the animosity of our neighbour1 because we are apprehensive that he may thereby discover our secrets4 #ccf4 ,,distinguishing ,,by ,,blaming4--,highly respected persons distribute even their blame in such fashion that they try to distinguish us therewith4 ,it is intended to remind us of their serious interest in us4 ,we misunderstand them entirely when we take their blame literally and protest against it2 we thereby offend them and estrange ourselves from them4 #ccg4 ,,indignation ,,at ,,the ,,goodwill ,,of ,,others4--,we are mistaken as to the extent to which we think we are hated or feared2 because1' though we ourselves know very well the extent of our divergence from a person1 tendency1 or party1 those others know us only superficially1 and can1 therefore1 only hate us superficially4 ,we often meet with goodwill which is inexplicable to us2 but when we comprehend it1 it shocks us1 because it shows that we are not considered with sufficient ,seriousness or importance4 #cch4 ,,thwarting ,,vanities4--,when two persons meet whose vanity is equally great1 they have afterwards a bad impression of each other because each has been so occupied with the impression he wished to produce on the other that the other has made no impression upon him2 at last it becomes clear to them both that their efforts have been in vain1 and each puts the blame on the other4 #cci4 ,,improper ,,behaviour ,,as ,a ,,good ,,sign4--,a superior mind takes pleasure in the tactlessness1 pretentiousness1 and even hostility of ambitious youths2 it is the vicious habit of fiery horses which have not yet carried a rider1 but1 in a short time1 will be so proud to carry one4 #cdj4 ,,when ,,it ,,is ,,advisable ,,to ,,suffer ,,wrong4--,it is well to put up with accusations without refutation1 even when they injure us1 when the accuser would see a still greater fault on our part if we contradicted and perhaps even refuted him4 ,in this way1 certainly1 a person may always be wronged and always have right on his side1 and may eventually1 with the best conscience in the world1 become the most intolerable tyrant and tormentor2 and what happens in the individual may also take place in whole classes of society4 #cda4 ,too ,,little ,,honoured4--,very conceited persons1 who have received less consideration than they expected1 attempt for a long time to deceive themselves and others with regard to it1 and become subtle psychologists in order to make out that they have been amply honoured4 ,should they not attain their aim1 should the veil of deception be torn1 they give way to all the greater fury4 #cdb4 ,,primitive ,,conditions ,,re--,,echoing ,,in ,,speech4--,by the manner in which people make assertions in their intercourse we often recognise an echo of the times when they were more conversant with weapons than anything else2 sometimes they handle their assertions like sharp-shooters using their arms1 sometimes we think we hear the whizz and clash of swords1 and with some men an assertion crashes down like a stout cudgel4 ,women1 on the contrary1 speak like beings who for thousands of years have sat at the loom1 plied the needle1 or played the child with children4 #cdc4 ,,the ,,narrator4--,he who gives an account of something readily betrays whether it is because the fact interests him1 or because he wishes to excite interest by the narration4 ,in the latter case he will exaggerate1 employ superlatives1 and such like4 ,he then does not usually tell his story so well1 because he does not think so much about his subject as about himself4 #cdd4 ,,the ,,reciter4--,he who recites dramatic works makes discoveries about his own character2 he finds his voice more natural in certain moods and scenes than in others1 say in the pathetic or in the scurrilous1 while in ordinary life1 perhaps1 he has not had the opportunity to exhibit pathos or scurrility4 #cde4 ,a ,,comedy ,,scene ,,in ,,real ,,life4--,some one conceives an ingenious idea on a theme in order to express it in society4 ,now in a comedy we should hear and see how he sets all sail for that point1 and tries to land the company at the place where he can make his remark1 how he continuously pushes the conversation towards the one goal1 sometimes losing the way1 finding it again1 and finally arriving at the moment3 he is almost breathless--and then one of the company takes the remark itself out of his mouth6 ,what will he do8 ,oppose his own opinion8 #cdf4 ,,unintentionally ,,discourteous4--,when a person treats another with unintentional discourtesy1--for instance1 not greeting him because not recognising him1--he is vexed by it1 although he cannot reproach his own sentiments2 he is hurt by the bad opinion which he has produced in the other person1 or fears the consequences of his bad humour1 or is pained by the thought of having injured him1--vanity1 fear1 or pity may therefore be aroused2 perhaps all three together4 #cdg4 ,a ,,masterpiece ,,of ,,treachery4--,to express a tantalising distrust of a fellow-conspirator1 lest he should betray one1 and this at the very moment when one is practising treachery one's self1 is a masterpiece of wickedness2 because it absorbs the other's attention and compels him for a time to act very unsuspiciously and openly1 so that the real traitor has thus acquired a free hand4 #cdh4 ,to ,,injure ,,and ,,to ,,be ,,injured4--,it is far pleasanter to injure and afterwards beg for forgiveness than to be injured and grant forgiveness4 ,he who does the former gives evidence of power and afterwards of kindness of character4 ,the person injured1 however1 if he does not wish to be considered inhuman1 must forgive2 his enjoyment of the other's humiliation is insignificant on account of this constraint4 #cdi4 ,,in ,a ,,dispute4--,when we contradict another's opinion and at the same time develop our own1 the constant consideration of the other opinion usually disturbs the natural attitude of our own which appears more intentional1 more distinct1 and perhaps somewhat exaggerated4 #cej4 ,,an ,,artifice4--,he who wants to get another to do something difficult must on no account treat the matter as a problem1 but must set forth his plan plainly as the only one possible2 and when the adversary's eye betrays objection and opposition he must understand how to break off quickly1 and allow him no time to put in a word4 #cea4 ,,pricks ,,of ,,conscience ,,after ,,social ,,gatherings4--,why does our conscience prick us after ordinary social gatherings8 ,because we have treated serious things lightly1 because in talking of persons we have not spoken quite justly or have been silent when we should have spoken1 because1 sometimes1 we have not jumped up and run away1--in short1 because we have behaved in society as if we belonged to it4 #ceb4 ,,we ,,are ,,misjudged4--,he who always listens to hear how he is judged is always vexed4 ,for we are misjudged even by those who are nearest to us 7who know us best74 ,even good friends sometimes vent their ill-humour in a spiteful word2 and would they be our friends if they knew us rightly8 ,the judgments of the indifferent wound us deeply1 because they sound so impartial1 so objective almost4 ,but when we see that some one hostile to us knows us in a concealed point as well as we know ourselves1 how great is then our vexation6 #cec4 ,,the ,,tyranny ,,of ,,the ,,portrait4--,artists and statesmen1 who out of particular features quickly construct the whole picture of a man or an event1 are mostly unjust in demanding that the event or person should afterwards be actually as they have painted it2 they demand straightway that a man should be just as gifted1 cunning1 and unjust as he is in their representation of him4 #ced4 ,,relatives ,,as ,,the ,,best ,,friends4--,the ,greeks1 who knew so well what a friend was1 they alone of all peoples have a profound and largely philosophical discussion of friendship2 so that it is by them firstly 7and as yet lastly7 that the problem of the friend has been recognised as worthy of solution1--these same ,greeks have designated relatives by an expression which is the superlative of the word friend4 ,this is inexplicable to me4 #cee4 ,,misunderstood ,,honesty4--,when any one quotes himself in conversation 7,i then said1 ,i am accustomed to say71 it gives the impression of presumption2 whereas it often proceeds from quite an opposite source2 or at least from honesty1 which does not wish to deck and adorn the present moment with wit which belongs to an earlier moment4 #cef4 ,,the ,,parasite4--,it denotes entire absence of a noble disposition when a person prefers to live in dependence at the expense of others1 usually with a secret bitterness against them1 in order only that he may not be obliged to work4 ,such a disposition is far more frequent in women than in men1 also far more pardonable 7for historical reasons74 #ceg4 ,,on ,,the ,,altar ,,of ,,reconciliation4--,there are circumstances under which one can only gain a point from a person by wounding him and becoming hostile2 the feeling of having a foe torments him so much that he gladly seizes the first indication of a milder disposition to effect a reconciliation1 and offers on the altar of this reconciliation what was formerly of such importance to him that he would not give it up at any price4 #ceh4 ,,presumption ,,in ,,demanding ,,pity4--,there are people who1 when they have been in a rage and have insulted others1 demand1 firstly1 that it shall all be taken in good part2 and1 secondly1 that they shall be pitied because they are subject to such violent paroxysms4 ,so far does human presumption extend4 #cei4 ,,bait4--,every man has his price--that is not true4 ,but perhaps every one can be found a bait of one kind or other at which he will snap4 ,thus1 in order to gain some supporters for a cause1 it is only necessary to give it the glamour of being philanthropic1 noble1 charitable1 and self-denying--and to what cause could this glamour not be given6 ,it is the sweetmeat and dainty of their soul2 others have different ones4 #cfj4 ,,the ,,attitude ,,in ,,praising4--,when good friends praise a gifted person he often appears to be delighted with them out of politeness and goodwill1 but in reality he feels indifferent4 ,his real nature is quite unmoved towards them1 and will not budge a step on that account out of the sun or shade in which it lies2 but people wish to please by praise1 and it would grieve them if one did not rejoice when they praise a person4 #cfa4 ,,the ,,experience ,,of ,,socrates4--,if one has become a master in one thing1 one has generally remained1 precisely thereby1 a complete dunce in most other things2 but one forms the very reverse opinion1 as was already experienced by ,socrates4 ,this is the annoyance which makes association with masters disagreeable4 #cfb4 ,a ,,means ,,of ,,defence4--,in warring against stupidity1 the most just and gentle of men at last become brutal4 ,they are thereby1 perhaps1 taking the proper course for defence2 for the most appropriate argument for a stupid brain is the clenched fist4 ,but because1 as has been said1 their character is just and gentle1 they suffer more by this means of protection than they injure their opponents by it4 #cfc4 ,,curiosity4--,if curiosity did not exist1 very little would be done for the good of our neighbour4 ,but curiosity creeps into the houses of the unfortunate and the needy under the name of duty or of pity4 ,perhaps there is a good deal of curiosity even in the much-vaunted maternal love4 #cfd4 ,,disappointment ,,in ,,society4--,one man wishes to be interesting for his opinions1 another for his likes and dislikes1 a third for his acquaintances1 and a fourth for his solitariness--and they all meet with disappointment4 ,for he before whom the play is performed thinks himself the only play that is to be taken into account4 #cfe4 ,,the ,,duel4--,it may be said in favour of duels and all affairs of honour that if a man has such susceptible feelings that he does not care to live when ,so-and-so says or thinks this or that about him2 he has a right to make it a question of the death of the one or the other4 ,with regard to the fact that he is so susceptible1 it is not at all to be remonstrated with1 in that matter we are the heirs of the past1 of its greatness as well as of its exaggerations1 without which no greatness ever existed4 ,so when there exists a code of honour which lets blood stand in place of death1 so that the mind is relieved after a regular duel it is a great blessing1 because otherwise many human lives would be in danger4 ,such an institution1 moreover1 teaches men to be cautious in their utterances and makes intercourse with them possible4 #cff4 ,,nobleness ,,and ,,gratitude4--,a noble soul will be pleased to owe gratitude1 and will not anxiously avoid opportunities of coming under obligation2 it will also be moderate afterwards in the expression of its gratitude3 baser souls1 on the other hand1 are unwilling to be under any obligation1 or are afterwards immoderate in their expressions of thanks and altogether too devoted4 ,the latter is1 moreover1 also the case with persons of mean origin or depressed circumstances2 to show them a favour seems to them a miracle of grace4 #cfg4 ,,occasions ,,of ,,eloquence4--,in order to talk well one man needs a person who is decidedly and avowedly his superior to talk to1 while another can only find absolute freedom of speech and happy turns of eloquence before one who is his inferior4 ,in both cases the cause is the same2 each of them talks well only when he talks sans gne--the one because in the presence of something higher he does not feel the impulse of rivalry and competition1 the other because he also lacks the same impulse in the presence of something lower4 ,now there is quite another type of men1 who talk well only when debating1 with the intention of conquering4 ,which of the two types is the more aspiring3 the one that talks well from excited ambition1 or the one that talks badly or not at all from precisely the same motive8 #cfh4 ,,the ,,talent ,,for ,,friendship4--,two types are distinguished amongst people who have a special faculty for friendship4 ,the one is ever on the ascent1 and for every phase of his development he finds a friend exactly suited to him4 ,the series of friends which he thus acquires is seldom a consistent one1 and is sometimes at variance and in contradiction1 entirely in accordance with the fact that the later phases of his development neutralise or prejudice the earlier phases4 ,such a man may jestingly be called a ladder4 ,the other type is represented by him who exercises an attractive influence on very different characters and endowments1 so that he wins a whole circle of friends2 these1 however1 are thereby brought voluntarily into friendly relations with one another in spite of all differences4 ,such a man may be called a circle1 for this homogeneousness of such different temperaments and natures must somehow be typified in him4 ,furthermore1 the faculty for having good friends is greater in many people than the faculty for being a good friend4 #cfi4 ,,tactics ,,in ,,conversation4--,after a conversation with a person one is best pleased with him ,i when one has had an opportunity of exhibiting one's intelligence and amiability in all its glory4 ,shrewd people who wish to impress a person favourably make use of this circumstance1 they provide him with the best opportunities for making a good ,i joke1 and so on in conversation4 ,an amusing conversation might be imagined between two very shrewd persons1 each wishing to impress the other favourably1 and therefore each throwing to the other the finest chances in conversation1 which neither of them accepted1 so that the conversation on the whole might turn out spiritless and unattractive because each assigned to the other the opportunity of being witty and charming4 #cgj4 ,,discharge ,,of ,,indignation4--,the man who meets with a failure attributes this failure rather to the ill-will of another than to fate4 ,his irritated feelings are alleviated by thinking that a person and not a thing is the cause of his failure2 for he can revenge himself on persons1 but is obliged to swallow down the injuries of fate4 ,therefore when anything has miscarried with a prince1 those about him are accustomed to point out some individual as the ostensible cause1 who is sacrificed in the interests of all the courtiers2 for otherwise the prince's indignation would vent itself on them all1 as he can take no revenge on the ,goddess of ,destiny herself4 #cga4 ,,assuming ,,the ,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,environment4--,why are likes and dislikes so contagious that we can hardly live near a very sensitive person without being filled1 like a hogshead1 with his fors and againsts8 ,in the first place1 complete forbearance of judgment is very difficult1 and sometimes absolutely intolerable to our vanity2 it has the same appearance as poverty of thought and sentiment1 or as timidity and unmanliness2 and so we are1 at least1 driven on to take a side1 perhaps contrary to our environment1 if this attitude gives greater pleasure to our pride4 ,as a rule1 however1--and this is the second point1--we are not conscious of the transition from indifference to liking or disliking1 but we gradually accustom ourselves to the sentiments of our environment1 and because sympathetic agreement and acquiescence are so agreeable1 we soon wear all the signs and party-colours of our surroundings4 #cgb4 ,,irony4--,irony is only permissible as a pedagogic expedient1 on the part of a teacher when dealing with his pupils2 its purpose is to humble and to shame1 but in the wholesome way that causes good resolutions to spring up and teaches people to show honour and gratitude1 as they would to a doctor1 to him who has so treated them4 ,the ironical man pretends to be ignorant1 and does it so well that the pupils conversing with him are deceived1 and in their firm belief in their own superior knowledge they grow bold and expose all their weak points2 they lose their cautiousness and reveal themselves as they are1--until all of a sudden the light which they have held up to the teacher's face casts its rays back very humiliatingly upon themselves4 ,where such a relation1 as that between teacher and pupil1 does not exist1 irony is a rudeness and a vulgar conceit4 ,all ironical writers count on the silly species of human beings1 who like to feel ,ithemselves superior to all others in common with the author himself1 whom they look upon as the 8mouthpiece of their arrogance4 ,moreover1 the habit of irony1 like that of sarcasm1 spoils the character2 lit gradually fosters the quality of a malicious superiority2 one finally grows like a snappy dog1 that has learnt to laugh as well as to bite4 #cgc4 ,,arrogance4--,there is nothing one should so guard against as the growth of the weed called arrogance1 which spoils all one's good harvest2 for there is arrogance in cordiality1 in showing honour1 in kindly familiarity1 in caressing1 in friendly counsel1 in acknowledgment of faults1 in sympathy for others1--and all these fine things arouse aversion when the weed in question grows up among them4 ,the arrogant man--that is to say1 he who desires to appear more than he is or passes for--always miscalculates4 ,it is true that he obtains a momentary success1 inasmuch as those with whom he is' arrogant generally give him the amount of honour that he demands1 owing to fear or for the sake of convenience2 but they take a bad revenge for it1 inasmuch as they subtract from the value which they hitherto attached to him just as much as he demands above that amount4 ,there is nothing for which men ask to be paid dearer than for humiliation4 ,the arrogant man can make his really great merit so suspicious and small in the eyes of others that they tread on it with dusty feet4 ,if at all1 we should only allow ourselves a proud manner where we are quite sure of not being misunderstood and considered as arrogant2 as1 for instance1 with friends and wives4 ,for in social intercourse there is no greater folly than to acquire a reputation for arrogance2 it is still worse than not having learnt to deceive politely4 #cgd4 ,t,,te--,t,,te--,private conversation is the perfect conversation1 because everything the one' person says receives its particular colouring1 its tone1 and its accompanying gestures out of strict consideration for the other person engaged in the conversation1 it therefore corresponds to what takes place in intercourse by letter1 viz41 that one and the same person exhibits ten kinds of psychical expression1 according as he writes now to this individual and now to that one4 ,in duologue there is only a single refraction of thought2 the person conversed with produces it1 as the mirror in whom we want to behold our thoughts anew in their finest form4 ,but how is it when there are two or three1 or even more persons conversing with one8 ,conversation then necessarily loses something of its individualising subtlety1 different considerations thwart and neutralise each other2 the style which pleases one does not suit the taste of another4 ,in intercourse with several individuals a person is therefore to withdraw within himself and represent facts as they are2 but he has also to remove from the subjects the pulsating ether of humanity which makes conversation one of the pleasantest things in the world4 ,listen only to the tone in which those who mingle with whole groups of men are in the habit of speaking2 it is as if the fundamental base of all speech were1 ,it is myself2 ,i say this1 so make what you will of it6 ,that is the reason why clever ladies usually leave a singular1 painful1 and forbidding impression on those who have met them in society2 it is the talking to many people1 before many people1 that robs them of all intellectual amiability and shows only their conscious dependence on themselves1 their tactics1 and their intention of gaining a public victory in full light2 whilst in a private conversation the same ladies become womanly again1 and recover their intellectual grace and charm4 #cge4 ,,posthumous ,,fame4--,there is sense in hoping for recognition in a distant future only when we take it for granted that mankind will remain essentially unchanged1 and that whatever is great is not for one age only but will be looked upon as great for all time4 ,but this is an error4 ,in all their sentiments and judgments concerning what is good and beautiful mankind have greatly changed2 it is mere fantasy to imagine one's self to be a mile ahead1 and that the whole of mankind is coming our way4 ,besides1 a scholar who is misjudged may at present reckon with certainty that his discovery will be made by others1 and that1 at best1 it will be allowed to him later on by some historian that he also already knew this or that but was not in a position to secure the recognition of his knowledge4 ,not to be recognised1 is always interpreted by posterity as lack of power4 ,in short1 one should not so readily speak in favour of haughty solitude4 ,there are1 however1 exceptional cases2 but it is chiefly our faults1 weakness1 and follies that hinder the recognition of our great qualities4 #cgf4 ,,of ,,friends4--,just consider with thyself how different are the feelings1 how divided are the opinions of even the nearest acquaintances2 how even the same opinions in thy friend's mind have quite a different aspect and strength from what they have in thine own2 and how manifold are the occasions which arise for misunderstanding and hostile severance4 ,after all this thou wilt say to thyself1 ,how insecure is the ground upon which all our alliances and friendships rest1 how liable to cold downpours and bad weather1 how lonely is every creature6 ,when a person recognises this fact1 and1 in addition1 that all opinions and the nature and strength of them in his fellow-men are just as necessary and irresponsible as their actions2 when his eye learns to see this internal necessity of opinions1 owing to the indissoluble interweaving of character1 occupation1 talent1 and environment1--he will perhaps get rid of the bitterness and sharpness of the feeling with which the sage exclaimed1 ,friends1 there are no friends6 ,much rather will he make the confession to himself3--,yes1 there are friends1 but they were drawn towards thee by error and deception concerning thy character2 and they must have learnt to be silent in order to remain thy friends2 for such human relationships almost always rest on the fact that some few things are never said1 are never1 indeed1 alluded to2 but if these pebbles are set rolling friendship follows afterwards and is broken4 ,are there any who would not be mortally injured if they were to learn what their most intimate friends really knew about them8 ,by getting a knowledge of ourselves1 and by looking upon our nature as a changing sphere of opinions and moods1 and thereby learning to despise ourselves a little1 we recover once more our equilibrium with the rest of mankind4 ,it is true that we have good reason to despise each of our acquaintances1 even the greatest of them2 but just as good reason to turn this feeling against ourselves4 ,and so we will bear with each other1 since we bear with ourselves2 and perhaps there will come to each a happier hour1 when he will exclaim3 ,friends1 there are really no friends6 thus cried th' expiring old sophist2 ,foes1 there is really no foe6--thus shout ,i1 the incarnate fool4 ,,seventh ,,division4 ,,wife ,,and ,,child4 #cgg4 ,,the ,,perfect ,,woman4--,the perfect woman is a higher type of humanity than the perfect man1 and also something much rarer4 ,the natural history of animals furnishes grounds in support of this theory4 #cgh4 ,,friendship ,,and ,,marriage4--,the best friend will probably get the best wife1 because a good marriage is based on talent for friendship4 #cgi4 ,,the ,,survival ,,of ,,the ,,parents4--,the undissolved dissonances in the relation of the character and sentiments of the parents survive in the nature of the child and make up the history of its inner sufferings4 #chj4 ,,inherited ,,from ,,the ,,mother4--,every one bears within him an image of woman1 inherited from his mother3 it determines his attitude towards women as a whole1 whether to honour1 despise1 or remain generally indifferent to them4 #cha4 ,,correcting ,,nature4--,whoever has not got a good father should procure one4 #chb4 ,,fathers ,,and ,,sons4--,fathers have much to do to make amends for having sons4 #chc4 ,,the ,,error ,,of ,,gentlewomen4--,gentle-women think that a thing does not really exist when it is not possible to talk of it in society4 #chd4 ,a ,,male ,,disease4--,the surest remedy for the male disease of self-contempt is to be loved by a sensible woman4 #che4 ,a ,,species ,,of ,,jealousy4--,mothers are readily jealous of the friends of sons who are particularly successful4 ,as a rule a mother loves herself in her son more than the son4 #chf4 ,,rational ,,irrationality4--,in the maturity of life and intelligence the feeling comes over a man that his father did wrong in begetting him4 #chg4 ,,maternal ,,excellence4--,some mothers need happy and honoured children1 some need unhappy ones1--otherwise they cannot exhibit their maternal excellence4 #chh4 ,,different ,,sighs4--,some husbands have sighed over the elopement of their wives1 the greater number1 however1 have sighed because nobody would elope with theirs4 #chi4 ,,love ,,matches4--,marriages which are contracted for love 7so-called love-matches7 have error for their father and need 7necessity7 for their mother4 #cij4 ,,women',s ,,friendships4--,women can enter into friendship with a man perfectly well2 but in order to maintain it the aid of a little physical antipathy is perhaps required4 #cia4 ,,ennui4--,many people1 especially women1 never feel ennui because they have never learnt to work properly4 #cib4 ,,an ,,element ,,of ,,love4--,in all feminine love something of maternal love also comes to light4 #cic4 ,,unity ,,of ,,place ,,and ,,drama4--,if married couples did not live together1 happy marriages would be more frequent4 #cid4 ,,the ,,usual ,,consequences ,,of ,,marriage4--,all intercourse which does not elevate a person1 debases him1 and vice versa2 hence men usually sink a little when they marry1 while women are somewhat elevated4 ,over-intellectual men require marriage in proportion as they are opposed to it as to a repugnant medicine4 #cie4 ,,learning ,,to ,,command4--,children of unpretentious families must be taught to command1 just as much as other children must be taught to obey4 #cif4 ,,wanting ,,to ,,be ,,in ,,love4--,betrothed couples who have been matched by convenience often exert themselves to fall in love1 to avoid the reproach of cold1 calculating expediency4 ,in the same manner those who become converts to ,christianity for their advantage exert themselves to become genuinely pious2 because the religious cast of countenance then becomes easier to them4 #cig4 ,no ,,standing ,,still ,,in ,,love4--,a musician who loves the slow tempo will play the same pieces ever more slowly4 ,there is thus no standing still in any love4 #cih4 ,,modesty4--,women's modesty usually increases with their beauty4#a #cii4 ,,marriage ,,on ,a ,,good ,,basis4--,a marriage in which each wishes to realise an individual aim by means of the other will stand well2 for instance1 when the woman wishes to become famous through the man and the man beloved through the woman4 #djj4 ,,proteus-,,nature4--,through love women actually become what they appear to be in the imagination of their lovers4 #dja4 ,to ,,love ,,and ,,to ,,possess4--,as a rule women love a distinguished man to the extent that they wish to possess him exclusively4 ,they would gladly keep him under lock and key1 if their vanity did not forbid1 but vanity demands that he should also appear distinguished before others4 #djb4 ,,the ,,test ,,of ,a ,,good ,,marriage4--,the goodness of a marriage is proved by the fact that it can stand an exception4 #djc4 ,,bringing ,,anyone ,,round ,,to ,,anything4--,one may make any person so weak and weary by disquietude1 anxiety1 and excess of work or thought that he no longer resists anything that appears complicated1 but gives way to it1--diplomatists and women know this4 #djd4 ,,propriety ,,and ,,honesty4--,those girls who mean to trust exclusively to their youthful charms for their provision in life1 and whose cunning is further prompted by worldly mothers1 have just the same aims as courtesans1 only they are wiser and less honest4 #dje4 ,,masks4--,there are women who1 wherever one examines them1 have no inside1 but are mere masks4 ,a man is to be pitied who has connection with such almost spectre-like and necessarily unsatisfactory creatures1 but it is precisely such women who know how to excite a man's desire most strongly2 he seeks for their soul1 and seeks evermore4 #djf4 ,,marriage ,,as ,a ,,long ,,talk4--,in entering on a marriage one should ask one's self the question1 ,do you think you will pass your time well with this woman till your old age8 ,all else in marriage is transitory2 talk1 however1 occupies most of the time of the association4 #djg4 ,,girlish ,,dreams4--,inexperienced girls flatter themselves with the notion that it is in their power to make a man happy2 later on they learn that it is equivalent to underrating a man to suppose that he needs only a girl to make him happy4 ,women's vanity requires a man to be something more than merely a happy husband4 #djh4 ,,the ,,dying-,,out ,,of ,,faust ,,and ,,marguerite4--,according to the very intelligent remark of a scholar1 the educated men of modern ,germany resemble somewhat a mixture of ,mephistopheles and ,wagner1 but are not at all like ,faust1 whom our grandfathers 7in their youth at least7 felt agitating within them4 ,to them1 therefore1--to continue the remark1--,marguerites are not suited1 for two reasons4 ,and because the latter are no longer desired they seem to be dying out4 #dji4 ,,classical ,,education ,,for ,,girls4--,for goodness' sake let us not give our classical education to girls6 ,an education which1 out of ingenious1 inquisitive1 ardent youths1 so frequently makes--copies of their teacher6 #daj4 ,,without ,,rivals4--,women readily perceive in a man whether his soul has already been taken possession of2 they wish to be loved without rivals1 and find fault with the objects of his ambition1 his political tasks1 his sciences and arts1 if he have a passion for such things4 ,unless he be distinguished thereby1--then1 in the case of a love-relationship between them1 women look at the same time for an increase of their own distinction2 under such circumstances1 they favour the lover4 #daa4 ,,the ,,feminine ,,intellect4--,the intellect of women manifests itself as perfect mastery1 presence of mind1 and utilisation of all advantages4 ,they transmit it as a fundamental quality to their children1 and the father adds thereto the darker background of the will4 ,his influence determines as it were the rhythm and harmony with which the new life is to be performed2 but its melody is derived from the mother4 ,for those who know how to put a thing properly3 women have intelligence1 men have character and passion4 ,this does not contradict the fact that men actually achieve so much more with their intelligence3 they have deeper and more powerful impulses2 and it is these which carry their understanding 7in itself something passive7 to such an extent4 ,women are often silently surprised at the great respect men pay to their character4 ,when1 therefore1 in the choice of a partner men seek specially for a being of deep and strong character1 and women for a being of intelligence1 brilliancy1 and presence of mind1 it is plain that at bottom men seek for the ideal man1 and women for the ideal woman1--consequently not for the complement but for the completion of their own excellence4 #dab4 ,,hesiod',s ,,opinion ,,confirmed4--,it is a sign of women's wisdom that they have almost always known how to get themselves supported1 like drones in a bee-hive4 ,let us just consider what this meant originally1 and why men do not depend upon women for their support4 ,of a truth it is because masculine vanity and reverence are greater than feminine wisdom2 for women have known how to secure for themselves by their subordination the greatest advantage1 in fact1 the upper hand4 ,even the care of children may originally have been used by the wisdom of women as an excuse for withdrawing themselves as much as possible from work4 ,and at present they still understand when they are really active 7as house-keepers1 for instance7 how to make a bewildering fuss about it1 so that the merit of their activity is usually ten times over-estimated by men4 #dac4 ,,lovers ,,as ,,short-,,sighted ,,people4--,a pair of powerful spectacles has sometimes sufficed to cure a person in love2 and whoever has had sufficient imagination to represent a face or form twenty years older1 has probably gone through life not much disturbed4 #dad4 ,,women ,,in ,,hatred4--,in a state of hatred women are more dangerous than men2 for one thing1 because they are hampered by no regard for fairness when their hostile feelings have been aroused2 but let their hatred develop unchecked to its utmost consequences2 then also1 because they are expert in finding sore spots 7which every man and every party possess71 and pouncing upon them3 for which purpose their dagger-pointed intelligence is of good service 7whilst men1 hesitating at the sight of wounds1 are often generously and conciliatorily inclined74 #dae4 ,,love4--,the love idolatry which women practise is fundamentally and originally an intelligent device1 inasmuch as they increase their power by all the idealisings of love and exhibit themselves as so much the more desirable in the eyes of men4 ,but by being accustomed for centuries to this exaggerated appreciation of love1 it has come to pass that they have been caught in their own net and have forgotten the origin of the device4 ,they themselves are now still more deceived than the men1 and on that account also suffer more from the disillusionment which1 almost necessarily1 enters into the life of every woman--so far1 at any rate1 as she has sufficient imagination and intelligence to be able to be deceived and undeceived4 #daf4 ,,the ,,emancipation ,,of ,,women4--,can women be at all just1 when they are so accustomed to love and to be immediately biased for or against8 ,for that reason they are also less interested in things and more in individuals3 but when they are interested in things they immediately become their partisans1 and thereby spoil their pure1 innocent effect4 ,thus there arises a danger1 by no means small1 in entrusting politics and certain portions of science to them 7history1 for instance74 ,for what is rarer than a woman who really knows what science is8 ,indeed the best of them cherish in their breasts a secret scorn for science1 as if they were somehow superior to it4 ,perhaps all this can be changed in time2 but meanwhile it is so4 #dag4 ,,the ,,inspiration ,,in ,,women',s ,,judgments4--,the sudden decisions1 for or against1 which women are in the habit of making1 the flashing illumination of personal relations caused by their spasmodic inclinations and aversions1--in short1 the proofs of feminine injustice have been invested with a lustre by men who are in love1 as if all women had inspirations of wisdom1 even without the ,delphic cauldron and the laurel wreaths2 and their utterances are interpreted and duly set forth as ,sibylline oracles for long afterwards4 ,when one considers1 however1 that for every person and for every cause something can be said in favour of it but equally also something against it1 that things are not only two-sided1 but also three and four-sided1 it is almost difficult to be entirely at fault in such sudden decisions2 indeed1 it might be said that the nature of things has been so arranged that women should always carry their point4#b #dah4 ,,being ,,loved4--,as one of every two persons in love is usually the one who loves1 the other the one who is loved1 the belief has arisen that in every love-affair there is a constant amount of love2 and that the more of it the one person monopolises the less is left for the other4 ,exceptionally it happens that the vanity of each of the parties persuades him or her that it is he or she who must be loved2 so that both of them wish to be loved3 from which cause many half funny1 half absurd scenes take place1 especially in married life4 #dai4 ,,contradictions ,,in ,,feminine ,,minds4--,owing to the fact that women are so much more personal than objective1 there are tendencies included in the range of their ideas which are logically in contradiction to one another2 they are accustomed in turn to become enthusiastically fond just of the representatives of these tendencies and accept their systems in the lump2 but in such wise that a dead place originates wherever a new personality afterwards gets the ascendancy4 ,it may happen that the whole philosophy in the mind of an old lady consists of nothing but such dead places4 #dbj4 ,,who ,,suffers ,,the ,,more8--,after a personal dissension and quarrel between a woman and a man the latter party suffers chiefly from the idea of having wounded the other1 whilst the former suffers chiefly from the idea of not having wounded the other sufficiently2 so she subsequently endeavours by tears1 sobs1 and discomposed mien1 to make his heart heavier4 #dba4 ,,an ,,opportunity ,,for ,,feminine ,,magnanimity4--,if we could disregard the claims of custom in our thinking we might consider whether nature and reason do not suggest several marriages for men1 one after another3 perhaps that1 at the age of twenty-two1 he should first marry an older girl who is mentally and morally his superior1 and can be his leader through all the dangers of the twenties 7ambition1 hatred1 self-contempt1 and passions of all kinds74 ,this woman's affection would subsequently change entirely into maternal love1 and she would not only submit to it but would encourage the man in the most salutary manner1 if in his thirties he contracted an alliance with quite a young girl whose education he himself should take in hand4 ,marriage is a necessary institution for the twenties2 a useful1 but not necessary1 institution for the thirties2 for later life it is often harmful1 and promotes the mental deterioration of the man4 #dbb4 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,,childhood4--,perhaps it not infrequently happens that noble men with lofty aims have to fight their hardest battle in childhood2 by having perchance to carry out their principles in opposition to a base-minded father addicted to feigning and falsehood1 or living1 like ,lord ,byron1 in constant warfare with a childish and passionate mother4 ,he who has had such an experience will never be able to forget all his life who has been his greatest and most dangerous enemy4 #dbc4 ,,parental ,,folly4--,the grossest mistakes in judging a man are made by his parents1--this is a fact1 but how is it to be explained8 ,have the parents too much experience of the child and cannot any longer arrange this experience into a unity8 ,it has been noticed that it is only in the earlier period of their sojourn in foreign countries that travellers rightly grasp the general distinguishing features of a people2 the better they come to know it1 they are the less able to see what is typical and distinguishing in a people4 ,as soon as they grow short-sighted their eyes cease to be long-sighted4 ,do parents1 therefore1 judge their children falsely because they have never stood far enough away from them8 ,the following is quite another explanation3 people are no longer accustomed to reflect on what is close at hand and surrounds them1 but just accept it4 ,perhaps the usual thoughtlessness of parents is the reason why they judge so wrongly when once they are compelled to judge their children4 #dbd4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,marriage4--,the noble and liberal-minded women who take as their mission the education and elevation of the female sex1 should not overlook one point of view3 ,marriage regarded in its highest aspect1 as1 the spiritual friendship of two persons of opposite sexes1 and accordingly such as is hoped for in future1 contracted for the purpose of producing and educating a new generation1--such marriage1 which only makes use of the sensual1 so to speak1 as a rare and occasional means to a higher purpose1 will1 it is to be feared1 probably need a natural auxiliary1 namely1 concubinage4 ,for if1 on the grounds of his health1 the wife is also to serve for the sole satisfaction of the man's sexual needs1 a wrong perspective1 opposed to the aims indicated1 will have most influence in the choice of a wife4 ,the aims referred to3 the production of descendants1 will be accidental1 and their successful education highly improbable4 ,a good wife1 who has to be friend1 helper1 child-bearer1 mother1 family-head and manager1 and has even perhaps to conduct her own business and affairs separately from those of the husband1 cannot at the same time be a concubine2 it would1 in general1 be asking too much of her4 ,in the future1 therefore1 a state of things might take place the opposite of what existed at ,athens in the time of ,pericles2 the men1 whose wives were then little more to them than concubines1 turned besides to the ,aspasias1 because they longed for the charms of a companionship gratifying both to head and heart1 such as the grace and intellectual suppleness of women could alone provide4 ,all human institutions1 just like marriage1 allow only a moderate amount of practical idealising1 failing which coarse remedies immediately become necessary4 #dbe4 ,,the ,,storm ,,and ,,stress ,,period of ,,women4--,in the three or four civilised countries of ,europe1 it is possible1 by several centuries of education1 to make out of women anything we like1--even men1 not in a sexual sense1 of course1 but in every other4 ,under such influences they will acquire all the masculine virtues and forces1 at the same time1 of course1 they must also have taken all the masculine weaknesses and vices into the bargain3 so much1 as has been said1 we can ,i command4 ,but how shall we endure the intermediate state thereby induced1 which may even last two or three centuries1 during which feminine follies and injustices1 woman's original birthday endowment1 will still maintain the ascendancy over all that has been otherwise gained and acquired8 ,this will be the time when indignation will be the peculiar masculine passion2 indignation1 because all arts and sciences have been overflowed and choked by an unprecedented dilettanteism1 philosophy talked to death by brain-bewildering chatter1 politics more fantastic and partisan than ever1 and society in complete disorganisation1 because the conservatrices of ancient customs have become ridiculous to themselves1 and have endeavoured in every way to place themselves outside the pale of custom4 ,if indeed women had their greatest power in custom1 where will they have to look in order to reacquire a similar plenitude of power after having renounced custom8 #dbf4 ,,free-,,spirit ,,and ,,marriage4--,will free-thinkers live with women8 ,in general1 ,i think that1 like the prophesying birds of old1 like the truth-thinkers and truth-speakers of the present1 they must prefer to fly alone4 #dbg4 ,,the ,,happiness ,,of ,,marriage4--,everything to which we are accustomed draws an ever-tightening cobweb-net around us2 and presently ,we notice that the threads have become cords1 and that we ourselves sit in the middle like a spider that has here got itself caught and must feed on its own blood4 ,hence the free spirit hates all rules and customs1 all that is permanent and definitive1 hence he painfully tears asunder again and again the net around him1 though in consequence thereof he will suffer from numerous wounds1 slight and severe2 for he must break off every thread from himself1 from his body and soul4 ,he must learn to love where he has hitherto hated1 and vice versa4 ,indeed1 it must not be a thing impossible for him to sow dragon's teeth in the same field in which he formerly scattered the abundance of his bounty4 ,from this it can be inferred whether he is suited for the happiness of marriage4 #dbh4 ,,too ,,intimate4--,when we live on too intimate terms with a person it is as if we were again and again handling a good engraving with our fingers2 the time comes when we have soiled and damaged paper in our hands1 and nothing more4 ,a man's soul also gets worn out by constant handling2 at least1 it eventually appears so to us--never again do we see its original design and beauty4 ,we always lose through too familiar association with women and friends2 and sometimes we lose the pearl of our life thereby4 #dbi4 ,,the ,,golden ,,cradle4--,the free spirit will always feel relieved when he has finally resolved to shake off the motherly care and guardianship with which women surround him4 ,what harm will a rough wind1 from which he has been so anxiously protected1 do him8 ,of what consequence is a genuine disadvantage1 loss1 misfortune1 sickness1 illness1 fault1 or folly more or less in his life1 compared with the bondage of the golden cradle1 the peacock's-feather fan1 and the oppressive feeling that he must1 in addition1 be grateful because he is waited on and spoiled like a baby8 ,hence it is that the milk which is offered him by the motherly disposition of the women about him can so readily turn into gall4 #dcj4 ,a ,,voluntary ,,victim4--,there is nothing by1 which able women can so alleviate the lives of their husbands1 should these be great and famous1 as by becoming1 so to speak1 the receptacle for the general disfavour and occasional ill-humour of the rest of mankind4 ,contemporaries are usually accustomed to overlook many mistakes1 follies1 and even flagrant injustices in their great men if only they can find some one to maltreat and kill1 as a proper victim for the relief of their feelings4 ,a wife not infrequently has the ambition to present herself for this sacrifice1 and then the husband may indeed feel satisfied1--he being enough of an egoist to have such a voluntary storm1 rain1 and lightning-conductor beside him4 #dca4 ,,agreeable ,,adversaries4--,the natural inclination1 of women towards quiet1 regular1 happily tuned existences and intercourse1 the oil-like and calming effect of their influence upon the sea of life1 operates unconsciously against the heroic inner impulse of the free spirit4 ,without knowing it1 women act as if they were taking away the stones from the path of the wandering mineralogist in order that he might not strike his foot against them--when he has gone out for the very purpose of striking against them4 #dcb4 ,,the ,,discord ,,of ,,two ,,concords4--,woman wants to serve1 and finds her happiness therein2 the free spirit does not want to be served1 and therein finds his happiness4 #dcc4 ,,xantippe4--,socrates found a wife such as he required1--but he would not have sought her had he known her sufficiently well2 even the heroism of his free spirit would not have gone so far4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,xantippe forced him more and more into his peculiar profession1 inasmuch as she made house and home doleful and dismal to him2 she taught him to live in the streets and wherever gossiping and idling went on1 and thereby made him the greatest ,athenian street-dialectician1 who had1 at last1 to compare himself to a gad-fly which a god had set on the neck of the beautiful horse ,athens to prevent it from resting4 #dcd4 ,,blind ,,to ,,the ,,future4--,just as mothers have senses and eye only for those pains of their children that are evident to the senses and eye1 so the wives of men of high aspirations cannot accustom themselves to see their husbands suffering1 starving1 or slighted1--although all this is1 perhaps1 not only the proof that they have rightly chosen their attitude in life1 but even the guarantee that their great aims must be achieved some time4 ,women always intrigue privately against the higher souls of their husbands2 they want to cheat them out of their future for the sake of a painless and comfortable present4 #dce4 ,,authority ,,and ,,freedom4--,however highly women may honour their husbands1 they honour still more the powers and ideas recognised by society2 they have been accustomed for millennia to go along with their hands folded on their breasts1 and their heads bent before everything dominant1 disapproving of all resistance to public authority4 ,they therefore unintentionally1 and as if from instinct1 hang themselves as a drag on the wheels of free-spirited1 independent endeavour1 and in certain circumstances make their husbands highly impatient1 especially when the latter persuade themselves that it is really love which prompts the action of their wives4 ,to disapprove of women's methods and generously to honour the motives that prompt them--that is man's nature and often enough his despair4 #dcf4 ,,ceterum ,,censeo4--,it is laughable when a company of paupers decree the abolition of the right of inheritance1 and it is not less laughable when childless persons labour for the practical law-giving of a country3 they have not enough ballast in their ship to sail safely over the ocean of the future4 ,but it seems equally senseless if a man who has chosen for his mission the widest knowledge and estimation of universal existence1 burdens himself with personal considerations for a family1 with the support1 protection1 and care of wife and child1 and in front of his telescope hangs that gloomy veil through which hardly a ray from the distant firmament can penetrate4 ,thus ,i1 too1 agree with the opinion that in matters of the highest philosophy all married men are to be suspected4 #dcg4 ,,finally4--,there are many kinds of hemlock1 and fate generally finds an opportunity to put a cup of this poison to the lips of the free spirit1--in order to punish him1 as every one then says4 ,what do the women do about him then8 ,they cry and lament1 and perhaps disturb the sunset-calm of the thinker1 as they did in the prison at ,athens4 ,oh ,crito1 bid some one take those women away6 said ,socrates at last4 ,footnote #a3 ,the opposite of this aphorism also holds good4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,it may be remarked that ,nietzsche changed his view on this subject later on1 and ascribed more importance to woman's intuition4 ,cf4 also ,disraeli's reference to the ,high ,priestesses of predestination4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,eighth ,,division4 ,a ,,glance ,,at ,,the ,,state4 #dch4 ,,asking ,,to ,,be ,,heard4--,the demagogic disposition and the intention of working upon the masses is at present common to all political parties2 on this account they are all obliged to change their principles into great al fresco follies and thus make a show of them4 ,in this matter there is no further alteration to be made3 indeed1 it is superfluous even to raise a finger against it2 for here ,voltaire's saying applies3 ,quand la populace se mle de raisonner1 tout est perdu4 ,since this has happened we have to accommodate ourselves to the new conditions1 as we have to accommodate ourselves when an earthquake has displaced the old boundaries and the contour of the land and altered the value of property4 ,moreover1 when it is once for all a question in the politics of all parties to make life endurable to the greatest possible majority1 this majority may always decide what they understand by an endurable life2 if they believe their intellect capable of finding the right means to this end why should we doubt about it8 ,they want1 once for all1 to be the architects of their own good or ill fortune2 and if their feeling of free choice and their pride in the five or six ideas that their brain conceals and brings to light1 really makes life so agreeable to them that they gladly put up with the fatal consequences of their narrow-mindedness1 there is little to object to1 provided that their narrow-mindedness does not go so far as to demand that everything shall become politics in this sense1 that all shall live and act according to this standard4 ,for1 in the first place1 it must be more than ever permissible for some people to keep aloof from politics and to stand somewhat aside4 ,to this they are also impelled by the pleasure of free choice1 and connected with this there may even be some little pride in keeping silence when too many1 and only the many1 are speaking4 ,then this small group must be excused if they do not attach such great importance to the happiness of the majority 7nations or strata of population may be understood thereby71 and are occasionally guilty of an ironical grimace2 for their seriousness lies elsewhere1 their conception of happiness is quite different1 and their aim cannot be encompassed by every clumsy hand that has just five fingers4 ,finally1 there comes from time to time--what is certainly most difficult to concede to them1 but must also be conceded--a moment when they emerge from their silent solitariness and try once more the strength of their lungs2 they then call to each other like people lost in a wood1 to make themselves known and for mutual encouragement2 whereby1 to be sure1 much becomes audible that sounds evil to ears for which it is not intended4 ,soon1 however1 silence again prevails in the wood1 such silence that the buzzing1 humming1 and fluttering of the countless insects that live in1 above1 and beneath it1 are again plainly heard4 #dci4 ,,culture ,,and ,,caste4--,a higher culture can only originate where there are two distinct castes of society3 that of the working class1 and that of the leisured class who are capable of true leisure2 or1 more strongly expressed1 the caste of compulsory labour and the caste of free labour4 ,the point of view of the division of happiness is not essential when it is a question of the production of a higher culture2 in any case1 however1 the leisured caste is more susceptible to suffering and suffer more1 their pleasure in existence is less and their task is greater4 ,now supposing there should be quite an interchange between the two castes1 so that on the one hand the duller and less intelligent families and individuals are lowered from the higher caste into the lower1 and1 on the other hand1 the freer men of the lower caste obtain access to the higher1 a condition of things would be attained beyond which one can only perceive the open sea of vague wishes4 ,thus speaks to us the vanishing voice of the olden time2 but where are there still ears to hear it8 #ddj4 ,,of ,,good ,,blood4--,that which men and women of good blood possess much more than others1 and which gives them an undoubted right to be more highly appreciated1 are two arts which are always increased by inheritance3 the art of being able to command1 and the art of proud obedience4 ,now wherever commanding is the business of the day 7as in the great world of commerce and industry71 there results something similar to these families of good blood1 only the noble bearing in obedience is lacking which is an inheritance from feudal conditions and hardly grows any longer in the climate of our culture4 #dda4 ,,subordination4--,the subordination which is so highly valued in military and official ranks will soon become as incredible to us as the secret tactics of the ,jesuits have already become2 and when this subordination is no longer possible a multitude of astonishing results will no longer be attained1 and the world will be all the poorer4 ,it must disappear1 for its foundation is disappearing1 the belief in unconditional authority1 in ultimate truth2 even in military ranks physical compulsion is not sufficient to produce it1 but only the inherited adoration of the princely as of something superhuman4 ,in freer circumstances people subordinate themselves only on conditions1 in compliance with a mutual contract1 consequently with all the provisos of self-interest4 #ddb4 ,,the ,,national ,,army4--,the greatest disadvantage of the national army1 now so much glorified1 lies in the squandering of men of the highest civilisation2 it is only by the favourableness of all circumstances that there are such men at all2 how carefully and anxiously should we deal with them1 since long periods are required to create the chance conditions for the production of such delicately organised brains6 ,but as the ,greeks wallowed in the blood of ,greeks1 so do ,europeans now in the blood of ,europeans3 and indeed1 taken relatively1 it is mostly the highly cultivated who are sacrificed1 those who promise an abundant and excellent posterity2 for such stand in the front of the battle as commanders1 and also expose themselves to most danger1 by reason of their higher ambition4 ,at present1 when quite other and higher tasks are assigned than patria and honor1 the rough ,roman patriotism is either something dishonourable or a sign of being behind the times4 #ddc4 ,,hope ,,as ,,presumption4--,our social order will slowly melt away1 as all former orders have done1 as soon as the suns of new opinions have shone upon mankind with a new glow4 ,we can only wish this melting away in the hope thereof1 and we are only reasonably entitled to hope when we believe that we and our equals have more strength in heart and head than the representatives of the existing state of things4 ,as a rule1 therefore1 this hope will be a presumption1 an over-estimation4 #ddd4 ,,war4--,against war it may be said that it makes the victor stupid and the vanquished revengeful4 ,in favour of war it may be said that it barbarises in both its above-named results1 and thereby makes more natural2 it is the sleep or the winter period of culture2 man emerges from it with greater strength for good and for evil4 #dde4 ,,in ,,the ,,prince',s ,,service4--,to be able to act quite regardlessly it is best for a statesman to carry out his work not for himself but for a prince4 ,the eye of the spectator is dazzled by the splendour of this general disinterestedness1 so that it does not see the malignancy and severity which the work of a statesman brings with it4#a #ddf4 ,a ,,question ,,of ,,power1 ,,not ,,of ,,right4--,as regards ,socialism1 in the eyes of those who always consider higher utility1 if it is really a rising against their oppressors of those who for centuries have been oppressed and downtrodden1 there is no problem of right involved 7notwithstanding the ridiculous1 effeminate question1 ,how far ought we to grant its demands87 but only a problem of power2 the same1 therefore1 as in the case of a natural force1--steam1 for instance1--which is either forced by man into his service1 as a machine-god1 or which1 in case of defects of the machine1 that is to say1 defects of human calculation in its construction1 destroys it and man together4 ,in order to solve this question of power we must know how strong ,socialism is1 in what modification it may yet be employed as a powerful lever in the present mechanism of political forces2 under certain circumstances we should do all we can to strengthen it4 ,with every great force--be it the most dangerous--men have to think how they can make of it an instrument for their purposes4 ,socialism acquires a right only if war seems to have taken place between the two powers1 the representatives of the old and the new1 when1 however1 a wise calculation of the greatest possible preservation and advantageousness to both sides gives rise to a desire for a treaty4 ,without treaty no right4 ,so far1 however1 there is neither war nor treaty on the ground in question1 therefore no rights1 no ought4 #ddg4 ,,utilising ,,the ,,most ,,trivial ,,dishonesty4--,the power of the press consists in the fact that every individual who ministers to it only feels himself bound and constrained to a very small extent4 ,he usually expresses his opinion1 but sometimes also does not express it in order to serve his party or the politics of his country1 or even himself4 ,such little faults of dishonesty1 or perhaps only of a dishonest silence1 are not hard to bear by the individual1 but the consequences are extraordinary1 because these little faults are committed by many at the same time4 ,each one says to himself3 ,for such small concessions ,i live better and can make my income2 by the want of such little compliances ,i make myself impossible4 ,because it seems almost morally indifferent to write a line more 7perhaps even without signature71 or not to write it1 a person who has money and influence can make any opinion a public one4 ,he who knows that most people are weak in trifles1 and wishes to attain his own ends thereby1 is always dangerous4 #ddh4 ,too ,,loud ,a ,,tone ,,in ,,grievances4--,through the fact that an account of a bad state of things 7for instance1 the crimes of an administration1 bribery and arbitrary favour in political or learned bodies7 is greatly exaggerated1 it fails in its effect on intelligent people1 but has all the greater effect on the unintelligent 7who would have remained indifferent to an accurate and moderate account74 ,but as these latter are considerably in the majority1 and harbour in themselves stronger will-power and more impatient desire for action1 the exaggeration becomes the cause of investigations1 punishments1 promises1 and reorganisations4 ,in so far it is useful to exaggerate the accounts of bad states of things4 #ddi4 ,,the ,,apparent ,,weather--,,makers ,,of ,,politics4--,just as people tacitly assume that he who understands the weather1 and foretells it about a day in advance1 makes the weather1 so even the educated and learned1 with a display of superstitious faith1 ascribe to great statesmen as their most special work all the important changes and conjunctures that have taken place during their administration1 when it is only evident that they knew something thereof a little earlier than other people and made their calculations accordingly1--thus they are also looked upon as weather-makers--and this belief is not the least important instrument of their power4 #dej4 ,,new ,,and ,,old ,,conceptions ,,of ,,government4--,to draw such a distinction between ,government and people as if two separate spheres of power1 a stronger and higher1 and a weaker and lower1 negotiated and came to terms with each other1 is a remnant of transmitted political sentiment1 which still accurately represents the historic establishment of the conditions of power in most ,states4 ,when ,bismarck1 for instance1 describes the constitutional system as a compromise between ,government and people1 he speaks in accordance with a principle which has its reason in history 7from whence1 to be sure1 it also derives its admixture of folly1 without which nothing human can exist74 ,on the other hand1 we must now learn--in accordance with a principle which has originated only in the brain and has still to make history--that ,government is nothing but an organ of the people1--not an attentive1 honourable higher in relation to a lower accustomed to modesty4 ,before we accept this hitherto unhistorical and arbitrary1 although logical1 formulation of the conception of ,government1 let us but consider its consequences1 for the relation between people and ,government is the strongest typical relation1 after the pattern of which the relationship between teacher and pupil1 master and servants1 father and family1 leader and soldier1 master and apprentice1 is unconsciously formed4 ,at present1 under the influence of the prevailing constitutional system of government1 all these relationships are changing a little1--they are becoming compromises4 ,but how they will have to be reversed and shifted1 and change name and nature1 when that newest of all conceptions has got the upper hand everywhere in people's minds6--to achieve which1 however1 a century may yet be required4 ,in this matter there is nothing further to be wished for except caution and slow development4 #dea4 ,,justice ,,as ,,the ,,decoy-,,cry ,,of ,,parties4--,well may noble 7if not exactly very intelligent7 representatives of the governing classes asseverate3 ,we will treat men equally and grant them equal rights2 so far a socialistic mode of thought which is based on justice is possible2 but1 as has been said1 only within the ranks of the governing class1 which in this case practises justice with sacrifices and abnegations4 ,on the other hand1 to demand equality of rights1 as do the ,socialists of the subject caste1 is by no means the outcome of justice1 but of covetousness4 ,if you expose bloody pieces of flesh to a beast1 and withdraw them again1 until it finally begins to roar1 do you think that roaring implies justice8 #deb4 ,,possession ,,and ,,justice4--,when the ,socialists point out that the division of property at the present day is the consequence of countless deeds of injustice and violence1 and1 in summa1 repudiate obligation to anything with so unrighteous a basis1 they only perceive something isolated4 ,the entire past of ancient civilisation is built up on violence1 slavery1 deception1 and error2 we1 however1 cannot annul ourselves1 the heirs of all these conditions1 nay1 the concrescences of all this past1 and are not entitled to demand the withdrawal of a single fragment thereof4 ,the unjust disposition lurks also in the souls of non-possessors2 they are not better than the possessors and have no moral prerogative2 for at one time or another their ancestors have been possessors4 ,not forcible new distributions1 but gradual transformations of opinion are necessary2 justice in all matters must become greater1 the instinct of violence weaker4 #dec4 ,,the ,,helmsman ,,of ,,the ,,passions4--,the statesman excites public passions in order to have the advantage of the counter-passions thereby aroused4 ,to give an example3 a ,german statesman knows quite well that the ,catholic ,church will never have the same plans as ,russia2 indeed1 that it would far rather be allied with the ,turk than with the former country2 he likewise knows that ,germany is threatened with great danger from an alliance between ,france and ,russia4 ,if he can succeed1 therefore1 in making ,france the focus and fortress of the ,catholic ,church1 he has averted this danger for a lengthy period4 ,he has1 accordingly1 an interest in showing hatred against the ,catholics in transforming1 by all kinds of hostility1 the supporters of the ,pope's authority into an impassioned political power which is opposed to ,german politics1 and must1 as a matter of course1 coalesce with ,france as the adversary of ,germany2 his aim is the catholicising of ,france1 just as necessarily as ,mirabeau saw the salvation of his native land in de-catholicising it4 ,the one ,state1 therefore1 desires to muddle millions of minds of another ,state in order to gain advantage thereby4 ,it is the same disposition which supports the republican form of government of a neighbouring ,state--le dsordre organis1 as ,mrime says--for the sole reason that it assumes that this form of government makes the nation weaker1 more distracted1 less fit for war4 #ded4 ,,the ,,dangerous ,,revolutionary ,,spirits4--,those who are bent on revolutionising society may be divided into those who seek something for themselves thereby and those who seek something for their children and grandchildren4 ,the latter are the more dangerous1 for they have the belief and the good conscience of disinterestedness4 ,the others can be appeased by favours3 those in power are still sufficiently rich and wise to adopt that expedient4 ,the danger begins as soon as the aims become impersonal2 revolutionists seeking impersonal interests may consider all defenders of the present state of things as personally interested1 and may therefore feel themselves superior to their opponents4 #dee4 ,,the ,,political ,,value ,,of ,,paternity4--,when a man has no sons he has not a full right to join in a discussion concerning the needs of a particular community4 ,a person must himself have staked his dearest object along with the others3 that alone binds him fast to the ,state2 he must have in view the well-being of his descendants1 and must1 therefore1 above all1 have descendants in order to take a right and natural share in all institutions and the changes thereof4 ,the development of higher morality depends on a person's having sons2 it disposes him to be un-egoistic1 or1 more correctly1 it extends his egoism in its duration and permits him earnestly to strive after goals which lie beyond his individual lifetime4 #def4 ,,pride ,,of ,,descent4--,a man may be justly proud of an unbroken line of good ancestors down to his father1--not however of the line itself1 for every one has that4 ,descent from good ancestors constitutes the real nobility of birth2 a single break in the chain1 one bad ancestor1 therefore1 destroys the nobility of birth4 ,every one who talks about his nobility should be asked3 ,have you no violent1 avaricious1 dissolute1 wicked1 cruel man amongst your ancestors8 ,if with good cognisance and conscience he can answer ,no1 then let his friendship be sought4 #deg4 ,,slaves ,,and ,,labourers4--,the fact that we regard the gratification of vanity as of more account than all other forms of well-being 7security1 position1 and pleasures of all sorts71 is shown to a ludicrous extent by every one wishing for the abolition of slavery and utterly abhorring to put any one into this position 7apart altogether from political reasons71 while every one must acknowledge to himself that in all respects slaves live more securely and more happily than modern labourers1 and that slave labour is very easy labour compared with that of the labourer4 ,we protest in the name of the dignity of man2 but1 expressed more simply1 that is just our darling vanity which feels non-equality1 and inferiority in public estimation1 to be the hardest lot of all4 ,the cynic thinks differently concerning the matter1 because he despises honour3--and so ,diogenes was for some time a slave and tutor4 #deh4 ,,leading ,,minds ,,and ,,their ,,instruments4--,we see that great statesmen1 and in general all who have to employ many people to carry out their plans1 sometimes proceed one way and sometimes another2 they either choose with great skill and care the people suitable for their plans1 and then leave them a comparatively large amount of liberty1 because they know that the nature of the persons selected impels them precisely to the point where they themselves would have them go2 or else they choose badly1 in fact take whatever comes to hand1 but out of every piece of clay they form something useful for their purpose4 ,these latter minds are the more high-handed2 they also desire more submissive instruments2 their knowledge of mankind is usually much smaller1 their contempt of mankind greater than in the case of the first mentioned class1 but the machines they construct generally work better than the machines from the workshops of the former4 #dei4 ,,arbitrary ,,law ,,necessary4--,jurists dispute whether the most perfectly thought-out law or that which is most easily understood should prevail in a nation4 ,the former1 the best model of which is ,roman ,law1 seems incomprehensible to the layman1 and is therefore not the expression of his sense of justice4 ,popular laws1 the ,germanic1 for instance1 have been rude1 superstitious1 illogical1 and in part idiotic1 but they represented very definite1 inherited national morals and sentiments4 ,but where1 as with us1 law i no longer custom1 it can only command and be compulsion2 none of us any longer possesses a traditional sense of justice2 we must therefore content ourselves with arbitrary laws1 which are the expressions of the necessity that there must be law4 ,the most logical is then in any case the most acceptable1 because it is the most impartial1 granting even that in every case the smallest unit of measure in the relation of crime and punishment is arbitrarily fixed4 #dfj4 ,,the ,,great ,,man ,,of ,,the ,,masses4--,the recipe for what the masses call a great man is easily given4 ,in all circumstances let a person provide them with something very pleasant1 or first let him put it into their heads that this or that would be very pleasant1 and then let him give it to them4 ,on no account give it immediately1 however3 but let him acquire it by the greatest exertions1 or seem thus to acquire it4 ,the masses must have the impression that there is a powerful1 nay indomitable strength of will operating2 at least it must seem to be there operating4 ,everybody admires a strong will1 because nobody possesses it1 and everybody says to himself that if he did possess it there would no longer be any bounds for him and his egoism4 ,if1 then1 it becomes evident that such a strong will effects something very agreeable to the masses1 instead of hearkening to the wishes of covetousness1 people admire once more1 and wish good luck to themselves4 ,moreover1 if he has all the qualities of the masses1 they are the less ashamed before him1 and he is all the more popular4 ,consequently1 he may be violent1 envious1 rapacious1 intriguing1 flattering1 fawning1 inflated1 and1 according to circumstances1 anything whatsoever4 #dfa4 ,,prince ,,and ,,god4--,people frequently commune with their princes in the same way as with their ,god1 as indeed the prince himself was frequently the ,deity's representative1 or at least ,his high priest4 ,this almost uncanny disposition of veneration1 disquiet1 and shame1 grew1 and has grown1 much weaker1 but occasionally it flares up again1 and fastens upon powerful persons generally4 ,the cult of genius is an echo of this veneration of ,gods and ,princes4 ,wherever an effort is made to exalt particular men to the superhuman1 there is also a tendency to regard whole grades of the population as coarser and baser than they really are4 #dfb4 ,,my ,,utopia4--,in a better arranged society the heavy work and trouble of life will be assigned to those who suffer least through it1 to the most obtuse1 therefore2 and so step by step up to those who are most sensitive to the highest and sublimest kinds of suffering1 and who therefore still suffer notwithstanding the greatest alleviations of life4 #dfc4 ,a ,,delusion ,,in ,,subversive ,,doctrines4--,there are political and social dreamers who ardently and eloquently call for the overthrow of all order1 in the belief that the proudest fane of beautiful humanity will then rear itself immediately1 almost of its own accord4 ,in these dangerous dreams there is still an echo of ,rousseau's superstition1 which believes in a marvellous primordial goodness of human nature1 buried up1 as it were2 and lays all the blame of that burying-up on the institutions of civilisation1 on society1 ,state1 and education4 ,unfortunately1 it is well known by historical experiences that every such overthrow reawakens into new life the wildest energies1 the long-buried horrors and extravagances of remotest ages2 that an overthrow1 therefore1 may possibly be a source of strength to a deteriorated humanity1 but never a regulator1 architect1 artist1 or perfecter of human nature4 ,it was not ,voltaire's moderate nature1 inclined towards regulating1 purifying1 and reconstructing1 but ,rousseau's passionate follies and half-lies that aroused the optimistic spirit of the ,revolution1 against which ,i cry1 crasez l'infme6 ,owing to this the ,spirit of enlightenment and progressive development has been long scared away2 let us see--each of us individually--if it is not possible to recall it6 #dfd4 ,,moderation4--,when perfect resoluteness in thinking and investigating1 that is to say1 freedom of spirit1 has become a feature of character1 it produces moderation of conduct2 for it weakens avidity1 attracts much extant energy for the furtherance of intellectual aims1 and shows the semi-usefulness1 or uselessness and danger1 of all sudden changes4 #dfe4 ,,the ,,resurrection ,,of ,,the ,,spirit4--,a nation usually renews its youth on a political sick-bed1 and there finds again the spirit which it had gradually lost in seeking and maintaining power4 ,culture is indebted most of all to politically weakened periods4 #dff4 ,,new ,,opinions ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,home4--,the overthrow of opinions is not immediately followed by the overthrow of institutions2 on the contrary1 the new opinions dwell for a long time in the desolate and haunted house of their predecessors1 and conserve it even for want of a habitation4 #dfg4 ,,public ,,education4--,in large ,states public education will always be extremely mediocre1 for the same reason that in large kitchens the cooking is at best only mediocre4 #dfh4 ,,innocent ,,corruption4--,in all institutions into which the sharp breeze of public criticism does not penetrate an innocent corruption grows up like a fungus 7for instance1 in learned bodies and senates74 #dfi4 ,,scholars ,,as ,,politicians4--,to scholars who become politicians the comic role is usually assigned2 they have to be the good conscience of a state policy4 #dgj4 ,,the ,,wolf ,,hidden ,,behind ,,the ,,sheep4--,almost every politician1 in certain circumstances1 has such need of an honest man that he breaks into the sheep-fold like a famished wolf2 not1 however1 to devour a stolen sheep1 but to hide himself behind its woolly back4 #dga4 ,,happy ,,times4--,a happy age is no longer possible1 because men only wish for it but do not desire to have it2 and each individual1 when good days come for him1 learns positively to pray for disquiet and misery4 ,the destiny of mankind is arranged for happy moments--every life has such--but not for happy times4 ,nevertheless1 such times will continue to exist in man's imagination as over the hills and far away1 an heirloom of his earliest ancestors2 for the idea of the happy age1 from the earliest times to the present1 has no doubt been derived from the state in which man1 after violent exertions in hunting and warfare1 gives himself over to repose1 stretches out his limbs1 and hears the wings of sleep rustle around him4 ,it is a false conclusion when1 in accordance with that old habit1 man imagines that after whole periods of distress and trouble he will be able also to enjoy the state of happiness in proportionate increase and duration4 #dgb4 ,,religion ,,and ,,government4--,so long as the ,state1 or1 more properly1 the ,government1 regards itself as the appointed guardian of a number of minors1 and on their account considers the question whether religion should be preserved or abolished1 it is highly probable that it will always decide for the preservation thereof4 ,for religion satisfies the nature of the individual in times of loss1 destitution1 terror1 and distrust1 in cases1 therefore1 where the ,government feels itself incapable of doing anything directly for the mitigation of the spiritual sufferings of the individual2 indeed1 even in general unavoidable and next to inevitable evils 7famines1 financial crises1 and wars7 religion gives to the masses an attitude of tranquillity and confiding expectancy4 ,whenever the necessary or accidental deficiencies of the ,state ,government1 or the dangerous consequences of dynastic interests1 strike the eyes of the intelligent and make them refractory1 the unintelligent will only think they see the finger of ,god therein and will submit with patience to the dispensations from on high 7a conception in which divine and human modes of government usually coalesce72 thus internal civil peace and continuity of development will be preserved4 ,the power1 which lies in the unity of popular feeling1 in the existence of the same opinions and aims for all1 is protected and confirmed by religion1--the rare cases excepted in which a priesthood cannot agree with the ,state about the price1 and therefore comes into conflict with it4 ,as a rule the ,state will know how to win over the priests1 because it needs their most private and secret system for educating souls1 and knows how to value servants who apparently1 and outwardly1 represent quite other interests4 ,even at present no power can become legitimate without the assistance of the priests2 a fact which ,napoleon understood4 ,thus1 absolutely paternal government and the careful preservation of religion necessarily go hand-in-hand4 ,in this connection it must be taken for granted that the rulers and governing classes are enlightened concerning the advantages which religion affords1 and consequently feel themselves to a certain extent superior to it1 inasmuch as they use it as a means2 thus freedom of spirit has its origin here4 ,but how will it be when the totally different interpretation of the idea of ,government1 such as is taught in democratic ,states1 begins to prevail8 ,when one sees in it nothing but the instrument of the popular will1 no upper in contrast to an under1 but merely a function of the sole sovereign1 the people8 ,here also only the same attitude which the people assume towards religion can be assumed by the ,government2 every diffusion of enlightenment will have to find an echo even in the representatives1 and the utilising and exploiting of religious impulses and consolations for ,state purposes will not be so easy 7unless powerful party leaders occasionally exercise an influence resembling that of enlightened despotism74 ,when1 however1 the ,state is not permitted to derive any further advantage from religion1 or when people think far too variously on religious matters to allow the ,state to adopt a consistent and uniform procedure with respect to them1 the way out of the difficulty will necessarily present itself1 namely to treat religion as a private affair and leave it to the conscience and custom of each single individual4 ,the first result of all is that religious feeling seems to be strengthened1 inasmuch as hidden and suppressed impulses thereof1 which the ,state had unintentionally or intentionally stifled1 now break forth and rush to extremes2 later on1 however1 it is found that religion is over-grown with sects1 and that an abundance of dragon's teeth were sown as soon as religion was made a private affair4 ,the spectacle of strife1 and the hostile laying bare of all the weaknesses of religious confessions1 admit finally of no other expedient except that every better and more talented person should make irreligiousness his private affair1 a sentiment which now obtains the upper hand even in the minds of the governing classes1 and1 almost against their will1 gives an anti-religious character to their measures4 ,as soon as this happens1 the sentiment of persons still religiously disposed1 who formerly adored the ,state as something half sacred or wholly sacred1 changes into decided hostility to the ,state2 they lie in wait for governmental measures1 seeking to hinder1 thwart1 and disturb as much as they can1 and1 by the fury of their contradiction1 drive the opposing parties1 the irreligious ones1 into an almost fanatical enthusiasm for the ,state2 in connection with which there is also the silently co-operating influence1 that since their separation from religion the hearts of persons in these circles are conscious of a void1 and seek by devotion to the ,state to provide themselves provisionally with a substitute for religion1 a kind of stuffing for the void4 ,after these perhaps lengthy transitional struggles1 it is finally decided whether the religious parties are still strong enough to revive an old condition of things1 and turn the wheel backwards3 in which case enlightened despotism 7perhaps less enlightened and more timorous than formerly71 inevitably gets the ,state into its hands1--or whether the non-religious parties achieve their purpose1 and1 possibly through schools and education1 check the increase of their opponents during several generations1 and finally make them no longer possible4 ,then1 however1 their enthusiasm for the ,state also abates3 it always becomes more obvious that along with the religious adoration which regards the ,state as a mystery and a supernatural institution1 the reverent and pious relation to it has also been convulsed4 ,henceforth individuals see only that side of the ,state which may be useful or injurious to them1 and press forward by all means to obtain an influence over it4 ,but this rivalry soon becomes too great2 men and parties change too rapidly1 and throw each other down again too furiously from the mountain when they have only just succeeded in getting aloft4 ,all the measures which such a ,government carries out lack the guarantee of permanence2 people then fight shy of undertakings which would require the silent growth of future decades or centuries to produce ripe fruit4 ,nobody henceforth feels any other obligation to a law than to submit for the moment to the power which introduced the law2 people immediately set to work1 however1 to undermine it by a new power1 a newly-formed majority4 ,finally--it may be confidently asserted--the distrust of all government1 the insight into the useless and harassing nature of these short-winded struggles1 must drive men to an entirely new resolution3 to the abrogation of the conception of the ,state and the abolition of the contrast of private and public4 ,private concerns gradually absorb the business of the ,state2 even the toughest residue which is left over from the old work of governing 7the business1 for instance1 which is meant to protect private persons from private persons7 will at last some day be managed by private enterprise4 ,the neglect1 decline1 and death of the ,state1 the liberation of the private person 7,i am careful not to say the individual71 are the consequences of the democratic conception of the ,state2 that is its mission4 ,when it has accomplished its task1--which1 like everything human1 involves much rationality and irrationality1--and when all relapses into the old malady have been overcome1 then a new leaf in the story-book of humanity will be unrolled1 on which readers will find all kinds of strange tales and perhaps also some amount of good4 ,to repeat shortly what has been said3 the interests of the tutelary ,government and the interests of religion go hand-in-hand1 so that when the latter begins to decay the foundations of the ,state are also shaken4 ,the belief in a divine regulation of political affairs1 in a mystery in the existence of the ,state1 is of religious origin3 if religion disappears1 the ,state will inevitably lose its old veil of ,isis1 and will no longer arouse veneration4 ,the sovereignty of the people1 looked at closely1 serves also to dispel the final fascination and superstition in the realm of these sentiments2 modern democracy is the historical form of the decay of the ,state4 ,the outlook which results from this certain decay is not1 however1 unfortunate in every respect2 the wisdom and the selfishness of men are the best developed of all their qualities2 when the ,state no longer meets the demands of these impulses1 chaos will least of all result1 but a still more appropriate expedient than the ,state will get the mastery over the ,state4 ,how man organising forces have already been seen to die out6 ,for example1 that of the gens or clan which for millennia was far mightier than the power of the family1 and indeed already ruled and regulated long before the latter existed4 ,we ourselves see the important notions of the right and might of the family1 which once possessed the supremacy as far as the ,roman system extended1 always becoming paler and feebler4 ,in the same way a later generation will also see the ,state become meaningless in certain parts of the world1--an idea which many contemporaries can hardly contemplate without alarm and horror4 ,to labour for the propagation and realisation of this idea is1 certainly1 another thing2 one must think very presumptuously of one's reason1 and only half understand history1 to set one's hand to the plough at present--when as yet no one can show us the seeds that are afterwards to be sown upon the broken soil4 ,let us1 therefore1 trust to the wisdom and selfishness of men that the ,state may yet exist a good while longer1 and that the destructive attempts of over-zealous1 too hasty sciolists may be in vain6 #dgc4 ,,socialism1 ,,with ,,regard ,,to ,,its ,,means4--,socialism is the fantastic younger brother of almost decrepit despotism1 which it wants to succeed2 its efforts are1 therefore1 in the deepest sense reactionary4 ,for it desires such an amount of ,state power as only despotism has possessed1--indeed1 it outdoes all the past1 in that it aims at the complete annihilation of the individual1 whom it deems an unauthorised luxury of nature1 which is to be improved by it into an appropriate organ of the general community4 ,owing to its relationship1 it always appears in proximity to excessive developments of power1 like the old typical socialist1 ,plato1 at the court of the ,sicilian tyrant2 it desires 7and under certain circumstances furthers7 the ,csarian despotism of this century1 because1 as has been said1 it would like to become its heir4 ,but even this inheritance would not suffice for its objects1 it requires the most submissive prostration of all citizens before the absolute ,state1 such as has never yet been realised2 and as it can no longer even count upon the old religious piety towards the ,state1 but must rather strive involuntarily and continuously for the abolition thereof1--because it strives for the abolition of all existing ,states1--it can only hope for existence occasionally1 here and there for short periods1 by means of the extremest terrorism4 ,it is therefore silently preparing itself for reigns of terror1 and drives the word justice like a nail into the heads of the half-cultured masses in order to deprive them completely of their understanding 7after they had already suffered seriously from the half-culture71 and to provide them with a good conscience for the bad game they are to play4 ,socialism may serve to teach1 very brutally and impressively1 the danger of all accumulations of ,state power1 and may serve so far to inspire distrust of the ,state itself4 ,when its rough voice strikes up the way-cry as much ,state as possible1 the shout at first becomes louder than ever1--but soon the opposition cry also breaks forth1 with so much greater force3 as little ,state as possible4 #dgd4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,mind ,,feared ,,by ,,the ,,state4--,the ,greek polis was1 like every organising political power1 exclusive and distrustful of the growth of culture2 its powerful fundamental impulse seemed almost solely to have a paralysing and obstructive effect thereon4 ,it did not want to let any history or any becoming have a place in culture2 the education laid down in the ,state laws was meant to be obligatory on all generations to keep them at one stage of development4 ,plato also1 later on1 did not desire it to be otherwise in his ideal ,state4 ,in spite of the polis culture developed itself in this manner2 indirectly to be sure1 and against its will1 the polis furnished assistance because the ambition of individuals therein was stimulated to the utmost1 so that1 having once found the path of intellectual development1 they followed it to its farthest extremity4 ,on the other hand1 appeal should not be made to the panegyric of ,pericles1 for it is only a great optimistic dream about the alleged necessary connection between the ,polis and ,athenian culture2 immediately before the night fell over ,athens the plague and the breakdown of tradition1 ,thucydides makes this culture flash up once more like of the evil day that had preceded4 #dge4 ,,european ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,nationalities4--,commerce and industry1 interchange of books and letters1 the universality of all higher culture1 the rapid changing of locality and landscape1 and the present nomadic life of all who are not landowners1--these circumstances necessarily bring with them a weakening1 and finally a destruction of nationalities1 at least of ,european nationalities2 so that1 in consequence of perpetual crossings1 there must arise out of them all a mixed race1 that of the ,european man4 ,at present the isolation of nations1 through the rise of national enmities1 consciously or unconsciously counteracts this tendency2 but nevertheless the process of fusing advances slowly1 in spite of those occasional counter-currents4 ,this artificial nationalism is1 however1 as dangerous as was artificial ,catholicism1 for it is essentially an un natural condition of extremity and martial la which has been proclaimed by the few over the many1 and requires artifice1 lying1 and force maintain its reputation4 ,it is not the interests the many 7of the peoples71 as they probably say1 but it is first of all the interests of certain princely dynasties1 and then of certain commercial and social classes1 which impel to this nationalism2 once we have recognised this fact1 we should just fearlessly style ourselves good ,europeans and labour actively for the amalgamation of nations2 in which efforts ,germans may assist by virtue of their hereditary position as interpreters and intermediaries between nations4 ,by the way1 the great problem of the ,jews only exists within the national ,states1 inasmuch as their energy and higher intelligence1 their intellectual and volitional capital1 accumulated from generation to generation in tedious schools of suffering1 must necessarily attain to universal supremacy here to an extent provocative of envy and hatred2 so that the literary misconduct is becoming prevalent in almost all modern nations --and all the more so as they again set up to be national--of sacrificing the ,jews as the scape-goats of all possible public and private abuses4 ,so soon as it is no longer a question of the preservation or establishment of nations1 but of the production and training of a ,european mixed-race of the greatest possible strength1 the ,jew is just as useful and desirable an ingredient as any other national remnant4 ,every nation1 every individual1 has unpleasant and even dangerous qualities1--it is cruel to require that the ,jew should be an exception4 ,those qualities may even be dangerous and frightful in a special degree in his case2 and perhaps the young ,stock-,exchange ,jew is in general the most repulsive invention of the human species4 ,nevertheless1 in a general summing up1 ,i should like to know how much must be excused in a nation which1 not without blame on the part of all of us1 has had the most mournful history of all nations1 and to which we owe the most loving of men 7,christ71 the most upright of sages 7,spinoza71 the mightiest book1 and the most effective moral law in the world8 ,moreover1 in the darkest times of the ,middle ,ages1 when ,asiatic clouds had gathered darkly over ,europe1 it was ,jewish free-thinkers1 scholars1 and physicians who upheld the banner of enlightenment and of intellectual independence under the severest personal sufferings1 and defended ,europe against ,asia2 we owe it not least to their efforts that a more natural1 more reasonable1 at all events un-mythical1 explanation of the world was finally able to get the upper hand once more1 and that the link of culture which now unites us with the enlightenment of ,greco-,roman antiquity has remained unbroken4 ,if ,christianity has done everything to orientalise the ,occident1 ,judaism has assisted essentially in occidentalising it anew2 which1 in a certain sense1 is equivalent to making ,europe's mission and history a continuation of that of ,greece4 #dgf4 ,,apparent ,,superiority ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,the ,middle ,ages present in the ,church an institution with an absolutely universal aim1 involving the whole of humanity1--an aim1 moreover1 which--presumedly--concerned man's highest interests2 in comparison therewith the aims of the ,states and nations which modern history exhibits make a painful impression2 they seem petty1 base1 material1 and restricted in extent4 ,but this different impression on our imagination should certainly not determine our judgment2 for that universal institution corresponded to feigned and fictitiously fostered needs1 such as the need of salvation1 which1 wherever they did not already exist1 it had first of all to create3 the1 new institutions1 however1 relieve actual distresses2 and the time is coming when institutions will arise to minister to the common1 genuine needs of all men1 and to cast that fantastic prototype1 the ,catholic ,church1 into shade and oblivion4 #dgg4 ,,war ,,indispensable4--,it is nothing but fanaticism and beautiful soulism to expect very much 7or even1 much only7 from humanity when it has forgotten how to wage war4 ,for the present we know of no other means whereby the rough energy of the camp1 the deep impersonal hatred1 the cold-bloodedness of murder with a good conscience1 the general ardour of the system in the destruction of the enemy1 the proud indifference to great losses1 to one's own existence and that of one's friends1 the hollow1 earthquake-like convulsion of the soul1 can be as forcibly and certainly communicated to enervated nations as is done by every great war3 owing to the brooks and streams that here break forth1 which1 certainly1 sweep stones and rubbish of all sorts along with them and destroy the meadows of delicate cultures1 the mechanism in the workshops of the mind is afterwards1 in favourable circumstances1 rotated by new power4 ,culture can by no means dispense with passions1 vices1 and malignities4 ,when the ,romans1 after having become ,imperial1 had grown rather tired of war1 they attempted to gain new strength by beast-baitings1 gladiatoral combats1 and ,christian persecutions4 ,the ,english of to-day1 who appear on the whole to have also renounced war1 adopt other means in order to generate anew those vanishing forces2 namely1 the dangerous exploring expeditions1 sea voyages and mountaineerings1 nominally undertaken for scientific purposes1 but in reality to bring home surplus strength from adventures and dangers of all kinds4 ,many other such substitutes for war will be discovered1 but perhaps precisely thereby it will become more and more obvious that such a highly cultivated and therefore necessarily enfeebled humanity as that of modern ,europe not only needs wars1 but the greatest and most terrible wars1--consequently occasional relapses into barbarism1--lest1 by the means of culture1 it should lose its culture and its very existence4 #dgh4 ,,industry ,,in ,,the ,,south ,,and ,,the ,,north4--,industry arises in two entirely different ways4 ,the artisans of the ,south are not industrious because of acquisitiveness but because of the constant needs of others4 ,the smith is industrious because some one is always coming who wants a horse shod or a carriage mended4 ,if nobody came he would loiter about in the market-place4 ,in a fruitful land he has little trouble in supporting himself1 for that purpose he requires only a very small amount of work1 certainly no industry2 eventually he would beg and be contented4 ,the industry of ,english workmen1 on the contrary1 has acquisitiveness behind it2 it is conscious of itself and its aims2 with property it wants power1 and with power the greatest possible liberty and individual distinction4 #dgi4 ,,wealth ,,as ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,a ,,nobility ,,of ,,race4--,wealth necessarily creates an aristocracy of race1 for it permits the choice of the most beautiful women and the engagement of the best teachers2 it allows a man cleanliness1 time for physical exercises1 and1 above all1 immunity from dulling physical labour4 ,so far it provides all the conditions for making man1 after a few generations1 move and even act nobly and handsomely3 greater freedom of character and absence of niggardliness1 of wretchedly petty matters1 and of abasement before bread-givers4 ,it is precisely these negative qualities which are the most profitable birthday gift1 that of happiness1 for the young man2 a person who is quite poor usually comes to grief through nobility of disposition1 he does not get on1 and acquires nothing1 his race is not capable of living4 ,in this connection1 however1 it must be remembered that wealth produces almost the same effects whether one have three hundred or thirty thousand thalers a year2 there is no further essential progression of the favourable conditions afterwards4 ,but to have less1 to beg in boyhood and to abase one's self is terrible1 although it may be the proper starting-point for such as seek their happiness in the splendour of courts1 in subordination to the mighty1 and influential1 or for such as wish to be heads of the ,church4 7,it teaches how to slink crouching into the underground passages to favour47 #dhj4 ,,envy ,,and ,,inertia ,,in ,,different ,,courses4--,the two opposing parties1 the socialist and the national1--or whatever they may be called in the different countries of ,europe1--are worthy of each other2 envy and laziness are the motive powers in each of them4 ,in the one camp they desire to work as little as possible with their hands1 in the other as little as possible with their heads2 in the latter they hate and envy prominent1 self-evolving individuals1 who do not willingly allow themselves to be drawn up in rank and file for the purpose of a collective effect2 in the former they hate and envy the better social caste1 which is more favourably circumstanced outwardly1 whose peculiar mission1 the production of the highest blessings of culture1 makes life inwardly all the harder and more painful4 ,certainly1 if it be possible to make the spirit of the collective effect the spirit of the higher classes of society1 the socialist crowds are quite right1 when they also seek outward equalisation between themselves and these classes1 since they are certainly internally equalised with one another already in head and heart4 ,live as higher men1 and always do the deeds of higher culture1--thus everything that lives will acknowledge your right1 and the order of society1 whose summit ye are1 will be safe from every evil glance and attack6 #dha4 ,,high ,,politics ,,and ,,their ,,detriments4--,just as a nation does not suffer the greatest losses that war and readiness for war involve through the expenses of the war1 or the stoppage of trade and traffic1 or through the maintenance of a standing army1--however great these losses may now be1 when eight ,european ,states expend yearly the sum of five milliards of marks thereon1--but owing to the fact that year after year its ablest1 strongest1 and most industrious men are withdrawn in extraordinary numbers from their proper occupations and callings to be turned into soldiers3 in the same way1 a nation that sets about practising high politics and securing a decisive voice among the great ,powers does not suffer its greatest losses where they are usually supposed to be4 ,in fact1 from this time onward it constantly sacrifices a number of its most conspicuous talents upon the ,altar of the ,fatherland or of national ambition1 whilst formerly other spheres of activity were open to those talents which are now swallowed up by politics4 ,but apart from these public hecatombs1 and in reality much more horrible1 there is a drama which is constantly being performed simultaneously in a hundred thousand acts2 every able1 industrious1 intellectually striving man of a nation that thus covets political laurels1 is swayed by this covetousness1 and no longer belongs entirely to himself alone as he did formerly2 the new daily questions and cares of the public welfare devour a daily tribute of the intellectual and emotional capital of every citizen2 the sum of all these sacrifices and losses of1 individual energy and labour is so enormous1 that the political growth of a nation almost necessarily entails an intellectual impoverishment and lassitude1 a diminished capacity for the performance of works that require great concentration and specialisation4 ,the question may finally be asked3 ,does it then pay1 all this bloom and magnificence of the total 7which indeed only manifests itself as the fear of the new ,colossus in other nations1 and as the compulsory favouring by them of national trade and commerce7 when all the nobler1 finer1 and more intellectual plants and products1 in which its soil was hitherto so rich1 must be sacrificed to this coarse and opalescent flower of the nation8#b #dhb4 ,,repeated ,,once ,,more4--,public opinion--private laziness4 ,footnote #a3 ,this aphorism may have been suggested by ,nietzsche's observing the behaviour of his great contemporary1 ,bismarck1 towards the dynasty4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,this is once more an allusion to modern ,germany4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,ninth ,,division4 ,,man ,,alone ,,by ,,himself4 #dhc4 ,,the ,,enemies ,,of ,,truth4--,convictions are more dangerous enemies of truth than lies4 #dhd4 ,a ,,topsy-,,turvy ,,world4--,we criticise a thinker more severely when he puts an unpleasant statement before us2 and yet it would be more reasonable to do so when we find his statement pleasant4 #dhe4 ,,decided ,,character4--,a man far oftener appears to have a decided character from persistently following his temperament than from persistently following his principles4 #dhf4 ,,the ,,one ,,thing ,,needful4--,one thing a man must have3 either a naturally light disposition or a disposition lightened by art and knowledge4 #dhg4 ,,the ,,passion ,,for ,,things4--,whoever sets his passion on things 7sciences1 arts1 the common weal1 the interests of culture7 withdraws much fervour from his passion for persons 7even when they are the representatives of those things2 as statesmen1 philosophers1 and artists are the representatives of their creations74 #dhh4 ,,calmness ,,in ,,action4--,as a cascade in its descent becomes more deliberate and suspended1 so the great man of action usually acts with more calmness than his strong passions previous to action would lead one to expect4 #dhi4 ,,not ,,too ,,deep4--,persons who grasp a matter in all its depth seldom remain permanently true to it4 ,they have just brought the depth up into the light1 and there is always much evil to be seen there4 #dij4 ,,the ,,illusion ,,of ,,idealists4--,all idealists imagine that the cause which they serve is essentially better than all other causes1 and will not believe that if their cause is really to flourish it requires precisely the same evil-smelling manure which all other human undertakings have need of4 #dia4 ,,self-,,observation4--,man is exceedingly well protected from himself and guarded against his self-exploring and self-besieging2 as a rule he can perceive nothing of himself but his outworks4 ,the actual fortress is inaccessible1 and even invisible1 to him1 unless friends and enemies become traitors and lead him inside by secret paths4 #dib4 ,,the ,,right ,,calling4--,men can seldom hold on to a calling unless they believe or persuade themselves that it is really more important than any other4 ,women are the same with their lovers4 #dic4 ,,nobility ,,of ,,disposition4--,nobility of disposition consists largely in good-nature and absence of distrust1 and therefore contains precisely that upon which money-grabbing and successful men take a pleasure in walking with superiority and scorn4 #did4 ,,goal ,,and ,,path4--,many are obstinate with regard to the once-chosen path1 few with regard to the goal4 #die4 ,,the ,,offensiveness ,,in ,,an ,,individual ,,way ,,of ,,life4--,all specially individual lines of conduct excite irritation against him who adopts them2 people feel themselves reduced to the level of commonplace creatures by the extraordinary treatment he bestows on himself4 #dif4 ,,the ,,privilege ,,of ,,greatness4--,it is the privilege of greatness to confer intense happiness with insignificant gifts4 #dig4 ,,unintentionally ,,noble4--,a person behaves with unintentional nobleness when he has accustomed himself to seek naught from others and always to give to them4 #dih4 ,a ,,condition ,,of ,,heroism4--,when a person wishes to become a hero1 the serpent must previously have become a dragon1 otherwise he lacks his proper enemy4 #dii4 ,,friends4--,fellowship in joy1 and1 not sympathy in sorrow1 makes people friends4 #ejj4 ,,making ,,use ,,of ,,ebb ,,and ,,flow4--,for the purpose of knowledge we must know how to make use of the inward current which draws us towards a thing1 and also of the current which after a time draws us away from it4 #eja4 ,,joy ,,in ,,itself4--,joy in the ,thing people say2 but in reality it is joy in itself by means of the thing4 #ejb4 ,,the ,,unassuming ,,man4--,he who is unassuming towards persons manifests his presumption all the more with regard to things 7town1 ,state1 society1 time1 humanity74 ,that is his revenge4 #ejc4 ,,envy ,,and ,,jealousy4--,envy and jealousy are the pudenda of the human soul4 ,the comparison may perhaps be carried further4 #ejd4 ,,the ,,noblest ,,hypocrite4--,it is a very noble hypocrisy not to talk of one's self at all4 #eje4 ,,vexation4--,vexation is a physical disease1 which is not by any means cured when its cause is subsequently removed4 #ejf4 ,,the ,,champions ,,of ,,truth4--,truth does not find fewest champions when it is dangerous to speak it1 but when it is dull4 #ejg4 ,,more ,,troublesome ,,even ,,than ,,enemies4--,persons of whose sympathetic attitude we are not1 in all circumstances1 convinced1 while for some reason or other 7gratitude1 for instance7 we are obliged to maintain the appearance of unqualified sympathy with them1 trouble our imagination far more than our enemies do4 #ejh4 ,,free ,,nature4--,we are so fond of being out among ,nature1 because it has no opinions about us4 #eji4 ,,each ,,superior ,,in ,,one ,,thing4--,in civilised intercourse every one feels himself superior to all others in at least one thing2 kindly feelings generally are based thereon1 inasmuch as every one can1 in certain circumstances1 render help1 and is therefore entitled to accept help without shame4 #eaj4 ,,consolatory ,,arguments4--,in the case of a death we mostly use consolatory arguments not so much to alleviate the grief as to make excuses for feeling so easily consoled4 #eaa4 ,,persons ,,loyal ,,to ,,their ,,convictions4--,whoever is very busy retains his general views and opinions almost unchanged4 ,so also does every one who labours in the service of an idea2 he will nevermore examine the idea itself1 he no longer has any time to do so2 indeed1 it is against his interests to consider it as still admitting of discussion4 #eab4 ,,morality ,,and ,,quantity4--,the higher morality of one man as compared with that of another1 often lies merely in the fact that his aims are quantitively greater4 ,the other1 living in a circumscribed sphere1 is dragged down by petty occupations4 #eac4 ,,the ,,life ,,as ,,the ,,proceeds ,,of ,,life4--,a man may stretch himself out ever so far with his knowledge2 he may seem to himself ever so objective1 but eventually he realises nothing therefrom but his own biography4 #ead4 ,,iron ,,necessity4--,iron necessity is a thing which has been found1 in the course of history1 to be neither iron nor necessary4 #eae4 ,,from ,,experience4--,the unreasonableness of a thing is no argument against its existence1 but rather a condition thereof4 #eaf4 ,,truth4--,nobody dies nowadays of fatal truths1 there are too many antidotes to them4 #eag4 ,a ,,fundamental ,,insight4--,there is no pre-established harmony between the promotion of truth and the welfare of mankind4 #eah4 ,,man',s ,,lot4--,he who thinks most deeply knows that he is always in the wrong1 however he may act and decide4 #eai4 ,,truth ,,as ,,circe4--,error has made animals into men2 is truth perhaps capable of making man into an animal again8 #ebj4 ,,the ,,danger ,,of ,,our ,,culture4--,we belong to a period of which the culture is in danger of being destroyed by the appliances of culture4 #eba4 ,,greatness ,,means ,,leading ,,the ,,way4--,no stream is large and copious of itself1 but becomes great by receiving and leading on so many tributary streams4 ,it is so1 also1 with all intellectual greatnesses4 ,it is only a question of some one indicating the direction to be followed by so many affluents2 not whether he was richly or poorly gifted originally4 #ebb4 ,a ,,feeble ,,conscience4--,people who talk about their importance to mankind have a feeble conscience for common bourgeois rectitude1 keeping of contracts1 promises1 etc4 #ebc4 ,,desiring ,,to ,,be ,,loved4--,the demand to be loved is the greatest of presumptions4 #ebd4 ,,contempt ,,for ,,men4--,the most unequivocal sign of contempt for man is to regard everybody merely as a means to one's own ends1 or of no account whatever4 #ebe4 ,,partisans ,,through ,,contradiction4--,whoever has driven men to fury against himself has also gained a party in his favour4 #ebf4 ,,forgetting ,,experiences4--,whoever thinks much and to good purpose easily forgets his own experiences1 but not the thoughts which these experiences have called forth4 #ebg4 ,,sticking ,,to ,,an ,,opinion4--,one person sticks to an opinion because he takes pride in having acquired it himself1--another sticks to it because he has learnt it with difficulty and is proud of having understood it2 both of them1 therefore1 out of vanity4 #ebh4 ,,avoiding ,,the ,,light4--,good deeds avoid the light just as anxiously as evil deeds2 the latter fear that pain will result from publicity 7as punishment71 the former fear that pleasure will vanish with publicity 7the pure pleasure per se1 which ceases as soon as satisfaction of vanity is added to it74 #ebi4 ,,the ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,day4--,when one has much to put into them1 a day has a hundred pockets4 #ecj4 ,,the ,,genius ,,of ,,tyranny4--,when an invincible desire to obtain tyrannical power has been awakened in the soul1 and constantly keeps up its fervour1 even a very mediocre talent 7in politicians1 artists1 etc47 gradually becomes an almost irresistible natural force4 #eca4 ,,the ,,enemy',s ,,life4--,he who lives by fighting with an enemy has an interest in the preservation of the enemy's life4#a #ecb4 ,,more ,,important4--,unexplained1 obscure matters are regarded as more important than explained1 clear ones4 #ecc4 ,,valuation ,,of ,,services ,,rendered4--,we estimate services rendered to us according to the value set on them by those who render them1 not according to the value they have for us4 #ecd4 ,,unhappiness4--,the distinction associated with unhappiness 7as if it were a sign of stupidity1 unambitiousness1 or commonplaceness to feel happy7 is so great that when any one says to us1 ,how happy you are6 we usually protest4 #ece4 ,,imagination ,,in ,,anguish4--,when one is afraid of anything1 one's imagination plays the part of that evil spirit which springs on one's back just when one has the heaviest load to bear4 #ecf4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,insipid ,,opponents4--,we sometimes remain faithful to a cause merely because its opponents never cease to be insipid4 #ecg4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,a ,,profession4--,a profession makes us thoughtless2 that is its greatest blessing4 ,for it is a bulwark behind which we are permitted to withdraw when commonplace doubts and cares assail us4 #ech4 ,,talent4--,many a man's talent appears less than it is1 because he has always set himself too heavy tasks4 #eci4 ,,youth4--,youth is an unpleasant period2 for then it is not possible or not prudent to be productive in any sense whatsoever4 #edj4 ,,too ,,great ,,aims4--,whoever aims publicly at great things and at length perceives secretly that he is too weak to achieve them1 has usually also insufficient strength to renounce his aims publicly1 and then inevitably becomes a hypocrite4 #eda4 ,,in ,,the ,,current4--,mighty waters sweep many stones and shrubs away with them2 mighty spirits many foolish and confused minds4 #edb4 ,,the ,,dangers ,,of ,,intellectual ,,emancipation4--,in a seriously intended intellectual emancipation a person's mute passions and cravings also hope to find their advantage4 #edc4 ,,the ,,incarnation ,,of ,,the ,,mind4--,when any one thinks much and to good purpose1 not only his face but also his body acquires a sage look4 #edd4 ,,seeing ,,badly ,,and ,,hearing ,,badly4--,the man who sees little always sees less than there is to see2 the man who hears badly always hears something more than there is to hear4 #ede4 ,,self-,,enjoyment ,,in ,,vanity4--,the vain man does not wish so much to be prominent as to feel himself prominent2 he therefore disdains none of the expedients for self-deception and self-out-witting4 ,it is not the opinion of others that he sets his heart on1 but his opinion of their opinion #edf4 ,,exceptionally ,,vain4--,he who is usually self-sufficient becomes exceptionally vain1 and keenly alive to fame and praise when he is physically ill4 ,the more he loses himself the more he has to endeavour to regain his position by means of the opinion of others4 #edg4 ,,the ,,witty4--,those who seek wit do not possess it4 #edh4 ,a ,,hint ,,to ,,the ,,heads ,,of ,,parties4--,when one can make people publicly support a cause they have also generally been brought to the point of inwardly declaring themselves in its favour1 because they wish to be regarded as consistent4 #edi4 ,,contempt4--,man is more sensitive to the contempt of others than to self-contempt4 #eej4 ,,the ,,tie ,,of ,,gratitude4--,there are servile souls who carry so far their sense of obligation for benefits received that they strangle themselves with the tie of gratitude4 #eea4 ,,the ,,prophet',s ,,knack4--,in predicting beforehand the procedure of ordinary individuals1 it must be taken for granted that they always make use of the smallest intellectual expenditure in freeing themselves from disagreeable situations4 #eeb4 ,,man',s ,,sole ,,right4--,he who swerves from the traditional is a victim of the unusual2 he who keeps to the traditional is its slave4 ,the man is ruined in either case4 #eec4 ,,below ,,the ,,beast4--,when a man roars with laughter he surpasses all the animals by his vulgarity4 #eed4 ,,partial ,,knowledge4--,he who speaks a foreign language imperfectly has more enjoyment therein than he who speaks it well4 ,the enjoyment is with the partially initiated4 #eee4 ,,dangerous ,,helpfulness4--,there are people who wish to make human life harder for no other reason than to be able afterwards to offer men their life-alleviating recipes--their ,christianity1 for example4 #eef4 ,,industriousness ,,and ,,conscientiousness4--,industriousness and conscientiousness are often antagonists1 owing to the fact that industriousness wants to pluck the fruit sour from the tree while conscientiousness wants to let it hang too long1 until it falls and is bruised4 #eeg4 ,,casting ,,suspicion4--,we endeavour to cast suspicion on persons whom we cannot endure4 #eeh4 ,,the ,,conditions ,,are ,,lacking4--,many people wait all their lives for the opportunity to be good in their own way4 #eei4 ,,lack ,,of ,,friends4--,lack of friends leads to the inference that a person is envious or presumptuous4 ,many a man owes his friends merely to the fortunate circumstance that he has no occasion for envy4 #efj4 ,,danger ,,in ,,manifoldness4--,with one talent more we often stand less firmly than with one less2 just as a table stands better on three feet than on four4 #efa4 ,,an ,,exemplar ,,for ,,others4--,whoever wants to set a good example must add a grain of folly to his virtue2 people then imitate their exemplar and at the same time raise themselves above him1 a thing they love to do4 #efb4 ,,being ,a ,,target4--,the bad things others say about us are often not really aimed at us1 but are the manifestations of spite or ill-humour occasioned by quite different causes4 #efc4 ,,easily ,,resigned4--,we suffer but little on account of ungratified wishes if we have exercised our imagination in distorting the past4 #efd4 ,,in ,,danger4--,one is in greatest danger of being run over when one has just got out of the way of a carriage4 #efe4 ,,the ,,role ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,voice4--,whoever is obliged to speak louder than he naturally does 7say1 to a partially deaf person or before a large audience71 usually exaggerates what he has to communicate4 ,many a one becomes a conspirator1 malevolent gossip1 or intriguer1 merely because his voice is best suited for whispering4 #eff4 ,,love ,,and ,,hatred4--,love and hatred are not blind1 but are dazzled by the fire which they carry about with them4 #efg4 ,,advantageously ,,persecuted4--,people who cannot make their merits perfectly obvious to the world endeavour to awaken a strong hostility against themselves4 ,they have then the consolation of thinking that this hostility stands between their merits and the acknowledgment thereof--- and that many others think the same thing1 which is very advantageous for their recognition4 #efh4 ,,confession4--,we forget our fault when we have confessed it to another person1 but he does not generally forget it4 #efi4 ,,self-,,sufficiency4--,the ,golden ,fleece of self-sufficiency is a protection against blows1 but not against needle-pricks4 #egj4 ,,shadows ,,in ,,the ,,flame4--,the flame is not so bright to itself as to those whom it illuminates1--so also the wise man4 #ega4 ,,our ,,own ,,opinions4--,the first opinion that occurs to us when we are suddenly asked about anything is not usually our own1 but only the current opinion belonging to our caste1 position1 or family2 our own opinions seldom float on the surface4 #egb4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,courage4--,the ordinary man is as courageous and invulnerable as a hero when he does not see the danger1 when he has no eyes for it4 ,reversely1 the hero has his one vulnerable spot upon the back1 where he has no eyes4 #egc4 ,,the ,,danger ,,in ,,the ,,physician4--,one must be born for one's physician1 otherwise one comes to grief through him4 #egd4 ,,marvellous ,,vanity4--,whoever has courageously prophesied the weather three times and has been successful in his hits1 acquires a certain amount of inward confidence in his prophetic gift4 ,we give credence to the marvellous and irrational when it flatters our self-esteem4 #ege4 ,a ,,profession4--,a profession is the backbone of life4 #egf4 ,,the ,,danger ,,of ,,personal ,,influence4--,whoever feels that he exercises a great inward influence over another person must give him a perfectly free rein1 must1 in fact1 welcome and even induce occasional opposition1 otherwise he will inevitably make an enemy4 #egg4 ,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,heir4--,whoever has founded something great in an unselfish spirit is careful to rear heirs for his work4 ,it is the sign of a tyrannical and ignoble nature to see opponents in all possible heirs1 and to live in a state of self-defence against them4 #egh4 ,,partial ,,knowledge4--,partial knowledge is more triumphant than complete knowledge2 it takes things to be simpler than they are1 and so makes its theory more popular and convincing4 #egi4 ,,unsuitable ,,for ,a ,,party-,,man4--,whoever thinks much is unsuitable for a party-man2 his thinking leads him too quickly beyond the party4 #ehj4 ,a ,,bad ,,memory4--,the advantage of a bad memory is that one enjoys several times the same good things for the first time4 #eha4 ,,self-,,affliction4--,want of consideration is often the sign of a discordant inner nature1 which craves for stupefaction4 #ehb4 ,,martyrs4--,the disciples of a martyr suffer more than the martyr4 #ehc4 ,,arrears ,,of ,,vanity4--,the vanity of many people who have no occasion to be vain is the inveterate habit1 still surviving from the time when people had no right to the belief in themselves and only begged it in small sums from others4 #ehd4 ,,punctum ,,saliens ,,of ,,passion4--,a person falling into a rage or into a violent passion of love reaches a point when the soul is full like a hogshead1 but nevertheless a drop of water has still to be added1 the good will for the passion 7which is also generally called the evil will74 ,this item only is necessary1 and then the hogshead overflows4 #ehe4 ,a ,,gloomy ,,thought4--,it is with men as with the charcoal fires in the forest4 ,it is only when young men have cooled down and have got charred1 like these piles1 that they become useful4 ,as long as they fume and smoke they are perhaps more interesting1 but they are useless and too often uncomfortable4 ,humanity ruthlessly uses every individual as material for the heating of its great machines2 but what then is the purpose of the machines1 when all individuals 7that is1 the human race7 are useful only to maintain them8 ,machines that are ends in themselves3 is that the umana commedia8 #ehf4 ,,the ,,hour-,,hand ,,of ,,life4--,life consists of rare single moments of the greatest importance1 and of countless intervals during which1 at best1 the phantoms of those moments hover around us4 ,love1 the ,spring1 every fine melody1 the mountains1 the moon1 the sea--all speak but once fully to the heart1 if1 indeed1 they ever do quite attain to speech4 ,for many people have not those moments at all1 and are themselves intervals and pauses in the symphony of actual life4 #ehg4 ,,attack ,,or ,,compromise4--,we often make the mistake of showing violent enmity towards a tendency1 party1 or period1 because we happen only to get a sight of its most exposed side1 its stuntedness1 or the inevitable faults of its virtues1--perhaps because we ourselves have taken a prominent part in them4 ,we then turn our backs on them and seek a diametrically opposite course2 but the better way would be to seek out their strong good sides1 or to develop them in ourselves4 ,to be sure1 a keener glance and a better will are needed to improve the becoming and the imperfect than are required to see through it in its imperfection and to deny it4 #ehh4 ,,modesty4--,there is true modesty 7that is the knowledge that we are not the works we create72 and it is especially becoming in a great mind1 because such a mind can well grasp the thought of absolute irresponsibility 7even for the good it creates74 ,people do not hate a great man's presumptuousness in so far as he feels his strength1 but because he wishes to prove it by injuring others1 by dominating them1 and seeing how long they will stand it4 ,this1 as a rule1 is even a proof of the absence of a secure sense of power1 and makes people doubt his greatness4 ,we must therefore beware of presumption from the stand-point of wisdom4 #ehi4 ,,the ,,day',s ,,first ,,thought4--,the best way to begin a day well is to think1 on awakening1 whether we cannot give pleasure during the day to at least one person4 ,if this could become a substitute for the religious habit of prayer our fellow-men would benefit by the change4 #eij4 ,,presumption ,,as ,,the ,,last ,,consolation4--,when we so interpret a misfortune1 an intellectual defect1 or a disease that we see therein our predestined fate1 our trial1 or the mysterious punishment of our former misdeeds1 we thereby make our nature interesting and exalt ourselves in imagination above our fellows4 ,the proud sinner is a well-known figure in all religious sects4 #eia4 ,,the ,,vegetation ,,of ,,happiness4--,close beside the world's woe1 and often upon its volcanic soil1 man has laid out his little garden of happiness4 ,whether one regard life with the eyes of him who only seeks knowledge therefrom1 or of him who submits and is resigned1 or of him who rejoices over surmounted difficulties--everywhere one will find some happiness springing up beside the evil--and in fact always the more happiness the more volcanic the soil has been1--only it would be absurd to say that suffering itself is justified by this happiness4 #eib4 ,,the ,,path ,,of ,,our ,,ancestors4--,it is sensible when a person develops still further in himself the talent upon which his father or grandfather spent much trouble1 and does not shift to something entirely new2 otherwise he deprives himself of the possibility of attaining perfection in any one craft4 ,that is why the proverb says1 ,which road shouldst thou ride8--,that of thine ancestors4 #eic4 ,,vanity ,,and ,,ambition ,,as ,,educators4--,as long as a person has not become an instrument of general utility1 ambition may torment him2 if1 however1 that point has been reached1 if he necessarily works like a machine for the good of all1 then vanity may result2 it will humanise him in small matters and make him more sociable1 endurable1 and considerate1 when ambition has completed the coarser work of making him useful4 #eid4 ,,philosophical ,,novices4--,immediately we have comprehended the wisdom of a philosopher1 we go through the streets with a feeling as if we had been re-created and had become great men2 for we encounter only those who are ignorant of this wisdom1 and have therefore to deliver new and unknown verdicts concerning everything4 ,because we now recognise a law-book we think we must also comport ourselves as judges4 #eie4 ,,pleasing ,,by ,,displeasing4--,people who prefer to attract attention1 and thereby to displease1 desire the same thing as those who neither wish to please nor to attract attention1 only they seek it more ardently and indirectly by means of a step by which they apparently move away from their goal4 ,they desire influence and power1 and therefore show their superiority1 even to such an extent that it becomes disagreeable2 for they know that he who has finally attained power1 pleases in almost all he says and does1 and that even when he displeases he still seems to please4 ,the free spirit also1 and in like manner the believer1 desire power1 in order some day to please thereby2 when1 on account of their doctrine1 evil fate1 persecution1 dungeon1 or execution threaten them1 they rejoice in the thought that their teaching will thus be engraved and branded on the heart of mankind2 though its effect is remote they accept their fate as a painful but powerful means of still attaining to power4 #eif4 ,,casus ,,belli ,,and ,,the ,,like4--,the prince who1 for his determination to make war against his neighbour1 invents a casus belli1 is like a father who foists on his child a mother who is henceforth to be regarded as such4 ,and are not almost all publicly avowed motives of action just such spurious mothers8 #eig4 ,,passion ,,and ,,right4--,nobody talks more passionately of his rights than he who1 in the depths of his soul1 is doubtful about them4 ,by getting passion on his side he seeks to confound his understanding and its doubts1--he thus obtains a good conscience1 and along with it success with his fellow-men4 #eih4 ,,the ,,trick ,,of ,,the ,,resigning ,,one4--,he who protests against marriage1 after the manner of ,catholic priests1 will conceive of it in its lowest and vulgarest form4 ,in the same way he who disavows the honour of his contemporaries will have a mean opinion of it2 he can thus dispense with it and struggle against it more easily4 ,moreover1 he who denies himself much in great matters will readily indulge himself in small things4 ,it might be possible that he who is superior to the approbation of his contemporaries would nevertheless not deny himself the gratification of small vanities4 #eii4 ,,the ,,years ,,of ,,presumption4--,the proper period of presumption in gifted people is between their twenty-sixth and thirtieth years2 it is the time of early ripeness1 with a large residue of sourness4 ,on the ground of what we feel within ourselves we demand honour and humility from men who see little or nothing of it1 and because this tribute is not immediately forthcoming we revenge ourselves by the look1 the gesture of arrogance1 and the tone of voice1 which a keen ear and eye recognise in every product of those years1 whether it be poetry1 philosophy1 or pictures and music4 ,older men of experience smile thereat1 and think with emotion of those beautiful years in which one resents the fate of being so much and seeming so little4 ,later on one really seems more1--but one has lost the good belief in being much1--unless one remain for life an incorrigible fool of vanity4 #fjj4 ,,deceptive ,,and ,,yet ,,defensible4--,just as in order to pass by an abyss or to cross a deep stream on a plank we require a railing1 not to hold fast by1--for it would instantly break down with us1--but to give the notion of security to the eye1 so in youth we require persons who unconsciously render us the service of that railing4 ,it is true they would not help us if we really wished to lean upon them in great danger1 but they afford the tranquillising sensation of protection close to one 7for instance1 fathers1 teachers1 friends1 as all three usually are74 #fja4 ,,learning ,,to ,,love4--,one must learn to love1 one must learn to be kind1 and this from childhood onwards2 when education and chance give us no opportunity for the exercise of these feelings our soul becomes dried up1 and even incapable of understanding the fine devices of loving men4 ,in the same way hatred must be learnt and fostered1 when one wants to become a proficient hater1--otherwise the germ of it will gradually die out4 #fjb4 ,,ruin ,,as ,,ornament4--,persons who pass through numerous mental phases retain certain sentiments and habits of their earlier states1 which then project like a piece of inexplicable antiquity and grey stonework into their new thought and action1 often to the embellishment of the whole surroundings4 #fjc4 ,,love ,,and ,,honour4--,love desires1 fear avoids4 ,that is why one cannot be both loved and honoured by the same person1 at least not at the same time4#b ,for he who honours recognises power1--that is to say1 he fears it1 he is in a state of reverential fear 7,ehr-furcht7 ,but love recognises no power1 nothing that divides1 detaches1 superordinates1 or subordinates4 ,because it does not honour them1 ambitious people secretly or openly resent being loved4 #fjd4 ,a ,,prejudice ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,cold ,,natures4--,people who quickly take fire grow cold quickly1 and therefore are1 on the whole1 unreliable4 ,for those1 therefore1 who are always cold1 or pretend to be so1 there is the favourable prejudice that they are particularly trustworthy1 reliable persons2 they are confounded with those who take fire slowly and retain it long4 #fje4 ,,the ,,danger ,,in ,,free ,,opinions4--,frivolous occupation with free opinions has a charm1 like a kind of itching2 if one yields to it further1 one begins to chafe the places2 until at last an open1 painful wound results2 that is to say1 until the free opinion begins to disturb and torment us in our position in life and in our human relations4 #fjf4 ,,desire ,,for ,,sore ,,affliction4--,when passion is over it leaves behind an obscure longing for it1 and even in disappearing it casts a seductive glance at us4 ,it must have afforded a kind of pleasure to have been beaten with this scourge4 ,compared with it1 the more moderate sensations appear insipid2 we still prefer1 apparently1 the more violent displeasure to languid delight4 #fjg4 ,,dissatisfaction ,,with ,,others ,,and ,,with ,,the ,,world4--,when1 as so frequently happens1 we vent our dissatisfaction on others when we are really dissatisfied with ourselves1 we are in fact attempting to mystify and deceive our judgment2 we desire to find a motive a posteriori for this dissatisfaction1 in the mistakes or deficiencies of others1 and so lose sight of ourselves4 ,strictly religious people1 who have been relentless judges of themselves1 have at the same time spoken most ill of humanity generally2 there has never been a saint who reserved sin for himself and virture for others1 any more than a man who1 according to ,buddha's rule1 hides his good qualities from people and only shows his bad ones4 #fjh4 ,,confusion ,,of ,,cause ,,and ,,effect4--,unconsciously we seek the principles and opinions which are suited to our temperament1 so that at last it seems as if these principles and opinions had formed our character and given it support and stability1 whereas exactly the contrary has taken place4 ,our thoughts and judgments are1 apparently1 to be taken subsequently as the causes of our nature1 but as a matter of fact our nature is the cause of our so thinking and judging4 ,and what induces us to play this almost unconscious comedy8 ,inertness and convenience1 and to a large extent also the vain desire to be regarded as thoroughly consistent and homogeneous in nature and thought2 for this wins respect and gives confidence and power4 #fji4 ,,age ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,truth4--,young people love what is interesting and exceptional1 indifferent whether it is truth or falsehood4 ,riper minds love what is interesting and extraordinary when it is truth4 ,matured minds1 finally1 love truth even in those in whom it appears plain and simple and is found tiresome by ordinary people1 because they have observed that truth is in the habit of giving utterance to its highest intellectual verities with all the appearance of simplicity4 #faj4 ,,men ,,as ,,bad ,,poets4--,just as bad poets seek a thought to fit the rhyme in the second half of the verse1 so men in the second half of life1 having become more scrupulous1 are in the habit of seeking pursuits1 positions1 and conditions which suit those of their earlier life1 so that outwardly all sounds well1 but their life is no longer ruled and continuously determined anew by a powerful thought3 in place thereof there is merely the intention of finding a rhyme4 #faa4 ,,ennui ,,and ,,play4--,necessity compels us to work1 with the product of which the necessity is appeased2 the ever new awakening of necessity1 however1 accustoms us to work4 ,but in the intervals in which necessity is appeased and asleep1 as it were1 we are attacked by ennui4 ,what is this8 ,in a word it is the habituation to work1 which now makes itself felt as a new and additional necessity2 it will be all the stronger the more a person has been accustomed to work1 perhaps1 even1 the more a person has suffered from necessities4 ,in order to escape ennui1 a man either works beyond the extent of his former necessities1 or he invents play1 that is to say1 work that is only intended to appease the general necessity for work4 ,he who has become satiated with play1 and has no new necessities impelling him to work1 is sometimes attacked by the longing for a third state1 which is related to play as gliding is to dancing1 as dancing is to walking1 a blessed1 tranquil movement2 it is the artists' and philosophers' vision of happiness4 #fab4 ,,lessons ,,from ,,pictures4--,if we look at a series of pictures of ourselves1 from the time of later childhood to the time of mature manhood1 we discover with pleased surprise that the man bears more resemblance to the child than to the youth3 that probably1 therefore1 in accordance with this fact1 there has been in the interval a temporary alienation of the fundamental character1 over which the collected1 concentrated force of the man has again become master4 ,with this observation this other is also in accordance1 namely1 that all strong influences of passions1 teachers1 and political events1 which in our youthful years draw us hither and thither1 seem later on to be referred back again to a fixed standard2 of course they still continue to exist and operate within us1 but our fundamental sentiments and opinions have now the upper hand1 and use their influence perhaps as a source of strength1 but are no longer merely regulative1 as was perhaps the case in our twenties4 ,thus even the thoughts and sentiments of the man appear more in accordance with those of his childish years1--and this objective fact expresses itself in the above-mentioned subjective fact4 #fac4 ,,the ,,tone ,,of ,,voice ,,of ,,different ,,ages4--,the tone in which youths speak1 praise1 blame1 and versify1 displeases an older person because it is too loud1 and yet at the same time dull and confused like a sound in a vault1 which acquires such a loud ring owing to the emptiness2 for most of the thought of youths does not gush forth out of the fulness of their own nature1 but is the accord and the echo of what has been thought1 said1 praised or blamed around them4 ,as their sentiments1 however 7their inclinations and aversions71 resound much more forcibly than the reasons thereof1 there is heard1 whenever they divulge these sentiments1 the dull1 clanging tone which is a sign of the absence or scarcity of reasons4 ,the tone of riper age is rigorous1 abruptly concise1 moderately loud1 but1 like everything distinctly articulated1 is heard very far off4 ,old age1 finally1 often brings a certain mildness and consideration into the tone of the voice1 and as it were1 sweetens it2 in many cases1 to be sure it also sours it4 #fad4 ,,the ,,atavist ,,and ,,the ,,forerunner4--,the man of unpleasant character1 full of distrust1 envious of the success of fellow-competitors and neighbours1 violent and enraged at divergent opinions1 shows that he belongs to an earlier grade of culture1 and is1 therefore1 an atavism2 for the way in which he behaves to people was right and suitable only for an age of club-law2 he is an atavist4 ,the man of a different character1 rich in sympathy1 winning friends everywhere1 finding all that is growing and becoming amiable1 rejoicing at the honours and successes of others and claiming no privilege of solely knowing the truth1 but full of a modest distrust1--he is a forerunner who presses upward towards a higher human culture4 ,the man of unpleasant character dates from the times when the rude basis of human intercourse had yet to be laid1 the other lives on the upper floor of the edifice of culture1 removed as far as possible from the howling and raging wild beast imprisoned in the cellars4 #fae4 ,,consolation ,,for ,,hypochondriacs4--,when a great thinker is temporarily subjected to hypochondriacal self-torture he can say to himself1 by way of consolation3 ,it is thine own great strength on which this parasite feeds and grows2 if thy strength were smaller thou wouldst have less to suffer4 ,the statesman may say just the same thing when jealousy and vengeful feeling1 or1 in a word1 the tone of the bellum omnium contra omnes1 for which1 as the representative of a nation1 he must necessarily have a great capacity1 occasionally intrudes into his personal relations and makes his life hard4 #faf4 ,,estranged ,,from ,,the ,,present4--,there are great advantages in estranging one's self for once to a large extent from one's age1 and being as it were driven back from its shores into the ocean of past views of things4 ,looking thence towards the coast one commands a view1 perhaps for the first time1 of its aggregate formation1 and when one again approaches the land one has the advantage of understanding it better1 on the whole1 than those who have never left it4 #fag4 ,,sowing ,,and ,,reaping ,,on ,,the ,,field ,,of ,,personal ,,defects4--,men like ,rousseau understand how to use their weaknesses1 defects1 and vices as manure for their talent4 ,when ,rousseau bewails the corruption and degeneration of society as the evil results of culture1 there is a personal experience at the bottom of it1 the bitterness which gives sharpness to his general condemnation and poisons the arrows with which he shoots2 he unburdens himself first as an individual1 and thinks of getting a remedy which1 while benefiting society directly1 will also benefit himself indirectly by means of society4 #fah4 ,,philosophically ,,minded4--,we usually endeavour to acquire one attitude of mind1 one set of opinions for all situations and events of life--it is mostly called being philosophically minded4 ,but for the acquisition of knowledge it may be of greater importance not to make ourselves thus uniform1 but to hearken to the low voice of the different situations in life2 these bring their own opinions with them4 ,we thus take an intelligent interest in the life and nature of many persons by not treating ourselves as rigid1 persistent single individuals4 #fai4 ,,in ,,the ,,fire ,,of ,,contempt4--,it is a fresh step towards independence when one first dares to give utterance to opinions which it is considered as disgraceful for a person to entertain2 even friends and acquaintances are then accustomed to grow anxious4 ,the gifted nature must also pass through this fire2 it afterwards belongs far more to itself4 #fbj4 ,,self-,,sacrifice4--,in the event of choice1 a great sacrifice is preferred to a small one1 because we compensate ourselves for the great sacrifice by self-admiration1 which is not possible in the case of a small one4 #fba4 ,,love ,,as ,,an ,,artifice4--,whoever really wishes to become acquainted with something new 7whether it be a person1 an event1 or a book71 does well to take up the matter with all possible love1 and to avert his eye quickly from all that seems hostile1 objectionable1 and false therein1--in fact to forget such things2 so that1 for instance1 he gives the author of a book the best start possible1 and straightway1 just as in a race1 longs with beating heart that he may reach the goal4 ,in this manner one penetrates to the heart of the new thing1 to its moving point1 and this is called becoming acquainted with it4 ,this stage having been arrived at1 the understanding afterwards makes its restrictions2 the over-estimation and the temporary suspension of the critical pendulum were only artifices to lure forth the soul of the matter4 #fbb4 ,,thinking ,,too ,,well ,,and ,,too ,,ill ,,of ,,the ,,world4--,whether we think too well or too ill of things1 we always have the advantage of deriving therefrom a greater pleasure1 for with a too good preconception we usually put more sweetness into things 7experiences7 than they actually contain4 ,a too bad preconception causes a pleasant disappointment1 the pleasantness that lay in the things themselves is increased by the pleasantness of the surprise4 ,a gloomy temperament1 however1 will have the reverse experience in both cases4 #fbc4 ,,profound ,,people4--,those whose strength lies in the deepening of impressions--they are usually called profound people--are relatively self-possessed and decided in all sudden emergencies1 for in the first moment the impression is still shallow1 it only then becomes deep4 ,long foreseen1 long expected events or persons1 however1 excite such natures most1 and make them almost incapable of eventually having presence of mind on the arrival thereof4 #fbd4 ,,intercourse ,,with ,,the ,,higher ,,self4--,every one has his good day1 when he finds his higher self2 and true humanity demands that a person shall be estimated according to this state and not according to his work-days of constraint and bondage4 ,a painter1 for instance1 should be appraised and honoured according to the most exalted vision he could see and represent4 ,but men themselves commune very differently with this their higher self1 and are frequently their own playactors1 in so far as they repeatedly imitate what they are in those moments4 ,some stand in awe and humility before their ideal1 and would fain deny it2 they are afraid of their higher self because1 when it speaks1 it speaks pretentiously4 ,besides1 it has a ghost-like freedom of coming and staying away just as it pleases2 on that account it is often called a gift of the gods1 while in fact everything else is a gift of the gods 7of chance72 this1 however1 is the man himself4 #fbe4 ,,lonely ,,people4--,some people are so much accustomed to being alone in self-communion that they do not at all compare themselves with others1 but spin out their soliloquising life in a quiet1 happy mood1 conversing pleasantly1 and even hilariously1 with themselves4 ,if1 however1 they are brought to the point of comparing themselves with others1 they are inclined to a brooding under-estimation of their own worth1 so that they have first to be compelled by others to form once more a good and just opinion of themselves1 and even from this acquired opinion they will always want to subtract and abate something4 ,we must not1 therefore1 grudge certain persons their loneliness or foolishly commiserate them on that account1 as is so often done4 #fbf4 ,,without ,,melody4--,there are persons to whom a constant repose in themselves and the harmonious ordering of all their capacities is so natural that every definite activity is repugnant to them4 ,they resemble music which consists of nothing but prolonged1 harmonious accords1 without even the tendency to an organised and animated melody showing itself4 ,all external movement serves only to restore to the boat its equilibrium on the sea of harmonious euphony4 ,modern men usually become excessively impatient when they meet such natures1 who will never be anything in the world1 only it is not allowable to say of them that they are nothing4 ,but in certain moods the sight of them raises the unusual question3 ,why should there be melody at all8 ,why should it not suffice us when life mirrors itself peacefully in a deep lake8 ,the ,middle ,ages were richer in such natures than our times4 ,how seldom one now meets with any one who can live on so peacefully and happily with himself even in the midst of the crowd1 saying to himself1 like ,goethe1 ,the best thing of all is the deep calm in which ,i live and grow in opposition to the world1 and gain what it cannot take away from me with fire and sword4 #fbg4 ,,to ,,live ,,and ,,experience4--,if we observe how some people can deal with their experiences--their unimportant1 everyday experiences--so that these become soil which yields fruit thrice a year2 whilst others--and how many6--are driven through the surf of the most exciting adventures1 the most diversified movements of times and peoples1 and yet always remain light1 always remain on the surface1 like cork2 we are finally tempted to divide mankind into a minority 7minimality7 of those who know how to make much out of little1 and a majority of those who know how to make little out of much2 indeed1 we even meet with the counter-sorcerers who1 instead of making the world out of nothing1 make a nothing out of the world4 #fbh4 ,,seriousness ,,in ,,play4---,in ,genoa one evening1 in the twilight1 ,i heard from a tower a long chiming of bells2 it was never like to end1 and sounded as if insatiable above the noise of the streets1 out into the evening sky and sea-air1 so thrilling1 and at the same time so childish and so sad4 ,i then remembered the words of ,plato1 and suddenly felt the force of them in my heart3 ,human matters1 one and all1 are not worthy of great seriousness2 nevertheless 444 #fbi4 ,,conviction ,,and ,,justice4--,the requirement that a person must afterwards1 when cool and sober1 stand by what he says1 promises1 and resolves during passion1 is one of the heaviest burdens that weigh upon mankind4 ,to have to acknowledge for all future time the consequences of anger1 of fiery revenge1 of enthusiastic devotion1 may lead to a bitterness against these feelings proportionate to the idolatry with which they are idolised1 especially by artists4 ,these cultivate to its full extent the esteem of the passions1 and have always done so2 to be sure1 they also glorify the terrible satisfaction of the passions which a person affords himself1 the outbreaks of vengeance1 with death1 mutilation1 or voluntary banishment in their train1 and the resignation of the broken heart4 ,in any case they keep alive curiosity about the passions2 it is as if they said3 ,without passions you have no experience whatever4 ,because we have sworn fidelity 7perhaps even to a purely fictitious being1 such as a god71 because we have surrendered our heart to a prince1 a party1 a woman1 a priestly order1 an artist1 or a thinker1 in a state of infatuated delusion that threw a charm over us and made those beings appear worthy of all veneration1 and every sacrifice--are we1 therefore1 firmly and inevitably bound8 ,or did we not1 after all1 deceive ourselves then8 ,was there not a hypothetical promise1 under the tacit presupposition that those beings to whom we consecrated ourselves were really the beings they seemed to be in our imagination8 ,are we under obligation to be faithful to our errors1 even with the knowledge that by this fidelity we shall cause injury to our higher selves8 ,no1 there is no law1 no obligation of that sort2 we must become traitors1 we must act unfaithfully and abandon our ideals again and again4 ,we cannot advance from one period of life into another without causing these pains of treachery and also suffering from them4 ,might it be necessary to guard against the ebullitions of our feelings in order to escape these pains8 ,would not the world then become too arid1 too ghost-like for us8 ,rather will we ask ourselves whether these pains are necessary on a change of convictions1 or whether they do not depend on a mistaken opinion and estimate4 ,why do we admire a person who remains true to his convictions and despise him who changes them8 ,i fear the answer must be1 because every one takes for granted that such a change is caused only by motives of more general utility or of personal trouble4 ,that is to say1 we believe at bottom that nobody alters his opinions as long as they are advantageous to him1 or at least as long as they do not cause him any harm4 ,if it is so1 however1 it furnishes a bad proof of the intellectual significance of all convictions4 ,let us once examine how convictions arise1 and let us see whether their importance is not greatly over-estimated2 it will thereby be seen that the change of convictions also is in all circumstances judged according to a false standard1 that we have hitherto been accustomed to suffer too much from this change4 #fcj4 ,conviction is belief in the possession of absolute truth on any matter of knowledge4 ,this belief takes it for granted1 therefore1 that there are absolute truths2 also1 that perfect methods have been found for attaining to them2 and finally1 that every one who has convictions makes use of these perfect methods4 ,all three notions show at once that the man of convictions is not the man of scientific thought2 he seems to us still in the age of theoretical innocence1 and is practically a child1 however grown-up he may be4 ,whole centuries1 however1 have been lived under the influence of those childlike presuppositions1 and out of them have flowed the mightiest sources of human strength4 ,the countless numbers who sacrificed themselves for their convictions believed they were doing it for the sake of absolute truth4 ,they were all wrong1 however2 probably no one has ever sacrificed himself for ,truth2 at least1 the dogmatic expression of the faith of any such person has been unscientific or only partly scientific4 ,but really1 people wanted to carry their point because they believed that they must be in the right4 ,to allow their belief to be wrested from them probably meant calling in question their eternal salvation4 ,in an affair of such extreme importance the will was too audibly the prompter of the intellect4 ,the presupposition of every believer of every shade of belief has been that he could not be confuted2 if the counter-arguments happened to be very strong1 it always remained for him to decry intellect generally1 and1 perhaps1 even to set up the credo quia absurdum est as the standard of extreme fanaticism4 ,it is not the struggle of opinions that has made history so turbulent2 but the struggle of belief in opinions1--that is to say1 of convictions4 ,if all those who thought so highly of their convictions1 who made sacrifices of all kinds for them1 and spared neither honour1 body1 nor life in their service1 had only devoted half of their energy to examining their right to adhere to this or that conviction and by what road they arrived at it1 how peaceable would the history of mankind now appear6 ,how much more knowledge would there be6 ,all the cruel scenes in connection with the persecution of heretics of all kinds would have been avoided1 for two reasons3 firstly1 because the inquisitors would above all have inquired of themselves1 and would have recognised the presumption of defending absolute truth2 and secondly1 because the heretics themselves would1 after examination1 have taken no more interest in such badly established doctrines as those of all religious sectarians and orthodox believers4 #fca4 ,from the ages in which it was customary to believe in the possession of absolute truth1 people have inherited a profound dislike of all sceptical and relative attitudes with regard to questions of knowledge2 they mostly prefer to acquiesce1 for good or evil1 in the convictions of those in authority 7fathers1 friends1 teachers1 princes71 and they have a kind of remorse of conscience when they do not do so4 ,this tendency is quite comprehensible1 and its results furnish no ground for condemnation of the course of the development of human reason4 ,the scientific spirit in man1 however1 has gradually to bring to maturity the virtue of cautious forbearance1 the wise moderation1 which is better known in practical than in theoretical life1 and which1 for instance1 ,goethe has represented in ,antonio1 as an object of provocation for all ,tassos1--that is to say1 for unscientific and at the same time inactive natures4 ,the man of convictions has in himself the right not to comprehend the man of cautious thought1 the theoretical ,antonio2 the scientific man1 on the other hand1 has no right to blame the former on that account1 he takes no notice thereof1 and knows1 moreover1 that in certain cases the former will yet cling to him1 as ,tasso finally clung to ,antonio4 #fcb4 ,he who has not passed through different phases of conviction1 but sticks to the faith in whose net he was first caught1 is1 under all circumstances1 just on account of this unchangeableness1 a representative of atavistic culture2 in accordance with this lack of culture 7which always presupposes plasticity for culture71 he is severe1 unintelligent1 unteachable1 without liberality1 an ever suspicious person1 an unscrupulous person who has recourse to all expedients for enforcing his opinions because he cannot conceive that there must be other opinions2 he is1 in such respects1 perhaps a source of strength1 and even wholesome in cultures that have become too emancipated and languid1 but only because he strongly incites to opposition3 for thereby the delicate organisation of the new culture1 which is forced to struggle with him1 becomes strong itself4 #fcc4 ,in essential respects we are still the same men as those of the time of the ,reformation2 how could it be otherwise8 ,but the fact that we no longer allow ourselves certain means for promoting the triumph of our opinions distinguishes us from that age1 and proves that we belong to a higher culture4 ,he who still combats and overthrows opinions with calumnies and outbursts of rage1 after the manner of the ,reformation men1 obviously betrays the fact that he would have burnt his adversaries had he lived in other times1 and that he would have resorted to all the methods of the ,inquisition if he had been an opponent of the ,reformation4 ,the ,inquisition was rational at that time2 for it represented nothing else than the universal application of martial law1 which had to be proclaimed throughout the entire domain of the ,church1 and which1 like all martial law1 gave a right to the extremest methods1 under the presupposition1 of course1 7which we now no longer share with those people71 that the ,church possessed truth and had to preserve it at all costs1 and at any sacrifice1 for the salvation of mankind4 ,now1 however1 one does not so readily concede to any one that he possesses the truth2 strict methods of investigation have diffused enough of distrust and precaution1 so that every one who violently advocates opinions in word and deed is looked upon as an enemy of our modern culture1 or1 at least1 as an atavist4 ,as a matter of fact the pathos that man possesses truth is now of very little consequence in comparison with the certainly milder and less noisy pathos of the search for truth1 which is never weary of learning afresh and examining anew4 #fcd4 ,moreover1 the methodical search for truth is itself the outcome of those ages in which convictions were at war with each other4 ,if the individual had not cared about his truth1 that is to say1 about carrying his point1 there would have been no method of investigation2 thus1 however1 by the eternal struggle of the claims of different individuals to absolute truth1 people went on step by step to find irrefragable principles according to which the rights of the claims could be tested and the dispute settled4 ,at first people decided according to authorities2 later on they criticised one another's ways and means of finding the presumed truth2 in the interval there was a period when people deduced the consequences of the adverse theory1 and perhaps found them to be productive of injury and unhappiness2 from which it was then to be inferred by every one that the conviction of the adversary involved an error4 ,the personal struggle of the thinker at last so sharpened his methods that real truths could be discovered1 and the mistakes of former methods exposed before the eyes of all4 #fce4 ,on the whole1 scientific methods are at least as important results of investigation as any other results1 for the scientific spirit is based upon a knowledge of method1 and if the methods were lost1 all the results of science could not prevent the renewed prevalence of superstition and absurdity4 ,clever people may learn as much as they like of the results of science1 but one still notices in their conversation1 and especially in the hypotheses they make1 that they lack the scientific spirit2 they have not the instinctive distrust of the devious courses of thinking which1 in consequence of long training1 has taken root in the soul of every scientific man4 ,it is enough for them to find any kind of hypothesis on a subject1 they are then all on fire for it1 and imagine the matter is thereby settled4 ,to have an opinion is with them equivalent to immediately becoming fanatical for it1 and finally taking it to heart as a conviction4 ,in the case of an unexplained matter they become heated for the first idea that comes into their head which has any resemblance to an explanation--a course from which the worst results constantly follow1 especially in the field of politics4 ,on that account everybody should nowadays have become thoroughly acquainted with at least one science1 for then surely he knows what is meant by method1 and how necessary is the extremest carefulness4 ,to women in particular this advice is to be given at present2 as to those who are irretrievably the victims of all hypotheses1 especially when these have the appearance of being witty1 attractive1 enlivening1 and invigorating4 ,indeed1 on close inspection one sees that by far the greater number of educated people still desire convictions from a thinker and nothing but convictions1 and that only a small minority want certainty4 ,the former want to be forcibly carried away in order thereby to obtain an increase of strength2 the latter few have the real interest which disregards personal advantages and the increase of strength also4 ,the former class1 who greatly predominate1 are always reckoned upon when the thinker comports himself and labels himself as a genius1 and thus views himself as a higher being to whom authority belongs4 ,in so far as genius of this kind upholds the ardour of convictions1 and arouses distrust of the cautious and modest spirit of science1 it is an enemy of truth1 however much it may think itself the wooer thereof4 #fcf4 ,there is1 certainly1 also an entirely different species of genius1 that of justice2 and ,i cannot make up my mind to estimate it lower than any kind of philosophical1 political1 or artistic genius4 ,its peculiarity is to go1 with heartfelt aversion1 out of the way of everything that blinds and confuses people's judgment of things2 it is consequently an adversary of convictions1 for it wants to give their own to all1 whether they be living or dead1 real or imaginary--and for that purpose it must know thoroughly2 it therefore places everything in the best light and goes around it with careful eyes4 ,finally1 it will even give to its adversary the blind or short-sighted conviction 7as men call it1--among women it is called faith71 what is due to conviction--for the sake of truth4 #fcg4 ,opinions evolve out of passions2 indolence of intellect allows those to congeal into convictions4 ,he1 however1 who is conscious of himself as a free1 restless1 lively spirit can prevent this congelation by constant change2 and if he is altogether a thinking snowball1 he will not have opinions in his head at all1 but only certainties and properly estimated probabilities4 ,but we1 who are of a mixed nature1 alternately inspired with ardour and chilled through and through by the intellect1 want to kneel before justice1 as the only goddess we acknowledge4 ,the fire in us generally makes us unjust1 and impure in the eyes of our goddess2 in this condition we are not permitted to take her hand1 and the serious smile of her approval never rests upon us4 ,we reverence her as the veiled ,isis of our life2 with shame we offer her our pain as penance and sacrifice when the fire threatens to burn and consume us4 ,it is the intellect that saves us from being utterly burnt and reduced to ashes2 it occasionally drags us away from the sacrificial altar of justice or enwraps us in a garment of asbestos4 ,liberated from the fire1 and impelled by the intellect1 we then pass from opinion to opinion1 through the change of parties1 as noble betrayers of all things that can in any way be betrayed--and nevertheless without a feeling of guilt4 #fch4 ,,the ,,wanderer4--,he who has attained intellectual emancipation to any extent cannot1 for a long time1 regard himself otherwise than as a wanderer on the face of the earth--and not even as a traveller towards a final goal1 for there is no such thing4 ,but he certainly wants to observe and keep his eyes open to whatever actually happens in the world2 therefore he cannot attach his heart too firmly to anything individual2 he must have in himself something wandering that takes pleasure in change and transitoriness4 ,to be sure such a man will have bad nights1 when he is weary and finds the gates of the town that should offer him rest closed2 perhaps he may also find that1 as in the ,east1 the desert reaches to the gates1 that wild beasts howl far and near1 that a strong wind arises1 and that robbers take away his beasts of burden4 ,then the dreadful night closes over him like a second desert upon the desert1 and his heart grows weary of wandering4 ,then when the morning sun rises upon him1 glowing like a ,deity of anger1 when the town is opened1 he sees perhaps in the faces of the dwellers therein still more desert1 uncleanliness1 deceit1 and insecurity than outside the gates--and the day is almost worse than the night4 ,thus it may occasionally happen to the wanderer2 but then there come as1 compensation the delightful mornings of other lands and days1 when already in the grey of the dawn he sees the throng of muses dancing by1 close to him1 in the mist of the mountain2 when afterwards1 in the symmetry of his ante-meridian soul1 he strolls silently under the trees1 out of whose crests and leafy hiding-places all manner of good and bright things are flung to him1 the gifts of all the free spirits who are at home in mountains1 forests1 and solitudes1 and who1 like himself1 alternately merry and thoughtful1 are wanderers and philosophers4 ,born of the secrets of the early dawn1 they ponder the question how the day1 between the hours of ten and twelve1 can have such a pure1 transparent1 and gloriously cheerful countenance3 they seek the ante-meridian philosophy4 ,footnote #a3 ,this is why ,nietzsche pointed out later on that he had an interest in the preservation of ,christianity1 and that he was sure his teaching would not undermine this faith--just as little as anarchists have undermined kings2 but have left them seated all the more firmly on their thrones4--,j4,m4,k4 ,footnote #b3 ,women never understand this4--,j4,m4,k4 ,,an ,,epode4 ,,among ,,friends4 7,translated by ,t4 ,,common47 ,nice1 when mute we lie a-dreaming1 ,nicer still when we are laughing1 ',neath the sky heaven's chariot speeding1 ,on the moss the book a-reading1 ,sweetly loud with friends all laughing ,joyous1 with white teeth a-gleaming4 ,do ,i well1 we're mute and humble2 ,do ,i ill--we'll laugh exceeding2 ,make it worse and worse1 unheeding1 ,worse proceeding1 more laughs needing1 ,till into the grave we stumble4 ,friends6 ,yea6 so shall it obtain8 ,amen6 ,till we meet again4 ,,ii4 ,no excuses need be started6 ,give1 ye glad ones1 open hearted1 ,to this foolish book before you ,ear and heart and lodging meet2 ,trust me1 'twas not meant to bore you1 ,though of folly ,i may treat6 ,what ,i find1 seek1 and am needing1 ,was it e'er in book for reading8 ,honour now fools in my name1 ,learn from out this book by reading ,how our sense from reason came4 ,thus1 my friends1 shall it obtain8 ,amen6 ,till we meet again4