,,the ,,olive                           
,,by                             ,k4 ,g4
 ,,bitting1 ,m4,s41                     
,,bacteriologist1                       
,,glass ,,container ,,association ,,of  
,,america                               
,,the ,,research ,,laboratory1          
,,glass ,,container ,,association       
,,of ,,america1                         
#ccdd ,s4 ,,michigan ,,avenue1          
,,chicago1 ,,ill4                       
,,copyright1 #aibj                      
,,glass ,,container ,,association ,,of  
,,america                               
,,olives                                
,olea europaea ,l4      ,there is no    
tree nor fruit which offers more in     
interest than the olive  tree and its   
fruit4 ,to obtain anything approaching  
an idea of its  many-sidedness1 it is   
necessary to become acquainted with the 
life and  legends of ancient peoples1 in
 which it entered as sustenance and as  
symbol2 to know something of art1 as the
 olive has furnished the motif  for much

 decoration1 both symbolic and purely   
esthetic2 to know  something of botany  
and horticulture1 to appreciate its     
parts and to  understand their structure
 and development2 something of chemistry
 and  physics1 to understand its various
 constituents and their intelligent     
treatment2 something of the culinary    
art1 to understand its value and  its   
varied uses as a food and condiment2 of 
medicine1 to appreciate the  many       
virtues ascribed to it as a healing     
agent2 and of cosmetics1 to  believe all
 that is claimed for it as a cleanser   
and beautifier4 ,each  phase offers many
 fascinating possibilities1 revealed    
through the most  ancient as well as the
 most recent literature1 for with time  
the olive  has gained both in interest  
and value4      ,origin    ,the olive   
according to ,de ,candolle has been     
cultivated for more than  #d1jjj years1 
probably the longest period for any     
tree4 ,its early history  is known only 
through ancient literature1 and ancient 

remains in which  it served either as   
decoration or as a constituent4 ,through
 these its  original home has been      
traced to ,asia ,minor1 a region        
originally  extending from ,syria to    
,greece4 ,that it grew on ,mt4 ,ararat  
and was the  harbinger to ,noah of the  
recession of the flood is told in       
,genesis--8and  the dove came in to him 
in the evening1 and1 lo1 in her mouth   
was an  olive leaf pluckt off40    ,the 
ancient ,egyptians as a part of the     
fruit of their conquests obtained  the  
olive during the #aith dynasty4         
,mummies1 dating from the #bjth to the  
#bfth dynasty1 have been found          
surrounded by garlands of olive leaves4 
,from ,egypt it spread into northern    
,africa4 ,it is said to have been taken 
to ,greece by ,cecrops1 the founder of  
,athens4 ,the legend states that in  the
 reign of ,cecrops both ,poseidon and   
,athena contended for the  possession of
 ,athens4 ,the gods resolved that       
whichever of them produced  a gift most 

useful to mortals should have           
possession4 ,poseidon struck  the ground
 with his trident and straightway a     
horse appeared4 ,athena  then planted   
the olive4 ,the gods gave the city to   
the goddess from whom  it was called    
,athenae4    ,pindar says that all the  
slopes of ,olympus were soon covered    
with it1  and that the ,athenians used  
to crown the victors in the ,olympian   
games  with its branches4 ,later it was 
used to crown their warriors and wise   
citizens4 ,the method of oil extraction 
was also obtained from outside4  ,the   
,greeks are supposed to have had the    
wild olive1 ,oleaster1  previously1 but 
the fruit of this is valueless4 ,they   
are the first  ,european people to have 
cultivated the olive4 ,its cultivation  
spread to  the surrounding countries1   
where the ,greeks founded colonies1     
,sicily1  the coast of ,italy1 and      
,gaul1 these forming nuclei for its     
spread into  the adjacent lands4 ,pliny 
states1 however1 that the olive was not 

introduced into ,italy until #fbg       
,b4,c41 and that it reappeared in ,gaul 
in  #fjj ,b4,c41 being carried to the   
latter country by the ,phenician colony 
that founded ,marseilles4    ,the olive 
was carried later by the ,romans into   
the countries in which  they settled1   
,spain being the most notable1 but it   
was also carried into  the ,iberian     
peninsula by the ,arabs4    ,the ,greeks
 and the ,romans cultivated it on the   
northern side of the  ,mediterranean1   
the ,tyrians on the southern side1 the  
,arabs finding it  there and carrying it
 with them into ,spain when they settled
 in that  country4 ,the double origin of
 the olive1 ,greco-,roman and ,semitic1 
in  this latter country is borne out by 
the names bestowed on the olive4 ,in    
southern ,spain the tree is called      
aceituno1 the olive fruit  aceituna1 and
 the oil aceite1 the name evidently     
derived from the  ,arabic name zeitoun1 
this in turn being derived from the     
,hebrew  zeit4 ,in northern ,spain both 

,arabic and ,latin names are used1 the  
tree  is called olivo or oliveira1      
whereas the fruit and oil have the      
,arabic derivative names aceituna and   
aceite respectively1 but the  oil used  
in the church and in painting is called 
oleo4 ,in ,portugal  similar conditions 
prevail1 the cultivated olive is called 
by the  ,greco-,latin name oliveira1    
whereas the wild olive is called by the 
,arabic name zambugeiro1 the fruit      
azeitona1 and the oil azeite4    ,though
 some botanists claim that the olive is 
native to the ,canary  ,islands1 no word
 for it is found in the remains of the  
language of the  ,guanches1 an ancient1 
but extinct1 race of people who         
inhabited the  islands4 ,the available  
records show the tree to have been      
introduced  there since #adjc1 and      
probably by the ,phenicians4    ,the    
olive was introduced by the ,spaniards  
into ,chili1 ,peru1 ,mexico1 and  the   
,united ,states4 ,from ,mexico it was   
brought by ,jesuit missionaries  into   

,lower ,california1 the first settlement
 being at ,loreto1 in #afig4  ,the      
,jesuits founded fifteen missions1 but  
were superseded by ,franciscans  in     
#agfh4 ,these latter proceeded northward
 to extend their work1 the  first of    
their missions being founded in #agfi1  
at ,san ,diego4 ,the secular  head of   
the mission1 representing the ,king of  
,spain1 had the foresight  to carry the 
seeds of flowers1 fruits1 grains1 and   
vegetables1 so that  flourishing gardens
 were soon brought into existence4 ,when
 the missions  went into secular hands  
in #ahdc1 the gardens in many cases were
  neglected and many of the fruit trees 
died4 ,the olive was one of the  trees  
that withstood the neglect and was      
afterwards used for cuttings by  the    
emigrants from the eastern states who   
came in #ahdi4 ,from this time  on the  
olive has received considerable         
attention1 many experiments being  made 
in its culture1 and in recent years the 
plantings have increased to  an enormous

 extent1 due to the favor accorded to   
both the oil and the  fruit4 ,it has    
spread around ,san ,diego and ,los      
,angeles east into the ,san  ,joaquin   
,valley and north into the ,sacramento  
,valley in ,california1 and  also into  
,arizona4 ,in the latter state its      
cultivation is comparatively  recent1 so
 that only about #e per cent of         
,american olives are produced  there4   
,at the present time the olive is       
cultivated more or less extensively in  
the countries surrounding the           
,mediterranean--,asia ,minor1 ,turkey1  
,greece1  ,italy1 ,austria1 ,france1    
,spain1 ,portugal1 ,tunis1 and ,algeria4
 ,in the  ,western ,hemisphere the main 
source is ,california1 though the olive 
is  cultivated in some of the countries 
of ,s4 ,america4      ,duration    ,the 
olive tree is of slow growth1 but if    
allowed to grow naturally1 it  persists 
for centuries and attains a great size4 
,de ,candolle describes  one tree #bc   
feet in circumference1 its age supposed 

to be over #gjj  years4 ,tournefort     
found fruitful old olive trees between  
,ephesus and  ,smyrna which must have   
been planted before the ,mussulman      
invasion1 as  ,turks had not planted    
olives1 not esteeming them4 ,the ,mount 
of ,olives on  the east side of         
,jerusalem was among the places best    
cultivated4 ,near  its foot was the     
grove called ,gethsemane 7,gath-,semen1 
oil press7 because  of the olives with  
which it was covered and those of the   
slopes above  where an abundance of oil 
was pressed out4 ,in the ,garden of     
,gethsemane  there remain only eight of 
these olive trees that are supposed to  
have  existed at the beginning of the   
,christian era4 ,chateaubriand1 writing 
in the early part of the nineteenth     
century of these olive trees1 said1     
8one sees there eight olive trees in    
extreme decrepitude40 ,an article       
written recently by ,j4 ,d4 ,whiting1   
,american ,vice-,consul at ,jerusalem1  
had an interesting statement relative to

 one of these trees4 8,el ,butini1  the 
most famous of the ,garden of           
,gethsemane's eight olive trees1 under  
which the ,savior is supposed to have   
walked during the night of agony1  has  
recently collapsed4 ,the great tree was 
weakened by the locust plague  during   
the spring and summer of #aiae4 ,when   
,el ,butini falls1 then falls  the      
,turk1 runs the legend40    ,throughout 
,europe and ,asia are many old olive    
trees1 some of them  producing          
abundantly1 their origin1 however1 lost 
in remote centuries4  ,the olive is very
 tenacious of life1 but the methods of  
cultivation1  which tend to increase    
production1 reduce resistance and       
diminish its  duration of life4         
,etymology    ,the generic name ,olea is
 from the ,greek elaia1 derived from the
  ,celtic or ,gothic olew1 oil1 on      
account of the abundance of oil in the  
fruit4 ,the specific name europaea is   
given to the species cultivated         
throughout ,europe4    ,the olive has   

been given fanciful names by the early  
peoples4 ,it was  known as the 8tree of 
wisdom10 8,minerva's tree10 the 8,gift  
of ,heaven10  etc4 ,the ,greeks         
consecrated the tree to ,minerva1 and   
made it the symbol  of wisdom1          
abundance1 and peace4      ,description 
,the olive is an evergreen tree about   
#bj to #cj feet high1 much branched  and
 spreading4 ,it forms a symmetrical     
head1 having angular branches and       
opposite leaves4 ,the leaves are dry and
 leathery in texture1 lanceolate1       
entire1 deep green above1 and light     
hoary beneath4 ,the flowers are  small1 
star-shaped1 creamy white with yellow   
centers1 have a faint  pleasing odor1   
and are axillary in compact racemes4    
,the fruit1 a fleshy  pendulous drupe1  
is very abundant4 ,it is oval1 obovate1 
or globular in  shape1 about the size of
 a pigeon's egg1 dull greenish yellow   
even when  full size but unripe1 then   
gradually becomes yellow1 red1 and      
finally  turns a glossy purplish black  

or black when ripe4 ,in ripening1 the   
side  exposed to the sun reddens1 then  
gradually the whole fruit changes from  
red to purple1 then black4 ,as fruit of 
all degrees of ripeness are  developed  
at the same time1 the tree furnishes an 
extremely beautiful  combination of     
colors1 the various greens of the leaf  
and fruits forming  a background for the
 splotches of red1 purple1 and black    
formed by the  ripening fruit4 ,the     
fruit is peculiar in two respects1      
first1 in that it  contains in addition 
to the ordinary constituents of fruits  
an abundance  of edible oil1            
consequently making it a valuable food2 
second in that it  contains a bitter    
substance which does not disappear on   
maturity1 so  that the fruit cannot be  
eaten at any stage in its development   
without  preliminary treatment for the  
elimination of this substance4 ,the     
stone  is two-celled1 many times only   
one seed developing4      ,climatic     
,requirements    ,the olive requires    

rather warm temperature1 light humidity1
 and absence  of heavy frosts4 ,it can  
withstand temperatures of -#g to -#h    
degrees ,c4 or  even lower if not too   
prolonged1 and if the change to higher  
temperature  be gradual4 ,moist cold is 
more unfavorable than dry4 ,the altitude
 at  which it will grow depends on the  
local climate4 ,the climate of the      
countries bordering on the              
,mediterranean and that of ,california  
are  particularly favorable4            
,varieties    ,the wild olive ,oleaster 
is said to have been the original form1 
called  by ,linnaeus ,olea europaea     
sylvestris1 later by ,de ,candolle ,olea
  europaea oleaster and the cultivated  
form ,olea europaea sativa4 ,the  reason
 for this belief is said to be the      
oleaster seeds reproduce  trees true to 
type1 whereas the seeds of sativa       
produce trees having  the               
characteristics of oleaster but1 though 
oleaster under  cultivation becomes     
modified in various ways1 it does not   

produce fruit  like sativa4 ,whichever  
form was the original1 the subjection to
  cultivation for over #d1jjj years1    
under the varying conditions of soil1   
climate1 and methods of cultivation1 has
 produced many varieties4 ,many  of     
these doubtless are the result of       
accidental modifications1 more or  less 
fixed by successive cultivations4 ,at   
the present time there are  certain     
well-defined varieties which are        
cultivated1 and of which the            
characteristics are well known1 so that 
varieties may be selected  according to 
the purpose desired1 whether for the    
preservation of the  fruit green1 half  
ripe1 or ripe1 or for extraction of oil4
    ,of the large number of varieties   
introduced into ,california1 ,wickson   
reports analyses made by the ,state     
university on #eg varieties4 ,of these  
only a comparatively few were retained  
as worthy of cultivation1 chief  among  
these being the ,mission olive1 the one 
planted originally in  ,california in   

the old mission gardens4 ,wickson states
 there are several  sub-varieties of    
this form4      ,propagation    ,the    
olive is propagated by means of seeds1  
cuttings1 grafting1 and  budding4       
,propagation by seeds is seldom done in 
this country1 as it is  so much slower  
and more troublesome than by cuttings1  
aside from the  fact that the desired   
variety may not result4 ,the pulp has to
 be  removed1 which is done usually by  
allowing the fruit to rot or by         
softening with an alkali4 ,unless       
removed from the stone1 the seed may    
not develop for two years1 otherwise the
 seed usually sprouts the first  year4  
,propagation by cuttings is the         
commonest and easiest method1 as the    
cuttings root readily1 and either old or
 new wood may be used so that  the      
cuttings may be large or small4         
,cuttings sent from ,europe are  usually
 in the form of truncheons1 and these   
may be cut into pieces like  firewood   
and will root4    ,the story is told of 

a grove in ,morocco in which the trees  
exhibited a  peculiar arrangement4 ,the 
reason given for this was that a king   
and his  army on the way to the ,sudan  
had encamped for the night1 and stakes  
or  pickets to tie the horses had been  
cut from a grove near by4 ,the pickets  
were left and had developed into trees4 
,this seems probable enough when  it is 
considered that pieces of branches are  
taken1 one end whittled to  a sharp     
point and driven into the ground1 and   
that these pieces will  take root and   
develop4 ,an olive company in           
,california has recently  transferred   
#cjjj trees1 #bf years old1 from ,san   
,joaquin ,county to  ,oroville and      
,marysville4 ,the trunks were sawed off 
about #ah inches above  the ground1 and 
the roots #ab inches from the stump4 ,in
 a planting made #f  years previously   
the same method was used and resulted   
successfully4    ,where trees are found 
undesirable for some reason1 resort is  
had to  budding or grafting4 ,by these  

means the undesirable trees are not a   
complete loss1 and results are obtained 
sooner4 ,many times varieties are       
obtained from ,europe which on          
developing are not found suited to the  
conditions in this country2 these plants
 may be used as stock for  desirable    
varieties or some desirable variety is  
obtained which may be  propagated       
rapidly by these means4    ,the pruning 
must be done by persons of              
understanding1 as the fruit is  borne   
only on the two-year portion of the     
branches1 and provision must  be made   
,illustration3 ,gathering ,olives    to 
cut excessive growth in the season of   
too heavy development and  stimulate in 
the season of poor development4 ,the    
pruning thus regulates  the growth of   
the branches which two years later will 
control the  production of the fruit4   
,pruning of very large branches is      
sometimes done to admit more light and  
heat to the darker1 cooler parts of the 
tree4 ,the small branches thus  provided

 in turn furnish nursery stock4 ,pruning
 is done in late winter  and early      
spring4 ,from ,march to ,october no     
pruning is done1 but the  trees are     
carefully tended through cultivation1   
irrigation1 and  fertilization4    ,in  
,california the young stock is set out  
in the groves in ,april1 and  about #ce 
feet apart4 ,during the non-bearing     
period1 the land between1  which like   
all ,california groves1 is kept in good 
cultivation and free  from weeds1 is    
utilized frequently for other crops4    
,though numerous stories are written of 
the remarkable ability of the  olive    
tree to grow and bear in exposed        
situations1 and with only small  amounts
 of soil and water1 the olive1 like all 
other fruit trees1  requires both       
cultivation and an adequate amount of   
water if a constant  and abundant       
harvest be desired4 ,as the groves are  
irrigated1 the proper  amount of water  
may be supplied at all times4 ,the water
 is conducted  through a system of      

underground pipes1 which are provided   
with outlets  at the end of each row of 
trees4 ,from these outlets the water is 
directed into furrows to water the      
trees4 ,as the irrigation is  conducted 
by underground pipes1 the groves are    
easily cultivated4      ,products    ,it
 would seem that the olive is rightly   
and appropriately called the  8,tree of 
,abundance10 for all parts of it have   
been used1 and to the  ancients1 even   
with their limited cuisine as compared  
with that of  today1 it was a symbol of 
plenty1 witness the apostrophe of ,king 
,sennacherib1 made centuries before the 
,christian era1 who called ,assyria  8,a
 land of corn and wine2 a land of bread 
and vineyards2 a land of oil1  olives1  
and honey40      ,,flowers    ,in       
ancient medicine the blossoms of the    
olive were highly esteemed1 but  are not
 mentioned in the medicine of today4    
,they were used as poultices  to        
alleviate pain1 sometimes alone1        
sometimes mixed with other  substances4 

,,leaves    ,the leaves were also used  
in medicine1 a decoction made from them 
being  said to stop bleeding1 and on    
account of their astringency to reduce  
inflammation4 ,the leaves and bark have 
an acrid and bitter taste1 and  have    
been prescribed as substitutes for      
cinchona4 ,in ,france an extract  of the
 leaves is used as a febrifuge1 and has 
also been found valuable  in preventing 
hectic paroxysms4    ,from time         
immemorial the leaf and branch have been
 employed as a symbol  of peace1 and    
have appeared in sculpture and painting4
 ,no more  beautiful emblem than the    
olive branch can be selected or devised 
to  symbolize both peace and victory1   
and as such has been known through all  
the ages4 ,egyptian mummies1 dating from
 the #bjth to the #bfth dynasty1  have  
been found surrounded by garlands of    
olive leaves1 and the tomb of  the hero 
of today will oftentimes have its       
sculptured olive branch1  telling its   
story and making its appeal stronger    

than could be made by  words4           
,besides serving for esthetic purposes1 
the leaves1 in spite of their           
astringency1 are eaten by animals as    
forage1 so that the trees have to  be   
protected from them4 ,it is curious that
 with all the ravages made by  animals  
on the olive trees in the neglected     
mission gardens in  ,california1 after  
the missionaries had gone1 some of these
 same trees  furnished scions for many  
of the olive groves of today4           
,,wood    ,the wood of the olive tree is
 much prized for certain purposes4 ,it  
is  very close1 fine-grained1 yellow to 
yellowish brown with irregular wavy     
brown to black lines and mottlings1     
especially near the root4 ,it has no    
distinguishable annual rings or pith    
rays1 and has evenly distributed        
vessels4 ,it takes a beautiful polish4  
,at present it is employed chiefly  in  
lathe-work and carving for small fancy  
articles1 and for cabinet  work4    ,in 
ancient times it seems to have had a    

much wider application1 due no  doubt to
 the size of the trees1 which were      
larger as a result of not  being        
subjected to the rigorous cultivation   
and pruning which they  receive today4  
,the ,bible states that olive wood was  
used in the ,temple4  ,in the time of   
,pliny it furnished material for        
construction of ships1  for wagon       
spokes1 wedges1 columns1 pedestals1     
statues1 and furniture4  ,the ,romans   
used both the wild and cultivated trees4
 ,the wood industry  was developed in   
the vicinity of ,nice in both ,france   
and ,italy1 and  still flourishes4 ,a   
considerable amount has been exported to
 ,england in  recent years for the      
manufacture of walking sticks4 ,the     
poorer quality  is used for firewood1 is
 inflammable1 and produces great heat4  
,,bark    ,the bark contains a large    
amount of tannin4 ,for medicinal        
purposes it is  reduced to powder and   
acts as an astringent1 a tonic1 and a   
febrifuge4  ,in warm climates a resin is

 exuded from it which solidifies in the 
air4  ,it is called ,lecca gum1 as it   
was first found near ,lecca4 ,it        
contains  some benzoic acid among other 
constituents and in ancient times was   
prescribed in medicine1 but is not at   
present1 and the gum is considered      
valueless4      ,,fruit    ,the fruit   
has been considered a choice food at all
 times4 ,it has  appeared at the feasts 
of epicures1 both ancient and modern1 as
 a  relish1 and to be eaten at the end  
of the repast as part of the dessert1   
and at all times it has also furnished a
 staple food for the poor in the        
,orient and in ,greek and ,latin        
countries4 ,those who were well provided
  were admonished to have care for those
 less fortunate3 8,when thou  beatest   
thine olive tree1 thou shalt not go over
 the boughs again2 it  shall be for the 
stranger1 for the fatherless1 and for   
the widow40  7,deuteronomy ,,xxiv41     
#bj47 ,the people obliged to live       
frugally have found  it a great         

resource1 particularly in ,lent and for 
those at a distance  from the sea unable
 to obtain fresh fish4 ,it is said that 
,plato  preferred olives to all other   
foods1 and often made a meal on them    
alone4    ,though olives are known and  
consumed throughout the civilized world1
  comparatively few persons1 aside from 
those living in the regions of  their   
cultivation1 know that olives have to   
undergo certain treatment  before they  
can be eaten4 ,it is a common practise  
in olive regions to  encourage the      
visitor to taste the fruit directly from
 the tree4 ,the  fruit1 both green and  
black1 looks so fine and tempting1 that 
the  disgust on tasting is              
correspondingly great4 ,it is claimed   
that some of  the older varieties could 
be eaten without preparation1 that they 
dried  naturally1 and were sweet like   
raisins4    ,the olive contains a bitter
 and acrid substance or substances which
 must  be removed before the olives are 
edible4 ,it is referred to in most of   

the literature as a 8bitter principle01 
and has been called an acid1 a  tannin1 
and more recently a glucoside4 ,cruess  
has repeated the work of  the various   
investigators1 who claimed these        
different substances1 and  as a result  
has come to the conclusion that it is a 
glucoside1 that is1  a combination of   
glucose with another compound4    ,in   
immature fleshy fruits there is usually 
an accumulation of acids1  tannins1 and 
sometimes starch4 ,as ripening proceeds1
 carbohydrates and  aromatic substances 
are formed1 and the bitter1 acrid1 or   
astringent  taste disappears4 ,in the   
olive there is no starch found at any   
stage of  maturity4 ,glucose has been   
found in all stages1 and is supposed to 
be  the substance from which the oil is 
formed4 ,the oil is in very minute      
quantities in the fruit up to the time  
when the pit is formed1 from then  on it
 increases gradually up to its maximum  
when the fruit is not quite  mature4 ,in
 the plant economy the fat or oil is one

 of the most important  food reserves of
 plants4 ,all parts of the fruit--rind1 
flesh1 stone1 and  seed--contain oil1   
the fleshy part1 forming about #hj of   
the fruit1  containing the largest      
amount4    ,contrary to the condition   
existing in most fruits1 the bitterness 
remains through all stages of           
development in the olive4 ,a substance  
of  glucosidic nature1 given the name   
8oleuropeine01 has been isolated1 and   
found to be of extreme bitterness4 ,this
 may be the substance or one of  the    
substances which cause the inedibility  
of the untreated olive4    ,the oil is  
the most important constituent of the   
fruit on account of its  high food value
 and its use in the industries4 ,it is  
used to a large  extent in cold         
countries and also in dry countries     
where there are few  cattle1 the oil    
taking in the various culinary          
operations1 the place of  butter and    
other fats4    ,among the ancient ,jews 
the oil was considered indispensable and

 as  necessary as bread4 ,an abundance  
of oil was looked upon as a blessing    
from ,god4 ,vast public storehouses were
 constructed to hold it for the  scarce 
years4 ,to the ,greeks the three        
indispensable foods were oil1  grains1  
and wine1 the oil entering into most of 
their dishes4 ,the ,romans  had a large 
trade in the oil1 and it was also used1 
to a large extent1  in their domestic   
cooking4 ,in ,italy and ,spain street   
vendors fry  fritters in the oil and    
sell them while hot4 ,it has            
considerable use in  conserving fish1   
particularly sardines4 ,the higher      
grades of ,french1  ,spanish1           
,norwegian1 and ,american sardines are  
packed in olive oil4 ,this  use has been
 extended in recent years to the packing
 of tuna fish4    ,olive oil occupies a 
high position as a vegetable fat4 ,many 
others have  been prepared and offered  
as substitutes1 and if judged by        
chemical  composition alone1 give       
practically equal food value1 but are   

lacking in  the delicious flavor which  
makes olive oil distinctive and gives it
 a  superiority over all other oils4    
,the oil is a large factor in the       
industries2 it serves as an extractive  
of perfumes1 as a constituent of fine1  
smooth soaps1 and as a lubricant  in    
watch factories4 ,formerly the lower    
grades were used commonly for           
lubricating purposes1 but with improved 
methods of clarifying and the  greater  
expense attendant on its use1 it has    
been superseded by cheaper  lubricants4 
,an enormous quantity has been and is   
still used in religious ceremonies1  in 
the ordinations of the clergy and       
rulers1 and anointing in the            
sacraments1 besides by old world peoples
 generally in the lamps in the  churches
 and temples1 many of which are kept    
burning continually4 ,an  idea of the   
vast amount consumed for this purpose   
can be obtained from  the fact that in  
one mosque alone there are #a1bjj lamps 
burning  constantly1 and requiring about

 #be1jjj kilos of oil annually4    ,in  
medicine it has been and is still used  
extensively4 ,the ancients  rubbed it on
 their bodies to make the muscles supple
 and to cleanse and  protect the skin1  
particularly after bathing1 and it still
 functions for  these purposes4 ,it was 
used to heal wounds1 in liniments1 and  
as a mild  laxative4 ,at present it is a
 constituent of liniments1 ointments1   
cerates1 and plasters4 ,the people who  
are habitual patrons of the olive  and  
its oil are noted for their smooth1     
beautiful complexions4 ,it is  said 8the
 warm rosy complexion of the ,italian   
and ,sicilian women is due  to the free 
use of olive oil as much as to the air  
and climate of their  country40    ,the 
residue or marc which remains after the 
oil is extracted is used as  a food for 
sheep and hogs1 for fertilizer1 and for 
fuel1 and there is  obtained from it a  
clear1 illuminating gas4                
,,preparation ,,of ,,fruit      ,foreign
    ,in the early preparation of olives 

in order to remove the bitterness1  they
 were soaked in water1 which was renewed
 from time to time1  sometimes hot water
 being used4 ,the olives1 after         
draining1 were then  held in brine4 ,the
 green olives as well as the mature and 
black were  used4    ,the ,romans       
exercised the greatest care in their    
preparation1 and  introduced            
refinements1 by not only removing the   
bitterness1 but by  causing them to     
acquire various flavors through infusion
 in solutions  containing aromatic      
substances4    ,one of their methods for
 the preparation of green olives        
consisted in  adding roasted salt to the
 olives after a preliminary soaking in  
hot  water1 then covering them with     
grape must1 boiled wine1 or honey water1
  and to this solution were added       
fennel1 mint1 and lentiscus seed4       
,fennel  was used as a tampon to keep   
the olives immersed4 ,a simpler method  
was  to use vinegar with the brine4     
,sometimes the olives were beaten to    

facilitate the action1 but this caused  
discoloration1 which was avoided  by    
making cuts in them4 ,the brine was     
replaced by oil as a preserving  liquid4
 ,another method was to put the olives  
with the aromatics in the  brine at the 
start1 then they were removed1 crushed  
lightly1 and put in  a mixture of oil1  
vinegar1 and honey1 to which were added 
leek1 celery1  mint1 and sometimes rue4 
,the rue was supposed to be most        
efficacious in  bringing out the natural
 flavor1 and was most prized4 ,the      
mature olives  were first put in brine  
for #cj to #dj days1 then put in the    
preserving  liquid with the aromatics4  
,olives prepared in the ways indicated  
were  known as 8,colymbades04    ,a form
 of conserve made by the ancients1 and  
to which the name  8,epityrum0 was      
given1 consisted in taking green1       
mature1 or black fruit1  though1 as in  
the former1 the green were preferred1   
and drying them in  the shade1 after    
which they were put in baskets1 and     

crushed in a press4  ,the crushed fruit 
was then put in vessels1 sprinkled with 
salt1 and had  mixed with it lentiscus  
seed and minced leaves of fennel and    
rue1 and  was finally covered with oil4 
,many recipes have been left by the     
ancients1 the preparations varying as   
to time1 strength of solutions1 mixtures
 of spices1 etc4 ,to the recipes  of    
,palladius 7#aeah-aehj7 is owed the     
knowledge that the ,romans were         
cognizant of and used lye solutions1    
though this is supposed to be a  modern 
practise4 ,in this particular recipe    
sifted ashes are indicated as  one of   
the ingredients1 and it is supposed that
 this recipe1 changed in  detail1       
furnished the basis for present day     
methods4 ,the use of wood  ashes was    
introduced into ,france by an ,italian  
refugee named ,picholini1  who settled  
in ,provence1 devoting himself to the   
preparation and sale of  preserved      
olives4 ,the olives preserved according 
to his process are  called 8olives a la 

,picholine04 ,previous to his time the  
preparation in  southern ,france        
consisted of crushing the olives        
lightly1 immersing in  clear water1     
which was renewed each day for about    
nine days1 then  preserving in brine4   
,this latter process is still employed  
for the  olives in which appearance is  
not an asset4 ,for the more carefully   
prepared ones1 the method was to pick by
 hand when the olives had  attained full
 development1 then they were carefully  
sorted1 and immersed  in lye1 the       
duration in the lye depending on the    
size of the fruit1 and  the             
concentration of the lye4 ,they were    
removed from the lye when the  flesh was
 penetrated to1 and readily detached    
from1 the stone4    ,there are many     
variations of the lye treatment4 ,in the
 olive countries  the preparation is    
done in the homes as well as in         
factories1 and it is  in the homes1     
naturally1 that the greatest variations 
occur4 ,lime is  often used with the    

ashes1 one formula consisting of the    
olives mixed  with a paste of wood ashes
 and freshly slaked lime4 ,in the       
ordinary  methods1 however1 a solution  
is made of the sifted ashes and lime1   
sometimes sodium carbonate taking the   
place of the ashes4 ,in the  ordinary   
factory preparations both ashes and lime
 are omitted1 and  either caustic soda  
or potash used4 ,when removed from the  
lye1 the  olives are put in clear water1
 changed night and morning for three or 
four days1 then put in brine4    ,the   
early accounts of olive preparation show
 quite conclusively that  great         
variation in strength of the caustic    
solution was inevitable1 but            
fortunately the tendency to err was on  
the weaker side4 ,it was not until  the 
modern introduction of caustic          
preparations of soda and potash that    
standardization of the process was      
possible4 ,even with this possibility   
the practise remains largely empirical  
and is based upon the experience  of the

 operator4 ,some still adhere to the use
 of weak solutions1 taking  considerable
 time to act upon the olive1 whereas    
others use relatively  strong solutions 
so as to hasten the process4    ,the    
brine used has been subject to quite as 
marked variation as the lye4  ,a weak   
brine has been used in order to         
encourage the natural  fermentation of  
the fruit1 which corresponds to the     
fermentation in our  cucumber pickles4  
,the other extreme is represented by the
 use of a very  strong brine which      
practically inhibited all fermentative  
change and  this same brine was filtered
 and used a succeeding season4 ,every   
gradation between these extremes has    
been in common use4 ,as might be        
expected1 more or less of the fruit     
softened and underwent changes which  at
 present would be regarded as           
decomposition or rotting rather than as 
clean1 normal fermentation4 ,the        
esthetic side of olive preparation has  
not always been of the highest order1   

though1 as in the case of many  other   
foods1 very great improvement has been  
wrought in recent years4    ,even with  
the later methods the use of aromatic   
substances has not been  abandoned1 and 
many of these are used1 such as bay     
leaves1 cloves1  coriander1 cumin1 mint1
 orange skin1 fennel1 etc41 the amounts 
and  combinations varying greatly4      
,sometimes the aromatics are first      
extracted1 the solution concentrated1   
and a quantity of this solution  added  
to the brine1 or they are boiled in the 
brine at the start1 then  removed1 and  
when the brine is cooled1 it is ready   
for use4    ,in ,spain the ripe olives  
are not treated ordinarily with lye1 but
 by the  slower process of soaking in   
water4 ,the black olives1 gathered late 
in  the year1 are cured in a salt brine 
to which black pepper is added4  ,after 
the bitterness is removed1 they are     
preserved in oil4    ,a process used at 
present for ripe olives which is very   
simple but  effective1 is to mix fine   

salt with them after they have been     
cleaned  and sorted4 ,they are stirred  
twice a day1 and through the osmotic    
action  of the salt1 a dark-colored     
juice is exuded which contains1 among   
other  constituents1 the substance      
causing the bitterness4 ,to hasten the  
action  the olives are pierced with a   
needle4 ,the ,spaniards vary this method
 by  adding aromatics1 as wild marjoram1
 thyme1 fennel seed1 anise seed1        
garlic1 laurel leaves1 etc41 at the same
 time as the salt4 ,the special  spice  
mixtures are held as trade secrets by   
the manufacturers4    ,when the         
bitterness has been removed1 the olives 
are washed1 dried  lightly1 and placed  
in casks or jars until required4 ,before
 being served  the olives are soaked in 
oil4    ,one style of ,greek packing of 
ripe olives is of special excellence4   
,sour  wine is added to the pickle to   
accentuate the flavor and the product is
  packed in oil4 ,the olives are plump1 
tender1 and brilliant1 and possess  a   

very rich flavor4    ,in parts of       
,southern ,europe certain kinds of      
olives are left on the  trees to become 
very ripe1 and are then dried in the sun
 without any  preparation4 ,these are   
only used locally as they are lacking in
 the fine  flavor of the prepared olive4
    ,in the preparation of the olive1   
both green and ripe1 during all these   
centuries1 there had been no attempt at 
sterilization4 ,the olive was  preserved
 by partial drying1 by the action of    
salt1 and by its  spontaneous           
fermentation in pickle in which certain 
desirable forms of  organisms had the   
ascendency4 ,with the good fruit thus   
prepared1 there  must have been         
considerable which was spoiled1 and yet 
no illness is  known to have resulted4  
,though olives have figured so largely  
in the alimentation of southern         
,europe1 the oil particularly being so  
important and general a food1 the       
people of northern ,europe have not     
esteemed either to an important  extent4

 ,with the crude methods in vogue for   
transporting the oil1 and  the lack of  
understanding as to its nature1 it is   
supposed that their  apathetic attitude 
was due to its being received in poor   
condition4    ,in ,england also1 though 
so close to the olive growing districts1
 the  olive has not been used to any    
considerable extent1 judging from its   
absence from menus and from their       
cookery4 ,in examining old cookery      
books it was surprising to find no      
mention of olives4 ,in ,russel's 8,boke 
of ,nurture0 and ,mrs4 ,napier's 8,noble
 ,boke off ,cookry0 the manuscripts     
dating from the #aeth century1 there is 
no mention of olives1 though  there are 
condiments and spices from foreign      
countries used in sauces  and other     
preparations4 ,neither is there any     
mention of olives in 8,the  ,closet of  
,sir ,kenelm ,digby ,opened0 written in 
the #agth century1 though  ,digby had   
traveled much and lived on the          
continent4 ,the earliest mention  in #ag

 cookery books1 published in the #agth  
and #ahth centuries is the  following1  
published in #agde1 and which is really 
a translation of a  ,french work by ,l4 
,lemery1 physician to the ,king1 and    
member of the ,royal  ,academy4 ,it is  
interesting in showing the many virtues 
attributed to  olives4           8,,of  
,,olives0         8,you ought to chuse  
such as are large1 pulpy1 well preserv'd
 and       tasted1 and those that have  
been cultivated in hot ,countries4      
,they create an ,appetite1 fortify the  
,stomach1 dissolve and expell       the 
viscous and gross ,humours fix'd there1 
repress ,reachings1 and       are a     
little nourishing4         ,they produce
 no ill ,effects1 unless they are us'd  
to excess4         ,they contain much   
,oil1 ,phlegm1 and essential ,salt4     
,they agree in cold ,weather with any   
,sort of ,age and ,constitution1        
provided they are good1 and well        
preserv'd40      ,remarks    8,olives   
are oblong or oval and juicy ,fruits1   

larger or smaller1  according to the    
,country they grow in3 ,care must be    
taken to gather  them before they are   
ripe1 and then they have a harsh bitter 
,taste not  to be endured1 because their
 salts are clogg'd and swallow'd up by  
the  earthy and gross ,parts4    ,olives
 are preserv'd with ,water and ,salt1   
and then they become  pleasing to the   
,taste2 the ,reason is1 because the     
,liquor of ,brine causes  a little      
,fermentation in the ,olives1 by the    
,help thereof the ,salts  free          
themselves by degrees of the earthy     
,parts that do retain them2 and         
afterwards with more ,lightness and     
,delicacy prick the nervous ,fibres of  
the ,tongue4    8,the ,brine produces   
another good ,effect in the ,olives2 for
 by its  saline ,parts it stops up the  
,pores of this ,fruit1 and prevents the 
,air  from ent'ring too much into it1   
and thereby cause a considerable        
,fermentation therein1 which destroys   
the ,fruit1 and soon rots them4         

,olives well preserv'd create an        
,appetite1 by gently pricking the ,sides
  of the ,stomach1 not only by their    
acid ,salts1 but also by those          
communicated to them by the ,pickle4    
,they also bind up and fortify the      
,stomach by their earthy ,parts1 which  
swallow up the over-abounding           
,moistures that relax the ,fibres of    
that ,part4    ,the ,picholines are     
,olives cut in several ,places1 and then
 steep'd in  ,pickle2 they are sooner in
 a ,condition to be eaten than others1  
because  that by the ,help of the       
,incision made in them1 the ,brine or   
,pickle is  sooner and more effectually 
communicated to their whole ,substance4 
,oil of ,olives is much us'd in         
,ailments2 it's of a qualifying1        
mollifying1 anodine1 dissolving and     
detersive ,nature1 good for the  ,cholic
 and ,bloody-flux1 and is prepar'd in   
this ,manner4    ,they get together in  
,november or ,december1 a great         
,quantity of full  ripe ,olives1 and lay

 them by for a ,time in some ,corner of 
the ,house1  where they are heated1 and 
thereby become purified of their watry  
,moisture2 then they grind them in a    
,mill1 and put them into ,rush or ,palm 
,frails1 plac'd on the ,top of one      
another ,pressways1 and the first ,oil  
that comes from them1 is called         
,virgin's ,oil4    ,they sprinkle the   
,olives with warm water1 and by pressing
 them a-new1  and still the more1 there 
comes a good ,oil from them4    ,this   
done1 they stir the ,olives again1 and  
sprinkle them with hot  ,water1 from    
which1 thus order'd1 there proceeds     
another ,oil full of  ,dregs1 and not so
 good as the rest4    ,these ,oils are  
easily separated from the ,water1       
because they swim a top1  but they find 
a ,kind of ,lees to the ,bottom1 which  
the ,ancients called  ,amurca4    ,those
 ,olives of which you design to make    
,oil1 must ripen 'till they  are even   
rotten2 and the ,reason is1 because the 
sulphurous ,parts in them  have had     

,time to disengage themselves from those
 gross ,principles1 which  before fix'd 
them1 which we know by the sweetish and 
oily ,taste that  then they had4 ,they  
also let them ferment for some time     
before they  press them1 that so those  
sulphurous ,parts may free themselves1  
and be  more fully separated from the   
watry and saline ,parts1 with which they
  were united in the ,fruits4 ,here it  
is to be observ'd that you cannot       
extract a ,drop of ,oil from green      
olives1 but only a viscous ,juice1      
because their oily ,principles are very 
strictly united with their other        
,principles4    ,the ,leaves of the     
,olive-,tree are astringent1 and fit for
 to stop the  ,bleeding of the ,nose1   
and ,looseness4    ,there are certain   
wild ,olive-,trees that grow near the   
,red-,sea1 from  which there sweats out 
a ,gum that stops ,blood1 and cures     
,wounds4    ,the ,olive-,tree in ,latin 
called ,olea1 comes from the ,greek     
,word  elaia which also signifies the   

same ,thing40           99       99     
99       99       99    ,a later work1  
8,the ,lady's ,assistant0 published in  
#aggh1 gives a much  better idea of how 
little they were used at that time in   
,england4                       ,,olives
         8,,olives are the fruits of    
trees1 which grow wild in the warmer    
parts of ,europe2 we have them in some  
of our gardens2 but with us       they  
will not ripen to any perfection4       
,there are three kinds1 the ,italian1   
,spanish1 and ,french2 we have          
them therefore of various sizes and     
flavors2 some prefer one1 and       some
 the other4         ,the fine sallad    
oil1 as has been before mentioned1 is   
made from       this fruit1 for which   
purpose they are gathered ripe2 but for 
pickling they are gathered when         
half-ripe1 at the latter end of         
,june3 they are put into fresh water to 
soak for two days2 after       this they
 throw them into lime-water in which    
some pearl-ashes have       been        

dissolved3 they lie in this liquor      
six-and-thirty hours2 then       they   
are thrown into water which has had     
bay-salt dissolved in it3       this is 
the last preparation1 and they are sent 
over to us in this       liquor3 they   
are naturally as they grow on the tree  
very bitter1       and therefore require
 all these preparations to bring them to
 their       fine flavor4 ,to some      
olives they add a small quantity of     
essence of       spices1 which is an oil
 drawn from cloves1 nutmeg1 cinnamon1   
coriander and sweet-fennel seed         
distilled together for that             
purpose3 twelve drops are enough for a  
bushel of olives3 some       prefer them
 flavored with this essence1 but others 
like them best       plain40    ,at     
present the use of aromatic substances  
commercially is not large4 ,it  is      
contended that consumers cannot use     
flavored olives in sauces or  other     
preparations so freely1 as extraneous   
flavors are introduced which  in some   

cases are undesirable1 the unflavored   
olive permitting greater  freedom in    
use4    ,for the preparation of the     
green olives 8a la ,sevillane10 the     
fruit is  first treated with alkali1    
then washed in clear water1 after which 
it is  put into #b or #c per cent boiled
 brine1 where after a time fermentation 
starts1 which imparts a slight lactic   
acid taste to the fruit4 ,it is  then   
washed in water1 graded for size1 and   
put in barrels with a #e or #f  salt1   
when they are ready for consumption4    
,the half ripe olives are put in a      
boiled brine of #ab to #ae for six      
days1 after which they are washed in    
running water and then put in jars  in a
 #f to #h brine with a bay leaf and a   
sprig of thyme and fennel4  ,olives     
prepared in this way are called 8a la   
,provencale40 ,a variation on  this     
method1 called 8a la ,madrilene0 is to  
put the olives in barrels1  after the   
preliminary salting and washing1 in #aj 
brine with red  pimiento1 pepper corns1 

laurel1 thyme1 and tomato pure4    ,the 
black olives are gathered at the time of
 the change in color1 and  put in water1
 renewed every #ab hours1 until the     
bitterness has  disappeared1 which      
requires #dj to #ej days1 sometimes even
 longer4 ,they  are then put into brine4
    ,the large olive 8,la ,tanche0 after
 sorting and cleaning is put directly   
into a #aj to #ae brine in wooden casks 
or cement tanks which hold from  #d1jjj 
to #f1jjj kilos4 ,when the bitterness   
has been abstracted1 they are  ready for
 sale4 ,the brine is decanted and held  
until the following year4    ,to prepare
 them so that they may be ready for sale
 sooner1 the fruit is  run over a roller
 provided with fine points which        
perforate the skin1  after which the    
olives are put in layers and sprinkled  
generously with  salt4 ,they are stirred
 frequently1 and when they 8sweat10 they
 are put  in barrels with pepper corns  
and bay leaves1 or in jars with olive   
oil  and condiments1 or they may be put 

in jars without any addition as they    
are preserved by their own oil and the  
absorbed salt4    ,the methods of       
preparation cited are those used for    
olives consumed in  foreign countries1  
very few thus prepared being imported1  
as they are  known only to olive        
connoisseurs4      ,imported ,green     
,olives    ,nearly all the green olives 
used in this country come from ,spain   
and are  generally known as 8,queen     
olives40 ,in years of shortage a few    
come from  ,italy1 ,greece1 and ,france4
 ,they are hand picked1 cleaned1 treated
 in the  usual way with lye1 and washed1
 but during this process care is        
exercised to prevent them being exposed 
to the air as it is desired to  retain  
the green color4 ,they are then graded  
for size and quality and  placed in huge
 casks or 8pipes0 with sufficient brine 
to cover them4  ,the 8pipes0 are exposed
 to the sun to favor the fermentation   
which  requires six weeks or more1      
depending upon the temperature4 ,during 

the  fermentation1 the olives change    
slowly from deep green to golden4 ,the  
pipes hold from #afj to #ahj gallons and
 are used for shipping the olives  to   
this country4 ,ten per cent brine is    
used for filling the casks1 but  the    
brine weakens during the curing and is  
usually #g or #g-a_/b at the  finish4   
,the ,queen olives are hand graded for  
size on the basis of the number per     
kilo4 ,the following grades are made3   
,,queen ,,olives                        
#fj-gj                                  
#gj-hj                                  
#hj-ij                                  
#ij-ajj                                 
#ajj-aaj                                
#aaj-abj                                
#abj-acj                                
#acj-adj                                
#adj-aej                                
#aej-afj                                
#afj-ahj                                
#ahj-bjj                                
#bjj-bbj    ,they are also graded for   

quality1 as3 8prime0 or 8first quality10
  8seconds10 and 8,queen culls40 ,only  
the first and second grade are sent  to 
this country though all sizes are1 but  
there is no designation by  which the   
consumer may obtain a desired size4 ,the
 term ,queen olive may  mean those      
having only #fj to the kilo or those    
with #bbj to the kilo4    ,some green   
olives are packed in tins and shipped to
 this country and a  comparatively few  
are brought in bottles4 ,the importers  
prefer to  purchase the olives in bulk  
and pack according to their trade       
requirements1 under the sanitary        
conditions imposed in this country      
rather than those found abroad4 ,the    
olives are transferred from the  pipes  
to bottles and either supplied with     
fresh brine or the brine from  the pipe 
is carefully filtered and only such     
addition made as needed to  make up the 
difference4 ,the use of the original    
liquor gives a decidedly  better flavor1
 though it is often sacrificed in order 

to get one which  is perfectly clear4   
,the green olive is retailed almost     
wholly in glass1 either in fancy hand   
packed packages or in pint and quart    
jars4 ,many attempts have been made  to 
create a sale in tin containers1 but    
without success as there are  decided   
advantages in being able to see the size
 and quality4 ,seeing the  fruit no     
doubt frequently suggests its use and   
purchase4 ,a few olives  are still      
retailed in bulk but they soon become   
covered with yeast and  other organisms1
 and have an unattractive appearance4   
,the origin of the stuffed olive is of  
very recent date1 but by whom           
originated is not quite clear4          
,according to an authority#a on ,spanish
  olives1 stuffed olives were unknown   
before #ahic-d4 ,it was in #ahie that   
,seor ,picasa1 the general manager of   
the ,sevilla ,packing ,company1 had     
seen olives stuffed with pimientos in   
,spain1 and in the following year       
introduced them into the ,united        

,states1 the company packing them under 
the copyrighted name of 8,pimola40 ,in  
#ahig1 a ,spanish house packed          
pepper-stuffed olives1 and later on     
other firms also1 among the latter  many
 ,american firms4 ,as the pimiento is   
grown and prepared in ,spain1 and  labor
 cheaper there than here1 the industry  
has been practically  transferred to    
that country4     #a4 ,h4 ,c4 ,newcomb1 
former vice-consul to ,spain4    ,the   
operation of stuffing consists in       
removing the pit and filling the  cavity
 with some other substance1 particularly
 pimiento1 these forming  the bulk of   
the stuffed olive trade4 ,the bright red
 of the latter gives  a pleasing        
contrast with the green1 and the mild   
pungency is very  agreeable to many     
persons4 ,pickled celery1 capers1 etc41 
have been used1  but were not so        
favorably received1 and at present1 the 
substances used  to any extent1 aside   
from the pimiento1 are ,manzanillos     
stuffed with  pieces of ,queens1 and    

some stuffed with anchovies for the     
,south ,american  trade4 ,pitting       
machines have been devised1 and also    
machines for  stuffing the olives1 but  
the work done by the stuffing machines  
is crude  as compared with hand work4   
,the olives used for stuffing are the   
,manzanillo which are smaller than the  
,queen4 ,the sizes are as follows3      
,,manzanillo 7,stuffed7                 
#ahj-bjj                                
#bjj-bbj                                
#bbj-bdj                                
#bdj-bfj                                
#bfj-bhj                                
#bhj-cjj                                
#cjj-cbj                                
#cbj-cdj                                
#cdj-cfj    ,they are packed in barrels 
of about #de gallons capacity1 and like 
the  ,queen1 are repacked into          
individual containers in this country4  
,a few olives are packed with a mince of
 capers1 anchovies1 truffles1  etc41 and
 the olives preserved in oil4 ,a few are

 also packed for  garnishing1 in which  
cubes are cut out and the spaces filled 
with bright  peppers4      ,domestic    
,in ,california the commercially        
prepared olives are practically all     
ripe1  only a very limited quantity of  
green ones being prepared4 ,since the   
olives1 even on the same tree1 ripen at 
various periods1 three pickings  are    
made during the season1 when olives well
 colored and of an equal  degree of     
ripeness are taken4 ,in excessively ripe
 olives1 the skin  toughens1 and the    
fruit is difficult to pickle4 ,the trees
 are pruned so  as to keep them low     
enough to be reached by the harvesters  
on step  ladders1 in order that all     
picking may be done by hand4 ,the picked
 fruit  is taken to a central point to  
be filled into boxes or barrels1 for    
transportation to the factory4 ,for the 
best grades of olives1 particular  care 
is taken during this part of the work to
 avoid bruising the fruit1  which is    
picked into canvas bags1 pails1 etc41   

then poured into barrels  partly filled 
with water1 so that the water will      
furnish a cushion for  the fruit4 ,the  
olives are transported to the factory in
 these barrels4  ,these precautions are 
taken as bruised spots soften and become
 black1  and the resulting processed    
fruit will not be of first quality4     
,many    ,illustration3 ,sorting ,olives
 for ,size by ,machine    growers       
deliver fruit dry in lug boxes1 but     
bruising and crushing are  liable to    
occur during transportation4 ,the fruit 
is delivered into a  hopper filled with 
water1 then from the hopper into boxes  
where the  fruit is drained4 ,the fruit 
is delivered in the factory to be first 
sorted which is done on a moving belt1  
and here all stems and defective  fruit 
are removed as the fruit is carried     
slowly past the workers who  sit or     
stand on either side4 ,in some factories
 the sorting is done after  the fruit is
 pickled1 but is much more difficult due
 to the change in  color                

,illustration3 ,sorting ,olives for     
,quality by ,hand    through the action 
of the lye and of oxidation4 ,the fruit 
is next passed  to the grader1 which    
separates the various sizes4 ,from the  
grader the  three largest sizes are each
 delivered to a moving belt to be sorted
 for  color1 degree of ripeness1 and    
culls1 as the curing must be modified to
  suit the particular degree of         
ripeness1 a crisp firm olive requiring a
  heavier treatment than does a riper1  
softer-textured one4 ,the olives as     
sorted1 are passed to small side belts1 
which thus deliver fruit uniform  in    
size and color to the receiving boxes4  
,great care is taken in the  sorting of 
olives1 different varieties are not     
mixed1 nor even fruit of  the same      
variety but from different localities4  
,in grading for size by  machine1 #a_/af
 of an inch is the variation between    
each size and the  next2 those less than
 #aj_/af are removed to be used for     
other purposes4  ,when the minimum is   

due to the variety and not to stunting1 
the fruit  may be pickled1 because aside
 from the larger proportion of pit1 the 
flavor is equal to that of the large    
fruit4 ,usually the smaller olives  were
 used for oil1 but more recently are    
used for relishes and sauces4  ,the     
sizes upon which the different grades   
are made are based upon the  short      
diameter of the fruit1 and have been    
adopted by the ,california  ,olive      
,association3                           
,number      ,diam4 in        ,grade    
per lb4      inches    ,standard        
#abj-ace      #aj_/af-aa_/af    ,medium 
#aje-abj      #aa_/af    ,large         
#ij-aje      #ab_/af    ,extra ,large   
#ge-ij      #ac_/af    ,mammoth         
#fe-ge      #ac4e_/af    ,giant         
#ee-fe      #ad_/af    ,jumbo           
#de-ee      #ae_/af    ,colossal        
#ce-de      #af_/af    ,the olives are  
placed in an alkaline solution1 usually 
sodium hydrate as  it is stronger in    
action than potassium hydrate4 ,the     

strength varies  with the different     
packers but is generally in the         
neighborhood of  #a-a_/b4 ,after #f to  
#h hours1 the lye is drawn off and the  
olives exposed  to the air in order that
 they may oxidize and darken1 since the 
lye  removes some of the natural color4 
,the operation is repeated with the     
same strength or less of lye solution   
and the fruit exposed to the air  until 
examination of the pulp shows that the  
lye has penetrated to the  pit4 ,the lye
 solution is then replaced with clear   
water which is changed  twice a day1    
until the lye and bitterness are        
removed1 which requires  from #d to #h  
days4 ,the olives are then treated with 
brine solutions1  starting with #a1 and 
increasing the strength at intervals of 
about #b  days until about #d is used1  
when they are ready to be put in glass  
jars  or cans and sealed4    ,the brine 
is used very weak at the start and      
gradually increased so that  the osmotic
 action may be so controlled as not to  

cause the fruit to  shrivel as it would 
if placed in a strong solution at the   
start4 ,some  packers permit the olives 
to stay in the weak brine long enough   
for  fermentation to take place as done 
with the imported green olives so as  to
 develop an acid flavor4 ,the more      
recent tendency1 however1 is toward     
packing them with the least possible    
change1 and to depend upon the          
distinctive natural flavor of the fruit 
itself4 ,a similar tendency  toward     
retaining the natural color1 rather than
 that induced by  oxidation1 might be   
advantageous4    ,if it be the intent to
 hold the olives in bulk1 they are      
treated with  increasingly strong brines
 until #aj    ,illustration3 ,curing    
,vats    to #ab-a_/b is used1 the latter
 amount being required to carry them    
safely through the summer4    ,the      
process is modified in practise to suit 
the conditions1 as  variations in       
varieties of fruit1 in temperature1 and 
in the lye have to  be considered4      

,there are also variations in practise  
due to individual  experience4 ,during  
the time the olives are in the various  
solutions they  are stirred frequently1 
so as to change their position in the   
vats1 and  also to change the solution  
in contact with them4 ,the stirring was1
 and  is done yet in some cases1 by     
hand1 with wooden paddles1 which is     
laborious besides causing more or less  
damage to the fruit4 ,recently          
compressed air has been piped to the    
vats and directed into the  solutions   
with sufficient force to keep the olives
 agitated4 ,this method  is said to     
hasten the action of the lye solutions  
with consequent  improvement in the     
fruit4 ,it also obviates the drawing off
 the solutions  and the exposure of the 
fruit to the air1 as a certain amount of
  oxidation takes place in the solution4
    ,as the operators place the olives  
in the bottles or cans1 the soft and    
defective ones are discarded4 ,the      
containers are then filled with a #c    

brine at a temperature of #age or #ahj  
degrees ,f4 ,the air is exhausted1      
during which the temperature is raised  
to #ahe degrees1 and the  containers    
sealed1 after which they are processed4 
,the large olives in a  #bf ounce glass 
jar are cooked for #ej minutes2 extra   
large1 #ee minutes2  mammoth1 #eh       
minutes2 and colossal #fj minutes2 at   
#bdj degree ,f4 in some  factories1 or  
for a longer period if processed at a   
lower temperature4    ,the time required
 for heat to penetrate to the center of 
an olive is  longer than has been       
generally supposed4 ,this was determined
 by  carefully drilling into the pit1   
first with a fine drill and then with   
increasingly larger ones1 until an      
eighth inch hole was made4 ,the bulb  of
 a small thermometer was inserted1 and  
to prevent heat being carried  to the   
bulb by means of the glass stem1        
sections of olives were placed  around  
the stem immediately above the olive    
being tested1 and tied  securely4 ,jumbo

 olives at room temperature placed      
directly in a boiling  bath required on 
an average fourteen and one-half minutes
 for the  temperature to reach #bji     
degrees ,f41 which is practically the   
maximum  which can be attained under the
 conditions4 ,when the olive was placed 
in  cold water and the bath heated      
rapidly under conditions similar to home
  canning1 the average time required to 
reach #bji degrees ,f4 was #bi  minutes4
 ,the former experiment represents a    
more favorable condition for  heat      
penetration than prevails in factory    
operations1 and the latter  probably the
 least favorable1 but both show that in 
the ordinary process  all parts of the  
olive do not reach the high temperature 
supposed to be  produced by that of the 
bath for more than a few minutes4    ,at
 the ,university of ,california ripe    
olives have been canned without  brine4 
,after pickling1 the olives have been   
placed in #c brine for  several days1   
then heated in the brine to about #ahj  

degrees ,f4 after  which they are taken 
from the brine1 put in the bottles or   
cans1 sealed1  and processed4 ,no       
shrinking1 wrinkling1 softening1 nor    
change in color  is said to take place4 
,by the elimination of the brine in the 
container1  there results a saving in   
freight of #ca4e with cans and #af4f    
with  bottles4    ,the history of the   
olive and its method of preparation show
 that no  organisms pathogenic to man   
are normally present and that if such   
organisms be associated with it in any  
way1 it must be from the outside  and   
through local infection4    ,more care  
is required in processing at high       
temperatures1 than at  boiling4 ,a high 
internal pressure is developed inside   
the cans or jars1  due to the expansion 
of the contents and of the enclosed     
gases1 which  has a tendency to loosen  
or blow off the covers4 ,this tendency  
may be  overcome by applying air or     
water pressure on the outside of the    
cans or  jars to counteract that        

generated within4 ,this is done while   
they are  inside the retort and by means
 of automatic pressure controllers4     
,there  is no essential difference in   
the sterilizing and cooling of tin cans 
and glass jars1 both forms of containers
 are responsive to treatment  with high 
temperatures and both require proper    
care and handling4 ,as  with pickled    
olives1 however1 glass jars permit the  
purchaser to see the  size and the      
condition of the fruit4    ,the canning 
of ripe olives in ,california was       
originated by ,f4 ,t4  ,bioletti1       
zymologist in the ,university of        
,california1 and came about  through an 
,illustration3 ,packing ,olives in ,jars
    investigation in #ahhi on the       
spoiling of olives4 ,when pickled olives
  were held1 the quality deteriorated in
 some of them1 they softened  during the
 summer1 and seldom remained in an      
edible condition for a  year4 ,as a     
result of his experiments on methods of 
keeping1 he found  that the olives could

 be sterilized in sealed containers and 
be kept in  edible condition            
indefinitely4 ,the commercial           
application of the method  and the      
popularizing of the ripe olive is due to
 ,mrs4 ,freda ,ehmann1 a  pioneer olive 
grower1 who applied scientific methods1 
with marked  success1 to both the       
development and canning of the olive4   
,the sustained scientific work along    
developmental and preserving lines  in  
this country1 has been done mainly by   
,wickson1 ,bioletti1 and ,cruess  of the
 state university staff to whom great   
credit is due for the  advancement made4
 ,many improvements have naturally been 
made by  manufacturers in the           
preparation of the ripe olive but are   
held by the  factories for their own use
 solely4    ,recently ,cruess has       
developed methods for treating the ripe 
olive with  aerated hot solutions which 
have permitted the preliminary          
treatments to  be done in #c to #f days1
 instead of as formerly in #c to #f     

weeks4 ,the  methods promise to be of   
great economic value1 and have been     
patented  for the benefit of the public4
    ,the olives which are too small or  
misshapen to be used in the regular     
pack are sometimes used for other       
purposes besides oil extraction in      
which size and appearance are not       
factors4 ,the flesh is ground and       
seasoned and thus furnishes a mixture   
for relishes and sandwich filling1  or  
the flesh is mixed with pickled         
cucumbers1 capers1 pimiento1 tomato1    
etc41 in various combinations for the   
same purposes or to flavor sauces4  ,the
 appetizing ways in which olives may be 
used alone or in combination1  and the  
attractive dishes which can be prepared 
from them are endless4    ,a preparation
 which has considerable vogue with      
lovers of ripe olives is  to take the   
olives from the brine some hours before 
using and cover  them with olive oil4   
,this preparation may be further        
enhanced by rubbing  the dish before    

using1 with a cut clove of garlic4 ,the 
use of aromatics  in the preliminary    
preparation1 then packing in oil1 as    
done by the  ,greeks1 ,italians1 and    
,spaniards1 with some of their best     
olives1 produce  very fine products that
 are far ahead1 in both flavor and food 
value1 of  the ordinary preparations4   
,the olive1 though used almost          
exclusively as a relish or appetizer in 
this country1 is a valuable food4 ,this 
is true for both the green and  the     
ripe1 the difference in the two not     
being so great as is frequently         
claimed4 ,the pickled green olive has   
supplanted the cucumber pickle to a     
very considerable extent in the trade4  
,the canned ripe olive is  distinctive  
and depends upon an entirely different  
quality for its  favor4 ,as long as the 
present prices prevail1 they can not be 
considered  on the basis of staples or  
in competition with many other foods in 
furnishing nutritive elements4    ,the  
flesh of the ,american olive consists of

 about #hj per cent of the  fruit1 and  
of this the solids average #ch per cent1
 oil #be per cent1 and  protein #a4b per
 cent4    ,in spite of the fact that    
olives have been used as a food from    
time  immemorial1 very little systematic
 analytic work seems to have been done  
on the whole fruit in the various stages
 of maturity and in determining  the    
effect of the various treatments for the
 removal of the bitterness4  ,much of   
the analytic work has been devoted to   
analyses of the oil and  to methods for 
determining adulteration4 ,the methods  
followed in this  country and abroad are
 not the same and the results are       
therefore not  comparable4 ,it seems    
strange that so old and so commercially 
important a  fruit has not been         
investigated to the minutest detail4    
,it is stated that the olive on reaching
 full size increases in weight  and oil 
content as it matures1 the various      
stages being approximately  determined  
by the change in color from green to    

yellow1 red1 and finally  black4 ,when1 
however1 one finds analyses of typical  
fruit of one variety  and from the same 
place which show the flesh of the green 
olive to  contain #bc4ee per cent2      
yellowish green1 #bj4cg per cent2 red1  
#bg4ce per  cent2 and purple to black1  
#bd4hi per cent oil1 it discounts the   
color  value4 ,other available analyses 
show similar discrepancies between the  
chemical composition and the color test 
as indicative of maturity4  ,variation  
in composition occurs in the same       
variety of fruit grown in  different    
places as well as in the different      
varieties and1 as with  other fruits1   
one is dependent upon the skill of the  
packer in selecting  raw stock and in   
handling it in the process of           
manufacture1 for the  quality of the    
article received4 ,it is only natural to
 expect that a  product containing so   
much oil and subjected to the action of 
lye1 might  be greatly changed during   
its preparation4 ,the data available1   

however1  does not sustain this premise1
 but shows that very little change      
actually takes place4                   
,,literature      ,andran1 ,h4 ,m4,les  
conserves des petits menages4           
,armstrong1 ,e4 ,f4,the simple          
carbohydrates and the glucosides1 #aiab4
    ,d',aygalliers1 ,p4 ,d4,l'olivier et
 l'huile d'olive1 #aijj4    ,bourquelot1
 ,em4 and ,vintilesco1 ,j4,compt4 ,rend4
 #adg1 #ecc1 #ece1  #aijh4    ,buckland1
 ,a4 ,w4,our viands1 #ahic4             
,chalmers1 ,t4 ,w4,the reduction and    
treatment of vegetable oils1 #aiah4     
,coupin1 ,henri,la conservation des     
fruits1 des lugumes1 des graines4       
,cruess1 ,wm4 ,v4,home and farm food    
preservation1 #aiah4    ,gracey1 ,wilbur
 ,t4,olive growing in ,spain4 ,special  
consular report1  ,no4 #gi1 ,dept4 of   
,com41 #aiah4    ,green1 ,mary ,e4,food 
products of the world1 #ahie4    ,haas1 
,paul and ,hill1 ,t4 ,g4,chemistry of   
plant products1 #aiac4    ,hilts1 ,r4   
,w4,chemical study of the ripening and  

pickling of  ,california olives4 ,bul4  
#hjc1 ,bu4 of ,chem41 ,dept4 of ,agr41  
#aibj4    ,lemery1 ,l41 ,translation by 
,hay1 ,d4,treatise of all sorts of food1
  #agde4    ,loudon1 ,j4 ,c4,loudon's   
encyclopedia of plants1 #ahff4          
,martyn1 ,charles,foods and culinary    
utensils of the ancients4    ,mason1    
,charlotte,the lady's assistant1 #aggh4 
,pellerin1 ,g4,guide pratique de        
l'expert chimiste1 #aiaj4    de         
,savigny1 ,g4 ,b4,conserves1 salaisons1 
et confitures de menage1  #aiji4        
,thudichum1 ,j4 ,l4 ,w4,cookery1 its art
 and practice1 #ahie4    ,wickson1 ,e4  
,j4,california fruits1 #aiaj4           
,willis1 ,oliver ,r4,practical flora1   
#ahid4    ,fig and ,olive ,journal1 vo4 
#d1 ,no4 #aa1 ,apr4 #aibj4    ,seal of  
safety1 #aiae4