,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,samurai ,a ,,study ,,of ,,zen ,,philosophy ,,and ,,discipline ,,in ,,china ,,and ,,japan by ,,kaiten ,,nukariya ,professor of ,kei-,o-,gi-,jiku ,university and of ,so-,to-,shu ,buddhist ,college1 ,tokyo #aiac ,,contents ,,introduction 7#a7 ,the ,southern and ,northern ,schools of ,buddhism 7#b7 ,the ,development and ,differentiation of ,buddhism 7#c7 ,the ,object of this ,book is the ,explaining of the ,mahayanistic ,view of ,life and the ,world 7#d7 ,zen holds a ,unique ,position among the ,established ,religions of the ,world 7#e7 ,the ,historical ,antiquity of ,zen 7#f7 ,the ,denial of ,scriptural ,authority by ,zen 7#g7 ,the ,practisers of ,zen hold the ,buddha as their ,predecessor1 whose ,spiritual ,level they ,aim to ,attain 7#h7 ,the ,iconoclastic ,attitude of ,zen 7#i7 ,zen ,activity 7#aj7 ,the ,physical and ,mental ,training 7#aa7 ,the ,historical ,importance ,,chapter ,i ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,in ,,china #a4 ,the ,origin of ,zen in ,india #b4 ,the ,introduction of ,zen into ,china by ,bodhidharma #c4 ,bodhidharma and the ,emperor ,wu #d4 ,bodhidharma and his ,successor1 the ,second ,patriarch #e4 ,bodhidharma's ,disciples and the ,transmission of the ,law #f4 ,the ,second and the ,third ,patriarchs #g4 ,the ,fourth ,patriarch and the ,emperor ,tai ,tsung #h4 ,the ,fifth and the ,sixth ,patriarchs #i4 ,the ,spiritual ,attainment of the ,sixth ,patriarch #aj4 ,the ,flight of the ,sixth ,patriarch #aa4 ,the ,development of the ,southern and the ,northern ,school of ,zen #ab4 ,the ,missionary ,activity of the ,sixth ,patriarch #ac4 ,the ,disciples under the ,sixth ,patriarch #ad4 ,three ,important ,elements of ,zen #ae4 ,decline of ,zen ,,chapter ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,in ,,japan #a4 ,the ,establishment of the ,rin ,zai ,school of ,zen in ,japan #b4 ,the ,introduction of the ,so ,to ,school of ,zen #c4 ,the ,characteristics of ,do-gen1 the ,founder of the ,japanese ,so ,to ,sect #d4 ,the ,social ,state of ,japan when ,zen was ,established by ,ei-sai and ,do-gen #e4 ,the ,resemblance of the ,zen ,monk to the ,samurai #f4 ,the ,honest ,poverty of the ,zen ,monk and the ,samurai #g4 ,the ,manliness of the ,zen ,monk and the ,samurai #h4 ,the ,courage and ,composure of ,mind of the ,zen ,monk and the ,samurai #i4 ,zen and the ,regent ,generals of the ,ho-jo ,period #aj4 ,zen after the ,downfall of the ,ho-jo ,regency #aa4 ,zen in the ,dark ,age #ab4 ,zen under the ,toku-gawa ,shogunate #ac4 ,zen after the ,restoration ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,universe ,,is ,,the ,,scripture ,,of ,,zen #a4 ,scripture is no ,more than ,waste ,paper #b4 ,no ,need of the ,scriptural ,authority for ,zen #c4 ,the ,usual ,explanation of the ,canon #d4 ,sutras used by the ,zen ,masters #e4 ,a ,sutra ,equal in ,size to the ,whole ,world #fh #f4 ,great ,men and ,nature #g4 ,the ,absolute and ,reality are but an ,abstraction #h4 ,the ,sermon of the ,inanimate ,,chapter ,,iv ,,buddha1 ,,the ,,universal ,,spirit #a4 ,the ,ancient ,buddhist ,pantheon #b4 ,zen is ,iconoclastic #c4 ,buddha is ,unnamable #d4 ,buddha1 the ,universal ,life #e4 ,life and ,change #f4 ,the ,pessimistic ,view of ,ancient ,hindus #g4 ,hinayanism and its ,doctrine #h4 ,change as seen by ,zen #i4 ,life and ,change #aj4 ,life1 ,change1 and ,hope #aa4 ,everything is ,living according to ,zen #ab4 ,the ,creative ,force of ,nature and ,humanity #ac4 ,universal ,life is ,universal ,spirit #ad4 ,poetical ,intuition and ,zen #ae4 ,enlightened ,consciousness #af4 ,buddha ,dwelling in the ,individual ,mind ,enlightened ,consciousness is not an ,intellectual ,insight #ah4 ,our ,conception of ,buddha is not ,final #ai4 ,how to ,worship ,buddha ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,man #a4 ,man is ,good-natured according to ,mencius #b4 ,man is ,bad-natured according to ,siun ,tsz #c4 ,man is both ,good-natured and ,bad-natured according to ,yan ,hiung #d4 ,man is neither ,good-natured nor ,bad-natured according to ,su ,shih #e4 ,there is no ,mortal who is ,purely ,moral #f4 ,there is no ,mortal who is ,non-moral or ,purely ,immoral #g4 ,where1 then1 does the ,error ,lie8 #h1 ,man is not ,good-natured nor ,bad-natured1 but ,buddha natured #i4 ,the ,parable of the ,robber ,kih #aj4 ,wang ,yang ,ming and a ,thief #aa4 ,the ,bad are the ,good in the ,egg #ab4 ,the ,great ,person and the ,small ,person #ac4 ,the ,theory of ,buddha-,nature adequately explains the ,ethical ,states of ,man #ad4 ,buddha-,nature is the ,common ,source of ,morals #ae4 ,the ,parable of a ,drunkard #af4 ,shakya ,muni and the ,prodigal ,son #ag4 ,the ,parable of the ,monk and the ,stupid ,woman #ah4 ',each ,smile a ,hymn1 each ,kindly ,word a ,prayer' #ai4 ,the ,world is in the ,making #bj4 ,the ,progress and ,hope of ,life #ba4 ,the ,betterment of ,life #bb4 ,the ,buddha of ,mercy ,,chapter ,,vi ,,enlightenment #a4 ,enlightenment is beyond ,description and ,analysis #b4 ,enlightenment ,implies an ,insight into the ,nature of ,self #c4 ,the ,irrationality of the ,belief of ,immortality #d4 ,the ,examination of the ,notion of ,self #e4 ,nature is the ,mother of ,all ,things #f4 ,real ,self #g4 ,the ,awakening of the ,innermost ,wisdom #h4 ,zen is not ,nihilistic #i4 ,zen and ,idealism #aj4 ,idealism is a ,potent ,medicine for ,self -,created ,mental ,disease #aa4 ,idealistic ,scepticism concerning ,objective ,reality #ab4 ,idealistic ,scepticism concerning ,religion and ,morality #ac4 ,an ,illusion concerning ,appearance and ,reality #ad4 ,where does the ,root of the ,illusion ,lie8 #ae4 ,thing-in-,itself means ,thing-,knowerless #af4 ,the ,four ,alternatives and the ,five ,categories #ag4 ,personalism of ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne #ah4 ,all the ,worlds in ,ten ,directions are ,buddha's ,holy ,land ,,chapter ,,vii ,,life #a4 ,epicureanism and ,life #b4 ,the ,errors of ,philosophical ,pessimists and ,religious ,optimists #c4 ,the ,law of ,balance #d4 ,life ,consists in ,conflict #e4 ,the ,mystery of ,life #f4 ,nature favours ,nothing in ,particular #g4 ,the ,law of ,balance in ,life #h4 ,the ,application of the ,law of ,causation to ,morals #i4 ,the ,retribution in the ,past1 the ,present1 and the ,future ,life #aj4 ,the ,eternal ,life as taught by ,professor ,m8nsterberg #aa4 ,life in the ,concrete #ab4 ,difficulties are no ,match for an ,optimist #ac4 ,do ,thy ,best and ,leave the ,rest to ,providence ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,the ,,mind ,,and ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,meditation #a4 ,the ,method of ,instruction adopted by ,zen ,masters #b4 ,the ,first ,step in the ,mental ,training #c4 ,the ,next ,step in the ,mental ,training #d4 ,the ,third ,step in the ,mental ,training #e4 ,zazen1 or the ,sitting in ,meditation #f4 ,the ,breathing ,exercise of the ,yogi #g4 ,calmness of ,mind #h4 ,zazen and the ,forgetting of ,self #i4 ,zen and ,supernatural ,power #aj4 ,true ,dhyana #aa4 ,let ,go of ,your ,idle ,thoughts #ab4 ',the ,five ,ranks of ,merit' #ac4 ',the ,ten ,pictures of the ,cowherd' #ad4 ,zen and ,nirvana #ae4 ,nature and ,her ,lesson #af4 ,the ,beatitude of ,zen ,,appendix ,,origin ,,of ,,man ,,preface ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i ,,refutation ,,of ,,delusive ,,and ,,prejudiced 7,,doctrine7 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,refutation ,,of ,,incomplete ,,and ,,superficial 7,,doctrine7 #a4 ,the ,doctrine for ,men and ,devas #b4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,hinayanists #c4 ,the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,dharmalaksana #d4 ,mahayana ,doctrine of the ,nihilists ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,direct ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,real ,,origin #e4 ,the ,ekayana ,doctrine that ,teaches the ,ultimate ,reality ,,chapter ,,iv ,,reconciliation ,,of ,,the ,,temporary ,,with ,,the ,,real ,,doctrine ,,introduction ,buddhism is geographically divided into two schools,,fn#a--the ,southern1 the older and simpler1 and the ,northern1 the later and more developed faith4 ,the former1 based mainly on the ,pali texts,,fn#b is known as ,hinayana,,fn#c 7small vehicle71 or the inferior doctrine2 while the latter1 based on the various ,sanskrit texts1#d is known as ,mahayana 7large vehicle71 or superior doctrine4 ,the chief tenets of the ,southern ,school are so well known to occidental scholars that they almost always mean the ,southern ,school by the word ,buddhism4 ,but with regard to the ,northern ,school very little is known to the ,west1 owing to the fact that most of its original texts were lost1 and that the teachings based on these texts are written in ,chinese1 or ,tibetan1 or ,japanese languages unfamiliar to non-,buddhist investigators4 ,,fn#a ,the ,southern ,school has its adherents in ,ceylon1 ,burma1 ,siam1 ,anan1 etc42 while the ,northern ,school is found in ,nepal1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,tibet1 etc4 ,,fn#b ,they chiefly consist of the ,four ,nikayas3 7#a7 ,digha ,nikaya 7,dirghagamas1 translated into ,chinese by ,buddhaya8as1 ,a4,d4 #dab-dac72 7#b7 ,majjhima ,nikaya 7,madhyamagamas1 translated into ,chinese by ,gautama ,sanghadeva1 ,a4,d4 #cig-cih72 7#c7 ,sanyutta ,nikaya 7,samyuktagamas1 translated into ,chinese by ,gunabhadra1 of the earlier ,sung dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #dbj #dgi72 7#d7 ,anguttara ,nikaya 7,ekottaragamas1 translated into ,chinese by ,dharmanandi1 ,a4,d4 #chd-che74 ,out of these ,hinayana books1 the ,english translation of twenty-three suttas by ,rhys ,davids exist in ',sacred ,books of ,buddhist1' vols4 ii4-iii41 and of seven suttas by the same author in ',sacred ,books of the ,east1' vol4 xi4 ,,fn#c ,the ,southern ,buddhists never call their faith ,hinayana1 the name being an invention of later ,buddhists1 who call their doctrine ,mahayana in contradistinction to the earlier form of ,buddhism4 ,we have to notice that the word ,hinayana frequently occurs in ,mahayana books1 while it does not in ,hinayana books4 ,,fn#d ,a catalogue of the ,buddhist ,canon1 ,k'-yuen-luh1 gives the titles of #hig ,mahayana sutras1 yet the most important books often quoted by ,northern ,buddhist teachers amount to little more than twenty4 ,there exist the ,english translation of ,larger ,sukhavati-vyuha-sutra1 ,smaller ,sukhavati-vyuha-sutra1 ,vajracchedika-sutra1 ,larger ,prajna-paramita-hradya-sutra1 ,smaller ,prajna-paramita-hrdaya-sutra1 by ,max ,m8ller1 and ,amitayur-dhyana-sutra1 by ,j4 ,takakusu1 in ',sacred ,books of the ,east1' vol4 xlix4 ,an ,english translation of ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra1 by ,kern1 is given in ',sacred ,books of the ,east1' ,vol4 xxi4 ,compare these books with ',outlines of ,mahayana ,buddhism1' by ,d4 ,suzuki4 ,it is hardly justifiable to cover the whole system of ,buddhism with a single epithet,,fn#e 'pessimistic' or 'nihilistic1' because ,buddhism1 having been adopted by savage tribes as well as civilized nations1 by quiet1 enervated people as well as by warlike1 sturdy hordes1 during some twenty-five hundred years1 has developed itself into beliefs widely divergent and even diametrically opposed4 ,even in ,japan alone it has differentiated itself into thirteen main sects and forty-four sub-sects,,fn#f and is still in full vigour1 though in other countries it has already passed its prime4 ,thus ,japan seems to be the best representative of the ,buddhist countries where the majority of people abides by the guiding principle of the ,northern ,school4 ,to study her religion1 therefore1 is to penetrate into ,mahayanism1 which still lies an unexplored land for the ,western minds4 ,and to investigate her faith is not to dig out the remains of ,buddhist faith that existed twenty centuries ago1 but to touch the heart and soul of ,mahayanism that enlivens its devotees at the present moment4 ,,fn#e ,hinayanism is1 generally speaking1 inclined to be pessimistic1 but ,mahayanism in the main holds the optimistic view of life4 ,nihilism is advocated in some ,mahayana sutras1 but others set forth idealism or realism4 ,,fn#f 7#a7 ,the ,ten ,dai ,sect1 including three sub-sects2 7#b7 ,the ,shin ,gon ,sect1 including eleven sub-sects2 7#c7 ,the ,ritsu ,sect2 7#d7 ,the ,rin ,zai ,sect1 including fourteen sub-sects2 7#e7 ,the ,so ,to ,sect2 7#f7 ,the ,o ,baku ,sect2 7#g7 ,the ,jo ,do ,sect1 including two sub-sects2 7#h7 ,the ,shin ,sect1 including ten sub-sects2 7#i7 ,the ,nichi ,ren ,sect1 including nine sub-sects2 7#aj7 ,the ,yu ,zu ,nen ,butsu ,sect2 7#aa7 ,the ,hosso ,sect2 7#ab7 ,the ,ke ,gon ,sect2 7#ac7 ,the ,ji ,sect4 ,out of these thirteen ,buddhist sects1 ,rin ,zai1 ,so ,to1 and ,o ,baku belong to ,zen4 ,for further information1 see ',a ,short ,history of the ,twelve ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects1' by ,dr4 ,b4 ,nanjo4 ,the object of this little book is to show how the ,mahayanistic view of life and of the world differs markedly from that of ,hinayanism1 which is generally taken as ,buddhism by occidentals1 to explain how the religion of ,buddha has adapted itself to its environment in the ,far ,east1 and also to throw light on the existing state of the spiritual life of modern ,japan4 ,for this purpose we have singled out of thirteen ,japanese sects the ,zen ,sect1 ,,fn#g not only because of the great influence it has exercised on the nation1 but because of the unique position it holds among the established religious systems of the world4 ,in the first place1 it is as old as ,buddhism itself1 or even older1 for its mode of practising ,meditation has been handed down without much alteration from pre-,buddhistic recluses of ,india2 and it may1 on that account1 provide the student of comparative religion with an interesting subject for his research4 ,,fn#g ,the word ,zen is the ,sinico-,japanese abbreviation of the ,sanskrit ,dhyana1 or ,meditation4 ,it implies the whole body of teachings and discipline peculiar to a ,buddhist sect now popularly known as the ,zen ,sect4 ,in the second place1 in spite of its historical antiquity1 ideas entertained by its advocates are so new that they are in harmony with those of the ,new ,buddhists2,,fn#h accordingly the statement of these ideas may serve as an explanation of the present movement conducted by young and able reformers of ,japanese ,buddhism4 ,,fn#h ,there exists a society formed by men who have broken with the old creeds of ,buddhism1 and who call themselves the ,new ,buddhists4 ,it has for its organ ',the ,new ,buddhism1' and is one of the influential religious societies in ,japan4 ,we mean by the ,new ,buddhists1 however1 numerous educated young men who still adhere to ,buddhist sects1 and are carrying out a reformation4 ,thirdly1 ,buddhist denominations1 like non-,buddhist religions1 lay stress on scriptural authority2 but ,zen denounces it on the ground that words or characters can never adequately express religious truth1 which can only be realized by mind2 consequently it claims that the religious truth attained by ,shakya ,muni in his ,enlightenment has been handed down neither by word of mouth nor by the letters of scriptures1 but from teacher's mind to disciple's through the line of transmission until the present day4 ,it is an isolated instance in the whole history of the world's religions that holy scriptures are declared to be 'no more than waste,,fn#i paper by religionists1 as done by ,zen masters4 ,,fn#i ,lin ,tsi ,luh 7,rin-zai-roku74 ,fourthly1 ,buddhist as well as non-,buddhist religions regard1 without exception1 their founders as superhuman beings1 but the practisers of ,zen hold the ,buddha as their predecessor1 whose spiritual level they confidently aim to attain4 ,furthermore1 they liken one who remains in the exalted position of ,buddhaship to a man bound by a gold chain1 and pity his state of bondage4 ,some of them went even so far as to declare ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas to be their servants and slaves4,,fn#aj ,such an attitude of religionists can hardly be found in any other religion4 ,,fn#aj ,shakya and ,maitreya1 says ,go ,so1 are servants to the other person4 ,who is that other person8 7,zen-rin-rui-ju1 ,vol4 i41 p4 #bh74 ,fifthly1 although non-,buddhist people are used to call ,buddhism idolatry1 yet ,zen can never be called so in the accepted sense of the term1 because it1 having a grand conception of ,deity1 is far from being a form of idol-worship2 nay1 it sometimes even took an iconoclastic attitude as is exemplified by ,tan ,hia1 ,,fn#aa who warmed himself on a cold morning by making a fire of wooden statues4 ,therefore our exposition on this point will show the real state of existing ,buddhism1 and serve to remove religious prejudices entertained against it4 ,,fn#aa ,a ,chinese ,zen teacher1 well known for his peculiarities1 who died in ,a4,d4 #hbd4 ,for the details of this anecdote1 see ,zen-rin-rui-ju1 ,vol4 i41 ,p4 #ci4 ,sixthly1 there is another characteristic of ,zen1 which cannot be found in any other religion-that is to say1 its peculiar mode of expressing profound religious insight by such actions as the lifting up of a hair-brush1 or by the tapping of the chair with a staff1 or by a loud outcry1 and so forth4 ,this will give the student of religion a striking illustration of differentiated forms of religion in its scale of evolution4 ,besides these characteristics1 ,zen is noted for its physical and mental training4 ,that the daily practice of ,zazen,,fn#ab and the breathing exercise remarkably improves one's physical condition is an established fact4 ,and history proves that most ,zen masters enjoyed a long life in spite of their extremely simple mode of living4 ,its mental discipline1 however1 is by far more fruitful1 and keeps one's mind in equipoise1 making one neither passionate nor dispassionate1 neither sentimental nor unintelligent1 neither nervous nor senseless4 ,it is well known as a cure to all sorts of mental disease1 occasioned by nervous disturbance1 as a nourishment to the fatigued brain1 and also as a stimulus to torpor and sloth4 ,it is self-control1 as it is the subduing of such pernicious passions as anger1 jealousy1 hatred1 and the like1 and the awakening of noble emotions such as sympathy1 mercy1 generosity1 and what not4 ,it is a mode of ,enlightenment1 as it is the dispelling of illusion and of doubt1 and at the same time it is the overcoming of egoism1 the destroying of mean desires1 the uplifting of the moral ideal1 and the disclosing of inborn wisdom4 ,,fn#ab ,the sitting-in-meditation1 for the full explanation of which see ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the historical importance of ,zen can hardly be exaggerated4 ,after its introduction into ,china in the sixth century1 ,a4,d41 it grew ascendant through the ,sui 7#eih-fag7 and the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijf71 and enjoyed greater popularity than any other sect of ,buddhism during the whole period of the ,sung 7#igf-aabf7 and the ,southern ,sung dynasty 7#aabg-acfg74 ,in these times its commanding influence became so irresistible that ,confucianism1 assimilating the ,buddhist teachings1 especially those of ,zen1 into itself and changing its entire aspect1 brought forth the so-called ,speculative philosophy4,,fn#ac ,and in the ,ming dynasty 7#acfh-afei7 the principal doctrines of ,zen were adopted by a celebrated ,confucian scholar1 ,wang ,yang ,ming1,,fn#ad who thereby founded a school1 through which ,zen exercised profound influence on ,chinese and ,japanese men of letters1 statesmen1 and soldiers4 ,as regards ,japan1 it was first introduced into the island as the faith first for the ,samurai or the military class1 and moulded the characters of many distinguished soldiers whose lives adorn the pages of her history4 ,afterwards it gradually found its way to palaces as well as to cottages through literature and art1 and at last permeated through every fibre of the national life4 ,it is ,zen that modern ,japan1 especially after the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 has acknowledged as an ideal doctrine for her rising generation4 ,,fn#ac ,see ',a ,history of ,chinese ,philosophy1' by ,ryukichi ,endo1 and ,a ,history of ,chinese ,philosophy1' by ,giichi ,nakauchi4 ,,fn#ad ,for the life of this distinguished scholar and soldier 7#adgb-aebi71 see ',a ,detailed ,life of ,o ,yo ,mei' by ,takejiro ,takase1 and also ',o-yo-mei-shutsu-shin-sei-ran-roku4' ,,chapter ,i ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,in ,,china #a4 ,origin of ,zen in ,india4 ,to-day ,zen as a living faith can be found in its pure form only among the ,japanese ,buddhists4 ,you cannot find it in the so-called ,gospel of ,buddha anymore than you can find ,unitarianism in the ,pentateuch1 nor can you find it in ,china and ,india any more than you can find life in fossils of bygone ages4 ,it is beyond all doubt that it can be traced back to ,shakya ,muni himself1 nay1 even to pre-,buddhistic times1 because ,brahmanic teachers practised ,dhyana1 or ,meditation1,,fn#ae from earliest times4 ,,fn#ae ,if a wise man hold his body with its three parts 7chest1 neck1 and head7 erect1 and turn his senses with the mind towards the heart1 he will then in the boat of ,brahman cross all the torrents which cause fear4 ,compressing his breathings let him1 who has subdued all motions1 breathe forth through the nose with the gentle breath4 ,let the wise man without fail restrain his mind1 that chariot yoked with vicious horses4 ,let him perform his exercises in a place level1 pure1 free from pebbles1 fire1 and dust1 delightful by its sounds1 its water1 and bowers2 not painful to the eye1 and full of shelters and eaves4 ,when ,yoga1 is being performed1 the forms which come first1 producing apparitions in ,brahman1 are those of misty smoke1 sun1 fire1 wind1 fire-flies1 lightnings1 and a crystal moon4 ,when1 as earth1 water1 light1 heat1 and ether arises1 the fivefold quality of ,yoga takes place1 then there is no longer illness1 old age1 or pain for him who has obtained a body produced by the fire of ,yoga4 ,the first results of ,yoga they call lightness1 healthiness1 steadiness1 a good complexion1 an easy pronunciation1 a sweet odour1 and slight excretions 7,cvet4 ,upanisad1 ii4 #h-ac74 ,when the five instruments of knowledge stand still together with the mind1 and when the intellect does not move1 that is called the highest state4 ,this1 the firm holding back of the senses1 is what is called ,yoga4 ,he must be free from thoughtlessness then1 for ,yoga comes and goes 7,katha ,upanisad1 ii4 #aj1 #aa74 ,this is the rule for achieving it 7viz41 concentration of the mind on the object of meditation73 restraint of the breath1 restraint of the senses1 meditation1 fixed attention1 investigation1 absorption-these are called the sixfold ,yoga4 ,when beholding by this ,yoga1 be beholds the gold-coloured maker1 the lord1 the person1 ,brahman1 the cause2 then the sage1 leaving behind good and evil1 makes everything 7breath1 organs of sense1 body1 etc47 to be one in the ,highest ,indestructible 7in the pratyagatman or ,brahman7 7,maitr4 ,upanisad1 vi4 #ah74 ,and thus it has been elsewhere3 ,there is the superior fixed attention 7dharana7 for him-viz41 if he presses the tip of the tongue down the palate1 and restrain the voice1 mind1 and breath1 he sees ,brahman by discrimination 7taraka74 ,and when1 after the cessation of mind1 he sees his own ,self1 smaller than small1 and shining as the ,highest ,self1 then1 having seen his ,self as the ,self1 he becomes ,self-less1 and because he is ,self-less1 he is without limit1 without cause1 absorbed in thought4 ,this is the highest mystery--viz41 final liberation 7,maitr4 ,upanisad1 vi4 #bj74 ,amrtab4 ,upanisad1 #ah1 describes three modes of sitting-namely1 the ,lotus-seat 7,padmasana71 the sitting with legs bent underneath2 the mystic diagram seat 7,svastika72 and the auspicious-seat 7,bhadrasana72--while ,yogacikha directs the choice of the ,lotus-posture1 with attention concentrated on the tip of the nose1 hands and feet closely joined4 ,but ,brahmanic ,zen was carefully distinguished even by early ,buddhists,,fn#af as the heterodox ,zen from that taught by the ,buddha4 ,our ,zen originated in the ,enlightenment of ,shakya ,muni1 which took place in his thirtieth year1 when he was sitting absorbed in profound meditation under the ,bodhi ,tree4 ,,fn#af ,the anonymous author of ,lankavatara-sutra distinguishes the heterodox ,zen from the ,hinayana ,zen1 the ,hinayana ,zen from the ,mahayana ,zen1 and calls the last by the name of the ,buddha's ,holy ,zen4 ,the sutra is believed by many ,buddhists1 not without reason1 to be the exposition of that ,mahayana doctrine which ,acvaghosa restated in his ,craddhotpada-castra4 ,the sutra was translated1 first1 into ,chinese by ,gunabbadra1 in ,a4,d4 #ddc2 secondly1 by ,bodhiruci in ,a4,d4 #eac2 and1 thirdly1 by ,ciksanada in ,a4,d4 #gjj-gjd4 ,the book is famous for its prophecy about ,nagdrajuna1 which 7according to ,dr4 ,nanjo's translation7 is as follows3 ,after the ,nirvana of the ,tathagata1 ,there will be a man in the future1 ,listen to me carefully1 ,o ,mahatma1 ,a man who will hold my law4 ,in the great country of ,south1 ,there will be a venerable ,bhiksu ,the ,bodhisattva ,nagarjuna by name1 ,who will destroy the views of ,astikas and ,nastikas1 ,who will preach unto men my ,yana1 ,the highest ,law of the ,mahayana1 ,and will attain to the ,pramudita-bhumi4 ,it is said that then he awoke to the perfect truth and declared3 ,all animated and inanimate beings are ,enlightened at the same time4 ,according to the tradition,,fn#ag of this sect ,shakya ,muni transmitted his mysterious doctrine from mind to mind to his oldest disciple ,mahakacyapa at the assembly hold on the ,mount of ,holy ,vulture1 and the latter was acknowledged as the first patriarch1 who1 in turn1 transmitted the doctrine to ,ananda1 the second patriarch1 and so till ,bodhidharma1 the twenty-eighth,,fn#ah patriarch4 ,we have little to say about the historical value of this tradition1 but it is worth while to note that the list of the names of these twenty-eight patriarchs contains many eminent scholars of ,mahayanism1 or the later developed school of ,buddhism1 such as ,acvaghosa1,,fn#ai ,nagarjuna1,,fn#bj ,kanadeva1,,fn#ba and ,vasubhandhu4,,fn#bb ,,fn#ag ,the incident is related as follows3 ,when the ,buddha was at the assembly on the ,mount of ,holy ,vulture1 there came a ,brahmaraja who offered the ,teacher a golden flower1 and asked him to preach the ,dharma4 ,the ,buddha took the flower and held it aloft in his hand1 gazing at it in perfect silence4 ,none in the assembly could understand what he meant1 except the venerable ,mahakacyapa1 who smiled at the ,teacher4 ,then the ,buddha said3 ,i have the ,eye and ,treasury of ,good ,dharma1 ,nirvana1 the ,wonderful ,spirit1 which ,i now hand over to ,mahakacyapa4 ,the book in which this incident is described is entitled ',sutra on the ,great ,brahman ,king's ,questioning ,buddha to ,dispel a ,doubt1' but there exists no original text nor any ,chinese translation in the ,tripitaka4 ,it is highly probable that some early ,chinese ,zen scholar of the ,sung dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ifj-aabf7 fabricated the tradition1 because ,wang ,ngan ,shih 7,o-an-seki71 a powerful ,minister under the ,emperor ,shan ,tsung 7,shin-so1 ,a4,d4 #ajfh-ajhe71 is said to have seen the book in the ,imperial ,library4 ,there is1 however1 no evidence1 as far as we know1 pointing to the existence of the ,sutra in ,china4 ,in ,japan there exists1 in a form of manuscript1 two different translations of that book1 kept in secret veneration by some ,zen masters1 which have been proved to be fictitious by the present writer after his close examination of the contents4 ,see the ,appendix to his ,zen-gaku-hi-han-ron4 ,,fn#ah ,the following is the list of the names of the twenty-eight patriarchs3 #a4 ,mahakacyapa4 #b4 ,ananda4 #c4 ,canavasu4 #d4 ,upagupta4 #e4 ,dhrtaka4 #f4 ,micchaka4 #g4 ,vasumitra4 #h4 ,buddhanandi4 #i4 ,buddhamitra4 #aj4 ,parcva4 #aa4 ,punyayacas4 #ab4 ,acvaghosa4 #ac4 ,kapimala4 #ad4 ,nagarjuna4 #ae4 ,kanadeva4 #af4 ,rahulata4 #ag4 ,samghanandi4 #ah4 ,samghayacas4 #ai4 ,kumarata4 #bj4 ,jayata4 #ba4 ,vasubandhu4 #bb4 ,manura4 #bc4 ,haklanayacas4 #bd4 ,simha4 #be4 ,vacasuta4 #bf4 ,punyamitra4 #bg4 ,prajnyatara4 #bh4 ,bodhidharma4 ,the first twenty-three patriarchs are exactly the same as those given in ',the ,sutra on the ,nidana of transmitting ,dharmapitaka1' translated in ,a4,d4 #dgb4 ,king ,teh ,chwen ,tang ,iuh 7,kei-toku-den-to-roku71 a famous ,zen history of ,china1 gives two elaborate narratives about the transmission of ,right ,dharma from teacher to disciple through these twenty-eight patriarchs1 to be trusted without hesitation4 ,it would not be difficult for any scholar of sense to find these statements were made from the same motive as that of the anonymous author who gives a short life1 in ,dirghagama-sutra1 of each of the six ,buddhas1 the predecessors of ,shakya ,muni1 if he carefully compare the list given above with the lists of the patriarchs of the ,sarvastivada school given by ,san ,yin 7,so-yu died ,a4,d4 #eah7 in his ,chuh ,san ,tsung ,ki 7,shutsu-san zo-ki74 ,,fn#ai ,one of the founders of ,mahayana ,buddhism1 who flourished in the first century ,a4,d4 ,there exists a life of his translated into ,chinese by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #dja-dji4 ,the most important of his works are3 ,mahayanacraddhotpada-castra1 ,mahalankara-sutra-castra1 ,buddha-caritakavya4 ,,fn#bj ,the founder of the ,madhyamika school of ,mahayana ,buddhism1 who lived in the second century ,a4,d4 ,a life of his was translated into ,chinese by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #dja-dji4 ,twenty-four books are ascribed to him1 of which ,mahaprajaparamita-castra1 ,madhyamika-castra1 ,prajnyadipa-castra1 ,dvadacanikaya-castra1 ,astadacakaca-castra1 are well known4 ,,fn#ba ,sometimes called ,aryadeva1 a successor of ,nagarjuna4 ,a life of his was translated into ,chinese by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #dja-dji4 ,the following are his important works3 ,cata-castra1 ',castra by the ,bodhisattva ,deva on the refutation of four heretical ,hinayana schools mentioned in the ,lankatvatara-sutra'2 ',castra by the ,bodhisattva ,deva on the explanation of the ,nirvana by twenty ,hinayana teachers mentioned in the ,lankavatara-sutra4' ,,fn#bb ,a younger brother of ,asamga1 a famous ,mahayanist of the fifth century ,a4,d4 ,there are thirty-six works ascribed to ,vasubandhu1 of which ,dacabhumika-castra1 ,aparimitayus-sutra-castra1 ,mahapari-nirvana-sutra-castra1 ,mahayana-catadharmavidyadvara-castra1 ,vidya-matrasiddhi-tridaca-castra1 ,bodhicittopadana-castra1 ,buddha-gotra-castra1 ,vidyamatrasiddhivincatigatha-castra1 ,madhyantavibhaga-castra1 ,abhidharma-koca-castra1 ,tarka-castra1 etc41 are well known4 #b4 ,introduction of ,zen into ,china by ,bodhidharma4 ,an epoch-making event took place in the ,buddhist history of ,china by ,bodhidharma's coming over from ,southern ,india to that country in about ,a4,d4 #ebj4;,,fn#bc ,it was the introduction1 not of the dead scriptures1 as was repeatedly done before him1 but of a living faith1 not of any theoretical doctrine1 but of practical ,enlightenment1 not of the relies of ,buddha1 but of the ,spirit of ,shakya ,muni2 so that ,bodhidharma's position as a representative of ,zen was unique4 ,he was1 however1 not a missionary to be favourably received by the public4 ,he seems to have behaved in a way quite opposite to that in which a modern pastor treats his flock4 ,we imagine him to have been a religious teacher entirely different in every point from a popular ,christian missionary of our age4 ,the latter would smile or try to smile at every face he happens to see and would talk sociably2 while the former would not smile at any face1 but would stare at it with the large glaring eyes that penetrated to the innermost soul4 ,the latter would keep himself scrupulously clean1 shaving1 combing1 brushing1 polishing1 oiling1 perfuming1 while the former would be entirely indifferent to his apparel1 being always clad in a faded yellow robe4 ,the latter would compose his sermon with a great care1 making use of rhetorical art1 and speak with force and elegance2 while the former would sit as absolutely silent as the bear1 and kick one off1 if one should approach him with idle questions4 ,,fn#bc ,buddhist historians differ in opinion respecting the date of ,bodhidharma's appearance in ,china4 ,compare ,chwen ,fah ,chan ,tsung ,lun 7,den bo sho ju ron7 and ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-gen74 #c4 ,bodhidharma and the ,emperor ,wu4 ,no sooner had ,bodhidharma landed at ,kwang ,cheu in ,southern ,china than he was invited by the ,emperor,,fn#bd ,wu1 who was an enthusiastic ,buddhist and good scholar1 to proceed to his capital of ,chin ,liang4 ,when he was received in audience1 ,his ,majesty asked him3 ,we have built temples1 copied holy scriptures1 ordered monks and nuns to be converted4 ,is there any merit1 ,reverend ,sir1 in our conduct8 ,the royal host1 in all probability1 expected a smooth1 flattering answer from the lips of his new guest1 extolling his virtues1 and promising him heavenly rewards1 but the ,blue-eyed ,brahmin bluntly answered3 ,no merit at all4 ,this unexpected reply must have put the ,emperor to shame and doubt in no small degree1 who was informed simply of the doctrines of the orthodox ,buddhist sects4 ',why not1' he might have thought within himself1 'why all this is futile8 ,by what authority does he declare all this meritless8 ,what holy text can be quoted to justify his assertion8 ,what is his view in reference to the different doctrines taught by ,shakya ,muni8 ,what does he hold as the first principle of ,buddhism8' ,thus thinking1 he inquired3 ,what is the holy truth1 or the first principle8 ,the answer was no less astonishing3 ,that principle transcends all4 ,there is nothing holy4 ,,fn#bd ,the ,emperor ,wu 7,bu-,tei7 of the ,liang dynasty1 whose reign was ,a4,d4 #ejb-edi4 ,the crowned creature was completely at a loss to see what the teacher meant4 ,perhaps he might have thought3 ',why is nothing holy8 ,are there not holy men1 ,holy ,truths1 ,holy ,paths stated in the scriptures8 ,is he himself not one of the holy men8' ,then who is that confronts us8 asked the monarch again4 ,i know not1 your majesty1 was the laconic reply of ,bodhidharma1 who now saw that his new faith was beyond the understanding of the ,emperor4 ,the elephant can hardly keep company with rabbits4 ,the petty orthodoxy can by no means keep pace with the elephantine stride of ,zen4 ,no wonder that ,bodhidharma left not only the palace of the ,emperor ,wu1 but also the ,state of ,liang1 and went to the ,state of ,northern ,wei4,,fn#be ,there he spent nine years in the ,shao ,lin,,fn#bf ,monastery1 mostly sitting silent in meditation with his face to the wall1 and earned for himself the appellation of 'the wall-gazing ,brahmin4' ,this name itself suggests that the significance of his mission was not appreciated by his contemporaries4 ,but neither he was nor they were to blame1 because the lion's importance is appreciated only by the lion4 ,a great personage is no less great because of his unpopularity among his fellow men1 just as the great ,pang,,fn#bg is no less great because of his unpopularity among the winged creatures4 ,bodhidharma was not popular to the degree that he was envied by his contemporary ,buddhists1 who1 as we are told by his biographers1 attempted to poison him three times1,,fn#bh but without success4 ,,fn#be ,northern ,gi dynasty 7,a4,d4 #chf-ecd74 ,,fn#bf ,sho-rin-ji1 erected by the ,emperor ,hiao ,ming of ,northern ,wei ,a4,d4 #dig4 ,,fn#bg ,chwang-tsz in his famous parable compares a great sage with the ,pang1 an imaginary bird of enormous size1 with its wings of ninety thousand miles4 ,the bird is laughed at by wrens and sparrows because of its excessive size4 ,,fn#bh ,this reminds us of ,nan ,yoh ,hwui ,sz 7,nan-gaku-e-shi1 died ,a4,d4 #egg71 who is said to have learned ,zen under ,bodhidharma4 ,he says in his statement of a vow that he was poisoned three times by those who envied him4 #d4 ,bodhidharma and his ,successor the ,second ,patriarch4 ,china was not1 however1 an uncultivated,,fn#bi land for the seed of ,zen--nay1 there had been many practisers of ,zen before ,bodhidharma4 ,,fn#bi ,the translation of ,hinayana ,zen sutras first paved the way for our faith4 ,fourteen ,zen sutras1 including such important books as ,mahanapanadhyana-sutra1 ,dhyanacarya-dharmasanyjnya-sutra1 ,dhyanacarya-saptatrimcadvarga-sutra1 were translated by ,ngan ,shi ,kao 7,an-sei-ko7 as early as ,a4,d4 #adh-agj4 ,cullamargabhumi-sutra was translated by ,k' ,yao 7,shi-yo7 in ,a4,d4 #ahe2 ,dharmatara-dhyana-sutra by ,buddhabhadra in ,a4,d4 #cih-dba2 ,dhyananisthitasamadhi-dharma-parygya-su tra by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #djb2 ',an ,abridged ,law on the ,importance of ,meditation' by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #dje2 ,pancadvara-dhyanasutra-maharthadharma by ,dharmamitra in ,a4,d4 #dbd-dda4 ,furthermore1 ,mahayana books closely related to the doctrine of ,zen were not unknown to ,china before ,bodhidharma4 ,pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhavasthita-sam adhi was translated by ,k' ,leu ,cia ,chan 7,shi-ru-ga-sen7 in ,a4,d4 #afd-ahf2 ,vimalakirttinirdeca-sutra1 which is much used in ,zen1 by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #chd-dab2 ,lankavatara-sutra1 which is said to have been pointed out by ,bodhidharma as the best explanation of ,zen1 by ,gunabhadra in ,a4,d4 #dcc2 ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra1 in its complete form1 by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #djf2 ,avatamsaka-sutra by ,buddhabhadra in ,a4,d4 #dah2 ,mahaparinirvana-sutra by ,dharmaraksa in ,a4,d4 #dbc4 ,if we are not mistaken1 ,kumarajiva1 who came to ,china ,a4,d4 #chd1 made a valuable contribution towards the foundation of ,zen in that country1 not merely through his translation of ,zen sutras above mentioned1 but by the education of his disciples1 such as ,sang ,chao 7,so-jo1 died ,a4,d4 #dad71 ,sang ,shang 7,so-sho1 whose writings undoubtedly influenced later ,zen teachers4 ,a more important personage in the history of ,zen previous to the ,blue-eyed ,brahmin is ,buddhabhadra1 a well-known ,zen master1 who came over to ,china ,a4,d4 #djf4 ,his translation of ,dharmatara-dhyana-sutra 7which is said to have been preached by ,bodhidharma himself when he was in ,india7 and that of ,avatamsaka-sutra may be said without exaggeration to have laid the corner-stone for ,zen4 ,he gave a course of lectures on the ,zen sutra for the first time in ,china in ,a4,d4 #dac1 and it was through his instruction that many native practisers of ,zen were produced1 of whom ,chi ,yen 7,chi-gon7 and ,huen ,kao 7,gen-ko7 are well known4 ,in these days ,zen should have been in the ascendant in ,india1 because almost all ,indian scholars-at least those known to us-were called ,zen teachers-for instance1 ,buddhabhadra1 ,buddhasena1 ,dharmadhi1 and some others were all ,zen scholars4 ,chinese ,buddhist scholars did no less than ,indian teachers toward the uprising of ,zen4 ,the foremost among them is ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-on1 died ,a4,d4 #dad71 who practised ,zen by the instruction of ,buddhabhadra4 ,he founded the ,society of the ,white ,lotus1 which comprised eighteen eminent scholars of the age among its members1 for the purpose of practising ,meditation and of adoring ,buddha ,amitabha4 ,we must not forget that during the ,western and the ,eastern ,tsin 7,shin7 dynasties 7,a4,d4 #bfe-dbj7 both ,taoism and ,buddhism grew prosperous to no small extent4 ,and ,china produced1 on the one hand1 ,taoists of an eccentric type1 such as the ,seven ,wise ,men of the ,bamboo ,forest1 while she gave birth to many recluse-like men of letters1 such as ,tao ,yuen ,ming 7,to-yen-mei1 died ,a4,d4 #dbg7 and some others on the other4 ,besides there were some scholars who studied ,buddhism in connection with ,taoism and ,confucianism1 and led a secluded life4 ,to the last class of scholars belonged ,chwen ,hih 7,hu dai shi71 known as ,chwen the ,great4 ,he is said to have been accustomed to wear a ,confucianist hat1 a ,buddhist robe1 and ,taoist shoes4 ,it was in ,a4,d4 #ecd that he presented a memorial to the ,emperor ,wu1 in which he explained the three grades of good4 ,the ,highest ,good consists1 says he1 in the emptiness of mind and non-attachment4 ,transcendence is its cause1 and ,nirvana is its result4 ,the ,middle ,good consists in morality and good administration4 ,it results in a peaceful and happy life in ,heaven and in ,earth4 ,the ,lowest ,good consists in love and protection of sentient beings4 ,thus his idea of good1 as the reader will see without difficulty1 is the result of a compromise of ,taoism and ,buddhism4 ,sin ,wang ,ming 7,sin-o-mei1 ,on the ,mind-,king71 one of his masterpieces1 together with other minor poems1 are still used as a textbook of ,zen4 ,this fact unmistakably proves that ,taoist element found its way into the constituents of ,zen from its very outset in ,china4 ,all that he had to do was to wait for an earnest seeker after the spirit of ,shakya ,muni4 ,therefore he waited1 and waited not in vain1 for at last there came a learned ,confucianist1 ,shang ,kwang 7,shin-ko7 by name1 for the purpose of finding the final solution of a problem which troubled him so much that he had become dissatisfied with ,confucianism1 as it had no proper diet for his now spiritual hunger4 ,thus ,shang ,kwang was far from being one of those half-hearted visitors who knocked the door of ,bodhidharma only for the sake of curiosity4 ,but the silent master was cautious enough to try the sincerity of a new visitor before admitting him to the ,meditation ,hall4 ,according to a biography,,fn#cj of his1 ,shang ,kwang was not allowed to enter the temple1 and had to stand in the courtyard covered deep with snow4 ,his firm resolution and earnest desire1 however1 kept him standing continually on one spot for seven days and nights with beads of the frozen drops of tears on his breast4 ,at last he cut off his left arm with a sharp knife1 and presented it before the inflexible teacher to show his resolution to follow the master even at the risk of his life4 ,thereupon ,bodhidharma admitted him into the order as a disciple fully qualified to be instructed in the highest doctrine of ,mahayanism4 ,,fn#cj ,king ,teh ,chwen ,tang ,luh 7,kei-toku-den-to-roku71 published by ,tao ,yuen 7,do-gen7 ,a4,d4 #ajjd1 gives a detailed narrative concerning this incident as stated here1 but earlier historians tell us a different story about the mutilation of ,shang ,kwang's arm4 ,compare ,suh ,kas ,san ,chwen 7,zoku-ko-so-den7 and ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-gen74 ,our master's method of instruction was entirely different from that of ordinary instructors of learning4 ,he would not explain any problem to the learner1 but simply help him to get enlightened by putting him an abrupt but telling question4 ,shang ,kwang1 for instance1 said to ,bodhidharma1 perhaps with a sigh3 ,i have no peace of mind4 ,might ,i ask you1 sir1 to pacify my mind8 ,bring out your mind 7that troubles you so much71 replied the master1 here before me6 ,i shall pacify it4 ,it is impossible for me1 said the disciple1 after a little consideration1 to seek out my mind 7that troubles me so much74 ,then1 exclaimed ,bodhidharma1 ,i have pacified your mind4 ,hereon ,shang ,kwang was instantly ,enlightened4 ,this event is worthy of our notice1 because such a mode of instruction was adopted by all ,zen teachers after the first patriarch1 and it became one of the characteristics of ,zen4 #e4 ,bodhidharma's ,disciples and the ,transmission of the ,law4,,fn#ca ,,fn#ca ,for details1 see ,chwen ,tang ,luh and ,den ,ka ,roku1 by ,kei ,zan4 ,as for the life of ,bodhidharma1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,matsumoto's ',a ,life of ,bodhidharma' may well be recommended to the reader4 ,bodhidharma's labour of nine years in ,china resulted in the initiation of a number of disciples1 whom some time before his death he addressed as follows3 ,now the time 7of my departure from this world7 is at hand4 ,say1 one and all1 how do you understand the ,law8 ,tao ,fu 7,do-fuku7 said in response to this3 ,the ,law does not lie in the letters 7of the ,scriptures71 according to my view1 nor is it separated from them1 but it works4 ,the ,master said3 ,then you have obtained my skin4 ,next ,tsung ,chi 7,so-ji71 a nun1 replied3 ,as ,ananda,,fn#cb saw the kingdom of ,aksobhya,,fn#cc only once but not twice1 so ,i understand the ,law4 ,the master said3 ,then you have attained to my flesh4 ,then ,tao ,yuh 7,do-iku7 replied3 ,the four elements,,fn#cd are unreal from the first1 nor are the five aggregates,,fn#ce really existent4 ,all is emptiness according to my view4 ,the master said3 ,then you have acquired my bone4 ,lastly1 ,hwui ,ko 7,e-ka71 which was the ,buddhist name given by ,bodhidharma1 to ,shang ,kwang1 made a polite bow to the teacher and stood in his place without a word4 ,you have attained to my marrow4 ,so saying1 ,bodhidharma handed over the sacred ,kachaya1 ,,fn#cf which he had brought from ,india to ,hwui ,ko1 as a symbol of the transmission of the ,law1 and created him the ,second ,patriarch4 ,,fn#cb ,a favourite disciple of ,shakya ,muni1 and the ,third ,patriarch of ,zen4 ,,fn#cc ,the3 name means ,i ,immovable1' and represents the firmness of thought4 ,,fn#cd ,earth1 water1 fire1 and air4 ,,fn#ce 7#a7 ,rupa1 or form2 7#b7 ,vedana1 or perception2 7#c7 ,samjnya1 or consciousness2 7#d7 ,karman 7or ,samskara71 or action2 7#e7 ,vijnyana1 or knowledge4 ,,fn#cf ,the clerical cloak1 which is said to have been dark green4 ,it became an object of great veneration after the ,sixth ,patriarch1 who abolished the patriarchal system and did not hand the symbol over to successors4 #f4 ,the ,second and the ,third ,patriarchs4 ,after the death of the ,first ,patriarch1 in ,a4,d4 #ebh1 ,hwui ,ko did his best to propagate the new faith over sixty years4 ,on one occasion a man suffering from some chronic disease called on him1 and requested him in earnest3 ,pray1 ,reverend ,sir1 be my confessor and grant me absolution1 for ,i suffer long from an incurable disease4 ,bring out your sin 7if there be such a thing as sin71 replied the ,second ,patriarch1 here before me4 ,i shall grant you absolution4 ,it is impossible1 said the man after a short consideration1 to seek out my sin4 ,then1 exclaimed the master1 ,i have absolved you4 ,henceforth live up to ,buddha1 ,dharma1 and ,samgha4,,fn#cg ,i know1 your reverence1 said the man1 that you belong to ,samgha2 but what are ,buddha and ,dharma8 ,buddha is ,mind itself4 ,mind itself is ,dharma4 ,buddha is identical with ,dharma4 ,so is ,samgha4 ,then ,i understand1 replied the man1 there is no such thing as sin within my body nor without it1 nor anywhere else4 ,mind is beyond and above sin4 ,it is no other than ,buddha and ,dharma4 ,thereupon the ,second ,patriarch saw the man was well qualified to be taught in the new faith1 and converted him1 giving him the name of ,sang ,tsung 7,so-san74 ,after two years' instruction and discipline1 he,,fn#ch bestowed on ,sang ,tsung the ,kachaya handed down from ,bodhidharma1 and authorized him as the ,third ,patriarch4 ,it is by ,sang ,tsung that the doctrine of ,zen was first reduced to writing by his composition of ,sin ,sin,,fn#ci ,ming 7,sin zin-mei1 ,on ,faith and ,mind71 a metrical exposition of the faith4 ,,fn#cg ,the so-called ,three ,treasures of the ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,order4 ,,fn#ch ,the ,second ,patriarch died in ,a4,d4 #eic--that is1 sixty-five years after the departure of the ,first ,patriarch4 ,,fn#ci ,a good many commentaries were written on the book1 and it is considered as one of the best books on ,zen4 #g4 ,the ,fourth ,patriarch and the ,emperor ,tai ,tsung 7,tai-so74 ,the ,third,,fn#dj ,patriarch was succeeded by ,tao ,sin 7,do-shin71 who being initiated at the age of fourteen1 was created the ,fourth ,patriarch after nine years' study and discipline4 ,tao ,sin is said never to have gone to bed for more than forty years of his patriarchal career4,,fn#da ,in ,a4,d4 #fdc the ,emperor ,tai ,tsung 7#fbg-fdi71 knowing of his virtues1 sent him a special messenger1 requesting him to call on ,his ,majesty at the palace4 ,but he declined the invitation by a memorial1 saying that be was too aged and infirm to visit the august personage4 ,the ,emperor1 desirous of seeing the reputed patriarch1 sent for him thrice1 but in vain4 ,then the enraged monarch ordered the messenger to behead the inflexible monk1 and bring the head before the throne1 in case he should disobey the order for the fourth time4 ,as ,tao ,sin was told of the order of the ,emperor1 he stretched out his neck ready to be decapitated4 ,the ,emperor1 learning from the messenger what had happened1 admired all the more the imperturbable patriarch1 and bestowed rich gifts upon him4 ,this example of his was followed by later ,zen masters1 who would not condescend to bend their knees before temporal power1 and it became one of the characteristics of ,zen monks that they would never approach rulers and statesmen for the sake of worldly fame and profit1 which they set at naught4 ,,fn#dj ,he died in ,a4,d4 #fjf1 after his labour of thirteen years as the teacher4 ,,fn#da ,he died in ,a4,d4 #fea-that is1 forty-five years after the death of the ,third ,patriarch4 #h4 ,the ,fifth and the ,sixth ,patriarchs4 ,tao ,sin transmitted the ,law to ,hung ,jan 7,ko-nin71 who being educated from infancy1 distinguished himself as the ,abbot of the ,hwang ,mei ,monastery at ,ki ,cheu4 ,the ,fifth ,patriarch1 according to his biographer1 gathered about him seven hundred pupils1 who came from all quarters4 ,of these seven hundred pupils the venerable ,shang ,sin 7,jin-shu7 was most noted for his learning and virtues1 and he might have become the legitimate successor of ,hung ,jan1 had not the ,kachaya of ,bodhidharma been carried away by a poor farmer's son of ,sin ,cheu4 ,hwui ,nang1 the ,sixth ,patriarch1 seems to have been born a ,zen teacher4 ,the spiritual light of ,buddha first flashed in his mind when he happened to hear a monk reciting a sutra4 ,on questioning the monk1 be learned that the book was ,vajracchedika-prajnya-paramita-sutra1,, fn#db and that ,hung ,jan1 the ,abbot of the ,hwang ,mei ,monastery1 was used to make his disciples recite the book that it might help them in their spiritual discipline4 ,hereupon he made up his mind to practise ,zen1 and called on ,hung ,jan at the ,monastery4 ,who are you1 demanded the ,fifth ,patriarch1 and whence have you come8 ,i am a son of the farmer1 replied the man1 of ,sin ,cheu in the ,south of ,ta ,yu ,ling4 ,what has brought you here8 asked the master again4 ,i have no other purpose than to attain to ,buddhahood1 answered the man4 ,o1 you1 people of the ,south1 exclaimed the patriarch1 you are not endowed with the nature of ,buddha4 ,there may be some difference between the ,southern and the ,northern people1 objected the man1 but how could you distinguish one from the other as to the nature of ,buddha8 ,the teacher recognized a genius in the man1 but he did not admit the promising newcomer into the order1 so ,hwui ,nang had to stay in the ,monastery for eight months as a pounder of rice in order to qualify himself to be a ,zen teacher4 ,,fn#db ,the book was translated into ,chinese by ,kumarajiva in ,a4,d4 #chd4 #dag2 also by ,bodhiruci in ,a4,d4 #eji1 and by ,paramartha in ,a4,d4 #eib2 then by ,hiuen ,tsang in ,a4,d4 #fdh4 ,many commentaries have been written on it by the prominent ,buddhist authors of ,china and ,japan4 #i4 ,the ,spiritual ,attainment of the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,some time before his death 7in #fge ,a4,d47 the ,fifth ,patriarch announced to all disciples that the ,spirit of ,shakya ,muni is hard to realize1 that they should express their own views on it1 on condition that anyone who could prove his right realization should be given with the ,kachaya and created the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,then the venerable ,sung ,siu1 the head of the seven hundred disciples1 who was considered by his brothers to be the man entitled to the honour1 composed the following verses3 ,the body is the ,bodhi-tree4,,fn#dc ,the mind is like a mirror bright on its stand4 ,dust it and wipe it from time to time1 ,lest it be dimmed by dust and dirt4 ,,fn#dc ,the idea expressed by these lines is clear enough4 ,body is likened to the ,bodhi-tree1 under which ,shakya ,muni attained to his supreme enlightenment2 for it is not in another body in the future existence1 but in this very body that one had to get enlightened4 ,and mind is pure and bright in its nature like a mirror1 but the dirt and dust of passions and of low desires often pollute and dim it4 ,therefore one should dust and wipe it from time to time in order to keep it bright4 ,all who read these lines thought that the writer was worthy of the expected reward1 and the ,fifth ,patriarch also1 appreciating the significance of the verses1 said3 ,if men in the future would practise ,zen according to this view1 they would acquire an excellent result4 ,hwui ,nang1 the rice-pounder1 hearing of them1 however1 secretly remarked that they are beautiful1 but hardly expressive of the ,spirit of ,shakya ,muni1 and wrote his own verses1 which ran as follows3 ,there is no ,bodhi-tree1,,fn#dd ,nor is there a mirror stand4 ,nothing exists from the first ,what can be dimmed by dust and dirt8 ,,fn#dd ,these verses have often been misunderstood as expressive of a nihilistic view1 but the real meaning is anything but nihilistic4 ,mind is pure and bright in its essence4 ,it is always free from passions and mean desires1 just as the sun is always bright1 despite of cloud and mist that cover its face4 ,therefore one must get an insight into this essential nature of ,mind1 and realize that one has no mean desires and passions from the first1 and also that there is no tree of ,bodhi nor the mirror of ,enlightenment without him1 but they are within him4 ,perhaps nobody ever dreamed such an insignificant fellow as the rice-pounder could surpass the venerable scholar in a religious insight1 but the ,fifth ,patriarch saw at once an ,enlightened ,soul expressed in those lines2 therefore he made up his mind to give the ,kachaya to the writer1 in whom he found a great spiritual leader of future generations4 ,but he did it secretly at midnight1 lest some of the disciples from envy do violence to ,hwui ,nang4 ,he was1 moreover1 cautious enough to advise his successor to leave the ,monastery at once1 and go back to the ,south1 that the latter might conceal his ,enlightenment until a time would come for his missionary activities4 #aj4 ,flight of the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,on the following morning the news of what had happened during the night flew from mouth to mouth1 and some of the enraged brothers attempted to pursue the worthy fugitive4 ,the foremost among them1 ,hwui ,ming 7,e-myo71 overtook the ,sixth ,patriarch at a mountain pass not very far from the ,monastery4 ,then ,hwui ,nang1 laying down the ,kachaya on a rock by the road1 addressed the pursuer3 ,this is a mere symbol of the patriarchal authority1 and it is not a thing to be obtained by force4 ,take it along with you1 if you long for it4 ,upon this ,hwui ,ming1 who began to be ashamed of his base act1 tried to lift the ,kachaya1 but in vain1 for it was1 as he felt1 as heavy as the rock itself4 ,at last he said to the ,sixth ,patriarch3 ,i have come here1 my brother1 not for the sake of this robe1 but for the sake of the ,law4 ,grant my hearty desire of getting ,enlightened4 ,if you have come for the ,law1 replied ,hwui ,nang1 you must put an end to all your struggles and longings4 ,think neither of good nor of evil 7make your mind pure from all idle thoughts71 then see how is1 ,hwui ,ming1 your original 7mental7 physiognomy6 ,being thus questioned1 ,ming found in an instant the ,divine ,light of ,buddha within himself1 and became a disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch4 #aa4 ,the ,development of the ,southern and of the ,northern ,school of ,zen4 ,after the death of the ,fifth ,patriarch the venerable ,shang ,siu1 though not the legitimate successor of his master1 was not inactive in the propagation of the faith1 and gathered about him a number of enthusiastic admirers4 ,this led to the foundation of the ,northern school of ,zen in opposition to the ,southern school led by the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,the ,empress ,tseh ,tien ,wa ,heu1,,fn#de the real ruler of ,china at that time1 was an admirer of ,shang ,siu1 and patronized his school1 which nevertheless made no further development4 ,,fn#de ,the ,emperor ,chung ,tsung 7,chu-so1 ,a4,d4 #fhd-gjd7 was a nominal sovereign1 and the ,empress was the real ruler from ,a4,d4 #fhd to #gje4 ,in the meanwhile the ,sixth ,patriarch1 who had gone to the ,south1 arrived at the ,fah ,sing ,monastery in ,kwang ,cheu1 where ,yin ,tsung 7,in-shu71 the abbot1 was giving lectures on the ,mahayana sutras to a number of student monks4 ,it was towards evening that he happened to overhear two monks of the ,monastery discussing about the flag floating in air4 ,one of them said3 ,it is the wind that moves in reality1 but not the flag4 ,no1 objected the other1 it is the flag that moves in reality1 but not the wind4 ,thus each of them insisted on his own one-sided view1 and came to no proper conclusion4 ,then the ,sixth ,patriarch introduced himself and said to them3 ,it is neither the wind nor the flag1 but your mind that moves in reality4 ,yin ,tsung1 having heard these words of the stranger1 was greatly astonished1 and thought the latter should have been an extraordinary personage4 ,and when he found the man to be the ,sixth ,patriarch of ,zen1 he and all his disciples decided to follow ,zen under the master4 ,consequently ,hwui ,nang1 still clad like a layman1 changed his clothes1 and began his patriarchal career at that ,monastery4 ,this is the starting-point of the great development of ,zen in ,china4 #ab4 ,missionary ,activity of the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,as we have seen above1 the ,sixth ,patriarch was a great genius1 and may be justly called a born ,zen teacher4 ,he was a man of no erudition1 being a poor farmer1 who had served under the ,fifth ,patriarch as a rice-pounder only for eight months1 but he could find a new meaning in ,buddhist terms1 and show how to apply it to practical life4 ,on one occasion1 for instance1 ,fah ,tah 7,ho-tatsu71 a monk who had read over the ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra,,fn#df three thousand times1 visited him to be instructed in ,zen4 ,even if you read the sutra ten thousand times1 said the ,sixth ,patriarch1 who could never read the text1 it will do you no good1 if you cannot grasp the spirit of the sutra4 ,i have simply recited the book1 confessed the monk1 as it is written in characters4 ,how could such a dull fellow as ,i grasp its spirit8 ,then recite it once1 responded the master2 ,i shall explain its spirit4 ,hereupon ,fah ,tah began to recite the sutra1 and when he read it until the end of the second chapter the teacher stopped him1 saying3 ,you may stop there4 ,now ,i know that this sutra was preached to show the so-called greatest object of ,shakya ,muni's appearing on earth4 ,that greatest object was to have all sentient beings ,enlightened just as ,he ,himself4 ,in this way the ,sixth ,patriarch grasped the essentials of the ,mahayana sutras1 and freely made use of them as the explanation of the practical questions about ,zen4 ,,fn#df ,one of the most noted ,mahayana sutras1 translated by ,dharmaraksa 7,a4,d4 #bhf7 and by ,kumarajiva 7,a4,d4 #djf74 ,the reader has to note that the author states the essential doctrine in the second chapter4 ,see ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 vol4 xxi41 pp4 #cj-ei4 #ac4 ,the ,disciples under the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,some time after this the ,sixth ,patriarch settled himself down at the ,pao ,lin ,monastery1 better known as ,tsao ,ki ,shan 7,so-kei-zan71 in ,shao ,cheu1 and it grow into a great centre of ,zen in the ,southern ,states4 ,under his instruction many eminent ,zen masters qualified themselves as ,leaders of the ,three ,worlds4 ,he did not give the patriarchal symbol1 the ,kachaya1 to his successors1 lest it might cause needless quarrels among the brethren1 as was experienced by himself4 ,he only gave sanction to his disciples who attained to ,enlightenment1 and allowed them to teach ,zen in a manner best suited to their own personalities4 ,for instance1 ,huen ,kioh 7,gen-kaku71 a scholar of the ,tien ,tai doctrine1,,fn#dg well known as the ,teacher of ,yung ,kia,,fn#dh 7,yo-ka71 received a sanction for his spiritual attainment after exchanging a few words with the master in their first interview1 and was at once acknowledged as a ,zen teacher4 ,when he reached the zenith of his fame1 he was presented with a crystal bowl together with rich gifts by the ,empress ,tseh ,tien2 and it was in ,a4,d4 #gje that the ,emperor ,chung ,tsung invited him in vain to proceed to the palace1 since the latter followed the example of the ,fourth ,patriarch4 ,,fn#dg ,the ,teacher of ,tien ,tai 7,ten-dai1 ,a4,d4 #ech-eig71 the founder of the ,buddhist sect of the same name1 was a great scholar of originality4 ,his doctrine and criticism on the ,tripitaka greatly influenced the whole of ,buddhism after him4 ,his doctrine is briefly given in the second chapter4 ,,fn#dh ,his ,ching ,tao ,ko 7,sho-do-ka71 a beautiful metrical exposition of ,zen1 is still read by most students of ,zen4 ,after the death,,fn#di of the ,sixth ,patriarch 7,a4,d4 #gac71 the ,southern ,zen was divided into two schools1 one being represented by ,tsing ,yuen 7,sei-gen71 the other by ,nan ,yoh 7,nan-gaku47 ,out of these two main schools soon developed the five,,fn#ej branches of ,zen1 and the faith made a splendid progress4 ,after ,tsing ,yuen and ,nan ,yoh1 one of the junior disciples of the ,sixth ,patriarch1 ,hwui ,chung 7,e-chu71 held an honourable position for sixteen years as the spiritual adviser to the ,emperor ,suh ,tsung 7,a4,d4 #gefgfb7 and to the ,emperor ,tai ,tsung 7,a4,d4 #gfc-ggi74 ,these two ,emperors were enthusiastic admirers of ,zen1 and ordered several times the ,kachaya of ,bodhidharma to be brought into the palace from the ,pao ,lin ,monastery that they might do proper homage to it4 ,within some one hundred and thirty years after the ,sixth ,patriarch1 ,zen gained so great influence among higher classes that at the time of the ,emperor ,suen ,tsung 7,a4,d4 #hdg-hei7 both the ,emperor and his ,prime ,minister1 ,pei ,hiu1 were noted for the practice of ,zen4 ,it may be said that ,zen had its golden age1 beginning with the reign of the ,emperor ,suh ,tsung1 of the ,tang dynasty1 until the reign of the ,emperor ,hiao ,tsung 7#aafc-aahi71 who was the greatest patron of ,buddhism in the ,southern ,sung dynasty4 ,to this age belong almost all the greatest ,zen scholars,,fn#ea of ,china4 ,,fn#di ,there exists ,luh ,tan ,fah ,pao ,tan ,king 7,roku-so-ho-bo-dan-kyo71 a collection of his sermons4 ,it is full of bold statements of ,zen in its purest form1 and is entirely free from ambiguous and enigmatical words that encumber later ,zen books4 ,in consequence it is widely read by non-,buddhist scholars in ,china and ,japan4 ,both ,hwui ,chung 7,e-chu71 a famous disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch1 and ,do-gen1 the founder of the ,soto ,sect in ,japan1 deny the authority of the book1 and declare it to be misleading1 because of errors and prejudices of the compilers4 ,still1 we believe it to be a collection of genuine sections given by the ,sixth ,patriarch1 though there are some mistakes in its historical narratives4 ,,fn#ej 7#a7 ,the ,tsao ,tung 7,so-to7 ,sect1 founded by ,tsing ,yuen 7died in ,a4,d4 #gdj7 and his successors2 7#b7 the ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-,zai7 ,sect1 founded by ,nan ,yoh 7died in #gdd7 and his successors2 7#c7 the ,wei ,yan 7,yi-gyo7 ,sect1 founded by ,wei ,shan 7,yi-san1 died in #hec7 and his disciple ,yen ,shan 7,kyo-zan1 died in #hij72 7#d7 the ,yun ,man 7,un-mon7 ,sect1 founded by ,yun ,man 7died in #idi72 7#e7 the ,pao ,yen 7,ho-gen7 ,sect1 founded by ,pao ,yen 7died in #ieh74 ,,fn#ea ,during the ,tang dynasty 7,a4,d4 #fah-ijf7 ,china produced1 besides the ,sixth ,patriarch and his prominent disciples1 such great ,zen teachers as ,ma ,tsu 7,ba-so1 died in #ghh71 who is probably the originator of the ,zen ,activity2 ,shih ,teu 7,seki-to1 died in #gij71 the reputed author of ,tsan ,tung ,ki 7,san-do-kai71 a metrical writing on ,zen2 ,poh ,chang 7,hyaku-jo1 died #had71 who first laid down regulations for the ,zen ,monastery2 ,wei ,shan 7,yi-san71 ,yang ,shan 7,kyo-zan71 the founders of the ,wei ,yang ,sect2 ,hwang ,pah 7,o-baku1 died in #hej71 one of the founders of the ,lin ,tsi ,sect1 and the author of ,chwen ,sin ,pao ,yao1 7,den-sin-ho-yo71 one of the best works on ,zen2 ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-zai1 died in #hff71 the real founder of the ,lin ,tsi ,sect2 ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan1 died in #hfi71 the real founder of the ,tsao ,tung ,sect2 ,tsao ,shan 7,so-zan1 died in #ija71 a famous disciple of ,tung ,shan2 ,teh ,shan 7,toku-san1 died in #hfe71 who was used to strike every questioner with his staff2 ,chang ,sha 7,cho-sha1 died in #hbc72 ,chao ,cheu 7,jo-shu1 died in #hig72 ,nan ,tsuen 7,nan-sen1 died in #hcd72 ,wu ,yeh 7,mu-go1 died in #hbc72 who is said to have replied1 ',away with your idle thoughts1' to every questioner2 ,yun ,yen 7,un-gan1 died in #hbi72 ,yoh ,shan 7,yaku-san1 died in #hcd72 ,ta ,mei 7,tai-bai1 died in #hci71 a noted recluse2 ,ta ,tsz 7,dai-ji1 died in #hfb72 ,kwei ,fung 7,kei-ho1 died in #hda71 the author of ',the ,origin of ,man1' and other numerous works2 and ,yun ,ku 7,un-go1 died in #ijb74 ,to the period of the ,five ,dynasties 7,a4,d4 #ijg-iei7 belong such teachers as ,sueh ,fung 7,set-po1 died in4 #ijh72 ,huen ,sha 7,gen-sha1 died in #ijh72 ,yun ,man 7,un-mon1 died in #idi71 the founder of the ,yun ,man ,sect2 ,shen ,yueh 7,zen-getsu1 died in #iab71 a renowned ,zen poet2 ,pu ,tai 7,ho-tei1 died in #iaf71 well known for his peculiarities2 ,chang ,king 7,cho-kei1 died in #icb72 ,nan ,yuen 7,nan-in1 died in #ieb72 ,pao ,yen 7,ho-gen1 died in #ieh71 the founder of the ,pao ,yen ,sect4 ,during the ,sung dynasty 7,a4,d4 #ifj-aabf7 appeared such teachers as ,yang ,ki 7,yo-gi1 died in #ajdi71 the founder of the ,yang ,ki ,school of ,zen2 ,sueh ,teu 7,set-cho1 died in #ajeb71 noted for poetical works2 ,hwang ,lung 7,o ryu1 died in #ajfi71 the founder of the ,hwang ,lung ,school of ,zen2 ,hwang ,lin 7,ko-rin1 died in #ihg72 ,tsz ,ming 7,ji-myo1 died in #ajdj72 ,teu ,tsy 7,to-shi1 died in #ajhc72 ,fu ,yun 7,fu-yo1 died in #aaah72 ,wu ,tsu 7,go-so1 died in #aajd72 ,yung ,ming 7,yo-myo1 died in #ige71 the author of ,tsung ,king ,luh 7,shu-kyo-roku72 ,ki ,sung 7,kai-su1 died in #ajga71 a great ,zen historian and author4 ,in the ,southern ,sung dynasty 7,a4,d4 #aabg-abgi7 flourished such masters as ,yuen ,wu 7,en-go1 died in #aace71 the author of ,pik ,yen ,tsih 7,heki-gan-shu72 ,chan ,hieh 7,shin-ketsu1 flourished in #aaea72 ,hung ,chi 7,wan-shi1 died in #aaeg71 famous for his poetical works2 ,ta ,hwui 7,dai-e1 died in #aafc71 a noted disciple of ,yuen ,wu2 ,wan ,sung 7,ban-sho71 flourished in #aaic-aaig71 the author of ,tsung ,yun ,luh 7,sho-yo-roku72 ,ju ,tsing 7,nyo-jo71 died in #abbh71 the teacher to ,do-gen1 or the founder of the ,so-to ,sect in ,japan4 ,to this age belong almost all the eminent men of letters1,,fn#eb statesmen1 warriors1 and artists who were known as the practisers of ,zen4 ,to this age belongs the production of almost all ,zen books1,,fn#ec doctrinal and historical4 ,,fn#eb ,among the great names of ,zen believers the following are most important3 ,pang ,yun 7,ho-on1 flourished in #ghe-hjd71 whose whole family was proficient in ,zen2 ,tsui ,kiun 7,sai-gun1 flourished in #hjf-hbd72 ,luh ,kang 7,rik-ko71 a lay disciple to ,nan ,tsun2 ,poh ,loh ,tien 7,haku-raku-ten1 died in #hdg71 one of the greatest ,chinese literary men2 ,pei ,hiu 7,hai-kyu1 flourished #hbg-hef71 the ,prime ,minister under the ,emperor ,suen ,tsung1 a lay disciple to ,hwang ,pah2 ,li ,ngao 7,ri-ko1 lived about #hjf71 an author and scholar who practised ,zen under ,yoh ,shan2 ,yu ,chuh 7,u-teki1 flourished #ghe-hjd71 a local governor1 a friend of ,pang ,yun2 ,yang ,yih 7,yo-oku1 flourished in #igf71 one of the greatest writers of his age2 ,fan ,chung ,ngan 7,han-chu an1 flourished #ajjh-ajeb71 an able statesman and scholar2 ,fu ,pih 7,fu shitsu1 flourished #ajda-ajhc71 a minister under the ,emperor ,jan ,tsung2 ,chang ,shang ,ying 7,cho-sho-yei1 #ajhf-aabb71 a ,buddhist scholar and a statesman2 ,hwang ,ting ,kien 7,ko-tei-ken1 #ajfd-ajid71 a great poet2 ,su ,shih 7,so-shoku1 died in #aaja71 a great man of letters1 well known as ,so-to-ba2 ,su ,cheh 7,so-tetsu1 died in #aaab71 a younger brother of ,so-to-ba1 a scholar and minister under the ,emperor ,cheh ,tsung2 ,chang ,kiu ,ching 7,cho-,kyu-sei1 flourished about #aaca71 a scholar and lay disciple of ,ta ,hwui2 ,yang ,kieh 7,yo-ketsu1 flourished #ajgh-ajhf71 a scholar and statesman4 ,,fn#ec ,of doctrinal ,zen books1 besides ,sin ,sin ,ming by the ,third ,patriarch1 and ,fah ,pao ,tan ,king by the ,sixth ,patriarch1 the following are of great importance3 7#a7 ,ching ,tao ,ko 7,sho-do-ka71 by ,huen ,kioh 7,gen-kaku74 7#b7 ,tsan ,tung ,ki 7,san-do-kai71 by ,shih ,ten 7,seki-to74 7#c7 ,pao ,king ,san ,mei 7,ho-kyo-san-mai71 by ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan74 7#d7 ,chwen ,sin ,pao ,yao 7,den-sin-ho-yo71 by ,hwang ,pah 7,o-baku74 7#e7 ,pih ,yen ,tsih 7,heki-gan-shu71 by ,yuen ,wu 7,en-go74 7#f7 ,lin ,tsi ,luh 7,rin-zai-roku71 by ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-zai74 7#g7 ,tsung ,yun ,luh 7,sho-yo-roku71 by ,wan ,sung 7,ban-sho74 ,of historical ,zen books the following are of importance3 7#a7 ,king teh ,chwen ,tan-,luh 7,kei-toku-den-to-roku71 published in #ajjd by ,tao ,yuen 7,do-gen74 7#b7 ,kwan ,tang ,luh 7,ko-to roku71 published in #ajcf by ,li ,tsun ,suh 7,ri-jun-kyoku74 7#c7 ,suh ,tang ,luh 7,zoku-,o-roku71 published in #aaja by ,wei ,poh 7,i-haku74 7#d7 ,lien ,tang ,luh 7,ren-,o-roku71 published in #aahc by ,hwui ,wang 7,mai-o74 7#e7 ,ching ,tsung ,ki 7,sho-ju-ki71 published in #ajeh by ,ki ,sung 7,kwai-su74 7#f7 ,pu ,tang ,luh 7,fu-,o-roku71 published in #abja by ,ching ,sheu 7,sho-ju74 7#g7 ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-gen71 published in #abeb by ,ta ,chwen 7,dai-sen74 7#h7 ,sin ,tang ,luh 7,sin-,w-roku71 published in #abhj-abid by ,sui 7,zui74 7#i7 ,suh ,chwen ,tang ,luh 7,zoku-den-to-roku71 by ,wang ,siu 7,bun-shu74 7#aj7 ,hwui ,yuen ,suh ,lioh 7,e-gen-zoku-ryaku71 by ,tsing ,chu 7,jo-chu74 7#aa7 ,ki ,tang ,luh 7,kei-to-roku71 by ,yung ,kioh 7,yo-kaku74 #ad4 ,three ,important ,elements of ,zen4 ,to understand how ,zen developed during some four hundred years after the ,sixth ,patriarch1 we should know that there are three important elements in ,zen4 ,the first of these is technically called the ,zen ,number--the method of practising ,meditation by sitting cross-legged1 of which we shall treat later4,,fn#ed ,this method is fully developed by ,indian teachers before ,bodhidharma's introduction of ,zen into ,china1 therefore it underwent little change during this period4 ,the second is the ,zen ,doctrine1 which mainly consists of ,idealistic and ,pantheistic ideas of ,mahayana ,buddhism1 but which undoubtedly embraces some tenets of ,taoism4 ,therefore1 ,zen is not a pure ,indian faith1 but rather of ,chinese origin4 ,the third is the ,zen ,activity1 or the mode of expression of ,zen in action1 which is entirely absent in any other faith4 ,,fn#ed ,see ,chapter ,,vii4 ,it was for the sake of this ,zen ,activity that ,hwang ,pah gave a slap three times to the ,emperor ,suen ,tsung2 that ,lin ,tsi so often burst out into a loud outcry of ,hoh 7,katsu72 that ,nan ,tsuen killed a cat at a single stroke of his knife in the presence of his disciples2 and that ,teh ,shan so frequently struck questioners with his staff4,,fn#ee ,the ,zen ,activity was displayed by the ,chinese teachers making use of diverse things such as the staff1 the brush,,fn#ef of long hair1 the mirror1 the rosary1 the cup1 the pitcher1 the flag1 the moon1 the sickle1 the plough1 the bow and arrow1 the ball1 the bell1 the drum1 the cat1 the dog1 the duck1 the earthworm--in short1 any and everything that was fit for the occasion and convenient for the purpose4 ,thus ,zen ,activity was of pure ,chinese origin1 and it was developed after the ,sixth ,patriarch4,,fn#eg ,for this reason the period previous to the ,sixth ,patriarch may be called the ,age of the ,zen ,doctrine1 while that posterior to the same master1 the ,age of the ,zen ,activity4 ,,fn#ee ,a long official staff 7,shu-jo7 like the crosier carried by the abbot of the monastery4 ,,fn#ef ,an ornamental brush 7,hos-su7 often carried by ,zen teachers4 ,,fn#eg ,the giving of a slap was first tried by the ,sixth ,patriarch1 who struck one of his disciples1 known as ,ho ,tseh 7,ka-taku71 and it was very frequently resorted to by the later masters4 ,the lifting up of the brush was first tried by ,tsing ,yuen in an interview with his eldest disciple1 ,shih ,ten1 and it became a fashion among other teachers4 ,the loud outcry of ,hoh was first made use of by ,ma ,tsu1 the successor of ,nan ,yoh4 ,in this way the origin of the ,zen ,activity can easily be traced to the ,sixth ,patriarch and his direct disciples4 ,after the ,sung dynasty ,chinese ,zen masters seem to have given undue weight to the ,activity1 and neglected the serious study of the doctrine4 ,this brought out the degeneration severely reproached by some of the ,japanese ,zen teachers4 #ae4 ,decline of ,zen4 ,the blooming prosperity of ,zen was over towards the end of the ,southern ,sung dynasty 7#aabg-abgi71 when it began to fade1 not being bitten by the frost of oppression from without1 but being weakened by rottenness within4 ,as early as the ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-aabf7 the worship of ,buddha ,amitabha,,fn#eh stealthily found its way among ,zen believers1 who could not fully realize the ,spirit of ,shakya ,muni1 and to satisfy these people the amalgamation of the two faiths was attempted by some ,zen masters4,,fn#ei ,,fn#eh ,the faith is based on ,larger ,sukhavati-vyuha1 ,smaller ,sukhavati-vyuha1 and ,amitayus-dhyana-sutra4 ,it was taught in ,india by ,acvaghosa1 ,nagariuna1 and ,vasubandhu4 ,in ,china ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-on1 died in ,a4,d4 #daf71 ,tan ,lwan 7,don-ran1 died in #edb71 ,tao ,choh 7,do-shaku71 and ,shen ,tao 7,zen-do7 7both of whom lived about #fjj-fej71 chiefly taught the doctrine4 ,it made an extraordinary progress in ,japan1 and differentiated itself into several sects1 of which ,jodo ,shu and ,shin ,shu are the strongest4 ,,fn#ei ,it is beyond all doubt that ,poh ,loh ,tien 7,haku-raku-ten7 practised ,zen1 but at the same time believed in ,amitabha2 so also ,su ,shih 7,so-shoku71 a most noted ,zen practiser1 worshipped the same ,buddha1 ,yang ,kieh 7,yo-keteu71 who carried a picture of ,amitabha wherever he went and worshipped it1 seems to have thought there is nothing incompatible between ,zen and his faith4 ,the foremost of those ,zen masters of the ,sung dynasty that attempted the amalgamation is ,yung ,ming 7,yo-myo1 died in #ige71 who reconciled ,zen with the worship of ,amitabha in his ,wan ,shen ,tung ,kwei ,tsih 7,man-zen-do-ki-shu7 and ,si ,ngan ,yan ,shan ,fu 7,sei-an-yo-sin-fu74 ,he was followed by ,tsing ,tsz 7,jo-ji7 and ,chan ,hieh 7,shin-ketsu1 lived about #aaea71 the former of whom wrote ,kwei ,yuen ,chih ,chi 7,ki-gen-jiki-shi71 and the latter ,tsing ,tu ,sin ,yao 7,jo-do-sin-yo71 in order to further the tendency4 ,in the ,yuen dynasty ,chung ,fung 7,chu-ho1 died in #acbc7 encouraged the adoration of ,amitabha1 together with the practice of ,zen1 in his poetical composition 7,kwan-shu-jo-go74 ,in the ,ming dynasty ,yun ,si 7,un-sei1 died in #afae71 the author of ,shen ,kwan ,tseh ,tsin 7,zen-kwan-saku-shin7 and other numerous works1 writing a commentary on ,sukhavati-vyuha-sutra1 brought the amalgamation to its height4 ,ku ,shan 7,ku-zan1 died in #afeg71 a ,zen historian and author1 and his prominent disciple ,wei ,lin 7,e-rin71 axe well known as the amalgamators4 ,yun ,ming declared that those who practise ,zen1 but have no faith in ,amitabha1 go astray in nine cases out of ten2 that those who do not practise ,zen1 but believe in ,amitabha1 are saved1 one and all2 that those who practise ,zen1 and have the faith in ,amitabha1 are like the tiger provided with wings2 and that for those who have no faith in ,amitabha1 nor practise ,zen1 there exist the iron floor and the copper pillars in ,hell4 ,ku ,shan said that some practise ,zen in order to attain ,enlightenment1 while others pray ,amitabha for salvation2 that if they were sincere and diligent1 both will obtain the final beatitude4 ,wei ,lin also observed3 ,theoretically ,i embrace ,zen1 and practically ,i worship ,amitabha4 ,e-chu1 the author of ,zen-to-nenbutsu 7',on ,zen and the ,worship of ,amitabha'71 points out that one of the direct disciples of the ,sixth ,patriarch favoured the faith of ,amitabha1 but there is no trustworthy evidence1 as far as we know1 that proves the existence of the amalgamation in the ,tang dynasty4 ,this tendency steadily increasing with time brought out at length the period of amalgamation which covered the ,yuen 7#abhj-acfg7 and the ,ming dynasties 7#acfh-afei71 when the prayer for ,amitabha was in every mouth of ,zen monks sitting in ,meditation4 ,the patrons of ,zen were not wanting in the ,yuen dynasty1 for such a warlike monarch as the ,emperor ,shi ,tsu 7,sei-so71 #abhj-abid7 is known to have practised ,zen under the instruction of ,miao ,kao1 and his successor ,ching ,tsung 7#abie-acjg7 to have trusted in ,yih ,shan1,,fn#fj a ,zen teacher of reputation at that time4 ,moreover1 ,lin ,ping ,chung 7,rin-hei-cha1 died in #abgd71 a powerful minister under ,shi ,tsu1 who did much toward the establishment of the administrative system in that dynasty1 had been a ,zen monk1 and never failed to patronize his faith4 ,and in the ,ming dynasty the first ,emperor ,tai ,tsu 7#acfh-acih71 having been a ,zen monk1 protected the sect with enthusiasm1 and his example was followed by ,tai ,tsung 7#adjc-adbd71 whose spiritual as well as political adviser was ,tao ,yen1 a ,zen monk of distinction4 ,thus ,zen exercised an influence unparalleled by any other faith throughout these ages4 ,the life and energy of ,zen1 however1 was gone by the ignoble amalgamation1 and even such great scholars as ,chung ,fung1,,fn#fa ,yung ,si1,,fn#fb ,yung ,kioh1,,fn#fc were not free from the overwhelming influence of the age4 ,,fn#fj ,the ,emperor sent him to ,japan in #abii with some secret order1 but he did nothing political1 and stayed as a ,zen teacher until his death4 ,,fn#fa ,a most renowned ,zen master in the ,yuen dynasty1 whom the ,emperor ,jan ,tsung invited to visit the palace1 but in vain4 ,,fn#fb ,an author noted for his learning and virtues1 who was rather a worshipper of ,amitabha than a ,zen monk4 ,,fn#fc ,an author of voluminous books1 of which ,tung ,shang ,ku ,cheh 7,to-jo-ko-tetsu7 is well known4 ,we are not1 however1 doing justice to the tendency of amalgamation in these times simply to blame it for its obnoxious results1 because it is beyond doubt that it brought forth wholesome fruits to the ,chinese literature and philosophy4 ,who can deny that this tendency brought the ,speculative,,fn#fd philosophy of the ,sung dynasty to its consummation by the amalgamation of ,confucianism with ,buddhism especially with ,zen1 to enable it to exercise long-standing influence on society1 and that this tendency also produced ,wang ,yang ,ming1,,fn#fe one of the greatest generals and scholars that the world has ever seen1 whose philosophy of ,conscience,,fn#ff still holds a unique position in the history of human thought8 ,who can deny furthermore that ,wang's philosophy is ,zen in the ,confucian terminology8 ,,fn#fd ,this well-known philosophy was first taught by ,cheu ,men ,shuh 7,shu-mo-shiku1 died in #ajgc7 in its definite form4 ,he is said to have been enlightened by the instruction of ,hwui ,tang1 a contemporary ,zen master4 ,he was succeeded by ,chang ,ming ,tao 7,tei-mei-do1 died in #ajhe7 and ,chang ,i ,chwen 7,tei-i-sen1 died in #aajg71 two brothers1 who developed the philosophy in no small degree4 ,and it was completed by ,chu ,tsz 7,shu-shi1 died in #abjj71 a celebrated commentator of the ,confucian classics4 ,it is worthy to note that these scholars practised ,meditation just as ,zen monks4 ,see ',history of ,chinese ,philosophy' 7pp4 #bae-bfi71 by ,g4 ,nakauchi1 and ',history of ,development of ,chinese ,thought1' by ,r4 ,endo4 ,,fn#fe ,he was born in #adgb1 and died in #aebi4 ,his doctrine exercised a most fruitful influence on many of the great ,japanese minds1 and undoubtedly has done much to the progress of ,new ,japan4 ,,fn#ff ,see ,den-shu-roku and ,o-ya-mei-zen-sho4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,history ,,of ,,zen ,,in ,,japan #a4 ,the ,establishment of the ,rin ,zai,,fn#fg ,school of ,zen in ,japan4 ,,fn#fg ,the ,lin ,tsi school was started by ,nan ,yoh1 a prominent disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch1 and completed by ,lin ,tsi or ,rin ,zai4 ,the introduction of ,zen into the island empire is dated as early as the seventh century2,,fn#fh but it was in #aaia that it was first established by ,ei-sai1 a man of bold1 energetic nature4 ,he crossed the sea for ,china at the age of twenty-eight in #aafh1 after his profound study of the whole ,tripitaka,,fn#fi for eight years in the ,hi-yei ,monastery,,fn#gj the then centre of ,japanese ,buddhism4 ,,fn#fh ,zen was first introduced into ,japan by ,do sha 7#fbi-gjj7 as early as #fec-fef1 at the time when the ,fifth ,patriarch just entered his patriarchal career4 ,do-sho went over to ,china in #fec1 and met with ,huen ,tsang1 the celebrated and great scholar1 who taught him the doctrine of the ,dharma-laksana4 ,it was ,huen ,tsang who advised ,do-sho to study ,zen under ,hwui ,man 7,e-man74 ,after returning home1 he built a ,meditation ,hall for the purpose of practising ,zen in the ,gan-go monastery1 ,nara4 ,thus ,zen was first transplanted into ,japan by ,do-sho1 but it took no root in the soil at that time4 ,next a ,chinese ,zen teacher1 ,i ,kung 7,gi-ku71 came over to ,japan in about #haj1 and under his instruction the ,empress ,danrin1 a most enthusiastic ,buddhist1 was enlightened4 ,she erected a monastery named ,dan-rin-ji1 and appointed ,i ,kung the abbot of it for the sake of propagating the faith4 ,it being of no purpose1 however1 ,i ,kung went back to ,china after some years4 ,thirdly1 ,kaku-a in #aaga went over to ,china1 where he studied ,zen under ,fuh ,hai 7,buk-kai71 who belonged to the ,yang ,ki 7,yo-gi7 school1 and came home after three years4 ,being questioned by the ,emperor ,taka-kura 7#aafi-aahj7 about the doctrine of ,zen1 he uttered no word1 but took up a flute and played on it4 ,but his first note was too high to be caught by the ordinary ear1 and was gone without producing any echo in the court nor in society at large4 ,,fn#fi ,the three divisions of the ,buddhist canon1 viz43 7#a7 ,sutra-pitaka1 or a collection of doctrinal books4 7#b7 ,vinaya-pitaka1 or a collection of works on discipline4 7#c7 ,abhidharma-pitaka1 or a collection of philosophical and expository works4 ,,fn#gj ,the great monastery erected in #ghh by ,sai-cho 7#gfg-hbb71 the founder of the ,japanese ,ten ,dai ,sect1 known as ,den ,gyo ,dai ,shi4 ,after visiting holy places and great monasteries1 he came home1 bringing with him over thirty different books on the doctrine of the ,ten-,dai ,sect4,,fn#ga ,this1 instead of quenching1 added fuel to his burning desire for adventurous travel abroad4 ,so he crossed the sea over again in #aahg1 this time intending to make pilgrimage to ,india2 and no one can tell what might have been the result if the ,chinese authorities did not forbid him to cross the border4 ,thereon he turned his attention to the study of ,zen1 and after five years' discipline succeeded in getting sanction for his spiritual attainment by the ,hu ,ngan 7,kio-an71 a noted master of the ,rin ,zai school1 the then abbot of the monastery of ,tien ,tung ,shan 7,ten-do-san74 ,his active propaganda of ,zen was commenced soon after his return in #aaia with splendid success at a newly built temple,,fn#gb in the province of ,chiku-zen4 ,in #abjb ,yori-iye1 the ,shogun1 or the real governor of the ,state at that time1 erected the monastery of ,ken-nin-ji in the city of ,kyo-to1 and invited him to proceed to the metropolis4 ,accordingly he settled himself down in that temple1 and taught ,zen with his characteristic activity4 ,,fn#ga ,the sect was named after its founder in ,china1 ,chi ,i 7#ech-eig71 who lived in the monastery of ,tien ,tai ,shan 7,ten-dai-san71 and was called the ,great ,teacher of ,tien ,tai4 ,in #hjd ,den-gyo went over to ,china by the ,imperial order1 and received the transmission of the doctrine from ,tao ,sui 7,do-sui71 a patriarch of the sect4 ,after his return he erected a monastery on ,mount ,hi-yei1 which became the centre of ,buddhistic learning4 ,,fn#gb ,he erected the monastery of ,sho-fuku-ji in #aaie1 which is still prospering4 ,this provoked the envy and wrath of the ,ten ,dai and the ,shin ,gon,,fn#gc teachers1 who presented memorials to the ,imperial court to protest against his propagandism of the new faith4 ,taking advantage of the protests1 ,ei-sai wrote a book entitled ,ko-zen-go-koku-ron 7',the ,protection of the ,state by the ,propagation of ,zen'71 and not only explained his own position1 but exposed the ignorance,,fn#gd of the protestants4 ,thus at last his merit was appreciated by the ,emperor ,tsuchi-mikado 7#aaii-abaj71 and he was promoted to ,so ,jo1 the highest rank in the ,buddhist priesthood1 together with the gift of a purple robe in #abjf4 ,some time after this he went to the city of ,kama-kura1 the political centre1 being invited by ,sane-tomo1 the ,shogun1 and laid the foundation of the so-called ,kama-kura ,zen1 still prospering at the present moment4 ,,fn#gc ,the ,shin ,gon or ,mantra ,sect is based on ,mahavairocanabhi-sambodhi-sutra1 ,vajracekhara-sutra1 and other ,mantra-sutras4 ,it was established in ,china by ,vajrabodhi and his disciple ,amoahavajra1 who came from ,india in #gbj4 ,ku kai 7#ggd-hce71 well known as ,ko ,bo ,dai ,shi1 went to ,china in #hjd1 and received the transmission of the doctrine from ,hwui ,kwo 7,kei-ka71 a1 disciple of ,amoghavajra4 ,in #hjf he came back and propagated the faith almost all over the country4 ,for the detail see ',a ,short ,history of the ,twelve ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects' 7chap4 viii471 by ,dr4 ,nanjo4 ,,fn#gd ,sai-cho1 the founder of the ,japanese ,ten ,dai ,sect1 first learned the doctrine of the ,northern ,school of ,zen under ,gyo-hyo 7died in #gig71 and afterwards he pursued the study of the same faith under ,siao ,jan in ,china4 ,therefore to oppose the propagation of ,zen is1 for ,ten ,dai priests1 as much as to oppose the founder of their own sect4 #b4 ,the ,introduction of the ,so-,to ,school,,fn#ge of ,zen4 ,,fn#ge ,this school was started by ,tsing-,yuen 7,sei-gen71 an eminent disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch1 and completed by ,tsing ,shan 7,to-zan74 ,although the ,rin ,zai school was1 as mentioned above1 established by ,ei-sai1 yet he himself was not a pure ,zen teacher1 being a ,ten ,dai scholar as well as an experienced practiser of ,mantra4 ,the first establishment of ,zen in its purest form was done by ,do-gen1 now known as ,jo ,yo ,dai ,shi4 ,like ,ei-sai1 he was admitted into the ,hi-yei ,monastery at an early age1 and devoted himself to the study of the ,canon4 ,as his scriptural knowledge increased1 he was troubled by inexpressible doubts and fears1 as is usual with great religious teachers4 ,consequently1 one day he consulted his uncle1 ,ko-in1 a distinguished ,ten ,dai scholar1 about his troubles4 ,the latter1 being unable to satisfy him1 recommended him ,ei-sai1 the founder of the new faith4 ,but as ,ei-sai died soon afterwards1 he felt that he had no competent teacher left1 and crossed the sea for ,china1 at the age of twenty-four1 in #abbc4 ,there he was admitted into the monastery of ,tien ,tung ,shan 7,ten-do-san71 and assigned the lowest seat in the hall1 simply because be was a foreigner4 ,against this affront he strongly protested4 ,in the ,buddhist community1 he said1 all were brothers1 and there was no difference of nationality4 ,the only way to rank the brethren was by seniority1 and he therefore claimed to occupy his proper rank4 ,nobody1 however1 lent an ear to the poor new-comer's protest1 so he appealed twice to the ,chinese ,emperor ,ning ,tsung 7#aaie-abbd71 and by the ,imperial order he gained his object4 ,after four years' study and discipline1 he was ,enlightened and acknowledged as the successor by his master ,ju ,tsing 7,nyo-jo died in #abbh71 who belonged to the ,tsao ,tung 7,so ,to7 school4 ,he came home in #abbg1 bringing with him three important ,zen books4,,fn#gf ,some three years he did what ,bodhidharma1 the ,wall-gazing ,brahmin1 had done seven hundred years before him1 retiring to a hermitage at ,fuka-kusa1 not very far from ,kyo-to4 ,just like ,bodhidharma1 denouncing all worldly fame and gain1 his attitude toward the world was diametrically opposed to that of ,ei-sai4 ,as we have seen above1 ,ei-sai never shunned1 but rather sought the society of the powerful and the rich1 and made for his goal by every means4 ,but to the ,sage of ,fuka-kusa1 as ,do-gen was called at that time1 pomp and power was the most disgusting thing in the world4 ,judging from his poems1 be seems to have spent these years chiefly in meditation2 dwelling now on the transitoriness of life1 now on the eternal peace of ,nirvana2 now on the vanities and miseries of the world2 now listening to the voices of ,nature amongst the hills2 now gazing into the brooklet that was1 as he thought1 carrying away his image reflected on it into the world4 ,,fn#gf 7#a7 ,pao ,king ,san ,mei 7,ho-kyo-san-mai1 ',precious ,mirror ,samadhi'71 a metrical exposition of ,zen1 by ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan1 #hjf-hfi71 one of the founders of the ,so ,to school4 7#b7 ,wu ,wei ,hien ,hueh 7,go-i-ken-ketsu4 ',explanation of the ,five ,categories'71 by ,tung ,shan and his disciple ,tsao ,shan 7,so-zan74 ,this book shows us how ,zen was systematically taught by the authors4 7#c7 ,pih ,yen ,tsih 7,heki-gan-shu1 ',a ,collection and ,critical ,treatment of ,dialogues'71 by ,yuen ,wu4 #c4 ,the ,characteristics of ,do-gen1 the ,founder of the ,japanese ,so ,to ,sect4 ,in the meantime seekers after a new truth gradually began to knock at his door1 and his hermitage was turned into a monastery1 now known as the ,temple of ,ko-sho-ji4,,fn#gg ,it was at this time that many ,buddhist scholars and men of quality gathered about him but the more popular he became the more disgusting the place became to him4 ,his hearty desire was to live in a solitude among mountains1 far distant from human abodes1 where none but falling waters and singing birds could disturb his delightful meditation4 ,therefore he gladly accepted the invitation of a feudal lord1 and went to the province of ,echi-zen1 where his ideal monastery was built1 now known as ,ei-hei-ji4,,fn#gh ,,fn#gg ,it was in this monastery 7built in #abcf7 that ,zen was first taught as an independent sect1 and that the ,meditation ,hall was first opened in ,japan4 ,do-gen lived in the monastery for eleven years1 and wrote some of the important books4 ,za-zen-gi 7',the ,method of ,practising the ,cross-legged ,meditation'7 was written soon after his return from ,china1 and ,ben-do-wa and other essays followed1 which are included in his great work1 entitled ,sho-bo-gen-zo7 7',the ,eye and ,treasury of the ,right ,law'74 ,,fn#gh ,the monastery was built in #abdd by ,yoshi-shige 7,hatano71 the feudal lord who invited ,do-gen4 ,he lived in ,ei-hei-ji until his death1 which took place in #abec4 ,it is still flourishing as the head temple of the ,so ,to ,sect4 ,in #abdg1 being requested by ,toki-yori1 the ,regent ,general 7#abdg-abfc71 he came down to ,kama-kura1 where he stayed half a year and went back to ,ei-hei-ji4 ,after some time ,toki-yori1 to show his gratitude for the master1 drew up a certificate granting a large tract of land as the property of ,ei-hei-ji1 and handed it over to ,gen-myo1 a disciple of ,do-gen4 ,the carrier of the certificate was so pleased with the donation that he displayed it to all his brethren and produced it before the master1 who severely reproached him saying3 ,o1 shame on thee1 wretch6 ,thou art -defiled by the desire of worldly riches even to thy inmost soul1 just as noodle is stained with oil4 ,thou canst not be purified from it to all eternity4 ,i am afraid thou wilt bring shame on the ,right ,law4 ,on the spot ,gen-myo was deprived of his holy robe and excommunicated4 ,furthermore1 the master ordered the 'polluted' seat in the ,meditation ,hall1 where ,gen-myo was wont to sit1 to be removed1 and the 'polluted' earth under the seat to be dug out to the depth of seven feet4 ,in #abej the ex-,emperor ,go-sa-ga 7#abdc-abdf7 sent a special messenger twice to the ,ei-hei monastery to do honour to the master with the donation of a purple robe1 but he declined to accept it4 ,and when the mark of distinction was offered for the third time1 he accepted it1 expressing his feelings by the following verses3 ,although in ,ei-hei's vale the shallow waters leap1 ,yet thrice it came1 ,imperial favour deep4 ,the ,ape may smile and laugh the ,crane ,at aged ,monk in purple as insane4 ,he was never seen putting on the purple robe1 being always clad in black1 that was better suited to his secluded life4 #d4 ,the ,social ,state of ,japan when ,zen was established by ,ei-sai and ,do-gen4 ,now we have to observe the condition of the country when ,zen was introduced into ,japan by ,ei-sai and ,do-gen4 ,nobilities that had so long governed the island were nobilities no more4 ,enervated by their luxuries1 effeminated by their ease1 made insipient by their debauchery1 they were entirely powerless4 ,all that they possessed in reality was the nominal rank and hereditary birth4 ,on the contrary1 despised as the ignorant1 sneered at as the upstart1 put in contempt as the vulgar1 the ,samurai or military class had everything in their hands4 ,it was the time when ,yori-tomo,,fn#gi 7#aadh-aaii7 conquered all over the empire1 and established the ,samurai ,government at ,kama-kura4 ,it was the time when even the emperors were dethroned or exiled at will by the ,samurai4 ,it was the time when even the ,buddhist monks,,fn#hj frequently took up arms to force their will4 ,it was the time when ,japan's independence was endangered by ,kublai1 the terror of the world4 ,it was the time when the whole nation was full of martial spirit4 ,it is beyond doubt that to these rising ,samurais1 rude and simple1 the philosophical doctrines of ,buddhism1 represented by ,ten ,dai and ,shin ,gon1 were too complicated and too alien to their nature4 ,but in ,zen they could find something congenial to their nature1 something that touched their chord of sympathy1 because ,zen was the doctrine of chivalry in a certain sense4 ,,fn#gi ,the ,samurai ,government was first established by ,yoritomo1 of the ,minamoto family1 in #aahf1 and ,japan was under the control of the military class until #ahfg1 when the political power was finally restored to the ,imperial house4 ,,fn#hj ,they were degenerated monks 7who were called monk-soldiers71 belonging to great monasteries such as ,en-ryaku-ji 7,hi-yei71 ,ko-fuku-ji 7at ,nara71 ,mi-i-dera1 etc4 #e4 ,the ,resemblance of the ,zen ,monk to the ,samurai4 ,let us point out in brief the similarities between ,zen and ,japanese chivalry4 ,first1 both the ,samurai and the ,zen monk have to undergo a strict discipline and endure privation without complaint4 ,even such a prominent teacher as ,ei-sai1 for example1 lived contentedly in such needy circumstances that on one occasion,,fn#ha he and his disciples had nothing to eat for several days4 ,fortunately1 they were requested by a believer to recite the ,scriptures1 and presented with two rolls of silk4 ,the hungry young monks1 whose mouths watered already at the expectation of a long-looked-for dinner1 were disappointed when that silk was given to a poor man1 who called on ,ei-sai to obtain some help4 ,fast continued for a whole week1 when another poor follow came in and asked ,ei-sai to give something4 ,at this time1 having nothing to show his substantial mark of sympathy towards the poor1 ,ei-sai tore off the gilt glory of the image of ,buddha ,bhecajya and gave it4 ,the young monks1 bitten both by hunger and by anger at this outrageous act to the object of worship1 questioned ,ei-sai by way of reproach3 ,is it1 sir1 right for us ,buddhists to demolish the image of a ,buddha8 ,well1 replied ,ei-sai promptly1 ,buddha would give even his own life for the sake of suffering people4 ,how could he be reluctant to give his halo8 ,this anecdote clearly shows us self-sacrifice is of first importance in the ,zen discipline4 ,,fn#ha ,the incident is told by ,do-gen in his ,zui-mon-ki4 #f4 ,the ,honest ,poverty of the ,zen ,monk and the ,samurai4 ,secondly1 the so-called honest poverty is a characteristic of both the ,zen monk and the ,samurai4 ,to get rich by an ignoble means is against the rules of ,japanese chivalry or ,bushido4 ,the ,samurai would rather starve than to live by some expedient unworthy of his dignity4 ,there are many instances1 in the ,japanese history1 of ,samurais who were really starved to death in spite of their having a hundred pieces of gold carefully preserved to meet the expenses at the time of an emergency2 hence the proverb3 ,the falcon would not feed on the ear of corn1 even if he should starve4 ,similarly1 we know of no case of ,zen monks1 ancient and modern1 who got rich by any ignoble means4 ,they would rather face poverty with gladness of heart4 ,fu-gai1 one of the most distinguished ,zen masters just before the ,restoration1 supported many student monks in his monastery4 ,they were often too numerous to be supported by his scant means4 ,this troubled his disciple much whose duty it was to look after the food-supply1 as there was no other means to meet the increased demand than to supply with worse stuff4 ,accordingly1 one day the disciple advised ,fu-gai not to admit new students any more into the monastery4 ,then the master1 making no reply1 lolled out his tongue and said3 ,now look into my mouth1 and tell if there be any tongue in it4 ,the perplexed disciple answered affirmatively4 ,then don't bother yourself about it4 ,if there be any tongue1 ,i can taste any sort of food4 ,honest poverty may1 without exaggeration1 be called one of the characteristics of the ,samurais and of the ,zen monks2 hence a proverb3 ,the ,zen monk has no money1 moneyed ,monto,,fn#hb knows nothing4 ,,fn#hb ,the priest belonging to ,shin ,shu1 who are generally rich4 #g4 ,the ,manliness of the ,zen ,monk and of the ,samurai4 ,thirdly1 both the ,zen monk and the ,samurai were distinguished by their manliness and dignity in manner1 sometimes amounting to rudeness4 ,this is due partly to the hard discipline that they underwent1 and partly to the mode of instruction4 ,the following story1,,fn#hc translated by ,mr4 ,d4 ,suzuki1 a friend of mine1 may well exemplify our statement3 ,,fn#hc ,the ,journal of the ,pali ,text ,society1 #aijf-aijg4 ,when ,rin-zai,,fn#hd was assiduously applying himself to ,zen discipline under ,obak 7,huang ,po in ,chinese1 who died #hej71 the head monk recognized his genius4 ,one day the monk asked him how long he had been in the monastery1 to which ,rin-zai replied3 ',three years4' ,the elder said3 ',have you ever approached the master and asked his instruction in ,buddhism8' ,rin-zai said3 ',i have never done this1 for ,i did not know what to ask4' ',why1 you might go to the master and ask him what is the essence of ,buddhism8' ,,fn#hd ,lin ,tsi1 the founder of the ,lin ,tsi school4 ,rin-zai1 according to this advice1 approached ,obak and repeated the question1 but before he finished the master gave him a slap4 ,when ,rin-zai came back1 the elder asked how the interview went4 ,said ,rin-zai3 ',before ,i could finish my question the master slapped me1 but ,i fail to grasp its meaning4' ,the elder said3 ',you go to him again and ask the same question4' ,when he did so1 he received the same response from the master4 ,but ,rin-zai was urged again to try it for the third time1 but the outcome did not improve4 ,at last he went to the elder1 and said ',in obedience to your kind suggestion1 ,i have repeated my question three times1 and been slapped three times4 ,i deeply regret that1 owing to my stupidity1 ,i am unable to comprehend the hidden meaning of all this4 ,i shall leave this place and go somewhere else4' ,said the elder3 ',if you wish to depart1 do not fail to go and see the master to say him farewell4' ,immediately after this the elder saw the master1 and said3 ',that young novice1 who asked about ,buddhism three times1 is a remarkable fellow4 ,when he comes to take leave of you1 be so gracious as to direct him properly4 ,after a hard training1 he will prove to be a great master1 and1 like a huge tree1 he will give a refreshing shelter to the world4' ,when ,rin-zai came to see the master1 the latter advised him not to go anywhere else1 but to ,dai-gu 7,tai-yu7 of ,kaoan1 for he would be able to instruct him in the faith4 ,rin-zai went to ,dai-gu1 who asked him whence he came4 ,being informed that he was from ,obak1 ,dai-gu further inquired what instruction he had under the master4 ,rin-zai answered3 ',i asked him three times about the essence of ,buddhism1 and he slapped me three times4 ,but ,i am yet unable to see whether ,i had any fault or not4' ,dai-gu said3 ',obak was tender-hearted even as a dotard1 and you are not warranted at all to come over here and ask me whether anything was faulty with you4' ,being thus reprimanded1 the signification of the whole affair suddenly dawned upon the mind of ,rin-zai1 and he exclaimed3 ',there is not much1 after all1 in the ,buddhism of ,obak4' ,whereupon ,dai-gu took hold of him1 and said3 ',this ghostly good-for-nothing creature6 ,a few minutes ago you came to me and complainingly asked what was wrong with you1 and now boldly declare that there is not much in the ,buddhism of ,obak4 ,what is the reason of all this8 ,speak out quick6 speak out quick6' ,in response to this1 ,rin-zai softly struck three times his fist at the ribs of ,dai-gu4 ,the latter then released him1 saying3 ',your teacher is ,obak1 and ,i will have nothing to do with you4' ,rin-zai took leave of ,dai-gu and came back to ,obak1 who1 on seeing him come1 exclaimed3 ',foolish fellow6 what does it avail you to come and go all the time like this8' ,rin-zai said3 ',it is all due to your doting kindness4' ,when1 after the usual salutation1 ,rin-zai stood by the side of ,obak1 the latter asked him whence he had come this time4 ,rin-zai answered3 ,in obedience to your kind instruction1 ,i was with ,dai-gu4 ,thence am ,i come4' ,and he related1 being asked for further information1 all that had happened there4 ,obak said3 ',as soon as that fellow shows himself up here1 ,i shall have to give him a good thrashing4' ',you need not wait for him to come2 have it right this moment1' was the reply2 and with this ,rin-zai gave his master a slap on the back4 ,obak said3 ',how dares this lunatic come into my presence and play with a tiger's whiskers8' ,rin-zai then burst out into a ,ho1,,fn#he and ,obak said3 ',attendant1 come and carry this lunatic away to his cell4' ,,fn#he ,a loud outcry1 frequently made use of by ,zen teachers1 after ,rin-zai4 ,its ,chinese pronunciation is ',hoh1' and pronounced ',katsu' in ,japanese1 but 'tsu' is not audible4 #h4 ,the ,courage and the ,composure of ,mind of the ,zen ,monk and of the ,samurai4 ,fourthly1 our ,samurai encountered death1 as is well known1 with unflinching courage4 ,he would never turn back from1 but fight till his last with his enemy4 ,to be called a coward was for him the dishonour worse than death itself4 ,an incident about ,tsu ,yuen 7,so-gen71 who came over to ,japan in #abhj1 being invited by ,toki-mune,,fn#hf 7,ho-jo71 the ,regent ,general1 well illustrates how much ,zen monks resembled our ,samurais4 ,the event happened when he was in ,china1 where the invading army of ,yuen spread terror all over the country4 ,some of the barbarians1 who crossed the border of the ,state of ,wan1 broke into the monastery of ,tsu ,yuen1 and threatened to behead him4 ,then calmly sitting down1 ready to meet his fate1 he composed the following verses ,the heaven and earth afford me no shelter at all2 ,i'm glad1 unreal are body and soul4 ,welcome thy weapon1 ,o warrior of ,yuen6 ,thy trusty steel1 ,that flashes lightning1 cuts the wind of ,spring1 ,i feel4 ,,fn#hf ,a bold statesman and soldier1 who was the real ruler of ,japan #abfd-abhc4 ,this reminds us of ,sang ,chao,,fn#hg 7,so-jo71 who1 on the verge of death by the vagabond's sword1 expressed his feelings in the follow lines3 ,in body there exists no soul4 ,the mind is not real at all4 ,now try on me thy flashing steel1 ,as if it cuts the wind of ,spring1 ,i feel4 ,,fn#hg ,the man was not a pure ,zen master1 being a disciple of ,kumarajiva1 the founder of the ,san ,ron ,sect4 ,this is a most remarkable evidence that ,zen1 especially the ,rin ,zan school1 was influenced by ,kumarajiva and his disciples4 ,for the details of the anecdote1 see ,e-gen4 ,the barbarians1 moved by this calm resolution and dignified air of ,tsu ,yuen1 rightly supposed him to be no ordinary personage1 and left the monastery1 doing no harm to him4 #i4 ,zen and the ,regent ,generals of the ,ho-,jo ,period4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the representatives of the ,samurai class1 the ,regent ,generals1 especially such able rulers as ,toki-yori1 ,toki-mune1 and others noted for their good administration1 of the ,ho-jo period 7#abje-accb7 greatly favoured ,zen4 ,they not only patronized the faith1 building great temples,,fn#hh and inviting best ,chinese ,zen teachers,,fn#hi but also lived just as ,zen monks1 having the head shaven1 wearing a holy robe1 and practising cross-legged ,meditation4 ,,fn#hh ,to-fuku-ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name1 was built in #abdc4 ,ken-cho-ji1 the head temple of a subsect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name1 was built in #abec4 ,en-gaku ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name1 was built in #abhb4 ,nan-zen-ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name1 was erected in #acbf4 ,,fn#hi ,tao ,lung 7,do-ryu71 known as ,dai-kaku ,zen-ji1 invited by ,tokiyori1 came over to ,japan in #abdf4 ,he became the founder of ,ken-cho-ji-ha1 a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai1 and died in #abgh4 ,of his disciples1 ,yaku-o was most noted1 and ,yaku-o's disciple1 ,jaku-shitsu1 became the founder of ,yo-genji-ha1 another sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai4 ,tsu ,yuen 7,so-gen71 known as ,buk-ko-koku-shi1 invited by ,toki-mune1 crossed the sea in #abhj1 became the founder of ,en-gaku-ji-ha 7a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai71 and died in #abhf4 ,tsing ,choh 7,sei-setsu71 invited by ,taka-toki1 came in #acbg1 and died in #acci4 ,chu ,tsun 7,so-shun7 came in #acca1 and died in #accf4 ,fan ,sien 7,bon-sen7 came together with ,chu ,tsun1 and died in #acdh4 ,these were the prominent ,chinese teachers of that time4 ,toki-yori 7#abdg-abfc71 for instance1 who entered the monastic life while be was still the real governor of the country1 led as simple a life1 as is shown in his verse1 which ran as follows3 ,higher than its bank the rivulet flows2 ,greener than moss tiny grass grows4 ,no one call at my humble cottage on the rock1 ,but the gate by itself opens to the ,wind's knock4 ,toki-yori attained to ,enlightenment by the instruction of ,do-gen and ,do-ryu1 and breathed his last calmly sitting cross-legged1 and expressing his feelings in the following lines3 ,thirty-seven of years1 ,karma mirror stood high2 ,now ,i break it to pieces1 ,path of ,great is then nigh4 ,his successor1 ,toki-mune 7#abfd-abhc71 a bold statesman and soldier1 was no less of a devoted believer in ,zen4 ,twice he beheaded the envoys sent by the great ,chinese conqueror1 ,kublai1 who demanded ,japan should either surrender or be trodden under his foot4 ,and when the alarming news of the ,chinese ,armada's approaching the land reached him1 be is said to have called on his tutor1 ,tsu ,yuen1 to receive the last instruction4 ,now1 reverend sir1 said4 he1 an imminent peril threatens the land4 ,how art thou going to encounter it8 asked the master4 ,then ,toki-mune burst into a thundering ,ka with all his might to show his undaunted spirit in encountering the approaching enemy4 ,o1 the lion's roar6 said ,tsu ,yuen4 ,thou art a genuine lion4 ,go1 and never turn back4 ,thus encouraged by the teacher1 the ,regent ,general sent out the defending army1 and successfully rescued the state from the mouth of destruction1 gaining a splendid victory over the invaders1 almost all of whom perished in the western seas4 #aj4 ,zen after the ,downfall of the ,ho-,jo ,regency4 ,towards the end of the ,ho-,jo period1,,fn#ij and after the downfall of the ,regency in #accc1 sanguinary battles were fought between the ,imperialists and the rebels4 ,the former1 brave and faithful as they were1 being outnumbered by the latter1 perished in the field one after another for the sake of the ill-starred ,emperor ,go-dai-go 7#acai-acch71 whose eventful life ended in anxiety and despair4 ,,fn#ij ,although ,zen was first favoured by the ,ho-jo ,regency and chiefly prospered at ,kama-kura1 yet it rapidly began to exercise its influence on nobles and ,emperors at ,kyo-to4 ,this is mainly due to the activity of ,en-ni1 known as ,sho-,ichi-,koku-,shi 7#abjb-abhj71 who first earned ,zen under ,gyo-yu1 a disciple of ,ei-sai1 and afterwards went to ,china1 where he was ,enlightened under the instruction of ,wu ,chun1 of the monastery of ,king ,shan4 ,after his return1 ,michi-iye 7,fuji-wara71 a powerful nobleman1 erected for him ,to-fuku-ji in #abdc1 and he became the founder of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai1 named after that monastery4 ,the ,emperor ,go-saga 7#abdc-abdf71 an admirer of his1 received the ,moral ,precepts from him4 ,one of his disciples1 ,to-zan1 became the spiritual adviser of the ,emperor ,fushi-mi 7#abhh-abih71 and another disciple1 ,mu kwan1 was created the abbot of the monastery of ,nan-zen-ji by the ,emperor ,kame-yama 7#abfj-abgd71 as the founder of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name4 ,another teacher who gained lasting influence on the ,court is ,nan-po1 known as ,dai-,o-,koku-,shi 7#abce-acjh71 who was appointed the abbot of the monastery of ,man-ju-ji in ,kyo to by the ,emperor ,fushi-mi4 ,one of his disciples1 ,tsu-o1 was the spiritual adviser to both the ,emperor ,hana-zono 7#acjh-acah7 and the ,emperor ,go-dai-go4 ,and another disciple1 ,myo-cho1 known as ,dai-,to-,koku-,shi 7#abhb-accg71 also was admired by the two ,emperors1 and created the abbot of ,dai-toku-ji1 as the founder of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name4 ,it was for ,myo-cho's disciple1 ,kan-zan 7#abgg #acfj71 that the ,emperor ,hana-zono turned his detached palace into a monastery1 named ,myo-shin-ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name4 ,it was at this time that ,japan gave birth to ,masa-shige 7,kusu-noki71 an able general and tactician of the ,imperialists1 who for the sake of the ,emperor not only sacrificed himself and his brother1 but by his will his son and his son's successor died for the same cause1 boldly attacking the enemy whose number was overwhelmingly great4 ,masa-shige's loyalty1 wisdom1 bravery1 and prudence are not merely unique in the history of ,japan1 but perhaps in the history of man4 ,the tragic tale about his parting with his beloved son1 and his bravery shown at his last battle1 never fail to inspire the ,japanese with heroism4 ,he is the best specimen of the ,samurai class4 ,according to an old document1,,fn#ia this ,masa-shige was the practiser of ,zen1 and just before his last battle he called on ,chu ,tsun 7,so-shun7 to receive the final instruction4 ,what have ,i to do when death takes the place of life8 asked ,masa-shige4 ,the teacher replied3 ,be bold1 at once cut off both ties1 ,the drawn sword gleams against the skies4 ,thus becoming1 as it were1 an indispensable discipline for the ,samurai1 ,zen never came to an end with the ,ho-jo period1 but grew more prosperous than before during the reign,,fn#ib of the ,emperor ,go-dai-go1 one of the most enthusiastic patrons of the faith4 ,,fn#ia ,the event is detailed at length in a life of ,so-shun1 but some historians suspect it to be fictitious4 ,this awaits a further research4 ,,fn#ib ,as we have already mentioned1 ,do-gen1 the founder of the ,japanese ,so ,to ,sect1 shunned the society of the rich and the powerful1 and led a secluded life4 ,in consequence his sect did not make any rapid progress until the ,fourth ,patriarch of his line1 ,kei-zan 7#abfh-acbe7 who1 being of energetic spirit1 spread his faith with remarkable activity1 building many large monasteries1 of which ,yo-ko-ji1 in the province of ,no-to1 ,so-ji-ji 7near ,yokohama71 one of the head temples of the sect1 are well known4 ,one of his disciples1 ,mei ho 7#abgg-acej71 propagated the faith in the northern provinces2 while another disciple1 ,ga-san 7#abge-acfe71 being a greater character1 brought up more than thirty distinguished disciples1 of whom ,tai-gen1 ,tsu-gen1 ,mu-tan1 ,dai-tetsu1 and ,jip-po1 are best known4 ,tai-gen 7died #acgj7 and big successors propagated the faith over the middle provinces1 while ,tsu-gen 7#accb-acia7 and his successors spread the sect all over the north-eastern and south-western provinces4 ,thus it is worthy of our notice that most of the ,rin ,zai teachers confined their activities within ,kamakura and ,kyo-to1 while the ,so ,to masters spread the faith all over the country4 ,the ,shoguns of the ,ashi-kaga period 7#acch-aegc7 were not less devoted to the faith than the ,emperors who succeeded the ,emperor ,go-dai-go4 ,and even ,taka-uji 7#acch-aceg71 the notorious founder of the ,shogunate1 built a monastery and invited ,so-seki1,,fn#ic better known as ,mu-,so-,koku-,shi1 who was respected as the tutor by the three successive ,emperors after ,go-dai-go4 ,taka-uji's example was followed by all succeeding ,shoguns1 and ,shogun's example was followed by the feudal lords and their vassals4 ,this resulted in the propagation of ,zen throughout the country4 ,we can easily imagine how ,zen was prosperous in these days from the splendid monasteries,,fn#id built at this period1 such as the ,golden ,hall ,temple and the ,silver ,hall ,temple that still adorn the fair city of ,kyo-to4 ,,fn#ic ,so-seki 7#abgf-acea7 was perhaps the greatest ,zen master of the period4 ,of numerous monasteries built for him1 ,e-rin-ji1 in the province of ,kae1 and ,ten-ryu-ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name1 are of importance4 ,out of over seventy eminent disciples of his1 ,gi-do 7#acfe-achh71 the author of ,ku-ge-shu2 ,shun-oku 7#acca-acch71 the founder of the monastery of ,so-koku-ji1 the head temple of a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai under the same name2 and ,zek-kai 7#accg-adje71 author of ,sho-ken-shu1 are best known4 ,,fn#id ,myo-shin-ji was built in #accg by the ,emperor ,hana-zono2 ,ten-ryu-ji was erected by ,taka-uji1 the first ,shogun of the period1 in #acdd2 ,so-koku-ji by ,yosh-imitsu1 the third ,shogun1 in #ache2 ,kin-,kaku-ji1 or ,golden ,hall ,temple1 by the same ,shogun1 in #acig2 ,gin-kaku-ji1 or ,silver ,hall ,temple1 by ,yoshi-masa1 the eighth ,shogun1 in #adhj4 #aa4 ,zen in the ,dark ,age4 ,the latter half of the ,ashikaga period was the age of arms and bloodshed4 ,every day the sun shone on the glittering armour of marching soldiers4 ,every wind sighed over the lifeless remains of the brave4 ,everywhere the din of battle resounded4 ,out of these fighting feudal lords stood two champions4 ,each of them distinguished himself as a veteran soldier and tactician4 ,each of them was known as an experienced practiser of ,zen4 ,one was ,haru-nobu,,fn#ie 7,take-da1 died in #aegc71 better known by his ,buddhist name1 ,shin-gen4 ,the other was ,teru-tora,,fn#if 7,uye-sugi1 died in #aegh71 better known by his ,buddhist name1 ,ken-shin4 ,the character of ,shin-gen can be imagined from the fact that he never built any castle or citadel or fortress to guard himself against his enemy1 but relied on his faithful vassals and people2 while that of ,ken-shin1 from the fact that he provided his enemy1 ,shin-gen1 with salt when the latter suffered from want of it1 owing to the cowardly stratagem of a rival lord4 ,the heroic battles waged by these two great generals against each other are the flowers of the ,japanese war-history4 ,tradition has it that when ,shin-gen's army was put to rout by the furious attacks of ,ken-shin's troops1 and a single warrior mounted on a huge charger rode swiftly as a sweeping wind into ,shin-gen's head-quarters1 down came a blow of the heavy sword aimed at ,shin-gen's forehead1 with a question expressed in the technical terms of ,zen3 ,what shalt thou do in such a state at such a moment8 ,having no time to draw his sword1 ,shin-gen parried it with his war-fan1 answering simultaneously in ,zen words3 ,a flake of snow on the red-hot furnace6 ,had not his attendants come to the rescue ,shin-gen's life might have gone as 'a flake of snow on the red-hot furnace4' ,afterwards the horseman was known to have been ,ken-shin himself4 ,this tradition shows us how ,zen was practically lived by the ,samurais of the ,dark ,age4 ,,fn#ie ,shin-gen practised ,zen under the instruction of ,kwai-sen1 who was burned to death by ,nobu-naga 7,o-da7 in #aehb4 ,see ,hon-cho-ko-so-den4 ,,fn#if ,ken-shin learned ,zen under ,shu-ken1 a ,so ,ta master4 ,see ,to-jo-ren-to-roku4 ,although the priests of other ,buddhist sects had their share in these bloody affairs1 as was natural at such a time1 yet ,zen monks stood aloof and simply cultivated their literature4 ,consequently1 when all the people grew entirely ignorant at the end of the ,dark ,age1 the ,zen monks were the only men of letters4 ,none can deny this merit of their having preserved learning and prepared for its revival in the following period4,,fn#ig ,,fn#ig ,after the introduction of ,zen into ,japan many important books were written1 and the following are chief doctrinal works3 ,ko-zen-go-koku-ron1 by ,ei-sai2 ,sho bo-gen-zo2 ,gaku-do-yo-zin-shu2 ,fu-kwan-za-zen-gi2 ,ei-hei-ko-roku1 by ,do-gen2 ,za-zen-yo-zin-ki2 and ,den-ko-roku1 by ,kei-zan4 #ab4 ,zen under the ,toku-gana ,shogunate4 ,peace was at last restored by ,iye-yasu1 the founder of the ,toku-gana ,shogunate 7#afjc-ahfg74 ,during this period the ,shogunate gave countenance to ,buddhism on one hand1 acknowledging it as the state religion1 bestowing rich property to large monasteries1 making priests take rank over common people1 ordering every householder to build a ,buddhist altar in his house2 while1 on the other hand1 it did everything to extirpate ,christianity1 introduced in the previous period 7#aedd74 ,all this paralyzed the missionary spirit of the ,buddhists1 and put all the sects in dormant state4 ,as for ,zen,,fn#ih it was still favoured by feudal lords and their vassals1 and almost all provincial lords embraced the faith4 ,,fn#ih ,the ,so ,to ,sect was not wanting in competent teachers1 for it might take pride in its ,ten-kei 7#afdh-afii71 whose religious insight was unsurpassed by any other master of the age2 in its ,shi getsu1 who was a commentator of various ,zen books1 and died #agfd2 in its ,men-zan 7#afhc-agfi71 whose indefatigable works on the exposition of ,so ,to ,zen are invaluable indeed2 and its ,getsu-shu 7#afah-afif7 and ,man-zan 7#afce-agad71 to whose labours the reformation of the faith is ascribed4 ,similarly1 the ,rin ,zai ,sect1 in its ,gu-do 7#aegi-affa72 in its ,isshi 7#afjh-afdf72 in its ,taku-an 7#aegc-afde71 the favourite tutor of the third ,shogun1 ,iye-mitsu2 in its ,haku-in 7#affg-agea71 the greatest of the ,rin ,zai masters of the day1 to whose extraordinary personality and labour the revival of the sect is due2 and its ,to-rei 7#agba-agib71 a learned disciple of ,haku-in4 ,of the important ,zen books written by these masters1 ,ro-ji-tan-kin1 by ,ten-kei2 ,men-zan-ko-roku1 by ,men-zan2 ,ya-sen-kwan-wa1 ,soku-ko-roku1 ,kwai-an-koku-go1 ,kei-so-doku-zui1 by ,haku-in2 ,shu-mon-mu-jin-to-ron1 by ,to-rei1 are well known4 ,it was about the middle of this period that the forty-seven vassals of ,ako displayed the spirit of the ,samurai by their perseverance1 self-sacrifice1 and loyalty1 taking vengeance on the enemy of their deceased lord4 ,the leader of these men1 the tragic tales of whom can never be told or heard without tears1 was ,yoshi-o 7,o-ishi died #agjb71 a believer of ,zen1,,fn#ii and his tomb in the cemetery of the temple of ,sen-gaku-ji1 ,tokyo1 is daily visited by hundreds of his admirers4 ,most of the professional swordsmen forming a class in these days practised ,zen4 ,mune-nori,,fn#ajj7,ya-gyu71 for instance1 established his reputation by the combination of ,zen and the fencing art4 ,,fn#ii ,see ,zen ,shu1 ,no4 #aea4 ,,fn#ajj ,he is known as ,ta-jima1 who practised ,zen under ,taku-an4 ,the following story about ,boku-den 7,tsuka-hara71 a great swordsman1 fully illustrates this tendency3 ,on a certain occasion ,boku-den took a ferry to cross over the ,yabase in the province of ,omi4 ,there was among the passengers a ,samurai1 tall and square-shouldered1 apparently an experienced fencer4 ,he behaved rudely toward the fellow-passengers1 and talked so much of his own dexterity in the art that ,boku-den1 provoked by his brag1 broke silence4 ',you seem1 my friend1 to practise the art in order to conquer the enemy1 but ,i do it in order not to be conquered1' said ,boku-den4 ',o monk1' demanded the man1 as ,boku-den was clad like a ,zen monk1 'what school of swordsmanship do you belong to8' ,well1 mine is the ,conquering-enemy-without-fighting-schoo l4' ',don't tell a fib1 old monk4 ,if you could conquer the enemy without fighting1 what then is your sword for8' ',my sword is not to kill1 but to save1' said ,boku-den1 making use of ,zen phrases2 'my art is transmitted from mind to mind4' ',now then1 come1 monk1' challenged the man1 'let us see1 right at this moment1 who is the victor1 you or ,i4' ,the gauntlet was picked up without hesitation4 ',but we must not fight1' said ,boku-den1 'in the ferry1 lest the passengers should be hurt4 ,yonder a small island you see4 ,there we shall decide the contest4' ,to this proposal the man agreed1 and the boat was pulled to that island4 ,no sooner had the boat reached the shore than the man jumped over to the land1 and cried3 ',come on1 monk1 quick1 quick6' ,boku-den1 however1 slowly rising1 said3 ',do not hasten to lose your head4 ,it is a rule of my school to prepare slowly for fighting1 keeping the soul in the abdomen4' ,so saying he snatched the oar from the boatman and rowed the boat back to some distance1 leaving the man alone1 who1 stamping the ground madly1 cried out3 ',o1 you fly1 monk1 you coward4 ,come1 old monk6' ',now listen1' said ,boku-den1 'this is the secret art of the ,conquering-enemy-without-fighting-schoo l4 ,beware that you do not forget it1 nor tell it to anybody else4' ,thus1 getting rid of the brawling fellow1 ,boku-den and his fellow-passengers safely landed on the opposite shore4,,fn#aja ,the ,o ,baku ,school of ,zen was introduced by ,yin ,yuen 7,in-gen7 who crossed the sea in #afed1 accompanied by many able disciples4,,fn#ajb ,the ,shogunate gave him a tract of land at ,uji1 near ,kyo-to1 and in #afei he built there a monastery noted for its ,chinese style of architecture1 now known as ,o-baku-san4 ,the teachers of the same school,,fn#ajc came one after another from ,china1 and ,zen,,fn#ajd peculiar to them1 flourished a short while4 ,,fn#aja ,shi-seki-shu-ran4 ,,fn#ajb ,in-gen 7#afed-afgc7 came over with ,ta-,mei 7,dai-bi1 died #afgc71 ,hwui ,lin 7,e-rin died #afha71 ,tuh ,chan 7,doku-tan1 died #agjf71 and others4 ,for the life of ,in-gen3 see ,zoku-ko-shu-den and ,kaku-shu-ko-yo4 ,,fn#ajc ,tsih ,fei 7,soku-hi died #afga71 ,muh ,ngan 7,moku-an died #afhd71 ,kao ,tsuen 7,ko-sen died #afie71 the author of ,fu-so-zen-rin-so-bo-den1 ,to-koku-ko-so-den1 and ,sen-un-shu1 are best known4 ,,fn#ajd ,this is a sub-sect of the ,rin ,zai ,school1 as shown in the following table3 ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,transmission ,,of ,,zen ,,from ,,china ,,to ,,japan4 #a4 ,bodhidharma4 #b4 ,hwui ,ko 7,e-ka74 #c4 ,san ,tsang 7,so-san74 #d4 ,tao ,sin 7,do-shin74 #e4 ,hung ,jan 7,ko nin74 ---,,the ,,northern ,,sect #f4 ,shang ,siu 7,jin-shu74 ---,,the ,,southern ,,sect #f4 ,hwui ,nang 7,e-no74 ---,,the ,,rin ,,zai ,,school4 #g4 ,nan ,yoh 7,nan-gaku74 ---#aj4 ,gi-ku4 ---#aa4 ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-zai74 ---#ba4 ,yuen ,wu 7,en-go74 ---#bb4 ,fuh ,hai 7,bukkai74 ---#bh4 ,kaku-a4 ---,,the ,o ,,baku ,,school4 #db4 ,in-gen4 ---#be4 ,hti ,ngan 7,kyo-an74 ---#bf4 ,ei-sai4 ---,,the ,,so ,,to ,,school4 #g4 ,tsing ,yuen 7,sei-gen74 ---#h4 ,shih ,teu 7,seki-to74 ---#aa4 ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan74 ---#bc4 ,ju ,tsing 7,nyo-jo74 ---#bd4 ,do-gen4 ,the ,o ,baku ,school is the amalgamation of ,zen and the worship of ,amitabha1 and different from the other two schools4 ,the statistics for #aiaa give the following figures3 ,the ,number of ,temples3 ,the ,so ,to ,school #ad1bee ,the ,rin ,zai ,school #f1abh ,the ,o ,baku ,school #edf ,the ,number of ,teachers3 ,the ,so ,to ,school #i1egf ,the ,rin ,zai ,school #d1ebc ,the ,o ,baku ,school #cdi ,it was also in this period that ,zen gained a great influence on the popular literature characterized by the shortest form of poetical composition4 ,this was done through the genius of ,ba-sho1,,fn#aje a great literary man1 recluse and traveller1 who1 as his writings show us1 made no small progress in the study of ,zen4 ,again1 it was made use of by the teachers of popular,,fn#ajf ethics1 who did a great deal in the education of the lower classes4 ,in this way ,zen and its peculiar taste gradually found its way into the arts of peace1 such as literature1 fine art1 tea-ceremony1 cookery1 gardening1 architecture1 and at last it has permeated through every fibre of ,japanese life4 ,,fn#aje ,he 7died #afid7 learned ,zen under a contemporary ,zen master 7,buccho71 and is said to have been enlightened before his reformation of the popular literature4 ,,fn#ajf ,the teaching was called ,shin-gaku1 or the 'learning of mind4' ,it was first taught by ,bai-gan 7,ishi-da71 and is the reconciliation of ,shintoism and ,buddhism with ,confucianism4 ,bai-gan and his successors practised ,meditation1 and were enlightened in their own way4 ,do-ni 7,naka-zawa1 died #ahjc7 made use of ,zen more than any other teacher4 #ac4 ,zen after the ,restoration4 ,after the ,restoration of the ,mei-ji 7#ahfg7 the popularity of ,zen began to wane1 and for some thirty years remained in inactivity2 but since the ,russo-,japanese ,war its revival has taken place4 ,and now it is looked upon as an ideal faith1 both for a nation full of hope and energy1 and for a person who has to fight his own way in the strife of life4 ,bushido1 or the code of chivalry1 should be observed not only by the soldier in the battle-field1 but by every citizen in the struggle for existence4 ,if a person be a person and not a beast1 then he must be a ,samurai-brave1 generous1 upright1 faithful1 and manly1 full of self-respect and self-confidence1 at the same time full of the spirit of self-sacrifice4 ,we can find an incarnation of ,bushido in the late ,general ,nogi1 the hero of ,port ,arthur1 who1 after the sacrifice of his two sons for the country in the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 gave up his own and his wife's life for the sake of the deceased ,emperor4 ,he died not in vain1 as some might think1 because his simplicity1 uprightness1 loyalty1 bravery1 self-control1 and self-sacrifice1 all combined in his last act1 surely inspire the rising generation with the spirit of the ,samurai to give birth to hundreds of ,nogis4 ,now let us see in the following chapters what ,zen so closely connected with ,bushido teaches us4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,universe ,,is ,,the ,,scripture,,fn#ajg ,,of ,,zen #a4 ,scripture is no ,more than ,waste ,paper4 ,,fn#ajg ,zen is not based on any particular sutra1 either of ,mahayana or of ,hinayana4 ,there are twofold ,tripitakas 7or the three collections of the ,buddhist scriptures7-namely1 the ,mahayana-tripitaka and the ,hinayana-tripitaka4 ,the former are the basis of the ,mahayana1 or the higher and reformed ,buddhism1 full of profound metaphysical reasonings2 while the latter form that of the ,hinayana1 or the lower and early ,buddhism1 which is simple and ethical teaching4 ,these twofold ,tripitakas are as follows3 ,,the ,,mahayana-,,tripitaka4 ,the ,sutra ,pitaka4-,the ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra1 ,samdhi-nirmocana-sutra1 ,avatamsaka-sutra1 ,prajnyaparamita-sutra1 ,amitayus-sutra1 ,mahaparinirvana-sutra1 etc4 ,the ,vinaya ,pitaka4--,brahmajala-sutra1 ,bodhisattva-caryanirdeca1 etc4 ,the ,abhidharma ,pitaka4--,mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra1 ,mahayana-craddhotpada-castra1 ,madhyamaka-castra1 ,yogacarya bhumi-castra1 etc4 ,,the ,,hinayana-,,tripitaka4 ,the ,sutra ,pitaka4--,dirghagama1 ,ekottaragama1 ,madhyamagama1 ,samyuktagama1 etc4 ,the ,vinaya ,pitaka4--,dharmagupta-vinaya1 ,mahasamghika-vinaya1 ,sarvastivada-vinaya1 etc4 ,the ,abhidharma ,pitaka4--,dharma-skandha-pada1 ,samgiti-paryaya-pada1 ,jnyanaprasthana-castra1 ,abhidharma-kosa-castra1 etc4 ,the term ',tripitaka1' however1 was not known at the time of ,shakya ,muni1 and almost all of the northern ,buddhist records agree in stating that the ,tripitaka was rehearsed and settled in the same year in which the ,muni died4 ,mahavansa also says3 ,the book called ,abhidharma-pitaka was compiled1 which was preached to god1 and was arranged in due order by #ejj ,budhu priests4 ,but we believe that ,shakya ,muni's teaching was known to the early ,buddhists1 not as ,tripitaka1 but as ,vinaya and ,dharma1 and even at the time of ,king ,acoka 7who ascended the throne about #bfi ,b4,c47 it was not called ,tripitaka1 but ,dharma1 as we have it in his ,edicts4 ,mahayanists unanimously assert the compilation of the ,tripitaka in the first council of ,rajagrha1 but they differ in opinion as to the question who rehearsed the ,abhidharma2 notwithstanding1 they agree as for the other respects1 as you see in the following3 ,the ,sutra ,pitaka1 compiled by ,ananda2 the ,vinaya ,pitaka1 compiled by ,upali2 the ,abhidharma ,pitaka1 compiled by ,ananda--according to ,nagarjuna 7,mahaprajnyaparamita-castra74 ,the ,sutra ,pitaka1 compiled by ,ananda2 the ,vinaya ,pitaka1 compiled by ,upali2 the ,abhidharma ,pitaka1 compiled by ,kacyapa according to ,huen ,tsang 7,ta-tan-si-yu-ki74 ,the ,sutra ,pitaka1 compiled by ,ananda2 the ,vinaya ,pitaka1 compiled by ,upali2 the ,abhidharma ,pitaka1 compiled by ,purna--according to ,paramartha 7',a ,commentary on the ,history of the ,hinayana ,schools'74 ,the above-mentioned discrepancy clearly betrays the uncertainty of their assertions1 and gives us reason to discredit the compilation of ,abhidharma ,pitaka at the first council4 ,besides1 judging from the ,dharma-gupta-vinaya and other records1 which states that ,purna took no part in the first council1 and that he had different opinions as to the application of the rules of discipline from that of ,kacyapa1 there should be some errors in ,paramartha's assertion4 ,of these three collections of the ,sacred ,writings1 the first two1 or ,sutra and ,vinaya1 of ,mahayana1 as well as of ,himayana1 are believed to be the direct teachings of ,shakya ,muni himself1 because all the instructions are put in the mouth of the ,master or sanctioned by him4 ,the ,mahayanists1 however1 compare the ,hinayana doctrine with a resting-place on the road for a traveller1 while the ,mahayana doctrine with his destination4 ,all the denominations of ,buddhism1 with a single exception of ,zen1 are based on the authority of some particular sacred writings4 ,the ,ten ,dai ,sect1 for instance1 is based on ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra2 the ,jo ,do ,sect on ,larger ,sukhavati-vyuha1 ,smaller ,sukhavati-vyuha1 and ,amitayus-dhyana-sutra2 the ,ke ,gon ,sect on ,avatamsaka-sutra2 the ,hosso ,sect on ,samdhi-nirmocana-sutra4 ,zen is based on the highest spiritual plane attained by ,shakya ,muni himself4 ,it can only be realized by one who has attained the same plane4 ,to describe it in full by means of words is beyond the power even of ,gotama himself4 ,it is for this reason that the author of ,lankavatara-sutra insists that ,shakya ,muni spoke no word through his long career of forty-nine years as a religious teacher1 and that of ,mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra,,fn#ajh also express the same opinion4 ,the ,scripture is no more nor less than the finger pointing to the moon of ,buddhahood4 ,when we recognize the moon and enjoy its benign beauty1 the finger is of no use4 ,as the finger has no brightness whatever1 so the ,scripture has no holiness whatever4 ,the ,scripture is religious currency representing spiritual wealth4 ,it does not matter whether money be gold1 or sea-shells1 or cows4 ,it is a mere substitute4 ,what it stands for is of paramount importance4 ,away with your stone-knife6 ,do not watch the stake against which a running hare once struck its head and died4 ,do not wait for another hare4 ,another may not come for ever4 ,do not cut the side of the boat out of which you dropped your sword to mark where it sunk4 ,the boat is ever moving on4 ,the ,canon is the window through which we observe the grand scenery of spiritual nature4 ,to hold communion directly with it we must get out of the window4 ,it is a mere stray fly that is always buzzing within it1 struggling to get out4 ,those who spend most of their lives in the study of the ,scriptures1 arguing and explaining with hair-splitting reasonings1 and attain no higher plane in spirituality1 are religious flies good for nothing but their buzzing about the nonsensical technicalities4 ,it is on this account that ,rin-zai declared3,,fn#aji ',the twelve divisions of the ,buddhist ,canon are nothing better than waste paper4' ,,fn#ajh ,mahaprajnyaparamita-sutra1 vol4 #dbe4 ,,fn#aji ,rin-zai-roku4 #b4 ,no ,need of the ,scriptural ,authority for ,zen4 ,some ,occidental scholars erroneously identify ,buddhism with the primitive faith of ,hinayanism1 and are inclined to call ,mahayanism1 a later developed faith1 a degenerated one4 ,if the primitive faith be called the genuine1 as these scholars think1 and the later developed faith be the degenerated one1 then the child should be called the genuine man and the grown-up people be the degenerated ones2 similarly1 the primitive society must be the genuine and the modern civilization be the degenerated one4 ,so also the earliest writings of the ,old ,testament should be genuine and the four ,gospels be degenerated4 ,beyond all doubt ,zen belongs to ,mahayanism1 yet this does not imply that it depends on the scriptural authority of that school1 because it does not trouble itself about the ,canon whether it be ,hinayana or ,mahayana1 or whether it was directly spoken by ,shakya ,muni or written by some later ,buddhists4 ,zen is completely free from the fetters of old dogmas1 dead creeds1 and conventions of stereotyped past1 that check the development of a religious faith and prevent the discovery of a new truth4 ,zen needs no ,inquisition4 ,it never compelled nor will compel the compromise of a ,galileo or a ,descartes4 ,no excommunication of a ,spinoza or the burning of a ,bruno is possible for ,zen4 ,on a certain occasion ,yoh ,shan 7,yaku-san7 did not preach the doctrine for a long while1 and was requested to give a sermon by his assistant teacher1 saying3 ,would your reverence preach the ,dharma to your pupils1 who long thirst after your merciful instruction8 ,then ring the bell1 replied ,yoh ,shan4 ,the bell rang1 and all the monks assembled in the ,hall eager to bear the sermon4 ,yoh ,shan went up to the pulpit and descended immediately without saying a word4 ,you1 reverend sir1 asked the assistant1 promised to deliver a sermon a little while ago4 ,why do you not preach8 ,sutras are taught by the ,sutra teachers1 said the master2 ,castras are taught by the ,castra teachers4 ,no wonder that ,i say nothing4,,fn#aaj ,this little episode will show you that ,zen is no fixed doctrine embodied in a ,sutra or a ,castra1 but a conviction or realization within us4 ,,fn#aaj ,zen-rin-rui-shu and ,e-gen4 ,to quote another example1 an officer offered to ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan7 plenty of alms1 and requested him to recite the sacred ,canon4 ,tung ,shan1 rising from his chair1 made a bow respectfully to the officer1 who did the same to the teacher4 ,then ,tung ,shan went round the chair1 taking the officer with him1 and making a bow again to the officer1 asked3 ,do you see what ,i mean8 ,no1 sir1 replied the other4 ,i have been reciting the sacred ,canon1 why do you not see8,,fn#aaa ,thus ,zen does not regard ,scriptures in black and white as its ,canon1 for it takes to-days and tomorrows of this actual life as its inspired pages4 ,,fn#aaa ,zen-rin-rui-sha and ,to-zan-roku4 #c4 ,the ,usual ,explanation of the ,canon4 ,an eminent ,chinese ,buddhist scholar1 well known as ,ten ,dai ,dai ,shi 7,a4,d4 #ech-eig71 arranged the whole preachings of ,shakya ,muni in a chronological order in accordance with his own religious theory1 and observed that there were the ,five ,periods in the career of the ,buddha as a religious teacher4 ,he tried to explain away all the discrepancies and contradictions1 with which the ,sacred ,books are encumbered1 by arranging the ,sutras in a line of development4 ,his elucidation was so minute and clear1 and his metaphysical reasonings so acute and captivating1 that his opinion was universally accepted as an historical truth1 not merely by the ,chinese1 but also by the ,japanese ,mahayanists4 ,we shall briefly state here the so-called ,five ,periods4 ,shakya ,muni attained to ,buddhaship in his thirtieth year1 and sat motionless for seven days under the ,bodhi tree1 absorbed in deep meditation1 enjoying the first bliss of his ,enlightenment4 ,in the second week he preached his ,dharma to the innumerable multitude of ,bodhisattvas1,,fn#aab celestial beings1 and deities in the nine assemblies held at seven different places4 ,this is the origin of a famous ,mahayana book entitled ,buddhavatamsaka-mahavaipulya-sutra4 ,in this book the ,buddha set forth his profound ,law just as it was discovered by his highly ,enlightened mind1 without considering the mental states of his hearers4 ,consequently the ordinary hearers 7or the ,buddha's immediate disciples7 could not understand the doctrine1 and sat stupefied as if they were 'deaf and dumb1' while the great ,bodhisattvas fully understood and realized the doctrine4 ,this is called the first period1 which lasted only two or three,,fn#aac weeks4 ,,fn#aab ,bodhisattva is an imaginary personage1 or ideal saint1 superior to ,arhat1 or the highest saint of ,hinayanism4 ,the term ',bodhisattva' was first applied to the ,buddha before his ,enlightenment1 and afterwards was adopted by ,mahayanists to mean the adherent of ,mahayanism in contradistinction with the ,cravaka or hearers of ,hinayanism4 ,,fn#aac ,bodhiruci says to the effect that the preachings in the first five assemblies were made in the first week1 and the rest were delivered in the second week4 ,nagarjuna says that the ,buddha spoke no word for fifty-seven days after his ,enlightenment4 ,it is said in ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra that after three weeks the ,buddha preached at ,varanasi1 and it says nothing respecting ,avatamsaka-sutra4 ,though there are divers opinions about the ,buddha's first sermon and its date1 all traditions agree in this that he spent some time in meditation1 and then delivered the first sermon to the five ascetics at ,varanasi4 ,thereupon ,shakya ,muni1 having discovered that ordinary bearers were too ignorant to believe in the ,mahayana doctrine and appreciate the greatness of ,buddhahood1 thought it necessary to modify his teaching so as to adjust it to the capacity of ordinary people4 ,so he went to ,varanasi 7or ,benares7 and preached his modified doctrine--that is1 ,hinayanism4 ,the instruction given at that time has been handed down to us as the four ,agamas1,,fn#aad or the four ,nikayas4 ,this is called the second period1 which lasted about twelve years4 ,it was at the beginning of this period that the ,buddha converted the five ascetics1,,fn#aae who became his disciples4 ,most of the ravakas or the adherents of ,hinayanism were converted during this period4 ,they trained their hearts in accordance with the modified ,law1 learned the four noble truths1,,fn#aaf and worked out their own salvation4 ,,fn#aad 7#a7 ,anguttara1 7#b7 ,majjhima1 7#c7 ,digha1 7#d7 ,samyutta4 ,,fn#aae ,kondanynya1 ,vappa1 ,baddiya1 ,mahanana1 ,assaji4 ,,fn#aaf ,the first is the sacred truth of suffering2 the second the truth of the origin of suffering--that is1 lust and desire2 the third the sacred truth of the extinction of suffering2 the fourth the sacred truth of the path that leads to the extinction of suffering4 ,there are eight noble paths that lead to the extinction of suffering--that is1 ,right faith1 ,right resolve1 ,right speech1 ,right action1 ,right living1 ,right effort1 ,right thought1 and ,right meditation4 ,the ,buddha then having found his disciples firmly adhering to ,hinayanism without knowing that it was a modified and imperfect doctrine1 he had to lead them up to a higher and perfect doctrine that he might lead them up to ,buddhahood4 ,with this object in view ,shakya ,muni preached ,vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra,,fn#aag1 ,lankavatara-sutra1 and other sutras1 in which he compared ,hinayanism with ,mahayanism1 and described the latter in glowing terms as a deep and perfect ,law1 whilst he set forth the former at naught as a superficial and imperfect one4 ,thus he showed his disciples the inferiority of ,hinayanism1 and caused them to desire for ,mahayanism4 ,this is said to be the third period1 which lasted some eight years4 ,,fn#aag ,this is one of the most noted ,mahayana books1 and is said to be the best specimen of the sutras belonging to this period4 ,it is in this sutra that most of ,shakya's eminent disciples1 known as the adherents of ,hinayanism1 are astonished with the profound wisdom1 the eloquent speech1 and the supernatural power of ,vimalakirtti1 a ,bodhisattva1 and confess the inferiority of their faith4 ,the author frequently introduces episodes in order to condemn ,hinayanism1 making use of miracles of his own invention4 ,the disciples of the ,buddha now understood that ,mahayanism was far superior to ,hinayanism1 but they thought the higher doctrine was only for ,bodhisattvas and beyond their understanding4 ,therefore they still adhered to the modified doctrine1 though they did no longer decry ,mahayanism1 which they had no mind to practise4 ,upon this ,shakya ,muni preached ,prajnyaparamita-sutras,,fn#aah in the sixteen assemblies held at four different places1 and taught them ,mahayanism in detail in order to cause them to believe it and practise it4 ,thus they became aware that there was no definite demarcation between ,mahayanism and ,hinayanism1 and that they might become ,mahayanists4 ,this is the fourth period1 which lasted about twenty-two years4 ,now1 the ,buddha1 aged seventy-two1 thought it was high time to preach his long-cherished doctrine that all sentient beings can attain to ,supreme ,enlightenment2 so he preached ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra1 in which he prophesied when and where his disciples should become ,buddhas4 ,it was his greatest object to cause all sentient beings to be ,enlightened and enable them to enjoy the bliss of ,nirvana4 ,it was for this that he had endured great pain and hardships through his previous existences4 ,it was for this that he had left his heavenly abode to appear on earth4 ,it was for this that he had preached from time to time through his long career of forty-seven years4 ,having thus realized his great aim1 ,shakya ,muni had now to prepare for his final departure1 and preached ,mahaparinirvana-sutra in order to show that all the animated and inanimate things were endowed with the same nature as his4 ,after this last instruction he passed to eternity4 ,this is called the fifth period1 which lasted some eight years4 ,,fn#aah ,nagarjuna's doctrine depends mainly on these sutras4 ,these five periods above mentioned can scarcely be called historical in the proper sense of the term1 yet they are ingeniously invented by ,ten ,dai ,dai ,shi to set the ,buddhist ,scriptures in the order of doctrinal development1 and place ,saddharma-pundarika in the highest rank among the ,mahayana books4 ,his argument1 however dogmatic and anti-historical in no small degree1 would be not a little valuable for our reader1 who wants to know the general phase of the ,buddhist ,canon1 consisting of thousands of fascicles4 #d4 ,sutras used by ,zen ,masters4 ,ten ,dai failed to explain away the discrepancies and contradictions of which the ,canon is full1 and often contradicted himself by the ignoring of historical,,fn#aai facts4 ,,fn#aai ,let us state our own opinion on the subject in question4 ,the foundation of ,hinayanism consists in the four ,nikayas1 or four ,agamas1 the most important books of that school4 ,besides the four ,agamas1 there exist in the ,chinese ,tripitaka numerous books translated by various authors1 some of which are extracts from ,agamas1 and some the lives of the ,buddha1 while others are entirely different sutras1 apparently of later date4 ,judging from these sources1 it seems to us that most of ,shakya ,muni's original teachings are embodied into the four ,agamas4 ,but it is still a matter of uncertainty that whether they are stated in ,agamas now extant just as they were1 for the ,buddha's preachings were rehearsed immediately after the ,buddha's death in the first council held at ,rajagrha1 yet not consigned to writing4 ,they were handed down by memory about one hundred years4 ,then the monks at ,vaisali committed the so-called ,ten ,indulgences1 infringing the rules of the ,order1 and maintained that ,shakya ,muni had not condemned them in his preachings4 ,as there were1 however1 no written sutras to disprove their assertion1 the elders1 such as ,yaca1 ,revata1 and others1 who opposed the ,indulgences1 had to convoke the second council of #gjj monks1 in which they succeeded in getting the ,indulgences condemned1 and rehearsed the ,buddha's instruction for the second time4 ,even in this council of ,vaisali we cannot find the fact that the ,master's preachings were reduced to writing4 ,the decisions of the #gjj elders were not accepted by the party of opposition1 who held a separate council1 and settled their own rules and doctrine4 ,thus the same doctrine of the ,teacher began to be differently stated and believed4 ,this being the first open schism1 one disruption after another took place among the ,buddhistic ,order4 ,there were many different schools of the ,buddhists at the time when ,king ,acoka ascended the throne 7about #bfi ,b4,c471 and the patronage of the ,king drew a great number of pagan ascetics into the ,order1 who1 though they dressed themselves in the yellow robes1 yet still preserved their religious views in their original colour4 ,this naturally led the ,church into continual disturbances and moral corruption4 ,in the eighteenth year of ,acoka's reign the ,king summoned the council of #a1jjj monks at ,pataliputra 7,patna71 and settled the orthodox doctrine in order to keep the ,dharma pure from heretical beliefs4 ,we believe that about this time some of the ,buddha's preachings were reduced to writing1 for the missionaries despatched by the ,king in the year following the council seem to have set out with written sutras4 ,in addition to this1 some of the names of the passages of the ,dharma are given in the ,bharbra edict of the ,king1 which was addressed to the monks in ,magadha4 ,we do not suppose1 however1 that all the sutras were written at once in these days1 but that they were copied down from memory one after another at different times1 because some of the sutras were put down in ,ceylon #afj years after the ,council of ,patna4 ,in the introductory book of ,ekottaragama 7,anguttara ,nikaya71 now extant in the ,chinese ,tripitaka1 we notice the following points3 7#a7 ,it is written in a style quite different from that of the original ,agama1 but similar to that of the supplementary books of the ,mahayana sutras2 7#b7 it states ,ananda's compilation of the ,tripitaka after the death of the ,master2 7#c7 it refers to the past ,buddhas1 the future ,buddha ,maitreya1 and innumerable ,bodhisattvas2 7#d7 it praises the profound doctrine of ,mahayanism4 ,from this we infer that the ,agama was put in the present form after the rise of the ,mahayana ,school1 and handed down through the hand of ,mahasanghika scholars1 who were much in sympathy with ,mahayanism4 ,again1 the first book of ,dirghagama1 7,digha ,nikaya71 that describes the line of ,buddhas who appeared before ,shakya ,muni1 adopts the whole legend of ,gotama's life as a common mode of all ,buddhas appearing on earth2 while the second book narrates the death of ,gotama and the distribution of his relies1 and refers to ,pataliputra1 the new capital of ,acoka4 ,this shows us that the present ,agama is not of an earlier date than the third century ,b4,c4 ,samyuktagama 7,samyutta ,nikaya7 also gives a detailed account of ,acoka's conversion1 and of his father ,bindusara4 ,from these evidences we may safely infer that the ,hinayana sutras were put in the present shape at different times between the third century ,b4,c4 and the first century ,a4,d4 ,with regard to the ,mahayana sutras we have little doubt about their being the writings of the later ,buddhist reformers1 even if they are put in the mouth of ,shakya ,muni4 ,they are entirely different from the sutras of ,hinayanism1 and cannot be taken as the preachings of one and the same person4 ,the reader should notice the following points3 7#a7 ,four councils were held for the rehearsal of the ,tripitaka namely1 the first at ,rajagrha1 in the year of ,shakya ,muni's death2 the second at ,vaisali1 some #ajj years after the ,buddha2 the third at the time of ,king ,acoka1 about #bce years after the ,master2 the fourth at the time of ,king ,kanishka1 the first century ,a4,d4 ,but all these councils were held to compile the ,hinayana sutras1 and nothing is known of the rehearsal of the ,mahayana books4 ,some are of opinion that the first council was held within the ,sattapanni cave1 near ,rajagrha1 where the ,hinayana ,tripitaka was rehearsed by #ejj monks1 while outside the cave there assembled a greater number of monks1 who were not admitted into the cave1 and rehearsed the ,mahayana ,tripitaka4 ,this opinion1 however1 is based on no reliable source4 7#b7 ,the ,indian orthodox ,buddhists of old declared that the ,mahayana sutras were the fabrication of heretics or of the ,evil ,one1 and not the teachings of the ,buddha4 ,in reply to this1 the ,mahayanists had to prove that the ,mahayana sutras were compiled by the direct disciples of the ,master2 but even ,nagarjuna could not vindicate the compilation of the doubtful books1 and said 7in ,mahaprajnyaparamita-castra7 that they were compiled by ,ananda and ,manjucri1 with myriads of ,bodhisattvas at the outside of the ,iron ,mountain ,range1 which encloses the earth4 ,asanga also proved 7in ,mahayanalankara-sutra-castra7 with little success that ,mahayanism was the ,buddha's direct teachings4 ,some may quote ,bodhisattva-garbhastha-sutra in favour of the ,mahayana2 but it is of no avail1 as the sutra itself is the work of a later date4 7#c7 ,although almost all of the ,mahayana sutras1 excepting ,avatamsaka-sutra1 treat of ,hinayanism as the imperfect doctrine taught in the first part of the ,master's career1 yet not merely the whole life of ,gotama1 but also events which occurred after his death are narrated in the ,hinayana sutras4 ,this shows that the ,mahayana sutras were composed after the establishment of early ,buddhism4 7#d7 ,the narratives given in the ,hinayana sutras in reference to ,shakya ,muni seem to be based on historical facts1 but those in the ,mahayana books are full of wonders and extravagant miracles far from facts4 7#e7 ,the ,hinayana sutras retain the traces of their having been classified and compiled as we see in ,ekottaragama1 while ,mahayana books appear to have been composed one after another by different authors at different times1 because each of them strives to excel others1 declaring itself to be the sutra of the highest doctrine1 as we see in ,saddharma-pundarika1 ,samdhinirmocana1 ,suvarnaprabhasottamaraja1 etc4 7#f7 ,the dialogues in the ,hinayana sutras are in general those between the ,buddha and his disciples1 while in the ,mahayana books imaginary beings called ,bodhisattvas take the place of disciples4 ,moreover1 in some books no monks are mentioned4 7#g7 ,most of the ,mahayana sutras declare that they themselves possess those mystic powers that protect the reader or the owner from such evils as epidemic1 famine1 war1 etc42 but the ,hinayana sutras are pure from such beliefs4 7#h7 ,the ,mahayana sutras extol not only the merits of the reading1 but the copying of the sutras4 ,this unfailingly shows the fact that they were not handed down by memory1 as the ,hinayana sutras1 but written by their respective authors4 7#i7 ,the ,hinayana sutras were written with a plain style in ,pali1 while the ,mahayana books1 with brilliant phraseology1 in ,sanskrit4 7#aj7 ,the ,buddha in the ,hinayana sutras is little more than a human being1 while ,buddha or ,tathagata in the ,mahayana is a superhuman being or ,great ,deity4 7#aa7 ,the moral precepts of the ,hinayana were laid down by the ,master every time when his disciples acted indecently1 while those of the ,mahayana books were spoken all at once by ,tathagata4 7#ab7 ,some ,mahayana sutras appear to be the exaggeration or modification of what was stated in the ,hinayana books1 as we see in ,mahaparinirvana-sutra4 7#ac7 ,if we take both the ,hinayana and the ,mahayana as spoken by one and the same person1 we cannot understand why there are so many contradictory statements1 as we see in the following3 7a7 ,historical ,contradictions4--,for instance1 ,hinayana sutras are held to be the first sermon of the ,buddha by the author of ,saddharma-pundarika1 while ,avatamsaka declares itself to be the first sermon4 ,nagarjuna holds that ,prajnya sutras are the first4 7b7 ,contradictions as to the ,person of the ,master4--,for instance1 ,agamas say the ,buddha's body was marked with thirty-two peculiarities1 while the ,mahayana books enumerate ninety-seven peculiarities1 or even innumerable marks4 7c7 ,doctrinal ,contradictions4--,for instance1 the ,hinayana sutras put forth the pessimistic1 nihilistic view of life1 while the ,mahayana books1 as a rule1 express the optimistic1 idealistic view4 7#ad7 ,the ,hinayana sutras say nothing of the ,mahayana books1 while the latter always compare their doctrine with that of the former1 and speak of it in contempt4 ,it is clear that the name ',hinayana' was coined by the ,mahayanists1 as there is no sutra which calls itself ',hinayana4' ,it is therefore evident that when the ,hinayana books took the present shape there appeared no ,mahayana sutras4 7#ae7 ,the authors of the ,mahayana sutras should have expected the opposition of the ,hinayanists1 because they say not seldom that there might be some who would not believe in and oppose ,mahayanism as not being the ,buddha's teaching1 but that of the ,evil ,one4 ,they say also that one who would venture to say the ,mahayana books are fictitious should fall into ,hell4 ,for example1 the author of ,mahaparinirvana-sutra says3 ,wicked ,bhiksus would say all ,vaipulya ,mahayana sutras are not spoken by the ,buddha1 but by the ,evil ,one4 7#af7 ,there are evidences showing that the ,mahayana doctrine was developed out of the ,hinayana one4 7a7 ,the ,mahayanists' grand conception of ,tathagata is the natural development of that of those progressive ,hinayanists who belonged to the ,mahasamghika ,school1 which was formed some one hundred years after the ,master4 ,these ,hinayanists maintained that the ,buddha had infinite power1 endless life1 and limitlessly great body4 ,the author of ,mahaparinirvana-sutra also says that ,buddha is immortal1 his ,dharma-kaya is infinite and eternal4 ,the authors of ,mahayana-mulagata-hrdayabhumi-dhyana-su tra and of ,suvarnaprabha-sottamaraja-sutra enumerate the ,three ,bodies of ,buddha1 while the writer of ,lankavatara-sutra describes the ,four ,bodies1 and that of ,avatamsaka-sutra the ,ten ,bodies of ,tathagata4 7b7 ,according to the ,hinayana sutras1 there are only four stages of saintship1 but the ,mahasamghika ,school increases the number and gives ten steps4 ,some ,mahayana sutras also enumerate the ten stages of ,bodhisattva1 while others give forty-one or fifty two stages4 7c7 ,the ,himayana sutras name six past ,buddhas and one future ,buddha ,maitreya1 while the ,mahayana sutras name thirty-five1 fifty-three1 or three thousand ,buddhas4 7d7 ,the ,hinayana sutras give the names of six ,vijnyanas1 while the ,mahayana books seven1 eight1 or nine ,vijnyanas4 7#ag7 ,for a few centuries after the ,buddha we hear only of ,hinayanism1 but not of ,mahayanism1 there being no ,mahayana teacher4 7#ah7 ,in some ,mahayana sutras 7,mahavairocanabhisambodhi-sutra1 for example7 ,tathagata ,vairocana takes the place of ,gotama1 and nothing is said of the latter4 7#ai7 ,the contents of the ,mahayana sutras often prove that they were1 composed1 or rewritten1 or some additions were made1 long after the ,buddha4 ,for instance1 ,mahamaya-sutra says that ,acvaghosa would refute heretical doctrines #fjj years after the ,master1 and ,nagarjuna would advocate the ,dharma #gjj years after ,gotama1 while ,lankavatara-sutra prophesies that ,nagarjuna would appear in ,south ,india4 7#bj7 ,the author of ,san-ron-gen-gi tells us ,mahadeva1 a leader of the ,mahasamghika ,school1 used ,mahayana sutras1 together with the orthodox ,tripitaka #aaf after the ,buddha4 ,it is1 however1 doubtful that they existed at so early a date4 7#ba7 ,mahaprajnyaparamita-castra1 ascribed to ,nagarjuna1 refers to many ,mahayana books1 which include ,saddharma-pundarika1 ,vimalakirtti-nirdeca1 ,sukhavati-vyuha1 ,mahaprajnyaparamita1 ,pratyutpanna-buddhasammukhavasthita-sam adhi1 etc4 ,he quotes in his ,dacabhumivibhasa-castra1 ,mahaparinirvana1 ,dacabhumi1 etc4 7#bb7 ,sthiramati1 whose date is said to be earlier than ,nagarjuna and later than ,acvaghosa1 tries to prove that ,mahayanism was directly taught by the ,master in his ,mahayanavataraka-castra4 ,and ,mahayanottaratantra-castra1 which is ascribed by some scholars to him1 refers to ,avatamsaka1 ,vajracchedikka-prajnyaparamita1 ,saddharmapundarika1 ,crimala-devi-simhananda1 etc4 7#bc7 ,chi-leu-cia-chin1 who came to ,china in ,a4,d4 #adg or ,a4,d4 #afd1 translated some part of ,mahayana books known as ,maharatnakuta-sutra and ,mahavaipulya-mahasannipata-sutra4 7#bd7 ,an-shi-kao1 who came to ,china in ,a4,d4 #adh1 translated such ,mahayana books as ,sukhavati-vyaha1 ,candra-dipa-samadhi1 etc4 7#be7 ,matanga1 who came to ,china in ,a4,d4 #fg1 is said by his biographer to have been informed of both ,mahayanism and ,hinayanism to have given interpretations to a noted ,mahayana book1 entitled ,suvarnaprabhasa4 7#bf7 ,sandhinirmocana-sutra is supposed to be a work of ,asanga not without reason1 because ,asanga's doctrine is identical with that of the sutra1 and the sutra itself is contained in the latter part of ,yogacaryabhumi-castra4 ,the author divides the whole preachings of the ,master into the three periods that he might place the ,idealistic doctrine in the highest rank of the ,mahayana schools4 7#bg7 ,we have every reason to believe that ,mahayana sutras began to appear 7perhaps ,prajnya sutras being the first7 early in the first century ,a4,d41 that most of the important books appeared before ,nagarjuna1 and that some of ,mantra sutras were composed so late as the time of ,vajrabodhi1 who came to ,china in ,a4,d4 #gai4 ,to say nothing of the strong opposition raised by the ,japanese scholars1,,fn#abj such an assumption can be met with an assumption of entirely opposite nature1 and the difficulties can never be overcome4 ,for ,zen masters1 therefore1 these assumptions and reasonings are mere quibbles unworthy of their attention4 ,,fn#abj ,the foremost of them was ,chuki ,tominaga 7#agdd71 of whose life little is known4 ,he is said to have been a nameless merchant at ,osaka4 ,his ,shutsu-jo-ko-go is the first great work of higher criticism on the ,buddhist ,scriptures4 ,to believe blindly in the ,scriptures is one thing1 and to be pious is another4 ,how often the childish views of ,creation and of ,god in the ,scriptures concealed the light of scientific truths2 how often the blind believers of them fettered the progress of civilization2 how often religious men prevented us from the realizing of a new truth1 simply because it is against the ancient folk-lore in the ,bible4 ,nothing is more absurd than the constant dread in which religious men1 declaring to worship ,god in truth and in spirit1 are kept at the scientific discovery of new facts incompatible with the folk-lore4 ,nothing is more irreligious than to persecute the seekers of truth in order to keep up absurdities and superstitions of bygone ages4 ,nothing is more inhuman than the commission of 'devout cruelty' under the mask of love of ,god and man4 ,is it not the misfortune1 not only of ,christianity1 but of whole mankind1 to have the ,bible encumbered with legendary histories1 stories of miracles1 and a crude cosmology1 which from time to time come in conflict with science8 ,the ,buddhist ,scriptures are also overloaded with ,indian superstitions and a crude cosmology1 which pass under the name of ,buddhism4 ,accordingly1 ,buddhist scholars have confused not seldom the doctrine of the ,buddha with these absurdities1 and thought it impious to abandon them4 ,kaiseki1,,fn#aba for instance1 was at a loss to distinguish ,buddhism from the ,indian astronomy1 which is utterly untenable in the face of the fact4 ,he taxed his reason to the utmost to demonstrate the ,indian theory and at the same time to refute the ,copernican theory4 ,one day he called on ,yeki-do,,fn#abb a contemporary ,zen master1 and explained the construction of the ,three ,worlds as described in the ,scriptures1 saying that ,buddhism would come to naught if the theory of the ,three ,worlds be overthrown by the ,copernican4 ,then ,yeki-do exclaimed3 ,buddhism aims to destroy the ,three ,worlds and to establish ,buddha's ,holy ,kingdom throughout the universe4 ,why do you waste your energy in the construction of the ,three ,worlds8,,fn#abc ,,fn#aba ,a learned ,japanese ,buddhist scholar1 who died in #ahhb4 ,,fn#abb ,a famous ,zen master1 the abbot of the ,so-ji-ji ,monastery1 who died in #ahgi4 ,,fn#abc ,kin-sei-zen-rin-gen-ko-roku4 ,in this way ,zen does not trouble itself about unessentials of the ,scriptures1 on which it never depends for its authority4 ,do-gen1 the founder of the ,japanese ,so ,to ,sect1 severely condemns 7in his ,sho-bo-gen-zo7 the notions of the impurity of women inculcated in the ,scriptures4 ,he openly attacks those ,chinese monks who swore that they would not see any woman1 and ridicules those who laid down rules prohibiting women from getting access to monasteries4 ,a ,zen master was asked by a ,samurai whether there was hell in sooth as taught in the ,scriptures4 ,i must ask you1 replied he1 before ,i give you an answer4 ,for what purpose is your question8 ,what business have you1 a ,samurai1 with a thing of that sort8 ,why do you bother yourself about such an idle question8 ,surely you neglect your duty and are engaged in such a fruitless research4 ,does this not amount to your stealing the annual salary from your lord8 ,the ,samurai1 offended not a little with these rebukes1 stared at the master1 ready to draw his sword at another insult4 ,then the teacher said smilingly3 ,now you are in ,hell4 ,don't you see8 ,does1 then1 ,zen use no scripture8 ,to this question we answer both affirmatively and negatively3 negatively1 because ,zen regards all sutras as a sort of pictured food which has no power of appeasing spiritual hunger2 affirmatively1 because it freely makes use of them irrespective of ,mahayana or ,hinayana4 ,zen would not make a bonfire of the ,scriptures as ,caliph ,omar did of the ,alexandrian library4 ,a ,zen master1 having seen a ,confucianist burning his books on the thought that they were rather a hindrance to his spiritual growth1 observed3 ,you had better burn your books in mind and heart1 but not the books in black and white4,,fn#abd ,,fn#abd ,ukiyo-soshi4 ,as even deadly poison proves to be medicine in the band of a good doctor1 so a heterodox doctrine antagonistic to ,buddhism is used by the ,zen teachers as a finger pointing to the principle of ,zen4 ,but they as a rule resorted to ,lankavatara-sutra1,,fn#abe ,vajracchedika-prajnya-paramita-sutra1,, fn#abf ,vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra,,fn#abg ,mahavaipulya-purnabuddha-sutra,,fn#abh ,mababuddhosnisa-tathagata-guhyahetu-sak satkrta-prasannatha-sarvabhodhi sattvacarya-surangama-sutra1,,fn#abi ,mahapari-nirvana-sutra1,,fn#acj ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra1 ,avatamsaka-sutra1 and so forth4 ,,fn#abe ,this book is the nearest approach to the doctrine of ,zen1 and is said to have been pointed out by ,bodhidharma as the best book for the use of his followers4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #age1 #agfa #agg4 ,,fn#abf ,the author of the sutra insists on the unreality of all things4 ,the book was first used by the ,fifth ,patriarch1 as we have seen in the first chapter4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae4 ,,fn#abg ,the sutra agrees with ,zen in many respects1 especially in its maintaining that the highest truth can only be realized in mind1 and cannot be expressed by word of mouth4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #add1 #ade1 #adf1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi4 ,,fn#abh ,the sutra was translated into ,chinese by ,buddhatrata in the seventh century4 ,the author treats at length of ,samadhi1 and sets forth a doctrine similar to ,zen1 so that the text was used by many ,chinese ,zenists4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #dbg and #afbi4 ,,fn#abi ,the sutra was translated into ,chinese by ,paramiti and ,mikacakya1 of the ,tang dynasty 7#fah-ijg74 ,the author conceives ,reality as ,mind or ,spirit4 ,the book belongs to the ,mantra class1 although it is much used by ,zenists4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,no4 #ddf4 ,,fn#acj ,the author of the book sets forth his own conception of ,nirvana and of ,buddha1 and maintains that all beings are endowed with ,buddha-nature4 ,he also gives in detail an incredible account about ,gotama's death4 #e4 ,a ,sutra ,equal in ,size to the ,whole ,world4 ,the holy writ that ,zen masters admire is not one of parchment nor of palm-leaves1 nor in black and white1 but one written in heart and mind4 ,on one occasion a ,king of ,eastern ,india invited the venerable ,prajnyatara1 the teacher of ,bodhidharma1 and his disciples to dinner at his own palace4 ,finding all the monks reciting the sacred sutras with the single exception of the master1 the ,king questioned ,prajnyatara3 ,why do you not1 reverend sir1 recite the ,scriptures as others do8 ,my poor self1 your majesty1 replied he1 does not go out to the objects of sense in my expiration nor is it confined within body and mind in my inspiration4 ,thus ,i constantly recite hundreds1 thousands1 and millions of sacred sutras4 ,in like manner the ,emperor ,wu1 of the ,liang dynasty1 once requested ,chwen ,hih 7,fu ,dai-shi7 to give a lecture on the ,scriptures4 ,chwen went upon the platform1 struck the desk with a block of wood1 and came down4 ,pao ,chi 7,ho-shi71 a ,buddhist tutor to the ,emperor1 asked the perplexed monarch3 ,does your ,lordship understand him8 ,no1 answered ,his ,majesty4 ,the lecture of the ,great ,teacher is over4 ,as it is clear to you from these examples1 ,zen holds that the faith must be based not on the dead ,scriptures1 but on living facts1 that one must turn over not the gilt pages of the holy writ1 but read between the lines in the holy pages of daily life1 that ,buddha must be prayed not by word of mouth1 but by actual deed and work1 and that one must split open1 as the author of ,avatamsaka-sutra allegorically tells us1 the smallest grain of dirt to find therein a sutra equal in size to the whole world4 ,the so-called sutra1 says ,do-gen1 covers the whole universe4 ,it transcends time and space4 ,it is written with the characters of heaven1 of man1 of beasts1 of ,asuras1,,fn#acl of hundreds of grass1 and of thousands of trees4 ,there are characters1 some long1 some short1 some round1 some square1 some blue1 some red1 some yellow1 and some white-in short1 all the phenomena in the universe are the characters with which the sutra is written4 ,shakya ,muni read that sutra through the bright star illuminating the broad expanse of the morning skies1 when he sat in meditation under the ,bodhi ,tree4 ,,fn#acl ,the name of a demon4 ,ling ,yun 7,rei-un7 read it through the lovely flowers of a peach-tree in spring after some twenty years of his research for ,light1 and said3 ,a score of years ,i looked for ,light3 ,there came and went many a spring and fall4 ,e'er since the peach blossoms came in my sight1 ,i never doubt anything at all4 ,hian ,yen 7,kyo-gen7 read it through the noise of bamboo1 at which he threw pebbles4 ,su ,shih 7,so-shoku7 read it through a waterfall1 one evening1 and said3 ,the brook speaks forth the ,tathagata's words divine1 ,the hills reveal ,his glorious forms that shine4 #f4 ,great ,men and ,nature4 ,all great men1 whether they be poets or scientists or religious men or philosophers1 are not mere readers of books1 but the perusers of ,nature4 ,men of erudition are often lexicons in flesh and blood1 but men of genius read between the lines in the pages of life4 ,kant1 a man of no great erudition1 could accomplish in the theory of knowledge what ,copernicus did in astronomy4 ,newton found the law of gravitation not in a written page1 but in a falling apple4 ,unlettered ,jesus realized truth beyond the comprehension of many learned doctors4 ,charles ,darwin1 whose theory changed the whole current of the world's thought1 was not a great reader of books1 but a careful observer of facts4 ,shakespeare1 the greatest of poets1 was the greatest reader of ,nature and life4 ,he could hear the music even of heavenly bodies1 and said3 ,there's not the smallest orb which thou beholdest1 ,but in his motion like an angel sings4 ,chwang ,tsz 7,so-shi71 the greatest of ,chinese philosophers1 says3 ,thou knowest the music of men1 but not the music of the earth4 ,thou knowest the music of the earth1 but not the music of the heaven4,,fn#acb ,goethe1 perceiving a profound meaning in ,nature1 says3 ,flowers are the beautiful hieroglyphics of ,nature with which she indicates how much she loves us4 ,,fn#acb ,chwang ,tsz1 vol4 i41 p4 #aj4 ,son-toku,,fn#acc 7,ninomiya71 a great economist1 who1 overcoming all difficulties and hardships by which he was beset from his childhood1 educated himself1 says3 ,the earth and the heaven utter no word1 but they ceaselessly repeat the holy book unwritten4 ,,fn#acc ,one of the greatest self-made men in ,japan1 who lived #aghg-ahef4 #g4 ,the ,absolute and ,reality are but an ,abstraction4 ,a grain of sand you1 trample upon has a deeper significance than a series of lectures by your verbal philosopher whom you respect4 ,it contains within itself the whole history of the earth2 it tells you what it has seen since the dawn of time2 while your philosopher simply plays on abstract terms and empty words4 ,what does his ,absolute1 or ,one1 or ,substance mean8 ,what does his ,reality or ,truth imply8 ,do they denote or connote anything8 ,mere name6 mere abstraction6 ,one school of philosophy after another has been established on logical subtleties2 thousands of books have been written on these grand names and fair mirages1 which vanish the moment that your hand of experience reaches after them4 ,duke ,hwan1 says ,chwang ,tsz1,,fn#acd seated above in his hall1 was 7once7 reading a book1 and a wheelwright1 ,phien1 was making a wheel below it4 ,laying aside his hammer and chisel1 ,phien went up the steps and said3 ',i venture to ask your ,grace what words you are reading8' ,the duke said3 ',the words of sages4' ',are these sages alive8' ,phien continued4 ',they are dead1' was the reply4 ',then1' said the other1 'what you1 my ,ruler1 are reading is only the dregs and sediments of those old men4' ,the duke said3 ,,fn#acd ,chwang ,tsz1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bd4 ',how should you1 a wheelwright1 have anything to say about the book which ,i am reading8 ,if you can explain yourself1 very well2 if you cannot1 you shall die4' ,the wheelwright said3 ',your servant will look at the thing from the point of view of his own art4 ,in making a wheel1 if ,i proceed gently1 that is pleasant enough1 but the workmanship is not strong2 if ,i proceed violently1 that is toilsome and the joinings do not fit4 ,if the movements of my hand are neither 7too7 gentle nor 7too7 violent1 the idea in my mind is realized4 ,but ,i cannot tell 7how to do this7 by word of mouth2 there is a knack in it4 ,i cannot teach the knack to my son1 nor can my son learn it from me4 ,thus it is that ,i am in my seventieth year1 and am 7still7 making wheels in my old age4 ,but these ancients1 and what it was not possible for them to convey1 are dead and gone4 ,so then what you1 my ,ruler1 are reading is but their dregs and sediments4 ,zen has no business with the dregs and sediments of sages of yore4 #h4 ,the ,sermon of the ,inanimate4 ,the ,scripture of ,zen is written with facts simple and familiar1 so simple and familiar with everyday life that they escape observation on that very account4 ,the sun rises in the east4 ,the moon sets in the west4 ,high is the mountain4 ,deep is the sea4 ,spring comes with flowers2 summer with the cool breeze2 autumn with the bright moon2 winter with the fakes of snow4 ,these things1 perhaps too simple and too familiar for ordinary observers to pay attention to1 have had profound significance for ,zen4 ,li ,ngao 7,ri-ko7 one day asked ,yoh ,shan 7,yaku-san73 ,what is the way to truth8 ,yoh ,shan1 pointing to the sky and then to the pitcher beside him1 said3 ,you see8 ,no1 sir1 replied ,li ,ngao4 ,the cloud is in the sky1 said ,yoh ,shan1 and the water in the pitcher4 ,huen ,sha 7,gen-sha7 one day went upon the platform and was ready to deliver a sermon when he heard a swallow singing4 ,listen1 said he1 that small bird preaches the essential doctrine and proclaims the eternal truth4 ,then he went back to his room1 giving no sermon4,,fn#ace ,,fn#ace ,den-to-roku and ,e-gen4 ,the letters of the alphabet1 a1 b1 c1 etc41 have no meaning whatever4 ,they are but artificial signs1 but when spelt they can express any great idea that great thinkers may form4 ,trees1 grass1 mountains1 rivers1 stars1 moons1 suns4 ,these are the alphabets with which the ,zen ,scripture is written4 ,even a1 b1 c1 etc41 when spelt1 can express any great idea4 ,why not1 then1 these trees1 grass1 etc41 the alphabets of ,nature when they compose the ,volume of the ,universe8 ,even the meanest clod of earth proclaims the sacred law4 ,hwui ,chung,,fn#acf 7,e-chu7 is said first to have given an expression to the ,sermon of the ,inanimate4 ,do the inanimate preach the ,doctrine8 asked a monk of ,hwui ,chung on one occasion4 ,yes1 they preach eloquently and incessantly4 ,there is no pause in their orations1 was the reply4 ,why1 then1 do ,i not hear them8 asked the other again4 ,even if you do not1 there are many others who can hear them4 ,who can hear them8 ,all the sages hear and understand them1 said ,hwui ,chung4 ,thus the ,sermon of the ,inanimate had been a favourite topic of discussion #ijj years before ,shakespeare who expressed the similar idea1 saying3 ,and this our life1 exempt from public haunt1 ,finds tongues in trees1 books in the running brooks1 ,sermons in stones1 and good in everything4 ,,fn#acf ,a direct disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch4 ,how wonderful is the ,sermon of the ,inanimate1 says ,tung ,shan 7,to-zan74 ,you cannot hear it through your ears1 but you can hear it through your eyes4 ,you should hear it through your mind's eyes1 through your heart's eyes1 through your inmost soul's eyes1 not through your intellect1 not through your perception1 not through your knowledge1 not through your logic1 not through your metaphysics4 ,to understand it you have to divine1 not to define2 you have to observe1 not to calculate2 you have to sympathize1 not to analyze2 you have to see through1 not to criticize2 you have not to explain1 but to feel2 you have not to abstract1 but to grasp2 you have to see all in each1 but not to know all in all2 you have to get directly at the soul of things1 penetrating their hard crust of matter by your rays of the innermost consciousness4 ,the falling leaves as well as the blooming flowers reveal to us the holy law of ,buddha1 says a ,japanese ,zenist4 ,ye who seek for purity and peace1 go to ,nature4 ,she will give you more than ye ask4 ,ye who long for strength and perseverance1 go to ,nature4 ,she will train and strengthen you4 ,ye who aspire after an ideal1 go to ,nature4 ,she will help you in its realization4 ,ye who yearn after ,enlightenment1 go to ,nature4 ,she will never fail to grant your request4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,buddha1 ,,the ,,universal ,,spirit #a4 ,the ,ancient ,buddhist ,pantheon4 ,the ancient ,buddhist pantheon was full of deities or ,buddhas1 #c1jjj;,,fn#acg in number1 or rather countless1 and also of ,bodhisattvas no less than ,buddhas4 ,nowadays1 however1 in every church of ,mahayanism one ,buddha or another together with some ,bodhisattvas reigns supreme as the sole object of worship1 while other supernatural beings sink in oblivion4 ,these ,enlightened ,beings1 regardless of their positions in the pantheon1 were generally regarded as persons who in their past lives cultivated virtues1 underwent austerities1 and various sorts of penance1 and at length attained to a complete ,enlightenment1 by virtue of which they secured not only peace and eternal bliss1 but acquired divers supernatural powers1 such as clairvoyance1 clairaudience1 all-knowledge1 and what not4 ,therefore1 it is natural that some ,mahayanists,,fn#ach came to believe that1 if they should go through the same course of discipline and study1 they could attain to the same ,enlightenment and ,bliss1 or the same ,buddhahood1 while other ,mahayanists,,fn#aci came to believe in the doctrine that the believer is saved and led up to the eternal state of bliss1 without undergoing these hard disciplines1 by the power of a ,buddha known as having boundless mercy and fathomless wisdom whom he invokes4 ,,fn#acg ,trikalpa-trisahasra-buddhanrama-sutra gives the names of #c1jjj ,buddhas1 and ,buddhabhisita-buddhanama-sutra enumerates ,buddhas and ,bodhisattvas #aa1jic in number4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #djd1 #dje1 #djf1 #djg4 ,,fn#ach ,those who believe in the doctrine of ,holy ,path4 ,see ',a ,history of the ,twelve ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects1' pp4 #aji-aaa4 ,,fn#aci ,those who believe in the doctrine of the ,pure ,land4 #b4 ,zen is ,iconoclastic4 ,for the followers of ,bodhidharma1 however1 this conception of ,buddha seemed too crude to be accepted unhesitatingly and the doctrine too much irrelevant with and uncongenial to actual life4 ,since ,zen denounced1 as we have seen in the previous chapter1 the scriptural authority1 it is quite reasonable to have given up this view of ,buddha inculcated in the ,mahayana sutras1 and to set at naught those statues and images of supernatural beings kept in veneration by the orthodox ,buddhists4 ,tan ,hia 7,tan-ka71 a noted ,chinese ,zen master1 was found warming himself on a cold morning by the fire made of a wooden statue of ,buddha4 ,on another occasion he was found mounting astride the statue of a saint4 ,chao ,chen 7,jo-shu7 one day happened to find ,wang ,yuen 7,bun-yen7 worshipping the ,buddha in the temple1 and forthwith struck him with his staff4 ,is there not anything good in the worshipping of the ,buddha8 protested ,wang ,yuen4 ,then the master said3 ,nothing is better than anything good4,,fn#adj ,these examples fully illustrate ,zen's attitude towards the objects of ,buddhist worship4 ,zen is not1 nevertheless1 iconoclastic in the commonly accepted sense of the term1 nor is it idolatrous1 as ,christian missionaries are apt to suppose4 ,,fn#adj ,zen-rin-rui-shu4 ,zen is more iconoclastic than any of the ,christian or the ,mohammedan denominations in the sense that it opposes the acceptance of the petrified idea of ,deity1 so conventional and formal that it carries no inner conviction of the believers4 ,faith dies out whenever one comes to stick to one's fixed and immutable idea of ,deity1 and to deceive oneself1 taking bigotry for genuine faith4 ,faith must be living and growing1 and the living and growing faith should assume no fixed form4 ,it might seem for a superficial observer to take a fixed form1 as a running river appears constant1 though it goes through ceaseless changes4 ,the dead faith1 immutable and conventional1 makes its embracer appear religious and respectable1 while it arrests his spiritual growth4 ,it might give its owner comfort and pride1 yet it at bottom proves to be fetters to his moral uplifting4 ,it is on this account that ,zen declares3 ,buddha is nothing but spiritual chain or moral fetters1 and1 ,if you remember even a name of ,buddha1 it would deprive you of purity of heart4 ,the conventional or orthodox idea of ,buddha or ,deity might seem smooth and fair1 like a gold chain1 being polished and hammered through generations by religious goldsmiths2 but it has too much fixity and frigidity to be worn by us4 ,strike off thy fetters1 bonds that bind thee down ,of shining gold or darker1 baser ore2 ,know slave is slave caressed or whipped1 not free2 ,for fetters tho' of gold1 are not less strong to bind4 --,the ,song of the ,sannyasin4 #c4 ,buddha is ,unnamable4 ,give a definite name to ,deity1 ,he would be no more than what the name implies4 ,the ,deity under the name of ,brahman necessarily differs from the ,being under the appellation of ,jehovah1 just as the ,hindu differs from the ,jew4 ,in like manner the ,being designated by ,god necessarily differs from ,one named ,amitabha or from ,him entitled ,allah4 ,to give a name to the ,deity is to give ,him tradition1 nationality1 limitation1 and fixity1 and it never brings us nearer to ,him4 ,zen's object of worship cannot be named and determined as ,god1 or ,brahman1 or ,amitabha1 or ,creator1 or ,nature1 or ,reality1 or ,substance1 or the like4 ,neither ,chinese nor ,japanese masters of ,zen tried to give a definite name to their object of adoration4 ,they now called ,him ,that ,one1 now ,this ,one1 now ,mind1 now ,buddha1 now ,tathagata1 now ,certain ,thing1 now the ,true1 now ,dharma-nature1 now ,buddha-nature1 and so forth4 ,tung ,shan,,fn#ada 7,to-zan7 on a certain occasion declared it to be ,a ,certain ,thing that pillars heaven above and supports the earth below2 dark as lacquer and undefinable2 manifesting itself through its activities1 yet not wholly comprisable within them4 ,so-kei,,fn#adb expressed it in the same wise3 ,there exists a ,certain ,thing1 bright as a mirror1 spiritual as a mind1 not subjected to growth nor to decay4 ,huen ,sha 7,gen-sha7 comparing it with a gem says3 ,there exists a bright gem illuminating through the worlds in ten directions by its light4,,fn#adc ,,fn#ada ,tung ,shan ,luh 7,to-zan-roku1 ',sayings and ,doings of ,ta-zan'7 is one of the best ,zen books4 ,,fn#adb ,so-kei1 a ,korean ,zenist1 whose work entitled ,zen-ke-ki-kwan is worthy of our note as a representation of ,korean ,zen4 ,,fn#adc ,sho-bo-gen-zo4 ,this certain thing or being is too sublime to be named after a traditional or a national deity1 too spiritual to be symbolized by human art1 too full of life to be formulated in terms of mechanical science1 too free to be rationalized by intellectual philosophy1 too universal to be perceived by bodily senses2 but everybody can feel its irresistible power1 see its invisible presence1 and touch its heart and soul within himself4 ,this mysterious ,mind1 says ,kwei ,fung 7,kei-ho71 is higher than the highest1 deeper than the deepest1 limitless in all directions4 ,there is no centre in it4 ,no distinction of east and west1 and above and below4 ,is it empty8 ,yes1 but not empty like space4 ,has it a form8 ,yes1 but has no form dependent on another for its existence4 ,is it intelligent8 ,yes1 but not intelligent like your mind4 ,is it non-intelligent8 ,yes1 but not non-intelligent like trees and stone4 ,is it conscious8 ,yes1 but not conscious like you when waking4 ,is it bright8 ,yes1 but not bright like the sun or the moon4 ,to the question1 ,what and who is ,buddha8 ,yuen ,wu 7,en-go7 replied3 ,hold your tongue3 the mouth is the gate of evils6 while ,pao ,fuh 7,ho-fuku7 answered to the same question3 ,no skill of art can picture ,him4 ,thus ,buddha is unnamable1 indescribable1 and indefinable1 but we provisionally call ,him ,buddha4 #d4 ,buddha1 the ,universal ,life4 ,zen conceives ,buddha as a ,being1 who moves1 stirs1 inspires1 enlivens1 and vitalizes everything4 ,accordingly1 we may call ,him the ,universal ,life in the sense that ,he is the source of all lives in the universe4 ,this ,universal ,life1 according to ,zen1 pillars the heaven1 supports the earth1 glorifies the sun and moon1 gives voice to thunder1 tinges clouds1 adorns the pasture with flowers1 enriches the field with harvest1 gives animals beauty and strength4 ,therefore1 ,zen declares even a dead clod of earth to be imbued with the divine life1 just as ,lowell expresses a similar idea when he says3 ,every clod feels a stir of might1 ,an instinct within it that reaches and towers1 ,and groping blindly above it for light1 ,climbs to a soul in grass and flowers4 ,one of our contemporary ,zenists wittily observed that 'vegetables are the children of earth1 that animals which feed on vegetables are the grand-children of earth1 and that men who subsist on animals are the great-grand-children of earth4' ,if there be no life in earth1 how could life come out of it8 ,if there be no life1 the same as the animal's life in the vegetables1 how could animals sustain their lives feeding on vegetables8 ,if there be no life similar to ours in animals1 how could we sustain our life by subsisting on them8 ,the poet must be in the right1 not only in his esthetic1 but in his scientific point of view1 in saying- ,i must ,confess that ,i am only dust4 ,but once a rose within me grew2 ,its rootlets shot1 its flowerets flew2 ,and all rose's sweetness rolled ,throughout the texture of my mould2 ,and so it is that ,i impart ,perfume to them1 whoever thou art4 ,as we men live and act1 so do our arteries2 so does blood2 so do corpuscles4 ,as cells and protoplasm live and act1 so do elements1 molecules1 and atoms4 ,as elements and atoms live and act1 so do clouds2 so does the earth2 so does the ocean1 the ,milky ,way1 and the ,solar ,system4 ,what is this life which pervades the grandest as well as the minutest works of ,nature1 and which may fitly be said 'greater than the greatest and smaller than the smallest8' ,it cannot be defined4 ,it cannot be subjected to exact analysis4 ,but it is directly experienced and recognized within us1 just as the beauty of the rose is to be perceived and enjoyed1 but not reduced to exact analysis4 ,at any rate1 it is something stirring1 moving1 acting and reacting continually4 ,this something which can be experienced and felt and enjoyed directly by every one of us4 ,this life of living principle in the microcosmos is identical with that of the macrocosmos1 and the ,universal ,life of the macrocosmos is the common source of all lives4 ,therefore1 the ,mahaparinirvana-sutra says3 ,tathagata 7another name for ,buddha7 gives life to all beings1 just as the lake ,anavatapta gives rise to the four great rivers4 ,tathagata1 says the same sutra1 divides his own body into innumerable bodies1 and also restores an infinite number of bodies to one body4 ,now be becomes cities1 villages1 houses1 mountains1 rivers1 and trees2 now he has a large body2 now he has a small body2 now he becomes men1 women1 boys1 and girls4 #e4 ,life and ,change4 ,a peculiar phase of life is change which appears in the form of growth and decay4 ,nobody can deny the transitoriness of life4 ,one of our friends humorously observed3 ,everything in the world may be doubtful to you1 but it can never be doubted that you will die4 ,life is like a burning lamp4 ,every minute its flame dies out and is renewed4 ,life is like a running stream4 ,every moment it pushes onward4 ,if there be anything constant in this world of change1 it should be change itself4 ,is it not just one step from rosy childhood to snowy age8 ,is it not just one moment from the nuptial song to the funeral-dirge8 ,who can live the same moment twice8 ,in comparison with an organism1 inorganic matter appears to be constant and changeless2 but1 in fact1 it is equally subjected to ceaseless alteration4 ,every morning1 looking into the mirror1 you will find your visage reflected in it just as it was on the preceding day2 so also every morning1 looking at the sun and the earth1 you will find them reflected in your retina just as they were on the previous morning2 but the sun and the earth are no less changeless than you4 ,why do the sun and the earth seem changeless and constant to you8 ,only because you yourself undergo change more quickly than they4 ,when you look at the clouds sweeping across the face of the moon1 they seem to be at rest1 and the moon in rapid motion2 but1 in fact1 the clouds1 as well as the moon1 incessantly move on4 ,science might maintain the quantitative constancy of matter1 but the so-called matter is mere abstraction4 ,to say matter is changeless is as much as to say #b is always #b1 changeless and constant1 because the arithmetical number is not more abstract than the physiological matter4 ,the moon appears standing still when you look at her only a few moments4 ,in like manner she seems to be free from change when you look at her in your short span of life4 ,astronomers1 nevertheless1 can tell you how she saw her better days1 and is now in her wrinkles and white hair4 #f4 ,pessimistic ,view of the ,ancient ,hindus4 ,in addition to this1 the new theory of matter has entirely over thrown the old conception of the unchanging atoms1 and they are now regarded to be composed of magnetic forces1 ions1 and corpuscles in incessant motion4 ,therefore we have no inert matter in the concrete1 no unchanging thing in the sphere of experience1 no constant organism in the transient universe4 ,these considerations often led many thinkers1 ancient and modern1 to the pessimistic view of life4 ,what is the use of your exertion1 they would say1 in accumulating wealth1 which is doomed to melt away in the twinkling of an eye8 ,what is the use of your striving after power1 which is more short-lived than a bubble8 ,what is the use of your endeavour in the reformation of society1 which does not endure any longer than the castle in the air8 ,how do kings differ from beggars in the eye of ,transience8 ,how do the rich differ from the poor1 how the beautiful from the ugly1 bow the young from the old1 how the good from the evil1 how the lucky from the unlucky1 how the wise from the unwise1 in the court of ,death8 ,vain is ambition4 ,vain is fame4 ,vain is pleasure4 ,vain are struggles and efforts4 ,all is in vain4 ,an ancient ,hindu thinker,,fn#add says3 ,o saint1 what is the use of the enjoyment of pleasures in this offensive1 pithless body--a mere mass of bones1 skins1 sinews1 marrow1 and flesh8 ,what is the use of the enjoyment of pleasures in this body1 which is assailed by lust1 hatred1 greed1 delusion1 fear1 anguish1 jealousy1 separation from what is loved1 union with what is not loved1 hunger1 old age1 death1 illness1 grief1 and other evils8 ,in such a world as this1 what is the use of the enjoyment of pleasures1 if he who has fed on them is to return to this world again and again8 ,in this world ,i am like a frog in a dry well4 ,,fn#add ,maitrayana ,upanisad4 ,it is this consideration on the transitoriness of life that led some ,taoist in ,china to prefer death to life1 as expressed in ,chwang ,tsz 7,su-shi73,,fn#ade ,when ,kwang-zze went to ,khu1 he saw an empty skull1 bleached indeed1 but still retaining its shape4 ,tapping it with his horse-switch1 he asked it saying3 ',did you1 sir1 in your greed of life1 fail in the lessons of reason and come to this8 ,or did you do so1 in the service of a perishing state1 by the punishment of an axe8 ,or was it through your evil conduct1 reflecting disgrace on your parents and on your wife and children8 ,or was it through your hard endurances of cold and hunger8 ,or was it that you had completed your term of life8' ,having given expression to these questions1 he took up the skull and made a pillow of it1 and went to sleep4 ,at midnight the skull appeared to him in a dream1 and said3 ',what you said to me was after the fashion of an orator4 ,all your words were about the entanglements of men in their lifetime4 ,there are none of those things after death4 ,would you like to hear me1 sir1 tell you about death8' ',i should1' said ,kwang-zze1 and the skull resumed3 ',in death there are not 7the distinctions of7 ruler above minister below4 ,there are none of the phenomena of the four seasons4 ,tranquil and at ease1 our years are those of heaven and earth4 ,no king in his court has greater enjoyment than we have4' ,kwang-zze did not believe it1 and said3 ',if ,i could get the ,ruler of our ,destiny to restore your body to life with its bones and flesh and skin1 and to give you back your father and mother1 your wife and children1 and all your village acquaintances1 would you wish me to do so8' ,the skull stared fixedly at him1 and knitted its brows and said3 ',how should ,i cast away the enjoyment of my royal court1 and undertake again the toils of life among mankind8' ,,fn#ade ',chwang ,tsz1' vol4 vi41 p4 #bc4 #g4 ,hinayanism and its ,doctrine4 ,the doctrine of ,transience was the first entrance gate of ,hinayanism4 ,transience never fails to deprive us of what is dear and near to us4 ,it disappoints us in our expectation and hope4 ,it brings out grief1 fear1 anguish1 and lamentation4 ,it spreads terror and destruction among families1 communities1 nations1 mankind4 ,it threatens with perdition the whole earth1 the whole universe4 ,therefore it follows that life is full of disappointment1 sufferings1 and miseries1 and that man is like 'a frog in a dry well4' ,this is the doctrine called by the ,hinayanists the ,holy ,truth of ,suffering4 ,again1 when ,transcience once gets hold of our imagination1 we can easily foresee ruins and disasters in the very midst of prosperity and happiness1 and also old age and ugliness in the prime and youth of beauty4 ,it gives rise quite naturally to the thought that body is a bag full of pus and blood1 a mere heap of rotten flesh and broken pieces of bone1 a decaying corpse inhabited by innumerable maggots4 ,this is the doctrine called by the ,hinayanists the ,holy ,truth of ,impurity4,,fn#adf ,,fn#adf ,mahasaptipatthana ,suttanta1 #g1 runs as follows3 ,and1 moreover1 bhikkhu1 a brother1 just as if he had been a body abandoned in the charnel-field1 dead for one1 two1 or three days1 swollen1 turning black and blue1 and decomposed1 apply that perception to this very body 7of his own71 reflecting3 ',this body1 too1 is even so constituted1 is of such a nature1 has not got beyond that 7fate74' ,and1 again1 ,transience holds its tyrannical sway not only over the material but over the spiritual world4 ,at its touch ,atman1 or soul1 is brought to nothing4 ,by its call ,devas1 or celestial beings1 are made to succumb to death4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that to believe in ,atman1 eternal and unchanging1 would be a whim of the ignorant4 ,this is the doctrine called by the ,hinayanists the ,holy ,truth of ,no-atman4 ,if1 as said1 there could be nothing free from ,transience1 ,constancy should be a gross mistake of the ignorant2 if even gods have to die1 ,eternity should be no more than a stupid dream of the vulgar2 if all phenomena be flowing and changing1 there could be no constant noumena underlying them4 ,it therefore follows that all things in the universe are empty and unreal4 ,this is the doctrine called by the ,hinayanists the ,holy ,truth of ,unreality4 ,thus ,hinayana ,buddhism1 starting from the doctrine of ,transience1 arrived at the pessimistic view of life in its extreme form4 #h4 ,change as seen by ,zen4 ,zen1 like ,hinayanism1 does not deny the doctrine of ,transience1 but it has come to a view diametrically opposite to that of the ,hindus4 ,transience for ,zen simply means change4 ,it is a form in which life manifests itself4 ,where there is life there is change or ,transience4 ,where there is more change there is more vital activity4 ,suppose an absolutely changeless body3 it must be absolutely lifeless4 ,an eternally changeless life is equivalent to an eternally changeless death4 ,why do we value the morning glory1 which fades in a few hours1 more than an artificial glass flower1 which endures hundreds of years8 ,why do we prefer an animal life1 which passes away in a few scores of years1 to a vegetable life1 which can exist thousands of years8 ,why do we prize changing organism more than inorganic matter1 unchanging and constant8 ,if there be no change in the bright hues of a flower1 it is as worthless as a stone4 ,if there be no change in the song of a bird1 it is as valueless as a whistling wind4 ,if there be no change in trees and grass1 they are utterly unsuitable to be planted in a garden4 ,now1 then1 what is the use of our life1 if it stand still8 ,as the water of a running stream is always fresh and wholesome because it does not stop for a moment1 so life is ever fresh and new because it does not stand still1 but rapidly moves on from parents to children1 from children to grandchildren1 from grandchildren to great-grandchildren1 and flows on through generation after generation1 renewing itself ceaselessly4 ,we can never deny the existence of old age and death--nay1 death is of capital importance for a continuation of life1 because death carries away all the decaying organism in the way of life4 ,but for it life would be choked up with organic rubbish4 ,the only way of life's pushing itself onward or its renewing itself is its producing of the young and getting rid of the old4 ,if there be no old age nor death1 life is not life1 but death4 #i4 ,life and ,change4 ,transformation and change are the essential features of life2 life is not transformation nor change itself1 as ,bergson seems to assume4 ,it is something which comes under our observation through transformation and change4 ,there are1 among ,buddhists as well as ,christians1 not a few who covet constancy and fixity of life1 being allured by such smooth names as eternal life1 everlasting joy1 permanent peace1 and what not4 ,they have forgotten that their souls can never rest content with things monotonous4 ,if there be everlasting joy for their souls1 it must be presented to them through incessant change4 ,so also if there be eternal life granted for their souls1 it must be given through ceaseless alteration4 ,what is the difference between eternal life1 fixed and constant1 and eternal death8 ,what is the difference between everlasting bliss1 changeless and monotonous1 and everlasting suffering8 ,if constancy1 instead of change1 govern life1 then hope or pleasure is absolutely impossible4 ,fortunately1 however1 life is not constant4 ,it changes and becomes4 ,pleasure arises through change itself4 ,mere change of food or clothes is often pleasing to us1 while the appearance of the same thing twice or thrice1 however pleasing it may be1 causes us little pleasure4 ,it will become disgusting and tire us down1 if it be presented repeatedly from time to time4 ,an important element in the pleasure we derive from social meetings1 from travels1 from sight-seeings1 etc41 is nothing but change4 ,even intellectual pleasure consists mainly of change4 ,a dead1 unchanging abstract truth1 #b and #b make #d1 excites no interest2 while a changeable1 concrete truth1 such as the ,darwinian theory of evolution1 excites a keen interest4 #aj4 ,life1 ,change1 and ,hope4 ,the doctrine of ,transcience never drives us to the pessimistic view of life4 ,on the contrary1 it gives us an inexhaustible source of pleasure and hope4 ,let us ask you3 ,are you satisfied with the present state of things8 ,do you not sympathize with poverty-stricken millions living side by side with millionaires saturated with wealth8 ,do you not shed tears over those hunger-bitten children who cower in the dark lanes of a great city8 ,do you not wish to put down the stupendous oppressor--,might-is-right8 ,do you not want to do away with the so-called armoured peace among nations8 ,do you not need to mitigate the struggle for existence more sanguine than the war of weapons8 ,life changes and is changeable2 consequently1 has its future4 ,hope is therefore possible4 ,individual development1 social betterment1 international peace1 reformation of mankind in general1 can be hoped4 ,our ideal1 however unpractical it may seem at the first sight1 can be realized4 ,moreover1 the world itself1 too1 is changing and changeable4 ,it reveals new phases from time to time1 and can be moulded to subserve our purpose4 ,we must not take life or the world as completed and doomed as it is now4 ,no fact verifies the belief that the world was ever created by some other power and predestined to be as it is now4 ,it lives1 acts1 and changes4 ,it is transforming itself continually1 just as we are changing and becoming4 ,thus the doctrine of ,transience supplies us with an inexhaustible source of hope and comfort1 leads us into the living universe1 and introduces us to the presence of ,universal ,life or ,buddha4 ,the reader may easily understand how ,zen conceives ,buddha as the living principle from the following dialogues3 ,is it true1 sir1 asked a monk of ,teu tsz 7,to-shi71 that all the voices of ,nature are those of ,buddha8 ,yes1 certainly1 replied ,teu tsz4 ,what is1 reverend sir1 asked a man of ,chao ,cheu 7,jo-shu71 the holy temple 7of ,buddha78 ,an innocent girl1 replied the teacher4 ,who is the master of the temple8 asked the other again4 ,a baby in her womb1 was the answer4 ,what is1 sir1 asked a monk to ,yen ,kwan 7,yen-kan71 the original body of ,buddha ,vairocana8,,fn#adg ,fetch me a pitcher with water1 said the teacher4 ,the monk did as he was ordered4 ,put it back in its place1 said ,yen ,kwan again4,,fn#adh ,,fn#adg ,literally1 ,all ,illuminating ,buddha1 the highest of the ,trikayas4 ,see ,eitel1 p4 #aib4 ,,fn#adh ,zen-rin-rui-shu4 #aa4 ,everything is ,living according to ,zen4 ,everything alive has a strong innate tendency to preserve itself1 to assert itself1 to push itself forward1 and to act on its environment1 consciously or unconsciously4 ,the innate1 strong tendency of the living is an undeveloped1 but fundamental1 nature of ,spirit or ,mind4 ,it shows itself first in inert matter as impenetrability1 or affinity1 or mechanical force4 ,rock has a powerful tendency to preserve itself4 ,and it is hard to crush it4 ,diamond has a robust tendency to assert itself4 ,and it permits nothing to destroy it4 ,salt has the same strong tendency1 for its particles act and react by themselves1 and never cease till its crystals are formed4 ,steam1 too1 should have the same1 because it pushes aside everything in its way and goes where it will4 ,in the eye of simple folks of old1 mountains1 rivers1 trees1 serpents1 oxen1 and eagles were equally full of life2 hence the deification of them4 ,no doubt it is irrational to believe in nymphs1 fairies1 elves1 and the like1 yet still we may say that mountains stand of their own accord1 rivers run as they will1 just as we say that trees and grass turn their leaves towards the sun of their own accord4 ,neither is it a mere figure of speech to say that thunder speaks and hills respond1 nor to describe birds as singing and flowers as smiling1 nor to narrate winds as moaning and rain as weeping1 nor to state lovers as looking at the moon1 the moon as looking at them1 when we observe spiritual element in activities of all this4 ,haeckel says1 not without reason3 ,i cannot imagine the simple chemical and physical forces without attributing the movement of material particles to conscious sensation4 ,the same author says again3 ,we may ascribe the feeling of pleasure and pain to all atoms1 and so explain the electric affinity in chemistry4 #ab4 ,the ,creative ,force of ,nature and ,humanity4 ,the innate tendency of self-preservation1 which manifests itself as mechanical force or chemical affinity in the inorganic nature1 unfolds itself as the desire of the preservation of species in the vegetables and animals4 ,see how vegetables fertilize themselves in a complicated way1 and how they spread their seeds far and wide in a most mysterious manner4 ,a far more developed form of the same desire is seen in the sexual attachment and parental love of animals4 ,who does not know that even the smallest birds defend their young against every enemy with self -sacrificing courage1 and that they bring food whilst they themselves often starve and grow lean8 ,in human beings we can observe the various transformations of the self-same desire4 ,for instance1 sorrow or despair is experienced when it is impossible2 anger1 when it is hindered by others2 joy1 when it is fulfilled2 fear1 when it is threatened2 pleasure1 when it is facilitated4 ,although it manifests itself as the sexual attachment and parental love in lower animals1 yet its developed forms1 such as sympathy1 loyalty1 benevolence1 mercy1 humanity1 are observed in human beings4 ,again1 the creative force in inorganic nature1 in order to assert itself and act more effectively1 creates the germ of organic nature1 and gradually ascending the scale of evolution1 develops the sense organs and the nervous system2 hence intellectual powers1 such as sensation1 perception1 imagination1 memory1 unfold themselves4 ,thus the creative force1 exerting itself gradually1 widens its sphere of action1 and necessitates the union of individuals into families1 clans1 tribes1 communities1 and nations4 ,for the sake of this union and co-operation they established customs1 enacted laws1 and instituted political and educational systems4 ,furthermore1 to reinforce itself1 it gave birth to languages and sciences2 and to enrich itself1 morality and religion4 #ac4 ,universal ,life is ,universal ,spirit4 ,these considerations naturally lead us to see that ,universal ,life is not a blind vital force1 but ,creative ,spirit1 or ,mind1 or ,consciousness1 which unfolds itself in myriads of ways4 ,everything in the universe1 according to ,zen1 lives and acts1 and at the same time discloses its spirit4 ,to be alive is identically the same as to be spiritual4 ,as the poet has his song1 so does the nightingale1 so does the cricket1 so does the rivulet4 ,as we are pleased or offended1 so are horses1 so are dogs1 so are sparrows1 ants1 earthworms1 and mushrooms4 ,simpler the body1 simpler its spirit2 more complicated the body1 more complicated its spirit4 ',mind slumbers in the pebble1 dreams in the plant1 gathers energy in the animal1 and awakens to self-conscious discovery in the soul of man4' ,it is this ,creative1 ,universal ,spirit that sends forth ,aurora to illuminate the sky1 that makes ,diana shed her benign rays and olus play on his harp1 wreathes spring with flowers1 that clothes autumn with gold1 that induces plants to put forth blossoms1 that incites animals to be energetic1 and that awakens consciousness in man4 ,the author of ,mahavaipulya-purnabuddha-sutra expressly states our idea when he says3 ,mountains1 rivers1 skies1 the earth3 all these are embraced in the ,true ,spirit1 enlightened and mysterious4 ,rin-zai also says3 ,spirit is formless1 but it penetrates through the world in the ten directions4,,fn#adi ,the ,sixth ,patriarch expresses the same idea more explicitly3 ,what creates the phenomena is ,mind2 what transcends all the phenomena is ,buddha4,,fn#aej ,,fn#adi ,rin-zai-roku4 ,,fn#aej ,roku-so-dan-kyo4 #ad4 ,poetical ,intuition and ,zen4 ,since ,universal ,life or ,spirit permeates the universe1 the poetical intuition of man never fails to find it1 and to delight in everything typical of that ,spirit4 ,the leaves of the plantain1 says a ,zen poet1 unfold themselves1 hearing the voice of thunder4 ,the flowers of the hollyhock turn towards the sun1 looking at it all day long4 ,jesus could see in the lily the ,unseen ,being who clothed it so lovely4 ,wordsworth found the most profound thing in all the world to be the universal spiritual life1 which manifests itself most directly in nature1 clothed in its own proper dignity and peace4 ,through every star1 says ,carlyle1 through every grass blade1 most through every soul1 the glory of present ,god still beams4 ,it is not only grandeur and sublimity that indicate ,universal ,life1 but smallness and commonplace do the same4 ,a sage of old awakened to the faith,,fn#aea when he heard a bell ring2 another1 when he looked at the peach blossom2 another1 when he heard the frogs croaking2 and another1 when he saw his own form reflected in a river4 ,the minutest particles of dust form a world4 ,the meanest grain of sand under our foot proclaims a divine law4 ,therefore ,teu ,tsz ,jo-shi71 pointing to a stone in front of his temple1 said3 ,all the ,buddhas of the past1 the present1 and the future are living therein4,,fn#aeb ,,fn#aea ,both the ,chinese and the ,japanese history of ,zen are full of such incidents4 ,,fn#aeb ,zen-rin-rui-shu and ,to-shi-go-roku4 #ae4 ,enlightened ,consciousness4 ,in addition to these considerations1 which mainly depend on indirect experience1 we can have direct experience of life within us4 ,in the first place1 we experience that our life is not a bare mechanical motion or change1 but is a spiritual1 purposive1 and self-directing force4 ,in the second place1 we directly experience that it knows1 feels1 and wills4 ,in the third place1 we experience that there exists some power unifying the intellectual1 emotional1 and volitional activities so as to make life uniform and rational4 ,lastly1 we experience that there lies deeply rooted within us ,enlightened ,consciousness1 which neither psychologists treat of nor philosophers believe in1 but which ,zen teachers expound with strong conviction4 ,enlightened ,consciousness is1 according to ,zen1 the centre of spiritual life4 ,it is the mind of minds1 and the consciousness of consciousness4 ,it is the ,universal ,spirit awakened in the human mind4 ,it is not the mind that feels joy or sorrow2 nor is it the mind that reasons and infers2 nor is it the mind that fancies and dreams2 nor is it the mind that hopes and fears2 nor is it the mind that distinguishes good from evil4 ,it is ,enlightened ,consciousness that holds communion with ,universal ,spirit or ,buddha1 and realizes that individual lives are inseparably united1 and of one and the same nature with ,universal ,life4 ,it is always bright as a burnished mirror1 and cannot be dimmed by doubt and ignorance4 ,it is ever pure as a lotus flower1 and cannot be polluted by the mud of evil and folly4 ,although all sentient beings are endowed with this ,enlightened ,consciousness1 they are not aware of its existence1 excepting men who can discover it by the practice of ,meditation4 ,enlightened consciousness is often called ,buddha-nature1 as it is the real nature of ,universal ,spirit4 ,zen teachers compare it with a precious stone ever fresh and pure1 even if it be buried in the heaps of dust4 ,its divine light can never be extinguished by doubt or fear1 just as the sunlight cannot be destroyed by mist and cloud4 ,let us quote a ,chinese ,zen poet to see how ,zen treats of it3,,fn#aec ,i have an image of ,buddha1 ,the worldly people know it not4 ,it is not made of clay or cloth1 ,nor is it carved out of wood1 ,nor is it moulded of earth nor of ashes4 ,no artist can paint it2 ,no robber can steal it4 ,there it exists from dawn of time4 ,it's clean1 although not swept and wiped4 ,although it is but one1 ,divides itself to a hundred thousand million forms4 ,,fn#aec ,see ,zen-gaku-ho-ten4 #af4 ,buddha ,dwelling in the ,individual ,mind4 ,enlightened ,consciousness in the individual mind acquires for its possessor1 not a relative knowledge of things as his intellect does1 but the profoundest insight in reference to universal brotherhood of all beings1 and enables him to understand the absolute holiness of their nature1 and the highest goal for which all of them are making4 ,enlightened ,consciousness once awakened within us serves as a guiding principle1 and leads us to hope1 bliss1 and life2 consequently1 it is called the ,master,,fn#aed of both mind and body4 ,sometimes it is called the ,original,,fn#aee ,mind1 as it is the mind of minds4 ,it is ,buddha dwelling in individuals4 ,you might call it ,god in man1 if you like4 ,the following dialogues all point to this single idea3 ,on one occasion a butcher1 who was used to kill one thousand sheep a day1 came to ,gotama1 and1 throwing down his butcher-knife1 said ,i am one of the thousand ,buddhas4 ,yes1 really1 replied ,gotama4 ,a monk1 ,hwui ,chao 7,e-cha7 by name1 asked ,pao ,yen 7,ho-gen73 ,what is ,buddha8 ,you are ,hwui ,chao1 replied the master4 ,the same question was put to ,sheu ,shan 7,shu-zan71 ,chi ,man 7,chi-mon71 and ,teu ,tsz 7,to-shi71 the first of whom answered3 ,a bride mounts on a donkey and her mother-in-law drives it2 and the second3 ,he goes barefooted1 his sandals being worn out2 while the third rose from his chair and stood still without saying a word4 ,chwen ,hih 7,fu-kiu7 explains this point in unequivocal terms3 ,night after night ,i sleep with ,buddha1 and every morning ,i get up with ,him4 ,he accompanies me wherever ,i go4 ,when ,i stand or sit1 when ,i speak or be mute1 when ,i am out or in1 ,he never leaves me1 even as a shadow accompanies body4 ,would you know where ,he is8 ,listen to that voice and word4,,fn#aef ,,fn#aed ,it is often called the ,lord or ,master of mind4 ,,fn#aee ,another name for ,buddha is the ,original ,mind 7,kechi-myaku-ron74 ,,fn#aef ,for such dialogues1 see ,sho-yo-roku1 ,mu-mon-kan1 ,heki-gan-shu4 ,fu-kiu's words are repeatedly quoted by ,zen masters4 #ag4 ,enlightened ,consciousness is not an ,intellectual ,insight4 ,enlightened ,consciousness is not a bare intellectual insight1 for it is full of beautiful emotions4 ,it loves1 caresses1 embraces1 and at the same time esteems all beings1 being ever merciful to them4 ,it has no enemies to conquer1 no evil to fight with1 but constantly finds friends to help1 good to promote4 ,its warm heart beats in harmony with those of all fellow beings4 ,the author of ,brahmajala-sutra fully expresses this idea as he says3 ,all women are our mothers2 all men our fathers2 all earth and water our bodies in the past existences2 all fire and air our essence4 ,thus relying on our inner experience1 which is the only direct way of knowing ,buddha1 we conceive ,him as a ,being with profound wisdom and boundless mercy1 who loves all beings as ,his children1 whom ,he is fostering1 bringing up1 guiding1 and teaching4 ,these three worlds are ,his1 and all beings living in them are ,his children4,,fn#aeg ,the ,blessed ,one is the mother of all sentient beings1 and gives them all the milk of mercy4,,fn#aeh ,some people named ,him ,absolute1 as ,he is all light1 all hope1 all mercy1 and all wisdom2 some1 ,heaven1 as ,he is high and enlightened2 some1 ,god1 as ,he is sacred and mysterious2 some1 ,truth1 as ,he is true to ,himself2 some1 ,buddha1 as ,he is free from illusion2 some1 ,creator1 as ,he is the creative force immanent in the universe2 some1 ,path1 as ,he is the ,way we must follow2 some1 ,unknowable1 as ,he is beyond relative knowledge2 some1 ,self1 as ,he is the ,self of individual selves4 ,all these names are applied to one ,being1 whom we designate by the name of ,universal ,life or ,spirit4 ,,fn#aeg ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra4 ,,fn#aeh ,mahaparinirvana-sutra4 #ah4 ,our ,conception of ,buddha is not ,final4 ,has1 then1 the divine nature of ,universal ,spirit been completely and exhaustively revealed in our ,enlightened ,consciousness8 ,to this question we should answer negatively1 for1 so far as our limited experience is concerned1 ,universal ,spirit reveals itself as a ,being with profound wisdom and boundless mercy2 this1 nevertheless1 does not imply that the conception is the only possible and complete one4 ,we should always bear in mind that the world is alive1 and changing1 and moving4 ,it goes on to disclose a new phase1 or to add a new truth4 ,the subtlest logic of old is a mere quibble of nowadays4 ,the miracles of yesterday are the commonplaces of to-day4 ,now theories are formed1 new discoveries are made1 only to give their places to newer theories are discoveries4 ,new ideals realized or new desires satisfied are sure to awaken newer and stronger desires4 ,not an instant life remains immutable1 but it rushes on1 amplifying and enriching itself from the dawn of time to the end of eternity4 ,therefore ,universal ,life may in the future possibly unfold its new spiritual content1 yet unknown to us because it has refined1 lifted up1 and developed living beings from the amba to man1 increasing the intelligence and range of individuals1 until highly civilized man emerge into the plane of consciousness-consciousness of divine light in him4 ,thus to believe in ,buddha is to be content and thankful for the grace of ,his1 and to hope for the infinite unfoldment of ,his glories in man4 #ai4 ,how to ,worship ,buddha4 ,the author of ,vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra well explains our attitude towards ,buddha when he says3 ,we ask ,buddha for nothing4 ,we ask ,dharma for nothing4 ,we ask ,samgha for nothing4 ,nothing we ask of ,buddha4 ,no worldly success1 no rewards in the future life1 no special blessing4 ,hwang ,pah 7,o-baku7 said3 ,i simply worship ,buddha4 ,i ask ,buddha for nothing4 ,i ask ,dharma for nothing4 ,i ask ,samgha for nothing4 ,then a prince,,fn#aei questioned him3 ,you ask ,buddha for nothing4 ,you ask ,dharma for nothing4 ,you ask ,samgha for nothing4 ,what1 then1 is the use of your worship8 ,the ,prince earned a slap as an answer to his utilitarian question4,,fn#afj ,this incident well illustrates that worship1 as understood by ,zen masters1 is a pure act of thanksgiving1 or the opening of the grateful heart2 in other words1 the disclosing of ,enlightened ,consciousness4 ,we are living the very life of ,buddha1 enjoying ,his blessing1 and holding communion with ,him through speech1 thought1 and action4 ,the earth is not 'the vale of tears1' but the glorious creation of ,universal ,spirit2 nor man 'the poor miserable sinner' but the living altar of ,buddha ,himself4 ,whatever we do1 we do with grateful heart and pure joy sanctioned by ,enlightened ,consciousness2 eating1 drinking1 talking1 walking1 and every other work of our daily life are the worship and devotion4 ,we agree with ,margaret ,fuller when she says3 ,reverence the highest2 have patience with the lowest2 let this day's performance of the meanest duty be thy religion4 ,are the stars too distant8 ,pick up the pebble that lies at thy feet1 and from it learn all4 ,,fn#aei ,afterwards the ,emperor ,suen ,tsung 7,sen-so71 of the ,tang dynasty4 ,,fn#afj ,for the details1 see ,heki-gan-shu4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,man #a4 ,man is ,good-natured according to ,mencius4,,fn#afa ,oriental scholars1 especially the ,chinese men of letters1 seem to have taken so keen an interest in the study of human nature that they proposed all the possible opinions respecting the subject in question-namely1 7#a7 man is good-natured2 7#b7 man is bad-natured2 7#c7 man is good-natured and bad-natured as well2 7#d7 man is neither good-natured nor bad-natured4 ,the first of these opinions was proposed by a most reputed ,confucianist scholar1 ,mencius1 and his followers1 and is still adhered to by the majority of the ,japanese and the ,chinese ,confucianists4 ,mencius thought it as natural for man to do good as it is for the grass to be green4 ',suppose a person has happened1' he would say1 'to find a child on the point of tumbling down into a deep well4 ,he would rescue it even at the risk of his life1 no matter how morally degenerated he might be4 ,he would have no time to consider that his act might bring him some reward from its parents1 or a good reputation among his friends and fellow-citizens4 ,he would do it barely out of his inborn good-nature4' ,after enumerating some instances similar to this one1 ,mencius concludes that goodness is the fundamental nature of man1 even if he is often carried away by his brutal disposition4 ,,fn#afa ,mencius 7#cgb-bhb ,b4,c47 is regarded as the best expounder of the doctrine of ,confucius4 ,there exists a well-known work of his1 entitled after his own name4 ,see ',a ,history of ,chinese ,philosophy1' by ,r4 ,endo1 and also ',a ,history of ,chinese ,philosophy' 7pp4 #ch-ej71 by ,g4 ,nakauchi4 #b4 ,man is ,bad-natured according to ,siun ,tsz,,fn#afb 7,jun-shi74 ,the weaknesses of ,mencius's theory are fully exposed by another diametrically opposed theory propounded by ,siun ,tsz 7,jun-shi7 and his followers4 ',man is bad-natured1' says ,siun ,tsz1 'since he has inborn lust1 appetite1 and desire for wealth4 ,as he has inborn lust and appetite1 he is naturally given to intemperance and wantonness4 ,as he has inborn desire for wealth1 he is naturally inclined to quarrel and fight with others for the sake of gain4' ,leave him without discipline or culture1 he would not be a whit better than the beast4 ,his virtuous acts1 such as charity1 honesty1 propriety1 chastity1 truthfulness1 are conduct forced by the teachings of ancient sages against his natural inclination4 ,therefore vices are congenial and true to his nature1 while virtues alien and untrue to his fundamental nature4 ,,fn#afb ,siun ,tsz's date is later by some fifty years than ,mencius4 ,siun ,tsz gives the reason why man seeks after morality1 saying that man seeks what he has not1 and that he seeks after morality simply because he has not morality1 just as the poor seek riches4 ,see ',a ,history of ,chinese ,philosophy' 7pp4 #ea-fj71 by ,g4 ,nakauchi1 and ',a ,history of ,development of ,chinese ,thought1' by ,r4 ,endo4 ,these two theories are not only far from throwing light on the moral state of man1 but wrap it in deeper gloom4 ,let us raise a few questions by way of refutation4 ,if man's fundamental nature be good1 as ,mencius maintains1 why is it easy for him to be vicious without instruction1 while he finds it hard to be virtuous even with instruction4 ,if you contend that good is man's primary nature and evil the secondary one1 why is be so often overpowered by the secondary nature8 ,if you answer saying that man is good-natured originally1 but he acquires the secondary nature through the struggle for existence1 and it gradually gains power over the primary nature by means of the same cause1 then the primitive tribes should be more virtuous than the highly civilized nations1 and children than grownup people4 ,is this not contrary to fact8 ,if1 again1 man's nature is essentially bad1 as ,siun ,tsz holds1 how can he cultivate virtue8 ,if you contend that ancient sages invented so-called cardinal virtues and inculcated them against his natural inclination1 why does he not give them up8 ,if vices be congenial and true to man's nature1 but virtues be alien and untrue to him1 why are virtues honoured by him8 ,if vices be genuine and virtue a deception1 as you think1 why do you call the inventors of that deceiving art sages8 ,how was it possible for man to do good before these sages' appearance on earth8 #c4 ,man is both ,good-natured and ,bad-natured according to ,yan ,hiung,,fn#afc 7,yo-yu74 ,according to ,yang ,hiung and his followers1 good is no less real than evil1 and evil is no more unreal than good4 ,therefore man must be double-natured-that is1 partly good and partly bad4 ,this is the reason why the history of man is full of fiendish crimes1 and1 at the same time1 it abounds with godly deeds4 ,this is the reason why mankind comprises1 on the one hand1 a ,socrates1 a ,confucius1 a ,jesus1 and1 on the other1 a ,nero and a ,kieh4 ,this is the reason why we find to-day a honest fellow in him whom we find a betrayer to-morrow4 ,,fn#afc ,yan ,hiung 7died ,a4,d4 #ah7 is the reputed author of ,tai ,huen 7,tai-gen7 and ,fah ,yen 7,ho-gen74 ,his opinion in reference to human nature is found in ,fah ,yen4 ,this view of man's nature might explain our present moral state1 yet it calls forth many questions bard to answer4 ,if this assertion be true1 is it not a useless task to educate man with the purpose of making him better and nobler8 ,how could one extirpate man's bad nature implanted within him at his origin8 ,if man be double-natured1 how did he come to set good over evil8 ,how did he come to consider that he ought to be good and ought not to be bad8 ,how could you establish the authority of morality8 #d4 ,man is neither ,good-natured nor ,bad-natured according to ,su ,shih 7,so-shoku74,,fn#afd ,the difficulty may be avoided by a theory given by ,su ,shih and other scholars influenced by ,buddhism1 which maintains that man is neither good-natured nor bad-natured4 ,according to this opinion man is not moral nor immoral by nature1 but unmoral4 ,he is morally a blank4 ,he is at a crossroad1 so to speak1 of morality when he is first born4 ,as he is blank1 he can be dyed black or red4 ,as he is at the cross-road1 he can turn to the right or to the left4 ,he is like fresh water1 which has no flavour1 and can be made sweet or bitter by circumstances4 ,if we are not mistaken1 this theory1 too1 has to encounter insurmountable difficulties4 ,how could it be possible to make the unmoral being moral or immoral8 ,we might as well try to get honey out of sand as to get good or evil out of the blank nature4 ,there can be no fruit of good or evil where there is no seed of good or bad nature4 ,thus we find no satisfactory solution of the problem at issue in these four theories proposed by the ,chinese scholars--the first theory being incompetent to explain the problem of human depravity2 the second breaking down at the origin of morality2 the third failing to explain the possibility of moral culture2 the fourth being logically self-contradictory4 ,,fn#afd ,su ,shih 7#ajdb-aaja71 a great man of letters1 practiser of ,zen1 noted for his poetical works4 #e4 ,there is no ,mortal who is ,purely ,moral4 ,by nature man should be either good or bad2 or he should be good as well as bad2 or he should be neither good nor bad4 ,there can be no alternative possible besides these four propositions1 none of which can be accepted as true4 ,then there must be some misconception in the terms of which they consist4 ,it would seem to some that the error can be avoided by limiting the sense of the term 'man1' saying some persons are good-natured1 some persons are bad-natured1 some persons are good-natured and bad-natured as well1 and some persons are neither good-natured nor bad-natured4 ,there is no contradiction in these modified propositions1 but still they fail to explain the ethical state of man4 ,supposing them all to be true1 let us assume that there are the four classes of people3 7#a7 ,those who are purely moral and have no immoral disposition2 7#b7 those who are half moral and half immoral2 7#c7 those who are neither moral nor immoral2 7#d7 those who are purely immoral and have no moral disposition4 ,orthodox ,christians1 believing in the sinlessness of ,jesus1 would say he belongs to the first class1 while ,mohammedans and ,buddhists1 who deify the founder of their respective faith1 would in such case regard their founder as the purely moral personage4 ,but are your beliefs1 we should ask1 based on historical fact8 ,can you say that such traditional and self-contradictory records as the four gospels are history in the strict sense of the term8 ,can you assert that those traditions which deify ,mohammed and ,shakya are the statements of bare facts8 ,is not ,jesus an abstraction and an ideal1 entirely different from a concrete carpenter's son1 who fed on the same kind of food1 sheltered himself in the same kind of building1 suffered from the same kind of pain1 was fired by the same kind of anger1 stung by the same kind of lust as our own8 ,can you say the person who fought many a sanguinary battle1 who got through many cunning negotiations with enemies and friends1 who personally experienced the troubles of polygamy1 was a person sinless and divine8 ,we might allow that these ancient sages are superhuman and divine1 then our classification has no business with them1 because they do not properly belong to mankind4 ,now1 then1 who can point out any sinless person in the present world8 ,is it not a fact that the more virtuous one grows the more sinful he feels himself8 ,if there be any mortal1 in the past1 the present1 and the future1 who declares himself to be pure and sinless1 his very declaration proves that he is not highly moral4 ,therefore the existence of the first class of people is open to question4 #f4 ,there is no ,mortal who is ,non-,moral or ,purely ,immoral4 ,the same is the case with the third and the fourth class of people who are assumed as non-moral or purely immoral4 ,there is no person1 however morally degraded he may be1 but reveals some good nature in his whole course of life4 ,it is our daily experience that we find a faithful friend in the person even of a pickpocket1 a loving father even in a burglar1 and a kind neighbour even in a murderer4 ,faith1 sympathy1 friendship1 love1 loyalty1 and generosity dwell not merely in palaces and churches1 but also in brothels and gaols4 ,on the other hand1 abhorrent vices and bloody crimes often find shelter under the silk hat1 or the robe1 or the coronet1 or the crown4 ,life may fitly be compared with a rope made of white and black straw1 and to separate one from the other is to destroy the rope itself2 so also life entirely independent of the duality of good and bad is no actual life4 ,we must acknowledge1 therefore1 that the third and the fourth propositions are inconsistent with our daily experience of life1 and that only the second proposition remains1 which1 as seen above1 breaks down at the origin of morality4 #g4 ,where1 then1 does the ,error ,lie8 ,where1 then1 does the error lie in the four possible propositions respecting man's nature8 ,it lies not in their subject1 but in the predicate-that is to say1 in the use of the terms 'good' and 'bad4' ,now let us examine how does good differ from bad4 ,a good action ever promotes interests in a sphere far wider than a bad action4 ,both are the same in their conducing to human interests1 but differ in the extent in which they achieve their end4 ,in other words1 both good and bad actions are performed for one end and the same purpose of promoting human interests1 but they differ from each other as to the extent of interests4 ,for instance1 burglary is evidently bad action1 and is condemned everywhere2 but the capturing of an enemy's property for the sake of one's own tribe or clan or nation is praised as a meritorious conduct4 ,both acts are exactly the same in their promoting interests2 but the former relates to the interests of a single individual or of a single family1 while the latter to those of a tribe or a nation4 ,if the former be bad on account of its ignoring others' interests1 the latter must be also bad on account of its ignoring the enemy's interests4 ,murder is considered bad everywhere2 but the killing of thousands of men in a battle-field is praised and honoured1 because the former is perpetrated to promote the private interests1 while the latter those of the public4 ,if the former be bad1 because of its cruelty1 the latter must also be bad1 because of its inhumanity4 ,the idea of good and bad1 generally accepted by common sense1 may be stated as follows3 ',an action is good when it promotes the interests of an individual or a family2 better when it promotes those of a district or a country2 best when it promotes those of the whole world4 ,an action is bad when it inflicts injury on another individual or another family2 worse when it is prejudicial to a district or a country2 worst when it brings harm on the whole world4 ,strictly speaking1 an action is good when it promotes interests1 material or spiritual1 as intended by the actor in his motive2 and it is bad when it injures interests1 material or spiritual1 as intended by the actor in his motive4' ,according to this idea1 generally accepted by common sense1 human actions may be classified under four different heads3 7#a7 ,purely good actions2 7#b7 partly good and partly bad actions2 7#c7 neither good nor bad actions2 7#d7 purely bad actions4 ,first1 purely good actions are those actions which subserve and never hinder human interests either material or spiritual1 such as humanity and love of all beings4 ,secondly1 partly good and partly bad actions are those actions which are both for and against human interests1 such as narrow patriotism and prejudiced love4 ,thirdly1 neither good nor bad actions are such actions as are neither for nor against human interests--for example1 an unconscious act of a dreamer4 ,lastly1 purely bad actions1 which are absolutely against human interests1 cannot be possible for man except suicide1 because every action promotes more or less the interests1 material or spiritual1 of the individual agent or of someone else4 ,even such horrible crimes as homicide and parricide are intended to promote some interests1 and carry out in some measure their aim when performed4 ,it follows that man cannot be said to be good or bad in the strict sense of the terms as above defined1 for there is no human being who does the first class of actions and nothing else1 nor is there any mortal who does the fourth class of actions and nothing else4 ,man may be called good and bad1 and at the same time be neither good nor bad1 in that he always performs the second and the third class of actions4 ,all this1 nevertheless1 is a more play of words4 ,thus we are driven to conclude that the common-sense view of human nature fails to grasp the real state of actual life4 #h4 ,man is not ,good-natured nor ,bad-natured1 but ,buddha-natured4 ,we have had already occasion to observe that ,zen teaches ,buddha-nature1 which all sentient beings are endowed with4 ,the term ',buddha-nature1',,fn#afe as accepted generally by ,buddhists1 means a latent and undeveloped nature1 which enables its owner to become ,enlightened when it is developed and brought to actuality4,,fn#aff ,therefore man1 according to ,zen1 is not good-natured nor bad-natured in the relative sense1 as accepted generally by common sense1 of these terms1 but ,buddha-natured in the sense of non-duality4 ,a good person 7of common sense7 differs from a bad person 7of common sense71 not in his inborn ,buddha-nature1 but in the extent of his expressing it in deeds4 ,even if men are equally endowed with that nature1 yet their different states of development do not allow them to express it to an equal extent in conduct4 ,buddha-nature may be compared with the sun1 and individual mind with the sky4 ,then an ,enlightened mind is like the sky in fair weather1 when nothing prevents the beams of the sun2 while an ignorant mind is like the sky in cloudy weather1 when the sun sheds faint light2 and an evil mind is like the sky in stormy weather1 when the sun seems to be out of existence4 ,it comes under our daily observation that even a robber or a murderer may prove to be a good father and a loving husband to his wife and children4 ,he is an honest fellow when he remains at home4 ,the sun of ,buddha-nature gives light within the wall of his house1 but without the house the darkness of foul crimes shrouds him4 ,,fn#afe ,for a detailed explanation of ,buddha-nature1 see the chapter entitled ,buddha-nature in ,sho-bo-gen-zo4 ,,fn#aff ,mahaparinirvana-sutra may be said to have been written for the purpose of stating this idea4 #i4 ,the ,parable of the ,robber ,kih4,,fn#afg ,chwang ,tsz 7,so-shi7 remarks in a humorous way to the following effect3 ,the followers of the great robber and murderer ,kih asked him saying3 ',has the robber also any moral principles in his proceedings8' ,he replied3 ',what profession is there which has not its principles8 ,that the robber comes to the conclusion without mistake that there are valuable deposits in an apartment shows his wisdom2 that he is the first to enter it shows his bravery2 that he makes an equal division of the plunder shows his justice2 that he never betrays the fellow-robbers shows his faithfulness2 and that he is generous to the followers shows his benevolence4 ,without all these five qualities no one in the world has ever attained to become a great robber4' ,the parable clearly shows us ,buddha-nature of the robber and murderer expresses itself as wisdom1 bravery1 justice1 faithfulness1 and benevolence in his society1 and that if he did the same outside it1 he would not be a great robber but a great sage4 ,,fn#afg ,the parable is told for the purpose of undervaluing ,confucian doctrine1 but the author thereby accidentally touches human nature4 ,we do not quote it here with the same purpose as the author's4 #aj4 ,wang ,yang ,ming 7,o-yo-mei7 and a ,thief4 ,one evening when ,wang was giving a lecture to a number of students on his famous doctrine that all human beings are endowed with ,conscience1,,fn#afh a thief broke into the house and hid himself in the darkest corner4 ,then ,wang declared aloud that every human being is born with ,conscience1 and that even the thief who had got into the house had ,conscience just as the sages of old4 ,the burglar1 overhearing these remarks1 came out to ask the forgiveness of the master2 since there was no way of escape for him1 and he was half-naked1 he crouched behind the students4 ,wang's willing forgiveness and cordial treatment encouraged the man to ask the question how the teacher could know such a poor wretch as he was endowed with ,conscience as the sages of old4 ,wang replied3 ,it is your ,conscience that makes you ashamed of your nakedness4 ,you yourself are a sage1 if you abstain from everything that will put shame on you4 ,we firmly believe that ,wang is perfectly right in telling the thief that he was not different in nature from the sages of old4 ,it is no exaggeration4 ,it is a saving truth4 ,it is also a most effective way of saving men out of darkness of sin4 ,any thief ceases to be a thief the moment he believes in his own ,conscience1 or ,buddha-nature4 ,you can never correct criminals by your severe reproach or punishment4 ,you can save them only through your sympathy and love1 by which you call forth their inborn ,buddha-nature4 ,nothing can produce more pernicious effects on criminals than to treat them as if they were a different sort of people and confirm them in their conviction that they are bad-natured4 ,we greatly regret that even in a civilized society authorities neglecting this saving truth are driving to perdition those criminals under their care1 whom it is their duty to save4 ,,fn#afh ,it is not conscience in the ordinary sense of the term4 ,it is 'moral' principle1 according to ,wang1 pervading through the ,universe4 ',it expresses itself as ,providence in ,heaven1 as moral nature in man1 and as mechanical laws in things4' ,the reader will notice that ,wang's ,conscience is the nearest approach to ,buddha-nature4 #aa4 ,the ,bad are the ,good in the ,egg4 ,this is not only the case with a robber or a murderer1 but also with ordinary people4 ,there are many who are honest and good in their homesteads1 but turn out to be base and dishonest folk outside them4 ,similarly1 there are those who1 having an enthusiastic love of their local district1 act unlawfully against the interests of other districts4 ,they are upright and honourable gentlemen within the boundary of their own district1 but a gang of rascals without it4 ,so also there are many who are ,washingtons and ,william ,tells in their own1 but at the same time pirates and cannibals in the other countries4 ,again1 there are not a few persons who1 having racial prejudices1 would not allow the rays of their ,buddha-nature to pass through a coloured skin4 ,there are civilized persons who are humane enough to love and esteem any human being as their brother1 but so unfeeling that they think lower creatures as their proper food4 ,the highly enlightened person1 however1 cannot but sympathize with human beings and lower creatures as well1 as ,shakya ,muni felt all sentient beings to be his children4 ,these people are exactly the same in their ,buddha-nature1 but a wide difference obtains among them in the extent of their expressing that nature in deeds4 ,if thieves and murderers be called bad-natured1 reformers and revolutionists should be called so4 ,if1 on the other hand1 patriotism and loyalty be said to be good1 treason and insurrection should likewise be so4 ,therefore it is evident that a so-called good person is none but one who acts to promote wider interests of life1 and a so-called bad person is none but one who acts to advance narrower ones4 ,in other words1 the bad are the good in the egg1 so to speak1 and the good are the bad on the wing4 ,as the bird in the egg is one and the same as the bird on the wing1 so the good in the egg is entirely of the same nature as the bad on the wing4 ,to show that human nature transcends the duality of good and evil1 the author of ,avatamsaka-sutra declares that 'all beings are endowed with the wisdom and virtue of ,tathagata4' ,kwei ,fung 7,kei-ho7 also says3 ,all sentient beings have the ,real ,spirit of ,original ,enlightenment 7within themselves74 ,it is unchanging and pure4 ,it is eternally bright and clear1 and conscious4 ,it is also named ,buddha-nature1 or ,tathagata-garbha4 #ab4 ,the ,great ,person and ,small ,person4 ,for these reasons ,zen proposes to call man ,buddha-natured or ,good-natured in a sense transcendental to the duality of good and bad4 ,it conveys no sense to call some individuals good in case there is no bad individual4 ,for the sake of convenience1 however1 ,zen calls man good1 as is exemplified by ,shakya ,muni1 who was wont to address his hearers as 'good men and women1' and by the ,sixth ,patriarch in ,china1 who called everybody 'a good and wise one4' ,this does not imply in the least that all human beings are virtuous1 sinless1 and saintly-nay1 the world is full of vices and crimes4 ,it is an undeniable fact that life is the warfare of good against evil1 and many a valiant hero has fallen in the foremost ranks4 ,it is curious1 however1 to notice that the champions on the both sides are fighting for the same cause4 ,there can be no single individual in the world who is fighting against his own cause or interest1 and the only possible difference between one party and the other consists in the extent of interests which they fight for4 ,so-called bad persons1 who are properly designated as 'small persons' by ,chinese and ,japanese scholars1 express their ,buddha-nature to a small extent mostly within their own doors1 while so-called good persons1 or 'great persons' as the ,oriental scholars call them1 actualize their ,buddha-nature to a large extent in the whole sphere of a country1 or of the whole earth4 ,enlightened ,consciousness1 or ,buddha-nature1 as we have seen in the previous chapter1 is the mind of mind and the consciousness of consciousness1 ,universal ,spirit awakened in individual minds1 which realizes the universal brotherhood of all beings and the unity of individual lives4 ,it is the real self1 the guiding principle1 the ,original ,physiognomy,,fn#afi 7nature71 as it is called by ,zen1 of man4 ,this real self lies dormant under the threshold of consciousness in the minds of the confused2 consequently1 each of them is inclined to regard petty individual as his self1 and to exert himself to further the interests of the individual self even at the cost of those of the others4 ,he is 'the smallest person' in the world1 for his self is reduced to the smallest extent possible4 ,some of the less confused identify their selves with their families1 and feel happy or unhappy in proportion as their families are happy or unhappy1 for the sake of which they sacrifice the interests of other families4 ,on the other hand1 some of the more enlightened unite their selves through love and compassion with their whole tribe or countrymen1 and consider the rise or fall of the tribe or of the country as their own1 and willingly sacrifice their own lives1 if need be1 for the cause of the tribe or the country4 ,when they are fully enlightened1 they can realize the unity of all sentient lives1 and be ever merciful and helpful towards all creatures4 ,they are 'the greatest persons' on earth1 because their selves are enlarged to the greatest extent possible4 ,,fn#afi ,the expression first occurs in ,ho-bo-dan-kyo of the ,sixth ,patriarch1 and is frequently used by later ,zenists4 #ac4 ,the ,theory of ,buddha-,nature adequately explains the ,ethical ,states of ,man4 ,this theory of ,buddha-nature enables us to get an insight into the origin of morality4 ,the first awakening of ,buddha-nature within man is the very beginning of morality1 and man's ethical progress is the gradually widening expression of that nature in conduct4 ,but for it morality is impossible for man4 ,but for it not only moral culture or discipline1 but education and social improvement must be futile4 ,again1 the theory adequately explains the ethical facts that the standard of morality undergoes change in different times and places1 that good and bad are so inseparably knit together1 and that the bad at times become good all on a sudden1 and the good grow bad quite unexpectedly4 ,first1 it goes without saying that the standard of morality is raised just in proportion as ,buddha-nature or real self extends and amplifies itself in different times and places4 ,secondly1 since good is ,buddha-nature actualized to a large extent1 and bad is also ,buddha-nature actualized to a small extent1 the existence of the former presupposes that of the latter1 and the mess of duality can never be got rid of4 ,thirdly1 the fact that the bad become good under certain circumstances1 and the good also become bad often unexpectedly1 can hardly be explained by the dualistic theory1 because if good nature be so arbitrarily turned into bad and bad nature into good1 the distinction of good and bad nature has no meaning whatever4 ,according to the theory of ,buddha-nature1 the fact that the good become bad or the bad become good1 does not imply in the least a change of nature1 but the widening or the narrowing of its actualization4 ,so that no matter how morally degenerated one may be1 he can uplift himself to a high ethical plane by the widening of his self1 and at the same time no matter how morally exalted one may be1 he can descend to the level of the brute by the narrowing of his self4 ,to be an angel or to be a devil rests with one's degrees of enlightenment and free choice4 ,this is why such infinite varieties exist both among the good and the bad4 ,this is why the higher the peak of enlightenment the people climb1 the more widely the vista of moral possibilities open before them4 #ad4 ,buddha-,nature is the ,common ,source of ,morals4 ,furthermore1 ,buddha-nature or real self1 being the seat of love and the nucleus of sincerity1 forms the warp and woof of all moral actions4 ,he is an obedient son who serves his parents with sincerity and love4 ,he is a loyal subject who serves his master with sincerity and love4 ,a virtuous wife is she who loves her husband with her sincere heart4 ,a trustworthy friend is he who keeps company with others with sincerity and love4 ,a man of righteousness is he who leads a life of sincerity and love4 ,generous and humane is he who sympathizes with his fellow-men with his sincere heart4 ,veracity1 chastity1 filial piety1 loyalty1 righteousness1 generosity1 humanity1 and what not-all-this is no other than ,buddha-nature applied to various relationships of human brotherhood4 ,this is the common source1 ever fresh and inexhaustible1 of morality that fosters and furthers the interests of all4 ,to-ju,,fn#agj expresses the similar idea as follows3 ,there exists the ,inexhaustible ,source 7of morality7 within me4 ,it is an invaluable treasure4 ,it is called ,bright ,nature of man4 ,it is peerless and surpasses all jewels4 ,the aim of learning is to bring out this ,bright ,nature4 ,this is the best thing in the world4 ,real happiness can only be secured by it4 ,thus1 in the first place1 moral conduct1 which is nothing but the expression of ,buddha-nature in action1 implies the assertion of self and the furtherance of one's interests4 ,on this point is based the half-truth of the ,egoistic theory4 ,secondly1 it is invariably accompanied by a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction when it fulfils its end4 ,this accidental concomitance is mistaken for its essence by superficial observers who adhere to the ,hedonistic theory4 ,thirdly1 it conduces to the furtherance of the material and spiritual interests of man1 and it led the ,utilitarians to the confusion of the result with the cause of morality4 ,fourthly1 it involves the control or sacrifice of the lower and ignoble self of an individual in order to realize his higher and nobler self4 ,this gave rise to the half-truth of the ,ascetic theory of morality4 ,,fn#agj ,to-ju ,naka-e 7died ,a4,d4 #afdi71 the founder of the ,japanese ,wang ,school of ,confucianism1 known as the ,sage of ,omi4 #ae4 ,the ,parable of a ,drunkard4 ,now the question arises1 ,if all human beings are endowed with ,buddha-nature1 why have they not come naturally to be ,enlightened8 ,to answer this question1 the ,indian ,mahayanists,,fn#aga told the parable of a drunkard who forgets the precious gems put in his own pocket by one of his friends4 ,the man is drunk with the poisonous liquor of selfishness1 led astray by the alluring sight of the sensual objects1 and goes mad with anger1 lust1 and folly4 ,thus he is in a state of moral poverty1 entirely forgetting the precious gem of ,buddha-nature within him4 ,to be in an honourable position in society as the owner of that valuable property1 he must first get rid himself of the influence of the liquor of self1 and detach himself from sensual objects1 gain control over his passion1 restore peace and sincerity to his mind1 and illumine his whole existence by his inborn divine light4 ,otherwise he has to remain in the same plight to all eternity4 ,,fn#aga ,mahaparinirvana-sutra4 ,lot us avail ourselves of another figure to explain more clearly the point at issue4 ,universal ,spirit may fitly be likened to the universal water1 or water circulating through the whole earth4 ,this universal water exists everywhere4 ,it exists in the tree4 ,it exists in the grass4 ,it exists in the mountain4 ,it exists in the river4 ,it exists in the sea4 ,it exists in the air4 ,it exists in the cloud4 ,thus man is not only surrounded by water on all sides1 but it penetrates his very body4 ,but be can never appease his thirst without drinking water4 ,in like manner ,universal ,spirit exists everywhere4 ,it exists in the tree4 ,it exists in the grass4 ,it exists in the ground4 ,it exists in the mountain4 ,it exists in the river4 ,it exists in the sea4 ,it exists in the bird4 ,it exists in the beast4 ,thus man is not merely surrounded by ,spirit on all sides1 but it permeates through his whole existence4 ,but he can never be ,enlightened unless he awakens it within him by means of ,meditation4 ,to drink water is to drink the universal water2 to awaken ,buddha-nature is to be conscious of ,universal ,spirit4 ,therefore1 to get ,enlightened we have to believe that all beings are ,buddha-natured--that is1 absolutely good-natured in the sense that transcends the duality of good and bad4 ,one day1 to cite an example1 ,pan ,shan 7,ban-zan7 happened to pass by a meat-shop4 ,he heard a customer saying3 ',give me a pound of fresh meat4' ,to which the shopkeeper1 putting down his knife1 replied3 ,certainly1 sir4 ,could there be any meat that is not fresh in my shop8' ,pan ,shan1 hearing these remarks1 was ,enlightened at once4 #af4 ,shakya ,muni and the ,prodigal ,son4 ,a great trouble with us is that we do not believe in half the good that we are born with4 ,we are just like the only son of a well-to-do1 as the author of ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra,,fn#agb tells us1 who1 being forgetful of his rich inheritance1 leaves his home and leads a life of hand-to-mouth as a coolie4 ,how miserable it is to see one1 having no faith in his noble endowment1 burying the precious gem of ,buddha-nature into the foul rubbish of vices and crimes1 wasting his excellent genius in the exertion that is sure to disgrace his name1 falling a prey to bitter remorse and doubt1 and casting himself away into the jaw of perdition4 ,shakya ,muni1 full of fatherly love towards all beings1 looked with compassion on us1 his prodigal son1 and used every means to restore the half-starved man to his home4 ,it was for this that he left the palace and the beloved wife and son1 practised his self-mortification and prolonged ,meditation1 attained to ,enlightenment1 and preached ,dharma for forty-nine years2 in other words1 all his strength and effort were focussed on that single aim1 which was to bring the prodigal son to his rich mansion of ,buddha-nature4 ,he taught not only by words1 but by his own actual example1 that man has ,buddha-nature1 by the unfoldment of which he can save himself from the miseries of life and death1 and bring himself to a higher realm than gods4 ,when we are ,enlightened1 or when ,universal ,spirit awakens within us1 we open the inexhaustible store of virtues and excellencies1 and can freely make use of them at our will4 ,,fn#agb ,see ',sacred ,books of the ,east1' vol4 xxi41 chap4 iv41 pp4 #ih-aah4 #ag4 ,the ,parable of the ,monk and the ,stupid ,woman4 ,the confused or unenlightened may be compared with a monk and a stupid woman in a ,japanese parable which runs as follows3 ,one evening a monk 7who was used to have his head shaved clean71 getting drunk against the moral precepts1 visited a woman1 known as a blockhead1 at her house4 ,no sooner had he got into her room than the female fell asleep so soundly that the monk could not wake her nap4 ,thereupon he made up his mind to use every possible means to arouse her1 and searched and searched all over the room for some instrument that would help him in his task of arousing her from death-like slumber4 ,fortunately1 he found a razor in one of the drawers of her mirror stand4 ,with it he gave a stroke to her hair1 but she did not stir a whit4 ,then came another stroke1 and she snored like thunder4 ,the third and fourth strokes came1 but with no better result4 ,and at last her head was shaven clean1 yet still she slept on4 ,the next morning when she awoke1 she could not find her visitor1 the monk1 as he had left the house in the previous night4 ',where is my visitor1 where my dear monk8' she called aloud1 and waking in a state of somnambulation looked for him in vain1 repeating the outcry4 ,when at length her hand accidentally touched her shaven head1 she mistook it for that of her visitor1 and exclaimed3 ',here you are1 my dear1 where am ,i myself gone then8 ,a great trouble with the confused is their forgetting of real self or ,buddha-nature1 and not knowing 'where it is gone4' ,duke ,ngai1 of the ,state of ,lu1 once said to ,confucius3 ,one of my subjects1 ,sir1 is so much forgetful that he forgot to take his wife when be changed his residence4 ,that is not much1 my lord1 said the sage1 the ,emperors ,kieh,,fn#agc and ,cheu,,fn#agd forgot their own selves4,,fn#age ,,fn#agc ,the last ,emperor of the ,ha dynasty1 notorious for his vices4 ,his reign was #ahah-agfg ,b4,c4 ,,fn#agd ,the last ,emperor of the ,yin dynasty1 one of the worst despots4 ,his reign was #aaed-aabb ,b4,c4 ,,fn#age ,ko-shi-ke-go4 #ah4 ',each ,smile a ,hymn1 each ,kindly ,word a ,prayer4' ,the glorious sun of ,buddha-nature shines in the zenith of ,enlightened ,consciousness1 but men still dream a dream of illusion4 ,bells and clocks of the ,universal ,church proclaim the dawn of ,bodhi1 yet men1 drunk with the liquors of the ,three ,poisons,,fn#agf ,still slumber in the darkness of sin4 ,let us pray to ,buddha1 in whose bosom we live1 for the sake of our own salvation4 ,let us invoke ,buddha1 whose boundless mercy ever besets us1 for the ,sake of joy and peace of all our fellow-beings4 ,let us adore ,him through our sympathy towards the poor1 through our kindness shown to the suffering1 through our thought of the sublime and the good4 ,o brother man1 fold to thy heart thy brother2 ,where pity dwells1 the peace of ,god is there2 ,to worship rightly is to love each other1 ,each smile a hymn1 each kindly word a prayer4 --,whittier4 ,let1 then1 your heart be so pure that you may not be unworthy of the sunshine beaming upon you the light of ,universal ,spirit4 ,let your thought be so noble that you may deserve fair flowers blooming before you1 reminding you of merciful ,buddha4 ,let your life be so good that you may not be ashamed of yourself in the presence of the ,blessed ,one4 ,this is the piety of ,mahayanists1 especially of ,zenists4 ,,fn#agf ,lust1 anger1 and folly4 #ai4 ,the ,world is in the ,making4 ,our assertion is far from assuming that life is now complete1 and is in its best state4 ,on the contrary1 it is full of defects and shortcomings4 ,we must not be puffed up with modern civilization1 however great victory it has scored for its side4 ,beyond all doubt man is still in his cradle4 ,he often stretches forth his hands to get at his higher ideal1 yet is still satisfied with worthless playthings4 ,it is too glaring a fact to be overlooked by us that faith in religion is dying out in the educated circles of society1 that insincerity1 cowardice1 and double-tongue are found holding high positions in almost ever community1 that ,lucrese and ,ezzeling are looking down upon the starving multitude from their luxurious palace1 that ,mammon and ,bacchus are sometimes preying on their living victims1 that even religion often sides with ,contention and piety takes part in ,cruelty1 that ,anarchy is ever ready to spring on the crowned beings1 that philosophy is disposed to turn the deaf ear to the petition of peace1 while science provides fuel for the fire of strife4 ,was the golden age of man1 then1 over in the remote past8 ,is the doomsday coming instead8 ,do you bear the trumpet call8 ,do you feel the earth tremble8 ,no1 absolutely no1 the golden age is not passed4 ,it is yet to come4 ,there are not a few who think that the world is in completion1 and the ,creator has finished ,his work4 ,we witness1 however1 that ,he is still working and working1 for actually we hear ,his hammer-strokes resounding through heaven above and earth beneath4 ,does ,he not show us new materials for ,his building8 ,does ,he not give new forms to ,his design8 ,does ,he not surprise us with novelties1 extraordinaries1 and mysteries8 ,in a word1 the world is in progress1 not in retrogression4 ,a stream does not run in a straight line4 ,it now turns to the right1 now to the left1 now leaps down a precipice1 now waters rich fields1 now runs back towards its source2 but it is destined to find its outlet in the ocean4 ,so it is with the stream of life4 ,it now leaps down the precipice of revolution4 ,now it enriches the fertile field of civilization4 ,now it expands itself into a glassy lake of peace4 ,now it forms the dangerous whirlpool of strife4 ,but its course is always toward the ocean of ,enlightenment1 in which the gems of equality and freedom1 jewels of truth and beauty1 and treasures of wisdom and bliss can be had4 #bj4 ,the ,progress and ,hope of ,life4 ,how many myriads of years have passed since the germs of life first made appearance on earth none can tell2 how many thousands of summers and winters it has taken to develop itself into higher animals1 no scientist can calculate exactly4 ,slowly but steadily it has taken its swerving course1 and ascending stop by step the series of evolution1 has reached at length the plane of the rational animal4 ,we cannot tell how many billions of years it takes to develop ourselves and become beings higher than man himself1 yet we firmly believe that it is possible for us to take the same unerring course as the organic germs took in the past4 ,existing humanity is not the same as primitive one4 ,it is quite another race4 ,our desires and hopes are entirely different from those of primitive man4 ,what was gold for them is now iron for us4 ,our thoughts and beliefs are what they never dreamed of4 ,of our knowledge they had almost none4 ,that which they kept in veneration we trample under our feet4 ,things they worshipped as deities now serve us as our slaves4 ,things that troubled and tortured them we now turn into utilities4 ,to say nothing of the customs and manners and mode of living which underwent extraordinary change1 we are of a race in body and mind other than the primitive forefathers of good old days4 ,in addition to this we have every reason to believe in the betterment of life4 ,let us cast a glance to the existing state of the world4 ,while the ,turco-,italian war was raising its ferocious outcry1 the ,chinese revolution lifted its head before the trembling throne4 ,who can tell whether another sanguinary affair will not break out before the ,bulgarian bloodshed comes to an end8 ,still we believe that1 as fire drives out fire1 to borrow ,shakespeare's phrase1 so war is driving out war4 ,as an ocean1 which separated two nations in the past1 serves to unite them now1 so a war1 which separated two people in the past1 brings them to unity now4 ,it goes without saying1 that every nation groans under the burden of cannons and warships1 and heartily desires peace4 ,no nation can willingly wage war against any other nation4 ,it is against the national conscience4 ,it is no exaggeration to say the world is wholly the ear to hear the news from the goddess of peace4 ,a time will surely come1 if our purpose be steady and our resolution firm1 when universal peace will be restored1 and ,shakya ,muni's precept1 'not to kill1' will be realized by all mankind4 #ba4 ,the ,betterment of ,life4 ,again1 people nowadays seem to feel keenly the wound of the economical results of war1 but they are unfeeling to its moral injuries4 ,as elements have their affinities1 as bodies have their attractions1 as creatures have their instinct to live together1 so men have their inborn mutual love4 ',god divided man into men that they might help each other4' ,their strength lies in their mutual help1 their pleasure is in their mutual love1 and their perfection is in their giving and receiving of alternate good4 ,therefore ,shakya ,muni says3 ,be merciful to all living beings4 ,to take up arms against any other person is unlawful for any individual4 ,it is the violation of the universal law of life4 ,we do not deny that there are not a few who are so wretched that they rejoice in their crimes1 nor that there is any person but has more or less stain on his character1 nor that the means of committing crimes are multiplied in proportion as modern civilization advances2 yet still we believe that our social life is ever breaking down our wolfish disposition that we inherited from our brute ancestors1 and education is ever wearing out our cannibalistic nature which we have in common with wild animals4 ,on the one hand1 the signs of social morals are manifest in every direction1 such as asylums for orphans1 poorhouses1 houses of correction1 lodgings for the penniless1 asylums for the poor1 free hospitals1 hospitals for domestic animals1 societies for the prevention of cruelty to animals1 schools for the blind and the dumb1 asylums for the insane1 and so forth2 on the other hand1 various discoveries and inventions have been made that may contribute to the social improvement1 such as the discovery of the ,x rays and of radium1 the invention of the wireless telegraph and that of the aeroplane and what not4 ,furthermore1 spiritual wonders such as clairvoyance1 clairaudience1 telepathy1 etc41 remind us of the possibilities of further spiritual unfoldment in man which he never dreamed of4 ,thus life is growing richer and nobler step by step1 and becoming more and more hopeful as we advance in the ,way of ,buddha4 #bb4 ,the ,buddha of ,mercy4 ,milton says3 ,virtue may be assailed1 but never hurt2 ,surprised by unjust force1 but not enthralled4 ,but evil on itself shall back recoil1 ,and mix no more with goodness4 ,if this fail1 ,the pillared firmament is rottenness1 ,and earth's base built on stubble4 ,the world is built on the foundation of morality1 which is another name for ,universal ,spirit1 and moral order sustains it4 ,we human beings1 consciously or unconsciously1 were1 are1 and will be at work to bring the world into perfection4 ,this idea is allegorically expressed in the ,buddhist sutra1,,fn#agg which details the advent of a merciful ,buddha named ,maitreya in the remote future4 ,at that time1 it says1 there will be no steep hills1 no filthy places1 no epidemic1 no famine1 no earthquake1 no storm1 no war1 no revolution1 no bloodshed1 no cruelty1 and no suffering2 the roads will be paved smoothly1 grass and trees always blooming1 birds ever singing1 men contented and happy2 all sentient beings will worship the ,buddha of ,mercy1 accept ,his doctrine1 and attain to ,enlightenment4 ,this prophecy will be fulfilled1 according to the sutra1 #e1fgj1jjj1jjj years after the death of ,shakya ,muni4 ,this evidently shows us that the ,mahayanist's aim of life is to bring out man's inborn light of ,buddha-nature to illumine the world1 to realize the universal brotherhood of all sentient beings1 to attain to ,enlightenment1 and to enjoy peace and joy to which ,universal ,spirit leads us4 ,,fn#agg ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #bjd-bji4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,enlightenment #a4 ,enlightenment is beyond ,description and ,analysis4 ,in the foregoing chapters we have had several occasions to refer to the central problem of ,zen or ,enlightenment1 whose content it is futile to attempt to explain or analyze4 ,we must not explain or analyze it1 because by doing so we cannot but mislead the reader4 ,we can as well represent ,enlightenment by means of explanation or analysis as we do personality by snapshots or by anatomical operations4 ,as our inner life1 directly experienced within us1 is anything but the shape of the head1 or the features of the face1 or the posture of the body1 so ,enlightenment experienced by ,zenists at the moment of their highest ,samadhi,,fn#agh is anything but the psychological analysis of mental process1 or the epistemological explanation of cognition1 or the philosophical generalization of concepts4 ,enlightenment can be realized only by the ,enlightened1 and baffles every attempt to describe it1 even by the ,enlightened themselves4 ,the effort of the confused to guess at ,enlightenment is often likened by the ,zenists to the effort of the blind who feel an elephant to know what it looks like4 ,some of them who happen to feel the trunk would declare it is like a rope1 but those who happen to feel the belly would declare it is like a huge drum2 while those who happen to feel the feet would declare it is like the trunk of a tree4 ,but none of these conjectures can approach the living elephant4 ,,fn#agh ,abstract ,contemplation1 which the ,zenists distinguish from ,samadhi1 practised by the ,brahmins4 ,the author of ',an ,outline of ,buddhist ,sects' points out the distinction1 saying3 ,contemplation of outside religionists is practised with the heterodox view that the lower worlds 7the worlds for men1 beasts1 etc47 are disgusting1 but the upper worlds 7the worlds for ,devas7 are desirable2 ,contemplation of common people 7ordinary lay believers of ,buddhism7 is practised with the belief in the law of ,karma1 and also with disgust 7for the lower worlds7 and desire 7for the upper worlds72 ,contemplation of ,hinayana is practised with an insight into the truth of ,anatman 7non-soul72 ,contemplation of ,mahayana is practised with an insight of ,unreality of ,atman 7soul7 as well as of ,dharma 7thing72 ,contemplation of the highest perfection is practised with the view that ,mind is pure in its nature1 it is endowed with unpolluted wisdom1 free from passion1 and it is no other than ,buddha himself4 #b4 ,enlightenment implies an ,insight into the ,nature of ,self4 ,we cannot pass over1 however1 this weighty problem without saying a word4 ,we shall try in this chapter to present ,enlightenment before the reader in a roundabout way1 just as the painter gives the fragmentary sketches of a beautiful city1 being unable to give even a bird's-eye view of it4 ,enlightenment1 first of all1 implies an insight into the nature of ,self4 ,it is an emancipation of mind from illusion concerning ,self4 ,all kinds of sin take root deep in the misconception of ,self1 and putting forth the branches of lust1 anger1 and folly1 throw dark shadows on life4 ,to extirpate this misconception ,buddhism,,fn#agi strongly denies the existence of the individual soul as conceived by common sense-that is1 that unchanging spiritual entity provided with sight1 hearing1 touch1 smell1 feeling1 thought1 imagination1 aspiration1 etc41 which survives the body4 ,it teaches us that there is no such thing as soul1 and that the notion of soul is a gross illusion4 ,it treats of body as a temporal material form of life doomed to be destroyed by death and reduced to its elements again4 ,it maintains that mind is also a temporal spiritual form of life1 behind which there is no immutable soul4 ,,fn#agi ,both ,mahayana and ,hinayana ,buddhism teach the doctrine of ,anatman1 or ,non-self4 ,it is the denial of soul as conceived by common sense1 and of ,atman as conceived by ,indian heterodox thinkers4 ,some ,mahayanists believe in the existence of real ,self instead of individual self1 as we see in ,mahaparinirvana-sutra1 whose author says3 ,there is real self in non-self4 ,it is worthy of note that the ,hinayanists set forth ,purity1 ,pleasure1 ,atman1 and ,eternity1 as the four great misconceptions about life1 while the same author regards them as the four great attributes of ,nirvana itself4 ,an illusory mind tends either to regard body as ,self and to yearn after its material interests1 or to believe mind dependent on soul as ,ego4 ,those who are given to sensual pleasures1 consciously or unconsciously1 bold body to be the ,self1 and remain the life-long slave to the objects of sense4 ,those who regard mind as dependent on soul as the ,self1 on the other hand1 undervalue body as a mere tool with which the soul works1 and are inclined to denounce life as if unworthy of living4 ,we must not undervalue body1 nor must we overestimate mind4 ,there is no mind isolated from body1 nor is there any body separated from mind4 ,every activity of mind produces chemical and physiological changes in the nerve-centres1 in the organs1 and eventually in the whole body2 while every activity of body is sure to bring out the corresponding change in the mental function1 and eventually in the whole personality4 ,we have the inward experience of sorrow when we have simultaneously the outward appearance of tears and of pallor2 when we have the outward appearance of the fiery eyes and short breath1 we have simultaneously the inward feeling of anger4 ,thus body is mind observed outwardly in its relation to the senses2 mind is body inwardly experienced in its relation to introspection4 ,who can draw a strict line of demarcation between mind and body8 ,we should admit1 so far as our present knowledge is concerned1 that mind1 the intangible1 has been formed to don a garment of matter in order to become an intelligible existence at all2 matter1 the solid1 has faded under examination into formlessness1 as that of mind4 ,zen believes in the identification of mind and body1 as ,do-gen,,fn#ahj says3 ,body is identical with mind2 appearance and reality are one and the same thing4 ,bergson denies the identification of mind and body1 saying3,,fn#aha ,it 7experience7 shows us the interdependence of the mental and the physical1 the necessity of a certain cerebral substratum for the psychical state-nothing more4 ,from the fact that two things are mutually dependent1 it does not follow that they are equivalent4 ,because a certain screw is necessary for a certain machine1 because the machine works when the screw is there and stops when the screw is taken away1 we do not say that the screw is equivalent of the machine4 ,bergson's simile of a screw and a machine is quite inadequate to show the interdependence of mind and body1 because the screw does cause the machine to work1 but the machine does not cause the screw to work2 so that their relation is not interdependence4 ,on the contrary1 body causes mind to work1 and at the same time mind causes body to work2 so that their relation is perfectly interdependent1 and the relation is not that of an addition of mind to body1 or of body to mind1 as the screw is added to the machine4 ,bergson must have compared the working of the machine with mind1 and the machine itself with body1 if be wanted to show the real fact4 ,moreover1 he is not right in asserting that from the fact that two things are mutually dependent1 it does not follow that they are equivalent1 because there are several kinds of interdependence1 in some of which two things can be equivalent4 ,for instance1 bricks1 mutually dependent in their forming an arch1 cannot be equivalent one with another2 but water and waves1 being mutually dependent1 can be identified4 ,in like manner fire and heat1 air and wind1 a machine and its working1 mind and body4,,fn#ahb ,,fn#ahj ,the master strongly condemns the immortality of the soul as the heterodox doctrine in his ,sho-bo-gen-zo4 ,the same argument is found in ,mu-chu-mon-do1 by ,mu-so ,koku-shi4 ,,fn#aha ',creative ,evolution1' pp4 #ced1 #cee4 ,,fn#ahb ,bergson1 arguing against the dependence of the mind on brain1 says3 ,that there is a close connection between a state of consciousness and the brain we do not dispute4 ,but there is also a close connection between a coat and the nail on which it hangs1 for if the nail is pulled out1 the coat will fall to the ground4 ,shall we say1 then1 that the shape of the nail gave the shape of the coat1 or in any way corresponds to it8 ,no more are we entitled to conclude1 because the psychical fact is hung on to a cerebral state1 that there is any parallelism between the two series1 psychical and physiological4 ,we have to ask1 in what respects does the interrelation between mind and body resemble the relation between a coat and a nail8 #c4 ,the ,irrationality of the ,belief of ,immortality4 ,occidental minds believe in a mysterious entity under the name of soul1 just as ,indian thinkers believe in the so-called subtle body entirely distinct from the gross body of flesh and blood4 ,soul1 according to this belief1 is an active principle that unites body and mind so as to form an harmonious whole of mental as well as bodily activities4 ,and it acts through the instrumentality of the mind and body in the present life1 and enjoys an eternal life beyond the grave4 ,it is on this soul that individual immortality is based4 ,it is immortal ,self4 ,now1 to say nothing of the origin of soul1 this long-entertained belief is hardly good for anything4 ,in the first place1 it throws no light upon the relation of mind and body1 because soul is an empty name for the unity of mind and body1 and serves to explain nothing4 ,on the contrary1 it adds another mystery to the already mysterious relationships between matter and spirit4 ,secondly1 soul should be conceived as a psychical individual1 subject to spacial determinations--but since it has to be deprived by death of its body which individualizes it1 it will cease to be individuality after death1 to the disappointment of the believer4 ,how could you think anything purely spiritual and formless existing without blending together with other things8 ,thirdly1 it fails to gratify the desire1 cherished by the believer1 of enjoying eternal life1 because soul has to lose its body1 the sole important medium through which it may enjoy life4 ,fourthly1 soul is taken as a subject matter to receive in the future life the reward or the punishment from ,god for our actions in this life2 but the very idea of eternal punishment is inconsistent with the boundless love of ,god4 ,fifthly1 it is beyond all doubt that soul is conceived as an entity1 which unifies various mental faculties and exists as the foundation of individual personality4 ,but the existence of such soul is quite incompatible with the well-known pathological fact that it is possible for the individual to have double or treble or multiple personalities4 ,thus the belief in the existence of soul conceived by the common sense turns out not only to be irrational1 but a useless encumbrance on the religious mind4 ,therefore ,zen declares that there is no such thing as soul1 and that mind and body are one4 ,hwui ,chung 7,ye-chu71 a famous disciple of the ,sixth ,patriarch in ,china1 to quote an example1 one day asked a monk3 ,where did you come from8 ,i came1 sir1 from the ,south1 replied the man4 ,what doctrine do the masters of the ,south teach8 asked ,hwui ,chung again4 ,they teach1 sir1 that body is mortal1 but mind is immortal1 was the answer4 ,that1 said the master1 is the heterodox doctrine of the ,atman6 ,how do you1 sir1 questioned the monk1 teach about that8 ,i teach that the body and mind are one1 was the reply4,,fn#ahc ,,fn#ahc ,for further explanation1 see ,sho-bo-gen-zo and ,mu-chu-mon-do4 ,fiske1 ,,fn#ahd in his argument against materialism1 blames the denial of immortality1 saying3 ,the materialistic assumption that there is no such state of things1 and that the life of the soul ends accordingly with the life of the body1 is perhaps the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is known to the history of philosophy4 ,but we can say with equal force that the common-sense assumption that the life of soul continues beyond the grave is1 perhaps1 the most colossal instance of baseless assumption that is known to the history of thought1 because1 there being no scientific evidences that give countenance to the assumption1 even the spiritualists themselves hesitate to assert the existence of a ghost or soul4 ,again he,,fn#ahe says3 ,with this illegitimate hypothesis of annihilation the materialist transgresses the bounds of experience quite as widely as the poet who sings of the ,new ,jerusalem with its river of life and its street of gold4 ,scientifically speaking1 there is not a particle of evidence for either view4 ,this is as much as to say there is not a particle of evidence1 scientifically speaking1 for the common-sense view of soul1 because the poet's description of the ,new ,jerusalem is nothing but the result of the common-sense belief of immortality4 ,,fn#ahd ',the ,destiny of ,man1' p4 #aaj4 ,,fn#ahe ',the ,destiny of ,man1' pp4 #aaj1 #aaa4 #d4 ,the ,examination of the ,notion of ,self4 ,the belief in immortality is based on the strong instinct of self-preservation that calls forth an insatiable longing for longevity4 ,it is another form of egoism1 one of the relics of our brute forefathers4 ,we must bear in mind that this illusion of the individual ,self is the foundation on which every form of immorality has its being4 ,i challenge my readers to find in the whole history of mankind any crime not based on egoism4 ,evil-doers have been as a rule pleasure-hunters1 money-seekers1 seekers after self-interests1 characterized by lust1 folly1 and cruelty4 ,has there been anyone who committed theft that he might further the interests of his villagers8 ,has there been any paramour who disgraced himself that lie might help his neighbours8 ,has there been any traitor who performed the ignoble conduct to promote the welfare of his own country or society at large8 ,to get ,enlightened1 therefore1 we have to correct1 first of all1 our notions concerning ,self4 ,individual body and mind are not the only important constituents of ,self4 ,there are many other indispensable elements in the notion of ,self4 ,for instance1 ,i have come into existence as another form of my parents4 ,i am theirs1 and may justly be called the reincarnation of them4 ,and again1 my father is another form of his parents2 my mother of hers2 his and her parents of theirs2 and ad infinitum4 ,in brief1 all my forefathers live and have their being in me4 ,i cannot help1 therefore1 thinking that my physical state is the result of the sum total of my good and bad actions in the past lives ,i led in the persons of my forefathers1 and of the influence ,i received therein2,,fn#ahf and that my psychical state is the result of that which ,i received1 felt1 imagined1 conceived1 experienced1 and thought in my past existences in the persons of my ancestors4 ,,fn#ahf ,this is the law of ,karma4 ,besides this1 my brothers1 my sisters1 my neighbours--nay1 all my follow-men and fellow-women are no other than the reincarnation of their parents and forefathers1 who are also mine4 ,the same blood invigorated the king as well as the beggar2 the same nerve energized the white as well as the black men2 the same consciousness vitalized the wise as well as the unwise4 ,impossible it is to conceive myself independent of my fellow-men and fellow-women1 for they are mine and ,i am theirs--that is1 ,i live and move in them1 and they live and move in me4 ,it is bare nonsense to say that ,i go to school1 not to be educated as a member of society1 but simply to gratify my individual desire for knowledge2 or that ,i make a fortune1 not to lead the life of a well-to-do in society1 but to satisfy my individual money-loving instinct2 or that ,i seek after truth1 neither to do good to my contemporaries nor to the future generations1 but only for my individual curiosity or that ,i live neither to live with my family nor with my friends nor with anyone else1 but to live my individual life4 ,it is as gross absurdity to say that ,i am an individual absolutely independent of society as to say ,i am a husband with no wife1 or ,i am a son to no parents4 ,whatever ,i do directly or indirectly ,i contribute to the common fortune of man2 whatever anyone else does directly or indirectly determines my fate4 ,therefore we must realize that our ,selves necessarily include other members of the community1 while other members' ,selves necessarily comprehend us4 #e4 ,nature is the ,mother of ,all ,things4 ,furthermore1 man has come into existence out of ,nature4 ,he is her child4 ,she provided him food1 raiment1 and shelter4 ,she nourishes him1 strengthens him1 and vitalizes him4 ,at the same time she disciplines1 punishes1 and instructs him4 ,his body is of her own formation1 his knowledge is of her own laws1 and his activities are the responses to her own addresses to him4 ,modern civilization is said by some to be the conquest of man over ,nature2 but1 in fact1 it is his faithful obedience to her4 ,bacon truly said1 says ,eucken1,,fn#ahg that to rule nature man must first serve her4 ,he forgot to add that1 as her ruler1 he is still destined to go on serving her4 ,she can never be attacked by any being unless he acts in strict conformity to her laws4 ,to accomplish anything against her law is as impossible as to catch fishes in a forest1 or to make bread of rock4 ,how many species of animals have perished owing to their inability to follow her steps6 ,how immense fortunes have been lost in vain from man's ignorance of her order6 ,how many human beings disappeared on earth from their disobedience to her unbending will6 ,she is1 nevertheless1 true to those who obey her rules4 ,has not science proved that she is truthful8 ,has not art found that she is beautiful8 ,,fn#ahg ,eucken's ',philosophy of ,life1' by ,w4 ,r4 ,royce ,gibbon1 p4 #ea4 ,has not philosophy announced that she is spiritual8 ,has not religion proclaimed that she is good8 ,at all events1 she is the mother of all beings4 ,she lives in all things and they live in her4 ,all that she possesses is theirs1 and all that they want she supplies4 ,her life is the same vitality that stirs all sentient beings4 ,chwang ,tsz,,fn#ahh 7,so-shi7 is right when he says3 ,heaven1 ,earth1 and ,i were produced together1 and all things and ,i are one4 ,and again3 ,if all things be regarded with love1 ,heaven and ,earth are one with me4 ,sang ,chao 7,so-jo7 also says3 ,heaven and ,earth are of the same root as we4 ,all things in the world are of one substance with ,me4,,fn#ahi ,,fn#ahh ,chwang ,tsz1 vol4 i41 p4 #bj4 ,,fn#ahi ,this is a favourite subject of discussion by ,zenists4 #f4 ,real ,self4 ,if there be no individual soul either in mind or body1 where does personality lie8 ,what is ,real ,self8 ,how does it differ from soul8 ,self is living entity1 not immutable like soul1 but mutable and ever-changing life1 which is body when observed by senses1 and which is mind when experienced by introspection4 ,it is not an entity lying behind mind and body1 but life existent as the union of body and mind4 ,it existed in our forefathers in the past1 is existing in the present1 and will exist in the future generations4 ,it also discloses itself to some measure in vegetables and animals1 and shadows itself forth in inorganic nature4 ,it is ,cosmic life and ,cosmic spirit1 and at the same time individual life and individual spirit4 ,it is one and the same life which embraces men and nature4 ,it is the self-existent1 creative1 universal principle that moves on from eternity to eternity4 ,as such it is called ,mind or ,self by ,zenists4 ,pan ,shan 7,ban-zan7 says3 ,the moon of mind comprehends all the universe in its light4 ,a man asked ,chang ,sha 7,cho-sha73 ,how can you turn the phenomenal universe into ,self 8 ,how can you turn ,self into the phenomenal universe8 returned the master4 ,when we get the insight into this ,self1 we are able to have the open sesame to the mysteries of the universe1 because to know the nature of a drop of water is to know the nature of the river1 the lake1 and the ocean--nay1 even of vapour1 mist1 and cloud2 in other words1 to get an insight into individual life is the key to the secret of ,universal ,life4 ,we must not confine ,self within the poor little person called body4 ,that is the root of the poorest and most miserable egoism4 ,we should expand that egoism into family-egoism1 then into nation-egoism1 then into race-egoism1 then into human-egoism1 then into living-being-egoism1 and lastly into universe-egoism1 which is not egoism at all4 ,thus we deny the immortality of soul as conceived by common sense1 but assume immortality of the ,great ,soul1 which animates1 vitalizes1 and spiritualizes all sentient beings4 ,it is ,hinayana ,buddhism that first denied the existence of atman or ,self so emphatically inculcated in the ,upanisads1 and paved the way for the general conception of ,universal ,self1 with the eulogies of which almost every page of ,mahayana books is filled4 #g4 ,the ,awakening of the ,innermost ,wisdom4 ,having set ourselves free from the misconception of ,self1 next we must awaken our innermost wisdom1 pure and divine1 called the ,mind of ,buddha1,,fn#aij or ,bodhi1,,fn#aia or ,prajnya,,fn#aib by ,zen masters4 ,it is the divine light1 the inner heaven1 the key to all moral treasures1 the centre of thought and consciousness1 the source of all influence and power1 the seat of kindness1 justice1 sympathy1 impartial love1 humanity1 and mercy1 the measure of all things4 ,when this innermost wisdom is fully awakened1 we are able to realize that each and everyone of us is identical in spirit1 in essence1 in nature with the universal life or ,buddha1 that each ever lives face to face with ,buddha1 that each is beset by the abundant grace of the ,blessed ,one1 that ,he arouses his moral nature1 that ,he opens his spiritual eyes1 that ,he unfolds his new capacity1 that ,he appoints his mission1 and that life is not an ocean of birth1 disease1 old age1 and death1 nor the vale of tears1 but the holy temple of ,buddha1 the ,pure ,land1,,fn#aic where be can enjoy the bliss of ,nirvana4 ,,fn#aij ,zen is often called the ,sect of ,buddha-mind1 as it lays stress on the awakening of the ,mind of ,buddha4 ,the words 'the ,mind of ,buddha' were taken from a passage in ,lankavatara-sutra4 ,,fn#aia ,that knowledge by which one becomes enlightened4 ,,fn#aib ,supreme wisdom4 ,,fn#aic ,sukhavati1 or the land of bliss4 ,then our minds go through an entire revolution4 ,we are no more troubled by anger and hatred1 no more bitten by envy and ambition1 no more stung by sorrow and chagrin1 no more overwhelmed by melancholy and despair4 ,not that we become passionless or simply intellectual1 but that we have purified passions1 which1 instead of troubling us1 inspire us with noble aspirations1 such as anger and hatred against injustice1 cruelty1 and dishonesty1 sorrow and lamentation for human frailty1 mirth and joy for the welfare of follow-beings1 pity and sympathy for suffering creatures4 ,the same change purifies our intellect4 ,scepticism and sophistry give way to firm conviction2 criticism and hypothesis to right judgment2 and inference and argument to realization4 ,what we merely observed before we now touch with heart as well4 ,what we knew in relation of difference before we now understand in relation of unity as well4 ,how things happen was our chief concern before1 but now we consider as well bow much value they have4 ,what was outside us before now comes within us4 ,what was dead and indifferent before grows now alive and lovable to us4 ,what was insignificant and empty before becomes now important1 and has profound meaning4 ,wherever we go we find beauty2 whomever we meet we find good2 whatever we get we receive with gratitude4 ,this is the reason why the ,zenists not only regarded all their fellow-beings as their benefactors1 but felt gratitude even towards fuel and water4 ,the present writer knows a contemporary ,zenist who would not drink even a cup of water without first making a salutation to it4 ,such an attitude of ,zen toward things may well be illustrated by the following example3 ,sueh ,fung 7,sep-po7 and ,kin ,shan 7,kin-zan71 once travelling through a mountainous district1 saw a leaf of the rape floating down the stream4 ,thereon ,kin ,shan said3 ,let us go up1 dear brother1 along the stream that we may find a sage living up on the mountain4 ,i hope we shall find a good teacher in him4 ,no1 replied ,sueh ,fung1 for he cannot be a sage who wastes even a leaf of the rape4 ,he will be no good teacher for us4 #h4 ,zen is not ,nihilistic4 ,zen judged from ancient ,zen masters' aphorisms may seem1 at the first sight1 to be idealistic in an extreme form1 as they say3 ,mind is ,buddha or1 ,buddha is ,mind1 or1 ,there is nothing outside mind1 or1 ,three worlds are of but one mind4 ,and it may also appear to be nihilistic1 as they say3 ,there has been nothing since all eternity1 ,by illusion you see the castle of the ,three ,worlds2 by ,enlightenment you see but emptiness in ten directions4,,fn#aid ,in reality1 however1 ,zen,,fn#aie is neither idealistic nor nihilistic4 ,zen makes use of the nihilistic idea of ,hinayana ,buddhism1 and calls its students' attention to the change and evanescence of life and of the world1 first to destroy the error of immutation1 next to dispel the attachment to the sensual objects4 ,,fn#aid ,these words were repeatedly uttered by ,chinese and ,japanese ,zenists of all ages4 ,chwen ,hih 7,fu-dai-shi7 expressed this very idea in his ,sin ,wang ,ming 7,shin-o-mei7 at the time of ,bodhidharma4 ,,fn#aie ,the ,rin-zai teachers mostly make use of the doctrine of unreality of all things1 as taught in ,prajnya-paramita-sutras4 ,we have to note that there are some differences between the ,mahayana doctrine of unreality and the ,hinayana doctrine of unreality4 ,it is a misleading tendency of our intellect to conceive things as if they were immutable and constant4 ,it often leaves changing and concrete individual objects out of consideration1 and lays stress on the general1 abstract1 unchanging aspect of things4 ,it is inclined to be given to generalization and abstraction4 ,it often looks not at this thing or at that thing1 but at things in general4 ,it loves to think not of a good thing nor of a bad thing1 but of bad and good in the abstract4 ,this intellectual tendency hardens and petrifies the living and growing world1 and leads us to take the universe as a thing dead1 inert1 and standing still4 ,this error of immutation can be corrected by the doctrine of ,transcience taught by ,hinayana ,buddhism4 ,but as medicine taken in an undue quantity turns into poison1 so the doctrine of ,transcience drove the ,hinayanists to the suicidal conclusion of nihilism4 ,a well-known scholar and believer of ,zen1 ,kwei ,fung 7,kei-ha7 says in his refutation of nihilism3,,fn#aif ,if mind as well as external objects be unreal1 who is it that knows they are so8 ,again1 if there be nothing real in the universe1 what is it that causes unreal objects to appear8 ,we stand witness to the fact that there is no one of the unreal things on earth that is not made to appear by something real4 ,if there be no water of unchanging fluidity1 how can there be the unreal and temporary forms of waves8 ,if there be no unchanging mirror1 bright and clean1 bow can there be the various images1 unreal and temporary1 reflected in it8 ,if mind as well as external objects be nothing at all1 no one can tell what it is that causes these unreal appearances4 ,therefore this doctrine 7of the unreality of all things7 can never clearly disclose spiritual ,reality4 ,so that ,mahabheri-harakaparivarta-sutra says3 ,all the sutras that teach the unreality of things belong to the imperfect doctrine 7of the ,shakya ,muni74 ,mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra says ,the doctrine of unreality is the entrance-gate of ,mahayana4 ,,fn#aif ,see the appendix1 chap4 ii41 ',the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,nihilism4' #i4 ,zen and ,idealism4 ,next ,zen makes use of ,idealism as explained by the ,dharmalaksana ,school of ,mahayana ,buddhism4,,fn#aig ,for instance1 the ,fourth ,patriarch says3 ,hundreds and thousands of laws originate with mind4 ,innumerable mysterious virtues proceed from the mental source4 ,niu ,teu 7,go-zu7 also says3 ,when mind arises1 various things arise2 when mind ceases to exist1 various things cease to exist4 ,tsao ,shan 7,so-zan7 carried the point so far that he cried out1 on hearing the bell3 ,it hurts1 it pains4 ,then an attendant of his asked ,what is the matter8 ,it is my mind1 said he1 that is struck4,,fn#aih ,,fn#aig ,appendix1 chap4 ii41 ',the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,dharmalaksana4' ,,fn#aih ,zen-rin-rui-shu4 ,we acknowledge the truth of the following considerations3 ,there exists no colour1 nor sound1 nor odour in the objective world1 but there are the vibrations of ether1 or the undulations of the air1 or the stimuli of the sensory nerves of smell4 ,colour is nothing but the translation of the stimuli into sensation by the optical nerves1 so also sounds by the auditory1 and odours by the smelling4 ,therefore nothing exists objectively exactly as it is perceived by the senses1 but all are subjective4 ,take electricity1 for example1 it appears as light when perceived through the eye2 it appears as sound when perceived through the ear2 it appears as taste when perceived through the tongue2 but electricity in reality is not light1 nor sound1 nor taste4 ,similarly1 the mountain is not high nor low2 the river is not deep nor shallow2 the house is not large nor small2 the day is not long nor short2 but they seem so through comparison4 ,it is not objective reality that displays the phenomenal universe before us1 but it is our mind that plays an important part4 ,suppose that we have but one sense organ1 the eye1 then the whole universe should consist of colours and of colours only4 ,if we suppose we were endowed with the sixth sense1 which entirely contradicts our five senses1 then the whole world would be otherwise4 ,besides1 it is our reason that finds the law of cause and effect in the objective world1 that discovered the law of uniformity in ,nature1 and that discloses scientific laws in the universe so as to form a cosmos4 ,some scholars maintain that we cannot think of non-existence of space1 even if we can leave out all objects in it2 nor can we doubt the existence of time1 for the existence of mind itself presupposes time4 ,their very argument1 however1 proves the subjectivity of time and space1 because1 if they were objective1 we should be able to think them non-existent1 as we do with other external objects4 ,even space and time1 therefore are no more than subjective4 #aj4 ,idealism is a ,potent ,medicine for ,self-created ,mental ,disease4 ,in so far as ,buddhist idealism refers to the world of sense1 in so far as it does not assume that to to be known is identical with to be1 in so far as it does not assert that the phenomenal universe is a dream and a vision1 we may admit it as true4 ,on the one hand1 it serves us as a purifier of our hearts polluted with materialistic desires1 and uplifts us above the plain of sensualism2 on the other hand1 it destroys superstitions which as a rule arise from ignorance and want of the idealistic conception of things4 ,it is a lamentable fact that every country is full of such superstitions people as described by one of the ,new ,thought writers3 ',tens of thousands of women in this country believe that if two people look in a mirror at the same time1 or if one thanks the other for a pin1 or if one gives a knife or a sharp instrument to a friend1 it will break up friendship4 ,if a young lady is presented with a thimble1 she will be an old maid4 ,some people think that after leaving a house it is unlucky to go back after any article which has been forgotten1 and1 if one is obliged to do so1 one should sit down in a chair before going out again2 that if a broom touches a person while someone is sweeping1 bad luck will follow2 and that it is unlucky to change one's place at a table4 ,a man took an opal to a ,new ,york jeweller and asked him to buy it4 ,he said that it had brought him nothing but bad luck1 that since it had come into his possession he had failed in business1 that there bad been much sickness in his family1 and all sorts of misfortune had befallen him4 ,he refused to keep the cursed thing any longer4 ,the jeweller examined the stone1 and found that it was not an opal after all1 but an imitation4' ,idealism is a most potent medicine for these self-created mental diseases4 ,it will successfully drive away devils and spirits that frequent ignorant minds1 just as ,jesus did in the old days4 ,zen makes use of moral idealism to extirpate1 root and branch1 all such idle dreams and phantasmagoria of illusion and opens the way to ,enlightenment4 #aa4 ,idealistic ,scepticism concerning ,objective ,reality4 ,but extreme ,idealism identifies 'to be' with 'to be known1' and assumes all phenomena to be ideas as illustrated in ,mahayana-vidyamatra-siddhi-tridaca-cast ra,,fn#aii and ,vidyamatra-vincati-castra1,,fn#bjj by ,vasubandhu4 ,then it necessarily parts company with ,zen1 which believes in ,universal ,life existing in everything instead of behind it4 ,idealism shows us its dark side in three sceptic views3 7#a7 scepticism respecting objective reality2 7#b7 scepticism respecting religion2 7#c7 scepticism respecting morality4 ,,fn#aii ,a philosophical work on ,buddhist idealism by ,vasubandhu1 translated into ,chinese by ,hiuen ,tsang in ,a4,d4 #fdh4 ,there exists a famous commentary on it1 compiled by ,dharmapala1 translated into ,chinese by ,hiuen ,tsang in ,a4,d4 #fei4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #aaig and #aabe4 ,,fn#bjj ,a simpler work on ,idealism1 translated into ,chinese by ,hiuen ,tsang in ,a4,d4 #ffa4 ,see ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,nos4 #abch1 #abci1 and #abdj4 ,first it assumes that things exist in so far as they are known by us4 ,it is as a matter of course that if a tree exists at all1 it is known as having a trunk long or short1 branches large or small1 leaves green or yellow1 flowers yellow or purple1 etc41 all of which are ideas4 ,but it does not imply in the least that 'to be known' is equivalent to 'to be existent4' ,rather we should say that to be known presupposes to be existent1 for we cannot know anything non-existent1 even if we admit that the axioms of logic subsist4 ,again1 a tree may stand as ideas to a knower1 but it can stand at the same time as a shelter in relation to some birds1 as food in relation to some insects1 as a world in relation to some minute worms1 as a kindred organism to other vegetables4 ,how could you say that its relation to a knower is the only and fundamental relation for the existence of the tree8 ,the disappearance of its knower no more affects the tree than of its feeder2 nor the appearance of its knower affects the tree any more than that of kindred vegetables4 ,extreme idealism erroneously concludes that what is really existent1 or what is directly proved to be existent1 is only our sensations1 ideas1 thoughts2 that the external world is nothing but the images reflected on the mirror of the mind1 and that therefore objective reality of things is doubtful-nay1 more1 they are unreal1 illusory1 and dreams4 ,if so1 we can no longer distinguish the real from the visionary2 the waking from the dreaming2 the sane from the insane2 the true from the untrue4 ,whether life is real or an empty dream1 we are at a loss to understand4 #ab4 ,idealistic ,scepticism concerning ,religion and ,morality4 ,similarly1 it is the case with religion and morality4 ,if we admit extreme idealism as true1 there can be nothing objectively real4 ,god is little more than a mental image4 ,he must be a creature of mind instead of a ,creator4 ,he has no objective reality4 ,he is when we think ,he is4 ,he is not when we think ,he is not4 ,he is at the mercy of our thought4 ,how much more unreal the world must be1 which is supposed to have been created by an unreal ,god6 ,providence1 salvation1 and divine grace--what are they8 ,a bare dream dreamed in a dream6 ,what is morality1 then8 ,it is subjective4 ,it has no objective validity4 ,a moral conduct highly valued by our fathers is now held to be immoral by us4 ,immoral acts now strongly denounced by us may be regarded as moral by our posterity4 ,good deeds of the savage are not necessarily good in the eyes of the civilized1 nor evil acts of the ,orientals are necessarily evil before the face of the ,occidentals4 ,it follows1 then1 that there is no definite standard of morality in any place at any time4 ,if morality be merely subjective1 and there be no objective standard1 how can you distinguish evil from good8 ,how can you single out angels from among devils8 ,was not ,socrates a criminal8 ,was not ,jesus also a criminal8 ,how could you know ,him to be a ,divine man different from other criminals who were crucified with ,him8 ,what you honour may ,i not denounce as disgrace8 ,what you hold as duty may ,i not condemn as sin8 ,every form of idealism is doomed1 after all1 to end in such confusion and scepticism4 ,we cannot embrace radical idealism1 which holds these threefold sceptical views in her womb4 #ac4 ,an ,illusion concerning ,appearance and ,reality4 ,to get ,enlightened we must next dispel an illusion respecting appearance and reality4 ,according4 to certain religionists1 all the phenomena of the universe are to succumb to change4 ,worldly things one and all are evanescent4 ,they are nought in the long run4 ,snowcapped mountains may sink into the bottom of the deep1 while the sands in the fathomless ocean may soar into the azure sky at some time or other4 ,blooming flowers are destined to fade and to bloom again in the next year4 ,so destined are growing trees1 rising generations1 prospering nations1 glowing suns1 moons1 and stars4 ,this1 they would say1 is only the case with phenomena or appearances1 but not with reality4 ,growth and decay1 birth and death1 rise and fall1 all these are the ebb and flow of appearances in the ocean of reality1 which is always the same4 ,flowers may fade and be reduced to dust1 yet out of that dust come flowers4 ,trees may die out1 yet they are reproduced somewhere else4 ,the time may come when the earth will become a dead sphere quite unsuitable for human habitation1 and the whole of mankind will perish2 yet who knows that whether another earth may not be produced as man's home8 ,the sun might have its beginning and end1 stars1 moons1 theirs as well2 yet an infinite universe would have no beginning nor end4 ,again1 they say1 mutation is of the world of sense or phenomenal appearances1 but not of reality4 ,the former are the phases of the latter shown to our senses4 ,accordingly they are always limited and modified by our senses1 just as images are always limited and modified by the mirror in which they are reflected4 ,on this account appearances are subject to limitations1 while reality is limitless4 ,and it follows that the former are imperfect1 while the latter is perfect2 that the former is transient1 while the latter is eternal2 that the former is relative1 while the latter is absolute2 that the former is worldly1 while the latter is holy2 that the former is knowable1 while the latter is unknowable4 ,these considerations naturally lead us to an assertion that the world of appearances is valueless1 as it is limited1 short-lived1 imperfect1 painful1 sinful1 hopeless1 and miserable2 while the realm of reality is to be aspired for1 as it is eternal1 perfect1 comfortable1 full of hope1 joy1 and peace-hence the eternal divorce of appearance and reality4 ,such a view of life tends to make one minimize the value of man1 to neglect the present existence1 and to yearn after the future4 ,some religionists tell us that we men are helpless1 sinful1 hopeless1 and miserable creatures4 ,worldly riches1 temporal honours1 and social positions-nay1 even sublimities and beauties of the present existence1 are to be ignored and despised4 ,we have no need of caring for those things that pass away in a twinkling moment4 ,we must prepare for the future life which is eternal4 ,we must accumulate wealth for that existence4 ,we must endeavour to hold rank in it4 ,we must aspire for the sublimity and beauty and glory of that realm4 #ad4 ,where does the ,root of the ,illusion ,lie8 ,now let us examine where illusion lies hidden from the view of these religionists4 ,it lies deeply rooted in the misconstruction of reality1 grows up into the illusive ideas of appearances1 and throws its dark shadow on life4 ,the most fundamental error lies in their construing reality as something unknowable existing behind appearances4 ,according to their opinion1 all that we know1 or perceive1 or feel1 or imagine about the world1 is appearances or phenomena1 but not reality itself4 ,appearances are 'things known as1' but not 'things as they are4' ,thing-in-itself1 or reality1 lies behind appearances permanently beyond our ken4 ,this is probably the most profound metaphysical pit into which philosophical minds have ever fallen in their way of speculation4 ,things appear1 they would say1 as we see them through our limited senses2 but they must present entirely different aspects to those that differ from ours1 just as the vibration of ether appears to us as colours1 yet it presents quite different aspects to the colour-blind or to the purblind4 ,the phenomenal universe is what appears to the human mind1 and in case our mental constitution undergoes change1 it would be completely otherwise4 ,this argument1 however1 is far from proving that the reality is unknowable1 or that it lies hidden behind appearances or presentations4 ,take1 for instance1 a reality which appears as a ray of the sun4 ,when it goes through a pane of glass it appears to be colourless1 but it exhibits a beautiful spectrum when it passes through a prism4 ,therefore you assume that a reality appearing as the rays of the sun is neither colourless nor coloured in itself1 since these appearances are wholly due to the difference that obtains between the pane of glass and the prism4 ,we contend1 however1 that the fact does not prove the existence of the reality named the sun's ray beyond or behind the white light1 nor its existence beyond or behind the spectrum4 ,it is evident that the reality exists in white light1 and that it is known as the white light when it goes through a pane of glass2 and that the same reality exists in the spectrum1 and is known as the spectrum when it goes through the prism4 ,the reality is known as the white light on the one hand1 and as the spectrum on the other4 ,it is not unknowable1 but knowable4 ,suppose that one and the same reality exhibits one aspect when it stands in relation to another object2 two aspects when it stands in relation in two different objects2 three aspects when it stands in relation to three different objects4 ,the reality of one aspect never proves the unreality of another aspect1 for all these three aspects can be equally real4 ,a tree appears to us as a vegetable2 it appears to some birds as a shelter2 and it appears to some worms as a food4 ,the reality of its aspect as a vegetable never proves the unreality of its aspect as food1 nor the reality of its aspect as food disproves the reality of its aspect as shelter4 ,the real tree does not exist beyond or behind the vegetable4 ,we can rely upon its reality1 and make use of it to a fruitful result4 ,at the same time1 the birds can rely on its reality as a shelter1 and build their nests in it2 the worms1 too1 can rely on its reality as food1 and eat it-to their satisfaction4 ,a reality which appears to me as my wife must appear to my son as his mother1 and never as his wife4 ,but the same real woman is in the wife and in the mother2 neither is unreal4 #ae4 ,thing-in-,itself means ,thing-,knowerless4 ,how1 then1 did philosophers come to consider reality to be unknowable and hidden behind or beyond appearances8 ,they investigated all the possible presentations in different relationships1 and put them all aside as appearances1 and brooded on the thing-in-itself1 shut out from all possible relationship1 and declared it unknowable4 ,thing-in-itself means thing cut off from all possible relationships4 ,to1 put it in another way3 thing-in-itself means thing deprived of its relation to its knower--that is to say1 thing-knower-less4 ,so that to declare thing-in-itself unknowable is as much as to declare thing-unknowable unknowable2 there is no doubt about it1 but what does it prove8 ,deprive yourself of all the possible relationships1 and see what you are4 ,suppose you are not a son to your parents1 nor the husband to your wife1 nor the father to your children1 nor a relative to your kindred1 nor a friend to your acquaintances1 nor a teacher to your students1 nor a citizen to your country1 nor an individual member to your society1 nor a creature to your ,god1 then you get you-in-yourself4 ,now ask yourself what is you-in-yourself8 ,you can never answer the question4 ,it is unknowable1 just because it is cut off from all knowable relations4 ,can you thus prove that you-in-yourself exist beyond or behind you8 ,in like manner our universe appears to us human beings as the phenomenal world or presentation4 ,it might appear to other creatures of a different mental constitution as something else4 ,we cannot ascertain how it might seem to ,devas1 to ,asuras1 to angels1 and to the ,almighty1 if there be such beings4 ,however different it might seem to these beings1 it does not imply that the phenomenal world is unreal1 nor that the realm of reality is unknowable4 ',water1' the ,indian tradition has it1 'seems to man as a drink1 as emerald to ,devas1 as bloody pus to ,pretas1 as houses to fishes4' ,water is not a whit less real because of its seeming as houses to fishes1 and fishes' houses are not less real because of its seeming as emerald to ,devas4 ,there is nothing that proves the unreality of it4 ,it is a gross illusion to conceive reality as transcendental to appearances4 ,reality exists as appearances1 and appearances are reality known to human beings4 ,you cannot separate appearances from reality1 and hold out the latter as the object of aspiration at the cost of the former4 ,you must acknowledge that the so-called realm of reality which you aspire after1 and which you seek for outside or behind the phenomenal universe1 exists here on earth4 ,let ,zen teachers tell you that the world of birth and death is the realm of ,nirvana2 the earth is the pure land of ,buddha4 #af4 ,the ,four ,alternatives and the ,five ,categories4 ,there are1 according to ,zen1 the four classes of religious and philosophical views1 technically called the ,four ,alternatives1,,fn#bja of life and of the world4 ,the first is 'the deprivation of subject and the non-deprivation of object' that is to say1 the denial of subject1 or mind1 or ,atman1 or soul1 and the non-denial of object1 or matter1 or things--a view which denies the reality of mind and asserts the existence of things4 ,such a view was held by a certain school of ,hinayanism1 called ,sarvastivada1 and still is held by some philosophers called materialists or naturalists4 ,the second is the 'deprivation of object and the non-deprivation of subject'--that is to say1 the denial of object1 or matter1 or things1 and the non-denial of subject1 or mind1 or spirit-a view which denies the reality of material object1 and asserts the existence of spirit or ideas4 ,such a view was held by the ,dharmalaksana ,school of ,mahayanism1 and is still held by some philosophers called idealists4 ,the third is 'the deprivation of both subject and object'--that is to say1 the denial of both subject or spirit1 and of object or matter-a view which denies the reality of both physical and mental phenomena1 and asserts the existence of reality that transcends the phenomenal universe4 ,such a view was held by the ,madhyamika ,school of ,mahayanism1 and is still held by some religionists and philosophers of the present day4 ,the fourth is 'the non-deprivation of both subject and object'--that is to say1 the non-denial of subject and object--a view which holds mind and body as one and the same reality4 ,mind1 according to this view1 is reality experienced inwardly by introspection1 and body is the selfsame reality observed outwardly by senses4 ,they are one reality and one life4 ,there also exist other persons and other beings belonging to the same life and reality2 consequently all things share in one reality1 and life in common with each other4 ,this reality or life is not transcendental to mind and body1 or to spirit and matter1 but is the unity of them4 ,in other words1 this phenomenal world of ours is the realm of reality4 ,this view was held by the ,avatamsaka ,school of ,mahayanism1 and is still held by ,zenists4 ,thus ,zen is not materialistic1 nor idealistic1 nor nihilistic1 but realistic and monistic in its view of the world4 ,,fn#bja ,shi-rya-ken in ,japanese1 the classification mostly made use of by masters of the ,rin ,zai ,school of ,zen4 ,for the details1 see ,ki-gai-kwan1 by ,k4 ,watanabe4 ,there are some scholars that erroneously maintain that ,zen is based on the doctrine of unreality of all things expounded by ,kumarajiva and his followers4 ,ko-ben1,,fn#bjb known as ,myo-ye ,sho-nin1 said #fjj years ago3 ,yang ,shan 7,kyo-zan7 asked ,wei ,shan 7,i-san73 ',what shall we do when hundreds1 thousands1 and millions of things beset us all at once8' ',the blue are not the yellow1' replied ,wei ,shan1 'the long are not the short4 ,everything is in its own place4 ,it has no business with you4' ,wei ,shan was a great ,zen master4 ,he did not teach the unreality of all things4 ,who can say that ,zen is nihilistic8 ,,fn#bjb ,a well-known scholar 7#aagc-abcb7 of the ,anatamsaka ,school of ,mahayanism4 ,besides the ,four ,alternatives1 ,zen uses the ,five ,categories,,fn#bjc in order to explain the relation between reality and phenomena4 ,the first is ',relativity in ,absolute1' which means that the universe appears to be consisting in relativities1 owing to our relative knowledge2 but these relativities are based on absolute reality4 ,the second is ',absolute in ,relativity1' which means ,absolute ,reality does not remain inactive1 but manifests itself as relative phenomena4 ,the third is ',relativity out of ,absolute1' which means ,absolute ,reality is all in all1 and relative phenomena come out of it as its secondary and subordinate forms4 ,the fourth is ',absolute up to ,relativity1' which means relative phenomena always play an important part on the stage of the world2 it is through these phenomena that ,absolute ,reality comes to be understood4 ,the fifth is the ',union of both ,absolute and ,relativity1' which means ,absolute ,reality is not fundamental or essential to relative phenomena1 nor relative phenomena subordinate or secondary to ,absolute ,reality--that is to say1 they are one and the same cosmic life1 ,absolute ,reality being that life experienced inwardly by intuition1 while relative phenomena are the same life outwardly observed by senses4 ,the first four ,categories are taught to prepare the student's mind for the acceptance of the last one1 which reveals the most profound truth4 ,,fn#bjc ,go-i in ,japanese1 mostly used by the ,so-,to ,school of ,zen4 ,the detailed explanation is given in ,go-i-ken-ketsu4 #ag4 ,personalism of ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne4 ,b4 ,p4 ,bowne,,fn#bjd says3 ,they 7phenomena7 are not phantoms or illusions1 nor are they masks of a back-lying reality which is trying to peer through them4 ,the antithesis1 he continues1,,fn#bje of phenomena and noumena rests on the fancy that there is something that rests behind phenomena which we ought to perceive but cannot1 because the masking phenomena thrusts itself between the reality and us4 ,just so far we agree with ,bowne1 but we think he is mistaken in sharply distinguishing between body and self1 saying3,,fn#bjf ,we ourselves are invisible4 ,the physical organism is only an instrument for expressing and manifesting the inner life1 but the living self is never seen4 ,human form1 he argues1,,fn#bjg as an object in space apart from our experience of it as the instrument and expression of personal life1 would have little beauty or attraction2 and when it is described in anatomical terms1 there is nothing in it that we should desire it4 ,the secret of its beauty and its value lies in the invisible realm4 ,the same is true1 he says again1 of literature4 ,it does not exist in space1 or in time1 or in books1 or in libraries 4 4 4 all that could be found there would be black marks on a white paper1 and collections of these bound together in various forms1 which would be all the eyes could see4 ,but this would not be literature1 for literature has its existence only in mind and for mind as an expression of mind1 and it is simply impossible and meaningless in abstraction from mind4 ,our human history--he gives another illustration,,fn#bjh--never existed in space1 and never could so exist4 ,if some visitor from ,mars should come to the earth and look at all that goes on in space in connection with human beings1 he would never get any hint of its real significance4 ,he would be confined to integrations and dissipations of matter and motion4 ,he could describe the masses and grouping of material things1 but in all this be would get no suggestion of the inner life which gives significance to it all4 ,as conceivably a bird might sit on a telegraph instrument and become fully aware of the clicks of the machine without any suspicion of the existence or meaning of the message1 or a dog could see all that eye can see in a book yet without any hint of its meaning1 or a savage could gaze at the printed score of an opera without ever suspecting its musical import1 so this supposed visitor would be absolutely cut off by an impassable gulf from the real seat and significance of human history4 ,the great drama of life1 with its likes and dislikes1 its loves and hates1 its ambitions and strivings1 and manifold ideas1 inspirations1 aspirations1 is absolutely foreign to space1 and could never in any way be discovered in space4 ,so human history has its seat in the invisible4 ,,fn#bjd ',personalism1' p4 #id4 ,,fn#bje ,ibid41 p4 #ie4 ,,fn#bjf ,ibid41 p4 #bfh4 ,,fn#bjg ,ibid41 p4 #bga4 ,,fn#bjh ',personalism1' pp4 #bgb1 #bgc4 ,in the first place1 ,bowne's conception of the physical organism as but an instrument for the expression of the inner1 personal life1 just as the telegraphic apparatus is the instrument for the expression of messages1 is erroneous1 because body is not a mere instrument of inner personal life1 but an essential constituent of it4 ,who can deny that one's physical conditions determine one's character or personality8 ,who can overlook the fact that one's bodily conditions positively act upon one's personal life8 ,there is no physical organism which remains as a mere passive mechanical instrument of inner life within the world of experience4 ,moreover1 individuality1 or personality1 or self1 or inner life1 whatever you may call it1 conceived as absolutely independent of physical condition1 is sheer abstraction4 ,there is no such concrete personality or individuality within our experience4 ,in the second place1 he conceives the physical organism simply as a mark or symbol1 and inner personal life as the thing marked or symbolized2 so he compares physical forms with paper1 types1 books1 and libraries1 and inner life1 with literature4 ,in so doing he overlooks the essential and inseparable connection between the physical organism and inner life1 because there is no essential inseparable connection between a mark or symbol and the thing marked or symbolized4 ,the thing may adopt any other mark or symbol4 ,the black marks on the white paper1 to use his figure1 are not essential to literature4 ,literature may be expressed by singing1 or by speech1 or by a series of pictures4 ,but is there inner life expressed1 or possible to be expressed1 in any other form save physical organism8 ,we must therefore acknowledge that inner life is identical with physical organism1 and that reality is one and the same as appearance4 #ah4 ,all the ,worlds in ,ten ,directions are ,buddha's ,holy ,land4 ,we are to resume this problem in the following chapter4 ,suffice it to say for the present it is the law of ,universal ,life that manifoldness is in unity1 and unity is in manifoldness2 difference is in agreement1 and agreement in difference2 confliction is in harmony1 and harmony in confliction2 parts are in the whole1 and the whole is in parts2 constancy is in change1 and change in constancy2 good is in bad1 and bad in good2 integration is in disintegration1 and disintegration is in integration2 peace is in disturbance1 and disturbance in peace4 ,we can find something celestial among the earthly4 ,we can notice something glorious in the midst of the base and degenerated4 ',there are nettles everywhere1 but are not smooth1 green grasses more common still8' ,can you recognize something awe-inspiring in the rise and fall of nations8 ,can you not recognize something undisturbed and peaceful among disturbance and trouble8 ,has not even grass some meaning8 ,does not even a stone tell the mystery of ,life8 ,does not the immutable law of good sway over human affairs after all1 as ,tennyson says- ,i can but trust that good shall fall ,at last-far off-at last1 to all4 ,has not each of us a light within him1 whatever degrees of lustre there may be8 ,was ,washington in the wrong when he said3 ,labour to keep alive in your heart that little spark of celestial fire called conscience4 ,we are sure that we can realize the celestial bliss in this very world1 if we keep alive the ,enlightened ,consciousness1 of which ,bodhidharma and his followers showed the example4 ',all the worlds in ten directions are ,buddha's ,holy ,lands6' ,that ,land of ,bliss and ,glory exists above us1 under us1 around us1 within us1 without us1 if we open our eyes to see4 ',nirvana is in life itself1' if we enjoy it with admiration and love4 ,life and death are the life of ,buddha1 says ,do-gen4 ,everywhere the ,elysian gates stand open1 if we do not shut them up by ourselves4 ,shall we starve ourselves refusing to accept the rich bounty which the ,blessed ,life offers to us8 ,shall we perish in the darkness of scepticism1 shutting our eyes to the light of ,tathagata8 ,shall we suffer from innumerable pains in the self-created hell where remorse1 jealousy1 and hatred feed the fire of anger8 ,let us pray to ,buddha1 not in word only1 but in the deed of generosity and tolerance1 in the character noble and loving1 and in the personality sublime and good4 ,let us pray to ,buddha to save us from the hell of greed and folly1 to deliver us from the thraldom of temptation4 ,let us 'enter the ,holy of ,holies in admiration and wonder4' ,,chapter ,,vii ,,life #a4 ,epicureanism and ,life4 ,there are a good many people always buoyant in spirit and mirthful in appearance as if born optimists4 ,there are also no fewer persons constantly crestfallen and gloomy as if born pessimists4 ,the former1 however1 may lose their buoyancy and sink deep in despair if they are in adverse circumstances4 ,the latter1 too1 may regain their brightness and grow exultant if they are under prosperous conditions4 ,as there is no evil however small but may cause him to groan under it1 who has his heart undisciplined1 so there is no calamity however great but may cause him to despair1 who has his feelings in control4 ,a laughing child would cry1 a crying child would laugh1 without a sufficient cause4 ',it can be teased or tickled into anything4' ,a grown-up child is he who cannot hold sway over his passions4 ,he should die a slave to his heart1 which is wayward and blind1 if he be indulgent to it4 ,it is of capital importance for us to discipline the heart1,,fn#bji otherwise it will discipline us4 ,passions are like legs4 ,they should be guided by the eye of reason4 ,no wise serpent is led by its tail1 so no wise man is led by his passion4 ,passions that come first are often treacherous and lead us astray4 ,we must guard ourselves against them4 ,in order to gratify them there arise mean desires-the desires to please sight1 hearing1 smell1 taste1 and touch4 ,these five desires are ever pursuing or1 rather1 driving us4 ,we must not spend our whole lives in pursuit of those mirage-like objects which gratify our sensual desires4 ,when we gratify one desire1 we are silly enough to fancy that we have realized true happiness4 ,but one desire gratified begets another stronger and more insatiable4 ,thirst allayed with salt water becomes more intense than ever4 ,,fn#bji ,compare ,gaku-do-yo-jin-shu1 chap4 i41 and ,zen-kwan-saku shin4 ,shakya ,muni compared an ,epicurean with a dog chewing a dry bone1 mistaking the blood out of a wound in his mouth for that of the bone4 ,the author of ,mahaparinirvana-sutra,,fn#baj has a parable to the following effect3 ',once upon a time a hunter skilled in catching monkeys alive went into the wood4 ,he put something very sticky on the ground1 and hid himself among the bushes4 ,by-and-by a monkey came out to see what it was1 and supposing it to be something eatable1 tried to feed on it4 ,it stuck to the poor creature's snout so firmly that he could not shake it off4 ,then he attempted to tear it off with both his paws1 which also stuck to it4 ,thereupon he strove to kick it off with both his hind-legs1 which were caught too4 ,then the hunter came out1 and thrusting his stick through between the paws and hind-legs of the victim1 and thus carrying it on his shoulder1 went home4' ,in like manner an ,epicurean 7the monkey71 allured by the objects of sense 7something sticky71 sticks to the five desires 7the snout and the four limbs71 and being caught by ,temptation 7the hunter71 loses his life of ,wisdom4 ,,fn#baj ,the sutra translated by ,hwui ,yen and ,hwui ,kwan1 ,a4,d4 #dbd-dec4 ,we are no more than a species of monkeys1 as evolutionists hold4 ,not a few testify to this truth by their being caught by means of 'something eatable4' ,we abolished slavery and call ourselves civilized nations4 ,have we not1 nevertheless1 hundreds of life-long slaves to cigars among us8 ,have we not thousands of life-long slaves to spirits among us8 ,have we not hundreds of thousands of life-long slaves to gold among us8 ,have we not myriads of lifelong slaves to vanity among us8 ,these slaves are incredibly loyal to1 and incessantly work for1 their masters1 who in turn bestow on them incurable diseases1 poverty1 chagrin1 and disappointment4 ,a poor puppy with an empty can tied to his tail1 ,thomas ,carlyle wittily observes1 ran and ran on1 frightened by the noise of the can4 ,the more rapidly he ran1 the more loudly it rang1 and at last he fell exhausted of running4 ,was it not typical of a so-called great man of the world8 ,vanity tied an empty can of fame to his tail1 the hollow noise of which drives him through life until he falls to rise no more4 ,miserable6 ,neither these men of the world nor ,buddhist ascetics can be optimists4 ,the latter rigorously deny themselves sensual gratifications1 and keep themselves aloof from all objects of pleasure4 ,for them to be pleased is equivalent to sin1 and to laugh1 to be cursed4 ,they would rather touch an adder's head than a piece of money4,,fn#baa ,they would rather throw themselves into a fiery furnace than to come in contact with the other sex4 ,body for them is a bag full of blood and pus2,,fn#bab life1 an idle1 or rather evil1 dream4 ,vegetarianism and celibacy are their holy privileges4 ,life is unworthy of having2 to put an end to it is their deliverance4,,fn#bac ,such a view of life is hardly worth our refutation4 ,,fn#baa ,such is the precept taught in the ,vinaya of ,hinayanists4 ,,fn#bab ,see ,mahasatiptthana ,suttanta1 #b-ac4 ,,fn#bac ,this is the logical conclusion of ,hinayanism4 #b4 ,the ,errors of ,philosophical ,pessimists and ,religious ,optimists4 ,philosophical pessimists,,fn#bad maintain that there are on earth many more causes of pain than of pleasure2 and that pain exists positively1 but pleasure is a mere absence of pain because we are conscious of sickness but not of health2 of loss1 but not of possession4 ,on the contrary1 religious optimists insist that there must not be any evil in ,god's universe1 that evil has no independent nature1 but simply denotes a privation of good--that is1 evil is null1 is nought1 is silence implying sound4' ,,fn#bad ,schopenhauer1 ',the ,world as ,will and ,idea' 7,r4 ,b4 ,haldane and ,j4 ,kemp's translation1 vol4 iii41 pp4 #chd-chf72 ,hartman1 ',philosophy of the ,unconsciousness' 7,w4 ,c4 ,coupland's translation1 vol4 iii41 pp4 #ab-aai74 ,no matter what these one-sided observers' opinion may be1 we are certain that we experience good as well as evil1 and feel pain and pleasure as well4 ,neither can we alleviate the real sufferings of the sick by telling them that sickness is no other than the absence of health1 nor can we make the poor a whit richer by telling them that poverty is a mere absence of riches4 ,how could we save the dying by persuading them that death is a bare privation of life8 ,is it possible to dispirit the happy by telling them that happiness is unreal1 or make the fortunate miserable by telling them that fortune has no objective reality1 or to make one welcome evil by telling one that it is only the absence of good8 ,you must admit there are no definite external causes of pain nor those of pleasure1 for one and the same thing causes pain at one time and pleasure at another4 ,a cause of delight to one person turns out to be that of aversion to another4 ,a dying miser might revive at the sight of gold1 yet a ,diogenes would pass without noticing it4 ,cigars and wine are blessed gifts of heaven to the intemperate1,,fn#bae but accursed poison to the temperate4 ,some might enjoy a long life1 but others would heartily desire to curtail it4 ,some might groan under a slight indisposition1 while others would whistle away a life of serious disease4 ,an ,epicure might be taken prisoner by poverty1 yet an ,epictetus would fearlessly face and vanquish him4 ,how1 then1 do you distinguish the real cause of pain from that of pleasure8 ,how do you know the causes of one are more numerous than the causes of the other8 ,,fn#bae ,the author of ,han ,shu 7,kan ,sho7 calls spirits the gift of ,heaven4 ,expose thermometers of several kinds to one and the same temperature4 ,one will indicate1 say1 #fj1 another as high as #ajj1 another as low as #ae4 ,expose the thermometers of human sensibilities1 which are of myriads of different kinds1 to one and the same temperature of environment4 ,none of them will indicate the same degrees4 ,in one and the same climate1 which we think moderate1 the ,eskimo would be washed with perspiration1 while the ,hindu would shudder with cold4 ,similarly1 under one and the same circumstance some might be extremely miserable and think it unbearable1 yet others would be contented and happy4 ,therefore we may safely conclude that there are no definite external causes of pain and pleasure1 and that there must be internal causes which modify the external4 #c4 ,the ,law of ,balance4 ,nature governs the world with her law of balance4 ,she puts things ever in pairs1,,fn#baf and leaves nothing in isolation4 ,positives stand in opposition to negatives1 actives to passives1 males to females1 and so on4 ,thus we get the ebb in opposition to the flood tide2 the centrifugal force to the centripetal2 attraction to repulsion2 growth to decay2 toxin to antitoxin2 light to shade2 action to reaction2 unity to variety2 day to night2 the animate to the inanimate4 ,look at our own bodies3 the right eye is placed side by side with the left2 the left shoulder with the right2 the right lung with the left2 the left hemisphere of the brain with that of the right2 and so forth4 ,,fn#baf ,zenists call them 'pairs of opposites4' ,it holds good also in human affairs3 advantage is always accompanied by disadvantage2 loss by gain2 convenience by inconvenience2 good by evil2 rise by fall2 prosperity by adversity2 virtue by vice2 beauty by deformity2 pain by pleasure2 youth by old age2 life by death4 ',a handsome young lady of quality1' a parable in ,mahaparinirvana-sutra tells us1 'who carries with her an immense treasure is ever accompanied by her sister1 an ugly woman in rags1 who destroys everything within her reach4 ,if we win the former1 we must also get the latter4' ,as pessimists show intense dislike towards the latter and forget the former1 so optimists admire the former so much that they are indifferent to the latter4 #d4 ,life ,consists in ,conflict4 ,life consists in conflict4 ,so long as man remains a social animal he cannot live in isolation4 ,all individual hopes and aspirations depend on society4 ,society is reflected in the individual1 and the individual in society4 ,in spite of this1 his inborn free will and love of liberty seek to break away from social ties4 ,he is also a moral animal1 and endowed with love and sympathy4 ,he loves his fellow-beings1 and would fain promote their welfare2 but he must be engaged in constant struggle against them for existence4 ,he sympathizes even with animals inferior to him1 and heartily wishes to protect them2 yet he is doomed to destroy their lives day and night4 ,he has many a noble aspiration1 and often soars aloft by the wings of imagination into the realm of the ideal2 still his material desires drag him down to the earth4 ,he lives on day by day to continue his life1 but he is unfailingly approaching death at every moment4 ,the more he secures new pleasure1 spiritual or material1 the more he incurs pain not yet experienced4 ,one evil removed only gives place to another2 one advantage gained soon proves itself a disadvantage4 ,his very reason is the cause of his doubt and suspicion2 his intellect1 with which he wants to know everything1 declares itself to be incapable of knowing anything in its real state2 his finer sensibility1 which is the sole source of finer pleasure1 has to experience finer suffering4 ,the more he asserts himself1 the more he has to sacrifice himself4 ,these conflictions probably led ,kant to call life a trial time1 wherein most succumb1 and in which even the best does not rejoice in his life4 ,men betake themselves1 says ,fichte1 to the chase after felicity4 4 4 4 ,but as soon as they withdraw into themselves and ask themselves1 ',am ,i now happy8' the reply comes distinctly from the depth of their soul1 ',oh no2 thou art still just as empty and destitute as before6' 4 4 4 ,they will in the future life just as vainly seek blessedness as they have sought it in the present life4 ,it is not without reason that the pessimistic minds came to conclude that 'the unrest of unceasing willing and desiring by which every creature is goaded is in itself unblessedness1' and that 'each creature is in constant danger1 constant agitation1 and the whole1 with its restless1 meaningless motion1 is a tragedy of the most piteous kind4' ',a creature like the carnivorous animal1 who cannot exist at all without continually destroying and tearing others1 may not feel its brutality1 but man1 who has to prey on other sentient beings like the carnivorous1 is intelligent enough1 as hard fate would have it1 to know and feel his own brutal living4' ,he must be the most miserable of all creatures1 for he is most conscious of his own misery4 ,furthermore1 'he experiences not only the misfortunes which actually befall him1 but in imagination he goes through every possibility of evil4' ,therefore none1 from great kings and emperors down to nameless beggars1 can be free from cares and anxieties1 which 'ever flit around them like ghosts4' #e4 ,the ,mystery of ,life4 ,thus far we have pointed out the inevitable conflictions in life in order to prepare ourselves for an insight into the depth of life4 ,we are far from being pessimistic1 for we believe that life consists in confliction1 but that confliction does not end in confliction1 but in a new form of harmony4 ,hope comes to conflict with fear1 and is often threatened with losing its hold on mind2 then it renews its life and takes root still deeper than before4 ,peace is often disturbed with wars1 but then it gains a still firmer ground than ever4 ,happiness is driven out of mind by melancholy1 then it is re-enforced by favourable conditions and returns with double strength4 ,spirit is dragged down by matter from its ideal heaven1 then1 incited by shame1 it tries a higher flight4 ,good is opposed by evil1 then it gathers more strength and vanquishes its foe4 ,truth is clouded by falsehood1 then it issues forth with its greater light4 ,liberty is endangered by tyranny1 then it overthrows it with a splendid success4 ,manifoldness stands out boldly against unity2 difference against agreement2 particularity against generality2 individuality against society4 ,manifoldness1 nevertheless1 instead of annihilating1 enriches unity2 difference1 instead of destroying agreement1 gives it variety2 particularities1 instead of putting an end to generality1 increase its content2 individuals1 instead of breaking the harmony of society1 strengthen the power of it4 ,thus ',universal ,life does not swallow up manifoldness nor extinguish differences1 but it is the only means of bringing to its full development the detailed content of reality2 in particular1 it does not abolish the great oppositions of life and world1 but takes them up into itself and brings them into fruitful relations with each other4' ,therefore 'our life is a mysterious blending of freedom and necessity1 power and limitation1 caprice and law2 yet these opposites are constantly seeking and finding a mutual adjustment4' #f4 ,nature ,favours ,nothing in ,particular4 ,there is another point of view of life1 which gave the present writer no small contentment1 and which he believes would cure one of pessimistic complaint4 ,buddha1 or ,universal ,life conceived by ,zen1 is not like a capricious despot1 who acts not seldom against his own laws4 ,his manifestation as shown in the ,enlightened ,consciousness is lawful1 impartial1 and rational4 ,buddhists believe that even ,shakya ,muni himself was not free from the law of retribution1 which includes1 in our opinion1 the law of balance and that of causation4 ,now let us briefly examine how the law of balance holds its sway over life and the world4 ,when the ,cakravartin1 according to an ,indian legend1 the universal monarch1 would come to govern the earth1 a wheel would also appear as one of his treasures1 and go on rolling all over the world1 making everything level and smooth4 ,buddha is the spiritual ,cakravartin1 whose wheel is the wheel of the law of balance1 with which he governs all things equally and impartially4 ,first let us observe the simplest cases where the law of balance holds good4 ,four men can finish in three days the same amount of work as is done by three men in four days4 ,the increase in the number of men causes the decrease in that of days1 the decrease in the number of men causes the increase in that of days1 the result being always the same4 ,similarly the increase in the sharpness of a knife is always accompanied by a decrease in its durability1 and the increase of durability by a decrease of sharpness4 ,the more beautiful flowers grow1 the uglier their fruits become2 the prettier the fruits grow1 the simpler become their flowers4 ',a strong soldier is ready to die2 a strong tree is easy to be broken2 hard leather is easy to be torn4 ,but the soft tongue survives the hard teeth4' ,horned creatures are destitute of tusks1 the sharp-tusked creatures lack horns4 ,winged animals are not endowed with paws1 and handed animals are provided with no wings4 ,birds of beautiful plumage have no sweet voice1 and sweet-voiced songsters no feathers of bright colours4 ,the finer in quality1 the smaller in quantity1 and bulkier in size1 the coarser in nature4 ,nature favours nothing in particular4 ,so everything has its advantage and disadvantage as well4 ,what one gains on the one hand one loses on the other4 ,the ox is competent in drawing a heavy cart1 but he is absolutely incompetent in catching mice4 ,a shovel is fit for digging1 but not for ear-picking4 ,aeroplanes are good for aviation1 but not for navigation4 ,silkworms feed on mulberry leaves and make silk from it1 but they can do nothing with other leaves4 ,thus everything has its own use or a mission appointed by ,nature2 and if we take advantage of it1 nothing is useless1 but if not1 all are useless4 ',the neck of the crane may seem too long to some idle on-lookers1 but there is no surplus in it4 ,the limbs of the tortoise may appear too short1 but there is no shortcoming in them4' ,the centipede1 having a hundred limbs1 can find no useless feet2 the serpent1 having no foot1 feels no want4 #g4 ,the ,law of ,balance in ,life4 ,it is also the case with human affairs4 ,social positions high or low1 occupations spiritual or temporal1 work rough or gentle1 education perfect or imperfect1 circumstances needy or opulent1 each has its own advantage as well as disadvantage4 ,the higher the position the graver the responsibilities1 the lower the rank the lighter the obligation4 ,the director of a large bank can never be so careless as his errand-boy who may stop on the street to throw a stone at a sparrow2 nor can the manager of a large plantation have as good a time on a rainy day as his day-labourers who spend it in gambling4 ,the accumulation of wealth is always accompanied by its evils2 no ,rothschild nor ,rockefeller can be happier than a poor pedlar4 ,a mother of many children may be troubled by her noisy little ones and envy her sterile friend1 who in turn may complain of her loneliness2 but if they balance what they gain with what they lose1 they will find the both sides are equal4 ,the law of balance strictly forbids one's monopoly of happiness4 ,it applies its scorpion whip to anyone who is given to pleasures4 ,joy in extremity lives next door to exceeding sorrow4 ,where there is much light1 says ,goethe1 shadow is deep4 ,age1 withered and disconsolate1 lurks under the skirts of blooming youth4 ,the celebration of birthday is followed by the commemoration of death4 ,marriage might be supposed to be the luckiest event in one's life1 but the widow's tears and the orphan's sufferings also might be its outcome4 ,but for the former the latter can never be4 ,the death of parents is indeed the unluckiest event in the son's life1 but it may result in the latter's inheritance of an estate1 which is by no means unlucky4 ,the disease of a child may cause its parents grief1 but it is a matter of course that it lessens the burden of their livelihood4 ,life has its pleasures1 but also its pains4 ,death has no pleasure of life1 but also none of its pain4 ,so that if we balance their smiles and tears1 life and death are equal4 ,it is not wise for us1 therefore1 to commit suicide while the terms of our life still remain1 nor to fear death when there is no way of avoiding it4 ,again1 the law of balance does not allow anyone to take the lion's share of nature's gifts4 ,beauty in face is accompanied by deformity in character4 ,intelligence is often uncombined with virtue4 ,fair girls are destined to be unfortunate1 says a ,japanese proverb1 and men of ability to be sickly4 ,he makes no friend who never makes a foe4 ,honesty is next to idiocy4 ,men of genius1 says ,longfellow1 are often dull and inert in society2 as the blazing meteor when it descends to earth is only a stone4 ,honour and shame go hand in hand4 ,knowledge and virtue live in poverty1 while ill health and disease are inmates of luxury4 ,every misfortune begets some sort of fortune1 while every good luck gives birth to some sort of bad luck4 ,every prosperity never fails to sow seeds of adversity1 while every fall never fails to bring about some kind of rise4 ,we must not1 then1 despair in days of frost and snow1 reminding ourselves of sunshine and flowers that follow them2 nor must we be thoughtless in days of youth and health1 keeping in mind old age and ill health that are in the rear of them4 ,in brief1 all1 from crowns and coronets down to rags and begging bowls1 have their own happiness and share heavenly grace alike4 #h4 ,the ,application of the ,law of ,causation to ,morals4 ,although it may be needless to state here the law of causation at any length1 yet it is not equally needless to say a few words about its application to morals as the law of retribution1 which is a matter of dispute even among ,buddhist scholars4 ,the kernel of the idea is very simple-like seed1 like fruit2 like cause1 like effect2 like action1 like influence--nothing more4 ,as fresh air strengthens and impure air chokes us1 so good conduct brings about good consequence1 and bad conduct does otherwise4,,fn#bag ,,fn#bag ,zen lays much stress on this law4 ,see ,shu-sho-gi and ,ei-hei-ka-kun1 by ,do-gen4 ,over against these generalizations we raise no objection1 but there are many cases1 in practical life1 of doubtful nature4 ,an act of charity1 for example1 might do others some sort of damage1 as is often the case with the giving of alms to the poor1 which may produce the undesirable consequence of encouraging beggary4 ,an act of love might produce an injurious effect1 as the mother's love often spoils her children4 ,some,,fn#bah may think these are cases of good cause and bad effect4 ,we have1 however1 to analyze these causes and effects in order to find in what relation they stand4 ,in the first case the good action of almsgiving produces the good effect of lessening the sufferings of the poor1 who should be thankful for their benefactor4 ,the giver is rewarded in his turn by the peace and satisfaction of his conscience4 ,the poor1 however1 when used to being given alms are inclined to grow lazy and live by means of begging4 ,therefore the real cause of the bad effect is the thoughtlessness of both the giver and the given1 but not charity itself4 ,in the second case the mother's love and kindness produce a good effect on her and her children1 making them all happy1 and enabling them to enjoy the pleasure of the sweet home2 yet carelessness and folly on the part of the mother and ingratitude on the part of the children may bring about the bad effect4 ,,fn#bah ,dr4 ,h4 ,kato seems to have thought that good cause may bring out bad effect when he attacked ,buddhism on this point4 ,history is full of numerous cases in which good persons were so unfortunate as to die a miserable death or to live in extreme poverty1 side by side with those cases in which bad people lived in health and prosperity1 enjoying a long life4 ,having these cases in view1 some are of the opinion that there is no law of retribution as believed by the ,buddhists4 ,and even among the ,buddhist scholars themselves there are some who think of the law of retribution as an ideal1 and not as a law governing life4 ,this is probably due to their misunderstanding of the historical facts4 ,there is no reason because he is good and honourable that he should be wealthy or healthy2 nor is there any reason because he is bad that he should be poor or sickly4 ,to be good is one thing1 and to be healthy or rich is another4 ,so also to be bad is one thing1 ,and to be poor and sick is another4 ,the good are not necessarily the rich or the healthy1 nor are the bad necessarily the sick or the poor4 ,health must be secured by the strict observance of hygienic rules1 and not by the keeping of ethical precepts2 nor can wealth ever be accumulated by bare morality1 but by economical and industrial activity4 ,the moral conduct of a good person has no responsibility for his ill health or poverty2 so also the immoral action of a bad person has no concern with his wealth or health4 ,you should not confuse the moral with the physical law1 since the former belongs only to human life1 while the latter to the physical world4 ,the good are rewarded morally1 not physically2 their own virtues1 honours1 mental peace1 and satisfaction are ample compensation for their goodness4 ,confucius1 for example1 was never rich nor high in rank2 he was1 nevertheless1 morally rewarded with his virtues1 honours1 and the peace of mind4 ,the following account of him1,,fn#bai though not strictly historical1 well explains his state of mind in the days of misfortune3 ,when ,confucius was reduced to extreme distress between ,khan and ,zhai1 for seven days he had no cooked meat to eat1 but only some soup of coarse vegetables without any rice in it4 ,his countenance wore the appearance of great exhaustion1 and yet be kept playing on his lute and singing inside the house4 ,yen ,hui 7was outside7 selecting the vegetables1 while ,zze ,lu and ,zze ,kung were talking together1 and said to him3 ',the master has twice been driven from ,lu2 he had to flee from ,wei2 the tree beneath which he rested was cut down in ,sung2 he was reduced to extreme distress in ,shang and ,kau2 he is held in a state of siege here between ,khan and ,zhai2 anyone who kills him will be held guiltless2 there is no prohibition against making him a prisoner4 ,and yet he keeps playing and singing1 thrumming his lute without ceasing4 ,can a superior man be without the feeling of shame to such an extent as this8' ,yen ,hui gave them no reply1 but went in and told 7their words7 to ,confucius1 who pushed aside his lute and said3 ',yu and ,zhze are small men4 ,call them here1 and ,i will explain the thing to them4' ,,fn#bai ,the account is given by ,chwang ,tsz in his book1 vol4 xviii41 p4 #ag4 ,when they came in1 ,zze ,lu said3 ',your present condition may be called one of extreme distress6' ,confucius replied3 ',what words are these8 ,when the superior man has free course with his principles1 that is what we call his success2 when such course is denied1 that is what we call his failure4 ,now ,i hold in my embrace the principles of righteousness and benevolence1 and with them meet the evils of a disordered age2 where is the proof of my being in extreme distress8 ,therefore1 looking inwards and examining myself1 ,i have no difficulties about my principles2 though ,i encounter such difficulties 7as the present71 ,i do not lose my virtue4 ,it is when winter's cold is come1 and the hoar-frost and snow are falling1 that we know the vegetative power of the pine and cypress4 ,this distress between ,khan and ,zhai is fortunate for me4' ,he then took back his lute so that it emitted a twanging sound1 and began to play and sing4 7,at the same time7 ,zze ,lu hurriedly seized a shield and began to dance1 while ,zze ,kung said3 ',i did not know 7before7 the height of heaven nor the depth of earth6' ,thus the good are unfailingly rewarded with their own virtue1 and the wholesome consequences of their actions on society at large4 ,and the bad are inevitably recompensed with their own vices1 and the injurious effects of their actions on their fellow-beings4 ,this is the unshaken conviction of humanity1 past1 present1 and future4 ,it is the pith and marrow of our moral ideal4 ,it is the crystallization of ethical truths1 distilled through long experiences from time immemorial to this day4 ,we can safely approve ,edwin ,arnold1 as he says3 ,lo ,i as hid seed shoots after rainless years1 ,so good and evil1 pains and pleasures1 hates ,and loves1 and all dead deeds come forth again1 ,bearing bright leaves1 or dark1 sweet fruit or sour4 ,longfellow also says3 ,no action1 whether foul or fair1 ,is ever done1 but it leaves somewhere ,a record-as a blessing or a curse4 #i4 ,retribution,,fn#bbj in the ,past1 the ,present1 and the ,future ,life4 ,then a question suggests itself3 ,if there be no soul that survives body 7as shown in the preceding chapter71 who will receive the retributions of our actions in the present life8 ,to answer this question1 we have to restate our conviction that life is one and the same2 in other words1 the human beings form one life or one self--that is to say1 our ancestors in the past formed man's past life4 ,we ourselves now form man's present life1 and our posterity will form the future life4 ,beyond all doubt1 all actions of man in the past have brought their fruits on the present conditions of man1 and all actions of the present man are sure to influence the conditions of the future man4 ,to put it in another way1 we now reap the fruits of what we sowed in our past life 7or when we lived as our fathers71 and again shall reap the fruits of what we now sow in our future life 7or when we shall live as our posterity74 ,there is no exception to this rigorous law of retribution1 and we take it as the will of ,buddha to leave no action without being retributed4 ,thus it is ,buddha himself who kindles our inward fire to save ourselves from sin and crimes4 ,we must purge out all the stains in our hearts1 obeying ,buddha's command audible in the innermost self of ours4 ,it is the great mercy of ,his that1 however sinful1 superstitious1 wayward1 and thoughtless1 we have still a light within us which is divine in its nature4 ,when that light shines forth1 all sorts of sin are destroyed at once4 ,what is our sin1 after all8 ,it is nothing but illusion or error originating in ignorance and folly4 ,how true it is1 as an ,indian ,mahayanist declares1 that 'all frost and the dewdrops of sin disappear in the sunshine of wisdom6',,fn#bba ,even if we might be imprisoned in the bottomless bell1 yet let once the ,light of ,buddha shine upon us1 it would be changed into heaven4 ,therefore the author of ,mahakarunika-sutra,,fn#bbb says3 ,when ,i climb the mountain planted with swords1 they would break under my tread4 ,when ,i sail on the sea of blood1 it will be dried up4 ,when ,i arrive at ,hades1 they will be ruined at once4 ,,fn#bbj ,the retribution cannot be explained by the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul1 for it is incompatible with the fundamental doctrine of non-soul4 ,see ,abhidharmamahavibhasa-castra1 vol4 cxiv4 ,,fn#bba ,samantabhadra-dhyana-sutra4 ,,fn#bbb ,nanjo's ,catalogue1 ,no4 #aag4 #aj4 ,the ,eternal ,life as taught by ,professor ,munsterberg4 ,some philosophical pessimists undervalue life simply because it is subject to limitation4 ,they ascribe all evils to that condition1 forgetting that without limitation life is a mere blank4 ,suppose our sight could see all things at once1 then sight has no value nor use for us1 because it is life's purpose to choose to see one thing or another out of many2 and if all things be present at once before us through sight1 it is of no purpose4 ,the same is true of intellect1 bearing1 smell1 touch1 feeling1 and will4 ,if they be limitless1 they cease to be useful for us4 ,individuality necessarily implies limitation1 hence if there be no limitation in the world1 then there is no room for individuality4 ,life without death is no life at all4 ,professor ,hugo ,munsterberg finds no value1 so it seems to me1 in 'such life as beginning with birth and ending with death4' ,he says3,,fn#bbc ,my life as a causal system of physical and psychological processes1 which lies spread out in time between the dates of my birth and of my death1 will come to an end with my last breath2 to continue it1 to make it go on till the earth falls into the sun1 or a billion times longer1 would be without any value1 as that kind of life which is nothing but the mechanical occurrence of physiological and psychological phenomena had as such no ultimate value for me or for you1 or for anyone1 at any time4 ,but my real life1 as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes1 has nothing before or after because it is beyond time4 ,it is independent of birth and death because it cannot be related to biological events2 it is not born1 and will not die2 it is immortal2 all possible thinkable time is enclosed in it2 it is eternal4 ,,fn#bbc ',the ,eternal ,life1' p4 #bf4 ,professor ,munsterberg tries to distinguish sharply life as the causal system of physiological and psychological processes1 and life as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes1 and denounces the former as fleeting and valueless1 in order to prize the latter as eternal and of absolute value4 ,how could he1 however1 succeed in his task unless he has two or three lives1 as some animals are believed to have8 ,is it not one and the same life that is treated on the one hand by science as a system of physiological and psychological processes1 and is conceived on the other by the ,professor himself as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes8 ,it is true that science treats of life as it is observed in time1 space1 and causality1 and it estimates it of no value1 since to estimate the value of things is no business of science4 ,the same life observed as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes is independent of time1 space1 and causality as he affirms4 ,one and the same life includes both phases1 the difference being in the points of view of the observers4 ,life as observed only from the scientific point of view is bare abstraction2 it is not concrete life2 nor is life as observed only in the interrelated-will-attitude point of view the whole of life4 ,both are abstractions4 ,concrete life includes both phases4 ,moreover1 ,professor ,munsterberg sees life in the relationship entirely independent-of time1 space1 and causality1 saying3 ,if you agree or disagree with the latest act of the ,russian ,czar1 the only significant relation which exists between him and you has nothing to do with the naturalistic fact that geographically 'an ocean lies between you2 and if you are really a student of ,plato1 your only important relation to the ,greek philosopher has nothing to do with the other naturalistic fact that biologically two thousand years lie between you2 and declares life 7seen from that point of view7 to be immortal and eternal4 ,this is as much as to say that life1 when seen in the relationship independent of time and space1 is independent of time and space-that is1 immortal and eternal4 ,is it not mere tautology8 ,he is in the right in insisting that life can be seen from the scientific point of view as a system of physiological and psychological processes1 and at the same time as a system of interrelated-will-attitudes independent of time and space4 ,but he cannot by that means prove the existence of concrete individual life which is eternal and immortal1 because that which is independent of time and space is the relationship in which he observes life1 but not life itself4 ,therefore we have to notice that life held by ,professor ,munsterberg to be eternal and immortal is quite a different thing from the eternal life or immortality of soul believed by common sense4 #aa4 ,life in the ,concrete4 ,life in the concrete1 which we are living1 greatly differs from life in the abstract1 which exists only in the class-room4 ,it is not eternal2 it is fleeting2 it is full of anxieties1 pains1 struggles1 brutalities1 disappointments1 and calamities4 ,we love life1 however1 -not only for its smoothness1 but for its roughness2 not only for its pleasure1 but for its pain2 not only for its hope1 but for its fear2 not only for its flowers1 but for its frost and snow4 ,as ,issai,,fn#bbd 7,sato7 has aptly put it3 ,prosperity is like spring1 in which we have green leaves and flowers wherever we go2 while adversity is like winter1 in which we have snow and ice4 ,spring1 of course1 pleases us2 winter1 too1 displeases us not4 ,adversity is salt to our lives1 as it keeps them from corruption1 no matter how bitter to taste it way be4 ,it is the best stimulus to body and mind1 since it brings forth latent energy that may remain dormant but for it4 ,most people hunt after pleasure1 look for good luck1 hunger after success1 and complain of pain1 ill-luck1 and failure4 ,it does not occur to them that 'they who make good luck a god are all unlucky men1' as ,george ,eliot has wisely observed4 ,pleasure ceases to be pleasure when we attain to it2 another sort of pleasure displays itself to tempt us4 ,it is a mirage1 it beckons to us to lead us astray4 ,when an overwhelming misfortune looks us in the face1 our latent power is sure to be aroused to grapple with it4 ,even delicate girls exert the power of giants at the time of emergency2 even robbers or murderers are found to be kind and generous when we are thrown into a common disaster4 ,troubles and difficulties call forth our divine force1 which lies deeper than the ordinary faculties1 and which we never before dreamed we possessed4 ,,fn#bbd ,a noted scholar 7#aggb-ahei7 and author1 who belonged to the ,wang ,school of ,confucianism4 ,see ,gen-shi-roku4 #ab4 ,difficulties are no ,match for the ,optimist4 ,how can we suppose that we1 the children of ,buddha1 are put at the mercy of petty troubles1 or intended to be crushed by obstacles8 ,are we not endowed with inner force to fight successfully against obstacles and difficulties1 and to wrest trophies of glory from hardships8 ,are we to be slaves to the vicissitudes of fortune8 ,are we doomed to be victims for the jaws of the environment8 ,it is not external obstacles themselves1 but our inner fear and doubt that prove to be the stumbling-blocks in the path to success2 not material loss1 but timidity and hesitation that ruin us for ever4 ,difficulties are no match for the optimist1 who does not fly from them1 but welcomes them4 ,he has a mental prism which can separate the insipid white light of existence into bright hues4 ,he has a mental alchemy by which he can produce golden instruction out of the dross of failure4 ,he has a spiritual magic which makes the nectar of joy out of the tears of sorrow4 ,he has a clairvoyant eye that can perceive the existence of hope through the iron walls of despair4 ,prosperity tends to make one forget the grace of ,buddha1 but adversity brings forth one's religious conviction4 ,christ on the cross was more ,christ than ,jesus at the table4 ,luther at war with the ,pope was more ,luther than he at peace4 ,nichi-ren,,fn#bbe laid the foundation of his church when sword and sceptre threatened him with death4 ,shin-ran,,fn#bbf and ,hen-en,,fn#bbg established their respective faiths when they were exiled4 ,when they were exiled1 they complained not1 resented not1 regretted not1 repented not1 lamented not1 but contentedly and joyously they met with their inevitable calamity and conquered it4 ,ho-nen is said to have been still more joyous and contented when be bad suffered from a serious disease1 because he had the conviction that his desired end was at hand4 ,,fn#bbe ,the founder 7#abbb-abhb7 of the ,nichi ,ren ,sect1 who was exiled in #abga to the ,island of ,sado4 ,for the history and doctrine of the ,sect1 see ,i ,a ,short ,history of the ,twelve ,japanese ,buddhist ,sects1' by ,b4 ,nanjo1 pp4 #acb-adg4 ,,fn#bbf ,the founder 7#aagc-abfb7 of the ,shin ,sect1 who was banished to the province of ,eechigo in #abjg4 ,see ,nanjo's ',history1' pp4 #abb-aca4 ,,fn#bbg ,the founder 7#aaca #abab7 of the ,jo ,do ,sect1 who was exiled to the ,island of ,tosa in #abjg4 ,see ,nanjo's ',history1' pp4 #ajd-aac4 ,a ,chinese monk1 ,e ,kwai by name1 one day seated himself in a quiet place among hills and practised ,dhyana4 ,none was there to disturb the calm enjoyment of his meditation4 ,the genius of the hill was so much stung by his envy that he made up his mind to break by surprise the mental serenity of the monk4 ,having supposed nothing ordinary would be effective1 he appeared all on a sudden before the man1 assuming the frightful form of a headless monster4 ,e ,kwai being disturbed not a whit1 calmly eyed the monster1 and observed with a smile3 ,thou hast no head1 monster6 ,how happy thou shouldst be1 for thou art in no danger of losing thy head1 nor of suffering from headache6 ,were we born headless1 should we not be happy1 as we have to suffer from no headache8 ,were we born eyeless1 should we not be happy1 as we are in no danger of suffering from eye disease8 ,ho ,ki ,ichi1,,fn#bbh a great blind scholar1 was one evening giving a lecture1 without knowing that the light had been put out by the wind4 ,when his pupils requested him to stop for a moment1 he remarked with a smile3 ,why1 how inconvenient are your eyes6 ,where there is contentment1 there is ,paradise4 ,,fn#bbh ,hanawa 7#agdf-ahba71 who published ,gun-sho-rui-zu in #aghb4 #ac4 ,do ,thy ,best and ,leave the ,rest to ,providence4 ,there is another point of view which enables us to enjoy life4 ,it is simply this1 that everything is placed in the condition best for itself1 as it is the sum total of the consequences of its actions and reactions since the dawn of time4 ,take1 for instance1 the minutest grains of dirt that are regarded by us the worst1 lifeless1 valueless1 mindless1 inert matter4 ,they are placed in their best condition1 no matter how poor and worthless they may seem4 ,they can never become a thing higher nor lower than they4 ,to be the grains of dirt is best for them4 ,but for these minute microcosms1 which1 flying in the air1 reflect the sunbeams1 we could have no azure sky4 ,it is they that scatter the sun's rays in mid-air and send them into our rooms4 ,it is also these grains of dirt that form the nuclei of raindrops and bring seasonable rain4 ,thus they are not things worthless and good for nothing1 but have a hidden import and purpose in their existence4 ,had they mind to think1 heart to feel1 they should be contented and happy with their present condition4 ,take1 for another example1 the flowers of the morning glory4 ,they bloom and smile every morning1 fade and die in a few hours4 ,how fleeting and ephemeral their lives are6 ,but it is that short life itself that makes them frail1 delicate1 and lovely4 ,they come forth all at once as bright and beautiful as a rainbow or as the ,northern light1 and disappear like dreams4 ,this is the best condition for them1 because1 if they last for days together1 the morning glory shall no longer be the morning glory4 ,it is so with the cherry-tree that puts forth the loveliest flowers and bears bitter fruits4 ,it is so with the apple-tree1 which bears the sweetest of fruits and has ugly blossoms4 ,it is so with animals and men4 ,each of them is placed in the condition best for his appointed mission4 ,the newly-born baby sucks1 sleeps1 and cries4 ,it can do no more nor less4 ,is it not best for it to do so8 ,when it attained to its boyhood1 he goes to school and is admitted to the first-year class4 ,he cannot be put in a higher nor lower class4 ,it is best for him to be the first-year class student4 ,when his school education is over1 he may get a position in society according to his abilities1 or may lead a miserable life owing to his failure of some sort or other4 ,in any case he is in a position best for his special mission ordained by ,providence or the ,hum-total of the fruits of his actions and reactions since all eternity4 ,he should be contented and happy1 and do what is right with might and main4 ,discontent and vexation only make him more worthy of his ruin ,therefore our positions1 no matter1 how high or low1 no matter how favourable or unfavourable our environment1 we are to be cheerful4 ,do thy best and leave the rest to ,providence1 says a ,chinese adage4 ,longfellow also says3 ,do thy best2 that is best4 ,leave unto thy ,lord the rest4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,the ,,mind ,,and ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,meditation #a4 ,the ,method of ,instruction ,adopted by ,zen ,masters4 ,thus far we have described the doctrine of ,zen inculcated by both ,chinese and ,japanese masters1 and in this chapter we propose to sketch the practice of mental training and the method of practising ,dhyana or ,meditation4 ,zen teachers never instruct their pupils by means of explanation or argument1 but urge them to solve by themselves through the practice of ,meditation such problems as--',what is ,buddha8' ,what is self8' ',what is the spirit of ,bodhidharma8' ',what is life and death8' ',what is the real nature of mind8' and so on4 ,ten ,shwai 7,to-sotsu71 for instance1 was wont to put three questions,,fn#bbi to the following effect3 7#a7 ,your study and discipline aim at the understanding of the real nature of mind4 ,where does the real nature of mind exist8 7#b7 ,when you understand the real nature of mind1 you are free from birth and death4 ,how can you be saved when you are at the verge of death8 7#c7 ,when you are free from birth and death1 you know where you go after death4 ,where do you go when your body is reduced to elements8 ,the pupils are not requested to express their solution of these problems in the form of a theory or an argument1 but to show how they have grasped the profound meaning implied in these problems1 how they have established their conviction1 and how they can carry out what they grasped in their daily life4 ,,fn#bbi ,the famous three difficult questions1 known as the ,three ,gates of ,teu ,shwai 7,to ,sotsu ,san ,kwan71 who died in #ajia4 ,see ,mu ,mon ,kwan1 xlvii4 ,a ,chinese ,zen master,,fn#bcj tells us that the method of instruction adopted by ,zen may aptly be compared with that of an old burglar who taught his son the art of burglary4 ,the burglar one evening said to his little son1 whom he desired to instruct in the secret of his trade3 ,would you not1 my dear boy1 be a great burglar like myself8 ,yes1 father1 replied the promising young man4 ,come with me1 then4 ,i will teach you the art4 ,so saying1 the man went out1 followed by his son4 ,finding a rich mansion in a certain village1 the veteran burglar made a hole in the wall that surrounded it4 ,through that hole they crept into the yard1 and opening a window with complete ease broke into the house1 where they found a huge box firmly locked up as if its contents were very valuable articles4 ,the old man clapped his hands at the lock1 which1 strange to tell1 unfastened itself4 ,then he removed the cover and told his son to get into it and pick up treasures as fast as he could4 ,no sooner had the boy entered the box than the father replaced the cover and locked it up4 ,he then exclaimed at the top of his voice3 ,thief6 thief6 thief6 thief6 ,thus1 having aroused the inmates1 he went out without taking anything4 ,all the house was in utter confusion for a while2 but finding nothing stolen1 they went to bed again4 ,the boy sat holding his breath a short while2 but making up his mind to get out of his narrow prison1 began to scratch the bottom of the box with his finger-nails4 ,the servant of the house1 listening to the noise1 supposed it to be a mouse gnawing at the inside of the box2 so she came out1 lamp in hand1 and unlocked it4 ,on removing the cover1 she was greatly surprised to find the boy instead of a little mouse1 and gave alarm4 ,in the meantime the boy got out of the box and went down into the yard1 hotly pursued by the people4 ,he ran as fast as possible toward the well1 picked up a large stone1 threw it down into it1 and hid himself among the bushes4 ,the pursuers1 thinking the thief fell into the well1 assembled around it1 and were looking into it1 while the boy crept out unnoticed through the hole and went home in safety4 ,thus the burglar taught his son how to rid himself of overwhelming difficulties by his own efforts2 so also ,zen teachers teach their pupils how to overcome difficulties that beset them on all sides and work out salvation by themselves4 ,,fn#bcj ,wu ,tsu 7,go ,so71 the teacher of ,yuen ,wu 7,en ,go74 #b4 ,the ,first ,step in the ,mental ,training4 ,some of the old ,zen masters are said to have attained to supreme ,enlightenment after the practice of ,meditation for one week1 some for one day1 some for a score of years1 and some for a few months4 ,the practice of ,meditation1 however1 is not simply a means for ,enlightenment1 as is usually supposed1 but also it is the enjoyment of ,nirvana1 or the beatitude of ,zen4 ,it is a matter1 of course1 that we have fully to understand the doctrine of ,zen1 and that we have to go through the mental training peculiar to ,zen in order to be ,enlightened4 ,the first step in the mental training is to become the master of external things4 ,he who is addicted to worldly pleasures1 however learned or ignorant he may be1 however high or low his social position may be1 is a servant to mere things4 ,he cannot adapt the external world to his own end1 but he adapts himself to it4 ,he is constantly employed1 ordered1 driven by sensual objects4 ,instead of taking possession of wealth1 he is possessed by wealth4 ,instead of drinking liquors1 he is swallowed up by his liquors4 ,balls and music bid him to run mad4 ,games and shows order him not to stay at home4 ,houses1 furniture1 pictures1 watches1 chains1 hats1 bonnets1 rings1 bracelets1 shoes--in short1 everything has a word to command him4 ,how can such a person be the master of things8 ,to ,ju 7,na-kae7 says3 ,there is a great jail1 not a jail for criminals1 that contains the world in it4 ,fame1 gain1 pride1 and bigotry form its four walls4 ,those who are confined in it fall a prey to sorrow and sigh for ever4 ,to be the ruler of things we have first to shut up all our senses1 and turn the currents of thoughts inward1 and see ourselves as the centre of the world1 and meditate that we are the beings of highest intelligence2 that ,buddha never puts us at the mercy of natural forces2 that the earth is in our possession2 that everything on earth is to be made use of for our noble ends2 that fire1 water1 air1 grass1 trees1 rivers1 hills1 thunder1 cloud1 stars1 the moon1 the sun1 are at our command2 that we are the law-givers of the natural phenomena2 that we are the makers of the phenomenal world2 that it is we that appoint a mission through life1 and determine the fate of man4 #c4 ,the ,next ,step in the ,mental ,training4 ,in the next place we have to strive to be the master of our bodies4 ,with most of the unenlightened1 body holds absolute control over ,self4 ,every order of the former has to be faithfully obeyed by the latter4 ,even if ,self revolts against the tyranny of body1 it is easily trampled down under the brutal hoofs of bodily passion4 ,for example1 ,self wants to be temperate for the sake of health1 and would fain pass by the resort for drinking1 but body would force ,self into it4 ,self at times lays down a strict dietetic rule for himself1 but body would threaten ,self to act against both the letter and spirit of the rule4 ,now ,self aspires to get on a higher place among sages1 but body pulls ,self down to the pavement of masses4 ,now ,self proposes to give some money to the poor1 but body closes the purse tightly4 ,now ,self admires divine beauty1 but body compels him to prefer sensuality4 ,again1 ,self likes spiritual liberty1 but body confines him in its dungeons4 ,therefore1 to get ,enlightened1 we must establish the authority of ,self over the whole body4 ,we must use our bodies as we use our clothes in order to accomplish our noble purposes4 ,let us command body not to shudder under a cold shower-bath in inclement weather1 not to be nervous from sleepless nights1 not to be sick with any sort of food1 not to groan under a surgeon's knife1 not to succumb even if we stand a whole day in the midsummer sun1 not to break down under any form of disease1 not to be excited in the thick of battlefield--in brief1 we have to control our body as we will4 ,sit in a quiet place and meditate in imagination that body is no more bondage to you1 that it is your machine for your work of life1 that you are not flesh1 that you are the governor of it1 that you can use it at pleasure1 and that it always obeys your order faithfully4 ,imagine body as separated from you4 ,when it cries out1 stop it instantly1 as a mother does her baby4 ,when it disobeys you1 correct it by discipline1 as a master does his pupil4 ,when it is wanton1 tame it down1 as a horse-breaker does his wild horse4 ,when it is sick1 prescribe to it1 as a doctor does to his patient4 ,imagine that you are not a bit injured1 even if it streams blood2 that you are entirely safe1 even if it is drowned in water or burned by fire4 ,e-,shun1 a pupil and sister of ,ryo-an1,,fn#bca a famous ,japanese master1 burned herself calmly sitting cross-legged on a pile of firewood which consumed her4 ,she attained to the complete mastery of her body4 ,socrates' self was never poisoned1 even if his person was destroyed by the venom he took4 ,abraham ,lincoln himself stood unharmed1 even if his body was laid low by the assassin4 ,masa-shige was quite safe1 even if his body was hewed by the traitors' swords4 ,those martyrs that sang at the stake to the praise of ,god could never be burned1 even if their bodies were reduced to ashes1 nor those seekers after truth who were killed by ignorance and superstition4 ,is it not a great pity to see a man endowed with divine spirit and power easily upset by a bit of headache1 or crying as a child under a surgeon's knife1 or apt to give up the ghost at the coming of little danger1 or trembling through a little cold1 or easily laid low by a bit of indisposition1 or yielding to trivial temptation8 ,,fn#bca ,ryo an 7,e-myo1 died #adaa71 the founder of the monastery of ,sai-jo-ji1 near the city of ,odawara4 ,see ,to-jo-ren-to-roku4 ,it is no easy matter to be the dictator of body4 ,it is not a matter of theory1 but of practice4 ,you must train your body that you may enable it to bear any sort of suffering1 and to stand unflinched in the face of hardship4 ,it is for this that ,so-rai,,fn#bcb 7,ogiu7 laid himself on a sheet of straw-mat spread on the ground in the coldest nights of winter1 or was used to go up and down the roof of his house1 having himself clad in heavy armour4 ,it is for this that ancient ,japanese soldiers led extremely simple lives1 and that they often held the meeting-of-perseverance1,,fn#bcc in which they exposed themselves to the coldest weather in winter or to the hottest weather in summer4 ,it is for this that ,katsu ,awa practised fencing in the middle of night in a deep forest4,,fn#bcd ,,fn#bcb ,one of the greatest scholars of the ,tokugawa period1 who died in #agbh4 ,see ,etsu-wa-bun-ko4 ,,fn#bcc ,the soldiers of the ,tokugawa period were used to hold such a meeting4 ,,fn#bcd ,kai-shu-gen-ko-roku4 ,ki-saburo1 although he was a mere outlaw1 having his left arm half cut at the elbow in a quarrel1 ordered his servant to cut it off with a saw1 and during the operation he could calmly sit talking and laughing with his friends4 ,hiko-kuro 7,takayama71,,fn#bce a ,japanese loyalist of note1 one evening happened to come to a bridge where two robbers were lying in wait for him4 ,they lay fully stretching themselves1 each with his head in the middle of the bridge1 that he might not pass across it without touching them4 ,hiko-kuro was not excited nor disheartened1 but calmly approached the vagabonds and passed the bridge1 treading upon their heads1 which act so frightened them that they took to their heels without doing any harm to him4,,fn#bcf ,,fn#bce ,a well-known loyalist in the ,tokugawa period1 who died in #agic4 ,,fn#bcf ,etsu-wa-bun-ko4 ,the history of ,zen is full of the anecdotes that show ,zen priests were the lords of their bodies4 ,here we quote a single example by way of illustration3 ,ta ,hwui 7,dai-ye71 once having had a boil on his hip1 sent for a doctor1 who told him that it was fatal1 that he must not sit in ,meditation as usual4 ,then ,ta ,hwui said to the physician3 ,i must sit in ,meditation with all my might during my remaining days1 for if your diagnosis be not mistaken1 ,i shall die before long4 ,he sat day and night in constant ,meditation1 quite forgetful of his boil1 which was broken and gone by itself4,,fn#bcg ,,fn#bcg ,sho-bo-gen-zo-zui-mon-ki1 by ,do-gen4 #d4 ,the ,third ,step in the ,mental ,training4 ,to be the lord of mind is more essential to ,enlightenment1 which1 in a sense1 is the clearing away of illusions1 the putting out of mean desires and passions1 and the awakening of the innermost wisdom4 ,he alone can attain to real happiness who has perfect control over his passions tending to disturb the equilibrium of his mind4 ,such passions as anger1 hatred1 jealousy1 sorrow1 worry1 grudge1 and fear always untune one's mood and break the harmony of one's mind4 ,they poison one's body1 not in a figurative1 but in a literal sense of the word4 ,obnoxious passions once aroused never fail to bring about the physiological change in the nerves1 in the organs1 and eventually in the whole constitution1 and leave those injurious impressions that make one more liable to passions of similar nature4 ,we do not mean1 however1 that we ought to be cold and passionless1 as the most ancient ,hinayanists were used to be4 ,such an attitude has been blamed by ,zen masters4 ,what is the best way of living for us monks8 asked a monk to ,yun ,ku 7,un-go71 who replied3 ,you had better live among mountains4 ,then the monk bowed politely to the teacher1 who questioned3 ,how did you understand me8 ,monks1 as ,i understood1 answered the man1 ought to keep their hearts as immovable as mountains1 not being moved either by good or by evil1 either by birth or by death1 either by prosperity or by adversity4 ,hereupon ,yun ,ku struck the monk with his stick and said3 ,you forsake the ,way of the old sages1 and will bring my followers to perdition6 ,then1 turning to another monk1 inquired3 ,how did you understand me8 ,monks1 as ,i understand1 replied the man1 ought to shut their eyes to attractive sights and close their ears to musical notes4 ,you1 too1 exclaimed ,yun ,ka1 forsake the ,way of the old sages1 and will bring my followers to perdition6 ,an old woman1 to quote another example repeatedly told by ,zen masters1 used to give food and clothing to a monk for a score of years4 ,one day she instructed a young girl to embrace and ask him3 ,how do you feel now8 ,a lifeless tree1 replied the monk coolly1 stands on cold rock4 ,there is no warmth1 as if in the coldest season of the year4 ,the matron1 being told of this1 observed3 ,oh that ,i have made offerings to such a vulgar fellow for twenty years6 ,she forced the monk to leave the temple and reduced it to ashes4,,fn#bch ,,fn#bch ,these instances are quoted from ,zen-rin-rui-shu4 ,if you want to secure ,dhyana1 let go of your anxieties and failures in the past2 let bygones be bygones2 cast aside enmity1 shame1 and trouble1 never admit them into your brain2 let pass the imagination and anticipation of future hardships and sufferings2 let go of all your annoyances1 vexations1 doubts1 melancholies1 that impede your speed in the race of the struggle for existence4 ,as the miser sets his heart on worthless dross and accumulates it1 so an unenlightened person clings to worthless mental dross and spiritual rubbish1 and makes his mind a dust-heap4 ,some people constantly dwell on the minute details of their unfortunate circumstances1 to make themselves more unfortunate than they really are2 some go over and over again the symptoms of their disease to think themselves into serious illness2 and some actually bring evils on them by having them constantly in view and waiting for them4 ,a man asked ,poh ,chang 7,hyaku-jo73 ,how shall ,i learn the ,law8 ,eat when you are hungry1 replied the teacher2 sleep when you are tired4 ,people do not simply eat at table1 but think of hundreds of things2 they do not simply sleep in bed1 but think of thousands of things4,,fn#bci ,,fn#bci ,e-gen and ,den-to-roku4 ,a ridiculous thing it is1 in fact1 that man or woman1 endowed with the same nature as ,buddha's1 born the lord of all material objects1 is ever upset by petty cares1 haunted by the fearful phantoms of his or her own creation1 and burning up his or her energy in a fit of passion1 wasting his or her vitality for the sake of foolish or insignificant things4 ,it is a man who can keep the balance of his mind under any circumstances1 who can be calm and serene in the hottest strife of life1 that is worthy of success1 reward1 respect1 and reputation1 for he is the master of men4 ,it was at the age of forty-seven that ,wang ,yang ,ming,,fn#bdj 7,o-yo-mei7 won a splendid victory over the rebel army which threatened the throne of the ,ming dynasty4 ,during that warfare ,wang was giving a course of lectures to a number of students at the headquarters of the army1 of which he was the ,commander-in-chief4 ,at the very outset of the battle a messenger brought him the news of defeat of the foremost ranks4 ,all the students were terror-stricken and grew pale at the unfortunate tidings1 but the teacher was not a whit disturbed by it4 ,some time after another messenger brought in the news of complete rout of the enemy4 ,all the students1 enraptured1 stood up and cheered1 but he was as cool as before1 and did not break off lecturing4 ,thus the practiser of ,zen has so perfect control over his heart that he can keep presence of mind under an impending danger1 even in the presence of death itself4 ,,fn#bdj ,the founder of the ,wang ,school of ,confucianism1 a practiser of ,meditation1 who was born in #adgb1 and died at the age of fifty-seven in #aebi4 ,it was at the age of twenty-three that ,haku-in got on board a boat bound for the ,eastern ,provinces1 which met with a tempest and was almost wrecked4 ,all the passengers were laid low with fear and fatigue1 but ,haku-in enjoyed a quiet sleep during the storm1 as if he were lying on a comfortable bed4 ,it was in the fifth of ,mei-ji era that ,doku-on,,fn#bda lived for some time in the city of ,tokyo1 whom some ,christian zealots attempted to murder4 ,one day he met with a few young men equipped with swords at the gate of his temple4 ,we want to see ,doku-on2 go and tell him1 said they to the priest4 ,i am ,doku-on1 replied he calmly1 whom you want to see1 gentlemen4 ,what can ,i do for you8 ,we have come to ask you a favour2 we are ,christians2 we want your hoary head4 ,so saying they were ready to attack him1 who1 smiling1 replied3 ,all right1 gentlemen4 ,behead me forthwith1 if you please4 ,surprised by this unexpected boldness on the part of the priest1 they turned back without harming even a hair of the old ,buddhist4,,fn#bdb ,,fn#bda ,doku ,on 7,ogino71 a distinguished ,zen master1 an abbot of ,so-koku-ji1 who was born in #ahah1 and died in #ahie4 ,,fn#bdb ,kin-sei-zen-rin-gen-ko-roku1 by ,d4 ,mori4 ,these teachers could through long practice constantly keep their minds buoyant1 casting aside useless encumbrances of idle thoughts2 bright1 driving off the dark cloud of melancholy2 tranquil1 putting down turbulent waves of passion2 pure1 cleaning away the dust and ashes of illusion2 and serene1 brushing off the cobwebs of doubt and fear4 ,the only means of securing all this is to realize the conscious union with the ,universal ,life through the ,enlightened ,consciousness1 which can be awakened by dint of ,dhyana4 #e4 ,zazen1 or the ,sitting in ,meditation4 ,habit comes out of practice1 and forms character by degrees1 and eventually works out destiny4 ,therefore we must practically sow optimism1 and habitually nourish it in order to reap the blissful fruit of ,enlightenment4 ,the sole means of securing mental calmness is the practice of ,zazen1 or the sitting in ,meditation4 ,this method was known in ,india as ,yoga as early as the ,upanisad period1 and developed by the followers of the ,yoga system4,,fn#bdc ,but ,buddhists sharply distinguished ,zazen from ,yoga1 and have the method peculiar to themselves4 ,kei-zan,,fn#bdd describes the method to the following effect3 ',secure a quiet room neither extremely light nor extremely dark1 neither very warm nor very cold1 a room1 if you can1 in the ,buddhist temple located in a beautiful mountainous district4 ,you should not practise ,zazen in a place where a conflagration or a flood or robbers may be likely to disturb you1 nor should you sit in a place close by the sea or drinking-shops or brothel-houses1 or the houses of widows and of maidens or buildings for music1 nor should you live in close proximity to the place frequented by kings1 ministers1 powerful statesmen1 ambitious or insincere persons4 ,you must not sit in ,meditation in a windy or very high place lest you should get ill4 ,be sure not to let the wind or smoke get into your room1 not to expose it to rain and storm4 ,keep your room clean4 ,keep it not too light by day nor too dark by night4 ,keep it warm in winter and cool in summer4 ,do not sit leaning against a wall1 or a chair1 or a screen4 ,you must not wear soiled clothes or beautiful clothes1 for the former are the cause of illness1 while the latter the cause of attachment4 ,avoid the ,three ,insufficiencies-that is to say1 insufficient clothes1 insufficient food1 and insufficient sleep4 ,abstain from all sorts of uncooked or hard or spoiled or unclean food1 and also from very delicious dishes1 because the former cause troubles in your alimentary canal1 while the latter cause you to covet after diet4 ,eat and drink just too appease your hunger and thirst1 never mind whether the food be tasty or not4 ,take your meals regularly and punctually1 and never sit in ,meditation immediately after any meal4 ,do not practise ,dhyana soon after you have taken a heavy dinner1 lest you should get sick thereby4 ,sesame1 barley1 corn1 potatoes1 milk1 and the like are the best material for your food4 ,frequently wash your eyes1 face1 hands1 and feet1 and keep them cool and clean4 ,,fn#bdc ,see ,yoga ,sutra with the ,commentary of ,bhoja ,raja 7translated by ,rajendralala ,mitra71 pp4 #ajb-ajd4 ,,fn#bdd ,kei-zan 7,jo-kin71 the founder of ,so-ji-ji1 the head temple of the ,so ,to ,sect of ,zen1 who died at the age of fifty-eight in #acbe4 ,he sets forth the doctrine of ,zen and the method of practising ,zazen in his famous work1 entitled ,za-zen-yo-jin-ki4 ',there are two postures in ,zazen--that is to say1 the crossed-leg sitting1 and the half crossed-leg sitting4 ,seat yourself on a thick cushion1 putting it right under your haunch4 ,keep your body so erect that the tip of the nose and the navel are in one perpendicular line1 and both ears and shoulders are in the same plane4 ,then place the right foot upon the left thigh1 the left foot on the right thigh1 so as the legs come across each other4 ,next put your right hand with the palm upward on the left foot1 and your left hand on the right palm with the tops of both the thumbs touching each other4 ,this is the posture called the crossed-leg sitting4 ,you may simply place the left foot upon the right thigh1 the position of the hands being the same as in the cross-legged sitting4 ,this posture is named the half crossed-leg sitting4' ',do not shut your eyes1 keep them always open during whole ,meditation4 ,do not breathe through the mouth2 press your tongue against the roof of the mouth1 putting the upper lips and teeth together with the lower4 ,swell your abdomen so as to hold the breath in the belly2 breathe rhythmically through the nose1 keeping a measured time for inspiration and expiration4 ,count for some time either the inspiring or the expiring breaths from one to ten1 then beginning with one again4 ,concentrate your attention on your breaths going in and out as if you are the sentinel standing at the gate of the nostrils4 ,if you do some mistake in counting1 or be forgetful of the breath1 it is evident that your mind is distracted4' ,chwang ,tsz seems to have noticed that the harmony of breathing is typical of the harmony of mind1 since he says3 ,the true men of old did not dream when they slept4 ,their breathing came deep and silently4 ,the breathing of true men comes 7even7 from his heels1 while men generally breathe 7only7 from their throats4,,fn#bde ,at any rate1 the counting of breaths is an expedient for calming down of mind1 and elaborate rules are given in the ,zen ,sutra1,,fn#bdf but ,chinese and ,japanese ,zen masters do not lay so much stress on this point as ,indian teachers4 ,,fn#bde ,chwang ,tsz1 vol4 iii41 p4 #b4 ,,fn#bdf ,dharmatara-dhyana-sutra4 #f4 ,the ,breathing ,exercise of the ,yogi4 ,breathing exercise is one of the practices of ,yoga1 and somewhat similar in its method and end to those of ,zen4 ,we quote here,,fn#bdg ,yogi ,ramacharaka to show how modern ,yogis practise it3 7#a7 ,stand or sit erect4 ,breathing through the nostrils1 inhale steadily1 first filling the lower part of the lungs1 which is accomplished by bringing into play the diaphragm1 which1 descending1 exerts a gentle pressure on the abdominal organs1 pushing forward the front walls of the abdomen4 ,then fill the middle part of the lungs1 pushing out the lower ribs1 breastbone1 and chest4 ,then fill the higher portion of the lungs1 protruding the upper chest1 thus lifting the chest1 including the upper six or seven pairs of ribs4 ,in the final movement the lower part of the abdomen will be slightly drawn in1 which movement gives the lungs a support1 and also helps to fill the highest part of the lungs4 ,at the first reading it may appear that this breath consists of three distinct movements4 ,this1 however1 is not the correct idea4 ,the inhalation is continuous1 the entire chest cavity from the lower diaphragm to the highest point of the chest in the region of the collar-bone being expanded with a uniform movement4 ,avoid a jerking series of inhalations1 and strive to attain a steady1 continuous action4 ,practice will soon overcome the tendency to divide the inhalation into three movements1 and will result in a uniform continuous breath4 ,you will be able to complete the inhalation in a couple of seconds after a little practice4 7#b7 ,retain the breath a few seconds4 7#c7 ,exhale quite slowly1 holding the chest in a firm position1 and drawing the abdomen in a little and lifting it upward slowly as the air leaves the lungs4 ,when the air is entirely exhaled1 relax the chest and abdomen4 ,a little practice will render this part of exercise easy1 and the movement once acquired will be afterwards performed almost automatically4 ,,fn#bdg ,hatha ,yoga1 pp4 #aab1 #aac4 #g4 ,calmness of ,mind4 ,the ,yogi breathing above mentioned is fit rather for physical exercise than for mental balance1 and it will be beneficial if you take that exercise before or after ,meditation4 ,japanese masters mostly bold it very important to push forward4 ,the lowest part of the abdomen during ,zazen1 and they are right so far as the present writer's personal experiences go4 ',if you feel your mind distracted1 look at the tip of the nose2 never lose sight of it for some time1 or look at your own palm1 and let not your mind go out of it1 or gaze at one spot before you4' ,this will greatly help you in restoring the equilibrium of your mind4 ,chwang ,tsz,,fn#bdh thought that calmness of mind is essential to sages1 and said3 ,the stillness of the sages does not belong to them as a consequence of their skilful ability2 all things are not able to disturb their minds2 it is on this account that they are still4 ,when water is still1 its clearness shows the beard and eyebrows 7of him who looks into it74 ,it is a perfect level1 and the greatest artificer takes his rule from it4 ,such is the clearness of still water1 and how much greater is that of the human spirit8 ,the still mind of the sage is the mirror of heaven and earth1 the glass of all things4 ,forget all worldly concerns1 expel all cares and anxieties1 let go of passions and desires1 give up ideas and thoughts1 set your mind at liberty absolutely1 and make it as clear as a burnished mirror4 ,thus let flow your inexhaustible fountain of purity1 let open your inestimable treasure of virtue1 bring forth your inner hidden nature of goodness1 disclose your innermost divine wisdom1 and waken your ,enlightened ,consciousness to see ,universal ,life within you4 ,zazen enables the practiser1 says ,kei-zan1,,fn#bdi to open up his mind1 to see his own nature1 to become conscious of mysteriously pure and bright spirit1 or eternal light within him4 ,,fn#bdh ,chwang ,tsz1 vol4 v41 p4 #e4 ,,fn#bdi ,za-zen-yo-jin-ki4 ,once become conscious of ,divine ,life within you1 yon can see it in your brethren1 no matter how different they may be in circumstances1 in abilities1 in characters1 in nationalities1 in language1 in religion1 and in race4 ,you can see it in animals1 vegetables1 and minerals1 no matter how diverse they may be in form1 no matter how wild and ferocious some may seem in nature1 no matter how unfeeling in heart some may seem1 no matter how devoid of intelligence some may appear1 no matter how insignificant some may be1 no matter how simple in construction some may be1 no matter how lifeless some may seem4 ,you can see that the whole universe is ,enlightened and penetrated by ,divine ,life4 #h4 ,zazen and the ,forgetting of ,self4 ,zazen is a most effectual means of destroying selfishness1 the root of all ,sin1 folly1 vice1 and evil1 since it enables us to see that every being is endowed with divine spirituality in common with men4 ,it is selfishness that throws dark shadows on life1 just as it is not the sun but the body that throws shadow before it4 ,it is the self-same selfishness that gave rise to the belief in the immortality of soul1 in spite of its irrationality1 foolishness1 and superstition4 ,individual self should be a poor miserable thing if it were not essentially connected with the ,universal ,life4 ,we can always enjoy pure happiness when we are united with nature1 quite forgetful of our poor self4 ,when you look1 for example1 into the smiling face of a pretty baby1 and smile with it1 or listen to the sweet melody of a songster and sing with it1 you completely forget your poor self at that enraptured moment4 ,but your feelings of beauty and happiness are for ever gone when you resume your self1 and begin to consider them after your own selfish ideas4 ,to forget self and identify it with nature is to break down its limitation and to set it at liberty4 ,to break down petty selfishness and extend it into ,universal ,self is to unfetter and deliver it from bondage4 ,it therefore follows that salvation can be secured not by the continuation of individuality in another life1 but by the realization of one's union with ,universal ,life1 which is immortal1 free1 limitless1 eternal1 and bliss itself4 ,this is easily effected by ,zazen4 #i4 ,zen and ,supernatural ,power4 ,yoga,,fn#bej claims that various supernatural powers can be acquired by ,meditation1 but ,zen does not make any such absurd claims4 ,it rather disdains those who are believed to have acquired supernatural powers by the practice of austerities4 ,the following traditions clearly show this spirit3 ,when ,fah ,yung 7,ho-yu7 lived in ,mount ,niu ,teu,,fn#bea 7,go-zu-san7 he used to receive every morning the offerings of flowers from hundreds of birds1 and was believed to have supernatural powers4 ,but after his ,enlightenment by the instruction of the ,fourth ,patriarch1 the birds ceased to make offering1 because be became a being too divine to be seen by inferior animals4 ,hwang ,pah 7,o-baku71 one day going up ,mount ,tien ,tai 7,ten-dai-san71 which was believed to have been inhabited by ,arhats with supernatural powers1 met with a monk whose eyes emitted strange light4 ,they went along the pass talking with each other for a short while until they came to a river roaring with torrent4 ,there being no bridge1 the master bad to stop at the shore2 but his companion crossed the river walking on the water and beckoned to ,hwang ,pah to follow him4 ,thereupon ,hwang ,pah said3 ',if ,i knew thou art an ,arhat1 ,i would have doubled you up before thou got over there6' ,the monk then understood the spiritual attainment of ,hwang ,pah1 and praised him as a true ,mahayanist4 ,on one occasion ,yang ,shan 7,kyo-zan7 saw a stranger monk flying through the air4 ,when that monk came down and approached him with a respectful salutation1 he asked3 ',where art thou from8 ',early this morning1' replied the other1 ',i set out from ,india4' ',why1' said the teacher1 'art thou so late8' ',i stopped1' responded the man1 'several times to look at beautiful sceneries4' ,thou mayst have supernatural powers1' exclaimed ,yang ,shan1 'yet thou must give back the ,spirit of ,buddha to me4' ,then the monk praised ,yang ,shan saying3 ',i have come over to ,china in order to worship ,manyjucri1,,fn#beb and met unexpectedly with ,minor ,shakya1' and1 after giving the master some palm leaves he brought from ,india1 went back through the air4',,fn#bec ,,fn#bej ',yoga ,aphorisms of ,patanyjali1' chap4 iii4 ,,fn#bea ,a prominent disciple of the ,fourth ,patriarch1 the founder of the ,niu ,teu ,school 7,go-zu-zen7 of ,zen1 who died in ,a4,d4 #fge4 ,,fn#beb ,manyjucri is a legendary ,bodhisattva1 who became an object of worship of some ,mahayanists4 ,he is treated as a personification of transcendental wisdom4 ,,fn#bec ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-gen7 and ,sho-bo-gen-zo4 ,it is quite reasonable that ,zenists distinguish supernatural powers from spiritual uplifting1 the former an acquirement of ,devas1 or of ,asuras1 or of ,arhats1 or of even animals1 and the latter as a nobler accomplishment attained only by the practisers of ,mahayanism4 ,moreover1 they use the term supernatural power in a meaning entirely different from the original one4 ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-zai7 says1 for instance3 ,there are six supernatural powers of ,buddha3 ,he is free from the temptation of form1 living in the world of form2 ,he is free from the temptation of sound1 living in the world of sound2 ,he is free from the temptation of smell1 living in the world of smell2 ,he is free from the temptation of taste1 living in the world of taste2 ,he is free from the temptation of ,dharma1,,fn#bed living in the world of ,dharma4 ,these are six supernatural powers4,,fn#bee ,,fn#bed ,the things or objects1 not of sense1 but of mind4 ,,fn#bee ,lin ,tsi ,luh 7,rin-zai-roku74 ,sometimes ,zenists use the term as if it meant what we call ,zen ,activity1 or the free display of ,zen in action1 as you see in the following examples4 ,tung ,shan 7,to-,zan7 was on one occasion attending on his teacher ,yun ,yen 7,un-gan71 who asked3 ,what are your supernatural powers8 ,tung ,shan1 saying nothing1 clasped his hands on his breast1 and stood up before ,yun ,yen4 ,how do you display your supernatural powers8 questioned the teacher again4 ,then ,tung ,shan said farewell and went out4 ,wei ,shan 7,e-san7 one day was taking a nap1 and seeing his disciple ,yang ,shan 7,kyo-zan7 coming into the room1 turned his face towards the wall4 ,you need not1 ,sir1 said ,yang ,shan1 stand on ceremony1 as ,i am your disciple4 ,wei ,shan seemed to try to get up1 so ,yang ,shan went out2 but ,wei ,shan called him back and said3 ,i shall tell you of a dream ,i dreamed4 ,the other inclined his head as if to listen4 ,now1 said ,wei ,shan1 divine my fortune by the dream4 ,thereupon ,yang ,shan fetched a basin of water and a towel and gave them to the master1 who washed his face thereby4 ,by-and-by ,hiang ,yen 7,kyo-gen7 came in1 to whom ,wei ,shan said3 ,we displayed supernatural powers a moment ago4 ,it was not such supernatural powers as are shown by ,hinayanists4 ,i know it1 ,sir1 replied the other1 though ,i was down below4 ,say1 then1 what it was1 demanded the master4 ,then ,hiang ,yen made tea and gave a cup to ,wei ,shan1 who praised the two disciples1 saying3 ,you surpass ariputra,,fn#bef and ,maudgalyayana,,fn#beg in your wisdom and supernatural powers4,,fn#beh ,,fn#bef ,one of the prominent disciples of ,shakya ,muni1 who became famous for his wisdom4 ,,fn#beg ,one of the eminent disciples of ,shakya ,muni1 noted for his supernatural powers4 ,,fn#beh ,zen-rin-rui-sku4 ,again1 ancient ,zenists did not claim that there was any mysterious element in their spiritual attainment1 as ,do-gen says,,fn#bei unequivocally respecting his ,enlightenment3 ,i recognized only that my eyes are placed crosswise above the nose that stands lengthwise1 and that ,i was not deceived by others4 ,i came home from ,china with nothing in my hand4 ,there is nothing mysterious in ,buddhism4 ,time passes as it is natural1 the sun rising in the east1 and the moon setting into the west4 ,,fn#bei ,ei-hei-ko-roku4 #aj4 ,true ,dhyana4 ,to sit in ,meditation is not the only method of practising ,zazen4 ,we practise ,dhyana in sitting1 in standing1 and in walking1 says one of the ,japanese ,zenists4 ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-,zai7 also says3 ,to concentrate one's mind1 or to dislike noisy places1 and seek only for stillness1 is the characteristic of heterodox ,dhyana4 ,it is easy to keep self-possession in a place of tranquillity1 yet it is by no means easy to keep mind undisturbed amid the bivouac of actual life4 ,it is true ,dhyana that makes our mind sunny while the storms of strife rage around us4 ,it is true ,dhyana that secures the harmony of heart1 while the surges of struggle toss us violently4 ,it is true ,dhyana that makes us bloom and smile1 while the winter of life covets us with frost and snow4 ,idle thoughts come and go over unenlightened minds six hundred and fifty times in a snap of one's fingers1 writes an ,indian teacher1,,fn#bfj and thirteen hundred million times every twenty-four hours4 ,this might be an exaggeration1 yet we cannot but acknowledge that one idle thought after another ceaselessly bubbles up in the stream of consciousness4 ,dhyana is the letting go1 continues the writer--that is to say1 the letting go of the thirteen hundred million of idle thoughts4 ,the very root of these thirteen hundred million idle thoughts is an illusion about one's self4 ,he is indeed the poorest creature1 even if he be in heaven1 who thinks himself poor4 ,on the contrary1 he is an angel who thinks himself hopeful and happy1 even though he be in hell4 ,pray deliver me1 said a sinner to ,sang ,tsung 7,so-san74,,fn#bfa ,who ties you up8 was the reply4 ,you tie yourself up day and night with the fine thread of idle thoughts1 and build a cocoon of environment from which you have no way of escape4 ',there is no rope1 yet you imagine yourself bound4' ,who could put fetters on your mind but your mind itself8 ,who could chain your will but your own will8 ,who could blind your spiritual eyes1 unless you yourself shut them up8 ,who could prevent you from enjoying moral food1 unless you yourself refuse to eat8 ,there are many1 said ,sueh ,fung 7,sep-po7 on one occasion1 who starve in spite of their sitting in a large basket full of victuals4 ,there are many who thirst in spite of seating themselves on the shore of a sea4 ,yes1 ,sir1 replied ,huen ,sha 7,gen-sha71 there are many who starve in spite of putting their heads into the basket full of victuals4 ,there are many who thirst in spite of putting their heads into the waters of the sea4,,fn#bfb ,who could cheer him up who abandons himself to self-created misery8 ,who could save him who denies his own salvation8 ,,fn#bfj ,the introduction to ,anapana-sutra by ,khin ,san ,hwui1 who came to ,china ,a4,d4 #bda4 ,,fn#bfa ,the ,third ,patriarch4 ,,fn#bfb ,hwui ,yuen 7,e-gen74 #aa4 ,let ,go of your ,idle ,thoughts4,,fn#bfc ,,fn#bfc ,a famous ,zenist1 ,mu-go-koku-shi1 is said to have replied to every questioner1 saying3 ,let go of your idle thoughts4 ,a ,brahmin1 having troubled himself a long while with reference to the problem of life and of the world1 went out to call on ,shakya ,muni that he might be instructed by the ,master4 ,he got some beautiful flowers to offer them as a present to the ,muni1 and proceeded to the place where ,he was addressing his disciples and believers4 ,no sooner had he come in sight of the ,master than he read in his mien the struggles going on within him4 ,let go of that1 said the ,muni to the ,brahmin1 who was going to offer the flowers in both his hands4 ,he dropped on the ground the flowers in his right hand1 but still holding those in his left4 ,let go of that1 demanded the ,master1 and the ,brahmin dropped the flowers in his left hand rather reluctantly4 ,let go of that1 ,i say1 the ,muni commanded again2 but the ,brahmin1 having nothing to let go of1 asked3 ,what shall ,i let go of1 ,reverend ,sir8 ,i have nothing in my hands1 you know4 ,let go of that1 you have neither in your right nor in your left band1 but in the middle4 ,upon these words of the ,muni a light came into the sufferer's mind1 and he went home satisfied and in joy4,,fn#bfd ,not to attach to all things is ,dhyana1 writes an ancient ,zenist1 and if you understand this1 going out1 staying in1 sitting1 and lying are in ,dhyana4 ,therefore allow not your mind to be a receptacle for the dust of society1 or the ashes of life1 or rags and waste paper of the world4 ,you bear too much burden upon your shoulders with which you have nothing to do4 ,,fn#bfd ',sutra on the ,brahmacarin ,black-family1' translated into ,chinese by ,k' ,khien1 of the ,wu dynasty 7,a4,d4 #bbb-bhj74 ,learn the lesson of forgetfulness1 and forget all that troubles you1 deprives you of sound sleep1 and writes wrinkles on your forehead4 ,wang ,yang ,ming1 at the age of seventeen or so1 is said to have forgotten the day 'on which he was to be married to a handsome young lady1 daughter of a man of high position4 ,it was the afternoon of the very day on which their nuptials had to be held that he went out to take a walk4 ,without any definite purpose he went into a temple in the neighbourhood1 and there he found a recluse apparently very old with white hair1 but young in countenance like a child4 ,the man was sitting absorbed in ,meditation4 ,there was something extremely calm and serene in that old man's look and bearing that attracted the young scholar's attention4 ,questioning him as to his name1 age1 and birthplace1 ,wang found that the venerable man had enjoyed a life so extraordinarily long that he forgot his name and age1 but that he had youthful energy so abundantly that be could talk with a voice sounding as a large bell4 ,being asked by ,wang the secret of longevity1 the man replied3 ,there is no secret in it2 ,i merely kept my mind calm and peaceful4 ,further1 he explained the method of ,meditation according to ,taoism and ,buddhism4 ,thereupon ,wang sat face to face with the old man and began to practise ,meditation1 utterly forgetful of his bride and nuptial ceremony4 ,the sun began to cast his slanting rays on the wall of the temple1 and they sat motionless2 twilight came over them1 and night wrapped them with her sable shroud1 and they sat as still as two marble statues2 midnight1 dawn1 at last the morning sun rose to find them still in their reverie4 ,the father of the bride1 who had started a search during the night1 found to his surprise the bridegroom absorbed in ,meditation on the following day4,,fn#bfe ,,fn#bfe ,o-yo-mei-shutsu-shin-sei-ran-roku4 ,it was at the age of forty-seven that ,wang gained a great victory over the rebel army1 and wrote to a friend saying3 ,it is so easy to gain a victory over the rebels fortifying themselves among the mountains1 yet it is not so with those rebels living in our mind4,,fn#bff ,tsai ,kiun ,mu 7,sai-kun-bo7 is said to have had an exceedingly long and beautiful beard1 and when asked by the ,emperor1 who received him in audience1 whether he should sleep with his beard on the comforters or beneath them1 be could not answer1 since he had never known how he did4 ,being distracted by this question1 he went home and tried to find out how he had been used to manage his beard in bed4 ,first he put his beard on the comforters and vainly tried to sleep2 then he put it beneath the comforters and thought it all right4 ,nevertheless1 he was all the more disturbed by it4 ,so then1 putting on the comforters1 now putting it beneath them1 he tried to sleep all night long1 but in vain4 ,you must therefore forget your mental beard that annoys you all the time4 ,,fn#bff ,ibid4 ,men of longevity never carried troubles to their beds4 ,it is a well-known fact that ,zui-o 7,shi-ga7,,fn#bfg enjoyed robust health at the age of over one hundred years4 ,one day1 being asked whether there is any secret of longevity1 he replied affirmatively1 and said to the questioner3 ,keep your mind and body pure for two weeks1 abstaining from any sort of impurity1 then ,i shall tell you of the secret4 ,the man did as was prescribed1 and came again to be instructed in the secret4 ,zui-o said3 ,now ,i might tell you1 but be cautious to keep yourself pure another week so as to qualify yourself to learn the secret4 ,when that week was over the old man said3 ,now ,i might tell you1 but will you be so careful as to keep yourself pure three days more in order to qualify yourself to receive the secret8 ,the man did as he was ordered1 and requested the instruction4 ,thereupon ,zui-o took the man to his private room and softly whispered1 with his mouth close to the ear of the man3 ,keep the secret ,i tell you now1 even at the cost of your life4 ,it is this-don't be passionate4 ,that is all4,,fn#bfh ,,fn#bfg ,this famous old man died in ,a4,d4 #agcj4 ,,fn#bfh ,se-ji-hyaku-dan4 #ab4 ',the ,five ,ranks of ,merit4' ,thus far we have stated how to train our body and mind according to the general rules and customs established by ,zenists4 ,and here we shall describe the different stages of mental uplifting through which the student of ,zen has to go4 ,they are technically called ',the ,five ,ranks of ,merit4',,fn#bfi ,the first stage is called the ,rank of ,turning1,,fn#bgj in which the student 'turns' his mind from the external objects of sense towards the inner ,enlightened ,consciousness4 ,he gives up all mean desires and aspires to spiritual elevation4 ,he becomes aware that he is not doomed to be the slave of material things1 and strives to conquer over them4 ,enlightened ,consciousness is likened to the ,king1 and it is called the ,mind-,king1 while the student who now turns towards the ,king is likened to common people4 ,therefore in this first stage the student is in the rank of common people4 ,,fn#bfi ,ko-kun-go-i4 ,for further details1 see ,so-to-ni-shi-roku4 ,,fn#bfh ,ko in ,japanese4 ,the second stage is called the ,rank of ,service1,,fn#bga in which the student distinguishes himself by his loyalty to the ,mind-,king1 and becomes a courtier to 'serve' him4 ,he is in constant 'service' to the ,king1 attending him with obedience and love1 and always fearing to offend him4 ,thus the student in this stage is ever careful not to neglect rules and precepts laid down by the sages1 and endeavours to uplift himself in spirituality by his fidelity4 ,the third stage is called the ,rank of ,merit1,,fn#bgb in which the student distinguishes himself by his 'meritorious' acts of conquering over the rebel army of passion which rises against the ,mind-,king4 ,now1 his rank is not the rank of a courtier1 but the rank of a general4 ,in other words1 his duty is not only to keep rules and instructions of the sages1 but to subjugate his own passion and establish moral order in the mental kingdom4 ,,fn#bga ,bu in ,japanese4 ,,fn#bgb ,ko in ,japanese4 ,the fourth stage is called the ,rank of ,co-operative ,merit1,,fn#bgc in which the student 'co-operates' with other persons in order to complete his merit4 ,now1 he is not compared with a general who conquers his foe1 but with the prime-minister who co-operates with other officials to the benefit of the people4 ,thus the student in this stage is not satisfied with his own conquest of passion1 but seeks after spiritual uplifting by means of extending his kindness and sympathy to his fellow-men4 ,,fn#bgc ,gu-ko in ,japanese4 ,the fifth stage is called the ,rank of ,merit-over-,merit1,,fn#bgd which means the rank of meritless-merit4 ,this is the rank of the ,king himself4 ,the ,king does nothing meritorious1 because all the governmental works are done by his ministers and subjects4 ,all that he has to do is to keep his inborn dignity and sit high on his throne4 ,therefore his conduct is meritless1 but all the meritorious acts of his subjects are done through his authority4 ,doing nothing1 he does everything4 ,without any merit1 he gets all merits4 ,thus the student in this stage no more strives to keep precepts1 but his doings are naturally in accord with them4 ,no more he aspires for spiritual elevation1 but his1 heart is naturally pure from material desires4 ,no more he makes an effort to vanquish his passion1 but no passion disturbs him4 ,no more he feels it his duty to do good to others1 but he is naturally good and merciful4 ,no more he sits in ,dhyana1 but he naturally lives in ,dhyana at all times4 ,it is in this fifth stage that the student is enabled to identify his ,self with the ,mind-,king or ,enlightened ,consciousness1 and to abide in perfect bliss4 ,,fn#bgd ,ko-ko in ,japanese4 #ac4 ',the ,ten ,pictures of the ,cowherd4',,fn#bge ,,fn#bge ,the pictures were drawn by ,kwoh ,ngan 7,kaku-an71 a ,chinese ,zenist4 ,for the details1 see ,zen-gaku-ho-ten4 ,besides these ,five ,ranks of ,merit1 ,zenists make use of the ,ten ,pictures of the ,cowherd1 in order to show the different stages of mental training through which the student of ,zen has to go4 ,some poems were written by ,chinese and ,japanese teachers on each of these pictures by way of explanation1 but they are too ambiguous to be translated into ,english1 and we rest content with the translation of a single ,japanese poem on each of the ten pictures1 which are as follows3 ,the first picture1 called 'the ,searching of the ,cow1' represents the cowherd wandering in the wilderness with a vague hope of finding his lost cow that is running wild out of his sight4 ,the reader will notice that the cow is likened to the mind of the student and the cowherd to the student himself4 ,i do not see my cow1 ,but trees and grass1 ,and hear the empty cries ,of cicadas4 ,the second picture1 called 'the ,finding of the ,cow's ,tracks1' represents the cowherd tracing the cow with the sure hope of restoring her1 having found her tracks on the ground4 ,the grove is deep1 and so ,is my desire4 ,how glad ,i am1 ,o lo6 ,i see her tracks4 ,the third picture1 called 'the ,finding out of the ,cow1' represents the cowherd slowly approaching the cow from a distance4 ,her loud and wild mooing ,has led me here2 ,i see her form afar1 ,like a dark shadow4 ,the fourth 'picture1 called 'the ,catching of the ,cow1' represents the cowherd catching hold of the cow1 who struggles to break loose from him4 ,alas6 it's hard to keep ,the cow ,i caught4 ,she tries to run and leap ,and snap the cord4 ,the fifth picture1 called 'the ,taming of the ,cow1' represents the cowherd pacifying the cow1 giving her grass and water4 ,i'm glad the cow so wild ,is tamed and mild4 ,she follows me1 as if ,she were my shadow4 ,the sixth picture1 called 'the ,going ,home ,riding on the ,cow1' represents the cowherd playing on a flute1 riding on the cow4 ,slowly the clouds return ,to their own hill1 ,floating along the skies ,so calm and still4 ,the seventh picture1 called 'the ,forgetting of the ,cow and the ,remembering of the ,man1' represents the cowherd looking at the beautiful scenery surrounding his cottage4 ,the cow goes out by day ,and comes by night4 ,i care for her in no way1 ,but all is right4 ,the eighth picture1 called 'the ,forgetting of the ,cow and of the ,man1' represents a large empty circle4 ,there's no cowherd nor cow ,within the pen2 ,no moon of truth nor clouds ,of doubt in men4 ,the ninth picture1 called 'the ,returning to the ,root and ,source1' represents a beautiful landscape full of lovely trees in full blossom4 ,there is no dyer of hills1 ,yet they are green2 ,so flowers smile1 and titter rills ,at their own wills4 ,the tenth picture1 called 'the ,going into the ,city with ,open ,hands1' represents a smiling monk1 gourd in hand1 talking with a man who looks like a pedlar4 ,the cares for body make ,that body pine2 ,let go of cares and thoughts1 ,o child of mine6 ,these ,ten ,pictures of the ,cowherd correspond in meaning to the ,five ,ranks of ,merit above stated1 even if there is a slight difference1 as is shown in the following table3 ,,the ,,five ,,ranks4---,,the ,,ten ,,pictures4 #a4 ,the ,rank of ,turning---#a4 ,the ,searching of the ,cow4 #b4 ,the ,finding of the ,cow's ,tracks4 #b4 ,the ,rank of ,service---#c4 ,the ,finding of the ,cow4 #d4 ,the ,catching of the ,cow4 #c4 ,the ,rank of ,merit---#e4 ,the ,taming of the ,cow4 #f4 ,the ,going ,home1 ,riding on the ,cow4 #d4 ,the ,rank of ,co-operative ,merit---#i4 ,the ,returning to the ,root and ,source4 #aj4 ,the ,going into the ,city with ,open ,hands4 #e4 ,the ,rank of ,merit-over-,merit---#g4 ,the ,forgetting of the ,cow and the ,remembering of the ,man4 #h4 ,the ,forgetting of the ,cow and of the ,man4 #ad4 ,zen and ,nirvana4 ,the beatitude of ,zen is ,nirvana1 not in the ,hinayanistic sense of the term1 but in the sense peculiar to the faith4 ,nirvana literally means extinction or annihilation2 hence the extinction of life or the annihilation of individuality4 ,to ,zen1 however1 it means the state of extinction of pain and the annihilation of sin4 ,zen never looks for the realization of its beatitude in a place like heaven1 nor believes in the realm of ,reality transcendental of the phenomenal universe1 nor gives countenance to the superstition of ,immortality1 nor does it hold the world is the best of all possible worlds1 nor conceives life simply as blessing4 ,it is in this life1 full of shortcomings1 misery1 and sufferings1 that ,zen hopes to realize its beatitude4 ,it is in this world1 imperfect1 changing1 and moving1 that ,zen finds the ,divine ,light it worships4 ,it is in this phenomenal universe of limitation and relativity that ,zen aims to attain to highest ,nirvana4 ,we speak1 says the author of ,vimalakirtti-nirdeca-sutra1 of the transitoriness of body1 but not of the desire of the ,nirvana or destruction of it4 ,paranirvana1 according to the author of ,lankavatarasutra1 is neither death nor destruction1 but bliss1 freedom1 and purity4 ,nirvana1 says ,kiai ,hwan1,,fn#bgf means the extinction of pain or the crossing over of the sea of life and death4 ,it denotes the real permanent state of spiritual attainment4 ,it does not signify destruction or annihilation4 ,it denotes the belief in the great root of life and spirit4 ,it is ,nirvana of ,zen to enjoy bliss for all sufferings of life4 ,it is ,nirvana of ,zen to be serene in mind for all disturbances of actual existence4 ,it is ,nirvana of ,zen to be in the conscious union with ,universal ,life or ,buddha through ,enlightenment4 ,,fn#bgf ,a commentator of ,saddharma-pundarika-sutra4 #ae4 ,nature and her ,lesson4 ,nature offers us nectar and ambrosia every day1 and everywhere we go the rose and lily await us4 ,spring visits us men1 says ,gu-do1,,fn#bgg her mercy is great4 ,every blossom holds out the image of ,tathagata4 ,what is the spiritual body of ,buddha who is immortal and divine8 asked a man to ,ta ,lun 7,dai-ryu71 who instantly replied3 ,the flowers cover the mountain with golden brocade4 ,the waters tinge the rivulets with heavenly blue4 ,universe is the whole body of ,tathagata2 observed ,do-gen4 ,the worlds in ten directions1 the earth1 grass1 trees1 walls1 fences1 tiles1 pebbles-in a word1 all the animated and inanimate objects partake of the ,buddha-nature4 ,thereby1 those who partake in the benefit of the ,wind and ,water that rise out of them are1 all of them1 helped by the mysterious influence of ,buddha1 and show forth ,enlightenment4,,fn#bgh ,,fn#bgg ,one of the distinguished ,zenists in the ,tokugawa period1 who died in #affa4 ,,fn#bgh ,sho-bo gen-zo4 ,thus you can attain to highest bliss through your conscious union with ,buddha4 ,nothing can disturb your peace1 when you can enjoy peace in the midst of disturbances2 nothing can cause you to suffer1 when you welcome misfortunes and hardships in order to train and strengthen your character2 nothing can tempt you to commit sin1 when you are constantly ready to listen to the sermon given by everything around you2 nothing can distress you1 when you make the world the holy temple of ,buddha4 ,this is the state of ,nirvana which everyone believing in ,buddha may secure4 #af4 ,the ,beatitude of ,zen4 ,we are far from denying1 as already shown in the foregoing chapters1 the existence of troubles1 pains1 diseases1 sorrows1 deaths in life4 ,our bliss consists in seeing the fragrant rose of ,divine mercy among the thorns of worldly trouble1 in finding the fair oasis of ,buddha's wisdom in the desert of misfortunes1 in getting the wholesome balm of ,his love in the seeming poison of pain1 in gathering the sweet honey of ,his spirit even in the sting of horrible death4 ,history testifies to the truth that it is misery that teaches men more than happiness1 that it is poverty that strengthens them more than wealth1 that it is adversity that moulds character more than prosperity1 that it is disease and death that call forth the inner life more than health and long life4 ,at least1 no one can be blind to the fact that good and evil have an equal share in forming the character and working out the destiny of man4 ,even such a great pessimist as ,schopenhauer says3 ,as our bodily frame would burst asunder if the pressure of atmosphere were removed1 so if the lives of men were relieved of all need1 hardship1 and adversity1 if everything they took in hand were successful1 they would be so swollen with arrogance 4 4 4 that they would present the spectacle of unbridled folly4 ,a ship without ballast is unstable1 and will not go straight4 ,therefore let us make our ship of life go straight with its ballast of miseries and hardships1 over which we gain control4 ,the believer in ,buddha is thankful to him1 not only for the sunshine of life1 but also for its wind1 rain1 snow1 thunder1 and lightning1 because ,he gives us nothing in vain4 ,hisa-nobu 7,ko-yama7 was1 perhaps1 one of the happiest persons that ,japan ever produced1 simply because he was ever thankful to the ,merciful ,one4 ,one day he went out without an umbrella and met with a shower4 ,hurrying up to go home1 he stumbled and fell1 wounding both his legs4 ,as he rose up1 he was overheard to say3 ,thank heaven4 ,and being asked why he was so thankful1 replied3 ,i got both my legs hurt1 but1 thank heaven1 they were not broken4 ,on another occasion he lost consciousness1 having been kicked violently by a wild horse4 ,when he came to himself1 he exclaimed3 ,thank heaven1 in hearty joy4 ,being asked the reason why he was so joyful1 he answered3 ,i have really given up my ghost1 but1 thank heaven1 ,i have escaped death after all4,,fn#bgi ,a person in such a state of mind can do anything with heart and might4 ,whatever he does is an act of thanks for the grace of ,buddha1 and he does it1 not as his duty1 but as the overflowing of his gratitude which lie himself cannot check4 ,here exists the formation of character4 ,here exist real happiness and joy4 ,here exists the realization of ,nirvana4 ,,fn#bgi ,ki-jin-den4 ,most people regard death as the greatest of evils1 only because they fear death4 ,they fear death only because they have the instinct of self-preservation4 ,hereupon pessimistic philosophy and religion propose to attain to ,nirvana by the extinction of ,will-to-live1 or by the total annihilation of life4 ,but this is as much as to propose death as the final cure to a patient4 ,elie ,metchnikoff proposes1 in his ',nature of ,man1' another cure1 saying3 ',if man could only contrive to live long enough--say1 for one hundred and forty years--a natural desire for extinction would take the place of the instinct for self-preservation1 and the call of death would then harmoniously satisfy his legitimate craving of a ripe old age4' ,why1 we must ask1 do you trouble yourself so much about death8 ,is there any instance of an individual who escaped it in the whole history of mankind8 ,if there be no way of escape1 why do you trouble yourself about it8 ,can you cause things to fall off the earth against the law of gravitation8 ,is there any example of an individual object that escaped the government of that law in the whole history of the world8 ,why1 then1 do you trouble yourself about it8 ,it is no less silly to trouble yourself about death than you do about gravitation4 ,can you realize that death1 which you have yet no immediate experience of1 is the greatest of evil8 ,we dare to declare death to be one of the blessings which we have to be thankful for4 ,death is the scavenger of the world2 it sweeps away all uselessness1 staleness1 and corruption from the world1 and keeps life clean and ever now4 ,when you are of no use for the world it comes upon you1 removes you to oblivion in order to relieve life of useless encumbrance4 ,the stream of existence should be kept running1 otherwise it would become putrid4 ,if old lives were to stop the running stream it would stand still1 and consequently become filthy1 poisoned1 and worthless4 ,suppose there were only births and no deaths4 ,the earth has to be packed with men and women1 who are doomed to live to all eternity1 jostling1 colliding1 bumping1 trampling each other1 and vainly struggling to get out of the ,black ,hole of the earth4 ,thanks to death we are not in the ,black ,hole6 ,only birth and no death is far worse than only death and no birth4 ,the dead1 says ,chwang ,tsz1 have no tyrannical king about1 no slavish subject to meet2 no change of seasons overtakes them4 ,the heaven and the earth take the places of ,spring and ,autumn4 ,the king or emperor of a great nation cannot be happier than they4 ,how would you be if death should never overtake you when ugly decrepitude makes you blind and deaf1 bodily and mentally1 and deprives you of all possible pleasures8 ,how would you be if you should not die when your body is broken to pieces or terribly burned by an accident--say1 by a violent earthquake followed by a great conflagration8 ,just imagine ,satan1 immortal ,satan1 thrown down by the ire of ,god into ,hell's fiery gulf1 rolling himself in dreadful torture to the end of time4 ,you cannot but conclude that it is only death which relieves you of extreme sufferings1 incurable diseases1 and it is one of the blessings you ought to be thankful for4 ,the believer of ,buddha is thankful even for death itself1 the which is the sole means of conquering death4 ,if he be thankful even for death1 how much more for the rest of things6 ,he can find a meaning in every form of life4 ,he can perceive a blessing in every change of fortune4 ,he can acknowledge a mission for every individual4 ,he can live in contentment and joy under any conditions4 ,therefore ,lin ,tsi 7,rin-zai7 says3 ,all the ,buddhas might appear before me and ,i would not be glad4 ,all the ,three ,regions,,fn#bhj and ,hells might suddenly present themselves before me1 and ,i would not fear4 4 4 4 ,he 7an ,enlightened person7 might get into the fire1 and it would not burn him4 ,he might get into water1 and it would not drown him4 ,he might be born in ,hell1 and he would be happy as if he were in a fair garden4 ,he might be born among ,pretas and beasts1 and he would not suffer from pain4 ,how can he be so8 ,because he can enjoy everything4',,fn#bha ,,fn#bhj 7#a7 ,naraka1 or ,hell2 7#b7 ,pretas1 or hungry demons2 7#c7 beasts4 ,,fn#bha ,lin ,tsi ,luk 7,rin-zai-roku74 ,,appendix ,,origin ,,of ,,man 7,,gen-,,nin-,,ron7 ,,by ,,kwei ,,fung ,,tsung ,,mih ,,the ,,seventh ,,patriarch ,,of ,,the ,,kegon ,,sect ,,translated ,,by ,,kaiten ,,nukariya ,,preface ,tsung ,mih 7,shu-,mitsu1 ,a4,d4 #ggd-hda71 the author of ,yuen ,jan ,lun 7',origin of ,man'71 one of the greatest scholars that ,china ever produced1 was born in a ,confucianist family of the ,state of ,kwo ,cheu4 ,having been converted by ,tao ,yuen 7,do-yen71 a noted priest of the ,zen ,sect1 he was known at the age of twenty-nine as a prominent member of that sect1 and became the ,eleventh ,patriarch after ,bodhidharma1 the ,first ,patriarch of the sect1 who had come over to ,china from ,india about ,a4,d4 #ebj4 ,some years after he studied under ,chino1 ,kwan 7,cho-kwan7 the philosophical doctrine of the ,avatamsaka ,school1 now known in ,japan as the ,kegon ,sect1 and distinguished himself as the ,seventh ,patriarch of that school4 ,in ,a4,d4 #hce he was received in audience by the ,emperor ,wan ,tsung1 who questioned him in a general way about the ,buddhist doctrines1 and bestowed upon him the honourable title of ,great ,virtuous ,teacher1 together with abundant gifts4 ,the author produced over ninety volumes of books1 which include a commentary on ,avatamsaka-sutra1 one on ,purnabuddha-sutra-prasannartha-sutra1 and many others4 ,yuen ,jan ,lun is one of the shortest of his essays1 but it contains all the essential doctrines1 respecting the origin of life and of the universe1 which are found in ,taoism1 ,confucianism1 ,hinayanism1 and ,mahayanism4 ,how important a position it holds among the ,buddhist books can be well imagined from the fact that over twenty commentaries were written on it both by the ,chinese and the ,japanese ,buddhist scholars4 ,it is said that a short essay under the same title by a noted contemporary ,confucianist scholar1 ,han ,tui ,chi 7,kan-tai-shi1 who flourished #hjc-hbc71 suggested to him to write a book in order to make clear to the public the ,buddhist view on the same subject4 ,thus be entitled the book ',origin of ,man1' in spite of his treating of the origin of life and of the universe4 ,throughout the whole book occur coupled sentences1 consisting mostly of the same number of ,chinese characters1 and consequently while one sentence is too laconic1 the other is overladen with superfluous words1 put in to make the right number in the balanced group of characters4 ,in addition to this1 the text is full of too concise phrases1 and often of ambiguous ones1 as it is intended to state as briefly as possible all the important doctrines of the ,buddhist as well as of the outside schools4 ,on this account the author himself wrote a few notes on the passages that lie thought it necessary to explain4 ,the reader will find these notes beginning with ',a' put by the translator to distinguish them from his own4 ,k4 ,n4 ,,origin ,,of ,,man,,fn#bhb ,,introduction ,all animated beings that live 7under the sun7 have an origin1 while each of inanimate things1 countless in number1 owes its existence to some source4,,fn#bhc ,there can never be 7any being nor7 any thing that has 7no origin1 as there can be no7 branch which has no root4 ,how could man1 the most spiritual of the ,three ,powers,,fn#bhd exist without an origin8 ,,fn#bhb ,the author treats the origin of life and of the universe1 but the book was entitled as we have seen in the preface4 ,,fn#bhc ,the same idea and expression are found in ,tao ,teh ,king 7,do-toku-kyo71 by ,lao ,tsz 7,ro-shi1 #fjd-ebb ,b4,c474 ,,fn#bhd ,the ,three ,powers are-7#a7 ,heaven1 that has the power of revolution2 7#b7 ,earth1 that has the power of production2 and 7#c7 ,man1 that has the power of thought4 7,it is said71,,fn#bhe moreover1 that that which knows others is intellect1 and that that which knows itself is wisdom4 ,now if ,i1 being born among men1 know not whence ,i came 7into this life71 how could ,i know whither ,i am going in the after-life8 ,how could ,i understand all human affairs1 ancient and modern1 in the world8 ,so1 for some scores of years ,i learned under many different tutors1 and read extensively 7not only7 the ,buddhist 7but also7 outside books4 ,by that means ,i tried to trace my ,self1 and never stopped my research till ,i attained1 as ,i had expected1 to its origin4 ,,fn#bhe ,the sentence is a direct quotation of ,tao ,teh ,king4 ,confucianists and ,taoists of our age1 nevertheless1 merely know that our nearest origin is the father or the grandfather1 as we are descended from them1 and they from their fathers in succession4 7,they say7 that the remotest 7origin7 is the undefinable 7primordial7 ,gas,,fn#bhf in the state of chaos2 that it split itself into the two 7different7 principles of the ,positive and the ,negative2 that the two brought forth the ,three ,powers of ,heaven1 ,earth1 and ,man1 which 7in their turn7 produced all other things2 that man as well as other things originated in the ,gas4 ,,fn#bhf ,such a statement concerning the creation of the universe as the one here given is found in ,i ,king 7,eeki-kyo74 ,the primordial substance is not exactly 'gas1' but we may conceive it as being something like a nebula4 7,some7,,fn#bhg ,buddhists1 7however71 maintain simply that the nearest 7origin7 is ,karma1,,fn#bhh as we were born among men as the results of the ,karma that we had produced in the past existences2 and that the remotest 7origin7 is the ,alaya-vijnyana1,,fn#bhi 7because7 our ,karma is brought forth by illusion1 and 7illusion by attachment71 and so forth1 in one word1 the ,alaya is the origin of life4 ,although all of 7these scholars7 claim that they have already grasped the ultimate truth1 yet not in fact4 ,,fn#bhg ,not all ,buddhists1 but some of them1 are meant here-that is1 ,hinayanists and ,dharma-laksanists4 ,,fn#bhh ,according to ,hinayanists1 ,karma 7action7 is that moral germ which survives death and continues in transmigration4 ,it may be conceived as something like an energy1 by the influence of which beings undergo metempsychosis4 ,,fn#bhi ,according to the ,dharma-laksana ,sect1 ,alaya-vijnyana 7receptacle-knowledge7 is the spiritual ,substance which holds the 'seeds' or potentialities of all things4 ,confucius1 ,lao ,tsz1 and ,shakya1 however1 were all the wisest of sages4 ,each of them gave his teachings in a way different from the other two1 that they might meet the spiritual needs of his time and fit to the capacities of men4 7,so that7 the ,buddhist and the outside doctrines1 each supplementing the other1 have done good to the multitude4 ,they were all 7intended7 to encourage thousands of virtuous acts by explaining the whole chain of causality4 ,they were 7also intended7 to investigate thousands of things1 and throw light on the beginning and on the end of their evolution4 ,although all these doctrines 7might7 answer the purpose of the sages1 yet there must be some teachings that would be temporary1,,fn#bij while others would be eternal4 ,the first two faiths are merely temporary1 while ,buddhism includes both the temporary and the eternal4 ,we may act according to the precepts of these three faiths1 which aim at the peace and welfare 7of man71 in so far as they encourage thousands of virtuous acts by giving warning against evil and recommending good4 7,but7 ,buddhism 7alone7 is altogether perfect and best of all1 in investigating thousands of things and in tracing them back to their first cause1 in order to acquire thorough understanding of the natures of things and to attain to the ultimate truth4 ,,fn#bij ,the temporary doctrine means the teaching preached by ,shakya ,muni to meet the temporary needs of the hearers4 ,the term is always used in contrast with the real or eternal doctrine4 ,each of our contemporary scholars1 nevertheless1 adheres to one school of the 7above mentioned7 teachings4 ,and there are some 7even7 among the ,buddhists who mistake the temporary for the eternal doctrine4 ,in consequence they are never successful in tracing ,heaven1 ,earth1 ,man1 and other things back to their ,first ,cause4 ,but ,i am now 7going to show how7 to infer an ,ultimate ,cause for thousands of things1 not only from the ,buddhist1 but from outsiders' teachings4 ,first ,i shall treat of the superficial doctrines1 and then of the profound1 7in order to7 free the followers of the temporary faiths from those 7prejudices that prove to be7 obstructions in their way to the truth1 and enable them to attain to the ,ultimate ,reality4 ,afterwards ,i shall point out1 according to the perfect doctrine1 how things evolved themselves through one stage after another out of the ,first ,cause 7in order to7 make the incomplete doctrines fuse into the complete one1 and to enable the followers to explain the phenomenal universe4,,fn#bia ,,fn#bia ,a4 ',that is1 ,heaven1 ,earth1 ,man1 and other things4' ,this essay is entitled ',origin of ,man1' and it consists of the 7following7 four chapters3 7#a7 ,refutation of ,delusive and ,prejudiced 7,doctrine72 7#b7 ,refutation of ,incomplete and ,superficial 7,doctrine72 7#c7 ,direct ,explanation of the ,real ,origin2 7#d7 ,reconciliation of the ,temporary with the ,eternal ,doctrine4 ,,chapter ,i ,,refutation ,,of ,,delusive ,,and ,,prejudiced 7,,doctrine7,,fn#bib ,according to ,confucianism,,fn#bic and ,taoism all sorts of beings1 such as men and beasts1 were born out of and brought up by the 7so-called7 ,great ,path of ,emptiness4,,fn#bid ,that is to say1 the ,path by the operation of its own law gave rise naturally to the primordial ,gas1 and that ,gas produced ,heaven and ,earth1 which 7in their turn7 brought forth thousands of things4 ,accordingly the wise and the unwise1 the high and the low1 the rich and the poor1 the happy and the miserable1 are predestined to be so by the heavenly flat1 and are at the mercy of ,time and ,providence4 ,therefore they 7must7 come back after death to ,heaven and ,earth1 from which 7in turn7 they return to the 7,path7 of ,emptiness4 ,the main purpose of these,,fn#bie 7two7 outside teachings is simply to establish morals with regard to bodily actions1 but not to trace life to its ,first ,cause4 ,they tell of nothing beyond the phenomenal universe in their explanation of thousands of things4 ,though they point out the ,great ,path as the origin1 yet they never explain in detail 7what is7 the direct1 and 7what7 the indirect cause of the phenomenal universe1 or how it was created1 or how it will be destroyed1 how life came forth1 whither it will go1 7what is7 good1 7what7 evil4 ,therefore the followers of these doctrines adhere to them as the perfect teachings without knowing that they are merely temporary4 ,,fn#bib ,a4 ',those of ,confucianists and ,taoists4' ,,fn#bic ,confucianists are not of exactly the same opinion as ,taoists respecting the creation4 ,the ,great ,path here mentioned refers exclusively to ,taoism4 ,,fn#bid ,the ,great ,path of ,emptiness1 ,hu ,wu ,ta ,tao1 is the technical name for the ,taoist conception of the ,absolute4 ,it is something existent in an undeveloped state before the creation of the phenomenal universe4 ,according to ,tao ,teh ,king1 it is 'self-existent1 unchangeable1 all-pervading1 and the mother of all things4 ,it is unnamable1 but it is sometimes called the ,path or the ,great4' ,it is also called the ,emptiness1 as it is entirely devoid of relative activities4 ,,fn#bie ,confucianism mainly treats of ethical problems1 but ,taoism is noted for its metaphysical speculation4 ,now ,i 7shall7 raise1 in brief1 a few questions to point out their weaknesses4 ,if everything in the universe1 as they say1 came out of the ,great ,path of ,emptiness1 that ,great ,path itself should be the cause of 7not only7 of wisdom1 7but7 of folly1 7not only7 of life1 7but7 of death4 ,it ought to be the source of prosperity 7as well as7 of adversity1 of fortune 7as well as7 of misfortune4 ,if this origin exist 7as it is supposed7 to all eternity1 it must be possible neither to remove follies1 villainies1 calamities1 and wars1 nor to promote wisdom1 good1 happiness1 and welfare4 ,of what use 7then7 are the teachings of ,lao ,tsz and ,chwang ,tsz8,,fn#bif ,the ,path1 besides1 should have reared the tiger and the wolf1 given birth to ,kieh,,fn#big and ,cheu1,,fn#bih caused the premature deaths of ,yen,,fn#bii and ,jan1,,fn#cjj and placed ,i,,fn#cja and ,tsi,,fn#cjb in their most lamentable condition4 ,how could it be called a noble 7path78 ,,fn#bif ,one of the greatest ,taoist philosophers1 and the author of the book entitled after his name4 ,he flourished #cci-cbg ,b4,c4 ,,fn#big ,the last ,emperor of the ,hia dynasty1 notorious for his vices4 ,his reign was #ahah-agfg ,b4,c4 ,,fn#bih ,the last ,emperor of the ,yin dynasty1 one of the worst despots4 ,his reign was #aaed-aabb ,b4,c4 ,,fn#bii ,yen ,hwui 7,gan-kai1 #eda-dhc ,b4,c471 a most beloved disciple of ,confucius1 known as a wise and virtuous scholar4 ,,fn#cjj ,jan ,poh ,niu 7,zen-pak-giu1 #eba- 4 4 4 ,b4,c471 a prominent disciple1 of ,confucius1 distinguished for his virtues4 ,,fn#cja ,poh ,i 7,haku-i71 the elder brother of ,tsi1 who distinguished himself by his faith and wisdom at the downfall of the ,yin dynasty4 ,,fn#cjb ,shuh ,tsi 7,shiku ,sei71 the brother of ,i1 with whom he shared the same fate4 ,again1 if1 as they say1 thousands of things could come naturally into existence without direct or indirect causes1 they should come forth in all places where there are neither direct nor indirect causes4 ,for instance1 a stone would bring forth grass1 while grass would give birth to man1 and man would beget beasts1 etc4 ,in addition to this they would come out all at the same time1 nothing being produced before or after the others4 ,they would come into existence all at the same moment1 nothing being produced sooner or later than the others4 ,peace and welfare might be secured without the help of the wise and the good4 ,humanity and righteousness might be acquired without instruction and study4 ,one might even become an immortal genius,,fn#cjc without taking the miraculous medicine4 ,why did ,lao ,tsz1 ,chwang ,tsz1 ,cheu ,kung,,fn#cjd and ,confucius do such a useless task as to found their doctrines and lay down the precepts for men8 ,,fn#cjc ,degenerated ,taoists maintained that they could prepare a certain miraculous draught1 by the taking of which one could become immortal4 ,,fn#cjd ,cheu ,kung 7,shu-ko71 a most noted statesman and scholar1 the younger brother of the ,emperor ,wu 7#aabb-aaaf ,b4,c471 the founder of the ,chen dynasty4 ,again1 if all things1 as they say1 were made of the primordial ,gas 7which has no feeling nor will71 how could an infant1 just born of the ,gas1 who had never learned to think1 or love1 or hate1 or to be naughty1 or wilful 7even begin to think or feel78 ,if1 as they may answer1 the infant as soon as it was born could quite naturally love or hate1 etc41 as it wished1 it could 7as well7 gain the ,five ,virtues,,fn#cje and the ,six ,acquirements1,,fn#cjf as it wished4 ,why does it wait for some direct or indirect causes 7to gain its knowledge71 and to acquire them through study and instruction8 ,,fn#cje 7#a7 ,humanity1 7#b7 ,uprightness1 7#c7 ,propriety1 7#d7 ,wisdom1 7#e7 ,sincerity4 ,,fn#cjf 7#a7 ,reading1 7#b7 ,arithmetic1 7#c7 ,etiquette1 7#d7 ,archery1 7#e7 ,horsemanship1 7#f7 ,music4 ,again1 they might say life suddenly came into existence1 it being formed of the ,gas1 and suddenly goes to naught 7at death71 the ,gas being dispersed4 ,what1 then1 are the spirits of the dead 7which they believe in78 ,besides1 there are in history some instances of persons,,fn#cjg who could see through previous existences1 or of persons,,fn#cjh who recollected the events in their past lives4 ,therefore we know that the present is the continuation of the past life1 and that it did not come into existence on a sudden by the formation of a ,gas4 ,again1 there are some historical facts,,fn#cji proving that the supernatural powers of spirits will not be lost4 ,thus we know that life is not to be suddenly reduced to naught after death by the dispersion of the ,gas4 ,therefore 7matters concerning7 sacrifices1 services1 and supplications 7to the spirits7 are mentioned in the sacred books4,,fn#caj ,even more than that6 ,are there not some instances1 ancient and modern1 of persons who revived after death to tell the matters concerning the unseen world1 or who,,fn#caa appeared to move the hearts of their wives and children a while after death1 or who,,fn#cab took vengeance 7on the enemy71 or who,,fn#cac returned favours 7to their friends78 ,,fn#cjg ,according to ,tsin ,shu1 a man1 ,pao ,tsing by name1 told his parents1 when he was five years1 that he had been in the previous life a son to ,li1 an inhabitant of ,kuh ,yang1 and that he had fallen into the well and died4 ,thereupon the parents called on ,li1 and found1 to their astonishment1 that the boy's statement was actually coincident with the fact4 ,,fn#cjh ,yan ,hu1 a native of ,tsin ,chen1 recollected1 at the age of five1 that he had been a son to the next-door neighbour1 and that he had left his ring under a mulberry-tree close by the fence of the house4 ,thereupon he went with his nurse and successfully restored it1 to the astonishment of the whole family4 ,,fn#cji ,all the ancient sages of ,china believed in spirits1 and propitiated them by sacrifices4 ,,fn#caj ,the sacred books of ,confucianism1 ,shu ,king and ,li ,ki4 ,,fn#caa ,pang ,shang1 the ,prince of ,tsi1 is said to have appeared after his death4 ,,fn#cab ,poh ,yiu1 of ,ching1 is said to have become an epidemic spirit to take vengeance on his enemies4 ,,fn#cac ,according to ,tso ,chwen 7,sa-den71 when ,wei ,wu1 a ,general of ,tsin1 fought with ,tu ,hwui1 the dead father of his concubine appeared1 and prevented the march of the enemy in order to return favours done to him4 ,the outside scholars might ask1 by way of objection1 if one live as a spirit after death1 the spirits of the past would fill up streets and roads1 and be seen by men2 and why are there no eye-witnesses8 ,i say in reply that 7as7 there are the ,six ,worlds,,fn#cad for the dead1 they do not necessarily live in the world of spirits4 7,even as spirits7 they must die and be born again among men or other beings4 ,how can the spirits of the past always live in a crowd8 ,moreover1 if 7as you say7 man was born of 7primordial7 ,gas which gave rise to ,heaven and ,earth1 and which was unconscious from the very beginning1 how could he be conscious all on a sudden after his birth8 ,why are trees and grass which were also formed of the same ,gas unconscious8 ,again1 if1 7as you say71 the rich and the poor1 the high and the low1 the wise and the unwise1 the good and the bad1 the happy and the unhappy1 the lucky and the unlucky1 are predestinated alike by heavenly decree1 why are so many destined by heaven to be poor and so few to be rich8 ,why so many to be low and so few to be high8 ,in short1 why are so many destined to be unlucky and so few to be lucky8 ,,fn#cad 7#a7 ,the heaven1 or the world for ,devas2 7#b7 the earth1 or the world for men2 7#c7 the world for ,asuras2 7#d7 the world for ,petras2 7#e7 the world for beasts2 7#f7 hell4 ,if it be the will of ,heaven to bless so limited a number of persons at all1 and to curse so many1 why is ,heaven so partial8 ,even more than that6 ,are there not many who hold a high position without any meritorious conduct1 while some are placed in a low one in spite of their keeping to 7the rules of7 conduct8 ,are there not many who are rich without any virtues1 while some are poor in spite of their virtues8 ,are there not the unjust who are fortunate1 while the just are unfortunate8 ,are there not the humane1 who die young1 while the inhuman enjoy long lives8 ,in short1 the righteous 7are doomed7 to perish1 while the unrighteous prosper6 ,thus 7we must infer7 that all this depends on the heavenly will1 which causes the unrighteous to prosper and the righteous to perish4 ,how can there be reward for the good 7as it is taught in your sacred books71,,fn#cae that ,heaven blesses the good and shows grace to the humble8 ,how can there be punishment for the bad 7as it is taught in your holy books71,,fn#caf that ,heaven curses the evil and inflicts punishment on the proud8 ,,fn#cae ,shu ,king and ,i ,king4 ,,fn#caf ,ibid4 ,again1 if even all such evils as wars1 treacheries1 and rebellions depend on the heavenly will1 those ,sages would be in the wrong who1 in the statement of their teaching1 censure or chastise men1 but not ,heaven or the heavenly will4 ,therefore1 even if ,shi,,fn#cag is full of reproofs against maladministration1 while ,shu,,fn#cah of eulogies for the reigns of the wisest monarchs-even if ,propriety,,fn#cai is recommended as a most effectual means of creating peace between the governors and the governed1 while ,music,,fn#cbj 7is recommended as a means of7 ameliorating the customs and manners of the people--still1 they can hardly be said to realize the ,will on ,high or to conform to the wishes of the ,creator4 ,hence you must acknowledge that those who devote themselves to the study of these doctrines are not able to trace man to his origin4 ,,fn#cag ,shu ,king1 a famous book of odes4 ,,fn#cah ,shu ,king1 the records of the administrations of the wisest monarchs of old4 ,,fn#cai ,li ,ki1 the book on proprieties and etiquette4 ,,fn#cbj ,it is said in ,hiao ,king that music is the best means to improve customs and manners4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,refutation ,,of ,,incomplete ,,and ,,superficial 7,,doctrine7,,fn#cba ,there are in the ,buddhist doctrines1 to state briefly1 the five grades 7of development71 beginning with the most superficial1 and ending with the most profound teachings4 7,they are as follows37 7#a7 ,the ,doctrine for ,men and ,devas2 7#b7 the ,doctrine of the ,hinayanists2 7#c7 the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,dharma-laksana2 7#d7 the ,mahayana ,doctrine of the ,nihilists,,fn#cbb2 7#e7 the ,ekaydna ,doctrine that teaches the ,ultimate ,reality4,,fn#cbc ,,fn#cba ,a4 ',the imperfect doctrines taught by the ,buddha4' ,,fn#cbb ,a4 ',these first four doctrines are treated of in this chapter4' ,,fn#cbc ,a4 ',this is mentioned in the third chapter4' #a4 ,the ,doctrine for ,men and ,devas4 ,the ,buddha1 to meet temporarily the spiritual needs of the uninitiated1 preached a doctrine concerning good or bad ,karma as the cause1 and its retribution as the effect1 in the three existences 7of the past1 the present1 and the future74 ,that is1 one who commits the tenfold sin,,fn#cbd must be reborn after death in hell1 when these sins are of the highest grade2,,fn#cbe among ,pretas1,,fn#cbf when of the middle grade2 and among animals1 when of the lowest grade4 ,,fn#cbd 7#a7 ,taking life1 7#b7 theft1 7#c7 adultery1 7#d7 lying1 7#e7 exaggeration1 7#f7 abuse1 7#g7 ambiguous talk1 7#h7 coveting1 7#i7 malice1 7#aj7 unbelief4 ,,fn#cbe ,there are three grades in each of the tenfold sin4 ,for instance1 the taking of the life of a ,buddha1 or of a sage1 or of a parent1 etc41 is of the highest grade2 while to kill fellow-men is of the middle2 and to kill beasts and birds1 etc41 is of the lowest4 ,again1 to kill any being with pleasure is of the highest grade2 while to repent after killing is of the middle2 and killing by mistake is of the lowest4 ,,fn#cbf ,hungry spirits4 ,therefore the ,buddha for a temporary purpose made these 7uninitiated7 observe the ,five ,precepts similar to the ,five ,virtues,,fn#cbg of the outside doctrine1 in order to enable them to escape the three 7worst7 ,states,,fn#cbh of ,existence1 and to be reborn among men4 7,he also taught that7 those who cultivate,,fn#cbi the tenfold virtue,,fn#ccj of the highest grade1 and who give alms1 and keep the precepts1 and so forth1 are to be born in the ,six ,celestial ,realms of ,kama,,fn#cca while those who practise the ,four,,fn#ccb ,dhyanas1 the ,eight ,samadhis1,,fn#ccc are to be reborn in the heavenly worlds of ,rupa,,fn#ccd and ,arupa4 ,for this reason this doctrine is called the doctrine for men and ,devas4 ,according to this doctrine ,karma is the origin of life4,,fn#cce ,,fn#cbg ,the five cardinal virtues of ,confucianism are quite similar to the five precepts of ,buddhism1 as we see by this table3 ,,virtues4---,,precepts4 #a4 ,humanity4---#a4 ,not to take life4 #b4 ,uprightness4---#b4 ,not to steal4 #c4 ,propriety4---#c4 ,not to be adulterous4 #d4 ,wisdom4---#d4 ,not to get drunk4 #e4 ,sincerity4---#e4 ,not to lie4 ,,fn#cbh 7#a7 ,hell1 7#b7 ,pretas1 7#c7 ,beasts4 ,,fn#cbi ,a4 ',the ,buddhist precepts are different from the ,confucian teachings in the form of expression1 but they agree in their warning against the evil and in encouraging the good4 ,the moral conduct of the ,buddhist can be secured by the cultivation of the five virtues of humanity1 uprightness1 etc41 as though people in this country hold up their hands joined in the respectable salutation1 while the same object is attained by those of ,the ,fan1 who stand with their bands hanging down4 ,not to kill is humanity4 ,not to steal is uprightness4 ,not to be adulterous is propriety4 ,not to lie is sincerity4 ,not to drink spirits nor eat meat is to increase wisdom1 keeping mind pure4' ,,fn#ccj 7#a7 ,not to take life1 7#b7 not to steal1 7#c7 not to be adulterous1 7#d7 not to lie1 7#e7 not to exaggerate1 7#f7 not to abuse1 7#g7 not to talk ambiguously1 7#h7 not to covet1 7#i7 not to be malicious1 7#aj7 not to unbelieve4 ,,fn#cca ,kama-loka1 the world of desire1 is the first of the ,three ,worlds4 ,it consists of the earth and the six heavenly worlds1 all the inhabitants of which are subject to sensual desires4 ,,fn#ccb ,the ,buddhists taught the four ,dhyanas1 or the four different degrees of abstract contemplation1 by which the mind could free itself from all subjective and objective trammels1 until it reached a state of absolute absence of unconcentrated thought4 ,the practiser of the four ,dhyanas would be born in the four regions of the ,rupa-lokas in accordance with his spiritual state4 ,,fn#ccc ,namely1 the above-mentioned four degrees of contemplation1 and other four deeper ecstatic meditations4 ,the practiser of the latter would be born in the four spiritual regions of ,arupa-loka in accordance with his state of abstraction4 ,,fn#ccd ,rupa-loka1 the world of form1 is the second of the ,three ,worlds4 ,it consists of eighteen heavens1 which were divided into four regions4 ,the first ,dhyana region comprised the first three of the eighteen heavens1 the second ,dhyana region the next three1 the third ,dhyana region the following three1 and the fourth ,dhyana region the remaining nine4 ,arupa-loka1 the world of formlessness1 is the third of the ,three ,worlds4 ,it consists of four heavens4 ,the first is called 'the heaven of unlimited space1' the second 'the heaven of unlimited knowledge1' the third 'the heaven of absolute non-existence1' the fourth 'the heaven of neither consciousness nor unconsciousness4' ,a4 ',none of heavens1 or of hells1 or of the worlds of spirits1 is mentioned in the title of this book1 because these worlds are entirely different from ours1 and absolutely beyond the sight and hearing4 ,ordinary people know not even the phenomena actually occurring before them2 how could they understand the unseen8 ,so ,i entitled it simply1 ,the ,origin of ,man in agreement with the worldly teachings4 ,now that ,i treat1 however1 of the ,buddhist doctrine1 it is reasonable to enumerate these worlds in full4' ,,fn#cce ,a4 ',but there are three sorts of ,karmas3 7#a7 ,the bad1 7#b7 the good1 7#c7 the immovable4 ,there are the three periods for retribution3 7#a7 ,in this life1 7#b7 in the next life1 7#c7 in some remote future life4' ,now let me raise some questions by way of objection4 ,granting that one has to be born in the ,five ,states of ,existences,,fn#ccf by virtue of ,karma produced 7in previous lives71 is it not doubtful who is the author of ,karma1 and who the recipient of its consequences8 ,if it might be said that the eyes1 ears1 hands1 and feet produce ,karma1 then the eyes1 ears1 hands1 and feet of a newly-dead person are still as they were4 ,so why do they not see and hear and thus produce ,karma8 ,,fn#ccf ,the states of--7#a7 heavenly beings1 7#b7 men1 7#c7 beings in hell1 7#d7 hungry spirits1 7#e7 beasts4 ,if it be said that it is the mind that produces ,karma 7,i ask71 what is the mind8 ,if you mean the heart1 the heart is a material thing1 and is located within the body4 ,how can it1 by coming quickly into the eyes and ears1 distinguish the pleasing from the disgusting in external objects8 ,if there be no distinction between the pleasing and the disgusting1 why does it accept the one or reject the other8 ,besides1 the heart is as much material and impenetrable as the eyes1 ears1 hands1 and feet4 ,how1 then1 can the heart within freely pass to the organs of sense without8 ,how can this one put the others in motion1 or communicate with them1 in order to co-operate in producing ,karma8 ,if it be said that only such passions as joy1 anger1 love1 and hatred act through the body and the mouth and enable them to produce ,karma1 7,i should say7 those passions--joy1 anger1 and the rest--are too transitory1 and come and go in a moment4 ,they have no ,substance 7behind their appearances74 ,what1 then1 is the chief agent that produces ,karma8 ,it might be said that we should not seek after 7the author of ,karma7 by taking mind and body separately 7as we have just done71 because body and mind1 as a whole1 conjointly produce ,karma4 ,who1 then1 after the destruction of body by death1 would receive the retribution 7in the form7 of pain or of pleasure8 ,if it be assumed that another body is to come into existence after death1 then the body and mind of the present life1 committing sins or cultivating virtues1 would cause another body and mind in the future which would suffer from the pains or enjoy the pleasures4 ,accordingly1 those who cultivate virtues would be extremely unlucky1 while those who commit sins very lucky4 ,how can the divine law of causality be so unreasonable8 ,therefore we 7must7 acknowledge that those who merely follow this doctrine are far from a thorough understanding of the origin of life1 though they believe in the theory of ,karma4 #b4 ,the ,doctrine of the ,hinayanists4 ,this doctrine tells us that 7both7 the body1 that is formed of matter1 and the mind1 that thinks and reflects1 continually exist from eternity to eternity1 being destroyed and recreated by means of direct or indirect causes1 just as the water of a river glides continually1 or the flame of a lamp keeps burning constantly4 ,mind and body unite themselves temporarily1 and seem to be one and changeless4 ,the common people1 ignorant of all this1 are attached to 7the two combined7 as being ,atman4,,fn#ccg ,,fn#ccg ,atman means ego1 or self1 on which individuality is based4 ,for the sake of this ,atman1 which they hold to be the most precious thing 7in the world71 they are subject to the ,three ,poisons ,of lust1,,fn#cch anger1,,fn#cci and folly1,,fn#cdj which 7in their turn7 give impulse to the will and bring forth ,karma of all kinds through speech and action4 ,karma being thus produced1 no one can evade its effects4 ,consequently all must be born,,fn#cda in the ,five ,states of ,existence either to suffer pain or to enjoy pleasure2 some are born in the higher places1 while others in the lower of the ,three ,worlds4,,fn#cdb ,,fn#cch ,a4 ',the passion that covets fame and gain to keep oneself in prosperity4' ,,fn#cci ,a4 ',the passion against disagreeable things1 for fear of their inflicting injuries on oneself4' ,,fn#cdj ,a4 ',wrong thoughts and inferences4' ,,fn#cda ,a4 ',different sorts of beings are born by virtue of the individualizing ,karma4' ,,fn#cdb ,a4 ',worlds are produced by virtue of the ,karma common to all beings that live in them4' ,when born 7in the future lives7 they are attached again to the body 7and mind7 as ,atman1 and become subject to lust and the other two passions4 ,karma is again produced by them1 and they have to receive its inevitable results4 7,thus7 body undergoes birth1 old age1 disease1 death1 and is reborn after death2 while the world passes through the stages of formation1 existence1 destruction1 and emptiness1 and is re-formed again after emptiness4 ,kalpa after ,kalpa,,fn#cdc 7passes by71 life after life 7comes on71 and the circle of continuous rebirths knows no beginning nor end1 and resembles the pulley for drawing water from the well4,,fn#cdd ,,fn#cdc ,kalpa1 a mundane cycle1 is not reckoned by months and years4 lt is a period during which a physical universe is formed to the moment when another is put into its place4 ,a4 ,the following verses describe how the world was first created in the period of emptiness3 ,a strong wind began to blow through empty space4 ,its length and breadth were infinite4 ,it was #af lakhs thick1 and so strong that it could not be cut even with a diamond4 ,its name was the world-supporting-wind4 ,the golden clouds of ,abhasvara heaven 7the sixth of eighteen heavens of the ,rupa-loka7 covered all the skies of the ,three ,thousand ,worlds4 ,down came the heavy rain1 each drop being as large as the axle of a waggon4 ,the water stood on the wind that checked its running down4 ,it was #aa lakhs deep4 ,the first layer was made of adamant 7by the congealing water74 ,gradually the cloud poured down the rain and filled it4 ,first the ,brahma-raja worlds1 next the ,yama-heaven 7the third of six heavens of the ,kama loka71 were made4 ,the pure water rose up1 driven by the wind1 and ,sumeru1 7the central mountain1 or axis of the universe7 and the seven concentric circles of mountains1 and so on1 were formed4 ,out of dirty sediments the mountains1 the four continents1 the hells1 oceans1 and outer ring of mountains1 were made4 ,this is called the formation of the universe4 ,the time of one ,increase and one ,decrease 7human life is increased from #aj to #hd1jjj years1 increasing by one year at every one hundred years2 then it is decreased from #hd1jjj to #aj years1 decreasing by one year at every one hundred years7 elapsed4 ,in short1 those beings in the second region of ,rupa-loka1 whose good ,karma had spent its force1 came down on the earth4 ,at first there were the 'earth bread' and the wild vine for them4 ,afterwards they could not completely digest rice1 and began to excrete and to urinate4 ,thus men were differentiated from women4 ,they divided the cultivated land among them4 ,chiefs were elected2 assistants and subjects were sought out2 hence different classes of people4 ,a period of nineteen ,increases and ,decreases elapsed4 ,added to the above-mentioned period1 it amounted to twenty ,increases and ,decreases4 ,this is called the ,kalpa of the formation of the universe4 ,now let us discuss this point4 ,the ,kalpa of ,emptiness is what the ,taoist calls the ,path of ,emptiness4 ,the ,path or the ,reality1 however1 is not empty1 but bright1 transcendental1 spiritual1 and omnipresent4 ,lao ,tsz1 led by his mistaken idea1 called the ,kalpa of ,emptiness the ,path2 otherwise he did so for the temporary purpose of denouncing worldly desires4 ,the wind in the empty space is what the ,taoist calls the undefinable ,gas in the state of ,chaos4 ,therefore ,lao ,tsz said1 ',the ,path brings forth one4' ,the golden clouds1 the first of all physical objects1 is 7what the ,confucianist calls7 the ,first ,principle4 ,the rain-water standing 7on the wind7 is the production of the ,negative ,principle4 ,the ,positive1 united with the ,negative1 brought forth the phenomenal universe4 ,the ,brahma-raja-loka1 the ,sumeru1 and others1 are what they call the ,heaven4 ,the dirty waters and sediment are the ,earth4 ,so ,lao ,tsz said1 ',one produces two4' ,those in the second region of the ,rupra-loka1 whose good ,karma had spent its force1 came down upon the earth and became human beings4 ,therefore ,lao ,tsz said1 ',the two produce three4' ,thus the ,three ,powers were completed4 ,the earth-bread and different classes of people1 and so on1 are the so-called 'production of thousands of things by the ,three4' ,this was the time when people lived in eaves or wandered in the wilderness1 and knew not the use of fire4 ,as it belongs to the remote past of the prehistoric age1 previous to the reigns of the first three ,emperors1 the traditions handed down to us are neither clear nor certain4 ,many errors crept into them one generation after another1 and consequently no one of the statements given in the various works of scholars agrees with another4 ,besides1 when the ,buddhist books explain the formation of the ,three ,thousand ,worlds1 they do not confine themselves merely within the limits of this country4 ,hence their records are entirely different from those of the outsiders 7which are confined to ,china74 ',existence' means the ,kalpa of ,existence that lasts twenty ,increases and ,decreases4 ',destruction' means the ,kalpa of ,destruction that lasts also twenty ,increases and ,decreases4 ,during the first nineteen ,increases and ,decreases living beings are destroyed2 while in the last worlds are demolished through the three periods of distress 7#a7 the period of water1 7#b7 the period of fire1 7#c7 the period of wind4 ',emptiness' means the ,kalpa of ,emptiness1 during which no beings nor worlds exist4 ,this ,kalpa also lasts twenty ,increases and ,decreases4 ,,fn#cdd ,a4 ',taoists merely know that there was one ,kalpa of ,emptiness before the formation of this present universe1 and point out the ,emptiness1 the ,chaos1 the primordial ,gas1 and the rest1 naming them as the first or the beginningless4 ,but they do not know that the universe had already gone through myriads of cycles of ,kalpas of formation1 existence1 destruction1 and emptiness4 ,thus even the most superficial of the ,hinayana doctrines far excels the most profound of the outside doctrines4' ,all this is due to ,ignorance which does not understand that no bodily existence1 by its very nature1 can be ,atman4 ,the reason why it is not ,atman is this1 that its formation is1 after all1 due to the union of matter and mind4 ,now 7let us7 examine and analyze 7mind and body74 ,matter consists of the four elements of earth1 water1 fire1 and wind1 while mind consists of the four aggregates of perception1,,fn#cde consciousness1,,fn#cdf conception1,,fn#cdg and knowledge4,,fn#cdh ,,fn#cde ,a4 ',it receives both the agreeable and the disagreeable impressions from without4' ,it is ,yedana1 the second of the five ,skandhas1 or aggregates4 ,,fn#cdf ,a4 ',it perceives the forms of external objects4' ,it is ,samjnya1 name1 the third of the five aggregates4 ,,fn#cdg ,a4 ',it acts1 one idea changing after another4' ,it is ,samskara1 the fourth of the five aggregates4 ,,fn#cdh ,a4 ',it recognizes4' ,it is ,vijnyana1 the last of the five aggregates4 ,if all 7these elements7 be taken as ,atman1 there must be eight ,atmans 7for each person74 ,more than that6 ,there are many different things1 even in the element of earth4 ,now1 there are three hundred and sixty bones1 each one distinct from the other4 ,no one is the same as any other1 either of the skin1 hair1 muscles1 the liver1 the heart1 the spleen1 and the kidneys4 ,furthermore1 there are a great many mental qualities each different from the others4 ,sight is different from hearing4 ,joy is not the same as anger4 ,if we enumerate them1 in short1 one after another1 there are eighty thousand passions4,,fn#cdi ,,fn#cdi ,eighty thousand simply means a great many4 ,as things are thus so innumerable1 none can tell which of these 7without mistake7 is to be taken as the ,atman4 ,in case all be taken as the ,atman1 there must be hundreds and thousands of ,atmans1 among which there would be as many conflicts and disturbances as there are masters living in the one 7house of7 body4 ,as there exists no body nor mind separated from these things1 one can never find the ,atman1 even if he seeks for it over and over again4 ,hereupon anyone understands that this life 7of ours7 is no more than the temporary union of numerous elements 7mental and physical74 ,originally there is no ,atman to distinguish one being from another4 ,for whose sake1 then1 should he be lustful or angry8 ,for whose sake should he take life1,,fn#cej or commit theft1 or give alms1 or keep precepts8 7,thus thinking7 at length he sets his mind free from the virtues and vices subjected to the passions,,fn#cea of the ,three ,worlds1 and abides in the discriminative insight into 7the nature of7 the ,anatman,,fn#ceb only4 ,by means of that discriminative insight he makes himself pure from lust1 and the other 7two passions7 puts an end to various sorts of ,karma1 and realizes the ,bhutatathata,,fn#cec of ,anatman4 ,in brief1 he attains to the ,state of ,arhat1,,fn#ced has his body reduced to ashes1 his intelligence annihilated1 and entirely gets rid of sufferings4 ,,fn#cej ,a4 ',he understands the truth of misery4' ,the truth of ,duhkha1 or misery1 is the first of the four ,noble ,satyas1 or ,truths1 that ought to be realized by the ,hinayanists4 ,according to the ,hinayana doctrine1 misery is a necessary concomitant of sentient life4' ,,fn#cea ,a4 ',he destroys ,samudaya4' ,the truth of ,samudaya1 or accumulation1 the second of the four ,satyas1 means that misery is accumulated or produced by passions4 ,this truth should be realized by the removal of passions4 ,,fn#ceb ,a4 ',this is the truth of ,marga4' ,the truth of ,marga1 or ,path1 is the fourth of the four ,satyas4 ,there are the eight right ,paths that lead to the extinction of passions2 7#a7 ,right view 7to discern truth71 7#b7 right thought 7or purity of will and thought71 7#c7 right speech 7free from nonsense and errors71 7#d7 right action1 7#e7 right diligence1 7#f7 right meditation1 7#g7 right memory1 7#h7 right livelihood4 ,,fn#cec ,a4 ',this is the truth of ,nirodha4' ,nirodha1 or destruction1 the third of the four ,satyas1 means the extinction of passions4 ,bhutatathati of ,anatman means the truth of the non existence of ,atma or soul1 and is the aim and end of the ,hinayanist philosophy4 ,,fn#ced ,arhat1 the ,killer of thieves 7i4e41 passions71 means one who conquered his passions4 ,it means1 secondly1 one who is exempted from birth1 or one who is free from transmigration4 ,thirdly1 it means one deserving worship4 ,so the ,arhat is the highest sage who has attained to ,nirvana by the destruction of all passions4 ,according to the doctrine of this school the two aggregates1 material and spiritual1 together with lust1 anger1 and folly1 are the origin of ourselves and of the world in which we live4 ,there exists nothing else1 either in the past or in the future1 that can be regarded as the origin4 ,now let us say 7a few words7 by way of refutation4 ,that which 7always7 stands as the origin of life1 birth after birth1 generation after generation1 should exist by itself without cessation4 ,yet the ,five ,vijnyanas,,fn#cee cease to perform their functions when they lack proper conditions1 7while7 the ,mano-vijnyana,,fn#cef is lost at times 7in unconsciousness74 ,there are none of those four 7material7 elements in the heavenly worlds of ,arupa4 ,how1 then1 is life sustained there and kept up in continuous birth after birth8 ,therefore we know that those who devote themselves to the study of this doctrine also cannot trace life to its origin4 ,,fn#cee ,a4 ',the conditions are the ,indriyas and the ,visayas1 etc4' ,indriyas are organs of sense1 and ,visayas are objects on which the sense acts4 ,five ,vijnyanas are--7#a7 ,the sense of sight1 7#b7 the sense of hearing1 7#c7 the sense of smell1 7#d7 the sense of taste1 7#e7 the sense of touch4 ,,fn#cef ,mano-vijnyana is the mind itself1 and the last of the six ,vijnyanas of the ,hinayana doctrine4 ,a4 '7,for instance71 in a state of trance1 in deep slumber1 in ,nirodha-samapatti 7where no thought exists71 in ,asamjnyi-samapatti 7in which no consciousness exists71 and in ,avrhaloka 7the thirteenth of ,brahmalokas74 #c4 ,the ,mahayana ,doctrine of ,dharmalaksana4,,fn#ceg ,this doctrine tells us that from time immemorial all sentient beings naturally have eight different ,vijnyanas,,fn#ceh and the eighth1 ,alaya-vijnyana1,,fn#cei is the origin of them4 7,that is71 the ,alaya suddenly brings forth the 'seeds',,fn#cfj of living beings and of the world in which they live1 and through transformation gives rise to the seven ,vijnyanas4 ,each of them causes external objects on which it acts to take form and appear4 ,in reality there is nothing externally existent4 ,how1 then1 does ,alaya give rise to them through transformation8 ,because1 as this doctrine tells us1 we habitually form the erroneous idea that ,atman and external objects exist in reality1 and it acts upon ,alaya and leaves its impressions,,fn#cfa there4 ,consequently1 when ,vijnyanas are awakened1 these impressions 7or the seed-ideas7 transform and present themselves 7before the mind's eye7 ,atman and external objects4 ,,fn#ceg ,this school studies in the main the nature of things 7,dharma71 and was so named4 ,the doctrine is based on ,avatamsaka-sutra and ,samdhi-nirmocana-sutra1 and was systematized by ,asamga and ,vasu-bandhu4 ,the latter's book1 ,vidyamatra-siddhi-castra-karika1 is held to be the best authoritative work of the school4 ,,fn#ceh 7#a7 ,the sense of sight2 7#b7 the sense of hearing2 7#c7 the sense of smell2 7#d7 the sense of taste2 7#e7 the sense of touch2 7#f7 ,mano-vijnyana 7lit41 mind-knowledge71 or the perceptive faculty2 7#g7 ,klista-mano-vijnyana 7lit41 soiled-mind-knowledge71 or an introspective faculty2 7#h7 ,alaya-vijnyana 7lit41 receptacle-knowledge71 or ultimate-mind-substance4 ,,fn#cei ,the first seven ,vijnyanas depend on the ,alaya1 which is said to hold all the 'seeds' of physical and mental objects4 ,,fn#cfj ,this school is an extreme form of ,idealism1 and maintains that nothing separated from the ,alaya can exist externally4 ,the mind-substance1 from the first1 holds the seed ideas of everything1 and they seem to the non-enlightened mind to be the external universe1 but are no other than the transformation of the seed-ideas4 ,the five senses1 and the ,mano-vijnyana acting on them1 take them for external objects really existent1 while the seventh ,vijnyana mistakes the eighth for ,atman4 ,,fn#cfa ,the non-enlightened mind1 habitually thinking that ,atman and external objects exist1 leaves the impression of the seed-ideas on its own ,alaya4 ,then the sixth and the seventh,,fn#cfb ,vijnyana veiled with ,avidya1 dwelling on them1 mistake them for real ,atman and the real external objects4 ,this 7error7 may be compared with one diseased,,fn#cfc in the eye1 who imagines that he sees various things 7floating in the air7 on account of his illness2 or with a dreamer,,fn#cfd whose fanciful thoughts assume various forms of external objects1 and present themselves before him4 ,while in the dream he fancies that there exist external objects in reality1 but on awakening he finds that they are nothing other than the transformation of his dreaming thoughts4 ,,fn#cfb ,avidya1 or ignorance1 which mistakes the illusory phenomena for realities4 ,,fn#cfc ,a4 ',a person with a serious disease sees the vision of strange colours1 men1 and things in his trance4' ,,fn#cfd ,a4 ',that a dreamer fancies he sees things is well known to everybody4' ,so are our lives4 ,they are no other than the transformation of the ,vijnyanas2 but in consequence of illusion1 we take them for the ,atman and external objects existing in reality4 ,from these erroneous ideas arise delusive thoughts that lead to the production of ,karma2 hence the round-of rebirth to time without end4,,fn#cfe ,when we understand these reasons1 we can realize the fact that our lives are nothing but transformations of the ,vijnyanas1 and that the 7eighth7 ,vijnyana is the origin4,,fn#cff ,,fn#cfe ,a4 ',as it was detailed above4' ,,fn#cff ,a4 ',an imperfect doctrine1 which is refuted later4' #d4 ,mahayana ,doctrine of the ,nihilists4 ,this doctrine disproves 7both7 the ,mahayana and the ,hinayana doctrines above mentioned that adhere to ,dharma-laksana1 and suggestively discloses the truth of ,transcendental ,reality which is to be treated later4,,fn#cfg ,let me state1 first of all1 what it would say in the refutation of ,dharma-laksana4 ,,fn#cfg ,a4 ,the nihilistic doctrine is stated not only in the various ,prajnya-sutras 7the books having ,prajnya-paramita in their titles71 but also in almost all ,mahayana sutras4 ,the above-mentioned three doctrines were preached 7by the ,buddha7 in the three successive periods4 ,but this doctrine was not preached at any particular period2 it was intended to destroy at any time the attachment to the phenomenal objects4 ,therefore ,nagarjuna tells us that there are two sorts of ,prajnyas1 the ,common and the ,special4 ,the ravakas 7lit41 hearers7 and the ,pratyekabuddhas 7lit41 singly enlightened ones71 or the ,hinayanists1 could hear and believe in1 with the ,bodhisattvas or the ,mahayanists1 the ,common ,prajnya1 as it was intended to destroy their attachment to the external objects4 ,bodhisattvas alone could understand the ,special ,prajnya1 as it secretly revealed the ,buddha nature1 or the ,absolute4 ,each of the two great ,indian teachers1 ilabhadra and ,jnyanaprabha1 divided the whole teachings of the ,buddha into three periods4 7,according to ilabhadra1 ,a4,d4 #fbe1 teacher of ,hiuen ,tsang1 the ,buddha first preached the doctrine of 'existence' to the effect that every living being is unreal1 but things are real4 ,all the ,hinayana sutras belong to this period4 ,next the ,buddha preached the doctrine of the middle path1 in ,samdhi-nirmocana-sutra and others1 to the effect that all the phenomenal universe is unreal1 but that the mental substance is real4 ,according to ,jnyanaprabha1 the ,buddha first preached the doctrine of existence1 next that of the existence of mental substance1 and lastly that of unreality47 ,one says the doctrine of unreality was preached before that of ,dharma-laksana1 while the others say it was preached after4 ,here ,i adopt the latters' opinion4 ,if the external objects which are transformed are unreal1 how can the ,vijnyana1 the transformer1 be real8 ,if you say the latter is really existent1 but not the former1,,fn#cfh then 7you assume that7 the dreaming mind 7which is compared with ,alaya-vijnyana7 is entirely different from the objects seen in the dream 7which are compared with external objects74 ,if they are entirely different1 you ought not to identify the dream with the things dreamed1 nor to identify the things dreamed with the dream itself4 ,in other words1 they ought to have separate existences4 7,and7 when you awake your dream may disappear1 but the things dreamed would remain4 ,,fn#cfh ,a4 ',in the following sentences ,i refute it1 making use of the simile of the dream4' ,again1 if 7you say7 that the things dreamed are not identical with the dream1 then they would be really existent things4 ,if the dream is not the same as the things dreamed1 in what other form does it appear to you8 ,therefore you must acknowledge that there is every reason to believe that both the dreaming mind and the things dreamed are equally unreal1 and that nothing exists in reality1 though it seems to you as if there were a seer1 and a seen1 in a dream4 ,thus those ,vijnyanas also would be unreal1 because all of them are not self-existent realities1 their existence being temporary1 and dependent upon various conditions4 ,there is nothing1 7the author of7 ,madhyamika-castra,,fn#cfi says1 that ever came into existence without direct and indirect causes4 ,therefore there is anything that is not unreal in the world4 ,he says again3 ,things produced through direct and indirect causes ,i declare to be the very things which are unreal4 7,the author of7 ,craddhotdada-castra,,fn#cgj says3 ,all things in the universe present themselves in different forms only on account of false ideas4 ,if separated from the 7false7 ideas and thoughts1 no forms of those external objects exist4 ,all the physical forms 7ascribed to ,buddha71 says 7the author of7 a sutra1,,fn#cga are false and unreal4 ,the beings that transcend all forms are called ,buddhas4,,fn#cgb ,consequently you must acknowledge that mind as well as external objects are unreal4 ,this is the eternal truth of the ,mahayana doctrine4 ,we are driven to the conclusion that unreality is the origin of life1 if we trace it back according to this doctrine4 ,,fn#cfi ,the principal textbook of the ,madhyamika ,school1 by ,nagarjuna and ,nilanetra1 translated into ,chinese 7,a4,d4 #dji7 by ,kumarajiva4 ,,fn#cgj ,a well-known ,mahayana book ascribed to ,acvaghosa1 translated into ,chinese by ,paramartha4 ,there exists an ,english translation by ,d4 ,suzuki4 ,,fn#cga ,vajracchedha-prajnya-paramita-sutra1 of which there exist three ,chinese translations4 ,,fn#cgb ,a4 ',similar passages are found in every book of the ,mahayana ,tripitaka4' ,now let us say 7a few words7 to refute this doctrine also4 ,if mind as well as external objects be unreal1 who is it that knows they are so8 ,again1 if there be nothing real in the universe1 what is it that causes unreal objects to appear8 ,we stand witness to the fact there is no one of the unreal things on earth that is not made to appear by something real4 ,if there be no water of unchanging fluidity1,,fn#cgc how can there be the unreal and temporary forms of waves8 ,if there be no unchanging mirror1 bright and clean1 how can there be various images1 unreal and temporary1 reflected in it8 ,it is true in sooth that the dreaming mind as well as the things dreamed1 as said above1 are equally unreal1 but does not that unreal dream necessarily presuppose the existence of some 7real7 sleepers8 ,,fn#cgc ,the ,absolute is compared with the ocean1 and the phenomenal universe with the waves4 ,now1 if both mind and external objects1 as declared above1 be nothing at all1 no- one can tell what it is that causes these unreal appearances4 ,therefore this doctrine1 we know1 simply serves to refute the erroneous theory held by those who are passionately attached to ,dharma-laksana1 but never clearly discloses spiritual ,reality4 ,so that ,mahabheri-harakaparivarta-sutra,,fn#cgd says as follows3 ,all the sutras that teach the unreality of things belong to an imperfect doctrine 7of the ,buddha74 ,mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra,,fn#cge says3 ,the doctrine of unreality is the first entrance-gate to ,mahayanism4 ,,fn#cgd ,the book was translated into ,chinese by ,gunabhadra1 ,a4,d4 #dbj-dgi4 ,,fn#cge ,this is not the direct quotation from the sutra translated by ,hiuen ,tsang4 ,the words are found in ,mahaprajnya-paramita-sutra1 the commentary on the sutra by ,nagarjuna4 ,when the above-mentioned four doctrines are compared with one another in the order of succession1 each is more profound than the preceding4 ,they are called the superficial1 provided that the follower1 learning them a short while1 knows them by himself to be imperfect2 7but7 if he adheres to them as perfect1 these same 7doctrines7 are called incomplete4 ,they are 7thus7 said to be superficial and incomplete with regard to the follower4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,direct ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,real ,,origin,,fn#cgf #e4 ,the ,ekayana ,doctrine that ,teaches the ,ultimate ,reality4 ,this doctrine teaches us that all sentient beings have the ,real ,spirit,,fn#cgg of ,original ,enlightenment 7within themselves74 ,from time immemorial it is unchanging and pure4 ,it is eternally bright1 and clear1 and conscious4 ,it is also named the ,buddha-nature1 or ,tathagata-garbha4,,fn#cgh ,as it is1 however1 veiled by illusion from time without beginning1 7sentient beings7 are not conscious of its existence1 and think that the nature within themselves are degenerated4 ,consequently they are given to bodily pleasures1 and producing ,karma1 suffer from birth and death4 ,the great ,enlightened ,one1 having compassion on them1 taught that everything in the universe is unreal4 ,he pointed out that the ,real ,spirit of ,mysterious ,enlightenment 7within them7 is pure and exactly the same as that of ,buddha4 ,therefore he says in ,avatamsaka-sutra,,fn#cgi3 ,there are no sentient beings1 the children of ,buddha1 who are not endowed with wisdom of ,tathagata2,,fn#chj but they cannot attain to ,enlightenment simply because of illusion and attachment4 ,when they are free from illusion1 the ,universal ,intelligence1,,fn#cha the ,natural ,intelligence1,,fn#chb the ,unimpeded ,intelligence1,,fn#chc will be disclosed 7in their minds74 ,,fn#cgf ,a4 ',the perfect doctrine1 in which eternal truth is taught by the ,buddha4' ,,fn#cgg ,the ultimate reality is conceived by the ,mahayanist as an entity self-existent1 omnipresent1 spiritual1 impersonal1 free from all illusions4 ,it may be regarded as something like the universal and enlightened soul4 ,,fn#cgh ,tathagata's womb1 ,tathagata being another name for ,buddha4 ,,fn#cgi ,the book was translated into ,chinese by ,buddhabhadra1 ,a4,d4 #dah-dbj4 ,,fn#chj ,the highest epithet of the ,buddha1 meaning one who comes into the world like the coming of his predecessors4 ,,fn#cha ,the all-knowing wisdom that is acquired by ,enlightenment4 ,,fn#chb ,the inborn wisdom of the ,original ,enlightenment4 ,,fn#chc ,the wisdom that is acquired by the union of ,enlightenment with the ,original ,enlightenment4 ,then he tells a parable of a single grain of minute dust,,fn#chd containing large volumes of ,sutra1 equal in dimension of the ,great ,chiliocosmos4,,fn#che ,the grain is compared with a sentient being1 and the ,sutra with the wisdom of ,buddha4 ,again he says later3,,fn#chf ,once ,tathagata1 having observed every sort of sentient beings all over the universe1 said as follows3 ',wonderful1 how wonderful6 ,that these various sentient beings1 endowed with the wisdom of ,tathagata1 are not conscious of it because of their errors and illusions6 ,i shall teach them the sacred truth and make them free from illusion for ever4 ,i shall 7thus7 enable them to find by themselves the ,great ,wisdom of ,tathagatha within them and make them equal to ,buddha4' ,,fn#chd ,one of the famous parables in the sutra4 ,,fn#che ,according to the ,buddhist literature1 one universe comprises one sun1 one moon1 one central mountain or ,sumeru1 four continents1 etc4 ,one thousand of these universes form the ,small ,thousand ,worlds2 one thousand of the ,small ,thousand ,worlds form the ,middle ,thousand ,worlds2 and the ,great ,thousand ,worlds1 or ,great ,chiliocosmos1 comprises one thousand of the ,middle ,thousand ,worlds4 ,,fn#chf ,this is not an exact quotation of the sutra4 ,let me say 7a few words7 about this doctrine by way of criticism4 ,so many ,kalpas we spent never meeting with this true doctrine1 and knew not how to trace our life back to its origin4 ,having been attached to nothing but the unreal outward forms1 we willingly acknowledged ourselves to be a common herd of lowly beings4 ,some regarded themselves as beasts1 7while7 others as men4 ,but now1 tracing life to its origin according to the highest doctrine1 we have fully understood that we ourselves were originally ,buddhas4 ,therefore we should act in conformity to ,buddha's 7action71 and keep our mind in harmony with his4 ,lot us betake ourselves once more to the source of ,enlightened ,spirit1 restoring ourselves to the original ,buddhahood4 ,let us cut off the bond of attachment1 and remove the illusion that common people are habitually given to4 ,illusion being destroyed1,,fn#chg the will to destroy it is also removed1 and at last there remains nothing to be done 7except complete peace and joy74 ,this naturally results in ,enlightenment1 whose practical uses are as innumerable as the grains of sand in the ,ganges4 ,this state is called ,buddhahood4 ,we should know that the illusory as well as the ,enlightened are originally of one and the same ,real ,spirit4 ,how great1 how excellent1 is the doctrine that traces man to such an origin6,,fn#chh ,,fn#chg ,the passage occurs in ,tao ,teh ,king4 ,,fn#chh ,a4 ',although all of the above-mentioned five doctrines were preached by the ,buddha ,himself1 yet there are some that belong to the ,sudden1 while others to the ,gradual1 ,teachings4 ,if there were persons of the middle or the lowest grade of understanding1 ,he first taught the most superficial doctrine1 then the less superficial1 and ,gradually led them up to the profound4 ,at the outset of ,his career as a teacher ,he preached the first doctrine to enable them to give up evil and abide by good2 next ,he preached the second and the third doctrine that they might remove the ,pollution and attain to the ,purity2 and1 lastly1 ,he preached the fourth and the fifth doctrine to destroy their attachment to unreal forms1 and to show the ,ultimate ,reality4 7,thus7 ,he reduced 7all7 the temporary doctrines into the eternal one1 and taught them how to practise the ,law according to the eternal and attain to ,buddhahood4 ',if there is a person of the highest grade of understanding1 he may first of all learn the most profound1 next the less profound1 and1 lastly1 the most superficial doctrine-that is1 he may at the outset come ,suddenly to the understanding of the ,one ,reality of ,true ,spirit1 as it is taught in the fifth doctrine4 ,when the ,spiritual ,reality is disclosed before his mind's eye1 he may naturally see that it originally transcends all appearances which are unreal1 and that unrealities appear on account of illusion1 their existence depending on ,reality4 ,then he must give up evil1 practise good1 put away unrealities by the wisdom of ,enlightenment1 and reduce them to ,reality4 ,when unrealities are all gone1 and ,reality alone remains complete1 he is called the ,dharma-kaya-,buddha4' ,,chapter ,,iv ,,reconciliation ,,of ,,the ,,temporary ,,with ,,the ,,real ,,doctrine,,fn#chi ,,even if ,reality is the origin of life1 there must be in all probability some causes for its coming into existence1 as it cannot suddenly assume the form of body by accident4 ,in the preceding chapters ,i have refuted the first four doctrines1 merely because they are imperfect1 and in this chapter ,i shall reconcile the temporary with the eternal doctrine4 ,in short1 ,i shall show that even ,confucianism is in the right4,,fn#cij ,that is to say1 from the beginning there exists ,reality 7within all beings71 which is one and spiritual4 ,it can never be created nor destroyed4 ,it does not increase nor decrease itself4 ,it is subject to neither change nor decay4 ,sentient beings1 slumbering in 7the night of7 illusion from time immemorial1 are not conscious of its existence4 ,as it is hidden and veiled1 it is named ,tathagata-garbha4,,fn#cia ,on this ,tathagata-garbha the mental phenomena that are subject to growth and decay depend4 ,real ,spirit1 as is stated 7in the ,acvaghosa's astra71 that transcends creation and destruction1 is united with illusion1 which is subject to creation and destruction2 and the one is not absolutely the same as nor different from the other4 ,this union 7with illusion7 has the two sides of enlightenment and non -enlightenment1' and is called ,alaya-vijnyana4 ,because of non-enlightenment1,,fn#cib it first arouses itself1 and forms some ideas4 ,this activity of the ,vijnyana is named 'the state of ,karma4,,fn#cic ,furthermore1 since one does not understand that these ideas are unreal from the beginning1 they transform themselves into the subject 7within7 and the object 7without71 into the seer and the seen4 ,one is at a loss how to understand that these external objects are no more than the creation of his own delusive mind1 and believes them to be really existent4 ,this is called the erroneous belief in the existence of external objects4,,fn#cid ,in consequence of these erroneous beliefs1 he distinguishes ,self and non-self1 and at last forms the erroneous belief of ,atman4 ,since he is attached to the form of the ,self1 he yearns after various objects agreeable to the sense for the sake of the good of his ,self4 ,he is offended1 7however71 with various disagreeable objects1 and is afraid of the injuries and troubles which they bring on him4 7,thus7 his foolish passions,,fn#cie are strengthened step by step4 ,,fn#chi ,a4 ',the doctrines refuted above are reconciled with the real doctrine in this chapter4 ,they are all in the right in their pointing to the true origin4' ,,fn#cij ,a4 ',the first section states the fifth doctrine that reveals the ,reality1 and the statements in the following sections are the same as the other doctrines1 as shown in the notes4' ,,fn#cia ,a4 ',the following statement is similar to the fourth doctrine explained above in the refutation of the phenomenal existence subject to growth and decay4' ,compare raddhotpada-castra4 ,,fn#cib ,a4 ',the following statement is similar to the doctrine of ,dharma-laksana4' ,,fn#cic ,here ,karma simply means an active state2 it should be distinguished from ,karma1 produced by actions4 ,,fn#cid ,a4 ',the following statement is similar to the second doctrine1 or ,hinayanism4' ,,fn#cie ,a4 ',the following statement is similar to the first doctrine for men and ,devas4' ,thus 7on one hand7 the souls of those who committed the crimes of killing1 stealing1 and so on1 are born1 by the influence of the bad ,karma1 in hell1 or among ,pretas1 or among beasts1 or elsewhere4 ,on the other hand1 the souls of those who1 being afraid of such sufferings1 or being good-natured1 gave alms1 kept precepts1 and so on1 undergo ,antarabhava,,fn#cif by the influence of the good ,kharma1 enter into the womb of their mothers4,,fn#cig ,,fn#cif ,the spiritual existence between this and another life4 ,,fn#cig ,a4 ',the following statement is similar to ,confucianism and ,taoism4' ,there they are endowed with the 7so-called7 ,gas1 or material 7for body74,,fn#cih ,the ,gas first consists of four elements,,fn#cii and it gradually forms various sense-organs4 ,the mind first consists of the four aggregates1,,fn#djj and it gradually forms various ,vijnyanas4 ,after the whole course of ten months they are born and called men4 ,these are our present bodies and minds4 ,therefore we must know that body and mind has each its own origin1 and that the two1 being united1 form one human being4 ,they are born among ,devas and ,asuras1 and so on in a manner almost similar to this4 ,,fn#cih ,a4 ',this harmonizes with the outside opinion that ,gas is the origin4' ,,fn#cii 7#a7 ,earth1 7#b7 water1 7#c7 fire1 7#d7 air4 ,,fn#djj 7#a7 ,perception1 7#b7 consciousness1 7#c7 conception1 7#d7 knowledge4 ,though we are born among men by virtue of 'the generalizing ,karma1',,fn#dja yet1 by the influence of 'the particularizing ,karma1',,fn#djb some are placed in a high rank1 while others in a low2 some are poor1 while others rich2 some enjoy a long life1 while others die in youth2 some are sickly1 while others healthy2 some are rising1 while others are falling2 some suffer from pains1 while others enjoy pleasures4 ,for instance1 reverence or indolence in the previous existence1 working as the cause1 brings forth high birth or low in the present as the effect4 ,so also benevolence in the past results in long life in the present2 the taking of life1 a short life2 the giving of alms1 richness1 miserliness1 ,poverty4 ,there are so many particular cases of retribution that cannot be mentioned in detail4 ,hence there are some who happen to be unfortunate1 doing no evil1 while others fortunate1 doing no good in the present life4 ,so also some enjoy a long life1 in spite of their inhuman conduct2 while others die young1 in spite of their taking no life1 and so forth4 ,as all this is predestinated by 'the particularizing ,karma' produced in the past1 it would seem to occur naturally1 quite independent of one's actions in the present life4 ,outside scholars ignorant of the previous existences1 relying simply on their observations1 believe it to be nothing more than natural4,,fn#djc ,,fn#dja ,the ,karma that determines different classes of beings1 such as men1 beasts1 ,pretas1 etc4 ,,fn#djb ,the ,karma that determines the particular state of an individual in the world4 ,,fn#djc ,a4 ',this harmonizes with the outside opinion that everything occurs naturally4' ,besides1 there are some who cultivated virtues in the earlier1 and committed crimes in the later1 stages of their past existences2 while others were vicious in youth1 and virtuous in old age4 ,in consequence1 some are happy in youth1 being rich and noble1 but unhappy in old age1 being poor and low in the present life2 while others lead poor and miserable lives when young1 but grow rich and noble when old1 and so on4 ,hence outside scholars come to believe that one's prosperity or adversity merely depends on a heavenly decree4,,fn#djd ,,fn#djd ,a4 ',this harmonizes with the outside opinion that everything depends on providence4' ,the body with which man is endowed1 when traced step by step to its origin1 proves to be nothing but one primordial ,gas in its undeveloped state4 ,and the mind with which man thinks1 when traced step by step to its source1 proves to be nothing but the ,one ,real ,spirit4 ,to tell the truth1 there exists nothing outside of ,spirit1 and even the ,primordial ,gas is also a mode of it1 for it is one of the external objects projected by the above-stated ,vijnyanas1 and is one of the mental images of ,alaya1 out of whose idea1 when it is in the state of ,karma1 come both the subject and the object4 ,as the subject developed itself1 the feebler ideas grow stronger step by step1 and form erroneous beliefs that end in the production of ,karma4,,fn#dje ,similarly1 the object increases in size1 the finer objects grow gradually grosser1 and gives rise to unreal things that end in the formation,,fn#djf of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,when ,karma is ripe enough1 one is endowed by father and mother with sperm and ovum1 which1 united with his consciousness under the influence of ,karma1 completes a human form4 ,,fn#dje ,a4 ',as above stated4' ,,fn#djf ,a4 ,in the beginning1 according to the outside school1 there was 'the great changeableness1' which underwent fivefold evolutions1 and brought out the ,five ,principles4 ,out of that ,principle1 which they call the ,great ,path of ,nature1 came the two subordinate principles of the ,positive and the ,negative4 ,they seem to explain the ,ultimate ,reality1 but the ,path1 in fact1 no more than the 'perceiving division' of the ,alaya4 ,the so-called primordial ,gas seems to be the first idea in the awakening ,alaya1 but it is a mere external object4 ,according to this view 7of ,dharmalaksana71 things brought forth through the transformations of ,alaya and the other ,vijnyanas are divided into two parts2 one part 7remaining71 united with ,alaya and the other ,vijnyanas1 becomes man1 while the other1 becoming separated from them1 becomes ,heaven1 ,earth1 mountains1 rivers1 countries1 and towns4 7,thus7 man is the outcome of the union of the two2 this is the reason why he alone of the ,three ,powers is spiritual4 ,this was taught by the ,buddha,,fn#djg himself when he stated that there existed two different kinds of the four elements--the internal and the external4 ,,fn#djg ,ratnakuta-sutra 7871 translated into ,chinese by ,jnyanagupta4 ,alas6 ,o ye half-educated scholars who adhere to imperfect doctrines1 each of which conflicts with another6 ,ye that seek after truth1 if ye would attain to ,buddhahood1 clearly understand which is the subtler and which is the grosser 7form of illusive ideas71 which is the originator and which is the originated4 7,then7 give ye up the originated and return ye to the originator1 and to reflect on the ,spirit1 the ,source 7of all74 ,when the grosser is exterminated and the subtler removed1 the wonderful wisdom of spirit is disclosed1 and nothing is beyond its understanding4 ,this is called the ,dharma-sambhoga-kaya4 ,it can of itself transform itself and appear among men in numberless ways4 ,this is called the ,nirmana-kaya of ,buddha4,,fn#djh ,,fn#djh ,every ,buddha has three bodies3 7#a7 ,dharma-kaya1 or spiritual body2 7#b7 ,sambhoga-kaya1 or the body of compensation2 7#c7 ,nirmana-kaya1 or the body capable of transformation4 ,,the ,,end4