,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,the pagination of this book is unusual4 ,the book consists of four sections1 each of which is page numbered within itself4 ,additionally1 the pages of the entire document are numbered consecutively4 ,this results in sections two1 three1 and four in the original document having two page numbers on each page1 one for the page number of the section and one for the page number of the whole document4 ,to aid in clarity the pages in this e,book have been numbered consecutively for the entire document4 ,however1 the page numbers shown in the ,table of ,contents for each section and the ,indexes1 where they appear1 have been left as they appear in the original document4 ,the links1 of course1 have been made to the correct pages4 ,other transcriber's notes will be found at the end of this e,book1 following the ,footnotes4 ,,humanistic ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,volume ,i ,,lawrence1 ,,kansas ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university #aiae ,,committee ,,on ,,humanistic ,,studies ,,frank ,,heywood ,,hodder ,,frank ,,wilson ,,blackmar ,,edwin ,,mortimer ,,hopkins ,,arthur ,,tappan ,,walker ,,selden ,,lincoln ,,whitcomb1 ,editor ,,contents ,i4 ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,colley ,,cibber4 ,by ,de ,witt ,c4 ,croissant1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,ii4 ,,studies ,,in ,,bergson',s ,,philosophy4 ,by ,arthur ,mitchell1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,iii4 ,,browning ,,and ,,italian ,,art ,,and ,,artists4 ,by ,pearl ,hogrefe1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,semantics ,,of -,,mentum1 -,,bulum1 ,,and -,,culum4 ,by ,edmund ,d4 ,cressman1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,humanistic ,,studies ,vol4 ,i ,october #a1 #aiab ,no4 #a ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,colley ,,cibber ,,by ,,de ,,witt ,c4 ,,croissant1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,assistant ,professor of ,english ,language in the ,university of ,kansas ,,lawrence1 ,,october1 #aiab ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university ,,contents ,i ,notes on ,cibber's ,plays ,,ii ,cibber and the ,development of ,sentimental ,comedy ,bibliography ,,preface ,the following studies are extracts from a longer paper on the life and work of ,cibber4 ,no extended investigation concerning the life or the literary activity of ,cibber has recently appeared1 and certain misconceptions concerning his personal character1 as well as his importance in the development of ,english literature and the literary merit of his plays1 have been becoming more and more firmly fixed in the minds of students4 ,cibber was neither so much of a fool nor so great a knave as is generally supposed4 ,the estimate and the judgment of two of his contemporaries1 ,pope and ,dennis1 have been far too widely accepted4 ,the only one of the above topics that this paper deals with1 otherwise than incidentally1 is his place in the development of a literary mode4 ,while ,cibber was the most prominent and influential of the innovators among the writers of comedy of his time1 he was not the only one who indicated the change toward sentimental comedy in his work4 ,this subject1 too1 needs fuller investigation4 ,i hope1 at some future time1 to continue my studies in this field4 ,this work was suggested as a subject for a doctor's thesis1 by ,professor ,john ,matthews ,manly1 while ,i was a graduate student at the ,university of ,chicago a number of years ago1 and was continued later under the direction of ,professor ,thomas ,marc ,parrott at ,princeton4 ,i wish to thank both of these scholars1 as well as ,professor ,myra ,reynolds1 who first stimulated my interest in ,restoration comedy4 ,the libraries of ,harvard1 ,yale1 and ,columbia have been very generous in supplying books which would otherwise have been inaccessible2 but especial gratitude is due to the ,library of ,congress1 and to ,mr4 ,joseph ,plass1 who called my attention to material in the ,library of ,congress1 which would have escaped my notice but for his interest4 ,i wish to express my gratitude to ,professor ,r4 ,d4 ,o',leary1 of the ,university of ,kansas1 who has read these pages in manuscript and in proof1 and has offered many valuable suggestions4 ,d4 ,c4 ,c4 ,university of ,kansas1 ,october1 #aiab4 ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,colley ,,cibber ,de ,witt ,c4 ,croissant ,i ,,notes ,,on ,,cibber',s ,,plays ,colley ,cibber's activity was not confined to writing plays4 ,besides being a leader in the development of comedy and a skilful adapter in tragedy1 he was the greatest actor of his day in comic rles2 was the dominant personality in the triumvirate of managers of the playhouse1 so that the healthy theatrical conditions of his time were largely due to him2 was a writer of poetry1 some of which is fairly good2 was the author of some of the most amusing and clever controversial pamphlets of the time2 and was the author of a most interesting autobiography4 ,today he is thought of by many merely as the hero of ,pope's ,dunciad4 ,in some respects he deserved ,pope's satire1 but the things he did well entitle him to more consideration than he has received4 ,it is the purpose of these ,notes to discuss merely his plays2 and to treat these principally from the point of view of what may be called external relations1 with some discussion of dramatic technique4 ,under the heading of external relations ,i have considered the dates of the various plays1 the circumstances of their presentation1 their sources1 and their relation to the various types of the drama of the time4 ,i have discussed the plays in chronological order within the various classes4 #a4 ,,farces4 ,of the farces ascribed to ,cibber1 only two1 ,the ,rival ,queans and ,bulls and ,bears1 are unquestionably his1 and these two are not accessible4 ,the ,rival ,queans1 acted at the ,haymarket1 ,june #bi1 #agaj1 printed in ,dublin in #agbi1 is without doubt by ,cibber4 ,but in the collected edition of his plays1 published in #aggg1 the editors substituted a farce of the same name1 which1 however1 deals with a different subject and is by another writer4 ,cibber's farce was a burlesque of ,lee's ,rival ,queens2 the piece that was substituted deals with the operatic situation in ,england4 ,an adaptation of ,doggett's ,country ,wake 7#afif71 called ,hob1 or ,the ,country ,wake 7#agae71 has been ascribed to ,cibber1 but ,genest#a doubts his authorship because it was brought out while ,doggett was still on the stage4 ,bulls and ,bears1 ,cibber's second undisputed farce1 was acted at ,drury ,lane1 ,december #b1 #agae1 but was apparently not printed4 ,chuck 7#agcf7 seems to have been ascribed to him by either the author or the publisher without grounds1 for in a list of plays 8wrote by anonymous authors in the #agth century10 appended to the fourth edition of the ,apology 7#agef71 there is a note on this play to the effect that 8the author or printer has set the name of ,mr4 ,cibber to this piece40 ,this is not proof positive that ,cibber did not write the play1 for ,cinna's ,conspiracy1 which is unquestionably by him1 appears in the same list4 ,in ,the ,new ,theatrical ,dictionary 7#agdb71 it is stated that 8this piece ,chuck is extremely puerile1 yet the author has thought proper to put ,mr4 ,cibber's name to it40 ,this again is not necessarily convincing argument against ,cibber's authorship1 for he was capable of poor work1 as his poems and some of his plays show4 ,on the whole1 it seems probable that ,hob and ,chuck are not by ,cibber4 ,in any case1 they are entirely without value1 and it is therefore a matter of no importance to literary history whether their authorship is ever determined or not4 ,coffey's ,the ,devil to ,pay 7#agcf7 is stated in the catalogue of the ,british ,museum to have been 8revised by ,colley ,cibber40 ,but the work of revision was done by ,theophilus ,cibber1 his son1 and ,cibber himself contributed only one song4#b #b4 ,,operas4 ,in common with many of his contemporaries1 ,cibber attempted operatic pieces4 ,his undisputed operas are ,venus and ,adonis 7#agae71 ,myrtillo 7#agaf71 ,love in a ,riddle 7#agbi71 and ,damon and ,phillida 7#agbi71 the last being merely the sub-plot of ,love in a ,riddle acted separately4#c ,two other operatic pieces1 ,the ,temple of ,dullness 7#agde7 and ,capochio and ,dorinna1 have been ascribed to him4 ,love in a ,riddle 7#agbi7 seems to have been the cause of some unpleasantness4 ,in the ,life of ,quin 7#agff7 the following account of it is given3#d 8,this uncommon reception of ,the ,beggar's ,opera induced ,colley ,cibber to attempt something the same kind the next year1 under the title of ,love in a ,riddle1 but how different was its reception from ,gay's production2 it was damned to the lowest regions of infamy the very first night1 which so mortified ,cibber1 that it threw him into a fever2 and from this moment he resolved as soon as he conveniently could to leave the stage1 and no longer submit himself and his talents to the capricious taste of the town4 8,it was generally thought that his jealousy of ,gay1 and the high opinion he entertained of his own piece had operated so strongly as to make him set every engine in motion to get the sequel of ,the ,beggar's ,opera1 called ,polly1 suppressed in order to engross the town entirely to ,love in a ,riddle4 ,whether ,cibber did or did not bestir himself in this affair1 it is certain that ,gay and ,rich had the mortification to see all their hopes of a succeeding harvest blasted by the ,lord ,chamberlain's absolute prohibition of it1 after it had been rehearsed and was just ready to bring out40 ,in this same volume#e it is stated that the failure of the piece was one of the potent causes of the dissolution of the ,drury ,lane company1 though this seems an exaggeration1 as does also the effect on ,cibber that is ascribed to the failure4 ,cibber denies#f that he had anything to do with the suppression of the second part of ,the ,beggar's ,opera1 and gives as his reason for writing that he thought something written in the same form1 but recommending virtue and innocence instead of vice and wickedness1 8might not have a less pretence to favor40 ,the ,temple of ,dullness 7#agde71 which ,the ,biographia ,dramatica#g states had been ascribed to ,cibber1 is in two acts of two scenes each1 the second scene of each act being the comic 8interlude0 of ,theobald's ,happy ,captive 7#agda74 ,these two scenes have as their principal characters1 ,signor ,capochio and ,signora ,dorinna4#h ,the other two scenes1 which give the principal title to the piece1 are based1 as is stated in the preface1 on the fact that ,pope in ,the ,dunciad makes the ,goddess of ,dullness preside over ,italian operas4 ,it is inconceivable that either ,cibber or ,theobald would have based anything of the sort on a hint from ,the ,dunciad and complacently given the credit to ,pope1 after the way they had both been handled in ,the ,dunciad4 ,there is nothing on the title page to indicate that ,cibber had anything to do with the piece4 ,the ascription of the authorship of ,the ,temple of ,dullness to ,cibber seems to be without foundation1 and the probability is that this piece was composed by a third person soon after ,theobald's death1 which occurred about four months before it was acted4#i ,concerning ,capochio and ,dorinna1 ,the ,biographia ,dramatica has the following note3 8,a piece with this title1 but without a date1 is1 in ,mr4 ,barker's catalogue1 ascribed to ,colley ,cibber4 ,it was probably an abridgment from ,the ,temple of ,dullness40 ,this statement concerning the source of ,capochio and ,dorinna would seem plausible from the supplementary title of ,the ,temple of ,dullness1--,with the ,humours of ,signor ,capochio and ,signora ,dorinna4 ,capochio and ,dorinna is no doubt the two scenes from ,theobald's ,the ,happy ,captive which had been used in ,the ,temple of ,dullness1 as is stated above4 ,cibber's operatic writings belong chiefly to the ,english type of pastoral drama1 rather than to the type of ,italian opera4 ,in fact1 they are not operas either in the ,italian or in the modern sense1 but are rather plays interspersed with songs appropriate to the characters who sing them4 ,they show the common characteristics of the pastoral drama of the time4#aj ,they possess the court element1 have the same plot devices1 and their characters belong to the same general types4 ,it is noticeable that ,cibber here1 as well as in his comedies1 arrays himself with the moralists1 as is seen in his introduction of a moral purpose in ,love in a ,riddle4 ,these pieces are in verse of varying meters4 ,in ,venus and ,adonis and ,myrtillo there is apparent imitation of the versification of ,dryden's ,alexander's ,feast2 in ,love in a ,riddle and ,damon and ,phillida the dialogue is in blank verse1 but in neither case is the verse inspired4 ,his operas are neither intrinsically nor historically important2 they are merely representative of a vogue which was popular but which left no permanent impress on the ,english drama4 #c4 ,,tragedies4 ,cibber's seven tragedies appeared in the following order3 ,xerxes1 #afii2 his adaptation of ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii1 #agjj2 ,perolla and ,izadora1 #agje2 the three translations of ,corneille1 ,ximena1 acted #agab1 but not published until #agai1 ,cinna's ,conspiracy1 #agac1 and ,caesar in ,egypt1 #agbe2 and finally ,papal ,tyranny1 an adaptation of ,shakspere's ,king ,john1 #agde4 ,the best stage play is ,richard ,,iii1 but those that make the most agreeable reading are the alterations of ,corneille4 ,xerxes 7#afii71 which was a failure1 belongs to the type of the tragedies of the last decade of the century1 in which the material of the heroic play is handled in blank verse1 in which there is no comedy1 and in which there is in general a following of ,french models4#aa ,in its presentation of a story of distressed womanhood1 it allies itself with the sentimental tragedy of the school of ,southerne and ,otway4 ,in its use of the supernatural1 in its puerile use of claptrap1 and in the bombast and extravagance of emotion1 it follows the general usage of the tragedies of the time4 ,when it was written ,cibber was one of the company at ,drury ,lane1 but the play was refused there1 and was accepted at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields only when ,cibber guaranteed the expenses of the production4 ,notwithstanding the fact that two such great actors as ,betterton and ,mrs4 ,barry were in the cast1 the play was a failure4#ab ,the common supposition that it was acted only once1 is based on ,addison's inventory of ,rich's theatrical paraphernalia1 in which are mentioned 8the imperial robes of ,xerxes1 never worn but once40#ac ,the play had been acted ten years previously1 and ,addison is speaking of an entirely different playhouse and manager so that this testimony1 if it does apply to this play1 is probably not to be given much weight4 ,while the play may have been withdrawn from the stage after only one performance1 ,addison's evidence does not establish the matter one way or the other4 ,cibber's next venture in tragedy was more successful1 for while his adaptation of ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii has not received critical commendation1 it was for over a century practically the only version presented on the stage and is still used by many actors4 ,when ,cibber's ,richard ,,iii was originally acted at ,drury ,lane in #agjj1 ,charles ,killigrew1 ,master of the ,revels1 forbade the first act1 because the distress of ,henry1 introduced from ,shakspere's ,henry ,,vi1 might bring the exiled ,king ,james to the mind of the people2 so that only four acts could be given4 ,the play was a comparative failure at first1 owing no doubt to the omission of so important and necessary a part of the revision1 so that ,cibber's profits from the third night1 as author1 came to less than five pounds4#ad ,later1 when this act was restored1 the piece became a success4 ,as has been pointed out by ,dohse#ae and ,wood#af1 ,cibber may in making this adaptation have used the chronicles of ,hall and others1 and probably was influenced by ,the ,mirror for ,magistrates and ,caryl's ,english ,princess 7#affg74 ,in his alteration ,cibber has cut down the play to a little more than half its original length1 and of this remainder only a little over a third is found in ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii1 while the rest is from a number of ,shakspere's plays or is made up of original additions by ,cibber4#ag ,the alterations vary from the change of single words1#ah to the addition of scenes entirely by ,cibber4 ,the omissions1 such as ,anne's spitting at ,gloster1 ,i1 ii1 #adf1 are generally happy2 the lines he has substituted are generally easier to understand1 if less aesthetically pleasing1 than those of the original2 and the additions throughout are such as add clearness and theatric effectiveness4 ,richard is made the central figure1 so that the play revolves more closely about him than in ,shakspere4 ,a love story1 more slightly developed than usual in the adaptations of this period1 is introduced at the end of the play in accordance with contemporary usage4 ,the women are made less prominent1 the lyric chorus effect of the various scenes in which these women foretell and bewail is omitted1 and the whole action is made more simple and direct4 ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii is full of this lyric element which ,cibber has excised4 ,with this curtailment of plot comes likewise a less highly presented delineation of character4 ,not only is the number of characters diminished1 but modifications are made in those that remain4 ,richard becomes less the unfeeling hypocrite1 by use of asides his motives and character are made more clear1 and he is influenced more by love2 his victims are not so vividly presented1 and though their weakness of will and character is not less than in the original1 the reader does not feel it so much4 ,cibber's ,richard ,,iii1 like his ,king ,john1 is more play than poem2 in it ,cibber has attempted to make everything subservient to dramatic effectiveness4 ,perolla and ,izadora was acted at ,drury ,lane on ,december #c1 #agje1 and published the next year4 ,lintot had bought the copyright ,november #ad1 #agje1 a few weeks before its presentation1 for thirty-six pounds1 eleven shillings1 next to the largest amount that he paid ,cibber for any of his plays4 ,cibber explains that he omitted ,woman's ,wit from the #agba edition of his plays because it was so inferior a drama1 which was no doubt his reason for omitting ,xerxes2 but why he should not have included ,perolla and ,izadora1 which brought him a good third and sixth day at the theatre1 though it does not appear to have been presented afterwards1 is not clear1 unless1 as is probable1 he included in this edition only such plays as had gained a more or less permanent place on the stage4 ,cibber shows unusual modesty in his dedication of this play1 which he founded on a part of the story of ,perolla and ,izadora from ,the ,romance of ,parthenissa#ai 7#afed7 by ,roger ,boyle1 ,earl of ,orrery4 ,he 8saw so many incidents in the fable1 such natural and noble sentiments in the characters1 and so just a distress in the passions1 that he had little more than the trouble of blank verse to make it fit for the theatre40#bj ,cibber has followed the events in ,parthenissa very closely1 making few changes or additions4 ,however1 he has ,perolla and ,izadora in love before the action begins1 whereas they do not meet in the romance until after ,perolla has saved the life of ,blacius in what makes the end of ,cibber's second act2 and at the close of the play he unites the lovers1 while the story goes on indefinitely in ,parthenissa4 ,the characters display about the same qualities2 ,blacius is made perhaps a trifle more reasonable and ,poluvius a little less so4 ,the play is much better as a play than the original is as a story4 ,the play in general conforms to the ,french classical type2 the unities are observed1 the characters are few and noble1 it is written in blank verse1 and there are no humorous touches4 ,only in the two deaths and the one fight on the stage does the play violate the ,french tradition4 ,in the death of the wicked1 the reward of the virtuous1 and the general nature of the action1 it groups itself with the heroic plays of the preceding century1 but of course it does not conform to that type in versification4 ,cibber was here probably writing under the influence of ,corneille4 ,ximena1 or ,the ,heroic ,daughter1 an alteration of ,corneille's ,cid1 was acted at ,drury ,lane1 ,november #bh1 #agab1 when it had a run of about eight performances2#ba but it was not printed until #agai1 when it appeared in octavo after it had been revived at ,drury ,lane1 ,november #a1 #agah4 ,cibber explains that he thus delayed publishing the play because 8most of his plays had a better reception from the public when his interest was no longer concerned in them40#bb ,the dedication of ,ximena brought a storm of criticism on ,cibber#bc because in it he spoke of ,addison as a wren being carried by ,steele as an eagle1 which figure he later applied1 in his odes1 to himself and the king4 ,he had the judgment to omit this dedication from the collected edition of his plays4 ,as in the case of ,richard ,,iii1 he added a first act to the ,cid in order that the audience might understand the situation of the various characters at the outset2 a most important and necessary thing if the audience is not familiar with the story and the situation beforehand4 ,in his alterations of ,shakspere he followed the ,english method and presented this information to his audience by action2 in his alteration of ,corneille he followed the ,french method by having his characters tell each other about it for the benefit of the audience4 ,cibber has discussed at length the changes he has made in the ,cid1 and his reasons for them1 in the prefatory 8examen40 ,the main reason seems to have been his desire to make the play less 8romantic0 and the action more probable and reasonable from the point of view of the eighteenth century ,englishman1 whose ideals of honor and whose general characteristics were very different from those of the seventeenth century ,frenchman4 ,indeed1 ,cibber explains in relation to one of these changes3 8,here they seem too declamatory and romantic1 which ,i have endeavored to avoid1 by giving a more spirited tone to the passions1 and reducing them nearer to common life40 ,ximena1 because of its source1 would naturally have the general characteristics of ,french tragedy1 in which almost everything happens off the stage1 and in which the characters appear before the audience only to tell it what they think or what has been done4 ,it violates the ,french canons by having a sub-action1 though this sub-action is not sufficiently important to distract the attention materially from the main action1 and is bound very closely to it4 ,the blow which ,don ,gormaz gives ,alvarez constitutes the nearest approach to violent action2 but this blow1 however1 appears in the original play4 ,besides the anonymity of ,cinna's ,conspiracy1 the closeness with which it follows ,corneille's ,cinna and the difference in its tone from the rest of ,cibber's work have led to doubt as to his authorship4#bd ,to see that ,cibber was not always sprightly and inconsequential1 however1 as he is usually supposed to be1 one has but to read his ,cicero and his poems4 ,the play was presented less than three months after ,ximena1 and to bring out another ,french tragedy translated by the same hand in so short a time might have subjected ,cibber to the charge of hasty work4 ,though ,ximena apparently had a run of eight nights1 it did not receive critical approbation1 and ,cinna's ,conspiracy1 if known to be by ,cibber1 was likely to bring further critical disapproval1 so that ,cibber may have thought it would have better chance of success if his authorship were not known4 ,cibber was ambitious to be thought wise and serious1 as his prefaces and ,cicero show1 and the lack of success of the play together with its nearness to ,ximena in time of presentation would sufficiently explain his failure to claim the authorship4 ,but there is external proof which would seem to be convincing in support of his authorship4 ,defoe1 according to the ,biographia ,dramatica1#be in a pamphlet written about #agac ascribed the play to ,cibber2 and ,nichols1 in ,literary ,anecdotes of the ,eighteenth ,century1#bf gives an extract from a memorandum book of ,lintot1 entitled ,copies when purchased1 according to which ,cibber1 on ,march #af1 #agab 7,o4,s471 was paid thirteen pounds for ,cinna's ,conspiracy4 ,the play was first acted at ,drury ,lane1 ,february #ai1 #agac1 about a month before the purchase by ,lintot4 ,the fact that ,cibber was paid for the play so short a time after its presentation would seem to be sufficient proof that it is by ,cibber1 even though he apparently made no public claim to its authorship4 ,in the alteration of ,corneille's ,cinna1 ,cibber has made remarkably few changes4 ,there is only one of any moment1 the account of the meeting of the conspirators in the second scene of the first act4 ,corneille has had ,cinna give an account of this meeting to ,emilie1 while ,cibber presents the meeting itself4 ,this involves the omission of some narration and the creation of some new characters who have a few short speeches4 ,cibber throughout his adaptation seeks to gain vividness and clearness1 and his handling of this incident is probably the best example of his method in this respect4 ,the other changes consist merely in the omission and shortening of speeches4 ,on the whole ,cinna's ,conspiracy is almost a literal translation1 though a little free here and there4 ,the testimony of the critics concerning the source of ,caesar in ,egypt1 acted at ,drury ,lane1#bg ,december #i1 #agbd1 published in #agbe1 is somewhat confusing4 ,the ,biographia ,dramatica finds its source in ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,the ,false ,one2 ,genest#bh says3 8,the plan of this tragedy is chiefly borrowed from ,the ,false ,one--that part of it which concerns ,cornelia is said to be taken from ,corneille's ,pompe40 ,stoye1#bi while apparently oblivious of ,corneille's play1 mentions ,lucan's ,pharsalia in addition to ,the ,false ,one2 and ,miss ,canfield says3#cj 8,taking ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,false ,one1 ,corneille's ,pompe1 and one or two ideas of his own1 he stirred them all together with such vigor1 and so disguised them with his wonderful versification1 that it is an almost impossible task to distinguish the different elements in the dish4444 ,the general plan and construction of the play are undoubtedly ,corneille's1 many of the best speeches are literally translated1 especially some of the famous ones between ,cornelia and ,caesar2 and the description of ,pompey's death is taken verbatim from the ,french40 ,this last statement of ,miss ,canfield's comes nearest to the truth1 but it leaves out of account the slight indebtedness to ,lucan4#ca ,an examination of these three plays shows1 in fact1 how little ,cibber used ,the ,false ,one in the construction of ,caesar in ,egypt4 ,he was no doubt familiar with the ,beaumont and ,fletcher play and used some things from it1 though very little in comparison with what he has used from ,pompe4 ,he used it for hints in some particulars#cb just as he did the ,pharsalia1 from which he apparently took the idea of having one scene occur before the tomb of ,alexander1 and from which he obtained the burning of ,pharos4 ,one incident1 the display of ,pompey's head1 well illustrates the change that had come since the days of ,beaumont and ,fletcher4 ,in ,the ,false ,one1 the head was actually brought on the stage2 but in neither ,cibber nor ,corneille was the head actually displayed4 ,the actual appearance of the head would probably have been almost as distasteful to ,cibber's audience as to ,corneille's4 ,his method of adaptation here is more like that in his alteration of ,shakspere than his method in ,ximena or ,cinna's ,conspiracy4 ,he has crowded the incidents1 has expanded the action and increased its liveliness1 has enhanced the value of the piece as a stage play1 without1 however1 improving its literary quality4 ,he has a good deal happen in one day1 but manages to satisfy the technical demands of the unity of time4 ,he increases the probability by the alteration of certain passages4 ,for instance1 whereas both the ,pharsalia1 as completed by ,rowe1#cc and ,the ,false ,one1 from one of which he took the incident1 have ,caesar swimming from the island of ,pharos with drawn sword in one hand and documents in the other1 ,cibber has him swim with only the documents4 ,while this play is essentially an adaptation of ,corneille1 the general atmosphere and effect are not those of ,french tragedy1 but are rather those of the minor ,elizabethan tragicomedy4 ,its beginning and end have a historical rather than a dramatic interest1 so that the play produces the effect of a love story with an impersonal enveloping action1 which is again more ,english than ,french4 ,papal ,tyranny was acted at ,covent ,garden1 ,february #ae1 #agde1 when it had a run of ten nights1 and was published in the same year4 ,shakspere's ,king ,john1 which had been played in #agcg and #agch1 after ,cibber's alteration had been talked of and withdrawn1 was again revived on ,february #bj1 #agde1cd with ,garrick as ,king ,john and ,mrs4 ,theophilus ,cibber1 then at the height of her popularity1 as ,constance4 ,this was no doubt done both to profit by the publicity ,cibber's work had brought about1 and to take as much credit as possible from ,cibber1 by showing the lack of originality in his work4#ce ,according to ,victor1#cf ,cibber's profits from ,papal ,tyranny amounted to four hundred pounds1 which probably includes what he received from acting ,pandulph as well as his author's profits4 ,the play had been written some years before it was finally acted1 the parts had been distributed1 and everything was practically ready for the presentation in public during the season #agcf-g4 ,but so much criticism was leveled at ,cibber for daring again to alter ,shakspere that one day he quietly walked into the theatre1 removed the copy of the play from the prompter's desk1 and went away with it without a word to any one4#cg ,it was finally presented1 as already stated1 in #agde1 when there was a threatened invasion by the ,young ,pretender1 which made the political and anti-,catholic elements of the play timely4 ,cibber says in the dedication that he had two reasons for altering the play3 antagonism to ,catholicism1 and a desire to adjust the play to contemporary stage requirements--8to make it more like a play than he found it in ,shakspere40 ,his additions to the anti-,catholic elements of the play are inconsistent with the rest of the action1 and the changes in structure have increased rather than diminished the epic quality4 ,he has1 without being conscious that he was doing so1 gone back of ,shakspere's time in introducing the anti-popish element2 a quality of ,shakspere's source which ,shakspere had omitted1 but which ,cibber reintroduced to the detriment of his play as drama4 ,the entire first act of ,shakspere's play is omitted1 besides which there are other shorter omissions4 ,the point of view1 too1 is very different2 for in ,cibber's play ,pandulph is the central figure1 instead of ,king ,john1 as is indicated by the change of title from ,the ,life and ,death of ,king ,john to ,papal ,tyranny in the ,reign of ,king ,john4 ,various short scenes entirely by ,cibber are introduced1 the most noticeable being one in the last act in which ,constance attends the funeral of ,arthur at ,swinestead1 where ,king ,john has been brought to die4 ,the characters are more changed than the plot2 all those which appear only in the first act are omitted1 besides such characters as ,peter of ,pomfret1 ,elinor1 ,austria1 and ,chatillon4 ,the part of the bastard ,faulconbridge is very much cut down and softened1 for as ,shakspere conceived him he was too 8low0 and comic for a dignified tragedy according to the views of the eighteenth century4 ,the rle of ,constance is much enlarged as well as that of ,pandulph4 ,cibber's tragedies are imitative2 he showed no creative ability in this field4 ,that his ,richard ,,iii has held the stage until the present is an indication that it is at least a good stage play4 ,the other tragedies1 except ,xerxes and ,papal ,tyranny1 do not possess any very positive virtues or defects2 they are of average merit as compared with the work done by ,cibber's contemporaries4 ,they are alterations of ,shakspere or ,corneille1 except ,xerxes and ,perolla and ,izadora4 ,in his alterations of the ,french he has anglicized some of the ideas1 has had a tendency to present rather than relate incidents1 and generally has tried to make the productions conform to ,english ideas4 ,turning them into ,english has not made them romantic or altered in any essential degree their neo-classical quality4 ,his alterations of ,shakspere have not changed the essential qualities2 they are still characteristically ,english1 and display the characteristics of the originals4 ,he has not altered ,shakspere because ,shakspere is too 8,gothic10 or too romantic and extravagant1 for ,cibber complains that ,king ,john is too restrained4 ,in relation to these alterations of ,shakspere one naturally thinks of the flood of plays about this time which had ,shakspere as a basis4#ch ,cibber does not1 in ,richard ,,iii at least1 follow the example of ,tate and his kind1 but adheres more closely than they to the originals4 ,it is for this reason1 principally1 that ,cibber's ,richard ,,iii was successful4 ,in this he has not attempted to follow contemporary practice in adhering to the unities1 in the observance of poetic justice1 in the making of the hero virtuous1 or in adding the element of show and pageantry4 ,his addition of a scene of violence#ci is for the purpose of helping the spectator to understand the play4 ,even his borrowing of lines from other plays by ,shakspere has saved him partially from the incongruous or weak mixture of two styles which mars the work of other adapters4 ,he has told the same story as ,shakspere1 and has not done violence to his original either in character1 plot1 or1 for the most part1 in language4 ,his adaptation of ,king ,john is handled differently4 ,this play1 even more than ,shakspere's ,king ,john1 is unfitted for the modern stage2 its plot is not dramatic1 and its persons are not modern in their qualities4 ,such a play must depend for its appeal on its poetic qualities1 and ,cibber was personally incapable of altering the play and retaining its poetic qualities4 ,although ,cibber is not unaffected by the sentimental type of tragedy1 as ,xerxes and ,perolla and ,izadora show1 he does not seem influenced by it to any great extent4 ,this is remarkable in one who was in the very forefront of the movement toward sentimental comedy2 though it is to be remarked that the two tragedies which do show traces of this sentimental note are the only two which are not based on previous plays4 ,as ,thorndike#dj has pointed out1 during this period two influences are at work--the influence of the ,elizabethan romantic drama1 and the influence of the ,french classical drama2 and ,cibber rather fairly represents both of these4 ,xerxes shows some ,french influence in the construction1 though it is probably more ,elizabethan in the handling of the material2 but ,perolla and ,izadora and the three plays from ,corneille conform to ,french usage almost entirely in material as well as in method4 ,the restraint in ,richard ,,iii--for notwithstanding ,hazlitt1 this play is not as brutal as ,shakspere's--is due to the change brought about through the imitation of ,french tragedy4 ,in accordance with contemporary usage1 all these tragedies are in blank verse2 but the verse is of no great merit4 ,cibber's verse for the most part is not musical nor subtle1 but it has few mannerisms4 ,he sometimes uses alliteration1 but not to an objectionable or excessive degree1 and although his style has been called alliterative1 his use of this device in his verse is so infrequent as to make the term a misnomer4 ,cibber conforms to the custom of the time in respect to rime4 ,occasionally he introduces a couplet in the midst of a scene1 but this is seldom and for no apparent reason4 ,the exits1 except those of minor importance1 are marked by rime4 ,this device1 descended from the ,elizabethan drama1 where it was probably used to mark more strongly the ends of scenes because of the lack of a curtain which concealed the whole stage1 is continued during and after the ,restoration period without any valid reason and becomes for the most part a mere convention1 which is not confined to tragedy but appears in comedy and even in farce4 ,cibber shows a tendency to increase the number of couplets with the increased importance of the exits1#da and in ,ximena and ,caesar in ,egypt we find several scenes closing with as many as three4 ,it has perhaps been made sufficiently evident that ,cibber was not a great writer of tragedy4 ,he lacked any deep philosophy of life1 tragic consciousness1 and deep poetic feeling4 ,he was not without power of thought1 but his thought concerned itself with the obvious and the external1 and had an element of friskiness1 so that when he turned to tragedy his work became labored and even commonplace4 ,nor does he show originality in his themes4 ,the story of ,xerxes is apparently derived from history1#db and aside from ,perolla and ,izadora1 whose story is taken from a romance1 is the only one of his tragedies which is not based on the work of greater men than himself4 ,although ,richard ,,iii is a better stage play than its source1 the other adaptations are inferior to the originals both as acting versions and as pure literature4 #d4 ,,comedies4 ,love's ,last ,shift1 ,cibber's first play1 was acted at ,drury ,lane in ,january1 #afif1 and was published the same year1 when he was a little more than twenty-four years old4 ,the comedy was accepted by the managers through the good offices of ,southerne1 for ,cibber's standing with the patentees was such that they were not disposed to recognize ability in him4 ,so little had been expected of the piece1 and so great was its success1 that ,cibber was immediately charged with plagiarism1#dc a charge which he entirely denies in the dedication4 ,he claims that 8the fable is entirely his own1 nor is there a line or thought throughout the whole1 for which he is wittingly obliged either to the dead or the living40 ,there are1 however1 some striking similarities in the situations and the characters in the sub-action of ,love's ,last ,shift and ,carlile's ,fortune ,hunters 7#afhi74 ,carlile's ,elder ,wealthy and ,young ,wealthy are closely paralleled by ,elder ,worthy and ,young ,worthy1 as are likewise the young women with whom they are in love1 and ,carlile's ,shamtown belongs to the same family as ,sir ,novelty ,fashion1 though he is much more crudely portrayed4 ,so too1 the jealousy of ,elder ,worthy in regard to ,hillaria and ,sir ,novelty is very much like that of ,elder ,wealthy in regard to ,sophia and ,shamtown4 ,so great is the similarity that1 notwithstanding his denial1 one must believe that ,cibber deliberately used the situation and characters as a basis for his own1 though he did not copy the language1 and has made an entirely new and original thing out of his source4 ,so great was the failure of his second play that ,cibber refuses to mention it in his ,apology and omitted it from the collected edition of his plays in #agba4 ,woman's ,wit1 or ,the ,lady in ,fashion was acted at ,drury ,lane in #afig1 but met with a most unfavorable reception1 though in management of the plot it is not inferior to a great many plays whose success was much greater4 ,carlile's ,fortune ,hunters 7#afhi7 and ,mountford's ,greenwich ,park 7#afia7 have been suggested as the sources of that part of the plot in which ,young ,rakish and ,major ,rakish appear1 but this is only partially true4 ,in ,the ,fortune ,hunters the father and son are rivals for a young woman1 in ,woman's ,wit she is an elderly widow2 in both1 the son has obtained five hundred pounds from the father4 ,but notwithstanding the fact that these situations are superficially similar the characters and the details of the action are so different that it does not seem possible that there can be any connection between the two plays4 ,there does seem to be a more valid reason for affirming the influence of ,greenwich ,park in the play4 ,the likeness of ,sir ,thomas ,reveller and ,young ,reveller to ,old ,rakish and ,young ,rakish is so great that ,cibber must have had them in mind1 but the differences both of character and action are such that it seems probable that he was attempting to portray two characters of the same type rather than trying to copy them4 ,in ,greenwich ,park there is not even a superficial similarity of situation to ,woman's ,wit4#dd ,the sub-action of ,woman's ,wit was separated and acted successfully at ,drury ,lane in #agjg as ,the ,school ,boy4 ,love ,makes a ,man was acted at ,drury ,lane in #agja1 and was published the same year4 ,it continued to be played until #ahbh4 ,it is made from ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,the ,elder ,brother and ,the ,custom of the ,country1 and is an attempt on the part of ,cibber merely to provide amusement4 ,ost#de points out that this play1 though it has no original literary worth1 helped continue the literary tradition1 and notices it in connection with the healthful influence of ,cibber's work in the moralizing tendency of the drama4 ,he adds that ,cibber's plays have more value in relation to 8kulturgeschichte0 than in aesthetic interest4 ,that is entirely true so far as this play is concerned2 various parts have a purely contemporary interest1 or are an indication to us of the state of dramatic taste1 and the aesthetic value is certainly often inconsiderable4 ,when ,cibber introduces such references as 8hatchet face0 of ,clodio1 a term which had been applied to ,cibber himself1 who played the part1 and more particularly in the farcical discussion of the two playhouses in the fourth act1 he is not even attempting to write anything but horseplay4 ,by the omission and transposition of scenes1 and the introduction of some lines of his own1 mainly for the purpose of gaining probability1 as ,ost has pointed out1 ,cibber has condensed ,the ,elder ,brother so that it forms practically the first two acts1 and ,the ,custom of the ,country so that it forms the last three4 ,in the main1 the plays1 so much of them as is used1 are followed with very few changes1 and the whole makes a sprightly and amusing1 if not particularly literary comedy4 ,the change of place and the introduction of an entirely new set of characters with fresh plot developments are dramatically faulty2 but for the purpose for which the play was written these faults are not particularly great4 ,to join the plots of two separate plays end on end without breaking the continuity of the story1 and to adjust the characters so that there is no glaring inconsistency1 is surely no slight feat4 ,in the characterization ,cibber has made some changes4 ,these changes appear particularly in ,eustace1 who becomes ,clodio1 ,miramont1 who becomes ,don ,lewis1 and ,elvira1 who is the sister instead of the mother of ,don ,duart4 ,it is difficult to understand how this play could have been other than a theatrical success with ,bullock to interpret the farcical obstinacy of ,antonio1 ,penkethman to portray the humorously choleric ,don ,lewis1 and ,cibber as the 8pert coxcomb10 ,clodio4 ,but it is farce rather than pure comedy4 ,cibber has changed these plays from verse to prose1 except in the first scene between ,carlos and ,angelina1 in which the romantic seriousness of the situation leads him to write blank verse1 which is however printed as prose4 ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not1 considered by ,genest as 8perhaps his best play10 was acted at ,drury ,lane1 ,november #bf1 #agjb1 and continued to be acted frequently as late as #ahbe4df ,the striking similarity of the two plays has caused the suggestion that ,cibber's play is based on ,leanerd's ,the ,counterfeits 7#afgh74 ,the similarity indicates a common source1 rather than that ,cibber drew from ,the ,counterfeits4 ,the source of ,cibber's play was no doubt ,the ,trepanner ,trepanned1 which is the third story of ,john ,davies's ,la ,picara1 or ,the ,triumphs of ,female ,subtilty1 published in ,london in #affe4dg ,this play is amusing1 is well constructed1 and while it is not of serious import1 is such as might be presented today with success4 ,cibber commenced to write ,the ,careless ,husband in the summer of #agjc1 but laid it aside because he despaired of finding any one to take the part of ,lady ,betty ,modish4 ,in #agjd he again took up the writing of the play1 and in that year it was acted at ,drury ,lane on ,december #g2 and it was published in #agje4 ,it was one of the best and most successful plays of the period4#dh ,it was charged that ,cibber received direct assistance in writing the play1 but he denied the charge1 and as no proof was offered1 ,cibber is no doubt to be believed4 ,it seems to have no literary source2 but one incident1 that in which the wife finds the husband and her maid asleep in easy chairs1 is said to have been suggested to ,cibber by ,mrs4 ,brett1 the reputed mother of the poet ,savage1 from her own experience4#di ,this is ,cibber's best play of the sentimental type4 ,its plot is consistent1 has dramatic probability1 and is serious enough in interest to have real reason for being4 ,the characters are well conceived and well portrayed4 ,in style1 too1 ,cibber is here at his best and the dialogue approaches the finest of the period4 ,the ,haymarket opened the season #agjf-g under ,swiney1 and in order to encourage the new venture1 ,lord ,halifax headed a subscription for the revival of three plays3 ,shakspere's ,julius ,caesar1 ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,king and ,no ,king1 and the comic scenes of ,dryden's ,marriage la ,mode and ,a ,maiden ,queen4 ,the last took the form of an adaptation called ,the ,comical ,lovers1 the adaptation being the work of ,cibber4 ,it was acted ,february #d1 #agjg1 and was published the same year4 ,the alteration was the result of only six days' labor1#ej and ,cibber claims no originality in it4 ,it met with slight success4 ,the ,comical ,lovers is another such adaptation as ,love ,makes a ,man4 ,cibber has merely taken the two comic threads from their serious settings and interwoven them1 first a scene from one and then a scene from the other1 with only the changes necessary to join them1 and has followed his sources almost word for word4 ,cibber was not under the necessity of changing verse into prose1 as he had done in ,love ,makes a ,man1 for the comic sections of ,dryden are in prose1 according to the changed convention of his time2 and in the scene between ,melantha and her maid1 ,cibber has not even taken the trouble to alter a single one of the ,french words1 many of which must have acquired a place in the language and been in good use by ,cibber's time4 ,so far as ,cibber's part is concerned1 this is the least important of his plays4 ,the ,double ,gallant was acted at the ,haymarket1 ,november #a1 #agjg1 but was apparently not successful at its first performance4 ,the ,biographia ,dramatica#ea says3 8,in a letter from ,booth to ,a4 ,hill we learn that the play1 at its first appearance was1 as he expressed it1 hounded in a most outrageous manner4 ,two years after1 it was revived1 met with most extravagant success1 and has continued a stock play ever since40 ,cibber says nothing about any hounding of the play1 but ascribes the failure of the piece to the fact that the ,haymarket was too big for plays2 a fact that he thinks caused the lack of success of other plays as well as his own4 ,in regard to the authorship1 ,cibber says3#eb 8,it was made up of what was tolerable1 in two1 or three others1 that had no ,success1 and were laid aside1 as so much ,poetical ,lumber2 but by collecting and adapting the best ,parts of them all1 into one ,play1 the ,double ,gallant has had a ,place1 every ,winter1 amongst the ,publick ,entertainments1 these ,thirty ,years4 ,as ,i was only the ,compiler of this ,piece1 ,i did not publish it in my own ,name40 ,the title would lead one to suppose that it is taken directly from ,corneille's ,le ,galant ,double1 but it is a weaving together of ,mrs4 ,centlivre's ,love at a ,venture1 which is an adaptation of ,corneille1 ,burnaby's ,ladies ,visiting ,day1 and the ,lady ,dainty action from ,burnaby's ,reformed ,wife4 ,in consolidating such parts of these three plays as are used1 the crudities of the first two are polished off1 and certain additions are made to the last4 ,these additions consist in sections of the dialogue1 in the changing of ,lady ,dainty's lover into a more impetuous wooer1 and in the addition of the lover's disguise as a ,russian1 by which subterfuge he wins her4 ,the introductory scene1 taken from ,love at a ,venture1 is much more lively and entertaining in ,cibber's play than in the original1 and ,cibber likewise handles more adroitly the subterfuge of the hero's arrest1 taken from the same play1 using the same device of decoy letters that he uses in ,woman's ,wit4 ,in the working over of ,burnaby's adaptation of the ,horner episode1 which he had taken from ,wycherley's ,country ,wife1 ,cibber has entirely eliminated the unpleasant features4 ,this play is the same sort of an adaptation as his working over of other earlier plays4 ,he has taken such scenes as he wished1 changed the names of the characters1 and introduced sufficient lines of his own to give continuity and connection to the various actions1 but has made no material additions whatever4 ,in this case he has made an extremely diverting play1 very superior to his originals4 ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake1 which seems to be entirely original1 was produced at the ,haymarket1 ,december #ac1 #agjg1 when it was acted five times2 and it was published probably early in the next year4 ,it continued on the ,london stage until #aghf1 and was last performed at ,bath1 in #ahac4 ,it is only a fair comedy1 lacking the qualities of style1 the originality in the conception of the characters1 and the skilful working out of the plot that had characterized ,cibber's two earlier plays of the sentimental type4 ,but in whatever way the plot as a whole may be lacking1 the last act has plenty of liveliness2 there complication follows complication and humorous incidents follow serious with great rapidity4 ,the ,rival ,fools1 published in quarto in #agji and played at ,drury ,lane1 ,january #aa1 #agji1 is an alteration of ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,wit at ,several ,weapons1 and was not successful4 ,at its first presentation it was acted five times1 and was revived only once1 in #agab1 when it was acted twice4 ,the ,biographia ,dramatica#ec relates the following incident of the first performance1 the events of which may be compared with the reception accorded ,thomson's ,sophonisba3 8,it met1 however1 with bad success4 ,there happened to be a circumstance in it1 which1 being in itself rather ridiculous1 gave a part of the audience an opportunity of venting their spleen on the author2 viz3 a man in one of the earlier scenes on the stage1 with a long angling rod in his hand1 going to fish for ,miller's ,thumbs2 on which account some of the spectators took occasion whenever ,mr4 ,cibber appeared1 who himself played the character1 to cry out continually1 #8,miller's ,thumbs4'0 ,cibber has followed the original quite closely so far as the plot is concerned1 much more closely than would be inferred from the first lines of the prologue3 8,from sprightly ,fletcher's loose confed'rat muse1 ,th' unfinish'd ,hints of these light ,scenes we chuse1 ,for with such careless haste his ,play was writ1 ,so unpersued each thought of started ,wit2 ,each ,weapon of his ,wit so lamely fought ,that 'twou'd as scanty on our ,stage be thought1 ,as for a modern ,belle my ,grannum's ,petticoat4 ,so that from th' old we may with ,justice say1 ,we scarce could cull the ,trimming of a play40 ,in spite of this statement by ,cibber himself1 he adds practically nothing to the plot1 and in the dialogue adds merely a touch here and there4 ,as was customary in altering these old comedies written in verse1 the verse of the original is changed into prose1 and as is also customary in all of ,cibber's alterations1 the long speeches are broken into dialogue4 ,the character of ,pompey ,doodle is somewhat enlarged in its transformation into ,samuel ,simple1 and is one of the most amusing elements in the play4 ,the treatment is distinctly ,jacobean in its exaggeration of character1 and the reception by the audience must be attributed either to the alteration of taste on the part of the public1 or to the personal unpopularity of ,cibber1 for the rle is well written and ,cibber was particularly well fitted to act the part1 both by temperament and by physical qualities4 ,the ,non-,juror was acted at ,drury ,lane on ,december #f1 #agag1 with a prologue by ,nicholas ,rowe1 poet laureate1 and was published in #agah4 ,at the time of its first presentation it had the comparatively long run of twenty-three performances1 and was revived at ,drury ,lane and ,covent ,garden in #agde1 when its political meaning was again pertinent4 ,the play came at a time of great political stress1 so that it was but natural that its strong ,whig and anti-,catholic sentiments should arouse the greatest antagonism4#ed ,this antagonism was not only voiced in the many pamphlets issued at the time1 but no doubt affected the general attitude toward ,cibber in his later life4 ,cibber1 in his first letter to ,pope1 states that one of his enemies went so far as to write a pamphlet whose purport was that ,the ,non-,juror constituted a subtle ,jacobite libel against the government4 ,he dedicated the play to the king when it was published1 and for this he received a gift of two hundred pounds4 ,cibber was not burdened in mind because he had offended the losing party1 and any inconvenience he may have felt was amply repaid by the pension and laureateship which later came as his reward4 ,the ,non-,juror is based directly on ,molire's ,tartuffe1 though two plays on the same theme had previously appeared in ,english3 ,crowne's ,english ,friar 7#afhi71 and ,medbourne's ,tartuffe 7#afgj71 the latter a direct adaptation of ,molire's play4 ,this ,tartuffe was revived during the summer season of #agah at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 and was published while ,cibber's play was still running1 with an advertisement that in it 8may be seen the plot1 characters1 and most part of the language of ,the ,non-,juror40 ,this statement is true only in that the two plays by ,medbourne and ,cibber are based on ,molire1 and was made to discredit ,cibber's claim to originality in the adaptation4 ,cibber was no doubt familiar with ,medbourne's play1 but he used ,molire as a basis1 and owed practically nothing to any play other than the ,tartuffe of ,molire4 ,cibber may have derived the suggestion of the reformation of ,charles from the corresponding character in ,medbourne's play1 but his manner of carrying out this reformation and the difference in the qualities of the characters in the two plays make this part an original creation4 ,in the edition of ,crowne in the series of ,the ,dramatists of the ,restoration1 the editors maintain ,cibber's greater indebtedness to ,crowne than to ,molire1 in a way that makes one doubt whether they had ever read either ,molire or ,cibber4 ,so far as plot is concerned there is absolutely no resemblance1 except that in both a priest attempts to seduce a decent woman4 ,the characters1 style1 and management are both different and inferior in ,crowne1 although some slight similarity may be discovered in the attempt of ,finical and ,dr4 ,wolf to allay the consciences of the respective objects of their attentions4 ,as suggested by ,van ,laun1 ,father ,finical1 like ,dr4 ,wolf1 is based on ,tartuffe4 ,cibber has handled his sources very freely1 and in some particulars has improved both the plot and the characters4 ,that is not to say that ,the ,non-,juror is a greater play than ,molire's ,tartuffe1 for as a whole it is not4 ,the parts of ,dorine1 who in ,tartuffe is the life and source of the humor1 of ,clante1 and of ,madame ,pernelle1 are omitted1 but the part of ,mariane is enlivened into one of the best coquettes of the stage4 ,the other characters and incidents correspond in ,the ,non-,juror and ,molire's ,tartuffe1 though the dnouement is more artistically handled in ,cibber4 ,the ,refusal1 an adaptation of ,molire's ,les ,femmes ,savantes1 published in #agba1 was acted at ,drury ,lane1 ,february #ad1 #agba1 and had a run of six performances4 ,molire's play had been adapted by ,wright as ,the ,female ,virtuosoes in #afic1 and this play was revived at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields on ,january #aj1 #agba1 to anticipate ,the ,refusal4 ,in like manner with the effort to discredit ,cibber's hand in ,the ,non-,juror1 though in this case after the run of ,cibber's play was over1 ,curll published1 with a dedication to ,cibber1 8the second edition of ,no ,fools ,like ,wits1#ee as it was acted at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields or ,the ,refusal1 as it was acted at ,drury ,lane40 ,in his adaptation ,cibber has made more changes than is usual with him1 both in plot and in character2 and in the dialogue he has anglicized the idiom to an extent not found in his adaptations of tragedies from the ,french4 ,molire's comedy is a satire on false learning in men as well as in women1 while ,cibber has added some satire on business trickery1 in the same way that he added political satire in his adaptation of ,tartuffe4 ,cibber has supplied the elder daughter with a successful suitor1 and the dnouement is brought about by different1 more complicated1 and more characteristically ,english means4 ,in the incident in ,molire's play in which ,blise takes the love of ,clitandre to herself1 ,cibber substitutes the mother for ,blise1 omits the maid1 along with her impertinences1 and adds some slight original incidents4 ,trissotin1 the poet1 becomes one of the typical would-be wits of ,english comedy1 and ,chrysale is changed to a typical promoter4 ,in ,molire1 ,chrysale is a purely humorous character1 whose vacillation and lack of force were no doubt very laughable on the stage2 ,sir ,gilbert1 his equivalent in ,cibber's play1 on the other hand1 is in no way a weakling and is in no way admirable or a source of laughter1 but embodies a satire on contemporary business practices4 ,the directness and simplicity of ,molire's play1 the unity of tone and plot1 give way in ,cibber to complication of plot and character1 in which the whole piece loses the delightful quality of the humor of the original4 ,the ,provoked ,husband was presented at ,drury ,lane1 ,january #aj1 #agbh1 and had a run of twenty-eight nights4 ,there was an unsuccessful attempt on the part of ,cibber's enemies to damn the play on the first night2 the interruptions were so great that during the fourth act the actors were compelled to stand still until it was quiet enough for them to be heard4 ,on ,january #ca1 ,cibber published ,vanbrugh's unfinished play and his own completion of it4 ,the critics1 who had condemned the play unmercifully1 especially the supposed additions of ,cibber1 found1 when the plays were published1 that it was not ,cibber but ,vanbrugh they had been condemning4 ,according to ,cibber1#ef on the twenty-eighth night the play took in one hundred and forty pounds1 a greater amount than had been taken in at the last night of any play for fifty years4 ,vanbrugh's ,journey to ,london consists of four acts1 the first two practically complete1 but the last two apparently unfinished4 ,cibber has used practically all that ,vanbrugh left1 omitting the trip to the theatre in the last part of ,act ,,ii1 and adding much of his own to the whole play4 ,he has interspersed his additions between the parts of ,vanbrugh's play1 and has changed very little of the ,vanbrugh part1 except to 8water it down0 where it had been too strong for the changed taste of the theatre goers4 ,cibber's additions to ,steele's ,conscious ,lovers are mentioned on a later page of these ,studies4 ,several of ,cibber's comedies were translated into foreign tongues3 in ,german ,the ,double ,gallant appeared as ,der doppellte ,liebhaber1 translated by ,johann ,friedrich ,jnger and published in ,leipzig in #aghf1 ,the ,careless ,husband as ,der sorglose ,ehemann1 published in ,gttingen in #agej1 and ,the ,provoked ,husband as ,der erzrnte ,ehemann und der ,landjunker1 published in ,frankfurt in #agec2 in ,french ,the ,provoked ,husband appeared as ,le ,mari pouss bout1 ou le voyage ,londres1 published in ,london1 #agfa4 ,the adaptations1 except ,the ,non-,juror and ,the ,refusal1 seem to have been produced merely to furnish amusement which should be in accordance with changed stage conditions and changed taste4 ,they show little originality1 being merely the stringing together of scenes without alteration1 though ,cibber in the prologue to ,the ,double ,gallant says3 8,nay1 even alter'd ,plays1 like old houses mended1 ,cost little less than new1 before they're ended2 ,at least1 our author finds the experience true40 ,his method seems to have been to take two plays of an older author1 often plays which contained both a serious and a comic action1 to select such scenes as suited his purpose1 and to join them into a play1 either alternating the scenes of the separate plays with link characters1 or putting the two plays end on end1 as in the case of ,love ,makes a ,man4 ,this latter method entailed much greater labor1 as many of the characters were made by consolidating two characters from different plays4 ,cibber's comedies1 which constitute his best and most important work1 may be divided into two general classes3 comedies of manners and intrigue1 and sentimental comedies4 ,the first class includes two adaptations from ,beaumont and ,fletcher which are not strictly comedies of manners but are more closely allied to the 8comedy of humours10 namely1 ,love ,makes a ,man and ,the ,rival ,fools2 one adaptation made out of two plays by ,dryden1 ,the ,comical ,lovers2 two from ,molire1 ,the ,non-,juror and ,the ,refusal1 into both of which he introduced contemporary social and political interest2 and three other plays1 ,woman's ,wit1 ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not1 and ,the ,double ,gallant1 the last of which takes its title1 if not its plot1 from ,corneille's ,le ,galant ,double4 ,the sentimental comedies1 in which form ,cibber was one of the very first to write1 are ,love's ,last ,shift1 ,the ,careless ,husband1 ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake1 and ,the ,provoked ,husband1 the last being a completion of ,vanbrugh's ,journey to ,london4 ,the first class consists almost altogether of adaptations2 the second class is essentially original4 ,,ii ,,cibber ,,and ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,sentimental ,,comedy #a4 ,,cibber1 ,,not ,,steele1 ,,the ,,important ,,figure ,,in ,,its ,,early ,,development4 ,the fully developed form of sentimental comedy may be said to begin with ,steele's ,conscious ,lovers 7#aggb7 and to end with the attack upon it made by ,goldsmith1 ,foote1 and their followers4 ,goldsmith was 8strongly prepossessed in favour of the poets of the last age and strove to imitate them10#eg and by his reintroduction of humor into comedy he exerted a strong influence toward the downfall of the sentimental type4 ,the end of this vogue is generally well understood1 but the beginning of it has not been investigated with the same thoroughness4 ,steele is generally given the credit of being the innovator who reformed the stage1#eh although ,ward and others give some credit to the work of ,cibber4 ,the importance of ,cibber in the development of this form and in the moral reformation of comedy1 the effect of social conditions1 and the gradual change from the ,restoration type1 have not been fully studied4 ,colley ,cibber was the most important writer of comedy in preparing the way for the new form1 and practically every element of the later sentimental comedy is found in his work4 ,but ,cibber was not a reformer calling on his age to repent2 he was rather answering a general demand of his time4 ,three stages may be discerned in the development of sentimental comedy3 first1 that in which the morals of comedy were purified and the new sentimental material was intermixed with the old humorous material1 represented by the work of ,cibber2 second1 that in which the sentimental theme is presented with very little comic entertainment1 represented by ,the ,conscious ,lovers2 and third1 that in which the comedy of this second stage degenerates and in which the work becomes artificial and lifeless1 represented by the plays of ,holcroft and his school4 ,sentimental comedy as seen in its second phase may be briefly described as comedy of manners in which the main action tends to inculcate a moral lesson1 in which the incidents no longer deal with illicit intrigues1 and in which the action is complicated by distressingly pathetic situations4 ,the chief characters are generally serious and supersensitive in regard to such matters as filial duty1 honor1 and the like2 and while these persons are in no need of being reformed1 their exaggerated conceptions of honor have caused them to act so that they are placed in an equivocal position and they appear to the other characters as vicious4 ,the language is chaste1 there is constant introduction of extremely stilted moralizing1 and there is a notable absence of humor4 ,cibber's work in other lines was conventional and commonplace4 ,it is true that his ,apology is lively and interesting1 and his pamphlets in reply to ,pope's attacks are keen and humorous though vulgar1 but the rest of his prose is extremely conventional4 ,his poetry1 except a few songs1 is inexpressibly poor4 ,aside from one opera in which he takes the same stand in regard to virtue that he does in his comedies1 his operas are merely the commonplace following of a vogue4 ,his tragedies are generally imitative2 with two exceptions they are adaptations of ,corneille or ,shakspere4 ,his farces are about equal in merit to his poetry1 and are devoid of originality4 ,nor does ,cibber's life indicate the qualities that appear in his sentimental comedies4 ,the moral standard he displays in his pamphlets in reply to ,pope is far from high1 and from the testimony of his contemporaries concerning his personal character it would seem that he was far from being the sort of man who would set about reforming anything4 ,and in all probability he would not have done so if there had not been a general public movement in that direction4 #b4 ,,sentimental ,,comedy ,a ,,product ,,of ,,various ,,forces4 ,but sentimental comedy did not spring full grown from the brain of a single man4 ,nor was it the result of a single revolutionary force4 ,sentimental comedy resulted from gradual modifications of the drama of the time1 developing from the prevalent type little by little until it finally appeared as an independent form4 ,the reform of the stage was not an isolated phenomenon1 nor was it directly the result of the attacks made by ,collier and others4 ,rather are all these the result of a changed public conscience1 which was manifested not merely in literature and on the stage1 but in the ,revolution of #afhh and a subsequent social reformation as well4 ,immediately after the ,restoration there may be discovered two elements in the life of the nation which had an influence both on the form and on the content of literature4 ,on the one side was the court1 whose standards affected both the form and content in the direction of foreign models4 ,through the long period of exile on the continent1 ,charles and his followers had become foreign in their literary taste and they had great influence in the direction of a ,french type as regards form2 and because of the low and vicious standards of living prevalent at court their influence stimulated the sympathetic handling of low and vicious subjects4 ,on the other hand1 there were the people1 strictly native in their preference1 who influenced the drama in the direction of native standards in form1 and ,puritan standards in content4 ,as to the form of comedy1 there was nothing essentially antagonistic in these two influences2 the one could easily combine with the other so that a new thing1 congruous and consistent1 might result2 but in the material presented antagonism was bound to arise and soon did arise4 ,in the development of sentimental comedy from the type which predominated during and after the ,restoration1 there was not at first any modification in structural elements2 the comedy of manners was adopted1 so far as form was concerned2 the change1 which was gradual and was a direct response to changed social and moral conditions1 was at first entirely in the matter of content4 ,this change first appears in the sincere reformation of the hero at the end of the play2 then in the attitude towards cuckoldom1 which ,restoration comedy had treated as a humorous fact2 and then in the character of the language1 which was altered in the direction of moral decency4 ,under ,charles ,,ii and ,james ,,ii the court1 on which the theatre depended for its right to live and also for its patronage1 was vicious and depraved4 ,its one grace was wit1 and that it had in a superlative degree4 #c4 ,,progress ,,in ,,english ,,society4 ,the people in general1 except the court and those more or less fashionable classes of society which would naturally follow it1 were not affected by this mode4 ,they learned to despise ,charles ,,ii personally because of his lack of honor and morals1 and hated his followers as well as their mode of life4 ,in the city the ,puritan element1 which was 8at once the most substantial and sober0 part of the community1 began to exercise some of the same control of manners and morals that it had practised under the commonwealth1 and checked the constant disregard of its moral principles by the court4 ,but even during this corrupt time there were manifestations of activity on the part of other elements of society1 which looked toward the betterment of conditions4 ,in the life of the state there were events which made for general progress and a more moral life among all the people4 ,with special reference to the regulation and restraint of the theatre1 certain elements in ,parliament attempted1 in #affi1 to tax the playhouses1 which were situated in the disreputable part of town and had become centers of prostitution2 but the ministers of the king intervened and the attempt to compel some restraint was unsuccessful4 ,in the reigns of ,william and ,mary and of ,anne a reaction is seen in the life of the court1 and there appears a still greater progress in all classes of society4 ,the expulsion of the ,stuarts brought about certain very positive results which made for progress in all directions4 ,so too the principle of natural action and reaction was operating2 but1 considering the historical circumstances1 it was only to be expected that the reaction toward a more moral and saner view of life should be less marked and less rapid than the preceding reaction from ,puritanism4 ,until after the downfall of the ,stuarts1 the ,protestants in ,england had never been united2 but after that event even ,presbyterians joined with ecclesiastics of the ,church of ,england in public ceremonies on terms of friendship4 ,now that the question of political and religious supremacy was permanently settled1 the ,protestants were free to turn to some of the questions which are popularly supposed to be the real objects of religious organizations--worship and the encouragement of right living4 ,however far it may have failed to measure up to modern ideas in these respects1 the church now began to be a greater moral force4 ,the court became a very different sort of place4 ,however far ,william might fall short of middle class standards of today1 he was a very different sort of man from ,charles or ,james1 and had a very different influence4 ,as opposed to the ,catholicism of the ,stuarts1 he was a ,presbyterian4 ,instead of haunting the theatre1 where ,charles found more than one mistress among the actresses1 ,william never even showed himself at the theatre4 ,because of ,william's prolonged absences on the continent1 during which ,mary reigned in her own right1 the person of the queen became more important than in former reigns4 ,mary 8had been educated only to work embroidery1 to play on the spinnet1 and to read the ,bible and the ,whole ,duty of ,man40#ei 8,her character was unimpeachable1 and by the influence of the king and queen the whole court became most proper1 even if it was somewhat dull40 ,but unlike her husband1 she went frequently to the theatre1 where she showed special favor for ,shadwell and where she ordered such plays as ,the ,old ,bachelor1 ,the ,double ,dealer1 and ,the ,committee4 ,it must be admitted that ,mary's taste in regard to plays did not show great literary or moral discrimination4 ,both under ,william and ,mary and under ,anne the court took positive grounds on moral questions4 ,in ,evelyn's ,diary for ,february #ai1 #afij1 we read3 8,the impudence of both sexes was now become so greate and so universal1 persons of all ranks keeping their courtesans publicly1 that the ,king had lately directed a letter to the ,bishops to order their ,cleargy to preach against that sin1 swearing1 c4 and to put the ,ecclesiastical ,laws in execution without any indulgence40 ,mary1 on ,july #i1 #afia1 wrote to the justices of the peace directing that they execute all laws against the profanation of the ,sabbath1 and even went so far as to have constables stationed on street corners to capture pies and puddings that were being taken to the bakers to be cooked on that day4 ,in #afig and #afih ,king ,william issued two orders concerning the acting of anything contrary to good morals or manners4 ,queen ,anne1 who never went to the public theatre1 made frequent proclamations against immoral plays1 masked women1 and the admittance of spectators behind the scenes1 and in #agjc she issued a proclamation against vice in general4 ,altogether1 the forces of the court and of the government were acting in accord to suppress the abuses which their predecessors had countenanced both by favor and by participation4 ,but however potent may have been the influence of the court1 the real movement for social reform came from the people1 whose will the court was really carrying out4 ,the movement on the part of the people was forwarded by the rise of various societies which were established for moral1 philanthropic1 and religious purposes4#fj ,the ,society for the ,reformation of ,manners1 inaugurated by a small number of gentlemen in #afib1 was probably the most influential and best known of these organizations4 ,it was organized primarily for the purpose of informing on evildoers1 and that there might be no criticism concerning their sincerity1 the fines were paid over to charity4 ,in addition to carrying on this work of informing1 the society established quarterly lectures on moral subjects1 secured the preaching of sermons on its objects1 and in #afii it claimed to have secured thousands of convictions4#fa ,the church was brought into the movement by ,archbishop ,tenison's circular to the clergy encouraging them to cooperate with the laity in the movement4 ,this movement went farther than the prosecution of overt acts against morality1 for in #agja-b the players at ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields were prosecuted for uttering impious1 lewd1 and immoral expressions4#fb #d4 ,,collier4 ,collier's attack on the stage1 published in #afih1 was no doubt a potent influence in crystallizing public opinion in regard to the drama1 but it does not stand alone2 it is merely a sign of a movement which the stage had begun to notice and profit by several years previously4 ,during the year #afih not less than sixteen books and pamphlets were published in the controversy4 ,collier's book had great influence in furthering the work of reformation2 but1 low as was the tone of the drama at the time1 one must confess that in some particulars ,collier is radical and far-fetched in his arguments and conclusions4 ,cibber1 though he had two years previously written a play with a distinct reformatory and moral purpose1 did not much relish ,collier's attack or agree with it4 ,in the prologue to ,xerxes he intimates that ,collier might prove a good index for those who desired to read immoral literature3 8,thus ev'n sage ,collier too might be accus'd1 ,if what h'as writ1 thro' ignorance1 abus'd3 ,girls may read him1 not for the truth1 he says1 ,but to be pointed to the bawdy plays40 ,in ,the ,careless ,husband we find ,lord ,morelove saying3 8,plays now1 indeed1 one need not be so much afraid of2 for since the late short-sighted view of them1 vice may go on and prosper2 the stage dares hardly show a vicious person speaking like himself1 for fear of being call'd prophane for exposing him40 ,to this ,lady ,easy replies that1 8',tis hard1 indeed1 when people won't distinguish between what's meant for contempt1 and what for example40 ,perhaps ,cibber's most interesting contribution to the controversy is contained in his dedication of ,love ,makes a ,man1 published in the first edition1 but omitted in the collected edition of his plays3 8,but suppose the stage may have taken too loose a liberty8 ,is there nothing to be said for it8 ,have not all sciences been guilty8 ,was it to be expected in a reign of pleasure1 peace and madness1 that the poets should not be merry8 ,did not the court then lead up the dance8 ,and did not the whole nation join in it8 ,was it not mere ,joan ,sanderson1#fc and did not the lawn-sleeves1 cuffs1 and cassocks fill up the measure8 ,but since those dancing days are over1 ,i hope our enemies will give us leave to grow wise1 and sober1 as well as the rest of our neighbors3 ,why shall we not have the liberty to reform1 as well as the clergy1 and lawyers8 ,i believe upon a fair examination we may find1 that prophaneness1 cruelty1 and passive obedience1 are now less than ever the business of the stage1 the bench or the pulpit2 and ,i doubt not1 but we can produce examples of new plays1 lawyers1 and pastors that have met with success without being obliged to immorality1 bribery1 or politics 444 8,now if the stage must needs down1 because 'tis possible it may seduce1 as instruct2 the same rule of policy might forbid the use of physic1 because not only their patients1 but physicians themselves die of common diseases2 or call in the milled crowns1 because they are but so many patterns for coiners to counterfeit by1 or might as well suppress the ,courts of ,judicature1 because some persons have suffered for what a succeeding reign has made a new law1 that makes that law that sentenced them illegal3 ,the same conclusion might discountenance our religion1 because we sometimes find pride1 hypocricy1 avarice1 and ignorance in its teachers3 ,so that if our zealous reformers do not stick fairly to their method we may in time hope to see our nation flourish without either wit1 health1 money1 law1 conscience1 or religion4444 8,but this sort of reformation ,i hope will never be thoroughly wrought1 while the king1 and the ,established ,church have any friends3 ,the stage ,i am sure was never heartily oppressed but by the enemies of both40 ,though ,cibber thought ,collier extreme and unjust in his criticism1 his own attitude concerning the abuses of the stage was hardly less censorious than ,collier's1 but he blames the audiences for the low moral standards of the entertainments3 8,however gravely we may assert1 that ,profit ought always to be inseparable from the ,delight of the ,theatre2 nay1 admitting that the ,pleasure would be heighten'd by the uniting them2 yet1 while ,instruction is so little the ,concern of the ,auditor1 how can we hope that so choice a ,commodity will come to a ,market where there is so seldom a ,demand for it8 8,it is not to the ,actor therefore1 but to the vitiated and low ,taste of the ,spectator1 that the ,corruptions of the ,stage 7of what kind soever7 have been owing40#fd ,his own attitude1 which he held from the first of his career as a dramatist1 may be illustrated what he says in the ,apology3#fe 8,yet such ,plays 7entirely my own7 were not wanting at least1 in what our most admired ,writers seem'd to neglect1 and without which1 ,i cannot allow the most taking ,play1 to be intrinsically good1 or to be a ,work1 upon which a ,man of ,sense and ,probity should value himself3 ,i mean when they do not1 as well prodesse1 as delectare1 give ,profit with ,delight6 ,the ,utile ,dolci was1 of old1 equally the ,point2 and has always been my ,aim1 however wide of the ,mark1 ,i may have shot my ,arrow4 ,it has often given me ,amazement1 that our best ,authors of that time1 could think the ,wit1 and ,spirit of their ,scenes1 could be an ,excuse for making the ,looseness of them publick4 ,the many ,instances of their ,talents so abused1 are too glaring1 to need a closer ,comment1 and are sometimes too gross to be recited4 ,if then to have avoided this ,imputation1 or rather to have had the ,interest1 and ,honour of ,virtue always in view1 can give ,merit to a ,play2 ,i am contented that my ,readers should think such ,merit1 the ,all1 that mine have to boast of4--,libertines of mere ,wit1 and ,pleasure1 may laugh at these grave ,laws1 that would limit a lively ,genius3 ,but every sensible honest ,man1 conscious of their ,truth1 and ,use1 will give these ,ralliers ,smile for ,smile1 and shew a due ,contempt for their ,merriment40 ,davies tells us3#ff 8,so well did ,cibber1 though a professed libertine through life1 understand the dignity of virtue1 that no comic author has drawn more delightful and striking pictures of it4 ,mrs4 ,porter1 on reading a part1 in which ,cibber had painted virtue in the strongest and most lively colors1 asked him how it came to pass1 that a man1 who could draw such admirable portraits of goodness1 should yet live as if he were a stranger to it8--#8,madam1' said ,colley1 #8the one is absolutely necessary1 the other is not4'0 ,possibly this inconsistency in personal conduct and public confession explains why comedies which aimed to teach lessons of virtue were sentimental and did not ring true4 ,the men who wrote them wrote from the head and not from the heart1 influenced by a growing public demand and without real sincerity or conviction4 #e4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,restoration ,,comedy4 ,restoration comedy up to about #afif1 while it was essentially a native development1 was influenced both in technique and in content by the drama to which the court had been accustomed in its exile in ,france4 ,the ,jonsonian comedy was developing both in the period immediately preceding the ,commonwealth and during the ,restoration into the same sort of thing that we have here1 and ,shadwell1 poet laureate and especial favorite of ,queen ,mary1 definitely took the work of ,jonson as his model4 ,the ,jonsonian satire had thrown emphasis on fundamental traits of human nature1 but in this later type satire is centered on manners1 dress1 the non-essential elements of life1 though the characters continue to be embodiments of single traits4 ,molire1 whose earliest effective follower in ,england was ,etherege1 taught the ,english writers of the comedy of manners to aim at polish1 refinement of style and dialogue1 and his influence confirmed the tendency of ,english comedy to follow the unities as they were then understood4 ,restoration comedy1 then1 is native ,jonsonian comedy1 influenced by the comedy of ,molire4#fg ,the chief literary sources of its plots are the comedies of ,beaumont and ,fletcher1 of ,molire1 of ,corneille1 and ,spanish comedies and novels4 ,though the late ,elizabethans had been gross in word1 there had always been in their work a tendency to punish vice and reward virtue1 or at least to make vice ridiculous4 ,but in the ,restoration this grossness becomes grossness of word1 character1 and idea1 and it is not the violator of virtue that is made ridiculous1 but his victim4 ,the ,elizabethan gaiety1 spontaneity1 healthy overflow of spirits1 become a cynicism which is absurd in its artificiality and deliberate pose4 ,the ,jonsonian reaction from earlier ,elizabethan romanticism continues its advance toward realism4 ,the ,restoration dramatist lacks the power to construct effective plots4 ,he is able to handle his separate incidents with skill1 but when it comes to sustaining an action through five acts1 he fails4 ,his chief fault lies in too great intricacy1 excessive elaboration1 and complexity1 which are due to his endeavor to tell too many stories4 ,in the construction of his plays he commonly takes two1 and sometimes three1 plays from ,molire1 or ,beaumont and ,fletcher1 to form one play of his own4 ,hence there is in the handling of the plot a lack of unity4 ,furthermore1 in his extreme elaboration of single situations1 which one must admit have qualities to make them lively and interesting on the stage1 the dramatist fails in the great essential quality of probability2 if one regards the unity of time1 he makes his stories impossible4 ,lack of sequence is caused by the constant interruption of conversation1 which is brilliant and entertaining in itself1 but has nothing to do with the story4 ,the dramatist tends to the elaboration of stock themes1 dealing with the pursuit of illicit pleasure1 assignations1 and love intrigues4 ,the typical story might be stated as follows3 a young man is entangled with one or more women1 a widow1 the wife of an elderly or foolish husband1 or a mistress whom he is keeping or who is keeping him1 and while he is carrying on these intrigues he falls in love with the virtuous young woman he eventually wins4 ,sometimes his mistresses object to his marrying some one else1 sometimes they do not1 and in the latter case the opposing force is centered in a rapacious guardian or some other complicating person or circumstance4 ,there are usually many minor love affairs1 sometimes legitimate1 sometimes not1 and usually so complicated that it is difficult to keep the various threads separate4 ,collier did no injustice when he said that 8the stage poets make their principal persons vicious and reward them at the end of the play40 ,the love is mere sensuality4 ,there is tacit acknowledgment that the men will be untrue to their wives and a fear on the part of the husbands that their wives will cuckold them4#fh ,this fear is not because of any moral scruples1 but is merely because of the ridicule that cuckoldom brought on the husband4 ,the treatment is frankly gross1 licentious1 cynical4 ,in a sense this treatment is highly realistic2 to this extent1 that it is a general reflection of the standards and manners of the life of the court4 ,the fashions are contemporary1 the manners and morals are those of the upper classes4 ,the playwrights confine themselves to a limited section of but a part of the people4 ,social and religious institutions are treated so as to make them ridiculous and contemptible4 ,that any other treatment would have been difficult is seen by considering the relationship existing between the theatre and the court4 ,the theatre had its authority for existence directly from the court1 one theatre receiving its license from the ,king1 the other from the ,duke of ,york1 while the companies of actors were known as the ,king's or the ,duke's servants4#fi ,these licenses were moreover revocable at the pleasure of those who gave them4 ,controversies and differences within the theatre were often settled personally by the ,king or ,duke1 and ,charles is said to have suggested subjects to the dramatists in many instances4 ,with so direct and personal a relation1 anything other than compliance with the taste of the court could result in nothing but the downfall of the theatre4 ,the theatre's very life depended on its selection and presentation of themes that would satisfy and reflect the taste of the most morally degraded court that ,england has ever had4 ,the characterization in these plays is conventional and often vague4 ,for example1 it may be laid down as an almost invariable rule that a widow is never virtuous4 ,in the embodiment of a single trait there is the continued tendency to exaggeration seen in the 8humourous0 characterization of ,jonson1 with the same use of descriptive names--,courtall1 ,mrs4 ,frail1 ,lady ,wishfort1 ,justice ,clodpate--to save the labor of characterization4 ,the characters are likewise lacking in complexity and development4 ,there is the tendency to ,jonsonian division of characters into dupes and dupers1#gj but this division is not so clear as in ,jonson1 nor is the division based on the essential qualities of human nature1 but is rather on the basis of wit and power in repartee4 ,the heroes are all witty1 usually wealthy1 popular1 and their life work is the pursuit of women4 ,the women are all witty1 beautiful1 and all rakes1 except the heroine1 and even the heroines bid fair to become so in a few months after marriage4 ,the hero or heroine of one play might be the hero or heroine of any other play so far as any distinctive characterization is concerned4 ,there is the pretended wit1 a simpleton who apes the men of wit and fashion1 who thinks himself most clever1 and who is perfectly unconscious of the fact that he is being made a butt for the wit of the sensible characters4 ,such are the ,dapperwits1 the ,witwouds1 and the ,tattles4 ,somewhat similar is the fop who imitates the ,french1 thinks only of his dress1 his appearance1 and the figure he makes4 ,he is all ostentation1 is entirely self-centered and simple in his mental processes1 but is really not such a fool as one imagines at first4 ,etherege's ,sir ,fopling ,flutter1 and ,cibber's ,sir ,novelty ,fashion--the ,lord ,foppingtons of ,the ,relapse and ,the ,careless ,husband--are two well drawn presentations of this character4 ,an interesting female type is the ,miss ,hoyden-,prue-,hippolyta young woman1 who has been kept in secluded ignorance of the world1 but who shows a sudden ingenuity1 knowledge of the world1 and desire for the sensual joys of life4 ,there are1 of course1 the elderly cuckolds1 dominated and fooled by their wives1 and the wives who profess virtue but do not practise it4 ,that the view here given is not prejudiced by modern standards may be seen by a description of the characters by one of the dramatists themselves4 ,shadwell in the preface to ,the ,sullen ,lovers expresses himself1 not without vigor3 8,but in the ,plays1 which have been wrote of late1 there is no such thing as perfect ,character1 but the two chief ,persons are commonly a ,swearing1 ,drinking1 ,whoring1 ,ruffian for a ,lover1 and an impudent ill-bred ,tomrig for a ,mistress1 and these are the fine ,people of the play2 and 444 almost any thing is proper for them to say2 but their chief ,subject is ,bawdy1 and ,profaneness1 which they call ,brisk ,writing1 when the most dissolute of ,men1 that relish those things well enough in ,private1 are shock'd at 'em in ,publick40 ,the dialogue1 which often interrupts the movement of the plot1 and often surpasses in interest the more solid quality of representation of life1 is usually marked by the most brilliant and biting wit1 by keenly satiric repartee1 and by epigrammatic polish4 ,the dialogue has often nothing to do with the story1 but is merely the exhibition of the author's ability in the cynical treatment of contemporary manners4 ,the attitude is one of satire and raillery against all established institutions1 against marriage1 the manners of society1 the ,puritans1 the newly developing sciences1 the court1 dueling1 the country and its inhabitants1 the opera1 the new songs and novels1 the affectation of foreign airs1 the adoption of foreign words1 poetry and dilettante writing1 polite literary conversation1 legal abuses1 and almost everything that one can conceive4 ,the locality in which the plays are set is extremely narrow at first1 being confined to the town2 for most of the plays are set in ,london1 in localities familiar to the audiences4 ,within the class and localities to which the comedy restricts itself1 it is a most interesting social document2 but it must always be remembered that it is no sense representative of the whole people4 ,sometimes we are taken to ,spain or ,italy1 but it is ,spain or ,italy only in name1 the people and the customs are all ,english4 ,the scene may sometimes be one of the fashionable watering places in ,england2 but it is never in the despised country4 ,whether one agrees with it or not it is well to keep in mind ,lamb's defense in his essay ,on the ,artificial ,comedy of the ,last ,century3 8,we have been spoiled with 444 the 444 drama of common life2 where the moral point is everything2 where1 instead of the fictitious half-believed personages of the stage 7the phantoms of old comedy7 we recognize ourselves1 our brothers1 aunts1 kinsfolk1 allies1 patrons1 enemies1--the same as in life4444 8,i do not know how it is with others1 but ,i feel the better always for the perusal of one of ,congreve's--nay1 why should ,i not add even of ,wycherley's--comedies4 ,i am the gayer at least for it2 and ,i could never connect those sports of a witty fancy in any shape with any result to be drawn from them to imitation in real life4 ,they are a world of themselves almost as much as fairyland4444 ,but in its own world do we feel the creature is so very bad8--,the ,fainalls and the ,mirabels1 the ,dorimants and the ,lady ,touchwoods1 in their own sphere1 do not offend my moral sense2 in fact they do not appeal to it at all4 ,they seem engaged in their proper element4 ,they break through no laws1 or conscientious restraints4 ,they know of none4 ,they have got out of ,christendom into the land--what shall ,i call it8--of cuckoldry--the ,utopia of gallantry1 where pleasure is duty1 and the manners perfect freedom4 ,it is altogether a speculative scene of things1 which has no reference whatever to the world that is4444 ,he ,congreve has spread a privation of moral light 444 over his creations2 and his shadows flit before you without distinction or preference4 ,had he introduced a good character1 a single gush of moral feeling1 a revulsion of the judgment to actual life and actual duties1 the impertinent ,goshen would have only lighted to the discovery of deformities1 which now are none1 because we think them none4444 8444 ,when we are among them the characters of ,congreve and ,wycherley1 we are amongst a chaotic people4 ,we are not to judge them by our usages4 ,no reverend institutions are insulted by their proceedings1--for they have none among them4 ,no peace of families is violated1--for no family ties exist among them4 ,no purity of the marriage bed is stained1--for none is supposed to have a being4444 ,there is neither right nor wrong1--gratitude or its opposite1--claim or duty1--paternity or sonship4444 8,the whole is a passing pageant4444 ,but1 like ,don ,quixote1 we take part against the puppets1 and quite as impertinently4444 ,we would indict our very dreams40 #f4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,change ,,in ,,the ,,drama4 ,such had been the conditions surrounding the drama and in the drama itself before the reformation began4 ,when one comes to look at the stage and the audiences1 one finds very little indication of change at first4 ,in #afhb there seems to have been objection to ,london ,cuckolds on the ground of indecency1 and ,ravenscroft in the prologue to ,dame ,dobson 7#afhb7 claims to have complied with the objections which had been raised by making his own play dull and civil4 ,in #afhd appeared ,southerne's first comedy1 ,the ,disappointment1 which he calls a 8play10 and in this we have the serious treatment of the marriage relations and the preservation of a wife's chastity4 ,throughout1 ,southerne's tendency was towards morality4 ,in #afif there begins a real and easily discernible movement towards the moral treatment of dramatic themes4 ,the ,she ,gallants 7#afif7 was so offensive to the ladies that it had to be withdrawn2 in ,she ,ventures and ,he ,wins 7#afif7 the man who would carry on an amour with a married woman is exposed and tricked and made the butt2 and in ,mrs4 ,manley's ,the ,lost ,lover 7#afif7 there is the noticeable introduction of a virtuous wife4 ,in #afig1 the epilogue to ,boadicea1 a tragedy1 tells us that 8,once only smutty jests could please the town1 ,but now 7,heav'n help our trade7 they'll not go down40 ,waterhouse#ga finds traces of sentimentality in ,vanbrugh's ,aesop1 which appeared the same year4 ,then in #afih matters were brought to a head by ,collier1 and we find ,congreve's ,double ,dealer advertised to be acted 8with several expressions omitted10 while in ,the ,way of the ,world 7#agjj7 his muse is somewhat more chaste4 ,the ,provoked ,wife was altered1 probably in #agjf1 so that the clergy might not seem to be attacked4 ,from this time on the changed attitude was increasingly manifest in the new plays1 though the old were still acted with little or no change4 ,in ,the ,state of the ,case ,restated#gb it is contended that the royal patent to the ,drury ,lane ,theatre was given to ,sir ,richard ,steele for the purpose of correcting the abuses of the theatre1 but that ,sir ,richard had not done this2 in fact that 8,the same lewd plays were acted and reviewed without any material alteration1 which gave occasion for that universal complaint against the ,english stage1 of lewdness and debauchery1 from all the sober and religious part of the nation2 the whole business of comedy continuing all this time to be the criminal intrigues of fornication and adultery1 ridiculing of marriage1 virtue1 and integrity1 and giving a favorable turn to vicious characters1 and instructing loose people how to carry on their lewd designs with plausibility and success3 thus among other plays they have revived ,the ,country ,wife1 ,sir ,fopling ,flutter1 ,the ,rover1 ,the ,libertine ,destroyer1 and several others1 and it is remarkable1 that the knight1 or coadjutors1 had condemned ,sir ,fopling ,flutter1 as one of the most execrable and vicious plays that ever was performed in public40 ,the change that was occurring may be fairly illustrated by quotations from plays by ,etherege and ,steele1 which are characteristic of the alterations not only as to morals but as to moralizing4 ,in speaking of marriage ,etherege says1 8your nephew ought to conceal it his marriage for a time1 madam1 since marriage has lost its good name2 prudent men seldom expose their own reputations1 till 'tis convenient to justify their wives20#gc while ,steele's sentiment is that 8wedlock is hell if at least one side does not love1 as it would be ,heaven if both did40#gd #g4 ,,cibber',s ,,comedies4 ,cibber at the very outset of his career as a dramatist1 in ,love's ,last ,shift 7#afif71 deliberately attempted to reform the stage1 and that the audience was ready for the innovation is shown by the way it was received1 for we are told that 8never were spectators more happy in easing their minds by uncommon and repeated plaudits4 ,the honest tears1 shed by the audience1 conveyed a strong reproach to our licentious poets1 and was to ,cibber the highest mark of honor40#ge ,davies further gives ,cibber the credit of being the first in reforming the ,english stage1 and of founding ,english sentimental comedy4 8,the first comedy1 acted since the ,restoration1 in which were preserved purity of manners and decency of language1 with a due respect to the honor of the marriage-bed1 was ,colley ,cibber's ,love's ,last ,shift1 or ,the ,fool in ,fashion40#gf ,cibber himself makes no claim to decency of language1 nor is it found to any greater extent in this play than in the other plays of the period4 ,certainly there can be nothing bolder than the first act1 or the epilogue1 which reads as follows3 8,now1 gallants1 for the author4 ,first1 to you ,kind city gentlemen o' th' middle row2 ,he hopes you nothing to his charge can lay1 ,there's not a cuckold made in all his play4 ,nay1 you must own1 if you believe your eyes1 ,he draws his pen against your enemies3 ,for he declares1 today1 he merely strives ,to maul the beaux--because they maul your wives4 ,nor1 sirs1 to you whose sole religion's drinking1 ,whoring1 roaring1 without the pain of thinking1 ,he fears he's made a fault you'll ne'er forgive1 ,a crime beyond the hopes of a reprieve3 ,an honest rake forego the joys of life1 ,his whores and wine1 t' embrace a dull chaste wife6 ,such out-of-fashion stuff6 but then again1 ,he's lewd for above four acts1 gentlemen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,four acts for your coarse palates were design'd1 ,but then the ladies taste is more refin'd1 ,they1 for ,amanda's sake1 will sure be kind40 ,the main action1 that which deals with the reformation of the wandering husband1 seems to be original with ,cibber in every respect4 ,it deals with the reformation of a husband who eight or ten years before has deserted his young wife for a dissolute life on the continent1 and who returns to ,england still more degenerate in mind and morals than when he left1 and so entirely depleted in purse that he has not money enough to buy a meal or pay for a night's lodging for himself and his servant4 ,the husband is finally led to return to his wife1 whose appearance has so changed that he does not recognize her1 by her pretense of being a new mistress4 ,this subterfuge is more or less remotely suggestive of ,shakspere's ,all's ,well that ,ends ,well and ,shirley's ,gamester1 both of which have been suggested as its source2 but it owes nothing to them in the working out of the situation4 ,the theme is practically that of ,the ,careless ,husband3 the reformation of a husband not entirely spoiled at heart4 ,the moral teaching is that there is the same pleasure in legitimate enjoyment as in the baser and illicit sort4 ,the innovation consists in the very moral ending of the piece1 particularly in the definite decision of the hero to reform1 a determination which he expresses as follows3 8,by my example taught1 let every man1 whose fate has bound him to a marry'd life1 beware of letting loose his wild desires3 for if experience may be allow'd to judge1 ,i must proclaim the folly of a wandering passion4 ,the greatest happiness we can hope on earth1 ,and sure the nearest to the joys above1 ,is the chaste rapture of a virtuous love40 ,it is to be noticed that the illicit affair of ,sir ,novelty ,fashion and ,mrs4 ,flareit is made ridiculous and not happy at the end1 nor does ,sir ,novelty acquire a mistress or a wife who has previously been chaste4 ,likewise there is no husband who is made ridiculous by being cuckolded1 and the only amour1 if it can be called an amour1 that which ,amanda's maid unwillingly has with ,snap1 is made right the next morning by the marriage of the two4 ,on the other hand1 the play1 aside from these particulars1 exhibits the technique and the material of the typical ,restoration comedy4 ,the chief incident deals in most frank style with the sex relations of the hero and heroine1 treated essentially in the ,restoration way1 with the exception that the audience knows they are man and wife while the characters do not4 ,the cellar incident is as frank and gross as anything of the sort in the earlier drama1 though in this case the final outcome is a wedding4 ,there is the same succession of lively and disconnected incidents1 incidents which would go well on the stage1 and which make up five separate threads of story4 ,the substitution of the name of one person for another in the marriage bond is the same sort of thing that occurs over and over again in the earlier comedy4#gg ,the characters represent the same more or less stiff drawing of conventional figures4 ,sir ,novelty ,fashion is of the same family as ,sir ,fopling ,flutter2 ,lovelace and ,young ,worthy are the same drunken rakes as those who make the principal characters in the unreformed drama1 with the exception that here they are not presented to us as carrying on their amours4 ,snap is the witty servingman who is invariably paired with the maid of the heroine in ,restoration comedy4 ,there is the same presentation of local scenes1 particularly that in the park2 there is the same coarse speech2 and there is the same interruption of the story by raillery4 ,but the play as already suggested is a very distinct step in advance in its treatment of fundamental morality1 and marks a conscious beginning of a new mode2 not an inconsiderable achievement for the first play of an author twenty-four years old4 ,the two plots of ,woman's ,wit 7#afig7 are entirely dissimilar in tone and dramatic handling1 and1 moreover1 have no essential connection with each other4 ,the main plot1 which gives the name to the piece1 is in the ,restoration manner1 while the sub-plot1 which deals with the ,rakishes1 is in the mould of the minor late ,elizabethans4 ,in its portrayal of manners it belongs to the type represented by the plays of ,brome1 marked by coarseness rather than finish1 and implying about the same standard of morals4 ,the main plot consists of a series of complications caused by the efforts of ,longeville to unmask ,leonora's unfaithfulness to ,lovemore1 to whom she is engaged4 ,she convinces ,lovemore that ,longeville's efforts are the result of a plot1 the purpose of which is to alienate ,lovemore and ,leonora so that ,longeville may have her to himself2 and there then follows one complication after another1 until the characters are at last gathered together and ,leonora is made to confess her duplicity4 ,the situation on which the main action is based is original and highly dramatic1 but in order to maintain the intrigue ,cibber has had to use incidents which are marked by improbability and dramatic blindness to such an extent that the action becomes wearisome4 ,cibber seems to be groping for something different from the conventional ,restoration intrigue4 ,his conception is worthy of more success than he attained1 but he lacked the dramatic skill and experience to carry it out4 ,some of the character drawing is good4 ,longeville and ,lovemore are rather decent young men1 but are no doubt too sentimental for success on the stage at this time4 ,the ,rakishes are overdrawn and farcical4 ,the women1 with the exception of ,leonora1 are lacking in the spontaneity and wit demanded of seventeenth and early eighteenth century heroines1 and like the men are possibly too sentimental4 ,leonora is the intriguer and is the best drawn and most important personage in the play4 ,her downfall is the result of her own character and conduct1 and in the disapproval of her character and actions ,cibber has repeated1 to some extent1 views he expressed in his first play4 ,the vulgar sub-plot which deals with ,old ,rakish and ,young ,rakish1 when separated from ,woman's ,wit and acted in #agjg as ,the ,school ,boy1 was a greater success than the original play4 ,with the exception of the change in the names of some of the personages1 minor alterations of the dialogue1 the omission of parts of the incidents1 and the addition of such incidents as are necessary to make it stand by itself1 the play is verbatim as it appeared when a part of ,woman's ,wit4 ,from the point of view of the reformation of the stage it must be confessed that ,woman's ,wit was not of great importance4 ,the moral tone of the main action is high2 at least virtue is rewarded and vice disgraced1 and there are no amours carried on4 ,but the sub-action1 which was later transformed into ,the ,school ,boy1 is entirely opposed to both good taste and good morals1 and after a series of low comedy scenes1 ends with the promise of ,young ,rakish to ,master ,johnny that he will take ,johnny to the playhouse1 where the latter may satisfy his disappointment in the failure to marry his mother's woman4 ,although notable progress in the morality of the drama had been made1 as we have seen1 the fact that this sub-action was successfully presented by itself shows that the taste of the theatre-going public was not yet entirely regenerate4 ,love ,makes a ,man 7#agja7 is a rather close adaptation of two of ,beaumont and ,fletcher's plays1#gh in which ,cibber does not pretend to any serious purpose4 8,for masks1 we've scandal1 and for beaus1 ,french airs40 ,and yet his moralizing and sentimental tendency cannot be entirely restrained1 for when ,carlos1 the hero of the play1 does turn from his books to love1 he speaks in a most heightened and sentimental strain4 ,so too the efforts of ,louisa to seduce him are met with sentiments of lofty morality which are actuated by his sincere love for ,angelina4 ,the ,restoration lover would not have hesitated in the slightest degree to enjoy all that ,louisa offered and his wife-to-be would have taken it as a matter of course1 probably would have joked with her confidante1 if not with the hero1 on the subject4 ,but with ,cibber not only is the attitude concerning this sort of thing changed1 but in his alteration he has omitted one incident#gi that would have been a source of great delight to a ,restoration audience1 and has softened the language throughout1 so that the coarseness which marks his original has largely disappeared4 ,no one undergoes a moral reformation1 for ,louisa has not been evil in her life1 and this one unsuccessful effort at seduction cures her4 ,but the play has two characteristics of the sentimental type2 it is perfectly moral in action1 and it has some expression of sentimental philosophy4 ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not 7#agjb7 is probably more in accordance with modern taste than any other play ,cibber wrote4 ,in this regard for good taste as well as good morals it is significant of the change in ,english comedy1 and though it is not sentimental1 it indicates ,cibber's readiness to adopt and lead the new mode4 ,in its technique it reminds us of the ,spanish intrigue plays of ,dryden2 but it is perfectly moral1 and the two lovers do not employ their time1 when away from the main business of winning their wives1 in carrying on intrigues with other women4 ,the ,careless ,husband 7acted #agjd7 is ,cibber's masterpiece in sentimental comedy4 ,in it he has reached greater excellence than in his former plays in plot and in character presentation1 and in the ability to make his plot and moral purpose work out consistently and logically4 ,the reformation of ,loveless in ,love's ,last ,shift strikes one as not in keeping with his character2 one feels that his relapse#hj is quite the natural thing to happen4 ,in this play1 however1 the hero's character is presented from the first in a way that prepares one for the final reformation4 ,in this particular ,cibber rises above his contemporaries in comedy4 ,in ,the ,careless ,husband ,cibber lays claim to deliberate and serious moral purpose and deals1 as he did in his first play1 with the reclaiming of a licentious husband by a virtuous wife4 ,dibdin extravagantly says of it that 8it was a school for elegant manners1 and an example for honorable actions40 ,cibber expresses himself in regard to his purpose1 in the dedication1 as follows3 8,the best criticks have long and justly complain'd1 that the coarseness of most characters in our late ,comedies1 have been unfit entertainments for ,people of ,quality1 especially the ladies3 and therfore ,i was long in hopes that some able pen 7whose expectation did not hang upon the profits of success7 wou'd generously attempt to reform the ,town into a better taste than the ,world generally allows 'em3 but nothing of that kind having lately appear'd1 that would give me the opportunity of being wise at another's expence1 ,i found it impossible any longer to resist the secret temptation of my vanity1 and so e'en struck the first blow myself3 and the event has now convinc'd me1 that whoever sticks closely to ,nature1 can't easily write above the understandings of the ,galleries1 tho' at the same time he may possibly deserve applause of the ,boxes40 ,but in ,the ,careless ,husband1 in contrast with what he had previously written in this field1 the tone of the entire play is moral1 not merely that of the fifth act1 the play is worked out consistently1 and the offensive effect of an incongruous mixture of standards is lacking4 ,it belongs distinctly to the sentimental type1 and is the best of the early school4 ,in the prologue ,cibber gives a summary of the kind of characters that should illustrate the moral the comedy writer has as his theme3 8,of all the various ,vices of the ,age1 ,and shoals of fools expos'd upon the ,stage1 ,how few are lasht that call for ,satire's rage6 ,what can you think to see our ,plays so full ,of ,madmen1 ,coxcombs1 and the drivelling ,fool8 ,of ,cits1 of ,sharpers1 ,rakes1 and roaring ,bullies1 ,of ,cheats1 of ,cuckolds1 ,aldermen and ,cullies8 ,wou'd not one swear1 'twere taken for a rule1 ,that ,satire's rod in the ,dramatick ,school1 ,was only meant for the incorrigible ,fool8 ,as if too ,vice and ,folly were confined ,to the vile scum alone of human kind1 ,creatures a ,muse should scorn2 such abject trash ,deserves not ,satire's but the ,hangman's lash4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we rather think the persons fit for ,plays1 ,are those whose birth and education says ,they've every help that shou'd improve mankind1 ,yet still live slaves to a vile tainted mind40 ,in this play ,cibber continues the general practice of basing dramatic technique upon that of the ,restoration drama4 ,we find the same multiplicity of plots1 though there is here a material reduction in their number4 ,but here the various plots are more consistently bound together and more logically worked out4 ,the hero is a somewhat refined ,restoration character2 he has more gentleness and goodness in him1 but the course he pursues is typical of the earlier plays in that he is carrying on two amours during the play and at the end he abandons those intrigues2 with this difference1 however1 that the reformation of the hero of ,the ,careless ,husband is felt to be permanent4 ,the love story of ,lord ,morelove and ,lady ,betty1 which forms the sub-action1 is in the best style of the comedy of manners4 ,it1 as well as the main action1 reminds one in its finished workmanship of the best plays written during the latter part of the preceding century4 ,there is a distinct effort to teach the advantage of moral living1 in the unhappy outcome of the illicit affairs and in the happy outcome of the legitimate4 ,the situation in which ,edging and ,sir ,charles are discovered asleep1 which proved too gross for ,cibber's audience1 is nevertheless handled in a manner to show disapproval2 the ,restoration dramatist would have been salacious and humorous4 ,sir ,charles's feeling of guilt after this scene1 however1 is an entirely new note4 ,some of the characters are stock figures4 ,lady ,betty is the usual coquette1 is a ,millamant type1 but is altogether more human and modern2 ,lord ,foppington is the continuation of ,sir ,novelty ,fashion1 whom we recognize as a type which appears in ,etherege and ,crowne2 and ,sir ,charles1 until his reformation1 is1 in his conduct1 the ,restoration rake1 with1 however1 distinctly more humanity4 ,his whole-heartedness and inherent honor make one forgive his lapse in conduct4 ,other characters indicate a new mode4 ,lady ,easy is a modest1 virtuous1 capable wife1 full of moderation and tact1 with the gentleness of the modern ideal woman4 ,she belongs to the patient ,griselda type1 and her situation1 which contains not a little pathos1 is handled in a way to gain the sympathy of the audience4 ,this is a new and noteworthy contribution in the direction of the fully developed type of sentimental comedy4 ,even in spite of ,sir ,charles's defection in conduct1 we recognize an inherent goodness in his nature4 ,lord ,morelove is the preaching1 sentimentalizing type1 serious minded and upright1 the sort of character that ,cibber has presented in ,lord ,lovemore in ,woman's ,wit and ,elder ,worthy in ,love's ,last ,shift2 a character who seldom appears in the ,restoration period1 or1 if he does appear1 is ridiculed4 ,in this presentation of a successful lover1 lacking in wit and inconstancy1 ,cibber was not following the convention of the preceding drama1 which usually made its heroes witty scamps4 ,while we still have light banter and raillery1 they are primarily used to display character or further the plot1 functions which they disregard in the ,restoration plays4 ,the theme and its working out not only deal with the reformation of the loose character1 but also endeavor to present an admirable example of womanhood who shows a proper fidelity to her husband in spite of all his delinquencies4 ,in the presentation of this high type of character ,cibber has again become an innovator and has made a positive contribution to the drama of the period4 ,in his adaptation of the plays by ,dryden#ha in ,the ,comical ,lovers 7#agjg7 ,cibber has not attempted any changes1 and the play is of no importance in the development of comedy4 ,it was regarded merely as a revival of ,dryden's work1 and was acted along with other old plays during the same season1 largely because of an antiquarian interest4 ,the two plays from which this is made go well together and present something of the best that ,dryden did in the line of satiric comedy1 and no doubt the social satire was almost as pertinent in ,cibber's time as it had been forty or fifty years earlier4 ,but the moral standard1 which is almost always present1 even if in the background1 in ,cibber's own plays1 is almost entirely lacking here4 ,celadon expects to be cuckolded1 but would rather be cuckolded by ,florimel 7who reminds one very strongly of ,congreve's ,millamant even in the stipulations before their agreement of marriage71 than by any one else4 ,so too in the complications in the second story in the play1 the moral defections are humorous merely because they are immoral1 and there is no disapproval expressed or implied4 ,in ,cibber's own work he may retain his disapproval until the last act1 but the moral standard always appears in some way or other1 so that this play is essentially uncharacteristic of ,cibber's work4 ,the ,double ,gallant 7#agjg7 is an adaption of the same sort as ,the ,comical ,lovers1 derived from ,restoration plays1#hb but it does have more significance4 ,it is marked by the same general tone of moral irresponsibility and lightness1 but without the actual culmination of delinquencies2 there is the same raillery1 somewhat curtailed1 and the hero1 as in those plays1 involves himself in intrigue with several women at once4 ,there is more respect for morals in the general conduct of the piece4 ,the change is indicated in the handling of the source4 ,burnaby#hc has made use of what is probably the most notorious and grossest incident in ,restoration comedy1 ,horner's subterfuge in ,the ,country ,wife1 but has modified some of the elements of the intrigue4 ,cibber has prevented the successful outcome of the intrigue1 and has entirely omitted the unpleasant features4 ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake 7#agjg71 in the handling of a serious theme1 seems the most modern of ,cibber's comedies2 it represents almost an approach to the modern problem play in the ,lord and ,lady ,wronglove story and in the theme of the ,lord ,george and ,lady ,gentle story4 ,it is a fully developed comedy of the sentimental type of this period1 with its four acts of intrigue1 its reconciliation at the end1 and its extremely moral teaching4 ,cibber makes two statements of his theme1 first in the dedication1 and then in the prologue4 ,his statement in the dedication is as follows3 8,a ,play1 without a just ,moral1 is a poor and trivial ,undertaking2 and 'tis from the ,success of such ,pieces1 that ,mr4 ,collier was furnish'd with an advantageous ,pretence of laying his unmerciful ,axe to the ,root of the ,stage4 ,gaming is a ,vice that has undone more innocent ,principles than any one ,folly that's in ,fashion2 therefore ,i chose to expose it to the ,fair ,sex in its most hideous ,form1 by reducing a ,woman of honour to stand the presumptuous ,addresses of a ,man1 whom neither her ,virtue nor ,inclination would let her have the least ,taste to4 ,now 'tis not impossible but some ,man of ,fortune1 who has a handsome ,lady1 and a great deal of ,money to throw away1 may1 from this startling hint1 think it worth his while to find his ,wife some less hazardous ,diversion4 ,if that should ever happen1 my end of writing this ,play is answer'd40 ,the plot centers around a most lively intrigue1 but shows a departure from the ,restoration type4 ,cibber seems to have devised his own plot from observation rather than to have taken it from the work of some one else1 though in his characters he shows some imitation of characters in older plays4 ,miss ,notable is a ,miss ,prue type1 but the action of the play preserves her virtue and indicates disapproval of the effort to seduce her4 ,there is a wide difference between this and the course of ,congreve's character who rushes eagerly to her bedroom followed by ,tattle4#hd ,so too in the relations of ,lady ,wronglove with her husband there enters a new note4 ,not only does ,cibber show her a virtuous woman1 but he recognizes the infidelity of the husband as grave enough to merit not only condemnation but punishment2 and though he does not carry his story so far as to inflict on him his just deserts1 he recognizes the right of the wife to resent ,lord ,wronglove's action1 although he clearly feels her resentment is unwise4 ,sir ,friendly ,moral1 who reconciles the various couples1 furnishes the somewhat sentimental moralizings1 and seems to be the mouthpiece of the author4 ,one does not waste much sympathy on either ,lord or ,lady ,wronglove in their bickerings1 and their reconciliation at the end through the good offices of ,sir ,friendly is decidedly lacking in probability1 in view of the way in which they have been previously presented4 ,this dnouement is brought about by a typical deus ex machina device1 in which ,sir ,friendly1 by supplying money to one of the characters1 and by using his exceeding wisdom and knowledge with another set of characters1 brings about the happy ending4 ,cibber was not unlike the other late seventeenth and early eighteenth century writers in his inability to bring his plays to a logical and probable conclusion4 ,he was hampered by his theory that the element of surprise should enter into the happy ending1 and hence he often seems to feel compelled to introduce a new force very late in the play4 ,the characters in the main action are somewhat serious and lacking in attractiveness4 ,but those in the comic action1 ,lord ,george1 ,mrs4 ,conquest1 and ,miss ,notable1 are much more lively sources of interest4 ,miss ,notable1 as already stated1 is a ,miss ,prue type1 though she is probably not to be described as a 8silly1 awkward country girl40 ,she is essentially a sophisticated city miss1 but her desires and ambitions1 as well as some of her ingenuous characteristics1 are similar to those of the ,miss ,prue type4 ,she starts a flirtation with each new man she meets in order to pique the last new man1 who in like manner had his turn4 ,the discomfiture of ,lord ,george when ,miss ,notable avows her love for ,mrs4 ,conquest1 who is in the disguise of a man1 is very clever4 ,it is hard to believe that an honorable gentleman1 as ,sir ,george is described as being1 would cheat at cards even for the purpose of seducing another man's wife4 ,it is in just such conceptions as this that ,cibber's superficiality is shown1 a superficiality which prevented him from writing great drama notwithstanding his knowledge of technical requirements4 ,in the situations of ,lady ,gentle and ,mrs4 ,conquest1 especially in that of the latter1 there is a distinct element of pathos1 similar to that in ,the ,careless ,husband4 ,as in ,the ,careless ,husband1 this pathos is due not merely to the situation1 but depends likewise on the nature of the persons presented4 ,in this respect it is superior to the later sentimental comedy1 in which the pathos depends more largely on the situation alone4 ,in its serious elements ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake attacks what are without doubt notable human failings1 and the dialogue at its best reminds us of some of the best ,congrevian sort4 ,but ,cibber's practice as to the happy outcome and his theory that there must be a surprise at the end of a play1 have prevented what might have been1 in the hands of a more serious and larger minded dramatist1 a most important handling of a new theme in a new way4 ,when he wrote ,the ,rival ,fools 7#agji71 ,cibber seemed1 if one may judge from the prologue1 to feel that his efforts for reform were not meeting with sufficient response and appreciation1 and therefore tells the audience that 8,all sorts of ,men and ,manners may ,from these last ,scenes go unreprov'd away4 ,from late ,experience taught1 we slight th' old ,rule ,of ,profit with ,delight3 ,this ,play's--,all ,fool40 ,but though this comedy is not didactic in its purpose1 it is morally clean in its action4 ,in ,the ,non-,juror 7#agag71 a play written with an avowedly political purpose1 he cannot avoid moralizing and sentimentality1 qualities which appear slightly in the story of ,charles1 and in the relations of ,dr4 ,wolf to ,lady ,woodvil and ,maria4 ,it cannot be claimed that the play has any important bearing on sentimental comedy1 however4 ,the ,refusal 7#agba7 might be called a purified ,restoration comedy1 without any positive bearing on the sentimentalizing tendency except that it shows the tendency to make the drama more moral4 ,the ,provoked ,husband 7#agbh71 ,cibber's completion of ,vanbrugh's ,a ,journey to ,london1 is typically sentimental in treatment1 with the happy ending1 the reformation of the vicious1 and the true but dull expression of moral sentiments by the serious characters4 ,in it ,cibber has departed from ,vanbrugh's original intention by reforming the wife1 whom he has preserved as perfectly true to her husband1 though unduly given to gambling4 ,in the love affair of ,mr4 ,manly and ,lord ,townley's sister we likewise have sentimental treatment1 and in the expression of pious thoughts no one could be more prolific than ,mr4 ,manly4 ,in this play ,cibber does not strike any note he has not used before2 it is merely significant of the permanence of the changed manner of writing in ,english comedy generally4 ,in the first plot ,cibber has somewhat softened the characters of ,vanbrugh's ,lord and ,lady ,loverule in ,lord and ,lady ,townley1 giving to the husband a much less dictatorial and more sentimental and uxorious character4 ,lady ,townley1 though she does not show any signs of softer qualities1 is made to see the error of her course of late hours and gambling1 and undergoes a somewhat improbable but characteristic conversion4 ,cibber tells us#he that it had been ,vanbrugh's intention to turn the lady out of doors1 as would have been natural and logical1 giving to the play a serious interest which it lacks under ,cibber's management4 ,the characters are shorn of their rough virility in ,cibber's version4 ,squire ,richard is a sort of rough study of the ,tony ,lumpkin type1--without his wit1 however1--but the credit of the portrayal is due to ,vanbrugh rather than to ,cibber4 ,while the play is far from lacking in interest and power to amuse1 there is a very decided inferiority to ,vanbrugh's play1 even in its unfinished and imperfect state4 ,cibber's play is a typical sentimental comedy1 with its undeserved happy ending1 reformation of the vicious1 and commonplace expression of sentiment and morals on the part of the serious characters4 ,although it does not exhibit any startling new qualities1 in its theme attacking the evils of gambling which ,cibber has previously attacked1 the play is a good example of eighteenth century comedy2 fully as good1 indeed1 as the work of the other dramatists of the time1 but suffering in comparison with ,cibber's own best work4 ,it may be interesting to note that ,cibber is said to have added the parts of ,tom and ,phillis to ,steele's ,conscious ,lovers4#hf ,when ,steele submitted this play to him1 ,cibber felt that it would not satisfy the desire of an audience to laugh at a comedy4 ,according to the account in ,the ,lives of the ,poets1 ,steele gladly accepted ,cibber's suggestion that a comic action be inserted and even proposed that ,cibber make such additions to the play as he saw fit4 ,the absence of humor is a mark of the form of sentimental comedy inaugurated by ,steele1 while the form represented by ,cibber's work is closer to the ,restoration type1 is indeed really a modification of that type1 and the element of humor is consequently found in it4 #h4 ,,typical ,,quality ,,of ,,cibber',s ,,work4 ,cibber's work typifies the change that was going on in the moral reformation of the drama1 as it likewise shows the development characteristic of the time in other elements of the drama4#hg ,in him1 as in others1 we see that while the general type of ,restoration comedy was adopted in the construction of the plot1 there was a tendency to simplify the plot4 ,moreover1 ,cibber further departed from the ,restoration type by the selection of themes other than mere sex relations4 ,other dramatists were able to present such themes without reference to moral degeneration1 but ,cibber1 when he takes such a subject as the dangers of gambling1 for instance1 cannot entirely avoid dealing with sex immorality4 ,in the dull1 chaste lover1 the sober1 moral1 worthy gentleman who is largely a result of the sentimental tendency in the drama1 such as ,lord ,morelove in ,woman's ,wit and ,elder ,worthy in ,love's ,last ,shift1 ,cibber developed and made more important a type which had appeared but had been relatively unimportant in earlier drama4 ,in the comedy of ,steele and his followers this character was further developed so that it became the central figure4 ,cibber and his predecessors seem to have been guided by some such formula as that interesting personality and morality appear in inverse ratio in male characters4 ,the precocious ,miss ,prue type1 the young woman who is destined to have a lover or a husband1 perhaps both1 in a short time1 is represented by ,miss ,jenny in ,the ,provoked ,husband and ,miss ,notable in ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake4 ,this type of character soon disappeared from the drama1 as did likewise the ,millamant kind of coquette1 who appears as ,maria in ,the ,non-,juror and as ,lady ,betty in ,the ,careless ,husband4 ,snap and ,trappanti are typical menservants1 witty and graceless1 and we find the mercenary serving woman in ,the ,provoked ,husband and ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not4 ,characters of this type continue occasionally in the succeeding drama1 where they furnish the comic relief4 #i4 ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,cibber',s ,,comedies4 ,cibber's themes are taken from contemporary life and its more obvious problems4 ,of course so far as any serious purpose is concerned1 a distinction must be made between those plays designed merely to afford the pleasure of an evening's entertainment and those written with more serious intent4 ,cibber often distinguishes between these two classes1 and frankly states his purpose in the prologue or dedication to the separate plays4 ,his attitude toward his audience is somewhat nave4 ,he frankly states that his 8sole dependence being the judgment of an audience1 'twere madness to provoke them40#hh ,he again says#hi that 8every guest is a judge of his own palate2 and a poet ought no more to impose good sense upon the galleries1 than dull farce upon undisputed judges4 ,i first considered who my guests were1 before ,i prepared my entertainment40 ,this would seem to indicate that at times he had no high respect for his audiences2 especially when he wrote ,the ,school ,boy and ,hob in the ,well1 if the latter is by him4 ,in this connection one may note that he consciously distinguished stage and closet drama1 and made no attempt to write the latter4 ,in his 8,remarks to the ,reader0 of ,ximena he says1 8though the reader must be charmed by the tenderness of the characters in the original1 ,i have ventured to alter1 to make them more agreeable to the spectator40 ,these statements would seem to indicate that ,cibber wrote his sentimental plays because he thought the audiences desired something of the sort4 ,as a playwright ,cibber was a strong upholder of religion and the established church4 ,he points out that the only religious sect to close the theatre was also opposed to the established church4#ij ,but in treating religious subjects he does not use the ,puritans for dramatic material1 for they were no longer a political menace1 but he turns to the ,roman ,catholics1 whose activities were not merely religious1 but political4 ,in ,the ,non-,juror we have a play almost entirely built on anti-,catholic feeling2 in ,king ,john we have another attack on the ,church of ,rome2 and in the fourth act of ,woman's ,wit we again have satire1 but in this case primarily of the ,catholic clergy1 rather than the church itself4 ,we do not have any references to party politics1 aside from this ,catholic problem4 ,his original plays in comedy1 other than farces and operas1 deal with moral problems4 ,in the case of ,love's ,last ,shift and ,the ,careless ,husband we have presented the reformation of husbands not yet entirely spoiled at heart2 in ,the ,provoked ,husband the reformation of a wife who has not committed any serious breach of the moral code2 and in this last1 as well as in ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake1 we have plays dealing with the evils resulting from women's gambling4 ,it is curious to find one who was so notorious a gambler as ,cibber choosing such a theme4 ,the language shows great change from that of the ,restoration in regard to moral refinement4 ,cibber's plays become less and less coarse in speech4 ,his earlier plays have a grossness almost equal to that of ,restoration comedy1 but gradually grow purer4 ,this change in the language is found in ,english comedy generally1 and as it progresses a new element enters1 the expression of moral sentiments1 extravagantly and artificially stated4 ,this last shows a gradual increase1 reaching its height in the later sentimental comedy of the middle of the century4 ,merely as literature1 three of ,cibber's plays1 at least1 are well worth while3 ,the ,careless ,husband1 ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not1 and ,the ,non-,juror4 ,they lack the briskness and sureness of touch that characterized ,congreve1 but compare most favorably with the work of men in the next rank1 and are not only delightful and profitable reading1 but are thoroughly representative of the period in which they appear4 ,grouped with these as possessing permanent literary value are the ,apology and not more than half a dozen songs4 ,outside of these three plays1 one prose work1 and a few songs1 ,cibber produced nothing that is worth preserving because of its merit as literature4 ,his greatest importance to the student of literary history lies in his contribution to the development of sentimental comedy4 #aj4 ,,place ,,of ,,steele ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,sentimental ,,comedy4 ,in view of the place that is always given to ,steele as the originator of sentimental comedy1 a discussion of any phase of the subject would be incomplete without at least a reference to his relation to the particular question under discussion4 ,we may grant that ,cibber does not represent the culmination of the sentimental type3 that is to be found in ,steele's ,conscious ,lovers 7#agbb74 ,he is1 rather1 the most prominent figure in the first stage of the development of sentimental comedy1 during which the ,restoration type was transformed by the addition of a moral purpose1 by the purification of the language1 and by the addition of the pathetic element2 so that the new form in his hands has much of the old as well as the new1 while ,steele's ,conscious ,lovers has almost entirely broken away from the old and looks forward4 ,but the movement in which ,cibber was so prominent a figure did make the way possible and contributed the most important elements which later developed in the hands of ,steele and his followers4 ,a commonplace of literary history is that it was ,steele who purged ,english comedy of its vileness and was the first to write sentimental comedy4 ,this1 as we have seen1 is not true2 for though ,the ,conscious ,lovers is probably the best of its type1 it merely lays more stress upon the pathetic element and carries forward another step the sort of thing that ,cibber had done in such comedies as ,the ,careless ,husband and ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake1 which are as truly sentimental comedies as this1 and which possess the pathetic interest1 but in a less marked degree4 ,in ,steele's other plays1 ,the ,funeral 7#agja71 ,the ,lying ,lover 7#agje71 ,the ,tender ,husband 7#agje71 ,steele1 except in the matter of the purity of the language1 does not show as fully developed examples of the type as does ,cibber in his work of the same period and earlier4 ,steele's first play to be acted1 ,the ,funeral1 lacks sentimental quality2 it is merely a comedy which1 when compared to the ,restoration type1 has a higher moral tone4 ,steele had no higher motive1 he tells us1 in writing this play than the purpose of reinstating himself in the opinion of his fellow soldiers who had ostracized him as a moral prig after the appearance of ,the ,christian ,hero 7#agja74 ,in his preface he mentions two themes as those around which the comedy is written1 namely1 the practices of undertakers and 8legal villanies40 ,lady ,brumpton1 who had bigamously married ,lord ,brumpton1 is discredited by being ejected from ,lord ,brumpton's household1 but there is no suggestion that she is in any way reformed1 and in the rest of the action none of the other elements of sentimental comedy are prominent4 ,the ,lying ,lover goes a little further and reforms the hero at the end1 as is done in the comedies of ,cibber4 ,but even this similarity is only superficial1 for the hero is not really vicious1 being guilty only of some entertaining lying1 and the reformation is brought about1 not by approved sentimental feminine means1 but by the fact that the hero finds himself in prison4 ,but even though the hero is humiliated by temporary imprisonment1 his delinquencies are so diverting that the reader is entirely in sympathy with him4 ,our sympathy for him1 indeed1 is so great that it is a distinct disappointment that the lady is given to the honest and jealous lover instead of to him4 ,steele lays no claim to originality in the reform1 8compunction and remorse0 of his hero1 for in his preface he says that such things had been 8frequently applauded on the stage40 ,nor is the versifying of the elevated portions of the play a new thing2 it is found both earlier and later than sentimental comedy and is not a distinctive mark of that type4 ,the ,tender ,husband was indebted to ,cibber's ,careless ,husband1 which had recently appeared1 but is not to be compared to it in its sentimental qualities4 ,in both plays1 however1 we have the reconciliation of an estranged husband and wife4 ,in ,cibber it is the husband who is the offender1 and he is recalled from his vices by the patient fidelity of his wife2 a reformation based on sentiment4 ,in ,the ,tender ,husband1 the wife is reformed from extravagance in her expenditure of time and money on trivialities1 and from failure in her duty to her husband1 but the reformation is brought about by a mere trick that the husband plays upon the wife rather than by the interaction of personality on personality4 ,steele shows nothing of the serious grasp of the situation that ,cibber shows in his play on the same theme1 ,the ,provoked ,husband4 ,steele's handling is distinctly less artistic and distinctly less sentimental than in either of ,cibber's plays4 ,this is seen also in ,steele's light treatment of the wife's equivocal action toward ,fainlove1 whom she mistakenly supposes to be a man1 and toward whom she makes questionable advances4 ,not only in regard to such situations as this1 but in the attitude toward actual breaches of morality1 ,steele shows a lower standard than ,cibber4 ,in both ,the ,careless ,husband and ,the ,tender ,husband the hero keeps a mistress1 but while ,cibber brings the illicit amour to an end with the disgrace of the mistress and a distinct moral1 ,steele not only shows none of this disapproval but provides the mistress with a husband of means and gives her a good dowry4 ,seventeen years later1 though according to ,genest#ia the play had been written some years before it was acted1 ,steele produced his fully developed comedy of the sentimental type1 ,the ,conscious ,lovers4 ,it is entirely different from the preceding plays1 for instead of containing a lively intrigue with clever satire and wit1 such as we have in ,the ,lying ,lover1 the tone throughout is fixed by the pathetic and didactic elements4 ,steele rightly felt that he was doing something new1 and took credit to himself in the prologue3 8,but the bold sage--the poet of tonight-- ,by new and desperate rules resolved to write4 99 99 99 99 99 ',tis yours with breeding to refine the age1 ,to chasten wit1 and moralise the stage40 ,not only does this moral and sentimental note appear throughout1 but in ,mr4 ,sealand1 especially in his dialogue with ,sir ,john ,bevil in the fourth act1 there appears the exaltation of the tradesman class which culminated in the work of ,lillo4 ,bevil ,junior is a pattern of propriety and goodness1 but his lack of virility and brilliance contrasts him most disadvantageously with the heroes of the preceding period4 ,he is the dull1 chaste lover1 the hero of the second intrigue of the ,restoration and ,cibber type of comedy1 the ,lord ,morelove sort1 exalted to the first place4 ,indiana is the patient ,griselda type1 the ,lady ,easy sort of person1 but in ,the ,conscious ,lovers her gentleness and goodness are not used to recall the erring1 but are presented merely as desirable qualities for a virtuous young woman to possess4 ,the witty rake has disappeared4 ,the ,wildairs1 ,lovelesses1 ,millamants1 and ,lady ,betties are no more1 and in their places are maudlin1 sickly sentimentalists1 whose goodness and sufferings are all that commend them4 ,parson ,adams was right1 it does contain 8some things almost solemn enough for a sermon40 ,this sentimental didacticism becomes still more conspicious in the work of ,holcroft and his school1 whose plays are rendered degenerate and emasculate thereby4 ,if the historians of literature mean that ,steele was the originator of this type1 whose essential characteristic is the centering of the action around a pathetic situation1 they are probably right2 but any statement that it was he who introduced the sentimental or pathetic element into ,english comedy1 or that he began the reformation of the drama in the direction of morality1 is easily seen to be false by a comparison of his work with the earlier and contemporary work of ,cibber4 ,,bibliography #a4 ,,cibber',s ,,works4 ,prose4 ,an ,apology for the ,life of ,colley ,cibber1 ,comedian1 and ,late ,patentee of the ,theatre-,royal4 ,with an ,historical ,view of the ,stage during his ,own ,time4 ,written by ,himself4 ,london1 #agdj4 7,i have used the fourth edition1 ,london1 #agef4 ,best edition is that of ,lowe1 ,london1 #ahhi47 ,a ,letter from ,mr4 ,cibber1 to ,mr4 ,pope1 ,inquiring into the ,motives that might induce him in his ,satyrical ,works1 to be so frequently fond of ,mr4 ,cibber's ,name4 ,london1 #agdb4 ,the ,egoist3 or1 ,colley upon ,cibber4 ,being his own ,picture ,retouch'd1 to so plain a ,likeness1 that no ,one1 now1 would have the ,face to own it1 but ,himself4 ,london1 #agdc4 ,another ,occasional ,letter from ,mr4 ,cibber to ,mr4 ,pope4 ,wherein the ,new ,hero's ,preferment to his ,throne1 in the ,dunciad1 seems not to be ,accepted4 ,and the ,author of that ,poem ,his more rightful ,claim to it1 is ,asserted4 ,with an ,expostulatory ,address to the ,reverend ,mr4 ,w4 ,w444444444444n1 ,author of the new ,preface1 and ,adviser in the curious ,improvements of that ,satire4 ,by ,mr4 ,colley ,cibber4 ,london1 #agdd4 ,the ,character and ,conduct of ,cicero1 ,considered from the ,history of his ,life by the ,reverend ,dr4 ,middleton4 ,with ,occasional ,essays and ,observations upon the most memorable ,facts and ,persons during that ,period4 ,london1 #agdg4 ,the ,lady's ,lecture1 a ,theatrical ,dialogue1 between ,sir ,charles ,easy and his ,marriageable ,daughter4 ,being an ,attempt to ,engage ,obedience by ,filial ,liberty3 and to ,give the ,maiden ,conduct of ,virtue1 ,chearfulness4 ,by ,c4 ,cibber1 ,esq3 ,servant to his ,majesty4 ,london1 #agdh4 ,non-,dramatic ,poetry4 ,gentleman's ,magazine4 ,london1 #agca-- ,london ,magazine4 ,london1 #agcb-- ,a ,rhapsody on the ,marvellous3 ,arising from the ,first ,odes of ,horace and ,pindar4 ,being a ,scrutiny into ,ancient ,poetical ,fame1 demanded by ,modern ,common ,sense4 ,by ,colley ,cibber1 ,esq4 ,p4 ,l4 ,fame then was cheap1 and the first comer sped3 ,which they have since preserved by being dead4 ,dryden4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 liberius si ,dixero quid1 si forte jocosius1 hoc mihi juris ,cum venia dabis4 ,hor4 ,sat4 #d4 ,l #a4 ,london1 #agea4 ,dramatic ,works4 7,arranged in the order of stage presentation4 ,the dates are those of publication47 ,collected editions of his ,plays appeared in #agba1 in two volumes2 in #afcf1 in five volumes2 in #agfj1 in four volumes2 in #aggg1 in five volumes4 ,the last named is the edition ,i have used4 ,love's ,last ,shift2 or1 ,the ,fool in ,fashion4 #afif4 ,woman's ,wit2 or1 ,the ,lady in ,fashion4 #afig4 ,xerxes4 #afii4 ,the ,tragical ,history of ,richard ,,iii1 altered from ,shakespear4 #agjj4 ,love ,makes a ,man2 or1 ,the ,fop's ,fortune4 #agja4 ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not2 or1 ,the ,kind ,impostor4 #agjc4 ,the ,careless ,husband4 #agje4 ,perolla and ,izadora4 #agjf4 ,the ,comical ,lovers4 #agjg4 ,the ,school ,boy2 or1 ,the ,comical ,rival4 #agjg4 ,the ,double ,gallant2 or1 ,the ,sick ,lady's ,cure4 #agjg4 ,the ,lady's ,last ,stake2 or1 ,the ,wife's ,resentment4 #agjh4 ,the ,rival ,fools4 #agji4 ,the ,rival ,queans1 with the ,humours of ,alexander the ,great1 a ,comical-tragedy4 ,dublin1 #agbi4 ,ximena2 or1 ,the ,heroick ,daughter4 #agah4 ,cinna's ,conspiracy4 #agac4 ,venus and ,adonis4 ,a ,masque4 #agae4 ,myrtillo1 a ,pastoral ,interlude4 #agaf4 ,the ,non-,juror4 #agah4 ,the ,refusal2 or1 ,the ,ladies ,philosophy4 #agba4 ,caesar in ,aegypt4 #agbe4 ,the ,provok'd ,husband2 or1 ,a ,journey to ,london4 #agbh4 ,love in a ,riddle4 ,a ,pastoral4 #agbi misprinted #agai4 ,damon and ,phillida2 a ,ballad ,opera4 #agbi4 ,papal ,tyranny in the ,reign of ,king ,john4 #agde4 #b4 ,,general ,,bibliography4 ,actor1 ,the1 or1 ,a ,treatise on the ,art of ,playing4 ,london1 #agej4 ,age of ,dullness1 ,the1 a ,satire4 ,by a ,natural ,son of ,mr4 ,pope4 ,london1 #ageg4 ,baker1 ,d4 ,e41 ,i4 ,reed and ,s4 ,jones4 ,biographica ,dramatica4 ,london1 #ahab4 ,beaumont and ,fletcher4 ,works4 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,besser1 ,r4 ,colley ,cibbers ,the ,double ,gallant und seine ,quellen4 ,halle1 #aijc4 ,betterton1 ,t4 ,the ,history of the ,english ,stage1 from the ,restoration to the ,present ,time4 ,london1 #agda4 ,betterton1 ,thomas1 ,life and ,times of4 ,reprint1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,blast upon ,bays1 ,a2 or1 ,a ,new ,lick at the ,laureat4 ,london1 #agdb4 ,booth1 ,barton1 ,life of4 ,london1 #agcc4 ,boyle1 ,roger1 ,earl of ,orrery4 ,parthenissa4 ,london1 #afgf4 ,british ,theatre1 ,the4 ,london4 #agej4 ,brown1 ,hawkins4 ,a ,pipe of ,tobacco4 ,london1 #agdd4 ,burnaby1 ,c4 ,the ,reformed ,wife4 ,london1 #agjj4 ,burnaby1 ,c4 ,the ,ladies ,visiting ,day4 ,london1 #agja4 ,canfield1 ,dorothea ,frances4 ,corneille and ,racine in ,england4 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,carlile1 ,j4 ,the ,fortune ,hunters2 or1 ,two ,fools ,well ,met4 ,london1 #afhi4 ,case of the ,present ,theatrical ,dispute ,fairly ,stated1 ,the4 ,london1 #agdc4 ,centlivre1 ,susanna4 ,dramatic ,works4 ,reprint1 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,charke1 ,charlotte4 ,a ,narrative of the ,life of ,mrs4 ,charlotte ,charke4 ,written by ,herself4 ,london1 #agee2 reprint1 ,london1 #ahbg4 ,chetwood1 ,w4 ,r4 ,general ,history of the ,stage4 ,london1 #agdi4 ,cibber1 ,theophilus1 editor4 ,lives of the ,poets of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,london1 #agec4 ,cibber1 ,theophilus4 ,two ,dissertations on the ,theatres4 ,london1 #agef4 ,corneille1 ,pierre4 ,oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahfb4 ,crowne1 ,john4 ,dramatic ,works1 in ,dramatists of the ,restoration1 ed4 by ,maidment and ,logan4 ,edinburgh1 #ahgc4 ,davies1 ,t4 ,dramatic ,miscellanies4 ,london1 #aghd4 ,davies1 ,t4 ,memoirs of the ,life of ,david ,garrick1 ,esq4 ,third ed41 ,london1 #agha4 ,difference between ,verbal and ,practical ,virtue1 ,the4 ,london1 #agdb4 ,dogget1 ,t4 ,the ,country ,wake4 ,london1 #afif4 ,dohse1 ,r4 ,colley ,cibbers ,bhnenbearbeitung von ,shakespeares ,richard ,,iii4 ,bonn1 #ahig4 ,doran1 ,j4 ,their ,majesties' ,servants4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,downes1 ,j4 ,roscius ,anglicanus4 ,london1 #agjh2 reprint1 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,dryden1 ,john4 ,works4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,egerton1 ,t4 and ,j4 ,the ,theatrical ,remembrancer4 ,london1 #aghh4 ,fielding1 ,henry4 ,historical ,register for #agcf4 ,works1 ,london1 #aheb4 ,fielding1 ,henry 7874 ,an ,apology for the ,life of ,mr4 ,t4444 ,c4444 ,london1 #agdj4 ,genest1 ,j4 ,some ,account of the ,english ,stage from the ,restoration in #affj to #ahcj4 ,bath1 #ahcb4 ,granger1 ,j4 ,biographical ,history of ,england4 ,london1 #aggi-ahjf4 ,hermann1 ,a4 ,colley ,cibbers ,tragicomedy ,ximena und ihr ,verhltniss zu ,corneilles ,cid4 ,kiel1 #aijh4 ,hutton1 ,laurence4 ,literary ,landmarks of ,london4 ,boston1 #ahhe4 ,jacob1 ,g4 ,the ,poetical ,register4 ,london1 #agai-agbc4 ,johnson1 ,t4 ,tryal of ,colley ,cibber for ,writing a ,book ,intitled ,an ,apology for his ,life4 ,london1 #agdj4 ,kilbourne1 ,f4 ,w4 ,alterations and ,adaptations of ,shakespeare4 ,boston1 #aijf4 ,kppe1 ,k4 ,das ,verhltniss von ,cibbers ,papal ,tyranny zu ,shakespeares ,king ,john4 ,halle1 #aijb4 ,krger1 ,w4 ,das ,verhltniss von ,colley ,cibbers ,lustspiel ,the ,comical ,lovers zu ,j4 ,drydens ,marriage la ,mode und ,secret ,love4 ,halle1 #aijb4 ,laureat1 ,the2 or1 ,the ,right ,side of ,colley ,cibber1 ,esq4 ,to ,which is ,added1 ,the ,history of the ,life1 ,manners and ,writings of ,aesopus the ,tragedian4 ,london1 #agdj4 ,learned1 ,j4 ,the ,counterfeits4 ,london1 #afgi4 ,lee1 ,w4 ,l4 ,m4 ,history of ,police in ,england4 ,london1 #aija4 ,letter to ,mr4 ,c4444b4444r1 ,a1 on his ,letter to ,mr4 ,p44444444 ,london1 #agdb4 ,lounsbury1 ,thomas ,r4 ,shakespeare as a ,dramatic ,artist4 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,lowe1 ,r4 ,w4 ,a ,bibliographical ,account of ,english ,theatrical ,literature4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,macaulay1 ,t4 ,b4 ,history of ,england4 ,boston1 #aijj4 ,man of ,taste1 ,the4 ,london1 #agcc4 ,marks1 ,jeannette4 ,the ,english ,pastoral ,drama4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,medbourne1 ,m4 ,tartuffe4 ,london1 #afgj4 ,michels1 ,e4 ,quellenstudien zu ,colley ,cibbers ,lustspiel ,the ,careless ,husband4 ,marburg1 #aijh4 ,miles1 ,d4 ,h4 ,the ,influence of ,molire on ,restoration ,comedy4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,molire4 ,oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahgc-aijj4 ,molire4 ,dramatic ,works1 translated by ,h4 ,van ,laun4 ,edinburgh1 #ahgh4 ,molloy1 ,j4 ,f4 ,famous ,plays4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,mountfort1 ,w4 ,greenwich ,park1 a ,comedy4 ,london1 n4 d4 #afia4 ,new ,theatrical ,dictionary4 ,london1 #agdb4 ,nichols1 ,j4 ,illustrations of the ,literary ,history of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,london1 #ahag4 ,nichols1 ,j4 ,literary ,anecdotes of the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,london1 #ahae4 ,ost1 ,g4 ,das ,verhltniss von ,cibbers ,lustspiel ,love ,makes a ,man zu ,fletchers ,dramen1 ,the ,elder ,brother und ,the ,custom of the ,country4 ,pepys1 ,samuel4 ,diary4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,philips1 ,katherine4 ,poems4 ,london1 #affi4 ,pilkington1 ,l4 ,memoirs4 ,london1 #agdh4 ,quin1 ,mr4 ,james1 ,comedian1 ,life of4 ,london1 #agff2 reprint1 #ahhg4 ,rowe1 ,n4 ,pharsalia4 ,london1 #agah4 ,sanger1 ,w4 ,w4 ,history of ,prostitution4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,schneider1 ,w4 ,das ,verhltniss von ,colley ,cibbers ,lustspiel ,the ,non-,juror zu ,malias ,tartuffe4 ,halle1 #aijc4 ,shakspere1 ,william4 ,richard ,,iii1 ,variorum edition1 ed4 by ,h4 ,h4 ,furness1 ,jr4 ,philadelphia1 #aijh4 ,steele1 ,richard1 and ,john ,dennis4 ,the ,theatre1 by ,sir ,richard ,steele2 to which are added1 the ,anti-,theatre2 the ,character of ,sir ,john ,edgar2 ,steele's ,case with the ,lord ,chamberlain4 ,illustrated with ,literary and ,historical ,anecdotes by ,john ,nichols4 ,london1 #agia4 ,stone1 ,e4 ,chronicles of ,fashion4 ,london1 #ahde4 ,stoye1 ,m4 ,das ,verhltniss von ,cibbers ,tragdie ,caesar in ,egypt zu ,fletchers ,the ,false ,one4 ,halle1 #ahig4 ,strickland1 ,agnes4 ,queens of ,england4 ,new ,york1 #ahea4 ,temple of ,dullness1 ,the1 with the ,humours of ,signor ,capochio and ,signora ,dorinna2 ,a ,comic ,opera in ,two ,acts4 ,london1 #agde4 ,theatrical ,correspondence in ,death4 ,an ,epistle from ,mrs4 ,oldfield1 in the ,shades1 to ,mrs4 ,br4 ceg4444dle1 upon ,earth4 ,london1 #agdc4 ,theobald1 ,l4 ,the ,happy ,captive1 an ,english ,opera1 with an ,interlude1 in ,two ,comick ,scenes1 betwixt ,signor ,capochio1 a ,director from the ,canary ,islands2 and ,signora ,dorinna4 ,london1 #agda4 ,thorndike1 ,ashley ,h4 ,tragedy4 ,boston1 #aijh4 ,to diabebouloumenon2 or1 ,the ,proceedings at the ,theatre ,royal in ,drury ,lane4 ,london1 #agbb4 ,tnse1 ,l4 ,cibbers ,comedy ,the ,refusal in ihrem ,verhltniss zu ,molires les ,femmes savantes4 ,kiel1 #aijj4 ,traill1 ,h4 ,d4 ,social ,england4 ,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,vanbrugh1 ,john4 ,works1 ed4 by ,w4 ,c4 ,ward4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,victor1 ,b4 ,history of the ,theatres of ,london and ,dublin from #agcj to the ,present ,time4 ,london1 #agfa4 ,waterhouse1 ,o4 ,the ,development of ,sentimental ,comedy in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ,anglia1 ,,xxx4 ,whincop1 ,t4 ,scanderbeg2 or1 ,love and ,liberty4 ,london1 #agdg4 ,wilkes1 ,t4 ,a ,general ,view of the ,stage4 ,london1 #agei4 ,wilks1 ,robert1 ,esq41 ,the ,life of that ,eminent ,comedian4 ,london1 #agcc4 ,woman of ,taste4 ,london1 #agcc ,wood1 ,a4 ,i4 ,p4 ,stage ,history of ,shakespeare's ,richard ,,iii4 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,,ii4 #egc4 #b ,whincop1 ,complete ,list of ,all the ,english ,dramatic ,poets1 p4 #aii4 ,see also the dramatic list appended to the second volume of the fourth edition of the ,apology1 p4 #bhf4 #c ,the sub-plot of ,woman's ,wit was likewise acted separately after the original play had failed on the stage4 #d ,reprint of #ahhg1 p4 #bh4 #e ,page #bh4 #f ,apology1 ,i1 #ahj4 #g ,,iii1 #cbe4 #h ,the ,advertisement prefixed to ,the ,happy ,captive says3 8,the interlude1 which is added in two comic scenes1 is entirely new to our climate2 and the success of it is submitted to experiment1 and the taste of the audience40 ,only this portion of ,the ,happy ,captive was ever acted4 #i ,theobald died ,september #ah1 #agdd4 ,the ,temple of ,dullness was acted ,january #ag1 #agde4 #aj ,for a history of the pastoral drama in the eighteenth century and a summary of its qualities1 see ,jeannette ,marks1 ,the ,english ,pastoral ,drama1 ,london1 #aijh4 #aa ,thorndike1 ,tragedy1 p4 #bgc4 #ab ,davies1 ,dramatic ,miscellanies1 ,,iii1 #dei4 #ac ,the ,tatler1 ,number #db1 ,july #af1 #agji4 #ad ,address to the ,reader1 prefixed to ,ximena4 #ae ,richard ,dohse1 ,colley ,cibber's ,buehnenarbeitung von ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii1 ,bonn1 #ahii4 #af ,alice ,i4 ,perry ,wood1 ,the ,stage ,history of ,richard ,,iii1 ,new ,york1 #aiji4 #ag ,the number and sources of the lines as given by ,furness4 ,variorum ,richard ,,iii1 p4 #fjd1 are as follows3 ,richard ,,ii1 #ad2 #a ,henry ,,iv1 #f2 #b ,henry ,,iv1 #bj2 ,henry ,v1 #bd2 #a ,henry ,,vi1 #e2 #b ,henry ,,vi1 #ag2 #c ,henry ,,vi1 #ajc2 ,richard ,,iii1 #gie2 ,cibber1 #ajfi2 total1 #bjec4 ,the number of lines in the ,globe text of ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii is #cfba4 #ah ,as 8,god0 to 8,heaven10 ,i1 ii1 #bcf2 due in this instance to the ,collier influence4 #ai ,edition of #affe1 pp4 #ajb-aeg4 #bj ,dedication of ,perolla and ,izadora4 #ba ,genest1 ,,ii1 #ejf4 #bb ,to the ,reader1 ,ximena4 #bc ,see ,canfield1 ,corneille and ,racine in ,england1 p4 #afi4 #bd ,genest1 ,,ii1 #eaa2 and ,canfield1 op4 cit41 pp4 #agi ff4 #be ,,ii1 #ajd4 #bf ,,viii1 #bjd4 8,mr4 ,cibber4 #agja ,nov4 #h ,a ,third of ,love's ,last ,shift #c #d #f #agje ,nov4 #ad ,perolla and ,izadora #cf #aa #j #agjg ,oct4 #bg ,double ,gallant #af #b #f ,nov4 #bb ,lady's ,last ,stake #cb #e #j ,feb4 #bf ,venus and ,adonis #e #g #f #agjh ,oct4 #i ,comical ,lover #aj #ae #j #agab ,mar4 #af ,cinna's ,conspiracy #ac #j #j #agah ,oct4 #a ,the ,nonjuror #aje #j #j ,no price or date4 ,mrytillo1 ,a pastoral1 ,rival ,fools1 ,heroic ,daughter1 ,wit at ,several ,weapons40 #bg ,although acted six times it could not be considered extremely successful4 ,according to ,genest1 ,,iii1 #afb1 ,nichols speaks of having made merry with a party of friends over the pasteboard swans1 on the first night of its production4 #bh ,,iii1 #afa4 #bi ,das ,verhaeltniss von ,cibber's ,tragoedie ,caesar in ,egypt zu ,fletcher's ,the ,false ,one4 #cj ,op4 cit41 p4 #bbc4 #ca ,cibber no doubt used ,rowe's translation 7#agaj74 #cb ,compare1 for instance1 the general idea of the exposition ,in ,act ,i4 #cc ,lucan ends before this incident1 but ,rowe continues the narrative1 using the same material as ,the ,false ,one4 #cd ,genest4 ,,iv1 #adf1 says that it had not been acted since #afie1 though he records the performances in #agcg and #agch4 #ce ,it is to be noted that efforts were made to deprive ,cibber of credit for his work not only in this play but also in ,the ,non-,juror and ,the ,refusal4 #cf ,the ,history of the ,theatres of ,london and ,dublin1 ,,ii1 #di4 #cg ,davies1 ,dramatic ,miscellanies1 ,i1 #e4 ,for a characteristic example of the criticism to which ,cibber was subjected1 see ,fielding's ,historical ,register for the ,year #agcf1 ,act ,,iii4 #ch ,for full discussion of the relationship between ,cibber's ,richard ,,iii and ,shakspere's ,richard ,,iii1 see ,a4 ,i4 ,p4 ,wood1 and ,dohse4 ,the whole subject of ,shaksperian alterations is taken up in ,lounsbury's ,shakspere as a ,dramatic ,artist1 and in ,kilbourne's ,alterations and ,adaptations of ,shakspere4 ,it is curious that ,lounsbury does not discuss ,cibber's ,richard ,,iii1 which is not only the most famous ,shaksperian alteration but the only one of any real value4 #ci ,the addition of parts from #c ,henry ,,vi at the beginning of the play4 #dj ,tragedy1 ,,viii and ,,ix4 #da ,see especially throughout ,ximena4 #db ,according to ,the ,life of ,aesopus1 this 8was said to be a silly tale collected from some dreaming romance10 but as the writer does not give the title of this romance and apparently had no knowledge of the play1 his testimony is of no value4 #dc 8,the furious ,john ,dennis1 who hated ,cibber for obstructing1 as he imagined1 the progress of his tragedy1 called ,the ,invader of ,his ,country1 in very passionate terms denies his claim to this comedy3 #8,when ,the ,fool in ,fashion was first acted1' says the critic1 #8,cibber was hardly twenty-two years of age2 how could he1 at the age of twenty1 write a comedy with a just design1 distinguished characters1 and a proper dialogue who now1 at forty1 treats us with ,hibernian sense and ,hibernian ,english8'0 ,davies1 ,dramatic ,miscellanies1 ,,iii1 #daj4 #dd ,jacob1 ,poetical ,register1 p4 #ch1 suggests ,otway's ,dare ,devil 7that is1 ,the ,atheist7 as the source of the play1 but it would take a vivid imagination to see the connection4 #de ,das ,verhaeltniss von ,cibber's ,lustspiel ,love ,makes a ,man zu ,fletcher's ,dramen ,the ,elder ,brother und ,the ,custom of ,the ,country1 p4 #hb4 #df ,it was acted in ,new ,york1 ,january #ae1 #ahhc1 by ,miss ,ada ,rehan1 under the management of ,augustin ,daly4 ,see ,lowe1 ,apology1 ,,ii1 #bhi4 ,genest records1 ,,vi1 #bc1 that when it was performed at ,covent ,garden in #aggh1 8the applause was so strong in the second act1 that the performers were obliged to stop for some time40 #dg ,this translation of three ,french novels1 whose original source had been ,spanish1 was issued again in #agab as ,three ,ingenious ,spanish ,novels4 ,see ,chandler1 ,romances of ,roguery1 ,new ,york1 #ahii1 pp4 #dfb-c4 ,these novels are ultimately based on ,la ,garduna de ,sevilla of ,castillo ,solorzano4 ,it is also to be noticed that the story appears in ,la ,villana de ,ballecas by ,tirso de ,molina1 in ,la ,ocasion hace al ladron1 by ,moreto1 and in the story of ,aurora in ,le ,sage's ,gil ,blas4 ,dunlop1 ,history of ,prose ,fiction1 ,,ii1 #dge1 states that ,she ,would and ,she ,would ,not is taken from ,gil ,blas4 ,gil ,blas was published thirteen years later than ,cibber's play4 #dh ,wilkes1 ,general ,view of the ,stage1 p4 #dj1 says that were the play curtailed of one scene he 8would not fail to pronounce it not only the best comedy in ,english1 but in any other language40 #di ,boswell's ,johnson1 edited by ,g4 ,birkbeck ,hill1 ,london1 #ahia2 ,i1 #bja4 #ej ,preface to ,the ,double ,gallant4 #ea ,,ii1 #agc4 #eb ,apology1 ,i1 #bdc4 #ec ,,iii1 #bji4 ,see also ,thomes ,whincop's ,scanderbeg1 7#agdg71 p4 #aie4 ,an account of the lives and writings of the ,english dramatists is annexed to this play4 #ed ,following the ,scottish rebellion in #agae1 ,lord ,derwentwater and ,lord ,kenmure were executed1 ,february #bd1 #agaf4 ,the king's pardon1 which excepted forty-seven classes of offenders1 appears in ,the ,historical ,register for #agag1 ,,ii1 #bdg2 so that the excitement caused by the rebellion continued for some time4 ,doran's ,london in ,jacobite ,times discusses this period in a most interesting manner4 #ee ,the second title of ,the ,female ,virtuosoes4 #ef ,apology1 ,,ii1 #eh4 #eg ,preface to ,the ,good ,natured ,man4 #eh ,see1 for example1 ,steele and ,the ,sentimental ,comedy1 by ,m4 ,e4 ,hare1 in ,eighteenth ,century ,literature1 ,an ,oxford ,miscellany1 ,oxford1 #aiji4 ,this speaks of 8,sentimental ,comedy invented by the great essayist ,sir ,richard ,steele40 #ei ,macaulay1 ,history of ,england1 ,chapter ,,vii4 #fj ,during the reign of ,charles not every one had been in entire sympathy with the state of the theatre4 ,evelyn1 in a letter to ,viscount ,carnbury1 ,february #i1 #affd-affe1 in speaking of the acting of plays on ,saturday evenings says3 8,plays are now with us become a licentious excess1 and a vice1 and need severe censors that should look as well to their morality as to their lines and numbers40 #fa ,traill1 ,social ,england1 ,,iv4 #eic4 #fb ,the ,laureat1 p4 #ec4 8,i can remember1 that soon after the publication of ,collier's book1 several informations were brought against the players1 at the instance and at the expense of the ,society for the ,reformation of ,manners1 for immoral words and expressions1 contra bonos mores1 uttered on the stage4 ,several informers were placed in the pit1 and other parts of the house1 to note down the words spoke1 and by whom1 to be able to swear to them and many of them would have been ruined by these troublesome prosecutions1 had not ,queen ,anne1 well satisfied that these informers lived upon their oaths1 and that what they did1 proceeded not from conscience1 but from interest1 by a timely nolle prosequi1 put an end to the inquisition40 #fc ,the 8,joan ,sanderson0 was a dance in which each one of the company takes part4 ,it began by the first dancer's choosing a partner1 who in turn chose another1 the chain continuing until each one had danced alone and with a partner4 ,see ,g4 ,c4 ,m4 ,smith1 ,fucus ,histriomastix1 ,introduction1 p4 xviii4 #fd ,apology1 ,i1 #he4 #fe ,ibid41 ,i1 #aid-e4 #ff ,dramatic ,miscellanies1 ,,iii1 #dcb4 #fg ,see ,miles1 ,the ,influence of ,moliere on ,restoration ,comedy1 #aiaj3 published after this paper was written4 #fh ,celadon1 in ,dryden's ,marriage a la ,mode1 enters marriage with the distinct expectation that his wife will be untrue to him4 #fi ,at the ,restoration ten of the actors were attached to the household establishment as the king's menial servants1 and ten yards of scarlet cloth with an amount of lace were allowed them for liveries4 ,this connection lasted until ,anne's time4 ,genest1 ,,ii1 #cfb4 #gj ,elizabeth ,woodbridge1 ,studies in ,jonson's ,comedies1 ,yale ,studies in ,english1 ,,iv4 #ga ,the ,development of ,sentimental ,comedy in the ,eighteenth ,century1 ,anglia1 ,,xxx4 #gb ,the ,theatre1 ,,ii1 #eaa4 ,by ,john ,dennis4 ,his temper and prejudice often destroy the value of his writings as impartial evidence1 but in this case he is right4 #gc ,the ,man of ,mode1 ,v1 ii4 #gd ,the ,funeral1 ,i1 i4 #ge ,davies1 ,dramatic ,miscellanies1 ,,iii1 #dab4 #gf ,ibid41 ,,iii1 #dji4 #gg ,the substitution of one person for another in the marriage ceremony1 or a false marriage1 are favorite devices of ,congreve4 ,see1 for instance1 ,the ,old ,bachelor and ,love for ,love4 #gh ,the ,elder ,brother and ,the ,custom of the ,country4 #gi ,rutilio's sojourn with ,sulpita4 ,the ,custom of the ,country1 ,,iii1 iii2 ,,iv1 iv4 #hj ,which ,vanbrugh portrayed in his play1 ,the ,relapse 7#afig74 #ha ,the comic scenes from ,marriage a la ,mode and ,the ,maiden ,queen4 #hb ,centlivre1 ,love at a ,venture2 ,burnaby1 ,the ,ladies ,visiting ,day1 and ,the ,reformed ,wife4 #hc ,the ,ladies ,visiting ,day4 #hd ,love for ,love1 ,,ii1 xi4 #he ,to the ,reader1 ,the ,provoked ,husband4 #hf ,cibber's ,lives of the ,poets1 ,,iv1 #abj2 ,wilks1 ,a ,general ,view of the ,stage1 p4 #db4 #hg ,r4 ,m4 ,alden1 ,prose in the ,english ,drama1 ,modern ,philology1 ,,vii1 #d4 #hh ,preface to ,woman's ,wit4 #hi ,dedication of ,love's ,last ,shift4 #ij ,dedication of ,love ,makes a ,man4 #ia ,,iii1 #ajj4 ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,humanistic ,,studies ,vol4 ,i ,january #a1 #aiad ,no4 #b ,,studies ,,in ,,bergson',s ,,philosophy ,,by ,,arthur ,,mitchell1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,assistant ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,university of ,kansas ,,lawrence1 ,,january1 #aiad ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university ,,contents ,,part ,,one ,,bergson',s ,,philosophic ,,method ,page ,,chapter ,i ,the ,relation of ,philosophic ,method to the ,definition of ,philosophy #i ,,chapter ,,ii ,bergson's ,critique of ,pure ,reason #ag ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,ancient ,prejudice against ,analysis #bf ,,part ,,two ,,bergson',s ,,system ,,of ,,doctrine ,,chapter ,i ,ontology and ,epistemology #cg ,,chapter ,,ii ,mind and ,matter1 ,spirit and ,body #fd ,,chapter ,,iii ,doctrine of ,freedom #hb ,,chapter ,,iv ,bergson's ,abhorrence of ,determinateness #id ,,chapter ,v ,the ,mystical ,yearning of ,intuitionism #ajb ,,part ,,three ,,bergson',s ,,genius #ajg ,,preface ,in the second part of this essay material from two papers published in the ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology and ,scientific ,methods has been laid under contribution1 and also from my doctor's thesis4 ,much of this material was written in #aiji1 since which time a number of views which some of mine resemble more or less have been published4 ,it has not seemed to me necessary always to note these agreements of thought arrived at independently by myself and others4 ,i have reported a part of the brilliant critique of ,bergson's doctrine of freedom by ,monsieur ,gustave ,belot4 ,this expresses with elegance and force much of my own reaction to the doctrine4 ,indebtedness to ,belot and other authors is acknowledged throughout the essay4 ,except possibly ,professor ,bergson himself1 there is no one who has influenced my thinking so much as ,professor ,ralph ,barton ,perry1 my teacher who introduced me to ,bergson's philosophy4 ,professor ,perry's writings are full of finished renderings of less articulate convictions of my own2 and1 though ,i have often referred to and quoted from his work explicitly1 his instruction and stimulus have had so much to do with the history of my thinking that ,i could never say just what ,i owe him1 but only that ,i owe him much4 ,professor ,bergson has permitted me to translate from a private letter some comments of his on certain of my criticisms4 ,professor ,edmund ,h4 ,hollands has given the first two parts a careful reading1 in the manuscript1 and his able criticisms and suggestions1 mainly concerning the matter itself1 have been of great benefit4 ,i am no less obliged1 for help in improving the literary form1 to ,professor ,s4 ,l4 ,whitcomb1 whose critical ability has been patiently applied to a careful revision1 page by page1 of the whole manuscript4 ,i have tried1 in the third part1 to justify explicitly the great and unique value which ,i attach to ,professor ,bergson's work1 antagonistic though my own convictions are to his results4 ,and1 besides this aim1 it has seemed to me interesting and instructive1 in view of the very considerable literature which has grown up about ,bergson's philosophy1 to bring together in a comparative view the judgments of a number of his exponents4 ,for literature by and about ,bergson1 the reader is referred to the exhaustive bibliography prepared last year by the ,columbia ,university ,press under the direction of ,miss ,isadore ,g4 ,mudge1 the ,reference ,librarian4 8,the bibliography includes #ij books and articles by ,professor ,bergson 7including translations of his works7 and #dag books and articles about him4 ,these #dag items represent #aa different languages divided as follows3--,french #agj1 ,english #aei1 ,german #dj1 ,italian #ai1 ,polish #e1 ,dutch #c1 ,spanish #c1 ,roumanian #b1 ,swedish #b1 ,hungarian #a40 ,this work is invaluable to the student of ,bergson4 ,it is incomparably the fullest ,bergson bibliography extant4 ,,arthur ,,mitchell4 ,university of ,kansas1 ,january1 #aiad4 ,,part ,,one ,,bergson',s ,,philosophic ,,method ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,philosophic ,,method ,,to ,,the ,,definition ,,of ,,philosophy ,one of the problems of philosophy is the nature of philosophy itself4 ,in recognizing such a problem at all1 ,i suppose1 the beginning of its solution has been made4 ,for the very question1 what is this or that8 is conditioned on an incipient definition of the subject of it1 a discriminating acknowledgement of it as something in particular1 and1 so1 as something already more or less qualified or defined4 ,certainly there would be no common problem and no difference of theory without such initial agreement as a point of reference in disagreeing4 ,but the explicit statement of this starting point of agreement encounters a practical dilemma4 ,on the one hand1 anything can be defined in terms so general that the thing is bound to be included3 make the genus large enough and it includes anything4 ,the limit1 in this direction1 would be to define the object as a case of being2 which would be safe1 but hardly a start toward determining anything about it4 ,on the other hand1 the least advance toward narrowing the meaning incurs a very rigorous obligation to produce a principle of selection which shall be a satisfactory logical warrant for narrowing it in just the way selected1 since this way excludes others whose claims may be in question4 ,the situation is thus beset with the pitfall of logical presumption4 ,there are three quite distinct conceptions of philosophy1 in the form of ill criticized assumption1 each of which is taken by its adherents to be unquestionable--as safe as the concept 8being40 ,i will word them thus3 7#a7 ,an absolute evaluation of reality2 7#b7 ,a revelation of reality in its essential nature2 7#c7 ,a comprehension of the meaning of reality4 ,the first of these conceptions is that of ,kant and ,fichte and those philosophers to whom reality seems unrelated to apprehending consciousness1 related only to will4 ,reality is neither directly nor indirectly perceivable4 ,knowledge of it is possible--if the term is proper at all--only in the broadest sense of 8knowledge10 the sense equivalent to 8consciousness10 within which will is sharply distinguished from two more or less receptive or cognitive modes1 thinking and feeling4 ,knowledge of reality is thus1 for this type of philosopher1 a practical1 personal evaluation of it1 only2 a moral disposition or attitude4 ,the second conception is ,professor ,bergson's2 its meaning is a peculiarly intimate acquaintance with reality4 ,it is a relationship between reality and consciousness in the sthetic mode1 consciousness as the quality-knowing faculty1 very explicitly distinguished by ,bergson1 under the name 8intuition10 from the relation-knowing or intellectual faculty4 ,the third conception1 the analytic or intellectualistic1 means knowledge about reality1 such knowledge as may be relatively independent of acquaintance4 ,the second and third conceptions are distinct from each other only in emphasis1 and may be indefinitely approximated toward each other1 to the limit of mutual identity4 ,but1 historically1 the philosopher's besetting sin of hypostasis has pushed the emphasis1 in each of these two conceptions1 to so vicious an extreme that they contrast with each other sharply4 ,pushed to such extreme1 the third conception has been stigmatized by adherents of the second as 8vicious0 conceptualism or intellectualism4 ,by the same right1 the intellectualist may denounce intuitionism as equally 8vicious40 ,to these three conceptions of philosophy this is common3 a relationship between reality and consciousness which is apogeal4 ,philosophy is at any rate a supreme experience1 a mode of consciousness which is eminent over other modes4 ,but this initial generalization is too indeterminate to constitute a satisfactory theory of the nature of philosophy2 whereas 7for the other horn of the dilemma71 the above attempts at greater specificity appear to invoke no logical principle1 but rather to follow a deep-lying personal instinct1 without due critical reflection on it2 in other words1 without logical justification of it4 ,they all beg the question4 ,such ill criticized assumption concerning the nature of philosophy is what determines a philosopher's 8method0 in distinction from his 8doctrine40 ,the names voluntarism1 intuitionism and rationalism have been applied to philosophies whose method is one or other of the three outlined above4 ,religion1 art and science are their models1 respectively4 ,under voluntarism fall the romantic and the pietistic philosophies1 wherein value is all that is real1 and personal attitude towards value is the only mode of consciousness that illuminates reality4 ,intuitionism includes radical empiricism1 temporalism and mysticism4 ,such philosophies are based on the conviction that only quality is real1 only intuition is knowledge4 ,and under rationalism are positivism and absolutism1 in which reality is order and knowledge is reason4 ,if art1 science and religion correspond to the ancient triad feeling 7intuition71 thought 7intellect7 and will1 it would seem either that philosophy must be consciousness employed in one or more of these modes1 or else that a fourth mode of consciousness1 coordinate with these1 must correspond to philosophy4 ,such a mode has not been discovered4 ,philosophy must therefore be one or two or all three of the above things4 ,can analysis of that generalization which was derived above from the more specific definitions produce a logical principle capable of determining the genuine philosophic method among the three modes of consciousness1 feeling1 thought and will8 ,yes1 such analysis of the supremacy which is a feature common to all three conceptions of philosophy proves unequivocally that philosophy must be a function of intellect1 and cannot be a function either of will or of intuition4 ,this would not be the case1 needless to say1 if 8supremacy0 were here a eulogism4 ,eulogistically1 either of the three modes of consciousness has equal claim to supremacy4 ,that mode of consciousness to which reality is most interesting is supreme1 in the eulogistic sense1 and this depends on the philosopher's personal constitution4 ,to the man of dominating intuition1 the relations and teleology of things may be incidental characters of them2 but1 by comparison with reality's qualitative aspect1 those other aspects are relatively extrinisic and accidental4 ,in whatever sense it may not be true1 in the eulogistic sense it is true that such a man's supreme experience is intuitional rather than intellectual or ethical4 ,bergson's psychological life seems to be of such a type4 ,but1 for the man of ethical1 and for the man of intellectual prepossession1 supreme experience cannot be intuitional1 in this sense of supreme4 ,yet1 if an intuitional bent be regarded by anyone as a hopeful qualification for effective philosophizing1 no intuitionist denies to the man in whom reason or will1 instead1 is paramount1 the possibility1 by proper effort1 of achieving the genuinely philosophic--that is to say1 intuitional--activity4 ,and when such a man does1 in spite of difficulty1 achieve it1 it has the same supremacy1 as philosophy1 that it has for the intuitionist1 for whom it is1 more fortunately1 also supremely congenial and 8worth while04 ,it is not this latter supremacy1 therefore1 but the other1 which distinguishes philosophy1 on the intuitionist conception2 and that other supremacy has a meaning which is thus proved to be independent of relation to any constitutional prepossession or aptness4 ,if philosophy is intuitional1 this is not because intuition is any man's most characteristic faculty4 ,and so of the two other modes of consciousness1 reason and will1 in which1 in different beings1 according to their constitution1 life most naturally and best finds realization3 for each of these modes of consciousness1 as for the intuitional mode1 there is one sort of experience1 called philosophy1 which is distinguished by a certain supremacy of self-same nature1 independent of any distinction of personal constitution among philosophers4 ,the voluntarist1 indeed1 might claim a peculiarly eulogistic supremacy for volitional experience over any other kind2 for it is ethically supreme for all1 whatever one's constitutional bent4 ,but its ethical supremacy is no more the philosophic quale of volitional experience1 on the voluntaristic conception of philosophy1 than is its other eulogistic supremacy1 its mere congeniality1 for the strongly volitional type of character4 ,for1 men of such character may be conspicuously deficient in philosophic faculty in the judgment of all1 including the voluntarist philosopher4 ,reason1 finally1 commands recognition of supremacy1 among the modes of consciousness1 in another sense1 a sense distinct from the imperative or ethical supremacy of will4 ,the supremacy of reason is its exclusive reflectiveness2 and reflectiveness as the quale of reason is the same character as criticalness2 that is1 it is the faculty of judgment4 ,it is important to note that this critical reflectiveness is a differentia of reason2 it is not a character of intuition nor of will4 ,the proof is that reflection is the substitution of a relational for a substantive object of consciousness1 and relationality is nothing else than rationality4 ,thus1 if feeling1 will and rational thought are conceptually distinct1 reflectiveness is foreign to the first two1 and to anything cordinately distinct from rational thought4 ,when consciousness is employed with an emphasis on the qualities of its object1 in distinction from aspects of value and relation 7which also belong to any object71 consciousness is intuitive1 in the intuitionist sense of the term4 ,in entering a consciousness1 the qualities become1 ipso facto1 content of that consciousness1 taking their place in this setting under the name 8sensations10 or 8sense data40 ,it is the act of reflection which 8sets0 the mind's data in contexts2 which is aware of contexts1 that is1 and of the setting of data in them4 ,it is the reflective act which names its data accordingly1 as 8quality0 or 8sensation01 and is conscious of them as elements of their relational setting4 ,consciousness is volitional when its focus is a value4 ,in the context of the subject's consciousness1 the value becomes a purpose4 ,thus value as substantive object of consciousness1 again1 is object of will just as the substantive quality was object of intuition2 while value as element in the relational complex in which it is known as 8purpose10 is object of reflection4 ,reason1 then1--that is to say1 mind active in the relation-knowing way--is the mode of consciousness in virtue of which mind is reflective1 critical1 judgment-forming2 and it is a confusion among definitions of intuition1 will and reason1 to attribute reflectiveness to intuition or to will1 as such4 ,the peculiar supremacy of reason which inheres in reason's reflectiveness is due to the inclusion of consciousness itself in the content of relational consciousness and of no other mode of consciousness4 ,intuitionists and voluntarists1 the same as intellectualists1 do1 as a fact1 always characterize that supremacy which distinguishes philosophy1 in no other way than the critical way4 ,there is no dissent1 in intuitionist or voluntarist schools of philosophic method1 from this residual core of meaning in the conception of philosophy3 by universal consent philosophy is consciousness 7in whatever mode7 sitting in judgment on its own findings2 philosophy is critical reflection4 ,and therein is an ultimateness and absoluteness--in a word1 a supremacy--which belongs to philosophy1 on any view of philosophy1 and to no other type of mental activity4 ,but in rationalism1 or intellectualism1 alone1 it is recognized that reflection1 as such1 is essentially and distinctively rational4 ,it is1 then1 the contention of this essay that the supremacy peculiar to philosophy--which1 by common consent of voluntarism and intuitionism1 is no eulogistic nor even ethical supremacy1 but critical--decides absolutely1 among the three modes of consciousness1 against will and intuition in favor of intellect1 as the organ of philosophy1 of intellectualism as the sole genuinely philosophic method4 ,kant called his voluntarism the 8,critical ,philosophy10 to distinguish it1 as genuine philosophy1 from what would be but failed 7because it was not critical7 to be philosophy4 ,critical his philosophy is2 but because it is critical1 it contradicts its own voluntarism--the assertion that reality is knowable only in obedience of will1 and not in judgment4 ,a contradiction2 for this 7the gist of his voluntarism7 is a judgment whose subject is reality4 ,the inevitable fundamental intellectuality of noumenal knowledge is concealed1 for ,kant1 under the phrase 8postulate of will40 ,a postulate1 so far as it is genuine knowledge1 has indeed the character of necessity1 but its necessity is simply the fact of logical implication4 ,with the intuitionist variety1 and particularly the ,bergsonian variety of anti-intellectualism1 this essay is largely to be concerned4 ,at this point ,i merely note the inevitable contradiction in ,bergson's intuitionism1 as in ,kant's voluntarism4 ,intuition1 ,bergson explains1 is 8instinct that has become disinterested1 self-conscious1 capable of reflecting upon its object and of enlarging it indefinitely40#ib ,now1 consciousness reflecting upon its own data is criticism1 predication1 classification1 judgment--whatever it is1 it is the objectifying of the data of consciousness1 a thing which it is essential to instinct or intuition1 on ,bergson's own conception of them1 never to do1 and which1 precisely1 on his conception1 is the distinguishing function of intellect4 8,instinct is sympathy10 says ,bergson1 in the same passage2 and the sense in which instinct is sympathy is lucidly and emphatically explained as just this1 that there is no distinction of subject and object1 in instinct2 they are identical4 ,whereas1 intelligence or intellect is explicitly distinguished by him from instinct primarily in the disjunction of subject and object4 ,it is merely to turn his back on his own use of these terms to describe philosophy as instinct extending its object and reflecting upon itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the case of philosophical anti-intellectualism is a hopeless paradox1 whether in voluntarism or in intuitionism1 each of these methods itself best proves by its own inevitable intellectualism4 ,the terms voluntarism1 intuitionism1 and rationalism express no real distinction of psychological mode1 in philosophizing1 since the psychology of every philosophy is necessarily characterized by that critical reflectiveness which constitutes philosophy a function of intellect4 ,philosophy is always interpretation1 a function alien to what anybody ever meant either by will or by intuition2 a function whose essential distinctness from both those functions is attested universally in such synonyms of 8interpretation0 as judgment1 conception1 understanding1 reason4 ,there are1 it is true1 voluntaristic and intuitionistic1 philosophies of the highest importance4 ,and the intention of their authors is to distinguish their method from the rationalistic method4 ,are they foredoomed to futility on this account8 ,so far as this intention is realized--yes1 unquestionably4 ,no philosophy that were itself a function either of will or of intuition is conceivable1 since it would then lack the essence of philosophy1 which is critical primacy4 ,that philosophies designated by these methodological terms may be invaluable products1 it is necessary only that these terms apply in fact not to the psychological method of the philosophy but to its psychological starting-point4 ,they express a constitutional bias in the philosopher1 who1 after all1 is human4 ,to some the qualities of things2 to others1 value2 and1 finally1 to other some1 the order of reality is the 8essence0 of reality4 ,such essentialness is eulogism1 of course4 ,for it is an irreducible psychological fact that there are religious1 sthetic and scientific types of mind4 ,each to his bias2 each to his taste4 ,the apogee of living is religion to the first1 art to the second1 science to the third4 ,hence the illusion that philosophy1 which must needs be experience supremely critical1 is experience eulogistically supreme4 ,is not this illusion chargeable to failure to see in these three modes of consciousness three emphases or biases of living8 ,to the sthete1 certainly1 quality must be realest essence4 ,but it cannot be so to the zealot2 for1 to him1 that is value3 nor to the intellectualist2 to him it is order4 ,if sthete and zealot will philosophize1 they are at this disadvantage with the wise man1 that their philosophy can do no more1 in expressing the nature of this 8realest essence0 of reality1 than the wise man's rationalism may do--discourse about it1 interpret it4 ,philosophy indeed never can1 and never should aspire to enter into the inner nature of reality in any such sense as the immediatism of ,bergson and ,james summons it to do4 ,there is art and there is religion for that4 ,it is not clear how the qualitative or how the teleological aspect of reality is more internal to it than its relational aspect2 but1 at any rate1 philosophy has its own interest1 and that is distinct from those of art and religion4 ,wherefore the own proper interest of art or of religion is not served in their philosophy2 in their philosophy they deny themselves4 ,the efforts of such philosophies to wrest from reality1 in a non-intellectual way1 its secret1 must be rather superhuman4 ,this characterization is hardly a burlesque of ,bergson's own observations on his method1 for it is little less than the repudiation of our natural constitution1 to which he exhorts us4#ic ,but1 as with ,kant1 so with ,bergson1 prodigies of subtlety fail to produce a revelation of truth that is so subtle as to be inarticulate because immediate1 or that does not lend itself to discussion and interpretation4 ,or1 if this is not to be looked for in a philosophy which is #8a method rather than a doctrine1' neither is there any suggestion how such revelation may be socialized1 rendered human2 or even1 in fact1 how it can assume meaning1 meaning to the philosopher himself 7which is surely indispensable to truth71 without becoming predication--assertion and denial2--that is to say1 without becoming judgment4 ,if humans make superhuman effort1 it should not be surprising if the result is self-contradiction4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,bergson',s ,,critique ,,of ,,pure ,,reason ,what1 then1 is called philosophic 8method0 and is distinguished thereby from 8doctrine10 is really1 in fact1 always the cardinal principle of the content of the philosophy in question1 its fundamental doctrine4 ,if this doctrine is acceptable to reason1 if it is reasonable1 logical principles must determine it4 ,no anti-intellectualist philosophy legitimately evades the rules of the game of dialectic by the representation that it is a #8method rather than a doctrine4' ,for this is the game that anyone plays who undertakes to show1 by reasonable discourse1 why reality and knowledge conform to a certain definition1 or 7the same mental procedure7 why they do not conform to other definitions4 ,since dialectic is just significant discourse with a meaning to be judged1 it may vary in form between any degree of syllogistic baldness1 at one extreme1 and of suggestive subtlety at the other4 ,it is dialectic if it is constituted of statements1 explicit or implied1 which relate to each other4 ,there is1 therefore1 ,i say1 a misleading irrelevance in the characterization which ,bergson himself has set the fashion of attributing to his philosophy1 the characterization of it as rather a method than a system of doctrine4 ,a method implies a system1 that is to say an ordered conviction about the nature of reality and knowledge4 ,such a system is essential to any meaning in ,bergson's method4 99 99 99 99 99 ,intellectualism in philosophy implies the conviction that the parts of reality are connected together in thinkable ways2 that a comprehensive understanding of things as a connected system or unity is therefore theoretically possible2 if actually impossible1 this is merely because of the endlessness of relationships and the limitedness of any actual thinker's time and strength4 ,but in fact even human finitude is no obstacle to a comprehension of the principles of reality4 ,detail is immaterial to the unity of such a view4 ,one of the sayings attributed to ,professor ,james is that there is one thing you can always pronounce with assurance1 upon any philosophical system1 in advance of hearing a word of it1 and that is that it is false4 ,this suggests at any rate1 very well1 the meaning of philosophical anti-intellectualism1 which implies the conviction contradictory to intellectualism1 to wit that the parts of reality are not connected in thinkable ways4 ,the connectedness of the intellectualist's universe may have any degree of significance or casualness4 ,a mere 8and0 may express much of it4#id ,intellectualism may be as pluralistic in this sense as you like1 or as monistic4 ,but if things are a universe in any such sense that they are comprehensible in intellect's discursive way1 which anti-intellectualism denies--on such a hypothesis anti-intellectualism and intellectualism have commonly agreed that some principle is embodied in this total comprehensibleness1 a supreme induction1 which would constitute the final interpretation of any fact4 ,like a master-key1 it would open all the chambers of the many-mansioned universe4 ,every philosopher1 as a fact1 has some controlling thought which has the value1 for him1 of such a supreme principle4 ,but always1 it seems1 there are doors which the master-key will not unlock4 ,it is the conviction of intellectualism that this is because the maker of the key has missed them1 and so left them out of account in fashioning it2 while anti-intellectualism believes it is an illusion to see the situation as a case of locks to be turned by a key1 at all4 ,entrance into possession of reality is otherwise conditioned1 altogether2 the procedure1 in consequence1 is radically different from this4 ,but it is1 ,i think1 a true historical generalization that the success with which a philosopher1 of whatever method1 avoids a supreme principle of interpretation1 corresponds exactly with the success with which he avoids being a philosopher at all4 ,i suppose ,omar ,khayyam and ,aristippus the ,cyrenaic are two of the least unifying philosophers of history2 yet their philosophy1 like that of any absolutist1 can be resumed in a single idea4 ,omar has uttered it in one of his own famous sentences3 8,oh take the cash1 and let the credit go60 ,aside from the presence1 in each1 of a generative principle1 there is little enough in common between the anti-intellectualism of ,omar and that of ,henri ,bergson4 ,if critics have been able to find seeds of skepticism and of pessimism in ,bergson1#ie these characters are at any rate foreign to any intention visible in its author4 ,no more positive philosophy1 in its intention1 was ever composed4 ,the positiveness of its name1 intuitionism1 is altogether proper4 ,its significance1 to be sure1 is sharply defined by its negative relation to intellectualism1 and therefore ,i stated it negatively above as the thesis that the parts of reality are not connected in a thinkable way4 ,but the intuitionist would readily admit3 if not in a thinkable way1 then in no way1 evidently4 ,and1 again1 if not connected at all1 no more are the parts of reality disconnected1 since any disconnection between things is only their particular mode of connection4 ,the fact is1 reality has no parts1 and that is just why intellect1 which sees parts in everything1 is alien and blind to the true nature of reality4 ,still one may object that intellect is itself a fact4 ,what possible meaning can there be in saying that any fact is alien to reality8 ,as ,bergson himself has said1 we swim in reality1 and cannot possibly get clear of it4 ,we cannot talk1 we cannot think1 we cannot act about nothing4 ,the answer to this objection is the master principle of ,bergson's metaphysics3 reality is life4 ,knowledge is 8sympathetic0 living4 ,if intellect is real1 so is every abstraction1 e4 g41 the inside of your hat4 ,the inside and the hat itself are at any rate real in senses so importantly different that 8real0 and 8unreal0 hardly exaggerate the contrast4 ,intellect1 says ,bergson1 is the cross-sectioning of reality4 ,there is no thickness1 no concreteness in it4 ,it exists as much in inert matter as in consciousness2 in fact1 it exists in neither except in the sense in which a surface can be said to exist in a solid body4 ,what is the surface in itself8 ,why1 nothing2 it is an abstract aspect of the body4 ,the body is real1 but its aspects are not real1 because they do not constitute the body--no multiplication or addition of them does so4 ,no millions of surfaces make any thickness4 ,in this sense the surface is other than and alien to the real nature of the body4 ,and so other manifestations of intellect--space1 juxtaposition1 extension1 number1 part out of part--have no existence1 as the surface has none4 ,as facts1 nevertheless1 what are they8 ,how are they facts8 ,what is their raison d' tre8 ,their raison d' tre is a faculty life has1 the faculty of action4 ,they are the ways in which life acts4 ,they are not concrete entities4 ,in this1 they are alien to the concreteness of reality4 ,try to reconstruct reality out of such abstractions1 and the result is a construction like that of geometrical imagination4 ,you have constructed an abstract symbol of the reality1 which symbol the mind1 preoccupied with its practical bias1 can mistake for the reality only because it is so preoccupied4 ,when we physically take apart and put together1 our manual activity has the same unreality of abstractness as that of our intellectual analyses and syntheses4 ,it is the latter outwardly expressed1 intellect externalized4 ,wherever we find life1 we are experiencing reality4 ,but when this occurs1 we are never analyzing nor synthesizing4 ,the more one divests himself of practical bias1 and regards his object not as an object for the realization of any possible activity of his own1 but as it is in itself--in proportion1 that is1 as one gets its character as a case of life--those unreal1 spatial aspects of it yield to an aspect which has nothing in common with them4 ,the parts of an anatomical model1 a papier mach manikin1 you may separate and put together again4 ,an organism1 as such1 a manifestation of life1 could not be dissected and recomposed in its living reality4 ,what is it that makes an organism alive1 a true reality8 ,this1 that every so-called part has a function which is so essential to the true function of the whole that one is present or absent with the other4 ,they coincide4 ,how1 then1 could you possibly dissect out a part of an organism8 ,once recognize1 what is unquestionable1 that any function of it coincides in this way with the function of the whole1 and your analyzing operation is prevented absolutely4 ,obey the rule that everything which contributes at all to the function of the part shall be taken1 and everything else left1 and you are in ,shylock's position after ,portia's judgment3 if you want the flesh you will have to take blood with it2 but you are not entitled to the blood4 ,it is even more hopeless than that4 ,it is not a matter of skill with your hand4 ,you cannot make the analysis mentally1 intellectually4 ,it is not a matter of impairing or destroying the function1 of injuring or killing the organism4 ,you cannot begin the operation1 not even on the corpse4 ,the first incision separates cells whose functions were inseparably one1 for there is no cell in the body that is not in organic union with every other cell4 ,if there is nothing of the nature of mosaic composition in the living structure1 this fact is one with the fact that there is nothing mechanical in its functioning4 ,it is not actuated from without1 as every machine is actuated which is not alive2 nor is its functioning1 like that of such machines1 an assemblage of functions predetermined so far as the machine itself is concerned--predetermined1 that is to say1 except for intervention from without2 unalterable1 as unstartable1 without external cause4 ,the character of living function is suggested by the word 8focalization40 ,there is a perfectly indivisible concert of function throughout the organism1 in every one of its infinite varieties of activity4 ,when the engineer reverses his engine1 or otherwise alters its mode of operation1 what he really does is to alter the structure of the machinery4 ,the machinery has been specially constructed with a view to unmaking and remaking its nature more or less quickly and conveniently2 that is1 its parts can be displaced and replaced with reference to each other4 ,some parts are 8thrown out of gear0 and shifted back4 ,and then everything returns to its former state4 ,not so in life4 ,the functioning of an organism never remains quite the same in two consecutive instants4 ,there is an incessantly moving emphasis or focus in it4 ,now one of its potentialities of function is primary or focal1 now another4 ,but none can ever cease and then be resumed4 ,in this case1 to cease is not to be thrown out of gear1 but to die1 to perish1 to be annihilated4 ,in every phase of the life activity of the organism1 all its functions are operative1 subsidiary and subservient in varying degrees to that one which for the moment is the focus of all4 ,thus the organic or vital focus1 in its physiological aspect of activity and in its psychological aspect of attention1 is never at rest4 ,the modulation is not like the sudden transformations in a kaleidoscope4 ,the evolutions do not take place in the manner suggested by the phrase 8,presto1 change60 ,modulation is the word that describes the process4 ,or1 as ,bergson phrases it1 the change is continuous1 incessant1 an interpenetrating flow of processes1 in which analysis can make no beginning and no separation2 in which analysis1 in fact1 is absolutely impotent4 ,if the eye is that which sees1 the ear that which hears1 and so on1 it is really the organism entire1 and no special1 locally differentiated part of it that is the organ4 ,those so-called parts which1 with our false intellectualism1 we name the eye or other organ1 are1 in their reality1 focal aspects of the entire organism1 the organism seen with a certain restriction or limitation of interest4 ,but1 now1 how can one make any discourse about1 say1 an animal organism--indeed1 how can this become an object of perception at all--without its lending itself to that sort of division into real parts which ,bergson says is an intellectual falsification of its true nature1 and therefore not true knowledge of the thing8 ,when ,i look at a living body1 do ,i not see it occupying space8 ,is it not1 then1 measurable8 ,is not one such body larger than another8 ,suppose cutting out parts of a body does alter or kill the organism3 they can1 neverless1 be cut out1 and are therefore parts8 ,if1 after1 and because of1 being cut out1 they are then not parts of the organism from which they were cut1 still1 they are constituents of its volume4 ,surely1 our ordinary speech about this part and that part of our bodies1 is not all false8 ,bergson's answer is uncompromising3 our ordinary perception and speech does falsify the nature of reality1 but 7in spite of the apparent paradox7 does not mislead4 ,for our ordinary perception and speech have nothing to do with knowing4 ,perception is a different function of life--it is action4 ,our percepts are the ways in which reality can factor in our activities4 ,those dissected organs1 you say1 are at least so much of the entire volume of the organism3 but the words are no sooner spoken than their falseness shows itself4 ,if the organism ever had volume1 it certainly has not1 now--neither volume nor anything else4 ,the fact is1 the only meaning there is in its ever possessing volume while it still exists1 is just that you might enter into activity with it in such and such ways--as that1 for instance1 of hacking it up4 ,perception1 our 8virtual0 or potential activity on reality1 is an abstract aspect of it2 what it is in itself is another matter1 and the only knowledge of this is that sympathetic union with it in which space and parts disappear in an 8interpenetrating flow0 not of things nor of parts1 but of process1 of ceaseless change4 ,now1 quality is just the fact of change1 as anyone may test for himself by introspection4 ,reality as it is in itself1 therefore1 the true nature of reality1 is quality4 ,relations are external views or aspects1 no multiplication of which makes any start at constituting a concrete reality4 ,there is one more reflection on ,bergson's account of intellect1 which1 like those made above1 he anticipates and tries to meet1 so far as it seems an objection to denying cognitive validity to intellect4 ,the attempt at this point1 however1 is not very convincing4 ,the point ,i mean is this3 ,the ways in which reality can factor in my activities are by that warrant true characters of reality4 ,one may cheerfully add3 even as the inside of my hat is1 after all1 a true character of my hat4 ,for1 if reality were different1 it could not factor so in my activity--in other words1 which would also be the words of plain common sense1 ,i should perceive it differently1 on ,bergson's own conception of what it means to perceive4 ,the situation is this3 ,reality does1 indeed1 possess those interesting aspects of changing process and undividedness which ,bergson is so preoccupied with and which he has brought to light with exquisite skill4 ,this is one of two equally important truths about reality4 ,the other ,bergson is simply blind to1 and that is that reality also possesses an aspect of permanence and divisibility4 ,does this seem a contradiction8 ,it is no more a contradiction than that a curve is both convex and concave4 ,it is not only not a contradiction3 each of these antipodally opposite aspects of reality is absolutely indispensable to the very conception of the other1 just as concavity is indispensable to the conception of convexity1 east to the conception of west1 right to the conception of left-- and vice versa4 ,this point is resumed below 7pp4 #gg-i1 #if74 ,the object in view at present is to see how the philosopher's method is really his primary doctrine1 in which object ,i am not in controversy with anyone1 so far as ,i know2 but also to see how an anti-intellectualist method depends upon a purely arbitrary1 or rather constitutional1 psychological prepossession for a certain emphasis of living4 ,i said that ,bergson is entirely awake to the aptness of the objection just raised to his account of intellect4 ,in a sense1 in certain passages1 he even seems to grant the truth of the contention4 ,action1 he acknowledges1 for instance1#if can be involved only with reality2 and consequently the forms of perception and the categories of intellect 7which are those forms rendered elaborately precise7 8touch something of the absolute40 ,sound truth1 assuredly6 ,the fitness of reality to enter as object into those active relationships which are the perceptive and intellectual categories makes the categories as genuinely own to the true1 essential nature of objective reality as to the nature of subjective intelligence4 ,that the categorization of reality depends on the real object's being in relation to something else than itself is nothing peculiar to this 7the categorical7 character of reality4 ,the same condition is common to every character of reality4 ,the qualitative aspect of reality1 which ,bergson usually regards as the nature of reality 8in itself10 depends no less than its relational or categorical aspect on the relatedness of the object4 ,for the qualities of things are nothing but the differences they make--to consciousness or to other things4 ,reality not in relation is simply a phrase without a vestige of meaning4 ,reality 8in itself0 in such a sense is merely nonsense4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 as if ,bergson should account the intellectual mode of consciousness1 which does indeed 8touch something of the absolute10 as knowledge of precisely the same metaphysical status as a mode which touches anything else of the absolute4 ,it is one thing for a mode of consciousness to be uncongenial or uninteresting to you or me2 it is another for it to be invalid4 ,the uncongeniality of a mode of consciousness depends on personal idiosyncrasy2 the invalidity of a mode of consciousness depends on the logical nature of being4 ,as a fact1 however1 perhaps because this preference between two aspects of the nature of reality depends so obviously on personal bias instead of logical principles1 ,bergson vacillates1 in a hopelessly confused and confusing way1 all through his writings1 between two conceptions of reality4 ,first1 reality is of one nature1 namely life1 which is pure quality1 change1 or duration 7the four terms are actually synonyms to ,bergson71 and knowledge of which can be only sympathetic intuition of it1 while intellect is merely 8an appendage of action10 and not knowledge at all4 ,in the other conception reality is cleft into a dualism more unutterably absolute than that of ,descartes4 ,life is one kind of reality2 inert matter is the other4 ,intuition knows the former2 intellect really does know the latter 7#8touching something of the absolute'71 and knowledge is therefore not intuition only4 ,although this vacillation confuses issues in every one of ,bergson's books1 the first conception is more characteristic1 upon the whole1 of ,time and ,free ,will and of ,creative ,evolution2 the other conception is pretty consistently expounded in ,matter and ,memory4 ,the sphere of intellect is restricted2 its cognitive validity is not explicitly denied within this sphere1 but only within the domain of life4 ,to be sure1 since life exhausts reality1 the sphere allotted to intellect is not real1 which would seem to imply that intellect fails to know4 ,the validity of intellectual consciousness is thus1 in effect1 denied equally in either case4 ,the only difference is that the denial is conscious and explicit in one case1 more or less unconsciously implied in the other4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,ancient ,,prejudice ,,against ,,analysis ,the restrictive conception of intellect is a very old one4 ,the incompatibility of intellect and life1 as cognitive organ and object1 is certainly as old a belief as the era of the ,sophists4 ,it can be said1 that is1 with historical certainty1 that1 from the time of ,protagoras--and ,i have no doubt it has been true ever since the first philosopher1 whoever he was1 undertook to make an examination of the universe as one thing--it has always been true that many of the best minds have been convinced1 by the futile results of such undertakings1 that the universe as one thing1 on one hand1 and intellect1 on the other1 make a pair as incompatible1 in the relation of cognitive organ and object1 as the faint star and the fovea3 you have an organ and an object which by nature are unsuited to each other4 ,that kind of organ cannot see that kind of object4 ,not that the faint star is invisible1 but1 to see it1 you musn't look6 ,then it will swim into the field of the organ that is made to see it1 the retinal tissue surrounding the fovea4 ,thus it is not a question of human finitude or limitation4 ,the formul of intellect1 applied to such an object1 are mere silliness1 reducible1 as ,kant showed1 to all manner of antinomy and paradox4 ,not only that1 but whatever is most important and interesting within this whole1 everything concerning the nature and meaning of concrete cases of life1 eludes and baffles conceptual statement1--which is the only kind of statement there is1--inevitably eludes it1 like smoke in a child's hand who tries to catch it4 ,your essences or definitions1 of life or any of its manifestations1 are stuff and nonsense1 not inadequate1 but absurd4 ,what logical sentence has ever been uttered that1 upon the least reflection1 does not fail to develop into a grotesquely false caricature when applied to any genuine phase or interest of life1 great or small--whether ,god1 freedom1 immortality1 or the heart of a woman1 or of a child1 or of a man 7to take them in a descending order of their unsearchableness78 ,you may labor your conception with prodigious precision--the truth of the matter is always beyond1 when you are speaking of matters that are real4 ,this is the artist's temper of mind when the artist has inadvertently gulped down a noxious dose of metaphysics4 ,it is the feeling of the novelists1 the dramatists1 the poets1 that ,bergson voices3 life may be lived--nobly or basely1 courageously or cowardly1 truly or falsely2--and the flavor and significance of life may be heightened1 life may be realized more abundantly1 in artistic activity1 which is putting oneself into one's object1 making it become not an object1 identifying oneself with it4 ,but one thing is not given to man1 and that is to interpret life4 ,everyone is familiar with the telling dramatic force of the device which consists in involving a philosophical hero1 a man addicted to principles of high generality1 in sudden overwhelming emotional chaos1 in which all his philosophy goes to smash4 ,the refractoriness of sexual love1 for instance1 to all his theories is such a delicious reductio ad absurdum of the theories4 ,first you make your philosopher develop his maxims1 in a besotted1 fatuous conviction of their infallibility3 then a particularly impossible she enters1 one who is conspiciously unfitted1 by artlessness or disabilities of worldly station1 for the upsetting of principles great and high4 ,the philosopher goes through his paces1 eating his maxims whole1 with unction2 and you have the spectacle of ,life rising serene1 untouched1 above the futilities of theory4 ,the theory doesn't work4 ,the obvious conclusion is that there is some fundamental incommensurability between it and the simple facts of life that can flout it so4 ,simon the ,jester is a very delightful example of what ,i mean4 ,simon is bound to come to grief1 he is so smugly philosophical4 ,the wise novel-reader knows what to expect4 ,not that philosophy is not an ornament to a man1 a civilizing1 disciplining exercise4 ,all that is one thing1 but acting as if such notions apply is quite another4 ,this good philosophical chap gives the result of his philosophy in regulating his life1 as follows3 8,surely no man has fought harder than ,i have done to convince himself of the deadly seriousness of existence2 and surely before the feet of no man has ,destiny cast such stumbling-blocks to faith 444 ,no matter what ,i do1 ,i'm baffled4 ,i look upon sorrow and say1 #8,lo1 this is tragedy6' and hey1 presto6 a trick of lightening turns it into farce4 ,i cry aloud1 in perfervid zeal1 #8,life is real1 life is earnest1 and the apotheosis of the fantastic is not its goal1' and immediately a grinning irony comes to give the lie to my credo4 8,or is it that1 by inscrutable decree of the ,almighty ,powers1 ,i am undergoing punishment for an old unregenerate point of view1 being doomed to wear my detested motley for all eternity1 to stretch out my hand forever to grasp realities and find ,i can do naught but beat the air with my bladder2 to listen with strained ear perpetually expectant of the music of the spheres1 and catch nothing but the mocking jingle of the bells on my fool's cap8 8,i don't know4 ,i give it up40 ,giving it up is obviously the moral1 here4 ,the change of attitude implied in the last words marks the beginning of an era of glorious fulfilment of life in the former philosopher's history4 ,what was necessary was that he should stop theorizing and learn to live4 ,that is1 philosophy1 as supreme experience1 is the art of living4 ,it is the artist that really knows1 that knows inwardly and truly4 ,the genuine philosopher is the artist in living4 ,the intellectualist philosopher is a dissector of life's defunct remains4 ,the nature of the opposition between the two modes of consciousness called intuition and intellect is discussed in the chapter on ,bergson's epistemology4 ,the intuitionist philosopher is such never for logical reasons1 always for temperamental reasons4 ,he is a man to whom life is richer and fuller1 more self-fulfilling1 more natural1 in the intuitional mode of consciousness than in the intellectual4 ,hence the suspicious and disparaging disposition toward the intellectual mode of consciousness1 in a very numerous class of minds of the highest order4 ,from a personal feeling of safety and security in intuition and of dissatisfaction with intellectual efforts1 the transition is natural to a conviction that the trouble is in the essential nature of intellect4 ,a mode of consciousness which is so inveterately and 7presumably7 inevitably beset with self-frustration cannot be knowledge4 ,it is too obviously the opposite of knowledge1 to wit error and delusion4 ,but once the opposition has reached this point1 where not only the convenience but the very validity of intellect is impugned1 one is involved in a disjunction between these two modes of consciousness that is demonstrably false1 both logically and psychologically4 ,it is surely a false hypostasis of terms whose distinction is merely abstract1 to set over against each other in this way two aspects which are equally essential to any conception of the nature of consciousness4 ,for intuition and intellect can be seen to imply each other with the same necessity with which quality and quantity imply each other4 ,and there is the same absurdity1 on the side of epistemology1 in regarding intuition as valid knowledge and intellect as not valid1 as1 on the side of ontology1 in regarding quality as real and quantity--or relation in general--as not real4 ,as if either were conceivable except as a co-aspect or coefficient with the other1 in the nature of reality4 ,this would be to conceive of quality as quality of nothing1 or relation as relation between no terms4 ,if philosophy must be reflective 7and reflectiveness to some degree is undoubtedly an inevitable condition of human consciousness1 perhaps of any consciousness71 it must be1 quatenus philosophy1 intellectual1 and not1 quatenus philosophy1 intuitional4 ,intuition will assuredly be there1 in any philosophy1 as the pole is inseparable from its antipodes4 ,but the philosophicalness of philosophy is just its reflectiveness2 that is1 once more1 quatenus philosophy1 it is intellectual4 ,i am recording a protest against false reification of what is abstract1 the very fault which intuitionism is insistent to lay to the charge of intellectualism4 ,if intuitionism were to conceptualize intuition and intellect1 instead of reifying them1 it could not appropriate validity to either mode of consciousness and deny it to another4 ,the satisfactoriness and richness of a given mode of consciousness depend no doubt on the constitution of the subject4 ,the validity of consciousness in any mode has nothing to do with such personal idiosyncrasy4 ,james is less rigorous concerning the validity of relational knowledge than ,bergson4 ,having found relations in the immediate content of conscious data1 ,james cannot deny them an essential constitutiveness in the nature of reality4 ,but such knowledge is 8thin0 and 8poor01 in his homely and human phraseology4 ,this is only a more nave and genial expression than ,bergson's of the purely eulogistic primacy of quality over relation4 ,relations are thin and poor aspects of reality1 no doubt1 if you find them so4 ,otherwise they may be supremely interesting4 ,that depends on your interests1 which depend on your constitution4 ,in any case1 they are the aspect of reality primarily indispensable to reflective thought1 which is philosophy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the characteristic which is most sedulously imputed by the philosophy of instinct to intellect is usefulness1 but this characteristic is treated as evidence of cognitive invalidity6 ,in point of fact1 serviceableness to action in no way distinguishes intellect from instinct4 ,each alike is a reactive state resulting in a new situation1 a new arrangement of matter2 and the only thing that can give true finality to the intelligent act is the affective value of the conscious state arising out of this new situation4 ,but the same is true of the situation which is the outcome of the instinctive act4 ,the distinction sometimes seems to mean that it is only acquaintance with objects 7intuitive knowledge of them7 that has affective value1 and that this kind of consciousness is therefore an end in itself in a sense in which intellect is not4 ,for knowledge about the object 7intellectual knowledge of it7 will then be supposed to have no affective value in itself1 but only as it may subserve action upon the object1 which action will be accompanied by acquaintance with the object4 ,but if knowledge about an object subserves acquaintance with it1 the converse is no less true4 ,if knowledge of the location and price of a tennis ball subserves my use of it and acquaintance with it1 the latter in turn subserves my knowledge about it in an indefinite number of respects4 ,true1 acquaintance with an object may not always lead to knowledge about it so obviously as in the case of the tennis ball2 but again it is equally true that knowledge about certain things1 for instance lines drawn upon the blackboard1 has no obvious leading toward utility2 the utility of a certain mathematical equation may seem quite inscrutable4 ,but how obvious the leading may be1 or how interesting the utility1 is nothing to the point4 ,the question whether or not the connection is necessarily there in all cases is answered peremptorily a priori by the polar character of knowledge by virtue of which acquaintance-with is only an aspect of knowledge-about1 and vice versa4 ,it is flagrantly untrue1 as a fact1 that knowledge-about is without affective value in itself4 ,experience is as emphatic to the contrary as reason4 ,if a characteristically intellectual state of mind gives you less satisfaction1 or more1 than one that is characteristically intuitive1 the reason is quite personal and accidental in either case4 ,it may just as well give you more as less4 ,being knowledge in each case1 awareness at least1 it has its affective value in some degree necessarily1 of whichever character it may be predominantly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since relation is not divorcible from quality1 nor intellect from intuition1 it results that1 if the artist blunders through critical defect1 even better art would1 of itself1 have saved him in spite of his critical defect4 ,if the mustiness of the philosopher is expressible as lack of a facile instinct1 merely a truer theory of life would have corrected him4 ,no doubt life is too intricate for the most robust capacity for ratiocination4 ,sanity balances securely between the two biases of consciousness4 ,art and criticism are equally long1 and the middle course a is short-cut and an economy of living4 ,but condemnation of the validity of consciousness in any mode is a theoretical proposition irrelevant to maxims of practical sagacity4 ,and it implies either condemning the validity of all consciousness 7if intuition and intellect are aspects of each other7 or else it presupposes that reality is not categorical1 which ,bergson fails to show4 ,on page #bd of the present essay1 we have seen that he seems1 in an inconsistent way1 even to maintain the contradictory thesis4 ,in a former paper#ig ,i have written as follows3 8,now1 ,bergson's idea of the philosopher--an artist in life--is probably no one's else4 ,he is of that opinion1 decidedly2 a considerable part of the book ,creative ,evolution is a demonstration that actual philosophers1 from ,plato on1 are intellectualists all1 dissectors1 not artists4 ,but if ,bergson's enterprise is to be a substitute for philosophy and appropriate its name1 we who are much addicted to the old enterprise will be careful to know why it is futile and illusory40 ,monsieur ,bergson comments on this in a private letter from which ,i translate3 8,it would be so1 ,i recognize1 if these intellectualist philosophers had been philosophers only in virtue of their intellectualism4 ,but whereas intelligence pure and simple professes to solve the problems1 it is intuition alone that has enabled them to be put4 ,without the intuitive feeling of our freedom1 there would be no problem of freedom1 hence no determinist theory2 thus1 the different forms of determinism1 which are so many forms of intellectualism1 owe their very existence to something which could not have been obtained by the intellectualist method4 ,for my part1 ,i find1 more or less developed1 the seeds of intuitionism in most of the great philosophic doctrines1 although the philosophers have always tried to convert their intuition into dialectic4 ,yet it is chiefly in the former that they have been philosophers40 ,this seems to me an absolute inversion of intuition and intellect4 ,does intuition #8put problems'8 ,it is1 certainly1 intuition that gives us the material of our problems4 ,but the formulating of a problem--what can be meant by intuition's formulating anything8 ,giving forms1 ,i should say1 just defines the work of intellect4 ,intuition gives us our facts1 our material4 ,surely1 the putting of problems is an intellectual operation continuous1 even identical1 strictly1 with their solution8 ,a problem well put is rather more than half solved4 ,certainly the remainder of the solution is not a different order of activity4 ,it carries out the #8putting' in its implications4 ,a problem put is only a problem incompletely solved4#ih ,solving it is putting it with a satisfactory perspicacity4 ,without the intuitive feeling of our freedom there would be no problem of freedom1 certainly1 but you might easily have the intuition without the problem4 ,in the preface to the ,essai sur les donnes immdiates de la conscience1 ,bergson insists that it is the aberrations of intellect that give rise to the problems of freedom4 ,intellect1 then1 at any rate1 not intuition1 puts the problem4 ,as correlative modes of consciousness1 neither is independent1 nor primary1 of course4 ,even in the putting of our problems1 intellect is only a co-factor1 a coefficient with intuition4 ,and in the most abstract reasoning1 the intuitive coefficient of thought is indispensable4 ,so far as intellect is actual1 concrete knowledge1 it must be intuitively correlated1 and so far as intuition is the real intuiting of anything1 it must be intelligently correlated4 ,in what respect are the philosophers of whom ,monsieur ,bergson speaks intuitionists8 ,does this mean anything more than that they are wide-reaching and far-reaching instead of narrow and dull in their apprehension8 ,is not philosophy interpretation of experience8 ,is not the philosopher's vision1 therefore1 always necessarily1 just so far as he is a philosopher1 a vision of the formal aspect of reality8 ,to be sure1 that is just what ,monsieur ,bergson is denying4 ,but his reason is that reality is pure quality1 a proposition whose logical faultiness and temperamental genesis ,i have sufficiently noted4 ,in view of the temperamental basis of the artistic and the philosophical or critical attitudes1 it were fatuous for either to propose a reform in the other by way of conformity to a mode distinguished from it thus radically4 ,it is this fatuity which it seems to me ,bergson commits in regarding the success of any philosophy as due1 by any possibility1 to its becoming art instead4 ,as well conceive that the virtue of an artistic product consists in its conformity to critical canons4 ,philosophy that is false to art would therein necessarily be false to philosophy2 and art that is false to philosophy is false to art2 but art is not philosophy1 nor philosophy art4 ,,part ,,two ,,bergson',s ,,system ,,of ,,doctrine ,,chapter ,i ,,ontology ,,and ,,epistemology ,my reason for coupling these two subjects in one heading is suggested by the following words quoted from the ,introduction to ,creative ,evolution3 8444 theory of knowledge and theory of life seem to us inseparable40 ,for ,bergson1 reality is life2 and knowledge1 of course1 is a function of life4 8,the fundamental character of ,bergson's philosophy10 writes ,h4 ,wildon ,carr1#ii 8is 444 to emphasize the primary importance of the conception of life as giving the key to the nature of knowledge40 ,all the essential principles of this metaphysics are contained in the first of ,bergson's philosophical books1 ,time and ,free ,will4#ajj ,the two later books1 ,matter and ,memory and ,creative ,evolution1 have not modified it1 and have hardly even developed it--in the sense1 that is1 that no vital corrections or additions to the principles of the ,essai have been made4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in discussing anti-intellectualistic philosophies1 in the first part of the present essay1 their suspicion and distrust of intellect was attributed to a logical illusion4 ,the philosopher1 finding life preeminently satisfactory in an intimate acquaintance with the qualitative aspect of experience1 acquires an instinctive faith in the preeminent reality of quality1 a faith which is the deepest root of his being4 ,now1 this faith is absolutely justified1 of course4 ,it is only necessary that it should be understood4 ,illusion and error enter in with the neglect of the very preeminence of this character of reality4 ,for evidently nothing can be preeminently real and at the same time real in any sense for which the adverb 8preeminently0 is either false or meaningless4 ,the sense of 8important0 is a well accredited1 proper meaning1 in our language1 of the word 8real40 ,but it is a sense perfectly distinct from the metaphysical sense4 ,teleologically1 anything is preeminently real according to circumstances4 ,teleologically1 8real0 is a synonym of 8important10 a relative term capable of degree4 ,metaphysically1 circumstances are irrelevant to the realness of anything4 ,this is a different statement from the statement that circumstances are irrelevant to the nature of anything4 ,it may be that there is nothing whose nature can be independent of1 wholly undetermined by1 circumstances4 ,that is another question4 ,we have nothing to do with it at present4 ,for in either case1 circumstances make it neither more nor less real4 ,metaphysically1 then1 8real0 is an absolute term1 incapable of degree1 and the adverb 8preeminently0 has no meaning when applied to it4 ,the very fitness of the adverb 8preeminently0 to the intuitionist's meaning of the realness of quality determines this meaning as a teleological eulogism1 and the ultimate significance of intuitionism is not the germination of a logical principle1 but an instinctive propagandism in the direction of a favorite emphasis of living1 an enthusiasm which has become involved in a logical illusion concerning its own foundation in the nature of things1 an illusion which is clearly traceable1 on analysis1 to this ambiguity in the use of the word 8real40 ,later in this study it will appear that ,bergson's interest centers1 as the interest of ,french philosophy has centered ever since the ,renaissance1 in the problem of freedom4 ,no doubt that very enthusiasm which motivates modern anti-intellectualism and gives it so positive a character1 is a prime factor in its popular success4 ,and in the case of ,bergson1 both the significance of his philosophy itself and the brilliant vogue it has achieved can be rightly appreciated only in the light of this central passion whose appeal to human nature is so universal and so profound4 ,anti-intellectualism and anti-determinism are one and the same thing4 ,it will appear as we go on that a deep-lying tychism1 a horror of determinism1 is the specific trait of that motive 7described above as a natural affinity for the qualitative aspect of reality1 as distinguished from its relational aspect7 which strenuously endeavors1 in ,bergson1 to eliminate relation from reality1 judgment from knowledge4 ,he protests that freedom cannot be defined without converting it into necessity2 for definition is determination4 ,a would-be indeterminist theory of will is as futile as a determinist theory is false3 on any theory1 will is prejudged in favor of determinism4 ,the nature of freedom cannot be known independently of the nature of will1 and then attributed or denied to will1 as one might attribute or deny redness to an apple4 ,to say1 ,will is free1 would be like saying1 ,will is voluntary1 or1 ,freedom is free--not1 indeed1 an untruth1 but without meaning and hence not a truth1 either4 ,the one way1 then1 of getting the true nature of will truly comprehended which is doomed to necessary failure1 is to write a psychological treatise on the subject4 ,for1 since will has no such determinate character as intellect finds in it or gives to it1 a treatise conveying the true nature of will would have to be unintelligible6 ,now1 see in will1 as ,leibniz#aja and ,schopenhauer1 as well as ,bergson1 have seen in it1 the whole of life and of reality1 and you see how it is ,bergson's tychism that constitutes the specific motive for his anti-intellectualism1 and how this so-called method forms1 in his philosophy1 the supreme doctrine which is the objective of all his discourse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bergson's critique of intellectualism proceeds by applying to traditional metaphysics and epistemology his purely qualitative criterion of reality4 ,whether science1 the product of intelligence1 is physical1 biological1 or psychological1 it is knowledge-about1 and not acquaintance-with2 its object is relation1 and not reality2 its objective is action1 and not vision2 its organ is intelligence1 not instinct4 ,but the object of philosophy is reality2 its objective is vision2 its organ instinct4 ,the timeless1 intellectual way in which science knows about1 but never knows1 is not the way of true philosophy4 ,the philosopher1 to know reality1 must achieve a vital1 sympathetic concurrence with its flow4 ,to be known1 reality must be lived1 not thought4 ,in ,creative ,evolution ,bergson traces the genesis of instinct and intelligence to a primitive tendency1 effort or spring of life 7the lan vital7 whose path bifurcates indefinitely in the course of its evolution4 ,these elementary tendencies1 instinct and intelligence1 having issued from the same primitive tendency1 are both present1 at least in rudiment1 in all forms of life2 and it is the presence1 though in a suppressed state1 of instinct in man that must save philosophy from the cognitive emptiness of science1 and give it a hold on the living fulness of reality4 ,in ,time and ,free ,will the theory of 8real duration10 which is a synonym for intuition1 and for life1 and for reality1 and is the foundation of the ,bergsonian philosophy1 is enunciated1 and in the light of it intellect is shown to falsify the nature of consciousness in applying to conscious states such categories as magnitude1 plurality1 causation4 ,each of these categories1 in its traditional application1 is a quantifying and a spatializing of consciousness4 ,the intensity of a conscious state is nothing but the state itself2 the state is pure quality or heterogeneity1 incapable of measure and degree4 ,the variousness of conscious states has no analogy with plurality4 ,plurality is simultaneity and juxtaposition2 but conscious states prolong each other in an interpenetrating flow4 ,finally1 the organization of conscious states is nothing like the traditional systematic 8cordination0 of associationistic psychology4 ,it does not lend itself to laws and principles4 ,it cannot be adequately expressed by words1 nor artificially reconstructed by a juxtaposition of simple states1 for it is always an absolutely new and original phase of our duration1 and is itself a simple thing4 ,the first chapter of ,time and ,free ,will consists of analyses of all sorts of psychological states1 in order to justify the above thesis concerning intensity4 ,they are masterly analyses1 and their interest for psychology is great4 ,so far as ,bergson's object is concerned1 of showing how intellect falsifies the nature of consciousness in conceiving of sensations as more or less intense1 what the chapter proves is no more than that whenever a conscious state varies--which every conscious state does continuously--it varies qualitatively4 ,which hardly needed to be proved4 ,for the argument does not show that1 along with the qualitative change1 a quantitative change may not occur2 that is1 it does not exclude the proposition which ,bergson is trying to refute1 namely that there is something in the nature of a conscious state that is capable of increasing and decreasing4#ajb ,in saying that conscious states are pure quality1 ,bergson means that when one compares a sensation1 for instance1 with another which is regarded as of the same 8kind10 but of greater or less intensity1 both the sameness of kind and the difference of magnitude are illusions of intellect1 due to attributing the category of magnitude1 or quantity1 to that whose nature admits of no such determination4 ,a so-called more intense odor1 say1 it is mere nonsense to call same in any sense with another1 supposed to be less intense4 ,the two are distinguishable1 that is all2 they are not comparable1 properly speaking4 ,they are comparable in just the sense1 and in no other 7it would seem1 from ,bergson's treatment of the subject1 although the statement is not his1 explicitly7 that either of the odors can be compared with a sound or a taste4 ,the difference is not one of degree2 it is what ,bergson calls absolute4 ,but what1 then1 exactly1 according to ,bergson1 do we mean when we compare psychic states as more or less intense8 ,in simple states1 he says1 magnitude of cause is associated1 by a thousand experiences1 with a certain quality or shade of effect in consciousness1 and the former is attributed to the latter4 ,the quantitative scale rubs off color1 so to speak1 by the operation of association1 from the material cause to the psychic effect4 ,in complex states intensity means the amount of our inner life which the state in question colors with its own quality4 ,a passion is deep and intense in the fact that the same objects no longer produce the same impression4 ,in this statement of the case of complex states it will be seen that ,bergson fails to avoid attributing quantity to the inner life of consciousness1 since the intensity of complex states is measured1 by him1 by a quantitative standard1 the amount of that inner life colored or affected by the quality in question4 ,the attempt is equally hopeless whether the state in question be simple or complex4 ,bergson attempts1 but fails1#ajc to prove that magnitude is a character peculiar to space1 and that homogeneity and space are two names for the same conception4 ,two odors1 two sounds are more than one1 however2 and that homogeneity in them by virtue of which they are more1 and two1 is not space4 ,bergson would object that number itself1 the twoness of the odors or sounds1 is indeed a spatial attribute falsely imputed to them4 ,they are not plural1 in themselves2 it is conceptualization that accounts for the plurality imputed to them4 ,one evolves continuously1 in the flow of consciousness1 out of the other4 ,it would be a sufficient answer that such a doctrine contradicts itself in every breath by the terms necessary to any utterance of it1--such terms as sounds1 they1 them1 one1 the other--all imputing to the objects of discussion the plurality which it tries to deny4 ,and to fall back on the disabilities of language1 due to its being the work of intellect1 is only to declare one's philosophy ineffable4 ,but not only ineffable--unthinkable4 ,yes1 ,bergson would admit1 unthinkable in the narrow sense of conceptual thought1 but not unknowable to immediate intuition4 ,the final rejoinder1 ,i think1 is that immediacy is a vanishing-point1 a limiting conception of the relation between subject and object1 a phase of consciousness in which to use the mathematical analogy1 the 8coefficient0 of consciousness vanishes into zero4 ,we return later in this essay to the amplifying of this point4#ajd ,in brief1 if there is no distinction between subject and object1 there is no object 7as1 likewise1 no subject1 of course72 hence1 no truth2 and ,bergson could not have made these ineffable discoveries about the sounds and odors1 for he could not have discovered themselves4 ,it is clear enough that nothing needs to occupy space1 in order to be a magnitude4 ,a line1 which occupies no space1 is even a spatial magnitude1 nevertheless4 ,that it is spatial1 ,bergson would say1 is just the fact that it is homogeneous4 ,but is homogeneity the only character of a line1 and is its spatiality therefore necessarily the same thing as its homogeneity8 ,evidently a line has a quale perfectly distinct from its homogeneity1 and essential to its linear nature2 that quale is its direction4 ,if an interval of time1 then1 or a mental state1 seems not to be spatial1 this does not compel us to deny that there is any homogeneity about it3 if the interval or the state of mind lacks the determination--the character of direction--which is indispensable to a line and to spatiality as such1 this lack determines these objects of thought as non-spatial without the slightest detriment to their homogeneity4 ,but all the evidence of homogeneity in space applies equally to homogeneity in time and consciousness4 ,the evidence is their additiveness3 all seem to present numerically distinct cases and quantitative differences4 ,no logical ground has been indicated1 for discrimination1 in the validity of this seeming1 as a warrant for the homogeneity of space and not of time and consciousness4 ,time and consciousness are homogeneous by the same warrant as space and matter4 ,i think it is not irrelevant to ,bergson's theory of the associative transfer of quantity in the stimulus to the sensation1 to observe that1 in the stimulus1 there is kind as well as amount4 ,if the shade or quality of the sensation corresponds to the degree of the cause1 is there no further determination of the sensation distinctively correlative with the kind of the cause8 ,such correlate seems indispensable to ,bergson's1 as to any1 reactive conception of sensation1 but1 in ,bergson's theory of intensity1 it seems to be preempted for correlation with the aspect of quantity in the stimulus4 ,the case of plural odors and sounds1 the case of the line1 and an infinity of other cases prove that magnitude is intensive as well as extensive4 ,the contradictory thesis1 that of ,bergson1 reduces1 at bottom1 to the self-contradiction that consciousness discovers what is no object of consciousness4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in admitting that sensations are comparable in this sense1 that two odors1 for instance1 regarded as of the same kind1 can be compared with each other in the same way as either can be compared with a sound or a taste1 ,bergson evidently means that they can be distinguished as different2 and he regards this as implying that sensations are absolutely heterogeneous with each other1 absolutely different4 ,this phrase1 ,i am sure1 conceals a bald contradiction4 ,it seems to mean a relation1 namely difference1 in which1 however1 the terms are absolute1 that is not in relation4 ,difference cannot be so conceived4 ,difference1 ,i submit1 cannot be conceived without that 7common to the differing terms7 in respect of which they are different4 ,monsieur ,bergson1 therefore1 in admitting that sensations are comparable in any sense1 is still confronted with an element common to all sensations2 he has still to eliminate the character of homogeneity from sensation1 by virtue of which a purely subjective evaluation of their relative intensities is possible4 ,the root of the difficulty ,monsieur ,lvy-,bruhl has shown#aje to be a reific separation of quantity and quality1 which are separable in truth only by abstraction of attention4 ,real existence in absolute homogeneity or space1 as ,bergson represents the existence of the external world1 is as unthinkable as real existence in absolute heterogeneity1 which existence is consciousness or life1 for ,bergson4 ,external things1 he says1 which do not lapse 78ne durent pas071 seem to us1 nevertheless1 to lapse like us because to each instant of our lapsing duration a new collective whole of those simultaneities which we call the universe corresponds4 8,does this not imply10 writes ,lvy-,bruhl1 8a preestablished harmony much more difficult to accept than that of ,leibniz8 ,leibniz supposes a purely ideal concord between forces of the same nature4 ,monsieur ,bergson asks us to admit an indefinite series of coincidences1 for each instant1 between #8a real duration1 whose heterogeneous moments compenetrate1' and a space which1 not lapsing1 has no moments at all4 ,monsieur ,bergson really places external reality1 which does not lapse1 in a sort of eternity4 ,he ingeniously shows that everything in space may be treated as quantity and submitted to mathematics4 ,now1 mathematical verities1 expressing only relations between given magnitudes1 are abstracted from real lapsing duration4 ,all the laws reduce to analytical formul4 ,but then they are1 according to the saying of ,bossuet1 eternal verities1 and how shall the real be distinguished from the possible80 ,this sundering1 in ,bergson's theory of reality1 of what rightly is one1 is already implied1 in his theory of knowledge1 in the mutual exclusion of the two cognitive modes1 intuition and conception4 ,the predicaments into which philosophy falls in reasoning conceptually 7and there is no other reasoning7 about the subjective 8world10 are due4 ,bergson thinks1 not to faults in the use of logic1 but to an essential incongruity between the matter and the logical mode of being conscious of it4 ,but such an essential incongruity between any mode of consciousness and what it is aware of would imply that the modes of consciousness1 on the one hand1 are parts of consciousness1 of which accordingly1 you can have one without the other 7theoretically if not actually72 and1 on the other hand1 there is the corresponding implication for ontology1 that what consciousness is aware of is also composed of two parts1 which match1 respectively1 the parts of consciousness4 ,divide consciousness into two parts1 then divide what it is aware of into two parts2 suppose that each of your parts of consciousness suits one1 and not the other1 of your two parts of what it is aware of--all this is necessary before there can be any possibility of incongruous mismatching between consciousness and being4 ,therefore uneasiness about this incongruity1 the very motive of intuitionism1 presupposes first the sharpest conceptual treatment of the subjective 8world10 and then the flagrant reification of the resulting abstractions4 ,in other words1 the indispensable precondition of dialectical defense of intuitionism is an intellectualism of the 8vicious0 type4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the first chapter of the ,essai having criticized the application of magnitude to consciousness1 and found that psychological intensity has nothing quantitative about it1 the second chapter proceeds with an analogous criticism of number1 and finds that psychological variousness has nothing plural about it4 ,the multiplicity of material objects is number or plurality2 the variousness of the facts of mind is nothing of the sort4 ,numerical multiplicity is distinct and objective1 given or thought in space2 subjective variousness is indistinct and compenetrating4 ,the medium of the facts of consciousness being lapsing duration1 and not extension1 they are never simultaneous in the same consciousness4 ,but then they cannot be counted2 to count is to have things together1 simultaneously4 ,that1 again1 is to have them in space4 ,and that1 finally1 is to have them as objects4 ,now1 the essential nature of psychic facts is to be subjective and not objective4 ,if1 therefore1 you find yourself counting facts within a consciousness1 you are deluded2 they cannot be what you take them for2 they can only be 7spatial7 objects1 symbols by which you are representing facts that are not objective1--because they are subjective6--and not spatial but temporal4 ,this statement of the case will satisfy few people as it stands4 ,professor ,bergson is aware of this1 and he will grant that such alleged facts of consciousness as you distinguish and count may be set in the medium of time rather than in space1 if time1 as well as space1 is a homogeneous medium2 but time so understood1 he thinks1 turns into space4 ,and time is so understood very generally1 without any doubt4 ,when we speak of time1 says ,bergson1 we are usually thinking of space2 that is1 we are thinking of a homogeneous medium1 a medium1 therefore1 in which psychic states are aligned or juxtaposited1 as things are in space1 forming a distinct multiplicity4 ,this is1 of course1 another aspect of what ,bergson regards as the same vice1 conceptualism1 that is discussed in the first chapter of the ,essai4 ,an intensive magnitude is a distinct concept1 sharply bounded2 all within is the concept1 all without1 its other4 ,but no psychic fact is sharply bounded2 it penetrates the whole consciousness4 ,the whole consciousness is one with it4 ,we work quantitatively with concepts1 always1 arithmetically and geometrically4 ,but then we work in space1 which is enough1 says ,bergson1 to show that intensity applied to a psychic fact is not a magnitude1 since psychic facts are not in space4 ,so here1 in the second chapter1 the elements which one pretends to count and add in time are1 in order to be counted and added--in order merely to be distinguished--distinct concepts4 ,then they are not in time but in space4 ,the application of intensive magnitude and of numerical multiplicity to psychic facts is thus the same fallacy in two aspects1 the fallacy of conceptualism1 the nature of which is to substitute space for time as the form of mental existence4 ,but ,professor ,bergson is not altogether dogmatic in saying that conceptual time is a spatialized symbol of real time4 ,he goes on now to show how it is that the nature of real time is nothing like conceptual time4 ,dure1 his name for real time1 seems a bad term for such a use2 for the essence of ,bergson's 8dure0 is change1 while duration in every other connection means just the waiting or standing still of the flow of time4 ,some term like 8lapse0 seems nearer the idea4 ,the genetic or empirical theory of space perception regards the sensations by which we succeed in forming the notion of space as themselves unextended and purely qualitative2 extension results from their synthesis1 as water results from the combination of two elements4 ,bergson remarks that the fact that water is neither oxygen nor hydrogen nor merely both is just the fact that we embrace the multiplicity of atoms in a single apperception4 ,eliminate the mind which operates this synthesis and you will at the same time annihilate the water qualities so far as they are other than oxygen and hydrogen qualities2 you will1 that is1 annihilate the aspect under which the synthesis of elementary parts is presented to our consciousness4 ,for space to arise from the coexistence of non-spatial qualities1 an act of the mind is necessary1 embracing them all together and juxtapositing them--an act which is a ,kantian a priori form of sensibility4 ,this act is the conception of an empty homogeneous medium4 ,it is a principle of differentiation other than qualitative differentiation1 enabling us to distinguish qualitatively identical simultaneous sensations4 ,without this principle1 we should have perception of the extended1 but we should not have conception of space4 ,that is1 simultaneous sensations are never absolutely identical1 because the organic elements stimulated are not identical4 ,there are no two points of a homogeneous surface that produce the same impression on sight and touch4 ,so there is a real qualitative difference between any two simultaneous points4 ,this1 ,bergson says1 is enough to give us perception of the extended4 ,but the conception of space is en outre4 ,the higher one rises in the series of intelligent beings1 the more clearly the independent idea of a homogeneous space stands out4 ,space is not so homogeneous for the animal as for us4 ,directions are not purely geometrical2 they have their quality4 ,we ourselves distinguish our right and left by a natural feeling4 ,we cannot define them4 ,now1 the faculty of conceiving a space without quality is not at all an abstraction2 on the contrary1 to abstract presupposes the intuition of a homogeneous medium4 ,we know two realities of different order1 one heterogeneous1 that of sensible qualities1 the other homogeneous1 which is space4 ,the latter enables us to make sharp distinctions1 to count1 to abstract1 perhaps even to speak4 ,everybody regards time as an indefinite homogeneous medium1 and yet everybody regards it as different from space4 ,is one1 then1 reducible to the other8 ,the genetic or empirical school tries to reduce the relations of extension to more or less complex relations of succession in duration4 ,the relations of situation in space are defined as reversible relations of succession in duration4 ,but succession in duration is not reversible4 ,pure duration is the form of succession of conscious states when one refrains from reflectively setting up a distinctness between the present state and former states4 ,this does not mean being wholly absorbed in the passing sensation or idea1 nor forgetting former states2 but it means organizing them instead of juxtapositing them2 they become like the notes of a melody1 which1 though they succeed each other1 are apperceived in each other2 they interpenetrate like the parts of a living being4 ,succession1 then1 can be conceived without distinctness1 as a mutual penetration1 a solidarity1 an intimate organization of elements each of which1 representative of the whole1 is distinguished and isolated therefrom only for a thought capable of abstraction4 ,we introduce the idea of space into our representation of pure succession2 we so juxtaposit our states of consciousness as to perceive them simultaneously1 not in1 but beside each other2 we project time upon space1 we express duration in terms of extension4 ,succession then takes the form of a continuous line or of a chain1 whose parts touch without interpenetration1 which implies a simultaneous before and after instead of a successive--that is1 a simultaneous succession1 which is a contradiction4 ,now1 when the genetic school defines the relations of situation in space as reversible relations of succession in duration1 it represents succession in duration in this self-contradictory way4 ,you cannot make out an order among terms without distinguishing the terms and comparing the places they occupy1 without perceiving them1 therefore1 as juxtaposited4 ,then to make out an order in the terms of a succession is to make the succession a simultaneity4 ,so this attempt to represent space by means of time presupposes the representation of space4 ,of space in three dimensions1 moreover2 for the representation of two dimensions--that is1 of a line--implies that of three dimensions3 to perceive a line is to place oneself outside it and account for the void surrounding it4 ,pure duration is nothing but a succession of qualitative changes fusing1 interpenetrating1 without outlines or tendency to externality by interrelation1 without any kinship with number4 ,pure duration is pure heterogeneity4 ,no time that can be measured is duration1 for heterogeneity is not quantity1 not measurable4 ,when we measure a minute we represent a quantity and ipso facto exclude a succession4 ,we represent sixty oscillations of a pendulum1 for instance1 all together1 in one apperception1 as we represent sixty points of a line4 ,now1 to represent each of these oscillations in succession1 just as it is produced in space1 no recollection of a preceding oscillation can enter the representation of any one1 for space has kept no trace of it4 ,one is confined to the present1 and there is no more succession1 or duration1 in such a representation than in that of the group as a whole4 ,a third way of representing these oscillations is conceivable4 ,like the first1 it involves retention of preceding oscillations2 but1 unlike the first1 it retains preceding oscillations in succeeding ones1 instead of alongside of them2 they interpenetrate and interorganize1 as was just said1 like the notes of a melody4 ,like the conceptual representation1 the intuitional involves a multiplicity4 ,a conceptual multiplicity is distinct1 homogeneous1 quantitative1 numerical2 an intuitive multiplicity is indistinct1 heterogeneous1 qualitative1 without analogy with number4 ,now1 it is the latter that characterizes reality2 and the multiplicity that we represent conceptually is only a symbol of the reality known to intuition4 ,oscillations of a pendulum measure nothing2 they count simultaneities4 ,outside of me1 in space1 there is only a single position of the pendulum2 of past positions none remains4 ,because my duration is an organization and interpenetration of facts1 ,i represent what ,i call 8past0 oscillations of the pendulum at the same time that ,i perceive the actual oscillation4 ,eliminate the ego1 and there is only a single position of the pendulum1 and no duration4 ,eliminate the pendulum1 and there is only the heterogeneous duration of the ego4 ,within the ego is succession without simultaneity or reciprocal externality3 without the ego1 reciprocal externality without succession1 which can exist only for a conscious spectator who remembers the past1 and juxtaposits the symbols of the two oscillations in an auxiliary space4 ,now1 between this succession without externality and this externality without succession a kind of endosmotic commerce goes on4 ,although the successive phases of our conscious life interpenetrate1 some of them correspond to simultaneous oscillations of the pendulum2 and since each oscillation is distinct--that is1 one is no more when another is produced--we come to make the same distinctness between the successive moments of our conscious life4 ,the oscillations of the pendulum decompose it1 as it were1 into mutually external parts3 hence the erroneous idea of an internal homogeneous duration analogous to space1 whose identical moments follow each other without interpenetrating4 ,on the other hand1 the pendular oscillations benefit by the influence they have exerted on our conscious life4 ,thanks to the recollection of their collective whole1 which our consciousness has organized1 they are preserved and then aligned2 in short1 we create a fourth dimension of space for them1 which we call homogeneous time1 and which enables the pendular movement1 although produced in a certain spot1 to be juxtaposited with itself indefinitely4 ,there is a real space1 without duration1 but in which phenomena appear and disappear simultaneously with our states of consciousness4 ,there is a real duration1 whose heterogeneous moments interpenetrate1 but each of which can touch a state of the external world contemporaneous with it1 and so be made separate from other movements4 ,from the comparison of these two realities arises a symbolic representation of duration drawn from space4 ,the trait common to these two terms1 space and duration1 is simultaneity1 the intersection of time and space4 ,this is how duration comes to get the illusory appearance of a homogeneous medium4 ,but time is not measurable4 ,neither is motion1 the living symbol of time4 ,like duration1 motion is heterogeneous and indivisible4 ,but it is universally confused with the space through which the movable passes4 ,the successive positions of the movable are in space1 but the motion is not in space4 ,motion is passing from one position to another1 which operation occupies duration and has reality only for a conscious spectator4 ,things occupy space2 processes occupy duration1 because they are mental syntheses and are unextended4 ,the synthesis which is motion is obviously not a new deploying in another homogeneous medium1 of the same positions that have been perceived in space2 for if it were such an act1 the necessity for resynthesis would be indefinitely repeated4 ,the synthesis which is motion is a qualitative synthesis1 a gradual organization of our successive sensations with each other1 a unity analogous to that of a melodic phrase4 ,the space traversed is a quantity1 indefinitely divisible2 the act by which space is traversed is a quality1 and indivisible4 ,again that endosmotic exchange takes place1 as between the melodically organized perception of the series of the pendulum's motions and its distinct objective presence at each instant4 ,that is1 we attribute to the motion the divisibility of the space traversed2 and we project the act upon space1 implying that outside as well as inside of consciousness the past coexists with the present4 ,in space are only parts of space4 ,in any point of space where the movable may be considered1 there is only a position4 ,you would search space in vain for motion4 ,from the fact that motion cannot be in space1 ,zeno concluded wrongly that motion is impossible4 ,but those who try to answer his arguments by seeking it also in space1 find it no more than he4 ,achilles overtakes the tortoise because each ,achilles step and each tortoise step is not a space but a duration1 whose nature is not addible nor divisible1 and whose production therefore does not presuppose productions of parts of themselves1 ad infinitum4 ,their development is not construction4 ,they are entire while they are at all1 and since the intersections of their terminal moments with space are not at equal distances1 these intersections will coincide1 or their spatial relations will be inverted1 after a certain number of these simultaneities--whether of ,achilles' steps or of the tortoise's--with points of the road have been counted2 in other words1 ,achilles will have overtaken or outrun the tortoise after a certain number of steps4 ,to measure the velocity of a motion is simply to find a simultaneity2 to introduce this simultaneity into calculation is to use a convenient means of foreseeing a simultaneity4 ,just as in duration there is nothing homogeneous except what does not lapse1 to wit space in which simultaneities are aligned1 so the homogeneous element of motion is that which least pertains to it1 to wit the space traversed1 which is immobility4 ,science can work on time and motion only on condition of first eliminating the essential and qualitative element1 duration from time1 mobility from motion4 ,treatises on mechanics never define duration itself1 but call two intervals of time equal when two identical bodies in circumstances identical at the commencement of each of these intervals1 and subjected to identical actions and influences of every kind1 have traversed the same space at the end of these intervals4 ,there is no question1 in science1 of duration1 but only of space and of simultaneities between outer change and certain of our psychic states4 ,that duration does not enter into natural science is seen in the fact that if all the motions of the universe were quicker or slower1 then1 whereas consciousness would have an indefinable and qualitative intuition of this change1 no scientific formul would be modified1 since the same number of simultaneities would be produced again in space4 ,analysis of the idea of velocity proves that mechanics has nothing to do with duration4 ,if1 on a trajectory ,,ab1 points ,m1 ,n1 ,p 444 such that ,,am ,,mn ,,np 444 are reached at equal intervals of time1 as defined above1 and ,,am etc4 are smaller than any assignable quantity1 the motion is said to be uniform4 ,the velocity of a uniform motion is therefore defined without appeal to notions other than those of space and simultaneity4 ,by a somewhat complicated demonstration#ajf the same is shown to be true of the velocity of varying motion4 ,mechanics necessarily works with equations1 and equations always express accomplished facts4 ,it is of the essence of duration and motion to be in formation1 so that while mathematics can express any moment of duration or any position taken by a movable in space1 duration and motion themselves1 being mental syntheses and not things1 necessarily remain outside the calculation4 ,the movable occupies the points of a line in turn1 but the motion has nothing in common with this line4 ,the positions occupied by the movable vary with the different moments of duration2 indeed1 the movable creates distinct moments merely by the fact that it occupies different positions2 but duration has no identical nor mutually external moments1 being essentially heterogeneous and indistinct4 ,only space1 then1 is homogeneous2 only things in space are distinctly multiple4 ,there is no succession in space4 ,so-called 8successive0 states of the outer world exist each alone4 ,their multiplicity is real only for a consciousness capable of preserving it and then juxtapositing it with others1 thus externalizing them by interrelation4 ,they are preserved by consciousness because they give rise to facts of consciousness which connect past and present by their interpenetrating organization4 ,but one ceases when another appears1 and so consciousness perceives them in the form of a distinct multiplicity1 which amounts to aligning them in the space where each existed separately4 ,space used in this way is just what is meant by homogeneous time4 ,the spatial and the temporal kind of multiplicity are just as different as space and the real time that lapses4 ,spatial multiplicity is always substituted for the temporal kind1 in discourse2 their distinction cannot be expressed in language1 because language is a product of space so that terms are inevitably spatial4 ,even to speak of 8several0 conscious states interpenetrating is to characterize them numerically1 and so interrelate and mutually externalize or spatialize them4#ajg ,on the other hand1 we cannot form the idea of a distinct multiplicity without considering1 parallel to it1 a qualitative multiplicity4 ,even in counting units on a homogeneous background1 they organize in a dynamic1 qualitative way4 ,that is the psychological explanation of the effect of a 8marked-down0 price4 ,the figures #d4ih have a quality of their own1 or rather the price has1 that is quite inexpressible by the formula 8#e minus #b40 ,quantity has its quality4 ,in a succession of identical terms1 then1 each term has two aspects1 spatial and temporal1 objective and subjective1 one always identical with itself1 the other specific because of the unique quality its addition gives the collective whole of the series4 ,now1 motion is just such a 8qualifying10 the subjective aspect of what1 objectively1 is a succession of identical terms1 to wit the movable in successive positions4 ,it is always the same movable1 but in the synthesis1 the images of it that memory calls earlier interpenetrate with the actual image2 the synthesis1 the interpenetration1 is motion4 ,motion is real1 and absolute2 it is subjective1 however1 not objective4 ,to represent motion is to objectify it4 ,that is what ,zeno did1 and what everyone must do for practical purposes4 ,but ,zeno's purpose was speculative1 and that1 ,professor ,bergson thinks1 is fatally different4 ,when you objectify motion you deny it1 for its essence is subjective4 ,strictly speaking1 ,zeno was right in finding motion unthinkable2 he was wrong only in supposing that what is unthinkable is ipso facto impossible4 ,evidently1 the ego has these two aspects4 ,the ego touches the external world2 and its sensations1 though fused in each other1 retain something of the reciprocal externality which objectively characterizes their causes4 ,now1 in dreaming1 the ego does not touch the external world1 and1 in dreaming1 time is not homogeneous2 we do not measure time1 in dreams1 but only feel it4 ,for sleep retards the play of organic functions and modifies the surface of communication between the ego and external things4 ,but we need not sleep1 to be thus withdrawn from environment4 ,as ,i compose this train of thought1 the hour strikes4 ,when ,i notice the striking1 ,i know some strokes have sounded which ,i did not notice4 ,i know even their number1 four4 ,i know it by filling out the 8melody10 as it were1 of which ,i am now conscious4 ,i found the 8four0 in a way that was not counting1 at all4 ,the number of strokes has its quality1 and anything but four fails to suit1 differs in quality4 ,a counted four and a felt four are absolutely different forms of multiplicity1 and each is multiplicity4 ,under the ego of clearly-defined and countable states is the real ego which it symbolizes1 in which succession implies fusion and organization4 ,the states of this real ego language cannot seize1 for that were to objectify it and fix its mobility4 ,in giving these states the form of those of the symbolic ego1 language makes them fall into the common domain of space1 where they straightway become common and impersonal4 ,this common and impersonal ego is the social and practical ego2 this is the ego that uses language4 ,to language is due the illusion that qualities are permanent4 ,but objects change by mere familiarity4 ,we dislike1 in manhood1 smells and tastes which we call the same as those we liked in childhood4 ,but they are not the same4 ,it is only their causes that remain the same4 ,the interpenetrating elements of conscious states are already deformed the moment a numerical multiplicity is discovered in the confused mass4 ,just now it had a subtle and unique coloration borrowed from its organization in developing life2 here it is decolored and ready to receive a name4 ,this is the error of the associationistic school4 ,psychology cannot reason concerning facts being accomplished1 as it may concerning accomplished facts4 ,the accomplishing of a fact can in no wise enter into discourse4 ,it is unthinkable in precisely the same way as motion2 or rather1 it is the same case4 ,psychology cannot present the living ego as an association of terms mutually distinct and juxtaposited in a homogeneous medium4#ajh ,and association is just conceptualism applied to psychology4 ,its problems of personality have to be absurdly stated1 in order to be stated at all4 ,the terms of such problems deny what the problem posits1 merely by being terms or names2 they name the unnamable and define the indefinable4 ,the solution is to cease thinking spatially of that which is temporal1 to take the other attitude4#aji ,or1 the author says here1 using merely a different phrase1 the solution is to substitute the real and concrete ego for its symbolic representation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this second chapter of ,time and ,free ,will undertakes to show that the successiveness of conscious states makes them uncountable4 ,simultaneity is indispensable to distinctness1 and so to number4 ,one can count the spatialized symbols of conscious states because these are not successive1 but simultaneous4 ,psychic multiplicity is non-numerical in the same sense and for the same reason that psychic intensity is non-quantitative1 namely that it is pure heterogeneity and temporality4 ,in the foregoing report1 ,i have sometimes mitigated the baldness of the paradox as it is stated by ,bergson1 by substituting the term 8variousness0 for 8multiplicity10 in speaking of psychic facts4 ,after all1 it was a thankless subterfuge--an impertinence1 perhaps1 since ,bergson himself is frank enough to insist that psychic multiplicity is as genuine multiplicity as the spatial and material sort4 ,the difference is that the former is indistinct and the latter distinct4 ,but this difference is abysmal--indeed1 it is absolute4 ,all the power of ,bergson's forceful style is concentrated on it4 ,the point is turned and re-turned in every variety of expression4 ,at the same time1 the common multiplicity belonging in both conceptions is emphasized as much as their difference4 ,the thesis thus reduces to this1 that two varieties of the same genus are 8absolutely different20 for we are explicitly advised1 on one hand1 that there is a multiplicity which is distinct1 and a multiplicity which is indistinct2 each is multiplicity4 ,and1 on the other hand1 one is numerical and the other 8has no analogy with number40 ,in view of the superior qualities of the mind that is guilty of this unreasonableness1 the conviction of sincerity which it carries tortures the conscientious critic4 ,one cannot approve of the intolerant scorn of a certain book1 in which ,bergson's arguments are vilified as vain display1 mere word-play2 but patience is overtaxed in finding one's way through the plausibility of this chapter4 ,the thesis1 certainly1 may be dismissed from any consideration whatever4 ,because of it1 one knows in advance1 beyond peradventure1 that there is no validity in any argument in its defense4 ,yet1 in spite of all1 the chapter challenges study2 and thorough study of it cannot fail to put the truth in clearer light1 just because its error is so plausible4 ,counting is synthesis1 the argument goes2 but a synthesized succession is not a succession1 it is a simultaneity4 ,and simultaneity presupposes spatial determination in the coexistent elements4 ,from ,bergson's point of view1 it is a radical error1 however universal an error1 to regard the relation of simultaneity as a temporal determination4 ,in fact1 there is no such thing as a temporal determination2 and every determination1 for ,bergson1 not only is not temporal1 but is spatial4 ,like the argument about non-quantitative intensity1 this argument for non-plural multiplicity 7save the mark67 turns on the equation of homogeneity with space4 ,but the present argument involves its own peculiar fallacy1 as well1 namely the fallacy which ,professor ,perry describes#aaj as confusion of a relation symbolized with the relation between symbols4 8,it is commonly supposed10 ,perry writes1 8that when a complex is represented by a formula1 the elements of the complex must have the same relation as that which subsists between the parts of the formula2 whereas1 as a matter of fact1 the formula as a whole represents or describes a complex other than itself4 ,if ,i describe a as #8to the right of b1' does any difficulty arise because in my formula a is to the left of b8 ,if ,i speak of a as greater than b1 am ,i to assume that because my symbols are outside one another that a and b must be outside one another8 ,such a supposition would imply a most nave acceptance of that very #8copy theory' of knowledge which pragmatism has so severely condemned4 ,and yet such a supposition seems everywhere to underlie the anti-intellectualist's polemic4 ,the intellect is described as substituting for the interpenetration of the real terms in an 8indistinct0 psychic multiplicity the juxtaposition of their symbols2 as though analysis discovered terms1 and then conferred relations of its own 444 ,terms are found in relation1 and may be thus described without any more artificiality1 without any more imposing of the forms of the mind on its subject-matter1 than is involved in the bare mention of a single term4 8444 one may mean continuity despite the fact that the symbols and words are discrete4 ,the word #8blue' may mean blue1 although the word is not blue4 ,similarly1 continuity may be an arrangement meant by a discontinuous arrangement of words and symbols40 ,so of the simultaneity or coexistence among the conceptual symbols by which successive psychic states are counted3 there is nothing in such a relation among the symbols to falsify the process of counting as a cognitive process whose meaning is a non-simultaneous relation among the psychic facts symbolized4 ,as was noted above1#aaa the quantitative determination of psychic facts depends solely on an aspect of homogeneity essential to such facts1 for which aspect no better evidence is possible than that other aspect which ,bergson attributes to them1 of heterogeneity2 for the two conceptions1 instead of excluding each other1 imply each other absolutely4 ,all that is necessary1 in order that psychic facts should be countable1 is that they should possess an aspect of homogeneity4 ,and for this1 spatiality is unnecessary2 for spatiality is a conception distinct from homogeneity4 ,bergson's identification of homogeneity with spatiality is a case of what ,professor ,perry calls 8definition by initial predication40#aab ,space is homogeneous2 therefore homogeneity is space4 ,as if the fact that homogeneity is a character of space were anything against its being a character also of time or anything else4 ,the following is the justification offered by ,bergson for identifying homogeneity with space3 8,if space is to be defined as the homogeneous1 it seems that inversely every homogeneous and unbounded medium will be space4 ,for1 homogeneity here consisting in the absence of every quality1 it is hard to see how two forms of the homogeneous could be distinguished from one another40#aac ,the first clause begs the question by defining space as 8the0 homogeneous4 ,such identification of space and homogeneity is the point to be proved4 ,the second sentence begs the question again1 where homogeneity is supposed 8here0 7i4 e4 in the case of space7 to consist in the absence of every quality4 ,moreover1 as we have noted above 7p4 #dc71 space possesses a very determinate quality1 direction1 which differentiates it from other homogeneity4 ,finally1 it can be true that homogeneity is absence of quality only on the ,bergsonian assumptions that quality is exclusively subjective1 that homogeneity is exclusively objective1 and that only the subjective is positive4 ,now1 if quality is not objective1 judgments cannot be made concerning it2 but ,bergson is constantly making such judgments4 ,and to distinguish1 in point of homogeneity or of positivity1 between 8the subjective0 and 8the objective0 is to reify two equally abstract aspects of positive reality4 ,the quality of the homogeneous is doubtless simple1 and so indefinable4 ,but ,bergson nowhere shows how the homogeneous is less positive than the heterogeneous1 although the thesis is the sum and substance of his philosophy4 ,lacking further light on the point1 one can only invoke such experiences as the simple colors1 for instance1--or1 for that matter1 any simple quality--for cases of reality as positive as any heterogeneity1 and1 obviously1 no less qualified4 ,and nothing seems easier than the distinction between redness1 for instance1 and spatiality4 ,bergson's whole dialectic rests on reification of such correlative abstractions as homogeneity and heterogeneity1 quality and relation etc4 in a 8purity0 which not only is not concretely experienced1 but is not even capable of being conceived1 because each concept drags the other ineluctably into its own definition4 ,if either space or homogeneity were indeed absence of quality1 they could not be distinguished from time1 nor from heterogeneity1 nor from anything else2 in short1 they could not be conceived at all4 ,the present essay aims to report ,bergson's own work with a fair degree of fulness2 but it is beyond my plan to follow exposition with criticism point by point in the details1 even1 in some cases1 when these are of important and wide implication4 ,for discussion of ,bergson's contention 7based on analysis of the idea of velocity1 as outlined above7 that mechanics has nothing to do with time1 the reader is referred to pages #bee-fa of ,perry's ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies4 ,perry shows1 in this passage1 that such a contention1 again1 depends on 8confusing the symbol with what it means4 ,to one who falls into this confusion1 it may appear that an equation cannot refer to time because the structure of the equation itself is not temporal2 because the symbols are simultaneously present in the equation4 ,but if t is one of the terms of the equation1 and t means time1 then the equation means a temporal process4 ,furthermore1 an equation may define a relation1 such as 1 1 or 1 between temporal quantities1 in which case the full meaning of the equation is still temporal4 ,for changes1 events1 or even pure intervals1 may stand in non-temporal relations1 such as those above1 without its in the least vitiating their temporality40 ,bergson's solution of ,zeno's paradoxes is another detail of this chapter which is of a good deal of interest2 but it applies no new principle to the support of the impossibility of counting psychic facts4 ,without a clearer conception of the commerce or intersection between time and space1 which he characterizes only by the name of 8simultaneity10 his reply to ,zeno leaves the question of the divisibility of time as problematic as ever4 ,achilles out-strips the tortoise1 he says1 8because each of ,achilles' steps and each of the tortoise's steps are indivisible acts in so far as they are movements1 and are different magnitudes in so far as they are space40#aad ,they are indivisible in the same sense in which a living organism is indivisible3 if you divide them1 no division is a part of that which was4 ,but the trouble is that they are divisible also in the same sense in which the organism is divisible4 ,it is the most extravagant of assumptions that analysis of a living body into right and left etc4--which1 to be sure1 is serviceable to activity upon it--is1 because of its service to action1 not a character of the object itself4 ,and of motion the same sort of analysis is a patent fact of experience3 there is an earlier1 middle and latter phase4 ,the possibility of this patent fact is the crux of the problem4 ,no extant answer to ,zeno is satisfactory to everybody4 ,i shall refer the reader to ,professor ,fullerton's treatment of the paradoxes1 in ,chapter ,,xi of his ,system of ,metaphysics1 as the solution which seems to me to be at the same time the most closely related of any that ,i know1 to ,bergson's1 and free of ,bergson's error4 ,bergson's solution has at least this element of truth1 that ,zeno confuses the space traversed with something else concerned in every case of motion4 ,fullerton makes a distinction between any actual experience of space or time1 and the possibility of indefinitely magnified substitutes for such experience2 and shows a way in which motion can be relegated to the former 78apparent0 space7 and denied to the latter 78real0 space7 without either denying reality to motion or infinite divisibility to real space and time4 ,bergson's differentiation of temporal succession from spatial seriality gets all its cogency from an exclusive attention1 when consciousness is concerned1 to the aspects of heterogeneity 7quality7 and compenetration 7continuity7 which consciousness shows2 and1 when space is concerned1 to its aspects of homogeneity 7quantity7 and juxtaposition of parts 7discreteness74 ,as always1 with correlative abstractions1 ,bergson reifies them3 they exclude each other1 for him1 whereas1 in truth1 they imply each other1 entering into each other's definition so that each is unthinkable except by means of the other4 ,time is continuous1 ,bergson insists rightly2 but jumps to the conclusion that therefore time is not discrete4 ,time is heterogeneous1 therefore not homogeneous4 ,space is discrete 7its parts spread out71 therefore not continuous2 homogeneous1 therefore not heterogeneous4 ,if any demonstration is necessary that these terms do imply each other1 instead of excluding each other1 the case of heterogeneity and homogeneity is only the case of resemblance and difference 7cf4 page #dd74 ,in regard to the heterogeneity of space1 its differentiation by way of direction must not be forgotten4 ,as for the other pair of terms1 continuity can manifest itself only in extenso1 and discreteness requires a separating medium4 ,wherever ,bergson objects to expressing time in terms of space1 the real objection is to the expression of time in terms of homogeneity4 ,this he would not only admit1 but insist upon4 ,but his demonstration that homogeneity is a character exclusively spatial is a petitio principii4#aae ,of the attempt to measure a minute1 he writes as follows3 8,i say1 e4 g41 that a minute has just elapsed1 and ,i mean by this that a pendulum1 beating the seconds1 has completed sixty oscillations4 ,if ,i picture these sixty oscillations to myself all at once1 by a single mental perception1 ,i exclude by hypothesis the idea of a succession4 ,i do not think of sixty strokes which succeed one another1 but of sixty points on a fixed line1 each one of which symbolizes1 so to speak1 an oscillation of the pendulum4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,i wish to picture these sixty oscillations in succession1 but without altering the way they are produced in space1 ,i shall be compelled to think of each oscillation to the exclusion of the recollection of the preceding one1 for space has preserved no trace of it2 but by doing so ,i shall condemn myself to remain forever in the present2 ,i shall give up the attempt to think a succession or a duration40 ,notwithstanding his acuteness as a psychologist1 ,bergson misses the nature of the apperception both of sixty points on a line and of sixty oscillations of a pendulum4 ,and the impossibility of counting psychic facts depends on this misapprehension4 ,he misses the fact that an apperception of sixty points on a line includes1 as an essential feature1 the serial order1 the here-and-there determination 7a distinctive qualitative determination7 of this spatial fact4 ,and he misses the fact that an apperception of a non-spatial rhythm includes1 as an essential feature1 the successive order1 the earlier-and-later determination1 of this psychic fact4 ,now1 seriality is not succession1 if you like1 except in so far as each is order4 ,but this is no more than to say that the two orders1 time and space1 are distinguishable--are two1 in fact4 ,it is not the slightest obstruction to conceiving each as order1 and as numerically determined4 ,for there is no evidence except ,bergson's fundamental fallacy of 8definition by initial predication10 to show why homogeneity and order1 as such1 are exclusively spatial4 ,the discreteness of parts of space is thinkable only by the intervening spaces3 space is as continuous 7as 8compenetrative07 as time4#aaf ,on the other hand1 the compenetration of time is not only nothing against its divisibility1 but divisibility and compenetration 7in the only rigorous meaning the word will bear1 that is1 continuity7 are indispensable to each other1 inverse aspects of each other4 ,you can divide only what is connected1 as you can connect only what is distinct4 ,time1 then1 is as discrete as space4 ,for every instance of temporal 8compenetration10 and 8solidarity10 its perfect spatial analogue is plain to the inspection of anyone who will only look that way1 to anyone whose attention is not hypnotized by an ulterior purpose to its exclusion4#aag ,thus the melodic phrase is present in each of its parts as much as1 and no more than1 the mosaic figure is present in each of its parts4 ,the 8felt four0 of the clock strokes is felt as four not otherwise1 ,i think1 than a four which might figure in the pattern of a frieze4 ,the same limitations1 moreover1 apply to such felt multiplicity1 whether of rhythm or of pattern4 ,it must be a relatively simple complex1 to be apperceived1 in either case4 ,you could not feel fifty1 and the difficulty is the same difficulty in time as in space4 ,one measures a minute or a century just as one measures an inch or the distance from the earth to the sun3 the indispensable condition is the continuity and homogeneity which belong to both quantities4 ,the proposition that oscillations of a pendulum measure nothing1 but count simultaneities apparently means that oscillations1 as physical facts1 have no duration of their own1 and so cannot overlie duration as a unit of measurement4 ,this would at least be an intelligible1 even if a false1 representation2 but1 if oscillations cannot measure1 how can they count8 ,what is just that difference between counting and measuring1 by virtue of which that which can count cannot measure8 ,simultaneity ,bergson defines as the intersection of space and time4 ,now1 counting1 as well as measuring1 implies a continuum4 ,measuring1 certainly1 if it is theoretically perfect1 can apply only to a continuum2 but counting1 which obviously presupposes discreteness1 then requires also the indispensable condition and correlative of discreteness1 which is continuity4 ,the intersection of space and time thus evidently involves equal continuity and discreteness in both2 if they can intersect1 and their intersections are countable1 each is both countable and measurable4 ,the 8purely0 temporal phenomena of our conscious life1 although interpenetrating1 8correspond individually0 to an oscillation of the pendulum1 which1 though a 8purely0 spatial phenomenon1 8occurs at the same time with0 the former4 ,such 8endosmotic commerce0 between psychical and physical events seems to be decisive for a real community of nature between their respective forms1 time and space--such1 for instance1 as common homogeneity and continuity4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,mind ,,and ,,matter1 ,,spirit ,,and ,,body ,bergson regards knowledge of oneself as the optimal case of knowing2 oneself1 he thinks1 is the sample of reality which best serves for an acquaintance with the nature of reality in general4 8,the existence of which we are most assured and which we know best is unquestionably our own1 for of every other object we have notions which may be considered external and superficial1 whereas1 of ourselves1 our perception is internal and profound40#aah ,it is this perfect or optimal relation of identity or inwardness--which one bears to oneself--that is the condition of true 7i4 e4 intuitive7 knowledge4 ,and in this case we find existence to be a perpetual flow of transition4 ,that we think of our states as distinct from each other is due to the fact that reflection on one's own existence is1 unlike the flow of that existence itself1 necessarily discontinuous4 ,it is only now and then that motives arise which turn the attention to the self as an object1 like others1 for examination4 ,the flow of change is not uniform1 to be sure4 ,it is quite imperceptible to our reflective attention most of the time1 but if it ever ceased1 we should at that moment cease to exist4 ,only the relatively sudden and interesting periods of transition get our attention4 ,then we see a new 8state of consciousness0 which we add to the others that we have mentally strung together in a temporal line4 ,so we conceive of our history as the sum of elements as distinct as beads on a string4 ,this intellectualistic view of the self eliminates the peculiar characteristic of its reality1 namely1 its duration1 or the flow of its change1 like a snowball1 accumulating its substance as it rolls1 duration goes on preserving itself in incessant change that accumulates all its past4 ,time1 ,bergson says1 is the very stuff the psychological life is made of4 8,there is1 moreover1 no stuff more resistant nor more substantial40#aai ,life and inertia or matter are two antagonistic principles or tendencies4 ,life is the positive and active principle2 reality and duration are predicable only of life4 ,matter is an 8inversion0 or 8interruption0 of life2 its value is negative to life and to reality4 8,all that which seems positive to the physicist and to the geometrician would become1 from this new point of view1 an interruption or inversion of true positivity1 which would have to be defined in psychological terms40#abj ,matter is a determination of reality in much the same sense as that in which the reality of the ,platonic idea suffers diminution under the influence of the principle of not-being1 resulting in a world of sensible experience or of appearance4 ,bergson points out that the real in ,plato is the timeless1 motionless1 definite idea1 and the relatively unreal is the ever-changing 8infinite0 or indefinable datum of experience1 to which duration is essential4 ,bergson reverses the ,platonic metaphysics3 reality is the ever-changing and indefinable2 rather1 it is change itself4 8,there are no things1 there are only actions40 8444 things and states are only views1 taken by our mind1 of becoming40#aba ,the principle antagonistic to reality gives rise to the timeless1 definite concept1 which is a view or appearance of reality operated by intelligence in the service of action4 ,as our practical interests break up the continuum of time into discrete states1 so they break up the continuum of matter into distinct bodies4 ,the active antagonism of time1 which is pure quality or heterogeneity1 and space1 which is pure quantity or homogeneity1 results in the world of our experience1 comprising 8states0 of consciousness and things or objects4 ,the relation between life and matter in the evolution of the world1 ,bergson represents by the figure of a generation of steam in a boiler4#abb ,life1 the positive principle1 streams or flows1 like the steam1 by the force which is its very nature4 ,in its course1 this vital impetus is checked1 as a jet of steam is checked1 by its condensation1 and falls back upon itself in drops1 retarding1 but not annihilating1 the flow4 ,but we are warned that the figure must be corrected in that the interruption or inversion of the impetus is due to a principle inherent in the impetus itself1 not to an external determination4 ,if there were such an external principle1 the two would seem cordinate in reality1 but the reality of matter is as the reality of rest1 which1 as the negation of motion1 is nothing positive1 yet is not a mere naught4 ,sometimes1 in reading ,bergson1 it seems very clear that reality and matter must exclude each other1 since one is the negation of the other2 and perception and conception1 whose object is matter1 are not knowledge1 because that object is unreal4 ,moreover1 not only is the stuff of reality that psychic process which is life and lapsing time1 but there is no stuff more resistant nor more substantial4 ,and in numerous other ways the mutual exclusion of reality and matter seems quite fundamental to ,bergsonism4 ,one can never remain long in any security about this1 however4 ,if ,bergsonism is ,platonism reversed1 it is natural that the peculiarities of the latter should reappear in some form4 ,platonic not-being is much too important and too active to be denied a coequal positivity with being4 ,over and above these 8worlds10 moreover1 there is that one in which we live1 with a third status4 ,perhaps it is this which is most like ,bergsonian matter--8nothing positive1 yet not a mere naught06 ,in the letter from which ,i have already quoted1 ,monsieur ,bergson wrote me1 concerning a previous paper of mine3#abc 8,you give me the choice between #8yes' and #8no1' whereas ,i cannot respond with either1 but must mix them4 ,in each particular case1 the #8yes' and #8no' have to be apportioned1 and this is just why the philosophy ,i adhere to is susceptible of improvement and progress4 ,for instance1 you find that my premises lead to this conclusion3 #8,matter has no duration2 but duration is synonymous with reality2 therefore matter is not real4' ,but1 to my mind1 matter has exactly the same reality as rest1 which exists only as negation of motion1 yet is something other than absolute nothingness4 ,all that is positive in my #8vital impetus' is motion2 stoppage of this motion constitutes materiality2 the latter1 therefore1 is nothing positive1 yet not a mere naught1 absolute nothingness being no more stoppage than motion40 ,if one seek 7it is not to be found1 ,i think1 in ,bergson's writings7 an explanation of this abatement or diminution of the lan vital1 this tendency toward rest1 the problem turns into the very ancient problem of the polarity of being in subject and object4 ,in ,platonism1 matter arises as product of an eternal antagonism between two coeval principles1 the ,idea and ,not-being4 ,not-being is thus something efficient1 something that is capable of entering as a factor1 together with the ,idea1 into a product1 the ,sensible ,object4 ,the truth is1 therefore1 that ,not-being is something very real3 it is something because it does something4 ,it is as real as the ,idea1 because it is as efficient as the ,idea4 ,and in the ,bergsonian creative evolution there often seems just such an antagonism as this1 between two cordinate1 efficient1 and therefore real principles4 ,thus3 8,the impetus of life 444 is confronted with matter1 that is to say1 with the movement that is the inverse of its own40#abd ,and3 8,life as a whole 444 will appear as a wave which rises1 and which is opposed by the descending movement of matter40#abe ,but1 as with ,plato1 so with ,bergson1 dubbing the hated principle 8,not-being0 or 8,negation of ,positive ,reality0 hardly avails against the soundness of its claim to positivity4 ,and the case is not different if the 8lan vital0 is a self-limited absolute instead of an eternal dualism3 the philosopher's selection of one of the two coefficients or poles of this self-polarized absolute1 rather than the other1 to be snubbed1 is arbitrary1 instinctive1 personal4 ,with ,plato it is one1 with ,bergson the other2 no logical principle determines it1 in either case4 ,on no other point1 ,i believe1 is criticism of ,bergson so clamorous or so unanimous as on his conception of matter4 ,without doubt1 his conception of matter is obscure4 ,time and space 7terms equivalent for ,bergson1 to life and matter7 being essentially antagonistic1 must essentially imply each other2 and if so1 do they not stand in the same rank as real existences8 ,in what sense1 then1 is either real and the other unreal1 except by an arbitrary decree8 ,the ontological obscurity has its corresponding epistemological obscurity as to the cognitive status of knowledge of matter1 which is the crux of ,bergson's philosophy4 ,instinct is suited to life and duration2 intelligence1 to matter and space4 ,science says many things about time1 but affords no acquaintance with time itself4 ,the duration of the unit of time is a matter of indifference to the meaning and value of any scientific formula4#abf ,for example1 if this unit were made infinity1 and the physical process represented by the formula were thus regarded as infinitely quick1 i4 e4 an instantaneous1 timeless fact1 the instantaneity of the fact would be irrelevant to any truth expressed by the formula4 ,the only truth the formula expresses is a system of relations1 which remains the same for any unit of time4 ,science knows no past or future1 nothing but an incessantly renewed instantaneous present1 without substance4 ,the conclusions of science are given in the premises1 mathematically2 the world of science is a strict determinism4 ,in the real world of consciousness1 on the other hand1--knowledge of which can only be acquaintance with it--the future is essentially contingent and unforseeable1 for each new phase is an absolute creation1 into which the whole past is incorporated without determining it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the active principle of life ,bergson describes by the phrase tendency to create4 ,its movement is a creative evolution4 ,life flows1 or1 as we have said1 rolls on like a snowball1 in an unceasing production of new forms1 each of which retains1 while it modifies and adds to1 all its previous forms4 ,but the figure of the snowball soon fails4 ,one of the most significant facts of the creative evolution of life is the division of its primitive path into divergent paths4 ,the primitive lan contains elementary virtualities of tendency which can abide together only up to a certain stage of their development4 ,it is of the nature of a tendency to break up in divergent elementary tendencies1 as a fountain-jet sprays out4 ,as the primitive tendency develops1 elements contained in it which were mutually compatible in one and the same primitive organism1 being still in an undeveloped stage1 become incompatible as they grow4 ,hence the indefinite bifurcation of the forms of life into realms1 phyla1 genera1 species1 individuals4 ,it is a cardinal error1 ,bergson thinks1 to regard vegetative1 instinctive and intellectual life1 in the ,aristotelian manner1 as successive stages in one and the same line of development4 ,they represent three radically different lines of evolution1 not three stages along the same line4 ,a tendency common to all life is to store the constantly diffused solar energy in reservoirs where its equilibrium is unstable4 ,this tendency1 of alimentation1 is complementary to the tendency to resolve equilibrium of potential energy by sudden1 explosive release of energy in actions4 ,as the primitive organism developed 7undoubtedly an ambiguous form1 partaking of the characters of both the animal and the vegetable7 these two tendencies became mutually incompatible in one and the same form of life4 ,those forms which became vegetables owe their differentiation from ancestral forms to a preponderant leaning toward the manufacture of the explosive1 as the animal owes its animality to a leaning toward the release of energy in sudden and intermittent actions4 ,the vegetable1 drawing its nourishment wherever it may find it1 from the ground and from the air1 has no need of locomotion4 ,the animal1 dependent on the vegetable or on other animals for food1 must go where it may be found4 ,the animal must move4 ,now1 consciousness emerges pari passu with the ability to act1 and torpor is characteristic of fixity4 ,the humblest organism is conscious to the extent to which it can act freely4 ,actions may be effective either by virtue of an excellence in the use of instruments of action or by virtue of an excellence in adapting the instrument to the need4 ,action may thus assume either of two very different characters1 the one instinctive1 self-adaptive reaction1 the other intelligent manufacture4 ,the two tendencies have bifurcated within the animal realm4 ,one path reaches its present culmination in certain hymenoptera 7e4 g4 ants1 bees1 wasps71 the other in man4 ,thus the development of instinct in man has become subordinate2 human consciousness is dominated by intelligence4 ,hence the universality of the vice of intellectualism in philosophy4 ,man1 because he is dominated by intelligence1 supposes intelligence to be coextensive with consciousness1 whereas it is only one of the elementary tendencies which consciousness comprises1 and the one which is impotent to know the flow of reality4 ,spencer's evolutionism affords no acquaintance with the reality of life4 ,his so-called evolution starts with the already evolved4 ,hence all it reaches is the made1 the once-for-all1 the timeless4 ,it is merely a biological theory1 and no advance over positive science4 ,it is not a philosophy4 ,having shown the origin of intelligence in the more extensive principle of life1 and limited its sphere of operation to inert matter1 the author turns to the nature of instinct4 ,the greater part of the psychic life of living beings that are characteristically instinctive ,bergson believes to be states which he describes as knowledge in which there is no representation4#abg 8,representation is stopped up by action40#abh ,a purely instinctive action would be indistinguishable from a mere vital process4 ,when the chick1 for example1 breaks the shell1 it seems merely to keep up the motion that has carried it through the embryonic life4 ,but neither instinct nor intelligence is ever pure1 and we have in ourselves a vague experience of what must happen in the consciousness of an animal acting by instinct4 ,we have this experience in phenomena of feeling1 in unreflecting sympathies and antipathies4 8,instinct is sympathy4 ,if this sympathy could extend its object and also reflect upon itself1 it would give us the key to vital operations4444 ,intuition1 to wit1 instinct that has become disinterested1 self-conscious1 capable of reflecting upon its object and of enlarging it indefinitely1 leads us into the very inwardness of life 444 ,it is true that this sthetic intuition 444 attains only the individual1 but we can conceive an inquiry turned in the same direction as art1 which would take life in general for its object40#abi 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,matter and ,memory1 mind is represented as varying1 in its states1 between two limits1 8pure perception10 which is just action1 and 8dreaming40 ,the limit of action is where the rle of mind ceases1 the vanishing-point of knowledge4 ,but at the other limit1 dreaming1 mind is in full swing1 having freed itself1 by an inner tension1 from the obstructive influence of body4 ,far from vanishing at this limit1 as at the other1 knowledge is here at its apogee4 ,it is here 8pure40 ,it is important for ,bergson to recognize an organic connection 7obstructive to mind1 as he ,platonically conceives7 between mind and body1 in order that he may establish the possibility of the state of 8pure perception10 in which mind activity coincides with bodily activity by a yielding1 relaxed concurrence with the latter's influence4 ,mind is here passive2 its rle in the life of the organism ceases in this state4 ,but it is equally important1 for the ontological independence of mind1 that at the 8dreaming0 pole the tension which is the very constitution of its knowing should free mind from bodily influence4 ,this tension1 at its ideal limit1 must so disconnect the mind from the body that the former becomes impotent1 as ,bergson says1 for any efficiency in the physical world4 ,it seems to be1 to all intents and purposes1 a disembodied state4 ,knowledge having then no possible end in action is clearly its own end4 ,intellection is a utility1 operating in the world of matter2 knowledge is absolute1 self-centered identity of subject and object4 ,such1 ,i suppose1 is ,god's 8thought of thought0 in ,aristotle's conception4 ,this fluctuation of the relation between mind and body1 from a connection which is vital to absolute disconnection1 is a reappearance of the ambiguity discussed on pages #ff-g4 ,at one moment the world seems a ,platonic dualism2 in the next1 a self-limited or polarized absolutism1 like ,fichte's or ,hegel's4 ,whatever the 8ideal limit0 of mind's cognitive 8tension0 may be conceived to be1 there ought to be no question of more and less1 in the matter of disconnectedness1 strictly speaking4 ,we do not understand movement from connection to disconnection1 through intermediate stages1 as mind is here represented to move1 in its states of knowledge4 ,first mind must be like a certain part of matter1 so that it can rebound by its 8tension0 from a certain other part2 and then1 as soon as it has rebounded1 what would be true of the thing that could do this must suddenly become untrue of it1 presumably because of the rebound1 no other reason being assignable to account for the ensuing disconnection with matter4 ,one bit of matter can rebound from another1 but it is then as much connected with matter as before4 ,we do not understand how mind1 when it has thus rebounded from one particular material attachment thereby becomes materially unattached4 ,this is nevertheless a suggestive scheme of relation4 ,it seems to me to be marred with one radical fault3 these limits of knowledge are wrongly related4 ,their negation of each other should be the opposition of antipodes1 not of contradictories4 ,the difference is the radical difference between implication and exclusion4 ,they do not exclude each other1 but imply each other4 ,each vanishes without the other4 ,in activity1 there is externalized motion on one hand and resistance1 or virtual reaction1 on the other4 ,action and reaction are cases of polarity2 they are necessary to each other to give each other form4 ,in the cognitive subject1 reaction that were purely virtual1 without externalizing implication1 would be indeterminate dreaming2 motion that were purely externalized1 without implication of inner virtuality1 would be indeterminate activity4 ,now1 anything that is indeterminate or formless simply is not1 if being has any significance whatever2 for formless significance is a contradiction2 certainly the significance of anything would constitute a formal aspect of it4 8,pure0 matter or quantity is pure nothing1 in the sense that it is quantity of nothing4 ,these 8pure0 limits thus snuff themselves out4 ,and variation between them is not a progression from not-being to being or vice versa1 not a strengthening or weakening of the variable function's essence4 ,such a notion depends on the absurdity of a not-being that can do things to being1 with fluctuating prepotency in the struggle6 ,strengthening and weakening--degree in any guise--has no application to essence4 ,in any phase1 that is1 knowledge is itself and nothing else2 it cannot be more or less itself4 ,that which varies concomitantly with the variations in complexion of consciousness1 is the dynamic relation between subject and object4 ,it may be expressed as variation of ratio between virtual and real action4 ,at each pole activity vanishes1 and consciousness with it4 ,at one pole1 where the ratio is zero1 it vanishes in the direction of 8real0 or externalized action1 which means that the subject meets no opposing negativity1 and so no object2 the relation of activity is extinguished through lack of one of its terms4 ,at the other pole1 where the ratio is infinity1 action vanishes in the direction of 8virtuality40 ,and this means that in the subject there is no positivity1 no subjectivity1 to oppose to universal negativity or objectivity4 ,the result is the same extinction of the relation through lack of a term4 ,a subject term is lacking in one case1 an object in the other4 ,knowledge1 for ,bergson1 corresponds only to the ratio infinity1 of virtual to real action2 all other ratios between them are less than knowledge4 ,to this ,i object that infinite virtuality is indeterminate virtuality1 which is a naught reached in the opposite way from that naught which is infinite and indeterminate actuality4 ,indeterminate action is nothing1 and so is indeterminate knowledge4 ,identification of knowledge with any specific value of the ratio of virtual to real action is not determined by any logical principle4 ,when a function varies between a positive and a negative pole1 neither pole is an apogee where the function is most itself4 ,on the contrary1 as in the variation of an including angle1 each pole is a limiting position in which the essential nature of the variable is extinguished4 ,nor is it most itself midway between the poles1 nor at any other privileged position1 for it is absolutely and fully itself1 and nothing else1 in every phase4 ,the genuineness of a state of awareness would then depend also on the genuineness of the reciprocity between the terms of this dynamic ratio4 ,where they are not distinct1 where subject and object are identical1 awareness vanishes through lack of a quantitative coefficient1 as it vanishes at each pole through lack of a qualitative coefficient4 ,in other words1 knowledge of a thing by itself1 like action of a thing on itself1 is a cancelation of terms of opposite sign1 a contradiction1 and the subject and object1 whether of action or of consciousness1 are essentially external to each other4 ,bergson is treating consciousness as such as if it could be more or less conscious1 as1 indeed1 a conscious subject may be4 ,that is1 he is treating consciousness as if it could be of a nature more or less aware or cognitive2 he is treating variations of phase as if they were augmentations and diminutions of essence2 he is treating quality quantitatively1 an error which would not have been possible if he had adhered to the purely conceptual distinction between quality and quantity4 ,and he is treating the variations of cognitive complexion or phase as if they depended on variations in a certain relation 7the mutual externality of subject and object7 which is invariable and absolute--incapable1 that is1 of degree4 99 99 99 99 99 8,this book10 says the first sentence of ,matter and ,memory1 8affirms the reality of spirit and the reality of matter40 ,lower in the same page1 however1 it is explained that 8,matter1 in our view1 is an aggregate of #8images4' ,and by #8image' we mean a certain existence which is more than that which the idealist calls a representation1 but less than that which the realist calls a thing1--an existence placed half-way between the #8thing' and the #8representation4' 444 the object exists in itself1 and1 on the other hand1 the object is1 in itself1 pictorial1 as we perceive it2 image it is1 but a self-existing image 7pp4 vii1 viii74 8444 memory 444 is just the intersection of mind and matter 444 the psychical state seems to us to be 444 immensely wider than the cerebral state 444 our cerebral state contains more or less of our mental state in the measure that we reel off our psychic life into action or wind it up into pure knowledge 444 our psychic life may be lived at different heights1 now nearer to action1 now further removed from it0 7pp4 xii1 xiii1 xiv74 ,the 8intersection of mind and matter0 suggests a profound dualism1 and this ,bergson acknowledges to be essential to his theory4 ,it is true that no opportunity is lost1 to discount the reality of matter2 but the relations which it sustains to mind are such as can exist only between terms whose reality is cordinate4 ,perception is just that biological reactive function of material organism engaged with material stimulus1 which every psychological text-book proclaims it to be4 ,but the actual conscious state always has memory in it1 as well as perception2 or rather1 the state as conscious is nothing but memory2 perception itself1 8pure0 perception1 is action pure and simple1 and not cognitive at all4 ,this is an abuse of the word 8perception10 but the epistemology can show a good deal of reason4 ,after all1 our perceptions 7as we call the states of mind in which we are involved with a material stimulus7 mean something1 necessarily4 ,they mean something1 ,i insist1 the strangest of them4 ,we sometimes speak otherwise1 saying that an object of perception means nothing to us4 ,but1 ,i submit1 this is only a manner of speaking4 ,a state that meant nothing1 absolutely1 were genuinely blank1 empty1 contentless2 and there is no difference1 ,i take it1 between a state without content and a state that is unconscious4 ,well1 then1 meaning something1 as a conscious state must1 what does it mean8 ,bergson1 ,i am sure1 is right in holding that to mean is to recognize1 to recall1 to remember4 ,this makes of every concrete perceptive state1 so-called1 a rudimentary deduction1 a genuine syllogism1 a work of intellect4 ,the major premise is a memory2 the minor is an immediate reactive1 sensori-motor datum2 the conclusion is the subsumption of the present datum under the memory4 ,thus3 ,the experience to which ,i attach the name 8orange0 has such and such characters 7remembered major premise72 the present reactive state has these characters 7perceptive datum1 minor premise72 therefore this state is a case of the orange experience4 ,the only difficulty is the nature of the process of subsumption of the present datum with the memory4 ,the present datum in its purity as present is a reaction merely1 an event in the physical world4 ,its nature owns nothing psychical4 ,what commerce1 then1 can it have with mind8 ,to call its commerce with mind 8subsumption0 is to give a label to a problem4 ,to call memory the 8intersection0 of the physical world with mind seems another label1 of a metaphorical sort1 for the same problem4 ,but1 for the present1 let us hear the doctrine4 ,to my thinking1 it is ,bergson's best work1 and full of illuminating suggestion4 ,to the radical dualist1 it should be completely satisfactory4 ,as an adherent of a certain double-aspect conception of the body-mind relation1 ,i shall eventually propose a correction and completion1 very radical1 certainly1 but all that is necessary to make ,bergson's treatment of this problem of the highest interest and value to myself4 ,the body1 then1 in ,bergson's theory1 yes1 the brain itself1 is no producer1 repository nor reproducer of any element of consciousness4 ,the body is a center of reaction1 and nothing else4 8,the size1 shape1 even the color1 of external objects is modified according as my body approaches or recedes from them1 444 the strength of an odour1 the intensity of a sound1 increases or diminishes with distance2 finally1 444 this very distance represents1 above all1 the measure in which surrounding bodies are insured1 in some sort1 against the immediate action of my body4 ,in the degree that my horizon widens1 the images which surround me seem to be painted upon a more uniform background and become to me more indifferent4 ,the more ,i narrow this horizon1 the more the objects which it circumscribes space themselves out distinctly according to the greater or less ease with which my body can touch and move them4 ,they send back1 then1 to my body1 as would a mirror1 its eventual influence2 they take rank in an order corresponding to the growing or decreasing powers of my body4 ,the objects which surround my body reflect its possible action upon them40#acj ,cut a sensory nerve1 and the reactive process is destroyed1 and with it1 perception4 8,change the objects1 or modify their relation to my body1 and everything is changed in the interior movements of my perceptive centres4 ,but everything is also changed in #8my perception4' ,my perception is1 then1 a function of these molecular movements2 it depends upon them40#aca 8,what then are these movements8444 they are1 within my body1 the movements intended to prepare1 while beginning it1 the reaction of my body to the action of external objects 444 they foreshadow at each successive moment its virtual acts40#acb ,it may seem that my reaction to a body is the same whether ,i perceive it visually or tactually or otherwise4 ,but movements externally identical may differ internally2 there is a different organization of the same gross function with different microscopic functions4 ,the meaning has ultimately an important sameness1 since meaning is a function of biological adjustment4 ,but different inner organizations are still the explanation of different ways of perceiving what is1 in all biologically important respects1 the same object4 ,serious fault has been found#acc with ,bergson's attempt to establish1 by scientific research in the subject of aphasia1 the ontological independence of spirit1 the seat of memory1 from body4 ,but on other grounds than such scientific investigation the issue of this attempt appears to me at best a futile achievement2 for the result is in any case the reinstatement1 untouched1 of that problem of all radical dualism1 a problem which ,bergson solves only by metaphor whose brilliance may be luminous itself1 but has no illumination for the problem1 which is how reactive states are also conscious4 ,there is a theory which relates consciousness and matter to each each other as the opposite sides of a surface in relief4 ,the objection to this 8double aspect0 theory that has weighed most1 in criticism1 is that the ground of the parallelism between convexity and concavity--to wit1 a logical implication of each other--is obviously absent in the parallelism of consciousness and matter4 ,whatever parallelism experience actually finds between them is not deducible from either concept3 there is nothing in the definition of the sensation blue to suggest an afferent nervous current2 nothing in the latter to suggest a sensation4 ,they are incommensurate4 ,but when you conceive convexity1 in that fact you conceive concavity also1 and vice versa4 ,they are related as plus and minus4 ,the objection appeals to analysis of the definition of consciousness or of matter1 or challenges the advocate of the theory to study his sensation or his neural process and see if there be in either of them anything of the other4 ,a difficulty which immediately arises when this challenge is accepted has been understood to be decisive against the theory4 ,it is this3 ,any definition of consciousness which the advocate of the theory may propose as the concept to be analyzed must1 in order to fulfil the first requirement of logical definition1 be in terms of that which is not consciousness4 ,and this seems to the critic to beg the question4 ,if you define consciousness so1 he objects1 you make its definition imply matter2 but there is then nothing of consciousness in it2 what you have got is only matter4 ,that is to assume an equation between them4 ,you state the value of x in terms of y1 but then you haven't got x1 but only y4 ,it is otherwise with terms that really have the correlation you claim for consciousness and matter4 ,thus you can equate convexity with concavity in terms of either alone1 as m -7-m74 ,in this there is no assumption4 ,but what you say of x is that it equals ay1 which is something distinguishable from x and whose equality to x is just the problem4 ,but if it be allowed that the disparity between consciousness and matter must be either a distinction between two kinds of reality1 or else the distinction between being and not-being1 the predicament just described is worse for the critic of the 8double aspect0 theory than for its advocate4 ,if the distinction is that of being and not-being1 whichever is not-being has an internal constitution and structure by virtue of which parts and relations are recognized within it3 matter has physical laws and the interaction of bodies2 consciousness has interrelated states4 ,not-being1 so interpreted1 is hardly distinguished from being4 ,and if the distinction is within being1 and exhausts it1 either the connotation of consciousness and that of matter are referable to each other--expressible in terms of each other--or else the distinction is only denotative1 and they are not distinguished as different2 for difference is a discursive relation between differents3 differing from each other is a case of referring to each other4 ,excessive emphasis on the 8ultimateness0 and 8absoluteness0 of the difference between these two concepts is just the inductive cue that results in the 8double aspect0 theory4 ,no one can regard consciousness as not different from matter--least of all our critic1 who finds them incommensurable4 ,nay1 among real things that are other than each other1 experience gives us no fellow to such difference2 for difference so utter1 they that differ should coincide4 ,and so1 in the fact of aspect1 we have1 indeed1 in a thousand forms1 disparity that matches the difference between the concepts now before us3 e4 g41 right1 left2 up1 down2 plus1 minus2 convex1 concave4 ,we confess three obvious differences between the two equations which we have taken to represent our critic's conception of the relation of convexity to concavity and the relation of consciousness to matter4 ,in equation 7#a71 which is m -7-m71 representing the former relation1 the same symbol m stands on both sides2 in equation 7#b7 the symbols are different1 x on one side1 y on the other4 ,in 7#a7 the coefficient also is the same on both sides1 namely unity2 in 7#b7 the coefficients are different1 unity on one side1 a on the other4 ,and in 7#a7 the signs are opposite on the two sides1 while in 7#b7 the sign is the same on both sides4 ,what do these differences mean8 ,to begin with1 is 7#a7 monomial and 7#b7 binomial8 ,no2 in spite of the fact that there is only one symbol in 7#a71 this equation is binomial in precisely the same sense as 7#b7 is binomial2 for it means that a certain attitude toward m1 symbolized by the minus sign1 transforms m into something distinguishable from m4 ,if equation 7#a7 expressed an identity1 it would not represent the relation of convexity to concavity1 which are not identical but distinguishable4 ,but what is thus expressed in 7#a7 by difference of sign is expressed in 7#b7 by difference of coefficient2 for 7#b7 means that a certain attitude toward the entity symbolized by x 7an attitude symbolized by the phrase 8divide by a07 transforms x into y4 ,in short1 the connotation differs1 on the two sides1 in both equations alike4 ,but on the other hand1 the denotation is the same on both sides in each equation1 for such is the nature of all equations1 whether binomial or any other kind4 ,thus we have identity of denotation with difference of connotation in each of these equations1 and they are so far homogeneous with each other4 ,now connotation is aspect1 which is determined by subjective attitude2 and attitudes are interrelated in determinate and accurately expressible ways2 as1 for instance1 by antagonism or mutual exclusion1 or by any of an indefinite number of forms of implication4 ,the difference of attitude called antipodal oppositeness1 or polarity1 is the specific difference expressed in equation 7#a72 whereas the coefficient a1 in 7#b71 expresses mere difference of attitude1 difference in general1 including1 therefore1 that specific difference which is expressed by opposition of sign4 ,thus equation 7#a7 is a case of equation 7#b74 ,to sum up3 ,the objection1 stated in these algebraic symbols1 was this3 m implies -m2 x does not imply y4 ,express the fact of relief in terms of m and you have the correlative fact in -m implied in the very definition of m2 while if you express x in terms of y1 you have y values1 and nothing but y4 ,in short1 x and y exclude each other2 m and -m imply each other4 ,our answer is that x implies y just as m implies -m2 for ay is an aspect of the same denotation as x2 and1 since the specificity of every aspect of a given denotation is determinable or definable by relation to all other aspects of the same denotation1 any one of such aspects1 as x1 implies1 in its definition1 every other1 and so y1 instead of excluding y4 ,turning from such abstract considerations to empirical study of the sensation1 the same sort of difficulty reappears4 ,we think we find a dynamic relationship of organic to extra-organic processes2 this relationship presents a material aspect1 which we call neural activity1 and a formal aspect1 which we call blue1 for instance4 ,but the critic objects that all this is much more than sensation1 and that we have read our hypothesis into our data4 ,we must keep to the pure sensation2 in that1 there is no neural process4 ,so1 even as1 before1 all our attempts to propose a definition of consciousness for analysis were ruled out as begging the question1 now every sample of the experience to be observed is rejected as impure4 ,there is no sensation that is pure in such a sense as our critic means1 for he means subjectivity that implies no objectivity4 ,if this is more than a word1 it is a self-contradiction1 since subjectivity is subjectivity only in the fact of correlation with objectivity4 ,indeed1 if our critic were to observe convexity as he proposes that we observe sensation1 he would find no implication of concavity in it2 nor would he find it convex4 ,his observation would be the convexity2 the two would coincide1 and so would not be two4 ,convexity in its essence1 as convex1 would therein no longer be the object of the observation4 ,you have to get outside of your convexity to observe it and its implication of concavity2 just so1 you have to get outside of your sensation to know it2 in it1 you know only the object of it4 ,when convexity is said to imply concavity1 convexity is just therein not 8pure10 as the sensation is supposed to be4 8,pure0 convexity1 analogous to 8pure0 sensation or subjectivity1 would be convexity without implication of concavity4 ,that would be zero convexity1 so to speak--a self-contradiction4 ,just so1 the 8pure0 sensation1 without implication of objectivity1 is a fact of consciousness without the essence of consciousness1 which is dynamic relatedness to an object4 8,pure0 consciousness is consciousness of nothing1 or no consciousness4 ,if our critic have his way1 we have nothing left us to discuss4 ,let us invite his attention to a discussable phenomenon of our own designating1 and definable in some such way as this3 the simultaneous belonging of an experience to an organism and to another material fact1 say the sky4 ,the two belongings are distinguished by a sui generis difference of direction or relational 8sense10 which unambiguously determines the organism to be the subject of the belonging1 the sky the object4 ,we have at least as good a right to call this phenomenon by the name of consciousness1 or sensation1 as our critic has to name that a sensation which he so defines that its definition is contradicted by the naming4 ,now1 experience is essentially dynamic1 and1 for an organism1 to be active is to be functionally ordinated or focalized4 ,for example1 the eye and other parts may be subservient1 in different ways and degrees1 to the hand4 ,then the organism is focalized into an organ of touch1 of striking1 or whatever it may be4 ,every other function contributes as accessory to this primary function1 in the organism's present phase4 ,we have called consciousness the formal aspect of activity1 and we mean by 8form0 applied to activity what we mean elsewhere1 determinateness or definableness4 ,here1 in particular1 it is that character which depends on resistance or reactivity4 ,activity without resistance would be without determination2 its character or content would have vanished2 it would be activity upon nothing1 which1 like consciousness of nothing1 is nothing4 ,so the resistance that factors in activity is not extraneous to the essence of activity1 and consciousness and material processes imply each other not only with the same logical necessity but with the same polar oppositeness of mutual relation1 as the aspects of relief4 ,consciousness is thus the inversion or reciprocal aspect of organic activity1 virtual1 in distinction from externalized or real1 activity4 ,where attention is focalized1 action is most resisted4 ,as action approaches free vent1 consciousness of the object of this free activity becomes more and more evanescent4 ,at the limit where action is unresisted1 it and consciousness go out1 vanish together1 in inverse 8sense0 or directions4 ,where action approaches 8pure0 7i4 e41 unresisted7 activity1 pure positivity1 pure subjectivity1 consciousness approaches 8pure0 7i4 e41 unreacting7 passivity1 pure negativity1 pure objectivity4 ,and such 8pure0 action and consciousness are pure nothing1 action on nothing1 sensation of nothing4 ,the vanishing of the two relations together is1 in each case1 for lack of one of its terms inverse to the term lacking in the other case4 ,this mutual symmetry between action and consciousness is an implicate of their identity of denotation and mutual inversion of aspect2 and any study of the fluctuations and transitions of consciousness1 with its modulations of attention and inhibition1 is accordingly a study in inverse1 a perfect logical function1 of corresponding modifications of organic activity2 for in the play of the organic functions we shall find incessant modulations between their focalization and their dispersion1 incessant shifting of their mutual rank and of the position of primacy among them1 to correspond with the changes between margin and focus that are always going on among the elements of consciousness4 ,the organism is structurally and functionally centralized in a sensori-motor system1 where the afferent activity is opposed by the efferent1 in a common focus1 or in coincident foci1 in which action and reaction give form to each other4 ,here organic reaction has its inception in a preformation1 schema or design1 as ,bergson says1 of the developed activity4 ,an intricate manifold of functions are organized3 interest determines the ascendency or primacy of a certain function1 while others are subservient1 being inhibited or reinforced in varying degrees4 ,the whole complex process has this character of focal1 unifying organization1 a unity expressed in opposite aspects as the simple form of activity1 on the one hand1 and as the simple object of perceptive consciousness on the other4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,doctrine ,,of ,,freedom ,the fallacy of conceptualism1 which1 as ,bergson conceives it1 is to substitute space for time as the form of mental existence1 has been discussed in the first chapter of ,time and ,free ,will in the aspect of applying intensive magnitude1 and in the second chapter1 numerical multiplicity1 to psychic facts4 ,it is the same fallacy which is discussed in the third chapter1 in the aspect of applying to them the conception of determinate1 causal organization4 ,the outcome of the book is thus that the problem of freedom is just the problem of conceptualism1 a problem of philosophic method4 ,this book1 ,time and ,free ,will1 is a manual of instruction for knowing the reality of mental existence2 and its object is the practical object of indicating the attitude necessary for that purpose4 ,there are two possible attitudes1 that of space and that of time1 or that of conception and that of intuition4 ,the conceptual is the attitude taken by philosophy universally1 to be sure2 which explains the futility of all extant discussions of the 8persistent problems of philosophy40 ,it is clear1 for instance1 ,monsieur ,bergson thinks1 that this attitude gives rise1 in an automatic and inevitable way1 to the problem of freedom--that is1 that there would be no such problem but for this false cognitive attitude2--and at the same time that by originating in this unhappy way the problem is necessarily a pseudo-problem1 cannot be stated without contradiction4 ,for when you regard mental facts in the spatial or conceptual way1 the question automatically arises1 how are these facts causally related with other spatial facts8 ,it is a contradiction because by 8these0 facts you mean non-spatial facts1 which1 in the nature of causation1 can not be causally related with spatial facts1 but which1 the question presupposes1 are so related4 ,such is the real meaning of the traditional problem of freedom4 ,the solution1 says ,bergson1 is to cease thinking spatially of that which is temporal2 take the other attitude4 ,once you have done so1 the problem vanishes2 the causal relation is by definition a spatial relation1 and there are no longer two spatial terms to be related4 ,such determinism is the associationistic conception of mind as an assemblage of distinct1 coexistent elements of which the strongest exerts a preponderant influence on the others4 ,their organization is a mechanical system1 and their operations obey the laws of mechanical causation4 ,as relative 7i4 e4 quantitative7 intensity is to absolute1 qualitative intensity1 as juxtaposited multiplicity is to interpenetrating multiplicity1 so is determinate organization to organization by free evolution4 ,the categories magnitude1 number and cause apply to space4 ,the difference1 for ,bergson1 between space and time is1 as we have seen1 so absolute that it hardly expresses his theory aright to say that to the above three characters of space three temporal characters correspond4 ,reason seems lacking for any correspondence whatever4 ,this is certain1 at any rate3 that when intellect makes time an object1 and sees it greater or less1 divisible and regularly consequential1 three things are true about the real1 non-objective nature of time1 each of which truths manifests itself to intellect1 but wrongly1 erroneously4 ,moreover1 it is plainly by reasoned1 analytic discourse that ,bergson discovers that the above intellectual manifestations of time's essence are false4 ,one discovers1 furthermore1 by this conceptual process1 just how they are false1 and corrects them with a result so conceptually precise and intelligible that1 instead of these three characters falsely spatial1 other three are determined as truly temporal4 ,instead of magnitude1 quality has in this way been substituted2 instead of multiplicity1 indivisible variousness4 ,for cause1 the last chapter of the ,essai substitutes freedom4 ,we should now be well prepared for divining the nature of the freedom which is consciousness1 or more generally1 life4 ,the organization of the facts of a given consciousness is such that the person is focally entire in any one of them1 even as the entire body functions in each of its functions 7cf4 page #bj74 ,the determinate type of organization is analogous to the mechanically actuated manikin1 not to the natural man1 even though those fragments which build up the structure of the associationist soul are forces2 for these forces are mutually distinct parts of the soul1 whose union in it1 and so whose interaction1 depends on some principle extrinsic to any of them and is thus wholly determined from without4 ,in the developmental type of organization1 on the contrary1 the wholeness of action is its freedom1 rather than independence of what is not itself4 ,although such independence seems to belong to it1 as well1 what ,bergson is interested to emphasize about the freedom of the free action is that it is the expression of the entire person4 ,in the domain of life1 there is no identity1 for there is no permanence--8the same does not remain the same10 as ,bergson puts it4 ,the ego is not the same ego in any two moments2 it is not the same ego that deliberates from moment to moment2 and two contradictory feelings that move it are never respectively self-identical in two moments4 ,indeed1 if the case were otherwise1 a decision would never be made2 the equilibrium of the opposing feelings would never be resolved4 ,merely by the fact that the person has experienced a feeling1 he is modified when a second feeling comes4 ,the feelings are the continually modified ego itself1 a dynamic series of states that interpenetrate1 reinforce each other and result in a free act by a natural evolution1 because it emanates from the entire person4 ,such is the character of the free act1 a very intelligible character1 it would seem1 a character lending itself tractably enough to verbal definition1 that is1 conceptual definition1 as a certain relation of act to agent4 ,yet it must immediately be added that what seems so intelligible and so conceptual an explication of this 8certain relation0--what is contained in the two paragraphs preceding--is not regarded by the author as a definition of freedom4 ,it seems that there is a distinction between the formulation of a conception on one hand1 and a definition1 on the other1 though ,bergson does not elucidate this distinction explicitly1 and ,i have had to give up the attempt4 ,the distinction is evidently of crucial importance1 nevertheless4 8,we can now formulate our conception of freedom10 says the author1 on page #bai of ,time and ,free ,will4 8,freedom is the relation of the concrete self to the act which it performs4 ,this relation is indefinable just because we are free4 ,for we can analyze a thing1 but not a process2 we can break up extensity1 but not duration4 ,or1 if we persist in analyzing it1 we unconsciously transform the process into a thing1 and duration into extensity 444 and1 as we have begun by1 so to speak1 stereotyping the activity of the self1 we see spontaneity settle down into inertia and freedom into necessity4 ,thus1 any positive definition of freedom will ensure the victory of determinism40 ,the attempt is therefore unwisely made by indeterminists to define freedom by meeting determinists on their own ground when the latter turn the question of freedom into considerations of the relations of the voluntary act to its antecedents1 characterizing voluntary activity as essentially foreseeable before1 or apodictically intelligible after the fact4 ,when indeterminists permit themselves to be thus ambushed1 they commit themselves to the support of determinism1 by accepting the deterministic postulate1 in the one case that 8foreseeable0 has intelligible meaning applied to psychic states1 which it has not2 or1 in the other case1 that willed acts are intelligible both before and after the fact4 ,the determinist1 that is1--to take the second case first--professes that an act depends in a mechanical way upon certain antecedents4 ,the indeterminist contends that the same antecedents could have resulted in either of several different acts1 equally possible4 ,defenders and opponents of freedom agree in making a kind of mechanical oscillation between two points precede the action4 ,i choose ,a4 ,the indeterminists say1 ,you have deliberated2 then ,b was possible4 ,the determinists reply1 ,i have chosen2 therefore ,i had some reason to do so1 and when ,b is declared equally possible1 this reason is forgotten2 one of the conditions of the problem is ignored4 ,both represent the activity by a deliberative route which divides4 ,call the point of the division ,o2 then the divisions of the forked line ,,oa and ,,ob symbolize the two divisions which abstraction distinguishes within the continuous activity1 of which ,a is the termination4 ,but while determinists take account of everything1 and find that the route ,,moa has been traversed1 their opponents ignore one of the data with which they have constructed the figure2 and1 after tracing the lines ,,oa and ,,ob1 which ought to be united if they are to represent the progression of the ego's activity1 they make this progression go back to ,o and begin oscillating again6 ,the trouble with both these solutions1 ,bergson says1 is that they presuppose an achieved deliberation and resolution1 representable in space by a geometrical figure4 ,the question1 ,could the ego1 having traversed the route ,,mo and decided on ,a1 have chosen ,b8 is nonsense3 to put such a question is to affirm the possibility of adequately representing time by space1 succession by simultaneity4 ,it is to attribute to the figure traced the value of an image and not merely of a symbol4 ,figures represent things1 not progressions3 how shall a figure furnish the least indication of the concrete motion1 of the dynamic progression by which the deliberation results in the act8 ,the defenders of freedom say1 ,the route is not yet traced2 therefore one can take any direction4 ,to which we reply1 ,you can speak of a route1 in such a connection1 only after the action is accomplished1 and then it has been traced4 ,the determinists say1 ,the route has been traced thus2 therefore its possible direction was only that particular direction4 ,to which we reply1 ,before the route was traced there was no direction1 possible or impossible2 there could1 as yet1 be no question of a route4 ,in its lowest terms this merely means3 ,the act1 once accomplished1 is accomplished2 and the argument of the determinists3 ,the act1 before being accomplished1 was not as yet an act4 ,the question of freedom is not touched1 because freedom is a shade or quality of the act itself1 not a relation of this act with what it is not nor with what it can be4 ,deliberation is not oscillation in space2 it is dynamic progression1 in which the ego and the motives are in a continual becoming1 as living beings4 ,indeterminists1 ,professor ,bergson says1 must beware1 again1 of arguing against the prevision of voluntary acts4 ,once more1 this is not because prevision of a voluntary act is possible1 but because there is no sense in the phrase4 ,if ,paul knew all the conditions under which ,peter acts1 his imagination would relive ,peter's history4 ,he must pass through ,peter's very own psychic states1 to know with precision their intensity and their importance in relation to his other states4 ,the intensity1 in fact1 is the peculiar quality of the feeling itself4 ,now1 to know all the antecedents of the act would bring you to the act itself1 which is their continuation1 and not merely their result1 and above all in no way separate from them4 ,to relive ,peter's history is just to become ,peter--that is the only way ,paul could conceivably 8know all the antecedents0 of the act in question4 ,there is no question of predicting the act1 but simply of acting4 ,knowledge of the antecedents of the act without knowledge of the act is an absurdity1 a contradiction4 ,the indeterminists can mean nothing1 by such a contention as this1 but that the act is not an act until it is acted--which is hardly worth meaning2--and the determinists can mean only that the act1 once acted1 is acted--which is no better4 ,the subject of freedom is beside the point1 in such a debate4 ,so the question of prevision comes to this3 ,is time spatial8 ,you drew ,peter's states1 you perceived his life as a marking in space4 ,you then rubbed out1 in thought1 the part ,,oa1 and asked if1 knowing the part before ,o1 you could have determined ,,oa beforehand4 ,that is the question you put when you bring in ,paul's representation of the conditions 7and therefore their materialization7 under which ,peter shall act4 ,after having identified ,paul with ,peter1 you make ,paul take his former point of view1 from which he now sees the line ,,moa complete1 having just traced it in the rle of ,peter4 ,prevision of natural phenomena has not the slightest analogy with that of a voluntary act4 ,time1 in scientific formul1 is always and only a number of simultaneities4 ,the intervals may be of any length2 they have nothing to do with the calculation4 ,foreseeing natural phenomena is making them present1 or bringing them at least enormously nearer4 ,it is the intervals1 the units themselves--just what the physicist has nothing to do with--that interest the psychologist4 ,a feeling half as long would not be the same feeling4 ,but when one asks if a future action can be foreseen1 one identifies physical time1 which is a number1 with real psychological duration1 which has no analogy with number4 ,in the region of psychological states there is no appreciable difference between foreseeing1 seeing and acting4 ,according to the mechanical law of causation1 the same causes always produce the same effects4 ,but1 in the region of psychic states1 this law is neither true nor false1 but meaningless2 for in this region there is no 8always30 there is only 8once40 ,a repeated feeling is a radically different feeling4 ,it retains the same name only because it corresponds to the same external cause1 or is outwardly expressed by analogous signs4 ,it was just said that the ego is not the same in any two moments of its history4 ,it is modified incessantly by the accumulation of its past4 ,one's character at any moment1 is the condensation of one's past4 ,duration acts as a cause2 but this temporal or psychological causation has no more analogy with what is called causation in nature than temporal variousness has with number1 or intensity with magnitude4 ,a causality which is necessary connection is1 at bottom1 identity2 the effect is an expression of the cause1 as mathematical functions are expressions of each other4 ,but no psychic state has this virtual identity with1 or mathematical reducibility to1 any other with which it would thus be in the 8necessary0 kind of causal relation4 ,such effect is not given in the cause1 but is absolutely new4 ,time that has passed is an objective thing1 and is representable by space2 time passing is a subjective process1 and is not representable4 ,the free act is the actual passing of time2 time in its passing is the very stuff of the existence of freedom4 ,analyze an act1 and you make it a thing4 ,then its spontaneity is altered into inertia1 its freedom into necessity4 ,hence any definition of freedom makes it determinism4 ,but1 though the analysis of the act and the definition of freedom are illusory undertakings1 the fundamental fact of freedom remains unassailable by any argument4 99 99 99 99 99 ,bergson's way of vindicating freedom is thus to find no case against it4 ,of the positive sort1 the only1 and sufficient proof is appeal to consciousness4 ,freedom is an immediate datum of consciousness4 ,this is confusing to anyone who cannot follow ,bergson in his view that subject and object1 in actual intuitive consciousness1 are indistinguishable1 identical4 ,and this fusion of the poles of consciousness while the nature of consciousness not merely suffers nothing but even attains its apogee thereby1 needs more justification than ,bergson has given it4 ,freedom is a datum of consciousness2 but1 as undetermined1 it must1 on ,bergson's principles1 be consciousness itself--which1 indeed1 is plainly enough the teaching intended4 ,freedom is consciousness1 then1 purely subjective4 ,in what sense is it a datum of consciousness8 ,if it is a datum1 is it not an object1 of consciousness8 ,it seems a case where1 in order to see1 you musn't look1 lest looking make what is purely subjective an object6 ,this is hardly the case of the fovea and the faint star1 where looking loses your object2 for here1 looking rather produces it where no object belongs1 or--perhaps one should say--transforms it4 ,your look1 says ,gustave ,belot1#acd congeals and immobilizes it1 denatures it like the ,gorgon's stare6 ,it is knowable1 says ,bergson1 only by being lived4 ,it is a feeling we have4 ,but the trouble is that1 to be known as undetermined1 as freedom1 to be even a feeling we have1 it is back upon our hands as a datum1 as an object4 ,before ,i comment in my own way on the ,bergsonian view of freedom1 ,i wish to call to the attention of ,english readers the keen reaction of this ,french critic of ,bergson4 ,belot objects to the modest-seeming statement that freedom is a feeling we have4 ,neither psychology1 he thinks1 nor common sense1 approves4#ace ,they establish1 on the contrary1 a sensible difference between freedom1 whatever it may be1 and the feeling we have of it--any feeling we can possibly have4 ,our feeling of freedom is much less variable than our freedom4 8,we agree not to attribute a veritable practical freedom to the dreaming man1 to the somnambulist1 to the man affected with some mental disease4 ,yet the man who1 in dream1 sees himself act1 sees himself free in his action2 the somnambulist equally feels himself free and attributes to himself1 in his dream1 a responsibility that we decline to put upon him1 and which he will reject1 himself1 when he wakes#acf 444 ,the furious madman must ordinarily feel himself free in the accomplishment of a murder for which a tribunal will not consent to punish him4 ,the fact is1 it suffices1 in order that we should feel ourselves free1 that our acts should be in harmony with our ideas and our feelings4 ,now1 that may very well be1 in the cases of the dreamer1 the somnambulist1 the madman4444 ,they would therefore feel themselves free4 ,but they are not free2 for they only act from an incomplete consciousness2 and a great number of elements of their normal ego1 which would permit the revision1 the correction1 the inhibition1 are lacking40 ,a glimmering of the fact of one's madness is a token of the only residuum there is of freedom4 8,it is to conserve some freedom1 to perceive that one no longer is master of oneself40 ,bergson is alive to all this--sometimes1 as when he says that the freedom of a free action is its entirety1 its expression of the total personality4 ,but ,belot is quite justified in charging him with forgetting it1 for only by forgetting it could he conceive of freedom as an immediate datum of consciousness4 ,it is1 indeed1 far from the case that our freedom is nothing but the feeling we have of it1 or that it is proportional to this feeling4 ,what is so altered by the determinist habit of mind1 by the conceptual attitude toward will1 is not at all one's feeling of freedom1 but only one's interpretation of it4 ,an immediate1 spontaneous feeling1 being prior to theory and analysis1 is safe from any influence from them4 ,in the most incorrigible determinist1 consciousness of the wish1 other things equal1 is exactly the same as in the most incorruptible indeterminist4 ,precise determination of will is not only not contrary to freedom but is indispensable to it4 ,minimizing the value of motive in activity is loss1 not gain1 to freedom4 ,the motive is what connects our act to our whole personality1 and makes it ours4 ,without this connection1 we are not free2 its interruption is a limitation1 not the condition1 of freedom4 ,and indeed freedom is so limited by the mass of our unreflecting impulses4 ,bergson is right in saying that we are rarely free4 ,but therefore he is wrong in saying that freedom is the mere spontaneity of the ego4 ,in a certain passage#acg ,bergson describes freedom in a way which seems almost explicitly to deny the doctrine that it is the entirety of will4 ,here it is a revolution of one part of the self against the rest1 far from emanating from the total self4 ,and such revolution1 just so far as it is purely spontaneous1 or arbitrary1 is irresponsible instead of free4 ,just so far1 on the other hand1 as it is not arbitrary1 it is determined4 ,in fact1 however1 appearance of arbitrariness argues nothing about determination except that one is ignorant about it4 ,in showing the absurdity of all argumentation for or against the determination of a future voluntary act by present conditions1 the considerations offered by ,bergson are almost perfect proof of such determination4 ,the reason we cannot think another's thought without disfiguring it is just that the conditions of the thought1 and so of the act1 are not all reunited4 ,the act1 then1 is supposed to depend on these conditions4 ,now1 an absolute present is a fiction2 each moment of the true duration of consciousness is a commencement and an achievement4 ,determination is nothing but that intimate connection of events which prevents us from isolating an absolute present4 ,the case of ,peter and ,paul then1 proves only that foresight could not be adequate to determination1 not that determination is absent4 ,the inability of even the author of an act to foresee it is no criterion of its freedom4 ,any free acts of our own that we do foresee1 we foresee as connected with our present state1 as ours1 in fact2 it is that which makes their freedom1 but that supposes also their determination4 ,this foresight1 it may be said1 is always insufficient and imperfect4 ,so much the worse for freedom1 not the better4 ,it is thereby limited1 not made4 ,there are1 indeed1 always events outside of us that baffle our calculations1 as well as unconscious tendencies1 unperceived forces within us1 indistinctly developing beneath the reflective and clear-seeing ego 7,bergson calls this the superficial1 ,belot the higher ego7 which suddenly break out1 rout it and upset it4 ,such civil war is anything but freedom4 ,the uniqueness of psychic states1 whether free or not1 neither exempts them from determination nor even differentiates them from physical states4 ,that a psychic state is not reproducible ,bergson shows to be because the past1 incessantly accumulating and modifying itself1 is never the same in two moments4 ,a clearer statement of the solidarity of past and present--i4 e4 of determination--could not be made4 ,it may well be true that in the physical as well as in the moral world1 every individual is without counterpart2 it is none the less a product of nature1 for its uniqueness2 and1 as a product of nature1 determined1 in its own uniqueness1 by nature4 ,among our most unique acts1 the most original are far from being the freest4 ,the eccentricities of the madman are more original than the sober doings of the rational1 but not so free4 ,the more enlightened men are1 the freer2 but the more they do and think the same thing4 ,their divergences come from their ignorances and their unconsciousness1 which are also the limits of their freedom4 ,it is the same with them as with nature3 it is when it produces monsters that it is most new1 but it is then also that it has been least free1 most constrained in its doings4 ,monsieur ,bergson has not done away with psychological determinism2 but if he had1 he would have hindered freedom rather than helped it4 ,but the problem is not purely psychological2 it is psycho-physical4 ,we are at once body and consciousness4 ,a freedom which were not exerted in the outer world would be absolutely nominal and illusory2 and in order to manifest itself therein1 it must be accompanied by physical processes4 ,these too1 then1 if determinism is contrary to freedom1 must be exempt from determination4 ,bergson's denial of psycho-physical parallelism#ach is no gain for freedom4 ,if no external effect is essentially involved in a volition1 the volition is impotent--which is surely not to be free4 ,nor would it be characteristic of freedom to have activities going on in the organism without the avowal of consciousness4 ,so far as we do possess such unconscious goings-on1 we are absolutely passive to their operation4 ,psycho-physiological parallelism#aci is a condition of freedom1 not its negation4 ,some sort of correspondence is necessary to the feeling of freedom1 and in that case freedom cannot dispense with determinism in nature1 at least4 ,one might1 perhaps1 suppose a preestablished harmony between a contingency 7the moral world7 and a determinism 7the physical72 it would be easier to suppose it between two determinisms2 but between two contingencies--that is too much to ask6 ,suppose1 then1 the ability of mind to produce1 veritably cause physical modifications4 ,suppose an energy not subject to calculation4 ,but how shall we ever know such an energy in the external world8 ,all that is spatial is calculable1 if number is derived from space4 ,how could an energy1 then1 be manifest in the physical universe1 i4 e4 in space1 without being thereby subjected to the same forms of quantity and to the requirements of calculation8 ,bergson's attempt to repudiate the problem of determinism1 as a pseudo-problem1 results in his vacillation between the two sides of the controversy4 ,sometimes he accepts the solidarity of our acts with the rest of our conscious life1 sometimes he denies it2 which is to vindicate freedom sometimes by determinism1 sometimes by indeterminism4 ,in the beginning he founds freedom in the mutual penetration of the states of consciousness2 even sensation is a commencement of freedom1 because it embraces 8the sketching and1 as it were1 prefiguring of the future automatic movements20#adj and the free act is defined as that which 8springs from the self0#ada without intervention of anything strange4 ,then1 little by little1 the contrary thesis takes the upper hand3 the act of will becomes a coup d'tat2 8the successive moments of real time are not bound up with one another20#adb the dynamic conception supposes 8that the future is not more closely bound up with the present in the external world than it is in our own inner life40#adc ,bergson maintains1 to be sure1 that solidarity can be admitted between the past and the present and denied between present and future4 ,once the event happens it is indeed necessary that we should be able to explain it1 and we can always do so by plausible reasons4 ,but this connection is established after the fact for the satisfaction of our discursive reason4 ,the past is fixed1 it cannot not have been2 it has become a thing1 under the domain of the understanding and of analysis4 ,whereas1 at the moment of enactment1 the activity is a process1 and so not capable of analysis4 ,when the route is traced1 we can analyze its directions and windings1 but it is not traced in advance of being traced2 it is the tracing that makes the route1 not the route that determines the tracing4 ,you can explain what is given1 but there is no explaining what is not given4 ,bergson1 however1 does not keep this point of view4 ,the future1 we have just seen1 is 8prefigured0 in the present4 ,then it is as necessary to the feeling of our freedom to be able to connect our future to our present in our decision1 as to be able1 once the act is accomplished1 to give account of it by reasons drawn from our consciousness4 ,bergson's thought vacillates this way because he attributes two incompatible characters to the inner life1 qualitative heterogeneity and mutual penetration of its states4 ,grant the heterogeneity and you have an infinitesimal dust1 the very denial of connection and penetration4 ,if the states penetrate there are always two near enough to each other in quality to form an identical whole1 while they differ only in degree1 as two very near shades of the same color4 ,but then there is a quantitative1 and so a homogeneous1 aspect of the inner life4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,bergson',s ,,abhorrence ,,of ,,determinateness ,a deep1 temperamental abhorrence of determinateness--that is the motive of ,bergsonism4 ,by admission of ,bergson1 any object of the mind is determinate4 ,but therefore a philosophy that repudiates determinateness in the nature of reality is ineffable because it is objectless4 ,it is ineffable also because any reason offered for the indeterminateness of reality is determination of it4 ,the dread of determinateness is the dread of reason1 of explanation1 of interpretation--in a word1 of philosophy4 ,a consciousness which can #8testify that we are free' is not an objectless consciousness2 and freedom1 if consciousness can testify to it1 cannot be an indeterminate nor an immediate 7i4 e4 unobjectified7 datum of consciousness4 ,bergson's position is that it is essential to the true nature of reality in itself1 under whatever aspect--e4 g4 duration1 motion1 freedom etc4--to be subjective2 and that this is why ,zeno is right in finding motion1 for instance1 unthinkable2 for 8unthinkable0 properly means 7though it did not mean1 for ,zeno7 incapable of becoming objective4 ,this to say1 is it not1 that the true nature of reality independently of all point of view is to be viewed from a certain point6 ,it comes to this1 at least1 if to be subjective is compatible with being known in any sense1 with being contained within consciousness at all4 ,otherwise it comes to the skeptical 7and self-contradictory7 doctrine that it is essential to the true nature of reality to be unknowable in every sense4 ,the former1 of course1 is ,bergson's view regarding subjectivity4#add ,the anti-intellectualist doctrine1 however1 that data of consciousness cannot be understood1 conceptualized1 defined1 or even named--cannot1 in short1 be objectified--without contradiction is as important for the problem of knowledge as it is for the problem of freedom4 ,professor ,perry's analysis of immediatism#ade shows the misunderstanding of what it is to conceptualize1 which underlies such a doctrine4 ,the anti-intellectualist idea seems to be that the concept is static1 and common to more than one consciousness1 and universal in its denotation1 and sharply discrete2 and that for these reasons it could not correspond to what is fluid and private and uniquely particular and continuous4 ,it is evidently the 8copy theory0 of knowledge1 which unconsciously determines this criticism of the concept4 ,concepts are invalid1 applied to life1 because they are not like living objects6 8,you cannot make continuous being out of discontinuities10 is ,james's criticism4#adf ,and ,bergson's3 8,instead of a flux of fleeting shades merging into each other intellect perceives distinct and1 so to speak1 solid colors1 set side by side like the beads of a necklace40#adg ,but1 as ,perry shows1 to conceptualize is nothing like this procedure4 ,conception is substitution of one object of immediate consciousness which is conveniently abstract1 for another object which is1 in the circumstances of the conceiving1 inconvenient in its concrete fulness4 ,all that is necessary in order that this substitutional mode of consciousness should be valid and true knowledge of the object so symbolized1 is that the substitute should mean that object4 ,and that it can and does mean it when the object is a subjective state is no more than the fact that1 on ,bergson's own showing1 such states are symbolized4 ,for to mean is essentially to symbolize4 ,certainly no one concept is a rounded-out exhaustive awareness1 so to speak1 of the symbolized object4 ,but this is no more than to say that conceiving is a selective and eliminating mode of consciousness--which does not distinguish it from any other mode1 the most immediate and intuitive possible state of genuine significant consciousness being essentially as much an elimination as a positing4 ,since1 then1 a symbol never has 7just by reason of its function as symbol7 the same structure as the object symbolized1 there is nothing either in the immobility1 or the publicity1 or the universality1 or the discreteness of any concept1 or in its inclusion of all these characters1 to prevent its validly meaning the fluid and private and particular and continuous4 ,and the real must necessarily have the conceptual characters1 since the characters correlative to them1 alone regarded by ,bergson as characters of reality1 have no meaning except correlatively to the conceptual characters4 ,thus 8fluidity of nothing0 is a phrase without meaning4 ,the something which is fluid1 requires1 in order that fluidity as such shall be a datum of experience1 a coefficient aspect of immobility4 ,it is not fluidity that flows4 ,the immobile1 snap-shot conceptual form--not only does this belong to the cataract1 as the possibility of photographing it proves1 but this very form is indispensable to the fact of flow in its genuine concreteness4 ,as for uniqueness1 a fact so unique that it is like nothing else in any respect1 could not be discriminated4 ,the bare discernibleness of a datum requires a basis of discrimination which is common to it and to that from which it is discriminated4 ,continuity is analogous with unity1 and has no meaning if there is no aspect1 in it1 of composition1 and so of discreteness1 as unity is nothing if not union of a plurality4 ,that the real has the aspects eulogistically favored by intuitionism is beyond question4 ,that it has not the complementary conceptual aspects is demonstrably false1 and is an illusion of 8exclusive particularity10 explainable only by that prepossession with a certain abstract view1 whose psychological origin has been repeatedly noted in this study4 ,is it not truly a paradox to give the unnamable a long list of names--life1 consciousness1 freedom1 duration1 intensity1 quality1 heterogeneity etc4--and to write a book1 whether practical or speculative1 concerning that which will not articulate into discourse1 7cf4 above1 p4 #ed-e71 employing these names on every page2 and to conclude with a studied definition of freedom2 and to avow that the purpose of it all is to make the fact understood that the subject-matter cannot even be named1 still less defined or discoursed about or understood8 ,it seems improper to consider that the book is about such a subject1 and yet necessary to suppose that it is about some subject1 and impossible to assign another4 ,if it is true that1 in seeming to name this subject1 you are deluded2 that1 in trying to talk about it1 you fail1 and name and talk about something else1 instead1 its spatialized symbol--then the conclusion is perfectly valid that such a book is a case of this delusion4 ,and the trouble lies in that reifying of the coefficients of reality and of consciousness which is the condition of a philosophy of 8pure0 intuition 7cf4 page #bi74 ,to suppose that genuine cases of awareness can be either pure intuition or pure conception is to reify these coefficient aspects of consciousness1 which are as truly both indispensable for the genuine concreteness of an actual case of awareness as are the positive sine and cosine for the real acuteness of an angle 7i4 e4 for the angle to enclose acutely space revolved-through74 ,as the zero point of either trigonometric projection is the vanishing-point of the entity of whose nature they are coefficient functions1 so the 8purity0 of either coefficient function of consciousness is the vanishing of any real awareness4#adh ,if no logical reason impugns the validity of conceptual knowledge of subjective states1 no more does the pragmatic test discredit such knowledge4 ,it is as good1 genuine knowledge in its satisfaction of vital interest as the sensation1 say1 which is the object of the state in question4 ,helen ,keller1 incapable of the sensation blue1 knows the sensation--conceptually alone1 of necessity--rather better1 even1 it may be1 than she would ever have known it if her life had been more occupied in the knowing of blue--and other such--things2 better1 at any rate1 certainly1 than most people know it4 ,all this knowledge can be is a rationalizing of 8blue30 she can name it1 define it1 understand it1 make articulate and significant statements about it4 ,the intellectual mode of knowing blue is thoroughly significant4 ,it finds blue in experience1 and enables the conscious subject to identify this object when she comes across it4 ,by this knowledge1 blue is part of the currency of ,helen ,keller's social commerce4 ,it is a factor in her life1 with its importance and interest4 ,obviously1 she can have got it only by conceptualizing it4 ,of course the proposition that consciousness is indefinable has the same futility as the proposition that it is unnamable2 because1 indeed1 they have the same meaning4 ,the meaning1 we have seen1 is that1 in trying to name or define what is fluid1 private1 etc41 there is a miscarriage2 it is something else that gets named or defined1 to wit the representative or symbol of what was aimed at4 ,this symbol1 being fixed and public1 is able to lend itself to application of the fixed and public name or concept4 ,but we have also seen that a name is only a symbol2 an unnamable thing could not be symbolized4 ,if1 by hypothesis1 it is symbolized1 it is therein namable4 ,but naming a thing is ipso facto relating it1 for it is associating it with something else1 its name or symbol2 in naming the thing you have started upon the process of defining it1 which is the infinite process of relating it or understanding it4 ,exempting things from naming or definition1 sequestering them from the rational domain1 is like setting a limit to space4 ,sequestering from the rational domain is relating to it1 and that is putting into it4 ,if the illusion in trying to name and define mental states is due to their fluidity and privacy1 by the same token the same treatment of physical objects1 which ,bergson regards as valid treatment1 is in fact equally illusory4 ,to be sure1 physical objects have not1 according to the author1 the flow of duration1 but they are even less dependable creatures than mental states1 for in every new moment they are something absolutely other than anything which was in the moment before4 ,besides which1 in spite of this really incessant instantaneity1 something1 not explained1 causes them1 upon the 8intersection0 of our duration with them1 to appear to us to be self-identical but changed1 even as we ourselves4 ,physical objects are not fixed4 ,one finds no exceptions in nature to the universal law of change2 and the state of any physical thing at a given moment is the outcome1 in continuity1 of its previous states1 to an indefinite regress of antecedents1 quite as the case stands with the ego4 ,in respect to duration1 discriminating between physical and mental is not valid4 ,even between organic and inorganic matter or between conscious and unconscious organisms the difference is only one of degree or tempo of change4 ,but if so1 it is arbitrary1 if one regards the present state of the conscious organism as embodying the whole of its past1 to deny this of the stick and the stone4 ,of course mental states are not permanent2 subjects1 objects--nothing is permanent that has existence4 ,nothing stays as it is4 ,the scope of naming and defining is not limited by permanence4 ,neither1 however1 is the flux of nature chaos1 that it should not be understandable4 ,change1 on the contrary1 is the manifestation of law1 in the time of ,heraclitus1 now1 and forever4 ,privacy or uniqueness is no more obstructive to understanding than is change1 and1 like change1 has no peculiar applicability to mental states as matter of knowledge4 ,privacy or uniqueness applies to physical objects of knowledge in essentially the same way as it applies to mental states4 ,mere accessibility is1 in principle1 common for all objects of knowledge1 to all subjects4#adi ,but there is a special reason why the subject of the state is particularly disqualified1 as compared with others1 for knowing his state immediately1 i4 e4 intuitively2 namely1 that1 at the time of the existence of the state1 when1 alone1 it could be known intuitively1 he is mainly occupied with another object of knowledge1 the object of the state in question4 ,you do not1 then1 know a mental state best by living it1 or rather in living it2 your knowledge of it is just then at its worst1 since you are then preoccupied in knowing something else4 ,the state1 as an attribute of the subject1 is clearly one of the subject's relations1 and1 so1 conceptually distinct from either term4 ,it cannot be at once a knowledge and the object of that same knowledge4 ,bergson's treatment of the conscious state conceives it in just that way--as if the relation were itself one of its own terms1 the object4 ,knowing a mental state can only mean understanding it4 ,it is not a concrete datum1 like the sky1 but an abstraction from the relationship in which the subject and the sky function as terms4 ,one does not intuitively know the subjective process of blueness1 in looking at the sky2 one knows the sky in that sense1 but the process only conceptually1 by reflection4 ,is it any less an authentic object of knowledge8 ,is it not itself--is it any symbol of itself8--which you name and define and talk about and understand8 ,the practical significance of saying that one felt and now remembers a feeling is not that the feeling is what one ever felt4 ,feeling ,number ,one is not an object for feeling ,number ,two1 neither during ,number ,one nor afterward1 in reminiscent feeling4 ,so far as the reminiscent state is another intuition1 its object is the same as that of the intuition remembered--so far4 ,but to be reminiscent1 a conscious state must reflect upon1 or refer to1 a conscious state distinct from itself4 ,this reflective reference is a conceptual co-element together with the intuitional character of the reminiscent state4 ,so far as the memory is reflective1 consciousness is oriented toward the original state itself as a fact1 a process1 conceptually distinguishable from the object of it4 ,it is thus only so far as conceptual that subjective processes can be objects of knowledge1 or1 in short1 be known4 ,but if so1 ,bergson is wrong in two essential points3 in denying that subjectivity can be objectified1 and in affirming that knowledge of subjectivity is immediate 7i4 e4 non-conceptual7 or intuitive4 ,any reminiscent state1 like every other conscious state1 undoubtedly is intuitive in a certain degree4 ,the calmest reflection on an originally affective experience is tinctured with a rudimentary fluttering of the old feeling2 just as1 on the other hand1 the most violent early repetitions of a tempestuous joy or grief must relate1 in order to be reminiscent1 to the original experience4 ,no one else1 it may be said1 can appreciate my feeling as ,i do1 myself3 this appreciation is no conceptualization of that feeling4 ,this is only to say that the affective as well as the representative aspect of any conscious state is unique for each subjective center of interest4 ,but privacy no more distinguishes subjectivity from objectivity than does change4 ,every object1 being self-identical1 is unique1 its quality private4 ,inasmuch as each conscious subject is a distinct center of interest as well as a distinct cognitive subject1 the affective value of a state of a given subject must also be theoretically unique for that subject4 ,but the state is nevertheless objective and common as well as subjective and private1 since in fact it is an object for understanding4 ,my state of mind is as accessible to your understanding as your own 7it may be more so1 to be sure74 ,the understanding names the intuitive state--anybody's at all1 indifferently1 one's own or another's-- as truly as it names any other relationship or process1 by virtue of its conceptual coefficient2 and as truly relates it to the rest of the rational universe1 therein understanding and defining it4 ,the derivation of the three heterologies elucidated in the three chapters of the ,essai1 is the inevitable consequence of the fundamental heterology of an 8absolutely0 two-fold universe4 ,the intensity of mental states could not be homogeneous1 for ,bergson1 the variousness that belongs to them could not be plural1 their organization could not be determinate1 because then they would be objective1 by his definition of objectivity4 ,but why may a subjective state not be an objective state8 ,to the conceptualist1 to whom these terms are abstract concepts1 points of view1 discursive contexts1 there is no reason at all4 ,to ,professor ,bergson1 who does what he accuses conceptualism of doing1 namely substituting concepts for concrete realities1 it is a contradiction1 for one concrete reality cannot be another4 ,but a concrete reality which1 for a certain purpose and in a certain context1 one symbolizes by the term 8subjective state10 may very well be the same concrete reality which1 for another purpose1 one symbolizes by the phrase 8objective state40 ,we have seen that intensity which is 8pure10 pure quality1 is pure nothing1 being quality of nothing2 since1 if it is quality of anything1 it has its quantitative coefficient1 which destroys its purity4 ,so variousness which is 8pure0 heterogeneity1 is not even various1 but 8nothing0 again4 ,for it is 8interpenetrating0 instead of 8juxtaposited0 or impenetrable heterogeneity4 ,but impenetrability is just identity1 as ,bergson remarks2#aej it is a logical principle rather than a physical law4 ,that two bodies cannot occupy the same space and time means that they would therein not be two1 or coexistent4 ,now1 interpenetration in any rigorous sense1 any but the loose colloquial sense of small division and uniform diffusion1 is the mere contradiction of impenetrability or identity4 ,it means that two bodies do occupy the same space at the same time4 ,if1 then1 this law of interpenetration thus means to require 7in the subject7 the relation of coexistence1 and also 7in the predicate7 to forbid it--in other words1 if it is contradictory to itself--mental states can obey it no better than pebbles4 ,and1 finally1 non-quantitative causality is a third contradiction1 since its 8pure0 heterogeneity destroys its continuity in time as well as in space 7cf4 above1 page #ic74 ,how can any of these three pairs of heterologous principles of space and time be 8absolutely0 different if1 however different1 each pair have such essential community of nature that both must be called by one name and thought under one category1 as two species of the same genus8 ,for1 in spite of all their differences1 they are1 throughout the discussion1 two kinds of intensity1 of multiplicity1 of causation4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,mystical ,,yearning ,,of ,,intuitionism ,i will conclude these comments on ,professor ,bergson's teaching by noting the mystical nature of the central idea of his epistemology1 the identification of subject and object4 ,the yearning for a more intimate acquaintance with the thing-in-itself1 for a knowledge truer and more searching than the 8practical0 and 8useful0 reactive relations which we bear to our 8phenomenal0 objects--as if such experience were unworthy the sacred name of knowledge--this1 the prime aspiration of the intuitional philosophy of ,bergson1 reduces to a futile1 if not a morbid1 yearning after self-contradiction4 ,the more you know a thing 8in itself10 the more you 8internalize0 your relation to it--in short1 the more you identify yourself with it--the less you bear any significant relation to it at all1 any relation1 obviously1 but that of identity2 the less1 notably1 you bear the active and cognitive relations toward it4 ,the indispensable condition of ,paul's knowing ,peter is that ,paul should not become ,peter4 ,things can neither be nor be conceived except in some relations1 any more than relations without terms4 ,if you know the thing in its relations1 you know the thing as much in itself as a thing is capable of being4 8,you show10 writes ,professor ,bergson1 in the letter quoted before1 8that perfect intuitive knowledge1 as ,i mean it1 would consist in coincidence with the object known2 but that then there would no longer be knowledge of any object1 since only the object remains4--,yet1 in the case of an entirely free action1 i4 e4 an act in which the entire person takes part1 one is altogether in what he is doing2 one has1 at the same time1 consciousness of what he is doing2 and yet he is not duplicated in observing his own activity1 absorbed as he is in the act itself3 here to act and to know 7or rather to possess7 are one and the same thing4 ,intelligence1 always outside of what it observes1 cannot conceive of knowledge without distinctness of subject and object4 ,it is intelligence that propounds your dilemma3 #8,either there is knowledge of the object1 hence distinctness of object and subject2 or subject coincides with object1 and then there is only object3 knowledge vanishes4'--,but reality does not accept this dilemma4 ,it presents us1 in the case cited1 subject and object as a single indivisible reality1 action and knowledge of the action as a single indivisible reality1 of which intelligence subsequently takes two points of view1 that of object and that of subject1 that of action without knowledge and that of pure knowledge4 ,we have no right to set up these points of view of reality as constitutive elements of reality itself40 ,the last sentence accuses me of doing what ,i am most zealous to show is the foundation fallacy of intuitionism6 ,i have been contending that1 when ,monsieur ,bergson says that subjectivity cannot be objectified1 he is speaking as if 8objectifying10 instead of meaning to take a point of view1 means to alter the reality symbolized by the word 8subjectivity40 7,of course the question concerns concrete cases of subjectivity1 the intuitionist contending that a given subjective state cannot be objectified--i4 e4 named1 defined1 etc47 ,now1 this seems to me precisely to 8set up a point of view of reality as a constitutive element of reality itself40 ,but intuitionism does even worse than this4 ,having set up this point of view of reality1 and treated it in this concrete way1 and worshipped it as the ,absolute1 it snubs that other point of view1 which1 by the very nature of the genuinely concrete reality1 is cordinate with the deified abstraction1 its brother and peer4 ,the object has 8such reality as that of rest1 which is the negation of motion10 the absolute and positive2 8yet it is not absolute naught40 ,it seems to me that ,bergson virtually admits the impossibility of the coincidence of subject and object when he says that instinct and intellect are neither possibly pure1 which is deeply true4 ,but then an action 8completely free0 is only a limiting case1 is it not8--a case which would put the action out of relation and so out of activity8 ,in a certain obvious sense 8the whole person takes part10 perhaps1 in any action2 but ,i cannot imagine any action or state that could be other than a relation between object and subject4 ,i cannot see how perfect self-expression in one's act makes in any degree for obliteration of ontological distinctness between agent and patient1 subject and object4 ,how may action be conceived to dispense with reaction8 ,how deny its relational character1 then1 without denying its activity--in short1 without contradiction8 8,perfect self-expression0 distinguishes certain acts1 no doubt1 but the distinction is ethical1 denoting a teleological harmony1 not a metaphysical identity between subject and object4 ,to say that one is completely one's act and yet knows his act again confuses a relation with one of its terms4 ,is it merely a matter of taste to choose to say that such a state--i4 e4 perfect absorption in one's act--is not knowledge of the act just in so far as it is the act8 ,is it not necessary to distinguish between the subject's relation to the act1 on one hand1 and to those things1 on the other 7which are neither subject nor act7 entering1 together with the subject1 into the act8 ,those things1 it seems to me1 are the object1 and the act itself a relation between the subject and them1 a relation which wears a conscious as well as an active aspect1 and which1 as knowledge1 is knowledge of the things1 not of the act1 not of itself4 ,,part ,,three ,,bergson',s ,,genius ,,bergson',s ,,genius ,logical soundness is never amiss1 and is notably desirable in a philosopher2 but ,professor ,bergson is assuredly right in thinking that it is no measure of a philosopher's genius4 ,one's feeling about the fallacies of ,spinoza and ,berkeley and ,kant may pale almost into indifference1 in the enthusiasm of following such heroic feats of insight4 ,but then1 it would seem1 their greatness is their insight1 and not their logic1 and insight therefore1 after all1 is philosophical genius4 ,we have seen that this is ,professor ,bergson's conclusion4 ,it can be interpreted in a sense that is valid1 of course3 all depends on the meaning of 8insight40 ,i have insisted sufficiently on the reasons why ,i cannot think ,professor ,bergson's interpretation of it is valid4 ,it is a case in which the etymological and the actual meaning of a word1 in a certain context1 differ and so give rise to ambiguity4 ,the word 8intuition10 etymologically1 means just 8insight40 ,but then it means consciousness functioning most completely1 least abstractly4 ,now1 ,bergsonian 8intuition0 is a conception so far from concrete completeness that almost the primary object of his philosophy is the demarcation of intuition from any actual state of which consciousness is normally capable4 ,it is true that ,bergson insists that consciousness1 in a supernormal effort1 is capable of the purely intuitive act1 and that in the capacity for this feat of knowing lies all the hope of metaphysics4 ,this is the ground principle of ,bergsonism1 and ,i have nothing to add here1 concerning its merits4 ,in a word1 its fallacy is the fallacy of reification4 ,no such feat of consciousness is possible1 not because it is more than the limited power of actual mind can compass1 but because it is a contradiction1 since it is consciousness without object1 which is consciousness of nothing4 ,the ,bergsonian will object that1 if ,bergsonian 8intuition0 is abstract1 no less abstract is intellect2 and1 if philosophy is insight1--consciousness most complete1--the thesis contrary to intuitionism1 that philosophy is intellectual judgment1 is a case of the same fallacy that has been charged to intuitionism1 and is inconsistent with the admission that philosophy is essentially an insight which involves more than intellect4 ,the answer is first1 that intellectualism1 unlike intuitionism1 regards philosophy as indeed an abstract interest1 and for that reason as not separable from the living of a life which supports this interest in a larger total interest2 but1 also for that reason1 as not possibly identical1 either with life entire or with any interest1 such as the sthetic1 of like abstractness with philosophy4 ,the answer to the second part of the objection is that an insight which is more than intellect is not for that reason without its intellectual aspect4 ,consciousness is always significant1 certainly2 but if it has any meaning1 if it is significant1 it is1 in that fact1 intellectual4 ,and insight without meaning is a contradiction1 and is assuredly not philosophy4 ,the appearance of inconsistency arises from the unconscious identifying of insight with intuition in the falsely reified sense4 ,insight in any such sense philosophy certainly is not4 ,and yet the intellectualist may properly attribute the greatness of a philosophy to its insight rather than to its logical cogency1 since cogent logic may be dull and shallow and therefore not great4 ,it is great if it is far-seeing and deep4 ,there is analytic insight1 as well as intuitive4 ,after all is said1 the feeling that even serious lapse of logic may not be sufficient to destroy the value of a great philosophy is not the same as the opinion that logic is immaterial to that value4 ,no one1 ,i dare say1--intuitionist1 intellectualist or anyone else--ever thought this4 ,the genius of a great philosophy is a superior perspicacity in the recognition of the significance of problems1 a superior discernment of the problematic as such4 8,the earliest philosophers0 says ,professor ,james1#aea 8444 were just men curious beyond immediate practical needs1 and no particular problems1 but rather the problematic generally1 was their specialty40 ,but the perspicacity which sees the meaning and bearings of a problem cannot fail to attack its further interpretation with a superior freshness and originality4 ,and the interpretation of a problem1 carried to the end1 is its only solution4 ,genius in philosophy thus also turns into superior richness of suggestion in the solutions which it invents4 ,inasmuch as the problem-putting and the problem-solving processes are continuous with each other1 and in this important sense one and the same thing1 it should be expected that philosophical genius would possess both virtues1 in any actual instance4 ,and no doubt this is the historical fact4 ,on any view it is suggestiveness1 fertility1 which is the measure of philosophical genius4 ,and it seems to the intellectualist that the possibility of philosophical fertility depends on a discursive1 intellectual co-implication of the parts of the realm of truth4 ,but although these two phases of philosophical genius--the problem-putting and the problem-solving phases--have so intimate a relation with each other1 they can and do appear in different emphases in different philosophers4 ,the emphasis in any particular case is undoubtedly determined in part from without1 notably by the philosopher's epochal relations4 ,thales is greater1 as well as more momentous historically1 in his quest of an than in the consummation of the quest4 ,with ,hegel's material to work upon1 the emphasis in ,thales' genius would have been proportionately modified4 ,and if ,bergson has not1 like ,thales1 unearthed new problems1 that is nothing1 for the question of the value of his work4 ,indeed1 the historical momentousness of a philosophy is quite largely independent of its intrinsic merit in either of these senses1 or in any sense4 ,conditions which contribute to the vogue and influence of a philosophy are many1 some obvious enough1 others more recondite4 ,the question of historical momentousness is thus only partly germane to an estimate of a philosophy's own intrinsic worth2 and1 in the case of a contemporary philosophy1 is in the nature of things 7while the history is yet to be made7 an almost unmitigated speculation4 ,such speculation regarding ,bergson is no part of the present purpose4 ,one word more--before undertaking to appraise the genius of ,bergson--as to the motive of such an undertaking in this particular essay4 ,it is no part of the primary object of the essay4 ,that object is the very impersonal one of understanding his doctrine4 ,if logical fallacies are in any sense or degree irrelevant to the value of a philosophy1 it is nevertheless a method of studying a philosophical work which is not without its value1 to square it with logical principles4 ,when the philosophy under criticism is already a classic1 the omission of appreciative comment needs no apology1 just because the merit of the work is beyond dispute4 ,on ,platonism and on ,kantism much valuable light has been thrown in this severe way4 ,in studies so occupied1 disquisition on the immortal inspiration of the vision bequeathed to mankind in syllogisms which sometimes halt would not have enhanced the value of the study4 ,when our philosopher is a contemporary1 the case is different in that then personal predilection and prejudice are without the regulation imposed by historical perspective2 and injustice1 even negative or privative1 either to the living philosopher or to his living antagonists1 has a certain human import of which the conditions are removed with mere temporal remoteness of the subject of study1 when history has placed him in a setting which includes an 8after0 as well as a 8before40 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,a4 ,d4 ,lindsay has pointed out#aeb that1 in one important respect1 ,bergson's genius is of the ,kantian kind4 ,it is capacity for such interpretation of old problems that they become veritably renewed4 8,it is a great and essential proof of cleverness or insight10 said ,kant1 8to know how to ask reasonable questions40 ,now1 comments ,professor ,lindsay 7without suggesting any comparison in importance between ,kant and ,bergson71 there is this resemblance between them1 that much of the interest of ,bergson's work1 as of ,kant's1 consists in statement and exposition of antinomies in philosophy4 ,like ,kant's1 ,bergson's philosophy is interesting because it is a new method1 and1 in the same sense as ,kant's1 is a critical philosophy1 for it consists in finding the main source of previous difficulties in uncriticized false assumptions4 ,such criticism of the question 78interpretation of the problem0 ,i called it above7 is just the proper business of the philosopher4 ,for1 every question is also an unconditional assertion4 ,falseness in this implied assertion is a case of the fallacy of 8many questions10 which1 accordingly1 may be regarded as the philosopher's first concern4 ,bergson is a philosopher preeminently in this sense4 ,he is a philosopher also 7in spite of the cavalier denial of ,sir4 ,e4 ,ray ,lankester7#aec in that he is a man with an articulate conviction concerning the nature of being and of knowledge4 ,in the aspersion of ,bergson's thought by the above writer and by ,mr4 ,hugh ,s4 ,r4 ,elliot1#aed there is a rancour which1 in spite of much valid criticism in detail1 produces an impression of ill-regulated prejudice4 ,this impression is no more than fairly counterbalanced by the contrary enthusiasm of such whole-souled votaries of ,bergsonism as ,edouard ,le,roy1 ,william ,james and ,h4 ,wildon ,carr4 8,there is a thinker10 writes ,m4 ,le,roy1 8who is deemed by acknowledged philosophers worthy of comparison with the greatest4444 ,beyond any doubt1 and by common consent1 ,mr4 ,henri ,bergson's work will appear to future eyes among the most characteristic1 fertile and glorious of our era4 ,it marks a never-to-be-forgotten date in history2 it opens up a phase of metaphysical thought1 it lays down a principle of development the limits of which are indeterminable2 and it is after cool consideration1 with full consciousness of the exact value of words1 that we are able to pronounce the revolution which it effects equal in importance to that effected by ,kant1 or even by ,socrates40#aee ,it is a 8profoundly original doctrine40 ,and of endless fertility3 8,there is no doctrine 444 which is more open1 and none which 444 lends itself to further extension40 ,again3 8444 a doctrine which admits of infinite development 444 a work of such profound thought that the least passing example employed takes its place as a particular study40#aef ,and so on ad libitum4 ,these are the glowing words of an ardent disciple 7even though not a pupil7 and may be expected to be not1 after all1 altogether regulated by a 8full consciousness of the exact value of words40 ,such phrases as 8worthy of comparison with the greatest10 8beyond any doubt10 8by common consent10 are pleasantly vague1 and should not offend any judgment that is not literal in season and out of season4 ,as to the ,bergsonian 8revolution10 it should offend no one at all who can put up with an expression of purely speculative relish4 ,so far1 on the other hand1 as this revolution is accomplished fact in the prime of our philosopher's middle age1 the mention of ,socrates and ,kant does savour of the ornate6 ,bergson is at least preeminent over all other living philosophers as the expression of a very revolutionary ,zeitgeist4 ,the generation of ,taine and ,renan 7,le,roy goes on to say7 was characterized by the positivistic presumption that any object whatever could be #8inserted in the thread of one and the same unbroken connection4' ,but rationalistic arrogance has never failed to arouse an answering voice of protest and dissent2 and of our own generation such anti-intellectualism is one of the controlling ideas4 ,it is primarily the reactionary conviction that the analytic method of philosophy is abstract and empty4 ,it is1 says ,le,roy1 a demand for 8complete experience1 anxious to neglect no aspect of being nor any resource of mind40 8,everything is regarded from the point of view of life1 and there is a tendency more and more to recognize the primacy of spiritual activity40 8,that the attitude and fundamental procedure of this new spirit are in no way a return to skepticism or a reaction against thought cannot be better demonstrated than by this resurrection of metaphysics1 this renaissance of idealism1 which is certainly one of the most distinctive features of our epoch40 8,but 444 we wish to think with the whole of thought1 and go to the truth with the whole of our soul 444 ,and what is that1 really1 but realism8 ,by realism ,i mean the gift of ourselves to reality1 the work of concrete realization 444 to live what we think and think what we live4 ,but that is positivism1 you will say2 certainly it is positivism4 ,but how changed6 ,for1 from considering as positive only that which can be an object of sensation or calculation1 we begin by treating the great spiritual realities with this title40 8,a new philosophy was required to answer this new way of looking at things4 ,already1 in #ahfg1 ,ravaisson1 in his celebrated ,report1 wrote these prophetic lines3 #8,many signs permit us to forsee in the near future a philosophical epoch of which the general character will be the predominance of what may be called spiritualist realism or positivism1 having as generating principle the consciousness which the mind has in itself of an existence recognized as being the source and support of every other existence1 being none other than its action4' 8444 ,what ,ravaisson had only anticipated1 ,mr4 ,bergson himself accomplishes1 with a precision which gives body to the impalpable and floating breath of first inspiration1 with a depth which renews both proof and theses alike1 with a creative originality which prevents the critic who is anxious for justice and precision from insisting on any researches establishing connection of thought40 8444 ,mr4 ,bergson has contributed more than anyone else to awaken the very tendencies of the milieu in which his new philosophy is produced1 to determine them and make them become conscious of themselves40#aeg ,in the new and significant relation which ,le,roy and others find in ,bergson to motives of thought so distinct as idealism1 realism1 and positivism1 he is a writer of the fertility of genius2 in the skill of his transfusion of these motives into a type of conception underlying a very deep and widely extended tendency of the age1 he is the foremost expression of that tendency4 ,in a very limited way1 only1 can such enthusiasm as ,le,roy's1 in a mind of his excellent discernment1 be reasonably discounted4 ,trimmed of all its abounding fervours its fighting weight is still sufficiently impressive3 how resonant to motives and convictions of actually controlling interest that mind must be which can elicit such response1 needs no better proof than the response itself4 ,no one else is so well attuned as ,bergson to that demand for complete experience which1 if anything1 is the spirit of our time4 ,no one else has carried so far in theory the possibilities of an intense instinctive living1 as the answer to the riddle of the universe4 ,what can be said for instinct as an organ of philosophy1 ,bergson has said4 ,all philosophers of immediacy hold ,bergson as chief4 ,carr1 like ,le,roy1 thinks ,bergson's doctrine as momentously original as those of the greatest classics4 8,great scientific discoveries10 he writes1#aeh 8are often so simple that the greatest wonder about them is that humanity has had to wait so long for them40 ,thus with ,berkeley's 8esse est percipi0 and ,kant's autonomy of the intellectual categories4 ,and equally so with ,bergson's interpretation of reality as life1 8living creative evolution10 as distinct both from solid matter and thinking mind4 ,james1 while others find quite determinate differences between him and ,bergson1 was far less cognizant1 himself1 of differences than of agreement4 ,he was one of the keenest of ,bergsonians1 and regarded himself1 certainly with a great deal of genial modesty1 as a follower1 a disciple4 8444 if ,i had not read ,bergson10 he says1#aei 8,i should probably still be blackening endless pages of paper privately1 in the hope of making ends meet that were never meant to meet 444 ,it is certain that without the confidence which being able to lean on ,bergson's authority gives me1 ,i should never have ventured to urge these particular views of mine 444 ,in my opinion he has killed intellectualism definitively and without hope of recovery40 99 99 99 99 99 ,the quantity and quality of the study of ,bergson's problems by others1 which his own treatment of them has stimulated1 is already an enviable monument to that best quality of philosophic genius in his work1 its fertility of suggestion4 ,speaking1 as the present writer must1 from the point of view of critical reaction1 the value of ,bergson is indeed incalculable4 ,this is no conventional phrase4 ,his theoretical opponent is almost inclined to feel that the stimulus which ,bergson's lucid exposition affords1 to a mind of contrary conviction1 to understand itself1 must be a more precious good even than the quickening which his followers so eloquently confess4 ,the fact is that this eloquence is always more than eloquence2 it is a fervour almost like religious fervour4 ,witness the words just quoted from ,james4 ,every true ,bergsonian testifies in the same tone4 ,thus ,le,roy3#afj 8,mr4 ,bergson's readers will undergo at almost every page they read an intense and singular experience4 ,the curtain drawn between ourselves and reality1 enveloping everything1 including ourselves1 in its illusive folds1 seems of a sudden to fall1 dissipated by enchantment1 and display to the mind depths of light till then undreamt1 in which reality itself1 contemplated face to face for the first time1 stands fully revealed4 ,the revelation is overpowering1 and1 once vouchsafed1 will never afterwards be forgotten4 8,nothing can convey to the reader the effects of this direct and intimate mental vision4 ,everything which he thought he knew already finds new birth and vigor in the clear light of morning2 on all hands1 in the glow of dawn1 new intuitions spring up and open out2 we feel them big with infinite consequences1 heavy and saturated with life4 ,each of them is no sooner blown than it appears fertile forever4 ,and yet there is nothing paradoxical or disturbing in the novelty4 ,it is a reply to our expectation1 an answer to some dim hope4444 8444 whether1 in the long run1 we each of us give or refuse complete or partial adhesion1 all of us at least have received a regenerating shock1 an internal upheaval 444 henceforth a new leaven works and ferments in us2 we shall no longer think as we used to think40 ,as for the attitude of mind proper to bring to the reading of ,bergson1 8where the end is to understand rather than to judge1 criticism ought to take second place4 ,it is more profitable to attempt to feel oneself into the heart of the teaching1 to relive its genesis1 to perceive the principle of organic unity1 to come at the mainspring4 ,let our reading be a course of meditation which we live40 ,and ,gaston ,rageot3 8444 the reading of a work of ,bergson's requires at the very beginning a sort of inner catastrophe2 not everyone is capable of such a logical revolution40#afa ,a little further on he speaks of this preparation of the mind to receive the ,bergsonian doctrine as 8cette volte-face psychologique40 ,conversion to ,bergsonism1 indeed1 suggests religious conversion4 ,compare ,james' words with the above4 8444 if1 as ,bergson shows1 the conceptual or discursive form of reality cannot even pretend to reveal anything of what life's inner nature is or ought to be2 why1 then we can turn a deaf ear to its accusations4 ,the resolve to turn the deaf ear is the inner crisis or #8catastrophe' of which ,m4 ,rageot spoke 444 ,this comes very hard4 ,it is putting off our proud maturity of mind and becoming again as foolish little children in the eyes of reason4 ,but difficult as such a revolution is1 there is no other way1 ,i believe1 to the possession of reality40#afb ,is not this experience very suggestive of the 8regeneration0 of ,christianity8 ,i think it is1 indeed2 and ,i think this fact is suggestive of the essential nature of ,bergsonism4 ,one may turn a deaf ear to reason1 one may execute a volte-face psychologique2 but1 whatever the rewards1 it seems unlikely 7to the unregenerate1 of course67 that among them will be included a better comprehension of the meaning of reality4 ,,footnotes3 #ib ,creative ,evolution p4 #agf4 ,i have italicized 8reflecting0 and 8object0 to indicate the contradiction of 8instinct40 ,and since1 for ,bergson1 intuition is philosophic consciousness1 this reflectiveness which he imputes to it is no accident1 no inadvertence4 ,intuition must1 indeed1 in order to be philosophic1 be reflective2 that is to say1 it must absolutely contradict its own nature4 7,in all of the references to ,bergson's works1 the pages mentioned are those of the ,english translation47 #ic ,see especially ,creative ,evolution1 pp4 #aia-b and #bff4 #id ,cf4 ,r4 ,b4 ,perry's ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies1 the first two sections of ,chapter ,,xi4 #ie ,j4 ,w4 ,scott1 ,pessimism of ,bergson1 ,hibbert ,journal4 ,,xi4 #ij-aaf4 ,see also below p4 #id4 #if ,creative ,evolution1 p4 xi4 #ig ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology and ,scientific ,methods4 ,volume ,v4 ,no4 #bb #ih ,cf4 the second sentence of the present essay4 #ii ,henri ,bergson3 ,the ,philosophy of ,change1 p4 #ad4 #ajj ,this title has been given to the ,english translation of the ,essai sur les donnes1 etc4 #aja ,possibly this representation of ,leibniz's thought requires a word of explanation4 ,leibniz expresses the nature of reality in terms of force1 on one hand1 and of consciousness on the other4 ,the monad or elemental reality is a unit of perception and also a unit of force4 ,it is a living unit2 as in ,bergsonism1 reality is life1 though life in ,leibniz's philosophy is ultimately plural instead of a simple impetus4 ,it is true that will is not a characteristic ,leibnizian term1 but existence is always1 ,i think1 conceived by him very clearly as conation4 ,the self-realization of the monad is at the same time an intensification of its perceptiveness and of its dynamic4 ,cf4 the following passages from ,rogers' ,student's ,history of ,philosophy1 pp4 #cjg-h3 8,leibniz was led by various motives to substitute1 for extension1 power of resistance1 as the essential quality of matter4444 ,but when1 instead of extension1 we characterize matter as force1 a means of connection between matter and mind is opened up4 ,for force has its analogue in the conscious life2 corresponding to the activity of matter is conscious activity or will4 ,indeed1 are there any positive terms in which we can describe the nature of force1 unless we conceive it as identical with that conscious activity which we know directly in ourselves80 ,this activity1 then1 8,is at bottom1 when we interpret it1 a spiritual or perceptual activity40 ,in short1 it is will4 ,leibniz is properly regarded as the first modern spiritualist4 ,leibnizian matter is real1 if you like1 but then it is continuous1 and of essentially identical nature1 with spirit4 ,matter is spirit in a low stage of development4 ,bergson has no such clear and unambiguous conception of matter as this1 when you consider the whole or his doctrine2 but there are passages in ,bergson which might almost have been written by ,leibniz himself4 ,for instance3 444 8if1 in fact1 the humblest function of spirit is to bind together the successive moments of the duration of things1 if it is by this that it comes into contact with matter and by this also that it is first of all distinguished from matter1 we can conceive an infinite number of degrees between matter and fully developed spirit--a spirit capable of action which is not only undetermined1 but also reasonable and reflective40 7,matter and ,memory1 pp4 #bie-f47 #ajb ,there is a good discussion of this point in an article reviewing the ,essai1 by ,l4 ,levy-,bruhl1 in the ,revue ,philosophique1 ,vol4 ,,xxix 7#ahij71 pp4 #eac-ech4 #ajc ,cf4 below1 pp4 #eg1 #eh4 #ajd ,pages #gb1 #gc1 #ig4 ,professor ,perry's analysis of the conception of immediacy 7,present ,philosophical ,tendencies1 ,chapter ,x7 has a result that is similar in principle to the above4 #aje ,op4 cit41 p4 #ebe4 #ajf ,time and ,free ,will1 pp4 #aah-aai4 #ajg ,but ,bergson apparently does not see that even the word 8interpenetrate0 falls to express anything radically different in temporal 8multiplicity0 from a certain character of spatial multiplicity4 ,cf4 pp4 #fb1 #aja4 ,in this1 as in all its argument1 intuitionism arguing is inevitably intuitionism contradicting itself4 ,it is ineffable philosophy 7see ,journal of ,philosophy1 ,psychology and ,scientific ,methods1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #abc47 #ajh ,the living ego is a fact-in-the-accomplishing4 ,you cannot really discourse about it6 ,if psychology ever seems to manage this 7and if this present book of ,bergson's seems to manage it71 the ego discoursed about is1 in that fact1 proven to be not the concrete and living ego at all1 but the impersonal and objective one4 #aji ,the attitude1 that is1 of intuition1 which we have called the temporal attitude4 ,the terms 8spatial10 8logical10 8conceptual10 applied here so often to the word 8thought10 are epithets of thought generally4 ,there is no thought1 in any meaning of the word more specific than 8consciousness10 that is not logical1 conceptual and spatial in this ,bergsonian sense4 ,if we cannot conceptualize our psychic facts1 we cannot think them1 then--the meaning is the same4 ,but if we say that anything 7which we name and1 in the saying1 define and think7 is unnamable1 indefinable and cannot be thought1 we contradict ourselves4 ,the doctrine1 if true1 must mean something that is not a self-contradiction4 ,does it mean that what we name and discourse about is only the spatialized symbol of the psychic fact8 ,there can be little doubt4 ,i think1 that this is ,bergson's meaning2 but then the psychic fact is of such a nature as to be symbolized2 and the distinction between a symbol and a name1 by virtue of which a thing which can be symbolized may not be namable1 requires explanation4 #aaj ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies1 pp4 #bcb-d4 #aaa ,pp4 #db1 #dc4 ,cf4 also below1 p4 #ic4 #aab ,op4 cit41 p4 #abh4 #aac ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #ih4 #aad ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #aac4 #aae ,cf4 above1 p4 #eh4 #aaf ,in order to give any meaning to the term 8compenetrating0 or 8interpenetration0 7which ,i take to be mutually equivalent1 in ,bergson's use71 ,i am compelled to interpret them as synonymous with the 8compactness0 of a continuum--as synonymous4 ,in fact1 with 8continuity40 ,bergson does not make clear how these terms can mean anything else 7cf4 below1 p4 #aja47 #aag ,bergson himself1 of course1 is perfectly aware--in other connections--of the continuity of space6 #aah ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #a4 #aai ,ibid41 p4 #d4 #abj ,ibid41 p4 #bjh4 #aba ,ibid41 p4 #bdh4 #abb ,ibid41 p4 #bdg4 #abc ,jour4 ,phil4 ,psy4 and ,sci4 ,meth41 ,vol4 ,v1 ,no4 #bb4 #abd ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #bea4 #abe ,ibid41 p4 #bfi4 #abf ,cf4 ,perry's comment1 ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies1 p4 #bce4 #abg ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #age4 #abh ,ibid41 p4 #add4 #abi ,ibid41 pp4 #agf1 #agg4 #acj ,matter and ,memory1 pp4 #f1 #g4 #aca ,ibid41 p4 #h4 #acb ,ibid41 p4 #aj4 #acc ,hugh ,s4 ,r4 ,elliot's ,modern ,science and the ,illusions of ,professor ,bergson1 pp4 #ih ff4 #acd ,une theorie nouvelle de la liberte 7,les donnees immediates71 in the ,revue ,philosophique1 ,vol4 ,,xxix 7#ahij71 pp4 #cfa-cib4 #ace ,op4 cit41 p4 #cfh4 #acf ,the feeling of guilt1 and1 so1 of responsibility and freedom1 can be crushing in dreams1 as anyone knows who is given to appearing in dream public indecently clothed1 or not clothed at all4 #acg ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #aeh4 #ach ,matter and ,memory1 p4 x3 also an article entitled ,le paralogisme psycho-physiologique in the ,revue de ,metaphysique et de ,morale1 ,vol4 ,,xii 7#aijd71 pp4 #hie-ijh4 ,this article is also in the ,rapports et comptes rendus du deuxieme congres international de philosophie1 #aije1 ,part ,i4 #aci ,the causal relation between mental and cerebral states--i4 e4 interaction--would be an alternative 8condition of freedom20 but this relation is included in ,bergson's denial of any sort of correspondence or equivalence 7such as the quantitative equivalence of causation7 between states of brain and states of mind4 #adj ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #cd4 #ada ,ibid41 p4 #agb4 #adb ,ibid41 p4 #bjh4 #adc ,ibid41 p4 #bae4 #add ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #hc4 #ade ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies1 ,chapter ,x1 section #f4 #adf ,a ,pluralistic ,universe1 p4 #bcf4 ,quoted from ,professor ,perry's work1 named above4 #adg ,creative ,evolution1 p4 #c4 #adh ,the analogy holds even in the oppositeness of direction in which the evanishment1 in the limiting cases1 occurs 7cf4 above1 pp4 #gb1 #hj74 #adi ,cf4 ,perry's analysis of subjective privacy1 in ,chapter ,,xii of ,present ,philosophical ,tendencies4 #aej ,time and ,free ,will1 p4 #hh4 #aea ,some ,problems of ,philosophy1 p4 #aj4 #aeb ,the ,philosophy of ,bergson1 pp4 #a1 #b1 #c4 #aec ,modern ,science and the ,illusions of ,professor ,bergson1 pp4 vii1 viii4 #aed ,op4 cit41 passim4 #aee ,the ,new ,philosophy of ,henri ,bergson1 pp4 #a and #b4 #aef ,ibid41 pp4 #abj1 #bcj4 #aeg ,op4 cit41 pp4 #abh ff4 #aeh ,henri ,bergson3 ,the ,philosophy of ,change1 p4 #ab4 #aei ,a ,pluralistic ,universe1 pp4 #bad1 #bae4 #afj ,op4 cit41 pp4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 #afa ,revue ,philosophique1 ,ann4 #cb1 ,no4 #g 7,july #aijg71 p4 #he4 #afb ,op4 cit41 pp4 #bgb-c4 ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,humanistic ,,studies ,vol4 ,i ,may #ae1 #aiad ,no4 #c ,,browning ,,and ,,italian ,,art ,,and ,,artists ,,by ,,pearl ,,hogrefe1 ,a4 ,m4 ,instructor in ,mansfield ,college1 ,mansfield1 ,louisiana ,,lawrence1 ,,may1 #aiad ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university ,to ,g4 ,a4 ,l4 ,,who ,,made ,,possible ,,my ,,college ,,and ,,university ,,training ,,preface ,this paper has been prepared with the understanding that while much has been printed concerning a few individual art poems of ,browning1 such as ,abt ,vogler1 ,andrea del ,sarto and ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 no complete1 systematic survey of the place of ,italian art in ,browning's text has appeared2 and in the belief that such a survey might be worth while4 ,much of ,browning's treatment of art is of course omitted in the discussion2 for he introduces art data from other countries than ,italy1 and has much to say of the nature and purpose of art in general4 ,within the limits chosen1 the purpose has been to make a practically complete survey for each of the five fine arts1 sculpture1 music1 poetry1 architecture and painting1 in the order here given4 ,the attempt has also been made1 based on data from letters and biographies1 to trace to some extent the chronological perspective of ,browning's interest in the individual arts1 and to indicate the apparent sources of that interest4 ,chapter ,,vii deals with 8comparative aesthetics0 7within the limits of our title71 the poetic values ,browning finds in the arts1 the causes determining the relative emphasis upon each art1 and the relations of these data to ,browning's dominant concern as a poet--human personality4 ,that the study has been brought to its present form is due1 in part1 to help and encouragement given by ,professor ,s4 ,l4 ,whitcomb4 ,the manuscript has been carefully read by ,professor ,d4 ,l4 ,patterson and ,professor ,margaret ,lynn4 ,the former has given valuable suggestions concerning the historical aspects of the paper1 and the latter1 helpful criticism based on her special knowledge of ,browning's text4 ,to these three instructors in the ,university of ,kansas1 and to all others who have given assistance1 including fellow students1 a grateful acknowledgement of indebtedness is here made4 ,,pearl ,,hogrefe4 ,mansfield1 ,louisiana1 ,may #a1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,browning's ,general ,interest in ,art4 ,i4 ,subject ,matter of ,browning's ,poems #i ,,ii4 ,interest in ,music #aj ,,iii4 ,relation to ,painting #aj ,,iv4 ,relation to ,sculpture #ab ,v4 ,significance of the ,preceding ,sections #ab ,,vi4 ,time ,spent in ,italy #ac ,,vii4 ,english ,knowledge of ,italian ,art in ,browning's ,time #ac ,,viii4 ,non-,english ,themes and ,settings in ,general #ad ,,ix4 ,a ,quantitative ,statement #ad ,,chapter ,,ii ,italian ,sculpture in the ,poems of ,browning4 ,i4 ,general ,statement #ae ,,ii4 ,historical ,scope #af ,,iii4 ,poetic ,functions of the ,references to ,sculpture #ag ,,iv4 ,source of ,browning's ,knowledge #bb ,,chapter ,,iii ,italian ,music in the ,poems of ,browning4 ,i4 ,general ,statement #bc ,,ii4 ,catholic ,hymns #bc ,,iii4 ,poetic ,functions of the ,references to ,music #bd ,,iv4 ,lack of ,modern ,italian ,references #bf ,v4 ,conformity to ,facts #bg ,,vi4 ,source of ,browning's ,knowledge #bg ,,chapter ,,iv ,italian ,poetry in the ,poems of ,browning4 ,i4 ,general ,statement #bi ,,ii4 ,predominance in ,early ,poems #bi ,,iii4 ,sordello #cj ,,iv4 ,the ,imaginary ,poets #cj ,v4 ,the ,italian as the ,type of ,failure #ca ,,vi4 ,italian ,men of ,letters3 ,dante #cb ,,vii4 ,other ,real ,writers #cc ,,viii4 ,browning's ,knowledge of ,italian ,literature #cc ,,ix4 ,browning's ,interest in ,italian ,literature #cd ,,chapter ,v ,italian ,architecture in the ,poems of ,browning4 ,i4 ,general ,statement #ce ,,ii4 ,source of ,browning's ,knowledge #cf ,,iii4 ,importance of ,architecture in the ,poems #cg ,,iv4 ,comparison with ,other ,writers #ch ,v4 ,architecture and ,personality #ci ,,chapter ,,vi ,italian ,painting in the ,poems of ,browning4 ,i4 ,general ,statement #dj ,,ii4 ,extent of ,browning's ,knowledge #dj ,,iii4 ,irregular ,distribution of ,references #da ,,iv4 ,sources of the ,poems #db ,v4 ,poetic ,functions of the ,references to ,painting #dd ,,vi4 ,conformity to ,history #dg ,,chapter ,,vii ,general ,comparisons3 ,browning and the ,fine ,arts of ,italy4 ,i4 ,poetic ,function and ,method #dh ,,ii4 ,amount of ,material ,used from ,each of the ,fine ,arts #di ,,iii4 ,personality and the ,arts #eb ,,iv4 ,browning as the ,poet of ,humanity #ed ,,appendix ,i4 ,poems ,containing ,reference to ,italian ,art #ee ,,ii4 ,tabulation of ,references to ,individual ,arts3 ,sculpture #ef ,music #eh ,poetry #fj ,architecture #fa ,painting #ff ,index #ge ,,chapter ,i ,,browning',s ,,general ,,interest ,,in ,,art4 ,i4 ,,subject ,,matter ,,of ,,browning',s ,,poems4--,three prominent facts concerning the subjects of ,browning's poetry are3 the comparative insignificance of nature1 the extensive treatment of art1 and the predominance of the human soul4 ,only a few poems contain any extended reference to nature2 and where such reference is found1 nature is usually treated1 as in ,by the ,fireside1 for its effect on human beings1 and the soul still remains the dominant subject4 ,nature for its own sake is never a supreme concern4 ,it is never considered as a primary moral force1 akin to a personality1 as in ,wordsworth4 ,the loveliness of nature is never personified for the sake of its own sensuous beauty1 as in ,keats or ,shelley4 ,pauline1 a youthful effort of which ,browning later became ashamed1 was written under the influence of ,shelley1 and approaches the style of that poet in the prominence and beauty of its nature descriptions2 but no such examples of pure nature descriptions are found in ,browning's mature work4 ,several of the well-known longer poems--,pippa ,passes1 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day1 ,the ,flight of the ,duchess1 for example--as well as other shorter lyrical poems1 contain the nature element2 but it is comparatively slight1 and usually introduced for harmony1 for contrast1 or to give a mere unshaded background for the characters4 ,concerning the predominance of the soul in ,browning1 every critic of the poet has written4 ,it does not seem necessary to repeat any of this familiar criticism here4 ,however1 the emphasis placed upon personality and the soul does have a bearing on the discussion of ,italian arts and artists as found in ,browning4 ,for personality is the dominant factor behind ,browning's selection and treatment of the ,italian arts4 ,those arts in which personality is strongest he uses most4 ,the poems having some one of the arts as a main theme usually had their origin in an interest aroused by some unique personality4 ,some further discussions of the relations of art and personality will be found in each of the five following chapters devoted to the individual arts2 and more extended discussion is given in the general summary of ,chapter ,,vii4 ,concerning ,browning's treatment of art1 numerous articles have been written2 but they are limited for the most part to consideration of one art or one poem4 ,browning1 however1 is the poet not of any one art but of art in general and of all the arts4 ,throughout life he was interested in more than one art and in spite of the seeming improbability of his ever having had serious doubts on the subject1 it is stated#afc that he was long undecided whether to become a poet1 a musician1 or a painter4 ,he might1 says his biographer1 have become an artist and perhaps a great one1 because of his brilliant general ability and his special gifts4 ,,ii4 ,,interest ,,in ,,music4--,as a child1 ,browning received a musical education and became a pianist of some ability4 ,his appreciation of music was further cultivated1 during his young manhood1 by attendance at the best concerts and operas which ,london afforded4 ,beethoven seems to be the composer mentioned most frequently in biographical sketches and in his letters1 a fact which may indicate his preference in music4 ,during the latter years of his married life1 according to letters by ,mrs4 ,browning1 he took charge of the musical education given to their son1 ,wiedemann4 ,so far as appreciation of ,italian music and attendance at concerts in ,italy are concerned1 he seems to have been little interested4 ,but again in the years following #ahgc1 while ,browning was in ,london1 he was in frequent attendance at musical concerts4 ,his interest in music1 then1 was no intermittent fancy4 ,it was constant and above the average4 ,if any further proof of his interest in music were needed1 it is found in the influence of that interest upon his poems2 for they show a finer appreciation of music and a greater knowledge of its technique than those of any other writer4 ,,iii4 ,,relation ,,to ,,painting4--,a knowledge of painting and a liking for it as well1 were cultivated in ,browning's earliest years1 through the medium of the ,dulwich ,gallery4 ,though it is probably impossible to trace the exact influence of this gallery on his writings1 it may be suggested as the source of references to ,italian art before his visits to ,italy1 and as the original stimulus of his interest in the subject4 ,at least1 the ,dulwich ,gallery was only a pleasant walk from his home1 and there his father constantly took him4#afd ,there 8he became familiar with the names of the great painters and learned something about their works4 ,later he became a familiar figure in one or two ,london studios40 ,whatever the cause of a certain decline of interest in painting previous to #ahda may have been1 that decline was of short duration4 ,probably it was due to the increasing attention he was giving to poetry as a serious occupation4 ,when he began to feel himself better established in his poetical career1 he returned to his interest in the sister art4 ,a letter which he wrote to ,miss ,haworth 7probably in #ahda7 says that he is coming to love painting again as he did once in earlier years4 ,in the same letter he speaks of his early efforts at the age of two years and three months1 and characterizes himself as a wonderful painter in his childhood2 but he adds1 8as eleven out of every twelve of us are40 ,such a remark1 while it shows an early interest in art1 and indicates that his fond relatives may have considered him a youthful prodigy in art1 as fond relatives have a habit of doing on slight premises1 implies that he himself did not consider his artistic ability seriously4 ,browning's interest in painting1 as well as in sculpture1 was retained throughout his life4 ,on ,september #ai1 #ahdf1 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,robert ,browning set sail for ,italy2 and from that time on1 the wife's letters are full of references to her husband's interest in art4 ,in a letter from ,pisa dated ,november #e1 #ahdf1 she says she means to know something of pictures2 for ,robert does1 and he will open her eyes for her4 ,here at ,pisa1 she continues1 the first steps in art1 for her1 are to be taken4 ,a letter dated ,october #a1 #ahdg1 mentions their friend1 ,mr4 ,powers1 the ,american sculptor4 ,mr4 ,story1 another sculptor2 ,mr4 ,kirkup1 the art connoisseur2 ,fredrick ,leighton2 a ,french sculptress named ,mme4 de ,fauveau2 ,gibson2 ,page2 a ,mr4 ,fisher1 who was painting the portraits of ,mr4 ,browning and ,wiedemann2 ,mr4 ,wilde1 an ,american artist2 and ,harriet ,hosmer--all these artists are named as acquaintances of the literary ,brownings who were stay-at-home people in ,florence4 ,many letters also mention trips to certain places where individual pictures were seen1 such as 8a divine picture of ,guercino0 7,august #ahdh71 ,domenichino's 8,david0 at ,fano 7,august1 #ahdh71 and the works of ,guido ,reni1 ,da ,vinci1 the ,carracci1 and ,correggio4 ,although ,browning never had a course of thorough instruction in art1 he gave some attention to drawing during the reaction from literary work that followed the publication of ,men and ,women1 in #ahee4 ,a letter from ,mrs4 ,browning to her old friend1 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 dated ,may #b1 #ahef1 gives the story4 ,after thirteen days application on the part of her husband1 she tells us1 he produced some really astonishingly good copies of heads1 though his purpose was only to fill in the pause in his literary career4 ,then ,mrs4 ,browning adds3 8,and really1 with all his feeling and knowledge of art1 some of the mechanical trick of it can not be out of place40 ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,to ,,sculpture4--,a similar though less conspicuous interest in sculpture#afe was maintained through ,browning's entire career4 ,the first mention of it in either letters or poems is found in a letter of #ahch1 to ,miss ,haworth1 in which the statement concerning ,canova implies disappointment and previous expectation4 ,sordello1 #ahdj1 contains the first reference found in a poem2 and from that time on1 some references are found with a considerable degree of regularity in both poems and letters4 ,while the interest was not great compared with that taken in painting1 it was fairly continuous4 ,no mention of ,italian sculpture is found in the poems of ,browning after the publication of ,the ,ring and the ,book1 in #ahfh-i2 though references to the art of ,greece1 the great home of sculpture1 occur frequently4 ,in #ahfj1 a letter from ,mrs4 ,browning says that her husband has begun modeling under the direction of ,mr4 ,story at his studio4 ,she speaks of his progress1 of his turning his studies in anatomy to account1 and of the fact that he had already copied two busts--those of young ,augustus1 and of ,psyche4 ,at this time he was working six hours a day at modeling4 8,his habit10 says ,mrs4 ,browning1 8was to work by fits and starts02 and as in the case of drawing1 he had undertaken work in sculpture until his mind should be ready again for poetical work4 ,v4 ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,preceding ,,sections4--,many other statements showing an appreciation of the arts are found in the biographies and letters of the ,brownings4 ,of these1 some details will be mentioned later1 in connection with the treatment of each separate art4 ,only such facts have been noted here as tend to establish the basis on which our discussion is built--namely1 that ,browning had a great and continuous interest in the fine arts and that it is only reasonable to expect a considerable amount of knowledge and appreciation of them to appear in his writings4 ,our final conclusions will concern personality as the source of ,browning's interest in the arts4 ,,vi4 ,,time ,,spent ,,in ,,italy4--,the amount of time spent by ,robert ,browning in ,italy is a further reason for expecting ,italian art themes in his writings4 ,in #ahch1 at the age of twenty-six1 he made his first trip to ,italy2 and in #ahdd he was again there1 from ,august or ,september until ,december4 ,in #ahdf1 ,robert and ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning went to ,italy to live1 and excepting intervals for trips to ,france and ,england1 were there until the death of the latter in #ahfa4 ,for several years after this1 ,browning spent most of his time in ,england4 ,in #ahgh1 however1 he returned to ,northern ,italy2 and of his eleven remaining years1 seven autumns were spent in ,venice1 until his death there in #ahhi4 ,,vii4 ,,english ,,knowledge ,,of ,,italian ,,art ,,in ,,browning',s ,,time4--,in spite of the fact that ,browning spent so much time in ,italy1 the space given to ,italian art in his poems is remarkable because so little was known of that subject in ,england at that time4 ,vasari's rambling1 gossipy1 and sometimes inaccurate biographies may have been known in ,england at this time4 ,even if so1 ,browning1 at least1 seems not to have become acquainted with them until the years of his residence in ,italy2 for a letter written in #ahdg by ,mrs4 ,browning to ,horne1 says that they are engaged in reading ,vasari4 ,during the nineteenth century1 the history of art began to assume a more important place as a distinct branch of general history4 ,the century was well advanced1 however1 when the first complete work in this subject appeared--,kugler's ,handbook of the ,history of ,art4 ,it was not translated from the ,german until #ahee1 when the part referring to ,italy was published in an ,english translation by ,sir ,charles ,eastlake4 7,many of ,browning's best art poems were published in #ahee1 and some of them previous to that time47 ,taking this work as the beginning of modern treatment of art history1 and noting the fact that the next work of importance referring to ,italian art alone and treating it from the historical standpoint was published by ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle in #ahgf1 it is evident that nothing like the present general knowledge of it could have existed in ,england in ,browning's time4 ,certainly this makes his treatment of art history1 particularly the facility with which he presents the tendencies of different periods1 more remarkable than similar attainment would be in more recent times4 ,even with the added knowledge resulting from recent investigations1 no other writer has been able to produce such perfect poems of the musician or the painter as ,browning has built about ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 or the ,italian by adoption1 ,abt ,vogler4#aff ,,viii4 ,,non-,,english ,,themes ,,and ,,settings ,,in ,,general4--,the ,italian element is only one result1 though a very significant result1 of a general tendency on the part of ,browning to choose poetic subjects of non-,english character4 ,from the ,orient1#afg from ,greece1#afh from ,france1#afi from any region1 in fact1 which pleased his fancy1 however remote1 he levied his contributions4 ,with this general non-,english tendency1 it is not surprising that in ,italy1 where he spent so much time1 he found material for every sort of poem from ,fra ,lippo ,lippi to ,luria and ,the ,ring and the ,book1 and that he should shape his material into poems with much of the atmosphere of ,italy1 the home of the arts4 ,,ix4 ,a ,,quantitative ,,statement4--,as a matter of fact1 the supposition that ,browning's poetry embodies a large amount of ,italian art reference is correct4 ,forty-nine poems out of two hundred and twenty-two1 or more than one-fifth of the entire number1 have some mention of one or more of the arts or artists of ,italy1 while other poems deal with the arts of other nations or with a general comparison of the arts4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,browning4 ,i4 ,,general ,,statement4--,while forty-nine out of a total of two hundred twenty-two poems by ,robert ,browning refer to some one of the five fine arts--sculpture1 music1 poetry1 architecture1 and painting--only eight mention sculpture2 and the references in these poems are comparatively insignificant4 ,no one poem deals with sculpture as a theme1 nor does any sculptor express his views of the art in dramatic monologue1 as ,abt ,vogler does for music1 and ,fra ,lippo ,lippi for painting4 ,reasons for the preponderance of the other arts will be discussed later1 in connection with further suggestions concerning personality and its relations to art in ,browning's poetry4 ,it is often difficult to estimate separately ,browning's treatment of sculpture and painting1 since he discusses the two arts together in several of his poems 7for example1 ,old ,pictures in ,florence7 and since many important ,italian artists were both painters and sculptors4 ,however1 the predominant art of the man in question1 or the art which ,browning emphasizes most in connection with him1 has been taken as a basis for classification4 ,estimating in this manner1 one finds that the poet refers1 in the eight poems1 to seven artists--,niccolo ,pisano and ,giovanni ,pisano1 ,canova1 ,ghiberti1 ,giovanni da ,bologna1 ,baccio ,bandinelli and ,bernini--all of historical interest4 ,claus of ,innsbruck 7in ,my ,last ,duchess71 and ,jules 7in ,pippa ,passes7 with his companion art students1 are purely imaginary4 ,reference is made to seven historical works of sculpture3 the ,psiche-fanciulla and ,piet of ,canova1 the statue of ,duke ,ferdinand1 ,john of the ,black ,bands1 ,pasquin's statue1 the ,fountain of the ,tritons1 and the ,bocca-dell'-,verit4 ,three fictitious pieces of sculpture which are named are also introduced1 besides a number of imaginary unnamed works4 ,such references to sculpture as exist in the poems seem to conform entirely to the facts of history1 where there is any pretense of historical accuracy4 ,sculpture is so unimportant a feature of most of the poems that there was certainly very little temptation to enlarge on the facts for dramatic purposes1 or for any other reason4 ,,ii4 ,,historical ,,scope4--,it is improbable that ,browning consciously1 or unconsciously either1 for that matter1 decided to treat different periods of sculpture until he had covered the historical field1 or that he ever selected any one phase of this art with so general a purpose in mind4 ,in certain cases he chose some event or characteristic feature of a period1 and before he had finished the poem referred to a sculptor1 or to the condition of the art at that time1 as one of the details in a realistic background for his picture of the times4 ,nevertheless he has accomplished1 without any definite purpose1 a result similar to a brief historical survey of sculpture in ,italy2 his references showing relation to practically every important period of the art4 ,the first reference to sculpture is in ,sordello 7#ahdj71 where the lines concerning the ,pisani 7,book ,i1 l4 #egd7 characterize the art of ,sordello's time as just dawning into the ,renaissance4 ,in ,pippa ,passes 7#ahda7 the poet1 passing over something like five hundred years' development1 brings before the reader a picture of nineteenth century art life among students in ,italy4 ,my ,last ,duchess 7#ahdb7 deals with the decadent ,renaissance1 while ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church 7#ahde7 presents a faithful picture of the same period4 ,in ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day 7#ahej71 the pendulum swings backward to the early days of ,christianity1 when the church ,fathers abhorred the physical beauty of their art inheritance from ,greece4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust 7#ahee7 relates events of the sixteenth century also2 but they are such as have no historical significance in a chronological way1 and could just as readily have happened in the thirteenth or the nineteenth century4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence 7#ahee7 has the early masters as its theme1 with another reference to ,niccolo ,pisano1 the first ,renaissance sculptor1 though the poem concerns itself mainly with architecture and painters4 ,the ,ring and the ,book 7#ahfh-fi7 can hardly be said to deal with any particular period in art history4 ,chronological order is not followed1 nor is there any reason in the logic or emotion of poetry why such order should obtain4 ,whether one denies or affirms on the question of poetical inspiration1 one is compelled to admit that the practice in the past has not been to follow set formulas of time or place4 ,no poet1 unless it be a pedantic one whose work would fail utterly in spontaneity1 would read history and write a poem on each period as he read4 ,the diagram below indicates that ,browning's work was no exception to the normal procedure4 #a4 ,early ,art444444444444444444444444e444444 #b4 ,dawn of ,renaissance444a444444444_/4444g4 #c4 ,height of ,renaissance444444444_/444f_/44 #d4 ,decadent ,renaissance444444c_/d44444444 #e4 ,modern444444444444444444b_/444444444444 4 a4 ,sordello--#ahdj4 b4 ,pippa ,passes--#ahda4 c4 ,my ,last ,duchess--#ahdb4 d4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb--#ahde4 e4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day--#ahej4 f4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust--#ahee4 g4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence--#ahee4 ,,iii4 ,,poetic ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,references ,,to ,,sculpture4--,of the function of portraying the times1 ,sordello gives an example4 ,browning became interested in the thirteenth-century troubadour1 and then in his historical surroundings4 ,in working out the social medium in which ,sordello was to live and move1 ,browning named the ,pisan ,brothers to illustrate the sculptural conditions at the time--one of those numerous small details of which the ordinary reader is scarcely conscious1 which are yet extremely important in making a perfect word picture4 ,he spoke of ,sordello as-- 444 8,born just now1 ,with the new century1 beside the glow ,and efflorescence out of barbarism2 ,witness a ,greek or two from the abysm ,that stray through ,florence-town with studious air1 ,calming the chisel of that ,pisan pair3 ,if ,nicolo should carve a ,christus yet60 ,while the entire passage is carefully subordinated to the main purpose of studying ,sordello1 it also clearly pictures the dawn of the ,renaissance light upon sculpture4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church1 and ,my ,last ,duchess1 deal with characteristics of their times2 but in neither case is sculpture used as a mere detail in the picture4 ,because of the extensive art treatment in each1 the two will be discussed together under the head of ,renaissance decadence4#agj ,besides being important enough in itself to deserve somewhat extensive treatment1 the art element in ,pippa ,passes is notable because it marks the only instance in which ,browning concerns himself with the life of modern art students4 ,he certainly did did not begin the poem with the intention of making the artists a theme1 nor did he attain any such unexpected result4 ,instead he began with the thematic idea of the power in unconscious influence1 and through four sections of this dramatic poem developed this idea by recording the effects of the song of ,pippa1 upon murderers1 an art student1 a fanatical patriot and a scheming bishop4 ,about one-fourth of the poem deals directly with the student life of artists4 ,canova1 who is frequently mentioned1 represents the ideal of sculpture2 and ,jules1 the young student who is seeking to attain4 ,in contrast to ,jules1 the idealist1 is the group of evil-minded students who induce him to marry a model1 under the impression that she is a cultured ,greek woman4 ,it is ,browning's best example of the 8other side10 as illustrated by the group of plotting would-be artists4 ,this is the only example in all of ,browning's poetry 7with the exception of ,a ,soul's ,tragedy7 in which the poet descends to the level of prose as a medium of speech1 and here it is used by knaves and villains4 ,all the crude reality of life among low-minded students1 their jealousy of one with higher ideals than their own1 the poet gives us in detail by means of their prose speeches2 returning to blank verse1 however1 for the ideals of ,jules and the aspirations of ,phene's awakening soul4 ,love of personality1 that great guide to the appreciation of ,browning from whatever position we approach him1 and the possibilities of human development1 are written large throughout his works4 ,nowhere are these ideas in relation to art more clearly expressed than in the words of ,jules4 ,an artist of the highest ideals1 he has just realized through the singing of ,pippa1 that a woman's soul is in his keeping4 ,he meditates3 8,shall to produce form out of unshaped stuff ,be ,art--and further1 to evoke a soul ,from form be nothing8 ,this new soul is mine60 ,then1 since art is the expression of personality1 and ,jules has met with so great a change in ideals1 he resolves to break his #8paltry models up ,to begin ,art afresh4' ,his change in personality1 it should be noticed1 is due to the fact that he realizes the soul has greater significance than art--an idea exactly expressing ,browning's view4 ,my ,last ,duchess 7#ahdb7 is entirely imaginary1 but it sums up1 in a short poem1 the entire decadent ,renaissance attitude toward art so fully that no historical names could improve it4 ,its one mention of sculpture is in the closing lines3 4 4 4 4 4 8,notice ,neptune1 though1 ,taming a sea-horse1 thought a rarity1 ,which ,claus of ,innsbruck cast in bronze for me60 ,in two and one-half lines it gives a powerful suggestion of admiration for art because it was fashionable1 of emphasis on technique rather than content1 of the classical subject matter and bronze material that were in vogue at the time1 and of the character expressed in the intellectual but heartless ,duke's purpose of taming the ,duchess4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church 7#ahde7 is imaginary in its narrative1 and probably in all the sculpture named1 though the church of ,santa ,prassede1 in ,rome1 by its richness of decoration1 and by a tomb similar to the one the ,bishop is represented as desiring1 gave the suggestion for the poem4 ,probably in all literature there is no more skilful summary of a corrupt churchman's attitude toward his church1 his fellow churchmen1 the future1 earthly love1 and art4 ,the characterization is both fearless and powerful4 ,this poem and ,my ,last ,duchess are companion studies4 ,both the ,duke and the ,bishop are fond of power and prestige1 both are jealous and envious1 each displays his attitude toward woman and toward art4 ,the ,bishop has more feeling1 though it is largely feeling for himself2 and the ,duke possesses more icy pride4 ,each values art1 particularly sculpture1 as something for display1 something luxurious and 7contrary to the highest ideas of art7 something beyond the power of common people to appreciate4 ,the poems deal with the same period1 but ,my ,last ,duchess is a summary of the secular attitude1 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb presents the view of an official of the church4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day 7#ahej71 in a section devoted to the reverie of the seeker for religious truth after his inspection of ,catholicism at ,rome1 censures the attitude of the early church toward the physical beauty of the statuary ,italy had inherited from ,greece4 ,while the subject of the poem is religion1 not art1 incidentally it contains one of ,browning's best defences of the nude4 ,he viewed the nude as a fitting expression of the beauty ,god has placed in the world1 and rejoiced in the 8noble daring1 steadfast duty1 ,the heroic in action or in passion10 or even the merely beautiful physique--all as presented in sculpture4 ,in ,chapter ,,vi will be found further mention of the nude1 in connection with ,francis ,furini 7#ahhg74aga ,the ,lady and the ,painter1 a non-,italianate poem1 published in the ,asolando group 7#ahhi71 also throws further light on ,browning's attitude toward the nude4 ,these two poems are of interest in the present discussion1 however1 only because they prove the attitude expressed in #ahej to have been a permanent one4 ,in ,the ,statue and the ,bust1 the art references were not introduced for their own sake1 but because they suggested a situation with dramatic possibilities4 ,the statue of ,duke ,ferdinand exists as ,browning pictured it4 ,the bust seems to be an addition for poetic purposes1 but it conforms to the spirit of the palace decorations1 in that it was made of ,robbia ware1 for traces of that material still adorned the palace when the poem was written4 ,in ,sordello 7#ahdj71 the first poem containing any reference to ,italian sculpture1 the castle of ,goito1 the early home of ,sordello1 is rich in sculpturesque effects4 8,those slim pillars1 444 ,cut like a company of palms--,some knot of bacchanals1 flushed cheek combined ,with straining forehead1 shoulders purpled--,a dullish grey-streaked cumbrous font 444 shrinking ,caryatides1 ,of just-tinged marble--0 all present a physical setting4 ,they do more1 however1 than merely locate4 ,their lonely magnificence harmonizes with the tone of the story1 and they exercise an influence on the nature of the dreaming1 beauty-loving ,sordello4 ,the best examples of sculpture used purely for setting are found in ,the ,ring and the ,book4 ,containing only its few references to pieces of sculpture in ,florence and ,rome1 it is the one of the list of poems in which this art is least prominent4 ,it presents no picture of a period1 no discussion of an attitude toward art1 no poetical background of the times aided by art references4 ,each instance tells us that at such-and-such a place in ,rome1 in sight of the statue named1 a certain event occurred4 8,toward ,baccio's ,marble0 7,part ,i1 l4 #dd7 is used to help locate the ,florentine book-stall where ,browning found the #8old yellow book' that became the basis of the poem4 ,part ,i1 l4 #hhi1 quotes an example of the current gossip in ,rome1 as taking place 8i' the market-place ,o' the ,barberini by the ,capucins2 ,where the old ,triton 444 ,puffs up steel sleet40 ,this instance serves as setting1 and further1 in a continuation of the description--8out o' the way ,o' the motley merchandising multitude0--contrasts the quiet1 regular play of the fountain to the turmoil of the characters4 ,part ,,vi refers to ,pasquin's statue in a double comparison which emphasizes ,pompilia's innocence in contrast to the bestiality of the squibs that were formerly posted on the statue4 ,in ,part ,,xi ,guido says his first sight of an instrument for beheading was #8,at the ,mouth-of-,truth o' the river-side you know1 ,retiring out of noisy crowded ,rome'--a reference which serves as a definite means of location4 ,yet all instances from ,the ,ring and the ,book prove little concerning ,browning's interest in art1 or his specialized attention to sculpture4 ,the fact that pieces of statuary serve a man as landmarks in ,florence or ,rome implies little beyond an effort at clearness in location4 ,the ,ring and the ,book1 then1 in sculpture1 is interesting rather for absence than for presence of such references4 ,in fact sculpture is not prominent in the ,italian art references of ,browning4 ,not only is it a lesser art quantitatively in ,browning's poetry1 but it seems to be placed on a distinctly lower plane4 ,reasons for these facts1 are1 in part1 the predominance of the other arts over sculpture in ,italy1 and the particular quality of sculpture as an art which makes it tend toward the expression of physical beauty instead of the soul4 ,though ,browning himself did some work in modeling1#agb he used very few technical terms connected with that art4 ,since he never put a sculptor speaker on the stage of his poet-world1 one does not expect to hear the language of that art spoken4 ,the ,duke and the ,bishop1 it is true1 express considerable interest in art1 though it is rather in the dilettante spirit than that of serious criticism4 8,caryatides10 used in ,sordello1 and 8caritellas10 evidently used for cartellas#agc seem to be almost the only instances of technical--or semi-technical--terms connected with sculpture4 ,,iv4 ,,source ,,of ,,browning',s ,,knowledge4--,proof has already been given of the statement that ,browning had a strong1 lasting interest in the arts1 even before he went to ,italy4 ,the remark in the letter to ,miss ,haworth 7#ahch7 concerning disappointment in ,canova1 implying previous knowledge1 was written during his first visit to ,italy4 ,it is certain1 then1 that he had formed an opinion of one ,italian sculptor before going to that country4 ,probably some of his knowledge of sculpture was gained from reading1 also4 ,in every case in which he described a particular piece of work1 he had previously visited the place where it was located4 ,sordello1 while it refers to artists rather than particular works1 and exhibits an art knowledge that was probably gained from reading1 was published two years after ,browning's first ,italian visit in #ahch4 ,pippa ,passes 7#ahda7 was one of the direct results of the same trip1 when ,venice and delicious ,asolo were visited4 ,my ,last ,duchess contains none but imaginary works4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb 7#ahde7 has its architectural setting at ,rome1 one of the points included in ,browning's second visit in #ahdd4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day 7#ahej7 also mentions ,rome4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust 7#ahee7 refers to ,florence1 ,old ,pictures in ,florence 7#ahee7 has the same setting2 and ,the ,ring and the ,book 7#ahfh-i7 refers to ,rome and ,florence1 visited in #ahdd and #ahdg4 ,these data all tend to support the foregoing statement that the poet had seen the things of which he wrote4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,italian ,,music ,,in ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,browning4 ,i4 ,,general ,,statement4--,only ten poems refer to ,italian music or musicians--seemingly a small number for a writer who is known as the musician's poet4 ,thirteen ,italian musicians--,bellini1 ,galuppi1 ,palestrina1 ,verdi1 ,rossini1 ,abt ,vogler1 ,grisi1 ,corelli1 ,guarnerius1 ,stradivarius1 ,paganini1 ,buononcini1 and ,geminiani--constitute the group of performers whom he mentions4 ,four of these were famous violinists2 one was a vocalist4 ,only two1 ,galuppi and ,abt ,vogler1 received any extended treatment1 though an entire poem is also devoted to ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha1 an imaginary composer4 ,there are many references to musicians of other nationalities in ,browning2 but every poem having this art as its main theme1 unless it be ,saul1 in which the influence of music is prominent1 is included among the ten referring to ,italy4 ,thus while ,browning is known1 even to the general mind1 as a poet who writes about musicians1 his fame in this particular field is founded on a very few well-known poems4 ,suppose it were possible to eliminate ,abt ,vogler from the text of ,browning's poetry and from the consciousness of the world4 ,would the cursory student then know him as the celebrator of music8 ,or at least1 if one could filch from the human race both ,abt ,vogler and ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 their author might still be known in the popular mind as an admirer of the arts1 but hardly as a devotee of music4 ,quality rather than quantity1 then1 is the measure of the element of music in the poems of ,robert ,browning4 ,,ii4 ,,catholic ,,hymns4--,a by no means unusual introduction of music1 nor one peculiar to ,browning 7see ,byron and others7 is found in the mention of ,catholic hymns4 ,however1 they are not employed in any of the poems whose principal theme is music1 nor are they introduced because he deliberately wished to write about that art4 ,they form a part of the ,italian consciousness2 they are stages in daily life2 and they mark the passing of time in a highly poetic way1 and in a method characteristic of the ,italian nation4 ,the ,ring and the ,book1 in five of the twelve sections1 includes the names of ,catholic hymns4 ,in ,part ,,iv the ,magnificat signifies the triumphant spirit of ,violante ,comparini1 the old woman who has completed the bargain by means of which she is to trick her husband into the belief that he is to have an heir4 ,the same section gives an account of the plan of ,pietro and ,violante ,comparini to find a titled husband for their so-called daughter1 and illustrates the situation in these words--8,and when such paragon was found and fixed1 ,why1 they might chant their #8,nunc dimittis' straight40 ,both of these passages1 then1 mark psychological states1 in one or both of the parents of ,pompilia4 ,section ,,vi1 the defense of ,caponsacchi1 contains two references which mark the time of day4 ,the first1 in a quotation from one of the forged letters purporting to be from ,pompilia to ,caponsacchi1 suggests that he come to her window at the time of the ,ave4 ,the second1 in the account of the flight of ,pompilia and ,caponsacchi to ,rome1 is phrased 8,at eve we heard the angelus10 indicating time and suggesting1 also1 a certain regret for the past on the part of ,pompilia4 ,in ,section ,,vii1 ,pompilia1 yielding at last to her own desires for rescue and to the importunities of her treacherous maid1 names the ,ave ,maria to indicate the time when she will be standing on the terrace to talk with ,caponsacchi4 ,the ,pope1 in ,section ,x1 gives his opinion of what will be said of his leniency to the church1 should he free ,caponsacchi1 and sarcastically observes 8in the choir ,sanctus et ,benedictus1 with a brush ,of soft guitar strings that obey the thumb40 ,section ,,xii1 in describing the death of ,guido1 the wife-murderer1 gives his last words as a request for a ,pater1 an ,ave1 with the hymn ,salve ,regina ,cli4 ,this completes the list of ,catholic hymns mentioned by ,browning--six in all4 ,,iii4 ,,poetic ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,references ,,to ,,music4--,six different poems contain the names of ,italian musicians for purposes of comparison4 ,the ,englishman in ,italy1 in an implied comparison1 contrasts the fiddlers1 fifers1 and drummers1 at the ,feast of the ,rosary's ,virgin1 to ,bellini4 ,so courageous and confident do they become on this day that 7implying their inferiority7 they play boldly on1 says the poem1 not caring even for the great ,bellini4 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology presents that politic churchman's defense of his fidelity to established doctrines on the ground of expediency--ease in this life and a possible reward in the next4 ,he admits that wise men look beneath his pretense of a belief in the winking ,virgin and class him as either knave or fool4 ,in this respect the ,bishop likens himself to ,verdi at the close of his worst opera4 ,though the populace applauded1 the composer looked beyond them for the judgment of ,rossini1 the master4 ,in ,youth and ,art1 the struggling girl with aspirations for operatic honors1 who misses a possibility for happiness in her futile quest for fame1 compares herself with ,grisi in her hopes of success4 ,to surpass that prima donna1 which1 by the way1 she never succeeds in doing1 constitutes the height of her dream of happiness4 ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country1 with its fantastic symbolism of night-caps1 mentions the many varieties of that article and compares them to the various kinds of violins on exhibition at ,kensington when the poem was composed1 with special reference to those of ,italy3 8,i doubt not there be duly catalogued ,achievements all1 and some of ,italy1 ,guarnerius1 ,straduarius1--old and new40 99 99 99 99 99 8,over this sample would ,corelli croon1 ,grieving by minors1 like the cushat-dove1 ,most dulcet ,giga1 dreamiest ,saraband4 ,from this did ,paganini comb the fierce ,electric sparks44440 ,parleyings with ,charles ,avison1 the only poem which has comparative estimates of different musicians1 names the ,italians ,buononcini and ,geminiani as having been appreciated along with ,wagner1 ,dvorak1 ,liszt and ,handel4 ,it is worthy of note that ,rossini1 ,bellini1 and ,verdi1 of the modern ,italian school1 are not mentioned in any such connection4 ,abt ,vogler1 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 ,master ,hughes of ,saxe-,gotha1 and ,charles ,avison1 are all concerned with music as the principal subject4 ,each has minor references to ,italy1 and in the first two1 the musician is an ,italian one4 ,abt ,vogler is probably the finest poem on music in the ,english language4 ,it contains a perfect idealized expression of the aims of the musician and a thorough knowledge of his technique4 ,like ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's it is based on extemporization and the transitory quality of music2 but it is unlike that poem in emphasizing the permanence of good4 ,abt ,vogler voices the musician's own musings on the stately but vanishing castle he has built4 ,a ,toccata probably refers to an improvization on the harpsichord1 a frequent occurrence at the time concerned1 and presents the poet as speaker1 questioning the musician concerning the effect of his performance on the audience4 ,very different psychological states produced these two poems4 ,abt ,vogler was written in a mood of reverent optimism2 ,a ,toccata1 in a mood of half careless1 half earnest pessimism4 ,where ,a ,toccata closes with 8dust and ashes0 the other poem passes on to the 8ineffable name10 and a belief in the future existence of 8,all we have willed1 or hoped1 or dreamed1 of good40 ,the one closes hope in the grave2 the other poem opens heaven4 ,the transitory quality of human life in ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's accords with the music being played1 and many terms1 such as 8lesser thirds10 8sixths diminished10 8suspensions10 8solutions10 8commiserating sevenths10 express the different phases of the listener's mood4 ,no attempt will be made in this paper to consider ,browning's musical terms2 for with the exception of 8toccata01 meaning a light touch piece1 an overture1 they seem mostly non-,italianate4 ,abt ,vogler1 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha1 and ,parleyings with ,charles ,avison1 all contain a considerable number of musical terms2 but beside the fact that they are non-,italianate1 those in at least part of the poems have already been discussed somewhat extensively in various articles among the ,browning ,society papers4 ,,iv4 ,,lack ,,of ,,modern ,,italian ,,references4--,the number of references to ,italian musicians is comparatively small1 even though the treatment of music in a few poems is unexcelled4 ,especially when one considers that the great modern group of ,italian opera composers was so near ,browning in both time and place1 his mention of them seems curiously insignificant4 ,verdi1 the greatest of them1 appears in the poems only once1 and then in connection with his worst opera4 ,that the ,brownings heard at least one of ,verdi's operas produced1 is established by a letter by ,mrs4 ,browning dated in #ahec4 ,she speaks of their having heard ,il ,trovatore a few nights previous1 at the ,pergola in ,florence1 and concludes with the peculiarly suggestive remark1 8,very passionate and dramatic1 surely40 ,probably there are several reasons for this neglect of ,italian opera composers4 ,few poets1 least of all ,browning1 are prone to bestow unmitigated praise on contemporaries4 ,in the poems of ,browning there are few extended references to any artists who were living at the time4 ,he particularly loved to choose an obscure ,galuppi1 or an ,andrea del ,sarto1 instead of a ,michael ,angelo or a ,raphael1 as a personality about whom to weave a poem4 ,a more potent reason for the indifference to modern ,italian music1 however1 lies in the diverging values of the ,italian school and that of northern ,europe4 ,a musician who had been trained in the ,german music of ,london concerts could hardly be expected to welcome the operas of ,verdi and ,rossini with anything approaching ecstatic admiration4 ,at the most he might venture a half-conciliatory remark1 such as ,mrs4 ,browning's concerning ,il ,trovatore4 ,v4 ,,conformity ,,to ,,facts4--,browning seldom took occasion to depart from the facts of history in his presentation of ,italian music4 ,one exception is found1 going beyond all allowances for poetic idealization4 ,it is the ,verdi reference in ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology4#agd ,the statement concerns a ,verdi composition1 and mentions it as having been given in ,florence with ,rossini present4 ,as a matter of fact ,un ,giorno di ,regno1 conceded to be ,verdi's worst opera1 and the only one which was a complete failure1 was not given in ,florence on its first production and was probably never repeated4 ,macbeth alone was given at ,florence first1 and it met with a moderate degree of success4 ,,vi4 ,,source ,,of ,,browning',s ,,knowledge4--,browning's life in ,italy probably had less influence on his poetic use of music than on his use of any other art1 as the data he gives might easily have become known to him without any such experience4 ,six of the thirteen musicians whom he named performed in ,london1 and three of them1 ,grisi1 ,bellini1 and ,paganini1 in ,browning's youth4 ,it is even possible that he attended some or all of their concerts4 ,rossini was living in ,florence from #ahdg to #ahee1 while the ,brownings were also making that city their home4 ,but while letter after letter written to friends at home refers to such painters or sculptors as ,story1 ,powers1 and ,leighton1 there is absolute silence concerning ,rossini4 ,as compared with remarks on sculpture1 architecture1 or painting1 the letters from ,italy1 as a whole1 show an almost absolute indifference to ,italian music as a historical development1 or as a national achievement4 ,with his fondness for out-of-the-way investigations and obscure characters from any nation1 however1 ,browning has taken some characters from ,italian music and has woven their personalities into a few of the best poems on music ever written4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,italian ,,poetry ,,in ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,browning4 ,i4 ,,general ,,statement4--,of the two hundred and twenty-two of ,browning's poems1 ten contain the name of an ,italian poet or of his writings4 ,five imaginary writers--,aprile1 ,plara1 ,bocafoli1 ,eglamor1 ,stiatta--and eleven who belong to the history of ,italian literature--,sordello1 ,nina1 ,alcamo1 ,dante1 ,petrarch1 ,boccaccio1 ,tasso1 ,sacchetti1 ,marino1 ,aretino1 and ,tommaseo--compose the list4 ,of the historical poets1 ,dante is given the most important place2 for besides the direct tribute that is paid him1 his name or the name of his great work occurs in seven poems out of the ten4 ,sordello1 a most insignificant poet from the historical standpoint1 receives more extended treatment than any other literary figure in ,browning's works4 ,of the entire list of poems1 three deal with the life and aspirations of a poet as the main theme--,pauline1 which1 by the way1 is really non-,italianate1 ,paracelsus1 in which the poet ,aprile is contrasted with the scholar1 and ,sordello4 ,,ii4 ,,predominance ,,in ,,early ,,poems4--,within the first eight years of ,browning's career1 he published four long poems--,pauline1 ,paracelsus1 ,strafford1 and ,sordello4 ,three of them deal in some way with the life of a poet4 ,after this first period1 with the possible exception of ,one ,word ,more1 which is essentially a study in comparative art1 there is no extended discussion of this sort in any poem1 either ,italianate or non-,italianate4 ,how it ,strikes a ,contemporary deals with the attitude of the general public toward the life and purposes of a poet1 but not1 as did the early group1 with the poet's solution of his own problem concerning his relation toward his work and humanity4 ,it was written much later1 when ,browning was more fully settled in his poetical career4 ,pauline is an autobiographical sketch of a poet's early doubts and aspirations1 largely devoted to appreciation of ,shelley1 and without ,italianate quality2 ,paracelsus and ,sordello deal with ,italian writers of verse4 ,since these all belong in the same period and that the early one1 it is clear that ,browning was endeavoring to establish his own ideas of a poet1 and these poems were the expression of that effort4 ,but he chose to express his conclusions by giving the negative side1 not the positive2 for ,aprile1 ,sordello1 ,eglamor1 ,plara1 ,bocafoli1 and in a lesser degree ,nina and ,alcamo1 are all failures4 ,not all of them absolute and hopeless1 for ,sordello dies with a moral victory won1 ,aprile is successful in part1 and ,nina and ,alcamo have their strength and grace2 but still none of these poets has fully attained4 ,,iii4 ,,sordello4--,in ,sordello1 the character of that name has a shadowy existence in history as one of the most famous of the ,italian troubadours4 ,he seems to have been confused with another ,sordello who was a politician and man of action4 ,since such scant facts as can be gathered speak of scandals1 and tavern brawls1 ,browning's portrait of him is clearly an idealization1 and he probably chose ,sordello instead of some better known figure that the facts might not interfere with the imaginative picture with which he wished to surround him4 ,the thirty books which ,browning read on the history of the period were not read to add to his knowledge of the troubadour1 but since even the idealized ,sordello had to be represented as having lived at some time and place1 to give the correct background for his life and actions4 ,browning shows that ,sordello failed because he loved the applause he received rather than the poetry itself1 because the aspirations of the man and the poet were at war within him1 because he lacked feeling for humanity1 and because he was not decisive enough to succeed when he attempted action4 ,the moral victory at the close is for dramatic purposes1 and the dominant theme of the poem as a whole is the failure of a poet4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,imaginary ,,poets4--,eglamor1 a purely fictitious poet in ,sordello1 has made verse his only ambition4 ,lacking all perception of his life as a man1 when he is vanquished in verse-making1 he dies4 ,plara1 in the same poem1 stands for the poet without depth or genius1 unable to write anything of thought value1 polishing his poems until they were merely pretty words1 lacking utterly in any interpretation of human life4 ,bocafoli1 with his 8stark-naked0 psalms1 represents the sensualist4 ,while ,nina and ,alcamo belong to history1 they have such shadowy existence so far as present knowledge is concerned1 that they will be considered here4 ,they stand respectively for strength and for grace1 and ,browning represents the low voice as saying to ,sordello3 8,nina's strength1 but ,alcamo's the grace1 ,each neutralises each then6 ,search your fill2 ,you get no whole and perfect ,poet--still ,new ,ninas1 ,alcamos1 till time's midnight ,shrouds all--or better say1 the shutting light ,of a forgotten yesterday40 ,aprile1 in the poem fashioned about ,paracelsus1 the wandering scholar1 typifies love as the latter represents knowledge4 ,through ,aprile1 the foil to ,paracelsus1 the latter comes to see in part the mistakes in his attitude toward life1 and declares 8,i too have sought to ,,know as thou to ,,love-- ,excluding love as thou refusedst knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,are we not halves of one dissevered world1 ,whom this strange chance unites once more80 ,and ,aprile exclaims3 8,yes1 ,i see now4 ,god is the perfect poet1 ,who in his person acts his own creations40 ,v4 ,,the ,,italian ,,as ,,the ,,type ,,of ,,failure4--,browning used seven poets to typify failure1 three historical and four imaginary ones4 ,all these were ,italians1 and all suggest the conclusion--8,you get no whole and perfect ,poet40 ,this1 then1 must have been ,browning's conclusion4 ,naturally enough he does not picture for us a poet representing that for which he himself1 after considering different kinds of failure1 has decided to strive4 ,by the very values the failures do not represent1 however1 ,browning gave us a vision of his own ideals4 ,lack of knowledge1 lack of strength1 of grace1 sensuality1 superficiality1 lack of purpose1 and of interest in humanity--these are the causes of failure as represented by ,aprile1 ,alcamo1 ,nina1 ,bocafoli1 ,plara1 and ,sordello4 ,it would be unfair to say that these unsuccessful poets are typical of the ,italian nation2 but it can be safely stated that they are fairly representative of ,italian weaknesses4 ,a predominance of ill controlled feeling is the most inclusive characteristic of the group --a trait which is perhaps marked in ,italians of the least desirable class4 ,it is also significant1 in contrast to ,browning's own nature1 that no poet of his group of failures represents an intelligent1 unselfish interest in human life4 ,,vi4 ,,italian ,,men ,,of ,,letters3 ,,dante4--,of the great ,italian men of letters1 ,dante is the only one who is mentioned in ,sordello1 and with the exception of the ,shelley references in ,memorabilia and ,pauline1 ,browning pays him the most perfect tribute he ever gave a writer1 in the last two lines of the following passage3 8,dante1 pacer of the shore ,where glutted hell disgorgeth filthiest gloom1 ,unbitten by its whirring sulphur-spume1 ,or whence the grieved and obscure waters slope1 ,into a darkness quieted by hope2 ,plucker of amaranths grown beneath ,god's eye1 ,in gracious twilights where his chosen lie40 ,referring to the fact that ,dante's ,divina ,commedia includes ,sordello as a character1 and that ,de ,vulgari ,eloquio praises him because he had first attempted to establish an ,italian vernacular1 ,browning names ,sordello as the forerunner of ,dante4 ,again in the same poem1 ,dante is mentioned as having called the 8,palma0 of ,browning's poem 8,cunizza10 and as having taken advantage of ,sordello's lost chance to establish a vernacular4 ,in most of the other poems1 the references to ,dante are merely incidental4 ,up at a ,villa refers to the great literary triumvirate of ,italy1 ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio1 as standing in the popular mind for all that is great in ,italian letters4 ,in ,time's ,revenges ,dante appears as being1 in the mind of a poor1 starving poet1 the highest possible standard of fame4 ,the only other ,dante reference of any importance is in ,one ,word ,more4 ,in this poem1 ,browning's most beautiful tribute to his wife1 he represents every artist as wishing once1 in his life1 to honor his ,margarita or his ,beatrice4 ,dante1 he says in speaking of that poet1 once prepared to paint an angel1 laying aside his own art of poetry4 ,a historical basis for this statement is found in the ,vita ,nuova4 ,but ,browning1 either intentionally or unintentionally1 probably the former1 for the purpose of making this basis accord with his poetical conception1 departs from the facts in two important particulars4 ,dante plainly states that his attempt at the drawing grew out of his meditations on the anniversary of the death of ,beatrice2 and the people who broke in upon him were those of his own town1 to whom he apologized for his delayed salutation1 by 8,another was with me40 ,browning assumes that the picture was drawn to please ,beatrice and that the people who interrupted symbolized ,dante's own thoughts about the characters of his ,inferno4 ,,vii4 ,,other ,,real ,,writers4--,aretino and ,boccaccio are both presented throughout ,the ,ring and the ,book as examples of questionable morality in literature1 or at least of tendencies in that direction4 ,in ,part ,,iii1 the gossipers speak of the case of ,guido and his wife as 8this last best of the ,hundred ,merry ,tales40 ,in ,part ,v1 ,guido1 in his complaint against the parents of ,pompilia1 appeals to ,boccaccio's 8,book0 and 8,ser ,franco's ,sacchetti's ,merry ,tales10 as proofs of the greed and wrong-doing of the parents in contrast to his own innocence4 ,caponsacchi1 in ,part ,,vi1 refers to the forged letters claimed to have been passed between himself and ,pompilia1 as worthy of the profligate ,aretine4 ,in ,part ,x1 the ,pope makes the same comparison1 declaring that the letters are 8,false to body and soul they figure forth--,as though the man had cut out shape and shape ,from fancies of that other ,aretine40 ,in ,part ,,xi1 ,guido attempts to prove that the ,pope1 in former times1 was very human1 since he used to 8chirrup o'er the ,merry ,tales40 ,later in the same section1 he asserts his right to enjoy 8,when ,master ,pietro ,aretino rhymes a pleasantry40 ,,viii4 ,,browning',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,italian ,,literature4--,browning's poems display no remarkable knowledge of ,italian literature4 ,in comparison with that of the average ,american or ,english citizen1 it is above the ordinary1 but not more than any student of literature might very readily acquire without visiting ,italy or residing there4 ,however1 the average ,english student of literature1 if he were a poet1 would probably embody less of that knowledge of ,italy in his verse than ,browning has done4 ,except for the idea of failure as typified by lesser ,italian poets1 the references are mainly of secondary importance1 introduced because he had chosen an ,italian theme and wished to give it reality of detail4 ,the stimulus of ,italian residence on ,browning1 then1 probably led to the embodiment in his poems of the literary knowledge he already possessed4 ,he seems to have made no particular study of ,italian letters1 even after going to that country4 ,some scattered references to readings in ,italian literature 7for example in the novels of ,sacchetti#age7 exist in the records of the ,brownings in ,italy2 but these references are few in comparison to those concerning sculpture and painting4 ,,ix4 ,,browning',s ,,interest ,,in ,,italian ,,literature4--,while all the historical references1 except the one to ,dante noted above as a probably intentional departure from history1 are substantially correct in both fact and spirit1 ,browning did not have any great interest in ,italian literature as it existed in his day4 ,much more space is given to the treatment of imaginary poets1 or to the idealization of a historical one1 for the sake of personality1 as in the case of ,sordello4 ,as for the other arts1 then1 personality is the keynote of ,browning's appreciation of ,italian literature1 and of its place in his poetry4 ,browning gives very little space to any formal praise of ,italian poetry or poets1 either of the past1 or contemporary with himself4 ,in this respect his treatment of them is very similar to that he gives to ,english poets4 ,memorabilia1 in praise of ,shelley1 is his only poem which has for its theme the unmodified praise of another poet4 ,as this poem and the ,shelley references in ,pauline are ,browning's only tributes to writers of his own country1 so the praise of ,dante1 in ,sordello1 is the only instance of an expressed appreciation of ,italian literature4 ,the only ,italian poet contemporary with himself whom he mentions is ,tommaseo2 and he is noticed only as the author of the inscription on the tablet erected by the city of ,florence to the memory of ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning4 ,,chapter ,v ,,italian ,,architecture ,,in ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,browning4 ,i4 ,,general ,,statement4--,twenty-five poems of ,robert ,browning make some reference1 brief or extended1 to an ,italian work of architecture4 ,two architects1 as such1 are mentioned in ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 ,they are ,giotto 7#abfg-accg71 the original designer of the ,florentine ,campanile1 and ,taddeo ,gaddi 7c4 #acjj-;c4 #acff71 his successor4 ,in the twenty-five poems1 about fifty-eight ,italian buildings are named1 not all of them important architecturally4 ,of these1 almost exactly one-third are in ,florence1 and one or two less than another third are in ,rome4 ,venice and ,asolo claim mention of five and six respectively2 but all the remaining towns must content themselves with a mention of one1 two1 or three buildings4 ,the entire number of works of architecture is divided between twelve towns3 ,venice1 ,verona1 ,bassano1 ,rome1 ,florence1 ,passagno1 ,asolo1 ,padua1 ,fano1 ,bagni di ,lucca1 ,arezzo and ,siena4 ,there are two apparent reasons why the number of buildings named at ,rome and ,florence is exceptionally large3 first1 the former city has been the historical and political center of ,italy ever since the beginning1 and the latter is the art center of the world2 second1 ,browning spent a considerable amount of time in ,rome1 both in #ahdd1 during his second trip to ,italy1 and in his visits of #ahec and #ahed1 while ,florence was his home for fifteen years4 ,the number of ecclesiastical buildings is something more than one-half of the entire list2 while the remaining ones are about equally divided between those for state use and private buildings of a secular character4 ,considering the large number of beautiful churches and cathedrals in ,italy1 the result so far as these are concerned is in entire accordance with one's expectations4 ,st4 ,mark's1 ,st4 ,peter's1 the ,vatican1 and the ,florentine ,duomo1 all buildings of world interest1 lead in the number of times they receive mention4 ,,ii4 ,,source ,,of ,,browning',s ,,knowledge4--,browning had seen almost all if not every one of the ,italian buildings he introduces in his poems4 ,he knew whereof he wrote4 ,sordello1 published in #ahdj1 is concerned with the cities of ,venice1 ,bassano1 ,verona1 ,rome1 and ,florence2 but the references to the last two are very slight4 ,the first three cities he had visited in his trip of #ahch1 along with his 8delicious ,asolo01 which became the scene of ,pippa ,passes1 in #ahda4 ,ferrara formed a very large part of the setting in ,sordello1 also2 but no particular buildings in it are described4 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 #ahee1 refers to ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 with its distinct ,florentine setting1 was given to the world after ,browning had lived in that city for nine years4 ,doubtless its ,campanile1 which he mentions in the poem1 was at that time as familiar to him as any building of his native land4 ,by the ,fireside 7with reference to the chapel in the gorge7 was written either during the visit of the ,brownings to ,bagni di ,lucca in #ahec1 or shortly after it1 and was published in #ahee4 ,near ,bagni di ,lucca is the scene of the story4 ,there is the same relation between architectural subject and personal observation in ,the ,boy and the ,angel 7,rome71 #ahdb2 ,the ,italian in ,england 7,padua71 #ahde2 ,in a ,gondola 7,venice71 #ahdb2 ,the ,statue and the ,bust 7,florence71 #ahee2 ,luria 7,florence71 #ahdf2 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day 7,rome71 #ahej2 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi 7,florence71 #ahee2 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb 7,rome71 #ahde2 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology 7,rome71 #ahee2 ,one ,word ,more 7,florence71 #ahee2 ,abt ,vogler 7,rome71 #ahfd2 ,pacchiarotto 7,siena71 #ahgf4 ,padua and ,venice were visited in #ahch1 ,rome in #ahdd1 ,florence in #ahdf1 if not sooner1 and ,siena in #ahej4 ,the ,ring and the ,book is an interesting example of ,browning's procedure in the case of an architectural work he wished to introduce4 ,florence and ,rome1 more particularly the latter1 are concerned with the whole action of the poem1 while ,arezzo is utilized in a minor way4 ,by this time 7#ahfd-fh7 ,browning had long been familiar with ,florence and ,rome4 ,however1 the poem was written in ,england2 and a letter to ,frederick ,leighton1 ,october #ag1 #ahfd1 asks him if he will go into the ,church of ,san ,lorenzo1 in the ,corso1 look at it carefully1 and describe it to ,browning4 ,browning asks particularly about the arrangement of the building1 nave1 pillars1 the number of altars1 and the #8,crucifixion' over the altar1 by ,guido1 and adds that he does not care for the outside4 ,this church ,browning uses more than any other in ,the ,ring and the ,book1 making it the scene of the baptism and the marriage of ,pompilia1 as well as the place to which the dead bodies were taken4 ,mr4 ,kenyon tells us that the poet was always accustomed to visualize a scene completely and to keep it constantly before him mentally as he wrote4 ,it was his general rule to use only buildings which he had seen1 even when he refers to them very slightly2 and in this case1 he wrote to inquire about one which he had seen1 but of which he did not have a perfectly clear mental image4 ,the only possible exception to the personal observation of a building to be poetically described is in the case of the ,pieve1 at ,arezzo4 ,the ,pieve is described in considerable detail2 and so far as can be learned1 the poet probably did not visit it4 ,the ,brownings had planned to visit it in ,september1 #ahdg1 on their way to ,rome4 ,but this trip1 in connection with which ,arezzo is mentioned1 was abandoned4 ,later trips were made to ,rome1 however1 and it is very possible that ,arezzo was made a stopping place on one of them1 and the ,pieve1 after all1 was not an exception to the general rule4 ,,iii4 ,,importance ,,of ,,architecture ,,in ,,the ,,poems4--,when the amount of architecture ,browning introduces is first considered1 it seems remarkably large4 ,but such conclusion could be reached only by failing to take into consideration the manner in which the references are employed4 ,about ten of the buildings he names1 including those at ,asolo and a few others1 are of no importance whatever1 from either an architectural or a historical standpoint4 ,most of the remaining ones are discussed in histories of architecture or mentioned in guide books1 and a considerable number of them are of importance architecturally4 ,but with very few exceptions1 ,browning does not employ them for the sake of their architecture2 and cared very little whether they were architecturally good or bad4 ,he usually had a story to tell2 and for that story a location was necessary4 ,often he used such buildings as had been significant in the original events on which he based his poem4 ,there are1 to be sure1 numerous instances in which the particular church or castle he names suits the tone of the story just a trifle better than anything else he could have found4 ,in ,sordello1 for example1 he constructed an imaginary castle1 ,goito1 which both harmonized with the character of ,sordello and influenced his life1 since it was the home of his youth4 ,an excellent example of a building chosen to illustrate the theme of the story is ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church4 ,perhaps no such tomb as the ,bishop's ever existed1 exactly as described in the poem2 but if it had1 ,st4 ,praxed 7,santa ,prassede7 with its ornate beauty was exactly suited to be its location4 ,the ,ring and the ,book and ,the ,statue and the ,bust are both excellent examples of poems in which the buildings were already selected for ,browning by the stories on which he based his poems4 ,examples of buildings chosen for harmony1 such as those in ,sordello and ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb1 are rather exceptional cases4 ,browning's poetic architecture1 for the most part1 may be grouped in three divisions--7#a7 buildings already chosen for him by the story which he wished to embody in a poem1 7#b7 buildings chosen by himself1 to harmonize with the tone of the story1 7#c7 buildings used for setting with no regard whatever for architectural qualities4 ,the last division is by far the largest4 ,or1 to classify more broadly1 there are two ways in which he uses architecture--7#a7 for the sake of an emotional value1 of which there is one example1 and 7#b7 for the sake of background effects1 to which practically all the other instances belong4 ,,iv4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,other ,,writers4--,wordsworth has several poems--for example1 ,old ,abbeys1 ,in the ,cathedral at ,cologne1 ,inside of ,king's ,college ,chapel--that within a short space and in a lyrical fashion deal with architecture in a highly appreciative manner4 ,somewhat similar examples from ,byron are the ,elegy on ,newstead ,abbey and the familiar ,sonnet on ,chillon4 ,but ,browning1 whose writings contain few poems of lyric or descriptive subjectivity1 did not devote himself to any such effusions over inanimate objects4 ,his only description of architecture as something appealing to the emotion and imagination of man is contained in a few lines of a very long poem1 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day4 ,the speaker is searching for religious truth and finds himself1 in his visit to the homeland of ,catholicism1 viewing ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome4 ,then follows that wonderfully comprehensive description-- 8,and what is this that rises propped1 ,with pillars of prodigious girth8 ,is it really on the earth1 ,this miraculous ,dome of ,god8 ,has the angel's measuring-rod ,which numbered cubits1 gem from gem1 ',twixt the gates of the ,new ,jerusalem1 ,meted it out1--and what he meted1 ,have the sons of men completed8 --,binding1 ever as he bade1 ,columns in the colonnade1 ,with arms wide open to embrace ,the entry of the human race 4440 ,but even in this instance1 ,browning1 before his description is finished1 cannot content himself with mere abstract statements of beauty divorced from human life4 ,he turns to the builders--the people1 and to the purpose--service to humanity4 ,in the only poem of ,browning which deals with an architect at all1 7,old ,pictures in ,florence1 in which ,giotto is considered at some length71 the discussion is from the standpoint of the architect's aim1 his partial achievement1 and the relation his work1 when it is finally finished1 will have to the people of his city2 not from the standpoint of any technical interest in the art4 ,v4 ,,architecture ,,and ,,personality4--,with all his mention of ,italian works of architecture1 then1 ,browning's primary object was never the abstract beauty of that art itself4 ,he has far less treatment of it1 from an abstract standpoint1 than many another ,english writer who has scarcely gone outside his native land for material4 ,a building1 as a building6 ,what was there in it related to personality as that expressed itself in the struggles of the soul8 ,and1 therefore1 what could there be in it to concern ,robert ,browning8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,italian ,,painting ,,in ,,the ,,poems ,,of ,,browning4 ,i4 ,,general ,,statement4--,twenty-nine poems contain the names of ,italian painters1 and fifty-one ,italian painters are mentioned by name2 while several of the great artists are mentioned in many poems4 ,michael ,angelo is referred to in ten different poems2 ,raphael in seven1 besides the duplicate mention in three sections of ,the ,ring and the ,book2 ,correggio1 and ,titian1 each in six poems1 and ,da ,vinci in five different poems4 ,these are all great masters of the ,high ,renaissance in ,italy2 and therefore1 they are the greatest artists the world has known3 the repeated introduction of their names is perfectly natural4 ,but among ,browning's fifty-one painters1 some of so little importance are named that references to them are rare in histories of art4 ,even with the most insignificant1 some telling phrase is often used to express with admirable precision the artist's relation to the history of art4 ,the best example of this is found in ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 where the poet capriciously calls the roll of the past ,florentine artists1 chiding them because none of their works have come into his possession4 ,in the one poem seventeen men who have been classified as painters1 besides some who are sculptors and architects primarily1 find a place4 ,only two or three of the artists are given more than a line or two2 but many of even the most insignificant are summed up in some phrase like the following3 8,da ,vincis derive in good time from ,dellos20 8,stefano 444 called ,nature's ,ape and the world's despair20 8the wronged ,lippino10 or 8my ,pollajolo1 the twice a craftsman40 ,,ii4 ,,extent ,,of ,,browning',s ,,knowledge4--,to cover the entire field as he does1 from ,cimabue through the ,renaissance and down to modern times 7for he omits almost no artist of importance in the whole history of painting1 besides including many surprises in the way of insignificant ones71 ,browning must have had a wonderful amount of historical knowledge4 ,this familiarity with the development of the art was gained in three ways--by some study of the subject before he went to ,italy1 by reading histories of the painters after going there1 and by visiting galleries and churches in ,italy and studying the pictures found therein4 ,the fact that ,browning had an interest in studying the ,london galleries before he went to ,italy1 and indeed1 was a student of pictures from his childhood1 has already been noted in the introductory remarks4#agf ,just how great the poet's knowledge of ,italian art was at this period1 is hard to determine4 ,but his first poem1 ,pauline1 contains a reference to ,andromeda1 a picture by ,caravaggio1 who was a ,renaissance artist4 ,mrs4 ,orr#agg tells us that the picture was always before him as a boy and that he loved the story of the divine deliverer and the innocent victim which it represented4 ,in one of his early letters to ,elizabeth ,barrett1 ,browning gives the following account of his fondness for ,andromeda3 8,how some people use their pictures1 for instance1 is a mystery to me4 ,my ,polidore's perfect ,andromeda along with #8,boors ,carousing' where ,i found her--my own father's doing1 or ,i would say more40 ,these statements prove that a fondness for some ,italian art1 at least1 had been a part of his life from a very early age2 and in addition1 they suggest that a person who had so keen an appreciation for a picture by an artist so little known as ,caravaggio1 must have known a great deal more about ,italian art than is implied in this one statement4 ,browning was in his twenty-first year when ,pauline1 the poem referring to ,andromeda1 was published4 ,this was five years before his first visit to ,italy1 but even at this time1 his appreciation of the picture was so complete that he compared the ever-beautiful and unchanging ,andromeda to himself and seemed to feel that she had as real an existence4 ,,iii4 ,,irregular ,,distribution ,,of ,,references4--,while the influence of painting began so early in ,browning's poetical career1 and extended to its close1 the last art poem being ,beatrice ,signorini1 in the ,asolando group1 published just at the time of his death1 the chronological distribution of the subject is by no means regular4 ,in ,paracelsus1 reference to painting is found2 ,sordello has some minor references2 ,pippa ,passes contains some mention of painting and much concerning sculpture4 ,pictor ,ignotus1 the first poem devoted entirely to a painter1 was published in #ahde4 ,all these items form a comparatively slender thread of references up to the publications of #ahee4 ,at that date ,browning had lived in ,italy nine years1 had studied art histories1 and seen pictures4 ,our chronicler1 ,mrs4 ,browning1 we recall1 furnishes us the information--in the previously mentioned letter of #ahdg to ,horne--that they were reading ,vasari4 ,this was the next year after the ,brownings went to ,italy to take up their residence there4 ,though ,browning's early trips 7in #ahch and #ahdd7 seem to have had small influence on his poetic treatment of painting1 the ,italian residence bore fruit4 ,between #ahdg1 the year when the residence began1 and #ahee1 only one poem of ,browning's was published1 and some references to painting are found in it4 ,the publications of #ahee include the following poems on painting3 ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 ,the ,guardian ,angel1 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 and ,one ,word ,more4 ,in this one year1 all the finest and best known of his poems on painting were given to the world4 ,just why this is true is hard to prove but easy to conjecture4 ,the time just previous to their publication marks the period of greatest1 most intimate art study1 since these poems were the product of the first nine years in ,italy4 ,there was a certain power1 appreciation1 and a fineness of feeling associated with these first years in the great art center of ,florence that never returned again4 ,for some time before this1 ,browning had been an interested student of art1 and the ,florentine residence brought his ideas to their full maturity4 ,the best that he was capable of putting into verse on the subject of painting was both imagined and written during this first period in ,italy1 the home of painting4 ,,iv4 ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,poems4--,an event recorded by ,mrs4 ,browning1 in a letter to ,mrs4 ,jameson1 dated ,may #d1 #ahej1 throws light on the source of ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 ,she says that her husband had picked up at a few pauls each some 8hole and corner pictures0 in a corn shop a mile from ,florence4 ,mr4 ,kirkup 7one of the best judges of pictures in ,florence7 threw out such names for them as 8,cimabue1 ,ghirlandajo1 ,giottino1 a ,crucifixion painted on a banner1 ,giottesque1 if not ,giotto1 but unique or nearly so1 on account of linen material--and a little ,virgin by a ,byzantine master4 ,two angel pictures1 bought last year1 prove to have been sawed off of the ,ghirlandajo1 so-called40 ,besides showing1 as do many other statements of their life in ,italy1 that ,browning was deeply interested in art1 these words suggest both the title and the origin of ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 in which the poet reproaches the spirits of the early masters for failing to leave some of their works to one so appreciative as himself4 ,what could be more natural in its development8 ,a poet-artist finds the pictures1 is told that they are genuine1 and is very desirous of believing it4 ,his interest in personality turns his mind to the painters themselves1 his fancy runs with a loose rein--and we have the half-thoughtful whimsicality of ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 ,on the serious side it pleads for the following3 7#a7 more attention to the early almost unknown masters1 instead of praise for ,angelo1 ,raphael1 and such famous artists2 7#b7 a greater appreciation of the development of ,italian painting1 because it was development1 than of the dead perfection of ,greek sculpture2 7#c7 ,italian freedom from ,austria1 and with it the return of art to ,florence1 resulting in the completed ,campanile with the new flag upon it4 ,the first two pleas are made on the ground of the noble development of the early ,italian painting1 in contrast with the later art of ,italian painting and that of perfect ,greek sculpture1 which were at a standstill4 ,the ,guardian ,angel was the direct result of a visit by the ,brownings to ,fano2 probably in #ahdh1 for during that year ,murray sent them there to find a summer residence4 ,mrs4 ,browning reports#agh that it was unspeakable for such a purpose1 but 8the churches are very beautiful1 and a divine picture of ,guercino's is worth going all that way to see40 ,the poem was published with the group of #ahee1 and in it mention is made of three trips to see the picture while the ,brownings were at ,fano4 ,while ,the ,guardian ,angel may be the only poem written as a direct result of seeing a picture1 ,andrea del ,sarto was at least the result of the existence of a picture4 ,mr4 ,kenyon1 an intimate friend of the ,brownings1 and a relative of ,mrs4 ,browning1 asked them to obtain for him1 if possible1 a copy of ,andrea's picture of himself and wife4 ,since he was unable to secure it1 ,browning wrote the poem and sent it as a record of what the picture contained4 ,vasari was the source of much of the historical material which ,browning used in his poems4 ,his gossipy narrative was followed almost exactly in ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 and partly in ,andrea del ,sarto and other poems4 ,baldinucci's histories of the ,italian painters furnish material for ,beatrice ,signorini1 and the first part of ,filippo ,baldinucci4 ,browning invented the last part of the latter1 and makes his invention more real by ,filippo's declaration1 8,plague o' me if ,i record it in my book40 ,v4 ,,poetic ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,references ,,to ,,painting4--,many references to painters or painting are used for comparisons1 just as in the case of other arts4 ,such is the one in ,pauline1 in which the poet describes the ,andromeda of ,caravaggio1 and contrasts her to his own changing soul2 and also the comparison in ,sordello1 of the hero to the same picture4 ,a third mention of ,andromeda1 in ,francis ,furini1 illustrates the beauty of the nude art4 ,the painter of ,andromeda1 ,polidoro da ,caravaggio1 is introduced in ,waring1 in a far from serious comparison1 in which ,browning wonders if his long-silent friend is splashing in painting 8as none splashed before1 ,since great ,caldara ,polidore40 ,in ,pippa ,passes1 the ,bishop compares one artist with another1 by expressing the hope that ,jules will found a school like that of ,correggio4 ,in ,three ,days includes a comparison of the lights and shades of a woman's hair to painting1 with the line1 8,as early ,art embrowns the gold40 ,any ,wife to ,any ,husband compares the husband who greatly admires other beautiful women1 with anyone who looks at ,titian's ,venus--8,once more what is there to chide80 ,passages in ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology name ,correggio's works and the pictures of ,giulio ,romano as desirable things to own4 ,the ,bishop also states that he keeps his restless unbelief quiet1 8like the snake 'neath ,michael's foot10 referring to the well-known painting by ,raphael4 ,in ,james ,lee's ,wife1 the attitude toward an unbeautiful hand is illustrated by the line--8,would ,da ,vinci turn from you80 ,one of the most striking examples of the comparison of a person with a picture is found in ,part ,,vi of ,the ,ring and the ,book1 where ,caponsacchi likens ,pompilia to the ,madonna of ,raphael in innocence4 ,in ,part ,,vii1 ,pompilia compares her deliverer1 ,caponsacchi1 to the picture of ,st4 ,george4 ,in ,part ,,viii1 the speaker who defends ,guido reads a description of a man moved by too much grief1 and says it fits ,guido's case just as exactly as ,maratta's portraits are like the life4 ,the prosecutor1 in ,part ,,ix1 compares himself in his descriptions of the family of ,pompilia1 to a painter1 carefully planning to paint a #8,holy ,family'4 ,in this connection he names ,carlo ,maratta1 ,luca ,giordano1 ,angelo1 ,raphael1 ,pietro da ,cortona1 and ,ferri4 ,four or five other comparisons are found in ,the ,ring and the ,book1 but in general1 they are very similar to the ones given above1 and little would be gained by enumerating all of them4 ,about forty lines of ,fifine at the ,fair are concerned with an extended comparison of a man's treatment of his wife with his attitude toward an authentic ,raphael which he has bought4 ,in each case he makes much over the new treasure when it has first come into his possession1 then seems neglectful1 but in case of any danger1 thinks first of his real object of affection1 forgetting such light fancies as other women and ,dor picture books4 ,the comparison is further extended by likening the soul in its choice of another soul to finding satisfaction in art--poetry1 music1 and painting4 ,the ,italian artists1 ,bazzi1 ,raphael1 and ,michael ,angelo1 are named as examples in this connection4 ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country contains a very ,browningesque description of a soul1 and pleads3 8,aspire1 break bounds6 ,i say1 ,endeavor to be good and better still1 ,and best6 ,success is nought1 endeavor's all40 99 99 99 99 99 444 8there the incomplete1 ,more than completion1 matches the immense1-- ,then ,michael ,angelo against the world40 ,with ,charles ,avison1 ,cenciaja1 and ,with ,christopher ,smart contain comparisons similar to those noted above4 ,eleven poems in all deal with ,italian painters or painting as the principal theme4 ,they are3 ,pictor ,ignotus1 ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 ,the ,guardian ,angel1 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,one ,word ,more1 ,a ,face1 ,pacchiarotto1 ,filippo ,baldinucci1 ,with ,francis ,furini1 and ,beatrice ,signorini4 ,eight of these center around the work1 personality1 or history of a single artist4 ,of the eight1 ,pictor ,ignotus1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 and ,with ,francis ,furini1 are serious poetic efforts1 having as the theme a painter's endeavor1 and dealing in each case with some shortcoming or lack of acknowledged success4 ,each of the first three1 as poetry1 is excellent in conception and execution4 ,with ,francis ,furini1 however1 is rather didactic and heavy1 lacking in lyricism and beauty4 ,the failure of ,pictor ,ignotus was due to his high conception of art--so high that he could not bear to submit pictures of real worth to the world4 ,with his extremely sensitive disposition he could not endure the thought of ignorant criticism by people who had no comprehension of the aim or purpose of the artist4 ,lippi failed to gain approbation because he would not sacrifice his conception of painting things as ,god made them to the misguided saintliness of the monks4 ,furini1 according to ,browning's estimate1 failed in part1 because of his attitude toward the nude4 ,andrea del ,sarto1 the greatest failure in all ,browning1 possessed a masterly technique1 but failed through his weakness of character4 ,of the later art poems1 published after #ahee1 ,with ,francis ,furini is the most serious effort4 ,it contains an extended defense of the nude in art1 the substance of which is summed up in the following quotations3 8,no gift but in the very plentitude ,of its perfection1 goes maimed1 misconstrued1 ,by wickedness or weakness3 still some few ,have grace to see thy purpose1 strength to mar ,thy work with no admixture of their own40 99 99 99 99 99 444 8,show beauty's ,may1 ere ,june ,undo the bud's blush1 leave a rose to cull --,no poppy neither6 ,yet less perfect-pure1 ,divinely precious with life's dew besprent4 ,show saintliness that's simply innocent ,of guessing sinnership exists40 ,among the less serious works1 ,pacchiarotto tells the story of a reformer-painter1 suffering at the hands of the people who opposed him4 ,with a decidedly humorous treatment1 rollicking verse1 and impossible rhymes1 ,browning carried on the poem to its conclusion of a fling at the critics of his own verse4 ,filippo ,baldinucci simply retells a rather amusing story1 quite distinct from any serious consideration of the painter as an artist1 with an added conclusion which ,browning imagined for himself4 ,in like manner1 ,beatrice ,signorini consists of a poetized version of some very personal history1 which ,browning took from ,baldinucci4 ,the husband of ,beatrice1 who was the painter ,romanelli1 fell in love with ,artemisia ,genteleschi1 and having painted her portrait1 showed it to his wife4 ,she immediately destroyed it1 ,romanelli approved her spirit1 and ever after loved her more4 ,,vi4 ,,conformity ,,to ,,history4--,a few instances of departure from historical facts are found in the poems on painting1 though it is really remarkable that they were not less accurate1 written as they were at a time when the history of painting had been so slightly investigated4 ,such errors as existed are usually the result of mistakes in the sources ,browning followed1 though these were the best in their day1 rather than from carelessness on his part4 ,some very recent investigators assert that ,browning unduly exaggerated the character of ,andrea's wife1 in ,andrea del ,sarto4 ,however1 no less an authority than ,w4 ,m4 ,rossetti insists that he was essentially true to the facts in representing her4 ,others insist that he was somewhat unfair in the general impression which he gives of ,andrea4 ,at least he has not changed the facts materially in this particular case2 and if any liberty has been taken1 from a poetic standpoint it is well taken4 ,there are several slight errors in ,fra ,lippo ,lippi4 ,for example1 ,guidi 7,masaccio7 is now known to have been the master1 not the pupil of ,lippi1 and the picture in ,sant' ,ambrogio was probably not the expiation of a prank4 ,the few changes in the facts1 however1 are comparatively slight1 all told4 ,allowing for mistaken authorities whom ,browning followed1 variations are much more trivial than might be expected4 ,by the old well-worn charity cloak of poetic license it is customary to allow for considerable idealization4 ,but ,browning1 the artist of things as they really exist1 held to the truth as he saw it1 even in his treatment of art4 ,this he did in spite of the fact that his purpose was not to give art history1 but to present personality as it existed in relation to art4 ,with his deep insight into human nature1 as well as art history1 he took the characters which he found in the world of art1 the good or bad1 and gave them to us as examples of the striving1 often unsuccessful soul4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,general ,,comparisons3 ,,browning ,,and ,,the ,,fine ,,arts ,,of ,,italy4 ,i4 ,,poetic ,,function ,,and ,,method4--,about fifteen poems from ,browning deal with the arts or artists of ,italy as primary subject matter4 ,the remainder of the entire number of forty-nine which refer to art at all1 treat it as a secondary consideration4 ,taking the subject art as a whole1 as ,browning introduces it in poetry1 it appears in the following forms3 7#a7 main theme2 7#b7 comparison of two or more artists working in the same art2 7#c7 comparison of artists in one art with those in another1 as painters with musicians1 or with poets2 7#d7 illustrative material when the main theme of the poem has no immediate bearing on art4 ,abt ,vogler1 in music1 or ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 in painting1 are examples of the first4 ,andrea del ,sarto1 besides exemplifying the first form1 contains numerous comparisons of its main character with other painters4 ,with ,charles ,avison has a musician as a theme1 and he is compared with other artists1 for example1 ,michael ,angelo4 ,fifine at the ,fair1 whose main theme has no connection with art1 names ,raphael1 ,bazzi1 and ,angelo as illustrative material4 ,numerous instances of incidental art references1 used in such ways as these1 attest the fact that ,browning had a large art consciousness1 gained from past interest in the different fields1 and of sufficient activity to cause almost constant references to the fine arts4 ,where ,wordsworth would have chosen ,english natural scenery for purposes of illustration1 and ,shelley nature in ,italy1 ,browning chose art4 ,fifteen poems with nature as the main theme1 besides numerous others with references to nature1 would not seem unusual2 but a group of fifteen poems1 all moderately long1 based on the fine arts1 besides a very large number of comparisons to the arts in other poems1 seems an exceptional product for a nineteenth century ,english poet4 ,browning's art monologue is of two kinds--the monologue of the artist who is the chief character in the poem1 and the monologue of the poet addressing the artist directly4 ,nor are these forms confined entirely to ,italian art poems4 ,my ,last ,duchess1 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb1 ,pictor ,ignotus1 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,abt ,vogler1 are all in dramatic monologue1 with either an artist or one interested in art1 as the speaker4 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 ,master ,hughes of ,saxe-,gotha1 and ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 represent the poet addressing the artist4 ,filippo ,baldinucci is presented in the first person1 in monologue form4 ,in ,the ,guardian ,angel the poet directly addressed the angel of the picture4 ,one ,word ,more and ,a ,face1 in which the art element is strong1 are written in the first person1 the former addressed directly to ,mrs4 ,browning with the poet speaking1 and the second addressed to no particular person4 ,this review establishes the fact that the monologue is ,browning's favorite form for poems about art1 since the list just quoted includes all important poems of that kind4 ,in every case he made some personality prominent1 and in all serious poems on art1 that personality is either speaking or spoken to1 the very finest poems being of the former type4 ,,ii4 ,,amount ,,of ,,material ,,used ,,from ,,each ,,of ,,the ,,fine ,,arts4--,in the foregoing discussion of the five branches of ,italian art in ,browning1--sculpture1 music1 poetry1 architecture1 and painting--the order has been determined largely by a quantitative standard4 ,in the ,appendix are systematic lists showing the number of poems and the exact references in connection with each art4 ,no extensive comparison of the different arts regarding frequency of introduction1 therefore1 is needed here2 but a few generalizations concerning some of the reasons for the variation in emphasis seem not amiss4 ,architecture is the art of a concrete bodily form1 absolutely separated from any representation of humanity1 unless one looks beyond it to the architect1 or to the people for whom it is constructed4 ,in contradistinction to the other fine arts discussed here1 it is characterized by usefulness4 ,while it should1 and does1 in its highest forms1 surmount mere utility1 and give an impression of harmony1 beauty1 and grandeur1 it never directly portrays the finest feelings of which humanity is capable and never inspires one directly with a feeling of achievement or struggle in character4 ,utility is the chief interest guiding ,browning's treatment of architecture--not architectural utility1 but the service to the poet in fixing the setting of his poems4 ,such service is clear in nearly every instance in all of the twenty-five poems in which some ,italian building is mentioned1 and in the case of nearly all the fifty-eight edifices named4 ,the description of ,st4 ,peter's in ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day is practically the only exception1 and there1 as has already been stated1 the poet passed from the grandeur of the structure itself to the builders4 ,lack of personality in architecture is1 then1 the reason for its very slight introduction as an actual art in ,browning's verse4 ,passing on from architecture to sculpture one finds that we have another art of concrete bodily form1 with the added power of portraying the human form1 face1 and to a very slight degree1 the soul4 ,while the number of sculptors named is very small1 then1 ,browning's appreciation of this art surpasses his appreciation of architecture4 ,examples of this are ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 in which sculpture is treated at considerable length1 by comparing its merits with the aspirations of the early painters1 and ,pippa ,passes1 in which ,jules1 the sculptor1 is a prominent figure4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb deals almost entirely with sculpture4 ,still sculpture was not ,browning's favorite art by any means4 ,bodily perfection he admired2 but he wished to go beyond it to the soul in dramatic situations1 to its struggle and endeavor4 ,and for these values the powers of sculpture are limited4 ,to portray successfully any very great struggle or intense feeling of the soul is beyond its nature4 ,a cause for the large amount of ,italian poetry in the writings of ,browning has already been suggested1 in part4#agi ,but one must further consider the fact that he did not continue to deal with poets and their writings as subject matter4 ,after the first eight years of his career1 he ceased to deal with the causes connected with the failure of poets4 ,fundamentally1 all arts are agencies of expression through the representation of nature and humanity4 ,with the breadth of vision which ,browning possessed concerning the possibilities of expression in all the arts1 there was none of the five in which he did not1 at some time or other1 wish to express himself4 ,in the beginning of his career1 when he was formulating his ideas of a poet1 he expressed his ideas of that art by writing about other poets4 ,but with ideas and forms for his own art once fully established1 the art became self-expressive4 ,he no longer needed to write about other poets2 for the poet in himself had found his own purpose and method4 ,it has already been suggested that ,browning's appreciation of music1 as he expressed it in his poems1 was qualitative1 rather than quantitative1 so far as ,italian music is concerned4 ,this art rivals poetry in expressing the highest yearnings and ideals of which the soul is capable1 and is1 therefore1 in a very high degree1 though in abstract form1 the art of personality4 ,and this art ,browning expressed most perfectly1 as to the aims and ideals of its artists1 when he chose to do so4 ,but with all his own feeling for music and with such ability as he expressed in performance1 it1 like poetry1 was largely self-expressive for him4 ,that is he played1 instead of writing poetry about music4 ,browning's evident preference for other music than that of the modern composers of ,italy explains the lack of space accorded to them4 ,yet in spite of this preference the best of his musical poems were built about ,italians--obscure ones though they may be4 ,browning did no work in actual study of the technique of painting4 ,the nearest he came to it was at the time of his thirteen days application to drawing4#ahj ,yet painting is in a very large degree expressive of the soul--its anguish1 sorrow1 failure1 joy1 ecstasy1 or endeavor4 ,drawn to it by his interest in personality1 ,browning made it contribute largely to his poems4 ,the ,italian painting with which he dealt had little to do with landscape or other phases of nature4 ,it portrayed persons2 and stimulated by the pictures which he saw1 or by records of personality in the biography of artists1 he incorporated many references to painting in his poems1 dealing more largely with it than with any other art4 ,since1 too1 ,italy was the home of painting1 his environment was very conducive to a development of his tendency to make painting an important element in his poems4 ,browning1 as poet and man1 was able to forgive any sort of failure if the person whom he was judging had only made a thorough effort to accomplish something4 ,he carried this doctrine so far as to make a lack of effort the cause of his censure of the ,duke and the ,lady in ,the ,statue and the ,bust1 even though the fulfillment of their plan would have been a sin4 ,this love for endeavor1 which always accompanies his attitude toward any personality1 along with his enthusiasm for personality itself explains his selection and emphasis in his treatment of the arts4 ,painting he decidedly preferred above sculpture for other reasons than its greater ability in portraying the soul4 ,this preference is stated in ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 and is based on the fact that ,greek art had run1 and 8reached the ,goal40 ,its effort1 then1 was over3 8,they are perfect--how else8 they shall never change3 ,we are faulty--why not8 we have time in store4 ,the ,artificer's hand is not arrested ,with us 4440 99 99 99 99 99 8',tis a life-long toil till our lump be leaven-- ,the better6 ,what's come to perfection perishes40 ,these quotations from ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 in which the poet1 by using the first person in his references to the early masters of ,italy places himself in their group and refers to ,greek art in the third person1 are indications of the spirit of the poem and of ,browning's entire attitude toward endeavor in art4 ,to summarize1 then3 few persons have as great an interest in expressing themselves through all the arts as did ,robert ,browning4 ,architecture and sculpture he appreciated least2 therefore he expressed least concerning their spirit and feeling4 ,music was a fundamental part of his life2 but he was able to embody his feelings about it in music itself1 not merely in poetry about it4 ,yet because of his perfect understanding of it1 he has embodied its spirit in a few choice poems1 making permanent1 by his treatment of its evanescent quality1 the ideas that could not be left to the world by his playing4 ,painting he deeply appreciated from childhood2 but beyond a few amateur efforts for diversion1 he could not express his appreciation of it by means of that art itself4 ,consequently1 in an unusually large number of his poems1 he gave us his view of that art1 his portraits of its followers1 historical or imaginary4 ,,iii4 ,,personality ,,and ,,the ,,arts4--,through his presentation of artists1 ,browning has given the world many different types of character4 ,prominent among them are the following3 ,the non-altruistic1 impractical poet--,sordello2 the sensualist--,bocafoli2 the superficial character--,plara2 the regretful but optimistic idealist--,abt ,vogler2 the coarse realist1 who yet possessed a really fine appreciation of ,god's world--,fra ,lippo ,lippi2 the weak1 ambitionless man--,andrea del ,sarto2 the keenly sensitive mind--,pictor ,ignotus2 and the reformer--,pacchiarotto4 ,art is also connected with ,browning's character portrayal in a secondary sort of way1 of which ,the ,ring and the ,book furnishes excellent illustrations4 ,in that poem people are characterized by their likeness to some work of art--e4 g41 ,pompilia is compared to ,raphael's ,madonna2 or by their fondness for some particular work of art--e4 g41 the ,pope chuckling over the ,merry ,tales4 ,while ,browning mentioned the great masters in many different poems1 it is noticeable that he never used one of them as the main subject of a poem4 ,there are ,andrea1 ,lippo1 and ,furini1 but there is no ,angelo and no ,raphael4 ,this is due to the one element of interest on ,browning's part that has already been emphasized in this chapter and previous ones--personality4 ,browning was interested in the artist he selected1 not merely as an artist1 not as a distinguished figure1 but as a human being1 whose attempts1 partial failure1 or development1 the poet wished us to study with him4 ,very often the characters whom ,browning chose to present either in connection with the arts or otherwise1 were such as we do not approve of--but neither did ,browning approve of them4 ,his theory of art was no mere aesthetic one of art for art's sake1 no mere dogma of didacticism4 ,it was rather1 art for the sake of human nature1 of personality4 ,of all the characters he has drawn for us1 the one whose expression of art best gives ,browning's own sentiments is ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 the painter and realist1 enthusiastic for 8,the beauty and the wonder and the power1 ,the shapes of things1 their colors1 lights1 and shades1 ,changes1 surprises--and ,god made it all6 99 99 99 99 99 8,but why not do as well as say1--paint these ,just as they are1 careless what comes of it80 ,numerous instances might be cited as a proof of this--,guido1 the ,duke1 the ,bishop1 and many others4 ,all his human beings1 then1 ,browning chose because their personality appealed to him1 as a study1 rather than because they compelled his admiration1 whether he selected them from the world of art or elsewhere4 ,,iv4 ,,browning ,,as ,,the ,,poet ,,of ,,humanity4--,by consideration of ,browning's general attitude towards the arts1 of his fondness for the struggle of the human soul as a poetic theme1 and by a discussion of his relative emphasis on each art and the method in which he chose to treat it1 the fact has been established that ,browning was primarily the poet of the human soul1 and a poet of the arts as seen through the medium of personality4 ,when he was once asked if he liked nature1 he replied1 8,yes but ,i love men and women better40 ,the arts--architecture1 music1 poetry1 sculpture1 and painting--he loved also2 but he loved them most because they recorded human experience1 and best when they most fully expressed the struggles of the soul1 and thus became the direct embodiment of personality4 ,,appendix ,i4 ,,poems ,,containing ,,reference ,,to ,,italian ,,art4 #a4 ,pauline1 #ahcc4 #b4 ,paracelsus1 #ahce4 #c4 ,sordello1 #ahdj4 #d4 ,pippa ,passes1 #ahda4 #e4 ,my ,last ,duchess1 #ahdb4 #f4 ,in a ,gondola1 #ahdb4 #g4 ,waring1 #ahdb4 #h4 ,the ,boy and the ,angel1 #ahde4 #i4 ,time's ,revenges1 #ahde4 #aj4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church1 #ahde4 #aa4 ,pictor ,ignotus1 #ahde4 #ab4 ,the ,italian in ,england1 #ahde4 #ac4 ,luria1 #ahdf4 #ad4 ,a ,soul's ,tragedy1 #ahdf4 #ae4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day1 #ahej4 #af4 ,up at a ,villa1 #ahee4 #ag4 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 #ahee4 #ah4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 #ahee4 #ai4 ,by the ,fireside1 #ahee4 #bj4 ,any ,wife to ,any ,husband1 #ahee4 #ba4 ,in ,three ,days1 #ahee4 #bb4 ,the ,guardian ,angel1 #ahee4 #bc4 ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha1 #ahee4 #bd4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust1 #ahee4 #be4 ,how it ,strikes a ,contemporary1 #ahee4 #bf4 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 #ahee4 #bg4 ,andrea del ,sarto1 #ahee4 #bh4 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology1 #ahee4 #bi4 ,one ,word ,more1 #ahee4 #cj4 ,james ,lee's ,wife1 #ahfd4 #ca4 ,abt ,vogler1 #ahfd4 #cb4 ,youth and ,art1 #ahfd4 #cc4 ,a ,face1 #ahfd4 #cd4 ,apparent ,failure1 #ahfd4 #ce4 ,the ,ring and the ,book1 #ahfh-i4 #cf4 ,prince ,hohenstiel-,schwangau1 #ahga4 #cg4 ,fifine at the ,fair1 #ahgb4 #ch4 ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country1 #ahgc4 #ci4 ,the ,inn ,album1 #ahge4 #dj4 ,pacchiarotto1 #ahgf4 #da4 ,cenciaja1 #ahgf4 #db4 ,filippo ,baldinucci1 #ahgf4 #dc4 ,pietro of ,abano1 #ahhj4 #dd4 ,christina and ,monaldeschi1 #ahhc4 #de4 ,with ,christopher ,smart1 #ahhg4 #df4 ,with ,francis ,furini1 #ahhg4 #dg4 ,with ,charles ,avison1 #ahhg4 #dh4 ,ponte dell' ,angelo1 ,venice1 #ahhi4 #di4 ,beatrice ,signorini1 #ahhi4 ,,ii4 ,,tabulation ,,of ,,references ,,to ,,individual ,,arts4 ,,sculpture ,i4 ,sordello4 #a4 ,niccolo ,pisano 7#abjf-abgh74 ,by his study of nature and the ancients1 gave the death-blow to ,byzantinism and heralded the ,renaissance4 #b4 ,giovanni ,pisano 7c4 #abej-accj74 ,his many pupils carried the continuation of his father's principles throughout northern ,italy4 ,,ii4 ,pippa ,passes4 #a4 ,canova 7#ageg-ahbb74 ,a refined1 classical1 but somewhat artificial reviver of ,italian sculpture in the modern era4 a4 ,the ,psiche-fanciulla--,psycheas a young girl with a butterfly1 in the ,possagno ,gallery4 b4 ,piet--a statue of the ,virgin with the dead ,christ in her arms1 in ,possagno ,church4 #b4 ,jules4 ,an imaginary young sculptor1 studying ,italian models4 a4 ,almaign ,kaiser4 b4 ,hippolyta4 c4 ,psyche4 d4 ,tydeus4 ,,iii4 ,my ,last ,duchess4 #a4 ,claus of ,innsbruck4 ,an imaginary ,renaissance sculptor4 a4 ,neptune taming a sea-horse4 ,,iv4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church4 #a4 ,tomb of the ,bishop4 #b4 ,globe in the ,church of ,il ,gesu4 ,v4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day4 #a4 ,early ,christian attitude toward art4 ,,vi4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 #a4 ,niccolo ,pisano4 #b4 ,ghiberti 7#acgh-adee74 ,a ,florentine sculptor1 also important for perspective in painting1 whose ideal combined religious feeling with classical beauty4 ,,vii4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust4 #a4 ,giovanni da ,bologna 7,john of ,douay7 7c4 #aebd-afjh74 ,an ,italian ,renaissance sculptor who combines technical knowledge with fine poetic feeling4 a4 ,statue of ,duke ,ferdinand1 by ,giovanni4 b4 ,a bust of the ,lady4 ,,viii4 ,the ,ring and the ,book4 7,i47 #a4 ,baccio's marble 7by ,baccio ,bandinelli7--statue of ,john of the ,black ,bands1 father of ,cosimo de' ,medici4 #b4 ,bernini's ,triton4 7,,iii47 #c4 ,bernini's ,triton4 7,,vi47 #d4 ,pasquin's statue4 7,,vii47 #e4 ,marble lion in ,san ,lorenzo4 #f4 ,virgin at ,pompilia's street corner4 7,,xi47 #g4 ,bocca-dell'-,verit--the fabled test for the verity of witnesses1 a mask of stone in the portico of the ,church ,santa ,maria in ,cosmedin4 ,,music ,i4 ,the ,englishman in ,italy4 #a4 ,bellini 7#ahja-ahce74 ,an ,italian opera composer4 ,,ii4 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's4 #a4 ,galuppi 7#agjf-aghe74 ,a composer of melodious rather than original operas1 whose workmanship was superior to that of his contemporaries in harmony and orchestration4 ,,iii4 ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha4 #a4 ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha4 ,an imaginary composer4 #b4 ,palestrina 7#aebf-aeid74 ,famous for saving music to the church by submitting some that met with approval when ecclesiastical authorities were about to forbid its use4 ,,iv4 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology4 #a4 ,verdi 7#ahac-aija74 ,one of the greatest modern ,italian composers1 best known by ,il ,trovatore1 ,rigoletto1 and ,la ,traviata4 #b4 ,rossini 7#aghb-ahfh74 ,a composer whose success antedates that of ,verdi2 best known by his opera ,william ,tell4 ,v4 ,abt ,vogler4 #a4 ,abt or ,abbe ,vogler 7#agdi-ahad74 ,an organist and composer of ,bavarian birth1 some of whose study and public work were done in ,italy4 ,though he invented a new system of musical theory1 his ideas were empirical4 ,,vi4 ,youth and ,art4 #a4 ,grisi 7#ahaa-ahfi74 ,an ,italian opera singer4 ,,vii4 ,the ,ring and the ,book4 7,i47 #a4 ,corelli 7#afec-agac74 ,a violin player and composer who1 though he employed only a limited part of his instrument's compass1 made an epoch in chamber music and influenced ,bach4 7,,iv47 #b4 ,magnificat--,catholic music4 #c4 ,nunc ,dimittis4 7,,vi47 #d4 ,ave4 #e4 ,angelus4 7,,vii47 #f4 ,ave ,maria4 7,x47 #g4 ,sanctus et ,benedictus4 7,,xii47 #h4 ,pater4 #i4 ,ave4 #aj4 ,salve ,regina ,cli4 ,,viii4 ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country4 #a4 ,guarnerius 7#afhg-agde74 ,joseph del ,gesu1 one of the most famous violin makers1 who worked for boldness of outline and massive construction1 securing in consequence1 a robust tone4 #b4 ,antonius ,stradivarius 7#afdd-agcg74 ,his final model1 with its soft varnish1 now irrecoverable1 brought violin making to its highest perfection4 #c4 ,corelli4 #d4 ,paganini 7#aghd-ahdj74 ,a violin player who achieved such brilliant success that his name still stands for all that is wonderful in execution on that instrument4 ,,ix4 ,parleyings with ,charles ,avison4 #a4 ,buononcini 7#afgb-agej74 ,the author of a musical treatise2 his chief claim to fame being the fact that he influenced ,handel and ,scarlotti4 #b4 ,geminiani 7c4 #afhj-agfb74 ,a violinist of considerable ability1 but as a composer1 dry and deficient in melody4 ,,poetry ,i4 ,paracelsus4 #a4 ,aprile4 ,an imaginary poet4 ,,ii4 ,sordello4 #a4 ,sordello 7#acth4 century74 ,the most famous of the ,mantuan troubadours4 #b4 ,nina4 ,a contemporary of ,sordello4 #c4 ,alcamo4 ,a contemporary of ,sordello4 #d4 ,plara4 ,an imaginary poet4 #e4 ,bocafoli4 ,an imaginary poet4 #f4 ,eglamor4 ,an imaginary poet4 #g4 ,dante4 7#abfe-acba74 ,,iii4 ,time's ,revenges4 #a4 ,dante4 ,,iv4 ,a ,soul's ,tragedy4 #a4 ,stiatta4 ,an imaginary poet4 ,v4 ,up at a ,villa4 #a4 ,dante4 #b4 ,petrarch 7#acjd-acgd74 #c4 ,boccaccio 7#acac-acge74 ,,vi4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 #a4 ,dante4 ,,vii4 ,one ,word ,more4 #a4 ,dante--,the ,inferno4 ,,viii4 ,apparent ,failure4 #a4 ,petrarch4 ,,ix4 ,the ,ring and the ,book4 7,,iii74 #a4 ,hundred ,merry ,tales4 7,boccaccio74 7,v74 #b4 ,boccaccio4 #c4 ,sacchetti 7#acce-adjj74 ,a poet and novelist who left many unpublished sonnetti1 canzoni1 ballate1 and madrigale1 and whose novelle throw light on the manners of his age4 7,,vi74 #d4 ,a ,marinesque ,adoniad4 #e4 ,marino 7#aefi-afbe74 ,a poet of disreputable life1 leader of the ,secentisimo period1 whose aim was to excite wonder by novelties and to cloak poverty of subject under form4 #f4 ,dante4 #g4 ,pietro ,aretino 7#adib-aeef74 ,author of satirical sonnets1 burlesques1 comedies2 and a man of profligate life4 7,x74 #h4 ,aretino4 7,,xi74 #i4 ,merry ,tales 7,boccaccio74 #aj4 ,aretino4 7,,xii74 #aa4 ,petrarch4 #ab4 ,tommaseo 7#ahjc-ahgd74 ,a modern ,italian poet1 author of the inscription to ,mrs4 ,browning placed by the city of ,florence on the walls of ,casa ,guidi4 ,x4 ,the ,inn ,album4 #a4 ,dante--,the ,inferno4 ,,architecture ,i4 ,sordello4 #a4 ,goito4 ,an imaginary #acth century castle1 used to influence the life of ,sordello by its beauty and solitude4 #b4 ,st4 ,mark's4 ,a great landmark of ,italian architecture1 in construction from the ninth to the fifteenth century1 and the most splendid polychromatic building in ,europe4 #c4 ,piombi4 ,torture cells under the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice4 #d4 ,san ,pietro 7,martire74 ,a ,veronese ,gothic church of #acej4 #e4 ,st4 ,francis4 ,a ,lombard ,gothic church at ,bassano4 #f4 ,castle ,angelo4 ,a huge ,roman fortress constructed in the time of ,hadrian4 #g4 ,san ,miniato4 ,a ,florentine church built in ,central ,romanesque style4 #h4 ,sant' ,eufemia4 ,a #acth century ,veronese church1 now modernized internally4 ,,ii4 ,pippa ,passes4 #a4 ,st4 ,mark's--,venice4 #b4 ,possagno ,church4 ,designed by ,canova in #ahai1 as a place for statues of religious subjects4 #c4 ,fenice--or ,phoenix4 ,the best modern theatre of ,venice1 built in #ahcf4 #d4 ,academy of ,fine ,arts4 ,a ,renaissance building in ,venice4 ,asolo ,group4 #e4 ,duomo of ,asolo4 #f4 ,pippa's ,tower4 ,later the studio of ,browning's son4 #g4 ,church4 #h4 ,castle of ,kate--of which the banqueting hall is now a theatre4 #i4 ,turret4 #aj4 ,palace4 #aa4 ,mill--now a lace school4 ,,iii4 ,in a ,gondola4 #a4 ,pulci ,palace--,venice4 ,,iv4 ,the ,boy and the ,angel4 #a4 ,st4 ,peter's4 ,in process of construction during the #afth and #agth centuries2 the building that best typifies the importance of the church during the middle ages4 ,built on the ,greek cross plan1 it is surmounted by the dome of ,michael ,angelo1 the most nobly beautiful of architectural creations4 ,v4 ,the ,italian in ,england4 #a4 ,duomo at ,padua4 ,a #afth century building of admirable proportions4 ,,vi4 ,the ,bishop orders his ,tomb at ,st4 ,praxed's ,church4 #a4 ,santa ,prassede--or ,st4 ,praxed's4 ,a church in ,rome1 founded on the former site of a refuge for persecuted ,christians4 ,it is notable for the beauty of its stone work and mosaics1 one of its rich chapels being called ,orto del ,paradiso4 ,the building is old but was restored in the #aeth century4 #b4 ,il ,gesu4 ,an ornate #afth century church in ,rome1 representing the retrograde movement in architecture4 ,,vii4 ,luria4 #a4 ,duomo4 ,the ,florentine cathedral1 famous for its dome of #adbj1 its beautiful sculptured exterior and its cold brown interior4 #b4 ,towers of ,florence--,san ,romano1 ,sant' ,evola1 ,san ,miniato1 ,santa ,scala1 and ,sant' ,empoli4 ,,viii4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day4 #a4 ,st4 ,peter's--,rome4 ,,ix4 ,a ,toccata of ,galuppi's4 #a4 ,st4 ,mark's--,venice4 ,x4 ,the ,guardian ,angel4 #a4 ,chapel at ,fano4 ,,xi4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 #a4 ,giotto 7#abfg-accg74 ,architect1 and the humanizer of painting1 as well as the builder of the ,campanile4 #b4 ,campanile4 ,the bell tower of the ,florentine ,duomo1 built by ,giotto in #accb2 an architectural triumph in beauty and splendor4 #c4 ,santo ,spirito4 ,a #adth century ,florentine church4 #d4 ,duomo--,florence4 #e4 ,ognissanti--,florence4 ,,xii4 ,by the ,fireside4 #a4 ,chapel near ,bagni di ,lucca4 ,,xiii4 ,the ,statue and the ,bust4 #a4 ,antinori ,palace4 ,an example of ,renaissance secular architecture1 built about #adha1 in ,florence4 #b4 ,riccardi ,palace4 ,a ,florentine castle1 the earliest and finest example of secular ,renaissance architecture4 ,,xiv4 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi4 #a4 ,santa ,maria del ,carmine4 ,a #aeth century church and convent in ,florence1 containing frescoes by ,masaccio and ,filippino ,lippi4 #b4 ,palace of the ,medici--,florence4 #c4 ,st4 ,lawrence--or ,san ,lorenzo4 ,a ,florentine ,renaissance church1 rebuilt about #adbe4 #d4 ,st4 ,ambrose4 ,a ,florentine edifice1 the reputed scene of a transubstantiation miracle in #agdf4 ,,xv4 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology4 #a4 ,vatican4 ,the papal palace at ,rome1 most of which as it exists now1 was built no earlier than the fifteenth century4 ,,xvi4 ,andrea del ,sarto4 #a4 ,chapel and the ,convent--,florence4 ,,xvii4 ,one ,word ,more4 #a4 ,san ,miniato--,florence4 ,,xviii4 ,abt ,vogler4 #a4 ,st4 ,peter's4 ,,xix4 ,the ,ring and the ,book4 7,i74 #a4 ,san ,lorenzo4 ,the original building by ,brunelleschi in #adbe or perhaps #adbj1 was entrusted to ,michael ,angelo for the facade4 ,florence4 #b4 ,riccardi ,palace--,florence4 #c4 ,san ,felice ,church4 ,a little grey-walled ,florentine church1 mostly in a very ancient ,romanesque style1 which could be seen from the windows of ,casa ,guidi4 #d4 ,fiano ,palace4 ,an example of secular architecture in ,rome1 built about #acjj4 #e4 ,ruspoli ,palace4 ,built by the ,rucellai family in #aehf2 has one of the finest white marble stair cases in ,rome4 7,,ii74 #f4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 ,founded by ,sixtus ,,iii in #ddj and modernized in #aejf2 has a ,crucifixion by ,guido ,reni1 above the high altar4 #g4 ,ruspoli ,palace--,rome4 7,,iii74 #h4 ,saint ,anna's4 ,a monastery in ,rome4 #i4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 7,,iv74 #aj4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 #aa4 ,vatican--,rome4 7,v74 #ab4 ,tordinona--,rome4 #ac4 ,new ,prisons--,rome4 #ad4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 7,,vi74 #ae4 ,pieve1 or ,santa ,maria della ,pieve4 ,a great church in ,arezzo1 built in the capricious1 extravagant style of the #acth century4 #af4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 #ag4 ,duomo--,arezzo4 7,,vii47 #ah4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 #ai4 ,san ,giovanni4 ,a ,tuscan church built in ,rome at the expense of the ,florentines4 #bj4 ,pieve--,arezzo4 7,,viii74 #ba4 ,sistine ,chapel4 ,chapel of the ,vatican1 at ,rome2 a most extreme example of figure painting in decoration1 but justified by the excellence of the work4 ,the ceiling is ,michael ,angelo's1 and on the altar wall is his 8,last ,judgment40 7,x74 #bb4 ,vatican--,rome4 #bc4 ,pieve--,arezzo4 #bd4 ,monastery of the ,convertites--,rome4 ,founded in #aehd1 for the spiritual care of the sick at ,rome4 7,,xi74 #be4 ,certosa4 ,a beautifully situated1 very richly built monastery of the ,carthusians in ,val d' ,ema1 four miles from ,florence1 built in the #adth century ,gothic style4 #bf4 ,vallombrosa ,convent4 ,situated near ,florence2 founded about #afej1 by a repentant profligate4 #bg4 ,palace in ,via ,larga4 ,secular ,florentine architecture4 #bh4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 #bi4 ,vatican--,rome4 7,,xii74 #cj4 ,new ,prisons--,rome4 #ca4 ,san ,lorenzo--,rome4 #cb4 ,monastery of the ,convertites--,rome4 ,,xx4 ,fifine at the ,fair4 #a4 ,st4 ,mark's--,venice4 ,,xxi4 ,pacchiarotto4 #a4 ,san ,bernardino4 ,a ,renaissance church at ,siena1 with an ,oratory1 containing work of ,beccafumi1 ,pacchia1 and ,pacchiarotto4 #b4 ,duomo at ,siena4 ,an unfinished cathedral1 the most purely ,gothic of all of those of ,italy1 of unrivalled solemnity and splendor4 ,,xxii4 ,filippo ,baldinucci4 #a4 ,san ,frediano4 ,a modern ,florentine church4 ,,xxiii4 ,pietro of ,abano4 #a4 ,lateran4 ,formerly the ,papal residence1 though the present structure1 of #aehf1 was never used for that purpose and is now a museum of classical sculpture and early ,christian remains4 ,,xxiv4 ,with ,francis ,furini4 #a4 ,san ,sano1 or ,ansano4 ,a ,florentine parish church4 ,,xxv4 ,ponte del ,angelo1 ,venice4 #a4 ,house along the ,bridge1 of no importance architecturally1 but connected with an old legend which is the subject of the poem4 ,,painting ,i4 ,pauline4 #a4 ,andromeda4 ,by ,polidoro da ,caravaggio--the picture of ,perseus freeing her from the sea monster4 ,,ii4 ,sordello4 #a4 ,guido of ,siena 7c4 #abej--74 ,the disputed artist of a ,virgin and ,child1 the date of which may be either #abba or #abha4 ,if it be the former1 some of ,cimabue's claims are disturbed by ,guido's earlier work4 #b4 ,guido ,reni 7#aege-afdb74 ,a prime master in the ,bolognese school1 faithful to its eclectic principles and working with considerable artistic feeling1 but still with a certain 8core of the commonplace40 #c4 ,andromeda4 ,by ,caravaggio4 ,,iii4 ,pippa ,passes4 #a4 ,annibale ,carracci 7burlesque--8,hannibal ,scratchy07 7#aefj-afji74 ,with his brother and his uncle founded the ,bolognese school1 which was eclectic and comprised the good points of all the great masters4 #b4 ,correggio 7#adid-aecd74 ,the head of the ,lombard ,school at ,parma1 a painter of graceful naturalness and sweetness and of great technical power in chiaroscuro4 #c4 ,titian 7#adgg-aegf74 ,a ,venetian painter who lacked inventiveness but was the greatest of colorists4 a4 ,annunciation--in the ,cathedral at ,treviso1 painted by ,titian in #aeai4 ,,iv4 ,my ,last ,duchess4 #a4 ,fra ,pandolf4 ,an imaginary artist4 ,v4 ,in a ,gondola4 #a4 ,schidone 7c4 #aegj-afae74 ,a portrait painter of the ,lombard school4 a4 ,eager ,duke4 ,an imaginary picture4 #b4 ,luca ,giordano 7#afcb-agje74 ,called ,luke-work-fast because of his father's miserly urging2 a painter of superficiality and facility4 a4 ,prim ,saint4 ,an imaginary picture4 #c4 ,giorgione 7,castelfranco7 7#adgg-aeaj74 ,a ,venetian painter who did for his school what ,leonardo da ,vinci had done for ,florence twenty years earlier4 a4 ,magdalen--imaginary4 #d4 ,titian4 a4 ,ser 7a picture74 ,,vi4 ,waring4 #a4 ,polidoro da ,caravaggio4 ,,vii4 ,pictor ,ignotus4 #a4 ,pictor ,ignotus--an imaginary painter of ,italy4 ,,viii4 ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day4 #a4 ,michael ,angelo and discussion of painting4 ,,ix4 ,old ,pictures in ,florence4 #a4 ,michael ,angelo 7#adge-aefd74 ,a ,florentine master in painting1 sculpture1 and architecture4 ,no other single person ever so dominated art as he1 with his ,italian 8terribilita01 or stormy energy of conception1 and his great dramatic power4 #b4 ,raphael 7#adhc-aebj74 ,a master of combined draughtsmanship1 coloring1 and graceful composition2 popular and unexcelled in versatility4 #c4 ,leonardo da ,vinci 7#adeb-aeai74 ,the earliest of the great masters of the ,high ,renaissance1 and the first to completely master anatomy and technique4 #d4 ,cavaliere ,dello 7c4 #adjd-;c4 #adfd74 ,an unimportant ,florentine painter of frescoes4 #e4 ,stefano 7#acbd8-aceg874 ,called the 8,ape of ,nature0 because he followed her closely in an age of unrealistic painting4 #f4 ,cimabue 7#abdj-;c4 #acjb74 ,the first painter of importance in the revival of that art1 the one who formed its first principles1 though he owed something to the ,pisan sculptors4 #g4 ,ghirlandajo 7#addi-adid74 ,good in his general attainment but lacking in originality1 and remembered for one famous pupil--,michael ,angelo4 #h4 ,sandro 7,botticelli7 7#addd-aeaj74 ,a ,florentine painter1 imbued with a strain of fantasy1 mysticism1 and allegory4 #i4 ,lippino 7#adfj-aeje74 ,the son of ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 a painter of considerable skill1 the first to introduce detail in antique costumes4 #aj4 ,fra ,angelico 7#achg-adee74 ,a holy1 self-denying painter of faces that showed a 8sexless religiosity40 #aa4 ,lorenzo ,monaco 7#acgj-adbe74 ,a ,florentine monk and painter of much religious sentiment4 #ab4 ,pollajolo 7#adbi-adih74 ,an important painter whose works show brutality1 but who was a close student of muscular anatomy4 #ac4 ,baldovinetti 7#adbg-adii74 ,a ,florentine2 one of a group of scientific realists and naturalists4 #ad4 ,margheritone 7c4 #abcf-abhi74 ,an early ,tuscan painter whose work shows the stiffness and crude color of the ,byzantine artists4 #ae4 ,carlo ,dolci 7#afaf-afhf74 ,an unimportant ,florentine painter of careful workmanship and religious sentimentality4 #af4 ,giotto 7#abfg8-accg74 ,a painter and architect1 the real humanizer of painting4 #ag4 ,andrea ,orgagna 7#acjh-acfh74 ,a ,florentine painter and artist in other lines as well4 #ah4 ,taddeo ,gaddi 7c4 #acjj-acff74 ,painter and architect4 ,x4 ,in ,three ,days4 #a4 ,general reference to early art4 ,,xi4 ,the ,guardian ,angel4 #a4 ,guercino 7#aeia-afff74 ,the 8squint-eyed02 a ,bolognese painter4 a4 ,angel at ,fano4 ,,xii4 ,any ,wife to ,any ,husband4 #a4 ,titian's ,venus4 ,,xiii4 ,how it ,strikes a ,contemporary4 #a4 ,titian4 ,,xiv4 ,fra ,lippo ,lippi4 #a4 ,lippi 7#adjf-adfi74 ,a realist of good coloring and technique1 a painter of enjoyable pictures showing power of observation4 a4 ,jerome4 b4 ,st4 ,lawrence4 c4 ,coronation of the ,virgin--in ,st4 ,ambrose4 #b4 ,angelico4 #c4 ,monaco4 #d4 ,guidi ,masaccio 7#adjb-adbi74 ,a ,florentine2 the master of ,lippi1 the first to make considerable advancement in atmospheric perspective and to paint architectural background in proportion to the human figures4 #e4 ,giotto4 ,,xv4 ,andrea del ,sarto4 #a4 ,andrea 7#adhg-aeac74 ,a ,florentine1 the 8faultless painter10 who lacked elevation and ideality in his works4 #b4 ,raphael4 #c4 ,vasari 7#aeaa-aega74 ,a ,florentine artist1 student of ,michael ,angelo1 imitative and feeble as a painter1 but interesting as an art historian4 #d4 ,michael ,angelo4 #e4 ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,,xvi4 ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology4 #a4 ,correggio4 a4 ,jerome4 #b4 ,giulio ,romano 7#adbi-aedf74 ,a rather ornate artist1 the executor of some work on the ,vatican4 #c4 ,raphael4 #d4 ,michael ,slaying the ,dragon--by ,raphael4 ,,xvii4 ,one ,word ,more4 #a4 ,raphael4 a4 ,sistine ,madonna4 b4 ,madonna ,foligno4 c4 ,madonna of the ,grand ,duke4 d4 ,madonna of the ,lilies4 #b4 ,guido ,reni4 #c4 ,lippi4 #d4 ,andrea4 ,,xviii4 ,james ,lee's ,wife4 #a4 ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,,xix4 ,a ,face4 #a4 ,correggio4 #b4 ,general reference to the early art of ,tuscany4 ,,xx4 ,the ,ring and the ,book4 7,i74 #a4 ,luigi ,ademollo 7#agfd-ahdi74 ,a ,florentine painter of historical and fresco works1 whose works show superficial skill4 #b4 ,joconde1 or ,mona ,lisa1 by ,da ,vinci--the woman of the mysterious smile1 recently returned to the ,louvre4 7,,ii74 #c4 ,guido ,reni4 a4 ,crucifixion1 in ,san ,lorenzo at ,rome4 7,,iii74 #d4 ,carlo ,maratta 7#afbe-agac74 ,a painter at ,rome1 an imitator of ,raphael and the ,carracci4 7,,iv74 #e4 ,raphael4 #f4 ,correggio4 a4 ,leda4 7,v74 #g4 ,pietro da ,cortona 7#aeif-affi74 ,mainly a scenic and fresco painter1 the estimate of whom has declined since his own time4 #h4 ,ciro ,ferri 7#afcd-afhi74 ,a pupil of ,pietro1 so imitative of his master that the work of the two cannot be distinguished4 7,,vi74 #i4 ,raphael4 7,,vii74 #aj4 ,st4 ,george ,slaying the ,dragon--by ,vasari4 7,,viii74 #aa4 ,carlo ,maratta4 7,,ix74 #ab4 ,maratta4 #ac4 ,luca ,giordano4 #ad4 ,michael ,angelo4 #ae4 ,raphael4 #af4 ,pietro da ,cortona4 #ag4 ,ciro ,ferri4 7,x74 #ah4 ,st4 ,michael4 7,,xi74 #ai4 ,albani 7#aehg-affj74 ,a ,bolognese who also worked at ,rome2 a painter of minute elaboration and finish1 and one of the first to devote himself to cabinet painting4 #bj4 ,picture in ,vallombrosa ,convent4 #ba4 ,raphael--any picture4 #bb4 ,titian4 #bc4 ,fra ,angelico4 #bd4 ,michael ,angelo4 7,,xii74 #be4 ,michael ,angelo4 ,,xxi4 ,prince ,hohenstiel-,schwangau4 #a4 ,raphael4 #b4 ,salvator ,rosa 7#afae-afgc74 ,a ,neapolitan painter of battle scenes and landscapes1 with a tendency toward the picturesque and romantic4 ,,xxii4 ,fifine at the ,fair4 #a4 ,raphael4 #b4 ,bazzi 7#adgg-aeid74 ,an ,italian ,renaissance painter who was greatly influenced by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 and in turn1 had great influence on the ,sienese school4 #c4 ,michael ,angelo4 ,,xxiii4 ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country4 #a4 ,michael ,angelo4 #b4 ,correggio4 a4 ,leda4 ,,xxiv4 ,pacchiarotto and ,how ,he ,worked in ,distemper4 #a4 ,pacchiarotto 7#adgd-874 ,a ,sienese painter1 reformer1 and conspirator4 #b4 ,pacchia 7b4 #adgg74 ,a ,sienese painter contemporary to ,pacchiarotto1 and also a reformer and conspirator4 #c4 ,fungaio 7c4 #adfj-;c4 #aeaf74 ,one of the last of the old school4 ,his works have rigidity and awkward stiffness4 #d4 ,bazzi4 #e4 ,beccafumi 7#adhf-aeea74 ,a ,sienese painter who weakly imitated ,angelo and attempted to rival ,sodoma4 #f4 ,giotto4 ,,xxv4 ,filippo ,baldinucci4 #a4 ,buti4 ,the painter's name under which ,baldinucci1 in his history of art1 records the events forming the subject of ,browning's poem4 #b4 ,titian4 a4 ,leda4 #c4 ,baldinucci 7#afbd-afif74 ,a ,florentine art historian who attempted to prove the theory that all art was derived from his native city4 ,,xxvi4 ,cenciaja4 #a4 ,titian4 ,,xxvii4 ,christina and ,monaldeschi4 #a4 ,primaticcio 7#aejd-aegj74 ,an ,italian painter of the ,bolognese school1 who did the first important stucco and fresco work in ,france4 ,,xxviii4 ,mary ,wollstonecraft and ,fuseli4 #a4 ,fuseli4 7#agda-ahbe74 ,an ,english painter of exaggerated style1 who attempted to be ,italianate and changed his name to harmonize with the attempt4 ,,xxix4 ,parleyings with ,christopher ,smart4 #a4 ,michael ,angelo4 #b4 ,raphael4 ,,xxx4 ,parleyings with ,francis ,furini4 #a4 ,furini 7#afjj-afdi74 ,a ,florentine artist and an excellent painter of the nude1 who later became a parish priest and wished his undraped pictures destroyed4 #b4 ,michael ,angelo4 #c4 ,baldinucci4 #d4 ,da ,vinci4 ,,index ,abt ,vogler1 #ad1 #ae1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cf1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #eh1 #fd ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 ,venice1 #fb ,ademollo1 ,luigi1 #ga ,agamemnon1 #ad ,albani1 #ga ,alcamo 7in ,sordello71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #fj ,andrea del ,sarto1 #bg1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #fd1 #gj 8,andromeda10 ,caravaggio's1 #da1 #dd1 #ff1 #fg ,any ,wife to ,any ,husband1 #dd1 #fi ,apparent ,failure1 #fj ,aprile 7in ,paracelsus71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #fj ,aretino1 ,pietro1 #bi1 #cc1 #fa ,aristophanes' ,apology1 #ad ,augustus1 a bust by ,browning1 #ab ,baldovinetti1 #fi ,bandinelli1 ,baccio1 #ae1 #ba1 #eg ,bazzi1 ,giovanni ,antonio1 #de1 #dh1 #gb ,beatrice ,signorini1 #da1 #dd1 #de1 #df ,beccafumi1 #ff1 #gb ,beethoven1 #aj ,bellini1 ,vincenzo1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bg1 #eh ,bernini1 #ae1 #eg ,bishop ,blougram's ,apology1 #bf1 #bg1 #cf1 #dd1 #eh1 #fd1 #gj ,bishop orders his ,tomb1 ,the1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #cf1 #ch1 #di1 #ej1 #eg1 #fb ,bocafoli 7in ,sordello71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #ec1 #fj ,boccaccio1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #fj1 #fa 8,bocca-dell'-,verita10 #ae1 #ba1 #eh ,botticelli1 #fh ,boy and the ,angel1 ,the1 #cf1 #fb ,browning1 ,elizabeth ,barrett1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #bf1 #cd1 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #di1 #fa ,browning1 ,wiedemann1 #aj1 #aa ,buononcini1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #bc1 #be1 #ei ,buti1 #gc ,byron1 ,lord1 #bc1 #ch ,by the ,fireside1 #i1 #cf1 #fc ,campanile1 ,the1 ,florence1 #ce1 #cf1 #dc1 #fc ,canova1 #ab1 #ae1 #ah1 #bb1 #ef1 #eg1 #fb ,caravaggio1 #da1 #dd1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh ,carracci1 ,annibale1 #ab1 #fg ,castle ,angelo1 #fa ,catholic ,hymns1 #bc-bd1 #ei ,cenciaja1 #de1 #gc ,chapel near ,bagni di ,lucca1 #fc2 at ,fano1 #fc2 at ,florence1 #fd ,charles ,avison1 ,parleyings with1 #be1 #bf1 #de1 #dh1 #ei ,christina and ,monaldeschi1 #gc ,christmas-,eve and ,easter-,day1 #i1 #af1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #cf1 #ch1 #ej1 #eg1 #fc1 #fh ,christopher ,smart1 ,parleyings with1 #de1 #gc ,churches1 ,italian3 ,il ,gesu1 #eg1 #fc2 ,ognissanti1 #fc2 ,pieve at ,arezzo1 #cg1 #fe2 ,possagno1 #eg1 #fb2 ,st4 ,francis1 #fa2 ,st4 ,mark's1 #cf1 #fa1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff2 ,st4 ,peter's1 #cf1 #ch1 #ci1 #ej1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd2 ,s4 ,ambrogio1 #dg1 #fd1 #gj2 ,s4 ,bernardino1 #ff2 ,s4 ,empoli1 #fc2 ,s4 ,eufemia1 #fb2 ,s4 ,evola1 #fc2 ,s4 ,felice1 #fd2 ,s4 ,frediano1 #ff2 ,s4 ,giovanni1 #fe2 ,s4 ,lorenzo1 #cf1 #eh1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #ga2 ,s4 ,miniato1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd2 ,s4 ,maria della ,scala1 #fc2 ,s4 ,maria del ,carmine1 #fd2 ,s4 ,maria in ,cosmedin1 #eh2 ,s4 ,pietro ,martire1 #fa2 ,s4 ,pressede 7,st4 ,praxed's71 #ai1 #ch1 #fb2 ,s4 ,romano1 #fc2 ,s4 ,sano1 #ff2 ,s4 ,spirito1 #fc ,cimabue1 #dj1 #db1 #ff1 #fh ,claus of ,innsbruck 7in ,my ,last ,duchess71 #ae1 #ai1 #eg ,convent1 at ,florence1 #fd2 ,vallombrosa1 #fe1 #gb ,corelli1 ,arcangelo1 #bc1 #be1 #ei ,correggio1 #ab1 #dj1 #dd1 #fg1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb2 his 8,jerome01 #gj1 #gb2 8,leda01 #ga1 #gb 8,crucifixion01 ,guido's1 #cg1 #ga ,dante1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #fj1 #fa 8,david01 ,domenichino's1 #ab ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo1 #ab1 #dj1 #dd1 #fg1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc2 8,mona ,lisa01 #ga ,decameron1 ,the1 #cc1 #fj1 #fa ,dello di ,niccolo ,delli1 #dj1 #fh ,de ,vulgario ,eloquio1 #cb ,divine ,comedy1 ,the1 #cb ,dolci1 ,carlo1 #fi ,domenichino1 #ab ,dore1 ,gustave1 #de ,dramatic ,monologue1 ,use of1 #di ,dulwich ,gallery1 #aj1 #aa ,duomo1 ,the1 at ,arezzo1 #fe2 at ,asolo1 #fb2 at ,florence1 #cf1 #fc2 at ,padua1 #fb2 at ,siena1 #ff ,dvorak1 ,antonin1 #be 8,eager ,duke1 ,the01 7in ,in a ,gondola71 #fg ,eastlake1 ,sir ,charles1 #ac ,eglamor 7in ,sordello71 #bi1 #cj1 #fj ,elegy on ,newstead ,abbey1 ,byron's1 #ch ,englishman in ,italy1 ,the1 #bd1 #eh ,epistle of ,karshish1 ,an1 #ad ,face1 ,a1 #de1 #di1 #ga ,fauveau1 ,mme4 de1 #aa ,fenice ,theatre1 ,venice1 #fb ,ferdinand1 ,statue of ,duke1 #ae1 #bj1 #eg ,ferishtah's ,fancies1 #ad ,ferri1 ,ciro1 #de1 #ga ,fifine at the ,fair1 #de1 #dh1 #ff1 #gb ,filippo ,baldinucci1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #ff1 #gc ,fisher1 ,mr41 #aa ,flight of the ,duchess1 ,the1 #i ,fountain of the ,tritons1 #ae1 #ba1 #eg ,fra ,angelico1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb ,fra ,lippo ,lippi1 #ad1 #ae1 #cf1 #db1 #dd1 #de1 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ec1 #fd1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj ,francis ,furini1 ,parleyings with1 #de1 #df1 #ec1 #ff1 #gc ,fungaio1 #gb ,fuseli1 #gc ,gaddi1 ,taddeo1 #ce1 #fi ,galuppi1 ,baldassaro1 #bc1 #bg1 #eh ,geminiani1 ,francesco1 #bc1 #be1 #ei ,ghiberti1 ,lorenzo1 #ae1 #eg ,ghirlandajo1 #db1 #dc1 #fh ,gibson1 ,john1 #aa ,giorgione1 #fg ,giordano1 ,luca1 #de1 #fg1 #ga ,giorno di ,regno1 ,un1 ,verdi's1 #bg ,giottino1 #db ,giotto1 #ce1 #ci1 #db1 #fc1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb ,giovanni da ,bologna 7,john of ,douay71 #ae1 #eg ,goito ,castle1 #bj1 #ch1 #fa ,gold ,hair1 #ad ,grisi1 ,giulia1 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #ei ,guardian ,angel1 ,the1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 #di1 #fc1 #fi ,guarnerius 7,joseph del ,jesu71 #bc1 #be1 #ei ,guercino1 #ab1 #dc1 #fi ,guido of ,siena1 #ff ,handel1 ,george ,frederick1 #be1 #ei ,haworth1 ,miss1 #aa1 #ab1 #bb ,herakles1 #ad ,horne1 ,r4 ,h41 #ac1 #db ,hosmer1 ,harriet1 #aa ,how it ,strikes a ,contemporary1 #bi1 #fi ,in a ,gondola1 #cf1 #fb1 #fg ,inn ,album1 ,the1 #fa ,inside of the ,king's ,college ,chapel 7,wordsworth71 #ch ,in the ,cathedral at ,cologne 7,wordsworth71 #ch ,in ,three ,days1 #dd1 #fi ,italian in ,england1 ,the1 #cf1 #fb ,james ,lee's ,wife1 #dd1 #ga ,jameson1 ,mrs41 #ab1 #db 8,john of the ,black ,bands10 statue of1 #ae1 #eg ,jules 7in ,pippa ,passes71 #ae1 #ah1 #dd1 #ej1 #eg ,keats1 #i ,kenyon1 ,frederick ,g41 #aj1 #cg1 #dc ,kirkup1 ,mr41 #aa1 #db ,kugler1 ,franz1 ,handbook of the ,history of ,art1 #ac ,lady and the ,painter1 ,the1 #bj ,lateran1 ,the1 #ff ,leighton1 ,frederick1 #aa1 #bh1 #cf ,lippi1 ,filippino1 #dj1 #fd1 #fh ,liszt1 ,franz1 #be ,luria1 #ad1 #cf1 #fc ,madonna1 ,raphael's1 #dd1 #ec ,magdalen 7,in a ,gondola71 #fg ,maratta1 ,carlo1 #dd1 #de1 #ga ,margheritone1 #fi ,marino1 #bi1 #fa ,mary ,wollstonescraft and ,fuseli1 #gc ,masaccio1 ,guidi1 #dg1 #fd1 #gj ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #di1 #eh ,memorabilia1 #cb1 #cd ,men and ,women1 #ab ,merry ,tales1 ,sacchetti's1 #cc ,michael ,angelo1 #bg1 #dj1 #dc1 #de1 #dh1 #ec1 #fb1 #fd1 #fe1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc ,michael1 ,raphael's1 #dd1 #gj ,monaco1 ,lorenzo1 #fi1 #gj ,monastery1 ,certosa1 #fe2 of the ,convertites1 #fe1 #ff2 of ,st4 ,anna1 #fe ,my ,last ,duchess1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #di1 #eg1 #fg ,neptune1 7statue in ,my ,last ,duchess71 #ai1 #eg ,nina 7in ,sordello71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #fj ,old ,abbeys 7,wordsworth71 #ch ,old ,pictures in ,florence1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #bb1 #ce1 #cf1 #ci1 #dj1 #db1 #dc1 #de1 #di1 #ej1 #eb1 #eg1 #fj1 #fc1 #fh ,one ,word ,more1 #bi1 #cb1 #cf1 #db1 #de1 #di1 #fj1 #fd1 #gj ,orgagna1 #fi ,orr's1 ,mrs41 ,life of ,browning1 #aj1 #aa1 #da ,pacchia1 #ff1 #gb ,pacchiarotto1 #cf1 #de1 #df1 #ec1 #ff1 #gb ,paganini1 ,niccolo1 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #ei ,page1 ,william1 #aa ,palace1 ,antinori1 #fc2 ,ducal1 ,venice1 #fa2 ,fiano1 #fd2 ,medici1 #fd2 ,pulci1 #fb2 ,riccardi1 #fd2 ,ruspoli1 #fd1 #fe2 ,via ,larga1 #fe ,palestrina1 #bc1 #eh ,pandolf1 ,fra 7in ,my ,last ,duchess71 #fg ,paracelsus1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #db1 #fj ,pasquin's statue1 #ae1 #ba1 #eh ,pauline1 #i1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #da1 #dd1 #ff ,petrarch1 #bi1 #cb1 #fj1 #fa ,pheidippides1 #ad ,pictor ,ignotus1 #db1 #de1 #df1 #di1 #ec1 #fh 8,pieta01 ,canova's1 #ae1 #eg ,pietro d' ,abano1 #ff ,pietro da ,cortona1 #de1 #ga ,pippa ,passes1 #i1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bb1 #cf1 #db1 #dd1 #ej1 #ef1 #fb1 #fg ,pisano1 ,giovanni1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ef1 #fh ,pisano1 ,niccolo1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ef1 #eg1 #fh ,plara 7in ,sordello71 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #ec1 #fj ,pollajola1 ,antonio1 #dj1 #fi ,ponte dell' ,angelo1 ,venice1 #ff ,powers1 ,hiram1 #aa1 #bh ,primaticcio1 #gc 8,prim ,saint0 7in ,in a ,gondola71 #fg ,prince ,hohenstiel-,schwangau1 #gb 8,psiche-fanciulla01 ,canova's1 #ae1 #eg ,psyche1 a bust by ,browning1 #ab ,raphael1 #bg1 #dj1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 #dh1 #ec1 #fh1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb1 #gc ,red ,cotton ,night-,cap ,country1 #be1 #de1 #ei1 #gb ,reni1 ,guido1 #ab1 #dc1 #fe1 #fg1 #fi1 #gj1 #ga ,ring and the ,book1 ,the1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #cc1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #de1 #ec1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei1 #fj1 #fd1 #fe1 #ga ,romanelli1 #df1 #dg ,romano1 ,giulio1 #dd1 #gj ,rossetti1 ,w4 ,m41 #dg ,rossini1 #bc1 #be1 #bg1 #bh1 #eh ,sacchetti1 ,franco1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1 #ec1 #fj ,st4 ,george1 ,vasari's1 #ga ,salvator ,rosa1 #gb ,saul1 #bc ,schidone1 #fg ,ser 7a picture71 #fg ,ser ,giovanni1 #fe ,shelley1 #i1 #cj1 #cb1 #cd1 #dh ,sonnet on ,chillon1 ,byron's1 #ch ,sordello1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #cf1 #cg1 #ch1 #db1 #dd1 #ec1 #ef1 #fj1 #fa1 #ff ,soul's ,tragedy1 ,a1 #ah1 #bi1 #fj ,statue and the ,bust1 ,the1 #af1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #cf1 #ch1 #eb1 #eg1 #fc ,stefano1 #dj1 #fh ,stiatta 7in ,a ,soul's ,tragedy71 #bi1 #fj ,story1 ,w4 ,w41 #aa1 #ab1 #bh ,stradivarius1 ,antonius1 #bc1 #be1 #ei ,strafford1 #bi ,tasso1 ,torquato1 #bi ,technical ,art ,terms1 ,browning's use of1 #ba1 #bf ,time's ,revenges1 #cb1 #fj ,titian1 #dj1 #dd1 #fg1 #gb1 #gc2 8,annunciation10 #fg2 8,venus10 #dd1 #fi ,toccata of ,galuppi's1 ,a1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cf1 #di1 #eh1 #fc ,tommaseo1 ,niccolo1 #bi1 #cd1 #fa ,tordinona1 #fe ,towers of ,florence1 #fc ,trovatore1 ,il1 ,verdi's1 #bf1 #eh ,two ,poets of ,croisic1 ,the1 #ad ,up at a ,villa1 #cb1 #fj ,vallombrosa ,convent1 #fe1 #gb ,vasari1 ,giorgio1 #ac1 #db1 #dd1 #gj ,vatican1 ,the1 #cf1 #fd1 #fe1 #gj2 ,sistine ,chapel1 #fe ,verdi1 ,giuseppe1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #eh ,vita ,nuova1 ,la1 #cb ,wagner1 ,richard1 #be ,waring1 #dd1 #fh ,wilde1 ,mr41 #aa ,wordsworth1 #i1 #ch1 #dh ,youth and ,art1 #be1 #ei ,,footnotes3 #afc ,mrs4 ,sutherland ,orr's ,life of ,browning1 revised by ,frederick ,g4 ,kenyon4 #afd ,mrs4 ,orr3 op4 cit4 #afe ,for the sources and nature of this interest1 see below1 ,chapter ,,ii and p4 #ej4 #aff ,bavarian by birth1 ,abt ,vogler was ordained a priest at ,rome1 and played in that city for years4 ,his significance in musical history seems associated with ,italy rather than ,bavaria4 #afg ,see ,an ,epistle of ,karshish2 ,ferishtah's ,fancies4 #afh ,see ,pheidippides2 ,aristophanes' ,apology2 ,herakles2 ,agamemnon4 #afi ,see ,gold ,hair1 ,a ,story of ,pornic2 ,the ,two ,poets of ,croisic4 #agj ,see the next page4 #aga ,see below1 pp4 #dd1 #df4 #agb ,see above1 p4 #ab4 #agc ,see ,ring and the ,book1 ,i4 #agd ,line #chb4 #age ,letter by ,mrs4 ,browning1 ,december1 #ahdg4 #agf ,see above1 p4 #aj4 #agg ,op4 cit4 #agh ,august1 #ahdh4 #agi ,see ,chapter ,,iv1 p4 #cj and passim4 #ahj ,see above1 p4 #ab4 ,,bulletin ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,humanistic ,,studies ,vol4 ,i ,january #a1 #aiae ,no4 #d ,,the ,,semantics ,,of -,,mentum1 -,,bulum1 ,,and -,,culum ,,by ,,edmund ,d4 ,,cressman1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,assistant ,professor of ,latin in the ,university of ,kansas ,,lawrence1 ,,january1 #aiae ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,university ,,preface ,this treatise is printed in substantially the same form in which it was presented to the faculty of ,yale ,university as a doctor's thesis4 ,the subject was suggested by ,professor ,e4 ,p4 ,morris1 and the study was carried on under his direction4 ,to him1 and to ,professor ,hanns ,oertel1 who made helpful suggestions1 the author is under obligation not only for the method employed but also for the general theory underlying the whole study4 ,the writer also wishes to thank ,professor ,s4 ,l4 ,whitcomb1 the editor of this series1 for valuable help in preparing the work for publication4 ,e4 ,d4 ,c4 ,lawrence1 ,kansas1 ,jan4 #a1 #aiae4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,introductory #g ,,chapter ,,ii ,influence of ,stem-,meaning #aj ,i4 -,mentum4 ,a4 ,concrete -mentum ,words on ,verb ,stems4 #a4 ,nouns denoting result of action1 with general application #aj #b4 ,nouns denoting result of action1 with restricted application #aa #c4 ,nouns denoting instrument1 with general application #ab #d4 ,nouns denoting instrument1 with both general and figurative application #ac #e4 ,nouns denoting instrument1 with specialized application #ad #f4 ,nouns denoting instrument1 with both specialized and figurative application #ae #g4 ,nouns not classified #af ,b4 ,concrete -mentum ,words on ,noun and ,adjective ,stems #ag ,c4 ,abstract -mentum ,words on ,verb ,stems4 #a4 ,nouns denoting result of action #ah #b4 ,nouns denoting instrument #bj #c4 ,nouns denoting action #bb ,d4 ,abstract -mentum ,words on ,noun ,stems #bc ,,ii4 -,bulum4 #a4 ,nouns denoting instrument #bd #b4 ,nouns denoting place #be #c4 ,nouns denoting person #bf ,,iii4 -,culum4 ,a4 ,concrete -culum ,words4 #a4 ,nouns denoting instrument #bg #b4 ,nouns denoting place #bi #c4 ,nouns denoting object of action #cj ,b4 ,abstract -culum ,words1 ,all ,denoting ,action #cj ,,chapter ,,iii ,influence of ,context #cb ,,chapter ,,iv ,overlapping of ,suffixes #dc ,a4 ,parallels of -mentum and ,accessory ,suffixes #dd ,b4 ,parallels of -bulum and ,accessory ,suffixes #di ,c4 ,parallels of -culum and ,accessory ,suffixes #ej ,,chapter ,v ,suffixes and the ,theory of ,adaptation #eb ,index of ,words #ee ,the ,semantics of -mentum1 -bulum1 and -culum ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,the primary object of this study will be to show1 first1 the range of semantic variability discernible in a set of noun-formative suffixes and the reason for it2 and second1 by a comparison of these suffixes with other suffixes used on the same stem1 to illustrate the comparatively fluid semantic condition of formative suffixes in general4 ,the semantic value will be determined by an examination of the meaning of the whole noun and its relation to the surrounding context4 ,the suffixes chosen for investigation were -mentum1 -bulum1 and -culum4 ,they form neuters and are joined mainly to verb stems4 ,in all grammars they are grouped together as forming nouns signifying the instrument or means of action1 sometimes result of action1 sometimes place1 rarely the action itself4 ,such general statements are true and perhaps adequate for the purpose of stating a brief grammatical rule2 but it will be seen from the following pages that these suffixes are capable of much greater variations4 ,the material for investigation was collected from the literature extending to the ,augustan period1 and consisted of approximately four thousand examples1 many of which were of course duplicates1 so that comparatively only a small percentage of them were really valuable4 ,in order that the material might not seem too slight for drawing conclusions as to later periods1 useful examples were also gathered from the literature of the ,empire1 by means of the lexicons and indexes2 but the evidence contributed by the latter was in large part only cumulative1 not revealing any other influences upon meaning than those found in the earlier period4 ,in ,chapter ,,iv the difference in frequency of use of nouns in different periods will be discussed in detail4 ,inscriptions were not taken as sources of material on account of the isolated positions in which words usually occur4 ,such fragmentary evidence would not contribute much where the meaning of a word1 which depends so much on its immediate context1 is to be examined4 ,for purposes of clearness1 it will be well to explain here in just what sense the term 8meaning0 will be used4 ,linguistic history shows that 8words are constantly gaining in precision4 ,through the associations set up in the process of expression1 the meaning of a word is being constantly deepened and enriched4 ,the connotation is1 in general1 increasing and the denotation1 that is1 the range of application1 is narrowing40#aha ,there is of course something fundamental in every word that distinguishes it from other words2 but this does not exhaust the whole meaning of most words4 ,only when used in a sentence1 with other words1 in a context1 does a word acquire its full and precise meaning4 ,by stripping a word of the connotation and denotation which it shows in many contexts1 there is left1 as it were1 a common denominator2 and it is as a result of this logical operation that we assign a meaning to a detached and isolated word4 ,caution must also be exercised in speaking of the 8meaning0 of suffixes4 ,isolated suffixes have a meaning even less than words do4 ,it is incorrect to say that -mentum1 or -bulum1 or -culum means instrument2 the nouns made with them may have this meaning1 but the suffixes are perhaps colorless in themselves4 ,this is true of suffixes used to form other parts of speech as well as nouns2 e4 g41 a suffix forming an adjective signifying material or appurtenance cannot be said to mean 8made of10 8belonging to10 or 8full of10 although its equivalence to such expressions can be shown when in each occurrence of the adjective the relation of the stem of the adjective to the governing noun is taken into consideration4 ,the etymology of the three suffixes will be explained in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the investigation of my material revealed at least two fairly definite influences at work on any single meaning of a word3 7#a7 ,stem-meaning2 7#b7 ,context2 while 7#c7 a very important factor in illustrating the variability and non-stability of the suffixes is seen in comparing them with other suffixes on the same stem1 noting their similarity or difference1 and finding if possible the reason for it4 ,a chapter will be devoted to each one of these main topics4 ,sometimes all three of these factors exert their influence on a word1 more often one or both of the first two make the meaning clear4 ,the first1 or stem-meaning1 regularly gives a general meaning to the word1 while the context gives a special or more precise meaning4 ,as far as possible only one influence will be discussed in each chapter1 but as the determination of the meaning of a word is so complex a process1 a slight overlapping will be unavoidable in some instances4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,influence ,,of ,,stem-,,meaning ,the examination of the words with a view to finding the influence of stem-meaning is not directly concerned with semantic variability3 that will be illustrated in the next chapter4 ,for purposes of classification in this chapter1 only the prevailing meaning of each word is considered4 ,for doubtful etymologies1 ,walde 7,lat4 ,etym4 ,wrterbuch7 is taken as guide4 ,i -,,mentum ,the great majority of the stems with which this suffix is used are verb stems1 but there are a few noun stems and two adjective stems4 ,for convenience1 the whole number may be divided into two large classes3 one consisting of those that denote concrete things1 and the other1 of those that denote abstract things4 ,an absolute division here is impossible and for the present purpose unimportant1 and any criterion must be somewhat arbitrary4 ,i have called everything concrete which has physical form1 and everything else1 including actions1 abstract4 ,many concrete words1 especially those capable of general application1 are often used in a transferred or figurative sense1 and thus have also an abstract meaning4 ,a4 ,,concrete -,,mentum ,,words ,,on ,,verb ,,stems4 #a4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,result ,,of ,,action1 ,,with ,,general ,,application4--,of the concrete words1 there are a few1 like fragmentum1 caementum1 ramentum1 which clearly do not express the instrument of an action1 nor the action itself1 nor the place1 but the result of an action4 ,some1 like fragmentum and stramentum1 are formed on verbs whose action can be directed toward several kinds of materials or objects4 ,this class of nouns then has general application1 and their precise meaning must be obtained from the context4 ,this influence will be pointed out in the next chapter4 ,as far as the verb stem 7frango7 is concerned1 the examples show only that fragmentum means 8a piece broken off0 or 8fragment03 tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis saeptorum1 ,sest4 #gi2 cum puerum fragmentis panis adlexisset1 ,plin4 #i1 #h1 #h2 ut glaebum aut fragmentum lapidis dicimus1 ,n4 ,d4 ,,ii1 #hb2 non modo fragmenta tegularum sed etiam ambusta tigna ad armatos pervenire1 ,liv4 #cd1 #ci1 #aa4 ,in the first two examples1 the fragmenta1 being in the ablative1 are plainly the instrument of the action of the main verb1 but without the dependent genitives we should not know what sort of 8pieces0 or 8fragments0 were used4 ,in the last two examples the meaning of 8particle0 is suggested by 8glaebum0 and 8tigna04 ,the dependent genitives here also give precision4 ,many things may be strewn or scattered1 so stramentum gets from its verb stem 7sterno7 the general meaning of something strewn or scattered3 noctem in stramentis pernoctare1 ,truc4 #bgh2 casae quae stramentis tecta erant1 ,b4 ,g4 #e1 #dc2 fasces stramentorum ac virgultorum incendunt1 ,b4 ,g4 #h1 #ae4 ,ramentum 7rado7 is 8something scraped or rubbed off10 8bits or small pieces30 et ramenta simul ferri furere intus ahenis in scaphiis1 ,lucr4 #f1 #ajdc2 ramenta ligni decocta in vino prosunt1 ,plin4 #bd1 #b1 #b2 patri omne aurum cum ramento reddidi1 ,bacc4 #fhj4 ,delectamentum 7delecto7 might at first sight be taken to be the means by which one is delighted4 ,that such is not necessarily so may be seen from the examples3 qui me pro ridiculo ac delectamento putat1 ,heaut4 #ieb2 inania sunt ista delectamenta puerorum1 captare plausus1 vehi per urbem1 ,pis4 #be1 #fj4 ,in both these examples the source of delight and the delight itself are too close in meaning to warrant the drawing of any distinction4 #b4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,result ,,of ,,action1 ,,with ,,restricted ,,application4--,the preceding four words1 as has been said1 are of general application1 because their verb stems have a general meaning4 ,there are five nouns expressing result of action which have a narrower and more restricted sense than their verb stems would require4 ,caementum 7caedo7 means not everything that is cut off1 but a piece of rough stone3 in eam insulam materiem1 calcem1 caementa1 arma convexit1 ,mil4 #bg1 #gd2 caementum de silice frangatur1 ,vitr4 #h1 #g1 #ad4 ,the influence of caedo here is slight2 only the context shows the meaning of 8stone40 ,sarmentum 7sarpo7 is not everything that is plucked1 but twigs or fagots3 ligna et sarmenta circumdare1 ignemque subicere coeperunt1 ,verr4 ,,ii1 #a1 #bg2 sarmentis virgultisque collectis1 quibus fossas compleant1 ad castra pergunt1 ,b4 ,g4 #c1 #ah2 ne vitis sarmentis silvescat1 ,c4 #ae4 ,in the last example the noun is used of objects not at all necessarily affected by the verb stem sarpere4 ,pavimentum 7pavio7 is a floor1 or pavement 7something beaten down73 ubi structum erit1 pavito fricatoque oleo1 uti pavimentum bonum siet1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ah2 mero tingete pavimentum1 ,hor4 ,c4 #b1 #ad1 #bf4 ,in ,bell4 ,alex4 #a1 it means a roof3 aedificia tecta sunt rudere aut pavimentis4 ,the predominating element in the meaning of the word is that it denotes the result of the action expressed in pavire4 ,sicilimentum 7sicilio7 in the single instance of its occurrence plainly means what is cut with a sickle3 faenum cordum1 sicilamenta de prato1 ea arida condito1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #e4 ,testamentum 7testor7 is not necessarily the means of bearing witness nor of making a will--a particular significance which this verb stem sometimes has1--but is the document itself3 antequam tabulas testamenti aperuit1 ,ad ,her4 ,i1 #bd2 quare sit in lege aut in testamento scriptum1 ,inv4 ,,ii1 #acg2 una fui1 testamentum simul obsignavi1 ,mil4 #ah1 #dh4 ,lutamentum 7lutare7 in the single occurrence we have of it evidently means1 by inference from the passage in which it is found1 a mud wall1 or a piece of work bedaubed with mud3 neque lutamenta scindent se1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #abh4 ,the contribution of stem-meaning1 in this class of -mentum words to the meanings of the words themselves is quite apparent4 ,whatever else they suggest1 the verb stems all suggest the result of the action expressed by them2 and this result of action is expressed by the -mentum word4 #c4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument1 ,,with ,,general ,,application4--,a second1 and the largest class of concrete -mentum words clearly express in a general way the instrument of the action4 ,here1 too1 some of the words keep a general meaning which they get from the verb stem1 while others receive a special meaning4 ,the verb stems themselves admit more or less of a general or special meaning4 ,ammentum 7apo87 is a means of fastening1 a strap1 or thong3 epistola ad ammentum tragulae deligata1 ,b4 ,g4 #e4 #dh2 umor iaculorum ammenta emollierat1 ,liv4 #cg1 #da4 ,both these examples show it to be a strap fastened to a javelin4 ,armamenta 7always plural7 are utensils for almost any purpose4 ,it is difficult to say whether the word is formed on the verb stem armo1 or is an extended form of the noun arma2 the former is entirely possible1 while the equivalence of meaning in the two nouns supports the latter supposition4 ,at any rate the meaning is 8equipment01 8that with which one is armed03 hic tormenta1 armamenta1 arma1 omnis apparatus belli est1 ,liv4 #bf1 #dc2 cum omnibus ,gallicis navibus spes in velis armamentisque consisteret1 ,b4 ,g4 #c1 #ad2 armamenta vinearum1 ,plin4 #ag1 #ba1 #ce4 ,the most frequent use is that seen in the second example1 where it means the rigging of a ship1 in this instance1 however1 excluding the sails4 ,medicamentum 7medicor7 is a remedy1 a means of healing or curing3 ,si eo medicamento sanus factus erit1 ,off4 #c1 #bd2 multis medicamentis propter dolorem artuum delibutus1 ,brut4 #fj4 ,operimentum 7operio7 is a cover1 or means of covering3 nuces gemino protectae operimento1 ,plin4 #ae1 #bb1 #bd2 detracto oculorum operimento1 ,plin1 #h1 #db1 #fd4 ,that the meaning 8covering0 is general1 may be seen by comparing the second example with ,n4 ,d4 #b1 #eb1 #adg3 palpebrae1 quae sunt tegumenta oculorum4 ,in the latter instance the 8covering0 is the eyebrow1 in the former1 some external object1 probably wearing apparel4 ,suffimentum 7suffio7 is a means of fumigating3 in iis sine illius suffimentis expiati sumus1 ,leg4 #a1 #ad1 #dj2 laurus sit suffimentum caedis hostium et purgatio1 ,plin4 #ae1 #cj1 #dj4 ,tegumentum1 like operimentum1 gets its fundamental meaning of 8covering0 from its verb stem1 7tego71 but is capable of being applied to many objects1 as will be shown in ,chapter ,,iii3 tegumenta corporum1 vel texta1 vel suta1 ,n4 ,d4 #b1 #fj2 scutis tegimenta detrudere non tempus erat1 ,b4 ,g4 #b1 #ba4 #d4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument1 ,,with ,,both ,,general ,,and ,,figurative ,,application4--,the generalized concrete instruments so far illustrated have rarely any abstract meaning4 ,the remainder of them are used both concretely and figuratively4 ,alimentum 7alo7 signifies a means of support or nourishment3 nec desiderabat alimenta corporis1 ,timaeus1 #f2 addidit alimenta rumoribus1 ,liv4 #ce1 #bc4 ,instrumentum 7instruo7 is a very general word meaning implement1 furniture1 supplies3 arma1 tela1 equos et cetera instrumenta militiae parare1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #be1 #b2 spolia1 ornamenta1 monumenta in instrumento et supellectile ,verris nominabuntur1 ,verr4 #b1 #d1 #dd2 ut instrumentum oratoris exponeret1 ,de ,or4 ,,ii1 #adf4 ,integumentum 7intego7 is so similar to tegumentum that it hardly needs separate treatment2 however1 it is used more frequently with an abstract meaning3 istaec ego mihi semper habui aetati integumentum meae1 ,trin4 #cac2 lanx cum integumentis1 quae ,iovi adposita fuit1 ,liv4 #dj1 #ei1 #g4 ,monumentum 7moneo7 is anything that serves as a reminder3 statuam quae sit factis monumentum suis1 ,curc4 #dda2 tum monumenta rerum gestarum oratori nota esse debere1 ,de ,or4 ,i1 #bja4 ,ornamentum 7orno7 is anything for adorning or equipping3 hominem cum ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me1 ,pseud4 #gfe2 audieram quae de orationis ipsius ornamentis traderentur1 ,de ,or4 ,,ii1 #abb2 vidi hunc ipsum ,q4 ,hortensium ornamentum rei publicae paene interfici1 ,milo1 #cg4 ,saepimentum 7saepio7 is any means of inclosure or defense3 haec omnia quasi saepimento aliquo animus ratione vallabit1 ,leg4 ,i1 #fb2 tertium militare saepimentum est fossa et terreus agger1 ,varr4 ,r4 ,r4 #a1 #adb4 ,stabilimentum 7stabilio7 is a means of support or strength3 haec sunt ventri stabilimenta3 pane et assa bubula1 ,curc4 #cfg2 ,sicilia et ,sardinia stabilimenta bellorum1 ,val4 ,max4 #g1 #f1 #a4 #e4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument1 ,,with ,,specialized ,,application4--,this concludes the list of generalized concrete instruments4 ,those with specialized meanings are as follows2 sometimes the verb stem is specialized1 but more often not4 ,armentum 7aro7 always means cattle1 originally those used for plowing3 et variae crescunt pecudes1 armenta feraeque1 ,lucr4 #e1 #bbh2 armentum aegrotat in agris1 ,hor4 ,ep4 ,i1 #h1 #f4 ,this word can mean only the secondary instrument for plowing1 viz41 cattle1 because there is another word 7aratrum7 for the plow itself4 ,calceamentum 7calceo7 always means a shoe1 an 8instrument0 for covering the feet3 mihi amictui est ,scythicum tegimen1 calceamentum solorum callum1 ,t4 #e1 #ij4 ,frumentum 7fruor7 always means grain1 a 8means of enjoyment03 ut hortum fodiat atque ut frumentum metat1 ,poen4 #ajbj2 non modo frumenta in agris mature non erant1 ,b4 ,g4 ,i1 #af1 #b4 ,lomentum 7lavo7 is a 8means0 of washing1 of a particular kind1 however1 viz41 a cosmetic3 lomento rugas condere temptas1 ,mart4 #c1 #db1 #a4 ,in ,ciceronian ,latin it occurs only once1 and then figuratively3 persuasum ei censuram lomentum aut nitrum esse1 ,fam4 ,,viii1 #ad1 #d4 ,in iugumentum 7iugo7 it is a little difficult to see the influence of the stem4 ,the two occurrences of it in ,cato are the only ones in literature1 and from the context it would seem to mean 8threshold0 or some other part of the front of the house3 limina1 postes iugumenta1 asseres1 fulmentas faber faciat oportet1 ,r4 ,r4 #ad1 #a2 iugumenta et antepagmenta quae opus erunt indito1 ,r4 ,r4 #ad1 #e4 ,iumentum 7iungo7 always means an animal for drawing or carrying1 a beast of burden3 iumento nihil opus est1 ,att4 ,,xii1 #cb2 omnia sarcinaria iumenta interfici iubet1 ,b4 ,c4 #a1 #ha4 ,supplementum 7suppleo7 before the ,augustan period means only that with which an army is 8filled up0 or recruited3 partem copiarum ex provincia supplementumque quod ex ,italia adduxerat1 convenire iubet1 ,b4 ,g4 #g1 #g1 #e2 ceterum supplementum etiam laetus decreverat1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #hd1 #c4 ,later it has its literal meaning3 ex geminis singula capita in supplementum gregis reservantur1 ,col4 #g1 #f1 #g4 ,in vestimentum1 the verb stem vestio has the same influence that 8clothe0 does in our word clothing3 me vides ornatus ut sim vestimentis uvidis1 ,rud4 #egc2 huc est intro latus lectus vestimentis stratus1 ,heaut4 #ijc4 ,libamentum 7libo7 is a libation1 drink offering3 dona magnifica1 quasi libamenta praedarum1 ,rep4 #b1 #dd2 haec ego ad aras libamenta tuli1 ,stat4 ,s4 #c1 #a1 #afc4 #f4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument1 ,,with ,,both ,,specialized ,,and ,,figurative ,,application4--,the specialized concrete nouns so far given are never used figuratively2 there are six additional ones which do sometimes have an abstract meaning4 ,tormentum 7torqueo7 is an instrument of torture1 an instrument for hurling1 or torture itself3 rotam id est genus quoddam tormenti apud ,graecas1 ,t4 #e1 #bd2 castella constituit ibique tormenta collocavit1 ,b4 ,g4 #h1 #c2 huic licebit tum dicere se beatum in summo cruciatu atque tormentis1 ,t4 #e1 #gc4 ,condimentum 7condio7 is anything used for spicing or seasoning3 cocos equidem nimio demiror1 qui utuntur condimentis1 ,cas4 #bai3 animus aequus optumumst aerumnae condimentum1 ,rud4 #djb4 ,fundamentum 7fundo7 is that with which anything is founded1 a foundation3 quin cum fundamento aedes perierint1 ,most4 #adh2 fundamenta rei publicae ieci1 ,fam4 ,,xii1 #be1 #b4 ,impedimentum 7impedio7 is a means of hindrance1 and in the plural1 baggage3 hinc vos amolimini1 nam mi impedimenta estis1 ,and4 #gjg2 ,demosthenes impedimenta naturae diligentia industriaque superavit1 ,de ,or4 ,i4 #fa1 #bfj2 ad impedimenta et carros se contulerunt1 ,b4 ,g4 #a1 #bf4 ,nutrimentum 7nutrio7 like alimentum1 is a means of nourishment or support1 but it is not found meaning food for the body3 educata huius generis nutrimentis eloquentia1 ,orat4 #db2 arida circum igni nutrimenta dedit1 ,aen4 #a1 #agf4 ,pigmentum 7pingo7 is paint1 or material for coloring3 quem ,appella et ,zeuxis duo pingent pigmentis ulmeis1 ,epid4 #fbf2 sententiae tam verae1 tam sine pigmentis fucoque puerili1 ,de ,or4 ,,ii1 #ahh4 #g4 ,,nouns ,,not ,,classified4--,this completes the list of concrete -mentum words on verb stems with the exception of three whose stems are unusual or uncertain and contribute little if any influence to the meaning of the word4 ,they do not mean instrument1 nor result of action4 ,the fewness of examples also makes it difficult to say just what the words mean4 ,however1 they probably have the following signification4 ,antepagmentum 7from pango1 with prefix ante-7 from the context seems to be some sort of ornament for the exterior of a house3 iugumenta et antepagmenta quae opus erunt indito1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ad1 #e2 fulloniam ,i1 antepagmenta1 vasa torcula ,,ii faber faciat oportet1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ad1 #b2 ostiorum et eorum antepagmentorum in aedibus hae sunt rationes1 ,vitr4 #d1 #f4 ,coagmenta 7cogo7 undoubtedly means a 8joint0 of some kind1 as may be seen from the context3 viden coagmenta in foribus8 ,most4 #hbi2 ut aptior sit oratio1 ipsa verba compone et quasi coagmenta1 quod ne ,graeci quidem veteres factitaverunt1 ,brut4 #fh4 ,omentum1 whatever its etymology1 means 8fat03 omentum in flamma pingue liquefaciens1 ,catul4 #ij1 #f4 ,each of these -mentum nouns has been illustrated not for the purpose of showing that the verb stem does have influence on the meaning of the noun--that is of course very obvious2 the purpose has rather been to show that the character of the verb stem--e4 g41 whether it admits of general or special application1 or whether it suggests the result of action or requires an instrument--so affects the resulting character of the noun1 as to make it1 as a rule1 similar to that of the stem4 ,of this second class of nouns 7those that mean instrument7 we may say that among other influences of the verb stems1 one is that they have such a meaning as requires an instrument for the accomplishment of their action4 ,this does not imply that those in the first class do not also require an instrument4 ,while these nouns do mean instrument or result of action1 when viewed in regard to their verb stems1 we can not say that such meaning is always felt in every occurrence of the noun4 ,in certain contexts1 even most contexts1 they lose it entirely and are used as perfect equivalents of nouns that have no such meaning4 ,of the two classes of concrete -mentum words on verb stems1 therefore1 the smaller class has the tendency to mean result of action1 the larger class1 instrument of action4 ,whether the instrument is literal or figurative 7as it is in the case of a few of these nouns71 must be ascertained from the context4 ,b4 ,,concrete -,,mentum ,,words ,,on ,,noun ,,and ,,adjective ,,stems ,the concrete -mentum nouns on noun and adjective stems must1 on account of their fewness1 clearly be analogical formations4 ,they cannot express the instrument or result of an action1 but are only an extended form of the noun with a specialized meaning4 ,ferramenta are tools made of iron 7ferrum73 de ferramentorum varietate ,cato scribit permulta1 ut falces1 palas1 rastros1 ,varro1 ,r4 ,r4 #a1 #bb1 #e4 ,nidamentum 7used only once1 and allegorically7 is material for a nest 7nidus73 in nervum ille hodie nidamenta congeret1 ,rud4 #hhi4 ,pulpamentum 7and its shorter form pulmentum7 are tidbits made from pulpa 7meat73 voltisne olivas1 aut pulpamentum1 aut capparim8 ,curc4 #ij2 mihi est cubile terra1 pulpamentum fames1 ,t4 #e1 #ij2 primus ad cibum vocatur1 primo pulmentum datur1 ,m4 ,g4 #cdi2 num ego pulmento utor magis unctiusculo8 ,pseud4 #bbj4 ,salsamenta are pickled fish 7salsus7 although once in ,cicero the word in the singular means brine3 salsamenta haec1 ,stephanio1 fac macerentur1 ,adel4 #chj2 de vino aut salsamento putes loqui quae evanescunt vetustate1 ,div4 ,,ii1 #aag4 ,sincipitamentum 7,ritschl and ,brix7 is a comic word1 with the same meaning as its noun stem1 sinciput3 iube opsonarier pernonidam aut sincipitamenta porcina1 ,men4 #baa2 comedam1 inquit1 flebile nati sinciput elixi1 ,juv4 #ac1 #he4 ,atramentum is a liquid possessing the quality expressed by the adjective stem 7ater72 this context shows it to mean ink3 calamo et atramento res agitur1 ,q4 fr4 ,,ii1 #ad1 #a4 ,in one example it means shoe blacking3 pater accusatus a ,m4 ,antonio sutorio atramento absolutus putatur1 ,fam4 ,,ix1 #ba1 #c4 ,in one example also1 it is used in speaking of fish3 atramenti effusione sepiae se tutant1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #abg4 ,scitamenta 7scitus7 are tidbits1 dainties both literal and figurative3 iube aliquid scitamentorum de foro opsonarier1 ,men4 #bji2 ceteraque huiusmodi scitamenta1 ,gell4 #ah1 #h1 #a4 ,perhaps the variety of meaning of these analogical formations indicates that no single precise meaning had become attached to -mentum4 ,c4 ,,abstract -,,mentum ,,words ,,on ,,verb ,,stems ,the majority of abstract -mentum words also fall into the two large classes of result of action and instrument1 but there is a small list of nouns which plainly express the action itself4 ,there are only two words on noun stems4 #a4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,result ,,of ,,action4--,additamentum 7addo7 is an increase1 or accession3 intercessit ,ligus iste nescio qui1 additamentum amicorum meorum1 ,sest4 #ca2 sapientia erit ultimum vitae instrumentum et1 ut ita dicam1 additamentum1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #ag4 ,adiumentum 7adiuvo7 means aid1 assistance3 ,romae vos esse tuto posse per ,dolabellam eamque rem posse nobis adiumento esse1 ,fam4 ,,xiv1 #ah1 #a2 nulla res est quae plura adiumenta doctrinae desideret1 ,de ,or4 ,,iii1 #hd4 ,cruciamentum 7crucio7 is not the instrument of torture1 but torture itself1 or rather the feeling caused by torturing3 vidi ego multa saepe picta quae ,acherunti fierent cruciamenta1 ,capt4 #iih2 carnificum cruciamenta et morborum tormenta1 ,phil4 ,,xi4 #d1 #h4 ,delenimentum 7delenio7 is an allurement or blandishment2 illam furiam omnibus delenimentis animum suum avertisse atque alienasse1 ,liv4 #cj1 #ac2 paulatim discursum ad delenimenta vitiorum1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ba2 simul comparant delenimenta et differunt vos in adventum ,cn4 ,pompei1 ,sall4 ,macer1 #ba4 ,dehonestamentum#ahb 7dehonesto7 is a general word for any object of dishonor or disgrace3 ,fufidius1 ancilla turpis1 bonorum omnium dehonestamentum1 ,sall4 ,lep4 #bb2 auribus decisis vivere iubet1 ostentui clementiae suae1 et in nos dehonestamento1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ab4 ,deliramenta 7deliro7 means nonsense1 the result of 8going out of the furrow03 audin tu ut deliramenta loquitur8 ,men4 #ibj2 matrimonia inter deos credi puerilium prope deliramentorum est1 ,plin4 #b1 #g1 #e4 ,detrimentum 7detero7 nowhere has its literal meaning of 8loss by rubbing01 but only loss in general1 more often disadvantage or misfortune3 tantis detrimentis acceptis ,octavius sese ad ,pompeium recepit1 ,b4 ,c4 #c1 #i1 #h2 futurum ut detrimentum in bonum verteret1 ,b4 ,c4 #c1 #gc1 #f2 ne quid res publica detrimenti accipiat1 ,cat4 #a1 #b4 7et saepe74 ,for the etymology of the interesting word elementum1 see ,walde4 ,emolumentum 7emolior7 means the result of effort1 gain1 reward3 suscepta videntur a viris fortibus sine emolumento ac praemio1 ,de ,or4 ,,ii1 #cdf4 ,inanimentum 7inanio7 occurs only once1 but in its context clearly means 8emptiness03 inanimentis explementum quaerito1 ,stich4 #agd4 ,intertrimentum 7intertero7 unlike detrimentum1 does have the literal meaning of 8loss by rubbing0 as well as loss in general3 in auro vero1 in quo nihil intertrimenti est1 quae malignitas est8 ,liv4 #cd1 #g2 sine magno intertrimento non potest haberi1 quidvis dare cupis1 ,heaut4 #ddh4 ,laxamentum 7laxo7 means relaxation1 alleviation1 any unit of time or space3 ego nactus in navigatione nostra pusillum laxamenti1 ,fam4 ,,xii1 #af1 #c2 alii removentes parietes aedis efficiunt amplum laxamentum cellae1 ,vitr4 #d1 #g2 eo laxamento cogitationibus dato1 quievit in praesentia seditio1 ,liv4 #g1 #ch4 ,momentum 7moveo7 means weight1 impulse1 importance3 astra forma ipsa figuraque sua momenta sustentat1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #aag2 animus paulo momento huc vel illuc impellitur1 ,and4 #bff2 sentiebat nullius momenti apud exercitum futurum1 ,nep4 ,,vii1 #h1 #d4 ,temperamentum 7tempero7 means moderation1 moderate condition3 senatus ,caesar orationem habuit meditato temperamento1 ,tac4 ,a4 ,,iii1 #ab2 egregium principatus temperamentum1 si demptis utriusque vitiis solae virtutes miscerentur1 ,tac4 ,h4 #b1 #e4 ,termentum 7tero7 is used once1 in ,plautus1 where it is equivalent to detrimentum3 non pedibus termento fuit praeut ego erum expugnabo meum1 ,bacch4 #ibi4 ,festus says 7p4 #cfc7 termentum pro eo1 quod nunc dicitur detrimentum1 utitur ,plautus in ,bacchidibus4 ,formamentum may be1 and probably is1 only an extended form of the noun stem forma4 ,it is not inconceivable that it is made on the verb stem formo1 but the other supposition is better4 ,in the one occurrence of it in classical ,latin1 the context plainly shows that it means shape1 form3 omnia principiorum formamenta queunt in quovis esse nitore1 ,lucr4 #b1 #hag4 ,arnobius 7#c1 #aji7 uses it of the gods3 formamenta divina4 #b4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument4--,as was the case in the corresponding list of concrete words1 the foregoing words are all formed on verb stems which suggest the result of their action4 ,and again there is a larger class of abstract -mentum words which in a general way express the figurative instrument4 ,the idea of instrument is not always strong1 but when viewed in regard to their verb stem1 all the nouns will be seen to show this meaning in a greater or less degree4 ,allevamentum 7allevo7 is 2 the context shows it to mean a remedy or means of alleviation3 ,sulla coactus est in adversis sine ullo remedio atque allevamento permanere1 ,sulla1 #ff4 ,auctoramentum 7auctoro7 is a means of binding1 or of bringing one under obligation1 a contract1 also the pay or hire3 illius turpissimi auctoramenti gladiatorii sunt verba3 uri1 vinciri1 ferroque necari1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #cg2 est in ipsa merces1 auctoramentum servitutis1 ,off4 #a1 #db4 ,argumentum 7arguo7 is primarily a means of proving1 a proof1 but takes also many other meanings as will be shown in the next chapter3 quid nunc8 vincon argumentis te non esse ,sosiam81 ,am4 #dcc2 quod ipsum argumento mihi fuit diligentiae tuae1 ,fam4 ,x4 #e1 #a4 ,blandimentum 7blandio7 is a means of flattering or alluring3 illum spero immutari potest blandimentis1 oramentis1 ceteris meretriciis1 ,truc4 #cah2 epistolae muliebris blandimentis infectae1 ,tac4 ,h4 #a1 #agd4 ,complementum 7compleo7 is a means of filling up3 apud alios numero servientes inculcata reperias inania quaedam verba1 quasi complementa numerorum1 ,orat4 #fi4 ,documentum 7doceo7 is a very general word1 meaning primarily a means of warning or instructing3 documento1 quantum in bello fortuna posset1 ,b4 ,c4 #c1 #aj1 #f2 ego illis captivis aliis documentum dabo ne44441 ,capt4 #geb2 quarum rerum maxima documenta haec habeo1 ,sall4 ,cat4 #i4 #d4 ,the strong influence of the verb stem is seen in this noun by the subordinate adverbial clauses which follow it1 as in the first two examples given4 ,it is interesting also to note the contrast between documentum and monumentum2 their verb stems are practically synonymous1 but one noun is prevailingly concrete1 while the other is always abstract or figurative4 ,monumentum has an additional shade of meaning1 in that it regularly looks toward the past1 while documentum looks toward the future4 ,the explanation for this is difficult to find2 perhaps it is only the result of usage and association4 ,explementum 7expleo7 is a means of filling3 inanimentis explementum quaerito1 ,stich4 #agd4 78,look for something to fill your empty stomach with4074 ,hostimentum 7hostio7 is a means of making requital1 a recompense3 par pari datum hostimentum est1 opera pro pecunia1 ,as4 #agb4 ,incitamentum 7incito7 is a means of inducing or inciting3 hoc maximum et periculorum et laborum incitamentum est1 ,arch4 #bc2 quae apud concordes vincula caritatis1 incitamenta irarum apud infensos erant1 ,tac4 ,a4 #a1 #ee1 #ae4 ,invitamentum 7invito7 is the means of inducing or attracting3 cum multa haberet invitamenta urbis et fori propter summa studia amicorum1 ,sulla1 #gd4 ,irritamentum 7irrito7 is very similar to the preceding two nouns1 meaning a provocative or incentive3 neque salem neque alia irritamenta gulae quaerebant1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #hi1 #g2 iras militum irritamentis acuebat1 ,liv4 #dj1 #bg4 ,hortamentum 7hortor7 is probably the exhortation itself as well as the means of exhorting3 ea cuncta ,romanis ex tenebris et editioribus locis facilia visu magnoque hortamento erant1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #ih1 #g2 in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt1 ,liv4 #g1 #aa1 #f4 ,oblectamentum is probably the condition of delight as well as the means of delighting3 ut meae senectutis requietem oblectamentumque noscatis1 ,c4 #ae2 cum spinae albae cauliculi inter oblectamenta gulae condiantur1 ,plin4 #ba1 #b1 #ci4 ,levamentum 7levo7 is a means of alleviating1 also the resulting condition3 nos non solum beatae vitae istam esse oblectationem videmus1 sed etiam levamentum miseriarum1 ,f4 #e1 #ec2 ad unicum doloris levamentum1 studia confugio1 ,plin4 ,ep4 #h1 #ai4 ,opprobramentum 7opprobro7 is another example of but clearly means1 like opprobrium1 a disgrace or reproach3 facere damni mavolo quam opprobramentum aut flagitium muliebre exferri domo1 ,merc4 #dbc4 ,praepedimentum 7praepedio7 occurs only once1 and then with a meaning exactly equivalent to impedimentum3 intro abite1 ne hic vos conspicatur leno neu fallaciae praepedimentum obiciatur1 ,poen4 #fjf4 ,turbamentum 7turbo7 occurs twice1 meaning in both cases1 a means of disturbance3 maxima turbamenta rei publicae atque exitia probate1 ,sall4 ,lep4 #be2 inserendo ambiguos de ,galba sermones1 quaeque alia turbamenta vulgi1 ,tac4 ,h4 #a1 #bc4 ,firmamentum 7firmo7 is a means of strengthening1 a support3 transversaria tigna iniciuntur1 quae firmamento esse possint1 ,b4 ,c4 #b1 #ae1 #b4 ,in this instance it is concrete2 more often it is abstract3 eum ordinem firmamentum ceterorum ordinum recte esse dicemus1 ,pomp4 #g1 #ag4 ,libramentum 7libro7 is probably rather the result of the action than the instrument1 at least in the meaning of 8level surface0 which it has in its only occurence in ,ciceronian ,latin3 punctum esse1 quod magnitudinem nullam habet1 extremitatem et quasi libramentum1 in quo nulla omnino crassitudo sit1 ,ac4 ,,ii1 #aaf4 ,in ,livy it means 8weight03 arietem admotum1 libramento plumbi gravatum1 ad terram urgebant1 ,liv4 #db1 #fc4 #c4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,action4--,there remain a few nouns which clearly express the action itself4 ,the reason for this does not lie in the suffix--even in -tio nouns it does not lie in the suffix2 but these nouns1 through usage and association1 came to have this meaning in spite of the fact that the tendency of other nouns with the same suffix was to mean instrument or result of action4 ,molimentum 7molior7 means exertion1 effort3 neque se exercitum sine magno commeatu atque molimento in unum locum contrahere posse1 ,b4 ,g4 #a1 #cd1 #c4 ,experimentum 7experior7 means a trial1 experiment3 probatur experimento1 sitne feracius44441 ,plin4 ,ep4 #aj1 #dc4 ,more often the result is emphasized and it means proof3 hoc maximum est experimentum1 aegritudinem vetustate tolli1 ,t4 #c1 #gd4 ,oramentum 7oro7 is not found in the manuscripts1 but is adopted by ,ritschl and ,leo1 and as we may judge from its context1 means a begging1 or praying3 spero illum immutari potest blandimentis1 oramentis1 ceteris meretriciis1 ,truc4 #cag4 ,the ,ambrosian manuscript has hortamentis1 the others ornamentis1 but neither of these readings is suitable4 ,sternumentum 7sternuo7 is a sneezing3 pedis offensio nobis et sternumenta erunt observanda1 ,div4 #b1 #hd4 ,but in ,pliny and ,celsus it sometimes also means a provocative of sneezing1 sneezing powder3 fit ex callitriche sternumentum1 ,plin4 #be1 #hf2 radix ranunculi sicca concisa sternumentum est1 ,plin4 #ac1 #aji4 ,tinnimentum 7tinnio7 occurs only once1 but from the context it plainly means a tinkling3 illud quidem edepol tinnimentumst auribus1 ,rud4 #hjf4 ,d4 ,,abstract -,,mentum ,,words ,,on ,,noun ,,stems ,of the two noun stem words in this class of abstract words1 cognomentum is properly not a -mentum word4 ,according to ,lindsay 7p4 #cce7 the -to suffix is merely added to the -men suffix4 ,an example is3 meum cognomentum commemorat1 ,m4 ,g4 #ajch4 ,lineamentum 7linea7 is seen from the following parallel examples to have the same meaning as its noun stem3 in geometria lineamenta1 formae1 intervalla1 magnitudines sunt1 ,de ,or4 ,i1 #ahg2 ignis rectis lineis in caelestem locum subvolat1 ,t4 #a1 #dj2 lineamentum esse longitudinem latitudine carentem1 ,ac4 ,,ii1 #aaf2 eam ,m4 ,varro ita definit3 linea est1 inquit1 longitudo quaedam sine latidudine et altitudine1 ,gell4 #a1 #bj1 #g4 ,this detailed view of the -mentum words gives occasion for making the following comment3 the tendency of these nouns is to mean the instrument of an action1 often the result of an action1 rarely action itself4 ,the verb stems are such as require an instrument for their action or suggest its result4 ,the instrument is sometimes literal1 sometimes figurative1 and whether it is the one or the other is determined by the context4 ,given a verb stem which both suggests the result of action and requires an instrument1 it is difficult to explain why a -mentum noun formed on it should mean only instrument1 and not result of action1 or vice versa4 ,,ii -,,bulum ,the list of -bulum words is small1 and they are nearly all concrete4 ,only two are abstract4 ,as these two denote only figurative instruments1 the treatment here will take no account of the division into concrete and abstract4 ,there are two noun stem words4 ,three distinct classes of these words may be made1 when viewed in relation to their verb stems3 7#a7 ,those denoting instrument2 7#b7 ,those denoting place2 7#c7 ,those denoting person4 ,the second meaning is quite as common as the first1 the third very rare 7found only in two nouns74 #a4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument4--,infundibulum 7infundo7 is an instrument for pouring from one vessel to another1 a funnel3 illa quae reflexa et resupina1 more infundibuli per medullam transmittit quidquid aquarum superfluit1 ,col4 #c1 #ah2 in qua machina impedens infundibulum subministrat molis frumentum1 ,vitr4 #aj1 #aj4 ,patibulum 7pateo7 is plainly an instrument1 but having the shape expressed by the verb stem1 a fork-shaped yoke3 dispessis manibus patibulum quom habebis1 ,m4 ,g4 #cfj2 caedes1 patibula1 ignes1 cruces festinabant1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ad1 #cc4 ,rutabulum 7ruo7 is an instrument for raking or stirring up3 iubebis rutabulo ligneo agitari quod decoxeris1 ,col4 #ab1 #bj4 ,it occurs twice in ,cato1 in a list of other tools for use around a fire-place4 ,tintinnabulum 7tinnio7 is an instrument for making a ringing noise1 a bell3 lanios inde accersam duo cum tintinnabulis1 ,pseud4 #ccb2 tintinnabula quae vento agitata longe sonitus referant1 ,plin4 #cf1 #ac1 #ai4 ,pabulum 7pasco7 is that with which anything is fed1 usually with reference to the feed of cattle3 bubus pabulum parare oportet1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ed1 #a4 ,venabulum 7venor7 is a hunting spear1 an instrument for hunting3 tantam bestiam percussisset venabulo1 ,verr4 #e1 #g4 ,exorabulum1 which occurs only twice1 is perhaps rather the begging 7exoro7 itself1 which is1 in turn1 a means of obtaining something3 quod modis pereat1 quotque exoretur exorabulis1 ,truc4 #bg2 exorabula incidantium1 decipula adversantium artificia dicentium perdidicit1 ,app4 ,flor4 n4 #ah4 ,the first example is interesting as the noun is used with a form of the same verb as its verb stem4 ,vocabulum 7voco7 is the instrument for calling or naming1 a name3 si res suum nomen et proprium vocabulum non habet1 ,de ,or4 ,,iii1 #aei2 ,aristotelis orationis duas partes esse dixit1 vocabula et verba1 ut homo et equus1 ut legit et currit1 ,varr4 ,l4 ,l4 #h4 ,two interesting analogical formations with the suffix -bulum are nucifrangibula and dentifrangibula in ,plautus3 ne nucifrangibula excussit ex malis meis1 ,bacc4 #eih2 ita dentifrangibula haec meis manibus gestiunt1 ,bacc4 #eif4 #b4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,place4--,conciliabulum 7concilio7 is a place of assembly#ahc1 a public place1 but also the assembly itself3 supplicationem in biduum per omnia fora conciliabulaque edixerunt1 ,liv4 #dj1 #cg2 ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset damni conciliabulum1 ,trin4 #cad2 per conciliabula et coetus seditiosa disserebant1 ,tac4 ,a4 #c1 #dj4 ,latibulum 7lateo7 is a hiding place3 cum etiam ferae latibulis se tegant1 ,rab4 ,post4 #db4 ,sessibulum is a place for sitting1 a chair3 quae tibi olant stabulumque stratumque1 sellam et sessibulum merum1 ,poen4 #bfh4 ,stabulum 7sto7 is in general a place for standing2 its precise meanings as acquired from the context will be illustrated in the next chapter3 neutrubi habeam stabile stabulum1 siquid divorti fuat1 ,aul4 #bcc4 ,vestibulum#ahd1 is probably originally the place for putting on and taking off garments 7vestio71 then entrance1 or space in front of a house#ahe3 viden vestibulum ante aedes hoc8 ,most4 #hai2 si te armati non modo limine tectoque aedium tuarum1 sed primo aditu vestibuloque prohibuerint1 ,caec4 #ab1 #ce4 ,acetabulum and turibulum are both formed on noun stems1 and are both receptacles for holding the material denoted by the noun stem4 ,but all the examples of acetabulum show the noun extended to mean any kind of vessel1 or a measure3 melanthi acetabulum conterito in vini veteris hemina1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ajb2 turibulis ante ianuas positis atque accenso ture1 ,liv4 #bi1 #ad1 #ac4 ,desidiabulum occurs only once1 and from the context clearly means the place of action of its stem1 which is a verbal noun 7desidia73 ut celem tua flagitia aut damna aut desidiabula1 ,bacc4 #cgf4 ,cunabula and incunabula are formed on the same noun stem cunae1 the latter with the preposition in prefixed4 ,both the nouns and the stem all mean the same thing 7cradle1 or origin71 but incunabula has the additional meaning of 8swaddling clothes03 opus est pulvinis1 cunis1 incunabulis1 ,truc4 #ije2 qui cum esset in cunabulis1 ,div4 ,f4 #gi2 de oratoris quasi incunabulis dicere1 ,orat4 #db2 si puer in cunis occidit1 ne quaerendum quidem1 ,t4 #a1 #ic2 qui non in cunabulis sed in campis sunt consules facti1 ,agr4 #b1 #ajj4 #c4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,person4--,the two -bulum words that denote persons are mendicabulum 7mendicor7 and prostibulum 7prostare74 ,their bad meaning is due in large part to the stem2 but undoubtedly the contempt underlying the application to a person of a neuter word denoting a thing is also responsible for the formation of these words as neuters and with the suffix -bulum4 ,examples of such terms of reproach are seen also in monstrum hominis1 and in the ,german das ,mensch4 ,mendicabulum is found only twice3 istos reges ceteros memorare nolo1 hominum mendicabula1 ,aul4 #gjc2 cum crotalis et cymbalis circumforaneum mendicabulum producor ad viam1 ,app4 ,met4 #i4 ,of prostibulum also there are only two examples3 bellum et pudicum vero prostibulum popli1 ,aul4 #bhe2 nam meretricem adstare in via solam prostibuli sanest1 ,cist4 #cca4 ,the influence of stem meaning on the -bulum words may then be said to be the same as in the case of the -mentum words1 only here there is a class of verb stems that suggest the place of action1 and none that suggest the result of action4 ,,iii -,,culum ,a4 ,,concrete -,,culum ,,words ,the great majority of -culum words#ahf also are concrete4 ,they may be grouped into three classes as far as their verb stems are concerned3 7#a7 ,those denoting instrument2 7#b7 ,those denoting place2 7#c7 ,those denoting the object of the action expressed by their verb stems4 #a4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,instrument4--,adminiculum 7ad-manus7 is properly anything on which the hand may rest1 but the examples show it meaning regularly a prop1 or support1 both concretely and figuratively3 adminiculorum ordines me delectant1 capitum iugatio1 religatio vitium1 ,c4 #ec2 natura semper ad aliquod tamquam adminiculum adnititur1 ,lael4 #hh4 ,baculum 7etymology very uncertain1 but probably same root as seen in 7 from its verb stem1 should mean only a walking stick1 but it is applied to almost any kind of staff or sceptre3 proximus lictor converso baculo oculos misero tundere vehementissime coepit1 ,verr4 #e1 #adb2 baculum aureum regis berylli distinguebant1 ,curt4 #i1 #a1 #cj4 ,everriculum 7everro7 is a sweep net 7also used figuratively73 neque everriculo in litus educere possent1 ,varr4 ,r4 ,r4 #c1 #ag1 #g2 quod umquam huiusmodi everriculum ulla in provincia fuit81 ,verr4 #d1 #e1 #c4 ,ferculum 7fero7 is that on which anything is carried3 spolia ducis hostium caesi suspensa fabricato ad id apte ferculo gerens in ,capitolium ascendit1 ,liv4 #a1 #aj1 #e2 ubi multa de magna superessent fercula cena1 ,hor4 ,s4 #b1 #f1 #ajd4 ,gubernaculum 7guberno7 is an instrument for guiding3 piscium meatus gubernaculi modo regunt caudae1 ,plin4 #aa1 #ej1 #aaa2 hic ille naufragus ad gubernaculum accessit1 et navi1 quod potuit1 est opitulatus1 ,inv4 #b1 #aed4 ,incerniculum 7incerno7 is an instrument for sifting1 a sieve2 it occurs only twice1 and it is difficult to see how it differs from another noun on the same stem1 cribrum3 opus est incerniculum unum1 cribrum unum1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ac2 ,athenienses decretum fecere1 ne frumentarii negotiatores ab incerniculis eum mulum arcerent1 ,plin4 #h1 #dd1 #fi4 ,in the latter example the incernicula are the vessels in which bran1 sifted from the flour1 was set up for sale4 ,operculum 7operio7 like operimentum is an instrument for covering3 aspera arteria tegitur quodam quasi operculo quod ob eam causam datum est1 ne spiritus impediretur1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #acf2 operculum in dolium imponito1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ajd4 ,perpendiculum 7perpendo7 is a plumb line1 but is found most frequently with ad forming an adverbial phrase meaning perpendicularly3 non egeremus perpendiculis1 non normis1 non regulis1 ,cic4 ,a4 fr4 #h2 tigna non directa ad perpendiculum1 sed prone et fastigate1 ,b4 ,g4 #d1 #ag4 ,piaculum is a means of appeasing1 an offering2 perhaps also the appeasing itself2 and the act requiring expiation3 decrevit habendas triduum ferias1 et porco femina piaculum pati1 ,leg4 #b1 #bb2 nonne in mentem venit quantum piaculi committatur8 ,liv4 #e1 #eb2 duc nigras pecudes3 ea prima piacula sunto1 ,aen4 #f1 #aec4 ,poculum 7probably from root seen in bibo7 is a drinking vessel1 cup3 ,socrates paene in manu iam mortiferum illud tenens poculum1 ,t4 #a1 #ga4 ,redimiculum 7redimio7 is anything used for binding1 a band or fillet3 et tunicae manicas1 et habent redimicula mitrae1 ,aen4 #i1 #faf2 ut esset aliquis laqueus et redimiculum1 reversionem ut ad me fecerit denuo1 ,truc4 #cie4 ,retinaculum 7retineo71 always used in the plural1 is anything which holds back or binds3 ratem pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam humo iniecta constraverunt1 ,liv4 #ba1 #bh2 missae pastum retinacula mulae nauta piger saxo religat1 ,hor4 ,s4 #a1 #e1 #ah4 ,spiraculum 7spiro7 is a breathing hole3 per spiracula mundi exitus introitusque elementis redditus exstat1 ,lucr4 #f1 #dic4 ,subligaculum 7subligo7 is a waistband1 judging from the context in which the only example of it occurs3 scenicorum quidem mos tantam habet veteri disciplina verecundiam1 ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat nemo1 ,off4 #a1 #ce4 ,sarculum 7sario7 is an instrument for hoeing1 a hoe3 familiam cum ferreis sarculis exire oportet1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #aee2 gaudentem patrios findere sarculo agros numquam dimoveas1 ,hor4 ,c4 #a1 #a1 #aa4 ,vehiculum 7vehor7 is a means of transportation1 a carriage or ship2 its meaning and that of ferculum differ exactly as their stems differ3 ut procul divinum et novum vehiculum ,argonautorum e monte conspexit1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #hi2 mihi aequum est dare vehicula1 qui vehar1 ,aul4 #ejb4 #b4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,place4--,cenaculum 7ceno7 originally was the dining room4#ahg ,as this was usually in an upper story1 the word came to have the regular meaning of attic or garret1 and the force of the stem meaning was lost3 in superiore qui habito cenaculo1 ,am4 #hfc2 ipse ,circenses ex amicorum cenaculis spectabat1 ,suet4 ,aug4 #de4 ,conventiculum 7convenio7 like conciliabulum1 means both the place of assembly and the assembly itself4 ,as far as the form is concerned1 it might be a diminutive from conventus1 but it shows no such meaning3 exstructa sunt apud nemus conventicula1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ad1 #ae2 conventicula hominum quae postea civitates nominatae sunt1 ,sest4 #ia4 ,cubiculum 7cubo7 always means a place for reclining1 a bedroom3 cubui in eodem lecto tecum una in cubiculo1 ,am4 #hjh4 ,deverticulum 7deverto7 is a place to turn aside1 a by-path1 also a lodging3 ubi ad ipsum veni deverticulum1 constiti1 ,eun4 #fce2 cum gladii abditi ex omnibus locis deverticuli protraherentur1 ,liv4 #a1 #ea4 ,hibernaculum 7hiberno7 is a place for spending the winter1 and1 particularly in the plural1 the winter quarters of soldiers3 hoc hibernaculum1 hoc gymnasium meorum est1 ,plin4 ,ep4 #b1 #ag1 #g2 legionum aliae itinere terrestri in hibernacula remissae sunt1 ,tac4 ,a4 #b1 #bc4 ,propugnaculum 7propugno7 is the place for 7means of87 defending1 a bulwark or tower3 solidati muri1 propugnacula addita1 auctae turres1 ,tac4 ,h4 #b1 #ai2 lex ,aelia1 et ,fufia eversa est1 propugnacula tranquillitatis atque otii1 ,piso1 #i4 ,receptaculum 7recepto7 is a place to receive or keep things1 also a place of refuge3 illud tibi oppidum receptaculum praedae fuit1 ,verr4 #e1 #ei2 insula incolis valida et receptaculum perfugarum1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ad1 #bi4 ,tabernaculum 7taberna71 8tent10 has a meaning specialized from its noun stem3 ,caesar eo die tabernacula statui passus non est1 ,b4 ,c4 #a1 #ha4 ,umbraculum 7umbra7 means both a shady place and the thing that furnishes shade3 aurea pellebant tepidos umbracula soles1 ,ov4 ,f4 #b1 #caa2 prope aream faciundum umbracula1 quo succedant homines in aestu tempore meridiano1 ,varro1 ,r4 ,r4 #a1 #ea1 #b4 #c4 ,,nouns ,,denoting ,,object ,,of ,,action4--,there is also a small group of concrete -culum words which are alike in that they denote the object of the action expressed by their verb stems4 ,deridiculum 7derideo7 is something to laugh at1 an object of derision1 7also ridicule itself73 deridiculo fuit senex foedissimae adulationis tantum infamia usurus1 ,tac4 ,a4 #c1 #eg2 quid tu me deridiculi gratia sic salutas8 ,am4 #fhb4 ,ientaculum 7iento7 is something to eat1 or breakfast3 epulas interdum quadrifariam dispertiebat3 in ientacula et prandia et cenas commissationesque1 ,suet4 ,vit4 #ac4 ,miraculum 7miror7 is something to wonder at1 a miracle3 audite portenta et miracula philosophorum somniantium1 ,n4 #a1 #ah2 omnia transformat sese in miracula rerum1 ,ignemque horribilemque feram1 ,georg4 #d1 #dda4 ,spectaculum is something to look at1 a spectacle1 show3 quom hoc mihi optulisti tam lepidum spectaculum1 ,poen4 #bji4 ,the verb stems of these four nouns1 with the exception of the first1 could conceivably form nouns meaning instrument1 or result of action1 or place2 but only one of them1 spectaculum1 has any of these meanings1 and that1 of place3 tantus est ex omnibus spectaculis usque a ,capitolio plausus excitatus est1 ,sest4 #abd4 ,b4 ,,abstract -,,culum ,,words1 ,,all ,,denoting ,,action ,there are four abstract -culum words1 all expressing primarily action itself4 ,curriculum 7curro7 is a running3 curre in ,piraeum atque unum curriculum face1 ,trin4 #aajc4 ,periculum 7stem seen in experire7 is a trial1 attempt1 also danger1 risk3 fac semel periculum1 ,cist4 #ejd2 nescio quanto in periculo sumus1 ,phor4 #eh4 ,saeculum 7sero71 if this etymology is correct1 is originally a sowing1 then the thing sown1 a generation1 race1 period of time3 quid mirum si se temnunt mortalia saecula1 ,lucr4 #e1 #abch2 et muliebre oritur patrio de semine saeculum1 ,lucr4 #d1 #abbg2 saeculum spatium annorum centum vocarunt1 ,varro1 ,l4 ,l4 #f1 #b4 ,oraculum 7oro7 is an utterance1 usually of some god or prophet1 sometimes the place where it is given3 oracula ex eo ipso appellata sunt1 quod inest in his deorum oratio1 ,top4 #bj1 #gg2 exposui somnii et furoris oracula1 quae carere arte dixeram1 ,div4 #a1 #cb1 #gj2 numquam illud oraculum ,delphis tam celebre fuisset nisi44441 ,div4 #a1 #ai1 #cg4 ,with regard1 then1 to the verb stems of the -culum nouns we may say that they are such as require an instrument1 suggest a place1 or imply the object of their action1 while a few form nouns denoting action itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the tendency seen in the above classification must not be taken as a systematic and conscious process of language for the purpose of making these suffixes mean one thing more than another4 ,the verb stems do strongly influence the meaning of the whole noun1 usually more than anything else does1 but the variety of precise meanings due to context1 which will be shown in the next chapter1 almost precludes a systematic classification on any basis4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,influence ,,of ,,context ,an attempt was made in the preceding chapter to show how the meaning of words formed with -mentum1 -bulum and -culum was influenced by the verb stem4 ,it will be the purpose of this chapter to illustrate how such general meanings get still greater precision from some element in the context4 ,this study1 as is intimated in the introductory paragraph of this paper1 is a semantic one1 but it is not lexicographical2 and no attempt will be made to explain1 any farther than was done in the preceding chapter1 such words as show no variation in meaning due to context4 ,for example1 frumentum always means grain1 no matter in what context it stands2 iumentum1 cattle2 testamentum1 a will2 venabulum1 a hunting spear2 cubiculum1 a bed-room4 ,the reason is that these words are neat expressions of a precise idea and their meaning is therefore less likely to be shifted4 ,this fact also illustrates1 in general1 the difference in variation possible in a noun and in an adjective4 ,the latter1 being in so many instances equivalent to a genitive1 can1 like the genitive1 express a great variety of relations between its governing noun and its noun stem2 while a noun1 being a more finished product1 that is1 its meaning settling more easily in clear-cut limits1 cannot be expected to show such wide variations4 ,aside from the figurative use of the nouns1 the most frequent influence of context comes from a genitive dependent on the noun4 ,the other elements that enter in will be noticed as each word is discussed1 and wherever possible1 the word or group of words which contributes to the meaning will be italicized4 ,first1 there are a few nouns which are used in apposition with a proper noun1 or are applied to persons4 ,this use is a special illustration of the figurative meaning of these words3 intercessit iste ,ligus nescio qui1 additamentum inimicorum meorum1 ,sest4 #fh2 ,sertia uxor1 quae incitamentum mortis et particeps fuit1 ,tac4 ,a4 #f1 #bi2 in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum1 quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt1 ,liv4 #g1 #aa1 #f2 acerrima seditionum ac discordiae incitamenta1 interfectores ,galbae1 ,tac4 ,h4 #b1 #bc2 ,fufidius1 ancilla turpis bonorum omnium dehonestamentum1 ,sall4 ,lep4 #bb2 ,p4 ,rutilius qui fuit documentum hominibus nostris virtutis1 antiquitatis1 prudentiae1 ,rab4 ,post4 #bg2 illius sum integumentum corporis1 ,bacc4 #fjb2 vidi hunc ipsum ,hortensium1 ornamentum rei publicae1 paene interfici1 ,milo1 #cg2 ipsa quae sis stabulum nequitiae1 ,truc4 #ehg2 quod umquam huiuscemodi everriculum ,verres ulla in provincia fuit1 ,verres1 #d1 #e1 #c2 quid1 duo propugnacula belli ,punici1 ,cn4 et ,p4 ,scipiones cogitassene videntur1 ,p4 #ab2 qui sibi me pro deridiculo et delectamento putat1 ,heaut4 #ieb4 ,these examples show that the suffixes do not imprint on the nouns the idea of instrument1 or any other idea1 so strongly that the nouns may not be applied to human beings as well4 ,of those nouns which get precision of meaning from a dependent genitive1 perhaps there is no better example than fragmentum1 which1 expressing the result of the action of breaking1 may mean a piece or fragment of any breakable object3 tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis saeptorum1 ,sest4 #gi2 ut glaebum aut fragmentum lapidis dicemus1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #hb2 fragmenta tegularum1 ,liv4 #cd1 #hi1 #aa2 fragmenta ramorum1 ,liv4 #bc1 #bd1 #aj2 fragmenta crystalli sarciri nullo modo queunt1 ,plin4 #cg1 #b1 #aj2 fragmenta panis1 ,plin4 #i1 #h1 #h2 mille carinis abstulit ,emathiae secum fragmenta ruinae the remnants of the army1 ,lucan1 #i1 #ch4 ,the genitives all answer the question1 fragments of what8 ,another noun of general meaning which gets precision from a genitive is fundamentum2 whether literal or figurative1 we want to know1 the foundations of what8 and the context tells1 though not always merely by means of a genitive3 quin cum fundamento aedes perierunt1 ,most4 #adh2 solum et quasi fundamentum oratoris vides1 locutionem emendatam et ,latinam1 ,brut4 #beh2 fundamenta rei publicae ieci1 ,fam4 ,,xii1 #be1 #b2 fundamenta ieci salutis tuae1 ,fam4 ,x1 #bi1 #a2 arcem ,syracusis a fundamentis disiecit1 ,nepos1 ,,xx1 #c1 #c2 hic locus sicut aliquod fundamentum est huius constitutionis1 ,inv4 ,,ii1 #ai2 qui a fundamentis mi usque movisti mare1 ,rud4 #eci2 prima fundamenta urbi iacere1 ,liv4 #a1 #ab1 #d2 alta fundamenta theatri locare1 ,aen4 #a1 #dbh2 fundamenta altae ,carthaginis locare1 ,aen4 #d1 #bff2 urbs a fundamentis diruta1 ,liv4 #db1 #fc1 #aa2 fodere fundamenta delubro1 ,plin4 #bh1 #b1 #d2 pietas fundamentum est omnium virtutum1 ,planc4 #bi2 fundamentum iustitiae est fides1 ,off4 #a1 #g1 #bc2 narratio est fundamentum constituendae fidei1 ,part4 #i1 #ca2 fundamentum eloquentiae1 ,de ,or4 #c1 #aea2 fundamentum philosophiae1 ,div4 #b1 #a1 #b2 initium ac fundamentum defensionis1 ,clu4 #aj1 #cj2 quod fundamentum huius quaestionis est1 id videtis1 ,n4 ,i1 #dd2 fundamentum horum criminum1 ,cael4 #ac1 #cj2 disciplina nixa fundamento veritatis1 ,gell4 #ad1 #a1 #bj2 fundamentum et causa imperii1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #hg1 #da2 fundamenta libertatis1 ,balb4 #ac1 #ca2 fundamentum consulatus tui1 ,pis4 #d1 #i2 senectus quae fundamentis adolescentiae constituta est1 ,c4 #ah1 #fb2 fundamenta pacis ieci1 ,phil4 #a1 #a1 #a2 fundamentum domus novae iacere1 ,suet4 ,cal4 #bb2 villa a fundamentis inchoata1 ,suet4 ,caes4 #df4 ,incitamentum is nearly always followed by a genitive or a gerundive construction expressing the object toward which a thing or circumstance is an inducement4 ,the noun is used most frequently in ,tacitus3 hoc maximum et periculorum incitamentum est et laborum1 ,arch4 #bc2 uxor1 quae incitamentum mortis fuit1 ,tac4 ,a4 #f1 #bi2 incitamenta irarum1 ,tac4 ,a4 #a1 #ee2 incitamenta victoriae1 ,tac4 ,agr4 #cb2 incitamentum ad honeste moriendum1 ,curt4 #i1 #e1 #d2 incitamentum fortitudinis1 ,tac4 ,g4 #g1 #i2 incitamentum cupidinis1 ,tac4 ,a4 #f1 #a1 #aj2 incitamenta belli1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ab1 #cd1 #b2 est magna illa eloquentia alumna licentiae1 comes seditionum1 effrenati populi incitamentum1 ,tac4 ,d4 #dj1 #aa4 ,in the last example the genitive is a real objective genitive1 while the participle limiting it expresses the result of incitement expressed by the genitives in the other examples4 ,like incitamentum1 invitamentum and irritamentum usually get precision of meaning from a genitive3 invitamenta urbis et fori1 ,sulla1 #gd2 honos1 non invitamentum ad tempus1 sed perpetuae virtutis praemium1 ,fam4 ,x1 #aj1 #b2 invitamenta temeritatis1 ,liv4 #b1 #db1 #f2 invitamentum sceleris1 ,vell4 #b1 #fg1 #c2 pulchritudinem eius non libidinis habuerat invitamentum1 sed gloriae1 ,curt4 #d1 #aj1 #bd2 fons reperiendus est1 in quo sint prima invitamenta naturae1 ,fin4 #e1 #f2 neque irritamenta gulae quaerebant1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #hi1 #g2 quod irritamentum certaminum equestrium est1 ,liv4 #cj1 #aa2 opes1 irritamenta malorum1 ,ov4 ,m4 #a1 #adj2 irritamenta luxuriae1 ,val4 ,max4 #b1 #f1 #a2 irritamentum invidiae1 ,tac4 ,a4 #c1 #i2 irritamentum pacis1 ,tac4 ,agr4 #bj4 ,tegumentum and integumentum have only their general meaning of 8cover0 which they get from their verb stem1 unless something in the context tells what it is a covering for3 lanx cum integumentis1 quae ,iovi adposita fuit1 ,liv4 #dj1 #ei1 #g2 illius sum integumentum corporis1 ,bacc4 #fjb2 istaec ego mihi semper habui integumentum meae1 ,trin4 #cac2 integumentum frontis1 ,cic4 post ,red4 in ,sen4 #g1 #ae2 integumentum flagitiorum1 ,cael4 #bj1 #dg2 integumentum dissimulationis1 ,de ,or4 #b1 #hf2 tegumenta galeis milites ex viminibus facere iubet1 ,b4 ,c4 #c1 #fb1 #a2 ad tegumenta detrahenda scutis tempus defuerit1 ,b4 ,g4 #b1 #ba1 #e2 quae palpebrae sunt tegmenta oculorum1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #adb2 tunicos aut tegimenta fuerant1 ,b4 ,g4 #c1 #dd1 #g2 humus satis solidum est tegimentum repellendis caloribus1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #ij2 equo purpurea tegumenta dedit1 ,suet4 ,cal4 #ee4 ,documentum has the meaning of 8example01 particularly when there is a limiting genitive3 ,rutilius qui documentum fuit virtutis1 antiquitatis1 prudentiae1 ,rab4 ,post4 #aj1 #bg4 ,the common occurrence of the word with verbs like dare1 together with an indirect question1 shows it to mean proof3 dederas enim1 quam contemneres populares insanias1 iam ab adolescentia documenta maxima1 ,mil4 #h2 multa documenta egregii principis dedit1 ,suet4 ,galb4 #ad4 ,with capere the natural meaning is 8warning0 or 8instruction03 ex quo documentum nos capere fortuna voluit1 quid esset victis pertimescendum1 ,phil4 #aa1 #b4 ,this meaning is also very commonly seen in the use of the dative case to express purpose1 followed by a supplementary clause of purpose4 ,the noun need not be in the dative1 however3 insigne documentum ,sagunti ruinae erunt ne quis fidei ,romanae aut societati confidat1 ,liv4 #ba1 #ai1 #aj2 deletum cum duce exercitum documento fuisse1 ne deinde turbato gentium iure comitia haberentur1 ,liv4 #g1 #f1 #aa4 ,monumentum is quite as general in meaning as documentum1 and shows as great variety of meaning4 ,it is applied to a whip3 vos monumentis commonefaciam bubulis1 ,stich4 #fc2 a statue3 statuam volt dare1 factis monumentum suis1 ,curc4 #dda2 a literary record3 monumenta rerum gestarum oratori nota esse debent1 ,de ,or4 ,i1 #bja2 an action or circumstance3 cum ,sex4 ,pompeium restituit civitati1 clarissimum monimentum clementiae suae1 ,phil4 #e1 #ci2 a tomb3 sepultus est in monumento avunculi sui1 ,nepos1 ,att4 #bb1 #d4 ,sometimes the word gets precision of meaning from an appositional genitive3 hoc statuae monumento non eget1 ,phil4 #i1 #aa2 ut tu monumentum aliquod decreti aut litterarum tuarum relinquas1 ,q4 fr4 ,i1 #b1 #aa2 sepulcri monumento donatus est1 ,nep4 ,dion4 #aj4 ,sometimes it is used without any suggestion of a concrete object 7cf4 also the third example above73 nullum monumentum laudis postulo praeterquam huius diei memoriam sempiternam1 ,cat4 #c1 #aa1 #bf4 ,argumentum 7always abstract7 has the very frequent general meaning of proof1 reason1 argument3 quid nunc8 vincon argumentis te non esse ,sosiam81 ,am4 #dcg2 nunc1 huc qua causa veni1 argumentum eloquar1 ,rud4 #ca2 quod pridie noctu conclamatum esset in ,caesaris castris argumenti sumebant loco non posse clam exiri ,b4 ,c4 #a1 #fg1 #a4 ,a common meaning in comedy is plot1 or theme of a play 7our 8argument0 of an epic or a drama73 ne exspectetis argumentum fabulae1 ,adel4 #bb4 ,then it comes to mean the subject matter of a speech or letter3 ut mihi nascatur epistulae argumentum1 ,fam4 ,,xv1 #a1 #bb1 #b2 a sign or indication3 ubi lyrae1 tibia et cantus1 animi felicia laeti argumenta1 sonant1 ,ov4 ,m4 #d1 #gfb2 reality or meaning3 haec tota fabella quam est sine argumento1 ,cael4 #bg2 the subject of artistic representations3 ex ebore perfecta argumenta erant in valvis1 ,verr4 ,,ii1 #d1 #ef4 ,twice in ,ciceronian ,latin this word is defined in two of the ways mentioned3 argumentum est ficta res quae tamen fieri potuit1 velut argumentum comoediarum1 ,ad ,her4 #a1 #h2 argumentum esse rationem quae rei dubiae faciat fidem1 ,top4 #h4 ,experimentum1 when followed by indirect discourse1 as in the following example1 must mean the result of trial2 viz41 8proof03 hoc maximum est experimentum hanc vim esse in cogitatione diuturna1 ,t4 #d1 #ef4 ,in the plural1 being the accumulation of a number of trials1 it is equivalent to experientia1 7experience73 ,metello experimentis cognitum erat1 genus ,numidarum infidum esse1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #df1 #c4 ,firmamentum often gets precise meaning from a limiting genitive1 which is also sometimes appositional3 ossa nervique et articuli1 firmamenta totius corporis1 ,sen4 ,de ,ira1 #b1 #a1 #b2 firmamenta stabilitatis constantiaeque est eius quam in amicitia quaerimus fides1 ,lael4 #fe2 eum ordinem firmamentum ceterorum ordinum recte esse dicimus1 ,pomp4 #ag2 transversaria tigna iniciuntur1 quae firmamento esse possint1 ,b4 ,g4 #b1 #ae1 #b2 firmamentum ac robur totius accusationis1 ,mur4 #bh1 #eh2 firmamentum rei publicae1 ,planc4 #i1 #bc2 firmamentum dignitatis1 ,t4 #d1 #g2 inventa ratione firmamentum orationi quaerendum est1 ,inv4 ,i1 #cd4 ,instrumentum is a word which has the most general meaning1 and really receives less influence from its verb stem than from the context4 ,even when there is a qualifying genitive or other limiting factor it retains more or less of its general character4 ,probably its most definite meaning is that of furniture 7of a house73 decora atque ornamentum fanorum in instrumento ac supellectili ,c4 ,verris nominabuntur1 ,verr4 #b1 #d1 #dd2 instrumenti ne magni siet 7of a villa71 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 ,i4 #e4 ,a common meaning is that of a tool1 or utensil of any kind3 inest huic computationi sumptus fabrorum et venatorii instrumenti1 ,plin4 #c1 #ai2 crudelia iussae instrumenta necis1 ferrumque ignisque parantur1 ,ov4 ,m4 #c1 #fig2 arma1 tela1 equos et cetera instrumenta militiae parare1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #dc1 #c2 naves nautico instrumento aptae1 ,liv4 #cj1 #aj1 #c4 ,the following example shows it meaning a legal document3 opus est intueri omne litis instrumentum2 quod videre non est satis1 perlegendum est1 ,quint4 #ab1 #h1 #ab4 ,the meaning of supply1 provisions 7both literal and figurative7 is illustrated by the following examples3 quid viatici1 quid instrumenti satis sit1 ,att4 ,,xii1 #cb1 #b2 instrumenta naturae deerant1 sed tantus animi splendor erat ut441 ,brut4 #gg1 #bfh2 in oratoris vero instrumento tam lautam supellectilem numquam videram1 ,de ,or4 ,i1 #cf1 #afe4 ,in one instance it plainly means apparel1 dress3 in iuvenem rediit1 anilia demit instrumenta1 ,ov4 ,m4 #ad1 #gff4 ,the meaning of aid or assistance is seen in these citations3 quanta instrumenta habeat ad obtinendam adipiscendamque sapientiam1 ,leg4 #a1 #bb2 industriae subsidia atque instrumenta virtutis in libidine audaciaque consumpsit1 ,cat4 #b1 #e4 ,ornamentum is very similar in meaning to instrumentum1 and shows similar variety of signification due to context1 although the verb stem is a little more specialized4 ,the number of things which may be spoken of as having ornamenta are seen from the examples3 ornamenta bubus1 ornamenta asinis instrata 7esse oporteat71 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #aa1 #d2 elephantos ornatos armatosque cum turribus et ornamentis capit1 ,auct4 ,b4 ,afr4 #hf2 pecuniam omniaque ornamenta ex fano ,herculis in oppidum ,gadis contulit1 ,b4 ,c4 #b1 #ah1 #b2 eloquentia principibus maximo ornamento est1 ,f4 #d1 #fa2 pecuniam et ornamenta triumphi ,caesaris retinenda curaret1 ,auct4 ,b4 ,afr4 #bh1 #b2 audieram quae de orationis ipsius ornamentis traderentur1 ,de ,or4 ,i1 #add2 pulcherrima totius ,galliae urbs1 quae praesidio et ornamento est civitati1 ,b4 ,g4 #g1 #ae2 mihi hoc subsidium comparavi ad decus atque ornamentum senectutis1 ,orat4 #a1 #de2 ,hortensius1 lumen atque ornamentum rei publicae1 ,mil4 #ad2 urceoli sex1 ornamentum abaci1 ,juv4 #c1 #bjc2 neminem omnium tot et tanta1 quanta sunt in ,crasso1 habuisse ornamenta dicendi1 ,orat4 #b1 #bh4 ,sometimes adjectives show the ornamenta to be a special sort of distinction3 pluribus triumphalia ornamenta decernenda curavit1 ,suet4 ,aug4 #ch2 decem praetoriis viris consularia ornamenta tribuit1 ,suet4 ,caes4 #gf4 ,in comedy especially it means dress1 costume3 ipse ornamenta a chorago haec sumpsit3 si potero ornamentis hominem circumducere1 dabo operam ut44441 ,trin4 #hei1 #hfj2 hominem cum ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me1 ,pseud4 #gef2 also trinkets3 i1 ,palaestrio1 aurum1 ornamenta1 vestem1 omnia duc1 ,m4 ,g4 #acjb2 in one instance1 the dress of tragedy3 ornamenta absunt3 ,aiacem1 hunc quom vides ipsum vides1 ,capt4 #fae4 ,stramentum is applied to a number of things which can be conceived of as being strewn or covered with straw1 but is also sometimes used absolutely3 fasces stramentorum virgultorumque incenderunt1 ,b4 ,g4 #h1 #ae1 #e2 iubet magnum numerum mulorum produci deque his stramenta detrahi1 ,b4 ,g4 #g1 #de2 cum ea noctem in stramentis pernoctare 7a bed71 ,truc4 #bgh2 stramenta si deerunt1 frondem ligneam legito3 eam substernito ovibus bubusque1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #e4 ,there are two examples in which it means the roof of a house1 or thatch3 casae1 quae stramentis tectae erant1 ,b4 ,g4 #e1 #dc2 pars ignes casis stramento arido tectis iniciunt1 ,liv4 #be1 #ci4 ,tormentum1 an instrument with which anything is turned or twisted1 is applied especially to a military engine for hurling missiles3 aciem eo loco constituit1 unde tormento missa tela in hostium cuneos conici possent1 ,b4 ,g4 #h1 #ad1 #e2 the missile itself3 quod unum genus tegumenti nullo telo neque tormento transici posse1 ,b4 ,c4 #b1 #i2 a 7twisted7 cord or rope3 praesectis omnium mulierum crinibus tormenta effecerunt1 ,b4 ,c4 #c1 #i1 #c2 a chain or fetter3 nam si non ferat1 tormento non retineri potuit ferreo1 ,curc4 #bbg2 an instrument of torture3 rotam1 id est genus quoddam tormenti apud ,graecos1 ,t4 #e1 #bd2 tum verberibus ac tormentis quaestionem habuit pecuniae publicae1 ,phil4 #aa1 #b1 #e2 torture1 pain3 cum incredibles cruciatus et indignissima tormenta pateretur1 ,plin4 ,ep4 #a1 #ab1 #f2 hinc licebit tum dicere se beatum in summo cruciatu atque tormentis1 ,t4 #e1 #gc4 ,vestimentum1 in addition to having its common meaning of clothing3 me vides ut sim vestimentis uvidis1 ,rud4 #egc2 is once applied to the covering of a bed3 huc est intro latus lectus1 vestimentis stratus1 ,heaut4 #ijc4 ,from the above examples it will be clear that at least some -mentum words get precision of meaning from the context4 ,the different means by which the context exerts influence would be difficult to classify2 still less could one assert that -mentum tends to have any meaning4 ,perhaps we should not speak of a word varying semantically when it is used figuratively1 yet it is only from the context that we can ascertain whether it is used figuratively or not4 ,a word can be used in a figurative sense only when1 in one context1 it has certain elements identical with those which it has in another context4 ,the more definite and concrete the object expressed by a noun1 the less variability will be expected1 either in a literal or figurative use4 ,this is true of the -bulum and -culum words1 which1 while admitting a small range of variation1 are much more limited in their variation than the -mentum words were found to be4 ,the best examples will be given below4 ,conciliabulum is a place of assembly and is expressly so defined by ,festus 7cf4 ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #be73 mulieres ex oppidis conciliabulisque conveniebant1 ,liv4 #cd1 #a1 #f2 sacerdotes non ,romae modo1 sed per omnia fora et conciliabula conquiri1 ,liv4 #ci1 #ad1 #g4 ,the following example1 however1 shows that it may also mean the assembly itself3 igitur per conciliabula et coetus seditiosa disserebant1 ,tac4 ,a4 #c1 #dj4 ,in a few instances it takes on a bad meaning3 ne penetrarem me usquam ubi esset damni conciliabulum1 ,trin4 #cad2 forte aut cena1 ut solet in istis fieri conciliabulis1 ,bacc4 #hj4 ,latibulum is seen to be a hiding place for different animals and even of men1 and also a refuge 7figurative73 cum etiam se ferae latibulis tegant1 ,rab4 ,post4 #db2 repente te tamquam serpens a latibulis intulisti1 ,vatin4 #d2 defendendi facilis est cautio non solum latibulis occultorum locorum1 sed etiam tempestatum moderatione et conversione 7of pirates71 ,flacc4 #ac1 #ca2 ego autem volo aliquod emere latibulum et perfugium doloris mei1 ,att4 ,,xii1 #ac1 #b4 ,pabulum is used not only of food for animals but also1 in poetry1 of food for men1 and sometimes for the pastures1 or feeding places4 ,its figurative meaning is also quite common3 bubus pabulum parare oportet1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #ed1 #a2 pabula carpsit ovis1 ,ov4 ,f4 #d1 #gej2 ferae pecudes persultant pabula laeta1 ,lucr4 #a1 #ad2 novitas mundi pabula dura tulit1 miseris mortalibus ampla1 ,lucr4 #e1 #idd2 si animus habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studii atque doctrinae1 ,c4 #di2 sed fugitare decet simulacra et pabula amoris1 ,lucr4 #d1 #ajfc4 ,stabulum has its literal and general meaning of standing-place in only two examples3 neutrubi habeam stabile stabulum1 siquid divorti fuat1 ,aul4 #bcc2 nusquam stabulum confidentiae1 ,most4 #cej4 ,most frequently it means a stable for animals or lair of wild beasts3 neque iam stabulis gaudet pecus aut arator igni1 ,hor4 ,c4 #a1 #d1 #c2 itur in antiquam silvam1 stabula alta ferarum1 ,aen4 #f1 #agi4 ,the agricultural writers use it in speaking of a variety of animals1 birds and fishes3 pecudibus sient stabula1 ,col4 #a1 #f1 #d2 avium cohortalium stabula 7an aviary71 ,col4 #h1 #a2 ut sit pavonum stabulum1 ,col4 #h1 #aa1 #c2 hac ratione stabulis ordinatis aquatile pecus inducemus1 ,col4 #h1 #ag1 #g2 absint et picti squalentia terga lacerti pinguibus a stabulis 7of bees71 ,georg4 #d1 #ad4 ,it also means a cottage1 a hut1 a dwelling like a stable3 cum ,catilina pastorum stabula praedari coepisset1 ,sest4 #ab2 pueros ab eo ad stabula ,larentiae uxori educandos datos1 ,liv4 #a1 #d1 #g4 ,a number of times the context shows it applied to a house of ill fame3 pistorum amicas1 quae tibi olant stabulum stratumque1 ,poen4 #bfg4 ,twice it is applied to persons as a term of reproach3 ipsa quae sis stabulum flagitii1 ,truc4 #ehg2 faciam uti proinde ut est dignus vitam colat1 ,acheruntis pabulum1 stabulum nequitiae1 ,cas4 #afj4 ,in the last example pabulum is also used with an emotional tone4 ,vocabulum is a name or appellation1 the name of the thing itself being expressed1 if at all1 in the genitive1 or in the nominative with vocabulum in the ablative3 si res suum nomen et proprium vocabulum non habet1 ,de ,or4 ,,iii1 #aei2 deligitur artifex talium vocabulo ,locusta1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ab1 #ff4 ,it also signifies as a grammatical term1 a noun1 as opposed to a verb3 ,aristotelis orationis duas partes esse dicit1 vocabula et verba1 ut homo et equus1 et legis et currit1 ,varro1 ,l4 ,l4 #h4 ,conventiculum regularly means an assembly 7without any diminutive notion73 conventicula hominum quae postea civitates nominatae sunt1 ,sest4 #ia2 but it may also mean the place of assembly3 exstructa sunt apud nemus conventicula1 ,tac4 ,a4 #ad1 #ae4 ,oraculum may mean a prophetic declaration by gods1 or by men3 cum praesertim deorum immortalium iussis atque oraculis id fecisse dicantur1 ,sex4 ,rosc4 #ff2 haec ego nunc physicorum oracula fundo1 vera an falsa nescio1 ,n4 #a1 #ff4 ,also the place where oracular responses were given3 numquam illud oraculum ,delphis tam celebre fuisset nisi44441 ,div4 ,i1 #ai1 #cg4 ,periculum1 in the sense of trial1 is always the object of the verb facere3 fac semel periculum1 ,cist4 #ejd2 priusquam periculum faceret1 ,b4 ,g4 #d1 #ba4 ,its change to the meaning of danger must have been by some such step as is seen in the following example1 although periculum facere1 8make a trial10 is also practically the same as 8run a risk03 nescio quanto in periculo sumus1 ,phor4 #eh4 ,the common meaning of risk or danger hardly needs to be illustrated3 salus sociorum summum in periculum vocatur1 ,pomp4 #e1 #ab4 ,the context shows it to have also two other meanings2 viz41 a lawsuit3 meus labor in periculis privatorum caste integreque versatus1 ,pomp4 #a1 #b2 a judicial sentence3 petiit ut in periculo suo inscriberent1 ,nep4 ,ep4 #h2 est honestus1 quod eorum hominum fidei tabulae publicae periculaque magistratuum committuntur1 ,verr4 #b1 #c1 #gi4 ,piaculum is properly an offering performed as a means of appeasing a deity3 porco femina piaculum faciundum est1 ,leg4 ,,ii1 #eg2 apparet omnia nec ullis piaculis expiari posse1 ,liv4 #e1 #ec2 and then naturally it is applied to the victim itself3 duc nigras pecudes3 ea prima piacula sunto1 ,aen4 #f1 #aec2 then also a sinful action1 which needs expiation3 nonne in mentem venit1 quantum piaculi committatur81 ,liv4 #e1 #eb4 ,spectaculum is properly a 8sight01 anything seen3 quom hoc mihi optulisti tam lepidum spectaculum1 ,poen4 #bji2 then a show1 on the stage or in the arena3 spectacula sunt tributim data1 ,muren4 #gb4 ,once in ,plautus it clearly means a part of the theater itself3 exoritur ventus turbo1 spectacula ibi ruont1 ,curc4 #fdg2 that it means also the theater in general is seen from a few examples3 resonant spectacula plausu1 ,ov4 ,m4 #aj1 #ffh2 ex omnibus spectaculis plausus est excitatus1 ,sest4 #eh4 ,umbraculum is a shady place3 faciundum umbracula1 quo succedant homines in aestu tempore meridiano1 ,varro1 ,r4 ,r4 ,i1 #ea2 also anything that furnishes shade1 an umbrella3 aurea pellebant tepidos umbracula soles1 ,ov4 ,f4 ,,ii1 #caa4 ,the limiting genitive in the following example shows the noun to have lost its regular stem-meaning and to have been used for 8school03 ,demetrius mirabiliter doctrinam ex umbraculis eruditorum otioque produxit1 ,leg4 ,,iii1 #ad4 ,vehiculum1 a means of transportation1 is applied to wagons or carts3 omnes di1 qui vehiculis tensarum solemnes coitus ludorum initis1 ,verr4 #e1 #ahf2 but also to ships3 ut procul divinum et novum vehiculum ,argonautarum e monte conspexit1 ,n4 ,,ii1 #hi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,that the words which we have treated vary in meaning according to the context seems perfectly obvious2 but the extent to which this is true in general has received little if any attention from linguistic students4 ,the tracing of the meaning of a word through various periods of the language has been commonly enough done2 that side of the question1 however1 this investigation has not touched except incidentally4 ,but the material presented in this chapter and the preceding has1 it is hoped1 been sufficient to illustrate how the words formed with our suffixes1 while revealing a limited tendency in meaning due to their verb stems1 often also owe much of their meaning to the context in which they are used4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,overlapping ,,of ,,suffixes ,however great a tendency the suffixes under investigation have toward giving to the nouns a certain meaning1 the variations of which they are capable1--due1 as has been shown1 to stem and context1--strongly suggest that there can be nothing very stable in the suffix itself4 ,if there really were a fundamental meaning in the suffixes1 there would be no such variation as we find4 ,but a consideration which points even more to the comparatively fluid condition of these suffixes is the fact that we find other words1 formed on the same stem1 but with a different suffix1 meaning precisely the same as the nouns made with these suffixes4 ,here again1 the meanings are derived from an examination of the context4 ,sometimes the contexts are exactly parallel1 at other times there is a sufficiently large element common to both to warrant us in saying that the nouns do not1 at least in these particular instances1 differ in meaning4 ,the fact that some of these parallel words occur at different periods in the language does not weaken the argument1 as the mere occurrence of them shows the unstable influence of the suffix2 and1 moreover1 we need not suppose because one word is not found at a certain period while another on the same stem with a different suffix is found1 that the first word was not in existence4 ,it is just as reasonable to assume that the preservation of one word and not the other is due merely to common usage or the personal preference of the author4 ,metrical considerations might exclude the use of a certain word in poetry1 but the instances are very rare1 and will be noted in the proper place4 ,the most common suffix which makes accessory forms with -mentum is -men4 ,most authorities regard -mentum as an extension of -men by the addition of -to4 ,whether this is true or not1 there are many -mentum words that have no accessory forms in -men1 and a large number of -men words that have no accessory forms in -mentum4 ,corssen 7,krit4 ,nach4 p4 #abe ff47 gives fifty-one -men words from old1 classical1 and later ,latin to which there are no forms in -mentum1 fifty-two -mentum words from the same periods to which there are no forms in -men2 twenty-five words with both forms in any one period4 ,he also gives a table showing how the words in the older and classical language preferred the form -men while in later ,latin the same words preferred the form -mentum4 ,he says the suffix -mentum is only the the extension1 on ,latin soil1 of the suffix -men 7,sanskrit1 -man7 with -to2 and this explains why in later ,latin the forms in -mentum become more frequent1 also why they are not found in other ,italic dialects1 nor in the ,greek and other related languages4 ,lindsay says 7p4 #cce7 that the suffix -men is found more often in poetry1 while -mentum predominates in prose4 ,etymologically1 the suffixes -bulum and -culum go back to original -dhlo and -tlo respectively 7,lindsay pp4 #ccd and #ccb74 ,a study of the other suffixes which make accessory forms to these words would probably yield results similar to those seen in the case of our suffixes2 but all that will be attempted here will be to show parallels wherever possible4 ,italics will be used here1 also1 to show what elements in the context go to prove the equivalence in semantic content of the nouns under discussion4 ,a4 ,,parallels ,,of -,,mentum ,,and ,,accessory ,,suffixes ,one of the neatest examples of identity in meaning is the following exactly parallel usage of stramen and stramentum3 tectam stramine vidit casam1 ,ov4 ,m4 #e1 #ddc2 casae1 quae stramentis tectae erant1 ,b4 ,g4 #e1 #dc4 ,from the use of a genitive denoting a concrete object1 fragmentum and fragmen are seen to be identical in meaning in the following examples3 adiacebant fragmina telorum equorumque artus1 ,tac4 ,a4 #a1 #fa2 tribunum adoriuntur fragmentis saeptorum1 ,sest4 #gi4 ,the genitives depending on irritamen and irritamentum in the following examples are not exactly alike1 one being concrete and the other abstract2 but they are near enough in meaning1 and the nouns themselves are used in sufficiently similar contexts to justify us in saying that either one might have been used in place of the other3 nisi adiecisset opes1 irritamen animi avari1 ,ov4 ,m4 #ac1 #dcd2 neque salem neque alia irritamenta gulae quaerebant1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #hi1 #g4 ,levamen and levamentum are used in parallel examples3 cuius mali 7debt7 plebes nullum levamen speraret1 ,liv4 #f1 #ce1 #a2 non aliud malorum levamentum quam si linquerent castra1 ,tac4 ,h4 #a1 #cj1 #i4 ,the verbs used with medicamen and medicamentum show a lack of differentiation between these nouns3 quod diceres te violentis quibusdam medicaminibus solere curari1 ,pis4 #f1 #ac2 si eo medicamento sanus factus esset1 ,off4 #c1 #ib4 ,the verbs with molimen and molimentum in the following examples are very similar1 and there is the same adjective modifying each noun3 temptat revellere annosam pinum magno molimine1 ,ov4 ,m4 #ab1 #ceg2 neque exercitum sine magno commeatu atque molimento in unum locum contrahere posse1 ,b4 ,g4 ,i1 #cd1 #c4 ,identity of verbs and the case of momen and momentum show there is no difference in their meaning3 momine uti parvo possint impulsa moveri1 ,lucr4 #c1 #ahh2 animus paulo momento huc vel illuc impellitur1 ,and4 #bff4 ,parallel instances of blanditia and blandimenta are seen in these examples3 haec meretrix meum erum sua blanditia intulit in pauperiem1 ,truc4 #egb2 illum spero immutari potest blandimentis1 oramentis1 ceteris meretriciis1 ,truc4 #cah2 benevolentiam civium blanditiis et adsentando colligere turpe est1 ,lael4 #fa2 ,lepida blandimentis ac largitionibus iuvenilem animum devinciebat1 ,tac4 ,h4 #ac1 #ac4 ,adiutorium is a rare word1 but in the following examples it is seen to have the same general meaning as adiumentum1 8help03 sine adiutorio ignis nihil calidum est1 ,sen4 ,ep4 #ca2 neque apud homines res est ulla difficilior neque quae plura adiumenta doctrinae desideret1 ,de ,or4 ,,iii1 #hd4 ,experimentum in the plural naturally means the same as experientia 7experience71 but in the singular also they both mean a trial or attempt1 or the result of trial1 proof3 debemus temptare experientia quaedam1 sequentes non aleam1 sed rationem aliquam1 ,varro1 ,r4 ,r4 #a1 #ah1 #h2 hoc est maximum experimentum1 hanc vim esse non in die positam sed in cogitatione diuturna1 ,t4 #c1 #gd4 ,with the meaning of experience3 ,agrippa non aetate neque rerum experientia tantae moli par1 ,tac4 ,a4 #a1 #d2 ,metello experimentis cognitum erat1 genus ,numidarum infidum esse1 ,sall4 ,jug4 #dj1 #c4 ,firmamen and firmamentum might be interchanged1 in both their figurative and literal meanings3 ruptosque obliqua per ungues porrigitur radix1 longi firmamina trunci1 ,ov4 ,m4 #aj1 #dia2 ossa nervique1 firmamenta totius corporis1 ,sen4 ,de ,ira1 #b1 #a1 #b4 ,both the dependent genitives above express concrete objects2 in the following they express abstract objects3 unicum lapsae domus firmamen1 unum lumen afflicto malis temet reserva1 ,sen4 ,herc4 ,fur4 #abea2 sic ille annus duo firmamenta rei publicae per me unum constituta evertit1 ,att4 ,i1 #ah1 #c4 ,documen occurs only once1 but its context shows it to be equivalent in meaning to documentum1 which is used in strikingly similar contexts3 flammas ut fulguris halent pectore perfixo1 documen mortalibus acre1 ,lucr4 #f1 #cia2 ut sint reliquis documento et magnitudine poenae perterreant alios1 ,b4 ,g4 #g1 #d1 #aj4 ,words with the suffix -tio we naturally think of as verbals1 or nomina actionis1 but in the following examples the context makes it fairly certain that they mean the same as their corresponding -mentum nouns4 ,formamenta is found only twice3 omnia principiorum formamenta queunt in quovis esse nitore1 ,lucr4 #b1 #hai2 si vos fateremini id quod vestra suspicio credidisset formamentis divinis attribuisse1 minus erat iniuriae praesumpta in opinatione peccasse1 ,arn4 #c1 #af4 ,in the first example1 formamenta is used closely following formae and must mean the same thing1 the 8shapes0 of the atoms2 in the second example the adjective 8divinis0 indicates a similar meaning for formamentum2 in the following example ,vitruvius is giving directions concerning the building of a forum3 ita enim erit oblonga eius forum formatio et ad spectaculorum rationem utilis dispositio1 ,vitr4 #e1 #a4 ,while the directions for the future building might lead us to believe that the word has a predominant verbal force1 yet it is just as possible to conceive of it as expressing the result of the process2 and this interpretation is even more probable1 as the adjective oblonga would properly not be applied to a purely verbal noun4 ,the verb fodior shows the identity in meaning between fundatio and fundamenta in the following instances3 cum fodientes delubro fundamenta caput humanum invenissent1 ,plin4 #bh1 #b1 #d2 fundationes eorum operum fodiantur1 ,vitr4 #c1 #c4 ,res ,romana and libertas are near enough alike to show that fundamen and fundamentum have the same general meaning in these instances3 fundamine magno res ,romana valet1 ,ov4 ,m4 #d1 #hjh2 haec sunt fundamenta firmissima nostrae libertatis1 ,balb4 #ac4 ,the contexts of hortamen and hortamentum in the two following examples are near enough alike to warrant our saying that the nouns might be interchanged3 ,decii eventus1 ingens hortamen ad omnia pro re publicia audenda1 ,liv4 #aj1 #bi1 #e2 in conspectu parentum coniugumque ac liberorum quae magna etiam absentibus hortamenta animi sunt1 ,liv4 #g1 #aa1 #f4 ,there is undoubtedly no more verbal force in the following example of allevatio than in the example of allevamentum1 7which is the only one extant73 tantis rebus urgemur1 nullam ut allevationem quisquam non stultissimus sperare debeat1 ,fam4 ,,ix1 #a2 ,sulla coactus est in adversis fortunis sine ullo remedio atque allevamento permanere1 ,sulla1 #ff4 ,besides alimentum there are two other nouns1 formed on the verb alo1 alimonium and alimonia1 which also mean support or nourishment1 as seen from these parallel examples3 plus alimenti in pane quam in ullo alio est1 ,cels4 #b1 #ah2 quid temperatus ab alimonio panis1 cui rei dedistis nomen castus81 ,arn4 #e1 #af2 amisso omni naturalis alimoniae fundamento1 homo exhaustus intereat1 ,gell4 #ag1 #ae1 #e4 ,although -tus is also usually considered as forming nomina actionis1 the example of cruciatus clearly is parallel with that of cruciamentum3 confectus iam cruciatu maximorum dolorum1 ne id quidem scribere possim1 quod44441 ,att4 ,,xi4 #aa1 #a2 nec graviora sunt tormenta carnificum1 quam interdum cruciamenta morborum1 ,phil4 #aa1 #d4 ,calceamentum1 8shoe0 or covering for the feet1 has two accessory forms1 calceamen and calceatus1 which are synonymous with it 7the former being found only in ,pliny73 mihi est calciamentum solorum callum1 amictui ,scythicum tegimen1 ,t4 #e1 #ij2 vestitu calceatuque et cetero habitu neque patrio neque civili usus est1 ,suet4 ,calig4 #eb2 hinc sparto strata rusticis eorum1 hinc ignes facesque1 hinc calceamina et pastorum vestis1 ,plin4 #ai1 #b1 #g4 ,the use of ad and a gerund after both invitatio and invitamenta indicate their lack of difference in meaning in these two instances3 ad eundem fontem revertendum est1 aegritudinem omnem abesse a sapiente1 quod inanis sit1 quod frustra suscipiatur1 quod non natura exoriatur1 sed iudicio1 sed opinione sed quadam invitatione ad dolendum1 cum id decreverimus ita fieri oportere1 ,t4 #c1 #hb2 quocirca intellegi necesse est in ipsis rebus1 quae discuntur et cognoscuntur1 invitamenta inesse1 quibus ad discendum cognoscendumque moveamur1 ,f4 #e1 #eb4 ,munitio is another -tio noun that ordinarily has verbal force1 but not at all infrequently it coincides in meaning with both munimen and munimentum3 cum urbem operibus munitionibusque saepsisset1 ,phil4 #ac1 #i1 #bj2 castella et munitiones idoneis locis imponens1 ,tac4 ,a4 #c1 #gd4 ,the genitives following munimen and munitio are alike in meaning and function1 both being appositional3 confisus munitione fossae1 ,b4 ,c4 #a1 #db1 #c2 narrat esse locum solidae tectum munimine molis1 ,ov4 ,m4 #d1 #gga4 ,munimentum is used of the same kind of 8fortification03 fossa1 haud parvum munimentum1 ,liv4 #a1 #cc1 #g4 ,natura and ignis are the similar elements in the following contexts that indicate the identity in meaning between nutrimen and nutrimentum3 nempe ubi terra cibos alimentaque pinguia flammae non dabit absumptis per longum viribus aevum naturaeque suum nutrimen deerit edaci1 ,ov4 ,m4 #ae1 #ced2 suscepit ignem foliis atque arida circum nutrimenta dedit1 ,aen4 #a1 #agf4 ,in the first example1 curiously enough1 nutrimen seems to be also synonymous with alimenta in the second line before it4 ,nato and puerorum following oblectamina and oblectamenta indicate identity in meaning1 although the latter is still vague1 while the former is specified by 8flores03 carpserat flores1 quos oblectamina nato porrigeret1 ,ov4 ,m4 #i1 #cdb2 obsecro te non ut vincla virorum sint1 sed ut oblectamenta puerorum1 ,par4 #e1 #b1 #ch4 ,we have the clear testimony of ,varro that operculum and operimentum are both used to mean 8covering03 quibus operibantur operimenta et opercula dixerunt1 ,varro1 ,l4 ,l4 #e1 #afg2 and the fact is illustrated by the following examples1 in which both are used in the ablative after tego3 aspera arteria tegitur quasi quodam operculo1 ,n4 #b1 #ed2 nuces gemino protectae operimento sunt1 ,plin4 #ae1 #bb4 ,both ornatus and ornamentum are used of a speech1 oratio3 mihi eripuisti ornamentum orationis meae1 ,planc4 #hc2 reliqua quasi lumina afferunt magnum ornatum orationi1 ,or4 #ci1 #acd4 ,the following examples of these nouns1 although still general in meaning1 are interesting as being used with the verb which is their stem3 ornatus appellatur cultus ipse1 quo quis ornatur1 ,fest4 #ahd2 hominem cum ornamentis omnibus exornatum adducite ad me1 ,bacc4 #gef4 ,although the circumstances in the following passages are not alike1 the immediate contexts are similar enough to show that sarmen and sarmentum have the same meaning3 iam iubeo ignem et sarmen arae1 carnifex1 circumdari1 ,most4 #aaad2 ligna et sarmenta ignemque circumdare coeperunt1 ,verr4 #b1 #a1 #fi4 ,tegimen and tegimentum both mean a covering for the body3 mihi amictui ,scythicum tegimen est1 ,t4 #e1 #ij2 pennarum contextu corpori tegimentum faciebat1 ,f4 #e1 #cb4 ,as shown earlier in this paper1 tinnimentum in its single occurrence undoubtedly means a 8tinkling0 in the ears1 caused by chattering talk2 tinnitus also seems to mean the same thing in the following contexts3 cuminum silvestre auribus instillatur ad sonitus atque tinnitus1 ,plin4 #bj1 #ae1 #eg2 illud tinnimentumst auribus1 ,rud4 #hjf4 ,if there is any difference between vestitus and vestimentum in these two examples1 it is difficult to find3 credo te audisse1 venisse1 eo muliebri vestitu virum1 ,att4 ,i1 #ac1 #c2 mulierem aequomst vestimentum muliebre dare foras1 virum virile1 ,men4 #fei4 ,from the fragments in ,nonius we find that two of our -mentum nouns have accessory forms in -menta 7fem47 with the same meaning3 ipsius armentas ad easdem1 ,ennius ap4 ,non4 #aij1 #bj2 tu cornifrontes pascere armentas soles1 ,pacuvius ap4 ,non4 #aij1 #bb2 labei labuntur saxa1 caementae cadunt1 ,ennius ap4 ,non4 #aif1 #cj4 ,b4 ,,parallels ,,of -,,bulum ,,and ,,accessory ,,suffixes ,latibulum and latebra3 repente te tamquam serpens e latibulis intulisti1 ,vat4 #b2 curvis frustra defensa latebris vipera1 ,georg4 #c1 #edd2 cum etiam ferae latibulis se tegant1 ,rab4 ,post4 #ae1 #db2 ,maenala transieram latebris horrenda ferarum1 ,ov4 ,m4 #a1 #baf4 ,latibulum is an example of a word that could not be used in verse on account of the quantity of its syllables4 ,common elements in the context show identity of meaning in sedile and sessibulum3 cum pater assedisset appositumque esset aliud filio quoque eius sedile1 ,gell4 #b1 #b1 #h2 asside istic1 nam prae metu latronum nulla sessibula parare nobis licet1 ,app4 ,met4 #a4 ,varro 7,l4 ,l4 #h1 #ed7 says that a form sediculum is also correctly made1 but not in use4 ,stabulatio1 another apparent verbal noun1 must mean the same as stabulum in the following examples1 both on account of the adjective and the general significance of the passages3 hibernae stabulationi eorum 7cattle7 praeparanda sunt stramenta1 ,col4 #f1 #c1 #a2 iubeo stabula a ventis hiberno opponere soli1 ,georg4 #c1 #cjb4 ,besides a few examples in ,arnobius1 only one instance of vocamen is found1 in ,lucretius1 but that it means the same as vocabulum can be seen from the parallel passages3 si quis ,bacchi nomine abuti ,mavult quam laticis proprium proferre vocamen1 ,lucr4 #b1 #feg2 si res suum nomen et vocabulum proprium non habet1 ,de ,or4 ,,iii1 #aei4 ,c4 ,,parallels ,,of -,,culum ,,and ,,accessory ,,suffixes ,among -culum words1 we find cenaculum having an accessory form cenatio that has1 not the verbal idea1 but the genuine meaning of place for eating1 while cenaculum has lost its literal meaning and taken a more general signification3 vel cubiculum grande vel modica cenatio sit quae plurimo sole lucet1 ,plin4 ,ep4 #b1 #ag1 #aj2 nos ampliores triginta vidimus in cenatione quam ,callistus exaedificaverat1 ,plin4 #cf1 #g1 #ab2 ubi cubabant1 cubiculum1 ubi cenabant1 cenaculum vocitabant2 posteaquam in superiore parte cenitare coeperunt superioris domus universa cenacula dicta1 ,varro1 ,l4 ,l4 #e1 #afb4 ,on the stem curro there are three nouns1 all signifying 8a running03 exercent sese ad cursuram1 ,most4 #hfa2 ibi cursu1 luctando sese exercebant1 ,bacc4 #dbh2 unum curriculum face1 ,trin4 #aajc4 ,a use of curriculum with exerceo would parallel the first two examples1 but in such a case it takes on the meaning of place 7running course73 cum athletae se exercentes in curriculo videret1 ,c4 #bg4 ,in the same paragraph deversorium and deverticulum are used of the same place3 ut in deversorium eius vim magnam gladiorum inferri clam sineret1 ,liv4 #a1 #ea2 cum gladii abditi ex omnibus locis deverticuli protraherentur1 ,liv4 #a1 #ea4 ,feretrum and ferculum both are used depending on suspensa in the two following examples1 but mean different kinds of 8instruments for carrying03 quis opima volenti dona ,iovis portet feretro suspensa cruento1 ,sil4 #e1 #afh2 spolia ducis hostium caesi suspensa fabricato ad id apte ferculo gerens in ,capitolium ascendit1 ,liv4 #a1 #aj1 #e4 ,the stem cerno 7sift7 forms two nouns which both mean a sieve1 although the use of them side by side indicates that there must be some difference2 as there are no other examples of incerniculum1 this difference cannot be discovered3 in torcularium quod opus est cribrum unum1 incerniculum unum1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 ,i1 #ac1 #c2 caseum per cribrum facito transeat in mortarium1 ,cato1 ,r4 ,r4 #gf1 #c4 ,in the following examples1 spiramen and spiracula are both used to mean 8breathing holes0 in the earth or universe1 while spiramenta is applied to the cells in a beehive3 sunt qui spiramina terris esse putent magnosque cavae compages hiatus1 ,lucan1 #aj1 #bdg2 quasi per magni circum spiracula mundi exitus introitusque elementis redditus exstat1 ,lucr4 #f1 #dic2 apes in tectis certatim tenuia cera spiramenta linunt1 ,georg4 #d1 #ci4 ,no difference can be seen in spectamen and spectaculum in these examples3 miserum funestumque spectamen aspexi1 ,app4 ,m4 #d1 #aea2 potius quam hoc spectaculum viderem1 ,mil4 #ch1 #ajc2 constitutur in foro ,laodiceae spectaculum acerbum et miserum1 ,verr4 ,i1 #gf4 ,,chapter ,v ,,suffixes ,,and ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,adaptation ,as stated in the introductory chapter1 it has been the primary object of this paper to examine certain word-building suffixes for the purpose of finding out1 if possible1 what the force of the suffixes themselves is1 and how the nouns formed with them get their meaning4 ,the material presented has1 it is hoped1 shown that these nouns are capable of wide semantic variation1 the influencing elements being the verb stem and context 7the former exerting greater influence than the latter72 also that these suffixes overlap with other suffixes in forming words of identical semantic content to such an extent that they cannot be said to have any sort of fundamental meaning whatever4 ,this is the significance of our investigation in so far as semantics is concerned4 ,but it is possible also to connect our results with another question1 the entire solution of which will doubtless never be possible1 at least not soon2 viz41 the theory of the origin of inflection4 ,nothing but mere suggestion can be made in this direction from the conclusions of this study2 the field will need much wider working-over before any thing definite can be asserted4 ,of the two chief explanations of the origin of inflection1 one1 the theory of adaptation1 as held at the present time1 answers the question by saying that 8inflectional endings are not essentially different from word-building suffixes1 but are rather to be regarded as word-building suffixes in a new rle and partially systematized into paradigms4 ,inflection comes at the point--wherever in the long course of development that point may be--where the endings of two or more different forms of a word begin to be felt to be the carriers of relations of case1 or of mode and tense1 to a certain extent independently of stem and context4 ,it is therefore not properly a matter of forms1 but of meanings1 and that theory which accounts for the meanings and for their association with forms explains inflection1 whether it accounts for the forms or not40#ahh ,in other words1 inflectional forms got their meanings in a manner similar to that we have illustrated in the case of our nouns4 7#a47 ,the apparent definiteness that case-endings have does depend largely on their stem-meaning4 ,many of the functional distinctions of case can be made only by the meaning of the nouns1 e4 g41 in 8gladiis pugnatum est01 ,caes4 ,b4 ,g4 #a1 #eb2 8uno tempore omnibus locis pugnatur10 ,b4 ,g4 #g1 #hd2 8pugnatum continenter horis quinque vario certamine10 ,b4 ,c4 #a1 #df1 we have five ablatives1 expressing instrument1 time when1 duration of time1 manner1 and place1 only because the words in the ablative are capable of these meanings4 ,just so1 we saw that our nouns got their general meaning of instrument1 place1 result of action1 etc41 because their verb stems were such as to admit of such meaning4 7#b47 ,while our nouns naturally get an important part of their meaning from the verb stem1 yet they derive great specialization of meaning from some element in the context4 ,it is very probable1 too1 that originally our so-called inflectional system was in reality only a large number of undifferentiated forms which1 by a process of centralization and adaptation1 and influenced by the associations in which they were used1 acquired their present meaning4 7#c47 ,the variety and overlapping of suffixes may also be paralleled by case-endings2 for example1 in both the first and second declensions the same form serves for the dative and ablative plural1 while there is another form for the other declensions4 ,the genitive singular1 and nominative and accusative plural of the fourth declension are alike in form4 ,in the historical language1 the genitive singular1 dative singular1 and nominative plural of the first declension have become identical in form4 ,other similar comparisons might be drawn to illustrate the similarity in meaning of forms with different endings1 and from the verb as well as the noun4 ,the very fact that we have five declensions and four conjugations1 with many variations inside the system and irregularities outside1 goes to show that it is not real system that we have here1 but the survival of an original mass of undifferentiated forms1 which through a long period of development have acquired their present inflectional meaning4 ,the parallel suggested here is put forth merely as a suggestion2 all we can say is1 that it is possible that inflectional forms did get their meaning in some such way as the nouns treated in this paper got theirs4 ,more evidence will be necessary for establishing this theory1 if it can be established at all4 ,,index ,,of ,,words acetabulum1 #bf additamentum1 #ah1 #cb adiumentum1 #ah1 #de adminiculum1 #bg alimentum1 #ac1 #dg allevamentum1 #bj1 #dg ammentum1 #ac antepagmentum1 #af argumentum1 #bj1 #cf armamentum1 #ac armentum1 #ad1 #di atramentum1 #ah auctoramentum1 #bj baculum1 #bg blandimentum1 #ba1 #de caementum1 #aa1 #di calceamentum1 #ad1 #dg cenaculum1 #bi1 #ej coagmentum1 #af cognomentum1 #bc complementum1 #ba conciliabulum1 #be1 #ci condimentum1 #af conventiculum1 #bi1 #dj cruciamentum1 #ah1 #dg cubiculum1 #bi cunabulum1 #bf curriculum1 #cj1 #ej dehonestamentum1 #ai1 #cc delectamentum1 #aa1 #cc delenimentum1 #ah deliramentum1 #ai dentifrangibulum1 #be deridiculum1 #cj1 #cc desidiabulum1 #bf detrimentum1 #ai deverticulum1 #bi1 #ej documentum1 #ba1 #cc1 #cf1 #df emolumentum1 #ai everriculum1 #bg1 #cc exorabulum1 #be experimentum1 #bc1 #cf1 #de explementum1 #ba ferculum1 #bg1 #ea ferramentum1 #ag firmamentum1 #bb1 #cf1 #df formamentum1 #bj1 #df fragmentum1 #aa1 #cc frumentum1 #ae fundamentum1 #af1 #cc1 #df gubernaculum1 #bg hibernaculum1 #bi hortamentum1 #bb1 #cc1 #dg hostimentum1 #ba ientaculum1 #cj impedimentum1 #af inanimentum1 #ai incerniculum1 #bg1 #ea incitamentum1 #ba1 #cc1 #cd incunabulum1 #bf infundibulum1 #bd instrumentum1 #ad1 #cg integumentum1 #ad1 #cc1 #ce intertrimentum1 #ai invitamentum1 #ba1 #cd1 #dg irritamentum1 #ba1 #cd1 #dd iugumentum1 #ae iumentum1 #ae latibulum1 #be1 #ci1 #di laxamentum1 #ai levamentum1 #bb1 #de libamentum1 #ae libramentum1 #bb lineamentum1 #bc lomentum1 #ae lutamentum1 #ab medicamentum1 #ac1 #de mendicabulum1 #bf miraculum1 #cj molimentum1 #bc1 #de momentum1 #bj1 #de monumentum1 #ad1 #ce munimentum1 #dh nidamentum1 #ag nucifrangibulum1 #be nutrimentum1 #af1 #dh oblectamentum1 #bb1 #dh omentum1 #af operculum1 #bh operimentum1 #ac1 #dh opprobramentum1 #bb oraculum1 #ca1 #dj oramentum1 #bc ornamentum1 #ad1 #cc1 #cg1 #dh pabulum1 #be1 #ci patibulum1 #bd pavimentum1 #ab periculum1 #cj1 #da perpendiculum1 #bh piaculum1 #bh1 #da pigmentum1 #af poculum1 #bh praepedimentum1 #bb propugnaculum1 #bi1 #cc prostibulum1 #bf pulpamentum1 #ag ramentum1 #aa receptaculum1 #bi redimiculum1 #bh retinaculum1 #bh rutabulum1 #bd saeculum1 #cj saepimentum1 #ad salsamentum1 #ag sarculum1 #bh sarmentum1 #ab1 #di scitamentum1 #ah sessibulum1 #be1 #ej sicilimentum1 #ab sincipitamentum1 #ah spectaculum1 #cj1 #da1 #ea spiraculum1 #bh1 #ea stabilimentum1 #ad stabulum1 #be1 #cc1 #dj1 #ej sternumentum1 #bc stramentum1 #aa1 #ch1 #dd subligaculum1 #bh suffimentum1 #ac supplementum1 #ae tabernaculum1 #bi tegumentum1 #ac1 #ce1 #di temperamentum1 #bj termentum1 #bj testamentum1 #ab tinnimentum1 #bc1 #di tintinnabulum1 #bd tormentum1 #ae1 #ch turbamentum1 #bb turibulum1 #bf umbraculum1 #cj1 #da vehiculum1 #bi1 #db venabulum1 #be vestibulum1 #be vestimentum1 #ae1 #ci1 #di vocabulum1 #be1 #dj1 #ej ,,footnotes3 #aha ,cf4 ,morris1 ,principles and ,methods in ,latin ,syntax1 p4 #fe4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that this is only one direction in which semantic development takes place4 ,the opposite 7decrease of connotation7 is also observable as a definite line of semantic development4 #ahb ,this is one of four -mentum words which occur first in ,sallust4 ,the others are hortamentum1 irritamentum1 turbamentum4 ,norden mentions the use of -mentum words as a peculiarity of ,sallust's style 7,gercke und ,norden4 ,einleitung in die ,alt4 ,wiss4 ,i4 #egh71 but with the exception of these four words1 which occur1 moreover1 only once each in this author1 the examples scarcely justify the statement4 #ahc ,cf4 ,festus1 p4 #ch3 conciliabulum dicitur locus1 ubi in concilium venitur4 #ahd ,cf4 ,walde1 who gives as the etymology of this word1 ver7o7-stabulum1 in which 99uer 8door04 #ahe ,see ,mommsen1 ,rm4 ,gesch4 ,bk4 ,i1 ,ch4 ,,xv4 #ahf ,only those -culum words were examined which were not diminutives4 ,some of the words formed with this suffix do have diminutive meaning1 but for a diminutive to be formed on a verb stem is impossible4 #ahg ,cf4 ,varro1 ,lingua ,latina1 #e1 ,art4 #afb4 #ahh ,see the article by ,professors ,oertel and ,morris on ,the ,nature and ,origin of ,indo-,european ,inflection1 ,harvard ,class4 ,stud41 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #hi4 ,,end ,,of ,,volume ,,one ,,university ,,of ,,kansas ,,humanistic ,,studies ,,transcriber',s ,,notes3 ,this text contains ,greek phrases in several places and numerous words and phrases in ,latin4 ,greek and ,latin passages have been rendered as they appear in the original publication4 ,no attempt has been made to make corrections4 ,obvious punctuation errors have been repaired4 ,occasional missing commas have been left unchanged4 ,identifyable inconsistencies in punctuation in headings1 footnotes1 index1 and bibliography have been repaired4 ,variations in hyphenation and spelling1 particularly in the use of accent marks1 have1 for the most part1 been left unchanged4 ,if it was clear from the predominance of occurrences that the difference was due to a typo and not the intent of the author1 the correction was made4 ,however1 the variations were frequently the result of references or quotes from different sources and therefor the variations were left as found4 ,for instance1 the reader will find the following variations left as found in the original3 ,bocca-dell'-,verit also appears as ,bocca-dell'-,verita2 ,marriage la ,mode sometimes appears as ,marriage a la ,mode2 both ,lvy-,bruhl and ,levy-,bruhl are used2 ,de ,vulgari ,eloquio is also spelled ,de ,vulgario ,eloquio2 ,the ,rival ,queans is also given as ,the ,rival ,queens4 ,spelling of non-dialect wording in the text was made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book2 if no predominant preference was found1 or if there is only one occurrence of the word1 spelling was not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 occasional unbalanced quotation marks repaired4 ,the original text has duplicate words in several places4 ,for example1 ,page #cjh 444 8is only the the extension1 on ,latin soil02 ,page #adf 444 8matter to each each other04 ,these have been rendered as found without correction4 ,because of the propensity in this text for quotations starting and ending in the middle of a sentence1 ellipsis have been rendered as found in the text with no assumptions made as to the ending of sentences within quotations4 ,ellipsis that are obviously errors have been standardized to common usage4 ,in several places within the ,english text and in the ,latin phrases1 periods have apparently been used to represent missing letters in a word or name4 ,these have been rendered as found in the original4 ,there are several typographical errors in sequential numbering in the ,appendix for section #c1 the paper on ,browning and ,italian ,arts and ,artists4 ,on page #bec1 the section shown in the original as 8,,iv4 ,pippa ,passes40 should be numbered 8,,iii40 if properly sequenced4 ,on page #beh1 the section shown in the original as 8,,xx4 ,pacchiarotto and ,how ,he ,worked in ,distemper40 should be numbered 8,,xxiv40 if properly sequenced4 ,on page #beg1 under 8,,xx4 ,the ,ring and the ,book01 the numbering skips for 8#h0 to 8#aj01 leaving out 8#i04 ,all these have been repaired4 ,in the ,appendix for section #c1 the paper on ,browning and ,italian ,arts and ,artists1 some of the ,roman ,numerals are in parenthesis4 ,about a third of them have the period inside the parenthesis i4e4 7,,iii47 and about #b_/c have the period outside the parenthesis i4e4 7,,iii744 ,no attempt has been made to standardize these4 ,they have been left as found in the original text4