,,hegel',s ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,volume ,,"o ,hegel's ,lectures on ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,translat$ f ! ,g]man by ,e4 ,s4 ,,haldane ,9 ?ree volumes ,,volume ,,"o ,illu/ration ,,r\tl$ge ,,kegan ,,paul ,,ltd ,broadway ,h\se1 #fh-gd ,c>t] ,lane ,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,fir/ publi%$ 9 ,engl& #ahib by ,kegan ,paul1 ,tr5*1 ,trbn] ,co4 ,ltd ,repr9t$ #aiee by ,r\tl$ge ,kegan ,paul ,ltd ,broadway ,h\se1 #fh-gd ,c>t] ,lane ,london1 ,e4,c4#d ,repr9t$ by li?ography 9 ,great ,brita9 by ,j>rold & ,sons ,limit$1 ,norwi* ,,translator',s ,,note ,,x is p]haps unnecess>y to say any?+ respect+ ! difficulty ( mak+ any adequate translation ( ,hegel's writ+s4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 t difficulty is possibly enhanc$ by ! fact t ! great] "p ( ! book is put toge!r f ! notes ( diff]5t c\rses ( lectures deliv]$ on ! subject at v>i\s times4 ,hegel1 z we le>n f ,mi*elet1 9 8 preface to ! fir/ edition ( ?is "w1 lectur$ 9 all n9e times on ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy3 fir/ 9 ,j5a 9 #ahje-ahjf1 !n 9 ,heidelb]g 9 #ahaf-ahag & #ahag-ahah1 & ! o!r six times 9 ,b]l9 betwe5 ! ye>s #ahai & #ahcj4 ,he _h begun ! t5? c\rse on ! subject 9 #ahca :5 dea? cut 8 lab\rs %ort4 ,x 0 only = ! fir/ c\rse ( lectures--t deliv]$ 9 ,j5a--t ,hegel fully wrote out 8 lectures2 ?is 0 evid5tly done ) ! int5tion ( future publication 9 book =m4 ,at ,heidelb]g he compos$ a %ort ab/ract ( 8 subject1 giv+ 9 a few t]se words ! ma9 po9ts dealt ) 9 ea* sy/em ( ,philosophy4 ,9 ! lat] c\rses ( lectures ,hegel tru/$ to extempore speak+1 b at ! same "t made consid]able use ( ! above writ+s1 ! m>g9s ( :i* he annotat$ ) subsequ5t additions4 ,besides ^! annotations he left beh9d him a l>ge numb] ( miscellane\s notes1 :i* h prov$ ( ! greate/ value4 ,! pres5t translation is tak5 f ! second & am5d$ edition ( ! 8,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie10 publi%$ 9 #ahdj4 ,?is edition is d]iv$ f no "o set ( lectures 9 p>ticul>1 b c>efully prep>$ by ,mi*elet--himself "o ( ,hegel's pupils--f all available s\rces1 includ+ ! notes ( /ud5ts4 ,! ,j5a volume is1 h[ev]1 made ! basis1 z repres5t+ ! ma9 elem5ts ( ! subject aft]w>ds to be m fully amplifi$2 or1 9 ,mi*elet's words1 z ! skeleton :i* 0 aft]w>ds to be clo!d ) fle%4 ,i h endeav\r$ to make ?is translation z lit]al z possible consi/5tly ) intelligibility1 & h attempt$1 s f> z might be1 to give ! recogniz$ symbols = ! words = :i* we h 9 ,engli% no satisfactory equival5ts4 8,begriff10 :5 us$ 9 its te*nical s5se1 is translat$ by 8,notion10 8,idee0 by 8,idea10 z di/+ui%$ f ! colloquial 8idea02 8,vor/ellung0 is usually r5d]$ by 8popul>0 or 8ord9>y conception40 ,miss ,frances ,h4 ,simson has r5d]$ v valuable assi/ance 9 go+ c>efully ov] mo/ ( ! pro(s ( ! fir/ volume1 & %e is n[ engag$ ) me 9 ! translation ( ! volumes foll[+4 ,e4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,introduction #a ,a4 ,notion ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #g #a4 ,common ,ideas reg>d+ ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #aj #b4 ,explanatory rem>ks ^u ! ,def9ition ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #ai #c4 ,results obta9$ ) respect to ! ,notion ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #bi ,b4 ,! ,relation ( ,philosophy to o!r ,dep>tm5ts ( ,k #di #a4 ,! ,hi/orical side ( ?is ,connection #ej #b4 ,sep>ation ( ,philosophy f o!r alli$ dep>tm5ts ( ,k #ee #c4 ,comm5cem5t ( ,philosophy & its ,hi/ory #id ,c4 ,division1 ,s\rces1 & ,me?od adopt$ 9 treat+ ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #aja #a4 ,division ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #aja #b4 ,s\rces ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #aaj #c4 ,me?od ( ,treatm5t adopt$ #aad ,,ori5tal ,,philosophy #aag ,a4 ,*9ese ,philosophy #aai #a4 ,confucius #abj #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,y-k+ #aba #c4 ,! ,sect ( ! ,tao-,see #abd ,b4 ,indian ,philosophy #abe #a4 ,! ,sanc'hya ,philosophy ( ,capila #abh #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,gotama & ,canade #ada ,,"p ,,"o ,,greek ,,philosophy ,introduction #adi ,! ,sev5 ,sages #aef ,division ( ! ,subject #afc ,,section ,,"o ,,*apt] ,i4--,,fir/ ,,p]iod1 ,,fir/ ,,division #aff ,a4 ,! ,ionic ,philosophy #aga #a4 ,?ales #aga #b4 ,anaxim&] #ahe #c4 ,anaxim5es #ahi ,b4 ,py?agoras & ! ,py?agoreans #aid #a4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,numb]s #bjh #b4 ,application ( ! ,sy/em to ! ,univ]se #bbd #c4 ,practical ,philosophy #bce ,c4 ,! ,eleatic ,s*ool #bci #a4 ,x5ophanes #bda #b4 ,p>m5ides #bdi #c4 ,melissus #beg #d4 ,z5o #bfa ,d4 ,h]aclitus #bgh #a4 ,! ,logical ,pr9ciple #bhb #b4 ,natural ,philosophy #bhe #c4 ,relation ( ! ,pr9ciple to ,consci\sness #bic ,e4 ,emp$ocles1 ,leucippus & ,democritus #bih #a4 ,leucippus & ,democritus #bii a4 ,! ,logical ,pr9ciple #cjb b4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,_w #cjd c4 ,! ,s\l #caj #b4 ,emp$ocles #caj ,f4 ,philosophy ( ,anaxagoras #cai #a4 ,! ,univ]sal ,pr9ciple #cbi #b4 ,! ,homom]i #ccc #c4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,two #cci ,,*apt] ,,ii4--,,fir/ ,,p]iod1 ,,second ,,division #cej ,a4 ,! ,sophi/s #ceb #a4 ,protagoras #cgb #b4 ,gorgias #cgh ,b4 ,socrates #chd #a4 ,! ,socratic ,me?od #cig #b4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,good #djf #c4 ,! ,fate ( ,socrates #dbe ,c4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,socratics #ddh #a4 ,! ,meg>ics #ded a4 ,euclides #dee b4 ,eubulides #def c4 ,/ilpo #dfd #b4 ,! ,cyr5aic ,s*ool #dfi a4 ,ari/ippus #dgj b4 ,!odoras #dge c4 ,hegesias #dgg d4 ,annic]is #dgh #c4 ,! ,cynic ,s*ool #dgi a4 ,anti/h5es #dha b4 ,diog5es #dhd c4 ,lat] ,cynics #dhf ,,inaugural ,,address ,,deliv]$ ,,at ,,heidelb]g ,,on ,,! #bh,,? ,,octob]1 #ahaf ,,g5tlem51--,s9ce ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy is to be ! subject ( ^! lectures1 & to-day ,i am mak+ my fir/ appe>ance 9 ?is ,univ]sity1 ,i hope y w all[ me to say :at satisfaction x gives me to take my place once m 9 an ,academy ( ,le>n+ at ?is p>ticul> "t4 ,= ! p]iod seems to h be5 arriv$ at :5 ,philosophy may aga9 hope to receive "s att5tion & love--?is almo/ dead sci5ce may aga9 raise its voice1 & hope t ! _w :i* _h become deaf to its tea*+1 may once m l5d x an e>4 ,! necessities ( ! "t h accord$ to ! petty int]e/s ( e-day life su* ov]:elm+ att5tion3 ! deep int]e/s ( actuality & ! /rife respect+ ^! h engross$ all ! p[]s & ! =ces ( ! m9d--z also ! necess>y means--to s great an ext5t1 t no place has be5 left to ! high] inw>d life1 ! intellectual op]ations ( a pur] sort2 & ! bett] natures h ?us be5 /unt$ 9 _! gr[?1 & 9 great measure sacrific$4 ,because ! _s ( ! _w 0 ?us occupi$1 x c\ld n look )9 & )draw into itself4 ,b s9ce ?is /ream ( actuality is *eck$1 s9ce ! ,g]man nation has cut its way out ( its mo/ mat]ial conditions1 s9ce its nationality1 ! basis ( all high] life1 has be5 sav$1 we may hope t1 9 addition to ! ,/ate1 :i* has swall[$ up all o!r int]e/s 9 its own1 ! ,*ur* may n[ resume h] high position--t 9 addition to ! k+dom ( ! _w to :i* all ?\ghts & ef=ts h hi!rto be5 direct$2 ! ,k+dom ( ,god may also be consid]$4 ,9 o!r words1 along ) ! bus9ess ( politics & ! o!r int]e/s ( e-day life1 we may tru/ t ,sci5ce1 ! free rational _w ( m9d1 may aga9 fl\ri%4 ,we %all see 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy t 9 o!r ,european c\ntries 9 :i* ! sci5ces & ! cultivation ( ! und]/&+ h be5 prosecut$ ) zeal & ) respect1 ,philosophy1 except+ 9 "n1 has sunk ev5 f memory1 & t x is 9 ! ,g]man nation t x has be5 reta9$ z a peculi> possession4 ,we h receiv$ ! high] call ( ,nature to be ! cons]v]s ( ?is holy flame1 j z ! ,eumolpid 9 ,a!ns _h ! cons]vation ( ! ,eleus9ian my/]ies1 ! inhabitants ( ! isl& ( ,samo?race ! pres]vation & ma9t5ance ( a high] div9e s]vice2 & z1 e>li] /ill1 ! ,_w-_s res]v$ to ! ,jewi% nation ! highe/ consci\sness t x %\ld once m rise f !nce z a new spiritual =ce4 ,we h already got s f>1 & h atta9$ to a s]i\sness s mu* great] & a consci\sness s mu* deep]1 t = u ideas & t :i* our reason ju/ifies1 c alone h weight2 to speak m pla9ly1 ! ,prussian ,/ate is a ,/ate con/itut$ on pr9ciples ( intellig5ce4 ,b ! ne$s ( ! "t & ! int]e/s ( ! ev5ts 9 ! _w already m5tion$1 h repress$ a real & e>ne/ ef=t aft] ,philosophy & driv5 h5ce any g5]al att5tion to x4 ,x has ?us happ5$ t because vigor\s natures turn$ to ! practical1 insipidity & dulness appropriat$ to !mselves ! preem95ce 9 ,philosophy & fl\ri%$ !re4 ,x may inde$ be said t s9ce ,philosophy began to take a place 9 ,g]many1 x has nev] look$ s badly z at ! pres5t "t--nev] h empt9ess & %all[ness ov]laid x s completely1 & nev] h !y spok5 & act$ ) su* arrogance1 z ?\gh all p[] 7 9 _! h&s6 ,to combat ! %all[ness1 to /rive ) ,g]man e>ne/ness & hone/y1 to draw ,philosophy out ( ! solitude into :i* x has w&]$--to d su* "w z ?is we may hope t we are call$ by ! high] _s ( our "t4 ,let u toge!r greet ! dawn ( a bett] "t 9 :i* ! _s1 hi!rto a prey to ext]nalities1 may return )9 itself1 come to itself aga91 & w9 space & room = a k+dom ( its own1 :]e true m9ds w rise above ! int]e/s ( ! mom5t1 & obta9 ! p[] to receive ! true1 et]nal & div9e1 ! p[] to consid] & to grasp ! highe/4 ,we eld]s1 :o 9 ! /orms ( ! age h rip5$ into m51 may ?9k y happy ^: y\? falls 9 ! day 9 :i* y may devote ! same undi/urb$ to ,sci5ce & to ,tru?4 ,i h d$icat$ my life to ,sci5ce1 & x is a true joy to me to f9d myself aga9 9 ?is place :]e ,i may1 9 a high] measure & m ext5sive circle1 "w ) o!rs 9 ! int]e/s ( ! high] sci5ces1 & help to direct y\r way !re94 ,i hope t ,i may succe$ 9 des]v+ & obta9+ y\r confid5ce4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i c ask no?+ ( y b to br+ ) y1 above all1 a tru/ 9 sci5ce & a tru/ 9 y\rselves4 ,! love ( tru?1 fai? 9 ! p[] ( m9d1 is ! fir/ condition 9 ,philosophy4 ,man1 because he is ,m9d1 %\ld & mu/ deem himself wor?y ( ! highe/2 he _c ?9k too highly ( ! greatness & ! p[] ( 8 m9d1 &1 ) ?is belief1 no?+ w be s difficult & h>d t x w n reveal itself to him4 ,! ,be+ ( ! univ]se1 at fir/ hidd5 & conceal$1 has no p[] :i* c (f] resi/ance to ! se>* = k2 x has to lay itself op5 be=e ! seek]--to set be=e 8 eyes & give = 8 enjoym5t1 its ri*es & its dep?s4 ,,prefatory ,,note ,,9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy ! obs]vation is imm$iately =c$ ^u u t x c]ta9ly pres5ts great int]e/ if its subject is reg>d$ f a fav\rable po9t ( view1 b t x w\ld /ill possess int]e/ ev5 if its end 7 reg>d$ z opposite to :at x is4 ,inde$1 ?is int]e/ may seem to increase 9 ! degree 9 :i* ! ord9>y conception ( ,philosophy1 & ( ! end :i* its hi/ory s]ves1 is rev]s$2 = f ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy a pro( ( ! futility ( ! sci5ce is ma9ly d]iv$4 ,! dem& t a hi/ory1 :atev] ! subject may be1 %\ld /ate ! facts )\t prejudice & )\t any p>ticul> object or end to be ga9$ by its means1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a fair "o4 ,b ) a commonplace dem& l ?is1 we d n get f>2 = ! hi/ory ( a subject is necess>ily intimately connect$ ) ! conception :i* is =m$ ( x4 ,9 accordance ) ?is :at is important 9 x is det]m9$1 & ! relation ( ! ev5ts to ! end regulates ! selection ( facts to be record$1 ! mode ( compreh5d+ !m1 & ! po9t ( view "u :i* !y are reg>d$4 ,x may happ5 f ! ideas =m$ ( :at a ,/ate really is1 t a read] ( ! political hi/ory ( a c\ntry may f9d !re9 no?+ ( :at he looks =4 ,/ill m may ?is be ! case 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 & repres5tations ( ?is hi/ory may be in/anc$ 9 :i* ev]y?+1 except+ :at 0 suppos$ to be ,philosophy1 appe>s to be f\nd4 ,9 o!r hi/ories we h a cle> conception ( _! subjects1 at lea/ s f> z _! pr9cipal po9ts are conc]n$2 we "k :e!r !y conc]n a p>ticul> l&1 p or race1 or :e!r _! subject is ! sci5ce ( ma!matics1 physics1 c41 or an art1 su* z pa9t+4 ,! sci5ce ( ,philosophy has1 h[ev]1 ?is di/+ui%+ feature1 &1 if y w1 ?is disadvantage z comp>$ ) o!r sci5ces1 t we f9d ! mo/ v>i$ po9ts ( view z reg>ds its ,notion1 & reg>d+ t :i* x ought to & c accompli%4 ,if ?is fir/ assumption1 ! conception ( ! subject ( ! hi/ory1 is n e/abli%$1 ! hi/ory itself is necess>ily made vacillat+1 & x only obta9s consi/5cy :5 x sets =? a def9ite conception3 b !n 9 view ( ! v>i\s ways ( reg>d+ its subject1 x easily draws ^u itself ! reproa* ( "o-sid$ness4 ,t drawback relates1 h[ev]1 only to an ext]nal consid]ation ( ?is n>rative2 !re is ano!r & great] disadvantage alli$ to x4 ,if !re are diff]5t ,notions ( ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy1 x is ! true ,notion alone t puts u 9 a position to und]/& ! writ+s ( philosoph]s :o h work$ 9 ! k ( x4 ,= 9 ?\ght1 & p>ticul>ly 9 speculative ?\ght1 compreh5sion means some?+ q diff]5t f und]/&+ ! grammatical s5se ( ! words alone1 & also f und]/&+ !m 9 ! region ( ord9>y conception only4 ,h5ce we may possess a k ( ! ass]tions1 propositions1 or ( ! op9ions ( philosoph]s2 we may h occupi$ ourselves l>gely ) ! gr\nds ( & d$uctions f ^! op9ions1 & ! ma9 po9t 9 all t we h done may be want+--! compreh5sion ( ! propositions4 ,!re is h5ce no lack ( volum9\s & ev5 le>n$ hi/ories ( ,philosophy 9 :i* ! k ( ! matt] itself ab\t :i* s mu* ado has be5 made1 is abs5t4 ,! au?ors ( su* hi/ories may be comp>$ to animals :i* h li/5$ to all ! tones 9 "s music1 b to ^: s5ses ! unison1 ! h>mony ( _! tones1 has n p5etrat$4 ,! circum/ance m5tion$ makes x 9 no sci5ce s necess>y z 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy to comm5ce ) an ,introduction1 & 9 x correctly to def9e1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! subject ( ! hi/ory ab\t to be relat$4 ,= x may be said1 ,h[ %\ld we beg9 to treat a subject1 ! "n ( :i* is c]ta9ly m5tion$ (t5 en\gh1 b ( ^: nature we z yet "k no?+8 ,9 treat+ ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy ?us1 we c\ld h no o!r guidance ?an t ( seek+ out & tak+ up :atev] has receiv$ ! "n ( ,philosophy1 any:]e or any "t4 ,b 9 fact1 :5 ! ,notion ( ,philosophy is e/abli%$1 n arbitr>ily b 9 a sci5tific way1 su* treatm5t becomes ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy itself4 ,= 9 ?is sci5ce ! peculi> *>act]i/ic is t its ,notion =ms ! beg9n+ 9 appe>ance m]ely1 & x is only ! :ole treatm5t ( ! sci5ce t is ! pro(1 & inde$ we may say ! f9d+ ( its ,notion2 & ?is is really a result ( t treatm5t4 ,9 ?is ,introduction ! ,notion ( ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy1 ( ! subject ( its hi/ory1 has ?us likewise to be set =?4 ,at ! same "t1 ?\gh ?is ,introduction pr(esses to relate to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy only1 :at has j be5 said ( ,philosophy on ! :ole1 also holds good4 ,:at c be said 9 ?is ,introduction is n s mu* some?+ :i* may be /at$ be=eh&1 z :at c be ju/ifi$ or prov$ 9 ! treatm5t ( ! hi/ory4 ,^! prep>atory explanations are = ?is reason only1 n to be plac$ 9 ! category ( arbitr>y assumptions4 ,b to beg9 ) /at+ :at 9 _! ju/ification are really results1 c only h ! int]e/ :i* may be possess$ by a summ>y1 giv5 9 advance1 ( ! mo/ g5]al cont5ts ( a sci5ce4 ,x mu/ s]ve to set aside _m que/ions & dem&s :i* might1 f our ord9>y prejudices1 arise 9 su* a hi/ory4 ,,introduction ,,!re are v>i\s aspects "u :i* ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy may possess int]e/4 ,we %all f9d ! c5tral po9t ( ?is int]e/ 9 ! ess5tial connection exi/+ betwe5 :at is app>5tly pa/ & ! pres5t /age rea*$ by ,philosophy4 ,t ?is connection is n "o ( ! ext]nal consid]ations :i* may be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 b really expresses its inn] "*3 t ! ev5ts ( ?is hi/ory1 :ile !y p]petuate !mselves 9 _! effects l all o!r ev5ts1 yet produce _! results 9 a special way--?is x is :i* is "h to be m cle>ly exp\nd$4 ,:at ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy %[s u is a succession ( noble m9ds1 a gall]y ( h]oes ( ?\ght1 :o1 by ! p[] ( ,reason1 h p5etrat$ into ! be+ ( ?+s1 ( nature & ( _s1 into ! ,be+ ( ,god1 & h won = u by _! lab\rs ! highe/ treasure1 ! treasure ( reason$ k4 ,! ev5ts & actions ( ?is hi/ory are !re=e su* t p]sonality & individual "* d n ent] to any l>ge degree into its cont5t & matt]4 ,9 ?is respect ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy contra/s ) political hi/ory1 9 :i* ! individual1 accord+ to ! peculi>ity ( 8 disposition1 tal5ts1 affections1 ! /r5g? or weakness ( 8 "*1 & 9 g5]al1 accord+ to t ?r\gh :i* he is ?is individual1 is ! subject ( actions & ev5ts4 ,9 ,philosophy1 ! less des]ts & m]its are accord$ to ! p>ticul> individual1 ! bett] is ! hi/ory2 & ! m x deals ) ?\ght z free1 ) ! univ]sal "* ( man z man1 ! m ?is ?\ght1 :i* is devoid ( special *>act]i/ic1 is itself %[n to be ! produc+ subject4 ,! acts ( ?\ght appe> at fir/ to be a matt] ( hi/ory1 &1 !re=e1 ?+s ( ! pa/1 & outside our real exi/5ce4 ,b 9 reality we are :at we are ?r\gh hi/ory3 or1 m accurately1 z 9 ! hi/ory ( ,?\ght1 :at has pass$ away is only "o side1 s 9 ! pres5t1 :at we h z a p]man5t possession is ess5tially b\nd up ) our place 9 hi/ory4 ,! possession ( self-consci\s reason1 :i* belongs to u ( ! pres5t _w1 did n arise sudd5ly1 nor did x gr[ only f ! soil ( ! pres5t4 ,?is possession mu/ be reg>d$ z previ\sly pres5t1 z an inh]itance1 & z ! result ( lab\r--! lab\r ( all pa/ g5]ations ( m54 ,j z ! arts ( outw>d life1 ! accumulat$ skill & inv5tion1 ! cu/oms & arrangem5ts ( social & political life1 are ! result ( ! ?\ght1 c>e1 & ne$s1 ( ! want & ! mis]y1 ( ! +5uity1 ! plans & a*ievem5ts ( ^? :o prec$$ u 9 hi/ory1 s1 likewise1 9 sci5ce1 & specially 9 ,philosophy1 d we owe :at we are to ! tradition :i*1 z ,h]d] has put x1#a l a holy *a91 runs ?r\gh all t 0 transi5t1 & has !re=e pass$ away4 ,?us has be5 pres]v$ & transmitt$ to u :at antiquity produc$4 ,b ?is tradition is n only a /ew>dess :o simply gu>ds fai?fully t :i* %e has receiv$1 & ?us deliv]s x un*ang$ to po/]ity1 j z ! c\rse ( nature 9 ! inf9ite *ange & activity ( its =ms ev] rema9s con/ant to its orig9al laws & makes no /ep 9 advance4 ,su* tradition is no motionless /atue1 b is alive1 & swells l a mighty riv]1 :i* increases 9 size ! fur!r x advances f its s\rce4 ,! cont5t ( ?is tradition is t :i* ! intellectual _w has br\ght =?1 & ! univ]sal ,m9d does n rema9 /ation>y4 ,b x is j ! univ]sal ,m9d ) :i* we h to d4 ,x may c]ta9ly be ! case ) a s+le nation t its culture1 art1 sci5ce--its intellectual activities z a :ole--are at a /&/ill4 ,?is appe>s1 p]haps1 to be ! case ) ! ,*9ese1 = example1 :o may h be5 z f> advanc$ 9 e respect two ?\s& ye>s ago z n[4 ,b ! _w-_s does n s9k into ?is re/ ( indiff]5ce2 ?is foll[s f its v nature1 = its activity is its life4 ,?is activity presupposes a mat]ial already pres5t1 on :i* x acts1 & :i* x does n m]ely augm5t by ! addition1 ( new matt]1 b completely fa%ions & trans=ms4 ,?us t :i* ea* g5]ation has produc$ 9 sci5ce & 9 intellectual activity1 is an heirloom to :i* all ! pa/ g5]ations h add$ _! sav+s1 a temple 9 :i* all races ( m5 ?ankfully & *e]fully deposit t :i* r5d]$ aid to !m ?r\gh life1 & :i* !y _h won f ! dep?s ( ,nature & ( ,m9d4 ,to receive ?is inh]itance is also to ent] ^u its use4 ,x con/itutes ! s\l ( ea* successive g5]ation1 ! intellectual sub/ance ( ! "t2 its pr9ciples1 prejudices1 & possessions2 & ?is legacy is degrad$ to a mat]ial :i* becomes metamorphos$ by ,m9d4 ,9 ?is mann] t :i* is receiv$ is *ang$1 & ! mat]ial work$ ^u is bo? enri*$ & pres]v$ at ! same "t4 ,?is is ! function ( our own & ( e age3 to grasp ! k :i* is already exi/+1 to make x our own1 & 9 s do+ to develop x /ill fur!r & to raise x to a high] level4 ,9 ?us appropriat+ x to ourselves we make x into some?+ diff]5t f :at x 0 be=e4 ,on ! presupposition ( an already exi/+ intellectual _w :i* is trans=m$ 9 our appropriation ( x1 dep5ds ! fact t ,philosophy c only arise 9 connection ) previ\s ,philosophy1 f :i* ( necessity x has aris54 ,! c\rse ( hi/ory does n %[ u ! ,becom+ ( ?+s =eign to u1 b ! ,becom+ ( ourselves & ( our own k4 ,! ideas & que/ions :i* may be pres5t to our m9d reg>d+ ! "* & ends ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 dep5d on ! nature ( ! relation%ip "h giv54 ,9 ?is lies ! explanation ( ! fact t ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is an introduction to ,philosophy itself4 ,! guid+ pr9ciples = ! =mation ( ?is hi/ory are giv5 9 ?is fact1 ! fur!r discussion ( :i* mu/ ?us be ! ma9 object ( ?is introduction4 ,we mu/ also1 h[ev]1 keep 9 m9d1 z be+ ( fundam5tal importance1 ! conception ( ! aim ( ,philosophy4 ,& s9ce1 z already m5tion$1 ! sy/ematic exposition ( ?is conception _c "h f9d a place1 su* discussion z we c n[ und]take1 c only propose to deal ) ! subject provisionally & n to give a ?or\gh & conclusive acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! ,becom+ ( ,philosophy4 ,?is ,becom+ is n m]ely a passive movem5t1 z we suppose movem5ts su* z ^? ( ! sun & moon to be4 ,x is no m]e movem5t 9 ! unresi/+ m$ium ( space & "t4 ,:at we mu/ repres5t to ourselves is ! activity ( free ?\ght2 we h to pres5t ! hi/ory ( ! _w ( ?\ght z x has aris5 & produc$ itself4 ,!re is an old tradition t x is ! faculty ( ?\ght :i* sep>ates m5 f bea/s2 & to ?is tradition we %all adh]e4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 :at man has1 z be+ nobl] ?an a bea/1 he has ?r\gh ?9k+4 ,ev]y?+ :i* is human1 h[ev] x may appe>1 is s only because ! ?\ght conta9$ 9 x works & has work$4 ,b ?\ght1 al?\gh x is ?us ! ess5tial1 sub/antial1 & effectual1 has _m o!r elem5ts4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 consid] x be/ :5 ,?\ght does n pursue any?+ else1 b is occupi$ only ) itself--) :at is noble/--:5 x has s\ght & f\nd itself4 ,! hi/ory :i* we h be=e u is ! hi/ory ( ,?\ght f9d+ itself1 & x is ! case ) ,?\ght t x only f9ds itself 9 produc+ itself2 inde$1 t x only exi/s & is actual 9 f9d+ itself4 ,^! productions are ! philosophic sy/ems2 & ! s]ies ( discov]ies on :i* ,?\ght sets out 9 ord] to discov] itself1 =ms a "w :i* has la/$ tw5ty-five hundr$ ye>s4 ,if ! ,?\ght :i* is ess5tially ,?\ght1 is 9 & = itself & et]nal1 & t :i* is true is conta9$ 9 ,?\ght alone1 h[1 !n1 does ?is intellectual _w come to h a hi/ory8 ,9 hi/ory :at appe>s is transi5t1 has disappe>$ 9 ! night ( ! pa/ & is no m4 ,b true1 necess>y ?\ght--& x is only ) su* t we h to d--is capable ( no *ange4 ,! "q "h rais$ con/itutes "o ( ^? matt]s fir/ to be br\ght "u our consid]ation4 ,b 9 ! second place1 !re are also _m mo/ important ?+s outside ( ,philosophy1 :i* are yet ! "w ( ,?\ght1 & :i* are left unconsid]$4 ,su* are ,religion1 ,political ,hi/ory1 =ms ( ,gov]nm5t1 & ! ,arts & ,sci5ces4 ,! "q arises z to h[ ^! op]ations diff] f ! subject ( consid]ation1 & h[ !y are relat$ 9 hi/ory8 ,z reg>ds ^! two po9ts ( view1 x is desirable to %[ 9 :at s5se ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is "h tak51 9 ord] to see cle>ly :at we are ab\t4 ,moreov]1 9 ! ?ird place1 we mu/ fir/ take a g5]al survey be=e we desc5d to p>ticul>s1 else ! :ole is n se5 = ! m]e details--! wood is n se5 = ! trees1 nor ,philosophy = m]e philosophies4 ,we require to h a g5]al idea ( ! nature & aim ( ! :ole 9 ord] to "k :at to look =4 ,j z we fir/ desire to obta9 a g5]al idea ( a c\ntry1 :i* we %\ld no long] see 9 go+ into detail1 s we desire to see ! relation :i* s+le philosophies be> to ! :ole2 = 9 reality1 ! high value ( ! detail lies 9 its relation to ! :ole4 ,?is is n[h]e m ! case ?an ) ,philosophy1 & also ) its hi/ory4 ,9 ! case ( a hi/ory1 inde$1 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,univ]sal seems to be less ne$ful ?an 9 t ( "o ( ! sci5ces prop]4 ,= hi/ory seems at fir/ to be a succession ( *ance ev5ts1 9 :i* ea* fact /&s isolat$ by itself1 :i* has ,"t alone z a connect+-l9k4 ,b ev5 9 political hi/ory we are n satisfi$ ) ?is4 ,we see1 or at lea/ div9e 9 x1 t ess5tial connection 9 :i* ! individual ev5ts h _! place & relation to an end or aim1 & 9 ?is way obta9 significance4 ,= ! significant 9 hi/ory is su* only ?r\gh its relation to & connection ) a ,univ]sal4 ,to p]ceive ?is ,univ]sal is ?us to appreh5d ! significance4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 ! foll[+ po9ts ) :i* ,i wi% to deal 9 ?is introduction4 ,! fir/ ( ^! w be to inve/igate ! "* ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 its significance1 its nature1 & its aim1 f :i* w foll[ inf]5ces z to its treatm5t4 ,9 p>ticul>1 we %all get an insight into ! relation ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy to ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy1 & ?is w be ! mo/ int]e/+ po9t ( all4 ,t is to say1 ?is hi/ory repres5ts1 n m]ely ! ext]nal1 accid5tal1 ev5ts conta9$ )9 x1 b x %[s h[ ! cont5t1 or t :i* appe>s to belong to m]e hi/ory1 really belongs to ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy4 ,! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is itself sci5tific1 & ?us ess5tially becomes ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy4 ,9 ! second place1 ! ,notion ( ,philosophy mu/ be m adequately det]m9$1 & f x mu/ be d$uc$ :at %\ld be exclud$ f ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy out ( ! inf9ite mat]ial & ! manifold aspects ( ! intellectual culture ( ! nations4 ,religion1 c]ta9ly1 & ! ?\ghts conta9$ 9 & reg>d+ x1 p>ticul>ly :5 ^! are 9 ! =m ( my?ology1 are1 on acc\nt ( _! matt]1 & ! sci5ces ) _! ideas on ! /ate1 duties & laws1 on acc\nt ( _! =m1 s ne> ,philosophy t ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy ?reat5s to become q indef9ite 9 ext5t4 ,x might be suppos$ t ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy %\ld take acc\nt ( all ^! ideas4 ,has n ev]y?+ be5 call$ ,philosophy & philosophiz+8 ,on ! "o h&1 ! close connection has to be fur!r consid]$ 9 :i* ,philosophy /&s ) its alli$ subjects1 religion1 art1 ! o!r sci5ces1 & likewise ) political hi/ory4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! prov9ce ( ,philosophy has be5 correctly def9$1 we rea*1 ) ! det]m9ation ( :at ,philosophy is & :at p]ta9s to x1 ! />t+-po9t ( its hi/ory1 :i* mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! comm5cem5ts ( religi\s ideas & m]e ?\ghtful conjectures4 ,f ! idea ( ! subject :i* is conta9$ 9 ^! fir/ two po9ts ( view1 x is necess>y to pass on to ! consid]ation ( ! ?ird po9t1 to ! g5]al review ( ?is hi/ory & to ! division ( its progress into natural p]iods--su* an arrangem5t to exhibit x z an organic1 progressive :ole1 z a rational connection ?r\gh :i* ?is hi/ory atta9s ! dignity ( a sci5ce4 ,& ,i w n occupy fur!r space ) reflections on ! use ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 & o!r me?ods ( treat+ x4 ,! use is evid5t4 ,b1 9 conclusion1 ,i wi% to consid] ! s\rces ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 = ?is is cu/om>y4 ,a ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,,! ?\ght :i* may fir/ occur to u 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 is t ! subject itself conta9s an inn] contradiction4 ,= ,philosophy aims at und]/&+ :at is un*angeable1 et]nal1 9 & = itself3 its end is ,tru?4 ,b hi/ory tells u ( t :i* has at "o "t exi/$1 at ano!r "t has vani%$1 hav+ be5 expell$ by some?+ else4 ,tru? is et]nal2 x does n fall )9 ! sph]e ( ! transi5t1 & has no hi/ory4 ,b if x has a hi/ory1 & z ?is hi/ory is only ! repres5tation ( a succession ( pa/ =ms ( k1 ! tru? is n to be f\nd 9 x1 = ! tru? _c be :at has pass$ away4 ,x might be said t all ?is argum5t w\ld affect n only ! o!r sci5ces1 b 9 l degree ! ,*ri/ian religion1 & x might be f\nd inconsi/5t t a hi/ory ( ?is religion & ( ! o!r sci5ces %\ld exi/2 b x w\ld be sup]flu\s fur!r to exam9e ?is argum5t1 = x is imm$iately contradict$ by ! v fact t !re are su* hi/ories4 ,b 9 ord] to get a bett] und]/&+ ( ?is app>5t contradiction1 we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! outw>d hi/ory ( a religion or a sci5ce & ! hi/ory ( ! subject itself4 ,& !n we mu/ take into acc\nt t ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy because ( ! special nature ( its subject-matt]1 is diff]5t f o!r hi/ories4 ,x is at once evid5t t ! contradiction 9 "q c\ld n ref] to ! outw>d hi/ory1 b m]ely to ! inw>d1 or t ( ! cont5t itself4 ,!re is a hi/ory ( ! spread ( ,*ri/ianity & ( ! lives ( ^? :o h av[$ x1 & its exi/5ce has =m$ itself into t ( a ,*ur*4 ,?is 9 itself con/itutes an ext]nal exi/5ce su* t be+ br\ght into contact ) temporal affairs ( ! mo/ div]se k9d1 its lot is a v>i$ "o & x ess5tially possesses a hi/ory4 ,& ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e x is true t x1 too1 has its hi/ory1 b x necess>ily soon rea*$ its full developm5t & atta9$ to its appo9t$ p[]s4 ,& ?is old cre$ has be5 an ackn[l$g$ influ5ce to e age1 & w /ill be ackn[l$g$ un*ang$ z ! ,tru?1 ev5 ?\gh ?is ackn[l$gm5t 7 become no m ?an a pret5ce1 & ! words an empty =m4 ,b ! hi/ory ( ?is doctr9e 9 its wid] s5se includes two elem5ts3 fir/ ! v>i\s additions to & deviations f ! tru? =m]ly e/abli%$1 & secondly ! combat+ ( ^! errors1 ! purification ( ! pr9ciples t rema9 f su* additions1 & a consequ5t return to _! fir/ simplicity4 ,! o!r sci5ces1 includ+ ,philosophy1 h also an ext]nal hi/ory l ,religion4 ,philosophy has a hi/ory ( its orig91 diffusion1 maturity1 decay1 revival2 a hi/ory ( its tea*]s1 promot]s1 & ( its oppon5ts--(t51 too1 ( an outw>d relation to religion & occasionally to ! ,/ate4 ,?is side ( its hi/ory likewise gives occasion to int]e/+ que/ions4 ,among/ o!r su*1 x is ask$ :y ,philosophy1 ! doctr9e ( absolute ,tru?1 seems to h reveal$ itself on ! :ole to a small numb] ( individuals1 to special nations1 & h[ x has limit$ itself to p>ticul> p]iods ( "t4 ,simil>ly ) respect to ,*ri/ianity1 to ! ,tru? 9 a mu* m univ]sal =m ?an ! philosophical1 a difficulty has be5 enc\nt]$ 9 respect to ! "q :e!r !re is a contradiction 9 ! fact t ?is religion %\ld h appe>$ s late 9 "t1 & t x %\ld h rema9$ s long & %\ld /ill rema9 limit$ to special races ( m54 ,b ^! & o!r simil> que/ions are too mu* a matt] ( detail to dep5d m]ely on ! g5]al conflict ref]r$ to1 & :5 we h fur!r t\*$ ^u ! peculi> "* ( philosophic k1 we may g m specially into ! aspects :i* relate to ! ext]nal exi/5ce & ext]nal hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,b z reg>ds ! comp>ison betwe5 ! hi/ory ( ,religion & t ( ,philosophy z to inn] cont5t1 !re is n 9 ! latt] z !re is 9 ,religion a fix$ & fundam5tal tru? :i*1 z un*angeable1 is ap>t f hi/ory4 ,! cont5t ( ,*ri/ianity1 :i* is ,tru?1 has1 h[ev]1 rema9$ unalt]$ z su*1 & has !re=e little hi/ory or z good z none4#b ,h5ce 9 ,religion1 on acc\nt ( its v nature z ,*ri/ianity1 ! conflict ref]r$ to disappe>s4 ,! errors & additions con/itute no difficulty4 ,!y are transitory & altoge!r hi/orical 9 "*4 ,! o!r sci5ces1 inde$1 h also accord+ to _! cont5t a ,hi/ory1 a "p ( :i* relates to alt]ations1 & ! r5unciation ( t5ets :i* 7 =m]ly curr5t4 ,b a great1 p]haps ! great]1 "p ( ! hi/ory relates to :at has prov$ p]man5t1 s t :at 0 new1 0 n an alt]ation on e>li] acquisitions1 b an addition to !m4 ,^! sci5ces progress ?r\gh a process ( juxtaposition4 ,x is true t 9 ,botany1 ,m9]alogy1 & s on1 mu* is dep5d5t on :at 0 previ\sly kn[n1 b by f> ! greate/ "p rema9s /ation>y & by means ( fre% matt] is m]ely add$ to )\t itself be+ affect$ by ! addition4 ,) a sci5ce l ,ma!matics1 hi/ory has1 9 ! ma91 only ! pleas+ task ( record+ fur!r additions4 ,?us to take an example1 elem5t>y geometry 9 s f> z x 0 creat$ by ,euclid1 may f 8 "t on be reg>d$ z hav+ no fur!r hi/ory4 ,! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 on ! o!r h&1 %[s nei!r ! motionlessness ( a complete1 simple cont5t1 nor altoge!r ! onw>d movem5t ( a peaceful addition ( new treasures to ^? already acquir$4 ,x seems m]ely to af=d ! spectacle ( ev]-recurr+ *anges 9 ! :ole1 su* z f9ally are no long] ev5 connect$ by a common aim4 #a4 ,,common ,,ideas ,,reg>d+ ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,at ?is po9t appe> ^! ord9>y sup]ficial ideas reg>d+ ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy :i* h to be ref]r$ to & correct$4 ,z reg>ds ^! v curr5t views1 :i* are d\btless kn[n to y1 g5tlem51 = inde$ !y are ! reflections mo/ likely to occur 9 "o's fir/ crude ?\ghts on a hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,i w %ortly expla9 :at requires explanation1 & ! explanation ( ! diff]5ces 9 philosophies w lead u fur!r into ! matt] itself4 a4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy z an accumulation ( ,op9ions4 ,hi/ory1 at ! fir/ glance1 includes 9 its aim ! n>ration ( ! accid5tal circum/ances ( times1 ( races1 & ( individuals1 treat$ imp>tially p>tly z reg>ds _! relation 9 "t1 & p>tly z to _! cont5t4 ,! appe>ance ( cont+5cy 9 "t-succession is to be dealt ) lat] on4 ,x is cont+5cy ( cont5t :i* is ! idea ) :i* we h fir/ to deal--! idea ( cont+5t actions4 ,b ?\ghts & n ext]nal actions1 or griefs1 or joys1 =m ! cont5t ( ,philosophy4 ,cont+5t ?\ghts1 h[ev]1 are no?+ b op9ions1 & philosophical op9ions are op9ions relat+ to ! m special cont5t ( ,philosophy1 reg>d+ ,god1 ,nature & ,_s4 ,?us we n[ meet ! view v usually tak5 ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy :i* ascribes to x ! n>ration ( a numb] ( philosophical op9ions z !y h aris5 & manife/$ !mselves 9 "t4 ,?is k9d ( matt] is 9 c\rtesy call$ op9ions2 ^? :o ?9k !mselves m capable ( judg+ rightly1 call su* a hi/ory a display ( s5seless follies1 or at lea/ ( errors made by m5 engross$ 9 ?\ght & 9 m]e ideas4 ,?is view is n only held by ^? :o recognize _! ignorance ( ,philosophy4 ,^? :o d ?is1 ackn[l$ge x1 because t ignorance is1 9 common e/imation1 held to be no ob/acle to giv+ judgm5t ^u :at has to d ) ! subject2 = x is ?\ght t anybody c =m a judgm5t on its "* & value )\t any compreh5sion1 ( x :atev]4 ,b ! same view is ev5 held by ^? :o write or h writt5 on ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,?is hi/ory1 consid]$ only z ! enum]ation ( v>i\s op9ions1 ?us becomes an idle tale1 or1 if y w1 an erudite inve/igation4 ,= erudition is1 9 ! ma91 acqua9tance ) a numb] ( useless ?+s1 t is to say1 ) t :i* has no intr9sic int]e/ or value fur!r ?an be+ kn[n4 ,yet x is ?\ght t pr(it is to be d]iv$ f le>n+ ! v>i\s op9ions & reflections ( o!r m54 ,x /imulates ! p[]s ( ?\ght & also leads to _m excell5t reflections2 ?is signifies t n[ & !n x occasions an idea1 & its art ?us consi/s 9 ! sp9n+ "o op9ion out ( ! o!r4 ,if ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy m]ely repres5t$ v>i\s op9ions 9 array1 :e!r !y be ( ,god or ( natural & spiritual ?+s exi/5t1 x w\ld be a mo/ sup]flu\s & tiresome sci5ce1 no matt] :at advantage might be br\ght =w>d z d]iv$ f su* ?\ght-activity & le>n+4 ,:at c be m useless ?an to le>n a /r+ ( bald op9ions1 & :at m unimportant8 ,lit]>y works1 be+ hi/ories ( ,philosophy 9 ! s5se t !y produce & treat ! ideas ( ,philosophy z if !y 7 op9ions1 ne$ be only sup]ficially glanc$ at to f9d h[ dry & de/itute ( int]e/ ev]y?+ ab\t !m is4 ,an op9ion is a subjective conception1 an uncontroll$ ?\ght1 an idea :i* may occur to me 9 "o direction or 9 ano!r3 an op9ion is m9e1#c x is 9 itself a univ]sal ?\ght :i* is exi/5t 9 & = itself4 ,b ,philosophy possesses no op9ions1 = !re is no su* ?+ z philosophical op9ions4 ,:5 we he> a man speak+ ( philosophical op9ions1 ev5 ?\gh he be an hi/orian ( philosophy itself1 we detect at once ?is want ( fundam5tal education4 ,philosophy is ! objective sci5ce ( tru?1 x is sci5ce ( necessity1 conceiv+ k1 & nei!r op9ion nor ! sp9n+ out ( op9ions4 ,! m precise significance ( ?is idea is t we get to "k op9ions only1 ?us lay+ emphasis ^u ! ^w ,op9ion4 ,n[ ! direct opposite ( op9ion is ! ,tru?2 x is ,tru? be=e :i* m]e op9ion pales4 ,^? :o 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy seek m]e !ories1 or :o suppose t on ! :ole only su* are to be f\nd )9 x1 also turn aside :5 t ^w ,tru? confronts !m4 ,philosophy "h enc\nt]s opposition f two diff]5t sides4 ,on ! "o h& piety op5ly decl>es ,reason or ,?\ght to be incapable ( appreh5d+ :at is true1 & to lead only to ! abyss ( d\bt2 x decl>es t indep5d5t ?\ght mu/ be r5\nc$1 & reason held 9 b\nds by fai? 9 bl9d au?ority1 if ,tru? is to be rea*$4 ,( ! relation exi/+ betwe5 ,religion & ,philosophy & ( its hi/ory1 we %all deal lat] on4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is kn[n j z well1 t s-call$ reason has ma9ta9$ its rights1 ab&on+ fai? 9 m]e au?ority1 & has endeav\r$ to make ,*ri/ianity rational1 s t ?r\gh\t x is only my p]sonal insight & conviction :i* obliges me to make any admissions4 ,b ?is affirmation ( ! "r ( reason is turn$ r\nd 9 an a/oni%+ mann]1 s t x results 9 mak+ k ( ! tru? ?r\gh reason an impossibility4 ,?is s-call$ reason on ! "o h& has combat$ religi\s fai? 9 ! "n & p[] ( ?9k+ reason1 & at ! same "t x has itself turn$ aga9/ reason & is true reason's adv]s>y4 ,in/9ct & feel+ are ma9ta9$ by x aga9/ ! true reason1 ?us mak+ ! measure ( true value ! m]ely subjective--t is a p>ticul> conviction su* z ea* c =m 9 & = himself 9 8 subjective capacity4 ,a p]sonal conviction su* z ?is is no m ?an ! p>ticul> op9ion t has become f9al = m54 ,if we beg9 ) :at meets u 9 our v fir/ conceptions1 we _c neglect to make m5tion ( ?is aspect 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,9 its results x p]meates culture g5]ally1 be+ at once ! misconception & true sign ( our times4 ,x is ! pr9ciple ?r\gh :i* m5 mutually und]/& & "k ea* o!r2 an hypo!sis ^: value is e/abli%$ & :i* is ! gr\nd ( all ! o!r sci5ces4 ,9 !ology x is n s mu* ! cre$ ( ! *ur* t passes = ,*ri/ianity1 z t e "o to a great] or less degree makes a ,*ri/ianity ( 8 own to tally ) 8 conviction4 ,& 9 hi/ory we (t5 see !ology driv5 into acquir+ ! k ( v>i\s op9ions 9 ord] t an int]e/ may ?us be furni%$ to ! sci5ce1 & "o ( ! fir/ results ( ! att5tion paid !m is ! hon\r aw>d$ to all convictions1 & ! e/eem v\*saf$ to :at has be5 con/itut$ m]ely by ! individual4 ,! endeav\r to "k ! ,tru? is !n ( c\rse rel9qui%$4 ,x is true t p]sonal conviction is ! ultimate & absolute ess5tial :i* reason & its philosophy1 f a subjective po9t ( view1 dem& 9 k4 ,b !re is a di/9ction betwe5 conviction :5 x re/s on subjective gr\nds su* z feel+s1 speculations & p]ceptions1 or1 speak+ g5]ally1 on ! p>ticul> nature ( ! subject1 & :5 x re/s on ?\ght proce$+ f acqua9tance ) ! ,notion & ! nature ( ! ?+4 ,9 ! =m] case conviction is op9ion4 ,?is opposition betwe5 m]e op9ion & tru? n[ %>ply def9$1 we already recognize 9 ! culture ( ! p]iod ( ,socrates & ,plato--a p]iod ( corruption 9 ,greek life--z ! ,platonic opposition betwe5 op9ion & ,sci5ce 4 ,x is ! same opposition z t :i* exi/$ 9 ! decad5ce ( ,roman public & political life "u ,augu/us1 & subsequ5tly :5 ,epicureanism & indiff]5ce set !mselves up aga9/ ,philosophy4 ,"u ?is influ5ce1 :5 ,*ri/ said1 8,i came into ! _w t ,i %\ld be> witness unto ! ,tru?10 ,pilate answ]$1 8,:at is ,tru?80 ,t 0 said 9 a sup]ior way1 & signifies t ?is idea ( tru? is an exp$i5t :i* is obsolete3 we h got fur!r1 we "k t !re is no long] any "q ab\t kn[+ ! ,tru?1 see+ t we h gone beyond x4 ,:o makes ?is /atem5t has gone beyond x inde$4 ,if ?is is made our />t+ po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 its :ole significance w consi/ 9 f9d+ out ! p>ticul> ideas ( o!rs1 ea* "o ( :i* is diff]5t f ! o!r3 ^! individual po9ts ( view are ?us =eign to me3 my ?9k+ reason is n free1 nor is x pres5t 9 !m3 = me !y are b extrane\s1 dead hi/oric matt]1 or s mu* empty cont5t1 & to satisfy oneself ) empty vanity is m]e subjective vanity itself4 ,to ! imp>tial man1 ! ,tru? has always be5 a he>t-/irr+ ^w & "o ( great import4 ,z to ! ass]tion t ! ,tru? _c be kn[n1 we %all consid] x m closely 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy itself :]e x appe>s4 ,! only ?+ to be "h rem>k$ is t if ?is assumption be all[$1 z 0 ! case ) ,t5nemann1 x is beyond conception :y anyone %\ld /ill tr\ble ab\t ,philosophy1 s9ce ea* op9ion ass]ts falsely 9 its turn t x has f\nd ! tru?4 ,?is imm$iately recalls to me ! old belief t ,tru? consi/s 9 k1 b t an individual only kn[s ! ,tru? 9 s f> z he reflects & n z he walks & /&s3 & t ! ,tru? _c be kn[n 9 imm$iate appreh5sion & p]ception1 :e!r x be ext]nal & s5su\s1 or :e!r x be intellectual p]ception 7= e p]ception z a p]ception is s5su\s7 b only ?r\gh ! lab\r ( ?\ght4 b4 ,pro( ( ! futility ( ,philosophical ,k obta9$ ?r\gh ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy itself4 ,f ano!r po9t ( view ano!r consequ5ce ensues f ! above conception ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy :i* may at w be look$ at z an evil or a b5efit4 ,9 view ( su* manifold op9ions & philosophical sy/ems s num]\s1 "o is p]plex$ to "k :i* "o ought to be accept$4 ,9 reg>d to ! great matt]s to :i* man is attract$ & a k ( :i* ,philosophy w\ld be/[1 x is evid5t t ! greate/ m9ds h err$1 because !y h be5 contradict$ by o!rs4 8,s9ce ?is has be5 s ) m9ds s great1 h[ !n c ego homuncio attempt to =m a judgm5t80 ,?is consequ5ce1 :i* ensues f ! div]sity 9 philosophical sy/ems1 is1 z may be suppos$1 ! evil 9 ! matt]1 :ile at ! same "t x is a subjective good4 ,= ?is div]sity is ! usual plea urg$ by ^? :o1 ) an air ( k1 wi% to make a %[ ( int]e/ 9 ,philosophy1 to expla9 ! fact t !y1 ) ?is pret5ce ( good-w1 &1 inde$1 ) add$ motive = work+ at ! sci5ce1 d 9 fact utt]ly neglect x4 ,b ?is div]sity 9 philosophical sy/ems is f> f be+ m]ely an evasive plea4 ,x has f> m weight z a g5u9e s]i\s gr\nd ( argum5t aga9/ ! zeal :i* ,philosophy requires4 ,x ju/ifies its neglect & demon/rates conclusively ! p[]lessness ( ! endeav\r to atta9 to philosophic k ( ! tru?4 ,:5 x is admitt$ t ,philosophy ought to be a real sci5ce1 & "o ,philosophy mu/ c]ta9ly be ! true1 ! "q arises z to :i* ,philosophy x is1 & :5 x c be kn[n4 ,ea* "o ass]ts its g5u95ess1 ea* ev5 gives diff]5t signs & tok5s by :i* ! ,tru? c be discov]$2 sob] reflective ?\ght mu/ !re=e hesitate to give its judgm5t4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! wid] int]e/ :i* ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is said to af=d4 ,cic]o 7,de natura ,deorum ,i4 #h sq47 gives u f ?is po9t ( view1 a mo/ slov5ly hi/ory ( philosophic ?\ght on ,god4 ,he puts x 9 ! m\? ( an ,epicurean1 b he himself knew ( no?+ m fav\rable to say1 & x is ?us 8 own view4 ,! ,epicurean says t no c]ta9 k has be5 arriv$ at4 ,! pro( t ! ef=ts ( philosophy are futile is d]iv$ directly f ! usual sup]ficial view tak5 ( its hi/ory2 ! results att5dant on t hi/ory make x appe> to be a process 9 :i* ! mo/ v>i\s ?\ghts arise 9 num]\s philosophies1 ea* ( :i* opposes1 contradicts & refutes ! o!r4 ,?is fact1 :i* _c be d5i$1 seems to conta9 ! ju/ification1 inde$ ! necessity = apply+ to ,philosophy ! words ( ,*ri/1 8,let ! dead bury _! dead2 arise1 & foll[ ,me40 ,! :ole ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy becomes a battlefield cov]$ ) ! bones ( ! dead2 x is a k+dom n m]ely =m$ ( dead & lifeless individuals1 b ( refut$ & spiritually dead sy/ems1 s9ce ea* has kill$ & buri$ ! o!r4 ,in/ead ( 8,foll[ ?\ ,me10 "h !n x mu/ inde$ be said1 8,foll[ ?9e own self0--t is1 hold by ?9e own convictions1 rema9 /eadfa/ to ?9e own op9ion1 :y adopt ano!r8 ,x c]ta9ly happ5s t a new philosophy makes its appe>ance1 :i* ma9ta9s ! o!rs to be valueless2 & inde$ ea* "o 9 turn comes =? at fir/ ) ! pretext t by its means all previ\s philosophies n only are refut$1 b :at 9 !m is want+ is suppli$1 & n[ at l5g? ! "r "o is discov]$4 ,b foll[+ ^u :at has gone be=e1 x w\ld r seem t o!r words ( ,scripture are j z applicable to su* a philosophy--! words :i* ! ,apo/le ,pet] spoke to ,ananias1 8,behold ! feet ( !m t %all c>ry !e out are at ! door40 ,behold ! philosophy by :i* ?9e own w be refut$ & displac$ %all n t>ry long z x has n t>ri$ be=e4 c4 ,explanatory rem>ks on ! div]sity 9 ,philosophies4 ,c]ta9ly ! fact is suffici5tly well e/abli%$ t !re are & h be5 diff]5t philosophies4 ,! ,tru? is1 h[ev]1 "o2 & ! in/9ct ( reason ma9ta9s ?is irradicable intuition or belief4 ,x is said t only "o philosophy c be true1 &1 because philosophies are diff]5t1 x is conclud$ t all o!rs mu/ be errone\s4 ,b1 9 fact1 ea* "o 9 turn gives e assurance1 evid5ce & pro( ( be+ ! "o & true ,philosophy4 ,?is is a common mode ( reason+ & is :at seems 9 tru? to be ! view ( sob] ?\ght4 ,z reg>ds ! sob] nature ( ! ^w at issue--?\ght--we c tell f e-day exp]i5ce t if we fa/ we feel hung] ei!r at once or v soon4 ,b sob] ?\ght always has ! =tunate p[] ( n result+ 9 hung] & desire1 b ( be+ & rema9+ z x is1 cont5t4 ,h5ce ! ?\ght express$ 9 su* an utt]ance reveals ! fact t x is dead und]/&+2 = x is only dea? :i* fa/s & yet re/s satisfi$4 ,b nei!r physical life nor intellectual rema9s cont5t ) m]e ab/5tion2 z desire x presses on ?r\gh hung] & ?r\gh ?ir/ t[>ds ,tru?1 t[>ds k itself4 ,x presses on to satisfy ?is desire & does n all[ itself to fea/ & f9d suffici5cy 9 a reflection su* z ?is4 ,z to ?is reflection1 ! next ?+ to be said ( x is t h[ev] diff]5t ! philosophies h be51 !y _h a common bond 9 t !y 7 ,philosophy4 ,?us :oev] may h /udi$ or become acqua9t$ ) a philosophy1 ( :atev] k9d1 provid$ only t x is su*1 has !reby become acqua9t$ ) ,philosophy4 ,t delusive mode ( reason+ :i* reg>ds div]sity alone1 & f d\bt ( or av]sion to ! p>ticul> =m 9 :i* a ,univ]sal f9ds its actuality1 w n grasp or ev5 all[ ?is univ]sal nature1 ,i h else:]e#d lik5$ to an invalid recomm5d$ by ! doctor to eat fruit1 & :o has *]ries1 plums or grapes1 be=e him1 b :o p$antically refuses to take any?+ because no "p ( :at is (f]$ him is fruit1 "s ( x be+ *]ries1 & ! re/ plums or grapes4 ,b x is really important to h a deep] insight into ! be>+s ( ?is div]sity 9 ! sy/ems ( ,philosophy4 ,tru? & ,philosophy kn[n philosophically1 make su* div]sity appe> 9 ano!r light f t ( ab/ract opposition betwe5 ,tru? & ,error4 ,! explanation ( h[ ?is comes ab\t w reveal to u ! significance ( ! :ole hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,we mu/ make ! fact conceivable1 t ! div]sity & numb] ( philosophies n only does n prejudice ,philosophy itself1 t is to say ! possibility ( a philosophy1 b t su* div]sity is1 & has be51 absolutely necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( a sci5ce ( ,philosophy & t x is ess5tial to x4 ,?is makes x easy to u to compreh5d ! aim ( ,philosophy1 :i* is 9 ?\ght & 9 conception to grasp ! ,tru?1 & n m]ely to discov] t no?+ c be kn[n1 or t at lea/ temporal1 f9ite tru?1 :i* also is an untru?1 c alone be kn[n & n ! ,tru? inde$4 ,fur!r we f9d t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy we h to deal ) ,philosophy itself4 ,! facts )9 t hi/ory are n adv5tures & conta9 no m romance ?an does ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,!y are n a m]e collection ( *ance ev5ts1 ( exp$itions ( w&]+ knights1 ea* go+ ab\t fight+1 /ruggl+ purposelessly1 leav+ no results to %[ = all 8 ef=ts4 ,nor is x s t "o ?+ has be5 ?\ght out "h1 ano!r !re1 at w2 9 ! activity ( ?9k+ m9d !re is real connection1 & :at !re takes place is rational4 ,x is ) ?is belief 9 ! _s ( ! _w t we mu/ proce$ to hi/ory1 & 9 p>ticul> to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 #b4 ,,explanatory ,,rem>ks ,,^u ,,! ,,def9ition ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,! above /atem5t1 t ! ,tru? is only "o1 is /ill ab/ract & =mal4 ,9 ! deep] s5se x is our />t+ po9t4 ,b ! aim ( ,philosophy is to "k ?is "o ,tru? z ! imm$iate s\rce f :i* all else proce$s1 bo? all ! laws ( nature & all ! manife/ations ( life & consci\sness ( :i* !y are m]e reflections1 or to lead ^! laws & manife/ations 9 ways app>5tly contr>y1 back to t s+le s\rce1 & f t s\rce to compreh5d !m1 :i* is to und]/& _! d]ivation4 ,?us :at is mo/ ess5tial is to "k t ! s+le tru? is n m]ely a solit>y1 empty ?\ght1 b "o det]m9$ )9 itself4 ,to obta9 ?is k we mu/ ent] into "s ab/ract ,notions :i*1 z su*1 are q g5]al & dry1 & :i* are ! two pr9ciples ( ,developm5t & ( ! ,concrete4 ,we c\ld1 inde$1 embrace ! :ole 9 ! s+le pr9ciple ( developm5t2 if ?is 7 cle>1 all else w\ld result & foll[ ( its own accord4 ,! product ( ?9k+ is ! ?\ght2 ?\ght is1 h[ev]1 /ill =mal2 some:at m def9$ x becomes ,notion1 & f9ally ,idea is ,?\ght 9 its totality1 implicitly & explicitly det]m9$4 ,?us ! ,idea1 & x alone is ,tru?4 ,n[ x is ess5tially 9 ! nature ( ! ,idea to develop1 & only ?r\gh developm5t to arrive at compreh5sion ( itself1 or to become :at x is4 ,t ! ,idea %\ld h to make itself :at x is1 seems l a contradiction2 x may be said t x is :at x is4 a4 ,! ,notion ( ,developm5t4 ,! idea ( developm5t is well kn[n1 b x is ! special *>act]i/ic ( ,philosophy to inve/igate su* matt]s z 7 =m]ly held z kn[n4 ,:at is dealt ) or made use ( )\t consid]ation z an aid to daily life1 is c]ta9ly ! unkn[n to man unless he be in=m$ 9 ,philosophy4 ,! fur!r discussion ( ?is idea belongs to ! sci5ce ( ,logic4 ,9 ord] to compreh5d :at developm5t is1 :at may be call$ two diff]5t /ates mu/ be di/+ui%$4 ,! fir/ is :at is kn[n z capacity1 p[]1 :at ,i call be+-9-itself 7pot5tia1 72 ! second pr9ciple is t ( be+-=-itself1 actuality 7actus1 74 ,if we say1 = example1 t man is by nature rational1 we w\ld mean t he has reason only inh]5tly or 9 embryo3 9 ?is s5se1 reason1 und]/&+1 imag9ation1 w1 are possess$ f bir? or ev5 f ! "m's womb4 ,b :ile ! *ild only has capacities or ! actual possibility ( reason1 x is j ! same z if he _h no reason2 reason does n yet exi/ 9 him s9ce he _c yet d any?+ rational1 & has no rational consci\sness4 ,?us :at man is at fir/ implicitly becomes explicit1 & x is ! same ) reason4 ,if1 !n1 man has actuality on :atev] side1 he is actually rational2 & n[ we come to reason4 ,:at is ! real mean+ ( ?is ^w8 ,t :i* is 9 itself mu/ become an object to mank9d1 mu/ arrive at consci\sness1 ?us becom+ = man4 ,:at has become an object to him is ! same z :at he is 9 himself2 ?r\gh ! becom+ objective ( ?is implicit be+1 man fir/ becomes = himself2 he is made d\ble1 is reta9$ & n *ang$ into ano!r4 ,= example1 man is ?9k+1 & ?us he ?9ks out ?\ghts4 ,9 ?is way x is 9 ?\ght alone t ?\ght is object2 reason produces :at is rational3 reason is its own object4 ,! fact t ?\ght may also desc5d to :at is de/itute ( reason is a consid]ation involv+ wid] issues1 :i* d n conc]n u "h4 ,b ev5 ?\gh man1 :o 9 himself is rational1 does n at fir/ seem to h got fur!r on s9ce he became rational = himself--:at is implicit hav+ m]ely reta9$ itself--! diff]5ce is q enorm\s3 no new cont5t has be5 produc$1 & yet ?is =m ( be+ = self makes all ! diff]5ce4 ,! :ole v>iation 9 ! developm5t ( ! _w 9 hi/ory is f\nd$ on ?is diff]5ce4 ,?is alone expla9s h[ s9ce all mank9d is naturally rational1 & fre$om is ! hypo!sis on :i* ?is reason re/s1 slav]y yet has be51 & 9 "p /ill is1 ma9ta9$ by _m peoples1 & m5 h rema9$ cont5t$ "u x4 ,! only di/9ction betwe5 ! ,africans & ! ,asiatics on ! "o h&1 & ! ,greeks1 ,romans1 & mod]ns on ! o!r1 is t ! latt] "k & x is explicit = !m1 t !y are free1 b ! o!rs are s )\t kn[+ t !y are1 & ?us )\t exi/+ z be+ free4 ,?is con/itutes ! enorm\s diff]5ce 9 _! condition4 ,all k1 & le>n+1 sci5ce1 & ev5 comm]ce h no o!r object ?an to draw out :at is inw>d or implicit & ?us to become objective4 ,because t :i* is implicit comes into exi/5ce1 x c]ta9ly passes into *ange1 yet x rema9s "o & ! same1 = ! :ole process is dom9at$ by x4 ,! plant1 = example1 does n lose itself 9 m]e indef9ite *ange4 ,f ! g]m mu* is produc$ :5 at fir/ no?+ 0 to be se52 b ! :ole ( :at is br\ght =?1 if n develop$1 is yet hidd5 & ideally conta9$ )9 itself4 ,! pr9ciple ( ?is projection into exi/5ce is t ! g]m _c rema9 m]ely implicit1 b is impell$ t[>ds developm5t1 s9ce x pres5ts ! contradiction ( be+ only implicit & yet n desir+ s to be4 ,b ?is com+ )\t itself has an end 9 view2 its completion fully rea*$1 & its previ\sly det]m9$ end is ! fruit or produce ( ! g]m1 :i* causes a return to ! fir/ condition4 ,! g]m w produce itself alone & manife/ :at is conta9$ 9 x1 s t x !n may return to itself once m ?us to r5ew ! unity f :i* x />t$4 ,) nature x c]ta9ly is true t ! subject :i* comm5c$ & ! matt] :i* =ms ! end are two sep>ate units1 z 9 ! case ( se$ & fruit4 ,! d\bl+ process has app>5tly ! effect ( sep>at+ into two ?+s t :i* 9 cont5t is ! same4 ,?us 9 animal life ! p>5t & ! "y are diff]5t individuals al?\gh _! nature is ! same4 ,9 ,m9d x is o!rwise3 x is consci\sness & !re=e x is free1 unit+ 9 itself ! beg9n+ & ! end4 ,z ) ! g]m 9 nature1 ,m9d inde$ resolves itself back into unity aft] con/itut+ itself ano!r4 ,b :at is 9 itself becomes = ,m9d & ?us arrives at be+ = itself4 ,! fruit & se$ newly conta9$ )9 x on ! o!r h&1 d n become = ! orig9al g]m1 b = u alone2 9 ! case ( ,m9d bo? factors n only are implicitly ! same 9 "*1 b !re is a be+ = ! o!r & at ! same "t a be+ = self4 ,t = :i* ! 8o!r0 is1 is ! same z t 8o!r20 & ?us alone ,m9d is at home ) itself 9 its 8o!r40 ,! developm5t ( ,m9d lies 9 ! fact t its go+ =? & sep>ation con/itutes its com+ to itself4 ,?is be+-at-home-)-self1 or com+-to-self ( ,m9d may be describ$ z its complete & highe/ end3 x is ?is alone t x desires & no?+ else4 ,ev]y?+ t f et]nity has happ5$ 9 heav5 & e>?1 ! life ( ,god & all ! de$s ( "t simply are ! /ruggles = ,m9d to "k itself1 to make itself objective to itself1 to f9d itself1 be = itself1 & f9ally unite itself to itself2 x is ali5at$ & divid$1 b only s z to be able ?us to f9d itself & return to itself4 ,only 9 ?is mann] does ,m9d atta9 its fre$om1 = t is free :i* is n connect$ ) or dep5d5t on ano!r4 ,true self-possession & satisfaction are only to be f\nd 9 ?is1 & 9 no?+ else b ,?\ght does ,m9d atta9 ?is fre$om4 ,9 s5se-p]ception1 = in/ance1 & 9 feel+1 ,i f9d myself conf9$ & am n free2 b ,i am free :5 ,i h a consci\sness ( ?is my feel+4 ,man has p>ticul> ends & int]e/s ev5 9 w2 ,i am free inde$ :5 ?is is m9e4 ,su* ends1 h[ev]1 always conta9 8ano!r10 or some?+ :i* con/itutes = me 8ano!r10 su* z desire & impulse4 ,x is 9 ,?\ght alone t all =eign matt] disappe>s f view1 & t ,m9d is absolutely free4 ,all int]e/ :i* is conta9$ 9 ! ,idea & 9 ,philosophy is express$ 9 x4 b4 ,! ,notion ( ! ,concrete4 ,z to developm5t1 x may be ask$1 :at does develop & :at =ms ! absolute cont5t8 ,developm5t is consid]$ 9 ! light ( a =mal process 9 action & z de/itute ( cont5t4 ,b ! act has no o!r end b activity1 & ?r\gh ?is activity ! g5]al "* ( ! cont5t is already fix$4 ,= be+-9-self & be+-=-self are ! mom5ts pres5t 9 action2 b ! act is ! ret5tion ( ^! div]se elem5ts )9 itself4 ,! act ?us is really "o1 & x is j ?is unity ( diff]5ces :i* is ! concrete4 ,n only is ! act concrete1 b also ! implicit1 :i* /&s to action 9 ! relation ( subject :i* beg9s1 & f9ally ! product is j z concrete z ! action or z ! subject :i* beg9s4 ,developm5t 9 process likewise =ms ! cont5t1 ! ,idea itself2 = ?is we mu/ h ! "o elem5t & !n ! o!r3 bo? comb9$ w =m a unity z ?ird1 because ! "o 9 ! o!r is at home )1 & n )\t1 itself4 ,?us ! ,idea is 9 its cont5t concrete )9 itself1 & ?is 9 two ways3 fir/ x is concrete pot5tially1 & !n x is its int]e/ t :at is 9 itself %\ld be !re = x4 ,x is a common prejudice t ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy deals only ) ab/ractions & empty g5]alities1 & t s5se-p]ception1 our empirical self-consci\sness1 natural in/9ct1 & ! feel+s ( e-day life1 lie1 on ! contr>y1 9 ! region ( ! concrete & ! self-det]m9$4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ,philosophy is 9 ! region ( ?\ght1 & has !re=e to deal ) univ]sals2 its cont5t is ab/ract1 b only z to =m & elem5t4 ,9 itself ! ,idea is really concrete1 = x is ! union ( ! diff]5t det]m9ations4 ,x is "h t reason$ k diff]s f m]e k ( ! und]/&+1 & x is ! bus9ess ( ,philosophy1 z oppos$ to und]/&+1 to %[ t ! ,tru? or ! ,idea does n consi/ 9 empty g5]alities1 b 9 a univ]sal2 & t is )9 itself ! p>ticul> & ! det]m9$4 ,if ! ,tru? is ab/ract x mu/ be untrue4 ,heal?y human reason goes out t[>ds :at is concrete2 ! reflection ( ! und]/&+ comes fir/ z ab/ract & untrue1 correct 9 !ory only1 & among/ o!r ?+s unpractical4 ,philosophy is :at is mo/ antagoni/ic to ab/raction1 & x leads back to ! concrete4 ,if we unite ! ,notion ( ! concrete ) t ( developm5t we h ! motion ( ! concrete4 ,s9ce ! implicit is already concrete )9 itself1 & we only set =? :at is implicitly !re1 ! new =m :i* n[ looks diff]5t & :i* 0 =m]ly %ut up 9 ! orig9al unity1 is m]ely di/+ui%$4 ,! concrete mu/ become = itself or explicit2 z implicit or pot5tial x is only diff]5tiat$ )9 itself1 n z yet explicitly set =?1 b /ill 9 a /ate ( unity4 ,! concrete is ?us simple1 & yet at ! same "t diff]5tiat$4 ,?is1 its inw>d contradiction1 :i* is inde$ ! impell+ =ce 9 developm5t1 br+s di/9ction into be+4 ,b ?us1 too1 its "r to be tak5 back & re9/at$ ext5ds beyond ! diff]5ce2 = its tru? is only to be f\nd 9 unity4 ,life1 bo? t :i* is 9 ,nature & t :i* is ( ! ,idea1 ( ,m9d )9 itself1 is ?us manife/$4 ,7 ! ,idea ab/ract1 x w\ld simply be ! highe/ conceivable exi/5ce1 & t w\ld be all t c\ld be said ( x2 b su* a ,god is ! product ( ! und]/&+ ( mod]n times4 ,:at is true is r f\nd 9 motion1 9 a process1 h[ev]1 9 :i* !re is re/2 diff]5ce1 :ile x la/s1 is b a tempor>y condition1 ?r\gh :i* comes unity1 full & concrete4 ,we may n[ proce$ to give examples ( s5su\s ?+s1 :i* w help u fur!r to expla9 ?is ,notion ( ! concrete4 ,al?\gh ! fl[] has _m qualities1 su* z smell1 ta/e1 =m1 col\r1 c41 yet x is "o4 ,none ( ^! qualities c\ld be abs5t 9 ! p>ticul> leaf or fl[]3 ea* individual "p ( ! leaf %>es alike all ! qualities ( ! leaf entire4 ,gold1 simil>ly conta9s 9 e p>ticle all its qualities unsep>at$ & entire4 ,x is frequ5tly all[$ ) s5su\s ?+s t su* v>i$ elem5ts may be jo9$ toge!r1 b1 9 ! spiritual1 diff]5tiation is suppos$ to involve opposition4 ,we d n controv]t ! fact1 or ?9k x contradictory1 t ! smell & ta/e ( ! fl[]1 al?\gh o!rwise oppos$1 are yet cle>ly 9 "o subject2 nor d we place ! "o aga9/ ! o!r4 ,b ! und]/&+ & und]/&+ ?\ght f9d ev]y?+ ( a diff]5t k9d1 plac$ 9 conjunction1 to be incompatible4 ,matt]1 = example1 is complex & coh]5t1 or space is cont9u\s & un9t]rupt$4 ,likewise we may take sep>ate po9ts 9 space & break up matt] divid+ x ev] fur!r into inf9ity4 ,x !n is said t matt] consi/s ( atoms & po9ts1 & h5ce is n cont9u\s4 ,!re=e we h "h ! two det]m9ations ( cont9uity & ( def9ite po9ts1 :i* und]/&+ reg>ds z mutually exclusive1 comb9$ 9 "o4 ,x is said t matt] mu/ be cle>ly ei!r cont9u\s or divisible into po9ts1 b 9 reality x has bo? ^! qualities4 ,or :5 we say ( ! m9d ( man t x has fre$om1 ! und]/&+ at once br+s up ! o!r quality1 :i* 9 ?is case is necessity1 say+1 t if ,m9d is free x is n 9 subjection to necessity1 &1 inv]sely1 if its w & ?\ght are det]m9$ ?r\gh necessity1 x is n free--! "o1 !y say1 excludes ! o!r4 ,! di/9ctions "h are reg>d$ z exclusive1 & n z =m+ some?+ concrete4 ,b t :i* is true1 ! ,m9d1 is concrete1 & its attributes are fre$om & necessity4 ,simil>ly ! high] po9t ( view is t ,m9d is free 9 its necessity1 & f9ds its fre$om 9 x alone1 s9ce its necessity re/s on its fre$om4 ,b x is m difficult = u to %[ ! unity "h ?an 9 ! case ( natural objects4 ,fre$om c1 h[ev]1 be also ab/ract fre$om )\t necessity1 :i* false fre$om is self-w1 & = t reason x is self-oppos$1 unconsci\sly limit$1 an imag9>y fre$om :i* is free 9 =m alone4 ,! fruit ( developm5t1 :i* comes ?ird1 is a result ( motion1 b inasmu* z x is m]ely ! result ( "o /age 9 developm5t1 z be+ la/ 9 ?is /age1 x is bo? ! />t+ po9t & ! fir/ 9 ord] 9 ano!r su* /age4 ,goe! some:]e truly says1 8,t :i* is =m$ ev] resolves itself back into its elem5ts40 ,matt]--:i* z develop$ has =m--con/itutes once m ! mat]ial = a new =m4 ,m9d aga9 takes z its object & applies its activity to ! ,notion 9 :i* 9 go+ )9 itself1 x has compreh5d$ itself1 :i* x is 9 =m & be+1 & :i* has j be5 sep>at$ f x anew4 ,! application ( ?\ght to ?is1 supplies x ) ! =m & det]m9ation ( ?\ght4 ,?is action ?us fur!r =ms ! previ\sly =m$1 gives x additional det]m9ations1 makes x m det]m9ate 9 itself1 fur!r develop$ & m pr(\nd4 ,z concrete1 ?is activity is a succession ( processes 9 developm5t :i* mu/ be repres5t$ n z a /raight l9e drawn out into vague inf9ity1 b z a circle return+ )9 itself1 :i*1 z p]iph]y1 has v _m circles1 & ^: :ole is a l>ge numb] ( processes 9 developm5t turn+ back )9 !mselves4 c4 ,philosophy z ! appreh5sion ( ! developm5t ( ! ,concrete4 ,hav+ ?us g5]ally expla9$ ! nature ( ! ,concrete1 ,i n[ add z reg>ds its import1 t ! ,tru? ?us det]m9$ )9 itself is impell$ t[>ds developm5t4 ,x is only ! liv+ & spiritual :i* int]nally be/irs & develops itself4 ,?us ! ,idea z concrete 9 itself1 & self-develop+1 is an organic sy/em & a totality :i* conta9s a multitude ( /ages & ( mom5ts 9 developm5t4 ,philosophy has n[ become = itself ! appreh5sion ( ?is developm5t1 & z conceiv+ ,?\ght1 is itself ?is developm5t 9 ,?\ght4 ,! m progress made 9 ?is developm5t1 ! m p]fect is ! ,philosophy4 ,?is developm5t goes no fur!r out ?an into ext]nality1 b ! go+ )\t itself ( developm5t also is a go+ inw>ds4 ,t is to say1 ! univ]sal ,idea cont9ues to rema9 at ! f\ndation & /ill is ! all-embrac+ & un*angeable4 ,:ile 9 ,philosophy ! go+ out ( ! ,idea 9 c\rse ( its developm5t is n a *ange1 a becom+ 8ano!r10 b really is a go+ )9 itself1 a self-imm]sion1 ! progress =w>d makes ! ,idea :i* 0 previ\sly g5]al & undet]m9$1 det]m9$ )9 itself4 ,fur!r developm5t ( ! ,idea or its fur!r det]m9ation is ! same ?+ exactly4 ,dep? seems to signify int5siv5ess1 b 9 ?is case ! mo/ ext5sive is also ! mo/ int5sive4 ,! m int5sive is ! ,m9d1 ! m ext5sive is x1 h5ce ! l>g] is its embrace4 ,ext5sion z developm5t1 is n disp]sion or fall+ asund]1 b a unit+ bond :i* is ! m p[]ful & int5se z ! expanse ( t embrac$ is great] 9 ext5t & ri*]4 ,9 su* a case :at is great] is ! /r5g? ( opposition & ( sep>ation2 & ! great] p[] ov]comes ! great] sep>ation4 ,^! are ! ab/ract propositions reg>d+ ! nature ( ! ,idea & ( its developm5t1 & ?us )9 x ,philosophy 9 its develop$ /ate is con/itut$3 x is "o ,idea 9 its totality & 9 all its individual p>ts1 l "o life 9 a liv+ be+1 "o pulse ?robs ?r\gh\t all its memb]s4 ,all ! p>ts repres5t$ 9 x1 & _! sy/ematization1 emanate f ! "o ,idea2 all ^! p>ticul>s are b ! mirrors & copies ( ?is "o life1 & h _! actuality only 9 ?is unity4 ,_! diff]5ces & _! v>i\s qualities are only ! expression ( ! ,idea & ! =m conta9$ )9 x4 ,?us ! ,idea is ! c5tral po9t1 :i* is also ! p]iph]y1 ! s\rce ( light1 :i* 9 all its expansion does n come )\t itself1 b rema9s pres5t & imman5t )9 itself4 ,?us x is bo? ! sy/em ( necessity & its own necessity1 :i* also con/itutes its fre$om4 #c4 ,,results ,,obta9$ ,,) ,,respect ,,to ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,?us we see t ,philosophy is sy/em 9 developm5t2 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is ! same2 & ?is is ! ma9 po9t to be not$ & ! fir/ pr9ciple to be dealt ) 9 ?is treatise on t hi/ory4 ,9 ord] to make ?is evid5t1 ! diff]5ce 9 respect to ! possible modes ( manife/ation mu/ fir/ be po9t$ out4 ,t is to say1 ! progression ( ! v>i\s /ages 9 ! advance ( ,?\ght may occur ) ! consci\sness ( necessity1 9 :i* case ea* 9 succession d$uces itself1 & ?is =m & ?is det]m9ation c alone em]ge4 ,or else x may come ab\t )\t ?is consci\sness z does a natural & app>5tly accid5tal process1 s t :ile inw>dly1 inde$1 ! ,notion br+s ab\t its result consi/5tly1 ?is consi/5cy is n made manife/4 ,?is is s 9 nature2 9 ! v>i\s /ages ( ! developm5t ( twigs1 leaves1 blossom & fruit1 ea* proce$s = itself1 b ! inw>d ,idea is ! direct+ & det]m9+ =ce :i* gov]ns ! progression4 ,?is is also s ) ! *ild ^: bodily p[]s1 & above all ^: intellectual activities1 make _! appe>ance "o aft] ! o!r1 simply & naturally1 s t ^? p>5ts :o =m su* an exp]i5ce = ! fir/ "t1 m>vel :5ce all t is n[ %[+ itself f )91 comes f2 = ! :ole ( ^! manife/ations m]ely h ! =m ( a succession 9 "t4 ,! "o k9d ( progression :i* repres5ts ! d$uction ( ! =ms1 ! necessity ?\ght out & recogniz$1 ( ! det]m9ations1 is ! bus9ess ( ,philosophy2 & because x is ! pure ,idea :i* is 9 "q & n yet its m]e p>ticul>iz$ =m z ,nature & z ,m9d1 t repres5tation is1 9 ! ma91 ! bus9ess ( logical ,philosophy4 ,b ! o!r me?od1 :i* repres5ts ! "p play$ by ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 %[s ! diff]5t /ages & mom5ts 9 developm5t 9 "t1 9 mann] ( occurr5ce1 9 p>ticul> places1 9 p>ticul> p or political circum/ances1 ! complications aris+ ?us1 &1 9 %ort1 x %[s u ! empirical =m4 ,?is po9t ( view is ! only "o wor?y ( ?is sci5ce4 ,f ! v nature ( ! subject x is inh]5tly ! true "o1 & ?r\gh ! /udy ( ?is hi/ory x w be made manife/ t x actually %[s & proves itself s4 ,n[ 9 ref]5ce to ?is ,idea1 ,i ma9ta9 t ! sequ5ce 9 ! sy/ems ( ,philosophy 9 ,hi/ory is simil> to ! sequ5ce 9 ! logical d$uction ( ! ,notion-det]m9ations 9 ! ,idea4 ,i ma9ta9 t if ! fundam5tal conceptions ( ! sy/ems appe>+ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy be entirely dive/$ ( :at reg>ds _! outw>d =m1 _! relation to ! p>ticul> & ! l1 ! v>i\s /ages 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! ,idea are f\nd 9 _! logical ,notion4 ,conv]sely 9 ! logical progression tak5 = itself1 !re is1 s f> z its pr9cipal elem5ts are conc]n$1 ! progression ( hi/orical manife/ations2 b x is necess>y to h ^! pure ,notions 9 ord] to "k :at ! hi/orical =m conta9s4 ,x may be ?\ght t ,philosophy mu/ h ano!r ord] z to ! /ages 9 ! ,idea ?an t 9 :i* ^! ,notions h gone =? 9 "t2 b 9 ! ma9 ! ord] is ! same4 ,?is succession und\bt$ly sep>ates itself1 on ! "o h&1 into ! sequ5ce 9 "t ( ,hi/ory1 & on ! o!r into succession 9 ! ord] ( ideas4 ,b to treat m fully ( ?is la/ w\ld div]t u too f> f our aim4 ,i w\ld only rem>k ?is1 t :at has be5 said reveals t ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is ! /udy ( ,philosophy itself1 =1 inde$1 x c be no?+ else4 ,:oev] /udies ! hi/ory ( sci5ces su* z ,physics & ,ma!matics1 makes himself acqua9t$ ) ,physics & ,ma!matics !mselves4 ,b 9 ord] to obta9 a k ( its progress z ! developm5t ( ! ,idea 9 ! empirical1 ext]nal =m 9 :i* ,philosophy appe>s 9 ,hi/ory1 a correspond+ k ( ! ,idea is absolutely ess5tial1 j z 9 judg+ ( human affairs "o mu/ h a conception ( t :i* is "r & fitt+4 ,else1 inde$1 z 9 s _m hi/ories ( ,philosophy1 !re is pres5t$ to ! vision devoid ( idea1 only a dis>rang$ collection ( op9ions4 ,to make y acqua9t$ ) ?is ,idea1 & consequ5tly to expla9 ! manife/ations1 is ! bus9ess ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 & to d ?is is my object 9 und]tak+ to lecture on ! subject4 ,s9ce ! obs]v] mu/ br+ ) him ! ,notion ( ! subject 9 ord] to see x 9 its ph5om5al aspect & 9 ord] to expose ! object fai?fully to view1 we ne$ n wond] at !re be+ s _m dull hi/ories ( ,philosophy 9 :i* ! succession ( its sy/ems are repres5t$ simply z a numb] ( op9ions1 errors & freaks ( ?\ght4 ,!y are freaks ( ?\ght :i*1 inde$1 h be5 devis$ ) a great pret5sion ( acut5ess & ( m5tal ex]tion1 & ) ev]y?+ else :i* c be said 9 admiration ( :at is m]ely =mal4 ,b1 consid]+ ! abs5ce ( philosophic m9d 9 su* hi/orians z ^!1 h[ %\ld !y be able to compreh5d & repres5t ! cont5t1 :i* is reason$ ?\ght8 ,x is %[n f :at has be5 said reg>d+ ! =mal nature ( ! ,idea1 t only a hi/ory ( ,philosophy ?us reg>d$ z a sy/em ( developm5t 9 ,idea1 is entitl$ to ! "n ( ,sci5ce3 a collection ( facts con/itutes no sci5ce4 ,only ?us z a succession ( ph5om5a e/abli%$ ?r\gh reason1 & hav+ z cont5t j :at is reason & reveal+ x1 does ?is hi/ory %[ t x is rational3 x %[s t ! ev5ts record$ are 9 reason4 ,h[ %\ld ! :ole ( :at has tak5 place 9 reason n itself be rational8 ,t fai? mu/ surely be ! m reasonable 9 :i* *ance is n made rul] ov] human affairs1 & x is ! bus9ess ( ,philosophy to recognize t h[ev] mu* its own manife/ations may be hi/ory likewise1 x is yet det]m9$ ?r\gh ! ,idea alone4 ,?r\gh ^! g5]al prelim9>y conceptions ! categories are n[ det]m9$1 ! m imm$iate application ( :i* to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy we h n[ to consid]4 ,?is application w br+ be=e u ! mo/ significant aspects 9 ?is hi/ory4 a4 ,! developm5t 9 ,"t ( ! v>i\s ,philosophies4 ,! fir/ "q :i* may be ask$ 9 ref]5ce to ?is hi/ory1 conc]ns t di/9ction 9 reg>d to ! manife/ation ( ! ,idea1 :i* has j be5 notic$4 ,x is ! "q z to h[ x happ5s t ,philosophy appe>s to be a developm5t 9 "t & has a hi/ory4 ,! answ] to ?is "q encroa*es on ! metaphysics ( ,"t1 & x w\ld be a digression f our object to give "h m ?an ! elem5ts on :i* ! answ] re/s4 ,x has be5 %[n above 9 ref]5ce to ! exi/5ce ( ,m9d1 t its ,be+ is its activity4 ,nature1 on ! contr>y1 is1 z x is2 its *anges are ?us only repetitions1 & its movem5ts take ! =m ( a circle m]ely4 ,to express ?is bett]1 ! activity ( ,m9d is to "k itself4 ,i am1 imm$iately1 b ?is ,i am only z a liv+ organism2 z ,m9d ,i am only 9 s f> z ,i "k myself4 1 ,"k ?yself1 ! inscription ov] ! temple ( ! oracle at ,delphi1 is ! absolute comm& :i* is express$ by ,m9d 9 its ess5tial "*4 ,b consci\sness really implies t = myself1 ,i am object to myself4 ,9 =m+ ?is absolute division betwe5 :at is m9e & myself1 ,m9d con/itutes its exi/5ce & e/abli%es itself z ext]nal to itself4 ,x po/ulates itself 9 ! ext]nality :i* is j ! univ]sal & ! di/9ctive =m ( exi/5ce 9 ,nature4 ,b "o ( ! =ms ( ext]nality is ,"t1 & ?is =m requires to be fur!r exam9$ bo? 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,nature & ! f9ite ,m9d4 ,?is ,be+ 9 exi/5ce & !re=e ,be+ 9 "t is a mom5t n only ( ! individual consci\sness1 :i* z su* is ess5tially f9ite1 b also ( ! developm5t ( ! philosophical ,idea 9 ! elem5t ( ,?\ght4 ,= ! ,idea1 ?\ght ( z be+ at re/1 is1 inde$1 n 9 ,"t4 ,to ?9k ( x z at re/1 & to pres]ve x 9 ! =m ( imm$iacy is equival5t to its inw>d p]ception4 ,b ! ,idea z concrete1 is1 z has be5 %[n1 ! unity ( diff]5ces2 x is n really re/1 & its exi/5ce is n really s5se-p]ception1 b z diff]5tiation )9 itself & !re=e z developm5t1 x comes into exi/5t ,be+ & into ext]nality 9 ! elem5t ( ,?\ght1 & ?us pure ,philosophy appe>s 9 ?\ght z a progressive exi/5ce 9 "t4 ,b ?is elem5t ( ,?\ght is itself ab/ract & is ! activity ( a s+le consci\sness4 ,m9d is1 h[ev]1 n only to be consid]$ z individual1 f9ite consci\sness1 b z t ,m9d :i* is univ]sal & concrete )9 itself2 ?is concrete univ]sality1 h[ev]1 compreh5ds all ! v>i\s sides & modes evolv$ 9 :i* x is & becomes object to ! ,idea4 ,?us ,m9d's ?9k+ compreh5sion ( self is at ! same "t ! progression ( ! total actuality evolv$4 ,?is progression is n "o :i* takes its c\rse ?r\gh ! ?\ght ( an individual & exhibits itself 9 a s+le consci\sness1 = x %[s itself to be univ]sal ,m9d pres5t+ itself 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w 9 all ! ri*ness ( its =m4 ,! result ( ?is developm5t is t "o =m1 "o /age 9 ! ,idea comes to consci\sness 9 "o p>ticul> race1 s t ?is race & ?is "t expresses only ?is p>ticul> =m1 )9 :i* x con/ructs its univ]se & works out its conditions4 ,! high] /age1 on ! o!r h&1 c5turies lat] reveals itself 9 ano!r race ( p4 ,n[ if we ?us grasp ! pr9ciples ( ! ,concrete & ( ,developm5t1 ! nature ( ! manifold obta9s q ano!r signification1 & :at is said ( ! div]sity 9 philosophies z if ! manifold 7 fix$ & /ation>y & compos$ ( :at is mutually exclusive1 is at once refut$ & relegat$ to its prop] place4 ,su* talk is t 9 :i* ^? :o despise ,philosophy ?9k !y possess an inv9cible weapon aga9/ x1 & 9 _! truly begg>ly pride 9 _! pitiful repres5tations ( x1 !y are 9 p]fect ignorance ev5 ( :at !y h & :at !y h to "k 9 any meagre ideas atta9$1 su* z 9 t ( ! manifold & div]se4 ,yet ?is category is "o :i* anybody c und]/&2 no difficulty is made 9 reg>d to x1 = x is ?or\ghly kn[n1 & ^? :o use x ?9k !y c d s z be+ entirely compreh5sible--z a matt] ( c\rse !y und]/& :at x is4 ,b ^? :o believe ! pr9ciple ( div]sity to be "o absolutely fix$1 d n "k its nature1 or its dialectic2 ! manifold or div]se is 9 a /ate ( flux2 x mu/ really be conceiv$ ( z 9 ! process ( developm5t1 & z b a pass+ mom5t4 ,philosophy 9 its concrete ,idea is ! activity ( developm5t 9 reveal+ ! diff]5ces :i* x conta9s )9 itself2 ^! diff]5ces are ?\ghts1 = we are n[ speak+ ( developm5t 9 ,?\ght4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! diff]5ces :i* re/ 9 ! ,idea are manife/$ z ?\ghts4 ,secondly1 ^! di/9ctions mu/ come into exi/5ce1 "o "h & ! o!r !re2 & 9 ord] t !y may d ?is1 !y mu/ be complete1 t is1 !y mu/ conta9 )9 !mselves ! ,idea 9 its totality4 ,! concrete alone z includ+ & support+ ! di/9ctions1 is ! actual2 x is ?us1 & ?us alone1 t ! diff]5ces are 9 _! =m entire4 ,a complete =m ( ?\ght su* z is "h pres5t$1 is a ,philosophy4 ,b ! ,idea conta9s ! di/9ctions 9 a peculi> =m4 ,x may be said t ! =m is indiff]5t1 & t ! cont5t1 ! ,idea1 is ! ma9 consid]ation2 & p ?9k !mselves q mod]ate & reasonable :5 !y /ate t ! diff]5t philosophies all conta9 ! ,idea1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t =ms1 und]/&+ by ?is t ^! =ms are cont+5t4 ,b ev]y?+ hangs on ?is3 ^! =ms are no?+ else ?an ! orig9al di/9ctions 9 ! ,idea itself1 :i* is :at x is only 9 !m4 ,!y are 9 ?is way ess5tial to1 & con/itute ! cont5t ( ! ,idea1 :i* 9 ?us sund]+ itself1 atta9s to =m4 ,! manifold "* ( ! pr9ciples :i* appe>1 is1 h[ev]1 n accid5tal1 b necess>y3 ! diff]5t =ms con/itute an integral "p ( ! :ole =m4 ,!y are ! det]m9ations ( ! orig9al ,idea1 :i* toge!r con/itute ! :ole2 b z be+ outside ( "o ano!r1 _! union does n take place 9 !m1 b 9 u1 ! obs]v]s4 ,ea* sy/em is det]m9$ z "o1 b x is n a p]man5t condition t ! diff]5ces are ?us mutually exclusive4 ,! inevitable fate ( ^! det]m9ations mu/ foll[1 & t is t !y %all be drawn toge!r & r$uc$ to elem5ts or mom5ts4 ,! indep5d5t attitude tak5 up by ea* mom5t is aga9 laid aside4 ,aft] expansion1 contraction foll[s--! unity out ( :i* !y fir/ em]g$4 ,?is ?ird may itself be b ! beg9n+ ( a fur!r developm5t4 ,x may seem z if ?is progression 7 to g on into inf9itude1 b x has an absolute end 9 view1 :i* we %all "k bett] lat] on2 _m turn+s are necess>y1 h[ev]1 be=e ,m9d frees itself 9 com+ to consci\sness4 ,! temple ( self-consci\s reason is to be consid]$ f ?is ! po9t ( view alone wor?y ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,x is h5ce rationally built by an inw>d ma/] work]1 & n 9 ,solomon's me?od1 z freemasons build4 ,! great assumption t :at has tak5 place on ?is side1 9 ! _w1 has also done s 9 con=mity ) reason--:i* is :at fir/ gives ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy its true int]e/--is no?+ else ?an tru/ 9 ,provid5ce1 only 9 ano!r =m4 ,z ! be/ ( :at is 9 ! _w is t :i* ,?\ght produces1 x is unreasonable to believe t reason only is 9 ,nature1 & n 9 ,m9d4 ,t man :o believes t :at1 l ! philosophies1 belongs to ! region ( m9d mu/ be m]ely cont+5t1 is ins9c]e 9 8 belief 9 div9e rule1 & :at he says ( x is b empty talk4 ,a long "t is und\bt$ly requir$ by ,m9d 9 work+ out ,philosophy1 & :5 "o fir/ reflects on x1 ! l5g? ( ! "t may seem a/oni%+1 l ! imm5sity ( ! space spok5 ( 9 a/ronomy4 ,b x mu/ be consid]$ 9 reg>d to ! sl[ progress ( ! _w-_s1 t !re is no ne$ = x to ha/53--8,a ?\s& ye>s are 9 ,?y sight z "o day40 ,x has "t en\gh j because x is itself outside ( "t1 because x is et]nal4 ,! fleet+ ev5ts ( ! day pass s quickly t !re is n "t en\gh = all t has to be done4 ,:o is !re :o does n die be=e he has a*iev$ 8 aims8 ,! _w-_s has "t en\gh1 b t is n all4 ,x is n "t alone :i* has to be made use ( 9 ! acquisition ( a conception2 mu* else is requir$4 ,! fact t s _m races & g5]ations are devot$ to ^! op]ations ( its consci\sness by ,m9d1 & t ! appe>ance is s p]petually pres5t$ ( ris+ up & pass+ away1 conc]n x n at all2 x is ri* en\gh = su* displays1 x pursues its "w on ! l>ge/ possible scale1 & has nations & individuals en\gh & to sp>e4 ,! say+ t ,nature arrives at its end 9 ! %orte/ possible way1 & t ?is is "r1 is a trivial "o4 ,! way %[n by m9d is indirect1 & accommodates itself to circum/ances4 ,consid]ations ( f9ite life1 su* z "t1 tr\ble1 & co/1 h no place "h4 ,we ought1 too1 to feel no disappo9tm5t t p>ticul> k9ds ( k _c yet be atta9$1 or t ?is or t is /ill abs5t4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w progression is sl[4 b4 ,! application ( ! =ego+ to ! treatm5t ( ,philosophy4 ,! fir/ result :i* foll[s f :at has be5 said1 is t ! :ole ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy is a progression impell$ by an inh]5t necessity1 & "o :i* is implicitly rational & priori det]m9$ ?r\gh its ,idea2 & ?is ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy has to exemplify4 ,cont+5cy mu/ vani% on ! appe>ance ( ,philosophy4 ,its hi/ory is j z absolutely det]m9$ z ! developm5t ( ,notions1 & ! impell+ =ce is ! inn] dialectic ( ! =ms4 ,! f9ite is n true1 nor is x :at x is to be--its det]m9ate nature is b\nd up ) its exi/5ce4 ,b ! inw>d ,idea aboli%es ^! f9ite =ms3 a philosophy :i* has n ! absolute =m id5tical ) ! cont5t1 mu/ pass away because its =m is n t ( tru?4 ,:at foll[s1 secondly f :at we h said1 is t e philosophy has be5 & /ill is necess>y4 ,?us none h pass$ away1 b all are affirmatively conta9$ z elem5ts 9 a :ole4 ,b we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ! p>ticul> pr9ciple ( ^! philosophies z p>ticul>1 & ! realization ( ?is pr9ciple ?r\gh\t ! :ole compass ( ! _w4 ,! pr9ciples are reta9$1 ! mo/ rec5t philosophy be+ ! result ( all prec$+1 & h5ce no philosophy has ev] be5 refut$4 ,:at has be5 refut$ is n ! pr9ciple ( ?is philosophy1 b m]ely ! fact t ?is pr9ciple %\ld be consid]$ f9al & absolute 9 "*4 ,! atomic philosophy1 = example1 has arriv$ at ! affirmation t ! atom is ! absolute exi/5ce1 t x is ! indivisible unit :i* is also ! individual or subject2 see+1 !n1 t ! b>e unit also is ! ab/ract be+-=-self1 ! ,absolute w\ld be grasp$ z inf9itely _m units4 ,! atomic !ory has be5 refut$1 & we are atomi/s no long]4 ,m9d is c]ta9ly explicitly exi/5t z a unit or atom1 b t is to attribute to x a b>r5 "* & qualities incapable ( express+ any?+ ( its dep?4 ,! pr9ciple is inde$ reta9$1 al?\gh x is n ! absolute 9 its entirety4 ,?is same contradiction appe>s 9 all developm5t4 ,! developm5t ( ! tree is ! negation ( ! g]m1 & ! blossom t ( ! leaves1 9 s f> z t !y %[ t ^! d n =m ! highe/ & true/ exi/5ce ( ! tree4 ,la/ ( all1 ! blossom f9ds its negation 9 ! fruit4 ,yet none ( !m c come into actual exi/5ce except+ z prec$$ by all ! e>li] /ages4 ,our attitude to a philosophy mu/ ?us conta9 an affirmative side & a negative2 :5 we take bo? ( ^! into consid]ation1 we d ju/ice to a philosophy = ! fir/ "t4 ,we get to "k ! affirmative side lat] on bo? 9 life & 9 sci5ce2 ?us we f9d x easi] to refute ?an to ju/ify4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 we %all limit ourselves to ! p>ticul> consid]ation ( ! pr9ciple itself4 ,ea* pr9ciple has reign$ = a c]ta9 "t1 & :5 ! :ole sy/em ( ! _w has be5 expla9$ f ?is special =m1 x is call$ a philosophical sy/em4 ,its :ole !ory has c]ta9ly to be le>n$1 b z long z ! pr9ciple is ab/ract x is n suffici5t to embrace ! =ms belong+ to our conception ( ! _w4 ,! ,c>tesian pr9ciples1 = in/ance1 are v suitable = application to me*anism1 b = no?+ fur!r2 _! repres5tation ( o!r manife/ations 9 ! _w1 su* z ^? ( vegetable & animal nature1 are insuffici5t1 & h5ce un9t]e/+4 ,!re=e we take into consid]ation ! pr9ciples ( ^! philosophies only1 b 9 deal+ ) concrete philosophies we mu/ also reg>d ! *ief =ms ( _! developm5t & _! applications4 ,! subord9ate philosophies are inconsi/5t2 !y h _h bright glimpses ( ! tru?1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 indep5d5t ( _! pr9ciples4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 ! ,timu ( ,plato1 a philosophy ( nature1 ! work+ out ( :i* is empirically v b>r5 because its pr9ciple does n z yet ext5d f> en\gh1 & x is n to its pr9ciple t we owe ! deep gleams ( ?\ght !re conta9$4 ,9 ! f\r? place x foll[s t we mu/ n reg>d ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy z deal+ ) ! pa/1 ev5 ?\gh x is hi/ory4 ,! sci5tific products ( reason =m ! cont5t ( ?is hi/ory1 & ^! are n pa/4 ,:at is obta9$ 9 ?is field ( lab\r is ! ,true1 &1 z su*1 ! ,et]nal2 x is n :at exi/s n[1 & n !n2 x is true n only to-day or to-morr[1 b beyond all "t1 & 9 z f> z x is 9 "t1 x is true always & = e "t4 ,! bodily =ms ( ^? great m9ds :o are ! h]oes ( ?is hi/ory1 ! temporal exi/5ce & outw>d lives ( ! philosoph]s1 are1 inde$1 no m1 b _! works & ?\ghts h n foll[$ suit1 = !y nei!r conceiv$ nor dreamt ( ! rational import ( _! works4 ,philosophy is n somnambulism1 b is develop$ consci\sness2 & :at ^! h]oes h done is to br+ t :i* is implicitly rational out ( ! dep?s ( ,m9d1 :]e x is f\nd at fir/ z sub/ance only1 or z inw>dly exi/5t1 into ! light ( day1 & to advance x into consci\sness & k4 ,?is =ms a cont9u\s awak5+4 ,su* "w is n only deposit$ 9 ! temple ( ,memory z =ms ( times gone by1 b is j z pres5t & z liv+ n[ z at ! "t ( its production4 ,! effects produc$ & "w p]=m$ are n aga9 de/roy$ or int]rupt$ by :at succe$s1 = !y are su* t we mu/ ourselves be pres5t 9 !m4 ,!y h z m$ium nei!r canvas1 pap]1 m>ble1 nor repres5tation or memorial to pres]ve !m4 ,^! m$iums are !mselves transi5t1 or else =m a basis = :at is su*4 ,b !y d h ,?\ght1 ,notion1 & ! et]nal ,be+ ( ,m9d1 :i* mo?s _c corrupt1 nor ?ieves break ?r\gh & /eal4 ,! conque/s made by ,?\ght :5 con/itut$ into ,?\ght =m ! v ,be+ ( ,m9d4 ,su* k is ?us n le>n+ m]ely1 or a k ( :at is dead1 buri$ & corrupt3 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy has n to d ) :at is gone1 b ) ! liv+ pres5t4 c4 ,fur!r comp>ison betwe5 ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy & ,philosophy itself4 ,we may appropriate to ourselves ! :ole ( ! ri*es apportion$ out 9 "t3 x mu/ be %[n f ! succession 9 philosophies h[ t succession is ! sy/ematization ( ! sci5ce ( ,philosophy itself4 ,b a di/9ction is to be not$ "h3 t :i* fir/ comm5ces is implicit1 imm$iate1 ab/ract1 g5]al--x is :at has n yet advanc$2 ! m concrete & ri*] comes lat]1 & ! fir/ is poor] 9 det]m9ations4 ,?is may appe> contr>y to "o's fir/ impressions1 b philosophic ideas are (t5 en\gh directly oppos$ to ord9>y ideas1 & :at is g5]ally suppos$1 is n f\nd to be ! case4 ,x may be ?\ght t :at comes fir/ mu/ be ! concrete4 ,! *ild1 = in/ance1 z /ill 9 ! orig9al totality ( 8 nature1 is ?\ght to be m concrete ?an ! man1 h5ce we imag9e ! latt] to be m limit$1 no long] =m+ a totality1 b liv+ an ab/ract life4 ,c]ta9ly ! man acts 9 accordance ) def9ite ends1 n br++ 8 :ole s\l & m9d into a subject1 b splitt+ 8 life into a numb] ( ab/ract unities4 ,! *ild & ! y\?1 on ! contr>y1 act /raight f ! fulness ( ! he>t4 ,feel+ & s5se-p]ception come fir/1 ?\ght la/1 & ?us feel+ appe>s to u to be m concrete ?an ?\ght1 or ! activity ( ab/raction & ( ! univ]sal4 ,9 reality1 x is j ! o!r way4 ,! s5su\s consci\sness is c]ta9ly ! m concrete1 & if poor] 9 ?\ght1 at lea/ ri*] 9 cont5t4 ,we mu/ ?us di/+ui% ! naturally concrete f ! concrete ( ?\ght1 :i* on its side1 aga91 is want+ 9 s5su\s matt]4 ,! *ild is also ! mo/ ab/ract & ! poore/ 9 ?\ght3 z to :at p]ta9s to nature1 ! man is ab/ract1 b 9 ?\ght he is m concrete ?an ! *ild4 ,man's ends & objects are und\bt$ly ab/ract 9 g5]al affairs1 su* z 9 ma9ta9+ 8 family or p]=m+ 8 bus9ess duties1 b he contributes to a great objective organic :ole1 ^: progress he advances & directs4 ,9 ! acts ( a *ild1 on ! o!r h&1 only a *ildi% &1 inde$1 mom5t>y 8,i10 & 9 ^? ( ! y\? ! subjective con/itution or ! r&om aim1 =m ! pr9ciple ( action4 ,x is 9 ?is way t sci5ce is m concrete ?an s5se-p]ception4 ,9 apply+ ?is to ! diff]5t =ms ( ,philosophy1 x foll[s 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! e>lie/ philosophies are ! poore/ & ! mo/ ab/ract4 ,9 !m ! ,idea is lea/ det]m9$2 !y keep m]ely to g5]alities n yet realiz$4 ,?is mu/ be kn[n 9 ord] t we may n seek beh9d ! old philosophies = m ?an we are entitl$ to f9d2 ?us we ne$ n require f !m det]m9ations proce$+ f a deep] consci\sness4 ,= in/ance1 x has be5 ask$ :e!r ! philosophy ( ,?ales is1 prop]ly speak+1 ,!ism or ,a!ism1#e :e!r he ass]t$ a p]sonal ,god or m]ely an imp]sonal1 univ]sal exi/5ce4 ,! "q "h reg>ds ! attribution ( subjectivity to ! highe/ ,idea1 ! conception ( ! ,p]sonality ( ,god4 ,su* subjectivity z we compreh5d x1 is a mu* ri*]1 m conc5trat$1 & !re=e mu* lat] conception1 :i* ne$ n be s\ght = 9 di/ant ages4 ,! ,greek gods _h1 inde$1 p]sonality 9 imag9ation & idea l ! "o ,god ( ! ,jewi% religion1 b to "k :at is ! m]e picture ( fancy1 & :at ! insight ( pure ,?\ght & ,notion1 is q ano!r ?+4 ,if we take z basis our own ideas judg$ by ^! deep] conceptions1 an anci5t ,philosophy may und\bt$ly be spok5 ( z ,a!ism4 ,b ?is expression w\ld at ! same "t be false1 = ! ?\ghts z ?\ghts 9 beg9n+1 c\ld n h arriv$ at ! developm5t :i* we h rea*$4 ,f ?is x foll[s--s9ce ! progress ( developm5t is equival5t to fur!r det]m9ation1 & ?is means fur!r imm]sion 9 & a full] grasp ( ! ,idea itself--t ! late/1 mo/ mod]n & newe/ philosophy is ! mo/ develop$1 ri*e/ & deepe/4 ,9 t philosophy ev]y?+ :i* at fir/ seems to be pa/ & gone mu/ be pres]v$ & reta9$1 & x mu/ itself be a mirror ( ! :ole hi/ory4 ,! orig9al philosophy is ! mo/ ab/ract1 because x is ! orig9al & has n z yet made any movem5t =w>d2 ! la/1 :i* proce$s f ?is =w>d & impell+ influ5ce1 is ! mo/ concrete4 ,?is1 z may at once be rem>k$1 is no m]e pride 9 ! philosophy ( our "t1 because x is 9 ! nature ( ! :ole process t ! m develop$ philosophy ( a lat] "t is really ! result ( ! previ\s op]ations ( ! ?9k+ m9d2 & t x1 press$ =w>ds & onw>ds f ! e>li] /&po9ts1 has n gr[n up on its own acc\nt or 9 a /ate ( isolation4 ,x mu/ also be recollect$ t we mu/ n hesitate to say1 :at is naturally impli$1 t ! ,idea1 z compreh5d$ & %[n =? 9 ! late/ & newe/ philosophy1 is ! mo/ develop$1 ! ri*e/ & deepe/4 ,i call ?is to remembrance because ! designation1 new or newe/ ( all 9 ref]5ce to ,philosophy1 has become a v common by-^w4 ,^? :o ?9k !y express any?+ by us+ su* t]ms might q easily r5d] ?anks respect+ any numb] ( philosophies j z fa/ z _! incl9ation directs1 reg>d+ ei!r e %oot+-/> & ev5 e c&le-gleam 9 ! light ( a sun1 or else call+ e popul> cry a philosophy1 & adduc+ z pro( t at any rate !re are s _m philosophies t e day "o displaces ano!r4 ,?us !y h ! category 9 :i* !y c place any app>5tly significant philosophy1 & ?r\gh :i* !y may at ! same "t set x aside2 ?is !y call a fa%ion-philosophy4 8,sc(f]1 ?\ call'/ ?is b a fleet+ phase ,:5 ! ,_s ( ,man once aga9 & anew1 ,/rives e>ne/ly on1 t[>ds =ms t are high]40 ,a second consequ5ce has reg>d to ! treatm5t ( ! old] philosophies4 ,su* insight also prev5ts u f ascrib+ any blame to ! philosophies :5 we miss det]m9ations 9 !m :i* 7 n yet pres5t to _! culture1 & simil>ly x prev5ts our burd5+ !m ) d$uctions & ass]tions :i* 7 nei!r made nor ?\ght ( by !m1 ?\gh !y might correctly en\gh all[ !mselves to be d]iv$ f ! ?\ght ( su* a philosophy4 ,x is necess>y to set to "w on an hi/orical basis1 & to ascribe to ,philosophy :at is imm$iately giv5 to u1 & t alone4 ,errors crop up "h 9 mo/ hi/ories ( ,philosophy1 s9ce we may see 9 !m a numb] ( metaphysical propositions ascrib$ to a philosoph] & giv5 out z an hi/orical /atem5t ( ! views :i* he has prop\nd$1 ( :i* he nei!r ?\ght nor knew a ^w1 & ( :i* !re is n ! slighte/ trace f\nd 9 hi/ory4 ,?us 9 ,bruck]'s great ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 7,pt4 ,i4 pp4 #dfe-dgh seq47 a li/ ( ?irty1 =ty1 or a hundr$ !orems are quot$ f ,?ales & o!rs1 no idea ( :i* c be trac$ 9 hi/ory z hav+ be5 pres5t to ^! philosoph]s4 ,!re are also propositions 9 support ( !m & citations tak5 f discussions ( a simil> k9d ) :i* we may occupy ourselves long en\gh4 ,bruck]'s me?od is to end[ ! s+le !orem ( an anci5t philosoph] ) all ! consequ5ces & premises :i* mu/1 accord+ to ! idea ( ! ,wolffian ,metaphysics1 be ! premises & conclusions ( t !orem1 & ?us easily to produce a simple1 nak$ fiction z if x 7 an actual hi/orical fact4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,bruck]1 ,?ales said1 ,ex nihilo fit nihil1 s9ce he said t wat] 0 et]nal4 ,?us1 too1 he 0 to be c\nt$ among/ ! philosoph]s :o d5y creation out ( no?+2 & ( ?is1 hi/orically at lea/1 ,?ales 0 ignorant4 ,pr(essor ,ritt]1 too1 ^: hi/ory ( ,ionic ,philosophy is c>efully writt51 & :o on ! :ole is cauti\s n to introduce =eign matt]1 has v possibly ascrib$ to ,?ales m ?an is f\nd 9 hi/ory4 ,he says 7pp4 #ab1 #ac71 8,h5ce we mu/ reg>d ! view ( nature :i* we f9d 9 ,?ales z dynamic 9 pr9ciple4 ,he reg>d$ ! _w z ! all-embrac+1 liv+ animal :i* has develop$ f a g]m l e o!r animal1 & ?is g]m1 l t ( all o!r animals1 is ei!r damp or wat]4 ,?us ! fundam5tal idea ( ,?ales is t ! _w is a liv+ :ole :i* has develop$ f a g]m & c>ries on its life z does an animal1 by means ( n\ri%m5t suitable to its nature0 7cf4 p4 #af74 ,?is is q a diff]5t acc\nt f t ( ,ari/otle1 & none ( x is communicat$ by ! anci5ts reg>d+ ,?ales4 ,! sequ5ce ( ?\ght is evid5t1 b hi/orically x is n ju/ifi$4 ,we ought n by su* d$uctions to make an anci5t philosophy into some?+ q diff]5t f :at x orig9ally 04 ,we are too apt to m\ld ! anci5t philosoph]s into our own =ms ( ?\ght1 b ?is is j to con/itute ! progress ( developm5t2 ! diff]5ce 9 times1 9 culture & 9 philosophies1 dep5ds on :e!r c]ta9 reflections1 c]ta9 ?\ght det]m9ations1 & c]ta9 /ages 9 ! ,notion h come to consci\sness1 :e!r a consci\sness has be5 develop$ to a p>ticul> po9t or n4 ,! hi/ory ( ,philosophy has simply to deal ) ?is developm5t & br++ =? ( ?\ght4 ,! det]m9ations involv$ c]ta9ly foll[ f a proposition1 b :e!r !y are put =? z yet or n is q ano!r ?+1 & ! br++ =? ( ! inn] cont5t is ! only matt] ( importance4 ,we mu/ !re=e only make use ( ! words :i* are actually lit]al1 = to use fur!r ?\ght det]m9ations :i* d n yet belong to ! consci\sness ( ! philosoph] 9 "q1 is to c>ry on developm5t4 ,?us ,ari/otle /ates t ,?ales has def9$ ! pr9ciple 77 ( e ?+ to be wat]4 ,b ,anaxim&] fir/ made use ( 1 & ,?ales ?us did n possess ?is det]m9ation ( ?\ght at all2 he recogniz$ z comm5cem5t 9 "t1 b n z ! fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,?ales did n once introduce ! det]m9ation ( cause into 8 philosophy1 & fir/ cause is a fur!r det]m9ation /ill4 ,!re are :ole nations :i* h n ?is conception at all2 inde$ x involves a great /ep =w>d 9 developm5t4 ,& see+ t diff]5ce 9 culture on ! :ole dep5ds on diff]5ce 9 ! ?\ght det]m9ations :i* are manife/$1 ?is mu/ be s /ill m ) respect to philosophies4 ,n[1 z 9 ! logical sy/em ( ?\ght ea* ( its =ms has its own place 9 :i* alone x suffices1 & ?is =m becomes1 by means ( ev]-progress+ developm5t1 r$uc$ to a subord9ate elem5t1 ea* philosophy is1 9 ! ?ird place1 a p>ticul> /age 9 ! developm5t ( ! :ole process & has its def9ite place :]e x f9ds its true value & significance4 ,its special "* is really to be conceiv$ ( 9 accordance ) ?is det]m9ation1 & x is to be consid]$ ) respect to ?is position 9 ord] t full ju/ice may be done to x4 ,on ?is acc\nt no?+ m mu/ be dem&$ or expect$ f x ?an :at x actually gives1 & ! satisfaction is n to be s\ght = 9 x1 :i* c only be f\nd 9 a full] developm5t ( k4 ,we mu/ n expect to f9d ! que/ions ( our consci\sness & ! int]e/ ( ! pres5t _w respond$ to by ! anci5ts2 su* que/ions presuppose a c]ta9 developm5t 9 ?\ght4 ,!re=e e philosophy belongs to its own "t & is re/rict$ by its own limitations1 j because x is ! manife/ation ( a p>ticul> /age 9 developm5t4 ,! individual is ! (fspr+ ( 8 p1 ( 8 _w1 ^: con/itution & attributes are alone manife/$ 9 8 =m2 he may spread himself out z he w1 he _c escape out ( 8 "t any m ?an out ( 8 sk91 = he belongs to ! "o univ]sal ,m9d :i* is 8 sub/ance & 8 own exi/5ce4 ,h[ %\ld he escape f ?is8 ,x is ! same univ]sal ,m9d t is embrac$ by ?9k+ ,philosophy2 t ,philosophy is ,m9d's ?\ght ( itself & !re=e its det]m9ate & sub/antial cont5t4 ,e philosophy is ! philosophy ( its own day1 a l9k 9 ! :ole *a9 ( spiritual developm5t1 & ?us x c only f9d satisfaction = ! int]e/s belong+ to its own p>ticul> "t4 ,on ?is acc\nt an e>li] philosophy does n give satisfaction to ! m9d 9 :i* a deep] conception reigns4 ,:at ,m9d seeks = 9 ,philosophy is ?is conception :i* already con/itutes its inw>d det]m9ation & ! root ( its exi/5ce conceiv$ ( z object to ?\ght2 ,m9d dem&s a k ( itself4 ,b 9 ! e>li] philosophy ! ,idea is n yet pres5t 9 ?is det]m9ate "*4 ,h5ce ! philosophy ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & inde$ all philosophies1 ev] live & are pres5t 9 _! pr9ciples1 b ,philosophy no long] has ! p>ticul> =m & aspect possess$ by t ( ,plato & ( ,ari/otle4 ,we _c re/ cont5t ) !m1 & !y _c be reviv$2 h5ce !re c be no ,platoni/s1 ,ari/otelians1 ,/oics1 or ,epicureans to-day4 ,to re-awak5 !m w\ld be to try to br+ back to an e>li] /age ! ,m9d ( a deep] culture & self-p5etration4 ,b ?is _c be ! case2 x w\ld be an impossibility & z great a folly z 7 a man to wi% to exp5d 8 en]gies 9 atta9+ ! /&po9t ( ! y\?1 ! y\? 9 endeav\r+ to be ! boy or *ild aga92 :]eas ! man1 ! y\?1 & ! *ild1 are all "o & ! same individual4 ,! p]iod ( revival 9 ! sci5ces1 ! new epo* 9 le>n+ :i* took place 9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies1 began n only ) ! reviv$ /udy (1 b also ) ! re-animation ( ! old philosophies4 ,m>silius ,fic9us 0 a ,platoni/2 an ,academy ( ,platonic philosophy 0 e/abli%$ & in/all$ ) pr(essors by ,cosmos de ,m$ici1 & ,fic9us 0 plac$ at ! head ( x4 ,!re 7 pure ,ari/otelians l ,pomponius3 ,gass5di lat] on ma9ta9$ ! ,epicurean philosophy1 = 8 philosophy dealt ) ,physics aft] ! mann] ( ! ,epicureans2 ,lipsius wi%$ to be a ,/oic1 & s on4 ,! s5se ( opposition 0 s great1 anci5t philosophy & ,*ri/ianity--f or 9 :i* no special philosophy _h develop$--7 s div]se1 t no philosophy peculi> to itself c\ld develop 9 ,*ri/ianity4 ,:at 0 or c\ld be _h z philosophy1 ei!r 9 con=mity ) or 9 opposition to ,*ri/ianity1 0 a c]ta9 anci5t philosophy :i* 0 ?us tak5 up anew4 ,b mummies :5 br\ght among/ liv+ be+s _c !re rema94 ,m9d _h = long possess$ a m sub/antial life1 a m pr(\nd ,notion ( itself1 & h5ce its ?\ght _h high] ne$s ?an su* z c\ld be satisfi$ by ^! philosophies4 ,a revival su* z ?is is !n to be reg>d$ only z ! transitory p]iod 9 :i* we le>n to "k ! =ms :i* are impli$ & :i* h gone be=e1 & z ! r5ewal ( =m] /ruggles ?r\gh ! /eps necess>y 9 developm5t4 ,su* recon/ructions & repetitions 9 a di/ant "t ( pr9ciples :i* h become =eign to ,m9d1 are 9 hi/ory transitory only1 & =m$ 9 a language :i* is dead4 ,su* ?+s are translations only & n orig9als1 & ,m9d does n f9d satisfaction except+ 9 k ( its own orig9ation4 ,:5 mod]n times are 9 ! same way call$ ^u to rev]t to ! /&po9t ( an anci5t philosophy 7z is recomm5d$ specially 9 reg>d to ! philosophy ( ,plato7 9 ord] to make ?is a means ( escap+ f ! complications & difficulties ( succe$+ times1 ?is rev]sion does n come naturally z 9 ! fir/ case4 ,?is discreet c\nsel has ! same orig9 z ! reque/ to cultivat$ memb]s ( society to turn back to ! cu/oms & ideas ( ! savages ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican =e/s1 or z ! recomm5dation to adopt ! religion ( ,mel*is$ec :i* ,fi*te#f has ma9ta9$ to be ! pure/ & simple/ possible1 & !re=e ! "o at :i* we mu/ ev5tually arrive4 ,on ! "o h&1 9 ?is retrogression ! desire = an orig9 & = a fix$ po9t ( dep>ture is unmi/akable1 b su* mu/ be s\ght = 9 ?\ght & ,idea alone & n 9 an au?oritatively giv5 =m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! return ( ! develop$1 enri*$ ,m9d to a simplicity su* z ?is--:i* means to an ab/raction1 an ab/ract condition or ?\ght--is to be reg>d$ only z ! escape ( an incapacity :i* _c enjoy ! ri* mat]ial ( developm5t :i* x sees be=e x1 & :i* dem&s to be controll$ & compreh5d$ 9 its v dep?s by ?\ght1 b seeks a refuge 9 flee+ f ! difficulty & 9 m]e /]ility4 ,f :at has be5 said x is q compreh5sible h[ s _m ( ^? :o1 :e!r induc$ by "s special attraction su* z ?is1 or simply by ! fame ( a ,plato or anci5t philosophy 9 g5]al1 direct _! way !reto 9 ord] to draw _! own philosophy f ^! s\rces1 d n f9d !mselves satisfi$ by ! /udy1 & unju/ifiably quit su* altoge!r4 ,satisfaction is f\nd 9 !m to a c]ta9 ext5t only4 ,we mu/ "k 9 anci5t philosophy or 9 ! philosophy ( any giv5 p]iod1 :at we are go+ to look =4 ,or at lea/ we mu/ "k t 9 su* a philosophy !re is be=e u a def9ite /age 9 ! developm5t ( ?\ght1 & 9 x ^? =ms & necessities ( ,m9d :i* lie )9 ! limits ( t /age alone are br\ght into exi/5ce4 ,!re slumb] 9 ! ,m9d ( mod]n times ideas m pr(\nd :i* require = _! awak5+ o!r surr\nd+s & ano!r pres5t ?an ! ab/ract1 dim1 grey ?\ght ( old5 times4 ,9 ,plato1 = in/ance1 que/ions reg>d+ ! nature ( fre$om1 ! orig9 ( evil & ( s91 provid5ce1 c41 d n f9d _! philosophic answ]4 ,on su* subjects we c]ta9ly may 9 "p take ! ord9>y s]i\s views ( ! pres5t "t1 & 9 "p philosophically set _! consid]ation altoge!r aside1 or else consid] s9 & fre$om z some?+ negative only4 ,b nei!r ! "o plan nor ! o!r gives fre$om to ,m9d if su* subjects h once be5 explicitly = x1 & if ! opposition 9 self-consci\sness has giv5 x ! p[] ( s9k+ its int]e/s !re94 ,! case is simil> ) reg>d to que/ions reg>d+ ! limits ( k1 ! opposition betwe5 subjectivity & objectivity :i* _h n yet come up 9 ,plato's age4 ,! indep5d5ce ( ! 8,i0 )9 itself & its explicit exi/5ce 0 =eign to him2 man _h n yet gone back )9 himself1 _h n yet set himself =? z explicit4 ,! subject 0 inde$ ! individual z free1 b z yet he knew himself only z 9 unity ) 8 ,be+4 ,! ,a!nian knew himself to be free1 z su*1 j z ! ,roman citiz5 w\ld1 z +5uus4 ,b ! fact t man is 9 & = himself free1 9 8 ess5ce & z man1 free born1 0 kn[n nei!r by ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,cic]o1 nor ! ,roman legislators1 ev5 ?\gh x is ?is conception alone :i* =ms ! s\rce ( law4 ,9 ,*ri/ianity ! individual1 p]sonal m9d = ! fir/ "t becomes ( real1 inf9ite & absolute value2 ,god wills t all m5 %all be sav$4 ,x 0 9 ! ,*ri/ian religion t ! doctr9e 0 advanc$ t all m5 are equal be=e ,god1 because ,*ri/ has set !m free ) ! fre$om ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,^! pr9ciples make fre$om indep5d5t ( any su* ?+s z bir?1 /&+ or culture4 ,! progress made ?r\gh !m is enorm\s1 b !y /ill come %ort ( ?is1 t to be free con/itutes ! v idea ( man4 ,! s5se ( ?is exi/5t pr9ciple has be5 an active =ce = c5turies & c5turies1 & an impell+ p[] :i* has br\ght ab\t ! mo/ trem5d\s revolutions2 b ! conception & ! k ( ! natural fre$om ( man is a k ( himself :i* is n old4 ,b ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,philosophy ,,to ,,o!r ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,k4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy has to repres5t ?is sci5ce 9 t =m ( "t & individualities f :i* its outw>d =m has result$4 ,su* a repres5tation has1 h[ev]1 to %ut out f itself ! ext]nal hi/ory ( ! "t1 & to take into acc\nt only ! g5]al "* ( ! p & "t1 & likewise _! circum/ances z a :ole4 ,b z a matt] ( fact1 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy does pres5t ?is "*1 & t inde$ 9 ! highe/ possible degree2 its connection ) x is ( ! close/ k9d1 & ! p>ticul> appe>ance pres5t$ by a philosophy belong+ to "o special p]iod1 is only a p>ticul> aspect or elem5t 9 ! "*4 ,because ( ?is inw>d correspond5ce we h p>tly to consid] m closely ! p>ticul> relation borne by a philosophy to its hi/orical surr\nd+s1 & p>tly1 b pre-em95tly1 :at is prop] to itself1 f :i* alone1 aft] sep>at+ ev]y?+ relat$ h[ev] closely1 we c fix our /&po9t4 ,?is connection1 :i* is n m]ely ext]nal b ess5tial1 has ?us two sides1 :i* we mu/ consid]4 ,! fir/ is ! di/9ctly hi/orical side1 ! second is ! connection ) o!r matt]s--! connection ( ,philosophy ) ,religion1 = in/ance1 by :i* we at once obta9 a deep] conception ( ,philosophy itself4 #a4 ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,side ,,( ,,?is ,,connection4 ,x is usually said t political affairs & su* matt]s z ,religion are to be tak5 into consid]ation because !y h ex]cis$ a great influ5ce on ! ,philosophy ( ! "t1 & simil>ly x ex]ts an influ5ce ^u !m4 ,b :5 p are cont5t ) su* a category z 8great influ5ce0 !y place ! two 9 an ext]nal relation%ip1 & />t f ! po9t ( view t bo? sides are = !mselves indep5d5t4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we mu/ ?9k ( ?is relation%ip 9 ano!r category1 & n accord+ to ! influ5ce or effect ( "o ^u ! o!r4 ,! true category is ! unity ( all ^! diff]5t =ms1 s t x is "o ,m9d :i* manife/s itself 91 & impresses itself ^u ^! diff]5t elem5ts4 a4 ,outw>d & hi/orical conditions impos$ ^u ,philosophy4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ 9 ! fir/ place1 t a c]ta9 /age is requisite 9 ! intellectual culture ( a p 9 ord] t x may h a ,philosophy at all4 ,ari/otle says1 8,man fir/ beg9s to philosophize :5 ! necessities ( life are suppli$0 7,metaphysics1 ,i4 #b72 because s9ce ,philosophy is a free & n self-seek+ activity1 crav+s ( want mu/ h disappe>$1 a /r5g?1 elevation & inw>d =titude ( m9d mu/ h appe>$1 passions mu/ be subdu$ & consci\sness s f> advanc$1 be=e :at is univ]sal c be ?\ght (4 ,philosophy may ?us be call$ a k9d ( luxury1 9 s f> z luxury signifies ^? enjoym5ts & pursuits :i* d n belong to ext]nal necessity z su*4 ,philosophy 9 ?is respect seems m capable ( be+ disp5s$ ) ?an any?+ else2 b t dep5ds on :at is call$ indisp5sable4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( m9d1 ,philosophy may ev5 be said to be t :i* is mo/ ess5tial4 b4 ,! comm5cem5t 9 ,hi/ory ( an intellectual necessity = ,philosophy4 ,h[ev] mu* ,philosophy1 z ! ?\ght & conception ( ! ,m9d ( a p>ticul> "t1 is priori1 x is at ! same "t j z really a result1 s9ce ! ?\ght produc$ &1 inde$1 ! life & action are produc$ to produce !mselves4 ,?is activity conta9s ! ess5tial elem5t ( a negation1 because to produce is also to de/roy2 ,philosophy 9 produc+ itself1 has ! natural z its />t+ po9t 9 ord] to abrogate x aga94 ,philosophy ?us makes its appe>ance at a "t :5 ! ,m9d ( a p has work$ its way out ( ! indiff]5ce & /olidity ( ! fir/ life ( nature1 z x has also done f ! /&po9t ( ! emotional1 s t ! individual aim has blott$ itself out4 ,b z ,m9d passes on f its natural =m1 x also proce$s f its exact code ( morals & ! robu/ness ( life to reflection & conception4 ,! result ( ?is is t x lays hold ( & tr\bles ?is real1 sub/antial k9d ( exi/5ce1 ?is morality & fai?1 & ?us ! p]iod ( de/ruction comm5ces4 ,fur!r progress is !n made ?r\gh ! ga!r+ up ( ?\ght )9 itself4 ,x may be said t ,philosophy fir/ comm5ces :5 a race = ! mo/ "p has left its concrete life1 :5 sep>ation & *ange ( class h begun1 & ! p approa* t[>d _! fall2 :5 a gulf has aris5 betwe5 inw>d /riv+s & ext]nal reality1 & ! old =ms ( ,religion1 c41 are no long] satisfy+2 :5 ,m9d manife/s indiff]5ce to its liv+ exi/5ce or re/s unsatisfi$ !re91 & moral life becomes dissolv$4 ,!n x is t ,m9d takes refuge 9 ! cle> space ( ?\ght to create = itself a k+dom ( ?\ght 9 opposition to ! _w ( actuality1 & ,philosophy is ! reconciliation foll[+ ^u ! de/ruction ( t real _w :i* ?\ght has begun4 ,:5 ,philosophy ) its ab/ractions pa9ts grey 9 grey1 ! fre%ness & life ( y\? has gone1 ! reconciliation is n a reconciliation 9 ! actual1 b 9 ! ideal _w4 ,?us ! ,greek philosoph]s held !mselves f> remov$ f ! bus9ess ( ! ,/ate & 7 call$ by ! p idl]s1 because !y )drew !mselves )9 ! _w ( ?\ght4 ,?is holds good ?r\gh\t all ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,x 0 s ) ,ionic ,philosophy 9 ! decl9e ( ! ,ionic ,/ates 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,socrates & ,plato _h no m pleasure 9 ! life ( ! ,/ate 9 ,a!ns1 :i* 0 9 ! c\rse ( its decl9e2 ,plato tri$ to br+ ab\t some?+ bett] ) ,dionysius4 ,?us 9 ,a!ns1 ) ! ru9 ( ! ,a!nian p1 ! p]iod 0 rea*$ :5 ,philosophy appe>$4 ,9 ,rome1 ,philosophy fir/ exp&$ 9 ! decl9e ( ! ,republic & ( ,roman life prop]1 "u ! despotism ( ! ,roman ,emp]ors3 a "t ( mis=tune = ! _w & ( decay 9 political life1 :5 e>li] religi\s sy/ems tott]$ & ev]y?+ 0 9 ! process ( /ruggle & dis9tegration4 ,) ! decl9e ( ! ,roman ,empire1 :i* 0 s great1 ri* & glori\s1 & yet inw>dly dead1 ! height & inde$ ! z5i? ( anci5t ,philosophy is associat$ ?r\gh ! ,neo-,platoni/s at ,alex&ria4 ,x 0 also 9 ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies1 :5 ! ,teutonic life ( ! ,middle ,ages acquir$ ano!r =m1 t ,philosophy fir/ became taught1 ?\gh x 0 lat] on t x atta9$ to indep5d5ce4 ,be=e t1 political life /ill exi/$ 9 unity ) ,religion1 or if ! ,/ate f\ght aga9/ ! ,*ur*1 ! ,*ur* /ill kept ! =emo/ place1 b n[ ! gulf betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate came into exi/5ce4 ,philosophy ?us comes 9 at a c]ta9 epo* only 9 ! developm5t ( ! :ole4 c4 ,philosophy z ! ?\ght ( its "t4 ,b m5 d n at c]ta9 epo*s1 m]ely philosophize 9 g5]al1 = !re is a def9ite ,philosophy :i* arises among a p1 & ! def9ite "* ( ! /&po9t ( ?\ght is ! same "* :i* p]meates all ! o!r hi/orical sides ( ! _s ( ! p1 :i* is mo/ intimately relat$ to !m1 & :i* con/itutes _! f\ndation4 ,! p>ticul> =m ( a ,philosophy is ?us contemporane\s ) a p>ticul> con/itution ( ! p among/ :om x makes its appe>ance1 ) _! in/itutions & =ms ( gov]nm5t1 _! morality1 _! social life & ! capabilities1 cu/oms & enjoym5ts ( ! same2 x is s ) _! attempts & a*ievem5ts 9 art & sci5ce1 ) _! religi\s1 w>f>es & ext]nal relation%ips1 likewise ) ! decad5ce ( ! ,/ates 9 :i* ?is p>ticul> pr9ciple & =m _h ma9ta9$ its supremacy1 & ) ! orig9ation & progress ( new ,/ates 9 :i* a high] pr9ciple f9ds its manife/ation & developm5t4 ,m9d 9 ea* case has elaborat$ & exp&$ 9 ! :ole doma9 ( its manifold nature ! pr9ciple ( ! p>ticul> /age ( self-consci\sness to :i* x has atta9$4 ,?us ! ,m9d ( a p 9 its ri*ness is an organization1 &1 l a ,ca!dral1 is divid$ into num]\s vaults1 passages1 pill>s & ve/ibules1 all ( :i* h proce$$ out ( "o :ole & are direct$ to "o end4 ,philosophy is "o =m ( ^! _m aspects4 ,& :i* is x8 ,x is ! fulle/ blossom1 ! ,notion ( ,m9d 9 its entire =m1 ! consci\sness & spiritual ess5ce ( all ?+s1 ! _s ( ! "t z _s pres5t 9 itself4 ,! multif>i\s :ole is reflect$ 9 x z 9 ! s+le focus1 9 ! ,notion :i* kn[s itself4 ,! ,philosophy :i* is ess5tial )9 ,*ri/ianity c\ld n be f\nd 9 ,rome1 = all ! v>i\s =ms ( ! :ole are only ! expression ( "o & ! same det]m9ate "*4 ,h5ce political hi/ory1 =ms ( gov]nm5t1 art & religion are n relat$ to ,philosophy z its causes1 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 is ,philosophy ! gr\nd ( _! exi/5ce--"o & all h ! same common root1 ! _s ( ! "t4 ,x is "o det]m9ate exi/5ce1 "o det]m9ate "* :i* p]meates all sides & manife/s itself 9 politics & 9 all else z 9 diff]5t elem5ts2 x is a condition :i* hangs toge!r 9 all its p>ts1 & ! v>i\s p>ts ( :i* conta9 no?+ :i* is really inconsi/5t1 h[ev] div]se & accid5tal !y may appe> to be1 & h[ev] mu* !y may seem to contradict "o ano!r4 ,?is p>ticul> /age is ! product ( ! "o prec$+4 ,b to %[ h[ ! _s ( a p>ticul> "t m\lds its :ole actuality & de/9y 9 accordance ) its pr9ciple1 to %[ ?is :ole edifice 9 its conception1 is f> f u--= t w\ld be ! object ( ! :ole philosophic _w-hi/ory4 ,^? =ms alone conc]n u :i* express ! pr9ciple ( ! ,m9d 9 a spiritual elem5t relat$ to ,philosophy4 ,?is is ! position ( ,philosophy among/ its v>y+ =ms1 f :i* x foll[s t x is entirely id5tical ) its "t4 ,b if ,philosophy does n /& above its "t 9 cont5t1 x does s 9 =m1 because1 z ! ?\ght & k ( t :i* is ! sub/antial _s ( its "t1 x makes t _s its object4 ,9 z f> z ,philosophy is 9 ! _s ( its "t1 ! latt] is its det]m9$ cont5t 9 ! _w1 al?\gh z k1 ,philosophy is above x1 s9ce x places x 9 ! relation ( object4 ,b ?is is 9 =m alone1 = ,philosophy really has no o!r cont5t4 ,?is k itself und\bt$ly is ! actuality ( ,m9d1 ! self-k ( ,m9d :i* previ\sly 0 n pres5t3 ?us ! =mal diff]5ce is also a real & actual diff]5ce4 ,?r\gh k1 ,m9d makes manife/ a di/9ction betwe5 k & t :i* is2 ?is k is ?us :at produces a new =m ( developm5t4 ,! new =ms at fir/ are only special modes ( k1 & x is ?us t a new ,philosophy is produc$3 yet s9ce x already is a wid] k9d ( _s1 x is ! inw>d bir?place ( ! _s :i* w lat] arrive at actual =m4 ,we %all deal fur!r ) ?is 9 ! concrete bel[1 & we %all !n see t :at ! ,greek ,philosophy 01 ent]$1 9 ! ,*ri/ian _w1 into actuality4 #b4 ,,sep>ation ,,( ,,philosophy ,,f ,,o!r ,,alli$ ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,k4 ,! hi/ory ( ! o!r ,sci5ces1 ( culture & above all ! hi/ory ( art & ( religion are1 p>tly 9 reg>d to ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 !m1 & p>tly to _! p>ticul> objects1 relat$ to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,x is ?r\gh ?is relation%ip t ! treatm5t ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy has be5 s confus$4 ,if x is to conc]n itself ) ! possession ( culture g5]ally & !n ) sci5tific culture1 & !n aga9 ) popul> my?s & ! dogmas conta9$ only 9 !m1 & yet f>!r ) ! religi\s reflections :i* are already ?\ghts ( a speculative k9d1 & :i* make _! appe>ance 9 !m1 no b\nds are left to ,philosophy at all4 ,?is is s1 p>tly on acc\nt ( ! am\nt ( mat]ial itself & ! lab\r requir$ 9 work+ x up & prep>+ x1 & p>tly because x is 9 imm$iate connection ) s mu* else4 ,b ! sep>ation mu/ n be made arbitr>ily or z by *ance1 b mu/ be d]iv$ f fundam5tal det]m9ations4 ,if we m]ely look at ! "n ( ,philosophy1 all ?is matt] w p]ta9 to its hi/ory4 ,i %all speak ( ?is mat]ial f ?ree po9ts ( view1 = ?ree relat$ aspects are to be elim9at$ & sep>at$ f ,philosophy4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is t :i* is g5]ally consid]$ to be ! doma9 ( sci5ce1 & 9 :i* are f\nd ! beg9n+s ( und]/&+ ?\ght4 ,! second region is t ( my?ology & religion2 ! relation ( ,philosophy to !m seems (t5 to be inimical bo? 9 ! "t ( ! ,greeks & ( ! ,*ri/ians4 ,! ?ird is t ( philosophiz+ & ! metaphysics ( ! und]/&+4 ,:ile we di/+ui% :at is relat$ to ,philosophy1 we mu/ also take note ( ! elem5ts 9 ?is relat$ matt] :i* belong to ! ,notion ( ,philosophy1 b :i* appe> to u to be p>tially sep>at$ f x3 & ?us we may become acqua9t$ ) ! ,notion ( ,philosophy4 a4 ,relation ( ,philosophy to ,sci5tific ,k4 ,k & ?\ght c]ta9ly =m ! elem5t ( :atev] has to d ) p>ticul> sci5ces z !y =m ! elem5t ( ,philosophy2 b _! subjects are ma9ly f9ite subjects & appe>ance4 ,a collection ( facts kn[n ab\t ?is cont5t is by its nature exclud$ f ,philosophy3 nei!r ?is cont5t nor su* a =m has any?+ to d ) x4 ,b ev5 if ! sci5ces are sy/ematic & conta9 univ]sal pr9ciples & laws f :i* !y proce$1 !y are /ill relat$ to a limit$ circle ( objects4 ,! ultimate pr9ciples are assum$ z are ! objects !mselves2 t is1 ! outw>d exp]i5ce or ! feel+s ( ! he>t1 natural or educat$ s5se ( "r & duty1 con/itute ! s\rce f :i* !y are creat$4 ,logic & ! det]m9ations & pr9ciples ( ?\ght 9 g5]al are 9 _! me?ods assum$4 ,! =ms ( ?\ght or ! po9ts ( view & pr9ciples :i* hold good 9 ! sci5ces & con/itute ! ultimate support ( all _! matt]1 are n peculi> to !m1 b are common to ! condition & culture ( ! "t & ( ! p4 ,?is culture consi/s ma9ly 9 ! g5]al ideas & aims1 9 ! :ole ext5t ( ! p>ticul> intellectual p[]s dom9at+ consci\sness & life4 ,our consci\sness has ^! ideas & all[s !m to be consid]$ ultimate det]m9ations2 x makes use ( !m z guid+ & connect+ l9ks1 b does n "k !m & does n ev5 make !m ! objects ( its consid]ation4 ,to give an ab/ract example1 ea* act ( consci\sness has & requires ! :ole ab/ract ?\ght-det]m9ation ( ,be+4 8,! sun is 9 ! heav5s1 ! bun* ( grapes is ripe10 & s on into inf9itude4 ,aga91 9 a high] culture1 su* relations z ^? ( cause & effect are involv$1 z also ^? ( =ce & its manife/ation4 ,all its k & ideas are p]meat$ & gov]n$ by a metaphysic su* z ?is2 x is ! net 9 :i* all ! concrete matt] :i* occupies mank9d 9 action & 9 impulses1 is grasp$4 ,b ?is web & its knots 9 our ord9>y consci\sness are sunk into a manifold mat]ial1 = x conta9s ! objects & int]e/s :i* we "k & :i* we h be=e u4 ,^! common ?reads are n drawn up & made explicitly ! objects ( our reflection4 ,we ,g]mans seldom n[ c\nt g5]al sci5tific k z ,philosophy4 ,& yet traces ( ?is are f\nd1 z = in/ance1 9 ! fact t ! philosophic ,faculty conta9s all ! ,sci5ces :i* h n z _! imm$iate aim ! ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,9 connection ) ?is1 ! significance ( ! "n ( ,philosophy1 :i* is ev5 n[ an important matt] ( discussion 9 ,engl&1 comes 9 "q4 ,natural ,sci5ces are 9 ,engl& call$ ,philosophy4 ,a 8,philosophic ,j\rnal0 9 ,engl&1 edit$ by ,?ompson1 treats ( ,*emi/ry1 ,agriculture1 ,manur+1 ,husb&ry1 ,te*nology1 l ,h]mb/dt's ,j\rnal1 & gives inv5tions connect$ !re)4 ,! ,engli% call physical in/rum5ts1 su* z ! b>omet] & !rmomet]1 philosophical in/rum5ts4 ,!ories too1 & especially morality & ! moral sci5ces1 :i* are d]iv$ f ! feel+s ( ! human he>t or f exp]i5ce1 are call$ ,philosophy1 & f9ally ?is is also s ) ! !ories & pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy4 ,& ?us at lea/ 9 ,engl&1 is ! "n ( ,philosophy respect$4 ,"s "t ago a banquet took place "u ! presid5cy ( ,"l ,liv]pool1 at :i* ! m9i/] ,cann+ 0 also pres5t4 ,! latt] 9 return+ ?anks congratulat$ ,engl& 9 hav+ philosophic pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t !re br\ght into op]ation4 ,!re1 at lea/1 ,philosophy is no by-^w4 ,9 ! fir/ beg9n+s ( culture1 h[ev]1 we are m (t5 met by ?is admixture ( ,philosophy & g5]al k4 ,!re comes a "t to a nation :5 m9d applies itself to univ]sal objects1 :51 = example1 9 seek+ to br+ natural ?+s "u g5]al modes ( und]/&+1 x tries to le>n _! causes4 ,!n x is said t a p beg9s to philosophize1 = ?is cont5t has ?\ght 9 common ) ,philosophy4 ,at su* a "t we f9d deliv]ances ab\t all ! common ev5ts ( ,nature1 z we also f9d intellectual maxims1 moral s5t5ces1 g5]al pr9ciples respect+ morality1 ! w1 duty1 & ! l1 & ^? :o express$ !m h be5 call$ wise m5 or philosoph]s4 ,?us 9 ! beg9n+s ( ,greek ,philosophy we f9d ! sev5 sages & ! ,ionic ,philosoph]s4 ,f !m a numb] ( ideas & discov]ies are convey$ to u :i* seem l philosophic propositions4 ,?us ,?ales1 among/ o!rs1 has expla9$ t ! eclipse ( sun & moon is due to ! int]v5tion ( ! moon or e>?4 ,?is is call$ a !orem4 ,py?agoras f\nd out ! pr9ciple ( ! h>mony ( s\nds4 ,o!rs h _h ideas ab\t ! />s3 ! heav5s 7 suppos$ to be compos$ ( p]=at$ metal1 by :i* we see ?r\gh\t ! empyrean region1 ! et]nal fire :i* surr\nds ! _w4 ,su* propositions z products ( ! und]/&+1 d n belong to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 al?\gh !y imply t ! m]ely s5su\s gaze has be5 left beh9d1 z also ! repres5tation ( ^? objects by ! imag9ation only4 ,e>? & heav5 ?us become unpeopl$ ) gods1 because ! und]/&+ di/+ui%es ?+s 9 _! outw>d & natural qualities f ,m9d4 ,9 a lat] "t ! epo* ( ! revival 9 ! sci5ces is z notewor?y 9 ?is respect4 ,g5]al pr9ciples reg>d+ ! /ate1 c41 7 giv5 expression to1 & 9 !m a philosophic side _c be mi/ak54 ,to ?is place ! philosophic sy/ems ( ,hobbes & ,desc>tes belong3 ! writ+s ( ! latt] conta9 philosophic pr9ciples1 b 8 ,philosophy ( ,nature is q empirical4 ,hugo ,grotius compos$ an int]national law 9 :i* :at 0 hi/orically held by ! p z law1 ! cons5sus g5tium1 0 a ma9 elem5t4 ,?\gh1 e>li]1 m$ic9e 0 a collection ( isolat$ facts & a !osophic comb9ation mix$ up ) a/rology1 c4 7x is n s long ago s9ce cures 7 effect$ by sacr$ relics71 a mode ( reg>d+ nature came into vogue accord+ to :i* m5 w5t =? to discov] ! laws & =ces ( ,nature4 ,! priori reason+ reg>d+ natural ?+s1 accord+ to ! metaphysics ( ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy or to ,religion1 has n[ be5 giv5 up4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,newton conta9s no?+ b ,natural ,sci5ce1 t is1 ! k ( ! laws1 =ces1 & g5]al con/itution ( ,nature1 d]iv$ f obs]vation & f exp]i5ce4 ,h[ev] mu* ?is may seem to be contr>y to ! pr9ciple ( ,philosophy1 x has 9 common ) x ! fact t ! bases ( bo? are univ]sal1 & /ill fur!r t ,i h made ?is exp]i5ce1 t x re/s on my consci\sness & obta9s its significance ?r\gh me4 ,?is =m is 9 its g5]al aspect antagoni/ic to ! positive1 & has come =w>d z p>ticul>ly oppos$ to ,religion & to t :i* is positive 9 x4 ,if1 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 ! ,*ur* _h its dogmas z univ]sal tru?s1 man1 on ! contr>y1 has n[ obta9$ f ! te/imony ( 8 8own ?\ght10 feel+ & ideas1 a mi/ru/ ( ^!4 ,x is m]ely to be rem>k$ ( ?is t 8my own ?\ght0 is 9 itself a pleonasm1 because ea* individual mu/ ?9k = himself1 & no "o c d s = ano!r4 ,simil>ly ?is pr9ciple has turn$ aga9/ ! recogniz$ con/itutions & has s\ght diff]5t pr9ciples in/ead1 by !m to correct ! =m]4 ,univ]sal pr9ciples ( ! ,/ate h n[ be5 laid d[n1 :ile e>li]1 because religion 0 positive1 ! gr\nd ( ob$i5ce ( subjects to pr9ces & ( all au?ority 7 also s4 ,k+s1 z ! ano9t$ ( ! ,"l1 9 ! s5se t ,jewi% k+s 7 s1 d]iv$ _! p[] f ,god1 & _h to give acc\nt to ,him alone1 because all au?ority is giv5 by ,god4 ,s f> !ology & jurisprud5ce 7 on ! :ole fix$ & positive sci5ces1 :]ev] ?is positive "* might h be5 d]iv$4 ,aga9/ ?is ext]nal au?ority reflection has be5 br\ght to be>1 & ?us1 especially 9 ,engl&1 ! s\rce ( public & civil law became no long] m]e au?ority d]iv$ f ,god l ! ,mosaic ,law4 ,= ! au?ority ( k+s o!r ju/ification 0 s\ght1 su* z ! end impli$ 9 ! ,/ate1 ! good ( ! p4 ,?is =ms q ano!r s\rce ( tru?1 & x is oppos$ to t :i* is reveal$1 giv5 & positive4 ,?is sub/itution ( ano!r gr\nd ?an t ( au?ority has be5 call$ philosophiz+4 ,! k 0 !n a k ( :at is f9ite--! _w ( ! cont5t ( k4 ,because ?is cont5t proce$$ ?r\gh ! p]sonal insight ( human reason1 man has become indep5d5t 9 8 actions4 ,?is indep5d5ce ( ! ,m9d is ! true mom5t ( ,philosophy1 al?\gh ! ,notion ( ,philosophy ?r\gh ?is =mal det]m9ation1 :i* limits x to f9ite objects1 has n yet be5 exhau/$4 ,?is indep5d5t ?\ght is respect$1 has be5 call$ human wisdom or worldly wisdom1 = x has _h :at is e>?ly z its object1 & x took its orig9 9 ! _w4 ,?is 0 ! mean+ ( ,philosophy1 & m5 did rightly to call x worldly wisdom4 ,fr$]ick von ,s*legel reviv$ ?is by-"n = ,philosophy1 & desir$ to indicate by x t :at conc]ns high] sph]es1 su* z religion1 mu/ be kept ap>t2 & he _h _m foll[]s4 ,philosophy1 inde$1 occupies itself ) f9ite ?+s1 b1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 z re/+ 9 ! div9e ,idea3 x has ?us ! same end z religion4 ,to ! f9ite sci5ces :i* are n[ sep>at$ also f ,philosophy1 ! ,*ur*es object$ t !y l$ m5 away f ,god1 s9ce !y h z objects only :at is f9ite4 ,?is defect 9 !m1 conceiv$ ( f ! po9t ( view ( cont5t1 leads u to ! second dep>tm5t alli$ to ,philosophy1--t is1 to ,religion4 b4 ,relation ( ,philosophy to ,religion4 ,z ! fir/ dep>tm5t ( k 0 relat$ to ,philosophy pr9cipally by means ( =mal & indep5d5t k1 ,religion1 ?\gh 9 its cont5t q diff]5t f ?is fir/ k9d or sph]e ( k1 is ?r\gh x relat$ to ,philosophy4 ,its object is n ! e>?ly & worldly1 b ! inf9ite4 ,9 ! case ( art & /ill m 9 t ( ,religion1 ,philosophy has 9 common a cont5t compos$ entirely ( univ]sal objects2 !y con/itute ! mode 9 :i* ! highe/ ,idea is exi/5t = ! unphilosophical feel+1 ! p]ceiv+ & imag9+ consci\sness4 ,inasmu* z 9 ! progress ( culture 9 "t ! manife/ation ( ,religion prec$es ! appe>ance ( ,philosophy1 ?is circum/ance mu/ really be tak5 acc\nt (1 & ! conditions requisite = beg9n+ ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy h to dep5d on ?is1 because x has to be %[n 9 h[ f> :at p]ta9s to ,religion is to be exclud$ f x1 & t a comm5cem5t mu/ n be made ) ,religion4 ,9 ,religion1 races ( m5 h und\bt$ly express$ _! idea ( ! nature ( ! _w1 ! sub/ance ( nature & ( intellect & ! relation ( man !reto4 ,absolute ,be+ is "h ! object ( _! consci\sness2 & z su*1 is = !m pre-em95tly ! 8o!r10 a 8beyond10 ne>] or fur!r (f1 m or less fri5dly or frightful & al>m+4 ,9 ! act & =ms ( wor%ip ?is opposition is remov$ by man1 & he raises himself to ! consci\sness ( unity ) 8 ,be+1 to ! feel+ (1 or dep5d5ce on1 ! ,grace ( ,god1 9 t ,god has reconcil$ mank9d to ,himself4 ,9 conception1 ) ! ,greeks1 = in/ance1 ?is exi/5ce is to man "o :i* is already 9 & = itself & fri5dly1 & ?us wor%ip is b ! enjoym5t ( ?is unity4 ,?is exi/5ce is n[ reason :i* is exi/5t 9 & = itself1 ! univ]sal & concrete sub/ance1 ! ,m9d ^: fir/ cause is objective to itself 9 consci\sness2 x ?us is a repres5tation ( ?is la/ 9 :i* n only reason 9 g5]al1 b ! univ]sal inf9ite reason is4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 compreh5d ,religion1 z ,philosophy1 be=e ev]y?+ else1 :i* means to "k & appreh5d x 9 reason2 = x is ! "w ( self-reveal+ reason & is ! highe/ =m ( reason4 ,su* ideas z t prie/s h fram$ a p's ,religion 9 fraud & self-int]e/ are consequ5tly absurd2 to reg>d ,religion z an arbitr>y matt] or a deception is z fooli% z x is p]v]t$4 ,prie/s h (t5 pr(an$ ,religion--! possibility ( :i* is a consequ5ce ( ! ext]nal relations & temporal exi/5ce ( ,religion4 ,x c ?us1 9 ?is ext]nal connection1 be laid hold ( "h & !re1 b because x is ,religion1 x is really t :i* /&s firm aga9/ f9ite ends & _! complications & con/itutes a region exalt$ high above !m4 ,?is region ( ,m9d is really ! ,holy place ( ,tru? itself1 ! ,holy place 9 :i* are dissolv$ ! rema9+ illusions ( ! s5su\s _w1 ( f9ite ideas & ends1 & ( ! sph]e ( op9ion & caprice4 ,inasmu* z x really is ! cont5t ( religions1 ?is rational matt] might n[ seem to be capable ( be+ ab/ract$ & express$ z a numb] ( hi/orical !orems4 ,philosophy /&s on ! same basis z ,religion & has ! same object--! univ]sal reason exi/+ 9 & = itself2 ,m9d desires to make ?is object its own1 z is done ) ,religion 9 ! act & =m ( wor%ip4 ,b ! =m1 z x is pres5t 9 ,religion1 is diff]5t f :at is f\nd to be conta9$ 9 ,philosophy1 & on ?is acc\nt a hi/ory ( ,philosophy is diff]5t f a hi/ory ( ,religion4 ,wor%ip is only ! op]ation ( reflection2 ,philosophy attempts to br+ ab\t ! reconciliation by means ( ?9k+ k1 because ,m9d desires to take up its ,be+ into itself4 ,philosophy is relat$ 9 ! =m ( ?9k+ consci\sness to its object2 ) ,religion x is diff]5t4 ,b ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two %\ld n be conceiv$ ( s ab/ractly z to make x seem t ?\ght is only 9 ,philosophy & n 9 ,religion4 ,! latt] has likewise ideas & univ]sal ?\ghts4 ,because bo? are s ne>ly relat$1 x is an old tradition 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy to d$uce ,philosophy f ,p]sian1 ,indian1 or simil> philosophy1 a cu/om :i* is /ill p>tly reta9$ 9 all hi/ories ( ,philosophy4 ,= ?is reason1 too1 x is a leg5d univ]sally believ$1 t ,py?agoras1 = in/ance1 receiv$ 8 ,philosophy f ,india & ,egypt2 ! fame ( ! wisdom ( ^! p1 :i* wisdom is und]/ood also to conta9 ,philosophy1 is an old "o4 ,! ,ori5tal ideas & religi\s wor%ip :i* prevail$ ?r\gh\t ! ,we/ up to ! "t ( ! ,roman ,empire1 likewise be> ! "n ( ,ori5tal ,philosophy4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,religion & ,philosophy are ?\ght ( 9 ! ,*ri/ian _w1 z m def9itely divid$2 9 ^! ,ea/]n days1 on ! o!r h&1 ,religion & ,philosophy are /ill conceiv$ ( z "o 9 s f> z t ! cont5t has rema9$ 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is ,philosophy4 ,consid]+ ! preval5ce ( ^! ideas & 9 ord] to h a def9ite limit to ! relations betwe5 a hi/ory ( ,philosophy & religi\s ideas1 x is desirable to note "s fur!r consid]ations z to ! =m :i* sep>ates religi\s ideas f philosophical !orems4 ,religion has n only univ]sal ?\ght z inw>d cont5t implicite conta9$ 9 its my?s1 ideas1 imag9ations & 9 its exact & positive hi/ories1 s t we require fir/ ( all to dig ?is cont5t out ( su* my?s 9 ! =m ( !orems1 b x (t5 has its cont5t explicite 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,9 ! ,p]sian & ,indian ,religions v deep1 sublime & speculative ?\ghts are ev5 express$4 ,inde$1 9 ,religion we ev5 meet philosophies directly express$1 z 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,fa!rs4 ,! s*ola/ic ,philosophy really 0 ,!ology2 !re is f\nd 9 x a union or1 if y w1 a mixture ( ,!ology & ,philosophy :i* may v well puzzle u4 ,! "q :i* confronts u on ! "o side is1 h[ ,philosophy diff]s f ,!ology1 z ! sci5ce ( ,religion1 or f ,religion z consci\sness8 ,& !n1 9 h[ f> h we 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy to take acc\nt ( :at p]ta9s to ,religion8 ,= ! reply to ?is la/ "q ?ree aspects h aga9 to be dealt )2 fir/ ( all ! my?ical & hi/orical aspect ( ,religion & its relation to ,philosophy2 9 ! second place ! !orems & speculative ?\ghts directly express$ 9 ,religion2 & 9 ! ?ird place we mu/ speak ( ,philosophy )9 ,!ology4 4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ,philosophy & ,religion4 ,! consid]ation ( ! my?ical aspect ( ,religion or ! hi/orical & positive side g5]ally1 is int]e/+1 because f x ! diff]5ce 9 respect ( =m w %[ 9 :at ?is cont5t is antagoni/ic to ,philosophy4 ,inde$1 tak5 9 its connections1 its diff]5ce passes into app>5t inconsi/5cy4 ,?is div]sity is n only f\nd 9 our contemplation b =ms a v def9ite elem5t 9 hi/ory4 ,x is requir$ by ,philosophy t x %\ld ju/ify its beg9n+ & its mann] ( k1 & ,philosophy has ?us plac$ itself 9 opposition to ,religion4 ,on ! o!r h& ,philosophy is combat$ & condemn$ by ,religion & by ! ,*ur*es4 ,! ,greek popul> religion inde$1 proscrib$ sev]al philosoph]s2 b ! opposition is ev5 m app>5t 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,! "q is ?us n only :e!r reg>d is to be paid to ,religion 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 = x has be5 ! case t ,philosophy has paid att5tion to ,religion1 & ! latt] to ! =m]4 ,s9ce nei!r ( ! two has all[$ ! o!r to re/ undi/urb$1 we are n p]mitt$ to d s ei!r4 ,( _! relations1 !re=e1 we mu/ speak def9itely1 op5ly & hone/ly--abord] la "q1 z ! ,fr5* say4 ,we mu/ n hesitate1 z if su* a discussion 7 too delicate1 nor try to help ourselves out by beat+ ab\t ! bu%2 nor mu/ we seek to f9d evasions or %ifts1 s t 9 ! end no "o c tell :at we mean4 ,we mu/ n seem to wi% to leave ,religion alone4 ,?is is no?+ else ?an to appe> to wi% to conceal ! fact t ,philosophy has direct$ its ef=ts aga9/ ,religion4 ,religion1 t is1 ! !ologians1 are inde$ ! cause ( ?is2 !y ignore ,philosophy1 b only 9 ord] t !y may n be contradict$ 9 _! arbitr>y reason+4 ,x may appe> z if ,religion dem&$ t man %\ld ab/a9 f ?9k+ ( univ]sal matt]s & ,philosophy because !y are m]ely worldly wisdom & repres5t human op]ations4 ,human reason is "h oppos$ to ! div9e4 ,m5 are1 inde$1 well accu/om$ to a di/9ction betwe5 div9e tea*+ & laws & human p[] & inv5tions1 su* t "u ! latt] ev]y?+ is compreh5d$ :i* 9 its manife/ation proce$s f ! consci\sness1 ! intellig5ce or ! w ( mank9d2 :i* makes all ?is oppos$ to ! k ( ,god & to ?+s r5d]$ div9e by div9e revelation4 ,b ! depreciation ( :at is human express$ by ?is opposition is !n driv5 fur!r /ill1 inasmu* z :ile x implies ! fur!r view t man is c]ta9ly call$ ^u to admire ! wisdom ( ,god 9 ,nature1 & t ! gra91 ! m\nta9s1 ! c$>s ( ,lebanon 9 all _! glory1 ! song ( ! birds 9 ! b\gh1 ! sup]ior skill & ! dome/ic in/9cts ( animals are all magnifi$ z be+ ! "w ( ,god1 x also implies t ! wisdom1 goodness & ju/ice ( ,god is1 inde$1 po9t$ out 9 human affairs1 b n s mu* 9 ! disposition or laws ( man or 9 actions p]=m$ volunt>ily & 9 ! ord9>y progress ( ! _w1 z 9 human de/9y1 t is1 9 t :i* is ext]nal & ev5 arbitr>y 9 relation to k & free-w4 ,?us :at is ext]nal & accid5tal is reg>d$ z emphatically ! "w ( ,god1 & :at has its root 9 w & consci5ce1 z ! "w ( man4 ,! h>mony betwe5 outw>d relations1 circum/ances & ev5ts & ! g5]al aims ( man is c]ta9ly some?+ ( a high] k9d1 b ?is is ! case only = ! reason t ?is h>mony is consid]$ ) respect to ends :i* are human & n natural--su* z ^? pres5t 9 ! life ( a sp>r[ :i* f9ds its food4 ,b if ! summit ( ev]y?+ is f\nd 9 ?is1 t ,god rules ov] ,nature1 :at !n is free-w8 ,does ,he n rule ov] :at is spiritual1 or r s9ce ,he himself is spiritual1 9 :at is spiritual8 & is n ! rul] ov] or 9 ! spiritual region high] ?an a rul] ov] or 9 ,nature8 ,b is t admiration ( ,god z reveal$ 9 natural ?+s z su*1 9 trees & animals z oppos$ to :at is human1 f> remov$ f ! religion ( ! anci5t ,egyptians1 :i* d]iv$ its k ( :at is div9e f ! ibis1 or f cats & dogs8 or does x diff] f ! deplorable condition ( ! anci5t & ! mod]n ,indians1 :o held & /ill hold c[s & apes 9 rev]5ce1 & are scrupul\sly conc]n$ = ! ma9t5ance & n\ri%m5t ( ^! animals1 :ile !y all[ m5 to suff] hung]2 :o w\ld commit a crime by remov+ ! pangs ( />vation ?r\gh _! slaught] or ev5 by p>tak+ ( _! food8 ,x seems to be express$ by su* a view t human action z reg>ds ,nature is ungodly2 t ! op]ations ( ,nature are div9e op]ations1 b :at man produces is ungodly4 ,b ! productions ( human reason might1 at lea/1 be e/eem$ z mu* z ,nature4 ,9 s do+1 h[ev]1 we c$e less to reason ?an is p]mitt$ to u4 ,if ! life & ! action ( animals be div9e1 human action mu/ /& mu* high]1 & mu/ be wor?y to be call$ div9e 9 an inf9itely high] s5se4 ,! preem95ce ( human ?\ght mu/ =?) be av[$4 ,*ri/ says on ?is subject 7,matt4 vi4 #bf-hj71 8,behold ! f[ls ( ! air10 79 :i* we may also include ! ,ibis & ! ,kokilas17 8are ye n mu* bett] ?an !y8 ,:]e=e1 if ,god s clo! ! grass ( ! field1 :i* to-day is1 & to-morr[ is ca/ into ! ov51 %all ,he n mu* m clo! y80 ,! sup]iority ( man1 ( ! image ( ,god1 to animals & plants is inde$ implicitly & explicitly e/abli%$1 b 9 ask+ :]e9 ! div9e elem5t is to be s\ght & se5--9 mak+ use ( su* expressions--none ( ! sup]ior1 b only ! inf]ior nature1 is indicat$4 ,simil>ly1 9 reg>d to ! k ( ,god1 x is rem>kable t ,*ri/ places ! k ( & fai? 9 ,him n 9 any admiration ( ! creatures ( nature nor 9 m>vell+ at any s-call$ dom9ion1 ov] !m1 nor 9 signs & wond]s1 b 9 ! witness ( ! ,_s4 ,_s is inf9itely high above ,nature1 9 x ! ,div9e ,nature manife/s itself m ?an 9 ,nature4 ,b ! =m 9 :i* ! univ]sal cont5t :i* is 9 & = itself1 fir/ belongs to ,philosophy is ! =m ( ,?\ght1 ! =m ( ! univ]sal itself4 ,9 ,religion1 h[ev]1 ?is cont5t is = imm$iate & outw>d p]ception1 & fur!r = idea & s5sation ?r\gh art4 ,! import is = ! s5su\s nature2 x is ! evid5ce ( ! ,m9d :i* compreh5ds t cont5t4 ,to make ?is cle>]1 ! diff]5ce mu/ be recollect$ betwe5 t :i* we are & h1 & h[ we "k ! same--t is1 9 :at mann] we "k x & h x z our object4 ,?is di/9ction is an inf9itely important matt]1 & x alone is conc]n$ 9 ! culture ( races & ( individuals4 ,we are m5 & h reason2 :at is human1 or above all1 :at is rational vibrates )9 u1 bo? 9 our feel+s1 m9d & he>t & 9 our subjective nature g5]ally4 ,x is 9 ?is correspond+ vibration & 9 ! correspond+ motion effect$ t a p>ticul> cont5t becomes our own & is l our own4 ,! manifold nature ( ! det]m9ations :i* x conta9s is conc5trat$ & wrapt up )9 ?is inw>d nature--an obscure motion ( ,m9d 9 itself & 9 univ]sal sub/antiality4 ,! cont5t is ?us directly id5tical ) ! simple ab/ract c]ta9ty ( ourselves & ) self-consci\sness4 ,b ,m9d1 because x is ,m9d1 is z truly consci\sness4 ,:at is conf9$ )9 itself 9 its simplicity mu/ be objective to itself & mu/ come to be kn[n4 ,! :ole diff]5ce lies 9 ! mann] & me?od ( ?is objectivity1 & h5ce 9 ! mann] & me?od ( consci\sness4 ,?is me?od & mann] ext5ds f ! simple expression ( ! dulness ( m]e feel+ to ! mo/ objective =m1 to t :i* is 9 & = itself objective1 to ,?\ght4 ,! mo/ simple1 mo/ =mal objectivity is ! expression ( a "n = t feel+ & = ! /ate ( m9d accord+ ) x1 z se5 9 ^! words1 wor%ip1 pray]1 etc4 ,su* expressions z 8,let u pray0 & 8,let u wor%ip0 are simply ! recall+ ( t feel+4 ,b 8,let u ?9k ab\t ,god0 br+s ) x some?+ m2 x expresses ! absolutely embrac+ cont5t ( t sub/antial feel+1 & ! object1 :i* diff]s f m]e s5sation z subjective self-consci\s activity2 or :i* is cont5t di/+ui%$ f ?is activity z =m4 ,?is object1 h[ev]1 compreh5d+ 9 itself ! :ole sub/antial cont5t1 is itself /ill undevelop$ & entirely undet]m9$4 ,to develop t cont5t1 to compreh5d1 express & br+ to consci\sness its relations1 is ! comm5cem5t1 creation & manife/ation ( ,religion4 ,! =m 9 :i* ?is develop$ cont5t fir/ possesses objectivity is t ( imm$iate p]ception1 ( s5su\s idea or ( a m def9$ idea d$uc$ f natural1 physical or m5tal manife/ations & conditions4 ,art br+s ab\t ?is consci\sness1 9 t x gives p]man5ce & cohesion to ! fleet+ visible appe>ance ?r\gh :i* objectivity passes 9 s5sation4 ,! %apeless1 sacr$ /one1 ! m]e place1 or :atev] x is to :i* ! desire = objectivity fir/ atta*es itself1 receives f art1 =m1 feature1 det]m9ate "* & cont5t :i* c be kn[n & :i* is n[ pres5t = consci\sness4 ,art has ?us become ! in/ructress ( ! p4 ,?is 0 ! case ) ,hom] & ,hesiod = in/ance1 :o1 accord+ to ,h]odotus 7,,ii4 #ec71 8,made ! ,greeks _! ,!ogony10 because !y elevat$ & consolidat$ ideas & traditions 9 unison ) ! _s ( ! p1 :]ev] & 9 :atev] confusion !y might be f\nd1 into def9ite images & ideas4 ,?is is n ! art :i* m]ely gives expression 9 its own way to ! cont5t1 already p]fectly express$1 ( a ,religion :i* 9 ?\ght1 idea & words has already atta9$ complete developm5t2 t is to say1 :i* puts its matt] into /one1 canvas1 or words z is done by mod]n art1 :i*1 9 deal+ ei!r ) religi\s or ) hi/orical objects1 takes z its gr\ndwork ideas & ?\ghts :i* are already !re4 ,! consci\sness ( ?is ,religion is r ! product ( ?9k+ imag9ation1 or ( ?\ght :i* compreh5ds ?r\gh ! organ ( imag9ation alone & f9ds expression 9 its =ms4 ,if ! inf9ite ,?\ght1 ! absolute ,m9d1 has reveal$ & does reveal itself 9 true ,religion1 t 9 :i* x reveals itself is ! he>t1 ! repres5t+ consci\sness & ! und]/&+ ( :at is f9ite4 ,religion is n m]ely direct$ to e sort ( culture4 8,to ! poor is ! ,gospel prea*$10 b x mu/ z be+ ,religion expressly direct$ t[>ds he>t & m9d1 ent] into ! sph]e ( subjectivity & consequ5tly into ! region ( f9ite me?ods ( repres5tation4 ,9 ! p]ceiv+ &1 ) ref]5ce to p]ceptions1 reflect+ consci\sness1 man possesses = ! speculative relations belong+ to ! absolute1 only f9ite relations1 :e!r tak5 9 an exact or 9 a symbolical s5se1 to s]ve him to compreh5d & express ^? qualities & relation%ips ( ! inf9ite4 ,9 ,religion z ! e>lie/ & ! imm$iate revelations ( ,god1 ! =m ( repres5tation & ( reflect+ f9ite ?\ght _c be ! only =m 9 :i* ,he gives exi/5ce to ,himself 9 consci\sness1 b x mu/ also appe> 9 ?is =m1 = su* alone is compreh5sible to religi\s consci\sness4 ,to make ?is cle>]1 some?+ mu/ be said z to :at is ! mean+ ( compreh5sion4 ,on ! "o h&1 z has be5 rem>k$ above1 !re is 9 x ! sub/antial basis ( cont5t1 :i*1 com+ to ,m9d z its absolute ,be+1 affects x 9 its inn]mo/1 f9ds an answ]+ *ord1 & !reby obta9s f x confirmation4 ,?is is ! fir/ absolute condition necess>y to compreh5sion2 :at is n implicitly !re _c come )9 x or be = x--t is1 a cont5t :i* is inf9ite & et]nal4 ,= ! sub/antial z inf9ite1 is j t :i* has no limitations 9 t to :i* x is relat$1 = else x w\ld be limit$ & n ! true sub/antial4 ,& ,m9d is t alone :i* is n implicit1 :i* is f9ite & ext]nal2 = :at is f9ite & ext]nal is no long] :at is implicit b :at is = ano!r1 :at has ent]$ into a relation4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 because ! true & et]nal mu/ be = ,m9d become kn[n1 t is1 ent] into f9ite consci\sness1 ! ,m9d = :i* x is1 is f9ite & ! mann] ( its consci\sness consi/s 9 ! ideas & =ms ( f9ite ?+s & relations4 ,^! =ms are famili> & well kn[n to consci\sness1 ! ord9>y mode ( f9ality1 :i* mode x has appropriat$ to itself1 hav+ con/itut$ x ! univ]sal m$ium ( its repres5tation1 into :i* ev]y?+ t comes to consci\sness mu/ be resolv$ 9 ord] t x may h & "k itself !re94 ,! ass]tion ( ,religion is t ! manife/ation ( ,tru? :i* is reveal$ to u ?r\gh x1 is "o :i* is giv5 to man f outside1 & on ?is acc\nt x is also ass]t$ t man has humbly to ass5t to x1 because human reason _c atta9 to x by itself4 ,! ass]tion ( positive ,religion is t its tru?s exi/ )\t hav+ _! s\rce kn[n1 s t ! cont5t z giv51 is "o :i* is above & beyond reason4 ,by means ( "s prophet or o!r div9e in/rum5t1 ! tru? is made kn[n3 j z ,c]es & ,triptolemus :o introduc$ agriculture & matrimony1 = s do+ 7 hon\r$ by ! ,greeks1 m5 h r5d]$ ?anks to ,moses & to ,mahom$4 ,?r\gh :atev] individual ! ,tru? may h be5 giv51 ! ext]nal matt] is hi/orical1 & ?is is indiff]5t to ! absolute cont5t & to itself1 s9ce ! p]son is n ! import ( ! doctr9e4 ,b ! ,*ri/ian ,religion has ?is *>act]i/ic t ! ,p]son ( ,*ri/ 9 ,8 "* ( ! ,son ( ,god1 ,himself p>takes ( ! nature ( ,god4 ,if ,*ri/ be = ,*ri/ians only a tea*] l ,py?agoras1 ,socrates or ,columbus1 !re w\ld be "h no univ]sal div9e cont5t1 no revelation or k imp>t$ ab\t ! ,nature ( ,god1 & x is reg>d+ ?is alone t we desire to obta9 k4 ,:atev] /age x may itself h rea*$1 ! ,tru? mu/ und\bt$ly 9 ! fir/ place come to m5 f )\t z a pres5t object1 s5su\sly repres5t$1 j z ,moses saw ,god 9 ! fi]y bu%1 & z ! ,greek br\ght ! god into consci\s be+ by means ( sculpture or o!r repres5tations4 ,b !re is ! fur!r fact1 t nei!r 9 ,religion nor 9 ,philosophy does ?is ext]nal =m rema91 nor c x s rema94 ,a =m ( ! imag9ation or an hi/orical =m1 su* z ,*ri/1 mu/ = ! _s be spiritual2 & ?us x ceases to be an ext]nal matt]1 see+ t ! =m ( ext]nality is dead4 ,we mu/ "k ,god 89 ,_s & 9 ,tru?40 ,he is ! absolute & actual ,_s4 ,! relation borne by ! human _s to ?is ,_s involves ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,:5 man det]m9es to adopt a ,religion he asks himself1 8,:at is ! gr\nd ( my fai?80 ,! ,*ri/ian ,religion replies--8,! ,_s's witness to its cont5t40 ,*ri/ reprov$ ! ,ph>isees = wi%+ to see miracles2 ! ,_s alone compreh5ds ,_s1 ! miracle is only a pres5tim5t ( t ,_s2 & if ! miracle be ! susp5sion ( natural laws1 ,_s itself is ! real miracle 9 ! op]ations ( nature4 ,_s 9 itself is m]ely ?is compreh5sion ( itself4 ,!re is only "o ,_s1 ! univ]sal div9e ,_s4 ,n t x is m]ely ev]y:]e2 x is n to be compreh5d$ z :at is common to ev]y?+1 z an ext]nal totality1 to be f\nd 9 _m or 9 all individuals1 :i* are ess5tially individuals2 b x mu/ be und]/ood z t :i* p]meates ?r\gh ev]y?+1 z ! unity ( itself & ( a semblance ( its 8o!r10 z ( ! subjective & p>ticul>4 ,z univ]sal1 x is object to itself1 & ?us det]m9$ z a p>ticul>1 x is ?is individual3 b z univ]sal x rea*es ov] ?is its 8o!r10 s t its 8o!r0 & itself are compris$ 9 "o4 ,! true univ]sality seems1 popul>ly express$1 to be two--:at is common to ! univ]sal itself & to ! p>ticul>4 ,a division is =m$ 9 ! und]/&+ ( itself1 & ! ,_s is ! unity ( :at is und]/ood & ! und]/&+ p]son4 ,! div9e ,_s :i* is compreh5d$1 is objective2 ! subjective ,_s compreh5ds4 ,b ,_s is n passive1 or else ! passivity c be mom5t>y only2 !re is "o spiritual sub/antial unity4 ,! subjective ,_s is ! active1 b ! objective ,_s is itself ?is activity2 ! active subjective ,_s is t :i* compreh5ds ! div9e1 & 9 its compreh5sion ( x x is itself ! div9e ,_s4 ,! relation ( ,_s to self alone is ! absolute det]m9ation2 ! div9e ,_s lives 9 its own communion & pres5ce4 ,?is compreh5sion has be5 call$ ,fai?1 b x is n an hi/orical fai?2 we ,lu!rans--,i am a ,lu!ran & w rema9 ! same--h only ?is orig9al fai?4 ,?is unity is n ! ,sub/ance ( ,sp9oza1 b ! appreh5d+ ,sub/ance 9 self-consci\sness :i* makes itself et]nal & relates to univ]sality4 ,! talk ab\t ! limitations ( human ?\ght is futile2 to "k ,god is ! only end ( ,religion4 ,! te/imony ( ! ,_s to ! cont5t ( ,religion is itself ,religion2 x is a te/imony t bo? be>s witness & at ! same "t is t witness4 ,! ,_s proves itself1 & does s fir/ 9 ! pro(2 x is only prov$ because x proves itself & %[s or manife/s itself4 ,x has fur!r to be said1 t ?is te/imony1 ?is inw>d /irr+ & self-consci\sness1 reveals itself1 :ile 9 ! en%r\d$ consci\sness ( devotion x does n arrive at ! prop] consci\sness ( an object1 b only at ! consci\sness ( imm]sion 9 absolute ,be+4 ,?is p]meat+ & p]meat$ ,_s n[ ent]s into conception2 ,god goes =? into ! 8o!r0 & makes ,himself objective4 ,all t p]ta9s to revelation & its reception1 & :i* comes be=e u 9 my?ology1 "h appe>s2 ev]y?+ :i* is hi/orical & :i* belongs to :at is positive has "h its prop] place4 ,to speak m def9itely1 we n[ h ! ,*ri/ :o came into ! _w ne>ly two ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,b ,he says1 8,i am ) y ev5 unto ! ends ( ! e>?2 :]e two or ?ree are ga!r$ toge!r 9 ,my ,"n1 !re w ,i be 9 ! mid/40 ,i %all n be se5 ( y 9 ! fle%1 b 8,! ,_s ( ,tru? w guide y into all ,tru?40 ,! ext]nal is n ! true relation2 x w disappe>4 ,! two /ages h "h be5 giv51 ! fir/ ( :i* is ! /age ( devotion1 ( wor%ip1 su* z t rea*$ 9 p>tak+ ( ! ,communion4 ,t is ! p]ception ( ! div9e ,_s 9 ! community 9 :i* ! pres5t1 indwell+1 liv+ ,*ri/ z self-consci\sness has atta9$ to actuality4 ,! second /age is t ( develop$ consci\sness1 :5 ! cont5t becomes ! object2 "h ?is pres5t1 indwell+ ,*ri/ retreats two ?\s& ye>s to a small corn] ( ,pale/9e1 & is an individual hi/orically manife/$ f> away at ,naz>e? or ,j]usalem4 ,x is ! same ?+ 9 ! ,greek ,religion :]e ! god pres5t 9 devotion *anges into prosaic /atues & m>ble2 or 9 pa9t+1 :]e ?is ext]nality is likewise arriv$ at1 :5 ! god becomes m]e canvas or wood4 ,! ,supp] is1 accord+ to ! ,lu!ran conception1 ( ,fai? alone2 x is a div9e satisfaction1 & is n ador$ z if x 7 ! ,ho/4 ,?us a sacr$ image is no m to u ?an is a /one or ?+4 ,! second po9t ( view mu/ inde$ be t ) :i* consci\sness beg9s2 x mu/ />t f ! ext]nal compreh5sion ( ?is =m3 x mu/ passively accept report & take x up into memory4 ,b if x rema9 :]e x is1 t is ! unspiritual po9t ( view2 to rema9 fix$ 9 ?is second /&po9t 9 ?is dead f>-away hi/oric di/ance1 is to reject ! ,_s4 ,! s9s ( him :o lies aga9/ ! ,holy ,gho/ _c be =giv54 ,t lie is ! refusal to be a univ]sal1 to be holy1 t is to make ,*ri/ become divid$1 sep>at$1 to make ,him only ano!r p]son z ?is p>ticul> p]son 9 ,judea2 or else to say t ,he n[ exi/s1 b only f> away 9 ,heav51 or 9 "s o!r place1 & n 9 pres5t actual =m among/ ,8 p4 ,! man :o speaks ( ! m]ely f9ite1 ( m]ely human reason1 & ( ! limits to m]e reason1 lies aga9/ ! ,_s1 = ! ,_s z inf9ite & univ]sal1 z self-compreh5sion1 compreh5ds itself n 9 a 8m]ely0 nor 9 limits1 nor 9 ! f9ite z su*4 ,x has no?+ to d ) ?is1 = x compreh5ds itself )9 itself alone1 9 its inf9itude4 ,if x be said ( ,philosophy t x makes reality ! subject ( its k1 ! pr9cipal po9t is t ! reality %\ld n be "o outside ( t ( :i* x is ! reality4 ,= example1 if f ! real cont5t ( a book1 ,i ab/ract ! b9d+1 pap]1 ink1 language1 ! _m ?\s& lett]s t are conta9$ 9 x1 ! simple univ]sal cont5t z reality1 is n outside ( ! book4 ,simil>ly law is n outside ( ! individual1 b x con/itutes ! true ,be+ ( ! individual4 ,! reality ( my ,m9d is ?us 9 my ,m9d itself & n outside ( x2 x is my real ,be+1 my own sub/ance1 )\t :i* ,i am )\t exi/5ce4 ,?is reality is1 s to speak1 ! combu/ible mat]ial :i* may be k9dl$ & lit up by ! univ]sal reality z su* z objective2 & only s f> z ?is phosphorus is 9 m51 is compreh5sion1 ! k9dl+ & light+ up1 possible4 ,feel+1 anticipation1 k ( ,god1 are only ?us 9 m52 )\t su*1 ! div9e ,m9d w\ld n be ! 9 & = itself ,univ]sal4 ,reality is itself a real cont5t & n ! de/itute ( cont5t & undet]m9$2 yet1 z ! book has o!r cont5t besides1 !re is 9 ! individual m9d also a great am\nt ( o!r matt] :i* belongs only to ! manife/ation ( ?is reality1 & ! individual surr\nd$ ) :at is ext]nal1 mu/ be sep>at$ f ?is exi/5ce4 ,s9ce reality is itself ,_s & n an ab/raction1 8,god is n a ,god = ! dead b = ! liv+10 & inde$ = liv+ spirits4 ,! great ,creator 0 alone ,& exp]i5c$ desire1 ,!re=e ,he creat$ ,spirits1 ,holy mirrors ( ,8 hol9ess4 ,! noble/ ,be+ ,he f\nd no equal2 ,f out ! b[l ( all ! spiritual _w1 ,!re sp>kl$ up to ,him inf9itude4 ,religion is also ! po9t ( view f :i* ?is exi/5ce is kn[n4 ,b z reg>ds ! diff]5t =ms ( k exi/+ 9 ,religion & ,philosophy1 ,philosophy appe>s to be oppos$ to ! conception 9 ,religion t ! univ]sal m9d fir/ %[s itself z ext]nal1 9 ! objective mode ( consci\sness4 ,wor%ip1 comm5c+ ) ! ext]nal1 !n turns aga9/ & abrogates x z has j be5 said1 & ?us ,philosophy is ju/ifi$ ?r\gh ! acts & =ms ( wor%ip1 & only does :at !y d4 ,philosophy has to deal ) two diff]5t objects2 fir/ z 9 ! ,religion pres5t 9 wor%ip1 ) ! sub/antial cont5t1 ! spiritual s\l1 & secondly ) br++ ?is be=e consci\sness z object1 b 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,philosophy ?9ks & conceives ( t :i* ,religion repres5ts z ! object ( consci\sness1 :e!r x is z ! "w ( ! imag9ation or z exi/5t facts 9 hi/ory4 ,! =m ( ! k ( ! object is1 9 religi\s consci\sness1 su* z p]ta9s to ! ord9>y idea1 & is ?us m or less s5su\s 9 nature4 ,9 ,philosophy we d n say t ,god begot a ,son1 :i* is a relation d]iv$ f natural life4 ,?\ght1 or ! sub/ance ( su* a relation1 is !re=e /ill recogniz$ 9 ,philosophy4 ,s9ce ,philosophy ?9ks its object1 x has ! advantage ( unit+ ! two /ages ( religi\s consci\sness--:i* 9 ,religion are diff]5t mom5ts--into "o unity 9 philosophic ?\ght4 ,x is ^! two =ms :i* are diff]5t f "o ano!r & :i*1 z oppos$1 may !re=e seem to be mutually conflict+2 & x is natural & x necess>ily seems to be ! case1 t on fir/ def9itely com+ to view !y are s to speak consci\s ( _! div]sity1 & h5ce at fir/ appe> z inimical to "o ano!r4 ,! fir/ /age 9 ! ord] ( manife/ation is def9ite exi/5ce1 or a det]m9ate ,be+-=-self z oppos$ to ! o!r4 ,! lat] =m is t ,?\ght embraces itself 9 ! concrete1 imm]ses itself 9 itself1 & ,m9d1 z su*1 comes 9 x to consci\sness4 ,9 ! e>li] /age1 ,m9d is ab/ract1 & 9 ?is con/ra9t x kn[s itself to be diff]5t1 & 9 opposition to ! o!r4 ,:5 x embraces itself 9 ! concrete1 x is no m simply conf9$ 9 det]m9ate exi/5ce1 only kn[+ or possess+ itself 9 t div]sity1 b x is ! ,univ]sal :i*1 inasmu* z x det]m9es itself1 conta9s its 8o!r0 )9 itself4 ,z concrete intellig5ce1 ,m9d ?us compreh5ds ! sub/antial 9 ! =m :i* seem$ to diff] f x1 ( :i* x _h only grasp$ ! outw>d manife/ation & _h turn$ away f x2 x recognizes itself 9 its inw>d cont5t1 & s x = ! fir/ "t grasps its object1 & deals ju/ice to its opposite4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! c\rse ( ?is anti!sis 9 hi/ory is t ,?\ght fir/ ( all comes =? )9 ,religion1 z n free & 9 sep>ate manife/ations4 ,secondly1 x /r5g!ns itself1 feels itself to be re/+ ^u itself1 holds & conducts itself inimically t[>ds ! o!r =m1 & does n recognize itself !re94 ,9 ! ?ird place1 x concludes by ackn[l$g+ itself z 9 ?is o!r4 ,or else ,philosophy has to beg9 ) c>ry+ on its "w entirely on its own acc\nt1 isolat+ ,?\ght f all popul> beliefs1 & tak+ = itself q a diff]5t field ( op]ation1 a field = :i* ! _w ( ord9>y ideas lies q ap>t1 s t ! two exi/ peacefully side by side1 or1 to put x bett]1 s t no reflection on _! opposition is arriv$ at4 ,j z little did ! ?\ght ( reconcil+ !m occur1 s9ce 9 ! popul> beliefs ! same cont5t appe>$ z 9 any ext]nal =m o!r ?an ! notion--! ?\ght t is1 ( expla9+ & ju/ify+ popul> belief1 9 ord] ?us to be able aga9 to express ! conceptions ( free ?\ght 9 ! =m ( popul> religion4 ,?us we see ,philosophy fir/ re/ra9$ & conf9$ )9 ! range ( ! ,greek hea!n _w2 !n re/+ ^u itself1 x goes =? aga9/ popul> religion & takes up an unfri5dly attitude to x1 until x grasps t religion 9 its inn]mo/ & recognizes itself !re94 ,?us ! anci5t ,greek philosoph]s g5]ally respect$ ! popul> religion1 or at lea/ !y did n oppose x1 or reflect ^u x4 ,^? com+ lat]1 includ+ ev5 ,x5ophanes1 h&l$ popul> ideas mo/ sev]ely1 & ?us _m s-call$ a!i/s made _! appe>ance4 ,b z ! sph]es ( popul> conception1 & ab/ract ?\ght /ood peacefully side by side1 we also f9d ,greek philosoph]s ( ev5 a lat] p]iod 9 developm5t1 9 ^: case speculative ?\ght & ! act ( wor%ip1 z also ! pi\s invocation ^u & sacrifice to ! gods1 coexi/ 9 good fai?1 & n 9 m]e hypocrisy4 ,socrates 0 accus$ ( tea*+ o!r gods ?an ^? belong+ to ! popul> religion2 8 0 inde$ oppos$ to ! pr9ciples ( ,greek morals & religion1 b at ! same "t he foll[$ q hone/ly ! usages ( 8 religion1 & we "k besides t 8 la/ reque/ 0 to ask 8 fri5ds to (f] a cock to sculapius--a desire q inconsi/5t ) 8 conclusions reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( ,god & above all reg>d+ morality4 ,plato declaim$ aga9/ ! poets & _! gods4 ,x 0 9 a mu* lat] "t t ! ,neo-platoni/s fir/ recogniz$ 9 ! popul> my?ology reject$ e>li] by ! philosoph]s1 ! univ]sal cont5t2 !y transpos$ & translat$ x into :at is significant = ?\ght1 & ?us us$ my?ology itself z a symbolical imag]y = giv+ expression to _! =mulas4 ,simil>ly d we see 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,religion1 ?\ght :i* is n indep5d5t fir/ plac+ itself 9 conjunction ) ! =m belong+ to ?is ,religion & act+ )9 x--t is to say1 tak+ ! ,religion z its gr\ndwork1 & proce$+ f ! absolute assumption ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,we see lat] on ! opposition betwe5 s-call$ fai? & s-call$ reason2 :5 ! w+s ( ?\ght h become /r5g!n$1 ! "y eaglet flies away = himself to ! sun ( ,tru?2 b l a bird ( prey he turns ^u ,religion & combats x4 ,late/ ( all ,philosophy p]mits full ju/ice to be done to ! cont5t ( ,religion ?r\gh ! speculative ,notion1 :i* is ?r\gh ,?\ght itself4 ,= ?is end ! ,notion mu/ h grasp$ itself 9 ! concrete & p5etrat$ to concrete spirituality4 ,?is mu/ be ! /&po9t ( ! ,philosophy ( ! pres5t "t2 x has begun )9 ,*ri/ianity & c h no o!r cont5t ?an ! _w-_s4 ,:5 t _s compreh5ds itself 9 ,philosophy1 x also compreh5ds itself 9 t =m :i* =m]ly 0 inimical to ,philosophy4 ,?us ,religion has a cont5t 9 common ) ,philosophy ! =ms alone be+ diff]5t2 & ! only ess5tial po9t is t ! =m ( ! ,notion %\ld be s f> p]fect$ z to be able to grasp ! cont5t ( ,religion4 ,! ,tru? is j t :i* has be5 call$ ! my/]ies ( ,religion4 ,^! con/itute ! speculative elem5t 9 ,religion su* z 7 call$ by ! ,neo-platoni/s 1 7be+ initiat$71 or be+ occupi$ ) speculative ,notions4 ,by my/]ies is meant1 sup]ficially speak+1 ! secret1 :at rema9s su* & does n arrive at be+ kn[n4 ,b 9 ! ,eleus9ian my/]ies !re 0 no?+ unkn[n2 all ,a!nians 7 initiat$ into !m1 ,socrates alone %ut himself out4 ,op5ly to make !m kn[n to /rang]s 0 ! "o ?+ =bidd51 z inde$ x 0 made a crime 9 ! case ( c]ta9 p4 ,su* matt]s h[ev]1 z be+ holy1 7 n to be spok5 (4 ,h]odotus (t5 expressly says 7e4g4 ii4 #de-dg7 t he w\ld speak ( ! ,egyptian ,div9ities & my/]ies 9 z f> z x 0 pi\s s to d3 he knew m1 b x w\ld be impi\s to speak ( !m4 ,9 ! ,*ri/ian ,religion dogmas are call$ my/]ies4 ,!y are t :i* man kn[s ab\t ! ,nature ( ,god4 ,nei!r is !re any?+ my/]i\s 9 ?is2 x is kn[n by all ^? :o are p>tak]s 9 t ,religion1 & ^! are ?us di/+ui%$ f ! foll[]s ( o!r ,religions4 ,h5ce my/]y "h signifies no?+ unkn[n1 s9ce all ,*ri/ians are 9 ! secret4 ,my/]ies are 9 _! nature speculative1 my/]i\s c]ta9ly to ! und]/&+1 b n to reason2 !y are rational1 j 9 ! s5se ( be+ speculative4 ,! und]/&+ does n compreh5d ! speculative :i* simply is ! concrete because x holds to ! diff]5ces 9 _! sep>ation2 _! contradiction is inde$ conta9$ 9 ! my/]y1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is likewise ! resolution ( ! same4 ,philosophy1 on ! contr>y1 is oppos$ to ! s-call$ ,rationalism ( ! new ,!ology :i* = ev] keeps reason on its lips1 b :i* is dry und]/&+ only2 no reason is recognizable 9 x z ! mom5t ( indep5d5t ?\ght :i* really is ab/ract ?\ght & t alone4 ,:5 ! und]/&+ :i* does n compreh5d ! tru?s ( ,religion1 calls itself ! illum9at+ reason & plays ! "l & ma/]1 x goes a/ray4 ,rationalism is oppos$ to ,philosophy 9 cont5t & =m1 = x has made ! cont5t empty z x has made ! heav5s1 & has r$uc$ all t is1 to f9ite relations--9 its =m x is a reason+ process :i* is n free & :i* has no conceiv+ p[]4 ,! sup]natural 9 ,religion is oppos$ to rationalism1 & if inde$ ! latt] is relat$ 9 respect ( ! real cont5t to ,philosophy1 yet x diff]s f x 9 =m1 = x has become unspiritual & wood51 look+ = its ju/ification to m]e ext]nal au?ority4 ,! s*ola/ics 7 n sup]naturali/s 9 ?is s5se2 !y knew ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur* 9 ?\ght & 9 conception4 ,if ,religion 9 ! inflexibility ( its ab/ract au?ority z oppos$ to ?\ght1 decl>es ( x t 8! gates ( ,hell %all n triumph ov] x10 ! gates ( reason are /rong] ?an ! gates ( ,hell1 n to ov]come ! ,*ur* b to reconcile itself to ! ,*ur*4 ,philosophy1 z ! conceiv+ ?\ght ( ?is cont5t1 has z reg>ds ! idea ( ,religion1 ! advantage ( compreh5d+ bo? sides--x compreh5ds ,religion & also compreh5ds bo? rationalism & sup]naturalism & itself likewise4 ,b ?is is n ! case on ! o!r side4 ,religion f ! /&po9t ( idea1 compreh5ds only :at /&s on ! same plat=m z itself1 & n ,philosophy1 ! ,notion1 ! univ]sal ?\ght det]m9ations4 ,(t5 no inju/ice is done to a ,philosophy :5 its opposition to ,religion has be5 made matt] ( reproa*2 b (t51 too1 a wrong has be5 inflict$ :]e ?is is done f ! religi\s po9t ( view4 ,! =m ( ,religion is necess>y to ,m9d z x is 9 & = itself2 x is ! =m ( tru? z x is = all m51 & = e mode ( consci\sness4 ,?is univ]sal mode is fir/ ( all = m5 9 ! =m ( s5su\s consci\sness1 & !n1 secondly1 9 ! int]m+l+ ( ! =m ( ! univ]sal ) s5su\s manife/ation or reflection--! repres5t+ consci\sness1 ! my?ical1 positive & hi/orical =m1 is t p]ta9+ to ! und]/&+4 ,:at is receiv$ 9 evid5ce ( ,m9d only becomes object to consci\sness :5 x appe>s 9 ! =m ( ! und]/&+1 t is to say1 consci\sness mu/ fir/ be already acqua9t$ ) ^! =ms f life & f exp]i5ce4 ,n[1 because ?9k+ consci\sness is n ! outw>d univ]sal =m = all mank9d1 ! consci\sness ( ! true1 ! spiritual & ! rational1 mu/ h ! =m ( ,religion1 & ?is is ! univ]sal ju/ification ( ?is =m4 ,we h "h laid d[n ! di/9ction betwe5 ,philosophy & ,religion1 b tak+ into acc\nt :at x is we wi% to deal ) 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 !re is some?+ /ill :i* mu/ be rem>k$ ^u1 & :i* p>tly foll[s f :at has be5 already said4 ,!re is ! "q /ill confront+ u z to :at attitude we mu/ take 9 ref]5ce to ?is matt] 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 4 ,! religi\s elem5t to be exclud$ f ! cont5t ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 4 ,my?ology fir/ meets u1 & x seems z if x might be drawn )9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,x is inde$ a product ( ! imag9ation1 b n ( caprice1 al?\gh t also has its place "h4 ,b ! ma9 "p ( my?ology is ! "w ( ! imag9ative reason1 :i* makes reality its object1 b yet has no o!r means ( s do+1 ?an t ( s5su\s repres5tation1 s t ! gods make _! appe>ance 9 human guise4 ,my?ology c n[ be /udi$ = art1 c4 ,b ! ?9k+ m9d mu/ seek out ! sub/antial cont5t1 ! ?\ght & ! !ory implicitly conta9$ !re91 z reason is s\ght 9 ,nature4 ,?is mode ( treat+ my?ology 0 t ( ! ,neo-platoni/s2 9 rec5t times x has = ! mo/ "p become ! "w ( my fri5d ,creuz] 9 symbolism4 ,?is me?od ( treatm5t is combat$ & condemn$ by o!rs4 ,man1 x is said1 mu/ set to "w hi/orically alone1 & x is n hi/oric :5 a !ory un?\ght ( by ! anci5ts1 is read into a my?1 or br\ght out ( x4 ,9 "o light1 ?is is q correct1 = x po9ts to a me?od adopt$ by ,creuz]1 & also by ! ,alex&rians :o act$ 9 a simil> way4 ,9 consci\s ?\ght ! anci5ts _h n su* !ories be=e !m1 nor did anyone ma9ta9 !m1 yet to say t su* cont5t 0 n implicitly pres5t1 is an absurd cont5tion4 ,z ! products ( reason1 ?\gh n ( ?9k+ reason1 ! religions ( ! p1 z also ! my?ologies1 h[ev] simple & ev5 fooli% !y may appe>1 indubitably conta9 z g5u9e works ( art1 ?\ghts1 univ]sal det]m9ations & tru?1 = ! in/9ct ( reason is at _! basis4 ,b\nd up ) ?is is ! fact t s9ce my?ology 9 its expression takes s5su\s =ms1 mu* t is cont+5t & ext]nal becomes int]m+l$1 = ! repres5tation ( ! ,notion 9 s5su\s =ms always possesses a c]ta9 incongruity1 see+ t :at is f\nd$ on imag9ation _c express ! ,idea 9 its real aspect4 ,?is s5su\s =m produc$ z x is by an hi/oric or natural me?od1 mu/ be det]m9$ on _m sides1 & ?is ext]nal det]m9ation mu/1 m or less1 be ( su* a nature z n to express ! ,idea4 ,x may also be t _m errors are conta9$ 9 t explanation1 p>ticul>ly :5 a s+le "o is br\ght )9 our notice2 all ! cu/oms1 actions1 furni%+s1 ve/m5ts1 & (f]+s tak5 toge!r1 may und\bt$ly conta9 some?+ ( ! ,idea 9 analogy1 b ! connection is f> remov$1 & _m cont+5t circum/ances mu/ f9d _! entrance4 ,b t !re is a ,reason !re1 mu/ c]ta9ly be recogniz$1 & x is ess5tial s to compreh5d & grasp my?ology4 ,b ,my?ology mu/ rema9 exclud$ f our hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,! reason ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! fact t 9 ,philosophy we h to d n ) !orems g5]ally1 or ) ?\ghts :i* only are implicite conta9$ 9 "s p>ticul> =m or o!r1 b ) ?\ghts :i* are explicit1 & only 9 s f> z !y are explicit & 9 s f> z a cont5t su* z t belong+ to ,religion1 has come to consci\sness 9 ! =m ( ,?\ght4 ,& ?is is j :at =ms ! imm5se di/9ction :i* we saw above1 betwe5 capacity & actuality4 ,! !orems :i* are implicite conta9$ )9 ,religion d n conc]n u2 !y mu/ be 9 ! =m ( ?\ghts1 s9ce ,?\ght alone is ! absolute =m ( ! ,idea4 ,9 _m my?ologies1 images are c]ta9ly us$ along ) _! significance1 or else ! images are closely att5d$ by _! int]pretation4 ,! anci5t ,p]sians wor%ipp$ ! sun1 or fire1 z be+ ! highe/ exi/5ce2 ! fir/ cause 9 ! ,p]sian ,religion is ,z]vane ,ak]5e--unlimit$ "t1 et]nity4 ,?is simple et]nal exi/5ce possesses accord+ to ,diog5es ,lrtius 7,i4 #h71 8! two pr9ciples ,ormuzd 77 & ,ahriman 771 ! rul]s ov] good & evil40 ,plut>* 9 writ+ on ,isis & ,osiris 7,t4 ,,ii4 p4 #cfi1 ed4 ,xyl47 says1 8,x is n "o exi/5ce :i* holds & rules ! :ole1 b good is m+l$ ) evil2 nature z a rule br+s =? no?+ pure & simple2 x is n "o disp5s]1 :o1 l a ho/1 gives out & mixes up ! dr9k f two diff]5t b>rels4 ,b ?r\gh two oppos$ & inimical pr9ciples ( :i* ! "o impels t[>ds :at is "r1 & ! o!r 9 ! opposite direction1 if n ! :ole _w1 at lea/ ?is e>? is influ5c$ 9 diff]5t ways4 ,zoroa/] has ?us emphatically set up ! "o pr9ciple 7,ormuzd7 z be+ ! ,light1 & ! o!r 7,ahriman7 z ! ,d>kness4 ,betwe5 ! two 7 7 is ,mi?ra1 h5ce call$ by ! ,p]sians ! ,m$iator 7740 ,mi?ra is !n likewise sub/ance1 ! univ]sal exi/5ce1 ! sun rais$ to a totality4 ,x is n ! m$iator betwe5 ,ormuzd & ,ahriman by e/abli%+ peace & leav+ ea* to rema9 z x 02 x does n p>take ( good & evil bo?1 l an unble/ middle ?+1 b x /&s on ! side ( ,ormuzd & /rives ) him aga9/ ! evil4 ,ahriman is sometimes call$ ! fir/-born son ( ! ,light1 b ,ormuzd only rema9$ )9 ! ,light4 ,at ! creation ( ! visible _w1 ,ormuzd places on ! e>? 9 8 incompreh5sible k+dom ( ,light1 ! firm ar*es ( ! heav5s :i* are above yet surr\nd$ on e side ) ! fir/ orig9al ,light4 ,midway to ! e>? is ! high hill ,albordi1 :i* rea*es into ! s\rce ( ,light4 ,ormuzd's empire ( ,light ext5d$ un9t]rupt$ly ov] ! firm vault ( ! heav5s & ! hill ,albordi1 & ov] ! e>? too1 until ! ?ird age 0 rea*$4 ,!n ,ahriman1 ^: k+dom ( night 0 =m]ly b\nd b5ea? ! e>?1 broke 9 ^u ,ormuzd's corporeal _w & rul$ 9 common ) him4 ,n[ ! space betwe5 heav5 & e>? 0 divid$ into light & night4 ,z ,ormuzd _h =m]ly only a spiritual k+dom ( light1 ,ahriman _h only "o ( night1 b n[ t !y 7 int]m+l$ he plac$ ! t]re/rial light ?us creat$ 9 opposition to ! t]re/rial night4 ,f ?is "t on1 two corporeal worlds /& oppos$1 "o pure & good1 & "o impure & evil1 & ?is opposition p]meates all nature4 ,on ,albordi1 ,ormuzd creat$ ,mi?ra z m$iator = ! e>?4 ,! end ( ! creation ( ! bodily _w is none o!r ?an to re9/ate exi/5ce1 fall5 f its creator1 to make x good aga91 & ?us to make ! evil disappe> = ev]4 ,! bodily _w is ! battle-gr\nd betwe5 good & evil2 b ! battle betwe5 light & d>kness is n 9 itself an absolute & irreconcilable opposition1 b "o :i* c be conqu]$1 & 9 x ,ormuzd1 ! pr9ciple ( ,light1 w be ! conqu]or4 ,i w\ld rem>k ( ?is1 t :5 we consid] ! elem5ts 9 ^! ideas :i* be> "s fur!r connection ) ,philosophy1 ! univ]sal ( t duality ) :i* ! ,notion is necess>ily set =? c alone be int]e/+ & notewor?y to u2 = 9 x ! ,notion is j ! imm$iate opposite ( itself1 ! unity ( itself ) itself 9 ! 8o!r30 a simple exi/5ce 9 :i* absolute opposition appe>s z ! opposition ( exi/5ce1 & ! sublation ( t opposition4 ,because prop]ly ! ,light pr9ciple is ! only exi/5ce ( bo?1 & ! pr9ciple ( ,d>kness is ! null & void1--! pr9ciple ( ,light id5tifies itself ) ,mi?ra1 :i* 0 be=e call$ ! highe/ exi/5ce4 ,! opposition has laid aside ! appe>ance ( cont+5cy1 b ! spiritual pr9ciple is n sep>ate f ! physical1 because ! good & evil are bo? det]m9$ z ,light & ,d>kness4 ,we ?us "h see ?\ght break+ =? f actuality1 & yet n su* a sep>ation z only takes place 9 ,religion1 :5 ! sup]s5su\s is itself aga9 repres5t$ 9 a mann] s5su\s1 notionless & disp]s$1 = ! :ole ( :at is disp]s$ 9 s5su\s =m is ga!r$ toge!r 9 ! "o s+le opposition1 & activity is ?us simply repres5t$4 ,^! det]m9ations lie mu* ne>] to ,?\ght2 !y are n m]e images or symbols1 b yet ^! my?s d n conc]n ,philosophy4 ,9 !m ,?\ght does n take ! fir/ place1 = ! my?-=m rema9s pr$om9ant4 ,9 all religions ?is oscillation betwe5 =m & ?\ght is f\nd1 & su* a comb9ation /ill lies outside ,philosophy4 ,?is is also s 9 ! ,san*unia?onic ,cosmogony ( ! ,phnicians4 ,^! fragm5ts1 :i* are f\nd 9 ,eusebius 7,prp>4 ,evang4 ,i4 #aj71 are tak5 f ! translation ( ! ,san*unia?on f ,phnician into ,greek made by a ,gramm>ian nam$ ,philo f ,biblus4 ,philo liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,vespasian & ascribes great antiquity to ! ,san*unia?on4 ,x is !re said1 8,! pr9ciples ( ?+s are f\nd 9 ,*aos1 9 :i* ! elem5ts exi/ undevelop$ & confus$1 & 9 a ,_s ( ,air4 ,! latt] p]meat$ ! *aos1 & ) x eng5d]$ a slimy matt] or mud 77 :i* conta9$ )9 x ! liv+ =ces & ! g]ms ( animals4 ,by m+l+ ?is mud ) ! compon5t matt] ( *aos & ! result+ f]m5tation1 ! elem5ts sep>at$ !mselves4 ,! fire elem5ts asc5d$ into ! heights & =m$ ! />s4 ,?r\gh _! influ5ce 9 ! air1 cl\ds 7 =m$ & ! e>? 0 made fruitful4 ,f ! m+l+ ( wat] & e>?1 ?r\gh ! mud conv]t$ into putrefy+ matt]1 animals took _! orig9 z imp]fect & s5seless4 ,^! aga9 begot o!r animals p]fect & end[$ ) s5ses4 ,x 0 ! cra% ( ?und] 9 a ?und]-/orm t caus$ ! fir/ animals /ill sleep+ 9 _! husks to wak5 up to life40#g ,! fragm5ts ( ,b]osus ( ! ,*aldeans 7 collect$ f ,josephus1 ,syncellus & ,eusebius "u ! title ,b]osi ,*aldaica1 by ,scalig]1 z an app5dix to 8 "w ,de em5datione temporum1 & !y are f\nd complete 9 ! ,greek ,libr>y ( ,fabricius 7,t4 xiv4 pp4 #age-baa74 ,b]osus liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,alex&]1 is said to h be5 a ,prie/ ( ,bel & to h drawn ^u ! ar*ives ( ! temple at ,babylon4 ,he says1 8,! orig9al god is ,bel & ! goddess ,omoroka 7! sea71 b beside !m !re 7 yet o!r gods4 ,bel divid$ ,omoroka 9 two1 9 ord] to create f h] p>ts heav5 & e>?4 ,h]eupon he cut (f 8 own head & ! human race orig9at$ f ! drops ( 8 div9e blood4 ,aft] ! creation ( man1 ,bel bani%$ ! d>kness1 divid$ heav5 & e>?1 & =m$ ! _w into its natural %ape4 ,s9ce c]ta9 p>ts ( ! e>? seem$ to him to be insuffici5tly populat$1 he compell$ ano!r god to lay h&s ^u himself1 & f 8 blood m m5 & m k9ds ( animals 7 creat$4 ,at fir/ ! m5 liv$ a wild & uncultivat$ life1 until a mon/]0 7call$ by ,b]osus1 ,oannes7 8jo9$ !m into a /ate1 taught !m arts & sci5ces1 & 9 a ^w br\ght ,humanity into exi/5ce4 ,! mon/] set ab\t ?is end ) ! ris+ ( ! sun out ( ! sea1 & ) its sett+ he aga9 hid himself "u ! waves40 4 ,:at belongs to ,my?ology may 9 ! second place make a pret5ce ( be+ a k9d ( ,philosophy4 ,x has produc$ philosoph]s :o avail$ !mselves ( ! my?ical =m 9 ord] to br+ _! !ories & sy/ems m prom95tly be=e ! imag9ation1 = !y made ! ?\ghts ! cont5t ( ! my?4 ,b ! my? is n a m]e cloak 9 ! anci5t my?s2 x is n m]ely t ! ?\ghts 7 !re & 7 conceal$4 ,?is may happ5 9 our reflect+ times2 b ! fir/ poetry does n />t f a sep>ation ( prose & poetry4 ,if philosoph]s us$ my?s1 x 0 usually ! case t !y _h ! ?\ghts & !n s\ght = images appropriate to !m2 ,plato has _m beautiful my?s ( ?is k9d4 ,o!rs likewise h spok5 9 my?s1 z = example1 ,jacobi1 ^: ,philosophy took ! =m ( ! ,*ri/ian ,religion1 ?r\gh :i* he gave utt]ance to matt] ( a highly speculative nature4 ,b ?is =m is n suitable to ,philosophy4 ,?\ght :i* has itself z object1 mu/ h rais$ itself to its own =m1 to ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,plato is (t5 e/eem$ on acc\nt ( 8 my?s2 he is suppos$ to h ev9c$ by _! means great] g5ius ?an o!r philosoph]s 7 capable (4 ,x is cont5d$ "h t ! my?s ( ,plato are sup]ior to ! ab/ract =m ( expression1 & ,plato's me?od ( repres5tation is c]ta9ly a wond]ful "o4 ,on clos] exam9ation we f9d t x is p>tly ! impossibility ( express+ himself aft] ! mann] ( pure ?\ght t makes ,plato put 8 mean+ s1 & also su* me?ods ( expression are only us$ by him 9 introduc+ a subject4 ,:5 he comes to ! matt] 9 po9t1 ,plato expresses himself o!rwise1 z we see 9 ! ,p>m5ides1 :]e simple ?\ght det]m9ations are us$ )\t imag]y4 ,ext]nally ^! my?s may c]ta9ly s]ve :5 ! heights ( speculative ?\ght are left beh9d1 9 ord] to pres5t ! matt] 9 an easi] =m1 b ! real value ( ,plato does n re/ 9 8 my?s4 ,if ?\ght once atta9s p[] suffici5t to give exi/5ce to itself )9 itself & 9 its elem5t1 ! my? becomes a sup]flu\s adornm5t1 by :i* ,philosophy is n advanc$4 ,m5 (t5 lay hold ( no?+ b ^! my?s4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle has be5 misund]/ood j because he int]sp]ses similes "h & !re2 ! simile c nev] be entirely 9 accord ) ?\ght1 = x always c>ries ) x some?+ m4 ,! difficulty ( repres5t+ ?\ghts z ?\ghts always atta*es to ! exp$i5t ( expression 9 s5su\s =m4 ,?\ght1 too1 ought n to be conceal$ by means ( ! my?1 = ! object ( ! my?ical is j to give expression to & to reveal ?\ght4 ,! symbol is und\bt$ly insuffici5t = ?is expression2 ?\ght conceal$ 9 symbols is n yet possess$1 = ?\ght is self-reveal+1 & h5ce ! my? does n =m a m$ium adequate = its conveyance4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,,iii4 #d7 says1 8,x is n wor? :ile to treat s]i\sly ( ^? ^: philosophy takes a my?ical =m40 ,su* is n ! =m 9 :i* ?\ght all[s itself to be /at$1 b only is a subord9ate mode4 ,connect$ ) ?is1 !re is a simil> me?od ( repres5t+ ! univ]sal cont5t by means ( numb]s1 l9es & geometric figures4 ,^! are figurative1 b n concretely s1 z 9 ! case ( my?s4 ,?us x may be said t et]nity is a circle1 ! snake t bites its own tail4 ,?is is only an image1 b ,m9d does n require su* a symbol4 ,!re are p :o value su* me?ods ( repres5tation1 b ^! =ms d n g f>4 ,! mo/ ab/ract det]m9ations c inde$ be ?us express$1 b any fur!r progress br+s ab\t confusion4 ,j z ! freemasons h symbols :i* are e/eem$ = _! dep? ( wisdom--dep? z a brook is deep :5 "o _c see ! bottom--t :i* is hidd5 v easily seems to m5 deep1 or z if dep? 7 conceal$ b5ea?4 ,b :5 x is hidd51 x may possibly prove to be ! case t !re is no?+ beh9d4 ,?is is s 9 freemasonry1 9 :i* ev]y?+ is conceal$ to ^? outside & also to _m p )91 & :]e no?+ rem>kable is possess$ 9 le>n+ or 9 sci5ce1 & lea/ ( all 9 ,philosophy4 ,?\ght is1 on ! contr>y1 simply its manife/ation2 cle>ness is its nature & itself4 ,! act ( manife/ation is n a condition :i* may be or may n be equally1 s t ?\ght may rema9 z ?\ght :5 x is n manife/$1 b its manife/ation is itself1 its ,be+4 ,numb]s1 z w be rem>k$ 9 respect ( ! ,py?agoreans1 are unsuitable m$iums = express+ ?\ghts2 ?us 1 1 are1 ) ,py?agoras1 unity1 diff]5ce1 & unity ( ! unity & ( ! diff]5ce4 ,! two fir/ ( ! ?ree are c]ta9ly unit$ by addition2 ?is k9d ( union is1 h[ev]1 ! wor/ =m ( unity4 ,9 ,religion ! ?ree make _! appe>ance 9 a deep] s5se z ! ,tr9ity1 & 9 ,philosophy z ! ,notion1 b enum]ation =ms a bad me?od ( expression4 ,!re is ! same objection to x z w\ld exi/ to mak+ ! m5suration ( space ! m$ium = express+ ! absolute4 ,p also quote ! ,philosophy ( ! ,*9ese1 ( ! ,fo1 9 :i* x is said t ?\ghts are repres5t$ by numb]s4 ,yet ! ,*9ese h expla9$ _! symbols & h5ce h made _! mean+ evid5t4 ,univ]sal simple ab/ractions h be5 pres5t to all p :o h arriv$ at any decree ( culture4 4 ,we h /ill to rem>k 9 ! ?ird place1 t ,religion1 z su*1 does n m]ely =m its repres5tations aft] ! mann] ( art2 & also t ,poetry likewise conta9s actual ?\ghts4 ,9 ! case ( ! poets ^: art has spee* z m$ium1 we f9d all ?r\gh deep univ]sal ?\ght reg>d+ reality2 ^! are m explicitly express$ 9 ! ,indian ,religion1 b ) ! ,indians ev]y?+ is mix$ up4 ,h5ce x is said t su* races h also _h a ,philosophy prop] to !mselves2 b ! univ]sal ?\ghts ( int]e/ 9 ,indian books limit !mselves to :at is mo/ ab/ract1 to ! idea ( ris+ up & pass+ away1 & ?us ( mak+ a p]petual r\nd4 ,! /ory ( ! ,phnix is well kn[n z an example ( ?is2 x is "o :i* took its orig9 9 ! ,ea/4 ,we are able simil>ly to f9d ?\ghts ab\t life & dea? & ( ! transition ( ,be+ into pass+ away2 f life comes dea? & f dea? comes life2 ev5 9 ,be+1 9 :at is positive1 ! negation is already pres5t4 ,! negative side mu/ inde$ conta9 )9 x ! positive1 = all *ange1 all ! process ( life is f\nd$ on ?is4 ,b su* reflections only occasionally come =?2 !y are n to be tak5 z be+ prop] philosophic utt]ances4 ,= ,philosophy is only pres5t :5 ?\ght1 z su*1 is made ! absolute gr\nd & root ( ev]y?+ else1 & 9 ^! modes ( repres5tation ?is is n s4 ,philosophy does n reflect on any p>ticul> ?+ or object already exi/+ z a fir/ sub/ratum2 its cont5t is j ,?\ght1 univ]sal ?\ght :i* mu/ pla9ly come fir/ ( all2 to put x o!rwise1 ! ,absolute mu/ 9 ,philosophy be 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,9 ! ,greek ,religion we f9d ! ?\ght-det]m9ation 8et]nal necessity20 :i* means an absolute & cle>ly univ]sal relation4 ,b su* ?\ght has o!r subjects besides2 x only expresses a relation1 ! necessity to be ! true & all-embrac+ ,be+4 ,?us nei!r mu/ we take ?is =m into our consid]ation4 ,we might speak 9 t way ( a philosophy ( ,euripides1 ,s*ill] or ,goe!4 ,b all su* reflection respect+1 or g5]al modes ( repres5t+ :at is true1 ! ends ( m51 morality & s on1 are 9 "p only incid5tally set =?1 & 9 "p !y h n rea*$ ! prop] =m ( ?\ght1 :i* implies t :at is s express$ mu/ be ultimate1 ?us con/itut+ ! ,absolute4 4 ,p>ticul> !ories f\nd 9 ,religion4 ,9 conclusion1 ! philosophy :i* we f9d )9 ,religion does n conc]n u4 ,we f9d deep1 speculative ?\ghts reg>d+ ! nature ( ,god n only 9 ! ,indian ,religions1 b also 9 ! ,fa!rs & ! ,s*oolm54 ,9 ! hi/ory ( dogmatism !re is a real int]e/ 9 becom+ acqua9t$ ) ^! ?\ghts1 b !y d n belong to ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,nev]!less m notice mu/ be tak5 ( ! ,s*oolm5 ?an ( ! ,fa!rs1 = !y 7 c]ta9ly great philosoph]s to :om ! culture ( ,*ri/5dom owes mu*4 ,b _! speculations belong 9 "p to o!r philosophies su* z to t ( ,plato1 :i* mu/ 9 s f> be consid]$ = !mselves2 p>tly1 too1 !y emanate f ! speculative cont5t ( ,religion itself :i* already exi/s z indep5d5t tru? 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*1 & belongs prim>ily to fai?4 ,?us su* modes ( ?\ght re/ on an hypo!sis & n on ,?\ght itself2 !y are n prop]ly speak+ !mselves ,philosophy or ?\ght :i* re/s on itself1 b z ideas already firmly root$1 !y act on its behalf ei!r 9 refut+ o!r ideas & conclusions or 9 philosophically v9dicat+ aga9/ !m _! own religi\s tea*+4 ,?\ght 9 ?is mann] does n repres5t & "k itself z ! ultimate & absolute culm9ation ( ! cont5t1 or z ! inw>dly self-det]m9+ ,?\ght4 ,h5ce1 too1 :5 ! ,fa!rs1 see+ t ! cont5t ( ! ,*ri/ian ,religion c only be grasp$ aft] ! speculative =m1 did1 )9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,*ur*1 produce ?\ghts ( a highly speculative nature1 ! ultimate ju/ification ( ^! 0 n f\nd 9 ,?\ght z su*1 b 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,*ur*4 ,philosophic tea*+ "h f9ds itself )9 a /rongly b\nd sy/em & n z ?\ght :i* emanates freely f itself4 ,?us ) ! s*ola/ics1 too1 ,?\ght does n con/ruct itself out ( itself1 b dep5ds ^u hypo!ses2 & al?\gh x ev] re/s m & m ^u itself1 x nev] does s 9 opposition to ! doctr9e ( ! ,*ur*4 ,bo? mu/ & d agree1 s9ce ,?\ght has to prove f itself :at ! ,*ur* has already v]ifi$4 c4 ,philosophy prop] di/+ui%$ f ,popul> ,philosophy4 ,( ! two dep>tm5ts ( k alli$ to ,philosophy we f\nd t ! "o1 t ( ! special sci5ces1 c\ld n be call$ a philosophy 9 t x1 z indep5d5t see+ & ?9k+ imm]s$ 9 f9ite matt]1 & z ! active pr9ciple 9 becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! f9ite1 0 n ! cont5t1 b simply ! =mal & subjective mom5t4 ,! second sph]e1 ,religion1 is defici5t 9 t x only _h ! cont5t or ! objective mom5t 9 common ) ,philosophy4 ,9 x indep5d5t ?\ght 0 an ess5tial mom5t1 s9ce ! subject _h an imag9>y or hi/orical =m4 ,philosophy dem&s ! unity & int]m+l+ ( ^! two po9ts ( view2 x unites ! ,sunday ( life :5 man 9 humility r5\nces himself1 & ! work+-day :5 he /&s up indep5d5tly1 is ma/] ( himself & consid]s 8 own int]e/s4 ,a ?ird po9t ( view seems to unite bo? elem5ts1 & t is popul> ,philosophy4 ,x deals ) univ]sal objects & philosophizes z to ,god & ! _w2 & ?\ght is likewise occupi$ 9 le>n+ ab\t ^! matt]s4 ,yet ?is ,philosophy mu/ also be ca/ aside4 ,! writ+s ( ,cic]o may be put "u ?is category2 !y conta9 a k9d ( philosophy t has its own place & 9 :i* excell5t ?+s are said4 ,cic]o =m$ _m exp]i5ces bo? 9 ! affairs ( life & m9d1 & f !m & aft] obs]v+ :at takes place 9 ! _w1 he d$uc$ ! tru?4 ,he expresses himself ) culture on ! conc]ns mo/ important to man1 & h5ce 8 great popul>ity4 ,fanatics & my/ics may f ano!r po9t ( view be reckon$ z 9 ?is category4 ,!y give expression to a deep s5se ( devotion1 & h _h exp]i5ces 9 ! high] regions4 ,!y are able to express ! highe/ cont5t1 & ! result is attractive4 ,we ?us f9d ! brighte/ gleams ( ?\ght 9 ! writ+s ( a ,pascal--z we d 9 8 ,p5ses4 ,b ! drawback t atta*es to ?is ,philosophy is t ! ultimate appeal--ev5 9 mod]n times--is made to ! fact t m5 are con/itut$ su* z !y are by nature1 & ) ?is ,cic]o is v free4 ,"h ! moral in/9ct comes into "q1 only "u ! "n ( feel+2 ,religion n[ re/s n on :at is objective b on religi\s feel+1 because ! imm$iate consci\sness ( ,god by m5 is its ultimate gr\nd4 ,cic]o makes copi\s use ( ! cons5sus g5tium2 9 m mod]n times ?is appeal has be5 m or less left alone1 s9ce ! individual subject has to re/ ^u himself4 ,feel+ is fir/ ( all laid hold (1 !n comes reason+ f :at is giv51 b 9 ^! we c appeal to :at is imm$iate only4 ,indep5d5t ?\ght is c]ta9ly "h advanc$2 ! cont5t too1 is tak5 f ! self2 b we mu/ j z necess>ily exclude ?is mode ( ?9k+ f ,philosophy4 ,= ! s\rce f :i* ! cont5t is d]iv$ is ( ! same description z 9 ! o!r cases4 ,nature is ! s\rce 9 f9ite sci5ces1 & 9 ,religion x is ,_s2 b "h ! s\rce is 9 au?ority2 ! cont5t is giv5 & ! act ( wor%ip removes b mom5t>ily ?is ext]nality4 ,! s\rce ( popul> ,philosophy is 9 ! he>t1 impulses & capacities1 our natural ,be+1 my impression ( :at is "r & ( ,god2 ! cont5t is 9 a =m :i* is ( nature only4 ,i c]ta9ly h ev]y?+ 9 feel+1 b ! :ole cont5t is also 9 ,my?ology1 & yet 9 nei!r is x s 9 v]itable =m4 ,! laws & doctr9es ( ,religion are t 9 :i* ?is cont5t always comes to consci\sness 9 a m def9ite way1 :ile 9 feel+ !re /ill is int]m+l$ ! arbitr>y w ( t :i* is subjective4 #c4 ,,comm5cem5t ,,( ,,philosophy ,,& ,,( ,,its ,,hi/ory4 ,n[ t we h ?us def9$ ! ,notion ( ,philosophy to be ! ,?\ght :i*1 z ! univ]sal cont5t1 is complete ,be+1 x w be %[n 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy h[ ! det]m9ations 9 ?is cont5t make _! appe>ance little by little4 ,at fir/ we only ask :]e ,philosophy & its ,hi/ory beg94 a4 ,fre$om ( ,?\ght z a fir/ condition4 ,! g5]al answ] is 9 accordance ) :at has be5 said4 ,philosophy beg9s :]e ! univ]sal is compreh5d$ z ! all-embrac+ exi/5ce1 or :]e ! exi/5t is laid hold ( 9 a univ]sal =m1 & :]e ?9k+ ab\t ?\ght fir/ comm5ces4 ,:]e1 !n1 has ?is occurr$8 ,:]e did x beg98 ,t is a "q ( hi/ory4 ,?\ght mu/ be = itself1 mu/ come into exi/5ce 9 its fre$om1 lib]ate itself f nature & come out ( its imm]sion 9 m]e s5se-p]ception2 x mu/ z free1 ent] )9 itself & ?us arrive at ! consci\sness ( fre$om4 ,philosophy is prop]ly to be comm5c$ :]e ! ,absolute is no m 9 ! =m ( ord9>y conception1 & free ?\ght n m]ely ?9ks ! ,absolute b grasps its ,idea4 ,t is to say :]e ,?\ght grasps z ,?\ght1 ! ,be+ 7:i* may be ,?\ght itself71 :i* x recognizes z ! ess5ce ( ?+s1 ! absolute totality & ! imman5t ess5ce ( ev]y?+1 & does s z an ext]nal ,be+4 ,! simple exi/5ce :i* is n s5su\s & :i* ! ,jews ?\ght ( z ,god 7= all ,religion is ?9k+71 is ?us n a subject to be treat$ ( by ,philosophy1 b j su* a proposition z t 8,! exi/5ce or pr9ciple ( ?+s is wat]1 fire or ?\ght40 ,?\ght1 ?is univ]sal det]m9ation :i* sets =? itself1 is an ab/ract det]m9at5ess2 x is ! beg9n+ ( ,philosophy1 b ?is beg9n+ is at ! same "t 9 hi/ory1 ! concrete =m tak5 by a p1 ! pr9ciple ( :i* con/itutes :at we h /at$ above4 ,if we say t ! consci\sness ( fre$om is connect$ ) ! appe>ance ( ,philosophy1 ?is pr9ciple mu/ be a fundam5tal "o ) ^? ) :om ,philosophy beg9s2 a p hav+ ?is consci\sness ( fre$om f\nds its exi/5ce on t pr9ciple see+ t ! laws & ! :ole circum/ances ( ! p are bas$ only on ! ,notion t ,m9d =ms ( itself1 & 9 ! categories :i* x has4 ,connect$ ) ?is on ! practical side1 is ! fact t actual fre$om develops political fre$om1 & ?is only beg9s :]e ! individual kn[s himself z an indep5d5t individual to be univ]sal & real1 :]e 8 significance is inf9ite1 or :]e ! subject has atta9$ ! consci\sness ( p]sonality & ?us desires to be e/eem$ = himself alone4 ,free1 philosophic ?\ght has ?is direct connection ) practical fre$om1 t z ! =m] supplies ?\ght ab\t ! absolute1 univ]sal & real object1 ! latt]1 because x ?9ks itself1 gives itself ! "* ( univ]sality4 ,?9k+ means ! br++ ( some?+ into ! =m ( univ]sality2 h5ce ,?\ght fir/ treats ( ! univ]sal1 or det]m9es :at is objective & individual 9 ! natural ?+s :i* are pres5t 9 s5su\s consci\sness1 z ! univ]sal1 z an objective ,?\ght4 ,its second attribute is t 9 recogniz+ & kn[+ ?is objective & inf9ite univ]sal1 ,i1 at ! same "t1 rema9 confront+ x f ! /&po9t ( objectivity4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is g5]al connection betwe5 political fre$om & ! fre$om ( ,?\ght1 ,philosophy only appe>s 9 ,hi/ory :]e & 9 z f> z free in/itutions are =m$4 ,s9ce ,m9d requires to sep>ate itself f its natural w & engrossm5t 9 matt] if x wi%es to ent] ^u ,philosophy1 x _c d s 9 ! =m ) :i* ! _w-_s comm5ces & :i* takes prec$5ce ( t sep>ation4 ,?is /age ( ! unity ( ,m9d ) ,nature :i* z imm$iate is n ! true & p]fect /ate1 is ma9ly f\nd 9 ! ,ori5tal conception ( exi/5ce1 !re=e ,philosophy fir/ beg9s 9 ! ,grecian _w4 b4 ,sep>ation ( ! ,ea/ & its ,philosophy4 ,"s explanations h to be giv5 reg>d+ ?is fir/ =m4 ,s9ce ,m9d 9 x1 z consci\sness & w1 is b desire1 self-consci\sness /ill /&s ^u its fir/ /age 9 :i* ! sph]e ( its idea & w is f9ite4 ,z intellig5ce is ?us f9ite too1 its ends are n yet a univ]sal = !mselves2 b if a p makes = :at is moral1 if laws & ju/ice are possess$1 ! "* ( univ]sality und]lies its w4 ,?is presupposes a new p[] 9 ,m9d ) :i* x comm5ces to be free1 = ! univ]sal w z ! relation ( ?\ght to ?\ght or z ! univ]sal1 conta9s a ?\ght :i* is at home ) itself4 ,if a p desire to be free1 !y w subord9ate _! desires to univ]sal laws1 :ile =m]ly t :i* 0 desir$ 0 only a p>ticul>4 ,n[ f9itude ( ! w *>act]izes ! ori5tals1 because ) !m ! w has n yet grasp$ itself z univ]sal1 = ?\ght is n yet free = itself4 ,h5ce !re c b be ! relation ( "l & slave1 & 9 ?is despotic sph]e fe> con/itutes ! rul+ category4 ,because ! w is n yet free f :at is f9ite1 x c !re9 be compreh5d$ & ! f9ite c be %[n =? z negative4 ,?is s5sation ( negation1 t some?+ _c la/1 is j fe> z di/+ui%$ f fre$om :i* does n consi/ 9 be+ f9ite b 9 be+ = itself1 & ?is _c be laid hold (4 ,religion necess>ily has ?is "*1 s9ce ! fe> ( ! ,"l is ! ess5tial elem5t beyond :i* we _c get4 8,! fe> ( ! ,"l is ! beg9n+ ( wisdom0 is inde$ a true say+2 man mu/ beg9 ) ?is 9 ord] to "k ! f9ite ends 9 _! negative "*4 ,b man mu/ also h ov]come fe> ?r\gh ! rel9qui%m5t ( f9ite ends1 & ! satisfaction :i* t ,religion af=ds is conf9$ to :at is f9ite1 see+ t ! *ief means ( reconciliation are natural =ms :i* are imp]sonat$ & held 9 rev]5ce4 ,! ori5tal consci\sness raises itself1 inde$1 above ! natural cont5t to :at is inf9ite2 b x only kn[s itself z accid5tal 9 ref]5ce to ! p[] :i* makes ! individual fe>4 ,?is subord9ation may take two =ms & mu/ inde$ f "o extreme pass to ! o!r4 ,! f9ite1 :i* is = consci\sness1 may h ! =m ( f9itude z f9ite1 or x may become ! inf9ite1 :i* is h[ev] an ab/raction4 ,! man :o lives 9 fe>1 & he :o rules ov] m5 ?r\gh fe>1 bo? /& ^u ! same plat=m2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m is only 9 ! great] p[] ( w :i* c g =? to sacrifice all t is f9ite = "s p>ticul> end4 ,! despot br+s ab\t :at 8 caprice directs1 includ+ c]ta9ly :at is good1 n z law1 b z arbitr>y w3 ! passive w1 l t ( slav]y1 is conv]t$ into ! active en]gy ( w1 :i* w1 h[ev]1 is arbitr>y /ill4 ,9 ,religion we ev5 f9d self-imm]sion 9 ! deepe/ s5suality repres5t$ z ! s]vice ( ,god1 & !n !re foll[s 9 ! ,ea/ a flight to ! emptie/ ab/raction z to :at is inf9ite1 z also ! exaltation atta9$ ?r\gh ! r5unciation ( ev]y?+1 & ?is is specially s among/ ! ,indians1 :o torture !mselves & ent] into ! mo/ pr(\nd ab/raction4 ,! ,indians look /raight be=e !m = t5 ye>s at a "t1 are f$ by ^? ar\nd1 & are de/itute ( o!r spiritual cont5t ?an t ( kn[+ :at is ab/ract1 :i* cont5t !re=e is entirely f9ite4 ,?is1 !n1 is n ! soil ( fre$om4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 ,m9d inde$ beg9s to dawn1 b x is /ill true ( x t ! subject is n pres5t$ z a p]son1 b appe>s 9 ! objectively sub/antial1 :i* is repres5t$ z p>tly sup]s5su\s & p>tly1 & ev5 m1 mat]ial1 z negative & p]i%+4 ,! highe/ po9t atta9able by ! individual1 ! ev]la/+ bliss1 is made an imm]sion into sub/ance1 a vani%+ away ( consci\sness1 & ?us ( all di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & individuality--h5ce an annihilation4 ,a spiritually dead relation ?us comes into exi/5ce1 s9ce ! highe/ po9t !re to be rea*$ is ins5sibility4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 man has n atta9$ t bliss1 b f9ds himself to be a s+le exi/5t individual1 di/+ui%$ f ! univ]sal sub/ance4 ,he is ?us outside ! unity1 has no significance1 & z be+ :at is accid5tal & )\t rights1 is f9ite only2 he f9ds himself limit$ ?r\gh ,nature--9 ca/e = in/ance4 ,! w is n "h ! sub/antial w2 x is ! arbitr>y w giv5 up to :at is outw>dly & inw>dly cont+5t1 = sub/ance alone is ! affirmative4 ,) x greatness1 nobility1 or exaltitude ( "*1 are c]ta9ly n exclud$1 b !y are only pres5t z ! naturally det]m9$ or ! arbitr>y w1 & n 9 ! objective =ms ( morality & law to :i* all owe respect1 :i* hold good = all1 & 9 :i* = t same reason all are recogniz$4 ,! ori5tal subject ?us has ! advantage ( indep5d5ce1 s9ce !re is no?+ fix$2 h[ev] undet]m9$ is ! sub/ance ( ! ,ea/]ns1 z undet]m9$1 free & indep5d5t may _! "* be4 ,:at = u is ju/ice & morality is also 9 _! /ate1 b 9 a sub/antial1 natural1 patri>*al way1 & n 9 subjective fre$om4 ,consci5ce does n exi/ nor does morality4 ,ev]y?+ is simply 9 a /ate ( nature1 :i* all[s ! noble/ to exi/ z x does ! wor/4 ,! conclusion to be d]iv$ f ?is is t no philosophic k c be f\nd "h4 ,to ,philosophy belongs ! k ( ,sub/ance1 ! absolute ,univ]sal1 t :e!r ,i ?9k x & develop x or n1 confronts me /ill z = itself objective2 & :e!r ?is is to me sub/antial or n1 /ill j 9 t ,i ?9k x1 x is m9e1 t 9 :i* ,i possess my di/9ctive "* or am affirmative3 ?us my ?\ghts are n m]e subjective det]m9ations or op9ions1 b1 z be+ my ?\ghts1 are also ?\ghts ( :at is objective1 or !y are sub/antial ?\ghts4 ,! ,ea/]n =m mu/ !re=e be exclud$ f ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 b /ill1 ^u ! :ole1 ,i w take "s notice ( x4 ,i h t\*$ on ?is else:]e1#h = "s "t ago we = ! fir/ "t rea*$ a position to judge ( x4 ,e>li] a great p>ade 0 made ab\t ! ,indian wisdom )\t any real k ( :at x 02 n[ ?is is = ! fir/ "t kn[n1 & naturally x is f\nd to be 9 con=mity ) ! re/4 c4 ,beg9n+s ( ,philosophy 9 ,greece4 ,philosophy prop] comm5ces 9 ! ,we/4 ,x is 9 ! ,we/ t ?is fre$om ( self-consci\sness fir/ comes =?2 ! natural consci\sness1 & likewise ,m9d disappe> into !mselves4 ,9 ! brightness ( ! ,ea/ ! individual disappe>s2 ! light fir/ becomes 9 ! ,we/ ! fla% ( ?\ght :i* /rikes )9 itself1 & f !nce creates its _w out ( itself4 ,! bless$ness ( ! ,we/ is ?us s det]m9$ t 9 x ! subject z su* endures & cont9ues 9 ! sub/antial2 ! individual m9d grasps its ,be+ z univ]sal1 b univ]sality is j ?is relation to itself4 ,?is be+ at home ) self1 ?is p]sonality & inf9itude ( ! 8,i0 con/itutes ! ,be+ ( ,m9d2 x is ?us & c be none else4 ,= a p to "k !mselves z free1 & to be only z univ]sal1 is = !m to be2 x is ! pr9ciple ( _! :ole life z reg>ds morality & all else4 ,to take an example1 we only "k our real ,be+ 9 s f> z p]sonal fre$om is its fir/ condition1 & h5ce we nev] c be slaves4 ,7 ! m]e arbitr>y w ( ! pr9ce a law1 & %\ld he wi% slav]y to be introduc$1 we w\ld h ! k t ?is c\ld n be4 ,to sleep1 to live1 to h a c]ta9 (fice1 is n our real ,be+1 & c]ta9ly to be no slave is su*1 = t has come to mean ! be+ 9 nature4 ,?us 9 ! ,we/ we are ^u ! soil ( a v]itable ,philosophy4 ,because 9 desire ,i am subject to ano!r1 & my ,be+ is 9 a p>ticul>ity1 ,i am1 z ,i exi/1 unlike myself2 = ,i am 8,i10 ! univ]sal complete1 b hemm$ 9 by passion4 ,?is la/ is self-w or =mal fre$om1 :i* has desire z cont5t4 ,among/ ! ,greeks we fir/ f9d ! fre$om :i* is ! end ( true w1 ! equitable & "r1 9 :i* ,i am free & univ]sal1 & o!rs1 too1 are free1 are also 8,i0 & l me2 :]e a relation%ip betwe5 free & free is ?us e/abli%$ ) its actual laws1 det]m9ations ( ! univ]sal w1 & ju/ly con/itut$ /ates4 ,h5ce x is "h t ,philosophy began4 ,9 ,greece we fir/ see real fre$om fl\ri%1 b /ill 9 a re/rict$ =m1 & ) a limitation1 s9ce slav]y 0 /ill exi/5t1 & ! /ates 7 by its means condition$4 ,9 ! foll[+ ab/ractions we may fir/ ( all sup]ficially describe ! fre$om ( ! ,ea/1 ( ,greece1 & ( ! ,teutonic _w4 ,9 ! ,ea/ only "o individual is free1 ! despot2 9 ,greece ! few are free2 9 ! ,teutonic _w ! say+ is true t all are free1 t is1 man is free z man4 ,b s9ce ! "o 9 ,ea/]n c\ntries _c be free because t w\ld necessitate ! o!rs also be+ free to him1 impulse1 self-w1 & =mal fre$om1 c !re alone be f\nd4 ,s9ce 9 ,greece we h to deal ) ! p>ticul>1 ! ,a!nians1 & ! ,sp>tans1 are free inde$1 b n ! ,mess5ians or ! ,helots4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! 8few0 has yet to be discov]$1 & ?is implies "s modifications ( ! ,greek po9t ( view :i* we mu/ consid] 9 connection ) ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,to take ^! into consid]ation means simply to proce$ to ! divid+ up ( ,philosophy4 ,c ,,division1 ,,s\rces1 ,,& ,,me?od ,,adopt$ ,,9 ,,treat+ ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 #a4 ,,division ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,s9ce we set to "w sy/ematically ?is division mu/ pres5t itself z necess>y4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 we h prop]ly only two epo*s to di/+ui% 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 z 9 anci5t & mod]n art--^! are ! ,greek & ! ,teutonic4 ,! ,teutonic ,philosophy is ! ,philosophy )9 ,*ri/5dom 9 s f> z x belongs to ! ,teutonic nations2 ! ,*ri/ian-,european p1 inasmu* z !y belong to ! _w ( sci5ce1 possess collectively ,teutonic culture2 = ,italy1 ,spa91 ,france1 ,engl&1 & ! re/1 h ?r\gh ! ,teutonic nations1 receiv$ a new =m4 ,! influ5ce ( ,greece also rea*es into ! ,roman _w1 & h5ce we h to speak ( ,philosophy 9 ! t]ritory ( ! ,roman _w2 b ! ,romans produc$ no prop] ,philosophy any m ?an any prop] poets4 ,!y h only receiv$ f & imitat$ o!rs1 al?\gh !y h (t5 done ?is ) intellig5ce2 ev5 _! religion is d]iv$ f ! ,greek1 & ! special "* t x has1 makes no approa* to ,philosophy & ,art1 b is unphilosophical & in>ti/ic4 ,a fur!r description ( ^! two out/&+ opposites mu/ be giv54 ,! ,greek _w develop$ ?\ght z f> z to ! ,idea2 ! ,*ri/ian ,teutonic _w1 on ! contr>y1 has compreh5d$ ,?\ght z ,_s2 ,idea & ,_s are ?us ! di/+ui%+ features4 ,m p>ticul>ly ! facts are z foll[s4 ,because ,god1 ! /ill undet]m9$ & imm$iate ,univ]sal1 ,be+1 or objective ,?\ght1 jeal\sly all[+ no?+ to exi/ beside ,him1 is ! sub/antial gr\ndwork ( all ,philosophy1 :i* nev] alt]s1 b ev] s9ks m deeply )9 itself1 & ?r\gh ! developm5t ( det]m9ations manife/s itself & br+s to consci\sness1 we may designate ! p>ticul> "* ( ! developm5t 9 ! fir/ p]iod ( ,philosophy by say+ t ?is developm5t is a simple process ( det]m9ations1 figurations1 ab/ract qualities1 issu+ f ! "o gr\nd t pot5tially already conta9s ! :ole4 ,! second /age 9 ?is univ]sal pr9ciple is ! ga!r+ up ( ! det]m9ations manife/$ ?us1 into ideal1 concrete unity1 9 ! mode ( subjectivity4 ,! fir/ det]m9ations z imm$iate1 7 /ill ab/ractions1 b n[ ! ,absolute1 z ! endlessly self-det]m9+ ,univ]sal1 mu/ fur!rmore be compreh5d$ z active ,?\ght1 & n z ! ,univ]sal 9 ?is det]m9ate "*4 ,h5ce x is manife/$ z ! totality ( det]m9ations & z concrete individuality4 ,?us1 ) ! ( ,anaxagoras1 & /ill m ) ,socrates1 !re comm5ces a subjective totality 9 :i* ,?\ght grasps itself1 & ?9k+ activity is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,! ?ird /age1 !n1 is t ?is totality1 :i* is at fir/ ab/ract1 9 t x becomes realiz$ ?r\gh ! active1 det]m9+1 di/+ui%+ ?\ght1 sets itself =? ev5 9 ! sep>at$ det]m9ations1 :i*1 z ideal1 belong to x4 ,s9ce ^! det]m9ations are conta9$ unsep>at$ 9 ! unity1 & ?us ea* 9 x is also ! o!r1 ^! oppos$ mom5ts are rais$ into totalities4 ,! q g5]al =ms ( opposition are ! univ]sal & ! p>ticul>1 or1 9 ano!r =m1 ,?\ght z su*1 ext]nal reality1 feel+ or p]ception4 ,! ,notion is ! id5tity ( univ]sal & p>ticul>2 because ea* ( ^! is ?us set =? z concrete 9 itself1 ! univ]sal is 9 itself at once ! unity ( univ]sality & p>ticul>ity1 & ! same holds good ( p>ticul>ity4 ,unity is ?us posit$ 9 bo? =ms1 & ! ab/ract mom5ts c be made complete ?r\gh ?is unity alone2 ?us x has come to pass t ! diff]5ces !mselves are ea* rais$ up to a sy/em ( totality1 :i* respectively confront "o ano!r z ! ,philosophy ( ,/oicism & ( ,epicureanism4 ,! :ole concrete univ]sal is n[ ,m9d2 & ! :ole concrete individual1 ,nature4 ,9 ,/oicism pure ,?\ght develops into a totality2 if we make ! o!r side f ,m9d--natural be+ or feel+--into a totality1 ,epicureanism is ! result4 ,ea* det]m9ation is =m$ into a totality ( ?\ght1 &1 9 accordance ) ! simple mode :i* *>act]izes ?is sph]e1 ^! pr9ciples seem to be = !mselves & indep5d5t1 l two antagoni/ic sy/ems ( ,philosophy4 ,implicitly bo? are id5tical1 b !y !mselves take up _! position z conflict+1 & ! ,idea is also1 z x is appreh5d$1 9 a "o-sid$ det]m9at5ess4 ,! high] /age is ! union ( ^! diff]5ces4 ,?is may occur 9 annihilation1 9 scepticism2 b ! high] po9t ( view is ! affirmative1 ! ,idea 9 relation to ! ,notion4 ,if ! ,notion is1 !n1 ! univ]sal--t :i* det]m9es itself fur!r )9 itself1 b yet rema9s !re 9 its unity & 9 ! ideality & transp>5cy ( its det]m9ations :i* d n become indep5d5t--! fur!r /ep is1 on ! o!r h&1 ! reality ( ! ,notion 9 :i* ! diff]5ces are !mselves br\ght to totalities4 ,?us ! f\r? /age is ! union ( ! ,idea1 9 :i* all ^! diff]5ces1 z totalities1 are yet at ! same "t bl5d$ into "o concrete unity ( ,notion4 ,?is compreh5sion fir/ takes place )\t con/ra9t1 s9ce ! ideal is itself only appreh5d$ 9 ! elem5t ( univ]sality4 ,! ,greek _w got z f> z ?is ,idea1 s9ce !y =m$ an ideal intellectual _w2 & ?is 0 done by ! ,alex&rian ,philosophy1 9 :i* ! ,greek ,philosophy p]fect$ itself & rea*$ its end4 ,if we wi% to repres5t ?is process figuratively1 ,a4 ,?\ght1 is 77 speak+ g5]ally ab/ract1 z 9 univ]sal or absolute space1 by :i* empty space is (t5 und]/ood2 77 !n ! mo/ simple space det]m9ations appe>1 9 :i* we comm5ce ) ! po9t 9 ord] t we may arrive at ! l9e & angle2 77 :at comes ?ird is _! union into ! triangle1 t :i* is inde$ concrete1 b :i* is /ill reta9$ 9 ?is ab/ract elem5t ( surface1 & ?us is only ! fir/ & /ill =mal totality & limitation :i* corresponds to ! 4 ,b4 ,! next po9t is1 t s9ce we all[ ea* ( ! enclos+ l9es ( ! triangle to be aga9 surface1 ea* =ms itself into ! totality ( ! triangle & into ! :ole figure to :i* x belongs2 t is ! realization ( ! :ole 9 ! sides z we see x 9 ,scepticism or ,/oicism4 ,c4 ,! la/ /age ( all is1 t ^! surfaces or sides ( ! triangle jo9 !mselves into a body or a totality2 ! body is = ! fir/ "t ! p]fect spacial det]m9ation1 & t is a r$uplication ( ! triangle4 ,b 9 z f> z ! triangle :i* =ms ! basis is outside ( ! pyramid1 ?is simile does n hold good4 ,grecian ,philosophy 9 ! ,neo-platoni/s f9ds its end 9 a p]fect k+dom ( ,?\ght & ( bliss1 & 9 a pot5tially exi/5t _w ( ! ideal1 :i* is yet unreal because ! :ole only exi/s 9 ! elem5t ( univ]sality4 ,?is _w /ill lacks individuality z su*1 :i* is an ess5tial mom5t 9 ! ,notion2 actuality dem&s t 9 ! id5tity ( bo? sides ( ! ,idea1 ! indep5d5t totality %all be also posit$ z negative4 ,?r\gh ?is self-exi/5t negation1 :i* is absolute subjectivity1 ! ,idea is fir/ rais$ into ,m9d4 ,m9d is ! subjectivity ( self-k2 b x is only ,m9d inasmu* z x kn[s :at is object to itself1 & t is itself1 z a totality1 & is = itself a totality4 ,t is to say1 ! two triangles :i* are above & bel[ 9 ! prism mu/ n be two 9 ! s5se ( be+ d\bl$1 b !y mu/ be "o int]m+l$ unity4 ,or1 9 ! case ( body1 ! diff]5ce arises betwe5 ! c5tre & ! p]iph]al p>ts4 ,?is opposition ( real corporeality & c5tre z ! simple exi/5ce1 n[ makes its appe>ance1 & ! totality is ! union ( ! c5tre & ! sub/antial--n1 h[ev]1 ! simple union1 b a union su* t ! subjective kn[s itself z subjective 9 relation to ! objective & sub/antial4 ,h5ce ! ,idea is ?is totality1 & ! ,idea :i* kn[s itself is ess5tially diff]5t f ! sub/antial2 ! =m] manife/s itself indep5d5tly1 b 9 su* a mann] t z su* x is consid]$ to be = itself sub/antial4 ,! subjective ,idea is at fir/ only =mal1 b x is ! real possibility ( ! sub/antial & ( ! pot5tially univ]sal2 its end is to realize itself & to id5tify itself ) sub/ance4 ,?r\gh ?is subjectivity & negative unity1 & ?r\gh ?is absolute negativity1 ! ideal becomes no long] our object m]ely1 b object to itself1 & ?is pr9ciple has tak5 effect 9 ! _w ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,?us 9 ! mod]n po9t ( view ! subject is = itself free1 man is free z man1 & f ?is comes ! idea t because he is ,m9d he has f 8 v nature ! et]nal quality ( be+ sub/antial4 ,god becomes kn[n z ,m9d :i* appe>s to itself z d\ble1 yet removes ! diff]5ce t x may 9 x be = & at home ) itself4 ,! bus9ess ( ! _w1 tak+ x z a :ole1 is to become reconcil$ ) ,m9d1 recogniz+ itself !re91 & ?is bus9ess is assign$ to ! ,teutonic _w4 ,! fir/ beg9n+ ( ?is und]tak+ is f\nd 9 ! ,religion :i* is ! contemplation ( & fai? 9 ?is pr9ciple z 9 an actual exi/5ce be=e a k ( ! pr9ciple has be5 arriv$ at4 ,9 ! ,*ri/ian ,religion ?is pr9ciple is f\nd m z feel+ & idea2 9 x man z man is de/9$ to ev]la/+ bliss1 & is an object ( div9e grace1 pity & int]e/1 :i* is z mu* z say+ t man has an absolute & inf9ite value4 ,we f9d x fur!r 9 t dogma reveal$ ?r\gh ,*ri/ to m51 ( ! unity ( ! div9e & human nature1 accord+ to :i* ! subjective & ! objective ,idea--man & ,god--are "o4 ,?is1 9 ano!r =m1 is f\nd 9 ! old /ory ( ! ,fall1 9 :i* ! s]p5t did n delude man1 = ,god said1 8,behold1 ,adam has become z "o ( u1 to "k good & evil40 ,we h to deal ) ?is unity ( subjective pr9ciple & ( sub/ance2 x con/itutes ! process ( ,m9d t ?is individual "o or indep5d5t exi/5ce ( subject %\ld put aside its imm$iate "* & br+ itself =? z id5tical ) ! sub/antial4 ,su* an aim is pron\nc$ to be ! highe/ end atta9able by man4 ,we see f ?is t religi\s ideas & speculation are n s f> asund] z 0 at fir/ believ$1 & ,i ma9ta9 ^! ideas 9 ord] t we may n be a%am$ ( !m1 see+ t we /ill belong to !m1 & s t if we d get beyond !m1 we may n be a%am$ ( our prog5itors ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ian times1 :o held ^! ideas 9 su* high e/eem4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple ( t ,philosophy :i* has tak5 its place 9 ,*ri/5dom is ?us f\nd 9 ! exi/5ce ( two totalities4 ,?is is a r$uplication ( sub/ance :i* n[1 h[ev]1 is *>act]iz$ by ! fact t ! two totalities are no long] ext]nal to "o ano!r1 b are cle>ly bo? requir$ ?r\gh _! relation to "o ano!r4 ,if =m]ly ,/oicism & ,epicureanism1 ^: negativity 0 ,scepticism1 came =? z indep5d5t1 & if f9ally ! implicitly exi/5t univ]sality ( bo? 0 e/abli%$1 ^! mom5ts are n[ kn[n z sep>ate totalities1 & yet 9 _! opposition !y h to be ?\ght ( z "o4 ,we h "h ! true speculative ,idea1 ! ,notion 9 its det]m9ations1 ea* ( :i* is br\ght into a totality & cle>ly relates to ! o!r4 ,we ?us h really two ,ideas1 ! subjective ,idea z k1 & !n ! sub/antial & concrete ,idea2 & ! developm5t & p]fection ( ?is pr9ciple & its com+ to ! consci\sness ( ,?\ght1 is ! subject treat$ by mod]n ,philosophy4 ,?us ! det]m9ations are 9 x m concrete ?an ) ! anci5ts4 ,?is opposition 9 :i* ! two sides culm9ate1 grasp$ 9 its wide/ significance1 is ! opposition betwe5 ,?\ght & ,be+1 individuality & sub/ance1 s t 9 ! subject himself 8 fre$om /&s once m )9 ! b\nds ( necessity2 x is ! opposition betwe5 subject & object1 & betwe5 ,nature & ,m9d1 9 s f> z ?is la/ z f9ite /&s 9 opposition to ,nature4 ,! ,greek ,philosophy is free f re/ra9t because x does n yet h reg>d to ! opposition betwe5 ,be+ & ,?\ght1 b proce$s f ! unconsci\s presupposition t ,?\ght is also ,be+4 ,c]ta9ly c]ta9 /ages 9 ! ,greek ,philosophy are laid hold ( :i* seem to /& on ! same plat=m z ! ,*ri/ian philosophies4 ,?us :5 we see1 = in/ance1 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,sophi/s1 ! new ,academics1 & ! ,sceptics1 t !y ma9ta9 ! doctr9e t ! tru? is n capable ( be+ kn[n1 !y might appe> to accord ) ! lat] subjective philosophies 9 ass]t+ t all ?\ght-det]m9ations 7 only subjective 9 "*1 & t h5ce f ^! no conclusions c\ld be arriv$ at z reg>ds :at is objective4 ,b !re is really a diff]5ce4 ,9 ! case ( anci5t philosophies1 :i* said t we "k only ! ph5om5al1 ev]y?+ is conf9$ to t2 x is z reg>ds practical life t ! new ,academy & ! ,sceptics also admitt$ ! possibility ( conduct+ oneself rightly1 morally & rationally1 :5 "o adopts ! ph5om5al z "o's rule & guide 9 life4 ,b ?\gh x is ! ph5om5al t lies at ! f\ndation ( ?+s1 x is n ass]t$ t !re is likewise a k ( ! true & exi/5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! m]ely subjective ideali/s ( a m mod]n day4 ,^! la/ /ill keep 9 ! backgr\nd a pot5tiality1 a beyond :i* _c be kn[n ?r\gh ?\ght or ?r\gh conception4 ,?is o!r k is an imm$iate k--a fai? 91 a view (1 & a ye>n+ aft]1 ! beyond su* z 0 ev9c$ by ,jacobi4 ,! anci5ts h no su* ye>n+2 on ! contr>y1 !y h p]fect satisfaction & re/ 9 ! c]titude t only t :i* appe>s is = ,k4 ,?us x is necess>y 9 ?is respect to keep /rictly to ! po9t ( view f :i* we />t1 else ?r\gh ! simil>ity ( ! results1 we come to see 9 t old ,philosophy all ! det]m9ate "* ( mod]n subjectivity4 ,s9ce 9 ! simplicity ( anci5t philosophy ! ph5om5al 0 itself ! only sph]e1 d\bts z to objective ?\ght 7 n pres5t to x4 ,! opposition def9$1 ! two sides ( :i* are 9 mod]n times really relat$ to "o ano!r z totalities1 also has ! =m ( an opposition betwe5 reason & fai?1 betwe5 individual p]ception & ! objective tru? :i* mu/ be tak5 )\t reason ( "o's own1 & ev5 ) a complete disreg>d = su* reason4 ,?is is fai? z und]/ood by ! *ur*1 or fai? 9 ! mod]n s5se1 i4e4 a rejection ( reason 9 fav\r ( an inw>d revelation1 call$ a direct c]ta9ty or p]ception1 or an implicit & intuitive feel+4 ,! opposition betwe5 ?is k1 :i* has fir/ ( all to develop itself1 & t k :i* has already develop$ itself inw>dly1 ar\ses a peculi> int]e/4 ,9 bo? cases ! unity ( ?\ght or subjectivity & ( ,tru? or objectivity is manife/$1 only 9 ! fir/ =m x is said t ! natural man kn[s ! ,tru? s9ce he intuitively believes x1 :ile 9 ! second =m ! unity ( k & ,tru? is %[n1 b 9 su* a way t ! subject raises itself above ! imm$iate =m ( s5su\s consci\sness & rea*es ! ,tru? fir/ ( all ?r\gh ,?\ght4 ,! f9al end is to ?9k ! ,absolute z ,m9d1 z ! ,univ]sal1 t :i*1 :5 ! inf9ite b\nty ( ! ,notion 9 its reality freely emits its det]m9ations f itself1 :olly impresses itself ^u & imp>ts itself to !m1 s t !y may be indiff]5tly outside ( or 9 conflict ) "o ano!r1 b s t ^! totalities are "o only1 n alone implicitly1 7:i* w\ld simply be our reflection7 b explicitly id5tical1 ! det]m9ations ( _! diff]5ce be+ ?us explicitly m]ely ideal4 ,h5ce if ! />t+-po9t ( ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy c be express$ by say+ t ,god is compreh5d$ z ! imm$iate & n yet develop$ univ]sality1 & t its end--! grasp+ ( ! ,absolute z ,m9d ?r\gh ! two & a half ?\s& ye>s' "w ( ! ?us f> in]t _w-_s--is ! end ( our "t1 x makes x easy = u f "o det]m9ation to g on ?r\gh ! manife/ation ( its ne$s1 to o!rs4 ,yet 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory ?is is difficult4 ,we ?us h altoge!r two philosophies--! ,greek & ! ,teutonic4 ,z reg>ds ! latt] we mu/ di/+ui% ! "t :5 ,philosophy made its =mal appe>ance z ,philosophy & ! p]iod ( =mation & ( prep>ation = mod]n times4 ,we may fir/ beg9 ,teutonic philosophy :]e x appe>s 9 prop] =m z ,philosophy4 ,betwe5 ! fir/ p]iod & ^? m rec5t1 comes1 z an int]m$iate p]iod1 t f]m5tation ( a new ,philosophy :i* on ! "o side keeps )9 ! sub/antial & real exi/5ce & does n arrive at =m1 :ile on ! o!r side1 x p]fects ,?\ght1 z ! b>e =m ( a presuppos$ tru?1 until x aga9 kn[s itself z ! free gr\nd & s\rce ( ,tru?4 ,h5ce ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy falls into ?ree p]iods--t ( ! ,greek ,philosophy1 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! mod]n ,philosophy4 ,( ^! ! fir/ is speak+ g5]ally1 regulat$ by ,?\ght1 ! second falls into ! opposition betwe5 exi/5ce & =mal reflection1 b ! ?ird has ! ,notion z its gr\nd4 ,?is mu/ n be tak5 to mean t ! fir/ conta9s ,?\ght alone2 x also has conceptions & ideas1 j z ! latt] beg9s f ab/ract ?\ghts :i* yet con/itute a duality4 ,fir/ ,p]iod4--,?is comm5ces at ! "t ( ,?ales1 ab\t #fjj ,b4,c41 & goes on to ! com+ to maturity ( ! ,neo-platonic philosophy ) ,plot9us 9 ! ?ird c5tury2 f !nce to its fur!r progress & developm5t ) ,proclus 9 ! fif? c5tury until ! "t :5 all philosophy 0 ext+ui%$4 ,! ,neo-platonic philosophy !n made its entrance into ,*ri/ianity lat] on1 & _m philosophies )9 ,*ri/ianity h ?is philosophy z _! only gr\ndwork4 ,?is is a space ( "t ext5d+ to ab\t #ajjj ye>s1 ! end ( :i* co9cides ) ! migration ( ! nations & ! decl9e ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,second ,p]iod4--,! second p]iod is t ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,s*ola/ics are includ$ 9 x1 & ,arabians & ,jews are also hi/orically to be notic$1 b ?is philosophy ma9ly falls )9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,?is p]iod is ( some?+ ov] #ajjj ye>s' duration4 ,?ird ,p]iod4--,! ,philosophy ( mod]n times made its fir/ indep5d5t appe>ance aft] ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 ) ,bacon1 ,jacob ,bhm & ,desc>tes2 x beg9s ) ! di/9ction conta9$ 93 cogito ergo sum4 ,?is p]iod is "o ( a c\ple ( c5turies & ! philosophy is consequ5tly /ill some:at mod]n4 #b4 ,,s\rces ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,we h to seek = s\rces ( ano!r k9d 9 ?is ?an 9 political hi/ory4 ,!re hi/orians are ! f\nta9heads1 :i* aga9 h z s\rces ! de$s & say+s ( individuals2 & ! hi/orians :o are n orig9al h ov] & above p]=m$ _! "w at secondh&4 ,b hi/orians always h ! de$s already pres5t 9 hi/ory1 t is to say1 "h br\ght into ! =m ( ord9>y conception2 = ! "n ( hi/ory has two mean+s3 x signifies on ! "o h& ! de$s & ev5ts !mselves1 & on ! o!r1 x d5otes !m 9 s f> z !y are =m$ ?r\gh conception = conception4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy !re are1 on ! contr>y1 n any s\rces :i* c be d]iv$ f hi/orians1 b ! de$s !mselves lie be=e u1 & ^!--! philosophic op]ations !mselves--are ! true s\rces4 ,if we wi% to /udy ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 e>ne/1 we mu/ g to su* spr+s z ^!4 ,yet ^! op]ations =m too wide a field to p]mit ( our keep+ to x alone 9 ?is hi/ory4 ,9 ! case ( _m philosoph]s x is absolutely necess>y to conf9e oneself to ! orig9al au?ors1 b 9 _m p]iods1 9 :i* we _c obta9 orig9al s\rces1 see+ t !y h n be5 pres]v$ to u1 7z1 = in/ance1 9 t ( ! old] ,greek philosophy7 we mu/ c]ta9ly conf9e our att5tion simply to hi/orians & o!r writ]s4 ,!re are o!r p]iods1 too1 :]e x is desirable t o!rs %\ld h read ! works ( ! philosoph]s & t we %\ld receive ab/racts !refrom4 ,sev]al s*oolm5 h left beh9d !m works ( sixte51 tw5ty-f\r & tw5ty-six folios1 & h5ce we mu/ 9 _! case conf9e ourselves to ! rese>*es ( o!rs4 ,_m philosophic works are also r>e & h5ce difficult to obta94 ,_m philosoph]s are = ! mo/ "p important f an hi/oric or lit]>y po9t ( view only1 & h5ce we may limit ourselves to ! compilations 9 :i* !y are dealt )4 ,! mo/ notewor?y works on ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy are1 h[ev]1 ! foll[+1 reg>d+ :i* ,i ref] = p>ticul>s to ! summ>y ( ,t5nemann's ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 by ,a4 ,w5dt1 s9ce ,i d n wi% to give any complete li/4 #a4 ,"o ( ! fir/ ,hi/ories ( ,philosophy1 :i* is only int]e/+ z an attempt1 is ! 8,hi/ory ( ,philosophy10 by ,?omas ,/anley 7,london1 #afee1 folio ed4 ,,iii41 #agja1 #d4 translat$ into ,lat9 by ,god(r4 ,ole>ius1 ,lipsi1 #agaa1 #d74 ,?is hi/ory is no long] mu* us$1 & only conta9s ! old philosophic s*ools 9 ! =m ( sects & z if no new ones _h exi/$4 ,t is to say1 x keeps to ! old belief commonly held at t "t1 t !re only 7 anci5t philosophies & t ! p]iod ( philosophy came to an end ) ,*ri/ianity1 z if ,philosophy 7 some?+ belong+ to hea!ndom & ! tru? only c\ld be f\nd 9 ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 x a di/9ction 0 drawn betwe5 ,tru? z x is creat$ f ! natural reason 9 ! anci5t philosophies1 & ! reveal$ tru? ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 9 :i* !re 0 consequ5tly no long] any ,philosophy4 ,9 ! "t ( ! ,revival ( ,le>n+ !re c]ta9ly 7 no prop] philosophies1 & above all 9 ,/anley's "t sy/ems ( ,philosophy prop] 7 too "y = ! old] g5]ations to h ! am\nt ( respect = !m necess>y to all[ ( _! be+ e/eem$ z realities4 #b4 ,jo4 ,jac4 ,bruck]i ,hi/oria critica philosophi1 ,lipsi1 #agdb-agdd1 f\r p>ts1 or five volumes 9 f\r1 = ! f\r? "p has two volumes4 ,! second edition1 unalt]$1 b ) ! addition ( a supplem5t1 #agff-agfg1 f\r p>ts 9 six qu>tos1 ! la/ ( :i* =ms ! supplem5t4 ,?is is an imm5se compilation :i* is n =m$ /raight f ! orig9al s\rces1 b is mix$ ) reflections aft] ! mann] ( ! times4 ,z we h se5 f an example above 7p4 #dc7 ! acc\nts giv5 are 9 ! highe/ degree inaccurate4 ,bruck]'s mann] ( proc$ure is entirely unhi/oric1 & yet n[h]e ought we to proce$ 9 a m hi/oric mann] ?an 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,?is "w is ?us simply s mu* useless balla/4 ,an epitome ( ! same is ,jo4 ,jac4 ,bruck]i ,in/itutiones hi/ori philosophic1 usui academic juv5tutis adornat1 ,lipsi1 #agdg1 #h2 second edition1 ,leipzig1 #agef2 ?ird edition prep>$ by ,born1 ,leipzig1 #agij1 #h4 #c4 ,dietri* ,ti$mann's ,gei/ d] ,speculativ5 ,philosophie1 ,m>burg1 #agia-agig1 #f vols41 #h4 ,he treats ( political hi/ory diffusely1 b )\t any life1 & ! language is /iff & affect$4 ,! :ole "w is a melan*oly example ( h[ a le>n$ pr(essor c occupy 8 :ole life ) ! /udy ( speculative philosophy1 & yet h no idea at all ( speculation4 ,8 argum5ta to ! ,plato ( ,bruck] are ( ! same description4 ,9 e hi/ory he makes ab/racts f ! philosoph]s s long z !y keep to m]e ratioc9ation1 b :5 ! speculative is arriv$ at1 he becomes irate1 decl>+ x all to be compos$ ( empty subtleties1 & /ops %ort ) ! words 8we "k bett]40 ,8 m]it is t he has suppli$ valuable ab/racts f r>e books belong+ to ! ,middle ,ages & f cabali/ic & my/ical works ( t "t4 #d4 ,joh4 ,gottlieb ,buhle3 ,lehrbu* d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie und e9] kritis*5 ,lit]atur d]selb51 ,gtt+51 #agif to #ahjd1 eight p>ts1 #h4 ,anci5t philosophy is treat$ ) disproportionate brevity2 ! fur!r ,buhle w5t on1 ! m p>ticul> he became4 ,he has _m good summ>ies ( r>e works1 z = in/ance ^? ( ,giordano ,bruno1 :i* 7 9 ! ,gtt+5 ,libr>y4 #e4 ,wilh4 ,gottl4 ,t5nemann's ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 ,leipzig1 #agih--ahai1 elev5 p>ts1 #h4 ,! eigh? "p1 ! ,s*ola/ic ,philosophy1 occupies two volumes4 ,! philosophies are fully describ$1 & ! m mod]n times are bett] done ?an ! anci5t4 ,! philosophies ( rec5t times are easi] to describe1 s9ce x is only necess>y to make an ab/ract or to int]pret /raight on1 = ! ?\ghts conta9$ 9 !m lie ne>] to ours4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! anci5t philosoph]s1 because !y /& 9 ano!r /age ( ! ,notion1 & on ?is acc\nt !y are likewise m difficult to grasp4 ,t is to say1 :at is old is easily ov]?r[n by some?+ else m famili> to u1 & :]e ,t5nemann comes across su* he is almo/ useless4 ,9 ,ari/otle1 = in/ance1 ! mis9t]pretation is s great1 t ,t5nemann foi/s ^u him :at is directly opposite to 8 beliefs1 & ?us f ! adoption ( ! opposite to :at ,t5nemann ass]ts to be ,ari/otle's op9ion1 a correct idea ( ,ari/otelian philosophy is arriv$ at4 ,t5nemann is !n c&id en\gh to place ! ref]5ce to ,ari/otle und]nea? ! text1 s t ! orig9al & ! int]pretation (t5 contradict "o ano!r4 ,t5nemann ?9ks t x is really ! case t ! hi/orian %\ld h no philosophy1 & he glories 9 t2 yet he really has a sy/em & he is a critical philosoph]4 ,he praises philosoph]s1 _! "w & _! g5ius1 & yet ! end ( ! lay is t all ( !m w be pron\nc$ to be want+ 9 t !y h "o defect1 :i* is n to be ,kantian philosoph]s & n yet to h s\ght ! s\rce ( k4 ,f ?is ! result is t ! ,tru? c\ld n be kn[n4 ,( comp5diums1 ?ree h to be notic$4 #a4 ,fr$]ick ,aft's ,grundriss e9] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie4 7,l&%ut1 #ahjg1 #h2 second edition1 #ahbe7 is writt5 f a bett] po9t ( view2 ! ,philosophy is t ( ,s*ell+ = ! mo/ "p1 b x is some:at confus$4 ,aft by "s =mal me?od has di/+ui%$ ideal philosophy f real4 #b4 ,pr(essor ,w5dt's ,gtt+5 edition ( ,t5nemann 7fif? edition1 ,leipzig1 #ahbh1 #h74 ,x is a/oni%+ to see :at is repres5t$ z be+ ,philosophy1 )\t any consid]ation z to :e!r x has any mean+ or n4 ,su* s-call$ new philosophies gr[ l mu%rooms out ( ! gr\nd4 ,!re is no?+ easi] ?an to compreh5d 9 h>mony ) a pr9ciple2 b x mu/ n be ?\ght t h5ce some?+ new & pr(\nd has be5 accompli%$4 #c4 ,rirn]'s ,h&bu* d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 #c vols41 ,sulzba*1 #ahbb-ahbc1 #h 7second am5d$ edition1 #ahbi7 is mo/ to be comm5d$1 & yet ,i w n ass]t t x answ]s all ! requirem5ts ( a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,!re are _m po9ts :i* leave mu* to desire1 b ! app5dices to ea* volume 9 :i* ! pr9cipal orig9al au?orities are quot$1 are p>ticul>ly excell5t = _! purpose4 ,select$ extracts1 m specially f ! anci5t philosoph]s1 are ne$$1 & ^! w\ld n be l5g?y1 s9ce !re are n v _m passages to be giv5 f ! philosoph]s be=e ,plato4 #c4 ,,me?od ,,( ,,treatm5t ,,adopt$ ,,9 ,,?is ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,z reg>ds ext]nal hi/ory ,i %all only t\* ^u t :i* is ! conc]n ( univ]sal hi/ory1 ! _s or ! pr9ciple ( ! times1 & h5ce ,i w treat ( conditions ( life 9 ref]5ce to ! out/&+ philosoph]s4 ,( philosophies1 h[ev]1 only ^? are to be made m5tion ( ! pr9ciples ( :i* h caus$ "s s5sation1 & ?r\gh :i* sci5ce has made an advance2 h5ce ,i %all put aside _m names :i* w\ld be tak5 up 9 a le>n$ treatise1 b :i* are ( little value 9 respect to ,philosophy4 ,! hi/ory ( ! dissem9ation ( a doctr9e1 its fate1 ^? :o h m]ely taught a p>ticul> doctr9e1 ,i pass ov]1 z ! d$uction ( ! :ole _w f "o p>ticul> pr9ciple4 ,! dem& t 9 ,philosophy an hi/orian %\ld h no sy/em1 %\ld put into ! philosophy no?+ ( 8 own1 nor assail x ) 8 ideas1 seems a plausible "o4 ,! hi/ory ( ,philosophy %\ld %[ j ?is imp>tiality1 & x seems 9 s f> t to give only summ>ies ( ! philosoph]s proves a success4 ,he :o und]/&s no?+ ( ! matt]1 & has no sy/em1 b m]ely hi/oric k1 w c]ta9ly be imp>tial4 ,b political hi/ory has to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,t is to say1 ?\gh 9 ! =m]1 "o is n inde$ at lib]ty to limit oneself to repres5t+ ! ev5ts *ronologically only1 "o c yet keep to :at is entirely objective1 z is done 9 ! ,hom]ic epic4 ,?us ,h]odotus & ,?ucydides1 z free m51 let ! objective _w d freely & indep5d5tly z x w\ld2 !y h add$ no?+ ( _! own1 nei!r h !y tak5 & judg$ be=e _! tribunal ! actions :i* !y repres5t$4 ,yet ev5 9 political hi/ory !re is also a p>ticul> end kept 9 view4 ,9 ,livy ! ma9 po9ts are ! ,roman rule1 its enl>gem5t1 & ! p]fect+ ( ! con/itution2 we see ,rome arise1 def5d itself1 & ex]cise its ma/]y4 ,x is ?us t ! self-develop+ reason 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy makes ( itself an end1 & ?is end is n =eign or import$1 b is ! matt] itself1 :i* lies at ! basis z univ]sal1 & ) :i* ! individual =ms ( !mselves correspond4 ,?us :5 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy has to tell ( de$s 9 hi/ory1 we fir/ ask1 :at a de$ 9 ,philosophy is2 & :e!r any p>ticul> ?+ is philosophic or n4 ,9 ext]nal hi/ory ev]y?+ is 9 action--c]ta9ly !re is 9 x :at is important & t :i* is unimportant--b action is ! idea imm$iately plac$ be=e u4 ,?is is n ! case 9 ,philosophy1 & on ?is acc\nt ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy _c be treat$ ?r\gh\t )\t ! introduction ( ! hi/orian's views4 ,,ori5tal ,,philosophy ,,! fir/ ,philosophy 9 ord] is ! s-call$ ,ori5tal1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n ent] into ! sub/ance or range ( our subject z repres5t$ "h4 ,its position is prelim9>y1 & we only deal ) x at all 9 ord] to acc\nt = n treat+ ( x at great] l5g?1 & to %[ 9 :at relation x /&s to ,?\ght & to true ,philosophy4 ,! expression ,ea/]n philosophy is specially employ$ 9 ref]5ce to ! p]iod 9 :i* ?is great univ]sal ,ori5tal conception ar\s$ ! ,ea/--! l& ( circumscription & ( limitation1 :]e ! _s ( subjectivity reigns4 ,m p>ticul>ly 9 ! fir/ c5turies ( ,*ri/5dom--t significant p]iod--did ^! great ,ori5tal ideas p5etrate into ,italy2 & 9 ! ,gno/ic philosophy !y began to =ce ! idea ( ! illimitable into ! ,we/]n m9d1 until 9 ! ,*ur* ! latt] aga9 succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! asc5d5cy & h5ce 9 firmly e/abli%+ ! ,div9e4 ,t :i* we call ,ea/]n ,philosophy is m prop]ly ! religi\s mode ( ?\ght & ! conception ( ! _w belong+ g5]ally to ! ,ori5tals & approximates v closely to ,philosophy2 & to consid] ! ,ori5tal idea ( religion j z if x 7 religi\s philosophy1 is to give ! ma9 reason :y x is s l4 ,we d n simil>ly ma9ta9 t ! ,roman1 ,greek & ,*ri/ian ,religions con/itute ,philosophy4 ,^! be> all ! less simil>ity !reto 9 t ! ,greek & ,roman gods z also ,*ri/ & ! ,god ( ! ,jews1 on acc\nt ( ! pr9ciple ( individual fre$om :i* p5etrates ! ,greek & /ill m ! ,*ri/ian elem5t1 make _! appe>ance imm$iately z ! explicit1 p]sonal =ms1 :i*1 be+ my?ological or ,*ri/ian1 mu/ fir/ be !mselves int]pret$ & *ang$ into a philosophic =m4 ,9 ! case ( ,ea/]n ,religion1 on ! contr>y1 we are mu* m directly rem9d$ ( ! philosophic conception1 = s9ce 9 ! ,ea/ ! elem5t ( subjectivity has n come =?1 religi\s ideas are n individualiz$1 & we h pr$om9at+ a k9d ( univ]sal ideas1 :i* h5ce pres5t ! appe>ance ( be+ philosophic ideas & ?\ghts4 ,! ,ori5tals c]ta9ly h also individual =ms1 su* z ,brahma1 ,vi%nu & ,civa1 b because fre$om is want+ ! individuality is n real1 b m]ely sup]ficial4 ,& s mu* is ?is ! case1 t :5 we suppose t we h to deal ) a human =m1 ! same loses itself aga9 & exp&s into ! illimitable4 ,j z we he> among/ ! ,greeks ( a ,uranus & ,*ronos--( ,"t individualiz$--we f9d ) ! ,p]sians1 ,z]oane ,ak]5e1 b x is ,"t unlimit$4 ,we f9d ,ormuzd & ,ahriman to be altoge!r g5]al =ms & ideas2 !y appe> to be univ]sal pr9ciples :i* ?us seem to be> a relation%ip to ,philosophy or ev5 seem to be !mselves philosophic4 ,j z ! cont5t ( ! ,ea/]n religions1 ,god1 ! ess5tially exi/5t1 ! et]nal1 is compreh5d$ some:at 9 ! light ( univ]sal1 we f9d ! relative positions ( individuals to ,him to be ! same4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n religions ! fir/ condition is t only ! "o sub/ance %all1 z su*1 be ! true1 & t ! individual nei!r c h )9 himself1 nor c he atta9 to any value 9 z f> z he ma9ta9s himself z aga9/ ! be+ 9 & = itself4 ,he c h true value only ?r\gh an id5tification ) ?is sub/ance 9 :i* he ceases to exi/ z subject & disappe>s into unconsci\sness4 ,9 ! ,greek & ,*ri/ian ,religion1 on ! o!r h&1 ! subject kn[s himself to be free & mu/ be ma9ta9$ z su*2 & because ! individual 9 ?is way makes himself indep5d5t1 x is und\bt$ly mu* m difficult = ,?\ght to free itself f ?is individuality & to con/itute itself 9 indep5d5ce4 ,! high] po9t ( view implicitly conta9$ 9 ! ,greek individual fre$om1 ?is happi]1 l>g] life1 makes m difficult ! "w ( ,?\ght1 :i* is to give due value to ! univ]sal4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 on ! contr>y1 ! sub/antial 9 ,religion is c]ta9ly on its own view ! pr9cipal matt]1 ! ess5tial--& ) x lawlessness1 ! abs5ce ( individual consci\sness is imm$iately connect$--& ?is sub/ance is und\bt$ly a philosophic idea4 ,! negation ( ! f9ite is also pres5t1 b 9 su* a mann] t ! individual only rea*es to its fre$om 9 ?is unity ) ! sub/antial4 ,9 z f> z 9 ! ,ea/]n m9d1 reflection1 consci\sness come ?r\gh ?\ght to di/9ction & to ! det]m9ation ( pr9ciples1 !re exi/ su* categories & su* def9ite ideas n 9 unity ) ! sub/antial4 ,! de/ruction ( all t is p>ticul> ei!r is an illimitable1 ! exaltitude ( ! ,ea/1 or1 9 s f> z t :i* is posit$ & det]m9$ = itself is kn[n1 x is a dry1 dead und]/&+1 :i* _c take up ! speculative ,notion into itself4 ,to t :i* is true1 ?is f9ite c exi/ only z imm]s$ 9 sub/ance2 if kept ap>t f ?is x rema9s dead & arid4 ,we ?us f9d only dry und]/&+ among/ ! ,ea/]ns1 a m]e enum]ation ( det]m9ations1 a logic l ! ,wolffian ( old4 ,x is ! same z 9 _! wor%ip1 :i* is complete imm]sion 9 devotion & !n an endless numb] ( c]emonials & ( religi\s actions2 & ?is on ! o!r side is ! exaltitude ( t illimitable 9 :i* ev]y?+ disappe>s4 ,!re are two ,ea/]n nations ) :i* ,i wi% j n[ to deal--! ,*9ese & ! ,indian4 ,a4 ,,*9ese ,,philosophy4 ,x is true ( ! ,*9ese z well z ( ! ,indians t !y h a great reputation = culture2 b ?is1 z well z ! am\nt ( ,indian lit]ature :i* exi/s1 has l>gely dim9i%$ ?r\gh a fur!r k ( x4 ,! great k ( ^! p be>s ^u su* subjects z ,religion1 ,sci5ce1 ! con/itution & adm9i/ration ( ! /ate1 poetry1 h&icrafts & comm]ce4 ,b :5 we comp>e ! laws & con/itution ( ,*9a ) ! ,european1 we f9d t we c only d s 9 respect ( :at is =mal1 = ! cont5t is v diff]5t4 ,x is also felt1 h[ev] consi/5tly !y may be con/itut$ z to =m1 t !y _c f9d _! place ) u1 t we c\ld n all[ ( _! giv+ u satisfaction1 & t !y take ! place ( law1 or r t !y put an end to x4 ,x is ! same ?+ :5 we comp>e ,indian poetry ) ,european2 consid]$ z a m]e play ( ! imag9ation x is z brilliant1 ri* & cultur$ z t ( any o!r p4 ,b 9 poetry we h to d ) cont5t1 & t is ! important "p ( x4 ,ev5 ! ,hom]ic poetry is n s]i\s = u1 & h5ce su* poetry _c la/4 ,x is n ! lack ( g5ius 9 ! ,ori5tal poetry2 ! am\nt ( g5ius is ! same & ! =m may be v mu* develop$1 b ! cont5t rema9s conf9$ )9 c]ta9 b\nds & _c satisfy u1 nor c x be our cont5t4 ,?is is at outset a fact apply+ univ]sally to su* comp>isons1 inasmu* z m5 let !mselves be dazzl$ by =m1 mak+ x equal )1 or ev5 pref]r+ x to ours4 #a4 ,confucius4 ,! fir/ subject ( rem>k ) reg>d to ! ,*9ese respects ! tea*+ ( ,confucius 7#ejj ye>s be=e ,*ri/7 :i* made a great s5sation 9 ,liebnitz' "t2 ?is tea*+ is a moral philosophy4 ,confucius has1 besides1 comm5t$ ^u ! old traditional pr9ciples ( ! ,*9ese2 8 high moral tea*+1 h[ev]1 gave him 8 great fame1 & t tea*+ is ! au?ority mo/ e/eem$ 9 ,*9a4 ,confucius' ,biography has be5 translat$ by ,fr5* mission>ies f ! orig9al ,*9ese2 f ?is he appe>s to h be5 almo/ contemporane\s ) ,?ales1 to h be5 = a consid]able "t ,m9i/]1 to h !n fall5 into disfav\r1 lo/ 8 place & liv$ & philosophiz$ among/ 8 own fri5ds1 :ile /ill be+ (t5 ask$ to give advice4 ,we h conv]sations betwe5 ,confucius & 8 foll[]s 9 :i* !re is no?+ def9ite fur!r ?an a commonplace moral put 9 ! =m ( good1 s\nd doctr9e1 :i* may be f\nd z well express$ & bett]1 9 e place & among/ e p4 ,cic]o gives u ,de ,(ficiis1 a book ( moral tea*+ m compreh5sive & bett] ?an all ! books ( ,confucius4 ,he is h5ce only a man :o has a c]ta9 am\nt ( practical & worldly wisdom--"o ) :om !re is no speculative philosophy4 ,we may conclude f 8 orig9al works t = _! reputation x w\ld h be5 bett] _h !y nev] be5 translat$4 ,! treatise :i* ! ,jesuits produc$#i is1 h[ev]1 m a p>aphrase ?an a translation4 #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,y-k+4 ,a second matt] ( rem>k is t ! ,*9ese h also tak5 up _! att5tion ) ab/ract ?\ghts & ) pure categories4 ,! old book ,y-k+1 or ! ,book ( ,pr9ciples1 s]ves z ! f\ndation = su*2 x conta9s ! wisdom ( ! ,*9ese1 & its orig9 is attribut$ to ,fohi4 ,t :i* is !re by him relat$ passes into :at is q my?ological1 fabul\s & ev5 s5seless4 ,! ma9 po9t 9 x is ! ascription to him ( ! discov]y ( a table ) c]ta9 signs or figures 7,ho-tu7 :i* he saw on ! back ( a horse-dragon z x rose out ( ! riv]4#aj ,?is table conta9s p>allel l9es above "o ano!r1 :i* h a symbolical signification2 & ! ,*9ese say t ^! l9es are ! f\ndation ( _! *>act]s z also ( _! philosophy4 ,^! symbols are q ab/ract categories1 & consequ5tly ! mo/ sup]ficial det]m9ations ( ! und]/&+4 ,x mu/ c]ta9ly be consid]$ t pure ?\ghts are br\ght to consci\sness1 b 9 ?is case we make no advance1 m]ely rema9+ /ation>y s f> z !y are conc]n$4 ,! concrete is n conceiv$ ( speculatively1 b is simply tak5 f ord9>y ideas1 inasmu* z x is express$ 9 accordance ) _! =ms ( repres5tation & ( p]ception4 ,h5ce 9 ?is collection ( concrete pr9ciples !re is n to be f\nd 9 "o s+le in/ance a s5su\s conception ( univ]sal natural or spiritual p[]s4 ,to satisfy ! curi\s1 ,i w give ^! pr9ciples 9 great] detail4 ,! two fundam5tal1 figures are a horizontal l9e 71 ,yang7 & ! "o :i* is brok5 into two equal p>ts 71 ,y974 ,! fir/ :i* is ! p]fect1 ! fa!r1 ! manlike1 ! unity1 su* z is repres5t$ by ! ,py?agoreans1 repres5ts ! affirmative2 ! second is ! imp]fect1 ! "m1 ! womanly1 ! duality & ! negation4 ,^! signs are held 9 high e/eem1 = !y are consid]$ to be ! ,pr9ciples ( ?+s4 ,fir/ ( all !y are plac$ 9 comb9ation ( two f :i* f\r figures result3 1 1 1 1 or ! great ,yang1 ! little ,yang1 ! little ,y91 & ! great ,y94 ,! signification ( ^! f\r repres5tations is matt] z p]fect & imp]fect4 ,! two ,yangs are p]fect matt]3 ! fir/ is 9 ! category ( y\? & p[]2 ! second is ! same matt]1 b z old & p[]less4 ,! ?ird & f\r? images1 :]e ,y9 con/itutes ! basis1 are imp]fect matt]1 :i* has aga9 ! two det]m9ations ( y\? & age1 /r5g? & weakness4 ,^! l9es are fur!r unit$ 9 sets ( ?ree1 & ?us eight figures result1 :i* are call$ ,kua1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 ,i w give ! int]pretation ( ^! ,kua j to %[ h[ sup]ficial x is4 ,! fir/ sign1 conta9+ ! great ,yang & ! ,yang is ! ,heav5s 7,ti57 or ! all-p]vad+ e!r4 ,! ,heav5s to ! ,*9ese means :at is highe/1 & x has be5 a great s\rce ( division among/ ! mission>ies :e!r !y ought to call ! ,*ri/ian ,god1 ,ti51 or n4 ,! second sign is pure wat] 7,tui71 ! ?ird pure fire 7,li71 ! f\r? ?und] 7,ts*971 ! fif? w9d 7,siun71 ! six? common wat] 7,kan71 ! sev5? m\nta9s 7,k571 ! eigh? ! e>? 7,ku574 ,we %\ld n place heav51 ?und]1 w9d & m\nta9s on ! same foot+4 ,we may ?us obta9 a philosophic orig9 = ev]y?+ out ( ^! ab/ract ?\ghts ( absolute unity & duality4 ,all symbols h ! advantage ( indicat+ ?\ghts & ( call+ up significations1 & 9 ?is way su* are likewise pres5t !re4 ,?\ght ?us =ms ! fir/ beg9n+1 b aft]w>ds x goes into ! cl\ds1 & ,philosophy does likewise4 ,!re=e if ,w9dis*mann#aa 9 8 comm5t>y recognizes 9 ?is sy/em ( ,confucius1 a 8?or\gh int]connection betwe5 all ,kua 9 ! :ole s]ies10 x %\ld be rememb]$ t n a p>ticle ( ! ,notion is to be f\nd 9 x4 ,unit$ fur!r 9 sets ( f\r1 ! l9es produce sixty-f\r figures1 :i* ! ,*9ese consid] to be ! orig9 ( _! *>act]s1 s9ce !re h be5 add$ to ^! /raight l9es ^? :i* are p]p5dicul> & incl9$ 9 diff]5t directions4 ,9 ,s*uk+ !re is also a *apt] on ,*9ese wisdom1 :]e ! five elem5ts f :i* ev]y?+ is made make _! appe>ance4 ,^! are fire1 wat]1 wood1 metal & e>?1 :i* exi/ all 9 confusion1 & :i* we %\ld no m ?an we did be=e1 all[ to be pr9ciples4 ,! fir/ canon 9 ! law is f\nd 9 ! ,s*uk+1 z ! nam+ ( ! five elem5ts2 ! second1 consid]ations ^u ! la/1 & s x goes on4#ab ,univ]sal ab/raction ) ! ,*9ese ?us goes on to :at is concrete1 al?\gh 9 accordance ) an ext]nal k9d ( ord] only1 & )\t conta9+ any?+ t is s5su\s4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple ( all ,*9ese wisdom & ( all ! objects ( /udy 9 ,*9a4 #c4 ,! ,sect ( ! ,tao-,see4 ,!re is yet ano!r sep>ate sect1 t ( ! ,tao-,see1 ! foll[]s ( :i* are n m&>9s & atta*$ to ! /ate religion1 nor are !y ,buddhi/s or ,lamaics4 ,! orig9ator ( ?is philosophy & ! "o :o 0 closely connect$ ) x 9 8 life1 is ,lao-,ts1 :o 0 born 9 ! end ( ! sev5? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ & :o 0 old] ?an ,confucius1 = ?is repres5tative ( ! m political s*ool w5t to him 9 ord] to ask 8 advice4 ,! book ( ! ,lao-,ts1 ,tao-k+1 is c]ta9ly n includ$ 9 ! prop] ,k+s & has n _! au?ority1 b x is an important "w among/ ! ,tao/s or ! foll[]s ( reason1 :o call _! rule 9 life ,tao-,tao1 :i* means ! obs]vation ( ! dictates or ! laws ( reason4 ,!y d$icate _! lives to ! /udy ( reason1 & ma9ta9 t he :o kn[s reason 9 its s\rce w possess univ]sal sci5ce1 rem$ies = e ill & all virtue2 he w also h obta9$ a sup]natural p[] ( be+ able to fly to heav5 & ( n dy+4#ac ,8 foll[]s say ( ,lao-,ts himself t he is ,buddha :o z man became ! ev]-exi/5t ,god4 ,we /ill h 8 pr9cipal writ+s2 !y h be5 tak5 to ,vi5na1 & ,i h se5 !m !re myself4 ,"o special passage is frequ5tly tak5 f !m3 8,)\t a "n ,tao#ad is ! beg9n+ ( ,heav5 & ,e>?1 & ) a "n %e is ! ,"m ( ! ,univ]se4 ,x is only 9 h] imp]fect /ate t %e is consid]$ ) affection2 :o desires to "k h] mu/ be devoid ( passions40 ,abel ,rmusat says t tak5 at its be/ ?is might be express$ by ! ,greek 9 4 ,! celebrat$ passage :i* is (t5 quot$ by ! anci5ts is ?is1#ae 8,reason has br\ght =? ! "o2 ! "o has br\ght =? ! two2 ! two h br\ght =? ! ?ree2 & ! ?ree h produc$ ! :ole _w40 ,9 ?is m5 h tri$ to f9d a ref]5ce to ! ,tr9ity4 8,! ,univ]se re/s ^u ! pr9ciple ( ,d>kness1 ! univ]se embraces ! pr9ciple ( ,light10 or 8x is embrac$ by e!r20 x c be ?us rev]s$1 because ! ,*9ese language has no case inflection1 ! words m]ely /&+ 9 proximity4 ,ano!r passage 9 ! same place has ?is s5se1 8,he :om ye look at & d n see1 is nam$ ,i2 ?\ he>k5e/ to him & he>e/ him n1 & he is call$ ,hi2 ?\ seeke/ = him ) ?y h& & t\*e/ him n1 & 8 "n is ,we4 ,?\ meete/ him & see/ n 8 head2 ?\ goe/ beh9d him & see/ n 8 back40 ,^! contradictory expressions are call$ ! 8*a9 ( reason40 ,"o naturally ?9ks 9 quot+ ^! passages ( & ( ! ,african k+ly "n ( ,juba & also ( ,jovis4 ,?is ,i-hi-we or ,i-,h-,w#af is fur!r made to signify an absolute vacuity & t :i* is ,no?+2 to ! ,*9ese :at is highe/ & ! orig9 ( ?+s is no?+1 empt9ess1 ! altoge!r undet]m9$1 ! ab/ract univ]sal1 & ?is is also call$ ,tao or reason4 ,:5 ! ,greeks say t ! absolute is "o1 or :5 m5 9 mod]n times say t x is ! highe/ exi/5ce1 all det]m9ations are aboli%$1 & by ! m]ely ab/ract ,be+ no?+ has be5 express$ except+ ?is same negation1 only 9 an affirmative =m4 ,b if ,philosophy has got no fur!r ?an to su* expression1 x /ill /&s on its mo/ elem5t>y /age4 ,:at is !re to be f\nd 9 all ?is le>n+8 ,b4 ,,indian ,,philosophy4 ,if we _h =m]ly ! satisfaction ( believ+ 9 ! antiquity ( ! ,indian wisdom & ( hold+ x 9 respect1 we n[ h asc]ta9$ ?r\gh be+ acqua9t$ ) ! great a/ronomical works ( ! ,indians1 ! inaccuracy ( all figures quot$4 ,no?+ c be m confus$1 no?+ m imp]fect ?an ! *ronology ( ! ,indians2 no p :i* has atta9$ to culture 9 a/ronomy1 ma!matics1 c41 is z incapable = hi/ory2 9 x !y h nei!r /ability nor coh]5ce4 ,x 0 believ$ t su* 0 to be _h 9 ! "t ( ,wikramaditya1 :o 0 suppos$ to h liv$ ab\t #ej ,b4,c41 & "u ^: reign ! poet ,kalidasa1 au?or ( ,sakontala1 liv$4 ,b fur!r rese>* discov]$ half a doz5 ,wikramadityas & c>eful inve/igation has plac$ ?is epo* 9 our elev5? c5tury4 ,! ,indians h l9es ( k+s & an enorm\s quantity ( names1 b ev]y?+ is vague4 ,we "k h[ ! anci5t glory ( ?is l& 0 held 9 ! highe/ e/imation ev5 by ! ,greeks1 j z !y knew ab\t ! ,gymnosophi/s1 :o 7 excell5t m51 ?\gh p v5tur$ to call !m o!rwise--m5 :o hav+ d$icat$ !mselves to a contemplative life1 liv$ 9 ab/raction f ext]nal life1 & h5ce1 w&]+ ab\t 9 hordes1 l ! ,cynics r5\nc$ all ord9>y desires4 ,^! latt] 9 _! capacity z philosoph]s1 7 also m especially kn[n to ! ,greeks1 inasmu* z ,philosophy is also suppos$ to exi/ 9 ?is ab/raction1 9 :i* all ! relation%ips ( ord9>y life are set aside2 & ?is ab/raction is a feature :i* we wi% to br+ into prom95ce & consid]4 ,indian culture is develop$ to a high degree1 & x is impos+1 b its ,philosophy is id5tical ) its ,religion1 & ! objects to :i* att5tion is devot$ 9 ,philosophy are ! same z ^? :i* we f9d br\ght =w>d 9 ,religion4 ,h5ce ! holy books or ,v$as also =m ! g5]al gr\ndwork = ,philosophy4 ,we "k ! ,v$as tol]ably well2 !y conta9 pr9cipally pray]s address$ to ! _m repres5tations ( ,god1 direction z to c]emonials1 (f]+s1 c4 ,!y are also ( ! mo/ v>i\s p]iods2 _m p>ts are v anci5t1 & o!rs h tak5 _! orig9 lat]1 z1 = in/ance1 t :i* treats ( ! s]vice ( ,vi%nu4 ,! ,v$as ev5 con/itute ! basis = ! a!i/ical ,indian philosophies2 ^!1 too1 are n want+ 9 gods1 & !y pay g5u9e att5tion to ! ,v$as4 ,indian ,philosophy ?us /&s )9 ,religion j z s*ola/ic ,philosophy /&s )9 ,*ri/ian dogmatism1 hav+ at its basis & presuppos+ ! doctr9es ( ! *ur*4 ,my?ology takes ! =m ( inc>nation or individualization1 f :i* x might be ?\ght t x w\ld be oppos$ to ,philosophy 9 its univ]sality & ideality2 inc>nation is n1 h[ev]1 "h tak5 9 s def9ite a s5se1 = almo/ ev]y?+ is suppos$ to p>take ( x1 & ! v ?+ t seems to def9e itself z individuality falls back directly )9 ! mi/ ( ! univ]sal4 ,! idea ( ! ,indians m appropriately express$1 is t !re is "o univ]sal sub/ance :i* may be laid hold ( 9 ! ab/ract or 9 ! concrete1 & out ( :i* ev]y?+ takes its orig94 ,! summit ( man's atta9m5t is t he z consci\sness %\ld make himself id5tical ) ! sub/ance1 9 ,religion by means ( wor%ip1 (f]+s1 & rigid acts ( expiation1 & 9 ,philosophy ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( pure ?\ght4 ,x is q rec5tly t we fir/ obta9$ a def9ite k ( ,indian ,philosophy2 9 ! ma9 we und]/& by x religi\s ideas1 b 9 mod]n times m5 h le>n$ to recognize real philosophic writ+s4 ,colebrooke1#ag 9 p>ticul>1 communicat$ ab/racts to u f two ,indian philosophic works1 & ?is =ms ! fir/ contribution we h _h 9 ref]5ce to ,indian ,philosophy4 ,:at ,fr$]ick von ,s*legel says ab\t ! wisdom ( ! ,indians is tak5 f _! religi\s ideas only4 ,he is "o ( ! fir/ ,g]mans :o took up 8 att5tion ) ,indian philosophy1 yet 8 "w bore little fruit because he himself read no m ?an ! index to ! ,ramayana4 ,accord+ to ! ab/ract be=e m5tion$1 ! ,indians possess anci5t philosophic sy/ems2 "o "p ( ^! !y consid] to be or?odox1 & ^? :i* tally ) ! ,v$as are p>ticul>ly includ$2 ! o!rs are held to be het]odox & z n correspond+ ) ! tea*+ ( ! holy books4 ,! "o "p1 :i* really is or?odox1 has no o!r purpose ?an to make ! deliv]ances ( ! ,v$as cle>]1 or to d]ive f ! text ( ^! orig9al treatises an +5i\sly ?\ght-out ,psy*ology4 ,?is sy/em is call$ ,mimansa1 & two s*ools proce$ f x4 ,di/+ui%$ f ^! !re are o!r sy/ems1 among/ :i* ! two *ief are ^? ( ! ,sanc'hya & ,nyaya4 ,! =m] aga9 divides into two p>ts :i* are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t 9 =m only4 ,! ,nyaya is ! mo/ develop$2 x m p>ticul>ly gives ! rules = reason+1 & may be comp>$ to ! ,logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,colebrooke has made ab/racts f bo? ( ^! sy/ems1 & he says t !re are _m anci5t treatises ^u !m1 & t ! v]sus memoriales f !m are v ext5sive4 #a4 ,! ,sanc'hya ,philosophy ( ,capila4 ,! orig9ator ( ! ,sanc'hya is call$ ,capila1 & he 0 an anci5t sage ( :om x 0 said t he 0 a son ( ,brahma1 & "o ( ! sev5 great ,holy m52 o!rs say t he 0 an inc>nation ( ,vi%nu1 l 8 disciple ,asuri1 & t he 0 id5tifi$ ) fire4 ,z to ! age ( ! ,aphorisms 7,sutras7 ( ,capila1 ,colebrooke c say no?+2 he m]ely m5tions t !y 7 already m5tion$ 9 o!r v anci5t books1 b he does n feel able to say any?+ def9ite 9 ! matt]4 ,! ,sanc'hya is divid$ into diff]5t s*ools1 ( :i* !re are two or ?ree1 :i*1 h[ev]1 diff] f "o ano!r only 9 a few p>ticul>s4 ,x is held to be p>tly het]odox & p>tly or?odox4 ,! real aim ( all ,indian s*ools & sy/ems ( ,philosophy1 :e!r a!i/ic or !i/ic1 is to tea* ! means :]eby et]nal happ9ess c be atta9$ be=e1 z well z aft]1 dea?4 ,! ,v$as say1 8,:at has to be kn[n is ! ,s\l2 x mu/ be di/+ui%$ f nature1 & h5ce x w nev] come aga940 ,t means t x is exempt f metempsy*osis & likewise f bodily =m1 s t x does n aft] dea? make its appe>ance 9 ano!r body4 ,?is bless$ condition !re=e is1 accord+ to ! ,sanc'hya1 a p]fect & et]nal release f e k9d ( ill4 ,x reads3--8,?r\gh ,?\ght1 ! true ,sci5ce1 ?is fre$om c be accompli%$2 ! temporal & worldly means ( procur+ enjoym5t & keep+ (f spiritual or bodily evil are insuffici5t2 ev5 ! me?ods advocat$ by ! ,v$as are n effectual = ! purpose1 & ^! are f\nd 9 ! reveal$ =m ( wor%ip1 or 9 ! p]=mance ( religi\s c]emonies z direct$ 9 ! ,v$as40 ,! (f]+ up ( animals is specially valuable z su* a means2 & 9 ?is reg>d ! ,sanc'hya rejects ! ,v$as2 su* an (f]+ is n pure1 because x is connect$ ) ! dea? ( animals1 & ! ma9 t5et 9 ! =m] is n to injure any animal4 ,o!r me?ods ( deliv]ance f evil are 9 ! excessive acts ( p5ance p]=m$ by ! ,indians1 to :i* a retreat )9 !mselves is add$4 ,n[ :5 ! ,indian ?us int]nally collects himself1 & retreats )9 8 own ?\ghts1 ! mom5t ( su* pure conc5tration is call$ ,brahma1 ! "o & ! cle>ly sup]s5su\s /ate1 :i* ! und]/&+ calls ! highe/ possible exi/5ce4 ,:5 ?is is s ) me1 !n am ,i ,brahma4 ,su* a retreat into ,?\ght takes place 9 ! ,religion z well z 9 ! ,philosophy ( ! ,indians1 & !y ass]t ) ref]5ce to ?is /ate ( bliss t x is :at is highe/ ( all1 & t ev5 ! gods d n atta9 to x4 ,indra1 = example1 ! god ( ! visible heav5s1 is mu* l[] ?an ! s\l 9 ?is life ( int]nal contemplation2 _m ?\s& ,indras h pass$ away1 b ! s\l is exempt f e *ange4 ,! ,sanc'hya only diff]s f ,religion 9 t x has a complete sy/em ( ?\ght or logic1 & t ! ab/raction is n made a r$uction to :at is empty1 b is rais$ up into ! significance ( a det]m9ate ?\ght4 ,?is sci5ce is /at$ to subsi/ 9 ! correct k ( ! pr9ciples--:i* may be outw>dly p]ceptible or n--( ! mat]ial & ( ! immat]ial _w4 ,! ,sanc'hya sy/em sep>ates itself into ?ree p>ts3 ! me?od ( k1 ! object ( k1 & ! det]m9ate =m ( ! k ( pr9ciples4 a4 ,z reg>ds ! me?ods ( obta9+ k1 ! ,sanc'hya says t !re are ?ree k9ds ( evid5ce possible3 fir/ ( all1 t ( p]ception2 secondly1 t ( inf]5ce2 ?irdly1 t ( affirmation1 :i* is ! orig9 ( all o!rs1 su* z rev]5ce = au?ority1 a tea*able disposition1 & tradition4 ,p]ception is said to require no explanation4 ,inf]5ce is a conclusion arriv$ at f ! op]ation ( cause & effect1 by :i* "o det]m9ation m]ely passes ov] into a second4 ,!re are ?ree =ms1 because inf]5ces are made ei!r f cause to effect1 f effect to cause1 or 9 accordance ) diff]5t relations ( cause & effect4 ,ra91 we may say1 is =etold :5 a cl\d is se5 to be ga!r+2 fire1 :5 a hill is se5 to be smok+2 or ! movem5t ( ! moon is inf]r$ :51 at diff]5t times1 x is obs]v$ to be 9 diff]5t places4 ,^! are simple1 dry relations1 orig9at+ f ! und]/&+4 ,"u affirmation1 tradition or revelation is und]/ood1 su* z t ( ! or?odox ,v$as2 9 a wid] s5se1 imm$iate c]ta9ty or ! affirmation 9 my consci\sness1 & 9 a less wide s5se1 an assurance ?r\gh v]bal communication or ?r\gh tradition is s d5om9at$4 b4 ,( objects ( k or ( pr9ciples1 ! ,sanc'hya gives five-&-tw5ty2 & ^! ,i w m5tion to %[ ! want ( ord] t is 9 !m4 #a4 ,nature1 z ! orig9 ( ev]y?+1 is said to be ! univ]sal1 ! mat]ial cause1 et]nal matt]1 undi/+ui%$ & undi/+ui%able1 )\t p>ts1 productive b )\t production1 absolute sub/ance4 #b4 ,intellig5ce1 ! fir/ production ( ,nature & itself produc+ o!r pr9ciples1 di/+ui%able z ?ree gods ?r\gh ! efficacy ( ?ree qualities1 :i* are ,goodness1 ,f\lness & ,d>kness4 ,^! =m "o p]son & ?ree gods1 namely1 ,brahma1 ,vi%nu1 & ,mahesw>a4 #c4 ,consci\sness1 p]sonality1 ! belief t 9 all p]ceptions & m$itations ,i am pres5t1 t ! objects ( s5se1 z well z ( intellig5ce1 conc]n me1 9 %ort t ,i am ,i4 ,x issues f ! p[] ( intellig5ce1 & itself br+s =? ! foll[+ pr9ciples4 #d-h4 ,five v subtle p>ticles1 rudim5ts or atoms1 :i* are only p]ceptible to an exi/5ce ( a high] ord]1 & n ?r\gh ! s5ses ( m52 ^! proce$ f ! pr9ciple ( consci\sness1 & br+ =? on _! own acc\nt ! five elem5ts--space & ! fir/ orig9ation ( e>?1 wat]1 fire & air4 #i-ai4 ,! elev5 succe$+ pr9ciples are ! organs ( feel+1 :i* are produc$ by ! p]sonality4 ,!re are t5 ext]nal organs1 compris+ ! five s5ses & five active organs--! organs ( ! voice1 h&s & feet1 ! excretory & g5ital organs4 ,! elev5? organ is t ( ! inw>d s5se4 #bj to #bd4 ,^! pr9ciples are ! five elem5ts br\ght =? f ! e>li]-nam$ rudim5ts--! e!r :i* takes possession ( space1 air1 fire1 wat] & e>?4 #be4 ,! s\l4 ,9 ?is v unsy/ematic =m we see only ! fir/ beg9n+s ( reflection1 :i* seem to be put toge!r z a univ]sal4 ,b ?is arrangem5t is1 to say no?+ ( be+ unsy/ematic1 n ev5 intellig5t4 ,=m]ly ! pr9ciples 7 outside ( & successive to "o ano!r2 _! unity is f\nd 9 ! ,s\l4 ,x is said ( ! latt] t x is n produc$1 & is n productive2 x is individual1 & h5ce !re are _m s\ls2 x is s5ti5t1 et]nal1 immat]ial & un*angeable4 ,colebrooke "h di/+ui%es betwe5 ! !i/ic & a!i/ic sy/ems ( ! ,sanc'hya1 s9ce ! =m] n only admits ( individual s\ls1 b also upholds ,god 7,isw>a7 z ! rul] ( ! _w4 ,! k ( ! s\l /ill rema9s ! pr9cipal po9t4 ,x is ?r\gh ! consid]ation ( nature & ?r\gh ab/raction f nature t ! unity ( ! s\l ) nature is br\ght ab\t1 j z ! lame man & ! bl9d are br\ght toge!r = ! purposes ( transport & ( guidance--! "o be+ ! be>] & be+ direct$ 7nature871 ! o!r be+ borne & guid+ 7s\l874 ,?r\gh ! union ( ,s\l & ,nature1 ! creation is effect$1 & ?is consi/s 9 ! developm5t ( intellig5ce & ( o!r pr9ciples4 ,?is unity is ! actual support = t :i* is1 & ! means by :i* x is s ma9ta9$4 ,x is at ! same "t an important consid]ation t ! negation ( ! object :i* is conta9$ 9 ?\ght1 is necess>y 9 ord] to compreh5d2 ?is reflection has f> m dep? ?an ! ord9>y talk ab\t imm$iate consci\sness4 ,! view is sup]ficial & p]v]t$ :i* ma9ta9s ! ,ea/]ns to h liv$ 9 unity ) nature2 ! s\l 9 its activity1 m9d1 is inde$ und\bt$ly 9 relation ) nature & 9 unity ) ! tru? ( nature4 ,b ?is true unity ess5tially conta9s ! mom5t ( ! negation ( nature z x is 9 its imm$iacy2 su* an imm$iate unity is m]ely ! life ( animals1 ! life & p]ception ( ! s5ses4 ,! idea :i* is pres5t to ! ,indians is ?us inde$ ! unity ( nature & ( s\l1 b ! spiritual is only "o ) nature 9 s f> z x is )9 itself1 & at ! same "t manife/s ! natural z negative4 ,z reg>ds ! creation1 ?is is fur!r signifi$4 ,! s\l's desire & end is = satisfaction & fre$om1 & ) ?is view x is end[$ ) a subtle environm5t1 9 :i* all ! above-m5tion$ pr9ciples are conta9$1 b only 9 _! elem5t>y developm5t4 ,some?+ ( our ideal1 or ( ! implicit is pres5t 9 ?is idea2 x is l ! blossom :i* is ideally 9 ! bud1 & yet is n actual & real4 ,! expression = ?is is ,l+am1 ! g5]ative p[] ( nature1 :i* holds a high place 9 ! e/imation ( all ,indians4 ,?is subtle =m1 says ! ,sanc'hya1 also assumes a co>se bodily %ape1 & clo!s itself 9 sev]al g>bs2 & z a means ( prev5t+ ! desc5t into a co>se mat]iality1 philosophic contemplation is recomm5d$4 ,hi!rto we h obs]v$ ! ab/ract pr9ciples2 ! foll[+ is to be notic$ reg>d+ ! creation ( ! concrete actuality ( ! univ]se4 ,! bodily creation consi/s ( ! s\l habit$ 9 a mat]ial body2 x compreh5ds eight ord]s ( high] be+s & five ord]s ( l[] be+s1 :i* con/itute--) m51 :o =m a s+le class--f\rte5 ord]s1 & ^! are divid$ into ?ree worlds or classes4 ,! fir/ eight ord]s h appellations :i* appe> 9 ,indian my?ology1 viz4 ,brahma1 ,prajapatis1 ,indra1 c42 !re are bo? gods & demi-gods1 & ,brahma himself is repres5t$ "h z if he 7 creat$4 ,! five l[] ord]s are compos$ ( animals3 ! f\r-foot$ animals are 9 two classes1 birds come ?ird1 reptiles1 fi%es1 & insects f\r?1 &1 f9ally1 vegetable & inorganic nature comes fif?4 ,! abode ( ! eight high] classes is 9 heav52 !y are1 x is said1 9 ! enjoym5t ( t :i* is good & virtu\s1 & consequ5tly are happy1 ?\gh /ill !y are b imp]fect & transi5t2 und]nea? is ! seat ( d>kness or delusion1 :]e be+s ( ! l[] ord]s live2 & betwe5 is ! _w ( m51 :]e untru? or passion reigns4 ,aga9/ ^! ?ree worlds1 :i* h _! place 9 ! mat]ial creation1 ! sy/em places yet ano!r creation1 & t is ! ,intellectual1 consi/+ ( ! p[]s ( und]/&+ & ! s5ses4 ,^! la/ are aga9 divid$ into f\r classes1 viz4 ^? det]m9ations :i* imp$e1 ^? :i* incapacitate1 ^? :i* satisfy1 & ^? :i* p]fect ! intellig5ce4 #a4 ,sixty-two ( ! imp$+ det]m9ations are adduc$2 eight k9ds ( error1 z _m ( op9ion or ( illusion1 t5 ( passion z be+ illusion c>ri$ to extremity1 eighte5 ( hate or sull5ness1 & ! same ( grief4 ,"h !re is %[n some:at ( an empirical1 psy*ological1 & obs]v+ mode ( treatm5t4 #b4 ,! incapacity ( intellig5ce has aga9 eight-&-tw5ty v>iations3 injury1 want ( organs1 c4 #c4 ,satisfaction is ei!r inw>d or outw>d4 ,! inw>d satisfaction is f\rfold2 ! fir/ conc]ns nature1 ! :ole univ]sal or sub/antial1 & is set =? 9 ! op9ion t philosophic k is a modification ( ! pr9ciple ( nature itself1 ) :i* !re is imm$iately unit$ ! anticipation ( a lib]ty giv5 ?r\gh ! act ( nature2 yet ! true lib]ty is n to be expect$ z an act ( nature1 = x is ! s\l :i* has to br+ =? t lib]ty ?r\gh itself & ?r\gh its ?9k+ activity4 ,! second satisfaction is 9 ! belief ( secur+ lib]ty ?r\gh ascetic ex]cises1 pa9s1 torm5ts1 & p5ances4 ,! ?ird has to d ) "t--! idea t lib]ty w come 9 ! c\rse ( "t & )\t /udy4 ,! f\r? satisfaction is obta9$ 9 a belief 9 luck--9 believ+ t lib]ty dep5ds on fate4 ,! ext]nal mode ( obta9+ satisfaction relates to cont95ce f enjoym5t1 b cont95ce f s5su\s motives1 su* z dislike to ! unre/ ( acquisition1 & fe> ( ! evil consequ5ces ( enjoym5t4 #d4 ,!re are1 aga91 sev]al means ( p]fect+ ! intellig5ce adduc$1 &1 among/ o!rs1 !re is ! direct psy*ological mode ( p]fect+ m9d1 z is se5 9 ! act ( reason+1 9 fri5dly conv]se1 & s on4 ,?is we may f9d1 inde$1 9 our appli$ logic4 ,!re is /ill some:at to be rem>k$ z to ! ma9 po9ts ( ! sy/em4 ,! ,sanc'hya1 & likewise ! o!r ,indian sy/ems ( ,philosophy1 occupy !mselves p>ticul>ly ) ! ?ree qualities 7,guna7 ( ! absolute ,idea1 :i* are repres5t$ z sub/ances & z modifications ( nature4 ,x is notewor?y t 9 ! obs]v+ consci\sness ( ! ,indians x /ruck !m t :at is true & 9 & = itself conta9s ?ree det]m9ations1 & ! ,notion ( ! ,idea is p]fect$ 9 ?ree mom5ts4 ,?is sublime consci\sness ( ! tr9ity1 :i* we f9d aga9 9 ,plato & o!rs1 !n w5t a/ray 9 ! region ( ?9k+ contemplation1 & reta9s its place only 9 ,religion1 & !re b z a ,beyond4 ,!n ! und]/&+ p5etrat$ ?r\gh x1 decl>+ x to be s5seless2 & x 0 ,kant :o broke op5 ! road once m to its compreh5sion4 ,! reality & totality ( ! ,notion ( ev]y?+1 consid]$ 9 its sub/ance1 is absorb$ by ! triad ( det]m9ations2 & x has become ! bus9ess ( our times to br+ ?is to consci\sness4 ,) ! ,indians1 ?is consci\sness proce$$ f s5su\s obs]vation m]ely1 & !y n[ fur!r def9e ^! qualities z foll[s3 ,! fir/ & highe/ is ) !m ! ,good 7,sattva72 x is exalt$ & illum9at+--alli$ to joy & felicity--& piety pr$om9ates )9 x4 ,x prevails 9 fire1 & !re=e flames rise up & sp>ks fly upw>ds2 if x has asc5d5cy 9 m51 z x does h 9 ! eight high] ord]s1 x is ! orig9 ( virtue4 ,?is also is ! univ]sal--?r\gh\t & 9 e aspect ! affirmative--9 ab/ract =m4 ,! second & m$iate quality is deceit or passion 7,najas1 ,tejas7 :i* = itself is bl9d2 x is t :i* is impure1 h>mful1 hateful2 x is active1 vehem5t1 & re/less1 alli$ to evil & mis=tune1 be+ preval5t 9 ! air1 on :i* acc\nt ! w9d moves transv]sely2 among/ liv+ be+s x is ! cause ( vice4 ,! ?ird & la/ quality is d>kness 7,tamas72 x is in]t & ob/ructive1 alli$ to c>e1 dullness1 & disappo9tm5t1 pr$om9at+ 9 e>? & wat]1 & h5ce ^! fall d[n & t5d ev] d[nw>ds4 ,) liv+ be+s /upidity takes its orig9 9 ?is4 ,! fir/ quality is ?us ! unity ) itself2 ! second ! manife/ation or ! pr9ciple ( diff]5ce1 desire1 disunion1 z wick$ness2 ! ?ird1 h[ev]1 is m]e negation1 z 9 my?ology x is concretely repres5t$ 9 ! =m ( ,siva1 ,mahadeva1 or ,mahesw>a1 ! god ( *ange or de/ruction4 ,z f> z we are conc]n$1 ! important di/9ction is t ! ?ird pr9ciple is n ! return to ! fir/ :i* ,m9d & ,idea dem&1 & :i* is effect$ by ! removal ( ! negation 9 ord] to effect a reconciliation ) itself & to g back )9 itself4 ,) ! ,indians ! ?ird is /ill *ange & negation4 ,^! ?ree qualities are repres5t$ z ! ess5tial be+ ( nature4 ,! ,sanc'hya says1 8,we speak ( !m z we d ( ! trees 9 a wood40 ,yet ?is is a bad simile1 = ! wood is b an ab/ract univ]sal1 9 :i* ! individuals are indep5d5t4 ,9 ! religi\s ideas ( ! ,v$as1 :]e ^! qualities also appe> z ,trimurti1 !y are spok5 ( z if !y 7 successive modifications1 s t 8,ev]y?+ 0 d>kness fir/1 !n receiv$ ! comm& to trans=m itself1 & 9 ?is mann] ! =m0--:i*1 h[ev]1 is a worse "o--8( movem5t & activity 7f\lness7 0 assum$1 until f9ally1 by yet ano!r comm& f ,brahma1 ! =m ( goodness 0 adopt$40 ,fur!r det]m9ations ( ! intellig5ce 9 respect ( ^! qualities foll[4 ,x is said t eight k9ds ( intellig5ce are c\nt$1 ( :i* f\r p]ta9 to :at is good3--virtue fir/1 sci5ce & k second1 ?irdly1 fre$om f passion1 :i*1 may h ei!r an ext]nal & s5su\s motive--! repugnance to di/urbance--or be ( an intellectual nature1 & emanate f ! conviction t nature is a dream1 a m]e juggl]y & %am2 ! f\r? is p[]4 ,?is la/ is eight-fold1 & h5ce eight special qualities are giv5 z be+ pres5t2 viz4 ! p[] to contract oneself into a q small =m1 = :i* ev]y?+ %all be p5etrable2 ! p[] to exp& into a gigantic body2 ! p[] to become light en\gh to be able to m\nt to ! sun on a sunbeam2 ! possession ( unlimit$ p[] ( action 9 ! organs1 s t ) ! f+]-tips ! moon may be t\*$2 irresi/ible w1 s t1 = in/ance1 "o may dive into ! e>? z easily z 9 ! wat]2 ma/]y ov] all liv+ & lifeless exi/5ce2 ! p[] to *ange ! c\rse ( nature2 & ! p[] to p]=m ev]y?+ t is wi%$4 8,! feel+ t su* transc5d5t p[]10 ,colebrooke goes on1 8is )9 ! rea* ( man 9 8 life is n peculi> to ! ,sanc'hya sect1 b is common to all sy/ems & religi\s ideas1 & su* a p[] is 9 good fai? ascrib$ to _m holy m5 & ,brahm9s 9 dramas & popul> n>ratives40 ,s5su\s evid5ce is ( no acc\nt z oppos$ to ?is1 = ) ! ,indian1 p]ception ( ! s5ses is1 g5]ally speak+1 abs5t3 ev]y?+ adopts ! =m ( imag9>y images1 e dream is e/eem$ j z mu* z tru? & actuality4 ,! ,sanc'hya ascribes ?is p[] to man1 9 s f> z he elevates himself ?r\gh ! work+ ( 8 ?\ght into inw>d subjectivity4 ,colebrooke says1 8,! ,yoga-sa/ra names 9 "o ( its f\r *apt]s a numb] ( acts by :i* su* p[] may be atta9$2 ^! are exemplifi$ by a pr(\nd m$itation1 accompani$ by hold+ back ! brea? & inactivity ( ! s5ses1 :ile a fix$ position is con/antly pres]v$4 ,by means ( su* acts ! adept rea*es ! k ( all t is pa/ z well z future2 he has le>n$ to div9e ! ?\ghts ( o!rs1 to h ! /r5g? ( elephants1 ! c\rage ( lions1 ! swiftness ( ! w9d1 ! p[] to fly 9 ! air1 to swim 9 ! wat]1 to dive into ! e>?1 to behold e possible _w 9 "o mom5t1 & to accompli% o!r wond]ful de$s4 ,b ! quicke/ mode ( rea*+ happ9ess ?r\gh deep contemplation is t wor%ip ( ,god :i* consi/s 9 ev] murmur+ ! my/ic "n ( ,god1 #8,om4'0 ,?is idea is a v g5]al "o4 ,colebrooke deals m p>ticul>ly ) ! !i/ic & a!i/ic divisions ( ! ,sanc'hya z di/+ui%$4 ,:ile 9 ! !i/ic sy/em1 ,isw>a1 ! *ief rul] ( ! _w1 is a s\l or _s di/+ui%$ f ! o!r s\ls1 ,capila1 9 ! a!i/ic ,sanc'hya1 dis[ns ,isw>a1 ! orig9ator ( ! _w by volition1 alleg+ t !re is no pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 s9ce x is n %[n by p]ception1 nor is x possible t x %\ld be d$uc$ f argum5t4 ,he recognizes1 inde$1 an exi/5ce proce$+ f nature :i* is ,absolute ,intellig5ce1 ! s\rce ( all individual intellig5ces & ! orig9 ( all o!r exi/5ces1 :i* gradually develop out ( x3 ab\t ! ,creator ( ! _w1 und]/&+ ?is to be creation1 he emphatically rem>ks t 8! tru? ( su* an ,isw>a is prov$40 ,b1 he says1 8! exi/5ce ( effects dep5ds on ! s\l1 on consci\sness1 & n on ,isw>a4 ,ev]y?+ proce$s f ! great ,pr9ciple1 :i* is ,intellig5ce20 to ?is ! individual s\l belongs1 & ?r\gh ?is x is br\ght ab\t4 c4 ,z to ! ?ird division ( ! ,sanc'hya1 ! m p>ticul> consid]ation ( ! =ms ( k z reg>ds ! pr9ciple1 ,i %all make a few m rem>ks1 :i* may p]haps h "s int]e/4 ,( ! v>i\s k9ds ( k already giv51 t ( reason+1 ( ! connection exi/+ ) ! conclusion ?r\gh ! relation ( cause & effect1 rema9s ! *ief1 & ,i w %[ h[ ! ,indians compreh5d ?is relation4 ,! und]/&+ & all o!r pr9ciples d]iv$ f x are to !m effects1 & f ^! !y reason to _! causes2 9 "o respect ?is is analog\s to our inf]5ce1 b 9 ano!r diff]5t4 ,!y p]ceive t 8effects exi/ ev5 be=e ! op]ation ( ! causes2 = :at does n exi/ _c be made explicit 9 exi/5ce ?r\gh causality40 ,colebrooke says1 8,?is means t effects are educts r ?an products40 ,b ! "q is j :at products are4 ,z an example ( h[ ! effect is already conta9$ 9 ! cause1 ! foll[+ is giv53--,oil is already exi/5t 9 ! se$s ( sesamum be=e x is press$ out2 rice is 9 ! husk be=e x is ?ra%$2 milk is 9 ! udd] ( ! c[ be=e x is milk$4 ,cause & effect are 9 reality ! same2 a piece ( a dress is n really diff]5t f ! y>n f :i* x is wov51 = ! mat]ial is ! same4 ,?is is h[ ?is relation is und]/ood4 ,a consequ5ce d]iv$ f x 0 ! et]nity ( ! _w1 = ! say+ 8,out ( no?+ !re comes no?+10 :i* ,colebrooke also m5tions1 is oppos$ to ! belief 9 a creation ( ! _w f no?+ 9 our religi\s s5se4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 x mu/ also be said1 8,god creates ! _w n out ( no?+1 b out ( ,himself2 x is ,8 own det]m9ation1 by ,him br\ght into exi/5ce40 ,! di/9ction betwe5 cause & effect is only a =mal di/9ction2 x is ! und]/&+ t keeps !m sep>ate1 & n reason4 ,moi/ure is ! same z ra92 or aga9 we speak 9 me*anics ( diff]5t movem5ts1 :]eas motion has ! same velocity be=e z aft] impact4 ,! ord9>y consci\sness _c compreh5d ! fact t !re is no real di/9ction betwe5 cause & effect4 ,! ,indians inf] ! exi/5ce ( 8a univ]sal cause :i* is undi/+ui%able1 :ile det]m9ate ?+s are f9ite10 & on ?is acc\nt !re mu/ be a cause p]meat+ ?r\gh !m4 ,ev5 intellig5ce is an effect ( ?is cause1 :i* is ! s\l 9 s f> z x is creative 9 ?is id5tity ) nature aft] its ab/raction f x4 ,effect proce$s f cause1 yet1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is la/ is n indep5d5t1 b goes back into univ]sal cause4 ,g5]al de/ruction is po/ulat$ along ) :at is call$ ! creation ( ! ?ree worlds4 ,j z ! tortoise /ret*es out its limbs & !n draws !m back aga9 )9 its %ell1 ! five elem5ts1 e>?1 c41 :i* con/itute ! ?ree worlds1 are 9 ! g5]al ru9 & dissolution ( ?+s :i* takes place )9 a c]ta9 "t1 aga9 drawn back 9 ! rev]se ord] to t 9 :i* !y em]g$ f ! orig9al pr9ciple1 because !y return1 /ep by /ep1 to _! fir/ cause--t is1 to :at is highe/ & insep>able1 :i* is ,nature4 ,to ?is ! ?ree qualities1 goodness1 passion1 & d>kness1 are attribut$2 ! fur!r attributes ( ^! det]m9ations may be v int]e/+1 b !y are und]/ood 9 a v sup]ficial way4 ,= x is said t nature op]ates ?r\gh ! admixture ( ^! ?ree qualities2 ea* ?+ has all ?ree )9 itself1 l ?ree /reams :i* fl[ toge!r2 x also works by means ( modifications1 j z wat] :i* is soak$ 9 ?r\gh ! roots ( plants & l$ up into ! fruit1 obta9s a special flav\r4 ,!re are h5ce only ! categories ( admixture & ( modification pres5t4 ,! ,indians say3--8,nature has ^! ?ree qualities 9 h] own "r z h] =ms & *>act]i/ics2 o!r ?+s h !m only because !y are pres5t 9 !m z effects ( ! =m]40 ,we /ill h to consid] ! relation ( nature to _s4 8,nature1 al?\gh x is q inanimate1 p]=ms ! (fice ( prep>+ ! s\l = its fre$om1 j z x is ! function ( milk--( a sub/ance hav+ no s5sation--to n\ri% ! calf40 ,! ,sanc'hya makes ! foll[+ simile4 ,nature is l a bajad]e %[+ h]self to ! s\l z to an audi5ce2 %e is abus$ = h] impud5ce 9 expos+ h]self too (t5 to ! rude gaze ( ! spectators4 8,b %e retires :5 %e has %[n h]self suffici5tly2 %e does s because %e has be5 se51 & ! audi5ce retires because x has se54 ,nature has no fur!r use z reg>ds ! s\l1 & yet ! union rema9s a la/+ "o40 ,) ! atta9m5t ( intellectual k ?r\gh ! /udy ( pr9ciples1 ! f9al1 incontrov]tible1 s+le tru? is le>nt1 t 8,i nei!r am1 nor is any?+ m9e1 nor d ,i exi/40 ,t is1 ! p]sonality is /ill di/+ui%$ f ! s\l1 & f9ally p]sonality & self-consci\sness disappe> = ! ,indian4 8,ev]y?+ t comes =? 9 consci\sness is reflect$ by ! s\l1 b l an image :i* does n dull ! cry/al ( ! s\l1 & does n belong to x4 ,9 possession ( ?is self-k0 7)\t p]sonality7 8! s\l contemplates nature at its ease1 ?us exempt f all t]rible v>iation1 & fre$ f e o!r =m & op]ation ( ! und]/&+1 ) ! exception ( ?is spiritual k40 ,?is is a m$iate spiritual k ( ! likewise spiritualiz$ cont5t--a k )\t p]sonality & consci\sness4 8,! s\l /ill inde$ rema9s = "s "t 9 bodily g>b1 b ?is is only s aft] ! same mann] z ! pott]'s :eel1 :5 ! j> is p]fect$1 /ill turns r\nd f ! effect ( ! previ\sly giv5 impulse40 ,! s\l ?us has1 accord+ to ! ,indians1 no?+ fur!r to d ) ! body1 & its connection !re) is !re=e a sup]flu\s "o4 8,b :5 ! sep>ation ( ! already prep>$ s\l f its body at l5g? comes to pass1 & nature is done ) s\l1 ! absolute & f9al lib]ation is accompli%$40 ,"h we f9d ! cr[n+ mom5ts 9 ! ,sanc'hya philosophy4 #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,gotama & ,canade4 ,! philosophy ( ,gotama & t ( ,canade belong to "o ano!r4#ah ,! philosophy ( ,gotama is call$ ,nyaya 7reason+71 & t ( ,canade1 ,vaise%ica 7p>ticul>74 ,! fir/ is a specially p]fect dialectic1 & ! second1 on ! o!r h&1 occupies itself ) physics1 t is1 ) p>ticul> or s5su\s objects4 ,colebrooke says3--8,no dep>tm5t ( sci5ce or ( lit]ature has tak5 up ! att5tion ( ! ,indians m ?an ! ,nyaya2 & ! fruit ( ?is /udy is an inf9ite numb] ( writ+s1 includ$ 9 :i* !re may be f\nd ! works ( v celebrat$ m5 ( le>n+4 ,! sy/em :i* ,gotama & ,canade obs]ve is t indicat$ 9 "o "p ( ! ,v$as z be+ ! pa? :i* mu/ be trodd5 9 ! pursuit ( le>n+ & /udy2 viz41 enunciation1 def9ition1 & inve/igation4 ,enunciation is ! specification ( a ?+ by its "n1 t is1 by ! expression d5ot+ x1 z revelation directs2 = language is consid]$ z reveal$ to man4 ,def9ition sets =? ! p>ticul> quality :i* con/itutes ! real "* ( a ?+4 ,inve/igation consi/s 9 an inquiry into ! adequacy & suffici5cy ( ! def9ition4 ,9 con=mity ) ?is1 ! tea*]s ( philosophy presuppose sci5tific t]ms1 proce$ to def9itions & !n come to ! inve/igation ( ! ?us premis$ subjects40 ,by ! "n1 ! ord9>y conception is indicat$1 & ) x :at is giv5 9 def9ition is comp>$ 9 inve/igation4 ,:at comes next is ! object to be contemplat$4 8,gotama "h adduces sixte5 po9ts1 among/ :i* pro(1 evid5ce0 7:i* is =mal71 8& :at has to be prov$1 are ! pr9cipal2 ! o!rs are m]ely subsidi>y & accessory1 z contribut+ to ! k & confirmation ( ! tru?4 ,! ,nyaya concurs ) ! o!r psy*ological s*ools 9 ?is1 t x promises happ9ess1 f9al excell5ce1 & fre$om f evil z ! rew>d ( a p]fect k ( ! pr9ciples :i* x tea*es1 t is to say1 ( ! ,tru?1 mean+ ! conviction ( ! et]nal exi/5ce ( ! s\l z sep>able f body10 :i* makes _s indep5d5t4 ,s\l !n is itself ! object :i* is to be kn[n & prov$4 ,?is has /ill to be %[n m p>ticul>ly4 a4 ,! fir/ po9t ( importance1 ! evid5ce br\ght =? z pro(1 is said to be divid$ into f\r k9ds3--fir/ ( all1 p]ception2 secondly1 inf]5ce1 ( :i* !re are ?ree k9ds1 viz4 inf]5ce f result to cause1 t f cause to effect1 & t d]iv$ f analogy4 ,! ?ird k9d ( evid5ce is comp>ison1 ! f\r?1 tru/wor?y au?ority1 includ+ bo? tradition & ! revelation impli$ 9 x4 ,^! k9ds ( pro( are mu* br\ght =w>d1 bo? 9 ! anci5t ,treatise ascrib$ to ,gotama & 9 innum]able comm5t>ies4 b4 ,! second po9t ( importance is f\nd 9 ! subjects :i* h to be prov$1 & :i* h to be made evid5t2 & ( ^! twelve are "h giv54 ,! fir/ & mo/ important is1 h[ev]1 ! s\l1 z ! seat1 di/+ui%$ f ! body & f ! s5ses1 ( feel+ & ( k1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is prov$ ?r\gh incl9ation1 dis9cl9ation1 w1 c4 ,x has f\rte5 qualities3 numb]1 size1 individuality1 connection1 sep>ation1 intellig5ce1 pleasure1 pa91 desire1 dislike1 w1 m]it1 fault1 & imag9ation4 ,we see 9 ?is fir/ comm5cem5t ( reflection1 :i* is q )\t ord]1 nei!r connection nor any totality ( det]m9ations4 ,! second object ( k is body2 ! ?ird1 ! organs ( s5sation1 z ! five outw>d s5ses are call$4 ,^! are n modifications ( consci\sness1 z ! ,sanc'hya ass]ts1 b matt] con/ruct$ out ( ! elem5ts1 :i* respectively consi/ ( e>?1 wat]1 light1 air1 & e!r4 ,! pupil ( ! eye is n1 !y say1 ! organ ( sight1 nor ! e> ( he>+1 b ! organ ( see+ is a ray ( light t proce$s f ! eye to ! object2 ! organ ( he>+ is ! e!r t 9 ! cavity ( ! e> communicates ) ! object he>d1 ?r\gh ! e!r t is f\nd betwe54 ,! ray ( light is usually invisible1 j z a light is n se5 at mid-day1 b 9 c]ta9 circum/ances x is visible4 ,9 ta/e1 a wat]y sub/ance l saliva is ! organ1 & s on4 ,we f9d some?+ simil> to :at is "h said ab\t sight 9 ,plato's ,timu 7pp4 #de1 #df1 ,/eph42 pp4 #ej-ec1 ,bekk472 !re are int]e/+ rem>ks ^u ! phosphorus ( ! eyes 9 a pap] by ,s*ultz1 conta9$ 9 ,goe!'s ,morphology4 ,examples ( m5 see+ at night1 s t _! eyes light$ up ! object1 are br\ght =w>d 9 numb]s1 b ! demon/ration c]ta9ly dem&s p>ticul> conditions4 ,! objects ( s5se =m ! f\r? subject4 ,"h ,cesava1 a comm5tator1 ins]ts ! categories ( ,canade1 ( :i* !re are six4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is sub/ance1 & ( ?is !re are n9e k9ds3 e>?1 wat]1 light1 air1 e!r1 "t1 space1 s\l1 und]/&+4 ,! fundam5tal elem5ts ( mat]ial sub/ances are by ,canade reg>d$ z if !y 7 orig9al atoms1 & aft]w>ds aggregates ( ! same2 he ma9ta9s ! ev]la/+ nature ( atoms1 & ?us mu* is adduc$ ab\t ! union ( atoms1 by :i* means motes are also produc$4 ,! second category is t ( ,quality1 & ( x !re are tw5ty-f\r k9ds1 viz4 #a1 col\r2 #b1 ta/e2 #c1 smell2 #d1 tangibility2 #e1 numb]s2 #f1 size2 #g1 individuality2 #h1 conjunction2 #i1 sep>ation2 #aj1 priority2 #aa1 po/]iority2 #ab1 weight2 #ac1 fluidity2 #ad1 viscidity2 #ae1 s\nd2 #af1 intellig5ce2 #ag1 pleasure2 #ah1 pa92 #ai1 desire2 #bj1 dislike2 #ba1 w2 #bb1 virtue2 #bc1 vice2 #bd1 a capacity :i* includes ?ree diff]5t qualities1 viz4 cel]ity1 ela/icity1 & p[] ( imag9ation4 ,! ?ird category is action2 ! f\r?1 association ( qualities2 ! fif?1 di/9ction2 ! six?1 is aggregation1 &1 accord+ to ,canade1 ?is is ! la/2 o!r writ]s add negation z ! sev5?4 ,?is is ! mann] 9 :i* philosophy is reg>d$ by ! ,indians4 c4 ,! philosophy ( ,gotama makes d\bt ! ?ird topic1 succe$+ ^? ( ! evid5ce ( k1 & ! subjects ( int]e/ to k4 ,ano!r topic is regul> pro(1 =mal reason+1 or ! p]fect syllogism 7,nyaya71 :i* consi/s ( five propositions3--#a1 ! proposition2 #b1 ! reason2 #c1 ! in/ance2 #d1 ! application2 #e1 ! conclusion4 ,to take examples3--#a4 ,?is hill is burn+2 #b1 because x smokes2 #c1 :at smokes is burn+1 l a kit*5 fire2 #d1 accord+ly ! hill smokes2 #e1 !re=e x is on fire4 ,?is is prop\nd$ z syllogisms are ) u1 b 9 ! mann] adopt$1 ! matt] :i* is 9 po9t is prop\nd$ fir/4 ,we %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 beg9 ) ! g5]al4 ,?is is ! ord9>y =m1 & ^! examples may satisfy u1 yet we %all recapitulate ! matt] once m4 ,we h se5 t 9 ,india ! po9t ( ma9 importance is ! s\l's draw+ itself )9 itself1 rais+ itself up into lib]ty1 or ?\ght1 :i* con/itutes itself = itself4 ,?is becom+ explicit ( s\l 9 ! mo/ ab/ract mode may be call$ intellectual sub/antiality1 b "h x is n ! unity ( m9d & nature t is pres5t1 b directly ! opposite4 ,to m9d1 ! consid]ation ( nature is only ! vehicle ( ?\ght or its ex]cise1 :i* has z its aim ! lib]ation ( m9d4 ,intellectual sub/antiality is 9 ,india ! end1 :ile 9 ,philosophy x is 9 g5]al ! true comm5cem5t2 to philosophize is ! idealism ( mak+ ?\ght1 9 its own "r1 ! pr9ciple ( tru?4 ,intellectual sub/antiality is ! opposite ( ! reflection1 und]/&+1 & ! subjective individuality ( ! ,european4 ,) u x is ( importance t ,i w1 "k1 believe1 ?9k ?is p>ticul> ?+ accord+ to ! gr\nds t ,i h = s do+1 & 9 accordance ) my own free w2 & ^u ?is an inf9ite value is set4 ,intellectual sub/antiality is ! o!r extreme f ?is2 x is t 9 :i* all ! subjectivity ( ! 8,i0 is lo/2 = x ev]y?+ objective has become vanity1 !re is = x no objective tru?1 duty or "r1 & ?us subjective vanity is ! only ?+ left4 ,! po9t ( int]e/ is to rea* intellectual sub/antiality 9 ord] to dr[n 9 x t subjective vanity ) all its clev]ness & reflection4 ,?is is ! advantage ( arriv+ at ?is po9t ( view4 ,! defect 9 su* a view is t because intellectual sub/antiality1 :ile repres5t$ z end & aim = ! subject1 z a condition t has to be produc$ 9 ! int]e/ ( ! subject1 ev5 ?\gh x be mo/ objective1 is yet only q ab/ractly objective2 & h5ce ! ess5tial =m ( objectivity is want+ to x4 ,t intellectual sub/antiality t ?us rema9+ 9 ab/raction1 has z its exi/5ce ! subjective s\l alone4 ,j z 9 empty vanity1 :]e ! subjective p[] ( negation alone rema9s1 ev]y?+ disappe>s1 ?is ab/raction ( intellectual sub/antiality only signifies an escape into :at is empty & )\t det]m9ation1 :]e9 ev]y?+ vani%es4 ,!re=e :at rema9s to be done is to =ce =w>d ! real gr\nd ( ! inw>dly self-=m+ & det]m9+ objectivity--! et]nal =m )9 itself1 :i* is :at m5 call ,?\ght4 ,j z ?is ,?\ght 9 ! fir/ place1 z subjective1 is m9e1 because ,i ?9k1 b 9 ! second place is univ]sality :i* compreh5ds intellectual sub/antiality1 x is likewise 9 ! ?ird place =m+ activity1 ! pr9ciple ( det]m9ation4 ,?is high] k9d ( objectivity t unfolds itself1 alone gives a place to ! p>ticul> cont5t1 all[s x to h free scope & receives x into itself4 ,if 9 ! ,ori5tal view1 ! p>ticul> %akes & is de/9$ to fall1 x /ill has its place gr\nd$ on ?\ght4 ,x is able to root itself 9 itself1 x is able to /& firm1 & ?is is ! h>d ,european und]/&+4 ,su* ,ea/]n ideas t5d to de/roy x1 b x is pres]v$ active 9 ! soil ( ?\ght2 x _c exi/ :5 reg>d$ z indep5d5t1 b mu/ exi/ only z a mom5t 9 ! :ole sy/em4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,philosophy we h also discov]$ a def9ite cont5t1 :i* is br\ght "u our consid]ation2 b ! consid]ation is de/itute ( ?\ght or sy/em because x comes f above & is outside ( ! unity4 ,on t side !re /&s intellectual sub/antiality1 on ?is side x appe>s dry & b>r52 ! p>ticul> ?us only has ! dead =m ( simple reason & conclusion1 su* z we f9d 9 ! ,s*ola/ics4 ,bas$ on ! gr\nd ( ?\ght1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p>ticul> may receive its dues2 x may be reg>d$ & grasp$ z a mom5t 9 ! :ole organization4 ,! ,idea has n become objective 9 ! ,indian ,philosophy2 h5ce ! ext]nal & objective has n be5 compreh5d$ 9 accordance ) ! ,idea4 ,?is is ! defici5cy 9 ,ori5talism4 ,! true1 objective gr\nd ( ?\ght f9ds its basis 9 ! real fre$om ( ! subject2 ! univ]sal or sub/antial mu/ itself h objectivity4 ,because ?\ght is ?is univ]sal1 ! gr\nd ( ! sub/antial & likewise 8,i0--?\ght is ! implicit & exi/s z ! free subject--! univ]sal has imm$iate exi/5ce & actual pres5ce2 x is n only an end or condition to be arriv$ at1 b ! absolute "* is objective4 ,x is ?is pr9ciple t we f9d 9 ! ,greek _w1 & ! object ( our fur!r consid]ation is its developm5t4 ,! univ]sal fir/ appe>s z q ab/ract1 & z su* x confronts ! concrete _w2 b its value is bo? = ! gr\nd ( ! concrete _w & = t :i* is implicit4 ,x is n a beyond1 = ! value ( ! pres5t lies 9 ! fact t x exi/s 9 ! implicit2 or t :i* is implicit1 ! univ]sal1 is ! tru? ( pres5t objects4 ,,"p ,,"o ,,greek ,,philosophy ,,introduction ,,! "n ( ,greece /rikes home to ! he>ts ( m5 ( education 9 ,europe1 & m p>ticul>ly is ?is s ) u ,g]mans4 ,europeans h tak5 _! religion1 ! life to come1 ! f>-(f l&1 f a po9t some:at fur!r (f ?an ,greece--!y took x f ! ,ea/1 & m especially f ,syria4 ,b ! "h1 ! pres5t1 art & sci5ce1 t :i* 9 giv+ lib]ty to our spiritual life1 gives x dignity z x likewise be/[s ^u x ornam5t1 we "k to h proce$$ f ,greece ei!r directly or indirectly--?r\gh ! circuit\s road ( ,rome4 ,! latt] ( ^! two ways 0 ! e>li] =m 9 :i* ?is culture came to u2 x also came f ! =m]ly univ]sal *ur* :i* d]iv$ its orig9 z su* f ,rome1 & has reta9$ its spee* ev5 until n[4 ,! s\rces ( au?ority 9 addition to ! ,lat9 ,gospels h be5 ! ,fa!rs4 ,our law1 too1 boa/s ( d]iv+ its mo/ p]fect =ms f ,rome4 ,teutonic /r5g? ( m9d has requir$ to pass ?r\gh ! h>d discipl9e ( ! *ur* & law :i* came to u f ,rome1 & to be kept 9 *eck2 x is 9 ?is way t ! ,european "* fir/ obta9$ its pliability & capacity = fre$om4 ,?us x 0 aft] ,european manhood came to be at home ) itself & to look ^u ! pres5t1 t ! hi/orical & t :i* is ( =eign d]ivation 0 giv54 ,:5 man began to be at home ) himself1 he turn$ to ! ,greeks to f9d enjoym5t 9 x4 ,let u leave ! ,lat9 & ! ,roman to ! *ur* & to jurisprud5ce4 ,high]1 fre] philosophic sci5ce1 z also ! beauty ( our untrammell$ art1 ! ta/e =1 & love ( ! same1 we "k to h tak5 _! root 9 ,greek life & to h creat$ !refrom _! _s4 ,if we 7 to h an aspiration1 x w\ld be = su* a l& & su* conditions4 ,b :at makes u specially at home ) ! ,greeks is t !y made _! _w _! home2 ! common _s ( homel9ess unites u bo?4 ,9 ord9>y life we l be/ ! m5 & families t are homely & cont5t$ 9 !mselves1 n desir+ :at is outside & above !m1 & s x is ) ! ,greeks4 ,!y c]ta9ly receiv$ ! sub/antial beg9n+s ( _! religion1 culture1 _! common bonds ( fell[%ip1 m or less f ,asia1 ,syria & ,egypt2 b !y h s greatly oblit]at$ ! =eign nature ( ?is orig91 & x is s mu* *ang$1 work$ ^u1 turn$ r\nd1 & altoge!r made s diff]5t1 t :at !y1 z we1 prize1 "k1 & love 9 x1 is ess5tially _! own4 ,= ?is reason1 9 ! hi/ory ( ,greek life1 :5 we g fur!r back & seem con/ra9$ s to g back1 we f9d we may d )\t ?is retrogression & foll[ )9 ! _w & mann]s ( ! ,greeks1 ! beg9n+s1 ! g]m9ation & ! progress ( art & sci5ce up to _! maturity1 ev5 see+ ! orig9 ( _! decay--& ?is completely compreh5d$ )9 _! own range4 ,= _! spiritual developm5t requires t :i* is receiv$ or =eign1 z matt] or /imulus only2 9 su* !y h kn[n & borne !mselves z m5 t 7 free4 ,! =m :i* !y h giv5 to ! =eign pr9ciple is ?is *>act]i/ic brea? ( spirituality1 ! _s ( fre$om & ( beauty :i* c 9 ! "o aspect be reg>d$ z =m1 b :i* 9 ano!r & high] s5se is simply sub/ance4 ,!y h ?us n only !mselves creat$ ! sub/antial 9 _! culture & made _! exi/5ce _! own1 b !y h also held 9 rev]5ce ?is _! spiritual rebir?1 :i* is _! real bir?4 ,! =eign orig9 !y h s to speak ?anklessly =gott51 putt+ x 9 ! backgr\nd--p]haps bury+ x 9 ! d>kness ( ! my/]ies :i* !y h kept secret f !mselves4 ,!y h n only done ?is1 t is !y h n only us$ & enjoy$ all t !y h br\ght =? & =m$1 b !y h become aw>e ( & ?ankfully & joyfully plac$ be=e !mselves ?is at-hom5ess ,heima?li*keit 9 _! :ole exi/5ce1 ! gr\nd & orig9 ( !mselves1 n m]ely exi/+ 9 x1 possess+ & mak+ use ( x4 ,= _! m9d1 :5 trans=m$ 9 ?is spiritual new bir?1 is j ! liv+ 9 _! life1 & also ! becom+ consci\s ( t life z x has become actual4 ,!y repres5t _! exi/5ce z an object ap>t f !mselves1 :i* manife/s itself indep5d5tly & :i* 9 its indep5d5ce is ( value to !m2 h5ce !y h made = !mselves a hi/ory ( ev]y?+ :i* !y h possess$ & h be54 ,n only h !y repres5t$ ! beg9n+ ( ! _w--t is1 ( gods & m51 ! e>?1 ! heav5s1 ! w9d1 m\nta9s & riv]s--b also ( all aspects ( _! exi/5ce1 su* z ! introduction ( fire & ! (f]+s connect$ ) x1 ! crops1 agriculture1 ! olive1 ! horse1 m>riage1 prop]ty1 laws1 arts1 wor%ip1 ! sci5ces1 t[ns1 pr9cely races1 c4 ,( all ^! x is pleas+ly repres5t$ ?r\gh tales h[ !y h aris5 9 hi/ory z _! own "w4 ,x is 9 ?is v]itable homel9ess1 or1 m accurately1 9 ! _s ( homel9ess1 9 ?is _s ( ideally be+-at-home-)-!mselves 9 _! physical1 corporate1 legal1 moral & political exi/5ce2 x is 9 ! beauty & ! fre$om ( _! "* 9 hi/ory1 mak+ :at !y are to be also a sort ( ,mnemosyne ) !m1 t ! k]nel ( ?9k+ lib]ty re/s2 & h5ce x 0 requisite t ,philosophy %\ld arise among/ !m4 ,philosophy is be+ at home ) self1 j l ! homel9ess ( ! ,greek2 x is man's be+ at home 9 8 m9d1 at home ) himself4 ,if we are at home ) ! ,greeks1 we mu/ be at home m p>ticul>ly 9 _! ,philosophy2 n1 h[ev]1 simply z x is ) !m1 = ,philosophy is at home ) itself1 & we h to d ) ,?\ght1 ) :at is mo/ specially ours1 & ) :at is free f all p>ticul>ity4 ,! developm5t & unfold+ ( ?\ght has tak5 place ) !m f its e>lie/ beg9n+1 & 9 ord] to compreh5d _! ,philosophy we may rema9 ) !m )\t requir+ to seek = fur!r & ext]nal influ5ces4 ,b we mu/ specify m p>ticul>ly _! "* & po9t ( view4 ,! ,greeks h a />t+-po9t 9 hi/ory z truly z !y h aris5 f out ( !mselves3 ?is />t+-po9t1 compreh5d$ 9 ?\ght1 is ! ori5tal sub/antiality ( ! natural unity betwe5 ! spiritual & ! natural4 ,to />t f ! self1 to live 9 ! self1 is ! o!r extreme ( ab/ract subjectivity1 :5 x is /ill empty1 or r has made itself to be empty2 su* is pure =malism1 ! ab/ract pr9ciple ( ! mod]n _w4 ,! ,greeks /& betwe5 bo? ^! extremes 9 ! happy m$ium2 ?is !re=e is ! m$ium ( beauty1 see+ t x is bo? natural & spiritual1 b yet t ! spiritual /ill rema9s ! gov]n+1 det]m9+ subject4 ,m9d imm]s$ 9 nature is 9 sub/antial unity ) x1 & 9 s f> z x is consci\sness1 x is ess5tially s5su\s p]ception3 z subjective consci\sness x is c]ta9ly =m-giv+ ?\gh x is devoid ( measure4 ,= ! ,greeks1 ! sub/antial unity ( nature & _s 0 a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 & ?us be+ 9 ! possession & k ( ?is1 yet n be+ ov]:elm$ 9 x1 b hav+ retir$ into !mselves1 !y h avoid$ ! extreme ( =mal subjectivity1 & are /ill 9 unity ) !mselves4 ,?us x is a free subject :i* /ill possesses t orig9al unity 9 cont5t1 ess5ce & sub/ratum1 & fa%ions its object into beauty4 ,! /age rea*$ by ,greek consci\sness is ! /age ( beauty4 ,= beauty is ! ideal2 x is ! ?\ght :i* is d]iv$ f ,m9d1 b 9 su* a way t ! spiritual individuality is n yet explicit z ab/ract subjectivity t has !n 9 itself to p]fect its exi/5ce into a _w ( ?\ght4 ,:at is natural & s5su\s /ill p]ta9s to ?is subjectivity1 b yet ! natural =m has n equal dignity & rank ) ! o!r1 nor is x pr$om9ant z is ! case 9 ! ,ea/4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! spiritual n[ /&s fir/ 9 rank1 & natural exi/5ce has no fur!r value = itself1 9 its exi/5t =ms1 be+ ! m]e expression ( ! ,m9d %9+ ?r\gh1 & hav+ be5 r$uc$ to be ! vehicle & =m ( its exi/5ce4 ,m9d1 h[ev]1 has n yet got itself z a m$ium :]eby x c repres5t itself 9 itself1 & f :i* x c =m its _w4 ,?us free morality c\ld & necess>ily did f9d a place 9 ,greece1 = ! spiritual sub/ance ( fre$om 0 "h ! pr9ciple ( morals1 laws & con/itutions4 ,because ! natural elem5t is1 h[ev]1 /ill conta9$ 9 x1 ! =m tak5 by ! morality ( ! /ate is /ill affect$ by :at is natural2 ! /ates are small individuals 9 _! natural condition1 :i* c\ld n unite !mselves into "o :ole4 ,s9ce ! univ]sal does n exi/ 9 indep5d5t fre$om1 t :i* is spiritual /ill is limit$4 ,9 ! ,greek _w :at is pot5tially & actually et]nal is realiz$ & br\ght to consci\sness ?r\gh ,?\ght2 b 9 su* a way t subjectivity confronts x 9 a det]m9ation :i* is /ill accid5tal1 because x is /ill ess5tially relat$ to :at is natural2 & 9 ?is we f9d ! reason z promis$ above1 = ! fact t 9 ,greece ! few alone are free4 ,! measureless quality ( sub/ance 9 ! ,ea/ is br\ght1 by means ( ! ,greek m9d1 into :at is measurable & limit$2 x is cle>ness1 aim1 limitation ( =ms1 ! r$uction ( :at is measureless1 & ( inf9ite spl5d\r & ri*es1 to det]m9at5ess & individuality4 ,! ri*es ( ! ,greek _w consi/ only ( an inf9ite quantity ( beautiful1 lovely & pleas+ individualities 9 ! s]5ity :i* p]vades all exi/5ce2 ^? :o are greate/ among/ ! ,greeks are ! individualities1 ! connoisseurs 9 art1 poetry1 song1 sci5ce1 integrity & virtue4 ,if ! s]5ity ( ! ,greeks1 _! beautiful gods1 /atues1 & temples1 z well z _! s]i\s "w1 _! in/itutions & acts1 may seem--comp>$ to ! spl5d\r & sublimity1 ! colossal =ms ( ori5tal imag9ation1 ! ,egyptian build+s ( ,ea/]n k+doms--to be l *ild's play1 ?is is ! case yet m ) ! ?\ght t comes into exi/5ce "h4 ,su* ?\ght puts a limit on ?is weal? ( individualities z on ! ori5tal greatness1 & r$uces x into its "o simple s\l1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is 9 itself ! fir/ s\rce ( ! opul5ce ( a high] ideal _w1 ( ! _w ( ,?\ght4 8,f out ( ?y passions1 oh1 man10 exclaim$ an anci5t1 8?\ ha/ d]iv$ ! mat]ials = ?y gods10 j z ! ,ea/]ns1 & especially ! ,indians1 did f ! elem5ts1 p[]s & =ms ( ,nature4 ,"o may add1 8out ( ,?\ght ?\ take/ ! elem5t & mat]ial = ,god40 ,?us ,?\ght is ! gr\nd f :i* ,god comes =?1 b x is n ,?\ght 9 its comm5cem5t t con/itutes ! fir/ pr9ciple f :i* all culture mu/ be grasp$4 ,x is q ! o!r way4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 ?\ght comes =? z altoge!r poor1 ab/ract1 & ( a cont5t :i* is meagre 9 comp>ison to t giv5 to 8 subject by ! ori5tal2 = z imm$iate1 ! beg9n+ is j 9 ! =m ( nature1 & ?is x %>es ) :at is ori5tal4 ,because x ?us r$uces ! cont5t ( ! ,ea/ to det]m9ations :i* are altoge!r poor1 ^! ?\ghts are sc>cely wor? obs]vation on our "p1 s9ce !y are n yet prop] ?\ghts1 nei!r be+ 9 ! =m (1 or det]m9$ z ?\ght1 b belong+ really to ,nature4 ,?us ,?\ght is ! ,absolute1 ?\gh n z ,?\ght4 ,t is1 we h always two ?+s to di/+ui%1 ! univ]sal or ! ,notion1 & ! reality ( ?is univ]sal1 = ! "q "h arises z to :e!r ! reality is itself ,?\ght or ,nature4 ,we f9d 9 ! fact t reality at fir/ has /ill ! imm$iate =m & is only ,?\ght pot5tially1 ! reason = comm5c+ ) ! ,greeks & f ! natural philosophy ( ! ,ionic s*ool4 ,z reg>ds ! ext]nal & hi/orical condition ( ,greece at ?is "t1 ,greek philosophy comm5ces 9 ! six? c5tury be=e ,*ri/ 9 ! "t ( ,cyrus1 & 9 ! p]iod ( decl9e 9 ! ,ionic republics 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,j because ?is _w ( beauty :i* rais$ itself into a high] k9d ( culture w5t to pieces1 ,philosophy arose4 ,crsus & ! ,lydians fir/ br\ght ,ionic fre$om into jeop>dy2 lat] on ! ,p]sians 7 ^? :o de/roy$ x altoge!r1 s t ! great] "p ( ! inhabitants s\ght o!r spots & creat$ colonies1 m p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,we/4 ,at ! "t ( ! decl9e 9 ,ionic t[ns1 ! o!r ,greece ceas$ to be "u its anci5t l9es ( k+s2 ! ,pelopideans & ! o!r1 & = ! mo/ "p =eign1 pr9cely races _h pass$ away4 ,greece _h 9 _m ways come into t\* ) ! outside _w & ! ,greek inhabitants likewise s\ght )9 !mselves = a bond ( fell[%ip4 ,! patri>*al life 0 pa/1 & 9 _m /ates x came to be a necessity t !y %\ld con/itute !mselves z free1 organiz$ & regulat$ by law4 ,_m individuals come into prom95ce :o 7 no m rul]s ( _! fell[-citiz5s by desc5t1 b :o 7 by means ( tal5t1 p[] ( imag9ation & sci5tific k1 m>k$ out & rev]5c$1 & su* individuals came into _m diff]5t relations ) _! fell[s4 ,"p ( !m became advis]s1 b _! advice 0 frequ5tly n foll[$2 "p ( !m 7 hat$ & despis$ by _! fell[-citiz5s1 & !y drew back f public affairs2 o!rs became viol5t1 if n fi]ce gov]nors ( ! o!r citiz5s1 & o!rs aga9 f9ally became ! adm9i/rators ( lib]ty4 ,! ,sev5 ,sages4 ,among/ ^! m5 j *>act]iz$1 ! sev5 sages--9 mod]n times exclud$ f ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy--take _! place4 ,9 z f> z !y may be reckon$ z mile/ones 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 some?+ ab\t _! "* %\ld1 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ,philosophy1 be %ortly said4 ,!y came into prom95ce1 p>tly z tak+ "p 9 ! battles ( ! ,ionic t[ns1 p>tly z expatriat$1 & p>tly z individuals ( di/9ction 9 ,greece4 ,! names ( ! sev5 are giv5 diff]5tly3 usually1 h[ev]1 z ,?ales1 ,solon1 ,p]i&]1 ,cleobulus1 ,*ilon1 ,bias1 ,pittacus4 ,h]mippus 9 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7#a1 #db7 specifies sev5te51 &1 among/ ^!1 v>i\s p pick out sev5 9 v>i\s ways4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7#a1 #da7 ,dicar*us1 :o came /ill e>li] 9 hi/ory1 only names f\r1 & ^! are plac$ among/ ! sev5 by all2 !y are ,?ales1 ,bias1 ,pittacus & ,solon4 ,besides ^!1 ,myson1 ,ana*>sis1 ,acusilaus1 ,epim5ides1 ,ph]ecydes1 c41 are m5tion$4 ,dicar*us 9 ,diog5es 7#a1 #dj71 says ( !m t !y are nei!r wise m5 77 nor philosoph]s1 b m5 ( und]/&+ 77 & law-giv]s2 ?is judgm5t has become ! univ]sal "o & is held to be j4 ,!y come 9 a p]iod ( transition among/ ! ,greeks--a transition f a patri>*al sy/em ( k+s into "o ( law or =ce4 ,! fame ( ! wisdom ( ^! m5 dep5ds1 on ! "o h&1 on ! fact t !y grasp$ ! practical ess5ce ( consci\sness1 or ! consci\sness ( univ]sal morality z x is 9 & = itself1 giv+ expression to x 9 ! =m ( moral maxims & 9 "p 9 civil laws1 mak+ ^! actual 9 ! /ate2 on ! o!r h& x dep5ds on _! hav+1 9 !oretic =m1 express$ ! same 9 witty say+s4 ,"s ( ^! say+s c\ld n m]ely be reg>d$ z ?\ghtful or good reflections1 b 9 s f>1 z philosophic & speculative2 !y h a compreh5sive1 univ]sal significance ascrib$ to !m1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n expla9 !m4 ,^! m5 h n really made sci5ce & ,philosophy _! aim2 x is expressly said ( ,?ales t x 0 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 life t he fir/ took to ,philosophy4 ,:at _h relation to politics appe>$ mo/ frequ5tly2 !y 7 practical m51 m5 ( affairs1 b n 9 our s5se ( ! ^w2 ) u practical activity devotes itself to a special l9e ( adm9i/ration or to a p>ticul> bus9ess1 or to economics1 c4 ,!y liv$ 9 democratic /ates & ?us %>$ ! responsibilities ( ! g5]al adm9i/ration & rule4 ,!y 7 n /atesm5 l ! great ,greek p]sonalities1 l ,miltiades1 ,!mi/ocles1 ,p]icles & ,demo/h5es1 b !y 7 /atesm5 9 a "t :5 safety1 pres]vation &1 inde$1 ! :ole well-be+1 disposition & well nigh ! v f\ndation ( civic life 7 9 "q2 & c]ta9ly :5 ?is 0 s ) ! f\ndations ( legally e/abli%$ in/itutions4 ,?ales & ,bias ?us appe> z ! repres5tatives ( ! ,ionic t[ns4 ,h]odotus 7,i4 #afi-aga7 speaks ( bo?1 & says ( ,?ales t he advis$ ev5 be=e ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,ionians 7app>5tly ?r\gh ,crsus71 t !y %\ld con/itute a supreme c\ncil 7 7 9 ,teos1 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,ionian p1 & ?us make a f$]al /ate ) a capital & pr9cipal f$]al t[n1 s t !y might /ill rema9 sep>ate nations 77 z be=e4 ,h[ev]1 !y did n foll[ ?is advice1 & ?is isolat$ & weak5$ !m1 & ! result 0 _! conque/2 x has always be5 a difficult ?+ = ! ,greeks to give up _! individuality4 ,lat] on1 :5 ,h>pagus1 ! g5]al ( ,cyrus :o accompli%$ _! ov]?r[1 press$ 9 ^u !m1 ! ,ionians took no bett] ! mo/ excell5t advice ( ,bias ( ,pri5e1 giv5 !m at ! decisive mom5t :5 !y 7 assembl$ at ,panionium1 8to g 9 a common fleet to ,s>d9ia1 !re to f\nd an ,ionic /ate4 ,by s do+ !y w\ld escape s]vitude1 be happy1 &1 inhabit+ ! l>ge/ isl&1 subdue ! o!rs4 ,b if !y rema9$ 9 ,ionia !re 0 no hope ( lib]ty to be se5 = !m40 ,h]odotus gives 8 corroboration to ?is advice--8,if !y _h foll[$ him !y w\ld h be5 ! happie/ ( ,greeks40 ,su* ?+s take place1 b ?r\gh =ce & n volunt>ily4 ,we f9d ! o!r sages "u simil> conditions4 ,solon 0 an adm9i/rator 9 ,a!ns1 & !reby became fam\s2 few m5 h atta9$ ! hon\rable position ( be+ a law-giv]4 ,solon %>es x ) ,moses1 ,lycurgus1 ,zaleucus1 ,numa1 c41 alone4 ,no individuals c be f\nd among/ ,teutonic peoples :o possess ! di/9ction ( be+ ! law-giv]s ( _! p4 ,n[adays !re c be law-giv]s no long]2 legal in/itutions & regulations are 9 mod]n times always ready to h&1 & ! little t c /ill be done by means ( ! law-giv] & by law-mak+ assemblies is simply ! fur!r modification ( details or mak+ v insignificant additions4 ,:at is dealt ) is ! compilation1 word+ & p]fect+ ( ! p>ticul> only2 & yet nei!r ,solon & ,lycurgus did m ?an respectively br+ ! ,ionic m9d & ! ,doric "*--be+ t :i* _h be5 giv5 !m & :i* 0 implicitly pres5t--into ! =m ( consci\sness1 & obviate ! tempor>y inconv5i5ce ( disord] ?r\gh effective laws4 ,solon 0 ?us n a p]fect /atesman2 ?is is manife/ f ! sequel ( 8 hi/ory4 ,a con/itution :i* all[$ ,pisi/ratus 9 ,solon's own "t to raise himself into ! ,tyranny1 %[+ itself to be s de/itute ( /r5g? & organization t x c\ld n prev5t its own ov]?r[1 7& by :at a p[]67 manife/s "s inw>d want4 ,?is may seem /range1 = a con/itution mu/ be able to af=d resi/ance to su* an attack4 ,b let u see :at ,pisi/ratus did4 ,:at ! s-call$ tyrants really 71 is mo/ cle>ly %[n by ! relation borne by ,solon to ,pisi/ratus4 ,:5 ord]ly in/itutions & laws 7 necess>y to ! ,greeks1 we f9d law-giv]s & reg5ts ( /ates appe>+1 :o laid d[n laws1 & rul$ accord+ly4 ,! law1 z univ]sal1 seem$ & /ill seems n[ to ! individual to be =ce1 inasmu* z he does n h reg>d to or compreh5d ! law3 x applies fir/ to all ! p1 & !n only1 to ! individual2 x is ess5tial fir/ ( all to use con/ra9t until ! individual atta9s disc]nm5t1 & law to him becomes 8 law1 & ceases to be some?+ =eign4 ,mo/ ( ! law-giv]s & adm9i/rators ( /ates und]took !mselves to con/ra9 ! p & to be _! tyrants4 ,9 /ates :]e !y did n und]take x1 x _h to be done by o!r individuals1 = x 0 ess5tial4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius' acc\nt 7,i4 #dh-ej71 we f9d ,solon--:om 8 fri5ds advis$ to secure ! ma/]y = himself s9ce ! p held to him 771 & w\ld h lik$ to see him become tyrant--repulse !m1 & try to prev5t any su* occurr5ce1 :5 he became suspici\s ( ,pisi/ratus' int5tions4 ,:at he did :5 he rem>k$ ^u ! attitude ( ,pisi/ratus1 0 to come into ! assembly ( ! p1 & tell !m ! design ( ,pisi/ratus1 acc\tr$ 9 arm\r & %ield2 ?is 0 !n unusual1 = ,?ucydides 7#a1 #f7 makes x a di/+ui%+ feature betwe5 ,greeks & ,b>b>ians1 t ! =m]1 & pre-em95tly ! ,a!nians1 put aside _! arms 9 "t ( peace4 ,he said1 8,m5 ( ,a!ns1 ,i am wis] ?an "s & brav] ?an o!rs3 ,i am wis] ?an ^? :o d n see ! deceit ( ,pisi/ratus1 brav] ?an ^? :o c]ta9ly see x1 b say no?+ f fe>40 ,z he c\ld n d any?+1 he left ,a!ns4 ,pisi/ratus is said to h !n writt5 a mo/ hon\rable lett] to ,solon 9 8 abs5ce1 :i* ,diog5es 7,i4 #ec1 #ed7 has pres]v$ = u1 invit+ him to return to ,a!ns1 & live ) him z a free citiz54 8,n only am ,i n ! only "o ( ! ,greeks to h seiz$ ! tyranny1 b ,i h n tak5 any?+ :i* 0 n my due1 = ,i am ( ! race ( ,codrus4 ,i h only tak5 back to myself :at ! ,a!nians swore !y w\ld pres]ve to ,codrus & 8 race1 & yet took f !m4 ,moreov] ,i am do+ no evil t[>d gods & m51 b z ?\ ha/ giv5 laws to ! ,a!nians1 ,i take c>e 77 t 9 civil life !y %all c>ry !m out 747 ,8 son ,hippias did ! same4 ,& ^! relations are c>ri$ out bett] ?an !y w\ld be 9 a democracy1 = ,i all[ nobody to d evil 771 & z ,tyrant1 ,i lay claim to no m 7 7 ?an su* consid]ation & respect & specifi$ gifts 7 7 z w\ld h be5 (f]$ to ! k+s 9 e>li] times4 ,e ,a!nian gives ! t5? "p ( 8 rev5ue1 n to me1 b t[>ds ! co/ ( ! public (f]+1 & besides = ! commonweal?1 & = use 9 case ( w>4 ,i am n angry t ?\ ha/ disclos$ my project4 ,= ?\ did/ x m out ( love to ! p ?an hate aga9/ me1 & because ?\ did/ n "k h[ ,i w\ld conduct my rule4 ,= if ?\ had/ kn[n ?is1 ?\ w\ld/ h submitt$ to x will+ly1 & w\ld/ n h tak5 flight20 & s he goes on4 ,solon1 9 ! answ] giv5 by ,diog5es1 7,i4 #ff1 #fg7 says1 t he 8has n a p]sonal grudge aga9/ ,pisi/ratus1 & he mu/ call him ! be/ ( tyrants2 b to turn back does n befit him4 ,= he made equality ( rights ess5tial 9 ! ,a!nian con/itution1 & himself refus$ ! tyranny4 ,by 8 return he w\ld condone :at 0 done by ,pisi/ratus40 ,! rule ( ,pisi/ratus accu/om$ ! ,a!nians to ! laws ( ,solon1 & br\ght !m into usage1 s t aft] ?is usage came to be g5]al1 supremacy 0 sup]flu\s2 8 sons 7 h5ce driv5 out ( ,a!ns1 & = ! fir/ "t ! con/itution ( ,solon upheld itself4 ,solon und\bt$ly gave ! laws1 b x is ano!r ?+ to make su* regulations effectual 9 ! mann]s1 habits & life ( a p4 ,:at 0 sep>ate 9 ,solon & ,pisi/ratus1 we f9d unit$ 9 ,p]i&] 9 ,cor9?1 & ,pittacus 9 ,mitil5e4 ,?is may be en\gh ab\t ! outw>d life ( ! sev5 sages4 ,!y are also fam$ = ! wisdom ( ! say+s :i* h be5 pres]v$ to u2 ^! say+s seem 9 great measure1 h[ev]1 to be sup]ficial & hackney$4 ,! reason = ?is is f\nd 9 ! fact t1 to our reflection1 g5]al propositions are q usual2 mu* 9 ! ,prov]bs ( ,solomon seems to u to be sup]ficial & commonplace = ! same reason4 ,b x is q ano!r ?+ to br+ to ! ord9>y conception = ! fir/ "t ?is same univ]sal 9 ! =m ( univ]sality4 ,_m di/i*s are ascrib$ to ,solon :i* we /ill reta92 _! object is to express 9 maxims g5]al obligations t[>ds ! gods1 ! family & ! c\ntry4 ,diog5es 7,i4 #eh7 tells u t ,solon said3 8,laws are l a spid]'s web2 ! small are caught1 ! great te> x up3 spee* is ! image ( action10 c4 ,su* say+s are n philosophy1 b g5]al reflections1 ! expression ( moral duties1 maxims1 necess>y det]m9ations4 ,! wisdom ( ! sages is ( ?is k9d2 _m say+s are insignificant1 b _m seem to be m insignificant ?an !y are4 ,= in/ance1 ,*ilon says3 8,/& surety1 & evil awaits !e0 71 74 ,on ! "o h& ?is is q a common rule ( life & prud5ce1 b ! sceptics gave to ?is proposition a mu* high] univ]sal significance1 :i* is also accr$it$ to ,*ilon4 ,?is s5se is1 8,ally ?yself closely to any p>ticul> ?+1 & unhapp9ess w fall ^u !e40 ,! sceptics adduc$ ?is proposition indep5d5tly1 z demon/rat+ ! pr9ciple ( scepticism1 :i* is t no?+ is f9ite & def9ite 9 & = itself1 be+ only a fleet+1 vacillat+ phase :i* does n la/4 ,cleobulus says1 1 ano!r 1 & ?is has likewise a univ]sal significance :i* is t limitation1 ! ( ,plato z oppos$ to ! ---! self-det]m9$ z oppos$ to undet]m9$--is :at is be/2 & ?us x is t 9 ,be+ limit or measure is ! highe/ det]m9ation4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ say+s is t ( ,solon 9 8 conv]sation ) ,crsus1 :i* ,h]odotus 7,i4 #cj-cc7 has 9 8 own way giv5 u v fully4 ,! result arriv$ at is ?is3--8,nobody is to be e/eem$ happy be=e 8 dea?40 ,b ! notewor?y po9t 9 ?is n>rative is t f x we c get a bett] idea ( ! /&po9t ( ,greek reflection 9 ! "t ( ,solon4 ,we see t happ9ess is put =w>d z ! highe/ aim1 t :i* is mo/ to be desir$ & :i* is ! end ( man2 be=e ,kant1 morality1 z eudmonism1 0 bas$ on ! det]m9ation ( happ9ess4 ,9 ,solon's say+s !re is an advance ov] ! s5su\s enjoym5t :i* is m]ely pleasant to ! feel+s4 ,let u ask :at happ9ess is & :at !re is )9 x = reflection1 & we f9d t x c]ta9ly c>ries ) x a c]ta9 satisfaction to ! individual1 ( :atev] sort x be--:e!r obta9$ ?r\gh physical enjoym5t or spiritual--! means ( obta9+ :i* lie 9 m5's own h&s4 ,b ! fact is fur!r to be obs]v$ t n e s5su\s1 imm$iate pleasure c be laid hold (1 = happ9ess conta9s a reflection on ! circum/ances z a :ole1 9 :i* we h ! pr9ciple to :i* ! pr9ciple ( isolat$ enjoym5t mu/ give way4 ,eudmonism signifies happ9ess z a condition = ! :ole ( life2 x sets up a totality ( enjoym5t :i* is a univ]sal & a rule = individual enjoym5t1 9 t x does n all[ x to give way to :at is mom5t>y1 b re/ra9s desires & sets a univ]sal /&>d be=e "o's eyes4 ,if we contra/ x ) ,indian philosophy1 we f9d eudmonism to be antagoni/ic to x4 ,!re ! lib]ation ( ! s\l f :at is corporeal1 ! p]fect ab/raction1 ! necessity t ! s\l %all1 9 its simplicity1 be at home ) itself1 is ! f9al end ( man4 ,) ! ,greeks ! opposite is ! case2 ! satisfaction !re is also satisfaction ( ! s\l1 b x is n atta9$ ?r\gh flight1 ab/raction1 )drawal )9 self1 b ?r\gh satisfaction 9 ! pres5t1 concrete satisfaction 9 relation to ! surr\nd+s4 ,! /age ( reflection t we rea* 9 happ9ess1 /&s midway betwe5 m]e desire & ! o!r extreme1 :i* is "r z "r & duty z duty4 ,9 happ9ess1 ! individual enjoym5t has disappe>$2 ! =m ( univ]sality is !re1 b ! univ]sal does n yet come =? on its own acc\nt1 & ?is is ! issue ( ! conv]sation betwe5 ,crsus & ,solon4 ,man z ?9k+1 is n solely engross$ ) pres5t enjoym5t1 b also ) ! means = obta9+ t to come4 ,crsus po9ts out to him ^! means1 b ,solon /ill objects to ! /atem5t ( ! "q ( ,crsus4 ,= 9 ord] t any "o %\ld be conceiv$ ( z happy1 we mu/ await 8 dea?1 = happ9ess dep5ds ^u 8 condition to ! end1 & ^u ! fact t 8 dea? %\ld be a pi\s "o & be consi/5t ) 8 high] de/9y4 ,because ! life ( ,crsus _h n yet expir$1 ,solon c\ld n deem him happy4 ,& ! hi/ory ( ,crsus be>s evid5ce t no mom5t>y /ate des]ves ! "n ( happ9ess4 ,?is edify+ hi/ory holds 9 its embrace ! :ole /&po9t ( ! reflection ( t "t4 ,division ( ! ,subject4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ,greek philosophy we h n[ to di/+ui% fur!r ?ree important p]iods3--9 ! fir/ place ! p]iod f ,?ales to ,ari/otle2 secondly1 ,greek philosophy 9 ! ,roman _w2 ?irdly1 ! ,neo-platonic philosophy4 #a4 ,we beg9 ) ?\ght1 z x is 9 a q ab/ract1 natural or s5su\s =m1 & we proce$ f ?is to ! ,idea z det]m9$4 ,?is fir/ p]iod %[s ! beg9n+ ( philosophic ?\ght1 & goes on to its developm5t & p]fection z a totality ( k 9 itself2 ?is takes place 9 ,ari/otle z repres5t+ ! unity ( :at has come be=e4 ,9 ,plato !re is j su* a union ( :at came e>li]1 b x is n work$ out1 = he only repres5ts ! ,idea g5]ally4 ,! ,neo-platoni/s h be5 call$ eclectics1 & ,plato 0 said to h br\ght ab\t ! unity2 !y 7 n1 h[ev]1 eclectics1 b !y _h a consci\s insight into ! necessity = unit+ ^! philosophies4 #b4 ,aft] ! concrete ,idea 0 rea*$1 x came =? z if 9 opposites1 p]fect+ & develop+ itself4 ,! second p]iod is t 9 :i* sci5ce breaks itself up into diff]5t sy/ems4 ,a "o-sid$ pr9ciple is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! :ole conception ( ! _w2 ea* side is 9 itself =m$ into a totality1 & /&s 9 ! relation ( "o extreme to ano!r4 ,! philosophical sy/ems ( ,/oicism & ,epicureanism are su*2 scepticism =ms ! negative to _! dogmatism1 :ile ! o!r philosophies disappe>4 #c4 ,! ?ird p]iod is ! affirmative1 ! )drawal ( ! opposition into an ideal _w or a _w ( ?\ght1 a div9e _w4 ,?is is ! ,idea develop$ into totality1 :i* yet lacks subjectivity z ! inf9ite be+-=-self4 ,,section ,,"o ,,fir/ ,,p]iod1 ,,f ,,?ales ,,to ,,ari/otle ,,9 ?is fir/ p]iod we %all aga9 make ?ree divisions3-- #a4 ,! fir/ ext5ds f ,?ales to ,anaxagoras1 f ab/ract ?\ght :i* is 9 imm$iate det]m9at5ess to ! ?\ght ( ! self-det]m9+ ,?\ght4 ,"h a beg9n+ is made ) ! absolutely simple1 9 :i* ! e>lie/ me?ods ( det]m9ation manife/ !mselves z attempts1 until ! "t ( ,anaxagoras2 he det]m9es ! true z ! 1 & z active ?\ght :i* no long] is 9 a det]m9ate "*1 b :i* is self-det]m9+4 #b4 ,! second division comprises ! ,sophi/s1 ,socrates1 & ! foll[]s ( ,socrates4 ,"h ! self-det]m9+ ?\ght is conceiv$ ( z pres5t & concrete 9 me2 t con/itutes ! pr9ciple ( subjectivity if n also ( inf9ite subjectivity1 = ?\ght fir/ %[s itself "h only p>tly z ab/ract pr9ciple & p>tly z cont+5t subjectivity4 #c4 ,! ?ird division1 :i* deals ) ,plato & ,ari/otle1 is f\nd 9 ,greek sci5ce :]e objective ?\ght1 ! ,idea1 =ms itself into a :ole4 ,! concrete1 9 itself det]m9+ ,?\ght1 is1 ) ,plato1 ! /ill ab/ract ,idea1 b 9 ! =m ( univ]sality2 :ile ) ,ari/otle t ,idea 0 conceiv$ ( z ! self-det]m9+1 or 9 ! det]m9ation ( its efficacy or activity4 ,,*apt] ,i ,,p]iod ,i4--,,division ,i4--,,?ales ,,to ,,anaxagoras ,,s9ce we possess only traditions & fragm5ts ( ?is epo*1 we may speak "h ( ! s\rces ( ^!4 #a4 ,! fir/ s\rce is f\nd 9 ,plato1 :o makes copi\s ref]5ce to ! old] philosoph]s4 ,= ! reason t he makes ! e>li] & app>5tly indep5d5t philosophies1 :i* are n s f> ap>t :5 once _! ,notion is def9itely grasp$1 into concrete mom5ts ( "o ,idea1 ,plato's philosophy (t5 seems to be m]ely a cle>] /atem5t ( ! doctr9es ( ! old] philosoph]s1 & h5ce x draws ^u itself ! reproa* ( plagi>ism4 ,plato 0 will+ to sp5d mu* money 9 procur+ ! writ+s ( ! old] philosoph]s1 &1 f 8 pr(\nd /udy ( ^!1 8 conclusions h mu* weight4 ,b because 9 8 writ+s he nev] himself appe>$ z tea*]1 b always repres5t$ o!r p 9 8 dialogues z ! philosoph]s1 a di/9ction nev] has be5 made betwe5 :at really belong$ to !m 9 hi/ory & :at 0 add$ by him ?r\gh ! fur!r developm5t :i* he effect$ 9 _! ?\ghts4 ,9 ! ,p>m5ides1 = in/ance1 we h ! ,eleatic philosophy1 & yet ! work+ out ( ?is doctr9e belongs peculi>ly to ,plato4 #b4 ,ari/otle is our mo/ abundant au?ority2 he /udi$ ! old] philosoph]s expressly & mo/ ?or\ghly1 & he has1 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 ,metaphysics especially1 & also to a l>ge ext5t else:]e1 dealt ) !m1 9 hi/orical ord]3 he is z philosophic z erudite1 & we may rely ^u him4 ,we c d no bett] 9 ,greek philosophy ?an /udy ! fir/ book ( 8 ,metaphysics4 ,:5 ! w\ld-be-wise man depreciates ,ari/otle1 & ass]ts t he has n correctly appreh5d$ ,plato1 x may be retort$ t z he associat$ ) ,plato himself1 ) 8 deep & compreh5sive m9d1 p]haps no "o knew him bett]4 #c4 ,cic]o's "n may also occur to u "h--al?\gh he c]ta9ly is b a tr\bl$ spr+--s9ce he und\bt$ly gives u mu* in=mation2 yet because he 0 lack+ 9 philosophic _s1 he und]/ood ,philosophy r z if x 7 a matt] ( hi/ory m]ely4 ,he does n seem to h himself /udi$ its fir/ s\rces1 & ev5 av[s t1 = in/ance1 he nev] und]/ood ,h]aclitus2 & because ?is old & deep philosophy did n int]e/ him1 he did n give himself ! tr\ble to /udy x4 ,8 in=mation be>s pr9cipally on lat] philosoph]s--! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 ! new ,academy1 & ! ,p]ipatetics4 ,he saw :at 0 anci5t ?r\gh _! m$ium1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 ?r\gh a m$ium ( reason+ & n ( speculation4 #d4 ,sextus ,empiricus1 a lat] sceptic1 has importance ?r\gh 8 writ+s1 ,hypotyposes ,pyrrhonic & adv]sus ,ma!maticos4 ,because1 z a sceptic1 he bo? combat$ ! dogmatic philosophy & also adduc$ o!r philosoph]s z te/ify+ to scepticism 7s t ! great] "p ( 8 writ+s is fill$ ) ! t5ets ( o!r philosoph]s71 he is ! mo/ abundant s\rce we h = ! hi/ory ( anci5t philosophy1 & he has reta9$ = our use _m valuable fragm5ts4 #e4 ,! book ( ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,de vitis1 c41 ,philoss4 lib4 x41 ed4 ,meibom4 c4 notis ,m5agii1 ,am/el4 #afib7 is an important compilation1 & yet x br+s =w>d copi\s evid5ce )\t mu* discrim9ation4 ,a philosophic _s _c be ascrib$ to x2 x rambles ab\t among/ bad anecdotes extrane\s to ! matt] 9 h&4 ,= ! lives ( philosoph]s1 & "h & !re = _! t5ets1 x is useful4 #f4 ,f9ally1 we mu/ speak ( ,simplicius1 a lat] ,greek1 f ,cilicia1 liv+ "u ,ju/9ian1 9 ! middle ( ! six? c5tury4 ,he is ! mo/ le>n$ & acute ( ! ,greek comm5tators ( ,ari/otle1 & ( 8 writ+s !re is mu* /ill unpubli%$3 to him we c]ta9ly owe our ?anks4 ,i ne$ give no m ref]5ces1 = !y may be f\nd )\t tr\ble 9 any comp5dium4 ,9 ! progress ( ,greek philosophy m5 7 =m]ly accu/om$ to foll[ ! ord] t %[$1 accord+ to ord9>y ideas1 an ext]nal connection1 & :i* is f\nd 9 "o philosoph] hav+ _h ano!r z 8 tea*]--?is connection is "o :i* might %[ him to be p>tly d]iv$ f ,?ales & p>tly f ,py?agoras4 ,b su* a connection is 9 "p defective 9 itself1 & 9 "p x is m]ely ext]nal4 ,! "o set ( philosophic sects1 or ( philosoph]s class$ toge!r1 :i* is consid]$ z belong+ to a sy/em--t :i* proce$s f ,?ales--pursues its c\rse 9 "t & m9d f> sep>ate f ! o!r4 ,b1 9 tru?1 no su* s]ies ev] does exi/ 9 ?is isolation1 nor w\ld x d s ev5 ?\gh ! individuals 7 consecutive & _h be5 ext]nally connect$ z tea*] & taught1 :i* nev] is ! case2 m9d foll[s q ano!r ord]4 ,^! successive s]ies are int]wov5 9 _s j z mu* z 9 _! p>ticul> cont5t4 ,we come across ,?ales fir/ among/ ! ,ionic p1 to :om ! ,a!nians belong$1 or f :om ! ,ionians ( ,asia ,m9or1 z a :ole1 d]iv$ _! orig94 ,! ,ionic race appe>s e>li] 9 ,peloponnesus1 b seems to h be5 remov$ f !nce4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n kn[n :at nations belong$ to x1 =1 accord+ to ,h]odotus 7,i4 #adc71 ! o!r ,ionians1 & ev5 ! ,a!nians1 laid aside ! "n4 ,accord+ to ,?ucydides 7,i4 #b & #ab71 ! ,ionic colonies 9 ,asia ,m9or & ! isl&s proce$$ pr9cipally f ,a!ns1 because ! ,a!nians1 on acc\nt ( ! ov]-population ( ,attica1 migrat$ !re4 ,we f9d ! greate/ activity 9 ,greek life on ! coa/s ( ,asia ,m9or1 9 ! ,greek isl&s1 & !n t[>ds ! we/ ( ,magna ,grcia2 we see among/ ^! p1 ?r\gh _! int]nal political activity & _! int]c\rse ) =eign]s1 ! exi/5ce ( a div]sity & v>iety 9 _! relations1 :]eby n>r[ness ( vision is done away )1 & ! univ]sal rises 9 its place4 ,^! two places1 ,ionia & ,great] ,greece1 are ?us ! two localities :]e ?is fir/ p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy plays its "p until ! "t :51 t p]iod be+ end$1 ,philosophy plants itself 9 ,greece prop]1 & !re makes its home4 ,^? spots 7 also ! seat ( e>ly comm]ce & ( an e>ly culture1 :ile ,greece itself1 s f> z ^! are conc]n$1 foll[$ lat]4 ,we mu/ ?us rem>k t ! "* ( ! two sides into :i* ^! philosophies divide1 ! philosophy ( ,asia ,m9or 9 ! ea/ & t ( ,grecian ,italy 9 ! we/1 p>takes ( ! "* ( ! geographical di/9ction4 ,on ! ,asia ,m9or side1 & also 9 ! isl&s1 we f9d ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 ,anaxim5es1 ,h]aclitus1 ,leucippus1 ,democritus1 ,anaxagoras1 & ,diog5es f ,crete4 ,on ! o!r side are ! inhabitants ( ,italy3 ,py?agoras f ,samos1 :o liv$ 9 ,italy1 h[ev]2 ,x5ophanes1 ,p>m5ides1 ,z5o1 ,emp$ocles2 & sev]al ( ! ,sophi/s also liv$ 9 ,italy4 ,anaxagoras 0 ! fir/ to come to ,a!ns1 & ?us 8 sci5ce takes a middle place betwe5 bo? extremes1 & ,a!ns 0 made its c5tre4 ,! geographical di/9ction makes its appe>ance 9 ! manife/ation ( ,?\ght1 9 ! fact t1 ) ! ,ori5tals a s5su\s1 mat]ial side is dom9ant1 & 9 ! we/1 ,?\ght1 on ! contr>y1 prevails1 because x is con/itut$ into ! pr9ciple 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,^? philosoph]s :o turn$ to ! ea/ knew ! absolute 9 a real det]m9ation ( nature1 :ile t[>ds ,italy !re is ! ideal det]m9ation ( ! absolute4 ,^! explanations w be suffici5t = u "h2 b ,emp$ocles1 :om we f9d 9 ,sicily1 is some:at ( a natural philosoph]1 :ile ,gorgias1 ! ,sicilian sophi/1 rema9s fai?ful to ! ideal side4 ,we n[ h to consid] fur!r3--#a1 ,! ,ionians1 viz4 ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 ,anaxim5es2 #b1 ,py?agoras & 8 foll[]s2 #c1 ! ,eleatics1 viz4 ,x5ophanes1 ,p>m5ides1 c42 #d1 ,h]aclitus2 #e1 ,emp$ocles1 ,leucippus & ,democritus2 #f1 ,anaxagoras4 ,we h to trace & po9t out ! progression ( ?is philosophy also4 ,! fir/ & altoge!r ab/ract det]m9ations are f\nd ) ,?ales & ! o!r ,ionians2 !y grasp$ ! univ]sal 9 ! =m ( a natural det]m9ation1 z wat] & air4 ,progression mu/ ?us take place by leav+ beh9d ! m]ely natural det]m9ation2 & we f9d t ?is is s ) ! ,py?agoreans4 ,!y say t numb] is ! sub/ance or ! ess5ce ( ?+s2 numb] is n s5su\s1 nor is x pure ?\ght1 b x is a non-s5su\s object ( s5se4 ,x 0 ) ! ,eleatics t pure ?\ght appe>$1 & t its =cible lib]ation f ! s5su\s =m & ! =m ( numb] came to pass2 & ?us f !m proce$s ! dialectic movem5t ( ?\ght1 :i* negates ! def9ite p>ticul> 9 ord] to %[ t x is n ! _m b only ! "o t is true4 ,h]aclitus decl>es ! ,absolute to be ?is v process1 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,eleatics1 0 /ill subjective2 he arriv$ at objective consci\sness1 s9ce 9 x ! ,absolute is t :i* moves or *anges4 ,emp$ocles1 ,leucippus1 & ,democritus1 on ! contr>y1 r g to ! opposite extreme1 to ! simple1 mat]ial1 /ation>y pr9ciple1 to ! sub/ratum :i* und]lies ! process2 & ?us ?is la/1 z be+ movem5t1 is di/+ui%$ f x4 ,) ,anaxagoras x is ! mov+1 self-det]m9+ ?\ght itself t is !n kn[n z exi/5ce1 & ?is is a great /ep =w>d4 ,a4 ,,! ,,ionic ,,philosophy4 ,"h we h ! e>li] ,ionic philosophy1 :i* we desire to treat z %ortly z possible2 & ?is is s mu* ! easi]1 t ! ?\ght conta9$ 9 x is v ab/ract & b>r54 ,o!r philosoph]s ?an ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 & ,anaxim5es1 only come "u our consid]ation z names4 ,we h no m ?an half a doz5 passages 9 ! :ole ( ! e>ly ,ionic philosophy1 & t makes x an easy /udy4 ,yet le>n+ prides itself mo/ ^u ! anci5ts1 = we may be mo/ le>n$ ab\t t ( :i* we "k ! lea/4 #a4 ,?ales4 ,) ,?ales we1 prop]ly speak+1 fir/ beg9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy4 ,! life ( ,?ales occurr$ at ! "t :5 ! ,ionic t[ns 7 "u ! dom9ion ( ,crsus4 ,?r\gh 8 ov]?r[ 7,ol4 #eh1 #a2 #edh ,b4,c471 an appe>ance ( fre$om 0 produc$1 yet ! mo/ ( ^! t[ns 7 conqu]$ by ! ,p]sians1 & ,?ales surviv$ ! cata/rophe only a few ye>s4 ,he 0 born at ,miletus2 8 family is1 by ,diog5es 7,i4 #bb1 #cg71 /at$ to be ! ,phnician "o ( ,!lides1 & ! date ( 8 bir?1 accord+ to ! be/ calculation1 is plac$ 9 ! fir/ ye> ( ! #ce? ,olympiad 7#fdj ,b4,c471 b accord+ to ,me9]s x 0 a c\ple ( ,olympiads lat] 7#ch? ,olympiad1 #fbi ,b4,c474 ,?ales liv$ z a /atesman p>tly ) ,crsus & p>tly 9 ,miletus4 ,h]odotus quotes him sev]al times1 & tells 7,i4 #ge7 t1 accord+ to ! n>ratives ( ! ,greeks1 :5 ,crsus w5t to battle aga9/ ,cyrus & _h difficulty 9 pass+ ov] ! riv] ,halys1 ,?ales1 :o accompani$ ! army1 div]t$ ! riv] by a tr5*1 :i* he made 9 ! =m ( a cresc5t beh9d ! camp1 s t x c\ld !n be =d$4 ,diog5es 7,i4 #be7 says fur!r ( him z reg>ds 8 relations to 8 c\ntry1 t he re/ra9$ ! m5 ( ,miletus f ally+ !mselves ) ,crsus :5 he w5t aga9/ ,cyrus1 & t h5ce1 aft] ! conque/ ( ,crsus1 :5 ! o!r ,ionic ,/ates 7 subdu$ by ! ,p]sians1 ! inhabitants ( ,miletus alone rema9$ undi/urb$4 ,diog5es records1 moreov] 7,i4 #bc71 t he soon )drew 8 att5tion f ! affairs ( ! ,/ate & devot$ himself entirely to sci5ce4 ,voyages to ,phnicia are record$ ( him1 :i*1 h[ev]1 re/ on vague tradition2 b t he 0 9 ,egypt 9 8 old age seems und\bt$4#ai ,!re he 0 said to h le>n$ geometry1 b ?is w\ld appe> n to h be5 mu*1 judg+ f ! anecdote1 :i* ,diog5es 7,i4 #bd1 #bg7 retails f a c]ta9 ,hi]onymus4 ,x 0 to ! effect t ,?ales taught ! ,egyptians to measure ! height ( _! pyramids by %ad[--by tak+ ! relation borne by ! height ( a man to 8 %ad[4 ,! t]ms ( ! proportion are3 z ! %ad[ ( a man is to ! height ( a man1 s is ! %ad[ ( a pyramid to its height4 ,if ?is 7 some?+ new to ! ,egyptians1 !y mu/ h be5 v f> back 9 ! !ory ( geometry4 ,h]odotus tells 7,i4 #gd71 moreov]1 t ,?ales =etold an eclipse ( ! sun t happ5$ exactly on ! day ( ! battle betwe5 ! ,m$ians & ,lydians1 & t he ascrib$ ! ris+ ( ! ,nile to ! contr>y ,etesian w9ds1 :i* drove back ! wat]s4#bj ,we h "s fur!r isolat$ in/ances (1 & anecdotes ab\t 8 a/ronomical k & works4#ba 8,9 gaz+ at & mak+ obs]vations on ! />s1 he fell into a dit*1 & ! p mock$ him z "o :o _h k ( heav5ly objects & yet c\ld n see :at lay at 8 own feet40 ,! p laugh at su* ?+s1 & boa/ t philosoph]s _c tell !m ab\t su* matt]s2 b !y d n und]/& t philosoph]s laugh at !m1 = !y d n fall into a dit* j because !y lie 9 "o = all "t1 & because !y _c see :at exi/s above !m4 ,he also %[$1 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,i4 #bf71 t a wise man1 if he wi%es1 c easily acquire ri*es4 ,x is m important t he fix$ t ! ye>1 z sol> ye>1 %\ld h #cfe days4 ,! anecdote ( ! gold5 tripod to be giv5 to ! wise/ man1 is record$ by ,diog5es 7,i4 #bg-cc72 & x c>ries ) x consid]able weight1 because he comb9es all ! diff]5t v]sions ( ! /ory4 ,! tripod 0 giv5 to ,?ales or to ,bias2 ,?ales gave x to "s "o else1 & ?us x w5t ?r\gh a circle until x aga9 came to ,?ales2 ! latt]1 or else ,solon1 decid$ t ,apollo 0 wise/1 & s5t x to ,didyma or to ,delphi4 ,?ales di$1 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,i4 #ch71 ag$ sev5ty-eight or n9ety1 9 ! #eh? ,olympiad2 accord+ to ,t5nemann 7vol4 i4 p4 #dad71 x 0 9 ,olympiad #ei1 #b 7#edc ,b4,c471 :5 ,py?agoras came to ,crotona4 ,diog5es relates t he di$ at "o ( ! games1 ov]come by heat & ?ir/4 ,we h no writ+s by ,?ales1 & we d n "k :e!r he 0 9 ! habit ( writ+4 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,i4 #bc1 #cd1 #ce7 speaks ( two hundr$ v]ses on a/ronomy1 & "s maxims1 su* z 8,x is n ! _m words t h mo/ mean+40 ,z to 8 philosophy1 he is univ]sally recogniz$ z ! fir/ natural philosoph]1 b all "o kn[s ( him is little1 & yet we seem to "k ! mo/ ( :at !re is4 ,= s9ce we f9d t ! fur!r philosophic progress ( :i* 8 speculative idea 0 capable1 & ! und]/&+ ( 8 propositions1 :i* !y alone c\ld h1 make _! fir/ appe>ance & =m p>ticul> epo*s ) ! philosoph]s succe$+ him1 :o may be recogniz$ !reby1 ?is developm5t ascrib$ to ,?ales nev] took place ) him at all4 ,?us if x is ! case t a numb] ( 8 o!r reflections h be5 lo/1 !y _c h _h any p>ticul> speculative value2 & 8 philosophy does n %[ itself to be an imp]fect sy/em f want ( in=mation ab\t x1 b because ! fir/ philosophy _c be a sy/em4 ,we mu/ li/5 to ,ari/otle z reg>ds ^! anci5t philosoph]s1 = he speaks mo/ sympa!tically ( !m4 ,9 ! passage ( mo/ importance 7,metaph4 ,i4 #c71 he says3 8,s9ce x is cle> t we mu/ acquire ! sci5ce ( fir/ causes 7 71 see+ t we say t a p]son kn[s a ?+ :5 he becomes acqua9t$ ) its cause1 !re are1 we mu/ recollect1 f\r causes--,be+ & ,=m fir/ 7= ! #8:y' is f9ally l$ back to ! ,notion1 b yet ! fir/ #8:y' is a cause & pr9ciple72 matt] & sub/ratum1 second2 ! cause :5ce comes ! beg9n+ ( movem5t1 ?ird2 & f\r? ! cause :i* is oppos$ to ?is1 ! aim 9 view & ! good 7= t is ! end ( e orig9ation74 ,h5ce we w\ld make m5tion ( ^? :o h und]tak5 ! inve/igation ( ,be+ be=e u1 & h speculat$ reg>d+ ! ,tru?1 = !y op5ly advance c]ta9 pr9ciples & fir/ causes4 ,if we take !m "u our consid]ation1 x w be ( ?is advantage1 s f> z our pres5t inve/igation goes1 t we %all ei!r f9d o!r k9ds ( causes or be enabl$ to h s mu* ! m confid5ce 9 ^? j nam$4 ,mo/ ( ! e>lie/ philosoph]s h plac$ ! pr9ciples ( ev]y?+ 9 some?+ 9 ! =m ( matt] 7 71 =1 t f :i* ev]y?+ exi/5t comes1 & out ( :i* x takes its orig9 z its fir/ s\rce1 & into :i* x f9ally s9ks1 z sub/ance 771 ev] rema9s ! same & only *anges 9 its p>ticul> qualities 772 & ?is is call$ ! elem5t 77 & ?is ! pr9ciple ( all t exi/s0 7! absolute prius74 8,on ?is acc\nt !y ma9ta9 t no?+ arises or passes away1 because ! same nature always rema9s4 ,= in/ance1 we say t1 absolutely speak+1 ,socrates nei!r orig9ates if he becomes beautiful or musical1 nor does he pass away if he loses ^! qualities1 because ! subject 7 71 ,socrates1 rema9s ! same4 ,& s x is ) all else4 ,= !re mu/ be "o nature1 or m ?an "o1 f :i* all else arises1 because x ma9ta9s its exi/5ce0 7 71 t means t 9 its *ange !re is no reality or tru?4 8,all d n co9cide z to ! numb] ( ?is pr9ciple or z to its description 772 ,?ales1 ! f\nd] ( ?is philosophy10 7:i* recognizes some?+ mat]ial z ! pr9ciple & sub/ance ( all t is71 8says t x is wat]4 ,h5ce he likewise ass]ts ! e>? to be f\nd$ on wat]40 ,wat] is ?us ! 1 ! fir/ gr\nd1 &1 accord+ to ,s5eca's /atem5t 7,qu/4 ,nat4 vi4 #f71 x seems to him to be n s mu* ! inside ( ! e>?1 z :at encloses x :i* is ! univ]sal exi/5ce2 = 8,?ales consid]$ t ! :ole e>? has wat] z its support 7subjecto humore71 & t x swims !reon40 ,we might fir/ ( all expect "s explanation ( ! application ( ^! pr9ciples1 z1 = example1 h[ x is to be prov$ t wat] is ! univ]sal sub/ance1 & 9 :at way p>ticul> =ms are d$uc$ f x4 ,b z to ?is we mu/ say t ( ,?ales 9 p>ticul>1 we "k no?+ m ?an 8 pr9ciple1 :i* is t wat] is ! god ov] all4 ,no m d we "k any?+ fur!r ( ,anaxim&]1 ,anaxim5es & ,diog5es ?an _! pr9ciples4 ,ari/otle br+s =w>d a conjecture z to h[ ,?ales d]iv$ ev]y?+ directly out ( wat]1 8,p]haps 77 ! conclusions ( ,?ales h be5 br\ght ab\t f ! reflection t x 0 evid5t t all n\ri%m5t is moi/1 & w>m? itself comes out ( moi/ure & !reby life cont9ues4 ,b t f :i* any?+ g5]ates is ! pr9ciple ( all ?+s4 ,?is 0 "o reason = hold+ ?is !ory1 & ano!r reason is conta9$ 9 ! fact t all g]ms are moi/ 9 "*1 & wat] is ! pr9ciple ( :at is moi/40 ,x is necess>y to rem>k t ! circum/ances introduc$ by ,ari/otle ) a 8p]haps0 :i* are suppos$ to h br\ght ab\t ! conclusions ( ,?ales1 mak+ wat] ! absolute ess5ce ( ev]y?+1 are n adduc$ z ! gr\nds ackn[l$g$ by ,?ales4 ,& fur!rmore1 !y c h>dly be call$ gr\nds1 = :at ,ari/otle does is r to e/abli%1 z we w\ld say f actuality1 t ! latt] corresponds to ! univ]sal idea ( wat]4 ,8 successors1 z = in/ance ,pseudo-,plut>* 7,de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #c71 h tak5 ,?ales' ass]tion z positive & n hypo!tical2 ,ti$mann 7,gei/ d] spec4 ,phil4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #cf7 rem>ks ) great reason t ,plut>* omits ! 8p]haps40 ,= ,plut>* says1 8,?ales sugge/s 77 t ev]y?+ takes its orig9 f wat] & resolves itself into ! same1 because z ! g]ms ( all t live h moi/ure z ! pr9ciple ( life1 all else might likewise 77 take its pr9ciple f moi/ure2 = all plants draw _! n\ri%m5t1 & ?us be> fruit1 f wat]1 & if !y are )\t x1 fade away2 & ev5 ! fires ( sun1 & />s & _w are f$ ?r\gh ! evaporation ( wat]40 ,ari/otle is cont5t$ ) simply %[+ 9 reg>d to moi/ure t1 at lea/1 x is ev]y:]e to be f\nd4 ,s9ce ,plut>* gives m def9ite gr\nds = hold+ t wat] is ! simple ess5ce ( ?+s1 we mu/ see :e!r ?+s1 9 s f> z !y are simple ess5ce1 are wat]1 77 ,! g]m ( ! animal1 ( moi/ nature1 is und\bt$ly ! animal z ! simple actual1 or z ! ess5ce ( its actuality1 or undevelop$ actuality4 77 ,if1 ) plants1 wat] may be reg>d$ z = _! n\ri%m5t1 n\ri%m5t is /ill only ! be+ ( a ?+ z =mless sub/ance t fir/ becomes individualiz$ by individuality1 & ?us succe$s 9 obta9+ =m4 77 ,to make sun1 moon & ! :ole _w arise ?r\gh evaporation1 l ! food ( plants1 c]ta9ly approximates to ! idea ( ! anci5ts1 :o did n all[ ! sun & moon to h obta9$ indep5d5ce z we d4 8,!re are also "s10 cont9ues ,ari/otle1 8:o hold t all ! anci5ts :o1 at ! fir/ & long be=e ! pres5t g5]ation1 made !ology _! /udy1 und]/ood ,nature ?us4 ,!y made ,oceanus & ,te?ys ! produc]s ( all orig9ation 7 71 & wat]1 :i* by ! poets is call$ ,/yx1 ! oa? ( ! gods4 ,= :at is mo/ anci5t is mo/ rev]$1 & ! oa? is t mo/ held 9 rev]5ce40 ,?is old tradition has )9 x speculative significance4 ,if any?+ _c be prov$ or is devoid ( objective =m1 su* z we h 9 respect ( paym5t 9 a dis*>ge1 or 9 witnesses :o h se5 ! transaction1 ! oa?1 ! confirmation ( myself z object1 expresses ! fact t my assurance is absolute tru?4 ,n[ s9ce1 by way ( confirmation1 m5 swe> by :at is be/1 by :at is absolutely c]ta91 & ! gods swore by ! subt]ranean wat]1 x foll[s t ! ess5ce ( pure ?\ght1 ! inmo/ be+1 ! reality 9 :i* consci\sness f9ds its tru?1 is wat]2 ,i1 s to speak1 express ?is cle> c]ta9ty ( myself z object1 z ,god4 #a4 ,! clos] consid]ation ( ?is pr9ciple 9 its be>+s w\ld h no int]e/4 ,= s9ce ! :ole philosophy ( ,?ales lies 9 ! fact t wat] is ?is pr9ciple1 ! only po9t ( int]e/ c be to ask h[ f> t pr9ciple is important & speculative4 ,?ales compreh5ds ess5ce z devoid ( =m4 ,:ile ! s5su\s c]titude ( ea* ?+ 9 its individuality is n que/ion$1 ?is objective actuality is n[ to be rais$ into ! ,notion t reflects itself into itself & is itself to be set =? z ,notion2 9 comm5cem5t ?is is se5 9 ! _w's be+ manife/$ z wat]1 or z a simple univ]sal4 ,fluid is1 9 its ,notion1 life1 & h5ce x is wat] itself1 spiritually express$2 9 ! s-call$ gr\nds or reasons1 on ! contr>y1 wat] has ! =m ( exi/5t univ]sal4 ,we c]ta9ly grant ?is univ]sal activity ( wat]1 & = t reason call x an elem5t1 a physical univ]sal p[]2 b :ile we f9d x ?us to be ! univ]sal ( activity1 we also f9d x to be ?is actual1 n ev]y:]e1 b 9 proximity to o!r elem5ts--e>?1 air & fire4 ,wat] ?us has n got a s5su\s univ]sality1 b a speculative "o m]ely2 to be speculative univ]sality1 h[ev]1 w\ld necessitate its be+ ,notion & hav+ :at is s5su\s remov$4 ,"h we h ! /rife betwe5 s5su\s univ]sality & univ]sality ( ! ,notion4 ,! real ess5ce ( nature has to be def9$1 t is1 nature has to be express$ z ! simple ess5ce ( ?\ght4 ,n[ simple ess5ce1 ! ,notion ( ! univ]sal1 is t :i* is devoid ( =m1 b ?is wat] z x is1 comes into ! det]m9ation ( =m1 & is ?us1 9 relation to o!rs1 a p>ticul> exi/5ce j l ev]y?+ t is natural4 ,yet z reg>ds ! o!r elem5ts1 wat] is det]m9$ z =mless & simple1 :ile ! e>? is t :i* has po9ts1 air is ! elem5t ( all *ange1 & fire evid5tly *anges into itself4 ,n[ if ! ne$ ( unity impels u to recognize = sep>ate ?+s a univ]sal1 wat]1 al?\gh x has ! drawback ( be+ a p>ticul> ?+1 c easily be utiliz$ z ! ,"o1 bo? on acc\nt ( its neutrality1 & because x is m mat]ial ?an air4 ,! proposition ( ,?ales1 t wat] is ! ,absolute1 or z ! anci5ts say1 ! pr9ciple1 is ! beg9n+ ( ,philosophy1 because ) x ! consci\sness is arriv$ at t ess5ce1 tru?1 t :i* is alone 9 & = itself1 are "o4 ,a dep>ture f :at is 9 our s5su\s p]ception "h takes place2 man rec$es f ?is imm$iate exi/5ce4 ,we mu/ be able to =get t we are accu/om$ to a ri* concrete _w ( ?\ght2 ) u ! v *ild le>ns1 8,!re is "o ,god 9 ,heav51 invisible40 ,su* det]m9ations are n yet pres5t "h2 ! _w ( ,?\ght mu/ fir/ be =m$ & !re is z yet no pure unity4 ,man has nature be=e him z wat]1 air1 />s1 ! ar* ( ! heav5s2 & ! horizon ( 8 ideas is limit$ to ?is4 ,! imag9ation has1 inde$1 its gods1 b its cont5t /ill is natural2 ! ,greeks _h consid]$ sun1 m\nta9s1 e>?1 sea1 riv]s1 c41 z indep5d5t p[]s1 rev]$ !m z gods1 & elevat$ !m by ! imag9ation to activity1 movem5t1 consci\sness & w4 ,:at !re is besides1 l ! conceptions ( ,hom]1 = in/ance1 is some?+ 9 :i* ?\ght c\ld n f9d satisfaction2 x produces m]e images ( ! imag9ation1 endlessly end[$ ) animation & =m1 b de/itute ( simple unity4 ,x mu/ und\bt$ly be said t 9 ?is unconsci\sness ( an intellectual _w1 "o mu/ ackn[l$ge t !re is a great robu/ness ( m9d ev9c$ 9 n grant+ ?is pl5itude ( exi/5ce to ! natural _w1 b 9 r$uc+ x to a simple sub/ance1 :i*1 z ! ev] endur+ pr9ciple1 nei!r orig9ates nor disappe>s1 :ile ! gods h a ,!ogony & are manifold & *ang+4 ,?is wild1 endlessly v>i$ imag9ation ( ,hom] is set at re/ by ! proposition t exi/5ce is wat]2 ?is conflict ( an endless quantity ( pr9ciples1 all ^! ideas t a p>ticul> object is an indep5d5t tru?1 a self-suffici5t p[] ov] o!rs exi/+ 9 its own "r1 are tak5 away1 & x is %[n likewise t !re is only "o univ]sal1 ! univ]sal self-exi/5t1 ! simple unimag9ative p]ception1 ! ?\ght t is "o & "o alone4 ,?is univ]sal /&s 9 direct relation%ip to ! p>ticul> & to ! exi/5ce ( ! _w z manife/$4 ,! fir/ ?+ impli$ 9 :at has be5 said1 is t ! p>ticul> exi/5ce has no indep5d5ce1 is n true 9 & = itself1 b is only an accid5tal modification4 ,b ! affirmative po9t ( view is t all o!r ?+s proce$ f ! "o1 t ! "o rema9s !reby ! sub/ance f :i* all o!r ?+s proce$1 & x is only ?r\gh a det]m9ation :i* is accid5tal & ext]nal t ! p>ticul> exi/5ce has its be+4 ,x is simil>ly ! case t all p>ticul> exi/5ce is transi5t1 t is1 x loses ! =m ( p>ticul> & aga9 becomes ! univ]sal1 wat]4 ,! simple proposition ( ,?ales !re=e1 is ,philosophy1 because 9 x wat]1 ?\gh s5su\s1 is n look$ at 9 its p>ticul>ity z oppos$ to o!r natural ?+s1 b z ,?\ght 9 :i* ev]y?+ is resolv$ & compreh5d$4 ,?us we approa* ! divorce ( ! absolute f ! f9ite2 b x is n to be ?\ght t ! unity /&s above1 & t d[n "h we h ! f9ite _w4 ,?is idea is (t5 f\nd 9 ! common conception ( ,god--:]e p]man5ce is attribut$ to ! _w & :]e m5 (t5 repres5t two k9ds ( actuality to !mselves1 a s5su\s & a sup]s5su\s _w ( equal /&+4 ,! philosophic po9t ( view is t ! "o is alone ! truly actual1 & "h we mu/ take actual 9 its high] significance1 because we call ev]y?+ actual 9 common life4 ,! second circum/ance to be rememb]$ is t ) ! anci5t philosoph]s1 ! pr9ciple has a def9ite &1 at fir/1 a physical =m4 ,to u ?is does n appe> to be philosophic b only physical2 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 matt] has philosophic significance4 ,?ales' !ory is ?us a natural philosophy1 because ?is univ]sal ess5ce is det]m9$ z real2 consequ5tly ! ,absolute is det]m9$ z ! unity ( ?\ght & ,be+4 #b4 ,n[ if we h ?is undiff]5tiat$ pr9ciple pr$om9at+1 ! "q arises z to ! det]m9ation ( ?is fir/ pr9ciple4 ,! transition f univ]sal to p>ticul> at once becomes ess5tial1 & x beg9s ) ! det]m9ation ( activity2 ! necessity = su* arises "h4 ,t :i* is to be a v]itable pr9ciple mu/ n h a "o-sid$1 p>ticul> =m1 b 9 x ! diff]5ce mu/ itself be absolute1 :ile o!r pr9ciples are only special k9ds ( =ms4 ,! fact t ! ,absolute is :at det]m9es itself is already m concrete2 we h ! activity & ! high] self-consci\sness ( ! spiritual pr9ciple1 by :i* ! =m has work$ itself into be+ absolute =m1 ! totality ( =m4 ,s9ce x is mo/ pr(\nd1 ?is comes late/2 :at has fir/ to be done is m]ely to look at ?+s z det]m9$4 ,=m is lack+ to wat] z conceiv$ by ,?ales4 ,h[ is ?is accord$ to x8 ,! me?od is /at$ 7& /at$ by ,ari/otle1 b n directly ( ,?ales71 9 :i* p>ticul> =ms h aris5 out ( wat]2 x is said to be ?r\gh a process ( cond5sation & r>efaction 7 71 or1 z x may be bett] put1 ?r\gh great] or less int5sity4 ,t5nemann 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #ei7 9 ref]5ce to ?is1 cites f ,ari/otle1 ,de g54 et corrupt4 ,i4 #a1 :]e !re is no m5tion ( cond5sation & r>efaction z reg>ds ,?ales1 & fur!r1 ,de clo1 ,,iii4 #e1 :]e x is only said t ^? :o uphold wat] or air1 or some?+ f9] ?an wat] or co>s] ?an air1 def9e diff]5ce z d5sity & r>ity1 b no?+ is said ( its be+ ,?ales :o gave expression to ?is di/9ction4 ,ti$mann 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #ch7 quotes yet o!r au?orities2 x 01 h[ev]1 lat] on1 t ?is di/9ction 0 fir/ ascrib$ to ,?ales4#bb ,?us mu* is made out1 t = ! fir/ "t 9 ?is natural philosophy z 9 ! mod]n1 t :i* is ess5tial 9 =m is really ! quantitative diff]5ce 9 its exi/5ce4 ,?is m]ely quantitative diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 :i*1 z ! increas+ & decreas+ d5sity ( wat]1 con/itutes its only =m-det]m9ation1 is an ext]nal expression ( ! absolute diff]5ce2 x is an uness5tial di/9ction set up ?r\gh ano!r & is n ! inn] diff]5ce ( ! ,notion 9 itself2 x is !re=e n wor? :ile to sp5d m "t ov] x4 ,diff]5ce z reg>ds ! ,notion has no physical significance1 b diff]5ces or ! simple duality ( =m 9 ! sides ( its opposition1 mu/ be compreh5d$ z univ]sally 9 ! ,notion4 ,on ?is acc\nt a s5su\s int]pretation mu/ n be giv5 to ! mat]ial1 t is to p>ticul> det]m9ations1 z :5 x is def9itely said t r>e wat] is air1 r>e air1 fi]y e!r1 ?ick wat]1 mud1 :i* !n becomes e>?2 accord+ to ?is1 air w\ld be ! r>efaction ( ! fir/ wat]1 e!r ! r>efaction ( air1 & e>? & mud ! s$im5t ( wat]4 ,z s5su\s diff]5ce or *ange1 ! division "h appe>s z some?+ manife/$ = consci\sness2 ! mod]ns h exp]im5t$ 9 mak+ ?ick] & ?9n] :at to ! s5ses is ! same4 ,*ange has consequ5tly a d\ble s5se2 "o ) ref]5ce to exi/5ce & ano!r ) ref]5ce to ! ,notion4 ,:5 *ange is consid]$ by ! anci5ts1 x is usually suppos$ to h to d ) a *ange 9 :at exi/s1 & ?us1 = in/ance1 inquiry w\ld be made z to :e!r wat] c be *ang$ ?r\gh *emical action1 su* z heat1 di/illation1 c41 into e>?2 f9ite *emi/ry is conf9$ to ?is4 ,b :at is meant 9 all anci5t philosophies is *ange z reg>ds ! ,notion4 ,t is to say1 wat] does n become conv]t$ into air or space & "t 9 retorts1 c4 ,b 9 e philosophic idea1 ?is transition ( "o quality into ano!r takes place1 i4e4 ?is inw>d connection is %[n 9 ! ,notion1 accord+ to :i* no "o ?+ c subsi/ indep5d5tly & )\t ! o!r1 = ! life ( nature has its subsi/5ce 9 ! fact t "o ?+ is necess>ily relat$ to ! o!r4 ,we c]ta9ly are accu/om$ to believe t if wat] 7 tak5 away1 x w\ld inde$ f>e badly ) plants & animals1 b t /ones w\ld /ill rema92 or t ( col\rs1 blue c\ld be ab/ract$ )\t h>m+ 9 ! lea/ yell[ or r$4 ,z reg>ds m]ely empirical exi/5ce1 x may easily be %[n t ea* quality exi/s on its own acc\nt1 b 9 ! ,notion !y only are1 ?r\gh "o ano!r1 & by virtue ( an inw>d necessity4 ,we c]ta9ly see ?is also 9 liv+ matt]1 :]e ?+s happ5 9 ano!r way1 = "h ! ,notion comes into exi/5ce2 ?us if1 = example1 we ab/ract ! he>t1 ! lungs & all else collapse4 ,& 9 ! same way all nature exi/s only 9 ! unity ( all its p>ts1 j z ! bra9 c exi/ only 9 unity ) ! o!r organs4 #c4 ,if ! =m is1 h[ev]1 only express$ 9 bo? its sides z cond5sation & r>efaction1 x is n 9 & = itself1 = to be ?is x mu/ be grasp$ z ! absolute ,notion1 & z an endlessly =m+ unity4 ,:at is said on ?is po9t by ,ari/otle 7,de ,anima1 ,i4 #b1 also #e7 is ?is3 8,?ales seems1 accord+ to :at is said ( him1 to consid] ! s\l z some?+ hav+ movem5t1 = he says ( ! load/one t x has a s\l1 s9ce x moves ! iron40 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,i4 #bd7 adds amb] to ?is1 f :i* we see t ev5 ,?ales knew ab\t electricity1 al?\gh ano!r explanation ( x is t 0 besides a metal4 ,aldobr&9i says ( ?is passage 9 ,diog5es1 t x is a /one :i* is s ho/ile to poison t :5 t\*$ by su* x imm$iately hisses4 ,! above rem>k by ,ari/otle is p]v]t$ by ,diog5es to su* an ext5t t he says3 8,?ales has likewise ascrib$ a s\l to :at is lifeless40 ,h[ev]1 ?is is n ! "q1 = ! po9t is h[ he ?\ght ( absolute =m1 & :e!r he express$ ! ,idea g5]ally z s\l s t absolute ess5ce %\ld be ! unity ( simple ess5ce & =m4 ,diog5es c]ta9ly says fur!r ( ,?ales 7,i4 #bg71 8,! _w is animat$ & full ( demons10 & ,plut>* 7,de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #g7 says1 8,he call$ ,god ! ,intellig5ce 77 ( ! _w40 ,b all ! anci5ts1 & p>ticul>ly ,ari/otle1 ascribe ?is expression unanim\sly to ,anaxagoras z ! "o :o fir/ said t ! is ! pr9ciple ( ?+s4 ,?us x does n conduce to ! fur!r det]m9ation ( =m accord+ to ,?ales1 to f9d 9 ,cic]o 7,de ,nat4 ,deor4 ,i4 #aj7 ?is passage3 8,?ales says t wat] is ! beg9n+ ( ev]y?+1 b ,god is ! ,m9d :i* =ms all t is1 out ( wat]40 ,?ales may c]ta9ly h spok5 ( ,god1 b ,cic]o has add$ ! /atem5t t he compreh5d$ him z ! :i* =m$ ev]y?+ out ( wat]4 ,ti$mann 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #db7 decl>es ! passage to be possibly corrupt1 s9ce ,cic]o lat] on 7c4 #aa7 says ( ,anaxagoras t 8he fir/ ma9ta9$ ! ord] ( ?+s to h be5 br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! inf9ite p[] ( ,m9d40 ,h[ev]1 ! ,epicurean1 9 ^: m\? ^! words are put1 speaks 8) confid5ce only fe>+ t he %\ld appe> to h any d\bts0 7c4 #h7 bo? previ\sly & subsequ5tly ( o!r philosoph]s r fooli%ly1 s t ?is description is giv5 m]ely z a je/4 ,ari/otle und]/&s hi/oric accuracy bett]1 & !re=e we mu/ foll[ him4 ,b to ^? :o make x _! bus9ess to f9d ev]y:]e ! conception ( ! creation ( ! _w by ,god1 t passage 9 ,cic]o is a great s\rce ( delight1 & x is a mu* disput$ po9t :e!r ,?ales is to be c\nt$ among/ ^? :o accept$ ! exi/5ce ( a ,god4 ,! ,!ism ( ,?ales is ma9ta9$ by ,pl\quet1 :il/ o!rs w\ld h him to be an a!i/ or poly!i/1 because he says t ev]y?+ is full ( demons4 ,h[ev]1 ?is "q z to :e!r ,?ales believ$ 9 ,god does n conc]n u "h1 = acceptation1 fai?1 popul> religion are n 9 "q2 we only h to d ) ! philosophic det]m9ation ( absolute exi/5ce4 ,& if ,?ales did speak ( ,god z con/itut+ ev]y?+ out ( ?is same wat]1 t w\ld n give u any fur!r in=mation ab\t ?is exi/5ce2 we %\ld h spok5 unphilosophically ( ,?ales because we %\ld h us$ an empty ^w )\t inquir+ ab\t its speculative significance4 ,simil>ly ! ^w _w-s\l is useless1 because its be+ is n !reby express$4 ,?us all ^! fur!r1 z also lat]1 ass]tions d n ju/ify u 9 ma9ta9+ t ,?ales compreh5d$ =m 9 ! absolute 9 a def9ite mann]2 on ! contr>y1 ! re/ ( ! hi/ory ( philosophical developm5t refutes ?is view4 ,we see t =m c]ta9ly seems to be %[n =? 9 exi/5ce1 b z yet ?is unity is no fur!r develop$4 ,! idea t ! magnet has a s\l is inde$ always bett] ?an say+ t x has ! p[] ( attraction2 = p[] is a quality :i* is consid]$ z a pr$icate sep>able f matt]1 :ile s\l is movem5t 9 unison ) matt] 9 its ess5ce4 ,an idea su* z ?is ( ,?ales /&s isolat$1 h[ev]1 & has no fur!r relation to 8 absolute ?\ght4 ,?us1 9 fact1 ! philosophy ( ,?ales is compris$ 9 ! foll[+ simple elem5ts3 7a7 ,x has con/itut$ an ab/raction 9 ord] to compreh5d nature 9 a simple s5su\s ess5ce4 7b7 ,x has br\ght =? ! ,notion ( gr\nd or pr9ciple2 t is1 x has def9$ wat] to be ! inf9ite ,notion1 ! simple ess5ce ( ?\ght1 )\t det]m9+ x fur!r z ! diff]5ce ( quantity4 ,t is ! limit$ significance ( ?is pr9ciple ( ,?ales4 #b4 ,anaxim&]4 ,anaxim&] 0 also ( ,miletus1 & he 0 a fri5d ( ,?ales4 8,! latt]10 says ,cic]o 7,acad4 ,quae/4 ,,iv4 #cg71 8c\ld n conv9ce him t ev]y?+ consi/$ ( wat]40 ,anaxim&]'s fa!r 0 call$ ,praxiades2 ! date ( 8 bir? is n q c]ta92 accord+ to ,t5nemann 7vol4 ,i4 p4 #dac71 x is put 9 ,olympiad #db1 #c 7#faj ,b4,c471 :ile ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ii4 ,i1 #b7 says1 tak+ 8 in=mation f ,apollodorus1 an ,a!nian1 t 9 ,ol4 #eh1 #b 7#edg ,b4,c471 he 0 sixty-f\r ye>s old1 & t he di$ soon aft]1 t is to say ab\t ! date ( ,?ales' dea?4 ,& tak+ = grant$ t he di$ 9 8 n9etie? ye>1 ,?ales mu/ h be5 ne>ly tw5ty-eight ye>s old] ?an ,anaxim&]4 ,x is relat$ ( ,anaxim&] t he liv$ 9 ,samos ) ! tyrant ,polycrates1 :]e 7 ,py?agoras & ,anacreon also4 ,!mi/ius1 accord+ to ,bruck] 7,pt4 ,i4 p4 #dgh71 says ( him t he fir/ put 8 philosophic ?\ghts into writ+1 b ?is is also record$ ( o!rs1 z = example1 ( ,ph]ecydes1 :o 0 old] ?an he4 ,anaxim&] is said to h writt5 ab\t nature1 ! fix$ />s1 ! sph]e1 besides o!r matt]s2 he fur!r produc$ some?+ l a map1 %[+ ! b\nd>y 77 ( l& & sea2 he also made o!r ma!matical inv5tions1 su* z a sun-dial t he put up 9 ,lac$mon1 & in/rum5ts by :i* ! c\rse ( ! sun 0 %[n1 & ! equ9ox det]m9$2 a *>t ( ! heav5s 0 likewise made by him4 ,8 philosophical reflections are n compreh5sive1 & d n ext5d z f> z to det]m9ation4 ,diog5es says 9 ! passage quot$ be=e3 8,he adduc$ ! ,inf9ite0 7 1 ! undet]m9$71 8z pr9ciple & elem5t2 he nei!r det]m9$ x z air or wat] or any su* ?+40 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 few attributes ( ?is ,inf9ite giv54 747 8,x is ! pr9ciple ( all becom+ & pass+ away2 at long int]vals inf9ite worlds or gods rise out ( x1 & aga9 !y pass away into ! same40 ,?is has q an ori5tal tone4 8,he gives z a reason t ! pr9ciple is to be det]m9$ z ! ,inf9ite1 ! fact t x does n ne$ mat]ial = cont9u\s orig9ation4 ,x conta9s ev]y?+ 9 itself & rules ov] all3 x is div9e1 immortal1 & nev] passes away40#bc 747 ,out ( ! "o1 ,anaxim&] sep>ates ! opposites :i* are conta9$ 9 x1 z d ,emp$ocles & ,anaxagoras2 ?us ev]y?+ 9 ?is m$ley is c]ta9ly !re1 b undet]m9$4#bd ,t is1 ev]y?+ is really conta9$ !re9 9 possibility 771 8s t10 says ,ari/otle 7,metaphys4 ,,xi4 #b71 8x is n only t ev]y?+ arises accid5tally out ( :at is n1 b ev]y?+ also arises f :at is1 al?\gh x is f incipi5t be+ :i* is n yet 9 actuality40 ,diog5es ,la]tius adds 7,,ii4 #a73 8,! p>ts ( ! ,inf9ite *ange1 b x itself is un*angeable40 747 ,la/ly1 x is said t ! inf9itude is 9 size & n 9 numb]1 & ,anaxim&] diff]s ?us f ,anaxagoras1 ,emp$ocles & ! o!r atomi/s1 :o ma9ta9 ! absolute discretion ( ! inf9ite1 :ile ,anaxim&] upholds its absolute cont9uity4#be ,ari/otle 7,metaphys4 ,i4 #h7 speaks also ( a pr9ciple :i* is nei!r wat] nor air1 b is 8?ick] ?an air & ?9n] ?an wat]40 ,_m h connect$ ?is idea ) ,anaxim&]1 & x is possible t x belongs to him4 ,! advance made by ! det]m9ation ( ! pr9ciple z inf9ite 9 compreh5siv5ess re/s 9 ! fact t absolute ess5ce no long] is a simple univ]sal1 b "o :i* negates ! f9ite4 ,at ! same "t1 view$ f ! mat]ial side1 ,anaxim&] removes ! individuality ( ! elem5t ( wat]2 8 objective pr9ciple does n appe> to be mat]ial1 & x may be und]/ood z ,?\ght4 ,b x is cle> t he did n mean any?+ else ?an matt] g5]ally1 univ]sal matt]4#bf ,plut>* reproa*es ,anaxim&] 8= n say+ :at 77 8 inf9ite is1 :e!r air1 wat] or e>?40 ,b a def9ite quality su* z "o ( ^! is transi5t2 matt] det]m9$ z inf9itude means ! motion ( posit+ def9ite =ms1 & aga9 aboli%+ ! sep>ation4 ,true & inf9ite ,be+ is to be %[n 9 ?is & n 9 negative abs5ce ( limit4 ,?is univ]sality & negation ( ! f9ite is1 h[ev]1 our op]ation only3 9 describ+ matt] z inf9ite1 ,anaxim&] does n seem to h said t ?is is its inf9itude4 ,he has said fur!r 7& 9 ?is1 accord+ to ,!ophra/us1 he agrees ) ,anaxagoras71 8,9 ! inf9ite ! l sep>ates itself f ! unlike & allies itself to ! l2 ?us :at 9 ! :ole 0 gold becomes gold1 :at 0 e>?1 e>?1 c41 s t prop]ly no?+ orig9ates1 see+ t x 0 already !re40#bg ,^!1 h[ev]1 are poor det]m9ations1 :i* only %[ ! necessity ( ! transition f ! undet]m9$ to ! det]m9$2 = ?is /ill takes place "h 9 an unsatisfy+ way4 ,z to ! fur!r "q ( h[ ! inf9ite det]m9es ! opposite 9 its sep>ation1 x seems t ! !ory ( ! quantitative di/9ction ( cond5sation & r>efaction 0 held by ,anaxim&] z well z by ,?ales4 ,^? :o come lat] designate ! process ( sep>ation f ! ,inf9ite z developm5t4 ,anaxim&] supposes man to develop f a fi%1 :i* ab&on$ wat] = ! l&4#bh ,developm5t comes also into prom95ce 9 rec5t times1 b z a m]e succession 9 "t--a =mula 9 ! use ( :i* m5 (t5 imag9e t !y are say+ some?+ brilliant2 b !re is no real necessity1 no ?\ght1 & above all1 no ,notion conta9$ 9 x4 ,b 9 lat] records ! idea ( w>m?1 z be+ ! dis9tegration ( =m1 & t ( cold1 is ascrib$ to ,anaxim&] by ,/obu 7,eclog4 ,phys4 c4 #bd1 p4 #ejj72 ?is ,ari/otle 7,metaphys4 ,i4 #e7 fir/ ascrib$ to ,p>m5ides4 ,eusebius 7,de prp4 ,evang4 ,i4 #h71 out ( a lo/ "w ( ,plut>*1 gives u some?+ f ,anaxim&]'s ,cosmogony :i* is d>k1 & :i*1 inde$1 ,eusebius himself did n rightly und]/&4 ,its s5se is approximately ?is3 8,out ( ! ,inf9ite1 inf9ite heav5ly sph]es & inf9ite worlds h be5 set ap>t2 b !y c>ry )9 !m _! own de/ruction1 because !y only are ?r\gh con/ant divid+ (f40 ,t is1 s9ce ! ,inf9ite is ! pr9ciple1 sep>ation is ! posit+ ( a diff]5ce1 i4e4 ( a det]m9ation or some?+ f9ite4 8,! e>? has ! =m ( a cyl9d]1 ! height ( :i* is ! ?ird "p ( ! bread?4 ,bo? ( ! et]nally productive pr9ciples ( w>m? & cold sep>ate !mselves 9 ! creation ( ?is e>?1 & a fi]y sph]e is =m$ r\nd ! air encircl+ ! e>?1 l ! b>k ar\nd a tree4 ,z ?is broke up1 & ! pieces 7 compress$ into circles1 sun1 moon1 & />s 7 =m$40 ,h5ce ,anaxim&]1 accord+ to ,/obu 7,ecl4 ,phys4 #be1 p4 #eaj71 likewise call$ ! />s 8:eel-%ap$ ) fire-fill$ wrapp+s ( air40 ,?is ,cosmogony is z good z ! geological hypo!sis ( ! e>?-cru/ :i* bur/ op51 or z ,buffon's explosion ( ! sun1 :i* beg9n+1 on ! o!r h&1 ) ! sun1 makes ! planets to be /ones project$ f x4 ,:ile ! anci5ts conf9$ ! />s to our atmosph]e1 & made ! sun fir/ proce$ f ! e>?1 we make ! sun to be ! sub/ance & bir?place ( ! e>?1 & sep>ate ! />s entirely f any fur!r connection ) u1 because = u1 l ! gods wor%ipp$ by ! ,epicureans1 !y are at re/4 ,9 ! process ( orig9ation1 ! sun1 inde$1 desc5ds z ! univ]sal1 b 9 nature x is t :i* comes lat]2 ?us 9 tru? ! e>? is ! totality1 & ! sun b an ab/ract mom5t4 #c4 ,anaxim5es4 ,anaxim5es /ill rema9s z hav+ made 8 appe>ance betwe5 ! #ee? & #eh? ,olympiads 7#efj-edh ,b4,c474 ,he 0 likewise ( ,miletus1 a contempor>y & fri5d ( ,anaxim&]2 he has little to di/+ui% him1 & v little is kn[n ab\t him4 ,diog5es ,la]tius says nei!r ) consid]ation nor consi/5cy 7,,ii4 #c73 8,he 0 born1 accord+ to ,apollodorus 9 ! #fcrd ,olympiad1 & di$ 9 ! ye> ,s>dis 0 conqu]$0 7by ,cyrus1 ,olympiad #eh?74 ,9 place ( ! undet]m9$ matt] ( ,anaxim&]1 he br+s =w>d a def9ite natural elem5t2 h5ce ! absolute is 9 a real =m1 b in/ead ( ! wat] ( ,?ales1 t =m is air4 ,he f\nd t = matt] a s5su\s be+ 0 inde$ ess5tial1 & air has ! additional advantage ( be+ m devoid ( =m2 x is less corporeal ?an wat]1 = we d n see x1 b feel x fir/ 9 movem5t4 ,plut>* 7,de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #c7 says3 8,out ( x ev]y?+ comes =?1 & into x ev]y?+ is aga9 resolv$40 ,accord+ to ,cic]o 7,de ,nat4 ,deor4 ,i4 #aj71 8he def9$ x z immeasurable1 inf9ite1 & 9 con/ant motion40 ,diog5es ,la]tius expresses ?is 9 ! passage already quot$3 8,! pr9ciple is air & ! inf9ite0 7 7 z if !re 7 two pr9ciples2 h[ev]1 may be tak5 toge!r z subject1 & reg>d$ z ! pr$icate 9 ! /atem5t4 ,= ,simplicius1 9 deal+ ) ! ,physics ( ,ari/otle1 expressly says 7p4 #f1 a7 8t ! fir/ pr9ciple 0 to him "o & inf9ite 9 nature z x 0 to ,anaxim&]1 b x 0 n indef9ite z ) ! latt]1 b det]m9$1 t is1 x 0 air10 :i*1 h[ev]1 he seems to h und]/ood z end[$ ) s\l4 ,plut>* *>act]izes ,anaxim5es' mode ( repres5tation :i* makes ev]y?+ proce$ f air--lat] on x 0 call$ e!r--& resolve itself !re91 bett] ?us3 8,z our s\l1 :i* is air1 holds u toge!r 771 "o _s 77 & air toge!r likewise hold 77 ! :ole _w toge!r2 _s & air are synonym\s40 ,anaxim5es %[s v cle>ly ! nature ( 8 ess5ce 9 ! s\l1 & he ?us po9ts out :at may be call$ ! transition ( natural philosophy into ! philosophy ( consci\sness1 or ! surr5d] ( ! objective =m ( pr9ciple4 ,! nature ( ?is pr9ciple has hi!rto be5 det]m9$ 9 a mann] :i* is =eign & negative to consci\sness2 bo? its reality1 wat] or air1 & ! inf9ite are a 8beyond0 to consci\sness4 ,b s\l is ! univ]sal m$ium2 x is a collection ( conceptions :i* pass away & come =?1 :ile ! unity & cont9uity nev] cease4 ,x is active z well z passive1 f its unity sev]+ asund] ! conceptions & sublat+ !m1 & x is pres5t to itself 9 its inf9itude1 s t negative signification & positive come into unison4 ,speak+ m precisely1 ?is idea ( ! nature ( ! orig9 ( ?+s is t ( ,anaxagoras1 ! pupil ( ,anaxim5es4 ,ph]ecydes has also to be m5tion$ z ! tea*] ( ,py?agoras2 he is ( ,syros1 "o ( ! ,cyclades isl&s4 ,he is said to h drawn wat] f a spr+1 & to h le>n$ !refrom t an e>?quake w\ld take place 9 ?ree days2 he is also said to h pr$ict$ ( a %ip 9 full sail t x w\ld g d[n1 & x sank 9 a mom5t4 ,!opompus 9 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,i4 #aaf71 relates ( ?is ,ph]ecydes t 8he fir/ wrote to ! ,greeks ab\t ,nature & ! gods0 7:i* 0 be=e said ( ,anaxim&]74 ,8 writ+s are said to h be5 9 prose1 & f :at is relat$ ( !m x is cle> t x mu/ h be5 a !ogony ( :i* he wrote4 ,! fir/ words1 /ill pres]v$ to u1 are3 8,jupit] & ,"t & :at is t]re/rial 77 7 f et]nity 7 72 ! "n ( e>?ly 77 0 giv5 to ! t]re/rial sph]e :5 ,zeus grant$ to x gifts40#bi ,h[ x goes on is n kn[n1 b ?is _c be deem$ a great loss4 ,h]mias tells u only ?is besides3#cj 8,he ma9ta9$ ,zeus or ,fire 771 ,e>? & ,*ronos or ,"t z pr9ciples--fire z active1 e>? z passive1 & "t z t 9 :i* ev]y?+ orig9ates40 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 ,hippasus1 & ,ar*elaus are also call$ ,ionic philosoph]s1 b we "k no?+ m ( !m ?an _! names1 & t !y gave _! adh]5ce to "o pr9ciple or ! o!r4 ,we %all leave ^! n[ & g on to ,py?agoras1 :o 0 a contempor>y ( ,anaxim&]2 b ! cont9uity ( ! developm5t ( ! pr9ciple ( physical philosophy necessitat$ our tak+ ,anaxim5es ) him4 ,we see t1 z ,ari/otle said1 !y plac$ ! fir/ pr9ciple 9 a =m ( matt]--9 air & wat] fir/1 & !n1 if we may s def9e ,anaxim&]'s matt]1 9 an ess5ce f9] ?an wat] & co>s] ?an air4 ,h]aclitus1 ( :om we h soon to speak1 fir/ call$ x fire4 8,b no "o10 z ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #h7 rem>ks1 8call$ e>? ! pr9ciple1 because x appe>s to be ! mo/ complex elem5t0 7 72 = x seems to be an aggregate ( _m units4 ,wat]1 on ! contr>y1 is ! "o1 & x is transp>5t2 x manife/s 9 s5su\s guise ! =m ( unity ) itself1 & ?is is also s ) air1 fire1 matt]1 c4 ,! pr9ciple has to be "o1 & h5ce mu/ h inh]5t unity ) itself2 if x %[s a manifold nature z does ! e>?1 x is n "o ) itself1 b manifold4 ,?is is :at we h to say ab\t ! e>ly ,ionic ,philosophy4 ,! importance ( ^! poor ab/ract ?\ghts lies 7a7 9 ! compreh5sion ( a univ]sal sub/ance 9 ev]y?+1 & 7b7 9 ! fact t x is =mless1 & n encumb]$ by s5su\s ideas4 ,no "o recogniz$ bett] ! defici5cies 9 ?is philosophy ?an did ,ari/otle 9 ! "w already quot$4 ,two po9ts appe> 9 8 criticism ( ^! ?ree modes ( det]m9+ ! absolute3 8,^? :o ma9ta9 ! orig9al pr9ciple to be matt] fall %ort 9 _m ways4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y m]ely give ! corporeal elem5t & n ! incorporeal1 = !re also is su*40 ,9 treat+ ( nature 9 ord] to %[ its ess5ce1 x is necess>y to deal ) x 9 its entirety1 & ev]y?+ f\nd 9 x mu/ be consid]$4 ,t is c]ta9ly b an empirical in/ance4 ,ari/otle ma9ta9s ! incorporeal to be a =m ( ?+s oppos$ to ! mat]ial1 & indicates t ! absolute mu/ n be det]m9$ 9 a "o-sid$ mann]2 because ! pr9ciple ( ^! philosoph]s is mat]ial only1 !y d n manife/ ! incorporeal side1 nor is ! object %[n to be ,notion4 ,matt] is inde$ itself immat]ial z ?is reflection into consci\sness2 b su* philosoph]s d n "k t :at !y express is an exi/5ce ( consci\sness4 ,?us ! fir/ great defect "h re/s 9 ! fact t ! univ]sal is express$ 9 a p>ticul> =m4 ,secondly1 ,ari/otle says 7,metaph4 ,i4 #c73 8,f ?is x may be se5 t fir/ cause has only be5 by all ^! express$ 9 ! =m ( matt]4 ,b because !y proce$$ ?us1 ! ?+ itself op5$ out _! way = !m1 & =c$ !m into fur!r inve/igation4 ,= :e!r orig9 & decay are d]iv$ f "o or m1 ! "q alike arises1 #8,h[ does x happ5 & :at is ! cause ( x8' ,= ! fundam5tal sub/ance 7 7 does n make itself to *ange1 j z nei!r wood nor metal are !mselves ! cause ( *ange2 wood nei!r =ms a b$ nor does brass a /atue1 b some?+ else is ! cause ( ! *ange4 ,to inve/igate ?is1 h[ev]1 is to inve/igate ! o!r pr9ciple1 :i*1 z we w\ld say1 is ! ,pr9ciple ( ,motion40 ,?is criticism holds good ev5 n[1 :]e ! ,absolute is repres5t$ z ! "o fix$ sub/ance4 ,ari/otle says t *ange is n conceivable out ( matt] z su*1 or out ( wat] n itself hav+ motion2 he reproa*es ! old] philosoph]s = ! fact t !y h n inve/igat$ ! pr9ciple ( motion = :i* m5 c>e mo/4 ,fur!r1 object is altoge!r abs5t2 !re is no det]m9ation ( activity4 ,h5ce ,ari/otle says 9 ! =m] passage3 8,9 t !y und]take to give ! cause ( orig9 & decay1 !y 9 fact remove ! cause ( movem5t4 ,because !y make ! pr9ciple to be a simple body 7e>? be+ except$71 !y d n compreh5d ! mutual orig9ation & decay :]eby ! "o arises out ( ! o!r3 ,i am "h ref]r+ to wat]1 air1 fire1 & e>?4 ,?is orig9ation is to be %[n z sep>ation or z union1 & h5ce ! contradiction comes ab\t t "o 9 "t comes e>li] ?an ! o!r4 ,t is1 because ?is k9d ( orig9ation is ! me?od :i* !y h adopt$1 ! way tak5 is f ! simple univ]sal1 ?r\gh ! p>ticul>1 to ! individual z :at comes late/4 ,wat]1 air1 & fire are1 h[ev]1 univ]sal4 ,fire seems to be mo/ suitable = ?is elem5t1 see+ t x is ! mo/ subtle4 ,?us ^? :o made x to be ! pr9ciple1 mo/ adequately gave expression to ?is me?od 77 ( orig9ation2 & o!rs ?\ght v simil>ly4 ,= else :y %\ld no "o h made ! e>? an elem5t1 9 con=mity ) ! popul> idea8 ,hesiod says t x 0 ! orig9al body--s anci5t & s common 0 ?is idea4 ,b :at 9 ,becom+ comes lat]1 is ! fir/ 9 nature40 ,h[ev]1 ^! philosoph]s did n und]/& ?is s1 because !y 7 rul$ by ! process ( ,becom+ only1 )\t aga9 sublat+ x1 or kn[+ t fir/ =mal univ]sal z su*1 & manife/+ ! ?ird1 ! totality or unity ( matt] & =m1 z ess5ce4 ,"h1 we see1 ! ,absolute is n yet ! self-det]m9+1 ! ,notion turn$ back into itself1 b only a dead ab/raction2 ! mod]ns 7 ! fir/1 says ,ari/otle1 7,metaph4 ,i4 #f2 ,,iii4 #c7 to und]/& ! fundam5tal pr9ciple m 9 ! =m ( g5us4 ,we are able to foll[ ! ?ree mom5ts 9 ! ,ionic philosophy3 77 ,! orig9al ess5ce is wat]2 77 ,anaxim&]'s inf9ite is descriptive ( movem5t1 simple go+ out ( & com+ back into ! simple1 univ]sal aspects ( =m--cond5sation & r>efaction2 77 ! air is comp>$ to ! s\l4 ,x is n[ requisite t :at is view$ z reality %\ld be br\ght into ! ,notion2 9 s do+ we see t ! mom5ts ( division1 cond5sation1 & r>efaction are n 9 any way antagoni/ic to ! ,notion4 ,?is transition to ,py?agoras1 or ! manife/ation ( ! real side z ! ideal1 is ,?\ght break+ free f :at is s5su\s1 &1 !re=e1 x is a sep>ation betwe5 ! intelligible & ! real4 ,b4 ,,py?agoras ,,& ,,! ,,py?agoreans4 ,! lat] ,neo-,py?agoreans h writt5 _m ext5sive biographies ( ,py?agoras1 & are especially diffuse z reg>ds ! ,py?agorean bro!rhood4 ,b x mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation t ^! (t5 di/ort$ /atem5ts mu/ n be reg>d$ z hi/orical4 ,! life ( ,py?agoras ?us fir/ comes to u 9 hi/ory ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! ideas belong+ to ! fir/ c5turies aft] ,*ri/1 & m or less 9 ! /yle 9 :i* ! life ( ,*ri/ is writt51 on ! gr\nd ( ord9>y actuality1 & n 9 a poetic atmosph]e2 x appe>s to be ! int]m+l+ ( _m m>vell\s & extravagant tales1 & to take its orig9 9 "p f ea/]n ideas & 9 "p f we/]n4 ,9 ackn[l$g+ ! rem>kable nature ( 8 life & g5ius & ( ! life :i* he inculcat$ on 8 foll[]s1 x 0 add$ t 8 deal+s 7 n ) "r ?+s1 & t he 0 a magician & "o :o _h int]c\rse ) high] be+s4 ,all ! ideas ( magic1 t m$ley ( unnatural & natural1 ! my/]ies :i* p]vade a cl\d$1 mis]able imag9ation1 & ! wild ideas ( di/ort$ bra9s1 h atta*$ !mselves to him4 ,h[ev] corrupt ! hi/ory ( 8 life1 8 philosophy is z mu* s4 ,ev]y?+ eng5d]$ by ,*ri/ian melan*oly & love ( allegory has be5 id5tifi$ ) x4 ,! treatm5t ( ,plato 9 ,*ri/ian times has q a diff]5t "*4 ,numb]s h be5 mu* us$ z ! expression ( ideas1 & ?is on ! "o h& has a semblance ( pr(undity4 ,= ! fact t ano!r significance ?an t imm$iately pres5t$ is impli$ 9 !m1 is evid5t at once2 b h[ mu* !re is )9 !m is nei!r kn[n by him :o speaks nor by him1 :o seeks to und]/&2 x is l ! wit*es' rhyme 7"o "t "o7 9 ,goe!'s 8,fau/40 ,! less cle> ! ?\ghts1 ! deep] !y appe>2 :at is mo/ ess5tial1 b mo/ difficult1 ! expression ( oneself 9 def9ite conceptions1 is omitt$4 ,?us ,py?agoras' philosophy1 s9ce mu* has be5 add$ to x by ^? :o wrote ( x1 may simil>ly appe> z ! my/]i\s product ( m9ds z %all[ & empty z !y are d>k4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h a special k ( ! !oretic1 speculative side ( x1 & t1 inde$1 f ,ari/otle & ,sextus ,empiricus1 :o h tak5 consid]able tr\ble ) x4 ,al?\gh lat] ,py?agoreans disp>age ,ari/otle on acc\nt ( 8 exposition1 he has a place above any su* disp>agem5t1 & !re=e to !m no att5tion mu/ be giv54 ,9 lat] times a quantity ( writ+s 7 dissem9at$ & foi/$ ^u ,py?agoras4 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #f1 #g7 m5tions _m :i* 7 by him1 & o!rs :i* 7 set d[n to him 9 ord] to obta9 au?ority = !m4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place we h no writ+s by ,py?agoras1 & secondly x is d\btful :e!r any ev] did exi/4 ,we h quotations f ^! 9 unsatisfactory fragm5ts1 n f ,py?agoras1 b f ,py?agoreans4 ,x _c be decisively det]m9$ :i* developm5ts & int]pretations belong$ to ! anci5ts & :i* to ! mod]ns2 yet ) ,py?agoras & ! anci5t ,py?agoreans ! det]m9ations 7 n work$ out 9 s concrete a way z lat]4 ,z to ! life ( ,py?agoras1 we he> f ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #a-c1 #de7 t he fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #fj? ,olympiad 7#edj ,b4,c474 ,8 bir? is usually plac$ 9 ! #di? or #ej? ,olympiad 7#ehd ,b4,c472 by ,l>*] 9 ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #dac1 #dad71 mu* e>li]--9 ! #dcrd ,olympiad 7#dc1 #a1 i4e4 #fjh ,b4,c474 ,he 0 ?us contemporane\s ) ,?ales & ,anaxim&]4 ,if ,?ales' bir? 7 9 ! #ch? ,olympiad & t ( ,py?agoras 9 ! #dcrd1 ,py?agoras 0 only tw5ty-"o ye>s y\ng] ?an he2 he ei!r only diff]$ by a c\ple ( ye>s f ,anaxim&] 7,ol4 #db1 #c7 9 age1 or ! latt] 0 tw5ty-six ye>s old]4 ,anaxim5es 0 f tw5ty to tw5ty-five ye>s y\ng] ?an ,py?agoras4 ,8 bir?place 0 ! ,isl& ( ,samos1 & h5ce he belong$ to ! ,greeks ( ,asia ,m9or1 :i* place we h hi!rto f\nd to be ! seat ( philosophy4 ,py?agoras is said by ,h]odotus 7,,iv41 #ic to #if7 to h be5 ! son ( ,mnes>*us1 ) :om ,zalmoxis s]v$ z slave 9 ,samos2 ,zalmoxis obta9$ fre$om & ri*es1 became rul] ( ! ,get1 & ass]t$ t he & 8 p w\ld n die4 ,he built a subt]ranean habitation & !re )drew himself f 8 subjects2 aft] f\r ye>s he re-appe>$2#ca h5ce ! ,getans believ$ 9 immortality4 ,h]odotus ?9ks1 h[ev]1 t ,zalmoxis 0 und\bt$ly mu* old] ?an ,py?agoras4 ,8 y\? 0 sp5t at ! c\rt ( ,polycrates1 "u ^: rule ,samos 0 br\ght1 n only to weal?1 b also to ! possession ( culture & art4 ,9 ?is prosp]\s p]iod1 accord+ to ,h]odotus 7,,iii41 #ci71 x possess$ a fleet ( a hundr$ %ips4 ,8 fa!r 0 an arti/ or engrav]1 b reports v>y z to ?is1 z also z to 8 c\ntry1 "s say+ t 8 family 0 ( ,tyrrh5ian orig9 & did n g to ,samos till aft] ,py?agoras' bir?4 ,t may be z x w1 = 8 y\? 0 sp5t 9 ,samos & he mu/ h5ce h be5 naturaliz$ !re1 & to x he belongs4 ,he soon j\rney$ to ! ma9 l& ( ,asia ,m9or & is said !re to h become acqua9t$ ) ,?ales4 ,f !nce he travell$ to ,phnicia & ,egypt1 z ,iambli*us 7,,iii41 #ac1 #ad7 says 9 8 biography ( ,py?agoras4 ,) bo? c\ntries ,asia ,m9or _h _m l9ks1 comm]cial & political1 & x is relat$ t he 0 recomm5d$ by ,polycrates to ,k+ ,amasis1 :o1 accord+ to ,h]odotus 7,,ii4 #aed71 attract$ _m ,greeks to ! c\ntry1 & _h ,greek troops & colonies4 ,! n>ratives ( fur!r j\rneys into ! int]ior ( ,asia1 to ! ,p]sian magicians & ,indians1 seem to be altoge!r fabul\s1 al?\gh travell+1 !n z n[1 0 consid]$ to be a means ( culture4 ,z ,py?agoras travell$ ) a sci5tific purpose1 x is said t he _h himself initiat$ into ne>ly all ! my/]ies ( ,greeks & ( ,b>b>ians1 & ?us he obta9$ admission into ! ord] or ca/e ( ! ,egyptian prie/hood4 ,^! my/]ies t we meet ) among/ ! ,greeks1 & :i* are held to be ! s\rces ( mu* wisdom1 appe> 9 _! religion to h /ood 9 ! relation%ip ( doctr9e to wor%ip4 ,?is la/ exi/$ 9 (f]+s & solemn fe/ivals only1 b to ord9>y conceptions1 to a consci\sness ( ^! conceptions1 !re is no transition visible unless !y 7 pres]v$ 9 poems z traditions4 ,! doctr9es !mselves1 or ! act ( br++ ! actual home to ! conception1 seems to h be5 conf9$ to ! my/]ies2 we f9d x to be ! case1 h[ev]1 t x is n only ! ideas z 9 our tea*+1 b also ! body t is laid claim to--t !re 0 br\ght home to man by s5d+ him to w&] among/ 8 fell[-m51 bo? ! ab&onm5t ( 8 s5su\s consci\sness & ! purification & sanctification ( ! body4 ,( philosophic matt]1 h[ev]1 !re is z little op5ly decl>$ z possible1 & j z we "k ! sy/em ( freemasonry1 !re is no secret 9 ^? my/]ies4 ,8 alliance ) ! ,egyptian prie/hood _h a mo/ important influ5ce ^u ,py?agoras1 n ?r\gh ! d]ivation ( pr(\nd speculative wisdom !refrom1 b by ! idea obta9$ ?r\gh x ( ! realization ( ! moral consci\sness ( man2 ! individual1 he le>n$1 mu/ att5d to himself1 if inw>dly & to ! out] _w he is to be m]itori\s & to br+ himself1 morally =m$ & fa%ion$1 into actuality4 ,?is is a conception :i* he subsequ5tly c>ri$ out1 & x is z int]e/+ a matt] z 8 speculative philosophy4 ,j z ! prie/s con/itut$ a p>ticul> rank & 7 educat$ = x1 !y also _h a special rule1 :i* 0 b9d+ ?r\gh\t ! :ole moral life4 ,f ,egypt ,py?agoras ?us )\t d\bt br\ght ! idea ( 8 ,ord]1 :i* 0 a regul> community br\ght toge!r = purposes ( sci5tific & moral culture1 :i* endur$ dur+ ! :ole ( life4 ,egypt at t "t 0 reg>d$ z a highly cultur$ c\ntry1 & x 0 s :5 comp>$ ) ,greece2 ?is is %[n ev5 9 ! diff]5ces ( ca/e :i* assumes a division among/ ! great bran*es ( life & "w1 su* z ! indu/rial1 sci5tific & religi\s4 ,b beyond ?is1 we ne$ n seek great sci5tific k among/ ! ,egyptians1 nor ?9k t ,py?agoras got 8 sci5ce !re4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i47 only says t 89 ,egypt ma!matical sci5ces fir/ comm5c$1 = !re ! nation ( prie/s _h leisure40#cb ,py?agoras /ay$ a long "t 9 ,egypt1 & return$ f !nce to ,samos2 b he f\nd ! int]nal affairs ( 8 own c\ntry 9 confusion1 & left x soon aft]4 ,accord+ to ,h]odotus' acc\nt 7,,iii4 #de-dg71 ,polycrates _h--n z tyrant--bani%$ _m citiz5s f ,samos1 :o s\ght & f\nd support among/ ! ,lac$monians1 & a civil w> _h brok5 out4 ,! ,sp>tans _h1 at an e>li] p]iod1 giv5 assi/ance to ! o!rs1 =1 z ,?ucydides says 7,i4 #ah71 to !m ?anks 7 g5]ally ascrib$ = hav+ aboli%$ ! rule ( ! few1 & caus$ a rev]sion to ! sy/em ( giv+ public p[] to ! p2 lat] on !y did ! opposite1 aboli%+ democracy & introduc+ ari/ocracy4 ,py?agoras' family 0 necess>ily involv$ 9 ^! unpleasant relations1 & a condition ( int]nal /rife 0 n cong5ial to ,py?agoras1 see+ t he no long] took an int]e/ 9 political life1 & t he saw 9 x an unsuitable soil = c>ry+ out 8 plans4 ,he trav]s$ ,greece1 & betook himself f !nce to ,italy1 9 ! l[] p>ts ( :i* ,greek colonies f v>i\s /ates & = v>i\s motives _h settl$1 & !re fl\ri%$ z important trad+ t[ns1 ri* 9 p & possessions4 ,9 ,crotona he settl$ d[n1 & liv$ 9 indep5d5ce1 nei!r z a /atesman1 w>rior1 nor political law-giv] to ! p1 s f> z ext]nal life 0 conc]n$1 b z a public tea*]1 ) ! provision t 8 tea*+ %\ld n be tak5 up ) m]e conviction1 b %\ld also regulate ! :ole moral life ( ! individual4 ,diog5es ,la]tius says t he fir/ gave himself ! "n 1 in/ead ( 2 & m5 call$ ?is mode/y1 z if he !reby express$1 n ! possession ( wisdom1 b only ! /ruggle t[>ds x1 z t[>ds an end :i* _c be atta9$4#cc ,b at ! same "t means a wise man1 :o is also practical1 & t n 9 8 own int]e/ only1 = t requires no wisdom1 see+ t e s9c]e & moral man does :at is be/ f 8 own po9t ( view4 ,?us signifies m p>ticul>ly ! opposite to p>ticipation 9 practical matt]s1 t is 9 public affairs4 ,philosophy is ?us n ! love ( wisdom1 z ( some?+ :i* "o sets oneself to acquire2 x is no unfulfill$ desire4 means a man ^: relation to wisdom is t ( mak+ x 8 object2 ?is relation%ip is contemplation1 & n m]e ,be+2 b x mu/ be consci\sly t m5 apply !mselves to ?is4 ,! man :o likes w9e 77 is c]ta9ly to be di/+ui%$ f ! man :o is full ( w9e1 or a drunk>d4 ,!n does signify only a futile aspiration = w9e8 ,:at ,py?agoras contriv$ & effect$ 9 ,italy is told u by lat] eulogi/s1 r ?an by hi/orians4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ,py?agoras by ,mal*us 7?is 0 ! ,syrian "n ( ,porphyry7 _m /range ?+s are relat$1 & ) ! ,neo-,platoni/s ! contra/ betwe5 _! deep insight & _! belief 9 ! miracul\s is surpris+4 ,= in/ance1 see+ t ! lat] biograph]s ( ,py?agoras _h already relat$ a quantity ( m>vels1 !y n[ proce$$ to add yet m to ^! ) ref]5ce to 8 appe>ance 9 ,italy4 ,x appe>s t !y 7 ex]t+ !mselves to place him1 z !y aft]w>ds did ) ,apollonius ( ,tyana1 9 opposition to ,*ri/4 ,= ! wond]s :i* !y tell ( him seem p>tly to be an amplification ( ^? 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 & 9 "p !y are altoge!r absurd4 ,= in/ance1 !y make ,py?agoras beg9 8 c>e] 9 ,italy ) a miracle4 ,:5 he l&$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,t>5tum1 at ,crotona1 he enc\nt]$ fi%]m5 on ! way to ! t[n :o _h caught no?+4 ,he call$ ^u !m to draw _! nets once m1 & =etold ! numb] ( fi%es t w\ld be f\nd 9 !m4 ,! fi%]m51 m>vell+ at ?is prophecy1 promis$ him t if x came true !y w\ld d :atev] he desir$4 ,x came to pass z he said1 & ,py?agoras !n desir$ !m to ?r[ ! fi%es alive back into ! sea1 = ! ,py?agoreans ate no fle%4 ,& x is fur!r relat$ z a miracle :i* !n took place1 t none ( ! fi%es :il/ !y 7 out ( ! wat] di$ dur+ ! c\nt+4 ,?is is ! k9d ( miracle t is record$1 & ! /ories ) :i* 8 biograph]s fill 8 life are ( ! same silly nature4 ,!y !n make him effect su* a g5]al impression ^u ! m9d ( ,italy1 t all ! t[ns re=m$ ^u _! luxuri\s & deprav$ cu/oms1 & ! tyrants p>tly gave up _! p[]s volunt>ily1 & p>tly !y 7 driv5 out4 ,!y !reby1 h[ev]1 commit su* hi/orical errors z to make ,*>ondas & ,zaleucus1 :o liv$ long be=e ,py?agoras1 8 disciples2 & simil>ly to ascribe ! expulsion & dea? ( ! tyrant ,phal>is to him1 & to 8 action4#cd ,ap>t f ^! fables1 !re rema9s z an hi/oric fact1 ! great "w :i* he accompli%$1 & ?is he did *iefly by e/abli%+ a s*ool1 & by ! great influ5ce ( 8 ord] ^u ! pr9cipal "p ( ! ,greco-,italian /ates1 or r by means ( ! rule :i* 0 ex]cis$ 9 ^! /ates ?r\gh ?is ord]1 :i* la/$ = a v long p]iod ( "t4 ,x is relat$ ( him t he 0 a v h&some man1 & ( a maje/ic appe>ance1 :i* captivat$ z mu* z x comm&$ respect4 ,) ?is natural dignity1 nobility ( mann]s1 & ! calm propriety ( 8 demean\r1 he unit$ ext]nal peculi>ities1 ?r\gh :i* he seem$ a rem>kable & my/]i\s be+4 ,he wore a :ite l95 g>m5t1 & refra9$ f p>tak+ ( c]ta9 foods4#ce ,p>ticul> p]sonality1 z also ! ext]nalities ( dress & ! l1 are no long] ( importance2 m5 let !mselves be guid$ by g5]al cu/om & fa%ion1 s9ce x is a matt] outside ( & indiff]5t to !m n to h _! own w "h2 = we h& ov] ! cont+5t to ! cont+5t1 & only foll[ ! ext]nal rationality t consi/s 9 id5tity & univ]sality4 ,to ?is outw>d p]sonality !re 0 add$ great eloqu5ce & pr(\nd p]ception2 n only did he und]take to imp>t ?is to 8 individual fri5ds1 b he proce$$ to br+ a g5]al influ5ce to be> on public culture1 bo? 9 reg>d to und]/&+ & to ! :ole mann] ( life & morals4 ,he n m]ely in/ruct$ 8 fri5ds1 b associat$ !m 9 a p>ticul> life 9 ord] to con/itute !m into p]sons & make !m skilful 9 bus9ess & em95t 9 morals4 ,! ,in/itute ( ,py?agoras grew into a league1 :i* includ$ all m5 & all life 9 its embrace2 = x 0 an elaborately fa%ion$ piece ( "w1 & excell5tly pla/ic 9 design4 ,( ! regulations ( ,py?agoras' league1 we h descriptions f 8 successors1 m especially f ! ,neo-,platoni/s1 :o are p>ticul>ly diffuse z reg>ds its laws4 ,! league _h1 on ! :ole1 ! "* ( a volunt>y prie/hood1 or a mona/ic ord] ( mod]n times4 ,:oev] wi%$ to be receiv$ 0 prov$ 9 respect ( 8 education & ob$i5ce1 & in=mation 0 collect$ ab\t 8 conduct1 incl9ations1 & occupations4 ,! memb]s 7 subject to a special tra9+1 9 :i* a diff]5ce 0 made among/ ^? receiv$1 9 t "s 7 exot]ic & "s esot]ic4 ,^! la/ 7 initiat$ into ! highe/ bran*es ( sci5ce1 & s9ce political op]ations 7 n exclud$ f ! ord]1 !y 7 also engag$ 9 active politics2 ! =m] _h to g ?r\gh a novitiate ( five ye>s4 ,ea* memb] mu/ h surr5d]$ 8 means to ! ord]1 b he receiv$ !m aga9 on retir+1 & 9 ! probation>y p]iod sil5ce 0 enjo9$ 774#cf ,?is obligation to cease f idle talk may be call$ an ess5tial condition = all culture & le>n+2 ) x m5 mu/ beg9 if !y wi% to compreh5d ! ?\ghts ( o!rs & rel9qui% _! own ideas4 ,we are 9 ! habit ( say+ t ! und]/&+ is cultivat$ ?r\gh que/ion+1 object+ & reply+1 c41 b1 9 fact1 x is n ?us =m$1 b made f )\t4 ,:at is inw>d 9 man is by culture got at & develop$2 h5ce ?\gh he rema9s sil5t1 he is none ! poor] 9 ?\ght or d5s] ( m9d4 ,he r acquires !reby ! p[] ( appreh5sion1 & comes to "k t 8 ideas & objections are valueless2 & z he le>ns t su* ideas are valueless1 he ceases to h !m4 ,n[ ! fact t 9 ,py?agoras !re is a sep>ation betwe5 ^? 9 ! c\rse ( prep>ation & ^? initiat$1 z also t sil5ce is p>ticul>ly enjo9$1 seems mo/ c]ta9ly to indicate t 9 8 bro!rhood bo? 7 =mal elem5ts & n m]ely z pres5t 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 z might occur spontane\sly 9 ! individual )\t any special law or ! application ( any p>ticul> consid]ation4 ,b "h x is important to rem>k t ,py?agoras may be reg>d$ z ! fir/ in/ructor 9 ,greece :o introduc$ ! tea*+s ( sci5ce2 nei!r ,?ales1 :o 0 e>li] ?an he1 nor 8 contempor>y ,anaxim&] taught sci5tifically1 b only imp>t$ _! ideas to _! fri5ds4 ,!re 71 g5]ally speak+1 no sci5ces at t "t2 !re 0 nei!r a sci5ce ( philosophy1 ma!matics1 jurisprud5ce or any?+ else1 b m]ely isolat$ propositions & facts respect+ ^! subjects4 ,:at 0 taught 0 ! use ( arms1 !orems1 music1 ! s++ ( ,hom]'s or ,hesiod's songs1 tripod *ants1 c41 or o!r arts4 ,?is tea*+ is accompli%$ 9 q ano!r way4 ,n[ if we said t ,py?agoras _h introduc$ ! tea*+ ( sci5ce among/ a p :o1 ?\gh l ! ,greeks1 untaught !re91 7 n /upid b mo/ lively1 cultur$ & loquaci\s1 ! ext]nal conditions ( su* tea*+ might 9 s f> be giv5 z foll[s3--77 ,he w\ld di/+ui% among/ ^? :o z yet _h no idea ( ! process ( le>n+ a sci5ce1 s t ^? :o fir/ began %\ld be exclud$ f t :i* 0 to be imp>t$ to ^? fur!r on2 & 77 he w\ld make !m leave ! unsci5tific mode ( speak+ ( su* matt]s1 or _! idle prattle1 alone1 & = ! fir/ "t /udy sci5ce4 ,b ! fact t ?is action bo? appe>$ to be =mal & likewise requir$ to be made su*1 01 on acc\nt ( its unwont$ "*1 a necess>y "o1 j because ! foll[]s ( ,py?agoras 7 n only num]\s1 necessitat+ a def9ite =m & ord]1 b also1 g5]ally speak+1 !y liv$ cont9ually toge!r4 ,?us a p>ticul> =m 0 natural to ,py?agoras1 because x 0 ! v fir/ "t t a tea*] 9 ,greece arriv$ at a totality1 or a new pr9ciple1 ?r\gh ! cultivation ( ! intellig5ce1 m9d & w4 ,?is common life _h n only ! educational side & t f\nd$ on ! ex]cise ( physical +5uity or skill1 b includ$ also t ( ! moral culture ( practical m54 ,b ev5 n[ ev]y?+ relat+ to morality appe>s & is or becomes altoge!r =mal1 or r ?is is s 9 z f> z x is consci\sly ?\ght ( z 9 ?is relation1 = to be =mal is to be univ]sal1 t :i* is oppos$ to ! individual4 ,x appe>s s p>ticul>ly to him :o comp>es ! univ]sal & ! individual & consci\sly reflects ov] bo?1 b ?is diff]5ce disappe>s = ^? liv+ !re91 to :om x is ord9>y habit4 ,f9ally1 we h suffici5t & full acc\nts ( ! outw>d =ms obs]v$ by ! ,py?agoreans 9 _! common life & also ( _! discipl9e4 ,= mu* ( ?is1 h[ev]1 we are indebt$ to ! impressions ( lat] writ]s4 ,9 ! league1 a life regulat$ 9 all respects 0 advocat$4 ,fir/ ( all1 x is told u1 t ! memb]s made !mselves kn[n by a simil> dress--! :ite l95 ( ,py?agoras4 ,!y _h a v /rict ord] = ea* day1 ( :i* ea* h\r _h its "w4 ,! morn+1 directly aft] ris+1 0 set aside = recall+ to memory ! hi/ory ( ! previ\s day1 because :at is to be done 9 ! day dep5ds *iefly on ! previ\s day2 simil>ly ! mo/ con/ant self-exam9ation 0 made ! duty ( ! ev5+ 9 ord] to f9d :e!r ! de$s done 9 ! day 7 "r or wrong4 ,true culture is n ! vanity ( direct+ s mu* att5tion to oneself & occupy+ oneself ) oneself z an individual1 b ! self-oblivion t absorbs oneself 9 ! matt] 9 h& & 9 ! univ]sal2 x is ?is consid]ation ( ! ?+ 9 h& t is alone ess5tial1 :ile t dang]\s1 useless1 anxi\s /ate does away ) fre$om4 ,!y _h also to le>n by he>t f ,hom] & f ,hesiod2 & all ?r\gh ! day !y occupi$ !mselves mu* ) music--"o ( ! pr9cipal p>ts ( ,greek education & culture4#cg ,gymna/ic ex]cises 9 wre/l+1 rac+1 ?r[+1 & s on1 7 ) !m also en=c$ by rule4 ,!y d9$ toge!r1 & "h1 too1 !y _h peculi> cu/oms1 b ( ^! ! acc\nts are diff]5t4 ,honey & bread 7 made _! pr9cipal food1 & wat] ! pr9cipal1 & inde$ only1 dr9k2 !y mu/ ?us h entirely refra9$ f eat+ meat z be+ associat$ ) metempsy*osis4 ,a di/9ction 0 also made reg>d+ vegetables--beans1 = example1 be+ =bidd54 ,on acc\nt ( ?is respect = beans1 !y 7 mu* d]id$1 yet 9 ! subsequ5t de/ruction ( ! political league1 sev]al ,py?agoreans1 be+ pursu$1 pref]r$ to die ?an to damage a field ( beans4#ch ,! ord]1 ! moral discipl9e :i* *>act]iz$ !m1 ! common int]c\rse ( m51 did n1 h[ev]1 endure long2 = ev5 9 ,py?agoras' life-"t ! affairs ( 8 league mu/ h become involv$1 s9ce he f\nd enemies :o =cibly ov]?rew him4 ,he drew d[n ^u him1 x is said1 ! envy ( o!rs1 & 0 accus$ ( ?9k+ diff]5tly f :at he seem$ to indicate1 & ?us ( hav+ an arrire p5se4 ,! real fact ( ! case 0 t ! individual belong$1 n entirely to 8 t[n1 b also to ano!r4 ,9 ?is cata/rophe1 ,py?agoras himself1 accord+ to ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dad71 met 8 dea? 9 ! #fi? ,olympiad 7#ejd1 ,b4,c47 9 a ris+ ( ! p aga9/ ^! ari/ocrats2 b x is unc]ta9 :e!r x happ5$ 9 ,crotona or 9 ,metapontum1 or 9 a w> betwe5 ! ,syracusans & ! ,agrig5t9es4 ,!re is also mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion ab\t ! age ( ,py?agoras1 = x is giv5 sometimes z #hj1 & sometimes z #ajd4ci ,= ! re/1 ! unity ( ! ,py?agorean s*ool1 ! fri5d%ip ( ! memb]s1 & ! connect+ bond ( culture h ev5 9 lat] times rema9$1 b n 9 ! =mal "* ( a league1 because :at is ext]nal mu/ pass away4 ,! hi/ory ( ,magna ,grcia is 9 g5]al little kn[n1 b ev5 9 ,plato's#dj "t we f9d ,py?agoreans appe>+ at ! head ( /ates or z a political p[]4 ,! ,py?agorean bro!rhood _h no relation ) ,greek public & religi\s life1 & !re=e c\ld n endure = long3 9 ,egypt & 9 ,asia exclusiv5ess & prie/ly influ5ce h _! home1 b ,greece1 9 its fre$om1 c\ld n let ! ,ea/]n sep>ation ( ca/e exi/4 ,fre$om "h is ! pr9ciple ( civic life1 b /ill x is n yet det]m9$ z pr9ciple 9 ! relations ( public & private law4 ,) u ! individual is free s9ce all are alike be=e ! law2 div]sity 9 cu/oms1 9 political relations & op9ions may ?us exi/1 & mu/ inde$ s d 9 organic /ates4 ,9 democratic ,greece1 on ! contr>y1 mann]s1 ! ext]nal mode ( life1 necess>ily pres]v$ a c]ta9 simil>ity1 & ! /amp ( simil>ity rema9$ impress$ on ^! wid] sph]es2 = ! exceptional condition ( ! ,py?agoreans1 :o c\ld n take _! "p z free citiz5s1 b 7 dep5d5t on ! plans & ends ( a comb9ation & l$ an exclusive religi\s life1 !re 0 no place 9 ,greece4 ,! pres]vation ( ! my/]ies c]ta9ly belong$ to ! ,eumolpid1 & o!r special =ms ( wor%ip to o!r p>ticul> families1 b !y 7 n reg>d$ 9 a political s5se z ( fix$ & def9ite ca/es1 b z prie/s usually are1 politicians1 citiz5s1 m5 l _! fell[s2 nor1 z ) ! ,*ri/ians1 0 ! sep>ation ( religi\s p]sons driv5 to ! extreme ( mona/ic rule4 ,9 ord9>y civic life 9 ,greece1 no "o c\ld prosp] or ma9ta9 8 position :o held peculi> pr9ciples1 or ev5 secrets1 & diff]$ 9 outw>d modes ( life & clo?+2 = :at evid5tly unit$ & di/+ui%$ !m 0 _! community ( pr9ciples & life--:e!r any?+ 0 good = ! commonweal? or n1 0 by !m publicly & op5ly discuss$4 ,! ,greeks are above hav+ p>ticul> clo?+1 ma9ta9+ special cu/oms ( wa%+1 ris+1 practis+ music1 & di/+ui%+ betwe5 pure & impure foods4 ,?is1 !y say1 is p>tly ! affair ( ! p>ticul> individual & ( 8 p]sonal fre$om1 & has no common end 9 view1 & p>tly x is a g5]al cu/om & usage = ev]ybody alike4 ,:at is mo/ important to u is ! ,py?agorean philosophy--n ! philosophy ( ,py?agoras s mu* z t ( ! ,py?agoreans1 z ,ari/otle & ,sextus express x4 ,! two mu/ c]ta9ly be di/+ui%$1 & f comp>+ :at is giv5 out z ,py?agorean doctr9e1 _m anomalies & discrepancies become evid5t1 z we %all see4 ,plato be>s ! blame ( hav+ de/roy$ ,py?agorean philosophy ?r\gh absorb+ :at is ,py?agorean 9 x into 8 own4 ,b ! ,py?agorean philosophy itself develop$ to a po9t :i* left x q o!r ?an :at at fir/ x 04 ,we he> ( _m foll[]s ( ,py?agoras 9 hi/ory :o h arriv$ at ?is or t conclusion1 su* z ,alcmon & ,philolaus2 & we see 9 _m cases ! simple undevelop$ =m contra/$ ) ! fur!r /ages ( developm5t 9 :i* ?\ght comes =? 9 def9it5ess & p[]4 ,we ne$1 h[ev]1 g no fur!r into ! hi/orical side ( ! di/9ction1 = we c only consid] ! ,py?agorean philosophy g5]ally2 simil>ly we mu/ sep>ate :at is kn[n to belong to ! ,neo-,platoni/s & ,neo-,py?agoreans1 & = ?is end we h s\rces to draw f :i* are e>li] ?an ?is p]iod1 namely ! express /atem5ts f\nd 9 ,ari/otle & ,sextus4 ,! ,py?agorean philosophy =ms ! transition f reali/ic to intellectual philosophy4 ,! ,ionic s*ool said t ess5ce or pr9ciple is a def9ite mat]ial4 ,! next conclusion is 77 t ! absolute is n grasp$ 9 natural =m1 b z a ?\ght det]m9ation4 77 ,!n x foll[s t det]m9ations mu/ be posit$ :ile ! beg9n+ 0 altoge!r undet]m9$4 ,! ,py?agorean philosophy has done bo?4 #a4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,numb]s4 ,?us ! orig9al & simple proposition ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy is1 accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #e71 8t numb] is ! reality ( ?+s1 & ! con/itution ( ! :ole univ]se 9 its det]m9ations is an h>moni\s sy/em ( numb]s & ( _! relations40 ,9 :at s5se is ?is /atem5t to be tak58 ,! fundam5tal det]m9ation ( numb] is its be+ a measure2 if we say t ev]y?+ is quantitatively or qualitatively det]m9$1 ! size & measure is only "o aspect or *>act]i/ic :i* is pres5t 9 ev]y?+1 b ! mean+ "h is t numb] itself is ! ess5ce & ! sub/ance ( ?+s1 & n alone _! =m4 ,:at fir/ /rikes u z surpris+ is ! boldness ( su* language1 :i* at once sets aside ev]y?+ :i* to ! ord9>y idea is real & true1 do+ away ) s5su\s exi/5ce & mak+ x to be ! creation ( ?\ght4 ,exi/5ce is express$ z some?+ :i* is n s5su\s1 & ?us :at to ! s5ses & to old ideas is altoge!r =eign1 is rais$ into & express$ z sub/ance & z true ,be+4 ,b at ! same "t ! necessity is %[n = mak+ numb] to be likewise ,notion1 to manife/ x z ! activity ( its unity ) ,be+1 = to u numb] does n seem to be 9 imm$iate unity ) ! ,notion4 ,n[ al?\gh ?is pr9ciple appe>s to u to be fanciful & wild1 we f9d 9 x t numb] is n m]ely some?+ s5su\s1 !re=e x br+s det]m9ation ) x1 univ]sal di/9ctions & anti!ses4 ,! anci5ts _h a v good k ( ^!4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #f7 says ( ,plato3 8,he ma9ta9$ t ! ma!matical elem5ts 9 ?+s are f\nd outside ( :at is m]ely s5su\s1 & ( ideas1 be+ betwe5 bo?2 x diff]s f :at is s5su\s 9 t x is et]nal & un*angeable1 & f ideas1 9 t x possesses multiplicity1 & h5ce ea* c resemble & be simil> to ano!r1 :ile ea* idea is = itself "o alone40 ,t is1 numb] c be repeat$2 ?us x is n s5su\s1 & /ill n yet ?\ght4 ,9 ! life ( ,py?agoras1 ?is is fur!r said by ,mal*us 7#df1 #dg73 8,py?agoras prop\nd$ philosophy 9 ?is wise 9 ord] to loose ?\ght f its fett]s4 ,)\t ?\ght no?+ true c be disc]n$ or kn[n2 ?\ght he>s & sees ev]y?+ 9 itself1 ! re/ is lame & bl9d4 ,to obta9 8 end1 ,py?agoras makes use ( ma!matics1 s9ce ?is /&s midway betwe5 :at is s5su\s & ?\ght1 z a k9d ( prelim9>y to :at is 9 & = itself40 ,mal*us quotes fur!r 7#dh1 #ec7 a passage f an e>ly writ]1 ,mod]atus3 8,because ! ,py?agoreans c\ld n cle>ly express ! absolute & ! fir/ pr9ciples ?r\gh ?\ght1 !y made use ( numb]s1 ( ma!matics1 because 9 ?is =m det]m9ations c\ld be easily express$40 ,= in/ance1 simil>ity c\ld be express$ z "o1 dissimil>ity z two4 8,?is mode ( tea*+ ?r\gh ! use ( numb]s1 :il/ x 0 ! fir/ philosophy1 is sup]s$$ on acc\nt ( its my/]i\s nature4 ,plato1 ,speusippus1 ,ari/otle1 c41 h /ol5 ! fruits ( _! "w f ! ,py?agoreans by mak+ a simple use ( _! pr9ciple40 ,9 ?is passage a p]fect k ( numb]s is evid5t4 ,! enigmatic "* ( ! det]m9ation ?r\gh numb] is :at mo/ engages our att5tion4 ,! numb]s ( ari?metic answ]s to ?\ght-det]m9ations1 = numb] has ! 8"o0 z elem5t & pr9ciple2 ! "o1 h[ev]1 is a category ( be+-=-self1 & ?us ( id5tity ) self1 9 t x excludes all else & is indiff]5t to :at is 8o!r40 ,! fur!r det]m9ations ( numb] are only fur!r comb9ations & repetitions ( ! "o1 :i* all ?r\gh rema9s fix$ & ext]nal2 numb]1 ?us1 is ! mo/ utt]ly dead1 notionless cont9uity possible2 x is an entirely ext]nal & me*anical process1 :i* is )\t necessity4 ,h5ce numb] is n imm$iate ,notion1 b only a beg9n+ ( ?\ght1 & a beg9n+ 9 ! wor/ possible way2 x is ! ,notion 9 its extreme/ ext]nality1 9 quantitative =m1 & 9 t ( indiff]5t di/9ction4 ,9 s f>1 ! "o has )9 itself bo? ! pr9ciple ( ?\ght & t ( mat]iality1 or ! det]m9ation ( ! s5su\s4 ,9 ord] t any?+ %\ld h ! =m ( ,notion1 x mu/ imm$iately 9 itself1 z det]m9$1 relate itself to its opposite1 j z positive is relat$ to negative2 & 9 ?is simple movem5t ( ! ,notion we f9d ! ideality ( diff]5ces & negation ( indep5d5ce to be ! *ief det]m9ation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! numb] ?ree1 = in/ance1 !re are always ?ree units1 ( :i* ea* is indep5d5t2 & ?is is :at con/itutes bo? _! defect & _! enigmatic "*4 ,= s9ce ! ess5ce ( ! ,notion is innate1 numb]s are ! mo/ wor?less in/rum5ts = express+ ,notion-det]m9ations4 ,n[ ! ,py?agoreans did n accept numb]s 9 ?is indiff]5t way1 b z ,notion4 8,at lea/ !y say t ph5om5a mu/ be compos$ ( simple elem5ts1 & x w\ld be contr>y to ! nature ( ?+s if ! pr9ciple ( ! univ]se p]ta9$ to s5su\s ph5om5a4 ,! elem5ts & pr9ciples are ?us n only intangible & invisible1 b altoge!r incorporeal40#da ,b h[ !y h come to make numb]s ! orig9al pr9ciple or ! absolute ,notion1 is bett] %[n f :at ,ari/otle says 9 8 ,metaphysics 7,i4 #e71 al?\gh he is %ort] ?an he w\ld h be51 because he alleges t else:]e 7infra41 p4 #bad7 he has spok5 ( x4 8,9 numb]s !y ?\ght t !y p]ceiv$ mu* great] similitude to :at is & :at takes place ?an 9 fire1 wat]1 or e>?2 s9ce a c]ta9 prop]ty ( numb]s 7 7 is ju/ice1 s is x ) 77 ! s\l & und]/&+2 ano!r prop]ty is opportunity1 & s on4 ,s9ce !y fur!r saw ! conditions & relations ( :at is h>moni\s pres5t 9 numb]s1 & s9ce numb]s are at ! basis ( all natural ?+s1 !y consid]$ numb]s to be ! elem5ts ( ev]y?+1 & ! :ole heav5s to be a h>mony & numb]40 ,9 ! ,py?agoreans we see ! necessity = "o endur+ univ]sal idea z a ?\ght-det]m9ation4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,,xii4 #d71 speak+ ( ideas1 says3 8,accord+ to ,h]aclitus1 ev]y?+ s5su\s fl[s on1 & ?us !re _c be a sci5ce ( ! s5su\s2 f ?is conviction ! doctr9e ( ideas sprang4 ,socrates is ! fir/ to def9e ! univ]sal ?r\gh inductive me?ods2 ! ,py?agoreans =m]ly conc]n$ !mselves m]ely ) a few matt]s ( :i* !y d]iv$ ! notions f numb]s--z1 = example1 ) :at opportun5ess1 or "r1 or m>riage are40 ,x is impossible to disc]n :at int]e/ ?is 9 itself c h2 ! only ?+ :i* is necess>y = u z reg>ds ! ,py?agoreans1 is to recognize any indications ( ! ,idea1 9 :i* !re may be a progressive pr9ciple4 ,?is is ! :ole ( ! ,py?agorean philosophy tak5 g5]ally4 ,we n[ h to come to clos] qu>t]s1 & to consid] ! det]m9ations1 or univ]sal significance4 ,9 ! ,py?agorean sy/em numb]s seem p>tly to be !mselves alli$ to categories--t is1 to be at once ! ?\ght-det]m9ations ( unity1 ( opposition & ( ! unity ( ^! two mom5ts4 ,9 "p1 ! ,py?agoreans f ! v fir/ gave =? univ]sal ideal det]m9ations ( numb]s z pr9ciples1 & recogniz$1 z ,ari/otle rem>ks 7,metaph4 ,i4 #e71 z ! absolute pr9ciples ( ?+s1 n s mu* imm$iate numb]s 9 _! ari?metic diff]5ces1 z ! pr9ciples ( numb]1 i4e4 _! rational diff]5ces4 ,! fir/ det]m9ation is unity g5]ally1 ! next duality or opposition4 ,x is mo/ important to trace back ! inf9itely manifold nature ( ! =ms & det]m9ations ( f9ality to _! univ]sal ?\ghts z ! mo/ simple pr9ciples ( all det]m9ation4 ,^! are n diff]5ces ( "o ?+ f ano!r1 b univ]sal & ess5tial diff]5ces )9 !mselves4 ,empirical objects di/+ui% !mselves by outw>d =m2 ?is piece ( pap] c be di/+ui%$ f ano!r1 %ades are diff]5t 9 col\r1 m5 are sep>at$ by diff]5ces ( temp]am5t & individuality4 ,b ^! det]m9ations are n ess5tial diff]5ces2 !y are c]ta9ly ess5tial = ! def9ite p>ticul>ity ( ! ?+s1 b ! :ole p>ticul>ity def9$ is n an exi/5ce :i* is 9 & = itself ess5tial1 = x is ! univ]sal alone :i* is ! self-conta9$ & ! sub/antial4 ,py?agoras began to seek ^! fir/ det]m9ations ( unity1 multiplicity1 opposition1 c4 ,) him !y are = ! mo/ "p numb]s2 b ! ,py?agoreans did n rema9 cont5t ) ?is1 = !y gave !m ! m concrete det]m9ations1 :i* really belong to _! successors4 ,necess>y progression & pro( are n to be s\ght = "h2 compreh5sion1 ! developm5t ( duality out ( unity are want+4 ,univ]sal det]m9ations are only f\nd & e/abli%$ 9 a q dogmatic =m1 & h5ce ! det]m9ations are dry1 de/itute ( process or dialectic1 & /ation>y4 a4 ,! ,py?agoreans say t ! fir/ simple ,notion is unity 772 n ! discrete1 multif>i\s1 ari?metic "o1 b id5tity z cont9uity & positivity1 ! entirely univ]sal ess5ce4 ,!y fur!r say1 accord+ to ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bfj1 #bfa73 8,all numb]s come "u ! ,notion ( ! "o2 = duality is "o duality & triplicity is equally a #8"o1' b ! numb] t5 is ! "o *ief numb]4 ,?is mov$ ,py?agoras to ass]t unity to be ! pr9ciple ( ?+s1 because1 ?r\gh p>tak+ ( x1 ea* is call$ "o40 ,t is to say1 ! pure contemplation ( ! implicit be+ ( a ?+ is ! "o1 ! be+ l self2 to all else x is n implicit1 b a relation%ip to :at is o!r4 ,?+s1 h[ev]1 are mu* m det]m9$ ?an be+ m]ely ?is dry 8"o40 ,! ,py?agoreans h express$ ?is rem>kable relation%ip ( ! entirely ab/ract "o to ! concrete exi/5ce ( ?+s ?r\gh 8simulation0 774 ,! same difficulty :i* !y "h enc\nt] is also f\nd 9 ,plato's ,ideas2 s9ce !y /& ov] aga9/ ! concrete z species1 ! relation ( concrete to univ]sal is naturally an important po9t4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #f7 ascribes ! expression 8p>ticipation0 77 to ,plato1 :o took x 9 place ( ! ,py?agorean expression 8simulation40 ,simulation is a figurative1 *ildi% way ( putt+ ! relation%ip2 p>ticipation is und\bt$ly m def9ite4 ,b ,ari/otle says1 ) ju/ice1 t bo? are insuffici5t2 t ,plato has n "h arriv$ at any fur!r developm5t1 b has only sub/itut$ ano!r "n4 8,to say t ideas are prototypes & t o!r ?+s p>ticipate 9 !m is empty talk & a poetic metaphor2 = :at is ! active pr9ciple t looks ^u ! ideas80 7,metaph4 ,i4 #i74 ,simulation & p>ticipation are no?+ m ?an o!r names = relation2 to give names is easy1 b x is ano!r ?+ to compreh5d4 b4 ,:at comes next is ! opposition1 ! duality 771 ! di/9ction1 ! p>ticul>2 su* det]m9ations h value ev5 n[ 9 ,philosophy2 ,py?agoras m]ely br\ght !m fir/ to consci\sness4 ,n[1 z ?is unity relates to multiplicity1 or ?is be+-l-self to be+ ano!r1 diff]5t applications are possible1 & ! ,py?agoreans h express$ !mselves v>i\sly z to ! =ms :i* ?is fir/ opposition takes4 77 ,!y said1 accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #e73 8,! elem5ts ( numb] are ! ev5 & ! odd2 ! latt] is ! f9ite0 7or pr9ciple ( limitation7 8& ! =m] is ! inf9ite2 ?us ! unity proce$s f bo? & out ( ?is aga9 comes numb]40 ,! elem5ts ( imm$iate numb] are n yet !mselves numb]s3 ! opposition ( ^! elem5ts fir/ appe>s 9 ari?metical =m r ?an z ?\ght4 ,b ! "o is z yet no numb]1 because z yet x is n quantity2 unity & quantity belong to numb]4 ,!on ( ,smyrna#db says3 8,ari/otle gives1 9 8 writ+s on ! ,py?agoreans1 ! reason :y1 9 _! view1 ! "o p>takes ( ! nature ( ev5 & odd2 t is1 "o1 posit$ z ev51 makes odd2 z odd1 x makes ev54 ,?is is :at x c\ld n d unless x p>took ( bo? natures1 = :i* reason !y also call$ ! "o1 ev5-odd0 774 77 ,if we foll[ ! absolute ,idea 9 ?is fir/ mode1 ! opposition w also be call$ ! undet]m9$ duality 7 74 ,sextus speaks m def9itely 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bfa1 #bfb7 z foll[s3 8,unity1 ?\ght ( 9 its id5tity ) itself 7 71 is unity2 if ?is adds itself to itself z some?+ diff]5t 7 71 undet]m9$ duality results1 because no "o ( ! det]m9$ or o!rwise limit$ numb]s is ?is duality1 b all are kn[n ?r\gh _! p>ticipation 9 x1 z has be5 said ( unity4 ,!re are1 accord+ to ?is1 two pr9ciples 9 ?+s2 ! fir/ unity1 ?r\gh p>ticipation 9 :i* all numb]-units are units1 & also undet]m9$ duality ?r\gh p>ticipation 9 :i* all det]m9$ dualities are dualities40 ,duality is j z ess5tial a mom5t 9 ! ,notion z is unity4 ,comp>+ !m ) "o ano!r1 we may ei!r consid] ! unity to be =m & duality matt]1 or ! o!r way2 & bo? appe> 9 diff]5t modes4 77 ,unity1 z ! be+-l-self1 is ! =mless2 b 9 duality1 z ! unlike1 !re comes division or =m4 77 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we take =m z ! simple activity ( absolute =m1 ! "o is :at det]m9es2 & duality z ! pot5tiality ( multiplicity1 or z multiplicity n posit$1 is matt]4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #f7 says t x is *>act]i/ic ( ,plato t 8he makes out ( matt] _m1 b ) him ! =m orig9ates only once2 :]eas out ( "o matt] only "o table proce$s1 :oev] br+s =m to matt]1 9 spite ( its unity1 makes _m tables40 ,he also ascribes ?is to ,plato1 t 8in/ead ( %[+ ! undet]m9$ to be simple 7 71 he made ( x a duality--! great & small40 77 ,fur!r consid]ation ( ?is opposition1 9 :i* ,py?agoreans diff] f "o ano!r1 %[s u ! imp]fect beg9n+ ( a table ( categories :i* 7 !n br\ght =w>d by !m1 z lat] on by ,ari/otle4 ,h5ce ! latt] 0 reproa*$ = hav+ borr[$ ^! ?\ght-det]m9ations f !m2 & x c]ta9ly 0 ! case t ! ,py?agoreans fir/ made ! opposite to be an ess5tial mom5t 9 ! absolute4 ,!y fur!r det]m9$ ! ab/ract & simple ,notions1 al?\gh x 0 9 an inadequate way1 s9ce _! table pres5ts a mixture ( anti!ses 9 ! ord9>y idea & ! ,notion1 )\t foll[+ ^! up m fully4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #e7 ascribes ^! det]m9ations ei!r to ,py?agoras himself1 or else to ,alcmon 8:o fl\ri%$ 9 ! "t ( ,py?agoras' old age10 s t 8ei!r ,alcmon took !m f ! ,py?agoreans or ! latt] took !m f him40 ,( ^! anti!ses or co-ord9ates to :i* all ?+s are trac$1 t5 are giv51 =1 accord+ to ! ,py?agoreans1 t5 is a numb] ( great significance3-- #a4 ,! f9ite & ! inf9ite4 #b4 ,! odd & ! ev54 #c4 ,! "o & ! _m4 #d4 ,! "r & ! left4 #e4 ,! male & ! female4 #f4 ,! quiesc5t & ! mov+4 #g4 ,! /raight & ! crook$4 #h4 ,light & d>kness4 #i4 ,good & evil4 #aj4 ,! squ>e & ! p>allelogram4 ,?is is c]ta9ly an attempt t[>ds a developm5t ( ! ,idea ( speculative philosophy 9 itself1 i4e4 9 ,notions2 b ! attempt does n seem to h gone fur!r ?an ?is simple enum]ation4 ,x is v important t at fir/ only a collection ( g5]al ?\ght-det]m9ations %\ld be made1 z 0 done by ,ari/otle2 b :at we "h see ) ! ,py?agoreans is only a rude beg9n+ ( ! fur!r det]m9ation ( anti!ses1 )\t ord] & s5se1 & v simil> to ! ,indian enum]ation ( pr9ciples & sub/ances4 77 ,we f9d ! fur!r progress ( ^! det]m9ations 9 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bfb-bgg71 :5 he speaks ab\t an exposition ( ! lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,x is a v good & well consid]$ acc\nt ( ! ,py?agorean !ories1 :i* has "s ?\ght 9 x4 ,! exposition foll[s ^! l9es3 8,! fact t ^! two pr9ciples are ! pr9ciples ( ! :ole1 is %[n by ! ,py?agoreans 9 manifold ways40 4 8,!re are ?ree me?ods ( ?9k+ ?+s2 fir/ly1 9 accordance ) div]sity1 secondly1 ) opposition1 & ?irdly1 accord+ to relation4 77 ,:at is consid]$ 9 its m]e div]sity1 is consid]$ = itself2 ?is is ! case ) ^? subjects 9 :i* ea* relates only to itself1 su* z horse1 plant1 e>?1 air1 wat] & fire4 ,su* matt]s are ?\ght ( z deta*$ & n 9 relation to o!rs40 ,?is is ! det]m9ation ( id5tity ) self or ( indep5d5ce4 77 8,9 ref]5ce to opposition1 ! "o is det]m9$ z evid5tly contra/+ ) ! o!r2 we h examples ( ?is 9 good & evil1 "r & wrong1 sacr$ & pr(ane1 re/ & movem5t1 c4 77 ,accord+ to relation 7 71 we h ! object :i* is det]m9$ 9 accordance ) its relation%ip to o!rs1 su* z "r & left1 ov] & "u1 d\ble & half4 ,"o is only compreh5sible f ! o!r2 = ,i _c tell :i* is my left except+ by my "r40 ,ea* ( ^! relations 9 its opposition1 is likewise set up = itself 9 a position ( indep5d5ce4 8,! diff]5ce betwe5 relation%ip & opposition is t 9 opposition ! com+ into exi/5ce ( ! #8"o' is at ! exp5se ( ! #8o!r1' & conv]sely4 ,if motion is tak5 away1 re/ comm5ces2 if motion beg9s1 re/ ceases2 if heal? is tak5 away1 sickness beg9s1 & conv]sely4 ,9 a condition ( relation%ip1 on ! contr>y1 bo? take _! rise1 & bo? simil>ly cease toge!r2 if ! "r is remov$1 s also is ! left2 ! d\ble goes & ! half is de/roy$40 ,:at is "h tak5 away is tak5 n only z reg>ds its opposition1 b also 9 its exi/5ce4 8,a second diff]5ce is t :at is 9 opposition has no middle2 = example1 betwe5 sickness & heal?1 life & dea?1 re/ & motion1 !re is no ?ird4 ,relativity1 on ! contr>y1 has a middle1 = betwe5 l>g] & small] !re is ! l2 & betwe5 too l>ge & too small ! "r size is ! m$ium40 ,pure opposition passes ?r\gh nullity to opposition2 imm$iate extremes1 on ! o!r h&1 subsi/ 9 a ?ird or middle /ate1 b 9 su* a case no long] z oppos$4 ,?is exposition %[s a c]ta9 reg>d = univ]sal1 logical det]m9ations1 :i* n[ & always h ! greate/ possible importance1 & are mom5ts 9 all conceptions & 9 ev]y?+ t is4 ,! nature ( ^! opposites is1 inde$1 n consid]$ "h1 b x is ( importance t !y %\ld be br\ght to consci\sness4 4 8,n[ s9ce ^! ?ree repres5t ?ree diff]5t g5]a1 ! subjects & ! two-fold opposite1 !re mu/ be a high] g5us ov] ea* ( !m :i* takes ! fir/ place1 s9ce ! g5us comes be=e its subord9ate k9ds4 ,if ! univ]sal is tak5 away1 s is ! k9d2 on ! o!r h&1 if ! k9d1 n ! g5us1 = ! =m] dep5ds on ! latt]1 b n ! contr>y way40 77 8,! ,py?agoreans h decl>$ ! "o to be ! highe/ g5us ( :at is consid]$ z 9 & = itself0 7( subjects 9 _! div]sity72 ?is is1 prop]ly speak+1 no?+ m ?an translat+ ! det]m9ations ( ! ,notion into numb]s4 77 8,:at is 9 opposition has1 !y say1 z its g5us ! l & ! unlike2 re/ is ! l1 = x is capable ( no?+ m & no?+ less2 b movem5t is ! unlike4 ,?us :at is accord+ to nature is l itself2 x is a po9t :i* is n capable ( be+ int5sifi$ 772 :at is oppos$ to x is unlike4 ,heal? is l1 sickness is unlike4 77 ,! g5us ( t :i* is 9 an indiff]5t relation%ip is excess & want1 ! m & ! less20 9 ?is we h ! quantitative relation j z we =m]ly _h ! qualitative4 4 ,we n[ come = ! fir/ "t to ! two opposites3 8,^! ?ree g5]a ( :at is = itself1 9 opposition & 9 relation%ip1 mu/ n[ come "u0--yet simpl]1 high]--8g5]a10 i4e4 ?\ght-det]m9ations4 8,simil>ity r$uces itself to ! det]m9ation ( unity40 ,! g5us ( ! subjects is ! v be+ on its own acc\nt4 8,dissimil>ity1 h[ev]1 consi/s ( excess & want1 b bo? ( ^! come "u undet]m9$ duality20 !y are ! undet]m9$ opposition1 opposition g5]ally4 8,?us f all ^! relation%ips ! fir/ unity & ! undet]m9$ duality proce$20 ! ,py?agoreans said t su* are f\nd to be ! univ]sal modes ( ?+s4 8,f ^!1 !re fir/ comes ! #8"o' ( numb]s & ! #8two' ( numb]s2 f ! fir/ unity1 ! "o2 f ! unity & ! undet]m9$ duality ! two2 = twice ! "o is two4 ,! o!r numb]s take _! orig9 9 a simil> way1 = ! unity ov] moves =w>d1 & ! undet]m9$ duality g5]ates ! two40 ,?is transition ( qualitative into quantitative opposition is n cle>4 8,h5ce und]ly+ ^! pr9ciples1 unity is ! active pr9ciple0 or =m1 8b ! two is ! passive matt]2 & j z !y make numb]s arise f !m1 s d !y make ! sy/em ( ! _w & t :i* is conta9$ 9 x40 ,! nature ( ^! det]m9ations is to be f\nd 9 transition & 9 movem5t4 ,! deep] significance ( ?is reflection re/s 9 ! connection ( univ]sal ?\ght-det]m9ations ) ari?metic numb]s--9 subord9at+ ^! & mak+ ! univ]sal g5us fir/4 ,be=e ,i say any?+ ( ! fur!r sequ5ce ( ^! numb]s1 x mu/ be rem>k$ t !y1 z we see !m repres5t$ "h1 are pure ,notions4 77 ,! absolute1 simple ess5ce divides itself into unity & multiplicity1 ( :i* ! "o sublates ! o!r1 & at ! same "t x has its exi/5ce 9 ! opposition4 77 ,! opposition has at ! same "t subsi/5ce1 & 9 ?is is f\nd ! manifold nature ( equival5t ?+s4 77 ,! return ( absolute ess5ce into itself is ! negative unity ( ! individual subject & ( ! univ]sal or positive4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 ! pure speculative ,idea ( absolute exi/5ce2 x is ?is movem5t3 ) ,plato ! ,idea is no?+ else4 ,! speculative makes its appe>ance "h z speculative2 :oev] does n "k ! speculative1 does n believe t 9 indicat+ simple ,notions su* z ^!1 absolute ess5ce is express$4 ,"o1 _m1 l1 unlike1 m or less1 are trivial1 empty1 dry mom5ts2 t !re %\ld be conta9$ 9 !m absolute ess5ce1 ! ri*es & ! organization ( ! natural1 z ( ! spiritual _w1 does n seem possible to him :o1 accu/om$ to ord9>y ideas1 has n gone back f s5su\s exi/5ce into ?\ght4 ,x does n seem to su* a "o t ,god is1 9 a speculative s5se1 express$ !reby--t :at is mo/ sublime c be put 9 ^? common words1 :at is deepe/1 9 :at is s well kn[n1 self-evid5t & op51 & :at is ri*e/1 9 ! pov]ty ( ^! ab/ractions4 ,x is at fir/ 9 opposition to common reality t ?is idea ( reality z ! manifold ( simple ess5ce1 has 9 itself its opposition & ! subsi/5ce ( ! same2 ?is ess5tial1 simple ,notion ( reality is elevation into ?\ght1 b x is n flight f :at is real1 b ! expression ( ! real itself 9 its ess5ce4 ,we "h f9d ! ,reason :i* expresses its ess5ce2 & absolute reality is unity imm$iately 9 itself4 ,?us x is pre-em95tly 9 relation to ?is reality t ! difficulties ( ^? :o d n ?9k speculatively h become s int5se4 ,:at is its relation to common reality8 ,:at has tak5 place is j :at happ5s ) ! ,platonic ,ideas1 :i* approximate v closely to ^! numb]s1 or r to pure ,notions4 ,t is to say1 ! fir/ "q is1 8,numb]s1 :]e are !y8 ,disp]s$ ?r\gh space1 dwell+ 9 indep5d5ce 9 ! heav5 ( ideas8 ,!y are n ?+s imm$iately 9 !mselves1 = a ?+1 a sub/ance1 is some?+ q o!r ?an a numb]3 a body be>s no simil>ity to x40 ,to ?is we may answ] t ! ,py?agoreans did n signify any?+ l t :i* we und]/& by prototypes--z if ideas1 z ! laws & relations ( ?+s1 7 pres5t 9 a creative consci\sness z ?\ghts 9 ! div9e und]/&+1 sep>at$ f ?+s z are ! ?\ghts ( an arti/ f 8 "w4 ,/ill less did !y mean only subjective ?\ghts 9 our consci\sness1 = we use ! absolute anti!sis z ! explanation ( ! exi/5ce ( qualities 9 ?+s1 b :at det]m9es is ! real sub/ance ( :at exi/s1 s t ea* ?+ is ess5tially j its hav+ 9 x unity1 duality1 z also _! anti!sis & connection4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #e1 #f7 puts x cle>ly ?us3 8,x is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,py?agoreans t !y did n ma9ta9 ! f9ite & ! inf9ite & ! ,"o1 to be1 l fire1 e>?1 c41 diff]5t natures or to h ano!r reality ?an ?+s2 = ! ,inf9ite & ! ab/ract ,"o are to !m1 ! sub/ance ( ! ?+s ( :i* !y are pr$icat$4 ,h5ce too1 !y said1 ,numb] is ! ess5ce ( all ?+s4 ,?us !y d n sep>ate numb]s f ?+s1 b consid] !m to be ?+s !mselves4 ,numb] to !m is ! pr9ciple & matt] ( ?+s1 z also _! qualities & =ces20 h5ce x is ?\ght z sub/ance1 or ! ?+ z x is 9 ! reality ( ?\ght4 ,^! ab/ract det]m9ations !n became m concretely det]m9$1 especially by ! lat] philosoph]s1 9 _! speculations reg>d+ ,god4 ,we may in/ance ,iambli*us1 = example1 9 ! "w 1 ascrib$ to him by ,porphyry & ,nicoma*us4 ,^? philosoph]s s\ght to raise ! "* ( popul> religion1 = !y ins]t$ su* ?\ght-det]m9ations z ^! into religi\s conceptions4 ,by ,monas !y und]/ood no?+ o!r ?an ,god2 !y also call x ,m9d1 ! ,h]maphrodite 7:i* conta9s bo? det]m9ations1 odd z well z ev571 & likewise sub/ance1 reason1 *aos 7because x is undet]m9$71 ,t>t>us1 ,jupit]1 & ,=m4 ,!y call$ ! duad by simil> names1 su* z matt]1 & !n ! pr9ciple ( ! unlike1 /rife1 t :i* begets1 ,isis1 c4 c4 ,! triad 77 has n[ become a mo/ important numb]1 see+ t 9 x ! monad has rea*$ reality & p]fection4 ,! monad proce$s ?r\gh ! duad1 & aga9 br\ght into unity ) ?is undet]m9$ manifold1 x is ! triad4 ,unity & multiplicity are pres5t 9 ! triad 9 ! wor/ possible way--z an ext]nal comb9ation2 b h[ev] ab/ractly ?is is und]/ood1 ! triad is /ill a pr(\nd =m4 ,! triad !n is held to be ! fir/ p]fect =m 9 ! univ]sal4 ,ari/otle 7,de ,clo ,i4 #a7 puts ?is v cle>ly3 8,! corporeal has no dim5sion outside ( ! ,?ree2 h5ce ! ,py?agoreans also say t ! all & ev]y?+ is det]m9$ ?r\gh triplicity10 t is1 x has absolute =m4 8,= ! numb] ( ! :ole has end1 middle1 & beg9n+2 & ?is is ! triad40 ,nev]!less !re is some?+ sup]ficial 9 ! wi% to br+ ev]y?+ "u x1 z is done 9 ! sy/ematization ( ! m mod]n natural philosophy4 8,!re=e we1 too1 tak+ ?is det]m9ation f nature1 make use ( x 9 ! wor%ip ( ! gods1 s t we believe !m to h be5 prop]ly apo/rophiz$ only :5 we h call$ ^u !m ?ree times 9 pray]4 ,two we call bo?1 b n all2 we speak fir/ ( ?ree z all4 ,:at is det]m9$ ?r\gh ?ree is ! fir/ totality 772 :at is 9 triple =m is p]fectly divid$4 ,"s is m]ely 9 "o1 o!r is only 9 two1 b ?is is ,all40 ,:at is p]fect1 or has reality1 is its id5tity1 opposition & unity1 l numb] g5]ally2 b 9 triplicity ?is is actual1 because x has beg9n+1 middle1 & end4 ,ea* ?+ is simple z beg9n+2 x is o!r or manifold z middle1 & its end is ! return ( its o!r nature into unity or m9d2 if we take ?is triplicity f a ?+1 we negate x & make ( x an ab/ract con/ruction ( ?\ght4 ,x is n[ compreh5sible t ,*ri/ians s\ght & f\nd ! ,tr9ity 9 ?is ?reefold nature4 ,x has (t5 be5 made a sup]ficial reason = object+ to !m2 sometimes ! idea ( ! ,tr9ity z x 0 pres5t to ! anci5ts1 0 consid]$ z above reason1 z a secret1 & h5ce1 too high2 sometimes x 0 deem$ too absurd4 ,b f ! "o cause or f ! o!r1 !y did n wi% to br+ x into clos] relation to reason4 ,if !re is a mean+ 9 ?is ,tr9ity1 we mu/ try to und]/& x4 ,x w\ld be an anomal\s ?+ if !re 7 no?+ 9 :at has = two ?\s& ye>s be5 ! holie/ ,*ri/ian idea2 if x 7 too holy to be br\ght d[n to ! level ( reason1 or 7 some?+ n[ q obsolete1 s t x w\ld be contr>y to good ta/e & s5se to try to f9d a mean+ 9 x4 ,x is ! ,notion ( ! ,tr9ity alone ( :i* we c speak1 & n ( ! idea ( ,fa!r & ,son1 = we am n deal+ ) ^! natural relation%ips4 d4 ,! ,f\r 77 is ! triad b m develop$1 & h5ce ) ! ,py?agoreans x held a high position4 ,t ! tetrad %\ld be consid]$ to be ?us complete1 rem9ds "o ( ! f\r elem5ts1 ! physical & ! *emical1 ! f\r cont95ts1 c4 ,9 nature f\r is f\nd to be pres5t ev]y:]e1 & h5ce ?is numb] is ev5 n[ equally e/eem$ 9 natural philosophy4 ,z ! squ>e ( two1 ! f\rfold is ! p]fection ( ! two-fold 9 z f> z x--only hav+ itself z det]m9ation1 i4e4 be+ multipli$ ) itself--returns into id5tity ) itself4 ,b 9 ! triad ! tetrad is 9 s f> conta9$1 z t ! =m] is ! unity1 ! o!r-be+1 & ! union ( bo? ^! mom5ts1 & ?us1 s9ce ! diff]5ce1 z posit$1 is a d\ble1 if we c\nt x1 f\r mom5ts result4 ,to make ?is cle>]1 ! tetrad is compreh5d$ z ! 1 ! effici5t1 active f\r 7f & 72 & aft]w>ds ?is is by ! ,py?agoreans made ! mo/ notable numb]4 ,9 ! fragm5ts ( a poem ( ,emp$ocles1 :o orig9ally 0 a ,py?agorean1 x is %[n 9 :at high reg>d ?is tetraktus1 z repres5t$ by ,py?agoras1 0 held3 8,if ?\ do/ ?is1 ,x w lead !e 9 ! pa? ( holy piety4 ,i swe> x ,by ! "o :o to our _s has giv5 ! ,tetraktus1 ,:i* has 9 x et]nal nature's s\rce & root40#dc e4 ,f ?is ! ,py?agoreans proce$ to ! t51 ano!r =m ( ?is tetrad4 ,z ! f\r is ! p]fect =m ( ?ree1 ?is f\rfold1 ?us p]fect$ & develop$ s t all its mom5ts %all be accept$ z real diff]5ces1 is ! numb] t5 771 ! real tetrad4 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,iv4 #c2 ,,vii4 #id1 #ie7 says3 8,tetraktus means ! numb] :i*1 compris+ )9 itself ! f\r fir/ numb]s1 =ms ! mo/ p]fect numb]1 t is ! numb] t52 = "o & two & ?ree & f\r make t54 ,:5 we come to t51 we aga9 consid] x z a unity & beg9 once m f ! beg9n+4 ,! tetraktus1 x is said1 has ! s\rce & root ( et]nal nature )9 itself1 because x is ! ,logos ( ! univ]se1 ( ! spiritual & ( ! corporeal40 ,x is an important "w ( ?\ght to %[ ! mom5ts n m]ely to be f\r units1 b complete numb]s2 b ! reality 9 :i* ! det]m9ations are laid hold (1 is "h1 h[ev]1 only ! ext]nal & sup]ficial "o ( numb]2 !re is no ,notion pres5t al?\gh ! tetraktus does n mean numb] s mu* z idea4 ,"o ( ! lat] philosoph]s1 ,proclus1 79 ,timum1 p4 #bfi7 says1 9 a ,py?agorean hymn3-- 8,! div9e numb] goes on10444 8,till f ! /ill unpr(an$ sanctu>y ( ! ,monad ,x rea*es to ! holy ,tetrad1 :i* creates ! "m ( all t is2 ,:i* receiv$ all )9 itself1 or =m$ ! anci5t b\nds ( all1 ,incapable ( turn+ or ( we>y+2 m5 call x ! holy ,dekad40 ,:at we f9d ab\t ! progression ( ! o!r numb]s is m indef9ite & unsatisfy+1 & ! ,notion loses itself 9 !m4 ,up to five !re may c]ta9ly be a k9d ( ?\ght 9 numb]s1 b f six onw>ds !y are m]ely arbitr>y det]m9ations4 #b4 ,application ( ! ,sy/em to ! ,univ]se4 ,?is simple idea & ! simple reality conta9$ !re91 mu/ n[1 h[ev]1 be fur!r develop$ 9 ord] to come to reality z x is :5 put toge!r & exp&$4 ,! "q n[ meets u z to h[1 9 ?is relation1 ! ,py?agoreans pass$ f ab/ract logical det]m9ations to =ms :i* indicate ! concrete use ( numb]s4 ,9 :at p]ta9s to space or music1 det]m9ations ( objects =m$ by ! ,py?agoreans ?r\gh numb]s1 /ill be> a some:at clos] relation to ! ?+1 b :5 !y ent] ! region ( ! concrete 9 nature & 9 m9d1 numb]s become purely =mal & empty4 a4 ,to %[ h[ ! ,py?agoreans con/ruct$ out ( numb]s ! sy/em ( ! _w1 ,sextus in/ances 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bgg-bhc71 space relations1 & und\bt$ly we h 9 !m to d ) su* ideal pr9ciples1 = numb]s are1 9 fact1 p]fect det]m9ations ( ab/ract space4 ,t is to say1 if we beg9 ) ! po9t1 ! fir/ negation ( vacuity1 8! po9t corresponds to unity2 x is indivisible & ! pr9ciple ( l9es1 z ! unity is t ( numb]s4 ,:ile ! po9t exi/s z ! monad or ,"o1 ! l9e expresses ! duad or ,two1 = bo? become compreh5sible ?r\gh transition2 ! l9e is ! pure relation%ip ( two po9ts & is )\t bread?4 ,surface results f ! ?reefold2 b ! solid figure or body belongs to ! f\rfold1 & 9 x !re are ?ree dim5sions pres5t4 ,o!rs say t body consi/s ( "o po9t0 7i4e4 its ess5ce is "o po9t71 8= ! fl[+ po9t makes ! l9e1 ! fl[+ l9e1 h[ev]1 makes surface1 & ?is surface makes body4 ,!y di/+ui% !mselves f ! fir/ m5tion$1 9 t ! =m] make numb]s prim>ily proce$ f ! monad & ! undet]m9$ duad1 & !n po9ts & l9es1 plane surfaces & solid figures1 f numb]s1 :ile !y con/ruct all f "o po9t40 ,to ! fir/1 di/9ction is opposition or =m set =? z duality2 ! o!rs h =m z activity4 8,?us :at is corporeal is =m$ "u ! direct+ influ5ce ( numb]s1 b f !m also proce$ ! def9ite bodies1 wat]1 air1 fire1 & ! :ole univ]se g5]ally1 :i* !y decl>e to be h>moni\s4 ,?is h>mony is "o :i* aga9 consi/s ( num]al relations only1 :i* con/itute ! v>i\s concords ( ! absolute h>mony40 ,we mu/ "h rem>k t ! progression f ! po9t to actual space also has ! signification ( occupation ( space1 = 8accord+ to _! fundam5tal t5ets & tea*+10 says ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #h71 8!y speak ( s5su\sly p]ceptible bodies 9 n[ise diff]5tly f ^? :i* are ma!matical40 ,s9ce l9es & surfaces are only ab/ract mom5ts 9 space1 ext]nal con/ruction likewise proce$s f "h v well4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! transition f ! occupation ( space g5]ally to :at is det]m9$1 to wat]1 e>?1 c41 is q ano!r ?+ & is m difficult2 or r ! ,py?agoreans h n tak5 ?is /ep1 = ! univ]se itself has1 ) !m1 ! speculative1 simple =m1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! fact ( be+ repres5t$ z a sy/em ( numb]-relations4 ,b ) all ?is1 ! physical is n yet det]m9$4 b4 ,ano!r application or exhibition ( ! ess5tial nature ( ! det]m9ation ( numb]s is to be f\nd 9 ! relations ( music1 & x is m especially 9 _! case t numb] con/itutes ! det]m9+ factor4 ,! diff]5ces "h %[ !mselves z v>i\s relations ( numb]s1 & ?is mode ( det]m9+ :at is musical is ! only "o4 ,! relation borne by tones to "o ano!r is f\nd$ on quantitative diff]5ces :]eby h>monies may be =m$1 9 di/9ction to o!rs by :i* discords are con/itut$4 ,! ,py?agoreans1 accord+ to ,porphyry 7,de vita ,py?4 #cj71 treat$ music z some?+ s\l-in/ruct+ & s*ola/ic ,psy*agogis*es und ,pdagogis*es4 ,py?agoras 0 ! fir/ to disc]n t musical relations1 ^! audible diff]5ces1 are ma!matically det]m9able1 t :at we he> z consonance & dissonance is a ma!matical arrangem5t4 ,! subjective1 &1 9 ! case ( he>+1 simple feel+ :i*1 h[ev]1 exi/s inh]5tly 9 relation1 ,py?agoras has ju/ifi$ to ! und]/&+1 & he atta9$ 8 object by means ( fix$ det]m9ations4 ,= to him ! discov]y ( ! fundam5tal tones ( h>mony are ascrib$1 & ^! re/ on ! mo/ simple numb]-relations4 ,iambli*us 7,de vita ,py?4 ,,xxvi4 #aae7 says t ,py?agoras1 9 pass+ by ! work%op ( a smi?1 obs]v$ ! /rokes t gave =? a p>ticul> *ord2 he !n took into consid]ation ! weight ( ! hamm] giv+ =? a c]ta9 h>mony1 & f t det]m9$ ma!matically ! tone z relat$ !reto4#dd ,& f9ally he appli$ ! same1 & exp]im5t$ 9 /r+s1 by :i* means !re 7 ?ree diff]5t relations pres5t$ to him--,diapason1 ,diap5te1 & ,diatess>on4 ,x is kn[n t ! tone ( a /r+1 or1 9 ! w9d in/rum5t1 ( its equival5t1 ! column ( air 9 a re$1 dep5ds on ?ree conditions2 on its l5g?1 on its ?ickness1 & on ! am\nt ( t5sion4 ,n[ if we h two /r+s ( equal ?ickness & l5g?1 a diff]5ce 9 t5sion br+s ab\t a diff]5ce 9 s\nd4 ,if we want to "k :at tone any /r+ has1 we h only to consid] its t5sion1 & ?is may be measur$ by ! weight dep5d+ f ! /r+1 by means ( :i* x is ext5d$4 ,py?agoras "h f\nd t if "o /r+ 7 weight$ ) twelve p\nds1 & ano!r ) six 7 1 #a 3 #b7 x w\ld produce ! musical *ord ( ! octave 7 72 ! proportion ( #h 3 #ab1 or ( #b 3 #c 7 7 w\ld give ! *ord ( ! fif? 7 72 ! proportion ( #i 3 #ab1 or #c 3 #d 7 71 ! f\r? 7 74#de ,a diff]5t numb] ( vibrations 9 l times det]m9es ! height & dep? ( ! tone1 & ?is numb] is likewise proportionate to ! weight1 if ?ickness & l5g? are equal4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! m di/5d$ /r+ makes z _m vibrations aga9 z ! o!r2 9 ! second case1 x makes ?ree vibrations = ! o!r's two1 & s x goes on4 ,"h numb] is ! real factor :i* det]m9es ! diff]5ce1 = tone1 z ! vibration ( a body1 is only a quantitatively det]m9$ quiv] or movem5t1 t is1 a det]m9ation made ?r\gh space & "t4 ,= !re c be no det]m9ation = ! diff]5ce except+ t ( numb] or ! am\nt ( vibrations 9 "o "t2 & h5ce a det]m9ation made ?r\gh numb]s is n[h]e m 9 place ?an "h4 ,!re c]ta9ly are also qualitative diff]5ces1 su* z ^? exi/+ betwe5 ! tones ( metals & catgut /r+s1 & betwe5 ! human voice & w9d in/rum5ts2 b ! peculi> musical relation borne by ! tone ( "o in/rum5t to ano!r1 9 :i* h>mony is to be f\nd1 is a relation%ip ( numb]s4 ,f ?is po9t ! ,py?agoreans ent] into fur!r applications ( ! !ory ( music1 9 :i* we _c foll[ !m4 ,! priori law ( progression1 & ! necessity ( movem5t 9 numb]-relations1 is a matt] :i* is entirely d>k2 m9ds confus$ may w&] ab\t at w1 = ev]y:]e ideas are h9t$ at1 & sup]ficial h>monies pres5t !mselves & disappe> aga94 ,b 9 all t treats ( ! fur!r con/ruction ( ! univ]se z a num]ical sy/em1 we h ! :ole ext5t ( ! confusion & turbidity ( ?\ght belong+ to ! lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,we _c say h[ mu* pa9s !y took to express philosophic ?\ght 9 a sy/em ( numb]s1 & also to und]/& ! expressions giv5 utt]ance to by o!rs1 & to put 9 !m all ! mean+ possible4 ,:5 !y det]m9$ ! physical & ! moral univ]se by means ( numb]s1 ev]y?+ came into indef9ite & insipid relation%ips 9 :i* ! ,notion disappe>$4 ,9 ?is matt]1 h[ev]1 s f> z ! old] ,py?agoreans are conc]n$1 we are acqua9t$ ) ! ma9 pr9ciples only4 ,plato exemplifies to u ! conception ( ! univ]se z a sy/em ( numb]s1 b ,cic]o & ! anci5ts always call ^! numb]s ! ,platonic1 & x does n appe> t !y 7 ascrib$ to ! ,py?agoreans4 ,x 0 ?us lat] on t ?is came to be said2 ev5 9 ,cic]o's "t !y _h become prov]bially d>k1 & !re is b little aft] all t is really old4 c4 ,! ,py?agoreans fur!r con/ruct$ ! heav5ly bodies ( ! visible univ]se by means ( numb]s1 & "h we see at once ! b>r5ness & ab/raction pres5t 9 ! det]m9ation ( numb]s4 ,ari/otle says 7,met4 ,i4 #e71 8,because !y def9$ numb]s to be ! pr9ciples ( all nature1 !y br\ght "u numb]s & _! relation%ips all det]m9ations & all sections1 bo? ( ! heav5s & ( all nature2 & :]e any?+ did n altoge!r con=m1 !y s\ght to supply ! defici5cy 9 ord] to br+ ab\t a h>mony4 ,= in/ance1 z ! ,t5 or dekad appe>$ to !m to be ! p]fect numb]1 or t :i* embraces ! :ole ess5ce ( numb]s1 !y said t ! sph]es mov+ 9 ! heav5s mu/ be t52 b z only n9e ( ^! are visible1 !y made out a t5?1 ! ,anti*?one 7740 ,^! n9e are1 fir/ ! milky way1 or ! fix$ />s1 & aft] t ! sev5 />s :i* 7 !n all held to be planets3 ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 ,m>s1 ,v5us1 ,m]cury1 ! ,sun1 ,moon1 & 9 ! la/ & n9? place1 ! ,e>?4 ,! t5? is ?us ! ,anti*?one1 & 9 reg>d to ?is x mu/ rema9 unc]ta9 :e!r ! ,py?agoreans consid]$ x to be ! side ( ! ,e>? :i* is turn$ away1 or z q ano!r body4 ,ari/otle says1 9 ref]5ce to ! specially physical "* ( ^! sph]es 7,de clo ,,ii4 #ac & #i71 8,fire 0 by ! ,py?agoreans plac$ 9 ! middle1 b ! ,e>? 0 made a /> t mov$ ar\nd ?is c5tral body 9 a circle40 ,?is circle is1 !n1 a sph]e1 :i*1 z ! mo/ p]fect ( figures1 corresponds to ! dekad4 ,we "h f9d a c]ta9 simil>ity to our ideas ( ! sol> sy/em1 b ! ,py?agoreans did n believe ! fire to be ! sun4 8,!y ?us10 says ,ari/otle1 8rely1 n on s5su\s appe>ance1 b on reasons10 j z we =m conclusions 9 accordance ) reasons z oppos$ to s5su\s appe>ances2 & inde$ ?is comes to u /ill z ! fir/ example ( ?+s be+ 9 !mselves diff]5t f :at !y appe>4 8,?is fire1 t :i* is 9 ! c5tre1 !y call$ ,jupit]'s place ( wat*4 ,n[ ^! t5 sph]es make1 l all t is 9 motion1 a tone2 b ea* makes a diff]5t "o1 accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 its size & velocity4 ,?is is det]m9$ by means ( ! diff]5t di/ances1 :i* be> an h>moni\s relation%ip to "o ano!r1 9 accordance ) musical int]vals2 by ?is means an h>moni\s s\nd arises 9 ! mov+ sph]es0--a univ]sal *orus4 ,we mu/ ackn[l$ge ! gr&eur ( ?is idea ( det]m9+ ev]y?+ 9 ! sy/em ( ! heav5ly sph]es ?r\gh numb]-relations :i* h a necess>y connection among/ !mselves1 & h to be conceiv$ ( z ?us necess>ily relat$2 x is a sy/em ( relations :i* mu/ also =m ! basis & ess5ce ( :at c be he>d1 or music4 ,we h1 compreh5d$ "h 9 ?\ght1 a sy/em ( ! univ]se2 ! sol> sy/em is alone rational to u1 = ! o!r />s are devoid ( int]e/4 ,to say t !re is music 9 ! sph]es1 & t ^! movem5ts are tones1 may seem j z compreh5sible to u z to say t ! sun is /ill & ! e>? moves1 al?\gh bo? are oppos$ to ! dictates ( s5se4 ,=1 see+ t we d n see ! movem5t1 x may be t we d n he> ! notes4 ,& !re is little difficulty 9 imag9+ a univ]sal sil5ce 9 ^! va/ sph]es1 s9ce we d n he> ! *orus1 b x is m difficult to give a reason = n he>+ ?is music4 ,! ,py?agoreans say1 accord+ to ! la/ quot$ passage ( ,ari/otle1 t we d n he> x because we live 9 x1 l ! smi? :o gets accu/om$ to ! bl[s ( 8 hamm]4 ,s9ce x belongs to our sub/ance & is id5tical ) ourselves1 no?+ else1 su* z sil5ce1 by :i* we might "k ! o!r1 comes into relation%ip ) u1 = we are conceiv$ ( z entirely )9 ! movem5t4 ,b ! movem5t does n become a tone1 9 ! fir/ place1 because pure space & "t1 ! elem5ts 9 movem5t1 c only raise !mselves into a prop] voice1 un/imulat$ f )\t1 9 an animate body1 & movem5t fir/ rea*es ?is def9ite1 *>act]i/ic individuality 9 ! animal prop]2 &1 9 ! next place1 because ! heav5ly bodies are n relat$ to "o ano!r z bodies ^: s\nd requires = its production1 contact1 friction1 or %ock1 9 response to :i*1 & z ! negation ( its p>ticul>ity its own mom5t>y individuality res\nds 9 ela/icity2 = heav5ly bodies are indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 & h only a g5]al1 non-individual1 free motion4 ,we may ?us set aside s\nd2 ! music ( ! sph]es is inde$ a wond]ful conception1 b x is devoid ( any real int]e/ = u4 ,if we reta9 ! conception t motion1 z measure1 is a necess>ily connect$ sy/em ( numb]s1 z ! only rational "p ( ! !ory1 we mu/ ma9ta9 t no?+ fur!r has transpir$ to ! pres5t day4 ,9 a c]ta9 way1 inde$1 we h made an advance ^u ,py?agoras4 ,we h le>n$ f ,kepl] ab\t laws1 ab\t ecc5tricity1 & ! relation ( di/ances to ! times ( revolution1 b no am\nt ( ma!matics has z yet be5 able to give u ! laws ( progression 9 ! h>mony ?r\gh :i* ! di/ances are det]m9$4 ,we "k empirical numb]s well en\gh1 b ev]y?+ has ! semblance ( accid5t & n ( necessity4 ,we are acqua9t$ ) an approximate rule ( di/ances1 & ?us h correctly =etold ! exi/5ce ( planets :]e ,c]es1 ,ve/a1 ,pallas1 c41 7 aft]w>ds discov]$--t is1 betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,b a/ronomy has n z yet f\nd 9 x a consi/5t sequ5ce 9 :i* !re is rationality2 on ! o!r h&1 x ev5 looks ) disda9 on ! appe>ance ( regul>ity pres5t$ by ?is sequ5ce1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 on its own acc\nt1 a mo/ important matt]1 & "o :i* %\ld n be =gott54 d4 ,! ,py?agoreans also appli$ _! pr9ciple to ! ,s\l1 & ?us det]m9$ :at is spiritual z numb]4 ,ari/otle 7,de anim4 ,i4 #b7 goes on to tell t !y ?\ght t sol> corpuscles are s\l1 o!rs1 t x is :at moves !m2 !y adopt$ ?is idea because ! corpuscles are ev] mov+1 ev5 9 p]fect /illness1 & h5ce !y mu/ h motion ( _! own4 ,?is does n signify mu*1 b x is evid5t f x t ! det]m9ation ( self-movem5t 0 s\ght = 9 ! s\l4 ,! ,py?agoreans made a fur!r application ( numb]-conceptions to ! s\l aft] ano!r =m1 :i* ,ari/otle describes 9 ! same place z foll[s3--8,?\ght is ! "o1 k or sci5ce is ! two1 = x comes alone out ( ! "o4 ,! numb] ( ! plane is popul> idea1 op9ion2 ! numb] ( ! corporeal is s5su\s feel+4 ,ev]y?+ is judg$ ( ei!r by ?\ght1 or sci5ce1 or op9ion1 or feel+40 ,9 ^! ideas1 :i* we mu/1 h[ev]1 ascribe to lat] ,py?agoreans1 we may und\bt$ly f9d "s adequacy1 = :ile ?\ght is pure univ]sality1 k deals ) some?+ 8o!r10 s9ce x gives itself a det]m9ation & a cont5t2 b feel+ is ! mo/ develop$ 9 its det]m9at5ess4 8,n[ because ! s\l moves itself1 x is ! self-mov+ numb]10 yet we nev] f9d x said t x is connect$ ) ! monad4 ,?is is a simple relation%ip to numb]-det]m9ations4 ,ari/otle in/ances 7,de anim4 ,i4 #c7 "o m intricate f ,timu3 8,! s\l moves itself1 & h5ce also ! body because x is b\nd up ) body2 x consi/s ( elem5ts & is divid$ accord+ to h>monic numb]s1 & h5ce x has feel+ & an imm$iately indwell+ 77 h>mony4 ,9 ord] t ! :ole may h an h>moni\s movem5t1 ,timu has b5t ! /raight l9e ( h>mony 77 into a circle1 & aga9 divid$ (f f ! :ole circle two circles1 :i* are d\bly connect$2 & ! "o ( ^! circles is aga9 divid$ into sev5 circles1 s t ! movem5ts ( ! s\l may resemble ^? ( ! heav5s40 ,! m def9ite significance ( ^! ideas ,ari/otle un=tunately has n giv52 !y conta9 a pr(\nd k ( ! h>mony ( ! :ole1 b yet !y are =ms :i* !mselves rema9 d>k1 because !y are clumsy & unsuitable4 ,!re is always a =cible turn+ & twi/+1 a /ruggle ) ! mat]ial "p ( ! repres5tation1 z !re is 9 my?ical & di/ort$ =ms3 no?+ has ! pliability ( ?\ght b ?\ght itself4 ,x is rem>kable t ! ,py?agoreans h grasp$ ! s\l z a sy/em :i* is a c\nt]p>t ( ! sy/em ( ! heav5s4 ,9 ,plato's ,timu ?is same idea is m def9itely br\ght =w>d4 ,plato also gives fur!r numb]-relations1 b n _! significance z well2 ev5 to ! pres5t day no "o has be5 able to make any p>ticul> s5se out ( !m4 ,an arrangem5t ( numb]s su* z ?is is easy1 b to give to x a real significance is difficult1 &1 :5 done1 x always mu/ be arbitr>y4 ,!re is /ill some?+ wor?y ( att5tion 9 :at is said by ! ,py?agoreans 9 ref]5ce to ! s\l1 & ?is is _! doctr9e ( ! transmigration ( s\ls4 ,cic]o 7,tusc4 ,qu/4 ,i4 #af7 says3 8,ph]ecydes1 ! tea*] ( ,py?agoras1 fir/ said t ! s\ls ( m5 7 immortal40 ,! doctr9e ( ! transmigration ( s\ls ext5ds ev5 to ,india1 &1 )\t d\bt1 ,py?agoras took x f ! ,egyptians2 inde$ ,h]odotus 7,,ii4 #abc7 expressly says s4 ,aft] he speaks ( ! my?ical ideas ( ! ,egyptians z to ! l[] _w1 he cont9ues3 8,! ,egyptians 7 ! fir/ to say t ! s\l ( man is immortal1 & t1 :5 ! body disappe>s1 x goes into ano!r liv+ be+2 & :5 x has gone ?r\gh all ! animals ( l& & sea1 & likewise birds1 x aga9 takes ! body ( a man1 ! p]iod be+ complet$ 9 #cjjj ye>s40 ,diog5es ,la]tius says 9 ?is connection 7,,viii4 #ad7 t ! s\l1 accord+ to ,py?agoras1 goes ?r\gh a circle4 8,^! ideas10 proce$s ,h]odotus1 8are also f\nd among/ ! ,greeks2 !re are "s :o1 e>li] or lat]1 h made use ( ?is p>ticul> doctr9e1 & h spok5 ( x z if x 7 _! own2 ,i "k _! names v well1 b ,i w n m5tion !m40 ,he und\bt$ly meant ,py?agoras & 8 foll[]s4 ,9 ! sequel1 mu* t is giv5 utt]ance to is fictiti\s3 8,py?agoras himself is said to h /at$ t 8 =m] p]sonality 0 kn[n to him4 ,h]mes grant$ him a k ( 8 circum/ances be=e 8 bir?4 ,he liv$ z ! son ( ,h]mes1 ?alides1 & !n 9 ! ,trojan w> z ,euphorbus1 ! son ( ,pan?\s1 :o kill$ ,patroclus1 & 0 kill$ by ,m5elaus2 9 ! ?ird place he 0 ,h]motimus2 f\r?ly1 ,pyrrhus1 a fi%]man ( ,delos2 9 all he liv$ #bjg ye>s4 ,euphorbus' %ield 0 (f]$ up to ,apollo by ,m5elaus1 & ,py?agoras w5t to ! temple &1 f ! m\ld]+ %ield1 %[$ ! exi/5ce ( signs1 hi!rto n kn[n (1 by :i* x 0 recogniz$40#df ,we %all n treat fur!r ( ^! v v>i\s & fooli% /ories4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! bro!rhood copi$ f ! ,egyptian prie/hood1 s mu/ we "h set aside ?is ori5tal & un-,greek idea ( ! transmigration ( s\ls4 ,bo? 7 too f> remov$ f ! ,greek _s to h _h a place & a developm5t !re4 ,) ! ,greeks1 ! consci\sness ( a high]1 fre] individuality has become too /rong to all[ any p]man5ce to ! idea ( metempsy*osis1 accord+ to :i*1 man1 ?is indep5d5t & self-suffic+ ,be+1 takes ! =m ( a bea/4 ,!y h1 inde$1 ! conception ( m5 z becom+ spr+s ( wat]1 trees1 animals1 c41 b ! idea ( degradation :i* comes z a consequ5ce ( s91 lies at its root4 ,ari/otle 7,de anim4 ,i4 #c7 %ortly & 9 8 own mann] deals ) & annihilates ?is idea ( ! ,py?agoreans4 8,!y d n say = :at reason s\l dwells 9 body1 nor h[ ! latt] is relat$ to x4 ,= ow+ to _! unity ( nature :5 "o acts ! o!r suff]s3 "o moves & ! o!r is mov$1 b none ( ?is happ5s 9 :at is mutually cont+5t4 ,accord+ to ! ,py?agorean my?s any s\l takes to any body1 :i* is mu* l mak+ ar*itects take to flutes4 ,= crafts mu/ necess>ily h tools & s\l body2 b ea* tool mu/ h its prop] =m & k9d40 ,x is impli$ 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls t ! organization ( ! body is some?+ accid5tal to ! human s\l2 ?is refutation by ,ari/otle is complete4 ,! et]nal idea ( metempsy*osis _h philosophic int]e/ only z ! inn] ,notion p]meat+ all ^! =ms1 ! ori5tal unity :i* appe>s 9 ev]y?+2 we h n got ?is signification "h1 or at be/ we h b a glimm]+ ( x4 ,if we say t ! p>ticul> s\l is1 z a def9ite ?+1 to w&] ab\t ?r\gh\t all1 we f9d fir/ly1 t ! s\l is n a ?+ su* z ,leibnitz' ,monad1 :i*1 l a bubble 9 ! cup ( c(fee1 is possibly a s5ti5t1 ?9k+ s\l2 9 ! second place an empty id5tity ( ! s\l-?+ su* z ?is has no int]e/ 9 relation to immortality4 #c4 ,practical ,philosophy4 ,z reg>ds ! practical philosophy ( ,py?agoras1 :i* is closely connect$ ) :at has gone be=e1 !re is b little t is philosophic kn[n to u4 ,ari/otle 7,magn4 ,moral4 ,i4 #a7 says ( him t 8he fir/ s\ght to speak ( virtue1 b n 9 ! "r way1 =1 because he d$uc$ ! virtues f numb]s1 he c\ld n =m ( !m any prop] !ory40 ,! ,py?agoreans adopt$ t5 virtues z well z t5 heav5ly sph]es4 ,ju/ice1 among/ o!rs1 is describ$ z ! numb] :i* is l itself 9 l mann] 7 72 x is an ev5 numb]1 :i* rema9s ev5 :5 multipli$ ) itself4 ,ju/ice is pre-em95tly :at rema9s l itself2 b ?is is an altoge!r ab/ract det]m9ation1 :i* applies to mu* t is1 & :i* does n exhau/ ! concrete1 ?us rema9+ q indet]m9ate4 ,"u ! "n ( ! 8,gold5 words10 we h a collection ( hexamet]s :i* are a succession ( moral reflections1 b :i* are rightly ascrib$ to lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,!y are old1 well-kn[n1 moral maxims1 :i* are express$ 9 a simple & dignifi$ way1 b :i* d n conta9 any?+ rem>kable4 ,!y beg9 ) ! direction 8to hon\r ! immortal gods z !y are by law e/abli%$10 & fur!r1 8,hon\r ! oa? & !n ! illu/ri\s h]oes20 else:]e !y g on to direct 8hon\r to be paid to p>5ts & to relatives10 c4#dg ,su* matt] does n des]ve to be reg>d$ z philosophy1 al?\gh x is ( importance 9 ! process ( developm5t4 ,! transition f ! =m ( outw>d morals to morality z exi/5t1 is m important4 ,z 9 ,?ales' "t1 law-giv]s & adm9i/rators ( /ates 7 preem95t 9 possess+ a physical philosophy1 s we see t ) ,py?agoras practical philosophy is advocat$ z ! means ( con/itut+ a moral life4 ,!re we h ! speculative ,idea1 ! absolute ess5ce1 9 its reality1 & 9 a def9ite1 s5su\s exi/5ce2 & simil>ly ! moral life is subm]g$ 9 actuality z ! univ]sal _s ( a p1 & z _! laws & rule4 ,9 ,py?agoras1 on ! contr>y1 we h ! reality ( absolute ess5ce rais$1 9 speculation1 out ( s5su\s reality1 & express$1 ?\gh /ill imp]fectly1 z ! ess5ce ( ?\ght4 ,morality is likewise p>tly rais$ out ( actuality z ord9>ily kn[n2 x is c]ta9ly a moral disposition ( all actuality1 b z a bro!rhood1 & n z ! life ( a p4 ,! ,py?agorean ,league is an arbitr>y exi/5ce & n a "p ( ! con/itution recogniz$ by public sanction2 & 9 8 p]son ,py?agoras isolat$ himself z tea*]1 z he also did 8 foll[]s4 ,! univ]sal consci\sness1 ! _s ( a p1 is ! sub/ance ( :i* ! accid5t is ! individual consci\sness2 ! speculative is ?us ! fact t pure1 univ]sal law is absolute1 individual consci\sness1 s t ?is la/1 because x draws !refrom its gr[? & n\ri%m5t1 becomes univ]sal self-consci\sness4 ,^! two sides d n1 h[ev]1 come to u 9 ! =m ( ! opposition2 x is fir/ ( all 9 morality t !re is prop]ly ?is ,notion ( ! absolute individuality ( consci\sness :i* does ev]y?+ on its own acc\nt4 ,b we see t x 0 really pres5t to ! m9d ( ,py?agoras t ! sub/ance ( morality is ! univ]sal1 f an example 9 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #af74 8,a ,py?agorean answ]$ to ! "q ( a fa!r :o inquir$ z to ! be/ education he c\ld give 8 son1 t x %\ld be t :i* w\ld make him ! citiz5 ( a well-regulat$ ,/ate40 ,?is answ] is great & true2 to ! great pr9ciple ( liv+ 9 ! _s ( "o's p1 all o!r circum/ances are subord9ate4 ,n[adays m5 try to keep education free f ! _s ( ! times1 b !y _c )draw !mselves f ?is supreme p[]1 ! ,/ate1 = ev5 if !y try to sep>ate !mselves1 !y unconsci\sly rema9 b5ea? ?is univ]sal4 ,! speculative mean+ ( ! practical philosophy ( ,py?agoras ?us is1 t 9 ?is signification1 ! individual consci\sness %all obta9 a moral reality 9 ! bro!rhood4 ,b z numb] is a middle ?+ betwe5 ! s5su\s & ,notion1 ! ,py?agorean bro!rhood is a middle betwe5 univ]sal1 actual morality & ma9ta9+ t 9 true morality ! individual1 z an individual1 is responsible = 8 own behavi\r2 ?is morality ceases to be univ]sal _s4 ,if we wi% to see practical philosophy reappe>1 we %all f9d x2 b1 on ! :ole1 we %all n see x become really speculative until v rec5t times4 ,we may satisfy ourselves ) ?is z giv+ u an idea ( ! ,py?agorean sy/em4 ,i w1 h[ev]1 %ortly give ! pr9cipal po9ts ( ! criticism :i* ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #h7 makes ^u ! ,py?agorean numb]-=m4 ,he says ju/ly1 9 ! fir/ place3 8,if only ! limit$ & ! unlimit$1 ! ev5 & odd are made fundam5tal ideas1 ! ,py?agoreans d n expla9 h[ movem5t arises1 & h[1 )\t movem5t & *ange !re c be com+ into be+ & pass+ away1 or ! conditions & activities ( heav5ly objects40 ,?is defect is significant2 ari?metical numb]s are dry =ms & b>r5 pr9ciples 9 :i* life & movem5t are defici5t4 ,ari/otle says secondly1 8,f numb] no o!r corporeal det]m9ations1 su* z weight & lightness1 are conceivable20 or numb] ?us _c pass into :at is concrete4 8,!y say t !re is no numb] outside ( ^? 9 ! heav5ly sph]es40 ,= in/ance1 a heav5ly sph]e & a virtue1 or a natural manife/ation 9 ! e>?1 are det]m9$ z "o & ! same numb]4 ,ea* ( ! fir/ numb]s may be exhibit$ 9 ea* ?+ or quality2 b 9 s f> z numb] is made to express a fur!r det]m9ation1 ?is q ab/ract1 quantitative diff]5ce becomes altoge!r =mal2 x is z if ! plant 7 five because x has five /am5s4 ,?is is j z sup]ficial z are det]m9ation ?r\gh elem5ts or ?r\gh p>ticul> portions ( ! globe2 x is a me?od z =mal z t by :i* m5 n[ try to apply ! categories ( electricity1 magnetism1 galvanism1 compression & expansion1 ( manly & ( womanly1 to ev]y?+4 ,x is a purely empty sy/em ( det]m9ation :]e reality %\ld be dealt )4 ,to ,py?agoras & 8 disciples !re are1 moreov]1 _m sci5tific conclusions & discov]ies ascrib$1 :i*1 h[ev]1 d n conc]n u at all4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #ad1 #bg71 he is said to h kn[n t ! morn+ & ev5+ /> is ! same1 & t ! moon d]ives h] light f ! sun4 ,we h already m5tion$ :at he says ( music4 ,b :at is be/ kn[n is ! ,py?agorean ,!orem2 x really is ! ma9 proposition 9 geometry1 & _c be reg>d$ l any o!r !orem4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es1 7,,viii4 #ab71 ,py?agoras1 on discov]+ ! !orem1 sacrific$ a hecatomb1 s important did he ?9k x2 & x may inde$ seem rem>kable t 8 joy %\ld h gone s f> z to orda9 a great fea/ to :i* ri* m5 & all ! p 7 invit$4 ,x 0 wor? ! tr\ble2 x 0 a rejoic+1 a fea/ ( spiritual cognition--at ! co/ ( ! ox54 ,o!r ideas :i* are br\ght =w>d by ! ,py?agoreans casually & )\t any connection1 h no philosophic int]e/1 & ne$ only be m5tion$4 ,ari/otle1 = in/ance1 says 7,phys4 ,,iv4 #f7 t 8! ,py?agoreans believ$ 9 an empty space :i* ! heav5s inspire1 & an empty space :i* sep>ates natural ?+s & br+s ab\t ! di/9ction betwe5 cont9u\s & discrete2 x fir/ exi/s 9 numb]s & makes !m to be diff]5t40 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #bf-bh7 says mu* m1 all ( :i* is dull2 ?is is l ! lat] writ]s1 :o1 g5]ally speak+1 take up :at is ext]nal & devoid ( any intellectual mean+4 8,! air :i* encircles ! e>? is immovable0 71 at lea/ ?r\gh itself7 8& diseas$1 & all t is 9 x is mortal2 b :at is highe/ is 9 cont9ual movem5t1 pure & heal?y1 & 9 x ev]y?+ is immortal--div9e4 ,sun1 moon & ! o!r />s are gods1 = 9 !m w>m? has pr$om9ance & is ! cause ( life4 ,man is relat$ to ! gods because he p>ticipates 9 w>m?1 & h5ce ,god c>es = u4 ,a ray p5etrates f ! sun ?r\gh ! ?ick & cold e!r & gives life to ev]y?+2 !y call air1 cold e!r1 ! sea & moi/ure1 ?ick e!r4 ,! s\l is a deta*$ portion ( e!r40 ,c4 ,,! ,,eleatic ,,s*ool4 ,! ,py?agorean philosophy has n yet got ! speculative =m ( expression = ! ,notion4 ,numb]s are n pure ,notion1 b ,notion 9 ! =m ( ord9>y idea or s5su\s p]ception1 & h5ce a mixture ( bo?4 ,?is expression ( absolute ess5ce 9 :at is a pure ,notion or some?+ ?\ght1 & ! movem5t ( ! ,notion or ( ,?\ght1 is t :i* we f9d mu/ come next1 & ?is we discov] 9 ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,9 x we see ?\ght becom+ free = itself2 & 9 t :i* ! ,eleatics express z absolute ess5ce1 we see ,?\ght grasp itself 9 purity1 & ! movem5t ( ,?\ght 9 ,notions4 ,9 ! physical philosophy we saw movem5t repres5t$ z an objective movem5t1 z an orig9ation & pass+ away4 ,! ,py?agoreans simil>ly did n reflect ^u ^! ,notions1 & also treat$ _! ess5ce1 ,numb]1 z fleet+4 ,b s9ce alt]ation is n[ grasp$ 9 its highe/ ab/raction z ,no?+1 ?is objective movem5t *anges into a subjective "o1 comes ov] to ! side ( consci\sness1 & exi/5ce becomes ! unmov$4 ,we "h f9d ! beg9n+ ( dialectic1 i4e4 simply ! pure movem5t ( ?\ght 9 ,notions2 likewise we see ! opposition ( ?\ght to outw>d appe>ance or s5su\s ,be+1 or ( t :i* is implicit to ! be+-=-ano!r ( ?is implicitness1 & 9 ! objective exi/5ce we see ! contradiction :i* x has 9 itself1 or dialectic prop]4 ,:5 we reflect 9 anticipation on h[ ! c\rse ( pure ?\ght mu/ be =m$1 we f9d 77 t pure ?\ght 7pure ,be+1 ! ,"o7 manife/s itself imm$iately 9 its rigid isolation & self-id5tity1 & ev]y?+ else z null2 77 t ! hi!rto timid ?\ght--:i* aft] x is /r5g!n$1 ascribes value to ! 8o!r0 & con/itutes itself !refrom--%[s t x !n grasps ! o!r 9 its simplicity & ev5 9 s do+ %[s its nullity2 77 f9ally1 ,?\ght manife/s ! o!r 9 ! manifold nature ( its det]m9ations4 ,we %all see ?is 9 ! developm5t & culture ( ! ,eleatics 9 hi/ory4 ,^! ,eleatic propositions /ill h int]e/ = ,philosophy1 & are mom5ts :i* mu/ necess>ily !re appe>4 ,x5ophanes1 ,p>m5ides1 ,melissus & ,z5o are to be reckon$ z belong+ to ?is s*ool4 ,x5ophanes may be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( x2 ,p>m5ides is suppos$ to h be5 8 pupil1 & ,melissus1 & especially ,z5o1 are call$ ! pupils ( ,p>m5ides4 ,9 fact1 !y are to be tak5 toge!r z =m+ ! ,eleatic s*ool2 lat] on x lo/ ! "n1 be+ !n call$ ,sophi/ic1 & its locality 0 transf]r$ to ,greece prop]4 ,:at ,x5ophanes began1 ,p>m5ides & ,melissus develop$ fur!r1 & simil>ly ,z5o p]fect$ :at ^! two taught4 ,ari/otle 7,metaph4 ,i4 #e7 *>act]izes ! fir/ ?ree ?us3 8,p>m5ides seems to compreh5d ! "o z ,notion 7 71 ,melissus z matt] 7 72 h5ce ! =m] says t x is limit$ 77 & ! latt] t x is unlimit$ 774 ,b ,x5ophanes1 :o 0 ! fir/ ( !m to express ! !ory ( ! ,"o1 made ! matt] no pla9] 771 nor did he deal ) ei!r ( ^! aspects 771 b look+ into ! heav5s0--z we say1 into ! blue--8said1 ,god is ! ,"o4 ,x5ophanes & ,melissus are on ! :ole less civiliz$ 7 72 ,p>m5ides1 h[ev]1 is m acute 7 740 ,!re is less to say ( ,x5ophanes & ,melissus1 & :at has come to u f ! latt] 9 p>ticul>--9 fragm5ts & d]iv$ f ! say+s ( o!rs--is /ill 9 a /ate ( f]m5t1 & 9 8 case !re is lea/ k obta9able4 ,on ! :ole1 philosophic utt]ances & ,notions are /ill poor1 & x 0 9 ,z5o t ,philosophy fir/ atta9$ to a pur] expression ( itself4 #a4 ,,x5ophanes4 ,! p]iod at :i* he liv$ is cle> en\gh1 & z ?is suffices1 x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce t ! ye> ( 8 bir? & ( 8 dea? is unkn[n4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #ah71 he 0 contempor>y ) ,anaxim&] & ,py?agoras4 ,( 8 circum/ances fur!r ?an ?is1 x is only kn[n t he1 = reasons :i* are unkn[n1 escap$ f 8 native t[n1 ,colophon1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 to ,magna ,grcia1 & resid$ = ! mo/ "p at ,zancle1 7n[ ,mess9a7 & ,catana 7/ill call$ ,catania7 9 ,sicily4 ,i f9d x n[h]e said by ! anci5ts t he liv$ at ,elea1 al?\gh all rec5t writ]s on ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy repeat x1 "o aft] ! o!r4 ,t5nemann1 9 p>ticul>1 says 7,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #aea & #dad71 t ab\t ! #fa/ ,olympiad 7#ecf ,b4,c471 he repair$ f ,colophon to ,elea4 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #bj71 h[ev]1 only says t he fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #fj? ,olympiad & t he made two ?\s& v]ses on ! colonization ( ,elea1 f :i* x might be easily conclud$ t he 0 also born at ,elea4 ,/rabo says ?is 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 six? book--:5 describ+ ,elea--( ,p>m5ides & ,z5o only1 & ^! he call$ ,py?agoreans2 h5ce1 accord+ to ,cic]o 7,acad4 ,qu/4 ,,iv4 #db7 ! ,eleatic s*ool took its "n f ^! two4 ,x5ophanes 0 ne>ly a hundr$ ye>s old1 & liv$ to see ! ,m$ian w>s3 x is said t he became s poor t he _h n ! means ( hav+ 8 *ildr5 buri$1 & 0 oblig$ to d s ) 8 own h&s4 ,"s say t he _h no tea*]2 o!rs "n ,ar*elaus1 :i* is a *ronological error4 ,he wrote a book 8,on ,nature10 ! g5]al subject & title ( ,philosophy at t "t2 "s v]ses h be5 pres]v$ to u :i* s f> %[ no p[]s ( reason+4 ,pr(essor ,br&is ( ,bonn collect$ !m toge!r1 ) ! fragm5ts ( ,p>m5ides & ,melissus1 "u ! title 8,comm5tationum ,eleatic>um1 ,p4 #a10 ,alton1 #ahac4 ,! old] philosoph]s wrote 9 v]se1 = prose comes mu* lat] on2 on acc\nt ( ! awkw>d & confus$ mode ( expression 9 ,x5ophanes' poems1 ,cic]o calls !m 7,acad4 ,qu/4 ,,iv4 #bc73 m9us boni v]sus4 ,z to 8 philosophy1 ,x5ophanes 9 ! fir/ place ma9ta9$ absolute exi/5ce to be ! "o1 & likewise call$ ?is ,god4 8,! all is ,"o & ,god is implant$ 9 all ?+s2 ,he is un*angeable1 )\t beg9n+1 middle or end40#dh ,9 "s v]ses by ,x5ophanes f\nd 9 ,clem5s ( ,alex&ria 7,/rom4 ,v4 #ad1 p4 #gad1 ed4 ,pott]71 x is said3 8,"o ,god is greate/ among/ gods & m54 ,nei!r l unto mortals 9 _s or 9 =m20 & 9 ,sextus ,empiricus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #add73 8,he sees ev]y:]e1 ?9ks ev]y:]e1 & he>s ev]y:]e10 to :i* words ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix1 #ai7 adds3 8,?\ght & reason are ev]y?+ & et]nal40 ,by ?is ,x5ophanes d5i$ ! tru? ( ! conceptions ( orig9ation & ( pass+ away1 ( *ange1 movem5t1 c41 see+ t !y m]ely belong to s5su\s p]ception4 8,he f\nd10 says ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aef7 8all orig9ation to be inconceivable30 ! ,"o z ! imm$iate product ( pure ?\ght1 is1 9 its imm$iacy1 ,be+4 ,= u ! det]m9ation ( ,be+ is already kn[n & trivial1 b if we "k ab\t ,be+1 ! ,"o1 we place ?is1 z a p>ticul> det]m9ation1 9 a l9e ) all ! re/4 ,"h1 on ! contr>y1 x signifies t all else has no reality & is only a semblance4 ,we mu/ =get our own ideas2 we "k ( ,god z ,_s4 ,b1 because ! ,greeks only _h be=e !m ! s5su\s _w1 ^! gods ( _! imag9ation1 & f\nd 9 !m no satisfaction1 !y reject$ all z be+ untrue1 & ?us came to pure ?\ght4 ,?is is a wond]ful advance1 & ?\ght ?us becomes = ! fir/ "t free = itself 9 ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,be+1 ! ,"o ( ! ,eleatic s*ool1 is j ?is imm]sion 9 ! abyss ( ! ab/ract id5tity ( ! und]/&+4 ,j z ?is comes fir/1 s x also comes la/1 z t to :i* ! und]/&+ comes back1 & ?is is prov$ 9 rec5t times :5 ,god is grasp$ only z ! highe/ ,be+4 ,if we say ( ,god t ?is ! highe/ ,be+ is outside ( & ov] u1 we c "k no?+ m ( x b t x is1 & ?us x is ! undet]m9$2 = if we knew ( det]m9ations1 ?is w\ld be to possess k4 ,! tru? !n simply is t ,god is ! ,"o1 n 9 ! s5se t !re is "o ,god 7?is is ano!r det]m9ation71 b only t ,he is id5tical ) ,himself2 9 ?is !re is no o!r det]m9ation1 any m ?an 9 ! utt]ance ( ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,mod]n ?\ght has1 inde$1 pass$ ?r\gh a long] pa?1 n only ?r\gh :at is s5su\s1 b also ?r\gh philosophic ideas & pr$icates ( ,god1 to ?is all negat+ ab/raction2 b ! cont5t1 ! result arriv$ at is ! same4 ,) ?is ! dialectic reason+ ( ! ,eleatics is closely connect$ 9 respect t !y h also prov$ t no?+ c orig9ate or pass away4 ,?is d$uction is to be f\nd 9 ,ari/otle's "w1 ,de ,x5ophane1 ,z5one et ,gorgia1 c4 #c4 8,x is impossible1 he says1#di t if any?+ is1 x arises 7& he ev5 applies ?is to ! ,godhead72 = x mu/ arise ei!r f ! l or f ! unlike4 ,b bo? are equally impossible3 = x is no m probable t ! l %\ld be eng5d]$ f ! l1 ?an t x %\ld eng5d] x1 = ! l mu/ h det]m9ations id5tical ) "o ano!r40 ,9 ackn[l$g+ simil>ity1 ! di/9ction betwe5 begett+ & begott5 falls away4 8,j z little c unlike arise f unlike1 = if f ! weak] ! /rong] takes its rise2 or f ! small]1 ! great]2 or f ! worse1 ! bett]3 or if1 conv]sely1 ! worse proce$s f ! bett]1 non-be+ w\ld result f ,be+3 ?is is impossible1 & ?us ,god is et]nal40 ,! same ?+ has be5 express$ z ,pan!ism or ,sp9ozaism1 :i* re/s on ! proposition ex nihilo fit nihil4 ,! unity ( ,god is fur!r prov$ by ,x5ophanes3 8,if ,god is ! mightie/1 ,he mu/ be ,"o2 = 7 ,he two or m1 ,he w\ld n h dom9ion ov] ! o!rs1 b1 n hav+ dom9ion ov] ! o!rs1 ,he c\ld n be ,god4 ,?us 7 !re sev]al1 !y w\ld be relatively m p[]ful or weak]1 & ?us !y w\ld n be gods1 = ,god's nature is to h no?+ mighti] ?an ,he4 ,7 !y equal1 ,god w\ld no long] possess ! quality ( be+ ! mightie/1 = ! l is nei!r worse nor bett] ?an ! l0--or x does n diff] !refrom4 8,h5ce if ,god is1 & is su* z ?is1 ,he is only "o2 ,he c\ld n1 7 !re sev]al1 d :at ,he will$4 ,s9ce ,he is "o1 ,he is ev]y:]e alike4 ,he he>s1 sees & has also ! o!r s5ses ev]y:]e1 = 7 ?is n ! case1 ! p>ts ( ,god w\ld be "o m p[]ful ?an ! o!r1 :i* is impossible4 ,s9ce ,god is ev]y:]e alike1 ,he has a sph]ical =m1 = ,he is n "h ?us & else:]e diff]5t1 b is ev]y:]e ! same4 ,s9ce ,he is et]nal & "o & sph]ical 9 =m1 ,he is nei!r unlimit$ nor limit$4 ,to be unlimit$ is non-be+2 = t has nei!r middle1 beg9n+1 end1 nor "p2 & :at is unlimit$ corresponds to ?is description4 ,b :atev] non-be+ is1 ,be+ is n4 ,mutual limitation w\ld take place if !re 7 sev]al1 b s9ce !re is only ,"o1 x is n limit$4 ,! "o does n move itself1 nor is x unmov$2 to be unmov$ is non-be+1 = to x none o!r comes1 nor does x g into ano!r2 b to be mov$ mu/ mean to be sev]al1 = "o mu/ move into ano!r4 ,?us ! ,"o nei!r re/s nor is x mov$1 = x is nei!r non-be+ nor is x _m4 ,9 all ?is ,god is ?us indicat$2 ,he is et]nal & ,"o1 l ,himself & sph]ical1 nei!r unlimit$ nor limit$1 nei!r at re/ nor mov$40 ,f ?is result1 t no?+ c arise f ! l or f ! unlike1 ,ari/otle 7,de ,x5ophane1 ,z5one et ,gorgia c4 #d7 draws ?is conclusion3 8t ei!r !re is no?+ except+ ,god1 or all else is et]nal40 ,we "h see a dialectic :i* may be call$ metaphysical reason+1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( id5tity is fundam5tal4 8,! no?+ is l no?+ & does n pass into ,be+ or conv]sely2 ?us no?+ c orig9ate f l40 ,?is1 ! olde/ mode ( argum5t1 holds its place ev5 to ! pres5t day1 z1 = example1 9 ! s-call$ pro( ( ! unity ( ,god4 ,?is proce$+ consi/s ( mak+ presuppositions su* z ! p[] ( ,god1 & f !m draw+ conclusions & d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( pr$icates2 t is ! usual c\rse 9 our mode ( reason+4 ,9 respect ( det]m9ations1 x mu/ be rem>k$ t !y1 z be+ negative1 are all kept ap>t f ! positive & m]ely real be+4 ,we rea* ?is ab/raction by a m ord9>y way1 & d n require a dialectic su* z t ( ! ,eleatic s*ool3 we say ,god is un*angeable1 *ange conc]ns f9ite ?+s alone 7:i* we repres5t z an empirical proposition72 on ! "o h& we ?us h f9ite ?+s & *ange1 & on ! o!r1 un*angeabl5ess 9 ?is ab/ract absolute unity ) itself4 ,x is ! same sep>ation1 only t we also all[ ! f9ite to be ,be+1 :i* ! ,eleatics d5y4 ,or else we too proce$ f f9ite ?+s to k9ds & g5]a1 leav+ ! negative out bit by bit2 & ! highe/ ord] ( all is ,god1 :o1 z ! highe/ ,be+1 is affirmative only1 b devoid ( any det]m9ation4 ,or we pass f :at is f9ite to ! inf9ite1 = we say t ! f9ite z limit$ mu/ h its basis 9 ! inf9ite4 ,9 all ^! diff]5t =ms :i* are q famili> to u1 !re is ! same difficult "q :i* exi/s 9 ref]5ce to ! ,eleatic ?\ght4 ,:5ce comes det]m9ation & h[ is x to be grasp$--h[ is x 9 ! "o1 leav+ ! f9ite aside1 & also h[ does ! inf9ite pass out into ! f9ite8 ,! ,eleatics 9 _! reflections 7 di/+ui%$ f ?is our ord9>y reflect+ ?\ght1 9 t !y w5t speculatively to "w 7! speculative elem5t be+ t *ange does n exi/ at all7 & t !y ?us %[$ t1 z ,be+ 0 presuppos$1 *ange 9 itself is contradictory & inconceivable4 ,= f ! "o1 f ,be+1 ! det]m9ation ( ! negative1 ( ! manifold1 is )drawn4 ,?us :ile we1 9 our conception1 all[ ! actuality ( ! f9ite _w1 ! ,eleatics are m consi/5t1 9 t !y proce$$ to say t only ! ,"o exi/s & t ! negative does n exi/ at all2--a consequ5ce :i*1 if x necess>ily ar\ses 9 u surprise1 /ill none ! less rema9s a great ab/raction4 ,sceptics saw 9 ?is ! po9t ( view ( ! unc]ta9ty ( all ?+s1 & ,sextus sev]al times#ej quotes v]ses su* z ^!3-- 8,no man at any "t knew cle>ly & truly2 nor w he ev] "k ,:at ( ! gods ,i say1 z also ( ! univ]se4 ,= :at he ?9ks to speak mo/ p]fectly ,he kn[s t n at all2 8 own op9ions cleave to all40 ,sextus1 g5]aliz+1 expla9s ?is 9 ! fir/ passage ?us3 8,let u imag9e t 9 a h\se 9 :i* are _m valuables1 !re 7 ^? :o s\ght = gold by night2 9 su* a case ev]yone w\ld ?9k t he _h f\nd ! gold1 b w\ld n "k c]ta9ly :e!r he actually _h f\nd x4 ,?us philosoph]s come into ?is _w z into a great h\se to seek ! tru?1 b 7 !y to rea* x1 !y c\ld n tell :e!r !y really _h atta9$ to x40 ,! indef9ite expressions ( ,x5ophanes might also m]ely mean t none kn[s t :i* he 7,x5ophanes7 "h makes kn[n4 ,9 ! second passage ,sextus puts x ?us3 8,x5ophanes does n make all k void1 b only ! sci5tific & infallible2 op9ionative k is1 h[ev]1 left4 ,he expresses ?is 9 say+ t op9ion cleaves to all4 ,s t ) him ! crit]ion is made to be op9ion1 i4e4 ! app>5t1 & n t :i* is firm & sure2 ,p>m5ides1 on ! contr>y1 condemns op9ion40 ,b f 8 doctr9e ( ! ,"o1 !re foll[s ! annihilation ( ord9>y ideas1 :i* is :at he did 9 ! =ego+ dialectic2 x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t nobody c\ld "k ! tru? :i* he h]eby utt]s4 ,if a ?\ght su* z ?is pass$ ?r\gh "o's head1 "o c\ld n tell t x 0 true1 & 9 su* a case x w\ld only be an op9ion4 ,we "h f9d 9 ,x5ophanes a d\ble consci\sness2 a pure consci\sness & consci\sness ( ,be+1 & a consci\sness ( op9ion4 ,! =m] 0 to him ! consci\sness ( ! div9e1 & x is ! pure dialectic1 :i* is negatively relat$ to all t is det]m9$ & :i* annuls x4 ,! mann] 9 :i* he expresses himself t[>ds ! s5su\s _w & f9ite ?\ght-det]m9ations is se5 mo/ cle>ly 9 8 allusions to ! ,greek my?ological conceptions ( ! gods4 ,he says1 among/ o!r ?+s1 accord+ to ,br&is 7,comm5t4 ,eleat4 ,p4 ,i4 p4 #fh73-- 8,did bea/s & lions only h h&s1 ,works ( art !reby to br+ =?1 z d m51 ,!y w\ld1 9 creat+ div9e =ms1 give to !m ,:at 9 image & size belongs to !mselves40 ,he also animadv]ts on ! ideas ( ! gods held by ,hom] & ,hesiod 9 v]ses :i* ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #aic7 has pres]v$ to u3-- 8,hesiod & ,hom] h atta*$ to ! gods ,all t :i* br+s %ame & c5sure to m52 ,/eal+1 adult]y1 & mutual deceit40 ,z1 on ! "o h&1 he def9$ absolute ,be+ to be simple1 mak+ t :i* is1 h[ev]1 break ?r\gh & be imm$iately pres5t 9 x1 on ! o!r h& he philosophizes on appe>ances2 9 ref]5ce to ?is c]ta9 fragm5ts only are transmitt$ to u1 & su* physical op9ions z ^! c h no great int]e/4 ,!y are meant to h no speculative significance any m ?an are ^? ( our own physici/s4 ,:5 he says 9 ?is connection 8,out ( ! e>? comes all1 & returns to x aga91 ,we all h come f e>? & wat] alike1 ,?us all t gr[s & takes its rise is only e>? & wat]10#ea ?is does n signify exi/5ce1 physical pr9ciples1 z did ! wat] ( ,?ales4 ,= ,ari/otle expressly says1 t no "o reg>d$ ! e>? z ! absolute pr9ciple4 #b4 ,,p>m9ides4 ,p>m5ides is a /rik+ figure 9 ! ,eleatic s*ool1 & he arrives at m def9ite conceptions ?an does ,x5ophanes4 ,he 01 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #ba71 born at ,elea ( a ri* & hon\rable race4 ,( 8 life1 h[ev]1 little is kn[n2 ,ari/otle only says 7,met4 ,i4 #e7 f tradition t he 0 a s*ol> ( ,x5ophanes4 ,sextus ,empiricus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #aaa7 calls him a fri5d 77 ( ,x5ophanes4 ,diog5es ,la]tius fur!r /ates3 8,he he>d ,anaxim&] & ,x5ophanes also1 b did n foll[ ! latt]0 7:i* seems only to ref] to 8 place ( abode71 8b he liv$ ) ,am9ias & ,dio*>tes ! ,py?agorean1 atta*$ himself to ! latt]1 & by ! =m]1 & n by ,x5ophanes1 0 prevail$ ^u to lead a quiet life40 ,t ! p]iod 9 :i* 8 life falls comes betwe5 ,x5ophanes & ,z5o--s t he is contemporane\s ) !m1 ?\gh y\ng] ?an ! =m] & old] ?an ! latt]--is asc]ta9$4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #bc7 he fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #fi? ,olympiad 7#ejd-eja ,b4,c474 ,:at is mo/ important is 8 j\rney to ,a!ns ) ,z5o1 :]e ,plato makes !m talk ) ,socrates4 ,?is may be accept$ g5]ally1 b :at is /rictly hi/orical 9 x _c be asc]ta9$4 ,9 ! ,?tetus ,plato makes ,socrates reply to ! invitation to exam9e ! ,eleatic sy/em3 8,= ,melissus & ! o!rs :o ass]t ! ,all to be ,"o at re/1 ,i h a c]ta9 respect2 ,i h ev5 m = ,p>m5ides4 ,=1 to speak 9 ,hom]ic language1 he seems to me bo? v5]able & /rong4 ,i knew him :5 he 0 an old man & ,i 0 /ill q "y1 & ,i he>d wond]ful ?+s f him40#eb ,& 9 ! ,platonic ,dialogue ,p>m5ides 7p4 #abg4 ,/eph4 p4 #d4 ,bekk47 :]e1 z is well kn[n1 ! conv]sation is c>ri$ on by ,p>m5ides & ,socrates1 ! hi/oric circum/ances ( ?is int]view are relat$ 9 detail4 8,p>m5ides 0 v old1 _h hair :i* 0 q grey1 0 beautiful 9 c\nt5ance1 ab\t sixty-five ye>s old1 & ,z5o almo/ =ty40 ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dae7 places ! j\rney 9 ! #hj? ,olympiad 7#dfj-deg ,b4,c474 ,?us ,socrates1 s9ce he 0 born 9 ,olympiad #gg1 #d 7#dfi ,b4,c471 w\ld seem to h be5 /ill too "y to h c>ri$ on a dialogue su* z ,plato describes1 & ! pr9cipal matt] ( ?is dialogue1 :i* is writt5 9 ! _s ( ! ,eleatic s*ool1 belongs to ,plato himself4 ,besides1 we "k f ,p>m5ides' life1 t he /ood 9 high respect ) 8 fell[-citiz5s at ,elea1 ^: prosp]ity mu/ be *iefly ascrib$ to ! laws :i* ,p>m5ides gave !m4#ec ,we also f9d 9 ! ( ,cebes 7t[>ds ! beg9n+7 8a ,p>m5idian life0 us$ synonym\sly ) a moral life4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ t "h1 :]e ! ,eleatic s*ool is def9itely treat$ (1 ,plato does n speak ( ,x5ophanes at all1 b only ( ,melissus & ,p>m5ides4 ,! fact t ,plato1 9 "o ( 8 dialogues1 likewise accords ! *ief "p to ,p>m5ides1 & puts 9 8 m\? ! mo/ l(ty dialectic t ev] 0 giv51 does n conc]n u "h4 ,if ) ,x5ophanes1 by ! proposition t out ( no?+ no?+ comes1 orig9ation & :at dep5ds ^u or c be trac$ back to x is d5i$1 ! opposition betwe5 ,be+ & non-be+ makes its appe>ance /ill m cle>ly ) ,p>m5ides1 ?\gh /ill unconsci\sly4 ,sextus ,empiricus & ,simplicius h pres]v$ to u ! mo/ important fragm5ts f ! poems ( ,p>m5ides2 = ,p>m5ides also prop\nd$ 8 philosophy z a poem4 ,! fir/ long fragm5t 9 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #aaa7 is an allegorical preface to 8 poem on ,nature4 ,?is preface is maje/ic2 x is writt5 aft] ! mann] ( ! times1 & 9 x all !re is an en]getic1 impetu\s s\l :i* /rives ) ,be+ to grasp & to express x4 ,we c %[ ,p>m5ides' philosophy be/ 9 8 own words4 ,! introduction runs ?us3-- 8,horses t bore me1 impell$ by _! c\rage1 ,br\ght me to ! mu*-fam$ /reets ( ! goddess ,:o leads ! wise man to e k9d ( k4 ,maid5s po9t out ! way4 ,! axle s+s hot z ! daught]s ( ,helios quickly approa*1 ,leav+ ! dwell+ ( night1 press+ on to ! light1 ,) mighty h&s rais+ ! %elt]+ veil40 ,! maid5s are1 accord+ to ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #aab1 #aac71 ! s5ses1 & ,helios' daught]s are m especially ! eyes3-- 8,^! are ! gates ( ! pa?ways ( night & ( day4 ,n[ ! heav5ly maid5s approa* ! great doors1 ,^: lock d\ble-turn$ ! puni%+ ,dice protects4 ,to ?is "o s(t words 7 by ! maid5s address$ ,subtly p]suad+ h] ! b>ri]s ( oak f ! gates1 ,n[ to )draw4 ,yet ^!1 ,directly ! yawn+ bread? ( ! doors 0 reveal$1 ,drove ! horses & waggon1 on ?r\gh ! gate4 ,! goddess receiv$ me 9 fri5d%ip1 seiz$ ) h] "o h& my "r1 ,& turn+ t[>ds me1 %e said3 #8,oh1 ?\1 :o ) guides all immortal & horses1 ,came/ "h 9 my palace1--be welcome1 "y man4 ,= no evil fate has l$ !e into ?is pa?1 7,inde$ x lies f> f ! ways ( a man7 ,b ,!mis & ,dice4 ,n[ %alt ?\ all ?+s explore1 ,! he>t nev]-fl9*+ ( ! tru? t p]suades1 ,! transi5t op9ions :i* are n to be tru/$4 ,b f su* pa?s keep ! inquir+ s\l f> away4 ,on ?is way let n ! mu* foll[$ cu/om ,cause !e to take ! ra% eye z ?y guide1 ,or ! confus$ s\nd+ e> & ! tongue4 ,pond] consid]ately ,) ?y reason alone1 ! doctr9e mu* & (t5 exam9$1 ,:i* ,i w proclaim4 ,= !re lacks b desire on y\r way4'0 ,! goddess develops ev]y?+ f ! d\ble k 77 ( ?\ght1 ( ! tru?1 & 77 ( op9ion2 ^! make up ! two p>ts ( ! poem4 ,9 ano!r fragm5t tak5 f ,simplicius' ,comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's ,physics 7p4 #be2 #ai a7 & f ,proclus on ! ,timu 7p4 #bi b71 we h ! pr9cipal "p ( :at is "h relat$ pres]v$ to u4 8,und]/&10 says ! goddess1 8:i* are ! two roads ( k4 ,! "o :i* is only ,be+1 & :i* is n non-be+1 is ! pa? ( conviction1 ! tru? is 9 x4 ,! o!r t is n ,be+1 & :i* is necess>ily non-be+1 is1 ,i mu/ tell y1 a pa? q devoid ( reason1 = ?\ can/ nei!r "k1 or atta9 to1 or express1 non-be+40 ,! no?+1 9 fact1 turns into some?+1 s9ce x is ?\ght or is said3 we say some?+1 ?9k some?+1 if we wi% to ?9k & say ! no?+4 8,x is necess>y t say+ & ?9k+ %\ld be ,be+2 = ,be+ is1 b no?+ is n at all40 ,!re ! matt] is /at$ 9 brief2 & 9 ?is no?+1 falls negation g5]ally1 or 9 m concrete =m1 limitation1 ! f9ite1 re/riction3 det]m9atio e/ negatio is ,sp9oza's great say+4 ,p>m5ides says1 :atev] =m ! negation may take1 x does n exi/ at all4 ,to consid] ! no?+ z ! true is 8! way ( error 9 :i* ! ignorant & d\ble-m9d$ mortals w&]4 ,p]plexity ( m9d sways ! err+ s5se4 ,^? :o believe ,be+ & non-be+ to be ! same1 & !n aga9 n ! same1 are l deaf & bl9d m5 surpris$1 l hordes confus$ly driv540 ,! error is to confuse !m & to ascribe ! same value to ea*1 or to di/+ui% !m z if non-be+ 7 ! limit$ g5]ally4 8,:i*ev] way is tak51 x leads back to ! po9t f :i* x />t$40 ,x is a con/antly self-contradictory & dis9tegrat+ movem5t4 ,to human ideas1 n[ ?is is held to be reality & n[ its opposite1 & !n aga9 a mixture ( bo?4 ,simplicius quotes fur!r1 9 writ+ on ,ari/otle's ,physics 7p4 #ag a2 #ca1 #ai73 8,b ! tru? is only ! #8is'2 ?is is nei!r begott5 ( any?+ else1 nor transi5t1 entire1 alone 9 its class 771 unmov$ & )\t end2 x nei!r 01 nor w be1 b is at once ! all4 ,= :at bir? w\ld/ ?\ seek = x8 ,h[ & :5ce %\ld x be augm5t$8 ,t x %\ld be f t :i* is n1 ,i %all all[ !e nei!r to say nor to ?9k1 = nei!r c x be said or ?\ght t ! #8is' is n4 ,:at necessity _h ei!r lat] or e>li] made x beg9 f ! no?+8 ,?us mu/ x ?r\gh\t only be or n be2 nor w any =ce ( conviction ev] make some?+ else arise out ( t :i* is n4 ,?us orig9ation has disappe>$1 & decease is incr$ible4 ,be+ is n sep>able1 = x is entirely l itself2 x is n[h]e m1 else w\ld x n hold toge!r1 nor is x less1 = ev]y?+ is full ( ,be+4 ,! all is "o coh]5t :ole1 = ,be+ fl[s into unison ) ,be+3 x is un*angeable & re/s securely 9 itself2 ! =ce ( necessity holds x )9 ! b\nds ( limitation4 ,x _c h5ce be said t x is imp]fect2 = x is )\t defect1 :ile non-exi/5ce is want+ 9 all40 ,?is ,be+ is n ! undet]m9$ 77 = x is kept )9 ! limits ( necessity2 we simil>ly f9d 9 ,ari/otle t limitation is ascrib$ to ,p>m5ides4 ,! s5se 9 :i* ! expression 8limit0 is to be tak5 is unc]ta94 ,accord+ to ,p>m5ides1 h[ev]1 ?is absolute limitation is z 1 absolute necessity cle>ly det]m9$ 9 itself2 & x is an important fact t he w5t beyond ! uncultur$ conception ( ! inf9ite4 8,?\ght1 & t on acc\nt ( :i* ?\ght is1 are ! same4 ,= n )\t t :i* is1 9 :i* x expresses itself 7 71 wilt ?\ f9d ,?\ght1 see+ t x is no?+ & w be no?+ outside ( t :i* is40 ,t is ! ma9 po9t4 ,?\ght produces itself1 & :at is produc$ is a ,?\ght4 ,?\ght is ?us id5tical ) ,be+1 = !re is no?+ beside ,be+1 ?is great affirmation4 ,plot9us1 9 quot+ 7,v4 ,ennead4 ,i4 #h7 ?is la/ fragm5t says3 8,p>m5ides adopt$ ?is po9t ( view1 inasmu* z he did n place ,be+ 9 s5su\s ?+s2 id5tify+ ,be+ ) ,?\ght1 he ma9ta9$ x to be un*angeable40 ,! ,sophi/s conclud$ f ?is3 8,all is tru?2 !re is no error1 = error is ! non-exi/5t1 t :i* is n to be ?\ght40 ,s9ce 9 ?is an advance into ! region ( ! ideal is obs]vable1 ,p>m5ides began ,philosophy prop]4 ,a man n[ con/itutes himself free f all ideas & op9ions1 d5ies _! tru?1 & says necessity alone1 ,be+1 is ! tru?4 ,?is beg9n+ is c]ta9ly /ill dim & indef9ite1 & we _c say mu* ( :at x involves2 b to take up ?is position c]ta9ly is to develop ,philosophy prop]1 :i* has n hi!rto exi/$4 ,! dialectic t ! transi5t has no tru?1 is impli$ 9 x1 = if ^! det]m9ations are tak5 z !y are usually und]/ood1 contradictions ensue4 ,9 ,simplicius 79 ,ari/4 ,phys4 p4 #bg b42 #ca b47 we h fur!r metaphorical images f ,p>m5ides4 8,s9ce ! utmo/ limit ( ,be+ is p]fect1 x resembles on e side ! =m ( a well r\nd$ sph]e1 :i* f its c5tre ext5ds 9 all directions equally1 = x c be nei!r l>g] or small] 9 "o "p or ano!r4 ,!re is no non-be+ :i* prev5ts x f atta9+ to ! l0--f com+ into unity ) itself--8& !re is no ,be+ :]e x 0 devoid ( ,be+1 "h m & !re less4 ,because ! all is )\t defect1 x is 9 all places 9 ! same way l itself 9 its det]m9ations40 ,plot9us 9 ! passage quot$ says3 8,he comp>es ,be+ ) ! sph]ical =m1 because x compreh5ds all 9 itself1 & ,?\ght is n outside ( ?is1 b is conta9$ 9 x40 ,& ,simplicius says3 8,we mu/ n wond] at him1 = on acc\nt ( ! poetic =m1 he adopts a my?ological fiction 7740 ,x imm$iately /rikes u t ! sph]e is limit$1 & fur!rmore 9 space1 & h5ce ano!r mu/ be above x2 b !n ! ,notion ( ! sph]e is ! simil>ity ( )hold+ ! diff]5t1 not)/&+ t ev5 ! undiff]5tiat$ mu/ be express$2 h5ce ?is image is inconsi/5t4 ,p>m5ides adds to ?is doctr9e ( ! tru?1 ! doctr9e ( human op9ions1 ! illusive sy/em ( ! _w4 ,simplicius1 writ+ on ,ari/otle's ,physics 7p4 #g b2 #ci a71 tells u t he says3 8,m5 h two =ms ( op9ion1 "o ( :i* %\ld n be1 & 9 x !y are mi/ak52 !y set !m 9 opposition to "o ano!r 9 =m & symbol4 ,! "o1 ! e!real fire ( ! flame1 is q f9e1 id5tical ) itself ?r\gh\t1 b n id5tical ) ! o!r1 = t is also = itself2 on ! o!r h& !re is :at belongs to night1 or ?ick & pond]\s exi/5ce40 ,by ! =m]1 w>m?1 s(tness1 lightness is express$1 & by ! latt]1 cold4 8,b s9ce ev]y?+ is call$ light & night1 & _! qualities are suit$ bo? to ! "o k9d ( ?+s & ! o!r1 ev]y?+ alike is fill$ ) light & d>k night2 bo? are alike s9ce no?+ exi/s )\t bo?40 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #c & #e71 & ! o!r hi/orians1 likewise unanim\sly attribute to ,p>m5ides ! fact t he sets =? two pr9ciples = ! sy/em ( manife/ ?+s1 w>m? & cold1 ?r\gh ! union ( :i* ev]y?+ is4 ,light1 fire1 is ! active & animate2 night1 cold1 is call$ ! passive4 ,p>m5ides also speaks l a ,py?agorean--he 0 call$ by ,/rabo--9 ! foll[+1 & likewise my?ological conception3 8,!re are circlets w\nd r\nd "o ano!r1 "o ( :i* is ( ! r>e elem5t & ! o!r ( ! d5se1 betwe5 :i* o!rs are to be f\nd1 compos$ ( light & d>kness m+l$4 ,^? :i* are less are ( impure fire1 b ^? ov] !m ( night1 ?r\gh :i* proce$ ! =ces ( ! flames4 ,t :i* holds ?is all toge!r1 h[ev]1 is some?+ fix$1 l a wall1 "u :i* !re is a fi]y wrea?1 & ! mo/ c5tral ( ! r>e sph]es aga9 is fi]y4 ,! mo/ c5tral ( ^? mix$ is ! goddess t reigns ov] all1 ! ,divid] 771 ,dice & ,necessity4 ,= %e is ! pr9ciple ( all e>?ly produce & int]m+l+1 :i* impels ! male to mix ) ! female1 & conv]sely2 %e took ,love to help h]1 creat+ him fir/ among/ ! gods4 ,! air is an exhalation 77 ( ! e>?2 ! sun & ! milky way1 ! brea? ( fire2 & ! moon is air & fire m+l$1 c40#ed ,x /ill rema9s to u to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* ,p>m5ides reg>d$ s5sation & ?\ght1 :i* may und\bt$ly at fir/ sight seem to be mat]iali/ic4 ,!ophra/us1#ee = example1 rem>ks 9 ?is reg>d3 8,p>m5ides said no?+ m ?an t !re are two elem5ts4 ,k is det]m9$ accord+ to ! prepond]ance ( ! "o or ( ! o!r2 =1 accord+ z w>m? or cold pr$om9ate1 ?\ght v>ies2 x becomes bett] & pur] ?r\gh w>m?1 & yet x requires also a c]ta9 balance40 8,= z 9 ea* man !re /ill is 9 8 disp]sive limbs an int]m+l+1 ,s is ! und]/&+ ( man2 = t ,:i* is ?\ght by m51 is ! nature ( ! limbs1 ,bo? 9 "o & all2 = ?\ght is inde$ ! mo/40#ef ,he ?us takes s5sation & ?\ght to be ! same1 & makes remembrance & oblivion to arise f ^! ?r\gh m+l+ !m1 b :e!r 9 ! int]m+l+ !y take an equal place1 :e!r ?is is ?\ght or n1 & :at condition ?is is1 he leaves q undet]m9$4 ,b t he ascribes s5sation to ! opposites 9 & = !mselves is cle>1 because he says3 8,! dead d n feel light or w>m? or he> voices1 because ! fire is out ( !m2 !y feel cold1 /illness & ! opposite1 h[ev]1 &1 speak+ g5]ally1 ea* exi/5ce has a c]ta9 k40 ,9 fact1 ?is view ( ,p>m5ides is really ! opposite ( mat]ialism1 = mat]ialism consi/s 9 putt+ toge!r ! s\l f p>ts1 or indep5d5t =ces 7! wood5 horse ( ! s5ses74 #c4 ,,melissus4 ,!re is little to tell ab\t ! life ( ,melissus4 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #bd7 calls him a disciple ( ,p>m5ides1 b ! disciple%ip is unc]ta92 x is also said ( him t he associat$ ) ,h]aclitus4 ,he 0 born 9 ,samos1 l ,py?agoras1 & 0 besides a di/+ui%$ /atesman among/ 8 p4 ,x is said by ,plut>* 79 ,p]icle1 #bf7 t1 z admiral ( ! ,samians1 he ga9$ 9 battle a victory ov] ! ,a!nians4 ,he fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #hd? ,olympiad 7#ddd ,b4,c474 ,9 reg>d to 8 philosophy1 too1 !re is little to say4 ,ari/otle1 :]e he m5tions him1 places him always ) ,p>m5ides1 z resembl+ him 9 mode ( ?\ght4 ,simplicius1 writ+ on ,ari/otle's ,physics 7p4 #g sqq471 has pres]v$ sev]al fragm5ts ( 8 prose writ+s on ,nature1 :i* %[ ! same k9d ( ?\ghts & argum5ts z we f9d 9 ,p>m5ides1 b1 9 "p1 some:at m develop$4 ,x 0 a "q :e!r ! reason+ 9 :i* x is %[n t *ange does n exi/1 or contradicts itself1 :i*1 by ,ari/otle 9 8 incomplete1 &1 9 "s p>ts1 mo/ corrupt "w on ,x5ophanes1 ,z5o1 & ,gorgias 7c4 #b471 0 ascrib$ to ,x5ophanes1 did n really belong to ,melissus4#eg ,s9ce ! beg9n+1 9 :i* we are told ^: reason+ x is1 is want+1 conjecture only applies x to ,x5ophanes4 ,! writ+ beg9s ) ! words 8,he says10 )\t any "n be+ giv54 ,x ?us dep5ds on ! sup]scription alone :e!r ,ari/otle speaks ( ! philosophy ( ,x5ophanes or n1 & x mu/ be notic$ t diff]5t h&s h put diff]5t sup]scriptions4 ,inde$1 !re is 9 ?is "w 7c4 #b7 an op9ion ( ,x5ophanes m5tion$ 9 su* a way t x appe>s z ?\gh _h :at 0 previ\sly quot$ by ,ari/otle be5 by him ascrib$ to ,x5ophanes1 ! expression w\ld h be5 diff]5t4 ,x is possible t ,z5o is meant1 z ! int]nal evid5ce abundantly %[s4 ,!re is 9 x a dialectic m develop$ 9 =m1 m real reflexion1 ?an f ! v]ses c\ld be expect$1 n f ,x5ophanes alone1 b ev5 f ,p>m5ides4 ,= ,ari/otle expressly says t ,x5ophanes does n yet det]m9e ) precision2 ?us ! cultur$ reason+ conta9$ 9 ,ari/otle mu/ c]ta9ly be d5i$ to ,x5ophanes2 at lea/1 x is s f> c]ta9 t ,x5ophanes himself did n "k h[ to express 8 ?\ghts 9 a mann] s ord]ly & precise z t f\nd "h4 ,we f9d x said3-- 8,if any?+ is1 x is et]nal 7740 ,et]nity is an awkw>d ^w1 = x imm$iately makes u ?9k ( "t & m+le pa/ & future z an inf9ite l5g? ( "t2 b :at is meant is t is ! self-id5tical1 sup]s5su\s1 un*angeable1 pure pres5t1 :i* is )\t any "t-conception4 ,x is1 orig9ation & *ange are %ut out2 if x comm5ces1 x does s out ( no?+ or out ( ,be+4 8,x is impossible t any?+ %\ld arise f ! no?+4 ,if ev]y?+ c\ld h aris51 or c\ld x m]ely n h be5 ev]y?+ et]nally1 x w\ld equally h aris5 out ( no?+4 ,=1 if ev]y?+ _h aris51 no?+ w\ld once h exi/$4 ,if "s 7 alone ! exi/5t out ( :i* ! re/ sprang1 ! "o w\ld be m & great]4 ,b ! m & great] w\ld ?us h aris5 out ( ! no?+ ( itself1 = 9 ! less !re is n its m1 nor 9 ! small] its great]40 ,simplicius makes ?is note to ! ,physics ( ,ari/otle 7p4 #bb b73 8,no m c any?+ arise out ( ! exi/5t1 = ! exi/5t already is1 & ?us does n fir/ arise f ! exi/5t40 8,z et]nal1 ! exi/5t also is unlimit$1 s9ce x has no beg9n+ f :i* x came1 nor end 9 :i* x ceases4 ,! inf9ite all is "o1 =1 if !re 7 two or m1 !y w\ld limit "o ano!r10 & ?us h a beg9n+ & end4 ,! "o w\ld be ! no?+ ( ! o!r & come =? f ?is no?+4 8,?is "o is l itself2 = if x 7 unlike x w\ld no long] be ! "o t 0 posit$1 b _m4 ,?is "o is likewise immovable1 inasmu* z x does n move itself1 s9ce x does n pass out into any?+4 ,9 pass+ out1 x w\ld require to d s into :at is full or :at is empty2 x c\ld n be into ! full1 = t is an impossibility1 & j z little c\ld x be into :at is empty1 = t is ! no?+4 ,! "o1 !re=e1 is 9 ?is way devoid ( pa9 or suff]+1 n *ang+ 9 position or =m1 or m+l+ ) :at is diff]5t4 ,= all ^! det]m9ations involve ! orig9ation ( non-be+ & pass+ away ( ,be+1 :i* is impossible40 ,?us "h aga9 ! contradiction :i* takes place :5 orig9ation & pass+ away are spok5 (1 is reveal$4 ,n[ ,melissus places op9ion 9 opposition to ?is tru?4 ,! *ange & multiplicity ext+ui%$ 9 ,be+ appe>s on ! o!r side1 9 consci\sness1 z 9 :at is op9ionative2 x is necess>y to say ?is if only ! negative side1 ! removal ( ^! mom5ts1 ! ,absolute z de/itute ( pr$icate1 is laid hold (4 8,9 s5su\s p]ception ! opposite is pres5t = u2 t is to say1 a numb] ( ?+s1 _! *ange1 _! orig9ation & pass+ away1 & _! int]m+l+4 ,?us t fir/ k mu/ take its place beside ?is second1 :i* has z mu* c]ta9ty = ord9>y consci\sness z ! fir/40 ,melissus does n seem to h decid$ = ! "o or ! o!r1 b1 oscillat+ betwe5 bo?1 to h limit$ ! k ( ! tru? to ! /atem5t t1 speak+ g5]ally1 betwe5 two opposite modes ( pres5tation1 ! m probable op9ion is to be pref]r$1 b t :at is s pref]r$ is only to be reg>d$ z ! /rong] op9ion1 & n z tru?4 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle says ( him4 ,s9ce ,ari/otle1 9 di/+ui%+ 8 philosophy f ! philosophy ( ,p>m5ides1 ma9ta9s t 9 ! fir/ place ,p>m5ides seems to und]/& ! ,"o z ! pr9ciple ( ?\ght1 & ,melissus z matt]1 we mu/ rem>k t ?is di/9ction falls away 9 pure exi/5ce1 ,be+1 or ! ,"o4 ,pure matt]1 z also pure ?\ght 7if ,i am to speak ( su* a di/9ction71 are n pres5t to ,p>m5ides & ,melissus1 s9ce !y are abrogat$2 & x mu/ only be 9 ! mann] ( 8 expression t "o ( !m--accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,phys4 ,i4 #b71 on acc\nt ( 8 clumsi] mode ( treatm5t 7 7--c\ld seem to h conceiv$ ( ! o!r s5se4 ,if ! diff]5ce consi/$ secondly 9 ! fact t ,p>m5ides reg>d$ ! "o z limit$ & ,melissus z unlimit$1 ?is limitation ( ! "o w\ld1 9 effect1 imm$iately contradict ! philosophy ( ,p>m5ides2 = s9ce limit is ! non-be+ ( ,be+1 non-be+ w\ld ?us be posit$4 ,b :5 ,p>m5ides speaks ( limit1 we see t 8 poetic language is n altoge!r exact2 limit1 h[ev]1 z pure limit1 is j simple ,be+ & absolute negativity1 9 :i* all else said & set =? is sublat$4 ,necessity1 z ?is pure negativity & movem5t )9 itself1 al?\gh impassive ?\ght1 is absolutely b\nd to its opposite4 ,9 ! ?ird place x may be said t ,p>m5ides set =? a concomitant philosophy ( op9ion or reality1 to :i* ,be+ z exi/5ce = ?\ght 0 ?us m oppos$ ?an 0 ! case ) ,melissus4 #d4 ,,z5o4 ,:at specially *>act]izes ,z5o is ! dialectic :i*1 prop]ly speak+1 beg9s ) him2 he is ! ma/] ( ! ,eleatic s*ool 9 :om its pure ?\ght arrives at ! movem5t ( ! ,notion 9 itself & becomes ! pure s\l ( sci5ce4 ,t is to say1 9 ! ,eleatics hi!rto consid]$1 we only h ! proposition3 8,! no?+ has no reality & is n at all1 & ?us :at is call$ orig9 & decease disappe>s40 ,) ,z5o1 on ! contr>y1 we c]ta9ly see j su* an ass]tion ( ! "o & removal ( :at contradicts x1 b we also see t ?is ass]tion is n made ! />t+ po9t2 = reason beg9s by calmly demon/rat+ 9 t :i* is e/abli%$ z exi/5t1 its negation4 ,p>m5ides ass]ts t 8,! all is immutable1 =1 9 *ange1 ! non-be+ ( t :i* is w\ld be ass]t$1 b ,be+ only is2 9 say+ t non-be+ is1 ! subject & ! pr$icate contradict !mselves40 ,z5o1 on ! o!r h&1 says3 8,ass]t y\r *ange2 9 x z *ange !re is ! negation to x1 or x is no?+40 ,to ! =m] *ange exi/$ z motion1 def9ite & complete4 ,z5o prote/$ aga9/ motion z su*1 or pure motion4 8,pure ,be+ is n motion2 x is r ! negation ( motion40 ,we f9d x specially int]e/+ t !re is 9 ,z5o ! high] consci\sness1 ! consci\sness t :5 "o det]m9ation is d5i$1 ?is negation is itself aga9 a det]m9ation1 & !n 9 ! absolute negation n "o det]m9ation1 b bo? ! opposites mu/ be negat$4 ,z5o anticipat$ ?is1 & because he =esaw t ,be+ is ! opposite ( no?+1 he d5i$ ( ! ,"o :at mu/ be said ( ! no?+4 ,b ! same ?+ mu/ occur ) all ! re/4 ,we f9d ?is high] dialectic 9 ,plato's ,p>m5ides2 "h x only breaks =? 9 respect to "s det]m9ations1 & n to ! det]m9ation ( ! ,"o & ( ,be+4 ,! high] consci\sness is ! consci\sness ( ! nullity ( ,be+ z ( :at is det]m9$ z aga9/ ! no?+1 p>tly f\nd 9 ,h]aclitus & !n 9 ! ,sophi/s2 ) !m x nev] has any tru?1 x has no exi/5ce 9 itself1 b is only ! =-ano!r1 or ! assurance ( ! individual consci\sness1 & assurance z refutation1 i4e4 ! negative side ( dialectic4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius1 7,,ix4 #be7 ,z5o 0 likewise an ,eleat2 he is ! y\nge/1 & liv$ mo/ 9 company ) ,p>m5ides4 ,! latt] became v fond ( him & adopt$ him z a son2 8 own fa!r 0 call$ ,tel5tagoras4 ,n 9 8 ,/ate alone 0 8 conduct held 9 high respect1 = 8 fame 0 univ]sal1 & he 0 e/eem$ p>ticul>ly z a tea*]4 ,plato m5tions t m5 came to him f ,a!ns & o!r places1 9 ord] to pr(it f 8 le>n+4#eh ,pr\d self-suffici5cy is ascrib$ to him by ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #bh7 because he--) ! exception ( a j\rney made to ,a!ns--cont9u$ to reside 9 ,elea1 & did n /ay a long] "t 9 ! great1 mighty ,a!ns1 & !re atta9 to fame4 ,9 v v>i\s n>ratives 8 dea? 0 made = ev] celebrat$ = ! /r5g? ( 8 m9d ev9c$ 9 x2 x 0 said t he fre$ a ,/ate 7:e!r 8 own home at ,elea or 9 ,sicily1 is n kn[n7 f its ,tyrant 7! "n is giv5 diff]5tly1 b an exact hi/orical acc\nt has n be5 record$7 9 ! foll[+ way1 & by ! sacrifice ( 8 life4 ,he ent]$ into a plot to ov]?r[ ! ,tyrant1 b ?is 0 betray$4 ,:5 ! ,tyrant n[1 9 face ( ! p1 caus$ him to be tortur$ 9 e possible way to get f him an av[al ( 8 conf$]ates1 & :5 he que/ion$ him ab\t ! enemies ( ! ,/ate1 ,z5o fir/ nam$ to ! ,tyrant all 8 fri5ds z p>ticipators 9 ! plot1 & !n spoke ( ! ,tyrant himself z ! pe/ ( ! ,/ate4 ,! p[]ful remon/rances or ! horrible tortures & dea? ( ,z5o ar\s$ ! citiz5s1 inspir$ !m ) c\rage to fall ^u ! ,tyrant1 kill him1 & lib]ate !mselves4 ,! mann] ( ! end1 & 8 viol5t & furi\s /ate ( m9d1 is v v>i\sly depict$4 ,he is said to h pret5d$ to wi% to say some?+ into ! ,tyrant's e>1 & !n to h bitt5 8 e>1 & ?us held him fa/ until he 0 sla9 by ! o!rs4 ,o!rs say t he seiz$ him by ! nose betwe5 8 tee?2 o!rs t z on 8 reply great tortures 7 appli$1 he bit (f 8 tongue & spat x into ! ,tyrant's face1 to %[ him t he c\ld get no?+ f him1 & t he !n 0 p\nd$ 9 a mort>4#ei ,x has j be5 notic$ t ,z5o _h ! v important "* ( be+ ! orig9ator ( ! true objective dialectic4 ,x5ophanes1 ,p>m5ides1 & ,melissus1 />t ) ! proposition3 8,no?+ is no?+2 ! no?+ does n exi/ at all1 or ! l is real exi/5ce10 t is1 !y make "o ( ! oppos$ pr$icates to be exi/5ce4 ,n[ :5 !y enc\nt] ! opposite 9 a det]m9ation1 !y demoli% ?is det]m9ation1 b x is only demoli%$ ?r\gh ano!r1 ?r\gh my ass]tion1 ?r\gh ! di/9ction t ,i =m1 by :i* "o side is made to be ! true1 & ! o!r ! null4 ,we h proce$$ f a def9ite proposition2 ! nullity ( ! opposite does n appe> 9 itself2 x is n t x abrogates itself1 i4e4 t x conta9s a contradiction 9 itself4 ,= in/ance1 ,i ass]t ( some?+ t x is ! null2 !n ,i %[ ?is by hypo!sis 9 motion1 & x foll[s t x is ! null4 ,b ano!r consci\sness does n ass]t ?is2 ,i decl>e "o ?+ to be directly true2 ano!r has ! "r ( ass]t+ some?+ else z directly true1 t is to say1 motion4 ,simil>ly :at seems to be ! case :5 "o philosophic sy/em contradicts ano!r1 is t ! fir/ is pre-e/abli%$1 & t m5 />t+ f ?is po9t ( view1 combat ! o!r4 ,! matt] is ?us easily settl$ by say+3 8,! o!r has no tru?1 because x does n agree ) me10 & ! o!r has ! "r to say ! same4 ,x does n help if ,i prove my sy/em or my proposition & !n conclude t ?us ! opposite is false2 to ?is o!r proposition ! fir/ always seems to be =eign & ext]nal4 ,falsity mu/ n be demon/rat$ ?r\gh ano!r1 & z untrue because ! opposite is true1 b 9 itself2 we f9d ?is rational p]ception 9 ,z5o4 ,9 ,plato's ,p>m5ides 7pp4 #abg1 #abh1 ,/eph41 pp4 #f1 #g1 ,bekk47 ?is dialectic is v well describ$1 = ,plato makes ,socrates say ( x3 8,z5o 9 8 writ+s ass]ts fundam5tally ! same z does ,p>m5ides1 t ,all is ,"o1 b he w\ld feign delude u into believ+ t he 0 tell+ some?+ new4 ,p>m5ides ?us %[s 9 8 poems t ,all is ,"o2 ,z5o1 on ! contr>y1 %[s t ! ,_m _c be40 ,z5o replies1 t 8,he wrote ?us really aga9/ ^? :o try to make ,p>m5ides' position ridicul\s1 = !y try to %[ :at absurdities & self-contradictions c be d]iv$ f 8 /atem5ts2 he ?us combats ^? :o d$uce ,be+ f ! _m1 9 ord] to %[ t f> m absurdities arise f ?is ?an f ! /atem5ts ( ,p>m5ides40 ,t is ! special aim ( objective dialectic1 9 :i* we no long] ma9ta9 simple ?\ght = itself1 b see ! battle f\ght ) new vig\r )9 ! enemy's camp4 ,dialectic has 9 ,z5o ?is negative side1 b x has also to be consid]$ f its positive side4 ,accord+ to ! ord9>y ideas ( sci5ce1 :]e propositions result f pro(1 pro( is ! movem5t ( intellig5ce1 a connection br\ght ab\t by m$iation4 ,dialectic is ei!r 77 ext]nal dialectic1 9 :i* ?is movem5t is diff]5t f ! compreh5sion ( ! movem5t1 or 77 n a movem5t ( our intellig5ce only1 b :at proce$s f ! nature ( ! ?+ itself1 i4e4 f ! pure ,notion ( ! cont5t4 ,! =m] is a mann] ( reg>d+ objects 9 su* a way t reasons are reveal$ & new light ?r[n1 by means ( :i* all t 0 suppos$ to be firmly fix$1 is made to tott]2 !re may be reasons :i* are altoge!r ext]nal too1 & we %all speak fur!r ( ?is dialectic :5 deal+ ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,! o!r dialectic1 h[ev]1 is ! imman5t contemplation ( ! object2 x is tak5 = itself1 )\t previ\s hypo!sis1 idea or obligation1 n "u any outw>d conditions1 laws or causes2 we h to put ourselves "r into ! ?+1 to consid] ! object 9 itself1 & to take x 9 ! det]m9ations :i* x has4 ,9 reg>d+ x ?us1 x %[s f itself t x conta9s oppos$ det]m9ations1 & ?us breaks up2 ?is dialectic we m especially f9d 9 ! anci5ts4 ,! subjective dialectic1 :i* reasons f ext]nal gr\nds1 is mod]ate1 = x grants t3 8,9 ! "r !re is :at is n "r1 & 9 ! false ! true40 ,true dialectic leaves no?+ :atev] to its object1 z if ! latt] 7 defici5t on "o side only2 = x dis9tegrates itself 9 ! entirety ( its nature4 ,! result ( ?is dialectic is null1 ! negative2 ! affirmative 9 x does n yet appe>4 ,?is true dialectic may be associat$ ) ! "w ( ! ,eleatics4 ,b 9 _! case ! real mean+ & quality ( philosophic und]/&+ 0 n great1 = !y got no fur!r ?an ! fact t ?r\gh contradiction ! object is a no?+4 ,z5o's dialectic ( matt] has n be5 refut$ to ! pres5t day2 ev5 n[ we h n got beyond x1 & ! matt] is left 9 unc]ta9ty4 ,simplicius1 writ+ on ! ,physics ( ,ari/otle 7p4 #cj71 says3 8,z5o proves t if ! _m is1 x mu/ be great & small2 if great1 ! _m mu/ be inf9ite 9 numb]0 7x mu/ h gone beyond ! manifold1 z indiff]5t limit1 into ! inf9ite2 b :at is inf9ite is no long] l>ge & no long] _m1 = x is ! negation ( ! _m74 8,if small1 x mu/ be s small z to h no size10 l atoms4 8,"h he %[s t :at has nei!r size1 ?ickness nor mass1 _c be4 ,= if x 7 add$ to ano!r1 x w\ld n cause its increase2 7 x1 t is to say1 to h no size & be add$ !reto1 x c\ld n supplem5t ! size ( ! o!r & consequ5tly t :i* is add$ is no?+4 ,simil>ly 7 x tak5 away1 ! o!r w\ld n be made less1 & ?us x is no?+4 ,if :at has be+ is1 ea* exi/5ce necess>ily has size & ?ickness1 is outside ( "o ano!r1 & "o is sep>ate f ! o!r2 ! same applies to all else 7 71 = x1 too1 has size1 & 9 x !re is :at mutually diff]s 7 74 ,b x is ! same ?+ to say some?+ once & to say x ov] & ov] aga92 9 x no?+ c be a la/1 nor w !re n be ano!r to ! o!r4 ,?us if _m are1 !y are small & great2 small1 s t !y h no size2 great1 s t !y are inf9ite40 ,ari/otle 7,phys4 ,,vi4 #i7 expla9s ?is dialectic fur!r2 ,z5o's treatm5t ( motion 0 above all objectively dialectical4 ,b ! p>ticul>s :i* we f9d 9 ! ,p>m5ides ( ,plato are n 84 ,= ,z5o's consci\sness we see simple unmov$ ?\ght disappe>1 b become ?9k+ movem5t2 9 t he combats s5su\s movem5t1 he conc$es x4 ,! reason t dialectic fir/ fell on movem5t is t ! dialectic is itself ?is movem5t1 or movem5t itself ! dialectic ( all t is4 ,! ?+1 z self-mov+1 has its dialectic 9 itself1 & movem5t is ! becom+ ano!r1 self-abrogation4 ,if ,ari/otle says t ,z5o d5i$ movem5t because x conta9s an inn] contradiction1 x is n to be und]/ood to mean t movem5t did n exi/ at all4 ,! po9t is n t !re is movem5t & t ?is ph5om5on exi/s2 ! fact t !re is movem5t is z s5su\sly c]ta9 z t !re are elephants2 x is n 9 ?is s5se t ,z5o meant to d5y movem5t4 ,! po9t 9 "q conc]ns its tru?4 ,movem5t1 h[ev]1 is held to be untrue1 because ! conception ( x involves a contradiction2 by t he meant to say t no true ,be+ c be pr$icat$ ( x4 ,z5o's utt]ances are to be look$ at f ?is po9t ( view1 n z be+ direct$ aga9/ ! reality ( motion1 z w\ld at fir/ appe>1 b z po9t+ out h[ movem5t mu/ necess>ily be det]m9$1 & %[+ ! c\rse :i* mu/ be tak54 ,z5o n[ br+s =w>d f\r diff]5t argum5ts aga9/ motion2 ! pro(s re/ on ! inf9ite divisibility ( space & "t4 7a7 ,?is is 8 fir/ =m ( argum5t3--8,movem5t has no tru?1 because :at is 9 motion mu/ fir/ rea* ! middle ( ! space be=e arriv+ at ! end40 ,ari/otle expresses ?is ?us %ortly1 because he _h e>li] treat$ ( & work$ out ! subject at l5g?4 ,?is is to be tak5 z indicat+ g5]ally t ! cont9uity ( space is presuppos$4 ,:at moves itself mu/ rea* a c]ta9 end1 ?is way is a :ole4 ,9 ord] to trav]se ! :ole1 :at is 9 motion mu/ fir/ pass ov] ! half1 & n[ ! end ( ?is half is consid]$ z be+ ! end2 b ?is half ( space is aga9 a :ole1 t :i* also has a half1 & ! half ( ?is half mu/ fir/ h be5 rea*$1 & s on into inf9ity4 ,z5o "h arrives at ! inf9ite divisibility ( space2 because space & "t are absolutely cont9u\s1 !re is no po9t at :i* ! division c /op4 ,e dim5sion 7& e "t & space always h a dim5sion7 is aga9 divisible into two halves1 :i* mu/ be measur$ (f2 & h[ev] small a space we h1 ! same conditions reappe>4 ,movem5t w\ld be ! act ( pass+ ?r\gh ^! inf9ite mom5ts1 & w\ld !re=e nev] end2 ?us :at is 9 motion _c rea* its end4 ,x is kn[n h[ ,diog5es ( ,s9ope1 ! ,cynic1 q simply refut$ ^! argum5ts aga9/ movem5t2 )\t speak+ he rose & walk$ ab\t1 contradict+ !m by action4#fj ,b :5 reasons are disput$1 ! only valid refutation is "o d]iv$ f reasons2 m5 h n m]ely to satisfy !mselves by s5su\s assurance1 b also to und]/&4 ,to refute objections is to prove _! non-exi/5ce1 z :5 !y are made to fall away & c h5ce be adduc$ no long]2 b x is necess>y to ?9k ( motion z ,z5o ?\ght ( x1 & yet to c>ry ?is !ory ( motion fur!r /ill4 ,we h "h ! spuri\s inf9ite or pure appe>ance1 ^: simple pr9ciple ,philosophy demon/rates z univ]sal ,notion1 = ! fir/ "t mak+ its appe>ance z develop$ 9 its contradiction2 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy a consci\sness ( ?is contradiction is also atta9$4 ,movem5t1 ?is pure ph5om5on1 appe>s z some?+ ?\ght & %[n =? 9 its real be+--t is1 9 its di/9ction ( pure self-id5tity & pure negativity1 ! po9t z di/+ui%$ f cont9uity4 ,to u !re is no contradiction 9 ! idea t ! "h ( space & ! n[ ( "t are consid]$ z a cont9uity & l5g?2 b _! ,notion is self-contradictory4 ,self-id5tity or cont9uity is absolute cohesion1 ! de/ruction ( all diff]5ce1 ( all negation1 ( be+ = self2 ! po9t1 on ! contr>y1 is pure be+-=-self1 absolute self-di/9ction & ! de/ruction ( all id5tity & all connection ) :at is diff]5t4 ,bo? ( ^!1 h[ev]1 are1 9 space & "t1 plac$ 9 "o2 space & "t are ?us ! contradiction2 x is necess>y1 fir/ ( all1 to %[ ! contradiction 9 movem5t1 = 9 movem5t t :i* is oppos$ is1 to ord9>y conceptions1 inevitably manife/$4 ,movem5t is j ! reality ( "t & space1 & because ?is appe>s & is made manife/1 ! app>5t contradiction is demon/rat$1 & x is ?is contradiction t ,z5o notices4 ,! limitation ( bisection :i* is involv$ 9 ! cont9uity ( space1 is n absolute limitation1 = t :i* is limit$ is aga9 cont9uity2 h[ev]1 ?is cont9uity is aga9 n absolute1 = ! opposite has to be exhibit$ 9 x1 ! limitation ( bisection2 b ! limitation ( cont9uity is /ill n !reby e/abli%$1 ! half is /ill cont9u\s1 & s on into inf9ity4 ,9 t we say 8into inf9ity10 we place be=e ourselves a beyond1 outside ( ! ord9>y conception1 :i* _c rea* s f>4 ,x is c]ta9ly an endless go+ =?1 b 9 ! ,notion x is pres5t1 x is a progression f "o oppos$ det]m9ation to o!rs1 f cont9uity to negativity1 f negativity to cont9uity2 b bo? ( ^! are be=e u4 ,( ^! mom5ts "o 9 ! process may be call$ ! true "o2 ,z5o fir/ ass]ts cont9u\s progression 9 su* a way t no limit$ space c be arriv$ at z ultimate1 or ,z5o upholds progression 9 ?is limitation4 ,! g5]al explanation :i* ,ari/otle gives to ?is contradiction1 is t space & "t are n inf9itely divid$1 b are only divisible4 ,b x n[ appe>s t1 because !y are divisible--t is1 9 pot5tiality--!y mu/ actually be inf9itely divid$1 = else !y c\ld n be divid$ into inf9ity4 ,t is ! g5]al answ] ( ! ord9>y man 9 endeav\r+ to refute ! explanation ( ,ari/otle4 ,bayle 7,tom4 ,,iv4 art4 ,znon1 n4 ,e47 h5ce says ( ,ari/otle's answ] t x is 8pitoyable3 ,c'e/ se moqu] du monde que de se s]vir de cette doctr9e2 c> si la matire e/ divisible l'inf9i1 elle conti5t un nombre inf9i de p>ties4 ,ce n'e/ donc po9t un inf9i en puissance1 c'e/ un inf9i1 qui exi/e rellem5t1 actuellem5t4 ,mais qu&-mme on accord]ait cet inf9i en puissance1 qui devi5drait un inf9i p> la division actuelle de ses p>ties1 on ne p]drait pas ses avantages2 c> le m\vem5t e/ une *ose1 qui a la mme v]tu1 que la division4 ,il t\*e une p>tie de l'espace sans t\*] l'autre1 et il les t\*e t\tes les unes aprs les autres4 ,n'e/-ce pas les di/+u] actuellem5t8 ,n'e/-ce pas faire ce que f]ait un gomtre sur une table en tirant des lignes1 qui dsignass5t t\s les demi-p\ces8 ,il ne brise pas la table en demi-p\ces1 mais il y fait nanmo9s une division1 qui m>que la di/9ction actuelle des p>ties2 et je ne crois pas qu',ari/ote eut v\lu ni]1 que si l'on tirait une inf9it de lignes sur un p\ce de matire1 on n'y introduist une division1 qui rduirait en inf9i actuel ce qui n'tait selon lui qu'un inf9i virtual40 ,?is si is good6 ,divisibility is1 z pot5tiality1 ! univ]sal2 !re is cont9uity z well z negativity or ! po9t posit$ 9 x--b posit$ z mom5t1 & n z exi/5t 9 & = itself4 ,i c divide matt] into inf9itude1 b ,i only c d s2 ,i d n really divide x into inf9itude4 ,?is is ! inf9ite1 t no "o ( its mom5ts has reality4 ,x nev] does happ5 t1 9 itself1 "o or o!r--t absolute limitation or absolute cont9uity--actually comes into exi/5ce 9 su* a way t ! o!r mom5t disappe>s4 ,!re are two absolute opposites1 b !y are mom5ts1 i4e4 9 ! simple ,notion or 9 ! univ]sal1 9 ?\ght1 if y w2 = 9 ?\ght1 9 ord9>y conception1 :at is set =? bo? is & is n at ! same "t4 ,:at is repres5t$ ei!r z su*1 or z an image ( ! conception1 is n a ?+2 x has no ,be+1 & yet x is n no?+4 ,space & "t fur!rmore1 z quantum1 =m a limit$ ext5sion1 & ?us c be measur$ (f2 j z ,i d n actually divide space1 nei!r does ! body :i* is 9 motion4 ,! p>tition ( space z divid$1 is n absolute discont9uity ,punktualitt1 nor is pure cont9uity ! undivid$ & indivisible2 likewise "t is n pure negativity or discont9uity1 b also cont9uity4 ,bo? are manife/$ 9 motion1 9 :i* ! ,notions h _! reality = ord9>y conception--pure negativity z "t1 cont9uity z space4 ,motion itself is j ?is actual unity 9 ! opposition1 & ! sequ5ce ( bo? mom5ts 9 ?is unity4 ,to compreh5d motion is to express its ess5ce 9 ! =m ( ,notion1 i4e41 z unity ( negativity & cont9uity2 b 9 !m nei!r cont9uity nor discret5ess c be exhibit$ z ! true exi/5ce4 ,if we repres5t space or "t to ourselves z inf9itely divid$1 we h an inf9itude ( po9ts1 b cont9uity is pres5t !re9 z a space :i* compreh5ds !m3 z ,notion1 h[ev]1 cont9uity is ! fact t all ^! are alike1 & ?us 9 reality !y d n appe> "o out ( ! o!r l po9ts4 ,b bo? ^! mom5ts make _! appe>ance z exi/5t2 if !y are manife/$ indiff]5tly1 _! ,notion is no long] posit$1 b _! exi/5ce4 ,9 !m z exi/5t1 negativity is a limit$ size1 & !y exi/ z limit$ space & "t2 actual motion is progression ?r\gh a limit$ space & a limit$ "t & n ?r\gh inf9ite space & inf9ite "t4 ,t :at is 9 motion mu/ rea* ! half is ! ass]tion ( cont9uity1 i4e4 ! possibility ( division z m]e possibility2 x is ?us always possible 9 e space1 h[ev] small4 ,x is said t x is pla9 t ! half mu/ be rea*$1 b 9 s say+1 ev]y?+ is all[$1 includ+ ! fact t x nev] w be rea*$2 = to say s 9 "o case1 is ! same z say+ x an inf9ite numb] ( times4 ,we mean1 on ! contr>y1 t 9 a l>g] space ! half c be all[$1 b we conceive t we mu/ some:]e atta9 to a space s small t no halv+ is possible1 or an indivisible1 non-cont9u\s space :i* is no space4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is false1 = cont9uity is a necess>y det]m9ation2 !re is und\bt$ly a smalle/ 9 space1 i4e4 a negation ( cont9uity1 b ! negation is some?+ q ab/ract4 ,ab/ract adh]5ce to ! subdivision indicat$1 t is1 to cont9u\s bisection into inf9itude1 is likewise false1 = 9 ! conception ( a half1 ! int]ruption ( cont9uity is involv$4 ,we mu/ say t !re is no half ( space1 = space is cont9u\s2 a piece ( wood may be brok5 into two halves1 b n space1 & space only exi/s 9 movem5t4 ,x might equally be said t space consi/s ( an endless numb] ( po9ts1 i4e4 ( inf9itely _m limits & ?us _c be trav]s$4 ,m5 ?9k !mselves able to g f "o indivisible po9t to ano!r1 b !y d n !reby get any fur!r1 = ( ^! !re is an unlimit$ numb]4 ,cont9uity is split up into its opposite1 a numb] :i* is indef9ite2 t is to say1 if cont9uity is n admitt$1 !re is no motion4 ,x is false to ass]t t x is possible :5 "o is rea*$1 or t :i* is n cont9u\s2 = motion is connection4 ,?us :5 x 0 said t cont9uity is ! presuppos$ possibility ( inf9ite division1 cont9uity is only ! hypo!sis2 b :at is exhibit$ 9 ?is cont9uity is ! be+ ( inf9itely _m1 ab/ractly absolute limits4 7b7 ,! second pro(1 :i* is also ! presupposition ( cont9uity & ! manife/ation ( division1 is call$ 8,a*illes1 ! ,swift40 ,! anci5ts lov$ to clo! difficulties 9 s5su\s repres5tations4 ,( two bodies mov+ 9 "o direction1 "o ( :i* is 9 front & ! o!r foll[+ at a fix$ di/ance & mov+ quick] ?an ! fir/1 we "k t ! second w ov]take ! fir/4 ,b ,z5o says1 8,! sl[] c nev] be ov]tak5 by ! quick]40 ,& he proves x ?us3 8,! second "o requires a c]ta9 space ( "t to rea* ! place f :i* ! "o pursu$ />t$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! giv5 p]iod40 ,?us dur+ ! "t 9 :i* ! second rea*$ ! po9t :]e ! fir/ 01 ! latt] w5t ov] a new space :i* ! second has aga9 to pass ?r\gh 9 a "p ( ?is p]iod2 & 9 ?is way x goes into inf9ity4 c d e f g ,b ,a ,b1 = in/ance1 trav]ses two miles 7c d7 9 an h\r1 ,a 9 ! same "t1 "o mile 7d e72 if !y are two miles 7c d7 remov$ f "o ano!r1 ,b has 9 "o h\r come to :]e ,a 0 at ! beg9n+ ( ! h\r4 ,:ile ,b1 9 ! next half h\r1 goes ov] ! di/ance cross$ by ,a ( "o mile 7d e71 ,a has got half a mile 7e f7 fur!r1 & s on into inf9ity4 ,quick] motion does n help ! second body at all 9 pass+ ov] ! int]val ( space by :i* he is beh9d3 ! "t :i* he requires1 ! sl[] body always has at its avail 9 ord] to accompli% "s1 al?\gh an ev] %ort] advance2 & ?is1 because ( ! cont9ual division1 nev] q disappe>s4 ,ari/otle1 9 speak+ ( ?is1 puts x %ortly ?us4 8,?is pro( ass]ts ! same endless divisibility1 b x is untrue1 = ! quick w ov]take ! sl[ body if ! limits to be trav]s$ be grant$ to x40 ,?is answ] is correct & conta9s all t c be said2 t is1 !re are 9 ?is repres5tation two p]iods ( "t & two di/ances1 :i* are sep>at$ f "o ano!r1 i4e4 !y are limit$ 9 relation to "o ano!r2 :51 on ! contr>y1 we admit t "t & space are cont9u\s1 s t two p]iods ( "t or po9ts ( space are relat$ to "o ano!r z cont9u\s1 !y are1 :ile be+ two1 n two1 b id5tical4 ,9 ord9>y language we solve ! matt] 9 ! easie/ way1 = we say3 8,because ! second is quick]1 x cov]s a great] di/ance 9 ! same "t z ! sl[2 x c !re=e come to ! place f :i* ! fir/ />t$ & get fur!r /ill40 ,aft] ,b1 at ! end ( ! fir/ h\r1 arrives at d & ,a at e1 ,a 9 "o & ! same p]iod1 t is1 9 ! second h\r1 goes ov] ! di/ance e g1 & ,b ! di/ance d g4 ,b ?is p]iod ( "t :i* %\ld be "o1 is divisible into t 9 :i* ,b accompli%es d e & t 9 :i* ,b passes ?r\gh e g4 ,a has a />t ( ! fir/1 by :i* x gets ov] ! di/ance e f1 s t ,a is at f at ! same p]iod z ,b is at e4 ,! limitation :i*1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is to be ov]come1 :i* mu/ be p5etrat$1 is ?us t ( "t2 s9ce x is cont9u\s1 x mu/1 = ! solution ( ! difficulty1 be said t :at is divisible into two spaces ( "t is to be conceiv$ ( z "o1 9 :i* ,b gets f d to e & f e to g1 :ile ,a passes ov] ! di/ance e g4 ,9 motion two p]iods1 z well z two po9ts 9 space1 are inde$ "o4 ,if we wi% to make motion cle> to ourselves1 we say t ! body is 9 "o place & !n x goes to ano!r2 because x moves1 x is no long] 9 ! fir/1 b yet n 9 ! second2 7 x 9 ei!r x w\ld be at re/4 ,:]e !n is x8 ,if we say t x is betwe5 bo?1 ?is is to convey no?+ at all1 = 7 x betwe5 bo?1 x w\ld be 9 a place1 & ?is pres5ts ! same difficulty4 ,b movem5t means to be 9 ?is place & n to be 9 x1 & ?us to be 9 bo? alike2 ?is is ! cont9uity ( space & "t :i* fir/ makes motion possible4 ,z5o1 9 ! d$uction made by him1 br\ght bo? ^! po9ts into =cible opposition4 ,! discretion ( space & "t we also uphold1 b !re mu/ also be grant$ to !m ! ov]/epp+ ( limits1 i4e4 ! exhibition ( limits z n be+1 or z be+ divid$ p]iods ( "t1 :i* are also n divid$4 ,9 our ord9>y ideas we f9d ! same det]m9ations z ^? on :i* ! dialectic ( ,z5o re/s2 we arrive at say+1 ?\gh unwill+ly1 t 9 "o p]iod two di/ances ( space are trav]s$1 b we d n say t ! quick] compreh5ds two mom5ts ( "t 9 "o2 = t we fix a def9ite space4 ,b 9 ord] t ! sl[] may lose its prec$5ce1 x mu/ be said t x loses its advantage ( a mom5t ( "t1 & indirectly ! mom5t ( space4 ,z5o makes limit1 division1 ! mom5t ( discretion 9 space & "t1 ! only elem5t :i* is en=c$ 9 ! :ole ( 8 conclusions1 & h5ce results ! contradiction4 ,! difficulty is to ov]come ?\ght1 = :at makes ! difficulty is always ?\ght alone1 s9ce x keeps ap>t ! mom5ts ( an object :i* 9 _! sep>ation are really unit$4 ,x br\ght ab\t ! ,fall1 = man ate ( ! tree ( ! k ( good & evil2 b x also rem$ies ^! evils4 7c7 ,! ?ird =m1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 is z foll[s3--,z5o says3 8,! fly+ arr[ re/s1 & = ! reason t :at is 9 motion is always 9 ! self-same ,n[ & ! self-same ,"h1 9 ! indi/+ui%able20 x is "h & "h & "h4 ,x c be said ( ! arr[ t x is always ! same1 = x is always 9 ! same space & ! same "t2 x does n get beyond its space1 does n take 9 ano!r1 t is1 a great] or small] space4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is :at we call re/ & n motion4 ,9 ! ,"h & ,n[1 ! becom+ 8o!r0 is abrogat$1 limitation inde$ be+ e/abli%$1 b only z mom5t2 s9ce 9 ! ,"h & ,n[ z su*1 !re is no diff]5ce1 cont9uity is "h made to prevail aga9/ ! m]e belief 9 div]sity4 ,ea* place is a diff]5t place1 & ?us ! same2 true1 objective diff]5ce does n come =? 9 ^! s5su\s relations1 b 9 ! spiritual4 ,?is is also app>5t 9 me*anics2 ( two bodies ! "q z to :i* moves pres5ts itself be=e u4 ,x requires m ?an two places--?ree at lea/--to det]m9e :i* ( !m moves4 ,b x is correct to say ?is1 t motion is pla9ly relative2 :e!r 9 absolute space ! eye1 = in/ance1 re/s1 or :e!r x moves1 is all ! same4 ,or1 accord+ to a proposition br\ght =w>d by ,newton1 if two bodies move r\nd "o ano!r 9 a circle1 x may be ask$ :e!r ! "o re/s or bo? move4 ,newton tries to decide ?is by means ( an ext]nal circum/ance1 ! /ra9 on ! /r+4 ,:5 ,i walk on a %ip 9 a direction oppos$ to ! motion ( ! %ip1 ?is is 9 relation to ! %ip1 motion1 & 9 relation to all else1 re/4 ,9 bo? ! fir/ pro(s1 cont9uity 9 progression has ! pr$om9ance2 !re is no absolute limit1 b an ov]/epp+ ( all limits4 ,"h ! opposite is e/abli%$2 absolute limitation1 ! int]ruption ( cont9uity1 )\t h[ev] pass+ into some?+ else2 :ile discretion is presuppos$1 cont9uity is ma9ta9$4 ,ari/otle says ( ?is pro(3 8,x arises f ! fact t x is tak5 = grant$ t "t consi/s ( ! ,n[2 = if ?is is n conc$$1 ! conclusions w n foll[40 7d7 8,! f\r? pro(10 ,ari/otle cont9ues1 8is d]iv$ f simil> bodies :i* move 9 opposite directions 9 ! space beside a simil> body1 & ) equal velocity1 "o f "o end ( ! space1 ! o!r f ! middle4 ,x necess>ily results f ?is t half ! "t is equal to ! d\ble ( x4 ,! fallacy re/s 9 ?is1 t ,z5o supposes t :at is beside ! mov+ body1 & :at is beside ! body at re/1 move ?r\gh an equal di/ance 9 equal "t ) equal velocity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is untrue40 #a ,e----------------,f k i m ,c----------------,d g n h ,a----------------,b ,9 a def9ite space su* z a table 7,a ,b7 let u suppose two bodies ( equal l5g? ) x & ) "o ano!r1 "o ( :i* 7,c ,d7 lies ) "o end 7,c7 on ! middle 7g7 ( ! table1 & ! o!r 7,e ,f71 be+ 9 ! same direction1 has ! po9t 7,e7 only t\*+ ! end ( ! table 7h72 & suppos+ !y move 9 opposite directions1 & ! =m] 7,c ,d7 rea*es 9 an h\r ! end 7h7 ( ! table2 we h ! result ensu+ t ! "o 7,e ,f7 passes 9 ! half ( ! "t ?r\gh ! same space 7i k7 :i* ! o!r does 9 ! d\ble 7g h72 h5ce ! half is equal to ! d\ble4 ,t is to say1 ?is second passes 7let u say1 9 ! po9t l7 by ! :ole ( ! fir/ ,c ,d4 ,9 ! fir/ half-h\r l goes f m to i1 :ile k only goes f g to n4 #a ,e----------------,f k o i m ,c----------------,d g n h ,a----------------,b ,9 ! second half-h\r l goes pa/ o to k1 & altoge!r passes f m to k1 or ! d\ble ( ! di/ance4 #a ,e----------------,f k o i m ,c----------------,d g n h ,a----------------,b ,?is f\r? =m deals ) ! contradiction pres5t$ 9 opposite motion2 t :i* is common is giv5 entirely to "o body1 :ile x only does "p = itself4 ,"h ! di/ance travell$ by "o body is ! sum ( ! di/ance travell$ by bo?1 j z :5 ,i g two feet ea/1 & f ! same po9t ano!r goes two feet we/1 we are f\r feet remov$ f "o ano!r2 9 ! di/ance mov$ bo? are positive1 & h5ce h to be add$ toge!r4 ,or if ,i h gone two feet =w>ds & two feet backw>ds1 al?\gh ,i h walk$ f\r feet1 ,i h n mov$ f ! spot2 ! motion is !n nil1 = by go+ =w>ds & backw>ds an opposition ensues :i* annuls itself4 ,?is is ! dialectic ( ,z5o2 he _h a k ( ! det]m9ations :i* our ideas ( space & "t conta91 & %[$ 9 !m _! contradiction2 ,kant's ant9omies d no m ?an ,z5o did "h4 ,! g5]al result ( ! ,eleatic dialectic has ?us become1 8! tru? is ! "o1 all else is untrue10 j z ! ,kantian philosophy result$ 9 8we "k appe>ances only40 ,on ! :ole ! pr9ciple is ! same2 8! cont5t ( k is only an appe>ance & n tru?10 b !re is also a great diff]5ce pres5t4 ,t is to say1 ,z5o & ! ,eleatics 9 _! proposition signifi$ 8t ! s5su\s _w1 ) its multitud9\s =ms1 is 9 itself appe>ance only1 & has no tru?40 ,b ,kant does n mean ?is1 = he ass]ts3 8,because we apply ! activity ( our ?\ght to ! out] _w1 we con/itute x appe>ance2 :at is )\t1 fir/ becomes an untru? by ! fact t we put !re9 a mass ( det]m9ations4 ,only our k1 ! spiritual1 is ?us appe>ance2 ! _w is 9 itself absolute tru?2 x is our action alone t ru9s x1 our "w is good = no?+40 ,x %[s excessive humility ( m9d to believe t k has no value2 b ,*ri/ says1 8,are ye n bett] ?an ! sp>r[s80 & we are s inasmu* z we are ?9k+2 z s5su\s we are z good or z bad z sp>r[s4 ,z5o's dialectic has great] objectivity ?an ?is mod]n dialectic4 ,z5o's dialectic is limit$ to ,metaphysics2 lat]1 ) ! ,sophi/s1 x became g5]al4 ,we "h leave ! ,eleatic s*ool1 :i* p]petuates itself 9 ,leucippus &1 on ! o!r side1 9 ! ,sophi/s1 9 su* a way t ^! la/ ext5d$ ! ,eleatic conceptions to all reality1 & gave to x ! relation ( consci\sness2 ! =m]1 h[ev]1 z "o :o lat] on work$ out ! ,notion 9 its ab/raction1 makes a physical application ( x1 & "o :i* is oppos$ to consci\sness4 ,!re are sev]al o!r ,eleatics m5tion$1 to ,t5nemann's surprise1 :o1 h[ev]1 _c int]e/ u4 8,x is s unexpect$10 he says 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aij71 8t ! ,eleatic sy/em %\ld f9d disciples2 & yet ,sextus m5tions a c]ta9 ,x5iades40 ,d4 ,,h]aclitus4 ,if we put aside ! ,ionics1 :o did n und]/& ! ,absolute z ,?\ght1 & ! ,py?agoreans likewise1 we h ! pure ,be+ ( ! ,eleatics1 & ! dialectic :i* d5ies all f9ite relation%ips4 ,?\ght to ! latt] is ! process ( su* manife/ations2 ! _w 9 itself is ! app>5t1 & pure ,be+ alone ! true4 ,! dialectic ( ,z5o ?us lays hold ( ! det]m9ations :i* re/ 9 ! cont5t itself1 b x may1 9 s f>1 also be call$ subjective dialectic1 inasmu* z x re/s 9 ! contemplative subject1 & ! "o1 )\t ?is movem5t ( ! dialectic1 is ab/ract id5tity4 ,! next /ep f ! exi/5ce ( ! dialectic z movem5t 9 ! subject1 is t x mu/ necess>ily itself become objective4 ,if ,ari/otle blames ,?ales = do+ away ) motion1 because *ange _c be und]/ood f ,be+1 & likewise misses ! actual 9 ! ,py?agorean numb]s & ,platonic ,ideas1 tak5 z ! sub/ances ( ! ?+s :i* p>ticipate 9 !m1 ,h]aclitus at lea/ und]/&s ! absolute z j ?is process ( ! dialectic4 ,! dialectic is ?us ?re-fold3 77 ! ext]nal dialectic1 a reason+ :i* goes ov] & ov] aga9 )\t ev] rea*+ ! s\l ( ! ?+2 77 imman5t dialectic ( ! object1 b fall+ )9 ! contemplation ( ! subject2 77 ! objectivity ( ,h]aclitus :i* takes ! dialectic itself z pr9ciple4 ,! advance requisite & made by ,h]aclitus is ! progression f ,be+ z ! fir/ imm$iate ?\ght1 to ! category ( ,becom+ z ! second4 ,?is is ! fir/ concrete1 ! ,absolute1 z 9 x ! unity ( opposites4 ,?us ) ,h]aclitus ! philosophic ,idea is to be met ) 9 its speculative =m2 ! reason+ ( ,p>m5ides & ,z5o is ab/ract und]/&+4 ,h]aclitus 0 ?us univ]sally e/eem$ a deep philosoph] & ev5 0 decri$ z su*4 ,"h we see l&2 !re is no proposition ( ,h]aclitus :i* ,i h n adopt$ 9 my ,logic4 ,diog5es ,la]tius says 7,,ix4 #a7 t ,h]aclitus fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #fi? ,olympiad 7#ejj ,b4,c471 & t he 0 ( ,ephesus & 9 "p contemporane\s ) ,p>m5ides3 he began ! sep>ation & )drawal ( philosoph]s f public affairs & ! int]e/s ( ! c\ntry1 & devot$ himself 9 8 isolation entirely to ,philosophy4 ,we h ?us ?ree /ages3 77 ! sev5 sages z /atesm51 reg5ts & law-giv]s2 77 ! ,py?agorean ari/ocratic league2 77 an int]e/ 9 sci5ce = its own sake4 ,little m is kn[n ( ,h]aclitus' life ?an 8 relations to 8 c\ntrym5 ! ,ephesians1 & accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #ae1 #c71 ^! 7 = ! mo/ "p f\nd 9 ! fact t !y despis$ him & 7 yet m pr(\ndly despis$ by him--a relation%ip su* z we h n[-a-days1 :5 ea* man exi/s = himself1 & despises ev]yone else4 ,9 ! case ( ?is noble "*1 ! disda9 & s5se ( sep>ation f ! cr[d emanates f ! deep s5se ( ! p]v]sity ( ! ord9>y ideas & life ( 8 p3 9 ref]5ce to ?is1 isolat$ expressions us$ on v>i\s occasions are /ill pres]v$4 ,cic]o 7,tusc4 ,qu/4 ,v4 #cf7 & ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #b7 relate t ,h]aclitus said3 8,! ,ephesians all des]ve to h _! necks brok5 z !y gr[ up1 s t ! t[n %\ld be left to m9ors0 7p n[ say t only y\? kn[s h[ to gov]n71 8because !y drove away 8 fri5d ,h]modorus1 ! be/ ( !m all1 & gave z _! reason = s do+ t among/ !m none %\ld be m excell5t ?an ! re/2 & if any "o 7 s1 x %\ld be else:]e & among/ o!rs40 ,x 0 = ! same reason t 9 ! ,a!nian ,democracy great m5 7 bani%$4 ,diog5es adds3 8,8 fell[-citiz5s ask$ him to take "p 9 ! adm9i/ration ( public affairs1 b he decl9$1 because he did n l _! con/itution1 laws & adm9i/ration40 ,proclus 7,t4 ,,iii4 pp4 #aae1 #aaf1 ed4 ,c\s97 says3 8,! noble ,h]aclitus blam$ ! p = be+ devoid ( und]/&+ or ?\ght4 #8,:at is1' he says1 #8_! und]/&+ or _! prud5ce8 ,mo/ ( !m are bad1 & few are good4'0 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #f7 fur!rmore says3 8,anti/h5es cites1 z a pro( ( ,h]aclitus' greatness1 t he left 8 k+dom to 8 bro!r40 ,he expresses 9 ! /ronge/ mann] 8 contempt = :at is e/eem$ to be tru? & "r1 9 ! lett] pres]v$ to u by ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #ac1 #ad71 9 :i*1 to ! invitation ( ,d>ius ,hy/aspes1 8to make him acqua9t$ ) ,greek wisdom--= 8 "w on ,nature conta9s a v =cible !ory ( ! _w1 b x is 9 _m passages obscure--to come to him & expla9 to him :at requir$ explanation0 7?is is c]ta9ly n v probable if ,h]aclitus' turn ( m9d 0 also ,ori5tal71 he is said to h repli$3 8,all mortal m5 dep>t f tru? & ju/ice & are giv5 ov] to excess & va9 op9ions accord+ to _! evil und]/&+s4 ,b ,i1 s9ce ,i h atta9$ to an oblivion ( all evil1 & %un ! ov]p[]+ envy t foll[s me1 & ! vanity ( high position1 %all n come to ,p]sia4 ,i am cont5t ) little & live 9 my own way40 ,! only "w t he wrote1 & ! title ( :i*1 ,diog5es tells u1 0 by "s /at$ to be 8,! ,muses0 & by o!rs 8,on ,nature10 he deposit$ 9 ! temple ( ,diana at ,ephesus4 ,x seems to h be5 pres]v$ until mod]n times2 ! fragm5ts :i* h come d[n to u are collect$ toge!r 9 ,/ephanus' ,posis philosophica 7p4 #abi1 seq474 ,s*lei]ma*] also collect$ !m & arrang$ !m 9 a *>act]i/ic way4 ,! title is 8,h]aclitus1 ! ,d>k1 ( ,ephesus1 z repres5t$ 9 fragm5ts ( 8 "w & by ! te/imony ( ! anci5ts10 & x is to be f\nd 9 ,wolf & ,buttmann's 8,museum ( anci5t ,le>n+10 vol4 ,i4 7,b]l91 #ahjg7 pp4 #cae-ecc4 ,sev5ty-?ree passages are giv54 ,kreuz] made "o hope t he w\ld "w at ,h]aclitus m critically & ) a k ( ! language4 ,he made a m complete collection1 p>ticul>ly f gramm>ians2 h[ev]1 z1 = lack ( "t1 he left x to be work$ up by a y\ng] s*ol>1 & z ! latt] di$1 x nev] came be=e ! public4 ,compilations ( ! k9d are z a rule too copi\s3 !y conta9 a mass ( le>n+ & are m easily writt5 ?an read4 ,h]aclitus has be5 consid]$ obscure1 & is inde$ celebrat$ = ?is2 x also drew ^u him ! "n ( 4 ,cic]o 7,de ,nat4 ,deor4 ,i4 #bf2 ,,iii4 #ad2 ,de ,f9ib4 ,,ii4 #e7 takes up a wrong idea1 z (t5 happ5s to him2 he ?9ks t ,h]aclitus purposely wrote obscurely4 ,any su* design w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a v %all[ "o1 & x is really no?+ b ! %all[ness ( ,cic]o himself ascrib$ by him to ,h]aclitus4 ,h]aclitus' obscurity is r a result ( neglect+ prop] composition & ( imp]fect language2 ?is is :at 0 ?\ght by ,ari/otle 7,rhet4 ,,iii4 #e71 :o1 f a grammatical po9t ( view1 ascrib$ x to a want ( punctuation3 8,we d n "k :e!r a ^w belongs to :at prec$es or :at succe$s40 ,demetrius is ( ! same op9ion 7,de ,elocutione1 #aib1 p4 #gh1 ed4 ,s*neid]74 ,socrates1 z ,diog5es ,la]tius relates 7,,ii4 #bb2 ,,ix4 #aa-ab71 said ( ?is book3 8,:at he und]/ood ( x 0 excell5t1 & :at he did n und]/& he believ$ to be z good1 b x requires a vigor\s 77 swimm] to make 8 way ?r\gh x40 ,! obscurity ( ?is philosophy1 h[ev]1 *iefly consi/s 9 !re be+ pr(\nd speculative ?\ght conta9$ 9 x2 ! ,notion1 ! ,idea1 is =eign to ! und]/&+ & _c be grasp$ by x1 ?\gh x may f9d ma!matics q simple4 ,plato /udi$ ! philosophy ( ,h]aclitus ) special dilig5ce2 we f9d mu* ( x quot$ 9 8 works1 & he got 8 e>li] philosophic education mo/ indubitably f ?is s\rce1 s t ,h]aclitus may be call$ ,plato's tea*]4 ,hippocrates1 likewise1 is a philosoph] ( ,h]aclitus' s*ool4 ,:at is pres]v$ to u ( ,h]aclitus' philosophy at fir/ seems v contradictory1 b we f9d ! ,notion mak+ its appe>ance1 & a man ( pr(\nd reflection reveal$4 ,z5o began to abrogate ! oppos$ pr$icates1 & he %[s ! opposition 9 movem5t1 an ass]tion ( limitation & an abrogation ( ! same2 ,z5o express$ ! inf9ite1 b on its negative side only1 9 ref]5ce to its contradiction z be+ ! untrue4 ,9 ,h]aclitus we see ! p]fection ( k s f> z x has gone1 a p]fect+ ( ! ,idea into a totality1 :i* is ! beg9n+ ( ,philosophy1 s9ce x expresses ! ess5ce ( ! ,idea1 ! ,notion ( ! inf9ite1 ! pot5tially & actively exi/5t1 z t :i* x is1 i4e4 z ! unity ( opposites4 ,f ,h]aclitus dates ! ev]-rema9+ ,idea :i* is ! same 9 all philosoph]s to ! pres5t day1 z x 0 ! ,idea ( ,plato & ( ,ari/otle4 #a4 ,! ,logical ,pr9ciple4 ,conc]n+ ! univ]sal pr9ciple1 ?is bold m9d1 ,ari/otle tells u 7,metaph4 ,,iv4 #c & #g71 fir/ utt]$ ! great say+3 8,be+ & non-be+ are ! same2 ev]y?+ is & yet is n40 ,! tru? only is z ! unity ( di/9ct opposites &1 inde$1 ( ! pure opposition ( be+ & non-be+2 b ) ! ,eleatics we h ! ab/ract und]/&+ t ,be+ is alone ! tru?4 ,we say1 9 place ( us+ ! expression ( ,h]aclitus1 t ! ,absolute is ! unity ( be+ & non-be+4 ,:5 we und]/& t proposition z t 8,be+ is & yet is n10 ?is does n seem to make mu* s5se1 b only to imply complete negation & want ( ?\ght4 ,b we h ano!r s5t5ce t gives ! mean+ ( ! pr9ciple bett]4 ,= ,h]aclitus says3 8,ev]y?+ is 9 a /ate ( flux2 no?+ subsi/s nor does x ev] rema9 ! same40 ,& ,plato fur!r says ( ,h]aclitus3 8,he comp>es ?+s to ! curr5t ( a riv]3 no "o c g twice into ! same /ream10#fa = x fl[s on & o!r wat] is di/urb$4 ,ari/otle tells u 7,met4 ,,iv4 #e7 t 8 successors ev5 said 8x c\ld n once be ent]$10 = x *ang$ directly2 :at is1 is n aga94 ,ari/otle 7,de ,clo1 ,,iii4 #a7 goes on to say t ,h]aclitus decl>es t 8!re is only "o t rema9s1 & f out ( ?is all else is =m$2 all except ?is "o is n endur+ 7740 ,?is univ]sal pr9ciple is bett] *>act]iz$ z ,becom+1 ! tru? ( ,be+2 s9ce ev]y?+ is & is n1 ,h]aclitus h]eby express$ t ev]y?+ is ,becom+4 ,n m]ely does orig9ation belong to x1 b pass+ away z well2 bo? are n indep5d5t1 b id5tical4 ,x is a great advance 9 ?\ght to pass f ,be+ to ,becom+1 ev5 if1 z ! fir/ unity ( opposite det]m9ations1 x is /ill ab/ract4 ,because 9 ?is relation%ip bo? mu/ be unre/ful & !re=e conta9 )9 !mselves ! pr9ciple ( life1 ! lack ( motion :i* ,ari/otle has demon/rat$ 9 ! e>li] philosophies is suppli$1 & ?is la/ is ev5 made to be ! pr9ciple4 ,?is philosophy is ?us n "o pa/ & gone2 its pr9ciple is ess5tial1 & is to be f\nd 9 ! beg9n+ ( my ,logic1 imm$iately aft] ,be+ & ,no?+4 ,! recognition ( ! fact t ,be+ & non-be+ are ab/ractions devoid ( tru?1 t ! fir/ tru? is to be f\nd 9 ,becom+1 =ms a great advance4 ,! und]/&+ compreh5ds bo? z hav+ tru? & value 9 isolation2 reason1 on ! o!r h&1 recognizes ! "o 9 ! o!r1 & sees t 9 ! "o its 8o!r0 is conta9$4 ,if we d n take ! conception ( exi/5ce z complete1 ! pure ,be+ ( simple ?\ght 9 :i* ev]y?+ def9ite is d5i$1 is ! absolute negative2 b no?+ is ! same1 or j ?is self-id5tity4 ,we "h h an absolute transition into ! opposite :i* ,z5o did n rea*1 = he rema9$ at ! proposition1 8,f no?+1 comes no?+40 ,) ,h]aclitus1 h[ev]1 ! mom5t ( negativity is imman5t1 & ! ,notion ( ,philosophy z complete is !re=e dealt )4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h "h ! ab/ract idea ( ,be+ & non-be+ 9 a =m altoge!r imm$iate & g5]al2 b :5 we look clos]1 we f9d t ,h]aclitus also conceiv$ ( ! opposites & _! unification 9 a m def9ite mann]4 ,he says3 8,! opposites are comb9$ 9 ! self-same "o1 j z honey is bo? sweet & bitt]40 ,sextus rem>ks ( ?is 7,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,i4 #bi1 #baj1 #baa2 ,,ii4 #f1 #fc73 8,h]aclitus1 l ! ,sceptics1 proce$s f ord9>y ideas2 no "o w d5y t heal?y m5 call honey sweet1 :ile ^? :o are sick w say x is bitt]40 ,if x is only sweet1 x _c alt] its nature 9 ano!r individual2 x w\ld 9 all places & ev5 to ! jaundic$ pati5t be sweet4 ,ari/otle 7,de mundo1 #e7 quotes ?is f ,h]aclitus3 8,jo9 toge!r ! complete :ole & ! incomplete0 7! :ole makes itself ! "p1 & ! mean+ ( ! "p is to become ! :ole71 8:at co9cides & :at conflicts1 :at is h>moni\s & :at discordant1 & f out ( !m all comes "o1 & f "o1 all40 ,?is "o is n an ab/raction1 b ! activity ( divid+ itself into opposites2 ! dead inf9ite is a poor ab/raction z comp>$ ) ! dep?s ( ,h]aclitus4 ,all t is concrete1 z t ,god creat$ ! _w1 divid$ ,himself1 begot a ,son1 is conta9$ 9 ?is det]m9ation4 ,sextus ,empiricus m5tions 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #ccg7 t ,h]aclitus said3 8,! "p is some?+ diff]5t f ! :ole & is yet ! same z ! :ole2 sub/ance is ! :ole & ! "p1 ! :ole 9 ! univ]se & ! "p 9 ?is liv+ be+40 ,plato says 9 8 ,symposium 7p4 #ahg1 ,/eph42 p4 #cig1 ,bekk47 ( ,h]aclitus' pr9ciple3 8,! "o1 sep>at$ f itself1 makes itself "o ) itself l ! h>mony ( ! b[ & ! lyre40 ,he !n makes ,eryxima*us1 :o speaks 9 ! ,symposium1 criticize ?is ?us3 8,9 h>mony !re is discord1 or x arises f opposites2 = h>mony does n arise f height & dep? 9 t !y are diff]5t1 b f _! union ?r\gh ! art ( music40 ,b ?is does n contradict ,h]aclitus1 :o means ! same ?+4 ,t :i* is simple1 ! repetition ( a tone1 is no h>mony2 diff]5ce is cle>ly necess>y to h>mony1 or a def9ite anti!sis2 = x is ! absolute becom+ & n m]e *ange4 ,! real fact is t ea* p>ticul> tone is diff]5t f ano!r--n ab/ractly s f any o!r1 b f its o!r--& ?us x also c be "o4 ,ea* p>ticul> only is1 9 s f> z its opposite is implicitly conta9$ 9 its ,notion4 ,subjectivity is ?us ! 8o!r0 ( objectivity & n ( a piece ( pap]1 :i* w\ld be mean+less2 s9ce ea* is ! 8o!r0 ( ! 8o!r0 z its 8o!r10 we "h h _! id5tity4 ,?is is ,h]aclitus' great pr9ciple2 x may seem obscure1 b x is speculative4 ,& ?is to ! und]/&+ :i* ma9ta9s ! indep5d5ce ( ,be+ & non-be+1 ! subjective & objective1 ! real & ! ideal1 is always difficult & dim4 #b4 ,natural ,philosophy4 ,9 8 sy/em ,h]aclitus did n re/ cont5t ) ?us express+ himself 9 ,notions1 or ) :at is purely logical4 ,b 9 addition to ?is univ]sal =m 9 :i* he advanc$ 8 pr9ciple1 he gave 8 idea a real & m natural =m1 & h5ce he is /ill reckon$ z belong+ to ! ,ionic s*ool ( natural philosoph]s4 ,h[ev]1 z reg>ds ?is =m ( reality1 hi/orians are at v>iance2 mo/ ( !m1 & among/ o!rs1 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #c1 #h71 say t he ma9ta9$ fire to be ! exi/5t pr9ciple2 o!rs1 accord+ to ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #cfj2 ,x4 #bcc71 say x 0 air1 & o!rs aga9 ass]t t he made vap\r to be ! pr9ciple r ?an air2#fb ev5 "t is1 9 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #baf71 giv5 z ! prim>y exi/5ce4 ,! "q arises z to h[ ?is div]sity is to be compreh5d$4 ,x mu/ n be believ$ t all ^! acc\nts are to be ascrib$ to ! inaccuracy ( hi/orians1 = ! witnesses are ( ! be/1 l ,ari/otle & ,sextus ,empiricus1 :o d n speak casually ( ^! =ms1 b def9itely1 )\t1 h[ev]1 rem>k+ ^u any su* diff]5ces & contradictions4 ,we seem to h a bett] reason 9 ! obscurity ( ! writ+ ( ,h]aclitus1 :i* might1 by ! confusion ( its expression1 give occasion to misund]/&+4 ,b :5 reg>d$ clos]1 ?is difficulty1 :i* is evid5t :5 m]ely look$ at sup]ficially1 disappe>s2 x is 9 ! pr(\ndly significant conceptions ( ,h]aclitus t ! true way out ( ?is difficulty manife/s itself4 ,h]aclitus c\ld no long]1 l ,?ales1 express wat]1 air or any?+ simil> z an absolute pr9ciple--he c\ld no long] d s 9 ! =m ( a primeval elem5t f :i* ! re/ proce$s--because he ?\ght ( ,be+ z id5tical ) non-be+1 or ! inf9ite ,notion2 ?us ! exi/5t1 absolute pr9ciple _c ) him come =? z a def9ite & actual ?+ su* z wat]1 b mu/ be wat] 9 alt]ation1 or z process only4 a4 ,und]/&+ ! ab/ract process z "t1 ,h]aclitus said3 8,"t is ! fir/ corporeal exi/5ce10 z ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bca1 #bcb7 puts x4 ,corporeal is an un=tunate expression2 ! ,sceptics frequ5tly pick out ! crude/ expressions or make ?\ghts crude 9 ! fir/ place s t !y may aft]w>ds disp5se ) !m4 ,corporeal "h means ab/ract s5su\sness2 "t1 z ! fir/ s5su\s exi/5ce1 is ! ab/ract repres5tation ( process4 ,x is because ,h]aclitus did n re/ at ! logical expression ( ,becom+1 b gave to 8 pr9ciple ! =m ( ! exi/5t1 t x 0 necess>y t "t %\ld fir/ pres5t itself to him z su*2 = 9 ! s5su\sly p]ceptible x is ! fir/ =m ( ,becom+4 ,"t is pure ,becom+ z p]ceiv$1 ! pure ,notion1 t :i* is simple1 & ! h>mony issu+ f absolute opposites2 its ess5tial nature is to be & n to be 9 "o unity1 & besides ?is1 x has no o!r "*4 ,x is n t "t is or is n1 = "t is non-be+ imm$iately 9 ,be+ & ,be+ imm$iately 9 non-be+3 x is ! transition out ( ,be+ into non-be+1 ! ab/ract ,notion1 b 9 an objective =m1 i4e4 9 s f> z x is = u4 ,9 "t !re is no pa/ & future1 b only ! n[1 & ?is is1 b is n z reg>ds ! pa/2 & ?is non-be+1 z future1 turns r\nd into ,be+4 ,if we 7 to say h[ t :i* ,h]aclitus recogniz$ z pr9ciple1 might1 9 ! pure =m 9 :i* he recogniz$ x1 exi/ = consci\sness1 we c\ld m5tion no?+ else b "t2 & x q accords ) ! pr9ciple ( ?\ght 9 ,h]aclitus to def9e "t z ! fir/ =m ( ,becom+4 b4 ,b ?is pure1 objective ,notion mu/ realize itself m fully1 & ?us we f9d 9 fact1 t ,h]aclitus det]m9$ ! process 9 a m m>k$ly physical mann]4 ,9 "t we h ! mom5ts ( ,be+ & non-be+ manife/$ z negative only1 or z vani%+ imm$iately2 if we wi% to express bo? ^! mom5ts z "o indep5d5t totality1 ! "q is ask$1 :i* physical exi/5ce corresponds to ?is det]m9ation4 ,to ,h]aclitus ! tru? is to h grasp$ ! ess5tial be+ ( nature1 i4e4 to h repres5t$ x z implicitly inf9ite1 z process 9 itself2 & consequ5tly x is evid5t to u t ,h]aclitus c\ld n say t ! prim>y pr9ciple is air1 wat]1 or any su* ?+4 ,!y are n !mselves process1 b fire is process2 & ?us he ma9ta9s fire to be ! elem5t>y pr9ciple1 & ?is is ! real =m ( ! ,h]aclitean pr9ciple1 ! s\l & sub/ance ( ! nature-process4 ,fire is physical "t1 absolute unre/1 absolute dis9tegration ( exi/5ce1 ! pass+ away ( ! 8o!r10 b also ( itself2 & h5ce we c und]/& h[ ,h]aclitus1 proce$+ f 8 fundam5tal det]m9ation1 c\ld q logically call fire ! ,notion ( ! process4 c4 ,he fur!r made ?is fire to be a real process2 because its reality is = itself ! :ole process1 ! mom5ts h become concretely det]m9$4 ,fire1 z ! metamorphosis ( bodily ?+s1 is ! trans=mation & exhalation ( ! det]m9ate2 = ?is process ,h]aclitus us$ a p>ticul> ^w--evaporation 77--b x is r transition4 ,ari/otle 7,de anim4 ,i4 #b7 says ( ,h]aclitus 9 ?is reg>d1 t1 accord+ to 8 view1 8! s\l is ! pr9ciple because x is evaporation1 ! orig9ation ( ev]y?+2 x is :at is mo/ incorporeal & always 9 a /ate ( flux40 ,?is is q applicable to ! prim>y pr9ciple ( ,h]aclitus4 ,fur!rmore he det]m9$ ! real process 9 its ab/ract mom5ts by sep>at+ two sides 9 x--8! way upw>ds 7 7 & ! way d[nw>ds 7 70--! "o be+ division1 9 t x is ! exi/5ce ( opposites1 & ! o!r ! unification ( ^! exi/5t opposites4 ,correspond+ to ^!1 he _h1 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #h71 ! fur!r det]m9ations 8( enmity & /rife 71 71 & fri5d%ip & h>mony 71 72 ( ^! two1 enmity & /rife is t :i* is ! pr9ciple ( ! orig9ation ( diff]5ces2 b :at leads to combu/ion is h>mony & peace40 ,9 enmity among/ m51 ! "o sets himself up indep5d5tly ( ! o!r1 or is = himself & realizes himself2 b unity & peace is s9k+ out ( indep5d5ce into indivisibility or non-reality4 ,ev]y?+ is ?re-fold & !reby real unity2 nature is ! nev]-re/+1 & ! all is ! transition out ( ! "o into ! o!r1 f division into unity1 & f unity into division4 ,! m detail$ acc\nts ( ?is real process are1 9 great measure1 defici5t & contradictory4 ,9 ?is connection1 x is 9 "s acc\nts#fc said ( ,h]aclitus t he def9$ x ?us3 8,( ! =ms tak5 by fire !re is fir/ ( all ! sea1 & !n ( x half is ! e>? & ! o!r half ! lightn+ fla% 7710 ! fire :i* spr+s up4 ,?is is g5]al & v obscure4 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #i7 says3 8,fire is cond5s$ into moi/ure1 & :5 concrete x becomes wat]2 wat] h>d5s into e>? & ?is is ! way d[nw>ds4 ,! e>? !n aga9 becomes fluid1 & f x moi/ure sup]v5es1 & f ?is ! evaporation ( ! sea1 f :i* all else arises2 ?is is ! way upw>ds4 ,wat] divides into a d>k evaporation1 becom+ e>?1 & into :at is pure1 sp>kl+1 becom+ fire & burn+ 9 ! sol> sph]e2 :at is fi]y becomes meteors1 planets & />s40 ,^! are ?us n /ill1 dead />s1 b are reg>d$ z 9 ,becom+1 z be+ et]nally productive4 ,we ?us h1 on ! :ole1 a metamorphosis ( fire4 ,^! ori5tal1 metaphorical expressions are1 h[ev]1 9 ,h]aclitus n to be tak5 9 _! /rictly s5su\s signification1 & z if ^! *anges 7 pres5t to ! outw>d obs]vation2 b !y depict ! nature ( ^! elem5ts by :i* ! e>? et]nally creates its suns & comets4 ,nature is ?us a circle4 ,) ?is 9 view1 we f9d ,h]aclitus1 accord+ to ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria 7,/rom4 ,v4 #ad1 p4 #gaa71 say+3 8,! univ]se 0 made nei!r by ,god nor man1 b x ev] 0 & is1 & w be1 a liv+ fire1 t :i*1 9 accordance ) its laws1 77 k9dles & goes out40 ,we n[ und]/& :at ,ari/otle says ( ! pr9ciple be+ ! s\l1 s9ce ! latt] is evaporation2 t is to say1 fire1 z ?is self-mov+ process ( ! _w1 is ! s\l4 ,ano!r /atem5t foll[s1 :i* is also f\nd 9 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria 7,/rom4 ,,vi4 #b1 p4 #gdf73 8,to s\ls 7to ! liv+7 dea? is ! becom+ wat]2 to wat] dea? is ! becom+ e>?2 on ! o!r h& f e>?1 wat] arises1 & f wat]1 ! s\l40 ,?us1 on ! :ole1 ?is process is "o ( ext9ction1 ( go+ back f opposition into unity1 ( ! re-awak5+ ( ! =m]1 & ( issu+ =? f "o4 ,! ext9ction ( ! s\l1 ( ! fire 9 wat]1 ! conflagration t f9ally results1 "s1 & among/ o!rs1 ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #h71 ,eusebius 7,prp4 ,evang4 ,,xiv4 #c7 & ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bah71 falsely ass]t to be a conflagration ( ! _w4 ,:at ,h]aclitus is said to h spok5 ( z a conflagration ( ?is _w1 0 ?\ght to be an imag9>y idea t aft] a c]ta9 "t--z1 accord+ to our ideas1 at ! end ( ! _w--! _w w\ld disappe> 9 flames4 ,b we see at once f passages :i* are mo/ cle>1#fd t ?is conflagration is n meant1 b t x is ! p]petual burn+ up z ! ,becom+ ( fri5d%ip1 ! univ]sal life & ! univ]sal process ( ! univ]se4 ,9 respect ( ! fact t1 accord+ to ,h]aclitus1 fire is ! animat+1 or ! s\l1 we f9d 9 ,plut>* 7,de esu4 c>n4 ,i4 p4 #iie1 ed4 ,xyl47 an expression :i* may seem odd1 namely1 t 8! drie/ s\l is ! be/40 ,we c]ta9ly d n e/eem ! mo/ moi/ ! be/1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "o :i* is mo/ alive2 h[ev] dry "h signifies fi]y & ?us ! drie/ s\l is pure fire1 & ?is is n lifeless b life itself4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal mom5ts ( ! real life-process2 ,i w /op "h a mom5t because we "h f9d express$ ! :ole ,notion ( speculative reflection reg>d+ ,nature4 ,9 ?is ,notion1 "o mom5t & "o elem5t goes ov] into ! o!r2 fire becomes wat]1 wat] e>? & fire4 ,! cont5tion ab\t ! transmutation & immutability ( ! elem5ts is an old "o2 9 ?is conception ! ord9>y1 s5su\s sci5ce ( nature sep>ates itself f natural philosophy4 ,9 ! speculative po9t ( view1 :i* is t ( ,h]aclitus1 ! simple sub/ance 9 fire & ! o!r elem5ts 9 itself becomes metamorphos$2 9 ! o!r1 all transition is aboli%$ & only an ext]nal sep>ation ( :at is already !re is ma9ta9$4 ,wat] is j wat]1 fire is fire1 c4 ,if ! =m] po9t ( view upholds transmutation1 ! latt] believes 9 ! possibility ( demon/rat+ ! opposite2 x no long]1 inde$1 ma9ta9s wat]1 fire1 c41 to be simple realities1 = x resolves !m into hydrog51 oxyg51 c41 b x ass]ts _! immutability4 ,x ju/ly ass]ts t :at is ass]t$ & impli$ 9 ! speculative po9t ( view1 mu/ also h ! tru? ( actuality2 = if to be ! speculative means to be ! v nature & pr9ciple ( its elem5ts1 ?is mu/ likewise be pres5t4 ,we are wrong 9 repres5t+ ! speculative to be some?+ exi/5t only 9 ?\ght or inw>dly1 :i* is no "o kn[s :]e4 ,x is really pres5t1 b m5 ( le>n+ %ut _! eyes to x because ( _! limit$ po9t ( view4 ,if we li/5 to _! acc\nt1 !y only obs]ve & say :at !y see2 b _! obs]vation is n true1 = unconsci\sly !y trans=m :at is se5 ?r\gh _! limit$ & /]eotyp$ conception2 ! /rife is n due to ! opposition betwe5 obs]vation & ! absolute ,notion1 b betwe5 ! "o ,notion & ! o!r4 ,!y %[ t *anges--su* z t ( wat] into e>?--are non-exi/5t4 ,ev5 9 mod]n times ?is trans=mation 0 inde$ ma9ta9$1 = :5 wat] 0 di/ill$1 a residuum ( e>? 0 f\nd4 ,on ?is subject1 h[ev]1 ,lavoisi] c>ri$ on a numb] ( v conclusive rese>*es2 he weigh$ all ! receptacles1 & x 0 %[n t ! residuum proce$$ f ! vessels4 ,!re is a sup]ficial process t does n c>ry u beyond ! det]m9ate nature ( sub/ance4 ,!y say 9 ref]5ce to x1 8wat] does n *ange into air b only into moi/ure1 & moi/ure always cond5ses back into wat] aga940 ,b 9 ?is !y m]ely fix on a "o-sid$1 insuffici5t process1 & give x out to be ! absolute process4 ,9 ! real process ( nature !y1 h[ev]1 f\nd by exp]i5ce t ! cry/al dissolv$ gives wat]1 & 9 ! cry/al1 wat] is lo/ & solidifies1 or becomes ! s-call$ wat] ( cry/allization2 !y f\nd t ! evaporation ( ! e>? is n to be f\nd z moi/ure1 9 outw>d =m 9 ! air1 = air rema9s q pure1 or hydrog5 entirely disappe>s 9 pure air2 !y h s\ght 9 va9 to f9d hydrog5 9 ! atmosph]ic air4 ,simil>ly !y discov]$ t q dry air 9 :i* !y c %[ nei!r moi/ure nor hydrog51 passes into mi/1 ra91 c4 ,^! are _! obs]vations1 b !y spoilt all _! p]ceptions ( *anges by ! fix$ conception :i* !y br\ght ) !m ( :ole & "p1 & ( consi/5ce out ( p>ts1 & ( ! previ\s pres5ce z su*1 ( :at manife/s itself 9 com+ into exi/5ce4 ,:5 ! cry/al dissolv$ reveals wat]1 !y say1 8x is n t wat] has aris51 = x 0 already pres5t !re40 ,:5 wat] 9 its decomposition reveals hydrog5 & oxyg51 t means1 accord+ to !m1 8^! la/ h n aris5 = !y 7 already !re z su*1 z ! p>ts ( :i* ! wat] subsi/s40 ,b !y c nei!r demon/rate wat] 9 cry/al nor oxyg5 & hydrog5 9 wat]1 & ! same is true ( 8lat5t heat40 ,z we f9d 9 all expression ( p]ception & exp]i5ce1 z soon z m5 speak1 !re is a ,notion pres5t2 x _c be )held1 = 9 consci\sness !re always is a t\* ( univ]sality & tru?4 ,= ! ,notion is ! real pr9ciple1 b x is only to cultur$ reason t x is absolute ,notion1 & n if x rema9s1 z "h1 conf9$ 9 a det]m9ate =m4 ,h5ce ^! m5 necess>ily atta9 to _! limits1 & !y are tr\bl$ because !y d n f9d hydrog5 9 air2 hygromet]s1 flasks full ( air br\ght d[n f heights by an air-balloon1 d n %[ x to exi/4 ,& simil>ly ! wat] ( cry/allization is no long] wat]1 b is *ang$ into e>?4 ,to come back to ,h]aclitus1 !re is only "o ?+ want+ to ! process1 :i* is t its simple pr9ciple %\ld be recogniz$ z univ]sal ,notion4 ,! p]man5ce & re/ :i* ,ari/otle gives1 may be miss$4 ,h]aclitus1 inde$1 says t ev]y?+ fl[s on1 t no?+ is exi/5t & only ! "o rema9s2 b t is ! ,notion ( ! unity :i* only exi/s 9 opposition & n ( t reflect$ )9 itself4 ,?is "o1 9 its unity ) ! movem5t ( ! individuals1 is ! g5us1 or 9 its inf9itude ! simple ,notion z ?\ght2 z su*1 ! ,idea has /ill to be det]m9$1 & we %all ?us f9d x aga9 z ! ( ,anaxagoras4 ,! univ]sal is ! imm$iate simple unity 9 opposition :i* goes back into itself z a process ( diff]5ces2 b ?is is also f\nd 9 ,h]aclitus2 he call$ ?is unity 9 opposition ,fate 77 or ,necessity4#fe ,& ! ,notion ( necessity is none o!r ?an ?is1 t det]m9at5ess con/itutes ! pr9ciple ( ! exi/5t z individual1 b 9 t v way1 relates x to its opposite3 ?is is ! absolute 8connection 77 t p]meates ! ,be+ ( ! :ole40 ,he calls ?is 8! e!real body1 ! se$ ( ! ,becom+ ( ev]y?+02#ff t to him is ! ,idea1 ! univ]sal z reality1 z process at re/4 #c4 ,relation ( ! ,pr9ciple to ,consci\sness4 ,!re is /ill some?+ else to consid]1 & t is :at position 9 ?is pr9ciple ,h]aclitus gives to consci\sness2 8 philosophy has1 on ! :ole1 a b5t t[>ds a philosophy ( nature1 = ! pr9ciple1 al?\gh logical1 is appreh5d$ z ! univ]sal nature-process4 ,h[ does ?is come to consci\sness8 ,h[ is x relat$ to ! individual s\l8 ,i %all expla9 ?is "h 9 great] detail3 x is a beautiful1 natural1 *ildlike mann] ( speak+ tru? ( ! tru?4 ,! univ]sal & ! unity ( ! pr9ciple ( consci\sness & ( ! object1 & ! necessity ( objectivity1 make _! fir/ appe>ance "h4 ,sev]al passages f ,h]aclitus are pres]v$ respect+ 8 views ( k4 ,f 8 pr9ciple t ev]y?+ t is1 at ! same "t is n1 x imm$iately foll[s t he holds t s5su\s c]ta9ty has no tru?2 = x is ! c]ta9ty = :i* some?+ exi/s z actual1 :i* is n s 9 fact4 ,n ?is imm$iate ,be+1 b absolute m$iation1 ,be+ z ?\ght (1 ,?\ght itself1 is ! true ,be+4 ,h]aclitus 9 ?is relation says ( s5su\s p]ception--accord+ to ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria--7,/rom4 ,,iii4 #c1 p4 #ebj73 8,:at we see wak+ is dead1 b :at we see sleep+1 a dream10 & 9 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #abf1 #abg71 8,m5's eyes & e>s are bad witnesses1 = !y h b>b>\s s\ls4 ,reason 77 is ! judge ( tru?1 n ! arbitr>y1 b ! only div9e & univ]sal judge0--?is is ! measure1 ! rhy?m1 t runs ?r\gh ! ,be+ ( ev]y?+4 ,absolute necessity is j ! hav+ ! tru? 9 consci\sness2 b e ?\ght1 or :at proce$s f ! individual1 e relation 9 :i* !re is only =m & :i* has ! cont5t ( ! ord9>y idea1 is n su*2 :at is s is ! univ]sal und]/&+1 ! develop$ consci\sness ( necessity1 ! id5tity ( subjective & objective4 ,h]aclitus says 9 ?is connection1 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #a73 8,mu* le>n+ 77 does n in/ruct ! m9d1 else x _h in/ruct$ ,hesiod1 ,py?agoras1 ,x5ophanes & ,hecatu4 ,! only wisdom is to "k ! reason t reigns ov] all40 ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #abg-acc71 fur!r describes ! attitude ( ! subjective consci\sness1 ( p>ticul> reason1 to ! univ]sal1 to ?is nature-process4 ,t attitude has /ill a v physical appe>ance1 resembl+ ! /ate ( m9d we suppose 9 m5 :o are mad or asleep4 ,! wak+ man is relat$ to ?+s 9 a univ]sal way1 :i* is 9 con=mity ) ! relation ( ! ?+s & is ! way 9 :i* o!rs also reg>d !m1 & yet he /ill reta9s 8 indep5d5ce4 ,if1 & 9 s f> z ,i /& 9 ! objectively intellig5t connection ( ?is /ate ( m9d1 ,i am1 j because ( ?is ext]nality1 9 f9itude2 b wak+1 ,i h ! k ( ! necessity ( a connection 9 ! =m ( objectivity1 ! k ( ! univ]sal exi/5ce1 & ?us ! ,idea 9 f9ite =m4 ,sextus puts ?is 9 def9ite =m3 8,ev]y?+ t surr\nds u is logical & intellig5t0--yet n !re=e accompani$ by consci\sness4 8,if we draw ?is univ]sal reality ?r\gh our brea?1 we %all be intellig5t1 b we are s wak+ only1 sleep+ we are 9 oblivion40 ,! wak+ consci\sness ( ! out] _w1 :at belongs to ! sph]e ( ! und]/&+1 is r :at may be call$ a condition2 b "h x is tak5 z ! :ole ( rational consci\sness4 8,= 9 sleep ! *annels ( feel+ are clos$ & ! und]/&+ t is 9 u is prev5t$ f unit+ 77 ) ! surr\nd+s2 ! brea? is ! only connection 77 ma9ta9$1 & x may be comp>$ to a root40 ,?is brea? is ?us di/+ui%$ f ! univ]sal brea?1 i4e4 f ! be+ ( ano!r = u4 ,reason is ?is process ) ! objective3 :5 we are n 9 connection ) ! :ole1 we only dream4 8,sep>at$1 ! und]/&+ loses ! p[] ( consci\sness 7 7 t x =m]ly _h40 ,! m9d z individual unity only1 loses objectivity1 is n 9 individuality univ]sal1 is n ! ,?\ght :i* has itself z object4 8,9 a wak+ condition1 h[ev]1 ! und]/&+--gaz+ ?r\gh ! *annels ( s5se z ?\gh x 7 ?r\gh a w9d[1 & =m+ a relation%ip ) ! surr\nd+s--ma9ta9s ! logical p[]40 ,we "h h ! ideal 9 its native simplicity4 8,9 ! same way z coals :i* come ne> fire1 !mselves take fire1 b ap>t f x1 g out1 ! "p :i* is cut (f f ! surr\nd+s 9 our bodies becomes1 ?r\gh ! sep>ation1 almo/ irrational40 ,?is confutes ^? :o ?9k t ,god gives wisdom 9 sleep or 9 somnambulism4 ,b 9 connection ) ! _m *annels x becomes simil> to ! :ole4 ,?is :ole1 ! univ]sal & div9e und]/&+1 9 unity ) :i* we are logical1 is1 accord+ to ,h]aclitus1 ! ess5ce ( tru?4 ,h5ce t :i* appe>s z ! univ]sal to all1 c>ries ) x conviction1 = x has "p 9 ! univ]sal & div9e ,logos1 :ile :at is subscrib$ to by an individual c>ries ) x no conviction f ! opposite cause4 ,he says 9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 book on ,nature3 8,s9ce ! surr\nd+s are reason1 m5 are irrational bo? be=e !y he> & :5 !y fir/ he>4 ,= s9ce :at happ5s1 happ5s accord+ to ?is reason1 !y are /ill inexp]i5c$ :5 !y se>* ! say+s & ! works :i* ,i exp\nd1 di/+ui%+ ! nature ( ev]y?+ & expla9+ its relations4 ,b o!r m5 d n "k :at !y d awake1 j z !y =get :at !y d 9 sleep40 ,h]aclitus says fur!r3 8,we d & ?9k ev]y?+ 9 t we p>ticipate 9 ! div9e und]/&+ 774 ,h5ce we mu/ foll[ ! univ]sal und]/&+4 ,b _m live z if !y _h an und]/&+ 77 ( _! own2 ! und]/&+ is1 h[ev]1 no?+ b int]pretation0 7be+ consci\s7 8( ! mann] 9 :i* all is ord]$4 ,h5ce 9 s f> z we p>ticipate 9 ! k 77 ( x1 we are 9 ! tru?2 b 9 s f> z we are s+ul> 77 we are 9 error40 ,great & important words6 ,we _c speak ( tru? 9 a tru] or less prejudic$ way4 ,consci\sness z consci\sness ( ! univ]sal1 is alone consci\sness ( tru?2 b consci\sness ( individuality & action z individual1 an orig9ality :i* becomes a s+ul>ity ( cont5t or ( =m1 is ! untrue & bad4 ,wick$ness & error ?us are con/itut$ by isolat+ ?\ght & !reby br++ ab\t a sep>ation f ! univ]sal4 ,m5 usually consid]1 :5 !y speak ( ?9k+ some?+1 t x mu/ be some?+ p>ticul>1 b ?is is q a delusion4 ,h[ev] mu* ,h]aclitus may ma9ta9 t !re is no tru? 9 s5su\s k because all t exi/s is 9 a /ate ( flux1 & t ! exi/5ce ( s5su\s c]ta9ty is n :ile x is1 he ma9ta9s ! objective me?od 9 k to be none ! less necess>y4 ,! rational1 ! true1 t :i* ,i "k1 is inde$ a )drawal f ! objective z f :at is s5su\s1 individual1 def9ite & exi/5t2 b :at reason kn[s )9 itself is necessity or ! univ]sal ( be+2 x is ! pr9ciple ( ?\ght1 z x is ! pr9ciple ( ! _w4 ,x is ?is contemplation ( tru? t ,sp9oza 9 8 ,e?ics 7,p4 ,,ii4 propos4 ,,xliv41 coroll4 ,,ii4 p4 #aah1 ed4 ,paul71 calls 8a contemplation ( ?+s 9 ! guise ( et]nity40 ,! be+-=-self ( reason is n an objectless consci\sness1 or a dream1 b a k1 t :i* is = itself2 b ?is be+-=-self is awake1 or is objective & univ]sal1 i4e4 is ! same = all4 ,! dream is a k ( some?+ ( :i* ,i alone "k2 fancy may be in/anc$ z j su* a dream4 ,simil>ly x is by feel+ t some?+ is = me alone1 & t ,i h some?+ 9 me z 9 ?is subject2 ! feel+ may pr(ess to be ev] s elevat$1 yet x really is ! case t = me z ?is subject1 x is :at ,i feel1 & n an object indep5d5t ( me4 ,b 9 tru?1 ! object is = me some?+ ess5tially free1 & ,i am = myself devoid ( subjectivity2 simil>ly ?is object is no imag9>y "o made an object by me alone1 b is 9 itself a univ]sal4 ,!re are1 besides1 _m o!r fragm5ts ( ,h]aclitus1 solit>y expressions1 su* z 8 say+1 8m5 are mortal gods1 & gods immortal m52 liv+ is dea? to ! =m] & dy+ is _! life40#fg ,life is ! dea? ( ! gods1 dea? is ! life ( ! gods2 ! div9e is ! ris+ ?r\gh ?\ght above m]e nature :i* belongs to dea?4 ,h5ce ,h]aclitus also says1 accord+ to ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii41 #cdi73 8! p[] ( ?9k+ is outside ! body10 :i*1 9 a rem>kable way1 ,t5nemann makes into3 8outside ( m540 ,9 ,sextus 7,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #bd1 #bcj7 we fur!r read3 8,h]aclitus says t bo? life & dea? are unit$ 9 our life z 9 our dea?2 = if we live1 our s\ls are dead & buri$ 9 u1 b if we die1 our s\ls arise & live40 ,we may1 9 fact1 say ( ,h]aclitus :at ,socrates said3 8,:at rema9s to u ( ,h]aclitus is excell5t1 & we mu/ conjecture ( :at is lo/1 t x 0 z excell5t40 ,or if we wi% to consid] fate s j z always to pres]ve to po/]ity :at is be/1 we mu/ at lea/ say ( :at we h ( ,h]aclitus1 t x is wor?y ( ?is pres]vation4 ,e4 ,,emp$ocles1 ,,leucippus ,,& ,,democritus4 ,we %all take ,leucippus & ,democritus ) ,emp$ocles2 9 !m !re is manife/$ ! ideality ( ! s5su\s & also univ]sal det]m9at5ess or a transition to ! univ]sal4 ,emp$ocles 0 a ,py?agorean ,italian1 ^: t5d5cies 7 ,ionic2 ,leucippus & ,democritus1 :o incl9e to ! ,italians1 9 t !y c>ri$ on ! ,eleatic s*ool1 are m int]e/+4 ,bo? ^! philosoph]s belong to ! same philosophic sy/em2 !y mu/ be tak5 toge!r z reg>ds _! philosophic ?\ght & consid]$ ?us4#fh ,leucippus is ! old]1 & ,democritus p]fect$ :at ! =m] began1 b x is difficult to say :at prop]ly speak+ belongs to him hi/orically4 ,x is c]ta9ly record$ t he develop$ ,leucippus' ?\ght1 & !re is1 too1 "s ( 8 "w pres]v$1 b x is n wor?y ( quotation4 ,9 ,emp$ocles we see ! comm5cem5t ( ! det]m9ation & sep>ation ( pr9ciples4 ,! becom+ consci\s ( diff]5ce is an ess5tial mom5t1 b ! pr9ciples "h h 9 "p ! "* ( physical ,be+1 & ?\gh p>tak+ also ( ideal ,be+1 ?is =m is n yet ?\ght-=m4 ,on ! o!r h& we f9d 9 ,leucippus & ,democritus ! m ideal pr9ciples1 ! atom & ! ,no?+1 & we also f9d ?\ght-det]m9ation m imm]s$ 9 ! objective--t is1 ! beg9n+ ( a metaphysics ( body2 or pure ,notions possess ! significance ( ! mat]ial1 & ?us pass ov] ?\ght into objective =m4 ,b ! tea*+ is1 on ! :ole1 immature1 & is incapable ( giv+ satisfaction4 #a4 ,,leucippus ,,& ,,democritus4 ,no?+ is accurately kn[n ( ! circum/ances ( ,leucippus' life1 n ev5 :]e he 0 born4 ,"s1 l ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #cj71 make him out to be an ,eleatic2 o!rs to h belong$ to ,abd]a 7because he 0 ) ,democritus71 or to ,melos--,melos is an isl& n f> f ! ,peloponnesian coa/--or else1 z is ass]t$ by ,simplicius 9 writ+ on ,ari/otle's ,physics 7p4 #g71 to ,miletus4 ,x is def9itely /at$ t he 0 a disciple & a fri5d ( ,z5o2 yet he seems to h be5 almo/ contemporane\s ) him z well z ) ,h]aclitus4 ,x is less d\btful t ,democritus belong$ to ,abd]a 9 ,?race1 on ! ,aegean ,sea1 a t[n t 9 lat] times became s notori\s on acc\nt ( fooli% actions4 ,he 0 born1 x w\ld appe>1 ab\t ! #hj? ,olympiad 7#dfj ,b4,c471 or ,olympiad #gg1 #c 7#dgj ,b4,c472 ! fir/ date is giv5 by ,apollodorus 7,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #da71 ! o!r by ,?rasyllus2 ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dae7 makes 8 bir? to fall ab\t ! #ga/ ,olympiad 7#did ,b4,c474 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ix4 #cd71 he 0 =ty ye>s y\ng] ?an ,anaxagoras1 liv$ to ! "t ( ,socrates1 & 0 ev5 y\ng] ?an he--t is suppos+ him to h be5 born1 n 9 ,olympiad #ga1 b 9 ,olympiad #hj4 ,8 connection ) ! ,abd]ites has be5 mu* discuss$1 & _m bad anecdotes are told reg>d+ x by ,diog5es ,la]tius4 ,t he 0 v ri*1 ,val]ius ,maximus 7,,viii4 #g1 ext4 #d7 judges f ! fact t 8 fa!r ent]ta9$ ! :ole ( ,x]xes' army on its passage to ,greece4 ,diog5es tells 7,,ix4 #ce1 #cf7 t he exp5d$ 8 means1 :i* 7 consid]able1 on j\rneys to ,egypt & 9 p5etrat+ into ! ,ea/1 b ?is la/ is n au!ntic4 ,8 possessions are /at$ to h am\nt$ to a hundr$ tal5ts1 & if an ,attic tal5t 0 wor? ab\t f #ajjj to #abjj ?al]s1 he mu/ und\bt$ly h be5 able to get f> en\gh ) t4 ,x is always said t he 0 a fri5d & disciple ( ,leucippus1 z ,ari/otle relates 7,met4 ,i4 #d71 b :]e !y met is n told4 ,diog5es 7,,ix4 #ci7 goes on3 8,aft] he return$ f 8 j\rneys into 8 own c\ntry1 he liv$ v quietly1 = he _h consum$ all 8 sub/ance1 b he 0 support$ by 8 bro!r & atta9$ to high hon\r among/ 8 c\ntrym50--n ?r\gh 8 philosophy1 b--8by "s prophetic utt]ances4 ,accord+ to ! law1 h[ev]1 he :o ran ?r\gh 8 fa!r's means c\ld n h a place 9 ! pat]nal burial-place4 ,to give no place to ! calumniator or evil speak]0--z ?\gh he _h sp5t 8 means ?r\gh extravagance--8he read 8 "w to ! ,abd]ites1 & ! latt] gave him a pres5t ( #ejj tal5ts1 _h 8 /atue publicly erect$1 & buri$ him ) great pomp :51 at #ajj ye>s old1 he di$40 ,t ?is 0 also an ,abd]ite je/1 ^? :o left u ?is n>rative1 at lea/1 did n see4 ,leucippus is ! orig9ator ( ! fam\s atomic sy/em :i*1 z rec5tly reviv$1 is held to be ! pr9ciple ( rational sci5ce4 ,if we take ?is sy/em on its own acc\nt1 x is c]ta9ly v b>r51 & !re is n mu* to be look$ = 9 x2 b x mu/ be all[$ t we are greatly indebt$ to ,leucippus1 because1 z x is express$ 9 our ord9>y physics1 he sep>at$ ! univ]sal & ! s5su\s1 or ! prim>y & ! second>y1 or ! ess5tial & ! noness5tial qualities ( body4 ,! univ]sal quality means1 9 speculative language1 ! fact t ! corporeal is really univ]sally det]m9$ ?r\gh ! ,notion or ! pr9ciple ( body3 ,leucippus und]/ood ! det]m9ate nature ( ,be+1 n 9 a sup]ficial mann]1 b 9 a speculative4 ,:5 x is said t body has ^? univ]sal qualities1 su* z =m1 imp5etrability & weight1 we ?9k t ! indet]m9ate conception ( body is ! ess5ce1 & t its ess5ce is some?+ o!r ?an ^! qualities4 ,b speculatively1 ess5tial exi/5ce is j univ]sal det]m9ations2 !y are exi/5t 9 !mselves1 or ! ab/ract cont5t & ! reality ( exi/5ce4 ,to body z su*1 !re is no?+ left = ! det]m9ation ( reality b pure s+ul>ity2 b x is ! unity ( opposites1 & ! unity ( ^! pr$icates con/itutes its reality4 ,let u recollect t 9 ! ,eleatic philosophy ,be+ & non-be+ 7 look$ at z 9 opposition2 t only ,be+ is1 & non-be+1 9 :i* category we f9d motion1 *ange1 c41 is n4 ,be+ is n z yet ! unity turn+ back1 & turn$ back into itself1 l ,h]aclitus' motion & ! univ]sal4 ,x may be said ( ! po9t ( view t diff]5ce1 *ange1 motion1 c41 fall )9 s5su\s1 imm$iate p]ception1 t ! ass]tion t only ,be+ is1 is z contradictory to appe>ances z to ?\ght2 = ! no?+1 t :i* ! ,eleatics aboli%$1 is4 ,or )9 ! ,h]aclitean ,idea1 ,be+ & non-be+ are ! same2 ,be+ is1 b non-be+1 s9ce x is "o ) ,be+1 is z well1 or ,be+ is bo? ! pr$icate ( ,be+ & ( non-be+4 ,b ,be+ & non-be+ are bo? express$ z hav+ ! qualities ( objectivity1 or z !y are = s5su\s p]ception1 & h5ce !y are ! opposition ( full & empty4 ,leucippus says ?is2 he expresses z exi/5t :at 0 really pres5t to ! ,eleatics4 ,ari/otle says 7,met4 ,i4 #d73 8,leucippus & 8 fri5d ,democritus ma9ta9 t ! full & ! empty are ! elem5ts1 & !y call ! "o ! exi/5t1 & ! o!r ! non-exi/5t2 t is1 ! full & solid are ! exi/5t1 ! empty & r>e1 ! non-exi/5t4 ,h5ce !y also say t ,be+ is no m ?an non-be+ because ! empty is z well z ! bodily2 & ^! =m ! mat]ial s\rces ( ev]y?+40 ,! full has ! atom z its pr9ciple4 ,! ,absolute1 :at exi/s 9 & = itself1 is ?us ! atom & ! empty 7 73 ?is is an important1 if at ! same "t1 an insuffici5t explanation4 ,x is n atoms z we %\ld speak ( !m1 su*1 = example1 z we repres5t to ourselves z float+ 9 ! air1 t are alone ! pr9ciple1 = ! int]v5+ no?+ is j z ess5tial4 ,?us "h we h ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! atomic sy/em4 ,we mu/ n[ give ! fur!r signification & det]m9ation ( ?is pr9ciple4 a4 ,! ,logical ,pr9ciple ,! pr9cipal po9t ( consid]ation is ! ,"o1 exi/5t = itself3 ?is det]m9ation is a great pr9ciple & "o :i* we h n hi!rto _h4 ,p>m5ides e/abli%es ,be+ or ! ab/ract univ]sal2 ,h]aclitus1 process2 ! det]m9ation ( be+-=-self belongs to ,leucippus4 ,p>m5ides says t ! no?+ does n exi/ at all2 ) ,h]aclitus ,becom+ exi/$ only z ! transition ( ,be+ into no?+ :]e ea* is negat$2 b ! view t ea* is simply at home ) itself1 ! positive z ! self-exi/5t "o & ! negative z empty1 is :at came to consci\sness 9 ,leucippus1 & became ! absolute det]m9ation4 ,! atomic pr9ciple 9 ?is mann] has n pass$ away1 = x mu/ f ?is po9t ( view always exi/2 ! be+-=-self mu/ 9 e logical philosophy#fi be an ess5tial mom5t & yet x mu/ n be put =w>d z ultimate4 ,9 ! logical progression f ,be+ & ,becom+ to ?is ?\ght-det]m9ation1 ,be+ z exi/5t "h & n[#gj c]ta9ly fir/ appe>s1 b ?is la/ belongs to ! sph]e ( f9ality & h5ce _c be ! pr9ciple ( ,philosophy4 ,?us1 ?\gh ! developm5t ( ,philosophy 9 hi/ory mu/ correspond to ! developm5t ( logical philosophy1 !re w /ill be passages 9 x :i* are abs5t 9 hi/orical developm5t4 ,= in/ance1 if we wi%$ to make ,be+ z exi/5t "h ! pr9ciple1 x w\ld be :at we h 9 consci\sness--!re are ?+s1 ^! ?+s are f9ite & be> a relation to "o ano!r--b ?is is ! category ( our un?9k+ k1 ( appe>ance4 ,be+-=-self1 on ! o!r h&1 is1 z ,be+1 simple relation to itself1 b ?r\gh negation ( ! o!r-,be+4 ,if ,i say ,i am = myself1 ,i n only am1 b ,i negate 9 me all else1 exclude x f me1 9 s f> z x seems to me to be ext]nal4 ,z negation ( o!r be+1 :i* is j negation 9 relation to me1 be+-=-self is ! negation ( negation & ?us affirmation2 & ?is is1 z ,i call x1 absolute negativity 9 :i* m$iation inde$ is pres5t1 b a m$iation :i* is j z really tak5 away4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! ,"o is altoge!r ideal & belongs entirely to ?\ght1 ev5 ?\gh we wi% to say t atoms exi/4 ,! atom may be tak5 mat]ially1 b x is sup]s5su\s1 purely intellectual4 ,9 our times1 too1 m especially ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ,gass5di1 ?is conception ( atoms has be5 r5ew$4 ,! atoms ( ,leucippus are1 h[ev]1 n molecules1 ! small p>ticles ( ,physics4 ,9 ,leucippus1 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 7,de g54 et corr4 ,i4 #h7 !re is to be f\nd ! idea t 8atoms are invisible because ( ! smallness ( _! body10 :i* is mu* l ! way 9 :i* molecules are n[-a-days spok5 (3 b ?is is m]ely a way ( speak+ ( !m4 ,! ,"o c nei!r be se5 nor %[n ) magnify+ glasses or measures1 because x is an ab/raction ( ?\ght2 :at is %[n is always matt] t is put toge!r4 ,x is j z futile :51 z 9 mod]n times1 m5 try by ! microscope to inve/igate ! inmo/ "p ( ! organism1 ! s\l1 & ?9k !y c discov] x by means ( sight & feel+4 ,?us ! pr9ciple ( ! ,"o is altoge!r ideal1 b n 9 ! s5se ( be+ 9 ?\ght or 9 ! head alone1 b 9 su* a way t ?\ght is made ! true ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,leucippus und]/ood x s1 & 8 philosophy is consequ5tly n at all empirical4 ,t5nemann 7,vol4 #a1 p4 #bfa71 on ! o!r h&1 says1 q wrongly1 8,! sy/em ( ,leucippus is oppos$ to t ( ! ,eleatics2 he recognizes ! empirical _w z ! only objective reality1 & body z ! only k9d ( exi/5ce40 ,b ! atom & ! vacuum are n ?+s ( exp]i5ce2 ,leucippus says t x is n ! s5ses ?r\gh :i* we become consci\s ( ! tru?1 & !reby he has e/abli%$ an idealism 9 ! high] s5se & n "o :i* is m]ely subjective4 b4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,_w ,h[ev] ab/ract ?is pr9ciple might be to ,leucippus1 he 0 anxi\s to make x concrete4 ,! mean+ ( atom is ! individual1 ! indivisible2 9 ano!r =m ! ,"o is ?us individuality1 ! det]m9ation ( subjectivity4 ,! univ]sal &1 on ! o!r side1 ! individual1 are great det]m9ations :i* are involv$ 9 ev]y?+1 & m5 fir/ "k :at !y h 9 ^! ab/ract det]m9ations1 :5 !y recognize 9 ! concrete t ev5 !re !y are pr$om9ant4 ,to ,leucippus & ,democritus ?is pr9ciple1 :i* aft]w>ds came to light ) ,epicurus1 rema9$ physical2 b x also appe>s 9 :at is intellectual4 ,m9d inde$1 is also an atom & "o2 b z "o )9 itself1 x is at ! same "t inf9itely full4 ,9 fre$om1 "r & law1 9 ex]cis+ w1 our only conc]n is ) ?is opposition ( univ]sality & individuality4 ,9 ! sph]e ( ! /ate ! po9t ( view t ! s+le w is1 z an atom1 ! absolute1 may be ma9ta9$2 ! m mod]n !ories ( ! /ate :i* also made !mselves ( practical effect1 are ( ?is k9d4 ,! /ate mu/ re/ on ! univ]sal1 t is1 on ! w t exi/s 9 & = itself2 if x re/s on t ( ! individual1 x becomes atomic & is compreh5d$ 9 accordance ) ! ?\ght-det]m9ation ( ! "o1 z is ! case 9 ,r\sseau's ,contrat ,social4 ,f :at ,ari/otle tells u 9 ! passage la/ quot$1 ,leucippus' idea ( all t is concrete & actual is fur!r ?is3 8,! full is no?+ simple1 = x is an inf9itely manifold4 ,^! inf9itely _m1 move 9 ! vacuum1 = ! vacuum exi/s2 _! conglom]ation br+s ab\t orig9ation0 7t is1 ( an exi/+ ?+1 or :at is = ! s5ses71 8dis9tegration & sep>ation result 9 pass+ away40 ,all o!r categories are includ$ "h4 8,activity & passivity subsi/ 9 ! fact1 t !y are contigu\s2 b _! contiguity is n _! becom+ "o1 = f t :i* is truly0 7ab/ractly7 8"o !re does n come a numb]1 nor f t :i* is truly _m1 "o40 ,or1 x may be said1 !y are 9 fact nei!r passive nor active1 8= !y m]ely abide ?r\gh ! vacuum0 )\t hav+ z _! pr9ciple1 process4 ,atoms ?us are1 ev5 9 _! app>5t union 9 t :i* we call ?+s1 sep>at$ f "o ano!r ?r\gh ! vacuum :i* is purely negative & =eign to !m1 i4e4 _! relation is n inh]5t 9 !mselves1 b is ) some?+ o!r ?an !m1 9 :i* !y rema9 :at !y are4 ,?is vacuum1 ! negative 9 relation to ! affirmative1 is also ! pr9ciple ( ! movem5t ( atoms2 !y are s to speak solicit$ by ! vacuum to fill up & to negate x4 ,^! are ! doctr9es ( ! atomi/s4 ,we see t we h rea*$ ! extreme limits ( ^! ?\ghts1 = :5 relation comes into "q1 we /ep beyond !m4 ,be+ & non-be+1 z some?+ ?\ght1 :i*1 :5 repres5t$ = consci\sness z diff]+ 9 reg>d to "o ano!r1 are ! pl5um & ! vacuum1 h no div]sity 9 !mselves2 = ! pl5um has likewise negativity 9 itself2 z indep5d5t1 x excludes :at is diff]5t2 x is "o & inf9itely _m ones1 :ile ! vacuum is n exclusive1 b pure cont9uity4 ,bo? ^! opposites1 ! "o & cont9uity1 be+ n[ settl$1 no?+ is easi] to imag9e ?an t atoms %\ld float 9 exi/5t cont9uity1 n[ be+ sep>at$ & n[ unit$2 & ?us t _! union %\ld be only a sup]ficial relation1 or a syn!sis t is n det]m9$ ?r\gh ! inh]5t nature ( :at is unit$1 b 9 :i* ^! self-exi/5t be+s really rema9 sep>at$ /ill4 ,b ?is is an altoge!r ext]nal relation%ip2 ! purely indep5d5t is unit$ to ! indep5d5t1 & ?us a me*anical comb9ation alone results4 ,all t is liv+1 spiritual1 c41 is !n m]ely ?r[n toge!r2 & *ange1 orig9ation1 creation1 are simple union4 ,h[ev] highly ^! pr9ciples are to be e/eem$ z a =w>d /ep1 !y at once reveal to u _! total inadequacy1 z is also ! case :5 we ent] ) !m on fur!r concrete det]m9ations4 ,nev]!less1 we ne$ n add :at is 9 great measure add$ by ! conception ( a lat] date1 t once ^u a "t1 !re 0 a *aos1 a void fill$ ) atoms1 :i* aft]w>ds became unit$ & ord]ly1 & t ! _w !reby arose2 x is n[ & ev] t :at implicitly exi/s is ! pl5um & ! vacuum4 ,! satisfy+ po9t ( view :i* natural sci5ce f\nd 9 su* ?\ghts1 is j ! simple fact t 9 ^! ! exi/5t is 9 its anti!sis z :at is ?\ght & :at is oppos$ to ?\ght1 & is h]eby :at exi/s 9 & = itself4 ,! ,atomi/s are !re=e1 g5]ally speak+1 oppos$ to ! idea ( ! creation & ma9t5ance ( ?is _w by means ( a =eign pr9ciple4 ,x is 9 ! !ory ( atoms t sci5ce fir/ feels releas$ f ! s5se ( hav+ no f\ndation = ! _w4 ,= if nature is repres5t$ z creat$ & held toge!r by ano!r1 x is conceiv$ ( z n exi/5t 9 itself1 & ?us z hav+ its ,notion outside itself1 i4e4 its pr9ciple or orig9 is =eign to x & x has no pr9ciple z su*1 only be+ conceivable f ! w ( ano!r2 z x is1 x is cont+5t1 devoid ( necessity & ,notion 9 itself4 ,9 ! conception ( ! atomi/1 h[ev]1 we h ! conception ( ! inh]5cy ( nature1 t is to say1 ?\ght f9ds itself 9 x1 or its pr9ciple is 9 itself some?+ ?\ght1 & ! ,notion f9ds its satisfaction 9 conceiv+ & e/abli%+ x z ,notion4 ,9 ab/ract exi/5ce1 nature has its gr\nd 9 itself & is simply = itself2 ! atom & ! vacuum are j su* simple ,notions4 ,b we _c "h see or f9d m ?an ! =mal fact t q g5]al & simple pr9ciples1 ! anti!sis betwe5 ! "o & cont9uity1 are repres5t$4 ,if we proce$ f a wid]1 ri*] po9t ( view 9 nature1 & dem& t f ! atomic !ory1 x1 too1 mu/ be made compreh5sible1 ! satisfaction at once disappe>s & we see ! impossibility ( gett+ any fur!r4 ,h5ce we mu/ get beyond ^! pure ?\ghts ( cont9uity & discont9uity4 ,= ^! negations1 ! units1 are n 9 & = !mselves2 ! atoms are indivisible & l !mselves1 or _! pr9ciple is made pure cont9uity1 s t !y may be said to come directly into "o clump4 ,! conception c]ta9ly keeps !m sep>ate & gives !m a s5su\sly repres5t$ ,be+2 b if !y are alike1 !y are1 z pure cont9uity1 ! same z :at is empty4 ,b t :i* is1 is concrete & det]m9$4 ,h[ !n c div]sity be conceiv$ ( f ^! pr9ciples8 ,:5ce comes ! det]m9ate "* ( plants1 col\r1 =m8 ,! po9t is1 t ?\gh ^! atoms z small p>ticles may be all[$ to subsi/ z indep5d5t1 _! union becomes m]ely a comb9ation :i* is altoge!r ext]nal & accid5tal4 ,! det]m9ate diff]5ce is miss$2 ! "o1 z t :i* is = itself1 loses all its det]m9at5ess4 ,if v>i\s matt]s1 electrical1 magnetic & lum9\s1 are assum$1 &1 at ! same "t1 a me*anical %ift+ ab\t ( molecules1 on ! "o h& unity is q disreg>d$1 &1 on ! o!r1 no rational ^w is utt]$ 9 reg>d to ! transition ( ph5om5a1 b only :at is tautological4 ,s9ce ,leucippus & ,democritus wi%$ to g fur!r1 ! necessity ( a m def9ite di/9ction ?an ?is sup]ficial "o ( union & sep>ation 0 introduc$1 & !y s\ght to br+ ?is ab\t by ascrib+ div]sity to atoms1 &1 inde$1 by mak+ _! div]sity inf9ite4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #d7 says3 8,?is div]sity !y s\ght to det]m9e 9 ?ree ways4 ,!y say t atoms diff] 9 figure1 z ,a does f ,n2 9 ord]0 7place7 8z ,,an f ,,na2 9 position0--z to :e!r !y /& upright or lie--8z ,z f ,n4 ,f ^! all o!r diff]5ces mu/ come40 ,we see t figure1 ord] & po/ure are aga9 ext]nal relation%ips1 indiff]5t det]m9ations1 i4e4 uness5tial relations :i* d n affect ! nature ( ! ?+ 9 itself nor its imman5t det]m9at5ess1 = _! unity is only 9 ano!r4 ,tak5 on its own acc\nt1 ?is diff]5ce is inde$ inconsi/5t1 = z ! entirely simple "o1 ! atoms are p]fectly alike1 & ?us any su* div]sity _c come into "q4 ,we "h h an endeav\r to lead ! s5su\s back into few det]m9ations4 ,ari/otle 7,de g54 et corr4 ,i4 #h7 says 9 ?is connection ( ,leucippus3 8,he wi%$ to br+ ! conception ( ! ph5om5al & s5su\s p]ception ne>]1 & !reby repres5t$ movem5t1 orig9ation & decease1 z exi/5t 9 !mselves40 ,9 ?is we see no m ?an t actuality f him receives its rights1 :ile o!rs speak only ( deception4 ,b :5 ,leucippus 9 ! end repres5ts ! atom z also fa%ion$ 9 itself1 he br+s exi/5ce c]ta9ly s mu* ne>] to s5su\s p]ception1 b n to ! ,notion2 we mu/1 inde$1 g on to fa%ion+1 b s f> we are /ill a long way (f f ! det]m9ation ( cont9uity & discretion4 ,ari/otle 7,de s5su1 #d7 !re=e says3 8,democritus1 & mo/ ( ! o!r anci5t philosoph]s are1 :5 !y speak ( :at is s5su\s1 v awkw>d1 because !y wi% to make all t is felt into some?+ tangible2 !y r$uce ev]y?+ to :at is evid5t to ! s5se ( t\*1 black be+ r\gh1 & :ite smoo?40 ,all s5su\s qualities are ?us only l$ back to =m1 to ! v>i\s ways ( unit+ molecules :i* make any p>ticul> ?+ capable ( be+ ta/$ or smelt2 & ?is endeav\r is "o :i* is also made by ! atomi/s ( mod]n times4 ,! ,fr5* p>ticul>ly1 f ,desc>tes onw>d1 /& 9 ?is category4 ,x is ! in/9ct ( reason to und]/& ! ph5om5al & ! p]ceptible1 only ! way is false2 x is a q unmean+1 undet]m9$ univ]sality4 ,s9ce figure1 ord]1 po/ure & =m1 con/itute ! only det]m9ation ( :at is 9 itself1 no?+ is said z to h[ ^! mom5ts are exp]i5c$ z col\r1 & inde$ v>iety ( col\r1 c42 ! transition to o!r ?an me*anical det]m9ations is n made1 or x %[s itself to be %all[ & b>r54 ,h[ x 0 t ,leucippus1 f ^! poor pr9ciples ( atoms & ( ! vacuum1 :i* he nev] got beyond1 because he took !m to be ! absolute1 haz>d$ a con/ruction ( ! :ole _w 7:i* may appe> to u z /range z x is empty71 ,diog5es ,la]tius tells u 7,,ix4 #ca-cc7 9 an acc\nt :i* seems mean+less en\gh4 ,b ! nature ( ! subject all[s ( little bett]1 & we c d no m ?an obs]ve f x ! b>r5ness ( ?is conception4 ,x runs ?us3 8,atoms1 div]g5t 9 =m1 propel !mselves ?r\gh _! sep>ation f ! inf9ite1 into ! great vacuum40 7,democritus adds to ?is1 8by means ( _! mutual resi/ance 77 & a tremul\s1 sw++ motion 77407#ga 8,"h ga!r$1 !y =m "o vortex 77 :]e1 by da%+ toge!r & revolv+ r\nd 9 all sorts ( ways1 ! l are sep>at$ (f ) ! l4 ,b s9ce !y are ( equal weight1 :5 !y _c1 on acc\nt ( _! numb]1 move 9 any way1 ! f9] g into out] vacuum1 be+ s to speak =c$ out2 & ! o!rs rema9 toge!r &1 be+ entangl$1 run "o aga9/ ano!r1 & =m ! fir/ r\nd sy/em4 ,b ?is /&s ap>t l a husk t holds )9 x all sorts ( bodies2 s9ce ^!1 9 press+ t[>ds ! middle1 make a vortex movem5t1 ?is encircl+ sk9 becomes ?91 because f ! action ( ! vortex1 !y are cont9ually runn+ toge!r4 ,! e>? arises 9 ?is way1 because ^! bodies1 collect$ 9 ! middle1 rema9 toge!r4 ,t :i* encircles & :i* is l a husk1 aga9 becomes increas$ by means ( ! adh]5ce ( ext]nal bodies1 & s9ce x also moves )9 ! vortex1 x draws ev]y?+ ) :i* x comes 9 contact to itself4 ,! union ( "s ( ^! bodies aga9 =ms a sy/em1 fir/ ! moi/ & slimy1 & !n ! dry1 & t :i* circles 9 ! vortex ( ! :ole2 aft] t1 be+ ignit$1 !y con/itute ! sub/ance ( ! />s4 ,! out] circle is ! sun1 ! inn] ! moon10 c4 ,?is is an empty repres5tation2 !re is no int]e/ 9 ^! dry1 confus$ ideas ( circle-motion1 & ( :at is lat] on call$ attraction & repulsion1 beyond ! fact t ! diff]5t k9ds ( motion are look$ at z ! pr9ciple ( matt]4 c4 ,! ,s\l ,f9ally ,ari/otle relates 7,de anim4 ,i4 #b7 t 9 reg>d to ! s\l1 ,leucippus & ,democritus said t 8x is sph]ical atoms40 ,we f9d fur!r f ,plut>* 7,de plac4 phil4 ,,iv4 #h7 t ,democritus appli$ himself to ! relation borne by consci\sness to ! explanation1 among/ o!r ?+s1 ( ! orig9 ( feel+s1 because ) him1 ! conceptions t f ?+s f9e surfaces1 s to speak1 free !mselves1 & fly into ! eyes1 e>s1 c41 fir/ began4 ,we see t1 ?us f>1 ,democritus express$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! mom5ts ( implicit ,be+ & ,be+-=-ano!r m di/9ctly4 ,= he said1 z ,sextus tells u 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ace73 8,w>m? exi/s accord+ to op9ion 771 & s d cold & col\r1 sweet & bitt]3 only ! indivisible & void are tru?ful 7740 ,t is to say1 only ! void & indivisible & _! det]m9ations are implicit2 uness5tial1 diff]5t ,be+1 su* z w>m?1 c41 is = ano!r4 ,b by ?is ! way is at once op5$ up to ! false idealism t means to be done ) :at is objective by br++ x into relation ) consci\sness1 m]ely say+ ( x t x is my feel+4 ,!reby s5su\s individuality is1 inde$1 annull$ 9 ! =m ( ,be+1 b x /ill rema9s ! same s5su\s manifold2 a s5su\sly notionless manifold ( feel+ is e/abli%$1 9 :i* !re is no reason1 & ) :i* ?is idealism has no fur!r conc]n4 #b4 ,,emp$ocles4 ,! fragm5ts ( ,emp$ocles left1 h sev]al times be5 collect$4 ,/urz ( ,leipzig collect$ above #djj v]ses4#gb ,peyron arrang$ a collection ( fragm5ts ( ,emp$ocles & ,p>m5ides1#gc :i* 0 put into pr9t 9 ,leipzig 9 #ahaj4 ,9 ,wolff's ,analects1 a treatise is to be f\nd on ,emp$ocles by ,ritt]4 ,emp$ocles' bir?place 0 ,agrig5tum 9 ,sicily1 :ile ,h]aclitus belong$ to ,asia ,m9or4 ,we ?us come back to ,italy1 = our hi/ory *anges ab\t betwe5 ^! two sides2 f ,greece prop]1 z ! middle po9t1 we h z yet _h no philosophies at all4 ,emp$ocles1 accord+ to ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dae71 fl\ri%$ ab\t ! #hj? ,olympiad 7#dfj ,b4,c474 ,/urz 7pp4 #i1 #aj7 quotes ,dodwell's words3 7,de tate ,py?ag4 p4 #bbj71 :i* indicate t ,emp$ocles 0 born 9 ,olympiad #gg1 #a 7#dgb ,b4,c474 ,!y are z foll[s3 8,9 ! second ye> ( ! #he? ,olympiad ,p>m5ides _h rea*$ 8 #fe? ye>1 s t ,z5o 0 born 9 ! second ye> ( ! #ge? ,olympiad2#gd ?us he 0 six ye>s old] ?an 8 fell[-/ud5t ,emp$ocles1 = ! latt] 0 only "o ye> old :5 ,py?agoras di$ 9 ! fir/ or second ye> ( ! #gg? ,olympiad40 ,ari/otle says 7,met4 ,i4 #c73 8,9 age ,emp$ocles is subsequ5t to ,anaxagoras1 b 8 works are e>li]40 ,b n only did he philosophize e>li] z reg>ds "t1 t is1 at a y\ng] age1 b 9 ref]5ce to ! /age rea*$ by ! ,notion1 8 philosophy is e>li] & less mature ?an t ( ,anaxagoras4 ,f ,diog5es' acc\nts ( 8 life 7,,viii4 #ei1 #fj-gc71 he also seems to h be5 a k9d ( magician & sorc]]1 l ,py?agoras4 ,dur+ 8 life he 0 mu* respect$ by 8 fell[-citiz5s1 &1 aft] 8 dea?1 a /atue 0 erect$ to him 9 8 native t[n2 8 fame ext5d$ v f>4 ,he did n live ap>t1 l ,h]aclitus1 b 9 ! ex]cise ( great influ5ce on ! affairs ( ! t[n ( ,agrig5tum1 l ,p>m5ides 9 ,elea4 ,he acquir$ ! cr$it1 aft] ! dea? ( ,meton1 ! rul] ( ,agrig5tum1 ( br++ ab\t a free con/itution & equal rights to all citiz5s4 ,he likewise fru/rat$ sev]al attempts :i* 7 made by p ( ,agrig5tum to seize ^u ! rul]%ip ( _! city2 & :5 ! e/eem ( 8 fell[-citiz5s rose s high t !y (f]$ him ! cr[n1 he reject$ _! (f]s1 & liv$ ev] aft] among/ !m z a respect$ private individual4 ,bo? ( 8 life & dea? mu* :i* 0 fabul\s 0 told4 ,see+ t he 0 fam\s 9 life1 we are told t he wi%$ n to appe> to die an ord9>y dea?1 z a pro( t he 0 n a mortal man1 b _h m]ely pass$ out ( sight4 ,aft] a fea/ he is said ei!r to h sudd5ly disappe>$1 or else to h be5 on ,etna ) 8 fri5ds1 & sudd5ly to h be5 se5 ( !m no m4 ,b :at became ( him 0 reveal$ by ! fact t "o ( 8 %oes 0 ?r[n up by ,etna1 & f\nd by "o ( 8 fri5ds2 ?is made x cle> t he ?rew himself into ,etna1 !reby to )draw himself f ! notice ( mank9d1 & to give rise to ! idea t he did n really die1 b t he 0 tak5 up among/ ! gods4 ,! orig9 & occasion = ?is fable seems to lie 9 a poem 9 :i* !re are sev]al v]ses t1 tak5 alone1 make great pr(essions4 ,he says1 accord+ to ,/urz1 7p4 #ecj3 ,reliqui 1 v4 #cfd-cgf73-- 8,fri5ds :o dwell )9 ! =t on yell[ ,acragas ,& :o 9 ! be/ ( works are busy1 ,i greet y6 ,to y ,i am an immortal god1 no m a mortal man1 ,d ye n see h[ t :]e'er ,i g1 all hon\r me1 ,my head be+ #8circl$ r\nd ) diadems & cr[ns ( gre58 ,:5 s deck$ out1 ,i %[ myself 9 t[ns ( weal?1 ,m5 & wom5 pray to me4 ,& ?\s&s foll[ ,my /eps1 to seek f me ! way to bliss1 ,o!rs ask = prophecies2 o!rs aga91 ,heal+ words = ailm5ts manifold besee*4 ,b :at is ?is to me--z ?\gh #8tw]e any?+ ,by art to conqu] mu* corrupt$ man40 ,b1 tak5 9 ! context1 ?is laudation means t ,i am highly hon\r$1 b :at is ! value ( t to me2 x expresses we>9ess ( ! hon\r giv5 him by m54 ,emp$ocles _h ,py?agoreans z pupils1 & w5t ab\t ) !m2 he is sometimes consid]$ to h be5 a ,py?agorean l ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 b ?is is ! only gr\nd = su* a /atem5t4 ,x is a "q :e!r he belong$ to ! ,league2 8 philosophy has no resemblance to ! ,py?agorean4 ,accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,viii4 #ef71 he 0 also call$ ,z5o's fell[-pupil4 ,!re h1 inde$1 be5 _m isolat$ reflections ( a physical k9d pres]v$ to u1 z also "s words ( exhortation1 & 9 him ?\ght z p5etrat+ )9 reality1 & ! k ( nature seem to h atta9$ to great] bread? & compass2 we f9d 9 him1 h[ev]1 less speculative dep? ?an 9 ,h]aclitus1 b a ,notion m imbu$ ) ! po9t ( view ( reality1 & a culture d]iv$ f natural philosophy or ! contemplation ( nature4 ,emp$ocles is m poetic ?an def9itely philosophical2 he is n v int]e/+1 & mu* _c be made ( 8 philosophy4 ,z to ! p>ticul> ,notion :i* gov]ns x1 & :i* really beg9s 9 x to appe>1 we may call x ,comb9ation or ,syn!sis4 ,x is z comb9ation t ! unity ( opposites fir/ pres5ts itself2 ?is ,notion1 fir/ op5+ up ) ,h]aclitus1 is1 :ile 9 a condition ( re/1 conceiv$ ( z comb9ation1 be=e ?\ght grasps ! univ]sal 9 ,anaxagoras4 ,emp$ocles' syn!sis1 z a completion ( ! relation%ip1 ?us belongs to ,h]aclitus1 ^: speculative ,idea1 ?\gh 9 reality1 is process1 b ?is is s )\t ! individual mom5ts 9 reality be+ mutually relat$ z ,notions4 ,emp$ocles' conception ( syn!sis holds good to ! pres5t day4 ,he also is ! orig9ator ( ! common idea t has ev5 come d[n to u1 ( reg>d+ ! f\r kn[n physical elem5ts ( fire1 air1 wat]1 & e>?1 z fundam5tal2 by *emi/s !y are c]ta9ly no long] held to be elem5ts1 because !y und]/& by elem5ts a simple *emical sub/ance4 ,i w n[ give ,emp$ocles' ideas %ortly1 & draw ! _m units m5tion$ into ! connection ( a :ole4 ,8 g5]al ideas ,ari/otle#ge %ortly sums up ?us3 8,to ! ?ree elem5ts1 fire1 air1 & wat]1 ea* ( :i* 0 9 turn consid]$ z ! pr9ciple f :i* ev]y?+ proce$$1 ,emp$ocles add$ ! ,e>? z ! f\r? corporeal elem5t1 say+ t x is ^! :i* always rema9 ! same1 nev] becom+1 b be+ unit$ & sep>at$ z ! m or ! less1 comb9+ into "o & com+ out ( "o40 ,c>bon1 metal1 c41 are n some?+ exi/+ 9 & = itself :i* rema9s con/ant & nev] becomes2 ?us no?+ metaphysical is signifi$ by !m4 ,b ) ,emp$ocles ?is und\bt$ly is ! case3 e p>ticul> ?+ arises ?r\gh "s k9d ( union ( ! f\r4 ,^! f\r elem5ts1 to our ord9>y idea1 are n s _m s5su\s ?+s if we consid] !m z univ]sal elem5ts2 =1 look$ at s5su\sly1 !re are v>i\s o!r s5su\s ?+s4 ,all t is organic1 = example1 is ( ano!r k9d2 &1 fur!r1 e>? z "o1 z simple1 pure e>?1 does n exi/1 = x is 9 manifold det]m9at5ess4 ,9 ! idea ( f\r elem5ts we h ! elevation ( s5su\s ideas into ?\ght4 ,ari/otle fur!r says 9 ref]5ce to ! ab/ract ,notion ( _! relation to "o ano!r 7,met4 ,i4 #d71 t ,emp$ocles did n only require ! f\r elem5ts z pr9ciples1 b also ,fri5d%ip & ,/rife1 :i* we h already met ) 9 ,h]aclitus2 x is at once evid5t t ^! are ( ano!r k9d1 because !y are1 prop]ly speak+1 univ]sal4 ,he has ! f\r natural elem5ts z ! real1 & fri5d%ip & /rife z ! ideal pr9ciples1 s t six elem5ts1 ( :i* ,sextus#gf (t5 speaks1 make _! appe>ance 9 l9es t ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,,ii4 #d7 & ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ib7 h pres]v$3-- 8,) ! e>?1 we see ! e>?1 ) wat]1 wat]1 ,) air1 heav5ly air1 ) fire1 et]nal fire1 ,) love1 love is se51 & /rife ) sorr[ful /rife40 ,?r\gh our p>ticipation 9 !m !y become = u4 ,!re we h ! idea t _s1 ! s\l1 is itself ! unity1 ! v totality ( elem5ts1 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( e>? relates to e>?1 wat] to wat]1 love to love1 c4#gg ,9 see+ fire1 ! fire is 9 u = :om objective fire is1 & s on4 ,emp$ocles also speaks ( ! process ( ^! elem5ts1 b he did n compreh5d x fur!r2 ! po9t to be rem>k$ is t he repres5t$ _! unity z a comb9ation4 ,9 ?is syn!tic union1 :i* is a sup]ficial relation devoid ( ,notion1 be+ p>tly relat$ & p>tly unrelat$1 ! contradiction necess>ily results t at "o "t ! unity ( elem5ts is e/abli%$ & at ano!r1 _! sep>ation3 ! unity is n ! univ]sal unity 9 :i* !y are mom5ts1 be+ ev5 9 _! div]sity "o1 & 9 _! unity diff]5t1 = ^! two mom5ts1 unity & div]sity1 fall asund]1 & union & sep>ation are q indet]m9ate relation%ips4 ,emp$ocles says 9 ! fir/ book ( 8 poem on ,nature1 z giv5 by ,/urz 7p4 #eag1 v4 #ajf-aji73 8,!re is no su* ?+ z a ,nature1 only a comb9ation & sep>ation ( :at is comb9$2 x is m]ely call$ ,nature by m540 ,t is to say1 t :i* con/itutes any?+1 z be+ its elem5ts or p>ts1 is n z yet call$ its nature1 b only its det]m9ate unity4 ,= example1 ! nature ( an animal is its con/ant & real det]m9at5ess1 its k9d1 its univ]sality1 :i* is simple4 ,b ,emp$ocles does away ) nature 9 ?is s5se1 = e ?+1 accord+ to him1 is ! comb9ation ( simple elem5ts1 & ?us n 9 itself ! univ]sal1 simple & true3 ?is is n :at is signifi$ by u :5 we speak ( nature4 ,n[ ?is nature 9 :i* a ?+ moves 9 accordance ) its own end1 ,ari/otle 7,de g54 et corr4 ,,ii4 #f7 misses 9 ,emp$ocles2 9 lat] times ?is conception 0 /ill fur!r lo/4 ,because ! elem5ts 7 ?us exi/5t simply 9 !mselves1 !re 01 prop]ly speak+1 no process e/abli%$ 9 !m1 = 9 process !y are only vani%+ mom5ts1 & n exi/5t 9 !mselves4 ,be+ ?us implicit1 !y mu/ h be5 un*angeable1 or !y c\ld n con/itute !mselves into a unity2 = 9 ! "o _! subsi/5ce1 or _! implicit exi/5ce w\ld be de/roy$4 ,b because ,emp$ocles says t ?+s subsi/ f ^! elem5ts1 he imm$iately e/abli%es _! unity4 ,^! are ! pr9cipal po9ts 9 ,emp$ocles' philosophy4 ,i w quote ! rem>ks t ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #d7 makes 9 ?is reg>d4 77 8,if we wi% to foll[ ?is up1 & d s 9 accordance ) ! und]/&+1 n m]ely /umbl+ ov] x l ,emp$ocles1 we %\ld say t fri5d%ip is ! pr9ciple ( good & /rife ! pr9ciple ( evil1 s t 9 a measure we may ass]t t ,emp$ocles ma9ta9$--& 0 ! fir/ to d s--t ! evil & ! good are ! absolute pr9ciples1 because ! good is ! pr9ciple ( all good1 & ! bad ! pr9ciple ( all evil40 ,ari/otle %[s ! trace ( univ]sality pres5t "h2 = to him x may be t]m$ ess5tial 9 deal+ ) ! ,notion ( ! pr9ciple1 t :i* is 9 & = itself4 ,b ?is is only ! ,notion1 or ! ?\ght :i* is pres5t 9 & = itself2 we h n yet se5 su* a pr9ciple1 = we f9d x fir/ 9 ,anaxagoras4 ,if ,ari/otle f\nd ! pr9ciple ( motion miss$ 9 anci5t philosoph]s1 9 ! ,becom+ ( ,h]aclitus1 he aga9 miss$ 9 ,h]aclitus ! /ill deep] pr9ciple ( ! ,good1 & h5ce wi%$ to discov] x 9 ,emp$ocles4 ,by ! good ! 8:y0 is to be und]/ood1 t :i* is an end 9 & = itself1 :i* is cle>ly e/abli%$ 9 itself1 :i* is on its own acc\nt1 & ?r\gh :i* all else is2 ! end has ! det]m9ation ( activity1 ! br++ =? ( itself1 s t x1 z end to itself1 is ! ,idea1 ! ,notion t makes itself objective &1 9 its objectivity1 is id5tical ) itself4 ,ari/otle ?us entirely controv]ts ,h]aclitus1 because 8 pr9ciple is *ange alone1 )\t rema9+ l self1 ma9ta9+ self1 & go+ back )9 self4 77 ,ari/otle also says 9 criticiz+ fur!r ! relation%ip & det]m9ation ( ^! two univ]sal pr9ciples ( ,fri5d%ip & ,/rife1 z ( union & sep>ation1 t 8,emp$ocles nei!r adequately made use ( !m nor discov]$ 9 !m :at !y involv$ 7 72 = ) him fri5d%ip frequ5tly divides & /rife unites4 ,t is1 :5 ! ,all falls asund] ?r\gh /rife among/ ! elem5ts1 fire is !reby unit$ into "o1 & s is ea* ( ! o!r elem5ts40 ,! sep>ation ( ! elem5ts :i* are compris$ )9 ! ,all1 is j z necess>ily ! union among/ !mselves ( ! p>ts ( ea* elem5t2 t :i*1 on ! "o h&1 is ! com+ into sep>ation1 z indep5d5t1 is at ! same "t some?+ unit$ )9 itself4 8,b :5 ev]y?+ ?r\gh fri5d%ip goes back into "o1 x is necess>y t ! p>ts ( ea* elem5t und]go sep>ation aga940 ,! be+ 9 "o is itself a manifold1 a div]se relation ( ! f\r div]sities1 & ?us ! go+ toge!r is likewise a sep>ation4 ,?is is ! case g5]ally ) all det]m9at5ess1 t x mu/ 9 itself be ! opposite1 & mu/ manife/ itself z su*4 ,! rem>k t1 speak+ g5]ally1 !re is no union )\t sep>ation1 no sep>ation )\t union1 is a pr(\nd "o2 id5tity & non-id5tity are ?\ght-det]m9ations ( ?is k9d :i* _c be sep>at$4 ,! reproa* made by ,ari/otle is "o t lies 9 ! nature ( ! ?+4 ,& :5 ,ari/otle says t ,emp$ocles1 al?\gh y\ng] ?an ,h]aclitus1 80 ! fir/ to ma9ta9 su* pr9ciples1 because he did n ass]t t ! pr9ciple ( motion is "o1 b t x is diff]5t & oppos$10 ?is c]ta9ly relates to ! fact t he ?\ght x 0 9 ,emp$ocles t he fir/ f\nd design1 al?\gh 8 utt]ances on ! subject 7 dubi\s4 77 ,z to ! real mom5ts 9 :i* ?is ideal realizes itself1 ,ari/otle fur!r says1 8,he does n speak ( !m z f\r0--equival5ts 9 juxtaposition--8b on ! contr>y z two2 fire he puts by itself on ! "o side1 & ! ?ree o!rs1 e>?1 air1 & wat]1 on ! o!r40 ,:at w\ld be mo/ int]e/+ is ! det]m9ation ( _! relation%ip4 77 ,9 :at deals ) ! relation%ip ( ! two ideal mom5ts1 fri5d%ip & /rife1 & ( ! f\r real elem5ts1 !re is ?us no?+ rational1 = ,emp$ocles1 accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,,xii4 #aj71 did n prop]ly sep>ate1 b co-ord9at$ !m1 s t we (t5 see !m 9 proximity & c\nt$ z hav+ equal value2 b x is self-evid5t t ,emp$ocles also sep>at$ ^! two sides1 ! real & ! ideal1 & express$ ?\ght z _! relation4 77 ,ari/otle says ) ju/ice 7,de g54 et corr4 ,i4 #a7 t 8,emp$ocles contradicts bo? himself & appe>ances4 ,= at "o "t he ma9ta9s t none ( ! elem5ts spr+s out ( ! o!r1 b all else comes f !m2 &1 at ano!r "t1 he makes !m into a :ole ?r\gh fri5d%ip1 & aga9 de/roys ?is unity ?r\gh /rife4 ,?us ?r\gh p>ticul> diff]5ces & qualities1 "o becomes wat]1 ! o!r fire1 c4 ,n[ if ! p>ticul> diff]5ces are tak5 away 7& !y c be tak5 away s9ce !y h aris571 x is evid5t t wat] arises f e>?1 & ! rev]se4 ,! ,all 0 n yet fire1 e>?1 wat]1 & air1 :5 ^! 7 /ill "o1 s t x is n cle> :e!r he made ! "o or ! _m to be1 prop]ly speak+1 real exi/5ce40 ,because ! elem5ts become "o1 _! special "*1 t ?r\gh :i* wat] is wat]1 is no?+ 9 itself1 t is1 !y are pass+ into some?+ diff]5t2 b ?is contradicts ! /atem5t t !y are ! absolute elem5ts1 or t !y are implicit4 ,he consid]s actual ?+s z an int]m+l+ ( elem5ts1 b 9 reg>d to _! fir/ orig91 he ?9ks t ev]y?+ spr+s f "o ?r\gh fri5d%ip & /rife4 ,?is cu/om>y abs5ce ( ?\ght is 9 ! nature ( syn!tic conceptions2 x n[ upholds unity1 !n multiplicity1 & does n br+ bo? ?\ghts toge!r2 z sublat$1 "o is also n "o4#gh ,f4 ,,anaxagoras4 ,) ,anaxagoras#gi a light1 if /ill a weak "o1 beg9s to dawn1 because ! und]/&+ is n[ recogniz$ z ! pr9ciple4 ,ari/otle says ( ,anaxagoras 7,met4 ,i4 #c73 8,b he :o said t reason 771 9 :at lives z also 9 nature1 is ! orig9 ( ! _w & ( all ord]1 is l a sob] man z comp>$ ) ^? :o came be=e & spoke at r&om 7740 ,z ,ari/otle says1 hi!rto philosoph]s may 8be comp>$ to ! f5c]s :o f5ce 9 an unsci5tific way4 ,j z ! latt] (t5 make good ?ru/s 9 _! /ruggle1 ?\gh n by any skill1 ^! philosoph]s seem to speak )\t any k ( :at !y say40 ,n[ if ,anaxagoras1 z a sob] man among/ drunk>ds1 0 ! fir/ to rea* ?is consci\sness--= he says t pure ?\ght is ! actually exi/5t univ]sal & true--he yet1 to a consid]able ext5t1 /ill ?ru/s into space4 ,! connection ( 8 philosophy ) :at prec$es is z foll[s3 ,9 ,h]aclitus' ,idea z motion1 all mom5ts are absolutely vani%+4 ,emp$ocles repres5ts ! ga!r+ toge!r ( ?is motion into a unity1 b into a syn!tic unity2 & ) ,leucippus & ,democritus x is ! same4 ,) ,emp$ocles1 h[ev]1 ! mom5ts ( ?is unity are ! exi/5t elem5ts ( fire1 wat]1 c41 & ) ! o!rs1 pure ab/ractions1 implicit be+1 ?\ghts4 ,b 9 ?is way univ]sality is directly ass]t$1 = ! oppos+ elem5ts h no long] any s5su\s support4 ,we h _h ,be+1 ,becom+1 ! ,"o1 z pr9ciples2 !y are univ]sal ?\ghts & n s5su\s1 nor are !y figures ( ! imag9ation2 ! cont5t & its p>ts are1 h[ev]1 tak5 f :at is s5su\s1 & !y are ?\ghts 9 "s sort ( a det]m9ation4 ,anaxagoras n[ says t x is n gods1 s5su\s pr9ciples1 elem5ts1 or ?\ghts--:i* really are det]m9ations ( reflection--b t x is ! ,univ]sal1 ,?\ght itself1 9 & = itself1 )\t opposition1 all embrac+1 :i* is ! sub/ance or ! pr9ciple4 ,! unity z univ]sal1 returns f ! opposition into itself1 :ile 9 ! syn!sis ( ,emp$ocles1 :at is oppos$ is /ill ap>t f x & indep5d5t1 & ,?\ght is n ,be+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ,?\ght z pure1 free process 9 itself1 is ! self-det]m9+ univ]sal1 & is n di/+ui%$ f consci\s ?\ght4 ,9 ,anaxagoras q new gr\nd is ?us op5$ up4 ,anaxagoras concludes ?is p]iod1 & aft] him a fre% "o beg9s4 ,9 accordance ) ! fav\rite idea ( !re be+ a g5ealogical desc5t ( pr9ciples f ! tea*] to ! taught1 because he 0 an ,ionian1 he is (t5 repres5t$ z p]petuat+ ! ,ionic s*ool1 & z an ,ionic philosoph]3 ,h]motimus ( ,clazom51 too1 0 8 tea*]4 ,to support ?is !ory ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ii4 #f7 makes him a disciple ( ,anaxim5es1 ^: bir? is1 h[ev]1 plac$ 9 ,ol4 #ee-eh1 or ab\t sixty ye>s e>li] ?an t ( ,anaxagoras4 ,ari/otle says 7,met4 ,i4 #c7 t ,anaxagoras fir/ began by ^! det]m9ations to express absolute reality z und]/&+4 ,ari/otle & o!rs aft] him1 su* z ,sextus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #g71 m5tion ! b>e fact t ,h]motimus gave rise to ?is conception1 b x 0 cle>ly due to ,anaxagoras4 ,little is ga9$ if su* a fact 7 true1 s9ce we le>n no m ab\t ! philosophy ( ,h]motimus2 x _c h be5 mu*4 ,o!rs h made num]\s hi/orical rese>*es respect+ ?is ,h]motimus4 ,! "n we h already m5tion$ among/ ^? ( :om x is said t ,py?agoras exi/$ 9 !m be=e he liv$ z ,py?agoras4 ,we also h a /ory ( ,h]motimus to ! effect t he possess$ ! peculi> gift ( be+ able to make 8 s\l quit 8 body4 ,b ?is did him bad s]vice 9 ! end1 s9ce 8 wife1 ) :om he _h a dispute1 & :o besides knew v well h[ matt]s /ood1 %[$ to _! acqua9tances ?is s\l-des]t$ body z dead1 & x 0 burnt be=e ! s\l re9/at$ itself--:i* s\l mu/ h be5 a/oni%$4#hj ,x is n wor? :ile to inve/igate :at lies at ! gr\nd ( ^! anci5t /ories1 i4e4 into h[ we %\ld reg>d ! matt]3 we may ?9k ( x z imply+ a /ate ( ec/asy4 ,we mu/ consid] ! life ( ,anaxagoras be=e 8 philosophy4 ,anaxagoras1 accord+ to ,diog5es 7,,ii4 #g71 born 9 ,ol4 #gj 7#ejj ,b4,c471 comes e>li] ?an ,democritus1 & 9 age also prec$es ,emp$ocles1 yet1 on ! :ole1 he 0 contemporane\s ) ^!1 z also ) ,p>m5ides2 he 0 z old z ,z5o1 & liv$ some:at e>li] ?an ,socrates1 b /ill !y 7 acqua9t$ ) "o ano!r4 ,8 native t[n 0 ,clazom51 9 ,lydia1 n v f> f ,colophon & ,ephesus1 & situat$ on an i/hmus by :i* a great p59sula is connect$ ) ! ma9l&4 ,8 life is %ortly summ$ up 9 ! /atem5t t he devot$ himself to ! /udy ( ! sci5ces1 )drew f public affairs2 accord+ to ,val]ius ,maximus 7,,viii4 #g1 extr4 #f7 he made num]\s j\rneys1 & f9ally1 accord+ to ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cjj1 #dae71 9 ! =ty-fif? ye> ( 8 age1 9 ! #ha/ ,olympiad 7#def ,b4,c471 & at a propiti\s "t1 he came to ,a!ns4 ,) him we ?us f9d ,philosophy 9 ,greece prop]1 :]e s f> !re _h be5 none1 & com+1 inde$1 z f> z ,a!ns2 hi!rto ei!r ,asia ,m9or or ,italy _h be5 ! seat ( ,philosophy1 ?\gh1 :5 ! inhabitants ( ,asia ,m9or fell "u ,p]sian rule1 ) _! loss ( fre$om1 x expir$ among/ !m4 ,anaxagoras1 himself a native ( ,asia ,m9or1 liv$ 9 ! important p]iod betwe5 ! w> ( ! ,m$es & ! age ( ,p]icles1 pr9cipally 9 ,a!ns1 :i* _h n[ rea*$ ! z5i? ( its greatness1 = x 0 bo? ! head ( ,grecian p[]1 & ! seat & c5tre ( ! arts & sci5ces4 ,a!ns1 aft] ! ,p]sian w>s1 br\ght ! great] "p ( ! ,greek isl&s into subjection1 z also a numb] ( m>itime t[ns 9 ,?race1 & ev5 fur!r into ! ,black ,sea4 ,z ! greate/ arti/s collect$ 9 ,a!ns1 s also did ! mo/ not$ philosoph]s & sophi/s live !re--a circle ( lum9>ies 9 ! arts & sci5ces su* z we h 9 s*ylus1 ,sophocles1 ,ari/ophanes1 ,?ucydides1 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 ,protagoras1 ,anaxagoras1 & o!rs f ,asia ,m9or4 ,p]icles !n rul$ ! ,/ate1 & rais$ x to t height ( spl5d\r :i* may be call$ ! gold5 age 9 ,a!nian life2 ,anaxagoras1 al?\gh liv+ 9 ! mo/ fl\ri%+ "t ( ,a!nian life1 t\*es on its decay1 or r rea*es ! fir/ ?reat5+ ( t decay1 :i* end$ 9 a total ext]m9ation ( ?is beautiful life4 ,:at is ( special int]e/ at ?is "t is ! opposition betwe5 ,a!ns & ,lac$mon1 ! two ,greek nations :i* cont5d$ ) "o ano!r = ! =emo/ place 9 ,greece2 "h we mu/ !re=e allude to ! pr9ciples ( ^! celebrat$ ,/ates4 ,:ile ! ,lac$monians _h no arts or sci5ces1 ,a!ns _h to ?ank ! "* ( its con/itution1 & ( its :ole _s1 = ! fact t x 0 ! seat ( ! sci5ces & f9e arts4 ,b ! con/itution ( ,lac$mon is also wor?y ( high e/eem1 = x regulat$ & re/ra9$ ! high ,doric _s1 & its pr9cipal feature 0 t all p]sonal peculi>ity 0 subord9at$1 or r sacrific$1 to ! g5]al aim ( ! life ( ! ,/ate1 & ! individual _h ! consci\sness ( 8 hon\r & suffici5cy only 9 ! consci\sness ( work+ = ! ,/ate4 ,a p ( su* g5u9e unity1 9 :om ! w ( ! individual _h1 prop]ly speak+1 q disappe>$1 7 unit$ by an inde/ructible bond1 & ,lac$mon 0 h5ce plac$ at ! head ( ,greece1 & obta9$ ! lead]%ip1 :i*1 we f9d1 x held among ! ,argives 9 ! days ( ,troy4 ,?is is a great pr9ciple :i* mu/ exi/ 9 e true ,/ate1 b :i* ) ! ,lac$monians reta9$ its "o-sid$ "*2 ?is "o-sid$ness 0 avoid$ by ! ,a!nians1 & by t means !y became ! great]4 ,9 ,lac$mon p]sonality prop] 0 s mu* disreg>d$ t ! individual c\ld n h free developm5t or expression2 individuality 0 n recogniz$1 & h5ce n br\ght into h>mony ) ! common end ( ! ,/ate4 ,?is abrogation ( ! rights ( subjectivity1 :i*1 express$ 9 8 own way1 is also f\nd 9 ,plato's ,republic1 0 c>ri$ v f> ) ! ,lac$monians4 ,b ! univ]sal is liv+ _s only 9 s f> z ! individual consci\sness f9ds itself z su* )9 x2 ! univ]sal is n con/itut$ ( ! imm$iate life & be+ ( ! individual1 ! m]e sub/ance1 b =m$ ( consci\s life4 ,z individuality :i* sep>ates itself f ! univ]sal is p[]less & falls to ! gr\nd1 ! "o-sid$ univ]sal1 ! morality ( individuality _c /& firm4 ,! ,lac$monian _s1 :i* _h n tak5 into acc\nt ! fre$om ( consci\sness1 & ^: univ]sal _h isolat$ itself !refrom1 _h h5ce to see x break =? 9 opposition to ! univ]sal2 & ?\gh ! fir/ to come =w>d z ! lib]ators ( ,greece f its tyranny 7 ! ,sp>tans1 :om ev5 ,a!ns ?anks = ! expulsion ( ! desc5dants ( ,pisi/ratus1 _! relation%ip to _! conf$]ates soon passes into t ( common1 mean1 tyranny4 ,)9 ! ,/ate x likewise ends 9 a h>% ari/ocracy1 j z ! fix$ equilibrium ( prop]ty 7ea* family reta9+ its inh]itance1 & ?r\gh =bidd+ ! possession ( money1 or trade & comm]ce1 prev5t+ ! possibility ( inequality 9 ri*es7 passes into an av>ice :i*1 z oppos$ to ?is univ]sal1 is brutal & mean4 ,?is ess5tial mom5t ( p>ticul>ity1 n be+ tak5 into ! ,/ate1 & h5ce n made legal & moral 7moral fir/ ( all71 comes =? z vice4 ,9 a rational organization all ! elem5ts ( ! ,idea are pres5t2 if ! liv] 7 isolat$ z bile x w\ld become n m1 & n less active1 b becom+ antagoni/ic1 x w\ld isolate itself f ! corporate economy ( ! body4 ,solon1 on ! contr>y1 gave to ! ,a!nians n only equality ( laws & unity ( _s 9 _! con/itution 7:i* 0 a pur] democracy ?an 9 ,sp>ta71 b al?\gh ea* citiz5 _h 8 sub/antial consci\sness 9 unity ) ! laws ( ! ,/ate1 he also gave free play to ! individual m9d1 s t ea* might d z he w\ld1 & might f9d expression = himself4 ,solon entru/$ ! executive to ! p1 n to ! ,ephors1 & ?is became self-gov]nm5t aft] ! displacem5t ( ! tyrants1 & ?us 9 tru? a free p arose2 ! individual _h ! :ole )9 himself1 z he _h 8 consci\sness & action 9 ! :ole4 ,?us we see 9 ?is pr9ciple ! =mation ( free consci\sness & ! fre$om ( individuality 9 its greatness4 ,! pr9ciple ( subjective fre$om appe>s at fir/1 h[ev]1 /ill 9 unison ) ! univ]sal pr9ciple ( ,greek morality z e/abli%$ by law1 & ev5 ) my?ology2 & ?us 9 its promulgation1 because ! g5ius ( its conceptions c\ld develop freely1 x br\ght ab\t ^! ma/]pieces 9 ! beautiful pla/ic arts1 & ! immortal works ( poetry & hi/ory4 ,! pr9ciple ( subjectivity _h1 ?us f>1 n tak5 ! =m t p>ticul>ity1 z su*1 %\ld be set free1 & t its cont5t %\ld be a subjectively p>ticul>1 at lea/ di/+ui%$ f ! univ]sal pr9ciple1 univ]sal morality1 univ]sal religion1 univ]sal laws4 ,?us we d n see ! c>ry+ out ( isolat$ ideas1 b ! great1 moral1 solid1 div9e cont5t made 9 ^! works object = consci\sness1 & g5]ally br\ght be=e consci\sness4 ,lat] we %all f9d ! =m ( subjectivity becom+ free = itself1 & appe>+ 9 opposition to ! sub/antial1 to morality1 religion1 & law4 ,! basis ( ?is pr9ciple ( subjectivity1 ?\gh x is /ill a m]ely g5]al "o1 we n[ see 9 ,anaxagoras4 ,b among/ ?is noble1 free1 & cultur$ p ( ,a!ns1 he :o _h ! happ9ess to be fir/1 0 ,p]icles1 & ?is circum/ance rais$ him 9 ! e/imation ( ! individual to a place s high t few c\ld rea* x4 ,( all t is great among/ m51 ! p[] ( rul+ ov] ! w ( m5 :o h b "o w1 is ! greate/1 = ?is controll+ individuality mu/ be bo? ! mo/ univ]sal & ! mo/ liv+--a lot = a mortal be+ ?an :i* h>dly any bett] c be f\nd4 ,8 individuality 01 accord+ to ,plut>*1 79 ,p]icle #e7 z deep z x 0 p]fect2 z s]i\s 7he nev] laugh$71 z full ( en]gy & re/fulness3 ,a!ns _h him ! :ole day long4 ,?ucydides has pres]v$ "s ( ,p]icles' spee*es to ! p :i* all[ ( few works be+ comp>$ to !m4 ,"u ,p]icles ! highe/ culture ( ! moral commonweal? is to be f\nd1 ! juncture :]e individuality is /ill "u & also 9 ! univ]sal4 ,pres5tly individuality prevails1 because its activity falls into extremes1 s9ce ! /ate z /ate1 is n yet indep5d5tly organiz$ )9 itself4 ,because ! ess5ce ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate 0 ! common _s1 & ! religi\s fai? ( individuals 9 ?is con/itut$ _! ess5ce1 !re disappe>s ) ! disappe>ance ( ?is fai?1 ! inn] ,be+ ( ! p1 s9ce ! _s is n 9 ! =m ( ! ,notion z x is 9 our /ates4 ,! spe$y transition to ?is la/ is ! 1 subjectivity1 z ,be+1 self-reflection4 ,:5 ,anaxagoras at ?is "t1 ! pr9ciple ( :i* has j be5 giv51 came to ,a!ns1 he 0 s\ght out by ,p]icles1 &1 z 8 fri5d1 liv$ 9 v intimate relations ) him1 be=e ! latt] occupi$ himself ) public affairs4 ,b ,plut>* 79 ,p]icle #d1 #af7 also relates t ,anaxagoras came to want because ,p]icles neglect$ him--did n supply ! illum9at+ lamp ) oil4 ,a m important matt] is t ,anaxagoras 7z happ5$ lat] ) ,socrates & _m o!r philosoph]s7 0 accus$ ( despis+ ^? :om ! p accept$ z gods4 ,! prose ( ! und]/&+ came into contact ) ! poetic1 religi\s po9t ( view4 ,x is di/9ctly said by ,diog5es ,la]tius 7,,ii4 #ab7 t ,anaxagoras believ$ ! sun & />s to be burn+ /ones2 & he is1 accord+ to ,plut>*1 79 ,p]icle1 #f7 blam$ = hav+ expla9$ some?+ t ! prophets /at$ to be a m>vell\s om51 9 a natural way2 x q tallies ) ?is t he is said to h =etold t on ! day ( gos-,potamos1 :]e ! ,a!nians lo/ _! la/ fleet aga9/ ,lys&]1 a /one %\ld fall f heav54#ha ,! g5]al rem>k might be made ( ,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 c41 t ! sun1 moon1 e>? & />s 7 c\nt$ z m]e ?+s1 i4e4 z objects ext]nal to m9d1 & t !y no long] held !m to be liv+ gods1 b repres5t$ !m 9 diff]5t ways--:i* ideas1 = ! re/1 des]ve no fur!r consid]ation1 s9ce ^! matt]s belong prop]ly to ord9>y le>n+4 ,?+s may be d]iv$ f ?\ght2 ?\ght really br+s ab\t ! result t c]ta9 objects :i* may be call$ div9e1 & c]ta9 conceptions ( ^! :i* may be call$ poetic1 toge!r ) ! :ole range ( sup]/iti\s beliefs1 are demoli%$--!y are br\ght d[n to be+ :at are call$ natural ?+s4 ,= 9 ?\ght1 z ! id5tity ( itself & ( ,be+1 m9d kn[s itself z ! truly actual1 s t = m9d 9 ?\ght1 ! unspiritual & mat]ial is br\ght d[n to be+ m]e ?+s1 to ! negative ( m9d4 ,all ! ideas ( ^? philosoph]s h ?is 9 common1 t nature is ?r\gh !m undeifi$2 !y br\ght ! poetic view ( nature d[n to ! prosaic1 & de/roy$ ! poetic po9t ( view :i* ascribes to all t is n[ consid]$ to be lifeless1 a life prop] to itself1 p]haps also s5sation1 &1 x may be1 a be+ aft] ! usual ord] ( consci\sness4 ,! loss ( ?is po9t ( view is n to be lam5t$ z if unity ) nature1 pure fai?1 innoc5t purity & *ildlike _s w5t ) x4 ,innoc5t & *ildlike x may c]ta9ly h be51 b reason is j ! go+ =? f su* innoc5ce & unity ) nature4 ,s soon z m9d grasps itself1 is = itself1 x mu/ = t v reason confront ! #8o!r' ( itself z a negation ( consci\sness1 i4e4 look on x z some?+ devoid ( m9d1 an unconsci\s & lifeless ?+1 & x mu/ fir/ come to itself ?r\gh ?is opposition4 ,!re is 9 ?is a fix+ ( self-mov+ ?+s su* z are met ) 9 ! my?s ( ! anci5ts1 :o relate su* tales z t ! ,argonauts secur$ ! rocks on ! ,/raits ( ! ,hellespont :i* =m]ly mov$ l scissors4 ,simil>ly progressive culture consolidat$ t :i* =m]ly 0 ?\ght to h its own motion & life 9 itself1 & made x into unmov+ matt]4 ,?is transition ( ! my?ical po9t ( view into ! prosaic1 "h comes to be recogniz$ by ! ,a!nians4 ,a prosaic po9t ( view su* z ?is1 assumes t man has requirem5ts q diff]5t f ^? he =m]ly _h2 9 ?is we f9d traces ( ! p[]ful1 necess>y conv]sion br\ght ab\t 9 ! ideas ( man ?r\gh ! /r5g!n+ ( ?\ght1 ?r\gh k ( himself1 & ?r\gh ,philosophy4 ,! in/itution ( *>ges ( a!ism1 :i* we %all t\* ^u m fully 9 deal+ ) ,socrates1 is1 9 ,anaxagoras' case1 q compreh5sible1 f ! specific reason t ! ,a!nians1 :o 7 envi\s ( ,p]icles1 :o cont5d$ ) him = ! fir/ place1 & :o did n v5ture to proce$ aga9/ him op5ly1 took 8 fav\rites to law1 & s\ght ?r\gh *>ges aga9/ 8 fri5d1 to injure him4 ,?us 8 fri5d ,aspasia 0 br\ght "u accusation1 & ! noble ,p]icles _h1 accord+ to ,plut>* 79 ,p]icle1 #cb71 9 ord] to save h] f condemnation1 to beg ! individual citiz5s ( ,a!ns ) te>s = h] acquittal4 ,! ,a!nian p 9 _! fre$om1 dem&$ su* acts ( ! pot5tates to :om !y all[$ supremacy1 = !reby an ackn[l$gm5t 0 giv5 ( _! subord9ation to ! p2 !y ?us made !mselves ! ,nemesis 9 respect to ! high place accord$ to ! great1 = !y plac$ !mselves 9 a position ( equality ) ^!1 :ile ^! aga9 made evid5t _! dep5d5ce1 subjection & p[]lessness be=e ! o!rs4 ,:at is told ab\t ! result ( ?is *>ge aga9/ ,anaxagoras is q contradictory & unc]ta93 ,p]icles c]ta9ly sav$ him f condemnation to dea?4 ,he 0 ei!r1 z "s say1 condemn$ only to bani%m5t aft] ,p]icles _h l$ him be=e ! p1 speak+ & entreat+ = him1 aft]1 by reason ( 8 age1 att5uation & weakness ! sympa?y ( ! p _h be5 ar\s$2 or else1 z o!rs say1 ) ! help ( ,p]icles1 he escap$ f ,a!ns & 0 9 abs5ce condemn$ to dea?1 ! judgm5t nev] be+ execut$ ^u him4 ,o!rs aga9 say t he 0 lib]at$1 b f ! vexation t he felt respect+ ^! *>ges1 & f appreh5sion z to _! repetition1 he volunt>ily left ,a!ns4 ,& at ab\t sixty or sev5ty ye>s ( age1 he di$ 9 ,lampsacus 9 ! #hh? ,olympiad 7#dbh ,b4,c474#hb #a4 ,! ,univ]sal ,pr9ciple4 ,! logical pr9ciple ( ,anaxagoras 0 t he recogniz$ ! z ! simple1 absolute ess5ce ( ! _w4 ,! simplicity ( ! is n a ,be+ b a univ]sality :i* is di/+ui%$ f itself1 ?\gh 9 su* a way t ! di/9ction is imm$iately sublat$ & ! id5tity is set =? = itself4 ,?is univ]sal = itself1 sund]$1 exi/s 9 purity only z ?\ght2 x exi/s also 9 nature z objective exi/5ce1 b 9 t case no long] purely = itself1 b z hav+ p>ticul>ity z an imm$iate 9 x4 ,space & "t are1 = example1 ! mo/ ideal1 univ]sal facts 9 nature z su*1 b !re is no pure space1 no pure "t & motion any m ?an any pure matt]--= ?is univ]sal is imm$iately def9$ space1 air1 e>?1 c4 ,9 ?\ght1 :5 ,i say1 ,i am ,i1 or ,i ,i1 ,i c]ta9ly di/+ui% some?+ f me1 b ! pure unity rema9s2 !re is no movem5t b a di/9ction :i* is n di/+ui%$1 or ! be+-=-me4 ,& 9 all t ,i ?9k1 if ! ?\ght has a def9ite cont5t1 x is my ?\ght3 ,i am ?us kn[n to myself 9 ?is object4 ,?is univ]sal :i* ?us exi/s = itself & ! individual1 or ?\ght & be+1 ?us1 h[ev]1 come into def9ite opposition4 ,"h ! speculative unity ( ?is univ]sal ) ! individual %\ld be consid]$ z x is posit$ z absolute unity1 b ! compreh5sion ( ! ,notion itself is c]ta9ly n f\nd ) ! anci5ts4 ,we ne$ n expect a pure ,notion su* z "o ( an und]/&+ realiz+ itself into a sy/em1 organiz$ z a univ]se4 ,h[ ,anaxagoras enunciat$ ! ,notion ( ! 1 ,ari/otle 7,de anim4 ,i4 #b7 goes on to tell3 8,anaxagoras ma9ta9s t ! s\l is ! pr9ciple ( movem5t4 ,yet he does n always express himself fully ab\t ! s\l & 3 he seems to sep>ate & s\l f "o ano!r1 & /ill he makes use ( !m z ?\gh !y 7 ! same exi/5ce1 only t by pref]5ce he makes ! ! pr9ciple ( ev]y?+4 ,he c]ta9ly speaks frequ5tly ( ! z ( ! cause ( ! beautiful & "r1 b ano!r "t he calls x ! s\l4 ,= x is 9 all animals1 9 l>ge z well z small1 ! high] k9d & ! l[]2 x alone ( all exi/5ce is ! simple1 unadult]at$ & pure2 x is devoid ( pa9 & is n 9 community ) any o!r40#hc ,:at we !re=e h to d is to %[ f ! pr9ciple ( motion1 t x is ! self-mov+2 & ?is ?\ght is1 z exi/5t = itself4 ,z s\l1 ! self-mov+ is only imm$iately individual2 ! 1 h[ev]1 z simple1 is ! univ]sal4 ,?\ght moves on acc\nt ( some?+3 ! end is ! fir/ simple :i* makes itself result2 ?is pr9ciple ) ! anci5ts is grasp$ z good & evil1 i4e4 end z positive & negative4 ,?is det]m9ation is a v important "o1 b ) ,anaxagoras x 0 n fully work$ out4 ,:ile 9 ! fir/ place ! pr9ciples are mat]ial1 f ^! ,ari/otle !n di/+ui%es det]m9ation & =m1 & ?irdly he f9ds 9 ! process ( ,h]aclitus1 ! pr9ciple ( motion4 ,!n 9 ! f\r? place !re comes ! reason :y1 ! det]m9ation ( end1 ) ! 2 ?is is ! concrete 9 itself4 ,ari/otle adds 9 ! above-m5tion$ passage 7p4 #aib71 8accord+ to ^! m50 7! ,ionians & o!rs7 8& 9 ref]5ce to su* causes0 7wat]1 fire1 c471 8s9ce !y are n suffici5t to beget ! nature ( ?+s1 ! philosoph]s are1 z already said1 compell$ by ! tru? to g on to ! pr9ciple foll[+ 774 ,= nei!r ! e>? nor any o!r pr9ciple is capable ( expla9+ ! fact t :ile on ! "o h& all is good & beautiful1 on ! o!r1 some?+ else is produc$1 & ^? m5 d n seem to h ?\ght t ?is 0 s2 nor is x seemly to ab&on su* matt]s to haz>d 77 & to *ance40 ,goodness & beauty express ! simple re/ful ,notion1 & *ange ! ,notion 9 its movem5t4 ,) ?is pr9ciple comes ! det]m9ation ( an und]/&+ z ( self-det]m9+ activity2 ?is has hi!rto be5 want+1 = ! ,becom+ ( ,h]aclitus1 :i* is only process1 is n yet z fate1 ! indep5d5tly self-det]m9+4 ,by ?is we mu/ n repres5t to ourselves subjective ?\ght2 9 ?9k+ we ?9k imm$iately ( our ?\ght z x is 9 consci\sness4 ,"h1 on ! contr>y1 q objective ?\ght is meant1 active und]/&+--z we say1 !re is reason 9 ! _w1 or we speak ( g5]a 9 nature :i* are ! univ]sal4 ,! g5us animal is ! sub/antial ( ! dog2 ! dog itself is ?is2 ! laws ( nature are !mselves nature's imman5t ess5ce4 ,! nature is n =m$ f )\t z m5 make a table2 ?is is also made ) und]/&+1 b ?r\gh an und]/&+ outside ( ?is wood4 ,?is ext]nal =m1 :i* is call$ ! und]/&+1 imm$iately occurs to u 9 speak+ ( ! und]/&+2 b "h ! univ]sal is meant1 t :i* is ! imman5t nature ( ! object itself4 ,! is ?us n a ?9k+ exi/5ce f )\t :i* regulates ! _w2 by su* ! mean+ pres5t to ,anaxagoras w\ld be q de/roy$ & all its philosophic int]e/ tak5 away4 ,= to speak ( an individual1 a unit f )\t1 is to fall into ! ord9>y conception & its dualism2 a s-call$ ?9k+ pr9ciple is no long] a ?\ght1 b is a subject4 ,b /ill ! true univ]sal is = all t n ab/ract1 b ! univ]sal is j ! det]m9+ 9 & out ( itself ( ! p>ticul> 9 & = itself4 ,9 ?is activity1 :i* is indep5d5tly self-det]m9+1 ! fact is at once impli$ t ! activity1 because x con/itutes process1 reta9s itself z ! univ]sal self-id5tical4 ,fire1 :i*1 accord+ to ,h]aclitus1 0 process1 dies away & m]ely passes ov]1 )\t indep5d5t exi/5ce1 into ! opposite2 x is c]ta9ly also a circle & a return to fire1 b ! pr9ciple does n reta9 itself 9 its det]m9at5ess z ! univ]sal1 see+ t a simple pass+ into ! opposite takes place4 ,?is relation to itself 9 det]m9ation :i* we see appe>+ 9 ,anaxagoras1 n[1 h[ev]1 conta9s ! det]m9ation ( ! univ]sal ?\gh x is n =mally express$1 & !re9 we h ! end or ! ,good4 ,i h j rec5tly 7p4 #caf7 spok5 ( ! ,notion ( ! end1 yet by t we mu/ n m]ely ?9k ( ! =m ( ! end z x is 9 u1 9 consci\s be+s4 ,at fir/1 end1 9 z f> z ,i h x1 is my conception1 :i* is = itself1 & ! realization ( :i* dep5ds on my wi%2 if ,i c>ry x out1 & if ,i am n unskilful1 ! object produc$ mu/ be con=mable to ! end1 conta9+ no?+ b x4 ,!re is a transition f subjectivity to objectivity ?r\gh :i* ?is opposition is always aga9 sublat$4 ,because ,i am discont5t$ ) my end 9 t x is only subjective1 my activity consi/s 9 remov+ ?is defect & mak+ x objective4 ,9 objectivity ! end has reta9$ itself2 = in/ance1 if ,i h ! end 9 view ( build+ a h\se & am active = t end1 ! h\se results 9 :i* my end is realiz$4 ,b we mu/ n1 z we usually d1 abide at ! conception ( ?is subjective end2 9 ?is case bo? ,i & ! end exi/ indep5d5tly & ext]nally 9 relation to ea* o!r4 ,9 ! conception t ,god1 z wisdom1 rules ! _w 9 accordance ) an end1 = in/ance1 ! end is posit$ = itself 9 a wise1 figuratively conceiv+ ,be+4 ,b ! univ]sal ( end is ! fact t s9ce x is a det]m9ation indep5d5tly fix$1 t rules pres5t exi/5ce1 ! end is ! tru?1 ! s\l ( a ?+4 ,! ,good 9 ! end gives cont5t to itself1 s t :ile x is active ) ?is cont5t1 & aft] x has ent]$ into ext]nality1 no o!r cont5t comes =? ?an :at 0 already pres5t4 ,! be/ example ( ?is is pres5t$ 9 life2 x has desires1 & ^! desires are its ends2 z m]ely liv+1 h[ev]1 x kn[s no?+ ( ^! ends1 b yet !y are fir/1 imm$iate det]m9ations :i* are e/abli%$4 ,! animal works at satisfy+ ^! desires1 i4e4 at rea*+ ! end2 x relates itself to ext]nal ?+s1 p>tly me*anically1 p>tly *emically4 ,b ! "* ( its activity does n rema9 me*anical or *emical2 ! product is r ! animal itself1 :i*1 z its own end1 br+s =? 9 its activity only itself1 s9ce x negates & ov]turns ^? me*anical or *emical relation%ips4 ,9 me*anical & *emical process1 on ! o!r h&1 ! result is some?+ diff]5t1 9 :i* ! subject does n reta9 itself2 b 9 ! end1 beg9n+ & end are alike1 = we posit ! subjective objectively 9 ord] to receive x aga94 ,self-pres]vation is a cont9ual production by :i* no?+ new1 b always ! old1 arises2 x is a tak+ back ( activity = ! production ( itself4 ,?us ?is self-det]m9+ activity1 :i* is !n active on some?+ else1 ent]s into opposition1 b x aga9 negates ! opposition1 gov]ns x1 9 x reflects ^u itself2 x is ! end1 ! ?\ght1 t :i* cons]ves itself 9 its self-det]m9ation4 ,! developm5t ( ^! mom5ts is ! bus9ess ( ,philosophy f h5ce=?4 ,b if we look m closely z to h[ f> ,anaxagoras has got 9 ! developm5t ( ?is ?\ght1 we f9d no?+ fur!r ?an ! activity det]m9+ f out ( itself1 :i* sets up a limit or measure2 fur!r ?an ! det]m9ation ( measure1 developm5t does n g4 ,anaxagoras gives u no m concrete def9ition ( ! 1 & ?is we are /ill left to consid]2 we ?us h no?+ m ?an ! ab/ract det]m9ation ( ! concrete 9 itself4 ,! above-m5tion$ pr$icates :i* ,anaxagoras gives ! 1 may ?us inde$ be affirm$1 b !y are1 on _! own acc\nt1 "o-sid$ only4 #b4 ,! ,homom]i4 ,?is is ! "o side 9 ! pr9ciple ( ,anaxagoras2 we n[ h to consid] ! go+ =? ( ! into fur!r det]m9ations4 ,?is rema9+ "p ( ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras at fir/1 h[ev]1 makes u ?9k t ! hopes 9 :i* su* a pr9ciple ju/ifi$ u mu/ be v mu* dim9i%$4 ,on ! o!r side1 ?is univ]sal is confront$ by ,be+1 matt]1 ! manifold g5]ally1 pot5tiality z di/+ui%$ f ! =m] z actuality4 ,= if ! ,good or ! end is also det]m9$ z pot5tiality1 ! univ]sal1 z ! self-mov+1 may r be call$ ! actual 9 itself1 ! be+-=-self1 z oppos$ to implicit be+1 pot5tiality1 passivity4 ,ari/otle says 9 an important passage 7,met4 ,i4 #h73 8,if any "o %\ld say ( ,anaxagoras t he adopt$ two pr9ciples1 he w\ld re/ 8 /atem5t on a po9t respect+ :i* ! latt] nev] really cle>ly def9$ himself1 b :i* he _h necess>ily to ackn[l$ge to ^? :o adduc$ x4444 ,t is1 ,anaxagoras says t orig9ally ev]y?+ is m+l$4444 ,b :]e no?+ is yet sep>at$1 no di/+ui%+ feature is pres5t2 su* sub/ance is nei!r a :ite1 black1 gray1 nor any o!r col\r1 b col\rless2 x has no quality nor quantity nor det]m9ation 774 ,all is m+l$ except ! 2 ?is is unm+l$ & pure4 ,) ?is 9 view1 x ?us occurs to him to d5om9ate z pr9ciples ! "o1 = x alone is s+le & unm+l$1 & ! o!r-be+ 771 :at we call ! indet]m9ate1 be=e x has become det]m9$ or p>takes ( any k9d ( =m40 ,?is o!r pr9ciple is celebrat$ "u ! "n ( homom]ies 771 ( l p>ts or homog5e\s1 9 ,ari/otle's r5d]+ 7,met4 ,i4 #c1 #g72 ,riem] translates 8! simil>ity ( individual p>ts to ! :ole10 & 8! elem5t>y matt]10 yet ?is latt] ^w seems to be ( a lat] orig94#hd ,ari/otle says1 8,anaxagoras sets =?0 79 respect ( ! mat]ial7 8inf9itely _m pr9ciples1 = he ma9ta9$ t1 l wat] & fire 9 ,emp$ocles' sy/em1 ne>ly all t is =m$ ( l p>ts only arises f union & passes away ?r\gh sep>ation2 o!r aris+ & pass+ away !re is none1 = equal p>ts rema9 et]nal40 ,t is1 ! exi/5t1 ! individual matt]1 su* z bones1 metal1 fle%1 c41 9 itself consi/s ( p>ts l itself--fle% ( small p>ticles ( fle%1 gold ( small gold p>ticles1 c4 ,?us he said at ! beg9n+ ( 8 "w1 8,all has be5 alike0 7i4e4 unsep>at$ z 9 a *aos71 8& has re/$ = an inf9itude ( "t2 !n came ! 1 & x br\ght 9 movem5t1 sep>at$ & br\ght ord] into ! sep>at$ creation 771 9 t x unit$ ! l40#he ,! homom]i become cle>] if we comp>e !m ) ! conceptions ( ,leucippus & ,democritus & o!rs4 ,9 ,leucippus & ,democritus1 z well z ,emp$ocles1 we saw ?is matt]1 or ! absolute z objective exi/5ce1 det]m9$ s t simple atoms--) ! latt] ! f\r elem5ts & ) ! =m] inf9itely _m--7 set =? z sep>ate only 9 =m2 _! syn!ses & comb9ations 7 exi/+ ?+s4 ,ari/otle 7,de clo1 ,,iii4 #c7 says fur!r on ?is po9t1 8,anaxagoras ass]ts ( ! elem5ts ! opposite to ,emp$ocles4 ,= ! latt] takes z orig9al pr9ciples1 fire1 air1 e>?1 & wat]1 ?r\gh ^: union all ?+s arise4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,anaxagoras ma9ta9s :at are ( l p>ts su* z fle%1 bones1 or ! l to be simple mat]ials2 su* ?+s z wat] & fire1 on ! contr>y1 are a mixture ( ! orig9al elem5ts4 ,= any "o ( ^! f\r consi/s ( ! inf9ite admixture ( all invisible1 exi/+ ?+s ( l p>ts1 :i* h5ce come =? f ^!40 ,! pr9ciple held good = him z = ! ,eleatics1 t 8! l only comes out ( ! l2 !re is no transition into ! opposite1 no union ( opposites possible40 ,all *ange is h5ce to him only a sep>ation & union ( ! l2 *ange z true *ange1 w\ld be a ,becom+ out ( ! negative ( itself4 8,t is1 because ,anaxagoras10 says ,ari/otle 7,phys4 ,i1 #d71 8p>took ( ! view ( all physici/s t x is impossible t any?+ c come out ( no?+1 !re 0 no?+ left b to admit t :at becomes 0 already pres5t z an exi/5t1 b t1 on acc\nt ( its small size1 x 0 imp]ceptible to u40 ,?is po9t ( view is also q diff]5t f ! conception ( ,?ales & ,h]aclitus1 9 :i*1 n only ! possibility1 b ! actuality ( ! trans=mation ( ^! l qualitative diff]5ces is ess5tially ma9ta9$4 ,b to ,anaxagoras ) :om ! elem5ts are a m+l$ *aos =m$ !refrom1 hav+ only an app>5t uni=mity1 concrete ?+s arise ?r\gh ! sev]ance ( ^! inf9itely _m pr9ciples f su* a *aos1 s9ce l f9ds l4 ,respect+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,emp$ocles & ,anaxagoras1 !re is fur!r :at ,ari/otle adds 9 ! same place3 8,! =m] all[s a *ange 77 9 ^! conditions1 ! latt] only _! "o appe>ance40 ,! conception ( ,democritus is simil> to t ( ,anaxagoras 9 s f> z t an inf9ite manifold is ! orig9al s\rce4 ,b ) ,anaxagoras ! det]m9ation ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples appe>s to conta9 t :i* we consid] z organiz$1 & to be by no means an indep5d5tly exi/5t simple2 ?us p]fectly individualiz$ atoms su* z p>ticles ( fle% & ( gold1 =m1 ?r\gh _! com+ toge!r1 t :i* appe>s to be organiz$4 ,t comes ne> our ord9>y ideas4 ,means ( n\ri%m5t1 x is ?\ght1 conta9 su* p>ts z are homog5e\s to blood1 fle%1 c4 ,anaxagoras h5ce says1 accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,de g54 anim4 ,i4 #ah71 8,fle% comes to fle% ?r\gh food40 ,dige/ion is ?us no?+ m ?an ! tak+ up ( ! homog5e\s & sep>ation ( ! het]og5e\s2 all n\ri%m5t & gr[? is ?us n true assimilation b only increase1 because ea* int]nal organ ( ! animal only draws its p>ts to itself out ( ! v>i\s plants1 bodies1 c4 ,dea? is1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sep>ation ( ! l & ! m+l+ ) ! het]og5e\s4 ,! activity ( ! 1 z ! sund]+ ( ! l out ( ! *aos & ! putt+ toge!r ( ! l1 z also ! sett+ at lib]ty aga9 ( ?is l1 is c]ta9ly simple & relative to itself1 b purely =mal & ?us = itself cont5tless4 ,?is is ! g5]al /&po9t ( ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras1 & q ! same /&po9t :i* 9 m rec5t times reigns 9 *emi/ry = in/ance2 fle% is c]ta9ly no long] reg>d$ z simple1 b z be+ hydrog51 c4 ,! *emical elem5ts are oxyg51 hydrog51 c>bon & metals1 c4 ,*emi/ry says1 if y want to "k :at fle%1 wood1 /one1 c41 really are1 y mu/ set =? _! simple elem5ts1 & ^! are ultimate4 ,x also says t mu* is only relatively simple1 e4g4 plat9um consi/s ( ?ree or f\r metals4 ,wat] & air 7 simil>ly long held to be simple1 b *emi/ry at l5g? analyz$ !m4 ,f ?is *emical po9t ( view1 ! simple pr9ciples ( natural ?+s are det]m9$ z inf9itely qualitative & ?us accept$ z un*angeable & inv>iable1 s t all else consi/s only ( ! comb9ation ( ^! simples4 ,man1 accord+ to ?is1 is a collection ( c>bon & hydrog51 "s e>?1 oxides1 phosphorus1 c4 ,x is a fav\rite idea ( ! physici/s to place 9 ! wat] or 9 ! air1 oxyg5 & c>bon1 :i* exi/ & only require to be sep>at$4 ,?is idea ( ,anaxagoras c]ta9ly also diff]s f mod]n *emi/ry2 t :i* we consid] z concrete1 is = him qualitatively det]m9$ or elem5t>y4 ,yet he all[s1 ) reg>d to fle%1 t ! p>ts are n all alike4 8,= ?is reason1 !y say10 rem>ks ,ari/otle 7,phys4 ,i4 #d2 ,met4 ,,iv4 #e71--;b n p>ticul>ly ( ,anaxagoras--8ev]y?+ is conta9$ 9 ev]y?+1 = !y saw ev]y?+ arise out ( ev]y?+3 x only appe>s to be diff]5t & is call$ diff]5t 9 accordance ) ! pr$om9at+ numb] ( ! p>ticul> k9d ( p>ts :i* h m+l$ !mselves ) o!rs4 ,9 tru? ! :ole is n :ite1 or black1 or sweet1 or fle%1 or bones2 b ! homom]i :i* h mo/ accumulat$ 9 any place1 br+ ab\t ! result t ! :ole appe>s to u z ?is det]m9ate40 ,z ?us ea* ?+ conta9s all o!r ?+s1 wat]1 air1 bones1 fruits1 c41 on ! o!r h&1 ! wat] conta9s fle% z fle%1 bones1 c4 ,into ?is inf9itely manifold nature ( ! pr9ciples1 ,anaxagoras ?us goes back2 ! s5su\s has fir/ aris5 ?r\gh ! accumulation ( all ^? p>ts1 & 9 x ! "o k9d ( p>ts !n has a pr$om9ance4 ,:ile he def9es absolute exi/5ce z univ]sal1 we see "h t 9 objective exi/5ce1 or 9 matt]1 univ]sality & ?\ght ab&on ,anaxagoras4 ,! implicit is to him1 inde$1 no absolutely s5su\s ,be+2 ! homom]i are ! non-s5su\s1 i4e4 ! invisible & inaudible1 c4 ,?is is ! highe/ po9t rea*$ by common physici/s 9 pass+ f s5su\s ,be+ to ! non-s5su\s1 z to ! m]e negation ( ! be+-=-u2 b ! positive side is t exi/5t ,be+ is itself univ]sal4 ,! objective is to ,anaxagoras c]ta9ly ! 1 b = him ! o!r-,be+ is a mixture ( simple elem5ts1 :i* are nei!r fle% nor fi%1 r$ nor blue2 aga9 ?is simple is n simple 9 itself1 b 9 its ess5ce consi/s ( homom]i1 :i* are1 h[ev]1 s small t !y are imp]ceptible4 ,! smallness ?us does n take away _! exi/5ce1 = !y are /ill !re2 b exi/5ce is j ! be+ p]ceptible to sight1 smell1 c4 ,^! inf9itely small homom]i und\bt$ly disappe> 9 a m complete conception2 fle%1 = in/ance1 is su* itself1 b x is also a mixture ( ev]y?+1 i4e4 x is n simple4 ,fur!r analysis equally %[s h[ su* a conception mu/1 to a great] or less] degree1 become confus$2 on ! "o side ea* =m is ?us 9 its ma9 elem5ts1 orig9al1 & ^! p>ts toge!r con/itute a corporeal :ole2 ?is :ole has1 h[ev]1 on ! o!r side1 to conta9 ev]y?+ 9 itself4 ,! 1 !n1 is only :at b9ds & sep>ates1 :at divides & arranges das diakosmir5de4 ,?is may suffice u2 h[ev] easily we may get confus$ ) ! homom]i ( ,anaxagoras1 we mu/ hold fa/ to ! ma9 det]m9ation4 ,! homom]i /ill =m a /rik+ conception1 & x may be ask$ h[ x con=ms ) ! re/ ( ,anaxagoras' pr9ciple4 #c4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,two4 ,n[ z to ! relation ( ! to t matt]1 bo? are n speculatively posit$ z "o1 = ! relation itself is n set =? z "o1 nor has ! ,notion p5etrat$ x4 ,"h ! ideas become 9 "s measure sup]ficial1 & 9 "s measure ! conceptions are m consi/5t z reg>ds ! p>ticul>1 ?an !y at fir/ appe>4 ,because ! und]/&+ is ! self-det]m9+1 ! cont5t is end1 x reta9s itself 9 relation to :at is diff]5t2 x does n arise & pass away al?\gh x is 9 activity4 ,! conception ( ,anaxagoras t concrete pr9ciples subsi/ & reta9 !mselves1 is ?us consi/5t2 he aboli%es aris+ & pass+ away & accepts only an ext]nal *ange1 a unit+ toge!r1 & a sev]ance ( :at is s unit$4 ,! pr9ciples are concrete & h cont5t1 i4e4 s _m ends2 9 ! *ange t takes place ! pr9ciples really reta9 !mselves4 ,l only goes ) l ev5 if ! *aotic mixture is a comb9ation ( ! unlike2 b ?is is only a comb9ation & n an individual1 liv+ =m :i* ma9ta9s itself1 b9d+ l to l4 ,?us1 h[ev] rude ^! ideas are1 !y are /ill really 9 h>mony ) ! 4 ,b if ! is ) ,anaxagoras ! mov+ s\l 9 all1 x yet rema9s to ! real1 z ! s\l ( ! _w & ! organic sy/em ( ! :ole1 a m]e ^w4 ,= ! liv+ z liv+1 s9ce ! s\l 0 conceiv$ ( z pr9ciple1 ! anci5ts dem&$ no fur!r pr9ciple 7= x is ! self-mov+71 b = det]m9at5ess1 :i* ! animal is z elem5t 9 ! sy/em ( ! :ole1 !y aga9 requir$ only ! univ]sal ( ^! det]m9ations4 ,anaxagoras calls ! und]/&+ su* a pr9ciple1 & 9 fact ! absolute ,notion1 z simple exi/5ce1 ! self-id5tical 9 its diff]5ces1 ! divid+1 ! reality-e/abli%+1 mu/ be kn[n z su*4 ,b t ,anaxagoras %[$ =? ! und]/&+ 9 ! univ]se1 or _h grasp$ x z a rational sy/em--( ?is n only d we n f9d a trace1 b ! anci5ts expressly say t he simply let ! matt] pass1 j z :5 we say t ! _w or nature is a great sy/em1 ! _w is wisely ord]$ or is g5]ally speak+ rational4 ,by ?is we are %[n no m ( ! realization ( ?is reason or ! compreh5sibility ( ! _w4 ,! ( ,anaxagoras is ?us /ill =mal1 al?\gh ! id5tity ( ! pr9ciple ) ! realization 0 recogniz$4 ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,i4 #d7 recognizes ! insuffici5cy ( ! ,anaxagorean pr9ciple3 8,anaxagoras1 inde$1 requires ! = 8 =mation ( ! _w-sy/em2 t is1 :5 he has a difficulty 9 %[+ ! reason = :i* x is 9 accordance ) necessity1 he br+s x 92 o!rwise he employs any?+ = ! sake ( explanation1 r ?an ?\ght40 ,x is n[h]e m cle>ly set =? t ! ( ,anaxagoras is /ill =mal1 ?an 9 ! well-kn[n passage out ( ,plato's ,phd 7p4 #ig-ii1 ,/eph42 p4 #he-hi1 ,bekk471 :i* is notewor?y = its exposition ( ! philosophy ( ,anaxagoras4 ,socrates1 accord+ to ,plato1 /ates mo/ def9itely bo? :at ! absolute to !m 01 & :y ,anaxagoras did n satisfy !m4 ,i quote ?is because x w be/ ( all lead u on to ! ma9 conception :i* we recognize 9 ! philosophic consci\sness ( ! anci5ts2 at ! same "t x is an example ( ! loquacity ( ,socrates4 ,socrates' und]/&+ ( ! z end is bett] because its det]m9ations are cong5ial to him1 s t we also see 9 x ! pr9cipal =ms t appe> 9 ,socrates4 ,plato makes ,socrates1 9 prison1 an h\r be=e 8 dea?1 relate at consid]able l5g? 8 exp]i5ces ) reg>d to ,anaxagoras3 8,:5 ,i he>d x read f a book ( ,anaxagoras1 t he said t ! und]/&+ is ! dispos] ( ! _w & ! fir/ cause1 ,i rejoic$ 9 su* a cause1 & ,i held t if ,m9d apportion$ out all reality1 x w\ld apportion x = ! be/0 7! end w\ld be %[n =?74 8,n[ if anyone wi%$ to f9d ! cause ( ! individual ?+1 h[ x becomes1 & h[ x passes away1 or h[ x is1 he mu/ discov] ?is f :at is be/ = t ?+1 :e!r x is be+ or 9 "s way suff]+ or do+40 ,t ! und]/&+ is cause1 or t ev]y?+ is made = ! be/1 means ! same ?+2 ?is w become cle>] f ! opposite4 ,x is fur!r said1 8,= ?is reason a man has only to consid] = himself1 z = all o!rs1 :at is be/ & mo/ p]fect1 & !n he w\ld ( necessity "k ! worse1 = ! same sci5ce comprises bo?4 ,?us reflect+1 ,i rejoic$ t ,i c\ld believe t ,i _h f\nd 9 ,anaxagoras a tea*] ( ! cause ( exi/5ce0 7( ! good7 8su* z ,i approv$ (2 he w\ld1 ,i believ$1 tell me :e!r ! e>? 0 flat or r\nd1 & if he told me ?is1 he w\ld %[ me ! cause & necessity ( ! fact1 because he w\ld %[ me ! "o or ! o!r z be+ ! bett]2 & if he said t ! e>? is 9 ! c5tre1 he w\ld %[ me t x 0 bett] t x %\ld be 9 ! c5tre0 7i4e4 its implicitly & explicitly det]m9$ end1 & n utility z an ext]nally det]m9$ end74 8,& :5 he _h %[n me ?is1 ,i %\ld be satisfi$ ?\gh he br\ght =w>d no o!r k9d ( causes1 = ! same w\ld hold good = ! sun1 ! moon1 & ! o!r />s1 _! respective velocities1 return+s1 & o!r conditions4 ,because he assign$ its cause to ea* & to all 9 common1 ,i ?\ght t he w\ld expla9 :at 0 be/ = ea* & :at 0 be/ = all0 7! free1 implicitly & explicitly exi/5t ,idea1 ! absolute end74 8,i w\ld n h giv5 up ?is hope = a great deal1 b seiz$ ^! writ+s zeal\sly & read !m z soon z possible 9 ord] to le>n z soon z possible ! good & ! evil4 ,^! bright hopes fad$ :5 ,i saw t he did n require ?\ght at all nor any reason = ! =mation ( ?+s1 b _h rec\rse to air1 fire1 wat] & _m o!r ecc5tricities40 ,we "h see h[ to :at is be/1 accord+ to ! und]/&+ 7! relation ( f9al end71 t :i* we call natural causes is oppos$1 j z 9 ,leibnitz ! op]at+ & ! f9al causes are diff]5t4 ,socrates expla9s ?is 9 ! foll[+ way3 8,x appe>s to me to be z if "s "o 7 to say t ,socrates p]=ms all 8 actions ) und]/&+1 & !n 9 go+ on to give ! reasons = ea* ( my actions1 7 to say t ,i sit "h because my body consi/s ( bones & muscles2 ! bones are fix$ & h jo9ts t divide !m 771 b ! muscles h ! p[] ( ext5d+ & b5d+1 & !y cov] ! bones ) fle% & sk92 x is z ?\gh he 7 fur!r to br+ =w>d z ! cause ( my talk+ ) y1 o!r simil> causes1 s\nds1 & air1 he>+1 & a ?\s& o!r ?+s1 b omitt$ to give ! true cause0 7free indep5d5t det]m9ation71 8:i* is t ! ,a!nians judg$ x fit to condemn me1 & !re=e ,i judg$ x bett] & m j to sit "h & to suff] ! puni%m5t :i* !y accord$0 7we mu/ recollect t "o ( 8 fri5ds _h arrang$ ev]y?+ = ! flight ( ,socrates1 b t he refus$ to g7 8= else1 by ! dog ( ,egypt1 h[ long ago w\ld ^! bones & muscles h gone to ,meg>a or to ,boeotia1 _h !y be5 mov$ only by _! op9ion ( :at 0 be/1 & _h ,i n consid]$ x ju/] & bett] to be> ! puni%m5t :i* ! ,/ate laid ^u me1 in/ead ( escap+ & flee+ f x40 ,plato "h correctly places ! two k9ds ( reason & cause 9 opposition to "o ano!r--! cause proce$+ f ends1 & ! inf]ior1 subject1 & m]ely ext]nal causes ( *emi/ry1 me*anism1 c4--9 ord] to %[ ! discrepancy betwe5 !m1 z "h exemplifi$ 9 ! case ( a man ) consci\sness4 ,anaxagoras seems to def9e an end & to wi% to proce$ f x2 b he imm$iately lets ?is g aga9 & proce$s to q ext]nal causes4 8,b to call ^!0 7^! bones & muscles7 8causes is q improp]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 anyone 7 to say t )\t hav+ bones & muscles & :atev] else ,i h1 ,i c\ld n d t :i* ,i consid] be/1 he w\ld be q "r4 ,b to say t f su* causes1 ,i d t :i* ,i d1 & d ) und]/&+2 to say t ,i d n d x f ! *oice ( :at is be/--to make su* an ass]tion %[s a great want ( consid]ation2 x signifies an incapacity to di/+ui% t ! "o is ! true cause & ! o!r is only t )\t :i* ! cause c\ld n op]ate10 i4e4 ! conditions4 ,?is is a good example = %[+ t we miss ! end 9 su* modes ( explanation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n a good example1 because x is tak5 f ! k+dom ( ! self-consci\s w1 :]e delib]ate & n unconsci\s end reigns4 ,9 ?is criticism ( ! ,anaxagorean we c c]ta9ly see x g5]ally express$ t ,anaxagoras made no application ( 8 to reality4 ,b ! positive elem5t 9 ! conclusion ( ,socrates seems1 on ! o!r h&1 to be unsatisfy+1 because x goes to ! o!r extreme1 namely1 to desire causes = nature :i* d n appe> to be 9 x1 b :i* fall outside ( x 9 consci\sness4 ,= :at is good & beautiful is p>tly due to ! ?\ght ( consci\sness z su*2 end or purposive action is ma9ly an act ( consci\sness & n ( nature4 ,b 9 s f> z ends become posit$ 9 nature1 ! end1 z end1 on ! o!r h&1 falls outside ( x 9 our judgm5t only2 z su* x is n 9 nature itself1 = 9 x !re are only :at we call natural causes1 & = its compreh5sion we h only to seek & %[ causes t are imman5t4 ,accord+ to ?is1 we di/+ui%1 = in/ance1 9 ,socrates ! end & gr\nd ( 8 action z consci\sness1 & ! causes ( 8 actual action3 & ! latt] we w\ld und\bt$ly seek 9 8 bones1 muscles1 n]ves1 c4 ,s9ce we bani% ! consid]ation ( nature 9 relation to ends--z pres5t 9 our ?\ght & n exi/5t 9 nature--we also bani% f our consid]ation teleological explanations 9 nature =m]ly admir$1 e4g4 t grass gr[s t animals may eat x1 & t ^! la/ exi/ & eat grass1 s t we may eat !m4 ,! end ( trees is said to be t _! fruit may be consum$ & t !y %\ld give u wood = heat2 _m animals h sk9s = w>m clo?+2 ! sea 9 nor!rn climates floats timb] to ! %ores because on ^! %ores !mselves no wood gr[s1 & ! inhabitants c h5ce obta9 x1 & s on4 ,?us pres5t$1 ! end1 ! ,good1 lies outside ( ! ?+ itself3 ! nature ( a ?+ !n becomes consid]$1 n 9 & = itself1 b only 9 relation to ano!r :i* is no?+ to x4 ,?us1 because ?+s are only useful = an end1 ?is det]m9ation is n _! own b "o =eign to !m4 ,! tree1 ! grass1 is z natural exi/5ce1 indep5d5t1 & ?is adaptation ( x to an end1 su* z mak+ grass t :i* is to be eat51 does n conc]n ! grass z grass1 j z x does n conc]n ! animal t man %\ld clo! himself 9 8 sk92 ,socrates may h5ce seem to miss 9 ,anaxagoras ?is mode ( look+ at nature4 ,b ?is to u famili> way ( reg>d+ ! good & exp$i5t is on ! "o h& n ! only "o1 & does n repres5t ,plato's mean+1 :ile1 on ! o!r1 x is likewise necess>y4 ,we h n to repres5t ! good or ! end 9 s "o-sid$ a mann] t we ?9k ( x exi/+ z su* 9 ! p]ceiv+ m9d1 & 9 opposition to :at is2 b set free f ?is =m1 we mu/ take x 9 its ess5ce z ! ,idea ( all exi/5ce4 ,! nature ( ?+s mu/ be recogniz$ 9 accordance ) ! ,notion1 :i* is ! indep5d5t1 unfett]$ consid]ation ( ?+s2 & because x is t :i* ?+s are 9 & = !mselves1 x controls ! relation%ip ( natural causes4 ,?is ,notion is ! end1 ! true cause1 b t :i* rec$es into itself2 x is ! implicitly exi/5t fir/ f :i* movem5t proce$s & :i* becomes result2 x is n only an end pres5t 9 ! imag9ation be=e its actuality exi/s1 b is also pres5t 9 reality4 ,becom+ is ! movem5t ?r\gh :i* a reality or totality becomes2 9 ! animal or plant its ess5ce z univ]sal g5us1 is t :i* beg9s its movem5t & br+s x =?4 ,b ?is :ole is n ! product ( some?+ =eign1 b its own product1 :at is already pres5t z g]m or se$2 ?us x is call$ end1 ! self-produc+1 t :i* 9 its ,becom+ is already implicitly exi/5t4 ,! ,idea is n a p>ticul> ?+1 :i* might h ano!r cont5t ?an reality or appe> q diff]5t4 ,! opposition is ! m]ely =mal opposition ( possibility & actuality2 ! active impell+ sub/ance & ! product are ! same4 ,?is realization goes "r ?r\gh ! opposition2 ! negative 9 ! univ]sal is j ?is process4 ,! g5us sets itself 9 a /ate ( opposition z individual & univ]sal1 & ?us1 9 :at lives1 ! g5us realizes itself 9 ! opposition ( races :i* are oppos$1 b ^: pr9ciple is ! univ]sal g5us4 ,!y1 z individuals1 aim at _! own self-pres]vation z individuals 9 eat+1 dr9k+1 c41 b :at !y !reby br+ to pass is g5us4 ,individuals sublate !mselves1 b g5us is t :i* is ev] br\ght =?2 plants br+ =? only ! same plants ^: gr\nd is ! univ]sal4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 ! di/9ction betwe5 :at h be5 badly nam$ natural causes & ! f9al causes has to be det]m9$4 ,n[ if ,i isolate individuality & m]ely reg>d x z movem5t & ! mom5ts ( ! same1 ,i %[ :at are natural causes4 ,= example1 :]e has ?is life tak5 its orig98 ,?r\gh ! g5]ation ( ?is its fa!r & "m4 ,:at is ! cause ( ^! fruits8 ,! tree ^: juices s di/il !mselves t ! fruit =?) arises4 ,answ]s ( ?is k9d give ! causes1 i4e4 ! individuality oppos$ to an individuality2 b _! pr9ciple is ! g5us4 ,n[ nature _c repres5t ess5ce z su*4 ,! end ( g5]ation is ! sublation ( ! individuality ( ,be+2 b nature :i* 9 exi/5ce c]ta9ly br+s ab\t ?is sublation ( individuality1 does n set ! univ]sal 9 its place1 b ano!r individual4 ,bones1 muscles1 c41 br+ =? a movem5t2 !y are causes1 b !y !mselves are s ?r\gh o!r causes1 & s on into inf9itude4 ,! univ]sal1 h[ev]1 takes !m up into itself z mom5ts :i* und\bt$ly appe> 9 movem5t z causes1 ?\gh ! fundam5tal gr\nd ( ^! p>ts actually is ! :ole4 ,x is n !y :i* come fir/1 b ! result into :i* ! juices ( ! plants1 c41 pass1 is ! fir/1 j z 9 orig9ation x appe>s only z product1 z se$1 t :i* con/itutes ! beg9n+ & ! end1 ev5 ?\gh !y be 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,_! real nature is ! same4 ,b su* a g5us is itself a p>ticul> g5us & is ess5tially relat$ to ano!r1 e4g4 ! ,idea ( ! plant to t ( ! animal2 ! univ]sal moves on4 ,?is looks l ext]nal teleology--t plants are eat5 by animals1 c41 9 :i* _! limitation z g5us lies4 ,! g5us ( ! plant has ! absolute totality ( its realization 9 ! animal1 ! animal 9 ! consci\s exi/5ce1 j z ! e>? has x 9 ! plant4 ,?is is ! sy/em ( ! :ole 9 :i* ea* mom5t is transitory4 ,! d\ble me?od ( consid]+ ! matt] ?us is t ea* ,idea is a circle )9 itself1 ! plant or ! animal ! ,good ( its k9d2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ea* is a mom5t 9 ! univ]sal ,good4 ,if ,i consid] ! animal m]ely z ext]nally adapt$ to an end1 z creat$ = some?+ else1 ,i consid] x 9 a "o-sid$ way2 x is real exi/5ce1 9 & = itself univ]sal4 ,b x is j z "o-sid$ to say t ! plant1 = in/ance1 is only 9 & = itself1 only end to itself1 only %ut up )9 itself & go+ back into itself4 ,= ea* idea is a circle :i* is complete 9 itself1 b ^: completion is likewise a pass+ into ano!r circle2 x is a vortex ^: middle po9t1 t into :i* x returns1 is f\nd directly 9 ! p]iph]y ( a high] circle :i* swall[s x up4 ,?us1 = ! fir/ "t1 we rea* ! det]m9ation ( an end 9 ! _w :i* is imman5t )9 x4 ,^! explanations are necess>y "h1 s9ce h]eaft] we see ! speculative ,idea com+ m into ! univ]sal2 x 0 =m]ly express$ z ,be+ & ! mom5ts & movem5ts 7 call$ exi/5t4 ,:at has to be avoid$ 9 ?is transition is t we %\ld !reby ?9k t ,be+ is giv5 up & t we pass into consci\sness z oppos$ to ,be+ 79 s do+ ! univ]sal w\ld lose all its speculative significance72 ! univ]sal is imman5t 9 nature4 ,?is is ! mean+ :i* is pres5t :5 we repres5t to ourselves t ?\ght con/itutes1 ord]s1 c41 ! _w4 ,x is n1 s to speak1 ! activity ( ! individual consci\sness1 9 :i* ,i /& "h on "o side &1 opposite to me1 an actuality1 matt]1 :i* ,i =m1 dispose & ord] z ,i w2 = ! univ]sal1 ,?\ght1 mu/ abide 9 ,philosophy )\t ?is opposition4 ,be+1 pure ,be+1 is univ]sal :5 we !reby keep 9 m9d t ,be+ is absolute ab/raction1 pure ?\ght2 b ,be+ z x is ?us set =? z ,be+1 has ! significance ( ! opposite to ?is ,be+-reflect$-into-itself1 to ?\ght & recollection2 ! univ]sal1 on ! contr>y1 has reflection imm$iately 9 itself4 ,s f>1 ! anci5ts really got3 x does n seem f>4 8,univ]sal0 is a dry det]m9ation2 ev]yone kn[s ab\t ! univ]sal1 b n ( x z real exi/5ce4 ,?\ght1 inde$1 rea*es to ! invisibility ( ! s5su\s2 n to ! positive det]m9at5ess ( ?9k+ x z univ]sal1 b only to ! pr$icateless absolute z to ! m]ely negative2 & t is z f> z ! common ideas ( ! pres5t day h come4 ,) ?is discov]y ( ?\ght we conclude ! fir/ ,section & ent] ^u ! second p]iod4 ,! pr(it to be d]iv$ f ! fir/ p]iod is n v great4 ,"s1 inde$1 ?9k t !re is /ill "s special wisdom 9 x1 b ?\ght is /ill "y1 ! det]m9ations are ?us /ill poor1 ab/ract & arid4 ,?\ght "h has b few det]m9ations--wat]1 ,be+1 numb]1 c4--& ^! _c endure2 ! univ]sal mu/ g =? on its own acc\nt z ! self-det]m9+ activity1 & ?is we f9d x do+ 9 ,anaxagoras alone4 ,we h /ill to consid] ! relation%ip ( ! univ]sal z oppos$ to ,be+1 or consci\sness z su* 9 its relation to :at is4 ,by ,anaxagoras' det]m9ation ( real exi/5ce1 ?is relation%ip ( consci\sness is also det]m9$4 ,9 ?is reg>d no?+ satisfactory c be f\nd2 = he recogniz$1 on ! "o h&1 ?\ght z real exi/5ce1 )\t1 h[ev]1 br++ ?is ?\ght to be> on ord9>y reality4 ,?us1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is is de/itute ( ?\ght & indep5d5t1 an inf9ite numb] ( homom]i1 i4e4 an inf9ite am\nt ( a s5su\s implicit exi/5ce1 :i* n[1 h[ev]1 is s5su\s ,be+2 = exi/5t ,be+ is an accumulation ( homom]i4 ,! relation%ip borne by consci\sness to real exi/5ce may likewise be v>i\s4 ,anaxagoras c\ld ?us ei!r say t ! tru? is only 9 ?\ght & 9 rational k1 or t x is s5su\s p]ception2 = 9 ?is we h ! homom]i :i* are !mselves implicit4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ place1 we f9d f him--z ,sextus tells u1 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii41 #hi-ia7 8t ! und]/&+ 77 is ! crit]ion ( ! tru?2 ! s5ses _c judge ( ! tru? on acc\nt ( _! weakness0--weakness = ! homom]i are ! inf9itely small2 ! s5ses c\ld n grasp !m1 d n "k t !y h to be some?+ ideal & ?\ght4 ,a celebrat$ example ( ?is is giv5 by him accord+ to ,sextus 7,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,i4 #ac1 4 #cc71 9 ! ass]tion t 8! sn[ is black1 = x is wat]1 & wat] is black40 ,he "h ass]ts ! tru? 9 a reason4 ,9 ! second place1 accord+ to ,ari/otle 7,met4 ,,iii4 #g71 ,anaxagoras is said to h ass]t$ t1 8!re is a m$ium betwe5 contradiction 772 s t ev]y?+ is untrue4 ,= because ! two sides ( ! opposition are m+l$1 :at is m+l$ is nei!r good nor n good1 & ?us n true40 ,ari/otle also quotes ano!r "t f him 7,met4 ,,iii4 #e73 8,t "o ( 8 apo!gms to 8 disciples 0 t to !m ?+s 7 z !y suppos$ !m40 ,?is may relate to ! fact t because exi/5t ,be+ is an accumulation ( homom]i :i* are :at really exi/s1 s5su\s p]ception takes ?+s z !y are 9 tru?4 ,!re is little m to be made ( ?is4 ,b "h we h ! beg9n+ ( a m di/9ct developm5t ( ! relation%ip ( consci\sness to ,be+1 ! developm5t ( ! nature ( k z a k ( ! true4 ,! m9d has gone =? to express real exi/5ce z ,?\ght2 & ?us real exi/5ce z exi/5t1 is 9 consci\sness z su*2 x is implicit b likewise 9 consci\sness4 ,?is ,be+ is su* only 9 s f> z consci\sness recognizes x1 & real exi/5ce is only ! k ( x4 ,! m9d has no long] to seek exi/5ce 9 some?+ =eign1 s9ce x is 9 itself2 = :at =m]ly appe>$ =eign is ,?\ght1 i4e4 consci\sness has ?is real exi/5ce 9 itself4 ,b ?is consci\sness 9 opposition is an individual consci\sness2 !reby 9 fact1 implicit ,be+ is sublat$1 = ! implicit is :at is n oppos$1 n s+l$ out1 b univ]sal4 ,x is1 inde$1 kn[n1 b :at is1 only is 9 k1 or x is no o!r ,be+ ?an t ( ! k ( consci\sness4 ,we see ?is developm5t ( ! univ]sal 9 :i* real exi/5ce goes "r ov] to ! side ( consci\sness1 9 ! s mu* decri$ worldly wisdom ( ! ,sophi/s2 we may view ?is z indicat+ t ! negative nature ( ! univ]sal is n[ develop+4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,fir/ ,,p]iod1 ,,second ,,division3 ,,f ,,! ,,sophi/s ,,to ,,! ,,socratics4 ,,9 ?is second division we h fir/ to consid] m p>ticul>ly ! ,sophi/s1 secondly ,socrates1 & ?irdly ! ,socratics1 :ile we di/+ui% f ^! ,plato1 & take him along ) ,ari/otle 9 ! ?ird division4 ,! 1 :i* is at fir/ only grasp$ 9 a v subjective mann] z end1 t is to say z t :i* is end to m51 i4e4 ! ,good1 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle became und]/ood 9 :at is on ! :ole an objective way1 z g5us or ,idea4 ,because ?\ght has n[ become set =? z pr9ciple1 & ?is at fir/ pres5ts a subjective appe>ance z be+ ! subjective activity ( ?\ght1 !re n[ sets 9 7s9ce ! absolute is posit$ z subject7 an age ( subjective reflection2 i4e4 !re beg9s 9 ?is p]iod--:i* co9cides ) ! dis9tegration ( ,greece 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>--! pr9ciple ( mod]n times4 ,s9ce 9 ! ( ,anaxagoras1 z ! /ill =mal self-det]m9+ activity1 det]m9ation is z yet q undet]m9$1 g5]al & ab/ract1 & along ) t cont5tless ?r\gh\t1 ! univ]sal /&po9t is ! imm$iate necessity ( go+ on to a cont5t :i* beg9s actual det]m9ation4 ,b :at is ?is absolute1 univ]sal cont5t :i* ab/ract ?\ght z self-det]m9+ activity gives itself8 ,t is ! real "q "h4 ,consci\sness n[ confronts ! untrammel$ ?\ght ( ^? anci5t philosoph]s1 ^: g5]al ideas we h consid]$4 ,:ile hi!rto ! subject1 :5 x reflect$ on ! absolute1 only produc$ ?\ghts1 & _h ?is cont5t be=e x1 x is n[ se5 t :at is "h pres5t is n ! :ole1 b t ! ?9k+ subject likewise really belongs to ! totality ( ! objective4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is subjectivity ( ?\ght has aga9 ! d\ble "* ( at once be+ ! inf9ite1 self-relat+ =m1 :i* z ?is pure activity ( ! univ]sal1 receives cont5t-det]m9ations2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 z consci\sness reflects t x is ! ?9k+ subject :i* is ?us posit+1 ( also be+ a return ( _s f objectivity into itself4 ,?us if ?\ght1 because x imm]s$ itself 9 ! object1 _h z su*1 & l ! ( ,anaxagoras1 at fir/ no cont5t1 because ?is /ood on ! o!r side1 s n[1 ) ! return ( ?\ght z to ! consci\sness t ! subject is :at ?9ks1 we h ! o!r side--t :at has to be dealt ) is ! atta9m5t ( a truly absolute cont5t4 ,?is cont5t1 tak5 ab/ractly1 may itself be aga9 a d\ble "o4 ,ei!r ! 8,i0 is 9 respect ( det]m9ation ! real :5 x makes itself & its int]e/s ! cont5t1 or ! cont5t becomes det]m9$ z ! altoge!r univ]sal4 ,accord+ to ?is1 we h two que/ions to deal )1 :i* are--h[ ! det]m9ation ( :at is 9 & = itself is to be compreh5d$1 & h[ ?is is likewise 9 imm$iate relation to ! 8,i0 z ?9k+4 ,x comes to pass 9 ,philosophy t al?\gh ! 8,i0 is ! posit+1 yet ! posit$ cont5t ( t :i* is ?\ght is ! object exi/5t 9 & = itself4 ,if "o 7 to rema9 at say+ t ! 8,i0 is t :i* posits1 ?is w\ld be ! false idealism ( mod]n times3 9 e>li] times m5 did n rema9 at say+ t :at is ?\ght is bad because ,i posit x4 ,to ! ,sophi/s ! cont5t is m9e1 & subjective3 ,socrates grasp$ ! cont5t :i* is 9 & = itself1 & ! foll[]s ( ,socrates h1 9 direct connection ) him1 m]ely fur!r def9$ ?is cont5t4 ,a4--,,! ,,sophi/s4 ,! ,notion1 :i* reason has f\nd 9 ,anaxagoras to be real exi/5ce1 is ! simple negative into :i* all det]m9ation1 all t is exi/5t & individual s9ks4 ,be=e ! ,notion no?+ c exi/1 = x is simply ! pr$icateless absolute to :i* ev]y?+ is cle>ly a mom5t only2 = x !re is ?us no?+ s to speak p]man5tly fix$ & seal$4 ,! ,notion is j ! con/ant *ange ( ,h]aclitus1 ! movem5t1 ! cau/icity1 :i* no?+ c resi/4 ,?us ! ,notion :i* f9ds itself1 f9ds itself z ! absolute p[] be=e :i* ev]y?+ vani%es2 & !reby all ?+s1 all exi/5ce1 ev]y?+ held to be secure1 is n[ made fleet+4 ,?is security--:e!r x be a security ( natural ,be+ or ! security ( def9ite conceptions1 pr9ciples1 cu/oms & laws--becomes vacillation & loses its /ability4 ,z univ]sal1 su* pr9ciples1 c41 c]ta9ly !mselves p]ta9 to ! ,notion1 yet _! univ]sality is only _! =m1 = ! cont5t :i* !y h1 z det]m9ate1 falls into movem5t4 ,we see ?is movem5t aris+ 9 ! s-call$ ,sophi/s :om we "h enc\nt] = ! fir/ "t4 ,!y gave !mselves ! "n 1 z tea*]s ( wisdom1 i4e4 z ^? :o c\ld make wise 774 ,! le>n+ ( ! ,sophi/s is ?us directly ! opposite to ours1 :i* only aspires to acquire in=mation & inve/igate :at is & has be5--x is a mass ( empirical matt]1 9 :i* ! discov]y ( a new =m1 a new worm1 or o!r v]m9 is held to be a po9t ( great importance4 ,our le>n$ pr(essors are 9 s f> mu* less responsible ?an ! ,sophi/s2 h[ev]1 ,philosophy has no?+ to d ) ?is lack ( responsibility4 ,b z reg>ds ! relation ( ! ,sophi/s to :at is ord9>ily believ$1 !y are1 by ! heal?y human und]/&+1 z mu* decri$ z by morality4 ,by ! =m] ?is is on acc\nt ( _! !oretic tea*+1 s9ce x is s5seless to say t no?+ is2 & 9 respect ( practice because !y subv]t all pr9ciples & laws4 ,= ! fir/ m5tion$1 ?+s c]ta9ly _c be left 9 ?is confusion ( movem5t & 9 _! negative aspect m]ely2 yet ! re/ into :i* !y pass is n ! re/oration ( :at is mov$ into its =m] condition ( security1 z if 9 ! end ! result 7 ! same & ! action 7 a sup]flu\s "o4 ,n[ ! sophi/ry ( common op9ion1 :i* is )\t ! culture ( ?\ght & )\t sci5tific k1 is f\nd 9 ! fact t to x its det]m9ations are1 z su*1 held to be exi/5t 9 & = !mselves1 & a numb] ( rules ( life1 maxims1 pr9ciples1 c41 are consid]$ z absolutely fix$ tru?s4 ,m9d itself is1 h[ev]1 ! unity ( ^! 9 _m ways limit$ tru?s1 :i* 9 x are all recogniz$ z be+ pres5t z sublat$ only1 z m]ely relative tru?s1 i4e4 ) _! re/rictions1 9 _! limitation1 & n z exi/5t 9 !mselves4 ,h5ce ^! tru?s to ! ord9>y und]/&+1 are1 9 fact1 no m1 = on ano!r occasion x all[s & ev5 ass]ts ! opposite to h a value also = consci\sness2 or x does n "k t x says directly ! opposite to :at x means1 its expression be+ ?us only an expression ( contradiction4 ,9 its actions g5]ally1 & n 9 its bad actions1 ord9>y und]/&+ breaks ^! its maxims & its pr9ciples itself1 & if x leads a rational life1 x is prop]ly speak+ only a /&+ inconsi/5cy1 ! mak+ good ( "o n>r[ maxim ( conduct ?r\gh break+ (f f o!rs4 ,= example1 a /atesman ( exp]i5ce & culture is "o :o kn[s h[ to /e] a middle c\rse1 & has practical und]/&+1 i4e4 deals ) ! :ole ext5t ( ! case be=e him & n ) "o side ( x1 :i* expresses itself 9 "o maxim only4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he1 :oev] he is1 :o acts on "o maxim1 is a p$ant & spoils ?+s = himself & o!rs4 ,mo/ commonly x is ?us4 ,= example1 we he> x said1 8x is c]ta9 t ! ?+s t ,i see are2 ,i believe 9 _! reality40 ,anyone c say ?is q easily4 ,b 9 fact x is n true t he believes 9 _! reality2 really he assumes ! contr>y4 ,= he eats & dr9ks !m1 i4e4 he is conv9c$ t ^! ?+s are n 9 !mselves1 & _! be+ has no security1 no subsi/5ce4 ,?us common und]/&+ is 9 its actions bett] ?an x ?9ks1 = 9 action x is ,m9d z a :ole4 ,b x is n "h kn[n to itself z ,m9d1 = :at comes )9 its consci\sness are def9ite laws1 rules1 g5]al propositions1 su* z by its und]/&+ are e/eem$ to be ! absolute tru?1 ^: limitation x1 h[ev]1 sets aside 9 action4 ,n[1 :5 ! ,notion turns to ! ri*es :i* consci\sness ?9ks to possess1 & :5 ! latt] is s5sible ( ! dang] to its tru? )\t :i* x w\ld n be1 :5 its fix$ realities are de/roy$1 x is enrag$2 & ! ,notion :i* 9 ?is its realization applies itself to ! common v]ities1 draws hatr$ & disda9 ^u itself4 ,?is is ! gr\nd ( ! univ]sal d5unciation ( ! ,sophi/s2 a d5unciation ( heal?y human und]/&+ :i* does n "k h[ else to help itself4 ,sophi/ry is c]ta9ly a ^w ( ill-repute1 & inde$ x is p>ticul>ly ?r\gh ! opposition to ,socrates & ,plato t ! ,sophi/s h come into su* disrepute t ! ^w usually n[ signifies t1 by false reason+1 "s tru? is ei!r refut$ & made dubi\s1 or some?+ false is prov$ & made plausible4 ,we h to put ?is evil significance on "o side & to =get x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we n[ wi% to consid] fur!r f ! positive & prop]ly speak+ sci5tific side1 :at 0 ! position ( ! ,sophi/s 9 ,greece4 ,x 0 ! ,sophi/s :o n[ appli$ ! simple ,notion z ?\ght 7:i* ) ,z5o 9 ! ,eleatic s*ool _h comm5c$ to turn t[>ds its pure c\nt]p>t1 motion7 to worldly objects g5]ally1 & ) x p5etrat$ all human relations4 ,= x is consci\s ( itself z ! absolute & s+le reality1 &1 jeal\s ( all else1 ex]cises its p[] & rule 9 ?is reality z reg>ds all else1 s9ce ?is desires to be consid]$ z ! det]m9ate :i* is n ,?\ght4 ,! ?\ght id5tical ) itself1 ?us directs its negative p[]s t[>ds ! manifold det]m9ation ( ! !oretical & ! practical1 ! tru?s ( natural consci\sness & ! imm$iately recogniz$ laws & pr9ciples2 & :at to ! ord9>y conception is e/abli%$1 dissolves itself 9 x1 & 9 s do+ leaves x to p>ticul> subjectivity to make itself fir/ & fix$1 to relate ev]y?+ to itself4 ,n[ t ?is ,notion has appe>$1 x has become a m univ]sal ,philosophy1 & n s mu* simple ,philosophy z ! univ]sal culture ( :i* e man :o did n belong to ^? devoid ( ?\ght1 p>took1 & necess>ily p>took4 ,= we call culture j ! ,notion z appli$ 9 actuality1 9 s f> z x makes its appe>ance n purely 9 its ab/raction1 b 9 unity ) ! manifold cont5t ( all ord9>y conceptions4 ,b 9 culture1 ! ,notion is ! pr$om9ant z also ! actuat+1 because 9 bo? ! det]m9ate is recogniz$ 9 its limits1 9 its transition into some?+ else4 ,?is culture became ! g5]al aim ( education1 & !re 7 h5ce a numb] ( tea*]s ( ,sophi/ry4 ,inde$1 ! ,sophi/s are ! tea*]s ( ,greece ?r\gh :om culture fir/ came into exi/5ce 9 ,greece1 & ?us !y took ! place ( poets & ( rhapsodi/s1 :o be=e ?is 7 ! ord9>y in/ructors4 ,= religion 0 no in/ructress1 s9ce no tea*+ 0 9 x imp>t$2 & ?\gh prie/s c]ta9ly (f]$ sacrifices1 prophesi$ & int]pret$ ! say+s ( ! oracle1 in/ruction is some?+ q diff]5t f ?is4 ,b ! ,sophi/s educat$ m5 9 wisdom1 9 ! sci5ces1 music1 ma!matics1 c41 & ?is 0 _! =emo/ aim4 ,be=e ,p]icles appe>$ 9 ,greece1 ! desire = culture ?r\gh ?\ght & ?r\gh reflection 0 awak5$2 m5 wi%$ to be cultur$ 9 _! ideas1 & 9 _! v>i\s relations to guide !mselves by ?\ght1 & no long] m]ely ?r\gh oracles1 or ?r\gh cu/om1 passion1 ! feel+s ( ! mom5t4 ,= ! end ( ! ,/ate is ! univ]sal1 "u :i* ! p>ticul> is compreh5d$4 ,because ! ,sophi/s kept 9 view & enl>g$ ^u ?is culture1 !y prosecut$ tea*+ z a special call+1 bus9ess1 or pr(ession1 z an (fice tak+ ! place ( s*ools2 !y travell$ r\nd ! t[ns ( ,greece1 ! y\? ( :i* 0 by !m in/ruct$4 ,n[ culture is c]ta9ly an indef9ite expression4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 ?is mean+1 t :at free ?\ght is to atta9 mu/ come out ( itself & be p]sonal conviction2 x is !n no long] believ$ b inve/igat$--9 %ort1 x is ! s-call$ enlight5m5t ( mod]n times4 ,?\ght seeks g5]al pr9ciples by :i* x criticizes ev]y?+ :i* is by u e/eem$1 & no?+ has value to u :i* is n 9 con=mity ) ^! pr9ciples4 ,?us1 ?\ght und]takes to comp>e ! positive cont5t ) itself1 to dissolve ! =m] concrete ( belief2 on "o side to split ! cont5t up1 &1 on ! o!r1 to isolate ^! individualities1 ^! p>ticul> po9ts ( view & aspects1 & to secure !m on _! own acc\nt4 ,^! aspects1 :i* are prop]ly n indep5d5t1 b only mom5ts ( a :ole1 :5 deta*$ f x1 relate !mselves to !mselves1 & 9 ?is way assume ! =m ( univ]sality4 ,any "o ( !m c ?us be elevat$ to a reason1 i4e4 to a univ]sal det]m9ation1 :i* is aga9 appli$ to p>ticul> aspects4 ,?us1 9 culture1 x is requisite t m5 %\ld be acqua9t$ ) ! univ]sal po9ts ( view :i* belong to a transaction1 ev5t1 c41 t ?is po9t ( view & !reby ! ?+1 %\ld be grasp$ 9 a univ]sal way1 9 ord] to af=d a pres5t k ( :at is 9 "q4 ,a judge kn[s ! v>i\s laws1 i4e4 ! v>i\s legal po9ts ( view "u :i* a ?+ is to be consid]$2 ^! are already = him univ]sal aspects ?r\gh :i* he has a univ]sal consci\sness1 & consid]s ! matt] 9 a univ]sal way4 ,a man ( culture ?us kn[s h[ to say some?+ ( ev]y?+1 to f9d po9ts ( view 9 all4 ,greece has to ?ank ! ,sophi/s = ?is culture1 because !y taught m5 to ex]cise ?\ght z to :at %\ld h au?ority = !m1 & ?us _! culture 0 culture 9 philosophy z mu* z 9 eloqu5ce4 ,9 ord] to rea* ?is d\ble end1 ! ,sophi/s 7 "o 9 _! desire to be wise4 ,to "k :at con/itutes p[] among/ m5 & 9 ! ,/ate1 & :at ,i h to recognize z su*1 is c\nt$ z wisdom2 & because ,i "k ! p[]1 ,i also "k h[ to direct o!rs 9 con=mity ) my end4 ,h5ce ! admiration t ,p]icles & o!r /atesm5 excit$1 j because !y knew _! own /&po9t1 & _h ! p[] ( putt+ o!rs 9 _! prop] place4 ,t man is p[]ful :o c d$uce ! actions ( m5 f ! absolute ends :i* move !m4 ,! object ( ! ,sophi/s has ?us be5 to tea* :at is ! ma9spr+ ( ! _w1 & s9ce ,philosophy alone kn[s t ?is is ! univ]sal ?\ght :i* resolves all t is p>ticul>1 ! ,sophi/s 7 also speculative philosoph]s4 ,le>n$ 9 ! prop] s5se !y h5ce 7 n1 because !re 7 z yet no positive sci5ces )\t ,philosophy1 su* z 9 _! aridity did n conc]n all mank9d & man's ess5tial aspects4 ,!y fur!r _h ! mo/ ord9>y practical end1 to give a consci\sness ( t :i* is involv$ 9 ! moral _w & :i* satisfies man4 ,religion taught t ! gods are ! p[]s :i* rule ov] m54 ,imm$iate morality recogniz$ ! rule ( laws2 man 0 to f9d satisfaction 9 con=m+ to laws1 & 0 to assume t o!rs also f9d satisfaction because !y foll[ ^! laws4 ,b f ! reflection :i* "h breaks 91 x no long] satisfies man to obey law z an au?ority & ext]nal necessity1 = he desires to satisfy himself 9 himself1 to conv9ce himself1 ?r\gh 8 reflection1 ( :at is b9d+ ^u him1 :at is 8 end & :at he has to d = ?is end4 ,?us ! impulses & desires t man has1 become 8 p[]2 & only inasmu* z he af=ds !m satisfaction does he become satisfi$4 ,n[ ! ,sophi/s taught h[ ^! p[]s c\ld be mov$ 9 empirical man1 = ! good z ord9>ily recogniz$1 no long] det]m9$ !m4 ,rhetoric1 h[ev]1 tea*es h[ circum/ances may be made subject to su* =ces2 x ev5 makes use ( ! wra? & passions ( ! he>] 9 ord] to br+ ab\t a conclusion4 ,?us ! ,sophi/s 7 m especially ! tea*]s ( oratory1 & t is ! aspect 9 :i* ! individual c\ld make himself e/eem$ among/ ! p z well z c>ry out :at 0 be/ = ! p2 ?is c]ta9ly *>act]izes a democratic con/itution1 9 :i* ! citiz5s h ! ultimate decision4 ,because1 9 ?is way1 oratory 0 "o ( ! fir/ requirem5ts = ! rule ( a p1 or = mak+ some?+ cle> to !m ?r\gh _! ord9>y ideas1 ! ,sophi/s tra9$ m5 = common ,greek life1 = citiz5%ip & = /atesm51 )\t appe>+ to prep>e ,/ate (ficials = an exam9ation 9 specific subjects4 ,= ! p>ticul> *>act]i/ic ( eloqu5ce is to %[ ! manifold po9ts ( view exi/+ 9 a ?+1 & to give =ce to ^? :i* h>monize ) :at appe>s to me to be mo/ useful2 x ?us is ! art ( putt+ =w>d v>i\s po9ts ( view 9 ! concrete case1 & plac+ o!rs r 9 ! %ade4 ,ari/otle's ,topica comes to m9d 9 ! connection1 inasmu* z x gives ! categories or ?\ght-det]m9ations 771 accord+ to :i* we h to reg>d ?+s 9 ord] to le>n to speak2 b ! ,sophi/s 7 ! fir/ to apply !mselves to a k ( ^!4 ,?is is ! position tak5 up by ! ,sophi/s4 ,b we f9d a p]fectly def9ite picture ( _! fur!r progress & proc$ure 9 ,plato's ,protagoras4 ,plato "h makes ,protagoras express himself m precisely respect+ ! art ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,t is to say1 ,plato 9 ?is dialogue repres5ts t ,socrates accompanies a "y man nam$ ,hippocrates1 :o desires to place himself "u ,protagoras1 !n newly arriv$ 9 ,a!ns1 = in/ruction 9 ! sci5ce ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,on ! way1 ,socrates n[ asks ,hippocrates :at is ?is wisdom ( ! ,sophi/s :i* he wi%es to le>n4 ,hippocrates at fir/ replies ,rhetoric1 = ! ,sophi/ is "o :o kn[s h[ to make m5 clev] 77 9 spee*4 ,9 fact1 :at is mo/ /rik+ 9 a man or p ( culture is ! art ( speak+ well1 or ( turn+ subjects r\nd & consid]+ !m 9 _m aspects4 ,! uncultivat$ man f9ds x unpleasant to associate ) p :o "k h[ to grasp & express e po9t ( view ) ease4 ,! ,fr5* are good speak]s 9 ?is s5se1 & ! ,g]mans call _! talk+ prattle2 b x is n m]e talk t br+s ab\t ?is result1 = culture is also want$4 ,we may h ma/]$ a spee* q completely1 b if we h n culture1 x is n good speak+4 ,m5 ?us le>n ,fr5*1 n only to be able to speak ,fr5* well1 b to acquire ,fr5* culture4 ,:at is to be obta9$ f ! ,sophi/s is ?us ! p[] ( keep+ ! manifold po9ts ( view pres5t to ! m9d1 s t ! weal? ( categories by :i* an object may be consid]$1 imm$iately occurs to x4 ,socrates1 inde$1 rem>ks t ! pr9ciple ( ! ,sophi/s is n h]eby det]m9$ 9 a suffici5tly compreh5sive way1 & ?us x is n suffici5tly kn[n :at a ,sophi/ is1 8yet10 he says1 8we h a desire to g on40#hf ,= likewise1 if anyone wi%es to /udy ,philosophy1 he does n z yet "k :at ,philosophy is1 else he w\ld n ne$ to /udy x4 ,hav+ rea*$ ,protagoras ) ,hippocrates1 ,socrates f9ds him 9 an assemblage ( ! =emo/ ,sophi/s & surr\nd$ by li/5]s1 8walk+ ab\t & l an ,orpheus entranc+ all m5 by 8 words1 ,hippias sitt+ mean:ile on a *air ) n s _m r\nd him1 & ,prodicus ly+ among/ a great numb] ( admir]s40 ,aft] ,socrates br\ght be=e ,protagoras ! reque/ to h ,hippocrates plac$ "u 8 in/ruction1 9 ord] t he might by him be taught h[ to become em95t 9 ! ,/ate1 he also asks :e!r !y might speak ) him 9 public or alone4 ,protagoras praises 8 discretion1 & replies t !y act wisely to make use ( ?is precaution4 ,= because ! ,sophi/s w&]$ ab\t ! t[ns1 & ?us y\?s1 des]t+ fa!rs & fri5ds1 foll[$ !m 9 view ( improv+ !mselves ?r\gh _! int]c\rse ) !m1 !y drew ^u !mselves mu* envy & ill-w--= ev]y?+ new is hat$4 ,on ?is po9t ,protagoras speaks at l5g?3 8,i ass]t t ! art ( ! ,sophi/s is old2 b t ^? ( ! anci5ts :o practis$ x 9 fe> ( giv+ (f5ce0 7= ! uncultur$ _w is antagoni/ic to ! cultur$7 8veil$ & conceal$ x4 ,"o section1 l ,hom] & ,hesiod1 taught x 9 _! poetry2 o!rs1 l ,orpheus & ,musu1 ?r\gh my/]ies & oracles4 ,"s1 ,i believe1 l ,iccus ( ,t>5tum1 & ! ,sophi/ n[ liv+ & unsurpass$--,h]odicus1 ( ,selymbria--9 gymna/ics1 b _m m ?r\gh music40 ,we see t ,protagoras usually describes ! end ( m5tal culture z be+ to br+ ab\t morality1 pres5ce ( m9d1 s5se ( ord] & g5]al capacity4 ,he adds3 8all ^? :o fe>$ envy aris+ aga9/ ! sci5ces1 requir$ su* veils & scre5s4 ,b ,i ?9k t !y d n atta9 _! end1 = m5 ( p5etration 9 ! ,/ate see ! end appe>+ ?r\gh1 :ile ! p notice no?+1 & only quote ! o!rs4 ,if p behave s1 !y make !mselves m hat$1 & appe> to be impo/ors4 ,i h !re=e tak5 ! opposite way1 & op5ly ackn[l$ge 771 & d n d5y t ,i am a ,sophi/0 7,protagoras fir/ us$ ! "n ( ,sophi/71 8& t my bus9ess is to give m5 culture 7740#hg ,fur!r on1 :]e ! arts :i* ,hippocrates 0 to acquire "u ,protagoras' in/ruction 7 discuss$1 ,protagoras answ]$ ,socrates3 8,:at y ask is s5sible1 & ,i l to answ] a s5sible "q4 ,hippocrates w n h ! same exp]i5ce t he w\ld h ) o!r tea*]s 774 ,^! latt] are at v>iance ) 77 _! pupils1 = !y take !m aga9/ _! wills /raight back to ! arts & sci5ces :i* !y j wi%$ to escape1 inasmu* z !y tea* !m ari?metic1 geometry & music4 ,b he :o comes to me w be in/ruct$ 9 no?+ else ?an t 9 :i* he comes to be in/ruct$40 ,?us ! y\?s came freely1 ) ! wi% to be made m5 ( culture ?r\gh 8 in/ruction1 & 9 ! hope t he1 z tea*]1 knew ! way to succe$ 9 s do+4 ,z to 8 g5]al aim1 ,protagoras says1 8,! in/ruction consi/s 9 br++ ab\t a "r p]ception & und]/&+ 77 ( ! be/ way ( regulat+ "o's own family affairs1 & simil>ly z reg>ds citiz5%ip1 9 qualify+ m5 bo? to speak on ! affairs ( ! ,/ate1 & to d ! be/ = ! ,/ate40 ,?us two int]e/s are "h app>5t1 t ( ! individual & t ( ! ,/ate4 ,n[ ,socrates expresses diss5t & surprise at ,protagoras' ass]tion z to imp>t+ in/ruction 9 political aptitude4 8,i ?\ght t ! political virtues c\ld n be le>n$10 = x is ,socrates' ma9 t5et t virtue _c be taught4 ,& ,socrates n[ br+s =w>d ! foll[+ argum5t1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,sophi/s appeal+ to exp]i5ce4 8,^? :o are ma/]s ( ! art ( politics _c imp>t t art to o!rs4 ,p]icles1 ! fa!r ( ^! y\?s1 gave !m in/ruction 9 all t in/ructors c\ld tea*2 b n 9 ! sci5ce = :i* he is celebrat$2 "h he left !m free to w&] 9 ! *ance ( _! light+ ^u wisdom4 ,simil>ly o!r great /atesm5 did n tea* x to o!rs1 :e!r fri5ds or /rang]s40#hh ,protagoras n[ repli$ t x c\ld be taught1 & %[s ! reason :y great /atesm5 did n give ?is in/ruction1 :ile he asks :e!r he is to speak z an eld] to y\ng] m5 9 a my?1 or :e!r he %\ld give 8 reasons4 ,! company left ! matt] to him & he began ) ! foll[+ my? ( ev]la/+ int]e/3 8,! gods comm&$ ,prome!us & ,epime!us to adorn ! _w & conf] on x its qualities & p[]s4 ,epime!us imp>t$ /r5g?1 p[] ( flight1 arms1 clo?+1 h]bs & fruits1 b 9 "s incompreh5sible way he gave all to ! bea/s1 s t no?+ rema9$ to m54 ,prome!us saw !m unclo!d1 un>m$1 helpless1 :5 ! mom5t came 9 :i* ! =m ( man _h to g =? into ! light4 ,!n he /ole fire f heav51 ! arts ( ,vulcan & ,m9]va1 to equip man = 8 ne$s4 ,b political wisdom 0 want+1 &1 liv+ )\t any common bond1 !y 7 9 a con/ant /ate ( /rife & mis]y4 ,!n ,zeus gave ! comm& to ,h]mes to grant rev]5ce0 7natural ob$i5ce1 hon\r1 docility1 respect ( *ildr5 = p>5ts1 & ( m5 = high] & bett] natures71 8& ju/ice4 ,h]mes asks1 #8,h[ %all ,i imp>t !m8 ,to individuals1 z p>ticul> arts are di/ribut$1 j z "s h a k ( m$ic9e suffici5t = assi/+ o!rs8' ,b ,zeus answ]s t x mu/ be to all1 = no body ( m5 77 c exi/ if only a few p>take ( ^? qualities4 ,& x %all be ! law t :oev] _c ackn[l$ge au?ority & ju/ice mu/ be ext]m9at$ z a plague to ! ,/ate4 ,h5ce ! ,a!nians :5 !y wi% to build1 call build]s into c\nsel1 & :5 !y contemplate any o!r bus9ess1 ^? :o h exp]i5ce 9 x1 b :5 !y wi% to come to a decision or make a regulation 9 ,/ate affairs1 !y admit all4 ,= all mu/ p>take ( ?is virtue or no ,/ate c\ld exi/4 ,?us if anyone is inexp]i5c$ 9 ! art ( flute-play+ & yet pr(esses to be a ma/] 9 x1 he is ju/ly ?\ght to be mad4 ,b 9 ju/ice x is o!rwise2 if anyone is n j & confesses x1 he is ?\ght to be mad4 ,he mu/ pr(ess to be s1 = ev]ybody mu/ ei!r %>e 9 x or be %ut out f social life40#hi ,= ! fact t ?is political sci5ce is also s con/itut$ 8t ev]yone by education & dilig5ce 7 7 may acquire x10 ,protagoras gives additional reasons 9 ! foll[+ argum5t3 8,no "o blames or puni%es on acc\nt ( a defect or evil t has come to anyone by nature or by *ance4 ,b defects & faults :i* c be remov$ ?r\gh dilig5ce1 ex]cise & tea*+ are consid]$ to be blamewor?y & puni%able4 ,impiety & inju/ice are ( ?is description &1 g5]ally speak+1 all t opposes public virtue4 ,m5 guilty ( ^! s9s are ?us reproa*$2 !y are puni%$ 9 ! idea t !y _h ! p[] to remove ! wrong & /ill m to acquire political virtue ?r\gh dilig5ce & tea*+4 ,?us m5 d n puni% on acc\nt ( :at is pa/--except+ z we /rike a vici\s bea/ on ! head--b on acc\nt ( :at is to come1 s t nei!r ! "o :o committ$ ! crime nor any o!r misl$ by 8 example1 %\ld d ! same aga94 ,?us x is 9 ?is impli$ t virtue c be acquir$ ?r\gh education & ex]cise40#ij ,?is is a good argum5t = ! tea*ability ( virtue4 ,z to ! /atem5t ( ,socrates t m5 su* z ,p]icles1 :o 7 fam$ = _! political virtues1 did n imp>t ^! to _! *ildr5 & fri5ds1 ,protagoras 9 ! fir/ place says t x may on ! o!r h& be repli$1 t 9 ^! virtues all m5 are in/ruct$ by all m54 ,political virtue is s con/itut$ t x is ! common prov9ce ( all2 ?is "o ess5tial = all m5 is ju/ice1 temp]ance1 & hol9ess--9 "o ^w1 :atev] comprises manly virtue4 ,9 x no p>ticul> education f m5 ( em95ce is ?us requir$4 ,! *ildr5 are f _! e>lie/ infancy exhort$ & admoni%$ to d :at is good1 & are accu/om$ to t :i* is "r4 ,in/ruction 9 music & gymna/ics contributes to temp] ! indulg5ce ( self-w & pleasure1 & to accu/om m5 to con=m to a law or rule2 & ! read+ ( ! poets :o en=ce ?is does ! same4 ,:5 man /eps outside ?is circle ( education1 he ent]s into t ( ! con/itution ( a ,/ate :i* likewise contributes to keep ev]yone )9 ! b\nds ( law & ord]1 s t political virtue is a result ( ! education ( y\?4 ,b ! objection t di/+ui%$ m5 did n imp>t _! di/9ction to _! *ildr5 & fri5ds1 ,protagoras answ]$ secondly & v well z foll[s3 8,let u say t 9 a ,/ate all ! citiz5s _h to become flute-play]s1 all w\ld be in/ruct$ 9 ! art2 "s w\ld be di/+ui%$1 _m good1 "s m$iocre1 a few p]haps bad1 & yet all w\ld h a c]ta9 am\nt ( skill4 ,b x might v well be ! case t ! son ( an arti/ %\ld be a bad play]1 = ! di/9ction dep5ds on p>ticul> tal5ts1 & a p>ticul>ly good natural capacity4 ,f v skilful play]s v unskilful might desc5d1 & conv]sely1 b all w\ld h a c]ta9 k ( ! flute1 & all w\ld c]ta9ly be inf9itely bett] ?an ^? :o 7 q ignorant ( ! art4 ,simil>ly all1 ev5 ! wor/ citiz5s ( a rational ,/ate are bett] & ju/] ?an citiz5s ( a ,/ate :]e !re is no culture nor ju/ice nor law1 9 a ^w1 :]e !re is no necessity to br+ !m up to be j4 ,= ?is sup]iority !y h to ?ank ! education giv5 9 _! ,/ate40#ia ,all ^! are q good examples & /rik+ argum5ts :i* are n at all worse ?an ,cic]o's reason+--a natura insitum4 ,! argum5ts ( ,socrates & ! developm5t ( ^! argum5ts are1 on ! contr>y1 examples bas$ ^u exp]i5ce1 & are (t5 n bett] ?an :at is "h plac$ 9 ! m\? ( a ,sophi/4 ,:at n[ confronts u is ! "q ( h[ f> ?is may be inadequate1 & p>ticul>ly h[ f> ,socrates & ,plato came into collision ) ! ,sophi/s & con/itut$ ! antagonism to !m4 ,= ! claim made by ! ,sophi/s 9 ,greece 0 t !y _h giv5 a high] culture to _! p2 = ?is1 inde$1 great cr$it 0 ascrib$ to !m 9 ,greece1 b !y 7 met by ! reproa* t 0 enc\nt]$ by all culture4 ,t is to say1 because ! ,sophi/s 7 ma/]s ( argum5t & reason+1 & 7 )9 ! /age ( reflective ?\ght1 !y wi%$1 pass+ f ! p>ticul> to ! univ]sal1 to awak5 att5tion ?r\gh examples & illu/rations to :at 9 8 exp]i5ce & to 8 m9d appe>s to man to be "r4 ,?is1 ! necess>y c\rse ( free1 ?9k+ reflection1 :i* ) u has also be5 adopt$ by culture1 mu/1 h[ev]1 necess>ily lead beyond implicit tru/ & unre/rict$ fai? 9 ! curr5t morality & religion4 ,! /atem5t t ! ,sophi/s !reby fell into "o-sid$ pr9ciples re/s ^u ! fact t 9 ,greek culture ! "t _h n yet come :51 out ( ?9k+ consci\sness itself1 ! ultimate pr9ciples _h become manife/$1 & ?us !re 0 some?+ firm to re/ ^u1 z is ! case ) u 9 mod]n times4 ,because1 on ! "o h&1 ! ne$ ( subjective fre$om exi/$ m]ely to give effect to t :i* man himself p]ceives & f9ds pres5t 9 8 reason 7?us laws1 religi\s ideas1 only 9 s f> z ,i recognize !m ?r\gh my ?\ght71 on ! o!r h&1 no fix$ pr9ciple _h s f> be5 f\nd 9 ?\ght2 ?\ght 0 r reason+1 & :at rema9$ indet]m9ate c\ld ?us only be fulfill$ ?r\gh self-w4 ,x is o!rwise 9 our ,european _w :]e culture is1 s to speak1 introduc$ "u ! protection & 9 presupposition ( a spiritual religion1 i4e4 n ( a religion ( ! imag9ation1 b by presuppos+ a k ( ! et]nal nature ( ,_s & ( ! absolute end1 ( ! end ( man1 to be 9 a spiritual way actual & to posit himself 9 unity ) ! absolute _s4 ,?us "h !re is a gr\ndwork ( a fix$ spiritual pr9ciple :i* ?us satisfies ! ne$s ( ! subjective m9d2 & f ?is absolute pr9ciple all fur!r relation%ips1 duties1 laws1 c41 are e/abli%$4 ,consequ5tly culture _c receive ! v>iety ( direction--& h5ce ! aimlessness--( ! ,greeks & ( ^? :o ext5d$ culture ov] ,greece1 ! ,sophi/s4 ,z reg>ds ! religion ( ! imag9ation1 z reg>ds ! undevelop$ pr9ciple ( ! ,greek ,/ate1 culture 0 able to divide itself into _m po9ts ( view1 or x 0 easy to x to repres5t p>ticul> subord9ate po9ts ( view z highe/ pr9ciples4 ,:]e1 on ! contr>y1 z is ! case ) u1 a univ]sal aim s high1 inde$ ! highe/ possible1 floats be=e ! imag9ation1 a p>ticul> pr9ciple _c s easily rea* ?is rank1 ev5 if ! reflection ( reason atta9s to ! position ( det]m9+ & recogniz+ f itself :at is highe/2 = ! subord9ation ( special pr9ciples is already det]m9$1 al?\gh 9 =m our enlight5m5t may h ! same /&po9t z t ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,z reg>ds cont5t1 ! /&po9t ( ! ,sophi/s diff]$ f t ( ,socrates & ,plato1 9 t ! mission ( ,socrates 0 to express ! beautiful1 good1 true1 & "r1 z ! end & aim ( ! individual1 :ile ) ! ,sophi/s ! cont5t 0 n pres5t z an ultimate end1 s t all ?is 0 left to ! individual w4 ,h5ce came ! evil reputation obta9$ by ! ,sophi/s ?r\gh ! antagonism ( ,plato1 & ?is is c]ta9ly _! defect4 ,z to _! outw>d lives1 we "k t ! ,sophi/s accumulat$ great ri*es2#ib !y became v pr\d1 & "s ( !m liv$ v luxuri\sly4 ,b 9 respect ( ! inw>d life1 reason+ ?\ght has1 9 di/9ction to ,plato1 ?is prevail+ *>act]i/ic1 t x makes duty1 t :i* has to be done1 n come f ! ,notion ( ! ?+ z det]m9$ 9 & = itself2 = x br+s =w>d ext]nal reasons ?r\gh :i* "r & wrong1 utility & h>mfulness1 are di/+ui%$4 ,to ,plato & ,socrates1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ma9 po9t is t ! nature ( ! conditions %\ld be consid]$1 & t ! ,notion ( ! ?+ 9 & = itself %\ld become evolv$4 ,socrates & ,plato wi%$ to br+ =w>d ?is ,notion z oppos$ to ! consid]ation ( ?+s f po9ts ( view & reason+s :i* are always m]ely p>ticul> & individual1 & ?us oppos$ to ! ,notion itself4 ,! di/9ction 9 ! two po9ts ( view is ?us t cultur$ reason+ only belongs1 9 a g5]al way1 to ! ,sophi/s1 :ile ,socrates & ,plato det]m9$ ?\ght ?r\gh a univ]sal det]m9ation 7! ,platonic ,idea71 or some?+ fix$1 :i* m9d f9ds et]nally 9 itself4 ,if sophi/ry is bad 9 ! s5se t x signifies a quality ( :i* only bad m5 are guilty1 x is at ! same "t mu* m common ?an ?is w\ld imply2 = all argum5tative reason+1 adduc+ ( argum5ts & c\nt]>gum5ts1 br++ into prom95ce p>ticul> po9ts ( view1 is sophi/ry4 ,& j z utt]ances ( ! ,sophi/s are adduc$ aga9/ :i* no?+ c be said 7z !y are by ,plato71 m5 ( our day are urg$ to all t is good = ! v reasons t are reasons to ! ,sophi/s4 ,?us x is said1 8d n *eat1 else y lose y\r cr$it1 h5ce y\r weal?10 or1 8be temp]ate1 or y w spoil y\r appetite & h to suff]40 ,or = puni%m5t m5 give ! ext]nal reasons ( improvem5t1 c42 or else an action is def5d$ on ext]nal gr\nds tak5 f ! result4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 firmly root$ pr9ciples lie at ! f\ndation--z 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,religion1 al?\gh m5 n[ rememb] ?is no long]--x is said1 8! grace ( ,god 9 respect ( hol9ess1 c41 ?us directs ! life ( m520 & ^! ext]nal gr\nds fall away4 ,sophi/ry ?us does n lie s f> f u z we ?9k4 ,:5 educat$ m5 discuss matt]s n[-a-days1 x may seem all v good1 b x is 9 no way diff]5t f :at ,socrates & ,plato call$ sophi/ry--al?\gh !y !mselves h adopt$ ?is /&po9t z truly z did ! ,sophi/s4 ,educat$ m5 fall into x :5 !y judge ( concrete cases 9 :i* a p>ticul> po9t ( view det]m9es ! result1 & we mu/ 9 ord9>y life d ! same if we wi% to make up our m9ds 9 action4 ,if duties & virtues are advocat$ z 9 s]mons 7?is is s 9 mo/ s]mons71 we mu/ he> su* reasons giv54 ,o!r speak]s1 su* z ^? 9 p>liam5t1 likewise make use ( argum5ts & c\nt]>gum5ts simil> to ^!1 ?r\gh :i* !y try to p]suade & conv9ce4 ,on ! "o h& some?+ def9ite is 9 "q1 su* z ! con/itution1 or a w>1 & f ! fix$ direction ?us giv51 c]ta9 provisions h to be d$uc$ consi/5tly2 b ?is consi/5cy1 on ! o!r1 soon disappe>s1 j because ! matt] c be arrang$ ei!r ?is way or t1 & ?us p>ticul> po9ts ( view always are decisive4 ,m5 likewise make use ( good argum5ts1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,sophi/s1 aga9/ ,philosophy4 ,!re are1 !y say1 v>i\s philosophies1 v>i\s op9ions1 & ?is is contr>y to ! "o ,tru?2 ! weakness ( human reason all[s ( no k4 ,:at is ,philosophy to ! feel+s1 m9d1 & he>t8 ,ab/ract ?9k+ ab\t su* matt]s produces ab/ruse results :i* are ( no use 9 ! practical life ( man4 ,we no long] apply ! ^w sophi/ry ?us1 b x is ! way ( ! ,sophi/s n to take ?+s z !y are1 b to br+ ab\t _! pro(s by argum5ts d]iv$ f feel+s z ultimate ends4 ,we %all see ?is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,sophi/s m cle>ly /ill 9 ,socrates & ,plato4 ,) su* reason+ m5 c easily get s f> z to "k 7:]e !y d n1 x is ow+ to ! want ( education--b ! ,sophi/s 7 v well educat$7 t if argum5ts are reli$ ^u1 ev]y?+ c be prov$ by argum5t1 & argum5ts = & aga9/ c be f\nd = ev]y?+2 z p>ticul>1 h[ev]1 !y ?r[ no light ^u ! univ]sal1 ! ,notion4 ,?us :at has be5 consid]$ ! s9 ( ! ,sophi/s is t !y taught m5 to d$uce any conclusion requir$ by o!rs or by !mselves2 b t is n due to any special quality 9 ! ,sophi/s1 b to reflective reason+4 ,9 ! wor/ action !re exi/s a po9t ( view :i* is ess5tially real2 if ?is is br\ght to ! front1 m5 excuse & v9dicate ! action4 ,9 ! crime ( des]tion 9 "t ( w>1 !re is1 = example1 ! duty ( self-pres]vation4 ,simil>ly 9 m mod]n times ! greate/ crimes1 assass9ation1 trea*]y1 c41 h be5 ju/ifi$1 because 9 ! purpose !re lay a det]m9ation :i* 0 actually ess5tial1 su* z t m5 mu/ resi/ ! evil & promote ! good4 ,! educat$ man kn[s h[ to reg>d ev]y?+ f ! po9t ( view ( ! good1 to ma9ta9 9 ev]y?+ a real po9t ( view4 ,a man does n require to make great progress 9 8 education to h good reasons ready = ! wor/ action2 all t has happ5$ 9 ! _w s9ce ! "t ( ,adam has be5 ju/ifi$ by "s good reason4 ,x appe>s t ! ,sophi/s 7 consci\s ( ?is reason+1 & knew1 z educat$ m51 t ev]y?+ c\ld be prov$4 ,h5ce 9 ,plato's ,gorgias x is said t ! art ( ! ,sophi/s is a great] gift ?an any o!r2 !y c\ld conv9ce ! p1 ! s5ate1 ! judges1 ( :at !y lik$4#ic ,! advocate has simil>ly to inquire :at argum5ts !re are 9 fav\r ( ! p>ty :i* claims 8 help1 ev5 if x be ! opposite "o to t :i* he wi%$ to support4 ,t k is no defect1 b is "p ( ! high] culture ( ! ,sophi/s2 & if un$ucat$ m5 naturally =m conclusions f ext]nal gr\nds :i* are ^? alone com+ to _! k1 !y may p]haps be ma9ly det]m9$ by some?+ besides :at !y "k 7by _! integrity1 = in/ance74 ,! ,sophi/s ?us knew t on ?is basis no?+ 0 secure1 because ! p[] ( ?\ght treat$ ev]y?+ dialectically4 ,t is ! =mal culture :i* !y _h & imp>t$1 = _! acqua9tance%ip ) s _m po9ts ( view %ook :at 0 morality 9 ,greece 7! religion1 duties1 & laws1 unconsci\sly ex]cis$71 s9ce ?r\gh its limit$ cont5t1 t came into collision ) :at 0 diff]5t4 ,once x 0 highe/ & ultimate1 !n x 0 depos$4 ,ord9>y k ?us becomes confus$1 z we %all see v cle>ly 9 ,socrates1 = some?+ is held to be c]ta9 to consci\sness1 & !n o!r po9ts ( view :i* are also pres5t & recogniz$1 h simil>ly to be all[$2 h5ce ! fir/ has no fur!r value1 or at lea/ loses its supremacy4 ,we saw 9 ! same way1 h[ brav]y1 :i* lies 9 ! haz>d+ ( "o's life1 is made dubi\s by ! duty ( pres]v+ life1 if put =w>d unconditionally4 ,plato quotes sev]al examples ( ?is unsettl+ t5d5cy1 z :5 he makes ,dionysodorus ma9ta93 8,:oev] gives culture to "o :o does n possess k1 desires t he %\ld no long] rema9 :at he is4 ,he desires to direct him to reason1 & ?is is to make him n ! same z he is40 ,& ,eu?ydemus1 :5 ! o!rs say t he lies1 answ]s1 8,:o lies1 says :at is n2 m5 _c say :at is n1 & ?us no "o c lie40#id ,& aga9 ,dionysodorus says1 8,y h a dog1 ?is dog has "y1 & is a fa!r2 ?us a dog is y\r fa!r1 & y are bro!r to its "y40#ie ,sequ5ces put toge!r ?us are con/antly f\nd 9 critical treatises4 ,) ?is comes ! "q :i* ! nature ( ?\ght br+s along ) x4 ,if ! field ( argum5t1 t :i* consci\sness holds to be firmly e/abli%$1 is %ak5 by reflection1 :at is man n[ to take z 8 ultimate basis8 ,= some?+ fix$ !re mu/ be4 ,?is is ei!r ! good1 ! univ]sal1 or ! individuality1 ! arbitr>y w ( ! subject2 & bo? may be unit$1 z is %[n lat] on 9 ,socrates4 ,to ! ,sophi/s ! satisfaction ( ! individual himself 0 n[ made ultimate1 & s9ce !y made ev]y?+ unc]ta91 ! fix$ po9t 0 9 ! ass]tion1 8x is my desire1 my pride1 glory1 & hon\r1 p>ticul> subjectivity1 :i* ,i make my end40 ,?us ! ,sophi/s are reproa*$ = c\nt5anc+ p]sonal affections1 private int]e/s1 c4 ,?is proce$s directly f ! nature ( _! culture1 :i*1 because x places ready v>i\s po9ts ( view1 makes x dep5d on ! pleasure ( ! subject alone :i* %all prevail1 t is1 if fix$ pr9ciples d n det]m9e4 ,"h ! dang] lies4 ,?is takes place also 9 ! pres5t day :]e ! "r & ! true 9 our actions is made to dep5d on good int5tion & on my own conviction4 ,! real end ( ! ,/ate1 ! be/ adm9i/ration & con/itution1 is likewise to demagogues v vague4 ,on acc\nt ( _! =mal culture1 ! ,sophi/s h a place 9 ,philosophy2 on acc\nt ( _! reflection !y h n4 ,!y are associat$ ) ,philosophy 9 t !y d n rema9 at concrete reason+1 b g on1 at lea/ 9 "p1 to ultimate det]m9ations4 ,a *ief "p ( _! culture 0 ! g5]alization ( ! ,eleatic mode ( ?\ght & its ext5sion to ! :ole cont5t ( k & ( action2 ! positive ?us comes 9 z1 & has become1 utility4 ,to g into p>ticul>s respect+ ! ,sophi/s w\ld lead u too f>2 individual ,sophi/s h _! place 9 ! g5]al hi/ory ( culture4 ,! celebrat$ ,sophi/s are v num]\s2 ! mo/ celebrat$ among/ !m are ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 & also ,prodicus1 ! tea*] ( ,socrates1 to :om ,socrates ascribes ! well-kn[n my? ( 8,! *oice ( ,h]cules0#if--;an allegory1 beautiful 9 its own way1 :i* has be5 repeat$ hundr$s & ?\s&s ( times4 ,i w deal only ) ,protagoras & ,gorgias1 n f ! po9t ( view ( culture1 b 9 respect ( prov+ fur!r h[ ! g5]al k :i* !y ext5d$ to ev]y?+1 has1 ) "o ( !m1 ! univ]sal =m :i* makes x pure sci5ce4 ,plato is ! *ief s\rce ( our acqua9tance%ip ) ! ,sophi/s1 = he occupi$ himself l>gely ) !m2 !n we h ,ari/otle's own little treatise on ,gorgias2 & ,sextus ,empiricus1 :o pres]v$ = u mu* ( ! philosophy ( ,protagoras4 #a4 ,,protagoras4 ,protagoras1 born at ,abd]a1#ig 0 some:at old] ?an ,socrates2 little m is kn[n ( him1 nor1 inde$1 c\ld !re be mu* kn[n4 ,= he l$ a uni=m life1 s9ce he sp5t x 9 ! /udy ( ! sci5ces2 he appe>$ 9 ,greece prop] z ! fir/ public tea*]4 ,he read 8 writ+s#ih l ! rhapsodi/s & poets1 ! =m] ( :om sang ! v]ses ( o!rs1 & ! latt] _! own4 ,!re 7 !n no places ( le>n+1 no books f :i* m5 c\ld be taught1 = to ! anci5ts1 z ,plato says1#ii 8! *ief "p ( culture0 77 8consi/$ 9 be+ skill$0 77 89 poetry10 j z ) u fifty ye>s ago ! pr9cipal in/ruction ( ! p consi/$ ( ,bible ,hi/ory & ,biblical precepts4 ,! ,sophi/s n[ gave1 9 place ( a k ( ! poets1 an acqua9tance%ip ) ?\ght4 ,protagoras also came to ,a!ns & !re liv$ = long1 pr9cipally ) ! great ,p]icles1 :o also ent]$ into ?is culture4 ,inde$1 ! two once argu$ = a :ole day z to :e!r ! d>t or ! ?r[] or he :o arrang$ ! conte/ 0 guilty ( ! dea? ( a man :o ?us met 8 dea?4#ajj ,! dispute is ov] ! great & important "q ( ! possibility ( imputation2 guilt is a g5]al expression1 ! analysis ( :i* may und\bt$ly become a difficult & ext5sive und]tak+4 ,9 8 int]c\rse ) su* m51 ,p]icles develop$ 8 g5ius = eloqu5ce2 = :atev] k9d ( m5tal occupation may be 9 "q1 a cultivat$ m9d c alone excel 9 x2 & true culture is only possible ?r\gh pure sci5ce4 ,p]icles 0 a p[]ful orator1 & we see f ,?ucydides h[ deep a k he _h ( ! ,/ate & ( 8 p4 ,protagoras _h ! same fate z ,anaxagoras1 9 be+ aft]w>ds bani%$ f ,a!ns4 ,! cause ( ?is s5t5ce 0 a "w writt5 by him beg9n+1 8,z to ! gods1 ,i am n able to say :e!r !y are or are n2 = !re is mu* :i* prev5ts ?is k1 bo? 9 ! obscurity ( ! matt]1 & 9 ! life ( man :i* is s %ort40 ,?is book 0 also publicly burn$ 9 ,a!ns by comm& ( ! ,/ate1 &1 s f> z we "k1 x 0 ! fir/ to be treat$ s4 ,at ! age ( sev5ty or n9ety ye>s ,protagoras 0 dr[n$ :ile on a voyage to ,sicily4#aja ,protagoras 0 n1 l o!r ,sophi/s1 m]ely a tea*] ( culture1 b likewise a deep & solid ?9k]1 a philosoph] :o reflect$ on fundam5tal det]m9ations ( an altoge!r univ]sal k9d4 ,! ma9 po9t 9 8 sy/em ( k he express$ ?us3 8,man is ! measure ( all ?+s2 ( t :i* is1 t x is2 ( t :i* is n1 t x is n40#ajb ,on ! "o h&1 !re=e1 :at _h to be done 0 to grasp ?\ght z det]m9$ & z hav+ cont5t2 b1 on ! o!r1 to f9d ! det]m9+ & cont5t-giv+2 ?is univ]sal det]m9ation !n becomes ! /&>d by :i* ev]y?+ is judg$4 ,n[ ,protagoras' ass]tion is 9 its real mean+ a great tru?1 b at ! same "t x has a c]ta9 ambiguity1 9 t z man is ! undet]m9$ & _m-sid$1 ei!r he may 9 8 individual p>ticul>ity1 z ?is cont+5t man1 be ! measure1 or else self-consci\s reason 9 man1 man 9 8 rational nature & 8 univ]sal sub/antiality1 is ! absolute measure4 ,if ! /atem5t is tak5 9 ! =m] s5se1 all is self-seek+1 all self-int]e/1 ! subject ) 8 int]e/s =ms ! c5tral po9t2 & if man has a rational side1 reason is /ill some?+ subjective1 x is 8he40 ,b ?is is j ! wrong & p]v]t$ way ( look+ at ?+s :i* necess>ily =ms ! ma9 reproa* made aga9/ ! ,sophi/s--t !y put =w>d man 9 8 cont+5t aims z det]m9+2 ?us ) !m ! int]e/ ( ! subject 9 its p>ticul>ity1 & ! int]e/ ( ! same 9 its sub/antial reason are n di/+ui%$4 ,! same /atem5t is br\ght =w>d 9 ,socrates & ,plato1 b ) ! fur!r modification t "h man1 9 t he is ?9k+ & gives himself a univ]sal cont5t1 is ! measure4 ,?us "h ! great proposition is enunciat$ on :i*1 f ?is "t =w>d1 ev]y?+ turns1 s9ce ! fur!r progress ( ,philosophy only expla9s x fur!r3 x signifies t reason is ! end ( all ?+s4 ,?is proposition fur!r expresses a v rem>kable *ange ( position 9 ass]t+ t all cont5t1 ev]y?+ objective1 is only 9 relation to consci\sness2 ?\ght is ?us 9 all tru? express$ z ! ess5tial mom5t1 & !reby ! ,absolute takes ! =m ( ! ?9k+ subjectivity :i* comes be=e u pr9cipally 9 ,socrates4 ,s9ce man1 z subject1 is ! measure ( ev]y?+1 ! exi/5t is n alone1 b is = my k4 ,consci\sness is really ! produc] ( ! cont5t 9 :at is objective1 & subjective ?9k+ is ?us really active4 ,& ?is view ext5ds ev5 to ! mo/ mod]n philosophy1 z :51 = in/ance1 ,kant says t we only "k ph5om5a1 i4e4 t :at seems to u to be objective reality1 is only to be consid]$ 9 its relation to consci\sness1 & does n exi/ )\t ?is relation4 ,! fact t ! subject z active & det]m9+ br+s =? ! cont5t1 is ! important matt]1 b n[ ! "q comes z to h[ ! cont5t is fur!r det]m9$--:e!r x is limit$ to ! p>ticul>ity ( consci\sness or is det]m9$ z ! univ]sal1 ! exi/5t 9 & = itself4 ,god1 ! ,platonic ,good1 is c]ta9ly at fir/ a product ( ?\ght1 b 9 ! second place ,he is j z really 9 & = ,himself4 ,s9ce ,i1 z exi/5t1 fix$ & et]nal1 only recognize :at is 9 its cont5t univ]sal1 ?is1 posit$ z x is by me1 is likewise ! implicitly objective1 n posit$ by me4 ,protagoras himself %[s u mu* m ( :at is impli$ 9 8 !ory1 = he says1 8,tru? is a manife/ation = consci\sness4 ,no?+ is 9 & = itself "o1 b ev]y?+ has a relative tru? only10 i4e4 x is :at x is b = ano!r1 :i* is man4 ,?is relativity is by ,protagoras express$ 9 a way :i* seems to u 9 "s measure trivial1 & belongs to ! fir/ beg9n+s ( reflective ?\ght4 ,! insignificant examples :i* he adduces 7l ,plato & ,socrates :5 !y foll[ out 9 !m ! po9t ( view ( reflection71 by way ( explanation1 %[ t 9 ,protagoras' und]/&+ :at is det]m9$ is n grasp$ z ! univ]sal & id5tical ) self4 ,h5ce ! exemplifications are tak5 mo/ly f s5su\s manife/ation4 8,9 a w9d x may be t "o p]son is cold & ano!r is n2 h5ce ( ?is w9d we _c tell :e!r 9 itself x is cold or hot40#ajc ,fro/ & heat are ?us n any?+ :i* exi/1 b only are 9 _! relation to a subject2 7 ! w9d cold 9 itself1 x w\ld always be s to ! subject4 ,or aga91 8if we h "h six dice1 & place by !m f\r o!rs1 we %\ld say ( ! =m] t !re are m ( !m4 ,b1 aga91 if we put twelve by !m we say t ^! fir/ six are ! few]40#ajd ,because we say ( ! same numb] t x is m & few]1 ! m & ! less is m]ely a relative det]m9ation2 ?us :at is ! object1 is s 9 ! idea pres5t to consci\sness only4 ,plato1 on ! contr>y1 consid]$ "o & _m1 n l ! ,sophi/s 9 _! di/9ction1 b z be+ "o & ! same4 ,plato says fur!r on ?is po9t1 t ! :ite1 w>m1 c41 or ev]y?+ t we say ( ?+s1 does n exi/ = itself1 b t ! eye1 s5sation1 is necess>y to make x = u4 ,?is reciprocal movem5t is :at fir/ creates ! :ite1 & 9 x ! :ite is n a ?+ 9 itself1 b :at we h pres5t is a see+ eye1 or1 to speak g5]ally1 sight1 & p>ticul>ly ! see+ ( :ite1 ! feel+ ( w>m?1 c4 ,und\bt$ly w>m?1 col\r1 c41 really are only 9 relation to ano!r1 b ! conceiv+ m9d divides itself into itself & into a _w 9 :i* ea* also has its relation4 ,?is objective relativity is express$ bett] 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,if ! :ite 7 9 itself1 x w\ld be t :i* br\ght =? ! s5sation ( x2 x w\ld be ! action or ! cause1 & we1 on ! contr>y1 ! passive & receptive4 ,b ! object :i* ?us requires to be active1 is n active until x ent]s into 77 relation ) ! passive2 simil>ly ! passive is only 9 relation to ! active4 ,?us :at is said 9 def9+ any?+ nev] conc]ns ! ?+ z 9 itself1 b cle>ly only z be+ relat$ to some?+ else4 ,no?+ is ?us con/itut$ 9 & = itself z x appe>s1 b ! tru? is j ?is ph5om5on to :i* our activity contributes4 ,z ?+s appe> to ! heal?y man !y are ?us n 9 !mselves1 b = him2 z !y appe> to ! sick or d]ang$ man1 !y are to him1 )\t our be+ able to say t z !y appe> to him1 !y are n true4#aje ,we feel ! awkw>dness ( call+ any su* ?+ true1 = aft] all ! exi/5t1 if relat$ to consci\sness1 is yet n relat$ to x z fix$1 b to s5su\s k2 & !n ?is consci\sness itself is a condition1 i4e4 some?+ :i* passes away4 ,protagoras rightly recogniz$ ?is d\ble relativity :5 he says1 8,matt] is a pure flux1 x is n any?+ fix$ & det]m9$ 9 itself1 = x c be ev]y?+1 & x is diff]5t to diff]5t ages & to ! v>i\s conditions ( wak+ & sleep1 c40#ajf ,kant sep>ates himself f ?is /&po9t only 9 t he places ! relativity 9 ! 8,i10 & n 9 objective exi/5ce4 ,! ph5om5on is1 accord+ to him1 no?+ b ! fact ( !re be+ outside an impulse1 an unkn[n x1 :i* fir/ receives ^! det]m9ations ?r\gh our feel+4 ,ev5 if !re 7 an objective gr\nd = our call+ "o ?+ cold & ano!r w>m1 we c\ld inde$ say t !y mu/ h div]sity 9 !mselves1 b w>m? & cold fir/ become :at !y are 9 our feel+4 ,simil>ly x c only be 9 our conception t ?+s are outside ( u1 etc4 ,b if ! exp]i5ce is q correctly call$ a 8ph5om5on10 i4e4 some?+ relative1 because x does n come to pass )\t ! det]m9ations ( ! activity ( our s5ses1 nor )\t categories ( ?\ght1 yet t "o1 all-p]vad+1 univ]sal1 :i* p]meates all exp]i5ce1 :i* to ,h]aclitus 0 necessity1 has to be br\ght into consci\sness4 ,we see t ,protagoras possesses great p[]s ( reflective ?\ght1 & inde$ reflection on consci\sness came to consci\sness ) ,protagoras4 ,b ?is is ! =m ( manife/ation :i* 0 aga9 tak5 by ! lat] sceptics4 ,! ph5om5al is n s5su\s ,be+1 = because ,i posit ?is z ph5om5al1 ,i ass]t its nullity4 ,b ! /atem5ts 8,:at is1 is only = consci\sness10 or 8,! tru? ( all ?+s is ! manife/ation ( !m 9 & = consci\sness10 seem q to contradict !mselves4 ,= x appe>s z ?\gh a contradiction 7 ass]t$--fir/ t no?+ is 9 itself z x appe>s1 & !n t x is true z x appe>s4 ,b objective significance mu/ n be giv5 to ! positive1 to :at is true1 z if1 = example1 ?is 7 :ite 9 itself because x appe>s s2 = x is only ?is manife/ation ( ! :ite t is true1 ! manife/ation be+ j ?is movem5t ( ! self-abrogat+ s5su\s ,be+1 :i*1 tak5 9 ! univ]sal1 /&s above consci\sness z truly z above ,be+4 ,! _w is consequ5tly n only ph5om5al 9 t x is = consci\sness1 & ?us t its ,be+ is only "o relative to consci\sness1 = x is likewise 9 itself ph5om5al4 ,! elem5t ( consci\sness :i* ,protagoras has demon/rat$1 & ow+ to :i* ! develop$ univ]sal has 9 x ! mom5t ( ! negative ,be+-=-ano!r1 has ?us inde$ to be ass]t$ z a necess>y mom5t2 b tak5 = itself1 alone & isolat$1 x is "o-sid$1 s9ce ! mom5t ( implicit ,be+ is likewise ess5tial4 #b4 ,,gorgias4 ,?is scepticism rea*$ a mu* deep] po9t 9 ,gorgias ( ,leontium 9 ,sicily1 a man ( great culture1 & also di/+ui%$ z a /atesman4 ,dur+ ! ,peloponnesian w> he 01 9 ,ol4 #hh1 #b 7#dbg ,b4,c471 a few ye>s aft] ,p]icles' dea? 9 ,ol4 #hg1 #d1 s5t f 8 native t[n to ,a!ns4#ajg ,& :5 he atta9$ 8 object1 he w5t ?r\gh _m o!r ,greek t[ns1 su* z ,l>issa 9 ,!ssaly1 & taught 9 !m4 ,?us he obta9$ great weal?1 along ) mu* admiration1 & ?is la/$ till 8 dea? at ov] a hundr$ ye>s ( age4 ,he is said to h be5 a disciple ( ,emp$ocles1 b he also knew ! ,eleatics1 & 8 dialectic p>takes ( ! mann] & me?od ( ! latt]2 inde$ ,ari/otle1 :o pres]ves ?is dialectic1 9 ! "w ,de ,x5ophane1 ,z5one et ,gorgia1 :i* has inde$ only come to u 9 fragm5ts1 deals ) !m toge!r4 ,sextus ,empiricus also gives u 9 full ! dialectic ( ,gorgias4 ,he 0 /rong 9 ! dialectic requisite = eloqu5ce1 b 8 preem95ce lies 9 8 pure dialectic respect+ ! q univ]sal categories ( ,be+ & non-be+1 :i* inde$ is n l t ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,ti$emann 7,gei/4 d] ,spec4 ,phil4 vol4 ,i4 p4 #cfb7 says v falsely3 8,gorgias w5t mu* fur!r ?an any man ( heal?y m9d c\ld g40 ,ti$emann c\ld say ( e philosoph] t he w5t fur!r ?an heal?y human und]/&+1 = :at m5 call heal?y und]/&+ is n ,philosophy1 & is (t5 f> f heal?y4 ,heal?y human und]/&+ possesses ! modes ( ?\ght1 maxims1 & judgm5ts ( its "t1 ! ?\ght-det]m9ations ( :i* dom9ate x )\t its be+ consci\s !re(4 ,9 ?is way ,gorgias und\bt$ly w5t fur!r ?an heal?y und]/&+4 ,be=e ,cop]nicus x w\ld h be5 contr>y to all heal?y human und]/&+ if anyone _h said t ! e>? w5t r\nd ! sun1 or be=e ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 if x 7 said t !re 0 a cont95t !re4 ,9 ,india or 9 ,*9a a republic w\ld ev5 n[ be contr>y to all heal?y und]/&+4 ,! dialectic ( ,gorgias moves m purely 9 ,notion ?an t f\nd 9 ,protagoras4 ,s9ce ,protagoras ass]t$ ! relativity1 or ! non-implicit nature ( all t is1 ?is only exi/s 9 relation to ano!r :i* really is ess5tial to x2 & ?is la/1 inde$1 is consci\sness4 ,gorgias' demon/ration ( ! non-implicitness ( ,be+ is pur]1 because he takes 9 itself :at passes = real exi/5ce )\t presuppos+ t o!r1 & ?us %[s its own ess5tial nullity & sep>ates !refrom ! subjective side & ,be+ z x is = ! latt]4 ,gorgias' treatise 8,on ,nature10 9 :i* he composes 8 dialectic1 falls1 accord+ to ,sextus ,empiricus 7adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #fe71 into ?ree p>ts4 8,9 ! fir/ he proves t0 7objectively7 8no?+ exi/s1 9 ! second0 7subjectively71 8t assum+ t ,be+ is1 x _c be kn[n2 & 9 ! ?ird place0 7bo? subjectively & objectively71 8t 7 x to exi/ & be kn[able1 no communication ( :at is kn[n w\ld be possible40 ,gorgias 0 a cong5ial subject to ,sextus1 b ! =m] /ill prov$1 & ?is is :at ! ,sceptics ceas$ to d4 ,"h v ab/ract ?\ght-det]m9ations reg>d+ ! mo/ speculative mom5ts ( ,be+ & non-be+1 ( k1 & ( br++ into exi/5ce1 ( communicat+ k1 are involv$2 & ?is is no idle talk1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 = ,gorgias' dialectic is ( a q objective k9d1 & is mo/ int]e/+ 9 cont5t4 a4 8,if any?+ is10 7?is 8any?+0 is1 h[ev]1 a make%ift t we are 9 ! habit ( us+ 9 our conv]sation1 & :i* is1 prop]ly speak+1 inappropriate1 = x implies an opposition ( subject & pr$icate1 :ile at pres5t ! 8is0 alone is 9 "q7--!n 8if x is0 7& n[ x becomes = ! fir/ "t def9$ z subject7 8x is ei!r ! exi/5t or ! non-exi/5t1 or else exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce4 ,x is n[ evid5t ( ^! ?ree t !y are n40#ajh 4 8,t :i* is n1 is n2 = if ,be+ belong$ to x1 !re w\ld at ! same "t be exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce4 ,t is1 9 s f> z x is ?\ght ( z non-exi/5t1 x is n2 b 9 s f> z x is ! non-exi/5t1 x mu/ exi/4 ,b x _c at ! same "t be & n be4 ,aga91 if ! non-exi/5t is1 ! exi/5t is n1 = ! two are oppos$4 ,?us1 if ,be+ p]ta9$ to non-be+1 non-be+ w\ld belong to ,be+4 ,b if ,be+ does n exi/1 no m does non-be+40#aji ,?is is ) ,gorgias a *>act]i/ic mode ( reason+4#aaj 4 8,b 9 prov+10 ,ari/otle adds to ! passages j quot$1 8t ! exi/5t is n1 he foll[s ,melissus & ,z5o40 ,?is is ! dialectic already br\ght =w>d by !m4 8,if ,be+ is1 x is contradictory to pr$icate a quality to x1 & if we d ?is1 we express some?+ m]ely negative ab\t x40 4 ,= ,gorgias says3 8,:at is1 ei!r is 9 itself 77 be+ )\t beg9n+1 or x has orig9at$10 & he n[ %[s t x c\ld nei!r be ! "o nor ! o!r1 = ea* leads to contradiction4 8,x _c be ! =m]1 = :at is 9 itself has no beg9n+1 & is ! inf9ite10 & h5ce likewise undet]m9$ & indet]m9able4 8,! inf9ite is n[h]e1 = if x is any:]e1 t 9 :i* x is1 is diff]5t f x40 ,:]e x is1 x is 9 ano!r1 8b t is n inf9ite :i* is diff]5t f ano!r1 & conta9$ 9 ano!r4 ,j z little is x conta9$ 9 itself1 = !n t 9 :i* x is1 & t :i* is !re91 w\ld be ! same4 ,:at x is 91 is ! place2 t :i* is 9 ?is1 is ! body2 b t bo? %\ld be ! same is absurd4 ,! inf9ite does n ?us exi/40#aaa ,?is dialectic ( ,gorgias reg>d+ ! inf9ite is on ! "o h& limit$1 because imm$iate exi/5ce has c]ta9ly no beg9n+ & no limit1 b ass]ts a progression into inf9itude2 ! self-exi/5t ,?\ght1 ! univ]sal ,notion1 z absolute negativity1 has1 h[ev]1 limits 9 itself4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,gorgias is q "r1 = ! bad1 s5su\s inf9ite is n[h]e pres5t1 & ?us does n exi/1 b is a ,beyond ( ,be+2 only we may take :at ,gorgias takes z a div]sity ( place1 z be+ div]sity g5]ally4 ,?us1 in/ead ( plac+ ! inf9ite1 l ,gorgias1 sometimes 9 ano!r1 sometimes )9 itself1 i4e4 sometimes ma9ta9+ x to be diff]5t1 sometimes abrogat+ ! div]sity1 we may say bett] & m univ]sally1 t ?is s5su\s inf9ite is a div]sity :i* is always posit$ z diff]5t f ! exi/5t1 = x is j ! be+ diff]5t f itself4 8,9 ! same way ,be+ has n orig9at$1 because x mu/ !n h come ei!r f ! exi/5t or f ! non-exi/5t4 ,f ! exi/5t x did n arise1 = !n x w\ld be already2 j z little f ! non-exi/5t1 because ?is _c beget any?+40#aab ,! sceptics foll[$ ?is up fur!r4 ,! object to be contemplat$ h5ce ev] becomes posit$ "u det]m9ations ) #8ei!r' #8or1' :i* !n contradict "o ano!r4 ,b t is n ! true dialectic1 because ! object resolves itself into ^? det]m9ations only2 :5 no?+ foll[s respect+ ! nature ( ! object itself1 !n1 z is already prov$1 ! object mu/ be necess>ily 9 "o det]m9ation1 & n 9 & = itself4 4 ,9 a simil> way ,gorgias %[s 8( :at exi/s1 t x mu/ ei!r be "o or _m2 b nei!r is possible4 ,= z "o1 x w\ld h a c]ta9 magnitude1 or cont9uity1 or numb]1 or body1 b all ?is is n "o1 b diff]5t1 divisible4 ,e s5su\s "o is1 9 fact1 necess>ily ano!r1 a manifold4 ,if x is n "o1 x _c be _m1 = ! _m is _m ones40#aac 4 8,simil>ly bo?1 ,be+ & non-be+1 _c exi/ at ! same "t4 ,if "o exi/s z mu* z ! o!r1 !y are ! same1 & !re=e nei!r ( !m is1 = ! non-be+ does n exi/1 & h5ce nei!r does ! ,be+1 s9ce x is id5tical ) x4 ,nor c !y1 on ! o!r h&1 bo? exi/1 = if !y are id5tical1 ,i _c express !m bo?10#aad & ?us bo? d n exi/1 = if ,i express bo?1 ,i diff]5tiate4 ,?is dialectic1 :i* ,ari/otle 7,de ,x5oph4 c41 c4 #e7 likewise designates z peculi> to ,gorgias1 has its tru?4 ,9 speak+ ( ,be+ & non-be+1 we always say ! opposite to :at we wi%4 ,be+ & non-be+ are ! same1 j z !y are n ! same2 if !y are ! same1 ,i speak ( ! two z diff]5t3 if diff]5t1 ,i express ! same pr$icate ( !m1 div]sity4 ,?is dialectic is n to be despis$ by u1 z if x dealt ) empty ab/ractions1 = ^! categories are1 on ! "o h&1 9 _! purity ! mo/ univ]sal1 & if1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are n ! ultimate1 yet x is always ,be+ or non-be+ t are 9 "q2 !y are n1 h[ev]1 def9itely fix$ & divid$ (f1 b are self-abrogat+4 ,gorgias is consci\s t !y are vani%+ mom5ts1 :ile ! ord9>y unconsci\s conception also has pres5t to x ?is tru?1 b kn[s no?+ ab\t x4 b4 ,! relation ( ! conceiv] to conception1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 conception & ,be+1 is a subject :i* is 9 our m\?s to-day4 8,b if !re is an #8is1' x is unkn[able & un?9kable1 = :at is pres5t$ is n ! exi/5t0 b only a pres5tation4 8,if :at is pres5t$ is :ite1 x is ! case t :ite is pres5t$2 if :at is pres5t$ is n ! really exi/5t1 x is ! case t :at is1 is n pres5t$4 ,= if :at is pres5t$ is ! real exi/5t1 ev]y?+ t is pres5t$ also exi/s1 b no "o says t if a fly+ man1 or waggon rid+ on ! sea 7 pres5t$ to u1 x w\ld exi/4 ,fur!r1 if :at is pres5t$ is ! exi/5t1 ! non-exi/5t is n pres5t$1 = opposites are 9 opposition4 ,b ?is non-exi/5t is ev]y:]e pres5t$ z x is 9 ,scylla & ! ,*imra4#aae ,gorgias on ! "o h& pron\nces a j polemic aga9/ absolute realism1 :i*1 because x repres5ts1 ?9ks to possess ! v ?+ itself1 :5 x only has a relative1 b he falls1 on ! o!r h&1 into ! false idealism ( mod]n times1 accord+ to :i* ?\ght is always subjective only1 & ?us n ! exi/5t1 s9ce ?r\gh ?\ght an exi/5t is trans=m$ into :at is ?\ght40 c4 ,we f9ally h ! basis ( ! dialectic ( ,gorgias 9 respect ( ! ?ird po9t1 t k _c be imp>t$1 9 ?is3 8,if ! exi/5t 7 pres5t$1 x c\ld /ill n be express$ & imp>t$4 ,?+s are visible1 audible1 c41 or are exp]i5c$4 ,! visible is grasp$ ?r\gh sight1 ! audible ?r\gh he>+1 & n ! contr>y way2 ?us1 ! "o _c be indicat$ by ! o!r4 ,spee*1 by :i* ! exi/5t has to be express$1 is n ! exi/5t2 :at is imp>t$ is ?us n ! exi/5t1 b only words4#aaf ,9 ?is mann] ,gorgias' dialectic is ! lay+ hold ( ?is diff]5ce exactly z aga9 occurr$ 9 ,kant2 if ,i ma9ta9 ?is diff]5ce1 c]ta9ly t :i* is1 _c be kn[n40 ,?is dialectic is und\bt$ly impregnable to ^? :o ma9ta9 s5su\s ,be+ to be real4 ,b its tru? is only ?is movem5t to posit itself negatively z exi/5t1 & ! unity is ! reflection t ! exi/5t1 compreh5d$ also z non-exi/5t1 becomes1 9 ?is compreh5sion ( x1 univ]sal4 ,t ?is exi/5t _c be imp>t$1 mu/ likewise be held mo/ /rongly1 = ?is individual _c be express$4 ,philosophic tru? is ?us n only express$ z if !re 7 ano!r tru? 9 s5su\s consci\sness2 b ,be+ is pres5t 9 t philosophic tru? expresses x4 ,! ,sophi/s ?us also made dialectic1 univ]sal ,philosophy1 _! object1 & !y 7 pr(\nd ?9k]s4 ,b4--,,socrates4 ,consci\sness _h rea*$ ?is po9t 9 ,greece1 :5 9 ,a!ns ! great =m ( ,socrates1 9 :om ! subjectivity ( ?\ght 0 br\ght to consci\sness 9 a m def9ite & m ?or\gh mann]1 n[ appe>$4 ,b ,socrates did n gr[ l a mu%room out ( ! e>?1 = he /&s 9 cont9uity ) 8 "t1 & ?us is n only a mo/ important figure 9 ! hi/ory ( ,philosophy--p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ 9 ! philosophy ( antiquity--b is also a _w-fam$ p]sonage4 ,= a m5tal turn+-po9t exhibit$ itself 9 him 9 ! =m ( philosophic ?\ght4 ,if we %ortly recall ! p]iods already pass$ ov]1 we f9d t ! anci5t ,ionic philosoph]s c]ta9ly ?\ght1 b )\t reflect+ on ! ?\ght or def9+ its product z ?\ght4 ,! ,atomi/s made objective exi/5ce into ?\ghts1 b ^! 7 to !m only ab/ractions1 pure entities4 ,anaxagoras1 on ! o!r h&1 rais$ ?\ght z su*1 into a pr9ciple :i* !reby pres5t$ itself z ! all-p[]ful ,notion1 z ! negative p[] ov] all t is def9ite & exi/5t4 ,protagoras f9ally expresses ?\ght z real exi/5ce1 b x is 9 ?is its movem5t1 :i* is ! all-resolv+ consci\sness1 ! unre/ ( ! ,notion4 ,?is unre/ is 9 itself at ! same "t some?+ re/ful or secure4 ,b ! fix$ po9t ( motion z su*1 is ! #8,i1' = x has ! mom5ts ( movem5t outside ( x2 z ! self-reta9+1 :i* only abrogates :at is diff]5t1 ! #8,i' is negative unity1 b j 9 t v way individual1 & n yet ! univ]sal reflect$ )9 itself4 ,n[ we "h f9d ! ambiguity ( dialectic & sophi/ry1 :i* re/s 9 ! fact t if ! objective disappe>s1 ! signification ( ! fix$ subjective is ei!r t ( ! individual oppos$ to ! objective1 & !reby ! cont+5t & lawless w1 or t ( ! objective & univ]sal 9 itself4 ,socrates expresses real exi/5ce z ! univ]sal #8,i1' z ! consci\sness :i* re/s 9 itself2 b t is ! good z su*1 :i* is free f exi/5t reality1 free f individual s5su\s consci\sness ( feel+ & desire1 free f9ally f ! !oretically speculative ?\ght ab\t nature1 :i*1 if inde$ ?\ght1 has /ill ! =m ( ,be+ & 9 :i* ,i am n c]ta9 ( my exi/5ce4 ,socrates h]e9 adopt$ fir/ly ! doctr9e ( ,anaxagoras t ?\ght1 ! und]/&+1 is ! rul+ & self-det]m9+ univ]sal1 ?\gh ?is pr9ciple did n1 z ) ! ,sophi/s1 atta9 ! =m ( =mal culture or ( ab/ract philosophiz+4 ,?us1 if ) ,socrates1 z ) ,protagoras1 ! self-consci\s ?\ght t abrogates all t is det]m9$1 0 real exi/5ce1 ) ,socrates ?is 0 ! case 9 su* a way t he at ! same "t grasp$ 9 ?\ght re/ & security4 ,?is sub/ance exi/+ 9 & = itself1 ! self-reta9+1 has become det]m9$ z end1 & fur!r z ! true & ! good4 ,to ?is det]m9ation ( ! univ]sal1 we h1 9 ! second place1 to add t ?is good1 :i* has by me to be e/eem$ z sub/antial end1 mu/ be kn[n by me2 ) ?is ! inf9ite subjectivity1 ! fre$om ( self-consci\sness 9 ,socrates breaks out4 ,?is fre$om :i* is conta9$ !re91 ! fact t consci\sness is cle>ly pres5t 9 all t x ?9ks1 & mu/ necess>ily be at home ) itself1 is 9 our "t con/antly & pla9ly dem&$2 ! sub/antial1 al?\gh et]nal & 9 & = itself1 mu/ z truly be produc$ ?r\gh me2 b ?is my "p 9 x is only ! =mal activity4 ,?us ,socrates' pr9ciple is t man has to f9d f himself bo? ! end ( 8 actions & ! end ( ! _w1 & mu/ atta9 to tru? ?r\gh himself4 ,true ?\ght ?9ks 9 su* a way t its import is z truly objective z subjective4 ,b objectivity has be5 ! significance ( sub/antial univ]sality1 & n ( ext]nal objectivity2 ?us tru? is n[ posit$ z a product m$iat$ ?r\gh ?\ght1 :ile untra9$ morality1 z ,sophocles makes ,antigone say 7v]s4 #ded-deg71 is 8! et]nal law ( ! ,gods03 8,& no "o knew f :5ce x came40 ,b ?\gh 9 mod]n times we he> mu* said ( imm$iate k & belief1 x is a misconception to ma9ta9 t _! cont5t1 ,god1 ! ,good1 ,j1 c41 al?\gh ! cont5t ( feel+ & conception1 is n1 z spiritual cont5t1 also posit$ ?r\gh ?\ght4 ,! animal has no religion1 because x only feels2 b :at is spiritual re/s on ! m$iation ( ?\ght1 & p]ta9s to man4 ,s9ce ,socrates ?us introduces ! inf9itely important elem5t ( lead+ back ! tru? ( ! objective to ! ?\ght ( ! subject1 j z ,protagoras says t ! objective fir/ is ?r\gh relation to u1 ! battle ( ,socrates & ,plato ) ! ,sophi/s _c re/ on ! gr\nd t ^!1 z belong+ to ! old fai?1 ma9ta9$ aga9/ ! o!rs ! religion & cu/oms ( ,greece1 = ! violation ( :i* ,anaxagoras 0 condemn$4 ,q ! contr>y4 ,reflection1 & ! ref]5ce ( any judgm5t to consci\sness1 is held by ,socrates 9 common ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,b ! opposition into :i* ,socrates & ,plato 7 9 _! philosophy necess>ily br\ght 9 reg>d to ! ,sophi/s1 z ! univ]sal philosophic culture ( ! times1 0 z foll[s3--,! objective produc$ ?r\gh ?\ght1 is at ! same "t 9 & = itself1 ?us be+ rais$ above all p>ticul>ity ( int]e/s & desires1 & be+ ! p[] ov] !m4 ,h5ce because1 on ! "o h&1 to ,socrates & ,plato ! mom5t ( subjective fre$om is ! direct+ ( consci\sness into itself1 on ! o!r1 ?is return is also det]m9$ z a com+ out f p>ticul> subjectivity4 ,x is h]eby impli$ t cont+5cy ( ev5ts is aboli%$1 & man has ?is outside )9 him1 z ! spiritual univ]sal4 ,?is is ! true1 ! unity ( subjective & objective 9 mod]n t]m9ology1 :ile ! ,kantian ideal is only ph5om5al & n objective 9 itself4 ,9 ! ?ird place ,socrates accept$ ! ,good at fir/ only 9 ! p>ticul> significance ( ! practical1 :i* nev]!less is only "o mode ( ! sub/antial ,idea2 ! univ]sal is n only = me1 b also1 z end exi/5t 9 & = itself1 ! pr9ciple ( ! philosophy ( nature1 & 9 ?is high] s5se x 0 tak5 by ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,( ,socrates x is h5ce said1 9 ! old] hi/ories ( ,philosophy1 t 8 ma9 di/9ction 0 hav+ add$ e?ics z a new conception to ,philosophy1 :i* =m]ly only took nature into consid]ation4 ,diog5es ,la]tius1 9 l mann] says 7,,iii41 #ef71 t ! ,ionics f\nd$ natural philosophy1 ,socrates e?ics1 & ,plato add$ to !m dialectic4 ,n[ e?ics is p>tly objective1 & p>tly subjective & reflect$ morality ,sittli*keit und ,moralitt1#aag & ! tea*+ ( ,socrates is prop]ly subjectively moral1 because 9 x ! subjective side1 my p]ception & mean+1 is ! prevail+ mom5t1 al?\gh ?is det]m9ation ( self-posit+ is likewise sublat$1 & ! good & et]nal is :at is 9 & = itself4 ,objective morality is1 on ! contr>y1 natural1 s9ce x signifies ! k & do+ ( :at is 9 & = itself good4 ,! ,a!nians be=e ,socrates 7 objectively1 & n subjectively1 moral1 = !y act$ rationally 9 _! relations )\t kn[+ t !y 7 p>ticul>ly excell5t4 ,reflective morality adds to natural morality ! reflection t ?is is ! good & n t2 ! ,kantian philosophy1 :i* is reflectively moral1 aga9 %[$ ! diff]5ce4 ,because ,socrates 9 ?is way gave rise to moral philosophy1 all succe$+ babbl]s ab\t morality & popul> philosophy con/itut$ him _! patron & object ( adoration1 & made him into a cloak :i* %\ld cov] all false philosophy4 ,z he treat$ x1 x 0 und\bt$ly popul>2 & :at contribut$ to make x su* 0 t 8 dea? gave him ! nev]-fail+ int]e/ d]iv$ f innoc5t suff]+4 ,cic]o 7,tusc4 ,qu/4 ,v4 #d71 ^: mann] ( ?\ght 01 on ! "o h&1 ( ! pres5t1 & :o1 on ! o!r h&1 _h ! belief t ,philosophy %\ld yield itself up1 & h5ce succe$$ 9 atta9+ to no cont5t 9 x1 boa/$ ( ,socrates 7:at has (t5 en\gh be5 said s9ce7 t 8 mo/ em95t *>act]i/ic 0 to h br\ght ,philosophy f heav5 to e>?1 to ! homes & e-day life ( m51 or1 z ,diog5es ,la]tius expresses x 7,,ii4 #ba71 8into ! m>ket place40 ,!re we h :at has j be5 said4 ,?is w\ld seem z if ! be/ & true/ ,philosophy 7 only a dome/ic or fireside philosophy1 :i* con=ms to all ! ord9>y ideas ( m51 & 9 :i* we see fri5ds & fai?ful ones talk toge!r ( righte\sness1 & ( :at c be kn[n on ! e>?1 )\t hav+ p5etrat$ ! dep?s ( ! heav5s1 or r ! dep?s ( consci\sness4 ,b ?is la/ is exactly :at ,socrates1 z ^! m5 !mselves indicate1 fir/ v5tur$ to d4 ,& x 0 n incumb5t on him to reflect ^u all ! speculations ( pa/ ,philosophy1 9 ord] to be able to come d[n 9 practical philosophy to inw>d ?\ght4 ,?is gives a g5]al idea ( 8 pr9ciple4 ,we mu/ exam9e m closely ?is notewor?y ph5om5on1 & beg9 ) ! hi/ory ( ,socrates' life4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 closely int]tw9$ ) 8 int]e/ 9 ,philosophy1 & ! ev5ts ( 8 life are b\nd up ) 8 pr9ciples4 ,we h fir/ ( all to consid] ! beg9n+ ( 8 life only4 ,socrates1 ^: bir? occurs 9 ! f\r? ye> ( ! #gg? ,olympiad 7#dfi ,b4,c471 0 ! son ( ,sophroniscus1 a sculptor1 & ( ,phn>ete1 a midwife4 ,8 fa!r br\ght him up to sculpture1 & x is said t ,socrates acquir$ skill 9 ! art1 & long aft]1 /atues ( drap$ ,graces1 f\nd 9 ! ,acropolis1 7 ascrib$ to him4 ,b 8 art did n satisfy him2 a great desire = ,philosophy1 & love ( sci5tific rese>*1 got possession ( him4 ,he pursu$ 8 art m]ely to get money = a necess>y subsi/5ce1 & to be able to apply himself to ! /udy ( ! sci5ces2 & x is told ( ,crito1 an ,a!nian1 t he defray$ ! co/ ( ,socrates' in/ruction by ma/]s 9 all ! arts4 ,dur+ ! ex]cise ( 8 art1 & specially aft] he gave x up altoge!r1 he read ! works ( anci5t philosoph]s 9 s f> z he c\ld get possession ( !m4 ,at ! same "t he att5d$ ,anaxagoras' in/ructions1 &1 aft] 8 expulsion f ,a!ns1 at :i* "t ,socrates 0 ?irty-sev5 ye>s old1 ^? ( ,ar*elaus1 :o 0 reg>d$ z ,anaxagoras' successor1 besides ^? ( ,sophi/s celebrat$ 9 o!r sci5ces4 ,among/ ^! he he>d ,prodicus1 a celebrat$ tea*] ( oratory1 :om1 accord+ to ,x5ophon 7,memorab4 ,,ii4 c4 #a1 #ba1 #cd71 he m5tions ) affection1 & o!r tea*]s ( music1 poetry1 etc4 ,he 0 e/eem$ z on all sides a man ( culture1 :o 0 in/ruct$ 9 ev]y?+ !n requisite !reto4#aah ,ano!r feature 9 8 life 0 t he fulfill$ ! duty ( protect+ 8 c\ntry1 :i* re/$ on him z an ,a!nian citiz54 ,h5ce he made ?ree campaigns 9 ! ,peloponnesian w>1 :i* occurr$ dur+ 8 life4 ,! ,peloponnesian w> l$ to ! dissolution ( ,greek life1 inasmu* z x 0 prep>atory to x2 & :at took place politically 0 by ,socrates c>ri$ out 9 ?9k+ consci\sness4 ,9 ^! campaigns he n only acquir$ ! fame ( a brave w>rior1 b1 :at 0 be/ ( all1 ! m]it ( hav+ sav$ ! lives ( o!r citiz5s4 ,9 ! fir/1 he 0 pres5t at ! t$i\s siege ( ,potida 9 ,?race4 ,"h ,alcibiades _h already atta*$ himself to him1 &1 accord+ to ,plato1 he recit$ 9 ! ,banquet 7p4 #bai-bbb1 ,/eph42 p4 #dfa-dff1 ,bekk471 a eulogy on ,socrates = be+ able to endure all toil1 hung] & ?ir/1 heat & cold1 ) m9d at re/ & heal? ( body4 ,9 an engagem5t 9 ?is campaign he saw ,alcibiades w\nd$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! enemy1 lift$ him up1 =c$ 8 way ?r\gh1 & sav$ bo? him & 8 arms4 ,! g5]als rew>d$ him ) a wrea?1 :i* 0 ! prize ( ! brave/2 ,socrates did n1 h[ev]1 take x1 ma9ta9+ t x 0 giv5 to ,alcibiades4 ,9 ?is campaign x is said t once1 sunk 9 deep m$itation1 he /ood immovable on "o spot ! :ole day & night1 until ! morn+ sun awoke him f 8 trance--a condition 9 :i* he is said (t5 to h be54 ,?is 0 a cataleptic /ate1 :i* may be> "s relation to magnetic somnambulism1 9 :i* ,socrates became q dead to s5su\s consci\sness4 ,f ?is physical sett+ free ( ! inw>d ab/ract self f ! concrete bodily exi/5ce ( ! individual1 we h1 9 ! outw>d manife/ation1 a pro( ( h[ ! dep?s ( 8 m9d work$ )9 him4 ,9 him we see pre-em95tly ! inw>dness ( consci\sness t 9 an an?ropological way exi/$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance 9 him1 & became lat] on a usual ?+4 ,he made 8 o!r campaign 9 ,botia at ,delium1 a small =tification :i* ! ,a!nians possess$ n f> f ! sea1 & :]e !y _h an un=tunate1 ?\gh n an important engagem5t4 ,"h ,socrates sav$ ano!r ( 8 fav\rites1 ,x5ophon2 he saw him 9 ! flight1 = ,x5ophon1 hav+ lo/ 8 horse1 lay w\nd$ on ! gr\nd4 ,socrates took him ov] 8 %\ld]s1 c>ri$ him (f1 def5d+ himself at ! same "t ) ! greate/ tranquillity & pres5ce ( m9d f ! pursu+ enemy4 ,f9ally he made 8 la/ campaign at ,amphipolis 9 ,edonis1 on ! ,/rymonian ,bay4#aai ,besides ?is1 he occupi$ v>i\s civil (fices4 ,at ! "t :5 ! democratic con/itution ( ,a!ns hi!rto exi/+1 0 tak5 away by ! ,lac$emonians1 :o n[ introduc$ ev]y:]e an ari/ocratic & inde$ tyrannical rule1 :]eby !y 9 great measure put !mselves at ! head ( affairs1 he 0 *os5 = ! c\ncil1 :i*1 z a repres5tative body1 took ! place ( ! p4 ,"h he di/+ui%$ himself by 8 immovable firmness 9 :at he held to be "r z aga9/ ! wills ( ! ?irty tyrants1 z =m]ly aga9/ ! w ( ! p4 ,= he sat 9 ! tribunal :i* condemn$ ! t5 g5]als to dea?1 because1 z admirals at ! battle ( ,arg9us1 ?\gh !y c]ta9ly _h conqu]$1 yet1 be+ kept back ?r\gh /orm1 !y _h n dragg$ out ! bodies nor buri$ !m on ! %ore1 & because !y neglect$ to erect trophies2 i4e4 really because !y did n /& _! gr\nd1 & ?us appe>$ to h be5 beat54 ,socrates alone did n agree ) ?is decision1 decl>+ himself m emphatically aga9/ ! p ?an aga9/ ! rul]s4#abj ,to-day he f>es badly :o says any?+ aga9/ ! p4 8,! p h excell5t intellig5ce1 und]/& ev]y?+1 & h only ! mo/ excell5t int5tions40 ,z to rul]s1 gov]nm5ts1 m9i/]s1 x is self-evid5t t 8!y und]/& no?+1 & only desire & br+ =? :at is bad40 ,along ) ^! to him m accid5tal relation%ips to ! ,/ate1 9 :i* he act$ only f ! ord9>y s5se ( citiz5%ip1 )\t spontane\sly mak+ ! affairs ( ! ,/ate 8 real bus9ess1 or press+ on to ! head ( public affairs1 ! real bus9ess ( 8 life 0 to discuss moral philosophy ) any :o came 9 8 way4 ,8 philosophy1 :i* ass]ts t real exi/5ce is 9 consci\sness z a univ]sal1 is /ill n a prop]ly speculative philosophy1 b rema9$ individual2 yet ! aim ( 8 philosophy 0 t x %\ld h a univ]sal significance4 ,h5ce we h to speak ( 8 own individual be+1 ( 8 ?or\ghly noble "*1 :i* usually is depict$ z a complete catalogue ( ! virtues adorn+ ! life ( a private citiz52 & ^! virtues ( ,socrates are c]ta9ly to be look$ at z 8 own1 & z made habitual to him by 8 own w4 ,x has to be not$ t ) ! anci5ts ^! qualities h g5]ally m ( ! "* ( virtue1 because ) ! anci5ts1 9 ord9>y morality1 individuality1 z ! =m ( ! univ]sal1 0 giv5 free scope1 s t virtues 7 reg>d$ m z ! actions ( ! individual w1 & ?us z p]sonal qualities2 :ile ) u !y seem to be less :at is m]itori\s to ! individual1 or :at comes f himself z ?is unit4 ,we are accu/om$ to ?9k ( !m mu* m z :at exi/s1 z duty1 because we h a full] consci\sness ( ! univ]sal1 & consid] ! pure individual1 ! p]sonal inw>d consci\sness1 z real exi/5ce & duty4 ,) u virtues are h5ce actually ei!r elem5ts 9 our dispositions & nature1 or !y h ! =m ( ! univ]sal & ( :at is necess>y2 b ) ,socrates !y h ! =m1 n ( ord9>y morality or ( a natural or necess>y ?+1 b ( an indep5d5t det]m9ation4 ,x is well kn[n t 8 appe>ance indicat$ naturally l[ & hateful qualities1 :i*1 z inde$ he says1 he himself subdu$4 ,he liv$ among/ 8 fell[-citiz5s1 & /&s be=e u z "o ( ^? great pla/ic natures consi/5t ?r\gh & ?r\gh1 su* z we (t5 see 9 ^? times--resembl+ a p]fect classical "w ( art :i* has br\ght itself to ?is height ( p]fection4 ,su* individuals are n made1 b h =m$ !mselves into :at !y are2 !y h become t :i* !y wi%$ to be1 & are true to ?is4 ,9 a real "w ( art ! di/+ui%+ po9t is t "s idea is br\ght =?1 a "* is pres5t$ 9 :i* e trait is det]m9$ by ! idea1 &1 because ?is is s1 ! "w ( art is1 on ! "o h&1 liv+1 &1 on ! o!r1 beautiful1 = ! highe/ beauty is j ! mo/ p]fect c>ry+ out ( all sides ( ! individuality 9 accordance ) ! "o inw>d pr9ciple4 ,su* works ( art are also se5 9 ! great m5 ( e "t4 ,! mo/ pla/ic individual z a /atesman is ,p]icles1 & r\nd him1 l />s1 ,sophocles1 ,?ucydides1 ,socrates1 c41 work$ out _! individuality into an exi/5ce ( its own--into a "* :i* regulat$ _! :ole be+1 & :i* 0 "o pr9ciple runn+ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( _! exi/5ce4 ,p]icles alone liv$ ) ! sole end ( be+ a /atesman4 ,plut>* 79 ,p]icle1 c4 #e1 #g7 says ( him t1 f ! "t t he devot$ himself to ! bus9ess ( ! ,/ate1 he laugh$ no m1 & nev] aga9 w5t to a fea/4 ,?us1 too1 ,socrates =m$ himself1 ?r\gh 8 art & ?r\gh ! p[] ( self-consci\s w1 into ?is p>ticul> "*1 & acquir$ ?is capacity = ! bus9ess ( 8 life4 ,?r\gh 8 pr9ciple he atta9$ t f>-rea*+ influ5ce :i* has la/$ to ! pres5t day 9 relation to religion1 sci5ce1 & ju/ice1 = s9ce 8 "t ! g5ius ( inw>d conviction has be5 ! basis :i* mu/ be fundam5tal4 ,& s9ce ?is pr9ciple proce$$ f ! pla/icity ( 8 "*1 x is v inappropriate :5 ,t5nemann regrets 7,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bf7 8t ?\gh we "k :at he 01 we d n "k h[ he became su*40 ,socrates 0 a peaceful1 pi\s example ( ! moral virtues--( wisdom1 discretion1 temp]ance1 mod]ation1 ju/ice1 c\rage1 inflexibility1 firm s5se ( rectitude 9 relation to tyrants & p2 he 0 equally remov$ f cupidity & despotism4 ,8 indiff]5ce to money 0 due to 8 own det]m9ation1 =1 accord+ to ! cu/om ( ! times1 he c\ld acquire x ?r\gh ! education ( y\?1 l o!r tea*]s4 ,on ! o!r side1 ?is acquisition 0 purely matt] ( *oice1 & n1 z ) u1 some?+ :i* is accept$1 s t to take no?+ w\ld be to break ?r\gh a cu/om1 ?us to pres5t ! appe>ance ( wi%+ to become conspicu\s1 & to be m blam$ ?an prais$4 ,= ?is 0 n yet a ,/ate affair2 x 0 "u ! ,roman emp]ors t !re fir/ 7 s*ools ) paym5t4 ,?is mod]ation ( 8 life 0 likewise a p[] proce$+ f consci\s k1 b ?is is n a pr9ciple f\nd to h&1 b ! regulation ( self 9 accordance ) circum/ances2 9 company he 01 h[ev]1 a good fell[4 ,8 sobriety 9 respect to w9e is be/ depict$ 9 ,plato's 8,symposium10 9 a v *>act]i/ic sc5e 9 :i* we see :at ,socrates call$ virtue4 ,alcibiades !re appe>s1 no long] sob]1 at a fea/ giv5 by ,aga?on1 on ! occasion ( a success :i* 8 trag$y _h obta9$ on ! previ\s day at ! games4 ,s9ce ! company _h drunk mu* on ! fir/ day ( ! fea/1 ! assembl$ gue/s1 among/ :om 0 ,socrates1 ?is ev5+ took a resolution1 9 opposition to ! ,greek cu/om at meals1 to dr9k little4 ,alcibiades1 f9d+ t he 0 com+ 9 among/ ab/emi\s m51 & t !re 0 no "o else 9 8 own frame ( m9d1 made himself k+ ( ! fea/1 & (f]$ ! goblet to ! o!rs1 9 ord] to br+ !m into ! condition rea*$ by himself2 b ) ,socrates he said t he c\ld d no?+1 because he rema9$ z he 01 h[ev] mu* he drank4 ,plato !n makes ! individual :o tells :at happ5$ at ! ,banquet1 also tell t he1 ) ! o!rs1 at la/ fell asleep on ! c\*1 & z he awoke 9 ! morn+1 ,socrates1 cup 9 h&1 /ill talk$ ) ,ari/ophanes & ,aga?on ab\t com$y & trag$y1 & :e!r "o man c\ld write bo? com$ies & trag$ies1 & !n w5t at ! usual "t into ! public places1 to ! ,lyceum1 z if no?+ _h happ5$1 & walk$ ab\t ! :ole day z usual4#aba ,?is is n a mod]ation :i* exi/s 9 ! lea/ possible enjoym5t1 no aimless ab/emi\sness & self-mortification1 b a p[] belong+ to consci\sness1 :i* keeps its self-possession 9 bodily excess4 ,we see f ?is t we h n to ?9k ( ,socrates ?r\gh\t aft] ! fa%ion ( ! litany ( moral virtues4 ,8 behavi\r to o!rs 0 n only j1 true1 op51 )\t rud5ess1 & hon\rable1 b we also see 9 him an example ( ! mo/ p]fect ,attic urbanity2 i4e4 he moves 9 ! free/ possible relations1 has a read9ess = conv]sation :i* is always judici\s1 &1 because x has an inw>d univ]sality1 at ! same "t always has ! "r liv+ relation%ip to ! individual1 & be>s ^u ! case on :i* x op]ates4 ,! int]c\rse is t ( a mo/ highly cultur$ man :o1 9 8 relation to o!rs1 nev] places any?+ p]sonal 9 all 8 wit1 & sets aside all t is unpleasant4 ,?us ,x5ophon's1 b p>ticul>ly ,plato's ,socratic ,dialogues belong to ! highe/ type ( ?is f9e social culture4 ,because ! philosophy ( ,socrates is no )drawal f exi/5ce n[ & "h into ! free1 pure regions ( ?\ght1 b is 9 a piece ) 8 life1 x does n proce$ to a sy/em2 & ! mann] ( 8 philosophiz+1 :i* appe>s to imply a )drawal f actual affairs z x did to ,plato1 yet 9 t v way gives itself ?is inw>d connection ) ord9>y life4 ,= 8 m special bus9ess 0 8 philosophic tea*+1 or r 8 philosophic social int]c\rse 7= x 0 n1 prop]ly speak+1 tea*+7 ) all2 & ?is outw>dly resembl$ ord9>y ,a!nian life 9 :i* ! great] "p ( ! day 0 pass$ )\t any p>ticul> bus9ess1 9 loit]+ ab\t ! m>ket-place1 or frequ5t+ ! public ,lyceum1 & !re p>tly p>tak+ ( bodily ex]cises1 & p>tly & pr9cipally1 talk+ ) "o ano!r4 ,?is k9d ( int]c\rse 0 only possible 9 ! ,a!nian mode ( life1 :]e mo/ ( ! "w :i* is n[ done by a free citiz5--by a free republican & free imp]ial citiz5 alike--0 p]=m$ by slaves1 see+ t x 0 deem$ unwor?y ( free m54 ,a free citiz5 c\ld 9 ,a!ns c]ta9ly be a h&icraftsman1 b he _h slaves :o did ! "w1 j z a ma/] n[ has workm54 ,at ! pres5t day su* a life ( movem5t w\ld n be suitable to our cu/oms4 ,n[ ,socrates also l\ng$ ab\t aft] ?is mann]1 & liv$ 9 ?is con/ant discussion ( e?ical que/ions4#abb ,?us :at he did 0 :at came naturally to him1 & :at c 9 g5]al be call$ moraliz+2 b its nature & me?od 0 n t ( prea*+1 exhortation or tea*+2 x 0 n a dry morality4 ,= among/ ! ,a!nians & 9 ,attic urbanity1 ?is _h no place1 s9ce x is n a reciprocal1 free1 & rational relation%ip4 ,b ) all m51 h[ev] diff]5t _! *>act]s1 he ent]$ on "o k9d ( dialogue1 ) all t ,attic urbanity :i*1 )\t presumption on 8 "p1 )\t in/ruct+ o!rs1 or wi%+ to comm& !m1 :ile ma9ta9+ _! p]fect "r to fre$om1 & hon\r+ x1 yet causes all t is rude to be suppress$4 #a4 ,! ,socratic ,me?od4 ,9 ?is conv]sation ,socrates' philosophy is f\nd1 z also :at is kn[n z ! ,socratic me?od1 :i* mu/ 9 its nature be dialectic1 & ( :i* we mu/ speak be=e deal+ ) ! cont5t4 ,socrates' mann] is n artificial2 ! dialogues ( ! mod]ns1 on ! contr>y1 j because no int]nal reason ju/ifies _! =m1 are necess>ily t$i\s & heavy4 ,b ! pr9ciple ( 8 philosophy falls 9 ) ! me?od itself1 :i* ?us f> _c be call$ me?od1 s9ce x is a mode :i* q co9cides ) ! moraliz+ peculi> to ,socrates4 ,= ! *ief cont5t is to "k ! good z ! absolute1 & t p>ticul>ly 9 relation to actions4 ,socrates gives ?is po9t ( view s high a place1 t he bo? puts aside ! sci5ces :i* involve ! contemplation ( ! univ]sal 9 nature1 m9d1 c41 himself1 & calls ^u o!rs to d ! same4#abc ,?us x c be said t 9 cont5t 8 philosophy _h an altoge!r practical aspect1 & simil>ly ! ,socratic me?od1 :i* is ess5tial to x1 0 di/+ui%$ by ! sy/em ( fir/ br++ a p]son to reflection ^u 8 duty by any occasion t might ei!r happ5 to be (f]$ spontane\sly1 or t 0 br\ght ab\t by ,socrates4 ,by go+ to ! "w-places ( tailors & %oemak]s1 & ent]+ into disc\rse ) !m1 z also ) y\?s & old m51 ,sophi/s1 /atesm51 & citiz5s ( all k9ds1 he 9 ! fir/ place took _! int]e/s z 8 topic--:e!r ^! 7 h\sehold int]e/s1 ! education ( *ildr51 or ! int]e/s ( k or ( tru?4 ,!n he l$ !m on f a def9ite case to ?9k ( ! univ]sal1 & ( tru?s & beauties :i* _h absolute value1 s9ce 9 e case1 f ! individual's own ?\ghts1 he d]iv$ ! conviction & consci\sness ( t :i* is ! def9ite "r4 ,?is me?od has two prom95t aspects1 ! "o ! developm5t ( ! univ]sal f ! concrete case1 & ! exhibition ( ! notion :i* implicitly exi/s 9 e consci\sness1#abd & ! o!r is ! resolution ( ! firmly e/abli%$1 &1 :5 tak5 imm$iately 9 consci\sness1 univ]sal det]m9ations ( ! s5su\s conception or ( ?\ght1 & ! caus+ ( confusion betwe5 ^! & :at is concrete4 a4 ,if we proce$ f ! g5]al acc\nt ( ,socrates' me?od to a ne>] view1 9 ! fir/ place its effect is to inspire m5 ) di/ru/ t[>ds _! presuppositions1 aft] fai? _h become wav]+ & !y 7 driv5 to seek t :i* is1 9 !mselves4 ,n[ :e!r x 0 t he wi%$ to br+ ! mann] ( ! ,sophi/s into disrepute1 or t he 0 desir\s to awak5 ! desire = k & indep5d5t ?\ght 9 ! y\?s :om he attract$ to himself1 he c]ta9ly began by adopt+ ! ord9>y conceptions :i* !y consid]$ to be true4 ,b 9 ord] to br+ o!rs to express ^!1 he repres5ts himself z 9 ignorance ( !m1 &1 ) a seem+ +5u\sness1 puts que/ions to 8 audi5ce z if !y 7 to in/ruct him1 :ile he really wi%$ to draw !m out4 ,?is is ! celebrat$ ,socratic irony1 :i* 9 8 case is a p>ticul> mode ( c>ry+ on int]c\rse betwe5 "o p]son & ano!r1 & is ?us only a subjective =m ( dialectic1 = real dialectic deals ) ! reasons = ?+s4 ,:at he wi%$ to effect 01 t :5 o!r p br\ght =w>d _! pr9ciples1 he1 f ea* def9ite proposition1 %\ld d$uce z its consequ5ce ! direct opposite ( :at ! proposition /at$1 or else all[ ! opposite to be d$uc$ f _! own inn] consci\sness )\t ma9ta9+ x directly aga9/ _! /atem5ts4 ,sometimes he also d]iv$ ! opposite f a concrete case4 ,b z ?is opposite 0 a pr9ciple held by m5 z firmly z ! o!r1 he !n w5t on to %[ t !y contradict$ !mselves4 ,?us ,socrates taught ^? ) :om he associat$ to "k t !y knew no?+2 inde$1 :at is m1 he himself said t he knew no?+1 & !re=e taught no?+4 ,x may actually be said t ,socrates knew no?+1 = he did n rea* ! sy/ematic con/ruction ( a philosophy4 ,he 0 consci\s ( ?is1 & x 0 also n at all 8 aim to e/abli% a sci5ce4 ,on ! "o view1 ?is irony seems to be some?+ untrue4 ,b :5 we deal ) objects :i* h a univ]sal int]e/1 & speak ab\t !m to "o & to ano!r1 x is always ! case t "o does n und]/& ano!r's conception ( ! object4 ,= e individual has c]ta9 ultimate words z to :i* he presupposes a common k4 ,b if we really are to come to an und]/&+1 we f9d x is ^! presuppositions :i* h to be inve/igat$4 ,= in/ance1 if 9 m rec5t times belief & reason are discuss$ z ! subjects ( pres5t intellectual int]e/1 ev]yone pret5ds t he kn[s q well :at reason1 c41 is1 & x is consid]$ ill-br$ to ask = an explanation ( ?is1 see+ t all are suppos$ to "k ab\t x4 ,a v celebrat$ div9e1 t5 ye>s ago1#abe publi%$ n9ety !ses on reason1 :i* conta9$ v int]e/+ que/ions1 b result$ 9 no?+1 al?\gh !y 7 mu* discuss$1 because "o p]son's ass]tions issu$ f ! po9t ( view ( fai?1 & ! o!r's f t ( reason1 & ea* rema9$ 9 ?is /ate ( opposition1 )\t ! "o's kn[+ :at ! o!r meant4 ,?us :at w\ld make an und]/&+ possible is j ! explanation ( :at we ?9k is und]/ood1 )\t really be+ s4 ,if fai? & k c]ta9ly diff] f "o ano!r at ! fir/1 yet ?r\gh ?is decl>ation ( _! notional det]m9ations ! common elem5t w at once appe>2 9 t way que/ions l ^! & ! tr\ble tak5 ) !m may1 = ! fir/ "t1 become fruitful2 o!rwise m5 may *att] ?is way & t = ye>s1 )\t mak+ any advance4 ,= if ,i say ,i "k :at reason1 :at belief is1 ^! are only q ab/ract ideas2 x is necess>y1 9 ord] to become concrete1 t !y %\ld be expla9$1 & t x %\ld be und]/ood t :at !y really are1 is unkn[n4 ,! irony ( ,socrates has ?is great quality ( %[+ h[ to make ab/ract ideas concrete & effect _! developm5t1 = on t alone dep5ds ! br++ ( ! ,notion into consci\sness4 ,9 rec5t times mu* has be5 said ab\t ! ,socratic irony :i*1 l all dialectic1 gives =ce to :at is tak5 imm$iately1 b only 9 ord] to all[ ! dissolution inh]5t 9 x to come to pass2 & we may call ?is ! univ]sal irony ( ! _w4 ,yet m5 h tri$ to make ?is irony ( ,socrates into some?+ q diff]5t1 = !y ext5d$ x into a univ]sal pr9ciple2 x is said to be ! highe/ attitude ( ! m9d1 & has be5 repres5t$ z ! mo/ div9e4 ,x 0 ,fri$ri* von ,s*legel :o fir/ br\ght =w>d ?is idea1 & ,a/ repeat$ x1 say+1 8,! mo/ ard5t love ( all beauty 9 ! ,idea1 z 9 life1 inspires ,socrates' words ) inw>d1 unfa?omable life40 ,?is life is n[ said to be irony6 ,b ?is irony issues f ! ,fi*tian philosophy1 & is an ess5tial po9t 9 ! compreh5sion ( ! conceptions ( mo/ rec5t times4 ,x is :5 subjective consci\sness ma9ta9s its indep5d5ce ( ev]y?+1 t x says1 8,x is ,i :o ?r\gh my educat$ ?\ghts c annul all det]m9ations ( "r1 morality1 good1 c41 because ,i am cle>ly ma/] ( !m1 & ,i "k t if any?+ seems good to me ,i c easily subv]t x1 because ?+s are only true to me 9 s f> z !y please me n[40 ,?is irony is ?us only a trifl+ ) ev]y?+1 & x c trans=m all ?+s into %[3 to ?is subjectivity no?+ is any long] s]i\s1 = any s]i\sness :i* x has1 imm$iately becomes dissipat$ aga9 9 jokes1 & all noble or div9e tru? vani%es away or becomes m]e triviality4 ,b ! ,greek gaiety1 z x brea!s 9 ,hom]'s poems1 is ironical1 = ,eros mocks ! p[] ( ,zeus & ( ,m>s2 ,vulcan1 limp+ along1 s]ves ! gods ) w9e1 & br+s ^u himself ! uncontrollable laught] ( ! immortal gods4 ,juno boxes ,diana's e>s4 ,?us1 too1 !re is irony 9 ! sacrifices ( ! anci5ts1 :o !mselves consum$ ! be/2 9 ! pa9 t laughs1 9 ! ke5e/ joy :i* is mov$ to te>s1 9 ! scornful laught] ( ,mephi/opheles1 & 9 e transition f "o extreme to ano!r--f :at is be/ to :at is wor/4 ,sunday morn+ may be pass$ 9 deep humility1 pr(\nde/ contrition & self-abasem5t1 9 /rik+ ! brea/ 9 p5it5ce1 & ! ev5+ 9 eat+ & dr9k+ to ! full1 go+ ! r\nd ( pleasures1 ?us all[+ self to re-ass]t its indep5d5ce ( any su* subjection4 ,hypocrisy1 :i* is ( ! same nature1 is ! true/ irony4 ,socrates & ,plato 7 falsely /at$ to be ! orig9ators ( ?is irony1 ( :i* x is said t x is ! 8inmo/ & deepe/ life10 al?\gh !y possess$ ! elem5t ( subjectivity2 9 our "t x 0 n p]mitt$ to u to give effect to ?is irony4 ,a/'s 8inmo/1 deepe/ life0 is j ! subjective & arbitr>y w1 ! inw>d div9ity :i* kn[s itself to be exalt$ above all4 ,! div9e is said to be ! purely negative attitude1 ! p]ception ( ! vanity ( ev]y?+1 9 :i* my vanity alone rema9s4 ,mak+ ! consci\sness ( ! nullity ( ev]y?+ ultimate1 might inde$ indicate dep? ( life1 b x only is ! dep? ( empt9ess1 z may be se5 f ! anci5t com$ies ( ,ari/ophanes4 ,f ?is irony ( our times1 ! irony ( ,socrates is f> remov$2 z is also ! case ) ,plato1 x has a significance :i* is limit$4 ,socrates' prem$itat$ irony may be call$ a mann] ( spee*1 a pleasant rally+2 !re is 9 x no satirical laught] or pret5ce1 z ?\gh ! idea 7 no?+ b a joke4 ,b 8 tragic irony is 8 opposition ( subjective reflection to morality z x exi/s1 n a consci\sness ( ! fact t he /&s above x1 b ! natural aim ( lead+ m51 ?r\gh ?\ght1 to ! true good & to ! univ]sal ,idea4 b4 ,n[ ! second elem5t is :at ,socrates has call$ ! art ( midwif]y--an art :i* came to him f 8 "m4#abf ,x is ! assi/+ into ! _w ( ! ?\ght :i* is already conta9$ 9 ! consci\sness ( ! individual--! %[+ f ! concrete1 unreflect$ consci\sness1 ! univ]sality ( ! concrete1 or f ! univ]sally posit$1 ! opposite :i* already is )9 x4 ,socrates h5ce adopts a que/ion+ attitude1 & ?is k9d ( que/ion+ & answ]+ has ?us be5 call$ ! ,socratic me?od2 b 9 ?is me?od !re is m ?an c be giv5 9 que/ions & replies4 ,= ! answ] seems occasionally to be q diff]5t f :at 0 int5d$ by ! "q1 :ile 9 pr9t$ dialogue1 answ]s are altoge!r "u ! au?or's control2 b to say t 9 actual life p are f\nd to answ] z !y are "h made to d1 is q ano!r ?+4 ,to ,socrates ^? :o reply may be call$ pliable y\?s1 because !y reply directly to ! que/ions1 :i* are s =m$ t !y make ! answ] v easy1 & exclude any orig9ality 9 reply4 ,to ?is pla/ic mann]1 :i* we see 9 ! me?od ( ,socrates1 z repres5t$ by ,plato & ,x5ophon1 x is object$ t we d n answ] 9 ! same relation 9 :i* ! que/ion] asks2 :ile1 ) ,socrates1 ! relation :i* ! que/ion] adopts is respect$ 9 ! reply4 ,! o!r way1 :i* is to br+ =w>d ano!r po9t ( view1 is und\bt$ly ! _s ( an animat$ conv]sation1 b su* emulation is exclud$ f ?is ,socratic me?od1 9 :i* ! pr9cipal matt] is to keep to ! po9t4 ,! _s ( dogmatism1 self-ass]tion1 /opp+ %ort :5 we seem to get into difficulties1 & escap+ f !m by a je/1 or by sett+ !m aside--all ^! attitudes & me?ods are "h exclud$2 !y d n con/itute good mann]s1 nor d !y h a place 9 ,socrates' dialogues4 ,9 ^! dialogues1 x is h5ce n to be wond]$ at t ^? que/ion$ answ]$ s precisely to ! po9t1 :ile 9 ! be/ mod]n dialogues !re is always an arbitr>y elem5t4 ,?is diff]5ce conc]ns only :at is ext]nal & =mal4 ,b ! pr9cipal po9t1 & ! reason :y ,socrates set to "w ) que/ions 9 br++ ! good & "r into consci\sness 9 univ]sal =m1 0 t he did n proce$ f :at is pres5t 9 our consci\sness 9 a simple =m ?r\gh sett+ =? ! conception alli$ to x 9 pure necessity1 :i* w\ld be a d$uction1 a pro( or1 speak+ g5]ally1 a consequ5ce foll[+ f ! conception4 ,b ?is concrete1 z x is 9 natural consci\sness )\t ?9k+ ( x1 or univ]sality imm]s$ 9 matt]1 he analyz$1 s t ?r\gh ! sep>ation ( ! concrete1 he br\ght ! univ]sal conta9$ !re9 to consci\sness z univ]sal4 ,we see ?is me?od also c>ri$ on to a l>ge ext5t 9 ,plato's dialogues1 :]e !re is1 9 ?is reg>d1 p>ticul> skill display$4 ,x is ! same me?od :i* =ms 9 e man 8 k ( ! univ]sal2 an education 9 self-consci\sness1 :i* is ! developm5t ( reason4 ,! *ild1 ! uncultur$ man1 lives 9 concrete individual ideas1 b to ! man :o gr[s & educates himself1 because he !reby goes back into himself z ?9k+1 reflection becomes reflection on ! univ]sal & ! p]man5t e/abli%m5t ( ! same2 & a fre$om--=m]ly t ( mov+ 9 concrete ideas--is n[ t ( s do+ 9 ab/ractions & 9 ?\ghts4 ,we see su* a developm5t ( univ]sal f p>ticul>1 :]e a numb] ( examples are giv51 treat$ 9 a v t$i\s way4 ,= u :o are tra9$ 9 pres5t+ to ourselves :at is ab/ract1 :o are taught f y\? up 9 univ]sal pr9ciples1 ! ,socratic me?od ( s-call$ def]5ce1 ) its eloqu5ce1 has (t5 some?+ tiresome & t$i\s ab\t x4 ,! univ]sal ( ! concrete case is already pres5t to u z univ]sal1 because our reflection is already accu/om$ to ! univ]sal1 & we d n require1 fir/ ( all1 to take ! tr\ble ( mak+ a sep>ation2 & ?us1 if ,socrates 7 n[ to br+ :at is ab/ract be=e consci\sness1 we %\ld n require1 9 ord] to e/abli% x z univ]sal1 t all ^! examples %\ld be adduc$1 s t ?r\gh repetition ! subjective c]ta9ty ( ab/raction might arise4 c4 ,! next result ( ?is me?od ( proc$ure may be t consci\sness is surpris$ t :at x nev] look$ = %\ld be f\nd 9 consci\sness4 ,if we reflect1 = example1 on ! univ]sally kn[n idea ( ,becom+1 we f9d t :at becomes is n & yet x is2 x is ! id5tity ( ,be+ & non-be+1 & x may surprise u t 9 ?is simple conception s great a di/9ction %\ld exi/4 ,! result atta9$ 0 p>tly ! altoge!r =mal & negative "o ( br++ home to ^? :o conv]s$ ) ,socrates1 ! conviction t1 h[ev] well acqua9t$ ) ! subject !y _h ?\ght !mselves1 !y n[ came to ! conclusion1 8t :at we knew has refut$ itself40 ,socrates ?us put que/ions 9 ! int5t t ! speak] %\ld be drawn on to make admissions1 imply+ a po9t ( view oppos$ to t f :i* he />t$4 ,t ^! contradictions arise because !y br+ _! ideas toge!r1 is ! drift ( ! great] "p ( ,socrates' dialogues2 _! ma9 t5d5cy consequ5tly 0 to %[ ! bewild]m5t & confusion :i* exi/ 9 k4 ,by ?is means1 he tries to awak5 %ame1 & ! p]ception t :at we consid] z true is n ! tru?1 f :i* ! necessity = e>ne/ ef=t aft] k mu/ result4 ,plato1 among/ o!rs1 gives ^! examples 9 8 ,m5o 7p4 #ga-hj1 ,/eph42 p4 #cbg-cdf1 ,bekk474 ,socrates is made to say1 8,by ! gods1 tell me :at is virtue40 ,m5o proce$s to make v>i\s di/9ctions3 8,man's virtue is to be skilful 9 manag+ /ate affairs1 & !reby to help fri5ds & h>m foes2 woman's to rule h] h\sehold2 o!r virtues are ^? ( boys1 ( "y m51 ( old m510 c4 ,socrates int]rupts him by say+1 t x is n t ab\t :i* he inquires1 b virtue 9 g5]al1 :i* compreh5ds e ?+ 9 itself4 ,m5o says 8,x is to gov]n & rule ov] o!rs40 ,socrates br+s =w>d ! fact t ! virtue ( boys & slaves does n consi/ 9 gov]n+4 ,m5o says t he _c tell :at is common 9 all virtue4 ,socrates replies t x is ! same z figure1 :i* is :at is common 9 r\ndness1 squ>5ess1 c4 ,!re a digression occurs4 ,m5o says1 8,virtue is ! p[] ( secur+ ! good desir$40 ,socrates int]poses t x is sup]flu\s to say ! good1 = f ! "t t m5 "k t some?+ is an evil1 !y d n desire x2 & also ! good mu/ be acquir$ 9 a "r way4 ,socrates ?us conf\nds ,m5o1 & he sees t ^! ideas are false4 ,! latt] says1 8,i us$ to he> ( y1 be=e ,i knew y1 t y 7 y\rself 9 d\bt 771 & also br\ght o!rs into d\bt1 & n[ y ca/ a spell on me too1 s t ,i am at my wits' end 774 ,y seem1 if ,i may v5ture to je/1 to be l ! torp$o fi%1 = x is said ( x t x makes torpid 77 ^? :o come ne> x & t\* x4 ,y h done ?is to me1 = ,i am become torpid 9 body & s\l1 & ,i d n "k h[ to answ] y1 al?\gh ,i h talk$ ?\s&s ( times ab\t virtue ) _m p]sons1 &1 z x seem$ to me1 talk$ v well4 ,b n[ ,i d n "k at all :at to say4 ,h5ce y d well n to travel among/ /rang]s1 = y might be put to dea? z a magician40 ,socrates aga9 wi%es to 8inquire40 ,n[ ,m5o says1 8,h[ c y inquire ab\t :at y say y d n "k8 ,c y h a desire = :at y d n "k8 ,& if y f9d x out by *ance1 h[ c y "k t x is :at y look$ =1 s9ce y ackn[l$ge t1 y d n "k x80 ,a numb] ( dialogues end 9 ! same mann]1 bo? 9 ,x5ophon & ,plato1 leav+ u q unsatisfi$ z to ! result4 ,x is s 9 ! ,lysis1 :]e ,plato asks ! "q ( :at love & fri5d%ip secures to m52 & simil>ly ! ,republic comm5ces by inquir+ :at ju/ice is4 ,philosophy mu/1 g5]ally speak+1 beg9 ) a puzzle 9 ord] to br+ ab\t reflection2 ev]y?+ mu/ be d\bt$1 all presuppositions giv5 up1 to rea* ! tru? z creat$ ?r\gh ! ,notion4 #b4 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ! ,good4 ,?is1 9 %ort1 is ,socrates' me?od4 ,! affirmative1 :at ,socrates develops 9 ! consci\sness1 is no?+ b ! good 9 z f> z x is br\ght =? f consci\sness ?r\gh k--x is ! et]nal1 9 & = itself univ]sal1 :at is call$ ! ,idea1 ! true1 :i* j 9 s f> z x is end1 is ! ,good4 ,9 ?is reg>d ,socrates is oppos$ to ! ,sophi/s1 = ! proposition t man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 to !m /ill compreh5ds p>ticul> ends1 :ile to ,socrates ! univ]sal br\ght =? ?r\gh free ?\ght is !reby express$ 9 objective fa%ion4 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ n blame ! ,sophi/s because1 9 ! aimlessness ( _! "t1 !y did n discov] ! pr9ciple ( ! ,good2 = e discov]y has its "t1 & t ( ! ,good1 :i* z end 9 itself is n[ always made ! />t+ po9t1 _h n yet be5 made by ,socrates4 ,x n[ seems z if we _h n yet %[n =? mu* ( ! ,socratic philosophy1 = we h m]ely kept to ! pr9ciple2 b ! ma9 po9t ) ,socrates is t 8 k = ! fir/ "t rea*$ ?is ab/raction4 ,! ,good is nev]!less no long] z ab/ract z ! ( ,anaxagoras1 b is ! univ]sal :i* det]m9es itself 9 itself1 realizes itself1 & has to be realiz$ z ! end ( ! _w & ( ! individual4 ,x is a pr9ciple1 concrete )9 itself1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is n yet manife/$ 9 its developm5t1 & 9 ?is ab/ract attitude we f9d :at is want+ 9 ! ,socratic /&po9t1 ( :i* no?+ t is affirmative c1 beyond ?is1 be adduc$4 a4 ,z reg>ds ! ,socratic pr9ciple1 ! fir/ det]m9ation is ! great det]m9ation :i* is1 h[ev]1 /ill m]ely =mal1 t consci\sness creates & has to create out ( itself :at is ! true4 ,?is pr9ciple ( subjective fre$om 0 pres5t to ! consci\sness ( ,socrates himself s vividly t he despis$ ! o!r sci5ces z be+ empty le>n+ & useless to mank9d2 he has to conc]n himself ) 8 moral nature only 9 ord] to d :at is be/--a "o-sid$ness :i* is v *>act]i/ic ( ,socrates4 ,?is religion ( ! ,good is to ,socrates1 n only ! ess5tial po9t to :i* m5 h to direct _! ?\ghts1 b x is t exclusively4 ,we see him %[+ h[ f e individual ?is univ]sal1 ?is absolute 9 consci\sness may be f\nd z 8 reality4 ,"h we see law1 ! true & good1 :at 0 =m]ly pres5t z an exi/5t1 return into consci\sness4 ,b x is n a s+le *ance manife/ation 9 ?is individual ,socrates1 = we h to compreh5d ,socrates & 8 manife/ation4 ,9 ! univ]sal consci\sness1 9 ! _s ( ! p to :i* he belongs1 we see natural turn into reflective morality1 & he /&s above z ! consci\sness ( ?is *ange4 ,! _s ( ! _w "h beg9s to *ange1 a *ange :i* 0 lat] on c>ri$ to its completion4 ,f ?is high] /&po9t1 ,socrates1 z well z ! ,a!nian p & ,socrates 9 !m1 h to be consid]$4 ,! reflection ( consci\sness into itself beg9s "h1 ! k ( ! consci\sness ( self z su*1 t x is real exi/5ce--or t ,god is a ,_s1 or aga91 9 a crud] & m s5su\s =m1 t ,god takes human =m4 ,?is epo* beg9s :]e ess5ce is giv5 up z ,be+--ev5 ?\gh x be1 z hi!rto1 ab/ract ,be+1 ,be+ z ?\ght4 ,b ?is epo* 9 a naturally moral p 9 ! highe/ /ate ( developm5t1 makes its appe>ance z ! de/ruction ?reat5+ !m or break+ 9 ^u !m unprev5t$4 ,= its morality1 z 0 usually s ) ! anci5ts1 consi/$ 9 ! fact t ! ,good 0 pres5t z a univ]sal1 )\t its hav+ _h ! =m ( ! conviction ( ! individual 9 8 individual consci\sness1 b simply t ( ! imm$iate absolute4 ,x is ! au?oritative1 pres5t law1 )\t te/+ inve/igation1 b yet an ultimate gr\nd on :i* ?is moral consci\sness re/s4 ,x is ! law ( ! ,/ate2 x has au?ority z ! law ( ! gods1 & ?us x is univ]sal de/9y :i* has ! =m ( an exi/5t1 & is recogniz$ z su* by all4 ,b moral consci\sness asks if ?is is actually law 9 itself8 ,?is consci\sness turn$ back )9 itself f ev]y?+ t has ! =m ( ! exi/5t1 requires to und]/&1 to "k1 t ! above law is posit$ 9 tru?1 i4e4 x dem&s t x %\ld f9d itself !re9 z consci\sness4 ,9 ?us return+ into !mselves ! ,a!nian p are reveal$ to u3 unc]ta9ty z to exi/5t laws z exi/5t has aris51 & a d\bt ab\t :at 0 held to be "r1 ! greate/ fre$om respect+ all t is & 0 respect$4 ,?is return into itself repres5ts ! highe/ po9t rea*$ by ! m9d ( ,greece1 9 s f> z x becomes no long] ! m]e exi/5ce ( ^! moralities1 b ! liv+ consci\sness ( ! same1 :i* has a cont5t :i* is simil>1 b :i*1 z _s1 moves freely 9 x4 ,?is is a culture :i* we nev] f9d ! ,lac$monians rea*4 ,?is deepe/ life ( morality is s to speak a free p]sonal consci\sness ( morality or ( ,god1 & a happy enjoym5t ( !m4 ,consci\sness & ,be+ h "h exactly ! same value & rank2 :at is1 is consci\sness2 nei!r is p[]ful above ano!r4 ,! au?ority ( law is no oppressive bond to consci\sness1 & all reality is likewise no ob/acle to x1 = x is secure 9 itself4 ,b ?is return is j on ! po9t ( ab&on+ ! cont5t1 & inde$ ( posit+ itself z ab/ract consci\sness1 )\t ! cont5t1 &1 z exi/5t1 oppos$ to x4 ,f ?is equilibrium ( consci\sness & ,be+1 consci\sness takes up its position z indep5d5t4 ,?is aspect ( sep>ation is an indep5d5t conception1 because consci\sness1 9 ! p]ception ( its indep5d5ce1 no long] imm$iately ackn[l$ges :at is put be=e x1 b requires t ?is %\ld fir/ ju/ify itself to x1 i4e4 x mu/ compreh5d itself !re94 ,?us ?is return is ! isolation ( ! individual f ! univ]sal1 c>e = self at ! co/ ( ! ,/ate2 to u1 = in/ance1 x is ! "q z to :e!r ,i %all be 9 et]nal bliss or condemnation1 :]eas philosophic et]nity is pres5t n[ 9 "t1 & is no?+ o!r ?an ! sub/antial man himself4 ,! ,/ate has lo/ its p[]1 :i* consi/$ 9 ! unbrok5 cont9uity ( ! univ]sal _s1 z =m$ ( s+le individuals1 s t ! individual consci\sness knew no o!r cont5t & reality ?an law4 ,morals h become %ak51 because we h ! idea pres5t t man creates 8 maxims = himself4 ,! fact t ! individual comes to c>e = 8 own morality1 means t he becomes reflectively moral2 :5 public morality disappe>s1 reflective morality is se5 to h aris54 ,we n[ see ,socrates br++ =w>d ! op9ion1 t 9 ^! times e "o has to look aft] 8 own morality1 & ?us he look$ aft] 8 ?r\gh consci\sness & reflection reg>d+ himself2 = he s\ght ! univ]sal _s :i* _h disappe>$ f reality1 9 8 own consci\sness4 ,he also help$ o!rs to c>e = _! morality1 = he awak5$ 9 !m ?is consci\sness ( hav+ 9 _! ?\ghts ! good & true1 i4e4 hav+ ! pot5tiality ( action & ( k4 ,?is is no long] !re imm$iately1 b mu/ be provid$1 j z a %ip mu/ make provision ( wat] :5 x goes to places :]e none is to be f\nd4 ,! imm$iate has no fur!r au?ority b mu/ ju/ify itself to ?\ght4 ,?us we compreh5d ! special qualities ( ,socrates1 & 8 me?od 9 ,philosophy1 f ! :ole2 & we also und]/& 8 fate f ! same4 ,?is direction ( consci\sness back into itself takes ! =m--v m>k$ly 9 ,plato--( ass]t+ t man c le>n no?+1 virtue includ$1 & t n because ! latt] has no relation to sci5ce4 ,= ! good does n come f )\t1 ,socrates %[s2 x _c be taught1 b is impli$ 9 ! nature ( m9d4 ,t is to say1 man _c passively receive any?+ t is giv5 f )\t l ! wax t is m\ld$ to a =m1 = ev]y?+ is lat5t 9 ! m9d ( man1 & he only seems to le>n x4 ,c]ta9ly ev]y?+ beg9s f )\t1 b ?is is only ! beg9n+2 ! tru? is t ?is is only an impulse t[>ds ! developm5t ( _s4 ,all t has value to m51 ! et]nal1 ! self-exi/5t1 is conta9$ 9 man himself1 & has to develop f himself4 ,to le>n "h only means to receive k ( :at is ext]nally det]m9$4 ,?is ext]nal comes inde$ ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 b ! univ]sal !re9 belongs to ?\ght1 n to ! subjective & bad1 b to ! objective & true4 ,! univ]sal 9 ! opposition ( subjective & objective1 is t :i* is z subjective z x is objective2 ! subjective is only a p>ticul>1 ! objective is simil>ly only a p>ticul> z reg>ds ! subjective1 b ! univ]sal is ! unity ( bo?4 ,accord+ to ! ,socratic pr9ciple1 no?+ has any value to m5 to :i* ! _s does n te/ify4 ,man 9 x is free1 is at home ) himself1 & t is ! subjectivity ( _s4 ,z x is said 9 ! ,bible1 8,fle% ( my fle%1 & bone ( my bone10 t :i* is held by me z tru? & "r is _s ( my _s4 ,b :at _s d]ives f itself mu/ come f x z f ! _s :i* acts 9 a univ]sal mann]1 & n f its passions1 lik+s1 & arbitr>y desires4 ,^!1 too1 c]ta9ly come f some?+ inw>d :i* is 8implant$ 9 u by nature10 b :i* is only 9 a natural way our own1 = x belongs to ! p>ticul>2 high above x is true ?\ght1 ! ,notion1 ! rational4 ,socrates oppos$ to ! cont+5t & p>ticul> inw>d1 t univ]sal1 true inw>d ( ?\ght4 ,& ,socrates awak5$ ?is real consci5ce1 = he n only said t man is ! measure ( all ?+s1 b man z ?9k+ is ! measure ( all ?+s4 ,) ,plato we %all1 lat] on1 f9d x =mulat$ t :at man seems to receive he only rememb]s4 ,z to ! "q ( :at is ! ,good1 ,socrates recogniz$ its det]m9ation z be+ n only a det]m9ation 9 p>ticul>ity to ! exclusion ( ! natural side1 z det]m9ation is und]/ood 9 empirical sci5ce1 b ev5 9 relation to ! actions ( m51 he holds ! ,good to be /ill undet]m9$1 & ! ultimate det]m9at5ess1 or ! det]m9+1 is :at we may call subjectivity g5]ally4 ,t ! ,good %\ld be det]m9$1 prim>ily signifies t :ile1 at fir/1 9 opposition to ! ,be+ ( reality1 x 0 a g5]al maxim only1 t to :i* ! activity ( individuality 0 /ill want+1 9 ! second place x 0 n p]mitt$ to be in]t1 to be m]e ?\ght1 b _h to be pres5t z ! det]m9+ & actual1 & ?us z ! effectual4 ,x is su* only ?r\gh subjectivity1 ?r\gh ! activity ( man4 ,t ! ,good is a det]m9ate ?us fur!r means t individuals "k :at ! ,good is1 & we call ?is /&po9t reflective morality1 :ile natural morality does "r unconsci\sly4 ,?us to ,socrates virtue is p]ception4 ,= to ! proposition ( ! ,platonic ,protagoras t all o!r virtues h a relation%ip to "o ano!r1 b t x is n s ) val\r1 s9ce _m brave m5 are to be f\nd :o are ! mo/ irreligi\s1 unju/1 intemp]ate & uncultur$ ( p 7su* z a b& ( robb]s71 ,plato makes ,socrates answ] t val\r1 l all virtues1 also is a sci5ce1 t is1 x is ! k & ! "r e/imation ( :at is to be fe>$4#abg ,by ?is ! di/9ctive qualities ( val\r are c]ta9ly n unfold$4 ,! naturally moral & upright man is su* )\t 8 hav+ consid]$ ! matt] at all2 x is 8 "*1 & :at is good is securely root$ )9 him4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 consci\sness is conc]n$1 ! "q arises z to :e!r ,i directly desire ! good or n4 ,h5ce ?is consci\sness ( morality easily becomes dang]\s1 & causes ! individual to be puff$ up by a good op9ion ( himself1 :i* proce$s f ! consci\sness ( 8 own p[] to decide = ! good4 ,! #8,i' is !n ! ma/]1 he :o *ooses ! ,good1 & 9 t !re is ! conceit ( my kn[+ t ,i am an excell5t man4 ,) ,socrates ?is opposition ( ! good & ! subject z *oos+ is n rea*$1 = :at is dealt ) is only ! det]m9ation ( ! ,good & ! connection !re) ( subjectivity2 ?is la/1 z an individual p]son :o c *oose1 decides ^u ! inw>d univ]sal4 ,we h "h on ! "o side ! k ( ! ,good1 b1 on ! o!r1 x is impli$ t ! subject is good1 s9ce ?is is 8 ord9>y "*2 & ! fact t ! subject is su*1 0 by ! anci5ts call$ virtue4 ,we und]/& f ?is ! foll[+ criticism :i* ,ari/otle makes 7,magna ,mor4 ,i4 #a7 on ! quality ( virtue z exp\nd$ by ,socrates4 ,he says3 8,socrates spoke bett] ( virtue ?an did ,py?agoras1 b n q ju/ly1 = he made virtues into a sci5ce 774 ,b ?is is impossible1 s9ce1 ?\gh all k has "s basis 77 ?is basis only exi/s 9 ?\ght4 ,consequ5tly1 he places all ! virtues 9 ! ?9k+ 77 side ( ! s\l4 ,h5ce x comes to pass t he does away ) ! feel+ 77 "p ( ! s\l1 t is1 ! incl9ation 77 & ! habits 7710 :i*1 h[ev]1 also p]ta9 to virtue4 8,b ,plato rightly di/+ui%$ ! ?9k+ & ! feel+ sides ( ! s\l40 ,?is is a good criticism4 ,we see t :at ,ari/otle misses 9 ! det]m9ation ( virtue 9 ,socrates1 is ! side ( subjective actuality1 :i* we n[ call ! he>t4 ,c]ta9ly virtue is det]m9ation 9 accordance ) univ]sal1 & n ) p>ticul> ends1 b p]ception is n ! only elem5t 9 virtue4 ,= 9 ord] t ! good p]ceiv$ %\ld be virtue1 x mu/ come to pass t ! :ole man1 ! he>t & m9d1 %\ld be id5tical ) x1 & ?is aspect ( ,be+ or ( realization g5]ally1 is :at ,ari/otle calls 4 ,if we und]/& ! reality ( ! good z univ]sal morality1 sub/antiality is want+ to ! p]ception2 b matt]1 :5 we reg>d ! incl9ation ( ! individual subjective w z ?is reality4 ,?is d\ble want may also be consid]$ z a want ( cont5t & ( activity1 9 s f> z to ! univ]sal developm5t is want+2 & 9 ! latt] case1 det]m9+ activity comes be=e u z negative only 9 ref]5ce to ! univ]sal4 ,socrates ?us omits1 9 *>act]iz+ virtue1 j :at we saw _h also disappe>$ 9 actuality1 t is1 fir/ ! real _s ( a p1 & !n reality z ! sympa?ies ( ! individual4 ,= x is j :5 consci\sness is n yet turn$ back into itself1 t ! univ]sal good appe>s to ! individual z ! object ( 8 sympa?y4 ,to u1 on ! o!r h&1 because we are accu/om$ to put on "o side ! good or virtue z practical reason1 ! o!r side1 :i* is oppos$ to a reflective morality1 is an equally ab/ract s5su\sness1 incl9ation1 passion1 & h5ce ! bad4 ,b 9 ord] t ! univ]sal %\ld be reality1 x mu/ be work$ out ?r\gh consci\sness z individual1 & ! c>ry+ into effect p]ta9s to ?is individuality4 ,a passion1 z = example1 love1 ambition1 is ! univ]sal itself1 z x is self-realiz+1 n 9 p]ception1 b 9 activity2 & if we did n fe> be+ misund]/ood1 we %\ld say t = ! individual ! univ]sal is 8 own int]e/s4 ,yet ?is is n ! place 9 :i* to unravel all ! false ideas & contradictions pres5t 9 our culture4 ,ari/otle 7,e?4 ,nicom4 ,,vi4 #ac71 supplem5t+ ! "o-sid$ness ( ,socrates1 fur!r says ( him3 8,socrates 9 "o respect work$ on "r l9es1 b n 9 ! o!r4 ,= to call virtue sci5tific k is untrue1 b to say t x is n )\t sci5tific basis is "r4 ,socrates made virtues into p]ceptions 771 b we say t virtue exi/s ) p]ception40 ,?is is a v true di/9ction2 ! "o side 9 virtue is t ! univ]sal ( end belongs to ?\ght4 ,b 9 virtue1 z "*1 ! o!r side1 active individuality1 real s\l1 mu/ necess>ily come =?2 & inde$ ) ,socrates ! latt] appe>s 9 a *>act]i/ic =m ( :i* we %all speak bel[ 7p4 #dba et seq474 b4 ,if we consid] ! univ]sal fir/1 x has )9 x a positive & a negative side1 :i* we f9d bo? unit$ 9 ,x5ophon's 8,memorabilia10 a "w :i* aims at ju/ify+ ,socrates4 ,& if we inquire :e!r he or ,plato depicts ,socrates to u mo/ fai?fully 9 8 p]sonality & doctr9e1 !re is no "q t 9 reg>d to ! p]sonality & me?od1 ! ext]nals ( 8 tea*+1 we may c]ta9ly receive f ,plato a satisfactory1 & p]haps a m complete repres5tation ( :at ,socrates 04 ,b 9 reg>d to ! cont5t ( 8 tea*+ & ! po9t rea*$ by him 9 ! developm5t ( ?\ght1 we h 9 ! ma9 to look to ,x5ophon4 ,! fact t ! reality ( morality _h become %ak5 9 ! m9d ( ! p1 came to consci\sness 9 ,socrates2 he /&s s high because he gave expression to :at 0 pres5t 9 ! times4 ,9 ?is consci\sness he elevat$ morality into p]ception1 b ?is action is j ! br++ to consci\sness ( ! fact t x is ! p[] ( ! ,notion :i* sublates ! det]m9ate exi/5ce & ! imm$iate value ( moral laws & ! sacr$ness ( _! implicitude4 ,:5 p]ception likewise positively ackn[l$ges z law t :i* 0 held to be law 7= ! positive subsi/s ?r\gh hav+ rec\rse to laws71 ?is ackn[l$gm5t ( !m always passes ?r\gh ! negative mode1 & no long] has ! =m ( absolute be+-9-itself3 x is1 h[ev]1 j z f> f be+ a ,platonic ,republic4 ,to ! ,notion too1 because to x ! det]m9at5ess ( laws 9 ! =m 9 :i* !y h value to unp]ceiv+ consci\sness has dissolv$1 only ! purely implicit univ]sal ,good is ! true4 ,b s9ce ?is is empty & )\t reality1 we dem&1 if we are n satisfi$ ) a dull monoton\s r\nd1 t aga9 a movem5t %\ld be made t[>ds ! ext5sion ( ! det]m9ation ( ! univ]sal4 ,n[ because ,socrates rema9s at ! indet]m9at5ess ( ! good1 its det]m9ation means = him simply ! expression ( ! p>ticul> good4 ,!n x comes to pass t ! univ]sal results only f ! negation ( ! p>ticul> good2 & s9ce ?is la/ is j ! exi/+ laws ( ,greek morality1 we h "h ! d\btlessly "r1 b dang]\s elem5t 9 p]ception1 ! %[+ 9 all t is p>ticul> only its defici5cies4 ,! inconsi/5cy ( mak+ :at is limit$ into an absolute1 c]ta9ly becomes unconsci\sly correct$ 9 ! moral man2 ?is improvem5t re/s p>tly on ! morality ( ! subject & p>tly on ! :ole ( ! social life2 & un=tunate extremes result+ 9 conflict are unusual & unfrequ5t4 ,b s9ce ! dialectic sublates ! p>ticul>1 ! ab/ract univ]sal also becomes %ak54 4 ,n[ z reg>ds ! positive side1 ,x5ophon tells u 9 ! f\r? book ( ! ,memorabilia 7c4 #b1 #dj71 h[ ,socrates1 once hav+ made ! ne$ = p]ception s5sible to ! y\?s1 !n actually in/ruct$ !m1 & no long] w&]$ ?r\gh m]e subtleties 9 8 talk1 b taught !m ! good 9 ! cle>e/ & mo/ op5 way4 ,t is1 he %[$ !m ! good & true 9 :at is det]m9$1 go+ back into x because he did n wi% to rema9 9 m]e ab/raction4 ,x5ophon gives an example ( ?is 7,memorab4 ,,iv4 c4 #d1 #ab-af1 #be7 9 a dialogue ) ! ,sophi/ ,hippias4 ,socrates !re ass]ts t ! j man is he :o obeys ! law1 & t ^! laws are div9e4 ,x5ophon makes ,hippias reply by ask+ h[ ,socrates c\ld decl>e x to be an absolute duty to obey ! laws1 = ! p & ! gov]nors !mselves (t5 condemn !m by *ang+ !m1 :i* is all[+ t !y are n absolute4 ,b ,socrates answ]s by dem&+ if ^? :o conduct w> d n aga9 make peace1 :i* is n1 any m ?an 9 ! o!r case1 to condemn w>1 = ea* 0 j 9 its turn4 ,socrates ?us says1 9 a ^w1 t ! be/ & happie/ ,/ate is t 9 :i* ! citiz5s are ( "o m9d & ob$i5t to law4 ,n[ ?is is ! "o side 9 :i* ,socrates looks away f ! contradiction & makes laws & ju/ice1 z !y are accept$ by ea* individually1 to be ! affirmative cont5t4 ,b if we "h ask :at ^! laws are1 !y are1 we f9d1 j ^? :i* h a value at "s "o "t1 z !y happ5 to be pres5t 9 ! ,/ate & 9 ! idea2 at ano!r "t !y abrogate !mselves z det]m9$1 & are n held to be absolute4 4 ,we h5ce see ?is o!r negative side 9 ! same connection :5 ,socrates br+s ,eu?ydemus into ! conv]sation1 = he asks him :e!r he did n /rive aft] ! virtue )\t :i* nei!r ! private man nor ! citiz5 c\ld be useful to himself or to 8 p or ! ,/ate4 ,eu?ydemus decl>es t ?is und\bt$ly is s4 ,b )\t ju/ice1 replies ,socrates1 ?is is n possible1 & he fur!r asks :e!r ,eu?ydemus _h ?us atta9$ to ju/ice 9 himself4 ,eu?ydemus answ]s affirmatively1 = he says t he ?9ks he is no less j ?an any o!r man4 ,socrates n[ replies1 8,j z workm5 c %[ _! "w1 ! j w be able to say :at _! works are40 ,?is he also agrees to1 & replies t he c\ld easily d s4 ,socrates n[ proposes if ?is is s to write1 8on ! "o h& "u ! actions ( ! j1 & on ! o!r1 "u 1 ^? ( ! unju/80 ,) ! approbation ( ,eu?ydemus1 lies1 deceit1 robb]y1 mak+ a slave ( a free man1 ?us fall on ! side ( ! unju/4 ,n[ ,socrates asks1 8,b if a g5]al subdues ! enemy's ,/ate1 w\ld ?is n be ju/ice80 ,eu?ydemus says 8,yes40 ,socrates replies1 8,likewise if he deceives & robs ! enemy & makes slaves80 ,eu?ydemus has to admit ! ju/ice ( ?is4 ,x is ?us %[n 8t ! same qualities come "u ! det]m9ation bo? ( ju/ice & ( inju/ice40 ,"h x /rikes ,eu?ydemus to add ! qualification t he int5d$ t ,socrates %\ld und]/& ! action to be only 9 ref]5ce to fri5ds2 z reg>ds !m x is wrong4 ,socrates accepts ?is1 b proce$s1 8,if a g5]al at ! decisive mom5t ( ! battle saw 8 own army 9 fe>1 & he deceiv$ !m by falsely say+ t help 0 com+ 9 ord] to lead !m on to victory1 c\ld x be deem$ "r80 ,eu?ydemus ackn[l$ges t x c\ld4 ,socrates says1 8,if a fa!r gives a sick *ild a m$ic9e :i* x does n wi% to take1 9 its food1 & makes x well ?r\gh deceit1 is ?is "r80 ,eu?ydemus--8,yes40 ,socrates--8,or is anyone wrong :o takes arms f 8 fri5d secretly or by =ce1 :5 he sees him 9 despair1 & 9 ! act ( tak+ 8 own life80 ,eu?ydemus has to admit t ?is is n wrong4#abh ,?us x is aga9 %[n "h1 t z reg>ds fri5ds also1 ! same det]m9ations h to hold good on bo? sides1 z ju/ice z well z inju/ice4 ,"h we see t ab/5tion f ly+1 deceit1 & robb]y1 t :i* we naturally hold to be e/abli%$1 contradicts itself by be+ put into connection ) some?+ diff]5t1 & some?+ :i* holds equally good4 ,?is example fur!r expla9s h[ ?r\gh ?\ght1 :i* w\ld lay hold ( ! univ]sal 9 ! =m ( ! univ]sal only1 ! p>ticul> becomes unc]ta94 4 ,! positive1 :i* ,socrates sets 9 ! place ( :at 0 fix$ & has n[ become vacillat+1 9 ord] to give a cont5t to ! univ]sal1 is1 on ! "o h&1 & 9 opposition to ?is la/1 ob$i5ce to law 7p4 #daf71 t is1 ! mode ( ?\ght & idea :i* is inconsi/5t2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 s9ce su* det]m9ations d n hold good = ! ,notion1 x is p]ception1 9 :i* ! imm$iately posit$ has n[1 9 ! m$iat+ negation1 to ju/ify itself z a det]m9ation proce$+ out ( ! con/itution ( ! :ole4 ,b x is bo? true t we d n f9d ?is p]ception pres5t 9 ,socrates1 = x rema9s 9 its cont5t undet]m9$1 & t 9 reality x is a cont+5t1 :i* is se5 9 ! fact1 t ! univ]sal comm&s1 su* z 8,?\ %alt n kill10 are connect$ ) a p>ticul> cont5t :i* is condition$4 ,n[ :e!r ! univ]sal maxim 9 ?is p>ticul> case has value or n1 dep5ds fir/ on ! circum/ances2 & x is ! p]ception :i* discov]s ! conditions & circum/ances :]eby exceptions to ?is law ( uncondition$ validity arise4 ,h[ev]1 because ?r\gh ?is cont+5cy 9 ! in/ances1 ! fix$ nature ( ! univ]sal pr9ciple disappe>s1 s9ce x1 too1 appe>s z a p>ticul> only1 ! consci\sness ( ,socrates arrives at pure fre$om 9 ea* p>ticul> cont5t4 ,?is fre$om1 :i* does n leave ! cont5t z x is 9 its dissipat$ det]m9ation to ! natural consci\sness1 b makes x to be p5etrat$ by ! univ]sal1 is ! real m9d :i*1 z unity ( ! univ]sal cont5t & ( fre$om1 is ! v]itable tru?4 ,?us if we "h consid] fur!r :at is ! true 9 ?is consci\sness1 we pass on to ! mode 9 :i* ! realization ( ! univ]sal appe>$ to ,socrates himself4 ,ev5 ! un$ucat$ m9d does n foll[ ! cont5t ( its consci\sness z ?is cont5t appe>s 9 x2 b1 z m9d1 x corrects t :i* is wrong 9 its consci\sness1 & is ?us implicitly1 if n explicitly z consci\sness1 free4 ,t is1 ?\gh ?is consci\sness expresses ! univ]sal law1 8,?\ %alt n kill10 z a duty1 t consci\sness--if no c[>dly _s dwells )9 x--w /ill bravely attack & slay ! enemy 9 w>4 ,"h1 if x is ask$ :e!r !re is a comm& to kill "o's enemies1 ! reply w\ld be affirmative1 z likewise :5 a hangman puts to dea? a crim9al4 ,b :5 9 private life we become involv$ ) adv]s>ies1 ?is comm& to kill "o's enemies w n occur to u4 ,we may ?us call ?is ! m9d :i* ?9ks at ! "r "t1 fir/ ( ! "o1 & !n ( ! o!r2 x is _s1 b an unspiritual consci\sness4 ,! fir/ /ep t[>ds rea*+ a spiritual consci\sness is ! negative "o ( acquir+ fre$om = "o's consci\sness4 ,= s9ce p]ception attempts to prove individual laws1 x proce$s f a det]m9ation to :i*1 z a univ]sal basis1 p>ticul> duty is submitt$2 b ?is basis is itself n absolute1 & falls "u ! same dialectic4 ,= example1 7 mod]ation comm&$ z a duty on ! gr\nd t intemp]ance und]m9$ ! heal?1 heal? is ! ultimate :i* is "h consid]$ z absolute2 b x is at ! same "t n absolute1 = !re are o!r duties :i* orda9 t heal?1 & ev5 life itself1 %\ld be risk$ & sacrific$4 ,! s-call$ conflict ( duties is no?+ b duty1 :i* is express$ z absolute1 %[+ itself z n absolute2 9 ! con/ant contradiction morals become unsettl$4 ,= a consci\sness :i* has become consi/5t1 law1 because x has !n be5 br\ght into contact ) its opposite1 has be5 sublat$4 ,= ! positive tru? has n yet become kn[n 9 its det]m9ation4 ,b to "k ! univ]sal 9 its det]m9ation1 i4e4 ! limitation ( ! univ]sal :i* comes to u z fix$ & n cont+5t1 is only possible 9 connection ) ! :ole sy/em ( actuality4 ,?us if ) ,socrates ! cont5t has become spiritualiz$1 yet manifold indep5d5t gr\nds h m]ely tak5 ! place ( manifold laws4 ,= ! p]ception is n yet express$ z ! real p]ception ( ^! gr\nds ov] :i* x rules2 b ! tru? ( consci\sness simply is ?is v movem5t ( pure p]ception4 ,! true gr\nd is1 h[ev]1 _s1 & ! _s ( ! p--a p]ception ( ! con/itution ( a p1 & ! connection ( ! individual ) ?is real univ]sal _s4 ,laws1 morals1 ! actual social life1 ?us h 9 !mselves _! own corrective aga9/ ! inconsi/5t1 :i* consi/s ( ! expression ( a def9ite cont5t z absolute4 ,9 ord9>y life we m]ely =get ?is limitation ( univ]sal pr9ciples1 & ^! /ill hold _! place ) u2 b ! o!r po9t ( view is ?us :5 ! limitation comes be=e our consci\sness4 ,:5 we h ! p]fect consci\sness t 9 actual life fix$ duties & actions d n exi/1 = ea* concrete case is really a conflict ( _m duties :i* sep>ate !mselves 9 ! moral und]/&+1 b :i* m9d treats z n absolute1 compreh5d+ !m 9 ! unity ( its judgm5t1 we call ?is pure1 decid+ individuality1 ! k ( :at is "r1 or consci5ce1 j z we call ! pure univ]sal ( consci\sness n a p>ticul> b an all-compreh5sive "o1 duty4 ,n[ bo? sides "h pres5t1 ! univ]sal law & ! decid+ _s :i* is 9 its ab/raction ! active individual1 are also necess>y to ! consci\sness ( ,socrates z ! cont5t & ! p[] ov] ?is cont5t4 ,t is1 because ) ,socrates ! p>ticul> law has become vacillat+1 !re n[ comes 9 ! place ( ! univ]sal s+le m9d1 :i*1 ) ! ,greeks1 0 unconsci\s det]m9ation ?r\gh unreflective morality1 individual m9d z individuality decid+ = itself4 ,?us ) ,socrates ! decid+ _s is trans=m$ into ! subjective consci\sness ( man1 s9ce ! p[] ( decid+ orig9ates ) himself2 & ! fir/ "q n[ is1 h[ ?is subjectivity appe>s 9 ,socrates himself4 ,because ! p]son1 ! individual1 n[ gives ! decision1 we come back to ,socrates z p]son1 z subject1 & :at foll[s is a developm5t ( 8 p]sonal relations4 ,b s9ce ! moral elem5t is g5]ally plac$ 9 ! p]sonality ( ,socrates1 we see ! cont+5t nature ( ! in/ruction & ( ! culture :i* 0 obta9$ ?r\gh ,socrates' "*2 = x 0 ! actual basis on :i* m5 =tifi$ !mselves 9 associat+ ) ,socrates1 by actual communication ) him & by _! mann] ( life4 ,?us x 0 true t 8! int]c\rse ) 8 fri5ds 01 on ! :ole1 b5eficial & in/ructive to !m1 b 9 _m cases !y became unfai?ful to ,socrates10#abi because n ev]yone atta9s to p]ception1 & he :o possesses x may rema9 at ! negative4 ,! education ( ! citiz5s1 life 9 ! p1 is q a fre% =ce 9 ! individual1 & does n mean t he educates himself ?r\gh argum5ts2 h5ce1 h[ev] truly educative ! int]c\rse ) ,socrates 01 ?is cont+5cy /ill ent]$ into x4 ,we ?us see z an unhappy symptom ( disord]1 h[ ,socrates' greate/ fav\rites1 & ^? end[$ ) ! mo/ g5ial natures 7su* z ,alcibiades1 t g5ius ( levity1 :o play$ ) ! ,a!nian p1 & ,critias1 ! mo/ active ( ! ,?irty7 aft]w>ds exp]i5c$ ! fate ( be+ judg$ 9 _! own c\ntry1 "o z an enemy & traitor to 8 fell[s1 & ! o!r z an oppressor & tyrant ( ! ,/ate4 ,!y liv$ accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( subjective p]ception1 & ?us ca/ a bad light on ,socrates1 = x is %[n 9 ?is h[ ! ,socratic pr9ciple 9 ano!r =m br\ght ab\t ! ru9 ( ,greek life4#acj c4 ,! *>act]i/ic =m 9 :i* ?is subjectivity--?is implicit & decid+ c]ta9ty--appe>s 9 ,socrates1 has /ill to be m5tion$4 ,t is1 s9ce ev]yone "h has ?is p]sonal m9d :i* appe>s to him to be 8 m9d1 we see h[ 9 connection ) ?is1 we h :at is kn[n "u ! "n ( ! ,g5ius 77 ( ,socrates2 = x implies t n[ man decides 9 accordance ) 8 p]ception & by himself4 ,b 9 ?is ,g5ius ( ,socrates--notori\s z a mu* discuss$ biz>r]ie ( 8 imag9ation--we are nei!r to imag9e ! exi/5ce ( protective _s1 angel1 & su*-l1 nor ev5 ( consci5ce4 ,= consci5ce is ! idea ( univ]sal individuality1 ( ! m9d c]ta9 ( itself1 :i* is at ! same "t univ]sal tru?4 ,b ! ,g5ius ( ,socrates is r all ! o!r & necess>y sides ( 8 univ]sality1 t is1 ! individuality ( m9d :i* came to consci\sness 9 him equally ) ! =m]4 ,8 pure consci\sness /&s ov] bo? sides4 ,! defici5cy 9 ! univ]sal1 :i* lies 9 its indet]m9at5ess1 is unsatisfactorily suppli$ 9 an individual way1 because ,socrates' judgm5t1 z com+ f himself1 0 *>act]iz$ by ! =m ( an unconsci\s impulse4 ,! ,g5ius ( ,socrates is n ,socrates himself1 n 8 op9ions & conviction1 b an oracle :i*1 h[ev]1 is n ext]nal1 b is subjective1 8 oracle4 ,x bore ! =m ( a k :i* 0 directly associat$ ) a condition ( unconsci\sness2 x 0 a k :i* may also appe> "u o!r conditions z a magnetic /ate4 ,x may happ5 t at dea?1 9 illness & catalepsy1 m5 "k ab\t circum/ances future or pres5t1 :i*1 9 ! und]/ood relations ( ?+s1 are altoge!r unkn[n4 ,^! are facts :i* are usually rudely d5i$4 ,t 9 ,socrates we %\ld discov] :at comes to pass ?r\gh reflection 9 ! =m ( ! unconsci\s1 makes x appe> to be an exceptional matt]1 reveal$ to ! individual only1 & n z be+ :at x is 9 tru?4 ,!reby x c]ta9ly receives ! /amp ( imag9ation1 b !re is no?+ m ( :at is vision>y or sup]/iti\s to be se5 9 x1 = x is a necess>y manife/ation1 ?\gh ,socrates did n recognize ! necessity1 ?is elem5t be+ only g5]ally be=e 8 imag9ation4 ,9 connection ) :at foll[s1 we mu/ yet fur!r consid] ! relation%ip ( ! ,g5ius to ! e>li] exi/5t =m ( decision1 & t into :i* x l$ ,socrates2 reg>d+ bo? ,x5ophon expresses himself 9 8 hi/ory mo/ di/9ctly4 ,because ! /&po9t ( ! ,greek m9d 0 natural morality1 9 :i* man did n yet det]m9e himself1 & /ill less 0 :at we call consci5ce pres5t1 s9ce laws 71 9 _! fundam5tal pr9ciples1 reg>d$ z traditional1 ^! la/ n[ pres5t$ an appe>ance ( be+ sanction$ by ! gods4 ,we "k t ! ,greeks und\bt$ly _h laws on :i* to =m _! judgm5ts1 b on ! o!r h&1 bo? 9 private & public life1 imm$iate decisions _h to be made4 ,b 9 !m ! ,greeks1 ) all _! fre$om1 did n decide f ! subjective w4 ,! g5]al or ! p did n take ^u !mselves to decide z to :at 0 be/ 9 ! ,/ate1 nor did ! individual d s 9 ! family4 ,= 9 mak+ ^! decisions1 ! ,greeks took refuge 9 oracles1 sacrificial animals1 soo?say]s1 or1 l ! ,romans1 ask$ c\nsel ( birds 9 flight4 ,! g5]al :o _h to fight a battle 0 guid$ 9 8 decision by ! entrails ( animals1 z we (t5 f9d 9 ,x5ophon's ,anabasis4 ,pausanias torm5t$ himself ?us a :ole day long be=e he gave ! comm& to fight4#aca ,?is elem5t1 ! fact t ! p _h n ! p[] ( decision b 7 det]m9$ f )\t1 0 a real factor 9 ,greek consci\sness2 & oracles 7 ev]y:]e ess5tial :]e man did n yet "k himself inw>dly z be+ suffici5tly free & indep5d5t to take ^u himself to decide z we d4 ,?is subjective fre$om1 :i* 0 n yet pres5t ) ! ,greeks1 is :at we mean 9 ! pres5t day :5 we speak ( fre$om2 9 ! ,platonic ,republic we %all see m ( x4 ,our responsibility = :at we d is a *>act]i/ic ( mod]n times2 we wi% to decide accord+ to gr\nds ( common s5se1 & consid] ?is z ultimate4 ,! ,greeks did n possess ! k ( ?is inf9itude4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia 7*ap4 ,i1 #g-i71 on ! occasion ( ! def5ce by ,socrates ( 8 1 ,socrates says at ! v beg9n+3 8,! gods h res]v$ to !mselves :at is mo/ important 9 k4 ,ar*itecture1 agriculture1 =g+1 are human arts1 z also gov]nm5t1 ! sci5ce ( law1 managem5t ( ! h\sehold & g5]al%ip4 ,9 all ?is man c atta9 to skill1 b = ! o!r1 div9ation is necess>y4 ,he :o cultivates a field does n "k :o w enjoy ! fruit1 nor does he :o builds a h\se "k :o w inhabit x2 ! g5]al does n "k :e!r ! army %\ld be br\ght into ! field2 he :o rules a ,/ate :e!r x is good = him0 7! individual7 8or bad4 ,nor does he :o m>ries a wife "k :e!r he w exp]i5ce happ9ess or :e!r grief & sorr[ w n come ?r\gh ?is to him2 nei!r c he :o has p[]ful relations 9 ! ,/ate1 "k :e!r1 on acc\nt ( ^!1 he may n be bani%$ f ! ,/ate4 ,because ( ?is unc]ta9ty1 m5 h to take refuge 9 div9ation40 ,reg>d+ x ,x5ophon expresses himself 7ibid4 #c1 #d7 to ! effect t x manife/s itself 9 diff]5t ways ?r\gh oracles1 sacrifices1 flight ( birds1 c41 b to ,socrates ?is oracle is 8 ,g5ius4 ,to hold ! future1 or :at is =ese5 by ! somnambuli/ or at dea? to be a high] k9d ( insight1 is a p]v]sion :i* easily arises ev5 9 our ideas2 b look$ at m closely1 we f9d 9 ?is ! p>ticul> int]e/s ( individuals m]ely1 & ! k ( :at is "r & moral is some?+ mu* high]4 ,if anyone wi%es to m>ry or to build a h\se1 c41 ! result is important to ! individual only4 ,! truly div9e & univ]sal is ! in/itution ( agriculture1 ! /ate1 m>riage1 c42 comp>$ to ?is x is a trivial matt] to "k :e!r1 :5 ,i g to sea1 ,i %all p]i% or n4 ,! ,g5ius ( ,socrates moreov] reveals itself 9 him ?r\gh no?+ o!r ?an ! c\nsel giv5 respect+ ^! p>ticul> issues1 su* z :5 & :e!r 8 fri5ds ought to travel4 ,to any?+ true1 exi/+ 9 & = itself 9 art & sci5ce1 he made no ref]5ce1 = ?is p]ta9s to ! univ]sal m9d1 & ^! dmonic revelations are ?us mu* m unimportant ?an ^? ( 8 ?9k+ m9d4 ,!re is c]ta9ly some?+ univ]sal 9 !m1 s9ce a wise man c (t5 =esee :e!r any?+ is advisable or n4 ,b :at is truly div9e p]ta9s to all1 & ?\gh tal5ts & g5ius are also p]sonal *>act]i/ics1 !y f9d _! fir/ tru? 9 _! works :i* are univ]sal4 ,n[ because ) ,socrates judgm5t f )9 fir/ beg9s to break free f ! ext]nal oracle1 x 0 requisite t ?is return into itself %\ld1 9 its fir/ comm5cem5t1 /ill appe> 9 physiological guise 7supra1 pp4 #cij1 #cia74 ,! ,g5ius ( ,socrates /&s midway betwe5 ! ext]nality ( ! oracle & ! pure inw>dness ( ! m9d2 x is inw>d1 b x is also pres5t$ z a p]sonal g5ius1 sep>ate f human w1 & n yet z ! wisdom & free w ( ,socrates himself4 ,! fur!r inve/igation ( ?is ,g5ius consequ5tly pres5ts to u a =m :i* passes into somnambulism1 into ?is d\ble ( consci\sness2 & 9 ,socrates !re cle>ly appe>s to be some?+ ( ! k9d1 or some?+ :i* is magnetic1 =1 z we already m5tion$ 7p4 #cij71 he is said (t5 to h fall5 into trances & catalepsy4 ,9 mod]n times we h se5 ?is 9 ! =m ( a rigid eye1 an inw>d k1 p]ception ( ?is ?+ & t1 ( :at is gone1 ( :at is be/ to d1 c42 b magnetism c>ries sci5ce no fur!r ?an ?is4 ,! ,g5ius ( ,socrates is ?us to be tak5 z an actual /ate1 & is rem>kable because x is n morbid b 0 necess>ily call$ up ?r\gh a special condition ( 8 consci\sness4 ,= ! turn+ po9t 9 ! :ole _w-fam$ *ange ( views con/itut+ ! pr9ciple ( ,socrates1 is t 9 place ( ! oracle1 ! te/imony ( ! m9d ( ! individual has be5 br\ght =w>d & t ! subject has tak5 ^u itself to decide4 #c4 ,! ,fate ( ,socrates4 ,) ?is ,g5ius ( ,socrates z "o ( ! *ief po9ts ( 8 indictm5t1 we n[ ent] ^u ! subject ( 8 fate1 :i* ends ) 8 condemnation4 ,we may f9d ?is fate out ( h>mony ) 8 pr(ess$ bus9ess ( in/ruct+ 8 fell[-citiz5s 9 :at is good1 b tak5 9 connection ) :at ,socrates & 8 p 71 we %all recognize ! necessity ( x4 ,! contempor>ies ( ,socrates1 :o came =w>d z 8 accus]s be=e ! ,a!nian p1 laid hold on him z ! man :o made kn[n t :at 0 held z absolute 0 n absolute4 ,socrates1 ) ?is new pr9ciple1 & z "o :o 0 an ,a!nian citiz5 ^: express bus9ess 0 ?is =m ( in/ruction1 came1 ?r\gh ?is 8 p]sonality1 into relation%ip ) ! :ole ,a!nian p2 & ?is relation%ip 0 n m]ely ) a c]ta9 numb] or ) a comm&+ numb]1 b x 0 a liv+ relation%ip ) ! _s ( ! ,a!nian p4 ,! _s ( ?is p 9 itself1 its con/itution1 its :ole life1 re/$1 h[ev]1 on a moral gr\nd1 on religion1 & c\ld n exi/ )\t ?is absolutely secure basis4 ,?us because ,socrates makes ! tru? re/ on ! judgm5t ( inw>d consci\sness1 he ent]s ^u a /ruggle ) ! ,a!nian p z to :at is "r & true4 ,8 accusation 0 !re=e j1 & we h to consid] ?is accusation z also ! end ( 8 c>e]4 ,! attacks :i* ,socrates exp]i5c$ are well kn[n1 & 7 f two s\rces2 ,ari/ophanes attack$ him 9 ! 8,cl\ds10 & !n he 0 =mally accus$ be=e ! p4 ,ari/ophanes reg>d$ ! ,socratic philosophy f ! negative side1 ma9ta9+ t ?r\gh ! cultivation ( reflect+ consci\sness1 ! idea ( law _h be5 %ak51 & we _c "q ! ju/ice ( ?is conception4 ,ari/ophanes' consci\sness ( ! "o-sid$ness ( ,socrates may be reg>d$ z a prelude to 8 dea?2 ! ,a!nian p likewise c]ta9ly recogniz$ 8 negative me?ods 9 condemn+ him4 ,x is kn[n t ,ari/ophanes br\ght ^u ! /age along ) ,socrates1 n only su* m5 z ,aes*ylus1 & m specially ,euripides1 b also ! ,a!nians g5]ally & _! g5]als--! p]sonifi$ ,a!nian p & ! gods !mselves--a fre$om :i* we w\ld n dream ( 7 x n hi/orically au!nticat$4 ,we h n "h to consid] ! real nature ( ! ,com$y ( ,ari/ophanes1 nor ! wanton way 9 :i* he 0 said to h treat$ ,socrates4 ,z to ! fir/1 x %\ld n />tle u1 nor d we require to ju/ify ,ari/ophanes or to excuse him4 ,! ,com$y ( ,ari/ophanes is 9 itself z real a "p ( ! ,a!nian p1 & ,ari/ophanes is z ess5tial a figure1 z 7 ! sublime ,p]icles1 ! happy ,alcibiades1 ! div9e ,sophocles1 & ! moral ,socrates1 = he belongs z mu* z any o!r to ?is circle ( lum9>ies 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cbb74 ,?us mu* c alone be said1 t x c]ta9ly goes aga9/ our ,g]man s]i\sness to see h[ ,ari/ophanes br+s on ! bo>ds m5 liv+ 9 ! ,/ate1 by "n1 9 ord] to make a je/ ( !m2 & we feel ?is specially 9 reg>d to s upright a man z ,socrates4 ,by *ronological consid]ations1 "s h tri$ h>d to refute ! fact t ,ari/ophanes' repres5tations _h no influ5ce on ! condemnation ( ,socrates4 ,x is se5 t1 on ! "o h&1 ,socrates 0 treat$ q unju/ly2 b !n we mu/ recognize ! m]it ( ,ari/ophanes1 :o 9 8 8,cl\ds0 0 p]fectly "r4 ,?is poet1 :o expos$ ,socrates to scorn 9 ! mo/ laughable & bitt] way1 0 ?us no ord9>y jok] & %all[ wag :o mock$ :at is highe/ & be/1 & sacrific$ all to wit ) a view to mak+ ! ,a!nians laugh4 ,= ev]y?+ has to him a mu* deep] basis1 & 9 all 8 jokes !re lies a dep? ( s]i\sness4 ,he did n wi% m]ely to mock2 & moreov] to mock :at 0 wor?y ( hon\r w\ld be p]fectly bald & flat4 ,x is a pitiful wit :i* has no sub/ance1 & does n re/ on contradictions ly+ 9 ! matt] itself4 ,b ,ari/ophanes 0 no bad je/]4 ,x is1 g5]ally speak+1 n possible to joke 9 an ext]nal way ab\t :at does n conta9 matt] = jok+ or irony 9 itself4 ,= :at really is comic is to %[ a man or a ?+ z !y disclose !mselves 9 _! ext5t2 & if ! ?+ is n itself its contradiction1 ! comic elem5t is sup]ficial & gr\ndless4 ,h5ce1 :5 ,ari/ophanes makes m]ry ov] ! ,democracy1 !re is a deep political e>ne/ness at he>t1 & f all 8 works x appe>s :at a noble1 excell5t1 true ,a!nian citiz5 he 04 ,we ?us h a real patriot be=e u1 :o1 ?\gh x involv$ ! puni%m5t ( dea?1 did n fe> 9 "o ( 8 works to c\nsel peace4 ,9 him1 z "o :o _h a patriotism ( ! mo/ enlight5$ k9d1 we f9d ! blissful self-satisfi$ enjoym5t ( a p giv+ free re9 to itself4 ,!re is1 9 :at is humor\s1 a self-security :i*1 ?\gh ) all s]i\sness x /rives aft] "s p>ticul> ?+1 :ile ! opposite ( :at x aims at always comes to pass1 nev] has = t reason any d\bts nor any reflection ab\t itself1 s9ce x rema9s p]fectly c]ta9 ( itself & ( :at conc]ns x4 ,we enjoy 9 ,ari/ophanes ?is side ( ! free ,a!nian _s1 ?is p]fect enjoym5t ( itself 9 loss1 ?is untr\bl$ c]ta9ty ( itself 9 all misc>riage ( ! result 9 real life1 & ?is is ! height ( hum\r4 ,9 ! 8,cl\ds0 we d n inde$ see ?is natural hum\r1 b a contradiction ) def9ite int5tion4 ,ari/ophanes inde$ depicts ,socrates humor\sly too1 = he br+s =? 9 8 moral works ! opposite ( t f :i* he />ts1 & 8 s*ol>s d]ive delight f ! f>-ext5d+ discov]ies rea*$ ?r\gh him1 :i* !y ?9k are made by _! own good luck1 b :i* aft]w>ds turn hateful to !m1 & become ! v opposite ( :at !y int5d$4 ,! wond]ful p]ception :i* ! foll[]s ( ,socrates are "h repres5t$ z hav+ atta9$1 is j a p]ception ( ! nullity ( ! laws ( ! det]m9ate good z x is to ! natural consci\sness4 ,ari/ophanes made fun ( ! fact t ,socrates occupi$ himself ) elem5t>y rese>*es z to h[ f> fleas spr+1 & ( 8 putt+ wax on _! feet 9 ord] to discov] ?is4 ,?is is n hi/oric1 b x is well kn[n t ,socrates _h 9 8 philosophy ! side :i* ,ari/ophanes %[$ up ) su* acrimony4 ,%ortly1 ! fable ( ! 8,cl\ds0 is ?is3 ,/repsiades1 an hon\rable ,a!nian citiz5 ( ! old s*ool1 _h great tr\ble ) 8 new-fa%ion$ extravagant son1 :o1 spoil$ by "m & uncle1 kept horses & l$ a life out ( keep+ ) 8 position4 ,! fa!r ?us got into tr\ble ) 8 cr$itors1 & w5t 9 di/ress to ,socrates1 & became 8 disciple4 ,!re ! old man le>n$ t n ?is or t1 b ano!r is ! "r1 or r he le>n$ ! /rong] 77 & weak] reasons 7 74 ,he le>n$ ! dialectic ( laws1 & h[1 by reason+1 ! paym5t ( debts c be disreg>d$1 & he !n requir$ t 8 son %\ld g to ! ,s*ool ( ,socrates2 & ! latt] likewise pr(it$ f 8 wisdom4 ,b we f9d ! result ensu+ f ! univ]sal :i* has n[ ?r\gh ! ,socratic dialectic become empty1 9 ! private int]e/ or ! wrong _s ( ,/repsiades & 8 son1 :i* _s is m]ely ! negative consci\sness ( ! cont5t ( laws4 ,equipp$ ) ?is new wisdom ( reasons1 & ! discov]y ( reasons1 ,/repsiades is arm$ aga9/ ! *ief evil t presses on him1 z reg>ds 8 ?reat5+ cr$itors4 ,^! n[ come "o aft] ano!r to obta9 paym5t4 ,b ,/repsiades kn[s h[ to put !m (f ) excell5t reasons1 & to argue !m away1 = he pacifies !m by all sorts ( titulos1 & %[s !m t he does n ne$ to pay !m2 inde$ he ev5 mocks !m1 & is v glad t he le>n$ all ?is f ,socrates4 ,b soon ! sc5e *anges1 & ! :ole affair alt]s4 ,! son comes1 behaves 9 a v unseemly way to 8 fa!r1 & f9ally beats him4 ,! fa!r cries to ! supreme p[]1 z if ?is 7 ! la/ indignity1 b ! son %[s him1 ) equally good reasons1 obta9$ by ! me?od d]iv$ by him f ,socrates1 t he _h a p]fect "r to /rike him4 ,/repsiades ends ! com$y ) execrations on ! ,socratic dialectic1 ) a return to 8 old ways1 & ) ! burn+ ( ,socrates' h\se4 ,! exagg]ation :i* may be ascrib$ to ,ari/ophanes1 is t he drove ?is dialectic to its bitt] end1 b x _c be said t inju/ice is done to ,socrates by ?is repres5tation4 ,inde$ we mu/ admire ! dep? ( ,ari/ophanes 9 hav+ recogniz$ ! dialectic side 9 ,socrates z be+ a negative1 &--?\gh aft] 8 own way--9 hav+ pres5t$ x s =cibly4 ,= ! p[] ( judg+ 9 ,socrates' me?od is always plac$ 9 ! subject1 9 consci5ce1 b :]e ?is is bad1 ! /ory ( ,/repsiades mu/ repeat itself4 ,) reg>d to ! =mal public accusation ( ,socrates1 we mu/ n1 l ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ci seq471 say ( ,socrates' treatm5t1 t 8x is revolt+ to humanity t ?is excell5t man _h to dr9k ! cup ( poison z a sacrifice to cabals--s num]\s 9 democracies4 ,a man l ,socrates1 :o _h made "r0 7"r is n be+ discuss$1 b we may ask :at "r8 ,! "r ( moral fre$om7 8! sole /&>d ( 8 action1 & did n /ray f ! /raight pa?1 mu/ necess>ily make _m enemies0 7,:y8 ,?is is fooli%2 x is a moral hypocrisy to pret5d to be bett] ?an o!rs :o are !n call$ enemies7 8:o are accu/om$ to act f q diff]5t motives4 ,:5 we ?9k ( ! corruption1 & ( ! rule ( ! ?irty tyrants1 we mu/ simply wond] t he c\ld h work$ on to 8 sixtie? ye> unmole/$4 ,b s9ce ! ,?irty did n v5ture to lay h&s on him !mselves1 x is ! m to be wond]$ at t 9 ! recon/itut$ & j rule & fre$om :i* foll[$ ! ov]?r[ ( despotism0--9 t v way ! dang] 9 :i* _! pr9ciple 01 came to be kn[n--8a man l ,socrates c\ld be made a sacrifice to cabals4 ,?is ph5om5on is probably expla9$ by ! fact t ! enemies ( ,socrates _h fir/ ( all to ga9 "t 9 ord] to obta9 a foll[+1 & t "u ! rule ( ! ,?irty1 !y play$ too insignificant a "p10 & s on4 ,n[1 z reg>ds ! trial ( ,socrates1 we h to di/+ui% two po9ts1 ! "o ! matt] ( ! accusation1 ! judgm5t ( ! c\rt1 & ! o!r ! relation ( ,socrates to ! sov]eign p4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ju/ice !re are ?us ^! two p>ts--! relation ( ! accus$ to ! matt] on acc\nt ( :i* he is accus$1 & 8 relation to ! compet5cy ( ! p1 or ! recognition ( _! maje/y4 ,socrates 0 f\nd guilty by ! judges 9 respect ( ! cont5t ( 8 accusation1 b 0 condemn$ to dea? because he refus$ to recognize ! compet5cy & maje/y ( ! p z reg>ds ! accus$4 a4 ,! accusation consi/$ ( two po9ts3 8,t ,socrates did n consid] z gods ^? :o 7 held to be su* by ! ,a!nian p1 b introduc$ new ones2 & t he also l$ "y m5 a/ray40#acb ,! lead+ away ( y\? 0 8 ca/+ d\bt on :at 0 held to be imm$iate tru?4 ,! fir/ accusation has 9 "p ! same f\ndation1 = he made x evid5t t :at 0 usually s consid]$1 0 n acceptable to ! gods2 & 9 "p x is to be tak5 9 connection ) 8 ,dmon1 n t he call$ ?is 8 god4 ,b ) ! ,greeks ?is 0 ! direction :i* ! individuality ( judgm5t took2 !y took x to be a cont+5cy ( ! individual1 & h5ce1 z cont+5cy ( circum/ances is an ext]nal1 !y also made ! cont+5cy ( judgm5t into some?+ ext]nal1 i4e4 !y consult$ _! oracles--consci\s t ! individual w is itself a cont+5t4 ,b ,socrates1 :o plac$ ! cont+5cy ( judgm5t 9 himself1 s9ce he _h 8 ,dmon 9 8 own consci\sness1 !reby aboli%$ ! ext]nal univ]sal ,dmon f :i* ! ,greeks obta9$ _! judgm5ts4 ,?is accusation1 z also ,socrates' def5ce1 we wi% n[ to exam9e fur!r2 ,x5ophon repres5ts bo? to u1 & ,plato has also suppli$ u ) an ,apology4 ,mean:ile we may n re/ cont5t ) say+ t ,socrates 0 an excell5t man :o suff]$ innoc5tly1 c4 7p4 #dcj71 = 9 ?is accusation x 0 ! popul> m9d ( ,a!ns t rose aga9/ ! pr9ciple :i* became fatal to him4 4 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ po9t ( ! accusation1 t ,socrates did n hon\r ! national gods1 b introduc$ new ones1 ,x5ophon#acc makes him answ] t he always br\ght ! same sacrifices z o!rs to ! public alt>s1 z all 8 fell[-citiz5s c\ld see--8 accus]s likewise4 ,b z to ! *>ge t he introduc$ new ,dmons1 9 t he he>d ! voice ( ,god %[+ him :at he %\ld d1 he appeal$ to !m :e!r by soo?say]s ! cry & flight ( birds1 ! utt]ances ( m5 7l ! voice ( ,py?ia71 ! position ( ! entrails ( sacrificial animals1 & ev5 ?und] & lightn+ 7 n accept$ z div9e revelations4 ,t ,god kn[s ! future be=eh&1 &1 if ,he wi%es1 reveals x 9 ^! ways1 all believe ) him2 b ,god c also reveal ! future o!rwise4 ,he c\ld %[ t he did n lie 9 ma9ta9+ t he he>d ! voice ( ,god1 f ! te/imony ( 8 fri5ds1 to :om he (t5 ann\nc$ :at 0 said2 & 9 its results ?is 0 always f\nd to be true4 ,x5ophon 7,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #aa7 adds1 8,no "o ev] saw or he>d ,socrates d or say any?+ godless or impi\s1 = he nev] tri$ to f9d out ! nature ( ! ,univ]se1 l mo/ ( ! o!rs1 :5 !y s\ght to und]/& h[ :at ! ,sophi/s call$ ! _w began40 ,t is1 f !m came ! e>li] a!i/s1 :o1 l ,anaxagoras1 held t ! sun 0 a /one4#acd ,! effect :i* ! def5ce aga9/ ?is "p ( ! accusation made on ! judges is express$ ?us by ,x5ophon3#ace 8,"o section ( !m 0 displeas$ because !y did n believe :at ,socrates said1 & ! o!r "p because !y 7 envi\s t he 0 m highly hon\r$ ( ! gods ?an !y40 ,?is effect is v natural4 ,9 our times ?is also happ5s 9 two ways4 ,ei!r ! individual is n believ$ :5 he boa/s ( special manife/ations1 & p>ticul>ly ( manife/ations :i* h to d ) individual action & life2 x is nei!r believ$ t su* manife/ations took place at all1 or t !y happ5$ to ?is subject4 ,or if anyone does h deal+s ) su* div9ations1 rightly en\gh 8 proce$+s are put an end to1 & he is %ut up4 ,by ?is x is n d5i$ 9 a g5]al way t ,god =ekn[s ev]y?+1 or t ,he c make revelations to individuals2 ?is may be admitt$ 9 ab/racto1 b n 9 actuality1 & x is believ$ 9 no individual cases4 ,m5 d n believe t to him1 to ?is individual1 !re has be5 a revelation4 ,= :y to him m ?an to o!rs8 ,& :y j ?is trifle1 "s q p]sonal circum/ances--z to :e!r someone %\ld h a successful j\rney1 or :e!r he %\ld conv]se ) ano!r p]son1 or :e!r or n he %\ld 9 a spee* prop]ly def5d himself8 ,& :y n o!rs among/ ! inf9itely _m ?+s :i* may occur to ! individual8 ,:y n mu* m important ?+s1 ?+s conc]n+ ! welf>e ( :ole ,/ates8 ,h5ce x is n believ$ ( an individual1 9 spite ( ! fact t if x is possible1 x mu/ be to ! individual t x happ5s4 ,?is unbelief1 :i* ?us does n d5y ! g5]al fact & g5]al possibility1 b believes x 9 no p>ticul> case1 really does n believe 9 ! actuality & tru? ( ! ?+4 ,x does n believe x because ! absolute consci\sness--& x mu/ be su*--c]ta9ly kn[s no?+ ( a positive k9d ( trivialities su* z =m ! subject ( ^! div9ations & also ^? ( ,socrates2 9 _s su* ?+s imm$iately vani% away4 ,! absolute consci\sness does n "k ab\t ! future z su*1 any m ?an ab\t ! pa/2 x kn[s only ab\t ! pres5t4 ,b because 9 its pres5t1 9 its ?\ght1 ! opposition ( future & pa/ to pres5t becomes app>5t1 x likewise kn[s ab\t future & pa/1 b ( ! pa/ z some?+ :i* has tak5 %ape4 ,= ! pa/ is ! pres]vation ( ! pres5t z reality1 b ! future is ! opposite ( ?is1 ! ,becom+ ( ! pres5t z possibility1 & ?us ! =mless4 ,f out ( ?is =mlessness ! univ]sal fir/ comes into =m 9 ! pres5t2 & h5ce 9 ! future no =m c be p]ceiv$4 ,m5 h ! dim feel+ t :5 ,god acts x is n 9 a p>ticul> way1 nor = p>ticul> objects4 ,su* ?+s are held to be too paltry to be reveal$ by ,god 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,x is ackn[l$g$ t ,god det]m9es ! individual1 b by ?is ! totality ( individuality1 or all individualities1 is und]/ood2 h5ce x is said t ,god's way ( work+ is f\nd 9 univ]sal nature4 ,n[ :ile ) ! ,greeks judgm5t _h ! =m ( a cont+5cy ext]nally posit$ ?r\gh ! flight & cries ( birds1 9 our culture we decide by an inw>d cont+5cy1 because ,i myself desire to be ?is cont+5cy1 & ! k ( individuality is likewise a consci\sness ( ?is cont+5cy4 ,b if ! ,greeks1 = :om ! category ( ! cont+5cy ( consci\sness 0 an exi/5t1 a k ( x z an oracle1 _h ?is individuality z a univ]sal k ( :i* ev]yone c\ld ask c\nsel1 9 ,socrates--9 :om :at 0 "h ext]nally e/abli%$ _h become inw>d consci\sness1 z ) u1 ?\gh n yet fully1 be+ /ill repres5t$ z an actual voice1 & conceiv$ ( z some?+ :i* he sep>at$ f 8 individuality--! decision ( ! s+le individual _h ! =m ( p]sonality z a p>ticul>1 & x 0 n a univ]sal individuality4 ,?is 8 judges c\ld n 9 ju/ice tol]ate1 :e!r !y believ$ x or n4 ,) ! ,greeks su* revelations _h to h a c]ta9 nature & me?od2 !re 71 s to speak1 (ficial oracles 7n subjective71 su* z ,py?ia1 a tree1 etc4 ,h5ce :5 ?is appe>$ 9 any p>ticul> p]son l a common citiz51 x 0 consid]$ incr$ible & wrong2 ! ,dmon ( ,socrates 0 a m$ium ( a diff]5t k9d to any =m]ly respect$ 9 ! ,greek ,religion4 ,x is s mu* ! m notewor?y1 t nev]!less ! oracle ( ! ,delphian ,apollo1 ,py?ia1 decl>$ ,socrates to be ! wise/ ,greek4#acf ,socrates x 0 :o c>ri$ out ! comm& ( ! ,god ( k1 8,"k ,?yself10 & made x ! motto ( ! ,greeks1 call+ x ! law ( ! m9d1 & n int]pret+ x z mean+ a m]e acqua9tance%ip ) ! p>ticul> nature ( man4 ,?us ,socrates is ! h]o :o e/abli%$ 9 ! place ( ! ,delphic oracle1 ! pr9ciple t man mu/ look )9 himself to "k :at is ,tru?4 ,n[ see+ t ,py?ia h]self pron\nc$ t utt]ance1 we f9d 9 x a complete revolution 9 ! ,greek m9d1 & ! fact t 9 place ( ! oracle1 ! p]sonal self-consci\sness ( e ?9k+ man has come into play4 ,?is inw>d c]ta9ty1 h[ev]1 is und\bt$ly ano!r new god1 & n ! god ( ! ,a!nians exi/+ hi!rto1 & ?us ! accusation ( ,socrates 0 q j4 4 ,if we n[ consid] ! second po9t ( ! accusation1 t ,socrates l$ y\? a/ray1 we f9d t he fir/ sets aga9/ x ! fact t ! oracle ( ,delphi decl>$ t none c\ld be nobl]1 ju/] or wis] ?an he4#acg ,& !n he sets aga9/ ?is accusation 8 :ole mann] ( life1 & asks :e!r by ! example t he gave1 p>ticul>ly to ^? ) :om he w5t ab\t1 he ev] l$ any into evil4#ach ,! g5]al accusation _h to be fur!r def9$ & witnesses came =w>d4 8,melitus said t he knew "s :om he advis$ to obey him r ?an _! p>5ts10#aci ,?is po9t ( ! accusation pr9cipally relat$ to ,anytus1 & s9ce he made x good by suffici5t te/imony1 ! po9t 0 und\bt$ly prov$1 9 accordance ) law4 ,socrates expla9$ himself fur!r on ?is po9t :5 he left ! c\rt4 ,= ,x5ophon tells u 7,apol4 ,socr4 #bg1 #bi--ca7 t ,anytus 0 inimical to ,socrates1 because he said to ,anytus1 a respect$ citiz51 t he %\ld n br+ up 8 son to ! trade ( a tann]1 b 9 mann] befitt+ a free man4 ,anytus 0 himself a tann]1 & al?\gh 8 bus9ess 0 mo/ly conduct$ by slaves1 x 0 9 itself n ignom9i\s1 & ,socrates' expression 0 h5ce wrong1 al?\gh1 z we h se5 7p4 #cff71 q 9 ! _s ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,socrates add$ t he _h made acqua9tance ) ?is son ( ,anytus & discov]$ no evil 9 him1 b he prophesi$ t he w\ld n rema9 at ?is s]vile "w to :i* 8 fa!r kept him4 ,nev]!less1 because he _h no rational p]son ne> to look aft] him1 he w\ld come to h evil desires & be br\ght into dissolute ways4 ,x5ophon add$ t ,socrates' prophecy _h come to pass lit]ally1 & t ! "y man gave himself up to dr9k1 & drank day & night1 becom+ totally deprav$4 ,?is c be easily und]/ood1 = a man :o feels himself to be fit = some?+ bett] 7:e!r truly s or n7 & ?r\gh ?is discord 9 8 m9d is discont5t$ ) ! circum/ances 9 :i* he lives1 yet capable ( atta9+ to no o!r1 is l$ out ( ?is disgu/ into li/lessness1 & is ?us on ! way to ! evil c\rses :i* s (t5 ru9 m54 ,! pr$iction ( ,socrates is ?us q natural4 7,supra1 p4 #dbd47 ,to ?is def9ite accusation t he l$ sons into disob$i5ce to _! p>5ts1 ,socrates repli$ by ask+ ! "q :e!r 9 select+ m5 = public (fices1 su* z t ( g5]al1 p>5ts1 or ^? exp]i5c$ 9 w>1 7 select$4 ,simil>ly 9 all cases ^? mo/ skilful 9 an art or sci5ce are pick$ out4 ,he dem&$ :e!r x 0 n matt] ( a/oni%m5t t he %\ld be br\ght be=e a judge because he 0 pref]r$ to p>5ts by ! sons 9 _! aspirations aft] ! highe/ human good :i* is to be made a noble man4#adj ,?is reply ( ,socrates is1 on ! "o h&1 q j1 b we see at ! same "t t we _c call x exhau/ive1 = ! real po9t ( ! accusation is n t\*$4 ,:at 8 judges f\nd unju/ 0 ! intrusion morally ( a ?ird into ! absolute relation betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr54 ,on ! :ole n mu* c be said on ?is po9t1 = all dep5ds on ! mode ( int]v5tion1 & if x is necess>y 9 c]ta9 cases1 x ne$ n take place g5]ally1 & lea/ ( all :5 "s private individual takes t lib]ty4 ,*ildr5 mu/ h ! feel+ ( unity ) _! p>5ts2 ?is is ! fir/ imm$iately moral relation%ip2 e tea*] mu/ respect x1 keep x pure1 & cultivate ! s5se ( be+ ?us connect$4 ,h5ce :5 a ?ird p]son is call$ into ?is relation betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr51 :at happ5s ?r\gh ! new elem5t introduc$1 is t ! *ildr5 are = _! own good prev5t$ f confid+ 9 _! p>5ts1 & made to ?9k t _! p>5ts are bad p :o h>m !m by _! int]c\rse & tra9+2 & h5ce we f9d ?is revolt+4 ,! wor/ ?+ :i* c happ5 to *ildr5 9 reg>d to _! morality & _! m9d1 is t ! bond :i* mu/ ev] be held 9 rev]5ce %\ld become loos5$ or ev5 sev]$1 !reby caus+ hatr$1 disda91 & ill-w4 ,:oev] does ?is1 does injury to morality 9 its true/ =m4 ,?is unity1 ?is confid5ce1 is ! "m's milk ( morality on :i* man is nurtur$2 ! e>ly loss ( p>5ts is !re=e a great mis=tune4 ,! son1 l ! daught]1 mu/ inde$ come out ( 8 natural unity ) ! family & become indep5d5t1 b ! sep>ation mu/ be "o :i* is natural or un=c$1 & n defiant & disda9ful4 ,:5 a pa9 l ?is has f\nd a place 9 ! he>t1 great /r5g? ( m9d is requir$ to ov]come x & to heal ! w\nd4 ,if we n[ speak ( ! example giv5 u by ,socrates1 he seems1 ?r\gh 8 int]v5tion1 to h made ! "y man dissatisfi$ ) 8 position4 ,anytus' son might1 inde$1 h f\nd 8 "w g5]ally speak+ uncong5ial1 b x is ano!r ?+ :5 su* dislike is br\ght into consci\sness & e/abli%$ by ! au?ority ( a man su* z ,socrates4 ,we may v well conjecture t if ,socrates _h to d ) him1 he /r5g!n$ & develop$ 9 him ! g]m ( ! feel+ ( incongruity4 ,socrates rem>k$ on ! subject ( 8 capacities1 say+ t he 0 fit = some?+ bett]1 & ?us e/abli%$ a feel+ ( dissatisfaction 9 ! "y man1 & /r5g!n$ 8 dislike to 8 fa!r1 :i* ?us became ! reason ( 8 ru94 ,h5ce ?is accusation ( hav+ de/roy$ ! relation%ip ( p>5ts & *ildr5 may be reg>d$ z n unf\nd$1 b z p]fectly well e/abli%$4 ,x 0 also ?\ght v bad 9 ,socrates' case p>ticul>ly1 & made a matt] ( reproa* t he _h su* foll[]s z ,critias & ,alcibiades1 :o br\ght ,a!ns almo/ to ! br9k ( ru9 7supra1 p4 #dba74 ,= :5 he mix$ himself 9 ! education :i* o!rs gave _! *ildr51 m5 7 ju/ifi$ 9 ! dem& t ! result %\ld n belie :at he pr(ess$ to d = ! education ( y\?4 ,! only "q n[ is1 h[ ! p came to take notice ( ?is1 & 9 h[ f> su* matt]s c be objects ( legislation & be br\ght into c\rt4 ,9 our law1 z reg>ds ! fir/ "p ( ! accusation1 div9ation su* z ,caglio/ro's is illegal1 & x w\ld be =bidd5 z x =m]ly 0 by ! ,inquisition4 ,respect+ ! second po9t1 su* a moral int]f]5ce is no d\bt m recogniz$ ) u1 :]e !re is a p>ticul> (fice hav+ ?is duty laid ^u x2 b ?is int]f]5ce mu/ keep itself g5]al1 & d>e n g s f> z to call =? disob$i5ce to p>5ts1 :i* is ! fir/ immoral pr9ciple4 ,b %\ld su* que/ions come be=e ! c\rt8 ,?is fir/ ( all br+s up ! "q ( :at is ! "r ( ! ,/ate1 & "h great laxity is n[ all[$4 ,nev]!less1 :5 "s pr(essor or prea*] attacks a p>ticul> religion1 ! legislature w\ld c]ta9ly take notice ( x1 & x w\ld h a complete "r to d s1 al?\gh !re w\ld be an outcry :5 x did x4 ,!re is und\bt$ly a limit :i* 9 lib]ty ( ?\ght & spee* is difficult to def9e & re/s on tacit agreem5t2 b !re is a po9t beyond :i* we f9d :at is n all[$1 su* z direct incitem5t to insurrection4 ,x is inde$ said1 t 8bad pr9ciples de/roy !mselves by !mselves & f9d no entrance40 ,b t is only true 9 "p1 = ) ! populace ! eloqu5ce ( sophi/ry /irs up _! passions4 ,x is also said1 8,?is is only !oretic1 no action foll[s40 ,b ! ,/ate really re/s on ?\ght1 & its exi/5ce dep5ds on ! s5tim5ts ( m51 = x is a spiritual & n a physical k+dom4 ,h5ce x has 9 s f> maxims & pr9ciples :i* con/itute its support1 & if ^! are attack$1 ! ,gov]nm5t mu/ int]v5e4 ,add$ to ?is1 x 0 ! case t 9 ,a!ns q a diff]5t /ate ( ?+s 0 pres5t ?an ) u2 9 ord] to be able to judge rightly ( ,socrates' case we mu/ fir/ consid] ! ,a!nian ,/ate & its cu/oms4 ,accord+ to ,a!nian laws1 i4e4 accord+ to ! _s ( ! absolute ,/ate1 bo? ^! ?+s done by ,socrates 7 de/ructive ( ?is _s1 :ile 9 our con/itution ! univ]sal ( ! /ates is a /rong] univ]sal1 :i* la/ und\bt$ly p]mits ( individuals hav+ fre] play1 s9ce !y _c be s dang]\s to ?is univ]sal4 ,h5ce x w\ld und\bt$ly 9 ! fir/ place mean ! subv]sion ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate1 if ?is public religion on :i* ev]y?+ 0 built & )\t :i* ! ,/ate c\ld n subsi/1 w5t to pieces2 ) u ! ,/ate may be call$ an absolute & indep5d5t p[]4 ,! ,dmon is n[1 9 fact1 a deity diff]+ f any kn[n1 & because x /ood 9 contradiction to ! public religion1 x gave to x a subjective arbitr>9ess4 ,b s9ce e/abli%$ religion 0 id5tifi$ ) public life s closely t x con/itut$ a "p ( public law1 ! introduction ( a new god :o =m$ self-consci\sness into a pr9ciple & occasion$ disob$i5ce1 0 necess>ily a crime4 ,we may dispute ) ! ,a!nians ab\t ?is1 b we mu/ all[ t !y are consi/5t4 ,9 ! second place1 ! moral connection betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr5 is /rong]1 & mu* m ! moral f\ndation ( life ) ! ,a!nians ?an ) u1 :]e subjective fre$om reigns2 = family piety is ! sub/antial key-note ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate4 ,socrates ?us attack$ & de/roy$ ,a!nian life 9 two fundam5tal po9ts2 ! ,a!nians felt & became consci\s ( x4 ,is x !n to be wond]$ at t ,socrates 0 f\nd guilty8 ,we might say t x _h to be s4 ,t5nemann 7,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #da7 says3 8,?\gh ^! *>ges conta9$ ! mo/ palpable untru?s1 ,socrates 0 condemn$ to dea? because 8 m9d 0 too l(ty = him to desc5d to ! common unwor?y means1 by :i* ! judgm5t ( ! c\rt 0 usually p]v]t$40 ,b all ?is is false2 he 0 f\nd guilty ( ^! de$s1 b n = t reason condemn$ to dea?4 b4 ,we "h come to ! second occurr5ce 9 8 hi/ory4 ,9 accordance ) ,a!nian laws1 ! accus$ _h1 aft] ! ,helia/s 7resembl+ ! ,engli% jury7 pron\nc$ him guilty1 ! lib]ty ( sugge/+ 77 a p5alty diff]5t f ! puni%m5t :i* ! accus] propos$2 ?is impli$ a mitigation ( ! puni%m5t )\t a =mal appeal--an excell5t provision 9 ,a!nian law1 te/ify+ to its humanity4 ,9 ?is p5alty ! puni%m5t 9 itself is n br\ght into "q1 b only ! k9d ( puni%m5t2 ! judges _h decid$ t ,socrates des]v$ puni%m5t4 ,b :5 x 0 left to ! accus$ to det]m9e :at 8 puni%m5t %\ld be1 x might n be arbitr>y1 b mu/ be 9 con=mity ) ! crime1 a money or bodily puni%m5t 71 74#ada ,b x 0 impli$ 9 ! guilty p]sons con/itut+ himself 8 own judge1 t he submitt$ himself to ! decision ( ! c\rt & ackn[l$g$ himself to be guilty4 ,n[ ,socrates decl9$ to assign a puni%m5t = himself consi/+ ei!r ( f9e or bani%m5t1 & he _h ! *oice betwe5 ^! & dea?1 :i* 8 accus]s propos$4 ,he decl9$ to *oose ! =m] puni%m5t because he1 accord+ to ,x5ophon's acc\nt 7,apol4 ,socr4 #bc71 9 ! =mality ( ! ex*ange-p5alty 7 71 z he said1 w\ld ackn[l$ge guilt2 b !re 0 no long] any "q z to ! guilt1 b only z to ! k9d ( puni%m5t4 ,?is sil5ce may inde$ be consid]$ z moral greatness1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x contradicts 9 "s measure :at ,socrates says lat] on 9 prison1 t he did n wi% to flee1 b rema9$ !re1 because x seem$ bett] to ! ,a!nians & bett] to him to submit to ! laws 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cdb74 ,b ! fir/ submission w\ld h meant t z ! ,a!nians _h f\nd him guilty1 he respect$ ?is decision1 & ackn[l$g$ himself z guilty4 ,consi/5tly he w\ld ?us h held x bett] to impose 8 puni%m5t1 s9ce !reby he w\ld n only h submitt$ himself to ! laws1 b also to ! judgm5t4 ,we see 9 ,sophocles 7,antig4 v]ses #ibe1 #ibf71 ! heav5ly ,antigone1 t noble/ ( figures t ev] appe>$ on e>?1 go+ to h] dea?1 h] la/ words m]ely /at+-- 8,if ?is seems good unto ! gods1 ,suff]+1 we may be made to "k our error40 ,p]icles also submitt$ himself to ! judgm5t ( ! p z sov]eign2 we saw him 7,vol4 ,i41 p4 #cbh7 go+ r\nd ! citiz5s entreat+ = ,aspasia & ,anaxagoras4 ,9 ! ,roman ,republic we likewise f9d ! noble/ m5 begg+ ( ! citiz5s4 ,!re is no?+ di%on\r+ to ! individual 9 ?is1 = he mu/ b5d be=e ! g5]al p[]1 & ! real & noble/ p[] is ! p4 ,?is ackn[l$gm5t ! p mu/ h direct f ^? :o raise !mselves among/ !m4 ,"h1 on ! contr>y1 ,socrates disclaims ! submission to1 & humiliation be=e ! p[] ( ! p1 = he did n wi% to ask = ! remission ( 8 puni%m5t4 ,we admire 9 him a moral indep5d5ce :i*1 consci\s ( its own "r1 insi/s ^u x & does n b5d ei!r to act o!rwise1 or to recognize z wrong :at x itself reg>ds z "r4 ,socrates h5ce expos$ himself to dea?1 :i* c\ld n be reg>d$ z ! puni%m5t = ! fault ( :i* he 0 f\nd guilty2 = ! fact t he w\ld n himself det]m9e ! puni%m5t1 & ?us disda9$ ! juridical p[] ( ! p1 0 =emo/ 9 lead+ to 8 condemnation4 ,9 a g5]al way he c]ta9ly recogniz$ ! sov]eignty ( ! p1 b n 9 ?is individual case2 x has1 h[ev]1 to be recogniz$1 n only 9 g5]al1 b 9 ea* sep>ate case4 ,) u ! compet5cy ( ! c\rt is presuppos$1 & ! crim9al judg$ )\t fur!r ado2 to-day ! :ole matt] is also op5 to ! light ( day & accept$ z an ackn[l$g$ fact4 ,b ) ! ,a!nians we f9d ! *>act]i/ic reque/ t ! prison] %\ld1 ?r\gh ! act ( impos+ on himself a p5alty1 sanction ! judge's s5t5ce ( guilt4 ,9 ,engl& ?is is c]ta9ly n ! case1 b !re /ill rema9s a l =m ( ask+ ! accus$ by :at law he wi%es to be judg$4 ,he !n answ]s1 by ! law ( ! l& & by ! judges ( 8 c\ntry4 ,"h we h ! recognition ( legal op]ations4 ,socrates ?us set 8 consci5ce 9 opposition to ! judges' s5t5ce1 & acquitt$ himself be=e its tribunal4 ,b no p1 & lea/ ( all a free p l ! ,a!nians1 has by ?is fre$om to recognize a tribunal ( consci5ce :i* kn[s no consci\sness ( hav+ fulfill$ its duty except+ its own consci\sness4 ,to ?is gov]nm5t & law1 ! univ]sal _s ( ! p1 may reply3 8,if y h ! consci\sness ( hav+ done y\r duty1 we mu/ also h ! consci\sness t y h s done40 ,= ! fir/ pr9ciple ( a ,/ate is t !re is no reason or consci5ce or righte\sness or any?+ else1 high] ?an :at ! ,/ate recognizes z su*4 ,quak]s1 ,anabapti/s1 c41 :o resi/ any dem&s made on !m by ! ,/ate1 su* z to def5d ! ,fa!rl&1 _c be tol]at$ 9 a true ,/ate4 ,?is mis]able fre$om ( ?9k+ & believ+ :at m5 w1 is n p]mitt$1 nor any su* retreat beh9d p]sonal consci\sness ( duty4 ,if ?is consci\sness is no m]e hypocrisy1 9 ord] t :at ! individual does %\ld be recogniz$ z duty1 x mu/ be recogniz$ z su* by all4 ,if ! p c make mi/akes ! individual may d s mu* m easily1 & he mu/ be consci\s t he c d ?is mu* m easily ?an ! p4 ,n[ law also has a consci5ce & has to speak ?r\gh x2 ! law-c\rt is ! privileg$ consci5ce4 ,n[ if ! misc>riage ( ju/ice 9 a trial is %[n by e consci5ce clam\r+ = some?+ diff]5t1 ! consci5ce ( ! c\rt alone possesses any value z be+ ! univ]sal legaliz$ consci5ce1 :i* does n require to recognize ! p>ticul> consci5ce ( ! accus$4 ,m5 are too easily conv9c$ ( hav+ fulfill$ _! duty1 b ! judge f9ds out :e!r duty is 9 fact fulfill$1 ev5 if m5 h ! consci\sness ( its be+ s4 ,we %\ld expect no?+ else ( ,socrates ?an t he %\ld g to meet 8 dea? 9 ! mo/ calm & manly fa%ion4 ,plato's acc\nt ( ! wond]ful sc5e 8 la/ h\rs pres5t$1 al?\gh conta9+ no?+ v special1 =ms an elevat+ picture1 & w be to u a p]man5t repres5tation ( a noble de$4 ,! la/ dialogue ( ,plato is popul> philosophy1 = ! immortality ( ! s\l is "h fir/ br\ght =w>d2 yet x br+s no consolation1 =1 z ,hom] makes ,a*illes say 9 ! ne!r _w1 he w\ld pref] to be a pl\ghboy on ! e>?4 ,b ?\gh ! p ( ,a!ns ass]t$ ?r\gh ! execution ( ?is judgm5t ! rights ( _! law z aga9/ ! attacks ( ,socrates1 & _h puni%$ ! injury caus$ to _! moral life by ,socrates1 ,socrates 0 /ill ! h]o :o possess$ = himself ! absolute "r ( ! m9d1 c]ta9 ( itself & ( ! inw>dly decid+ consci\sness1 & ?us express$ ! high] pr9ciple ( m9d ) consci\sness4 ,n[ because1 z has be5 said1 ?is new pr9ciple by effect+ an entrance into ! ,greek _w1 has come into collision ) ! sub/antial _s & ! exi/+ s5tim5ts ( ! ,a!nian p1 a reaction _h to take place1 = ! pr9ciple ( ! ,greek _w c\ld n yet be> ! pr9ciple ( subjective reflection4 ,! ,a!nian p 7 ?us1 n only ju/ifi$1 b also b\nd to react aga9/ x accord+ to _! law1 = !y reg>d$ ?is pr9ciple z a crime4 ,9 g5]al hi/ory we f9d t ?is is ! position ( ! h]oes ?r\gh :om a new _w comm5ces1 & ^: pr9ciple /&s 9 contradiction to :at has gone be=e & dis9tegrates x3 !y appe> to be viol5tly de/roy+ ! laws4 ,h5ce individually !y are vanqui%$1 b x is only ! individual1 & n ! pr9ciple1 :i* is negat$ 9 puni%m5t1 & ! _s ( ! ,a!nian p did n 9 ! removal ( ! individual1 recov] its old position4 ,! false =m ( individuality is tak5 away1 & t1 inde$1 9 a viol5t way1 by puni%m5t2 b ! pr9ciple itself w p5etrate lat]1 if 9 ano!r =m1 & elevate itself into a =m ( ! _w-_s4 ,?is univ]sal mode 9 :i* ! pr9ciple comes =? & p]meates ! pres5t is ! true "o2 :at 0 wrong 0 ! fact t ! pr9ciple came =? only z ! peculi> possession ( "o individual4 ,8 own _w c\ld n compreh5d ,socrates1 b po/]ity c1 9 z f> z x /&s above bo?4 ,x may be conceiv$ t ! life ( ,socrates _h no ne$ to h su* an end1 = ,socrates might h liv$ & di$ a private philosoph]1 & 8 tea*+ might h be5 quietly accept$ by 8 disciples1 & h spread fur!r /ill )\t receiv+ any notice f ,/ate or p2 ! accusation ?us w\ld seem to h be5 cont+5t4 ,b x mu/ be said t x 0 ?r\gh ! mann] ( t ev5t t ?is pr9ciple became s highly hon\r$4 ,! pr9ciple is n m]ely some?+ new & peculi> to itself1 b x is an absolutely ess5tial mom5t 9 ! self-develop+ consci\sness ( self :i* is design$ to br+ to pass z a totality1 a new & high] actuality4 ,! ,a!nians p]ceiv$ correctly t ?is pr9ciple n only meant op9ion & doctr9e1 = its true attitude 0 t ( a direct & ev5 ho/ile & de/ructive relation to ! actuality ( ! ,greek m9d2 & !y proce$$ 9 accordance ) ?is p]ception4 ,h5ce1 :at foll[s 9 ,socrates' life is n cont+5t1 b necess>ily foll[s ^u 8 pr9ciple4 ,or ! hon\r ( hav+ recogniz$ t relation1 & inde$ ( hav+ felt t !y !mselves 7 t+$ ) ?is pr9ciple1 is due to ! ,a!nians4 c4 ,! ,a!nians likewise rep5t$ ( _! condemnation ( ,socrates1 & puni%$ "s ( 8 accus]s ) dea? itself1 & o!rs ) bani%m5t2 = accord+ to ,a!nian laws1 ! man :o made an accusation1 & ^: accusation 0 f\nd to be false1 usually und]w5t ! same puni%m5t t o!rwise ! crim9al w\ld h borne4 ,?is is ! la/ act 9 ?is drama4 ,on ! "o h& ! ,a!nians recogniz$ ?r\gh _! rep5tance ! individual greatness ( ! man2 b on ! o!r 7& ?is we f9d by look+ clos]7 !y also recogniz$ t ?is pr9ciple 9 ,socrates1 signify+ ! introduction ( new gods & disrespect to p>5ts1 has--:ile de/ructive & ho/ile to x--be5 introduc$ ev5 into _! own _s1 & t !y !mselves are 9 ! dilemma ( hav+ 9 ,socrates only condemn$ _! own pr9ciple4 ,9 t !y regrett$ ! j judgm5t ( ,socrates1 x seems to be impli$ t !y wi%$ t x _h n occurr$4 ,b f ! regret x does n foll[ t 9 itself x %\ld n h occurr$1 b only t x %\ld n h happ5$ = _! consci\sness4 ,bo? toge!r con/itute ! innoc5ce :i* is guilty & atones = its guilt2 x w\ld only be s5seless & despicable if !re 7 no guilt4 ,an innoc5t p]son :o comes (f badly is a simpleton2 h5ce x is a v flat & un9t]e/+ matt] :5 tyrants & innoc5t p]sons are repres5t$ 9 trag$ies1 j because ?is is an empty cont+5cy4 ,a great man w\ld be guilty & ov]come ! great crisis t ensues2 ,*ri/ ?us gave up 8 individuality1 b :at 0 br\ght =? by him rema9$4 ,! fate ( ,socrates is h5ce really tragic1 n 9 ! sup]ficial s5se ( ! ^w & z e mis=tune is call$ tragic4 ,! dea? ( an e/imable individual mu/1 9 su* a s5se1 be specially tragic1 & ?us x is said ( ,socrates1 t because he 0 innoc5t & condemn$ to dea?1 8 fate 0 tragic4 ,b su* innoc5t suff]+ w\ld only be sad & n tragic1 = x w\ld n be a rational mis=tune4 ,mis=tune is only rational :5 x is br\ght ab\t by ! w ( ! subject1 :o mu/ be absolutely ju/ifi$ & moral 9 :at he does1 l ! p[] aga9/ :i* he w>s--:i* mu/ !re=e n be a m]ely natural p[]1 or ! p[] ( a tyrannic w4 ,= x is only 9 su* a case t man himself has any "p 9 8 mis=tune1 :ile natural dea? is only an absolute "r :i* nature ex]cises ov] m54 ,h5ce1 9 :at is truly tragic !re mu/ be valid moral p[]s on bo? ! sides :i* come into collision2 ?is 0 s ) ,socrates4 ,8 is likewise n m]ely a p]sonal1 individually romantic lot2 = we h 9 x ! univ]sally moral & tragic fate1 ! trag$y ( ,a!ns1 ! trag$y ( ,greece4 ,two oppos$ rights come into collision1 & ! "o de/roys ! o!r4 ,?us bo? suff] loss & yet bo? are mutually ju/ifi$2 x is n z ?\gh ! "o alone 7 "r & ! o!r wrong4 ,! "o p[] is ! div9e "r1 ! natural morality ^: laws are id5tical ) ! w :i* dwells !re9 z 9 its own ess5ce1 freely & nobly2 we may call x ab/ractly objective fre$om4 ,! o!r pr9ciple1 on ! contr>y1 is ! "r1 z really div9e1 ( consci\sness or ( subjective fre$om2 ?is is ! fruit ( ! tree ( ! k ( good & evil1 i4e4 ( self-creative reason2 & x is ! univ]sal pr9ciple ( ,philosophy = all successive times4 ,x is ^! two pr9ciples :i* we see com+ into opposition 9 ! life & ! philosophy ( ,socrates4 ,! ,a!nian p _h come into a p]iod ( culture1 9 :i* ?is individual consci\sness made itself indep5d5t ( ! univ]sal _s & became = itself4 ,?is 0 p]ceiv$ by !m 9 ,socrates1 b at ! same "t x 0 felt t x meant ru91 & ?us !y puni%$ an elem5t :i* 0 _! own4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,socrates is h5ce n ! transgression ( "o individual1 = all 7 implicat$2 ! crime 0 "o t ! _s ( ! p committ$ aga9/ itself4 ,?r\gh ?is p]ception ! condemnation ( ,socrates 0 retract$2 ,socrates appe>$ to h committ$ no crime1 = ! _s ( ! p has n[ g5]ally rea*$ ! consci\sness :i* turns back f ! univ]sal into itself4 ,?is meant ! dis9tegration ( ?is p1 ^: m9d & _s consequ5tly soon disappe>$ f ! _w1 b yet out ( its a%es a high] took its rise1 = ! _w-_s _h rais$ itself into a high] consci\sness4 ,! ,a!nian ,/ate1 inde$1 endur$ = long1 b ! bloom ( its "* soon fad$4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,socrates t he grasp$ ! pr9ciple ( ! inw>dness ( k1 n practically m]ely1 z did ,critias & ,alcibiades 7supra1 pp4 #dba1 #dch71 b 9 ?\ght1 mak+ x valid to ?\ght1 & ?is is ! high] me?od4 ,k br\ght ab\t ! ,fall1 b x also conta9s ! pr9ciple ( ,r$emption4 ,?us :at to o!rs 0 only ru91 to ,socrates1 because x 0 ! pr9ciple ( k1 0 also a pr9ciple ( heal+4 ,! developm5t ( ?is pr9ciple1 :i* con/itutes ! cont5t ( all successive hi/ory1 is explicitly ! reason t ! lat] philosoph]s )drew f ! affairs ( ! ,/ate1 re/rict$ !mselves to cultivat+ an inn] _w1 sep>at$ f !mselves ! univ]sal aim ( ! moral culture ( ! p1 & took up a position contr>y to ! _s ( ,a!ns & ! ,a!nians4 ,f ?is x came to pass t p>ticul>ity ( ends & int]e/s n[ became p[]ful 9 ,a!ns4 ,?is has1 9 common ) ! ,socratic pr9ciple1 ! fact t :at seems "r & duty1 good & useful to ! subject 9 relation to himself z well z to ! ,/ate1 dep5ds on 8 inw>d det]m9ation & *oice1 & n on ! con/itution & ! univ]sal4 ,?is pr9ciple ( self-det]m9ation = ! individual has1 h[ev]1 become ! ru9 ( ! ,a!nian p1 because x 0 n yet id5tifi$ ) ! con/itution ( ! p2 & ?us ! high] pr9ciple mu/ 9 e case appe> to br+ ru9 ) x :]e x is n yet id5tifi$ ) ! sub/antial ( ! p4 ,! ,a!nian life became weak1 & ! ,/ate outw>dly p[]less1 because its _s 0 divid$ )9 itself4 ,h5ce x 0 dep5d5t on ,lac$mon1 & we f9ally see ! ext]nal subord9ation ( ^! ,/ates to ! ,mac$onians4 ,we are done ) ,socrates4 ,i h be5 m detail$ "h because all ! features ( ! case h be5 s completely 9 h>mony1 & he con/itutes a great hi/oric turn+ po9t4 ,socrates di$ at sixty-n9e ye>s ( age1 9 ,olympiad #ie1 #a 7#cii-djj ,b4,c471 an ,olympiad aft] ! end ( ! ,peloponnesian w>1 tw5ty-n9e ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,p]icles1 & =ty-f\r ye>s be=e ! bir? ( ,alex&]4 ,he saw ,a!ns 9 its greatness & ! beg9n+ ( its fall2 he exp]i5c$ ! height ( its bloom & ! beg9n+ ( its mis=tunes4 ,c4 ,,! ,,socratics4 ,! result ( ! dea? ( ,socrates 01 t ! little company ( 8 fri5ds w5t (f f ,a!ns to ,meg>a1 :]e ,plato also came4 ,euclides _h settl$ !re & receiv$ !m gladly4#adb ,:5 ,socrates' condemnation 0 retract$ & 8 accus]s puni%$1 c]ta9 ( ! ,socratics return$1 & all 0 aga9 br\ght into equilibrium4 ,! "w ( ,socrates 0 f>-rea*+ & effectual 9 ! k+dom ( ,?\ght1 & ! /imulation ( a great am\nt ( int]e/ is always ! pr9cipal s]vice ( a tea*]4 ,subjectively1 ,socrates _h ! =mal effect ( br++ ab\t a discord 9 ! individual2 ! cont5t 0 subsequ5tly left to ! free-w & lik+ ( ea* p]son1 because ! pr9ciple 0 subjective consci\sness & n objective ?\ght4 ,socrates himself only came s f> z to express = consci\sness g5]ally ! simple exi/5ce ( "o's own ?\ght z ! ,good1 b z to :e!r ! p>ticul> conceptions ( ! ,good really prop]ly def9$ t ( :i* !y 7 int5d$ to express ! ess5ce1 he did n inquire4 ,b because ,socrates made ! ,good ! end ( ! liv+ man1 he made ! :ole _w ( idea1 or objective exi/5ce 9 g5]al1 re/ by itself1 )\t seek+ to f9d a passage f ! ,good1 ! real ess5ce ( :at is kn[n z su*1 to ! ?+1 & recogniz+ real ess5ce z ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,= :5 all pres5t speculative philosophy expresses ! univ]sal z ess5ce1 ?is1 z x fir/ appe>s1 has ! semblance ( be+ a s+le det]m9ation1 beside :i* !re are a numb] ( o!rs4 ,x is ! complete movem5t ( k t fir/ removes ?is semblance1 & ! sy/em ( ! univ]se !n %[s =? its ess5ce z ,notion1 z a connect$ :ole4 ,! mo/ v>i$ s*ools & pr9ciples proce$$ f ?is doctr9e ( ,socrates1 & ?is 0 made a reproa* aga9/ him1 b x 0 really due to ! indef9it5ess & ab/raction ( 8 pr9ciple4 ,& 9 ?is way x is only p>ticul> =ms ( ?is pr9ciple :i* c at fir/ be recogniz$ 9 philosophic sy/ems :i* we call ,socratic4 ,"u ! "n ( ,socratic1 ,i und]/&1 h[ev]1 ^? s*ools & me?ods :i* rema9$ clos] to ,socrates & 9 :i* we f9d no?+ b ! "o-sid$ und]/&+ ( ,socratic culture4 ,"o "p ( ^! kept q fai?fully to ! direct me?ods ( ,socrates1 )\t go+ any fur!r4 ,a numb] ( 8 fri5ds are m5tion$ z be+ ( ?is description1 & ^!1 inasmu* z !y 7 au?ors1 cont5t$ !mselves ) correctly transcrib+ dialogues aft] 8 mann]1 :i* 7 p>tly ^? he actually _h held ) !m1 & p>tly ^? !y _h he>d f o!rs2 or else ) work+ out simil> dialogues 9 8 me?od4 ,b = ! re/ !y ab/a9$ f speculative rese>*1 & by direct+ _! att5tion to :at 0 practical1 adh]$ firmly & fai?fully to ! fulfilm5t ( ! duties ( _! position & circum/ances1 !reby ma9ta9+ calm & satisfaction4 ,x5ophon is ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^? m5tion$1 b besides him a numb] ( o!r ,socratics wrote dialogues4 s*9es1 "s ( ^: dialogues h come d[n to u1 ,phd1 ,anti/h5es & o!rs are m5tion$1 & among/ !m a %oemak]1 ,simon1 8) :om ,socrates (t5 spoke at 8 work%op1 & :o aft]w>ds c>efully wrote out :at ,socrates said to him40 ,! title ( 8 dialogues1 z also ^? ( ! o!rs :i* are left to u1 are to be f\nd 9 ,diog5es ,lartius 7,,ii4 #abb1 #abc2 #fj1 #fa2 #aje2 ,,vi4 #ae-ah72 !y h1 h[ev]1 only a lit]>y int]e/1 & h5ce ,i w pass !m by4 ,b ano!r section ( ! ,socratics w5t fur!r ?an ,socrates1 inasmu* z !y1 />t+ f him1 laid hold ( & matur$ "o ( ! p>ticul> aspects ( 8 philosophy & ( ! /&po9t to :i* philosophic k 0 br\ght ?r\gh him4 ,?is /&po9t ma9ta9$ ! absolute "* ( self-consci\sness )9 itself1 & ! relation ( its self-exi/5t univ]sality to ! individual4 ,9 ,socrates1 & f him onw>d1 we ?us see k comm5c+1 ! _w rais+ itself into ! region ( consci\s ?\ght1 & ?is becom+ ! object4 ,we no long] he> "q & answ] z to :at ,nature is1 b z to :at ,tru? is2 or real ess5ce has det]m9$ itself n to be ! implicit1 b to be :at x is 9 k4 ,we h5ce h ! "q ( ! relation%ip ( self-consci\s ?\ght to real ess5ce com+ to ! front z :at conc]ns u mo/4 ,! true & ess5ce are n ! same2 ! true is ess5ce z ?\ght1 b ess5ce is ! simply implicit4 ,?is simple is1 inde$1 ?\ght1 & is 9 ?\ght1 b :5 x is said t ess5ce is pure ,be+ or ,becom+1 z ! be+-=-self ( ! atomi/s1 & !n t ! ,notion is ?\ght g5]ally 7! ( ,anaxagoras71 or f9ally measure1 ?is is ass]t$ directly1 & 9 an objective mann]4 ,or x is ! simple unity ( ! objective & ( ?\ght2 x is n purely objective--= ,be+ _c be se51 he>d1 c42 nor is x pure ?\ght 9 opposition to ! exi/5t--= ?is is ! explicitly exi/5t self-consci\sness :i* sep>ates itself f ess5ce4 ,x is f9ally n ! unity go+ back into itself f ! diff]5ce 9 ! two sides1 :i* is und]/&+ & k4 ,9 ^! self-consci\sness on ! "o h& pres5ts itself z be+-=-self1 & on ! o!r1 z ,be+2 x is consci\s ( ?is diff]5ce1 & f ?is diff]5ce turns back into ! unity ( bo?4 ,?is unity1 ! result1 is ! kn[n1 ! true4 ,"o elem5t 9 ! true is ! c]ta9ty ( itself2 ?is mom5t has atta9$ to reality--9 consci\sness & = consci\sness4 ,x is ?r\gh ?is movem5t & ! inve/igation ( ! subject1 t ! succe$+ p]iod ( ,philosophy is di/+ui%$1 because x does n contemplate ess5ce z left to itself1 & z purely objective1 b z 9 unity ) ! c]ta9ty ( itself4 ,x is n to be und]/ood by ?is t su* k _h itself be5 made into ess5ce1 s t x is held to be ! cont5t & def9ition ( absolute ess5ce1 or t ess5ce _h be5 det]m9$ = ! consci\sness ( ^! philosoph]s z ! unity ( ,be+ & ,?\ght1 i4e4 z if !y _h ?\ght ( x ?us2 b !y c\ld m]ely no long] speak ( ess5ce & actuality )\t ?is elem5t ( self-c]ta9ty4 ,& ?is p]iod is h5ce1 s to speak1 ! middle p]iod1 :i* is really ! movem5t ( k1 & consid]s k z ! sci5ce ( ess5ce1 :i* fir/ br+s ab\t t unity4 ,f :at has be5 said1 x c n[ be se5 :at philosophic sy/ems c come be=e u4 ,t is to say1 because 9 ?is p]iod ! relation ( ,?\ght to ,be+1 or ( ! univ]sal to ! individual1 is made explicit1 we see1 on ! "o h&1 z ! object ( ,philosophy1 ! contradiction ( consci\sness com+ to consci\sness--a contradiction z to :i* ! ord9>y modes ( ?\ght h no k1 = !y are 9 a /ate ( confusion1 see+ t !y g on un?9k+ly4 ,on ! o!r h& we h ,philosophy z p]ceiv+ k itself1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n get beyond its ,notion1 & :i*1 because x is ! unfold+ ( a m ext5sive k ( a cont5t1 _c give itself ?is cont5t1 b c only ?9k x1 i4e4 det]m9e x 9 a simple mann]4 ,( ^? ,socratics :o hold a place ( _! own1 !re are1 accord+ to ?is1 ?ree s*ools wor?y ( consid]ation2 fir/ ! ,meg>ic ,s*ool1 at ^: head /&s ,euclid ( ,meg>a1 & !n ! ,cyr5aic & ,cynic ,s*ools2 & f ! fact t !y all ?ree diff] v mu* f "o ano!r1 x is cle>ly %[n t ,socrates himself 0 devoid ( any positive sy/em4 ,) ^! ,socratics ! det]m9ation ( ! subject = :i* ! absolute pr9ciple ( ! true & good likewise appe>s z end1 came into prom95ce2 ?is end dem&s reflection & g5]al m5tal cultivation1 & also requires t m5 %\ld be able to tell :at ! good & true really are4 ,b ?\gh ^! ,socratic s*ools z a :ole re/ at say+ t ! subject itself is end1 & rea*es its subjective end ?r\gh ! cultivation ( its k1 ! =m ( det]m9ation 9 !m is /ill ! univ]sal1 & x is also s t x does n rema9 ab/ract1 = ! developm5t ( ! det]m9ations ( ! univ]sal gives real k4 ,! ,meg>ics 7 mo/ ab/ract1 because !y held to ! det]m9ation ( ! good :i*1 z simple1 0 to !m ! pr9ciple2 ! unmov$ & self-relat$ simplicity ( ?\ght becomes ! pr9ciple ( consci\sness z individual1 z x is ( consci\s k4 ,! ,meg>ic s*ool associat$ ) ! ass]tion ( ! simplicity ( ! good1 ! dialectic1 t all t 0 def9$ & limit$ is n true4 ,b because ) ! ,meg>ics ! pr9cipal po9t 0 to "k ! univ]sal1 & ?is univ]sal 0 to !m ! ,absolute :i* _h to be reta9$ 9 ?is =m ( ! univ]sal1 ?is ?\ght1 z ,notion :i* holds a negative position 9 relation to all det]m9at5ess & ?us to t ( ,notion also1 0 equally turn$ aga9/ k & p]ception4 ,! ,cyr5aics take k 9 its subjective signification1 & z signify+ individuality z c]ta9ty ( self1 or feel+2 to ?is z to t :i* is ess5tial1 !y re/rict ! ex]cise ( consci\sness1 &1 g5]ally speak+1 make exi/5ce = consci\sness consi/ !re94 ,n[ because !y !reby s\ght to def9e ! ,good m closely1 !y call$ x simply pleasure or enjoym5t1 by :i*1 h[ev]1 any?+ c be und]/ood4 ,?is pr9ciple ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool w\ld seem to h be5 f> remov$ f t ( ,socrates1 s9ce we at once ?9k ( ! transi5t exi/5ce ( feel+ z directly 9 opposition to ! ,good2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,! ,cyr5aics likewise upheld ! univ]sal1 =1 if x is ask$ :at ! ,good is1 we f9d !y c]ta9ly made pleasurable feel+1 :i* pres5ts ! appe>ance ( a det]m9ate1 to be its cont5t1 b see+ t a cultur$ m9d is also requisite1 enjoym5t1 z x is obta9$ ?r\gh ?\ght1 is "h indicat$4 ,! ,cynics also fur!r def9$ ! pr9ciple ( ! ,good1 b 9 ano!r way f ! ,cyr5aics2 its cont5t1 !y said1 lay 9 man's keep+ to :at is 9 con=mity ) nature & to ! simple ne$s ( nature4 ,!y simil>ly call all t is p>ticul> & limit$ 9 ! aims ( m5 t :i* is n to be desir$4 ,to ! ,cynics1 too1 m5tal culture ?r\gh ! k ( ! univ]sal is ! pr9ciple2 b ?r\gh ?is k ( ! univ]sal ! individual end mu/ be atta9$1 & ?is is1 t ! individual %\ld keep himself 9 ab/ract univ]sality1 9 fre$om & indep5d5ce1 & be indiff]5t to all he =m]ly e/eem$4 ,?us we see pure ?\ght recogniz$ 9 its movem5t ) ! individual1 & ! manifold trans=mations ( ! univ]sal com+ to consci\sness4 ,^! ?ree s*ools are n to be treat$ at l5g?4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! ,cyr5aics became lat] on m sci5tifically work$ out 9 ,epicureanism1 z t ( ! ,cynics did 9 ,/oicism4 #a4 ,,! ,,meg>ics4 ,because ,euclides 7:o is reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! ,meg>ic way ( ?9k+7 & 8 s*ool held to ! =ms ( univ]sality1 &1 above all1 s\ght1 & ) success1 to %[ =? ! contradictions conta9$ 9 all p>ticul> conceptions1 !y 7 reproa*$ ) hav+ a rage = disputation1 & h5ce ! "n ( ,eri/ics 0 giv5 !m4 ,! in/rum5t = br++ all t is p>ticul> into confusion & annull+ ?is p>ticul>1 0 suppli$ by dialectic1 :i*1 inde$1 0 br\ght by !m to v great p]fection1 b1 z 0 privately /at$1 !y did x 9 a k9d ( ang]1 s t o!rs said t !y %\ld n be call$ a ,s*ool 77 b a gall 774#adc ,) a dialectic ?us con/itut$1 we f9d !m tak+ ! place ( ! ,eleatic ,s*ool & ( ! ,sophi/s2 & x seems z ?\gh ! ,eleatic ,s*ool _h m]ely be5 reproduc$1#add s9ce !y 7 ess5tially id5tical ) x4 ,b ?is 0 only p>tly true--9 t ! ,eleatic dialecticians ma9ta9$ ,be+ z ! "o exi/5ce 9 relation to :i* no?+ p>ticul> is a tru?1 & ! ,meg>ics consid]$ ,be+ z ! ,good4 ,! ,sophi/s1 on ! o!r h&1 did n seek _! impulse 9 simple univ]sality z fix$ & z endur+2 & simil>ly we %all f9d 9 ! ,sceptics1 dialecticians :o ma9ta9 t ! subjective m9d re/s )9 itself4 ,besides ,euclides1 ,diodorus & ,m5$emus are m5tion$ z di/+ui%$ ,eri/ics1 b p>ticul>ly ,eubulides1 & lat] on ,/ilpo1 ^: dialectic likewise relat$ to contradictions :i* appe>$ 9 ext]nal conception & 9 spee*1 s t x 9 great measure pass$ into a m]e play ^u words4 a4 ,,euclides4 ,euclides1 :o is n to be confus$ ) ! ma!matician1 is he ( :om x is said t dur+ ! enmity betwe5 ,a!ns & 8 bir?place1 ,meg>a1 & 9 ! p]iod ( mo/ viol5t animosity1 he (t5 secretly w5t to ,a!ns1 dress$ z a woman1 n fe>+ ev5 ! puni%m5t ( dea? 9 ord] to be able to he> ,socrates & be 9 8 company4#ade ,euclides is said1 9 spite ( 8 /ubborn mann] ( disput+1 to h be51 ev5 9 8 disputation1 a mo/ peaceful man4 ,x is told t once 9 a qu>rel 8 oppon5t 0 s irritat$1 t he exclaim$1 8,i w die if ,i d n rev5ge myself ^u y60 ,euclides repli$1 8,& ,i w die if ,i d n s(t5 y\r wra? s mu* by ! mildness ( my spee* t y w love me z be=e40#adf ,x 0 ,euclides :o said t 8! ,good is "o10 & x alone is1 8?\gh pass+ "u _m names2 sometimes x is call$ ,und]/&+1 sometimes ,god2 at ano!r "t ,?\ght 771 & s on4 ,b :at is oppos$ to ! good does n exi/40#adg ,?is doctr9e ,cic]o 7ibid47 calls noble1 & says t x diff]s b little f ! ,platonic4 ,s9ce ! ,meg>ics make ! ,good1 z ! simple id5tity ( ! true1 into a pr9ciple1 x is cle>ly se5 t !y express$ ! ,good z ! absolute exi/5ce 9 a univ]sal s5se1 z did ,socrates2 b !y no long]1 l him1 recogniz$ all ! approximate conceptions1 or m]ely oppos$ !m z be+ indiff]5t to ! int]e/s ( man1 = !y ass]t$ def9itely t !y 7 no?+ at all4 ,?us !y come into ! category ( ! ,eleatics1 s9ce !y1 l !m1 %[$ t only ,be+ is1 & t all else1 z negative1 does n exi/4 ,:ile ! dialectic ( ,socrates 0 ?us incid5tal1 9 t he m]ely %ook "s curr5t moral ideas1 or ! v fir/ conceptions ( k1 ! ,meg>ics1 on ! contr>y1 rais$ _! philosophic dialectic into some?+ m univ]sal & real1 = !y appli$ !mselves m to :at is =mal 9 idea & spee*1 ?\gh n yet1 l ! lat] ,sceptics1 to ! det]m9ations ( pure ,notions2 = k1 ?\ght1 0 n yet pres5t 9 ab/ract conceptions4 ,( _! own dialectic n mu* is told1 b m is said ( ! emb>rassm5t into :i* !y br\ght ord9>y consci\sness1 = !y 7 9 all k9ds ( ways al]t 9 involv+ o!rs 9 contradictions4 ,?us !y appli$ dialectic aft] ! mann] ( an ord9>y conv]sation1 j z ,socrates appli$ 8 m9d to e side ( ord9>y subjects1 & z we also1 9 our conv]sation1 try to make an ass]tion int]e/+ & important4 ,a numb] ( anecdotes are told ( _! disputations1 f :i* we see t :at we call jok+ 0 _! express bus9ess4 ,o!rs ( _! puzzles c]ta9ly deal ) a positive category ( ?\ght2 !y take ^! & %[ h[1 if !y are held to be true1 !y br+ ab\t a contradiction4 b4 ,,eubulides4 ,( ! innum]able multitude ( ways 9 :i* !y tri$ to confuse our k 9 ! categories1 _m are pres]v$ ) _! names1 & ! pr9cipal ( ^! are ! ,sophisms1 ^: discov]y is ascrib$ to ,eubulides ( ,miletus1 a pupil ( ,euclides4#adh ,! fir/ ?+ :i* /rikes u :5 we he> !m is t !y are common sophisms :i* are n wor? contradiction1 & sc>cely ( be+ he>d1 lea/ ( all h !y a real sci5tific value4 ,h5ce we call !m /upid1 & look at !m z dre>y jokes1 b x is 9 fact easi] to set !m aside ?an to refute !m4 ,we let ord9>y spee* pass1 & are cont5t ) x1 s long z ev]yone kn[s :at ! o!r means 7:5 ?is is n s--we tru/ t ,god und]/&s u71 b ^! sophisms seem 9 a way to mislead common spee*1 = !y %[ ! contradictory & unsatisfactory nature ( x :5 tak5 /rictly z x is spok54 ,to confuse ord9>y language s t we d n "k h[ to reply1 seems fooli%1 z lead+ to =mal contradictions1 & if x is done we are blam$ = tak+ m]e empty words & play+ ^u !m4 ,our ,g]man s]i\sness1 !re=e1 dismisses ?is play on words z %all[ wit1 b ! ,greeks hon\r$ ! ^w 9 itself1 & ! m]e treatm5t ( a proposition z well z ! matt]4 ,& if ^w & ?+ are 9 opposition1 ! ^w is ! high]1 = ! unexpress$ ?+ is really irrational1 s9ce ! rational exi/s z spee* alone4 ,x is 9 ,ari/otle1 & 9 8 ,sophi/ical ,el5*i t we fir/ f9d num]\s examples ( ^! contradictions 7com+ f ! old ,sophi/s equally ) ! ,eri/ics71 & also _! solutions4 ,eubulides1 !re=e1 likewise wrote aga9/ ,ari/otle1#adi b none ( ?is has come d[n to u4 ,9 ,plato we also f9d1 z we saw be=e 7p4 #cgj71 simil> jokes & ambiguities m5tion$ to make ! ,sophi/s ridicul\s1 & to %[ ) :at insignificant matt]s !y took up _! "t4 ,! ,eri/ics w5t yet fur!r1 = !y1 l ,diodorus1 became je/]s to c\rts1 su* z to t ( ! ,ptolemies4#aej ,f hi/oric facts we see t ?is dialectic op]ation ( confus+ o!rs & %[+ h[ to extricate !m aga9 0 a g5]al amusem5t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 bo? 9 public places & at ! tables ( k+s4 ,j z ! ,que5 ( ! ,ea/ came to ,solomon to put riddles to him1 we f9d at ! tables ( k+s witty conv]sation & assemblages ( philosoph]s jok+ & mak+ m]ry ov] "o ano!r4 ,! ,greeks 7 q enam\r$ ( discov]+ contradictions met ) 9 spee* & 9 ord9>y ideas4 ,! contradiction does n make its appe>ance z a pure contradiction 9 ! conception1 b only z int]wov5 ) concrete ideas2 su* propositions nei!r apply to ! concrete cont5t nor to ! pure ,notion4 ,subject & pr$icate1 ( :i* e proposition consi/s1 are diff]5t1 b 9 ! ord9>y idea we signify _! unity2 ?is simple unity1 :i* does n contradict itself1 is to ord9>y ideas ! tru?4 ,b 9 fact1 ! simple self-id5tical proposition is an unmean+ tautology2 = 9 any affirmation1 diff]5ces are pres5t1 & because _! div]sity comes to consci\sness1 !re is contradiction4 ,b ! ord9>y consci\sness is !n at an end1 = only :]e !re is a contradiction is !re ! solution1 self-abrogation4 ,ord9>y consci\sness has n ! conception t only ! unity ( opposites is ! tru?--t 9 e /atem5t !re is tru? & falsehood1 if tru? is to be tak5 9 ! s5se ( ! simple1 & falsehood 9 ! s5se ( ! oppos$ & contradictory2 9 x ! positive1 ! fir/ unity1 & ! negative1 ?is la/ opposition1 fall asund]4 ,9 ,eubulides' propositions ! ma9 po9t 0 t because ! tru? is simple1 a simple answ] is requir$2 t ?us ! answ] %\ld n1 z happ5$ 9 ,ari/otle 7,de ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 c4 #bd71 h reg>d to c]ta9 special consid]ations2 &1 aft] all1 ?is is really ! dem& ( ! und]/&+4 ,?us ! mi/ake is to desire an answ] ( yes or no1 = s9ce no "o v5tures on ei!r1 p]plexity ensues1 because x is a fool's "p n to "k :at to reply4 ,! simplicity ( ! tru? is ?us grasp$ z ! pr9ciple4 ,) u ?is appe>s 9 ! =m ( mak+ su* /atem5ts z t "o ( opposites is true1 ! o!r false2 t a /atem5t is ei!r true or n true2 t an object _c h two opposite pr$icates4 ,t is ! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! und]/&+1 ! pr9cipium exclusi t]tii1 :i* is ( great importance 9 all ! sci5ces4 ,?is /&s 9 close connection ) ! pr9ciple ( ,socrates & ,plato 7supra1 pp4 #dee1 #def71 8,! true is ! univ]sal20 :i* is ab/ractly ! id5tity ( und]/&+1 accord+ to :i* :at is said to be true _c contradict itself4 ,?is comes m cle>ly to light 9 ,/ilpo 7p4 #dfd74 ,! ,meg>ics ?us kept to ?is pr9ciple ( our logic ( ! und]/&+1 9 dem&+ ! =m ( id5tity = ! ,tru?4 ,n[ 9 ! cases t !y put1 !y did n keep to ! univ]sal1 b s\ght examples 9 ord9>y conception1 by means ( :i* !y p]plex$ p2 & ?is !y =m$ into a k9d ( sy/em4 ,we %all br+ =w>d "s examples t are pres]v$ to u2 "s are m important1 b o!rs are insignificant4 4 ,"o ,el5* 0 call$ ! ,li> 772 9 x ! "q is put3 8,if a man ackn[l$ges t he lies1 does he lie or speak ! tru?80#aea ,a simple answ] is dem&$1 = ! simple :]eby ! o!r is exclud$1 is held to be ! true4 ,if x is said t he tells ! tru?1 ?is contradicts ! cont5t ( 8 utt]ance1 = he confesses t he lies4 ,b if x is ass]t$ t he lies1 x may be object$ t 8 confession is ! tru?4 ,he ?us bo? lies & does n lie2 b a simple answ] _c be giv5 to ! "q rais$4 ,= "h we h a union ( two opposites1 ly+ & tru?1 & _! imm$iate contradiction2 9 diff]5t =ms ?is has at all times come to pass1 & has ev] occupi$ ! att5tion ( m54 ,*rysippus1 a celebrat$ ,/oic1 wrote six books on ! subject1#aeb & ano!r1 ,philetas ( ,cos1 di$ 9 ! decl9e :i* he contract$ ?r\gh ov]-/udy ( ^! p>adoxes4#aec ,we h ! same ?+ ov] aga9 :51 9 mod]n times1 we see m5 worn out by absorb+ !mselves 9 ! squ>+ ( ! circle--a proposition :i* has well nigh become immortal4 ,!y seek a simple relation f some?+ incomm5surable1 i4e4 !y fall into ! error ( dem&+ a simple reply :]e ! cont5t is contradictory4 ,t little hi/ory has p]petuat$ & reproduc$ itself lat] on2 9 ,don ,quixote ! v same ?+ appe>s4 ,san*o1 gov]nor ( ! isl& ( ,b>at>ia1 0 te/$ by _m insidi\s cases z he sat 9 judgm5t1 &1 among/ o!rs1 ) ! foll[+3 ,9 8 doma9 !re 0 a bridge :i* a ri* man _h erect$ = ! good ( pass5g]s--b ) a gall[s close by4 ,! cross+ ( ! bridge 0 re/rict$ by ! condition t ev]yone mu/ say truly :]e he 0 go+1 & if he li$1 he w\ld be hung ^u ! gall[s4 ,n[ "o man came to ! bridge1 & to ! "q :i!r he w5t1 answ]$ t he _h come "h to be hung on ! gall[s4 ,! bridge-keep]s 7 mu* puzzl$ by ?is4 ,= if !y hang$ him1 he w\ld h spok5 ! tru? & ought to h pass$1 b if he cross$ he w\ld h spok5 an untru?4 ,9 ?is difficulty !y appli$ to ! wisdom ( ! gov]nor1 :o utt]$ ! wise say+ t 9 su* dubi\s cases ! milde/ measures %\ld be adopt$1 & ?us ! man %\ld be all[$ to pass4 ,san*o did n break 8 head ov] ! matt]4 ,! result :i* ! /atem5t 0 to h1 is made its cont5t1 ) ! condition t ! opposite ( ! cont5t %\ld be ! consequ5ce4 ,hang+1 und]/&+ x to be truly express$1 %\ld n h hang+ z result2 non-hang+ z an ev5t1 %\ld1 on ! o!r h&1 h hang+ z result4 ,?us dea? is made ! consequ5ce ( suicide1 b by suicide dea? itself is made into ! cont5t ( ! crime1 & _c ?us be ! puni%m5t4 ,i w give ano!r simil> example along ) ! answ]4 ,m5$emus 0 ask$ :e!r he _h ceas$ to beat 8 fa!r4 ,?is 0 an attempt to place him 9 a difficulty1 s9ce to answ] ei!r yes or no1 w\ld be equally risky4 ,= if he said #8yes1' !n he once beat him1 & if #8no1' !n he /ill beats him4 ,m5$emus h5ce repli$ t he nei!r ceas$ to beat him1 nor _h beat5 him2 & ) ?is 8 oppon5ts 7 n satisfi$4#aed ,?r\gh ?is answ]1 :i* is two-sid$1 ! "o alt]native1 z well z ! o!r1 be+ set aside1 ! "q is 9 fact answ]$2 & ?is is also s 9 ! =m] "q z to :e!r ! man spoke truly :o said he li$1 :5 ! reply is made1 8,he speaks ! tru? & lies at ! same "t1 & ! tru? is ?is contradiction40 ,b a contradiction is n ! true1 & _c ent] into our ord9>y conceptions2 h5ce ,san*o ,panza likewise set x aside 9 8 judgm5t4 ,if ! consci\sness ( opposition is pres5t1 our ord9>y ideas keep ! contradictory sides ap>t2 b 9 fact ! contradiction appe>s 9 s5su\s ?+s1 su* z space1 "t1 c41 & has 9 !m only to be demon/rat$4 ,^! sophisms ?us n only appe> to be contradictory1 b are s 9 tru?3 ?is *oice betwe5 two opposites1 :i* is set be=e u 9 ! example1 is itself a contradiction4 4 ,! ,conceal$ "o 77 & ! ,electra#aee proce$ f ! contradiction ( kn[+ & n kn[+ someone at ! same "t4 ,i ask someone #8,d y "k y\r fa!r8' ,he replies #8,yes4' ,i !n ask #8,n[ if ,i %[ y someone hidd5 beh9d a scre51 w y "k him8' #8,no4' #8,b x is y\r fa!r1 & ?us y d n "k y\r fa!r4' ,x is ! same 9 ! ,electra4 #8,c x be said t %e kn[s h] bro!r ,ore/es :o /&s be=e h] or n8' ,^! twi/s & turns seem sup]ficial1 b x is int]e/+ to consid] !m fur!r4 77 ,to "k means1 on ! "o h&1 to h someone z #8?is "o1' & n vaguely & 9 g5]al4 ,! son ?us kn[s 8 fa!r :5 he sees him1 i4e4 :5 he is a #8?is' = him2 b hidd51 he is n a #8?is' = him1 b a #8?is' abrogat$4 ,! hidd5 "o z a #8?is' 9 ord9>y conception1 becomes a g5]al1 & loses 8 s5su\s be+1 !reby is 9 fact n a true #8?is4' ,! contradiction t ! son bo? kn[s & does n "k 8 fa!r1 ?us becomes dissolv$ ?r\gh ! fur!r qualification t ! son kn[s ! fa!r z a s5su\s #8?is1' & n z a #8?is' ( idea4 77 ,on ! o!r h& ,electra kn[s ,ore/es1 n z a s5su\s #8?is1' b 9 h] own idea2 ! #8?is' ( idea & ! #8?is' "h1 are n ! same to h]4 ,9 ?is way !re ent]s into ^! hi/ories ! high] opposition ( ! univ]sal & ( ! #8?is1' 9 z f> z to h 9 ! ord9>y idea1 means 9 ! elem5t ( ! univ]sal2 ! abrogat$ #8?is' is n only an idea1 b has its tru? 9 ! univ]sal4 ,! univ]sal is ?us f\nd 9 ! unity ( opposites1 & ?us x is 9 ?is developm5t ( ,philosophy ! true exi/5ce1 9 :i* ! s5su\s be+ ( ! #8?is' is negat$4 ,x is ! consci\sness ( ?is 9 p>ticul> :i*1 z we %all soon see 7p4 #dfe71 is indicat$ by ,/ilpo4 4 ,o!r quibbles ( ! same k9d h m mean+1 l ! argum5ts :i* are call$ ! ,sorites 77 & ! ,bald 774#aef ,bo? are relat$ to ! false inf9ite1 & ! quantitative progression :i* c rea* no qualitative opposite1 & yet at ! end f9ds itself at a qualitative absolute opposite4 ,! ,bald head is ! rev]se ( ! problem ( ! ,sorites4 ,x is ask$1 8,does "o gra9 ( corn make a heap1 or does "o hair less make a bald head80 ,! reply is 8,no40 8,nor "o aga980 8,no1 x does n40 ,?is "q is n[ always repeat$ :ile a gra9 is always add$1 or a hair tak5 away4 ,:5 at la/ x is said t !re is a heap or a bald head1 x is f\nd t ! la/ add$ gra9 or la/ ab/ract$ hair has made ! heap or ! baldness1 & ?is 0 at fir/ d5i$4 ,b h[ c a gra9 =m a heap :i* already consi/s ( s _m gra9s8 ,! ass]tion is t "o gra9 does n make a heap2 ! contradiction1 t "o ?us add$ or tak5 away br+s ab\t ! *ange into ! opposite--! _m4 ,= to repeat "o is j to obta9 _m1 ! repetition causes c]ta9 #8_m' gra9s to come toge!r4 ,! "o ?us becomes its opposite1--a heap1 & ! tak+ ( "o away br+s ab\t baldness4 ,"o & a heap are oppos$ to "o ano!r1 b yet "o2 or ! quantitative progression seems n to *ange b m]ely to increase or dim9i%1 yet at la/ x has pass$ into its opposite4 ,we always sep>ate quality & quantity f "o ano!r1 & only accept 9 ! _m a quantitative diff]5ce2 b ?is indiff]5t di/9ction ( numb] or size "h turns f9ally into qualitative di/9ction1 j z an inf9itely small or inf9itely great greatness is no long] greatness at all4 ,?is *>act]i/ic ( ve]+ r\nd is ( ! greate/ importance1 al?\gh x does n come directly be=e our consci\sness4 ,to give "o p5ny or "o %ill+ is said to be no?+1 b ) all its insignificance ! purse becomes empti$1 :i* is a v qualitative diff]5ce4 ,or1 if wat] is always m & m heat$1 x sudd5ly1 at #hj ,reamur1 turns into /eam4 ,! dialectic ( ?is pass+ into "o ano!r ( quantity & quality is :at our und]/&+ does n recognize2 x is c]ta9 t qualitative is n quantitative1 & quantitative n qualitative4 ,9 ^? examples :i* seem l jokes1 !re is 9 ?is way g5u9e reflection on ! ?\ght-det]m9ations :i* are 9 "q4 ,! examples :i* ,ari/otle br+s =w>d 9 8 ,el5*i1 all %[ a v =mal contradiction1 appe>+ 9 spee*1 s9ce ev5 9 x ! individual is tak5 into ! univ]sal4 8,:o is t8 ,x is ,coriscus4 ,is ,coriscus n mascul9e8 ,yes4 ,t is neut] sex1 & ?us ,coriscus is said to be neut]40#aeg ,or else ,ari/otle 7,de ,sophi/4 ,el5*4 c4 #bd7 quotes ! argum5t3 8,to !e a dog is fa!r 7 74 ,?\ art ?us a dog20 t is :at ,plato1 z we already m5tion$ 7p4 #cgj71 made a ,sophi/ say3 x is ! wit ( a j\rneyman su* z we f9d 9 ,eul5spiegel4 ,ari/otle is really at great pa9s to remove ! confusion1 = he says ! #8?y' & ! #8fa!r' are only accid5tally 7 71 & n 9 sub/ance 7 7 jo9$ to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! inv5tion ( su* witticisms1 ! ,greeks ( t & ( lat] times 7 q indefatigable4 ,) ! ,sceptics we %all lat] on see ! dialectic side fur!r develop$ & br\ght to a high] /&po9t4 c4 ,,/ilpo4 ,/ilpo1 a native ( ,meg>a1 is "o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ! ,eri/ics4 ,diog5es tells u t 8he 0 a v p[]ful debat]1 & excell$ all s greatly 9 read9ess ( spee* t all ,greece1 9 look+ to him1 0 9 dang] 7 7 ( becom+ ,meg>eans40 ,he liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 & aft] 8 dea? 7,ol4 #aad1 #a2 #cbd ,b4,c47 9 ,meg>a1 :5 ,alex&]'s g5]als f\ght toge!r4 ,ptolemy ,sot]1 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 ,antigonus' son1 :5 !y conqu]$ ,meg>a1 be/[$ _m hon\rs on him4 8,9 ,a!ns all came out ( _! "w-places to see him1 & :5 anyone said t !y admir$ him l a /range animal1 he repli$1 ,no1 b l a true man40#aeh ,) ,/ilpo x 0 pre-em95tly true t ! univ]sal 0 tak5 9 ! s5se ( ! =mal ab/ract id5tity ( ! und]/&+4 ,! ma9 po9t 9 8 examples is1 h[ev]1 always ! fact ( 8 hav+ giv5 prom95ce to ! =m ( univ]sality z oppos$ to ! p>ticul>4 4 ,diog5es 7,,ii4 #aai7 fir/ quotes f him 9 relation to ! opposition ( ! #8?is' & ! univ]sal1 8,:oev] speaks ( any man 7 71 speaks ( no "o1 = he nei!r speaks ( ?is "o nor t4 ,= :y %\ld x r be ( ?is "o ?an t8 ,h5ce x is n ( ?is "o40 ,t man is ! univ]sal1 & t no "o is specially indicat$1 ev]yone readily ackn[l$ges1 b "s "o /ill rema9s pres5t to u 9 our conception4 ,b ,/ilpo says t ! #8?is' does n exi/ at all1 & _c be express$--t ! univ]sal only exi/s4 ,diog5es ,lartius c]ta9ly und]/&s ?is z ?\gh 8,/ilpo aboli%$ di/9ction ( g5]a 7 710 & ,t5nemann 7,vol ,,ii41 p4 #aeh7 supports him4 ,b f :at is quot$ f him ! opposite may cle>ly be d$uc$--t he upheld ! univ]sal & did away ) ! individual4 ,& ! fact t ! =m ( univ]sality is ma9ta9$1 is fur!r express$ 9 a numb] ( anecdotes :i* are tak5 by ,/ilpo f common life4 ,?us he says3 8,! cabbage is n :at is "h %[n 7 74 ,= ! cabbage has exi/$ = _m ?\s& ye>s1 & h5ce ?is 7:at is se57 is n cabbage10 i4e4 ! univ]sal only is1 & ?is cabbage is n4 ,if ,i say ?is cabbage1 ,i say q ano!r ?+ f :at ,i mean1 = ,i say all o!r cabbages4 ,an anecdote is told 9 ! same ref]5ce4 8,he 0 conv]s+ ) ,crates1 a ,cynic1 & broke (f to buy "s fi%20 ,crates said1 8,:at1 y w\ld avoid ! "q80 7= ev5 9 ord9>y life anyone is laugh$ at or ?\ght /upid :o is unable to reply1 & "h :]e ! subject 0 s important & :]e x w\ld seem bett] to reply any?+ ?an no?+ at all1 no answ] 0 =?com+74 ,/ilpo repli$1 8,by no means1 = ,i h ! conv]sation1 b ,i leave y1 s9ce ! conv]sation rema9s b ! fi% w be sold40 ,:at is indicat$ 9 ^! simple examples seems trivial1 because ! matt] is trivial1 b 9 o!r =ms x seems important en\gh to be ! subject ( fur!r inquiry4 ,t ! univ]sal %\ld 9 ,philosophy be giv5 a place ( su* importance t only ! univ]sal c be express$1 & ! #8?is' :i* is meant1 _c1 indicates a /ate ( consci\sness & ?\ght :i* ! philosophic culture ( our "t has n yet rea*$4 ,z reg>ds ! ord9>y human und]/&+1 or ! scepticism ( our times1 or 9 g5]al ! ,philosophy :i* ass]ts t s5su\s c]ta9ty 7t :i* we see1 he>1 c471 is ! tru?1 or else t x is true t !re are s5su\s ?+s outside ( u--z to ^!1 no?+1 s f> z ! reasons = disbeliev+ !m are conc]n$1 ne$ be said4 ,= because ! direct ass]tion t ! imm$iate is ! true is made1 su* /atem5ts only require to be tak5 ) respect to :at !y say1 & !y w always be f\nd to say some?+ diff]5t f :at !y mean4 ,:at /rikes u mo/ is t !y _c say :at !y mean2 = if !y say ! s5su\s1 ?is is a univ]sal2 x is all t is s5su\s1 a negative ( ! #8?is1' or #8?is' is all #8^!4' ,?\ght conta9s only ! univ]sal1 ! #8?is' is only 9 ?\ght2 if ,i say #8?is' x is ! mo/ univ]sal ( all4 ,= example1 "h is t :i* ,i %[2 n[ ,i speak2 b "h & n[ is all "h & n[4 ,simil>ly :5 ,i say #8,i1' ,i mean myself1 ?is individual sep>at$ f all o!rs4 ,b ,i am ev5 ?us t :i* is ?\ght ( & _c express ! self :i* ,i mean at all4 #8,i' is an absolute expression :i* excludes e o!r #8,i1' b ev]yone says #8,i' ( himself1 = ev]yone is an #8,i4' ,if we ask :o is !re1 ! answ] #8,i' indicates e #8,i4' ,! individual also is ?us ! univ]sal only1 = 9 ! ^w z an exi/5ce born ( ! m9d1 ! individual1 if x is meant1 _c f9d a place1 s9ce actually only ! univ]sal is express$4 ,if ,i w\ld di/+ui% myself & e/abli% my individuality by my age1 my place ( bir?1 ?r\gh :at ,i h done & :]e ,i h be5 or am at a p>ticul> "t1 x is ! same ?+4 ,i am n[ s _m ye>s old1 b ?is v n[ :i* ,i say is all n[4 ,if ,i c\nt f a p>ticul> p]iod su* z ! bir? ( ,*ri/1 ?is epo* is aga9 only fix$ by ! #8n[' :i* is ev] displac$4 ,i am n[ ?irty-five ye>s old1 & n[ is #ahje ,a4,d42 ea* p]iod is fix$ only ?r\gh ! o!r1 b ! :ole is undet]m9$4 ,t #8n[' #ahje ye>s h pass$ s9ce ,*ri/'s bir?1 is a tru? :i* soon w become empty s\nd1 & ! det]m9at5ess ( ! #8n[' has a be=e & aft] ( det]m9ations )\t beg9n+ or end4 ,simil>ly ev]yone is at a #8"h'--?is "h1 = ev]yone is 9 a #8"h4' ,?is is ! nature ( univ]sality1 :i* makes itself evid5t 9 spee*4 ,we h5ce help ourselves ?r\gh names ) :i* we def9e p]fectly any?+ individual1 b we all[ t we h n express$ ! ?+ 9 itself4 ,! "n z "n1 is no expression :i* conta9s :at ,i am2 x is a symbol1 & inde$ a cont+5t symbol1 ( ! lively recollection4 4 ,inasmu* z ,/ilpo express$ ! univ]sal z ! indep5d5t1 he dis9tegrat$ ev]y?+4 ,simplicius says 79 ,phys4 ,ari/4 p4 #bf71 8,s9ce ! s-call$ ,meg>ics took x z asc]ta9$ t :at has diff]5t det]m9ations is diff]5t 7 1 71 & t ! div]se are sep>at$ "o f ! o!r 7 71 !y seem$ to prove t ea* ?+ is sep>at$ f itself 7 74 ,h5ce s9ce ! musical ,socrates is ano!r det]m9ation 77 f ! wise ,socrates1 ,socrates 0 sep>at$ f himself40 ,t means t because ! qualities ( ?+s are det]m9ations = !mselves1 ea* ( ^! is fix$ indep5d5tly1 b yet ! ?+ is an aggregate ( _m indep5d5t univ]salities4 ,/ilpo ass]t$ ?is4 ,n[ because1 accord+ to him1 univ]sal det]m9ations are 9 _! sep>ation only ! true reality1 & ! individual is ! unsep>at$ unity ( diff]5t ideas1 to him no?+ individual has any tru?4 4 ,x is v rem>kable t ?is =m ( id5tity came to be kn[n 9 ,/ilpo1 & he 9 ?is way only wi%$ to "k propositions id5tically express$4 ,plut>* quotes f him3 8,a diff]5t pr$icate may 9 no case be attribut$ to any object 7 74 ,?us we c\ld n say t ! man is good or ! man is a g5]al1 b simply t man is only man1 good is only good1 ! g5]al is only ! g5]al4 ,nor c\ld we say t5 ?\s& knights1 b knights are only knights1 t5 ?\s& are only t5 ?\s&1 c4 ,:5 we speak ( a horse runn+1 he says t ! pr$icate is n id5tical ) ! object to :i* x is attribut$4 ,= ! concept-det]m9ation man is diff]5t 7 7 f ! concept-det]m9ation good4 ,simil>ly horse & runn+ are di/9ct3 :5 we are ask$ = a def9ition ( ei!r1 we d n give ! same = bo?4 ,h5ce ^? :o say some?+ diff]5t ( :at is diff]5t are wrong4 ,= if man & good 7 ! same1 & likewise horse & runn+1 h[ c\ld good be us$ ( bread & physic1 & runn+ ( lions & dogs08#aei ,plut>* rem>ks "h t ,colotes attacks ,/ilpo 9 a bomba/ic mann] 7 7 z ?\gh he ignor$ common life 7 74 8,b :at man10 ,plut>* reflects1 8liv$ any ! worse = ?is8 ,is !re any man :o he>s ?is said1 & :o does n "k t x is an elaborate joke 7 780 #b4 ,,! ,,cyr5aic ,,s*ool4 ,! ,cyr5aics took _! "n f ,ari/ippus ( ,cyr5e 9 ,africa1 ! orig9ator & head ( ! s*ool4 ,j z ,socrates wi%$ to develop himself z an individual1 8 disciples1 or ^? ( ! ,cyr5aic & ,cynic ,s*ools1 made individual life & practical philosophy _! ma9 object4 ,n[ if ! ,cyr5aics did n re/ cont5t ) ! det]m9ation ( good 9 g5]al1 see+ t !y incl9$ to place x 9 ! enjoym5t ( ! individual1 ! ,cynics appe> to be oppos$ to ! :ole doctr9e1 = !y express$ ! p>ticul> cont5t ( satisfaction z natural desires 9 a det]m9ation ( negativity ) reg>d to :at is done by o!rs4 ,b z ! ,cyr5aics !reby satisfi$ _! p>ticul> subjectivity1 s also did ! ,cynics1 & bo? s*ools h h5ce on ! :ole ! same end--! fre$om & indep5d5ce ( ! individual4 ,because we are accu/om$ to consid] happ9ess1 :i* ! ,cyr5aics made ! highe/ end ( man1 to be cont5tless1 because we obta9 x 9 a ?\s& ways1 & x may be ! result ( mo/ v>i\s causes1 ?is pr9ciple appe>s at fir/ to u z trivial1 & inde$1 g5]ally speak+1 x is s2 we are likewise accu/om$ to believe t !re is some?+ high] ?an pleasure4 ,! philosophic developm5t ( ?is pr9ciple :i*1 = ! re/1 has n mu* 9 x1 is ma9ly ascrib$ to ,ari/ippus' foll[]1 ,ari/ippus ! y\ng]4 ,b ,!odorus1 ,hegesias1 & ,annic]is1 ( ! lat] ,cyr5aics1 are specially m5tion$ z hav+ sci5tifically work$ out ! ,ari/ippian pr9ciple1 until x deg5]at$ & m]g$ into ,epicureanism4 ,b ! consid]ation ( ! fur!r progress ( ! ,cyr5aic pr9ciple is specially int]e/+ because ?is progression1 9 ! ess5tial nature ( ?+s1 is c>ri$ q beyond ! pr9ciple1 & has really abrogat$ x4 ,feel+ is ! indet]m9ate individual4 ,b if ?\ght1 reflection1 m5tal culture1 are giv5 a place 9 ?is pr9ciple1 ?r\gh ! pr9ciple ( ! univ]sality ( ?\ght t pr9ciple ( cont+5cy1 individuality1 m]e subjectivity1 disappe>s2 & ! only really rem>kable ?+ 9 ?is s*ool is t ?is great] consi/5cy 9 ! univ]sal is !re=e an inconsi/5cy z reg>ds ! pr9ciple4 a4 ,,ari/ippus4 ,ari/ippus w5t ab\t ) ,socrates = a long "t1 & educat$ himself "u him1 al?\gh at ! same "t he 0 a /rong & highly cultivat$ man be=e he s\ght out ,socrates at all4 ,he he>d ( him ei!r 9 ,cyr5e or at ! ,olympian ,games1 :i*1 z ,greeks1 ! ,cyr5ians likewise visit$4 ,8 fa!r 0 a m]*ant1 & he himself came to ,a!ns on a j\rney :i* _h comm]ce z its object4 ,he 0 fir/ among/ ! ,socratics to ask money ( ^? :om he in/ruct$2 he also s5t money to ,socrates1 :o1 h[ev]1 return$ x4#afj ,he did n cont5t himself ) ! g5]al expressions1 good & beautiful1 to :i* ,socrates adh]$1 b took exi/5ce reflect$ 9 consci\sness 9 its extreme det]m9at5ess z individuality2 & because univ]sal exi/5ce1 z ?\ght1 0 to him1 f ! side ( reality1 individual consci\sness1 he fix$ on enjoym5t z ! only ?+ respect+ :i* man _h rationally to conc]n himself4 ,! "* & p]sonality ( ,ari/ippus is :at is mo/ important1 & :at is pres]v$ to u 9 8 reg>d is 8 mann] & life r ?an 8 philosophic doctr9es4 ,he s\ght aft] enjoym5t z a man ( culture1 :o 9 t v way _h rais$ himself into p]fect indiff]5ce to all t is p>ticul>1 all passions & bonds ( e k9d4 ,:5 pleasure is made ! pr9ciple1 we imm$iately h ! idea be=e u t 9 its enjoym5t we are dep5d5t1 & t enjoym5t is ?us oppos$ to ! pr9ciple ( fre$om4 ,b nei!r ( ! ,cyr5aic tea*+1 nor ! ,epicurean1 ^: pr9ciple is on ! :ole ! same1 c ?is be /at$4 ,= by itself ! end ( enjoym5t may well be said to be a pr9ciple 9 opposition to ,philosophy2 b :5 x is consid]$ 9 su* a way t ! cultivation ( ?\ght is made ! only condition "u :i* enjoym5t c be atta9$1 p]fect fre$om ( _s is reta9$1 s9ce x is insep>able f culture4 ,ari/ippus c]ta9ly e/eem$ culture at its highe/1 & proce$$ f ?is position--t pleasure is only a pr9ciple = m5 ( philosophic culture2 8 ma9 pr9ciple ?us 0 t :at is f\nd to be pleasant is n kn[n imm$iately b only by reflection4 ,ari/ippus liv$ 9 accordance ) ^! pr9ciples1 & :at 9 him int]e/s u mo/ is ! numb] ( anecdotes told ab\t him1 because !y conta9 traces ( a m5tally ri* & free disposition4 ,s9ce 9 8 life he w5t ab\t to seek enjoym5t1 n )\t und]/&+ 7& !reby he 0 9 8 way a philosoph]71 he s\ght x p>tly ) ! discretion :i* does n yield itself to a mom5t>y happ9ess1 because a great] evil spr+s !refrom2 & p>tly 7z if philosophy 7 m]ely pres]vation f anxiety7 )\t t anxiety :i* on e side fe>s possible evil & bad results2 b above all )\t any dep5d5ce on ?+s1 & )\t re/+ on any?+ :i* is itself ( a *angeable nature4 ,he enjoy$1 says ,diog5es1 ! pleasures ( ! mom5t1 )\t tr\bl+ himself ) ^? :i* 7 n pres5t2 he suit$ himself to e condition1 be+ at home 9 all2 he rema9$ ! same :e!r he 7 9 regal c\rts or 9 ! mo/ mis]able conditions4 ,plato is said to h told him t x 0 giv5 to him alone to we> ! purple & ! rags4 ,he 0 specially atta*$ to ,dionysius1 be+ v popul> ) him2 he c]ta9ly clung to him1 b always reta9$ complete indep5d5ce4 ,diog5es1 ! ,cynic1 = ?is reason call$ him ! royal dog4 ,:5 he dem&$ fifty dra*ms f someone :o wi%$ to h& ov] to him 8 son1 & ! man f\nd ! sum too high1 say+ t he c\ld buy a slave = x1 ,ari/ippus answ]$1 8,d s1 & y w h two40 ,:5 ,socrates ask$ him1 8,h[ d y h s mu* money80 he repli$1 8,h[ d y h s little80 ,:5 a c\rtesan said to him t %e _h a *ild by him1 he repli$1 8,y "k z little :e!r x is m9e z1 7 y walk+ ?r\gh bri>s1 w\ld y "k :i* ?orn prick$ y40 ,a pro( ( 8 p]fect indiff]5ce is giv5 9 ! foll[+3 ,:5 ,dionysius once spat at him1 he bore x pati5tly1 & :5 blam$1 said1 8,! fi%]m5 let !mselves be wet by ! sea to cat* ! little fi%1 & ,i1 %\ld ,i n be> ?is to cat* su* a good "o80 ,:5 ,dionysius ask$ him to *oose "o ( ?ree c\rtesans1 he took !m all ) him1 obs]v+ t x _h be5 a dang]\s ?+ ev5 to ,p>is to *oose out "o2 b aft] lead+ !m to ! ve/ibule ( ! h\se1 he let all ?ree g4 ,he made no?+ ( ! possession ( money z contra/$ ) ! results :i* appe> to foll[ f pursu+ pleasure1 & h5ce he wa/$ x on da9ties4 ,he once b\ght a p>tridge at fifty dra*ms 7ab\t tw5ty flor9s74 ,:5 someone rebuk$ him1 he ask$1 8,w\ld y n buy x = a f>?+80 ,& :5 ?is 0 ackn[leg$1 he answ]$1 8,n[ fifty dra*ms are no m ?an t to me40 ,simil>ly 9 j\rney+ 9 ,africa1 ! slave ?\ght x h>d to be tr\bl$ ) a sum ( money4 ,:5 ,ari/ippus knew ?is he said1 8,?r[ away :at is too mu* & c>ry :at y c40 ,z reg>ds ! value ( culture1 he repli$ to ! "q z to h[ an educat$ man diff]s f an un$ucat$1 t a /one w\ld n fit 9 ) ! o!r1 i4e4 ! diff]5ce is z great z t ( a man f ! /one4 ,?is is n q wrong1 = man is :at he ought to be z man1 ?r\gh culture2 x is 8 second nature ?r\gh :i* he fir/ ent]s into possession ( t :i* he has by nature1 & ?us = ! fir/ "t he is ,m9d4 ,we may n1 h[ev]1 ?9k 9 ?is way ( our uncultur$ m51 = ) u su* m5 ?r\gh ! :ole ( _! conditions1 ?r\gh cu/oms & religion1 p>take ( a s\rce ( culture :i* places !m f> above ^? :o d n live 9 su* conditions4 ,^? :o c>ry on o!r sci5ces & neglect ,philosophy1 ,ari/ippus comp>es to ! woo]s ( ,p5elope 9 ! ,odyssey1 :o might easily h ,melan?o & ! o!r maid5s1 b :o c\ld n obta9 ! que54#afa ,! tea*+ ( ,ari/ippus & 8 foll[]s is v simple1 = he took ! relation ( consci\sness to exi/5ce 9 its mo/ sup]ficial & its e>lie/ =m1 & express$ exi/5ce z ,be+ z x is imm$iately = consci\sness1 i4e4 z feel+ simply4 ,a di/9ction is n[ made betwe5 ! true1 ! valid1 :at exi/s 9 & = itself1 & ! practical & good1 & :at ought to be our end2 b 9 reg>d to bo? ! !oretic & practical tru?1 ! ,cyr5aics make s5sation :at det]m9es4 ,h5ce _! pr9ciple is m accurately n ! objective itself1 b ! relation ( consci\sness to ! objective2 ! tru? is n :at is 9 s5sation ! cont5t1 b is itself s5sation1 x is n objective1 b ! objective subsi/s only 9 x4 8,?us ! ,cyr5aics say1 s5sations =m ! real crit]ion2 !y alone c be kn[n1 & are infallible1 b :at produces feel+ is nei!r kn[able nor infallible4 ,?us :5 we p]ceive a :ite & sweet1 we may ass]t ?is condition z ours ) tru? & c]ta9ty4 ,b t ! causes ( ^! feel+s are !mselves a :ite & sweet object we _c ) c]ta9ty affirm4 ,:at ^! m5 say ab\t ends is also 9 h>mony ) ?is1 = s5sations also ext5d to ends4 ,! s5sations are ei!r pleasant or unpleasant or nei!r ( ! two4 ,n[ !y call ! unpleasant feel+s ! bad1 ! end ( :i* is pa92 ! pleasant is ! good1 ^: inv>iable end is happ9ess4 ,?us feel+s are ! crit]ia ( k & ! ends = action4 ,we live because we foll[ !m f te/imony 77 receiv$ & satisfaction 77 exp]i5c$1 ! =m] 9 accordance ) !oretic intuitions 7 71 & ! latt] ) :at gives u pleasure40#afb ,t is to say1 z end1 feel+ is no long] a promiscu\s v>iety ( s5su\s affections 7 71 b ! sett+ up ( ! ,notion z ! positive or negative relation to ! object ( action1 :i* is j ! pleasant or ! unpleasant4 ,"h we ent] on a new sph]e :]e two k9ds ( det]m9ations con/itute ! *ief po9ts ( int]e/2 ^! are ev]y:]e treat$ ( 9 ! _m ,socratic s*ools :i* 7 be+ =m$1 & ?\gh n by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 !y 7 specially s by ! ,/oics1 ! new ,academy1 c4 ,t is to say1 ! "o po9t is det]m9ation itself 9 g5]al1 ! crit]ion2 & ! second is :at det]m9ation = ! subject is4 ,& ?us ! idea ( ! wise man results--:at ! wise d1 :o ! wise are1 c4 ,! reason t ^! two expressions are n[ s prom95t is "o :i* re/s on :at has gone be=e4 ,on ! "o h& ! ma9 int]e/ is to f9d a cont5t = ! good1 = else m5 may talk ab\t x = ye>s4 ,?is fur!r def9ition ( ! good is j ! crit]ion4 ,on ! o!r h& ! int]e/ ( ! subject appe>s1 & t is ! result ( ! revolution 9 ! ,greek m9d made by ,socrates4 ,:5 ! religion1 con/itution1 laws ( a p1 are held 9 e/eem1 & :5 ! individual memb]s ( a p are "o ) !m1 ! "q ( :at ! individual has to d on 8 own acc\nt1 w n be put4 ,9 a moraliz$1 religi\s condition ( ?+s we are likely to f9d ! end ( man 9 :at is pres5t1 & ^! morals1 religion & laws are also pres5t 9 him4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 ! individual exi/s no long] 9 ! morality ( 8 p1 no long] has 8 sub/antial be+ 9 ! religion1 laws1 c41 ( 8 l&1 he no long] f9ds :at he desires1 & no long] satisfies himself 9 8 pres5t4 ,b if ?is discord has aris51 ! individual mu/ imm]se himself 9 himself1 & !re seek 8 end4 ,n[ ?is is really ! cause t ! "q ( :at is ! ess5tial = ! individual arises4 ,aft] :at end mu/ he =m himself & aft] :at /rive8 ,?us an ideal = ! individual is set up1 & ?is is ! wise man3 :at 0 call$ ! ideal ( ! wise man is ! individuality ( self-consci\sness :i* is conceiv$ ( z univ]sal ess5ce4 ,! po9t ( view is ! same :5 we n[ ask1 ,:at c ,i "k8 ,:at %\ld ,i believe8 ,:at ought ,i to hope8 ,:at is ! highe/ int]e/ ( ! subject8 ,x is n :at is tru?1 "r1 ! univ]sal end ( ! _w1 = in/ead ( ask+ ab\t ! sci5ce ( ! implicitly & explicitly objective1 ! "q is :at is true & "r 9 z f> z x is ! insight & conviction ( ! individual1 8 end & a mode ( 8 exi/5ce8 ,?is talk ab\t wise m5 is univ]sal among/ ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 c41 b is devoid ( mean+4 ,= ! wise man is n 9 "q1 b ! wisdom ( ! univ]se1 real reason4 ,a ?ird def9ition is t ! univ]sal is ! good2 ! real side ( ?+s is enjoym5t & happ9ess z a simple exi/5ce & imm$iate actuality4 ,h[ !n d ! two agree8 ,! philosophic s*ools :i* n[ arise & _! successors h set =? ! h>mony ( bo? det]m9ations1 :i* are ! high] ,be+ & ?\ght4 b4 ,,!odorus4 ,( ! lat] ,cyr5aics1 ,!odorus mu/ be m5tion$ fir/2 he is fam\s = hav+ d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 & be+1 = ?is reason1 bani%$ f ,a!ns4 ,su* a fact c1 h[ev]1 h no fur!r int]e/ or speculative significance1 = ! positive gods :i* ,!odorus d5i$1 are !mselves n any object ( speculative reason4 ,he made himself rem>kable besides = introduc+ ! univ]sal m into ! idea ( t :i* 0 exi/5ce = consci\sness1 = 8he made joy & sorr[ ! end1 b 9 su* a way t ! =m] p]ta9$ to ! und]/&+ & ! latt] to want ( und]/&+4 ,he def9$ ! good z und]/&+ & ju/ice1 & ! bad z ! opposite2 enjoym5t & pa91 h[ev]1 7 indiff]5t40#afc ,:5 we rea* ! consci\sness t ! individual s5su\s feel+1 z x is imm$iately1 is n to be consid]$ z real exi/5ce1 x is !n said t x mu/ be accept$ ) und]/&+2 i4e4 feel+1 j z x is1 is n reality4 ,= ! s5su\s g5]ally1 z s5sation1 !oretic or practical1 is some?+ q indet]m9ate1 ?is or t unit2 a criticism ( ?is unit is h5ce requir$1 i4e4 x mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! =m ( univ]sality1 & h5ce ?is la/ necess>ily reappe>s4 ,b ?is advance on individuality is culture1 :i*1 ?r\gh ! limitation ( individual feel+s & enjoym5ts1 tries to make ^! h>moni\s1 ev5 ?\gh x fir/ ( all only calculates z to t by :i* ! great] pleasure is to be f\nd4 ,n[1 to ! "q z to :i* ( ! _m enjoym5ts :i* ,i1 z a _m-sid$ man1 c enjoy1 is ! "o :i* is 9 complete/ h>mony ) me1 & 9 :i* ,i ?us f9d ! greate/ satisfaction1 x mu/ be repli$ t ! complete/ h>mony ) me is only f\nd 9 ! accordance ( my p>ticul> exi/5ce & consci\sness ) my actual sub/antial ,be+4 ,!odorus compreh5d$ ?is z und]/&+ & ju/ice1 9 :i* we "k :]e to seek enjoym5t4 ,b :5 x is said t felicity mu/ be s\ght by reflection1 we "k t ^! are empty words & ?\ghtless utt]ances4 ,= ! feel+ 9 :i* felicity is conta9$1 is 9 its conception ! individual1 self-*ang+1 )\t univ]sality & subsi/5ce4 ,?us ! univ]sal1 und]/&+1 z an empty =m1 adh]es to a cont5t q incongru\s ) x2 & ?us ,!odorus di/+ui%$ ! ,good 9 its =m1 f ! end z ! ,good 9 its nature & cont5t4 c4 ,,hegesias4 ,x is rem>kable t ano!r ,cyr5aic1 ,hegesias1 recogniz$ ?is incongruity betwe5 s5sation & univ]sality1 :i* la/ is oppos$ to ! individual1 hav+ :at is agreeable z well z disagreeable )9 itself4 ,because1 on ! :ole1 he took a firm] grasp ( ! univ]sal & gave x a l>g] place1 !re pass$ f him all det]m9ation ( individuality1 & ) x really ! ,cyr5aic pr9ciple4 ,x came to 8 k t individual s5sation is 9 itself no?+2 &1 z he nev]!less made enjoym5t 8 end1 x became to him ! univ]sal4 ,b if enjoym5t is ! end1 we mu/ ask ab\t ! cont5t2 if ?is cont5t is inve/igat$1 we f9d e cont5t a p>ticul> :i* is n 9 con=mity ) ! univ]sal1 & ?us falls into dialectic4 ,hegesias foll[$ ! ,cyr5aic pr9ciple z f> z to ?is consequ5ce ( ?\ght4 ,t univ]sal is conta9$ 9 an expression ( 8 :i* we (t5 en\gh he> e*o$1 8,!re is no p]fect happ9ess4 ,! body is tr\bl$ ) manifold pa9s1 & ! s\l suff]s along ) x2 x is h5ce a matt] ( indiff]5ce :e!r we *oose life or dea?4 ,9 itself no?+ is pleasant or unpleasant40 ,t is to say1 ! crit]ion ( be+ pleasant or unpleasant1 because its univ]sality is remov$1 is ?us itself made q indet]m9ate2 & because x has no objective det]m9at5ess 9 itself1 x has become unmean+2 be=e ! univ]sal1 :i* is ?us held secure1 ! sum ( all det]m9ations1 ! individuality ( consci\sness z su*1 disappe>s1 b ) x ev5 life itself z be+ unreal4 8,! r>ity1 novelty1 or excess ( enjoym5t begets 9 "s cases enjoym5t & 9 o!rs discont5t4 ,pov]ty & ri*es h no mean+ = :at is pleasant1 s9ce we see t ! ri* d n enjoy pleasures m ?an ! poor4 ,simil>ly1 slav]y & lib]ty1 noble & ignoble bir?1 fame & lack ( fame1 are equival5t z reg>ds pleasure4 ,only to a fool c liv+ be a matt] ( mom5t2 to ! wise man x is indiff]5t10 & he is consequ5tly indep5d5t4 8,! wise man acts only aft] 8 own w1 & he consid]s none o!r equally wor?y4 ,= ev5 if he atta9 f o!rs ! greate/ b5efits1 ?is does n equal :at he gives himself4 ,hegesias & 8 fri5ds also take away s5sation1 because x gives no suffici5t k10 :i* really am\nts to scepticism4 8,!y say fur!r t we ought to d :at we h reason to believe is be/4 ,! s9n] %\ld be =giv51 = no "o will+ly s9s1 b is conqu]$ by a passion4 ,! wise man does n hate1 b in/ructs2 8 endeav\rs g n s mu* to ! atta9m5t ( good1 z to ! avoidance ( evil1 = 8 aim is to live )\t tr\ble & sorr[40#afd ,?is univ]sality1 :i* proce$s f ! pr9ciple ( ! fre$om ( ! individual self-consci\sness1 ,hegesias express$ z ! condition ( ! p]fect indiff]5ce ( ! wise m5--an indiff]5ce to ev]y?+ into :i* we %all see all philosophic sy/ems ( ! k9d go+ =?1 & :i* is a surr5d]+ ( all reality1 ! complete )drawal ( life into itself4 ,x is told t ,hegesias1 :o liv$ 9 ,alex&ria1 0 n all[$ to tea* ! ,ptolemies ( ! "t1 because he inspir$ _m ( 8 he>]s ) su* indiff]5ce to life t !y took _! own4#afe d4 ,,annic]is4 ,we also he> ( ,annic]is & 8 foll[]s1 :o1 prop]ly speak+1 dep>t$ f ! di/9ctive "* ( ! pr9ciple ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool1 & !reby gave philosophic culture q ano!r direction4 ,x is said ( !m t 8!y ackn[l$g$ fri5d%ip 9 common life1 along ) gratitude1 hon\r to p>5ts1 & s]vice = "o's c\ntry4 ,& al?\gh ! wise man has1 by s do+1 to und]go h>d%ip & "w1 he c /ill be happy1 ev5 if he !re9 obta9s few pleasures4 ,fri5d%ips are n to be =m$ on utilit>ian gr\nds alone1 b because ( ! good w t develops2 & out ( love to fri5ds1 ev5 burd5s & difficulties are to be und]tak540#aff ,! univ]sal1 ! !oretically speculative elem5t 9 ! s*ool1 is ?us lo/2 x s9ks m into :at is popul>4 ,?is is !n ! second direction :i* ! ,cyr5aic s*ool has tak52 ! fir/ 0 ! ov]/epp+ ( ! pr9ciple itself4 ,a me?od ( philosophiz+ 9 morals arises1 :i* lat] on prevail$ ) ,cic]o & ! ,p]ipatetics ( 8 "t1 b ! int]e/ has disappe>$1 s f> z any consi/5t sy/em ( ?\ght is conc]n$4 #c4 ,,! ,,cynic ,,s*ool4 ,!re is no?+ p>ticul> to say ( ! ,cynics1 = !y possess b little ,philosophy1 & !y did n br+ :at !y _h into a sci5tific sy/em2 x 0 only lat] t _! t5ets 7 rais$ by ! ,/oics into a philosophic discipl9e4 ,) ! ,cynics1 z ) ! ,cyr5aics1 ! po9t 0 to det]m9e :at %\ld be ! pr9ciple = consci\sness1 bo? z reg>ds its k & its actions4 ,! ,cynics also set up ! ,good z a univ]sal end1 & ask$ 9 :at1 = individual m51 x is to be s\ght4 ,b if ! ,cyr5aic1 9 accordance ) 8 det]m9ate pr9ciple1 made ! consci\sness ( himself z an individual1 or feel+1 into real exi/5ce = consci\sness1 ! ,cynic took ?is individuality1 9 z f> z x has ! =m ( univ]sality directly = me1 i4e4 9 z f> z ,i am a free consci\sness1 indiff]5t to all individuality4 ,?us !y are oppos$ to ! ,cyr5aics = :ile to ^! feel+1 :i*1 because x has to be det]m9$ ?r\gh ?\ght1 is und\bt$ly ext5d$ into univ]sality & p]fect fre$om1 is made ! pr9ciple1 ! =m] beg9 ) p]fect fre$om & indep5d5ce z ! prop]ty ( man4 ,b s9ce ?is is ! same indiff]5ce ( self-consci\sness :i* ,hegesias express$ z real exi/5ce1 ! extremes 9 ! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic modes ( ?\ght de/roy !mselves by _! own consequ5ces1 & pass into "o ano!r4 ,) ! ,cyr5aics !re is ! impulse to turn ?+s back into consci\sness1 accord+ to :i* no?+ is real exi/5ce = me2 ! ,cynics _h also only to d ) !mselves1 & ! individual self-consci\sness 0 likewise pr9ciple4 ,b ! ,cynic1 at lea/ 9 ! beg9n+1 set up = ! guidance ( m5 ! pr9ciple ( fre$om & indiff]5ce1 bo? 9 reg>d to ?\ght & actual life1 z aga9/ all ext]nal individuality1 p>ticul> ends1 ne$s1 & enjoym5ts2 s t culture n only s\ght aft] indiff]5ce to ^! & indep5d5ce )9 itself1 z ) ! ,cyr5aics1 b = express privation1 & = ! limitation ( ne$s to :at is necess>y & :at nature dem&s4 ,! ,cynics ?us ma9ta9$ z ! cont5t ( ! good1 ! greate/ indep5d5ce ( nature1 i4e4 ! slighte/ possible necessities2 ?is meant a reb\nd f enjoym5t1 & f ! pleasures ( feel+4 ,! negative is "h ! det]m9+2 lat] on ?is opposition ( ,cynics & ,cyr5aics likewise appe>$ betwe5 ,/oics & ,epicureans4 ,b ! same negation :i* ! ,cynics made _! pr9ciple1 _h already %[n itself 9 ! fur!r developm5t :i* ! ,cyr5aic philosophy _h tak54 ,! ,s*ool ( ! ,cynics _h no sci5tific weight2 x only con/itutes an elem5t :i* mu/ necess>ily appe> 9 ! k ( ! univ]sal1 & :i* is t consci\sness mu/ "k itself 9 its individuality1 z free f all dep5d5ce on ?+s & on enjoym5t4 ,to him :o relies ^u ri*es or enjoym5t su* dep5d5ce is 9 fact real consci\sness1 or 8 individuality is real exi/5ce4 ,b ! ,cynics s en=c$ t negative mom5t t !y plac$ fre$om 9 actual r5unciation ( s-call$ sup]fluities2 !y only recogniz$ ?is ab/ract unmov+ indep5d5ce1 :i* did n conc]n itself ) enjoym5t or ! int]e/s ( an ord9>y life4 ,b true fre$om does n consi/ 9 fly+ f enjoym5t & ! occupations :i* h z _! conc]n o!r m5 & o!r ends 9 life2 b 9 ! fact t consci\sness1 ?\gh involv$ 9 all reality1 /&s above x & is free f x4 a4 ,,anti/h5es4 ,anti/h5es1 an ,a!nian & fri5d ( ,socrates1 0 ! fir/ :o pr(ess$ to be a ,cynic4 ,he liv$ at ,a!ns1 & taught 9 a gymnasium1 call$ ,cynos>ges1 & he 0 call$ ! 8simple dog0 774 ,8 "m 0 ,?racian1 :i* 0 (t5 made a reproa* to him--a reproa* :i* to u w\ld be unmean+4 ,he repli$ t ! "m ( ! gods 0 a ,phrygian1 & t ! ,a!nians1 :o make s mu* ( _! be+ native born1 are 9 no way nobl] ?an ! native fi% & gras%opp]s4 ,he educat$ himself "u ,gorgias & ,socrates1 & w5t daily f ! ,piru to ! city to he> ,socrates4 ,he wrote sev]al works1 ! titles ( :i* ,diog5es m5tions1 &1 accord+ to all acc\nts1 0 e/eem$ a highly cultivat$ & upright man4#afg ,anti/h5es' pr9ciples are simple1 because ! cont5t ( 8 tea*+ rema9s g5]al2 x is h5ce sup]flu\s to say any?+ fur!r ab\t x4 ,he gives g5]al rules1 :i* consi/ ( su* excell5t maxims z t 8virtue is self-suffic+1 & requires no?+ m ?an a ,socratic /r5g? ( "*4 ,! good is excell5t1 ! bad discr$itable4 ,virtue consi/s ( works1 & does n require _m reasons or !ories4 ,! end ( man is a virtu\s life4 ,! wise man is cont5t$ ) himself1 = he possesses ev]y?+ t o!rs seem to possess4 ,8 own virtue satisfies him2 he is at home all ov] ! _w4 ,if he lacks fame1 ?is is n to be reg>d$ z an evil1 b z a good10 c4#afh ,we "h1 once m1 h ! t$i\s talk ab\t ! wise man1 :i* by ! ,/oics1 z also by ! ,epicureans1 0 ev5 m spun out & made m t$i\s4 ,9 ?is ideal1 :]e ! det]m9ation ( ! subject is 9 "q1 its satisfaction is plac$ 9 simplify+ its ne$s4 ,b :5 ,anti/h5es says t virtue does n require reasons & !ories1 he =gets t he himself acquir$1 ?r\gh ! cultivation ( m9d1 its indep5d5ce & ! p[] ( r5\nc+ all t m5 desire4 ,we see directly t virtue has n[ obta9$ ano!r signification2 x no long] is unconsci\s virtue1 l ! simple virtue ( a citiz5 ( a free p1 :o fulfils 8 duties to fa!rl&1 place1 & family1 z ^! relation%ips imm$iately require4 ,! consci\sness :i* has gone beyond itself mu/1 9 ord] to become ,m9d1 n[ lay hold ( & compreh5d all reality1 i4e4 be consci\s ( x z its own4 ,b conditions su* z are call$ by names l innoc5ce or beauty ( s\l1 are *ildi% conditions1 :i* are c]ta9ly to be prais$ 9 _! own place1 b f :i* man1 because he is rational1 mu/ come =?1 9 ord] to re-create himself f ! sublat$ imm$iacy4 ,! fre$om & indep5d5ce ( ! ,cynics1 h[ev]1 :i* consi/s only 9 less5+ to ! utmo/ ! burd5 impos$ by wants1 is ab/ract1 because x1 z negative 9 "*1 has really to be a m]e r5unciation4 ,concrete fre$om consi/s 9 ma9ta9+ an indiff]5t attitude t[>ds necessities1 n avoid+ !m1 b 9 _! satisfaction rema9+ free1 & abid+ 9 morality & 9 p>ticipation 9 ! moral life ( man4 ,ab/ract fre$om1 on ! contr>y1 surr5d]s its morality1 because ! individual )draws into 8 subjectivity1 & is consequ5tly an elem5t ( immorality4 ,yet ,anti/h5es be>s a high place 9 ?is ,cynical philosophy4 ,b ! attitude he adopt$ comes v ne> to t ( rud5ess1 vulg>ity ( conduct & %amelessness2 & lat] on ,cynicism pass$ into su*4 ,h5ce comes ! cont9ual mock]y (1 & ! con/ant jokes aga9/ ! ,cynics2 & x is only _! individual mann]s & individual /r5g? ( "* :i* makes !m int]e/+4 ,x is ev5 told ( ,anti/h5es t he began to attribute value to ext]nal pov]ty ( life4 ,cynicism adopt$ a simple w>drobe--a ?ick /ick ( wild olive1 a ragg$ d\ble mantle )\t any "u g>m5t1 :i* s]v$ z b$ by night1 a begg>'s sack = ! food t 0 requir$1 & a cup ) :i* to draw wat]4#afi ,?is 0 ! co/ume ) :i* ^! ,cynics us$ to di/+ui% !mselves4 ,t on :i* !y plac$ highe/ value 0 ! simplification ( _! ne$s2 x seems v plausible to say t ?is produces fre$om4 ,= ne$s are c]ta9ly dep5d5ce ^u nature1 & ?is is antagoni/ic to fre$om ( _s2 ! r$uction ( t dep5d5ce to a m9imum is ?us an idea :i* comm5ds itself4 ,b at ! same "t ?is m9imum is itself undet]m9$1 & if su* /ress is laid on ?us m]ely foll[+ nature1 x foll[s t too great a value is set on ! ne$s ( nature & on ! r5unciation ( o!rs4 ,?is is :at is also evid5t 9 ! mona/ic pr9ciple4 ,! negative likewise conta9s an affirmative bias t[>ds :at is r5\nc$2 & ! r5unciation & ! importance ( :at is r5\nc$ is ?us made too m>k$4 ,socrates h5ce decl>es ! clo?+ ( ! ,cynics to be vanity4 ,= 8:5 ,anti/h5es turn$ outside a hole 9 8 cloak1 ,socrates said to him1 ,i see ?y vanity ?r\gh ! hole 9 ?y cloak40#agj ,clo?+ is n a ?+ ( rational import1 b is regulat$ ?r\gh ne$s t arise ( !mselves4 ,9 ! ,nor? ! clo?+ mu/ be diff]5t f t 9 ,c5tral ,africa2 & 9 w9t] we d n we> cotton g>m5ts4 ,any?+ fur!r is mean+less1 & is left to *ance & to op9ion2 9 mod]n times1 = in/ance1 old-fa%ion$ clo?+ _h a mean+ 9 relation to patriotism4 ,! cut ( my coat is decid$ by fa%ion1 & ! tailor sees to ?is2 x is n my bus9ess to inv5t x1 = m]cifully o!rs h done s = me4 ,?is dep5d5ce on cu/om & op9ion is c]ta9ly bett] ?an 7 x to be on nature4 ,b x is n ess5tial t m5 %\ld direct _! und]/&+ to ?is2 indiff]5ce is ! po9t ( view :i* mu/ reign1 s9ce ! ?+ itself is und\bt$ly p]fectly indiff]5t4 ,m5 are pr\d t !y c di/+ui% !mselves 9 ?is1 & try to make a fuss ab\t x1 b x is folly to set oneself aga9/ ! fa%ion4 ,9 ?is matt] ,i mu/ h5ce n decide myself1 nor may ,i draw x )9 ! radius ( my int]e/s1 b simply d :at is expect$ ( me4 b4 ,,diog5es4 ,diog5es ( ,s9ope1 ! be/ kn[n ,cynic1 di/+ui%$ himself ev5 m ?an ,anti/h5es by ! life he l$1 z also by 8 bit+ & (t5 clev] hits1 & bitt] & s>ca/ic retorts2 b he likewise receiv$ replies :i* 7 (t5 aim$ z well4 ,he is call$ ! ,dog1 j z ,ari/ippus 0 call$ by him ! royal ,dog1 = ,diog5es bore ! same relation to idle boys z ,ari/ippus did to k+s4 ,diog5es is only fam$ = 8 mann] ( life2 ) him1 z ) ! mod]ns1 ,cynicism came to signify m a mode ( liv+ ?an a philosophy4 ,he conf9$ himself to ! b>e/ necessities1 & tri$ to make fun ( o!rs :o did n ?9k z he1 & :o laugh$ at 8 ways4 ,t he ?rew away 8 cup :5 he saw a boy dr9k+ out ( 8 h&s is well kn[n4 ,to h no wants1 said ,diog5es1 is div9e2 to h z few z possible is to come ne>e/ to ! div9e4 ,he liv$ 9 all sorts ( places1 9 ! /reets ( ,a!ns1 9 ! m>ket 9 tubs2 & he usually resid$ & slept 9 ,jupit]'s ,/oa 9 ,a!ns2 he h5ce rem>k$ t ! ,a!nians _h built him a spl5did place ( resid5ce4#aga ,?us ! ,cynics ?\ght n only ( dress1 b also ( o!r wants4 ,b a mode ( life su* z t foll[$ by ! ,cynics1 :i* pr(ess$ to be a result ( culture1 is really condition$ by ! culture ( ! m9d4 ,! ,cynics 7 n an*orites2 _! consci\sness 0 /ill ess5tially relat$ to o!r consci\sness4 ,anti/h5es & ,diog5es liv$ 9 ,a!ns1 & c\ld only exi/ !re4 ,b 9 culture ! m9d is also direct$ to ! mo/ manifold ne$s1 & to ! me?ods ( satisfy+ ^!4 ,9 m rec5t times ! ne$s h mu* increas$1 & h5ce a division ( ! g5]al wants into _m p>ticul> wants & modes ( satisfaction has aris52 ?is is ! function ( ! activity ( ! und]/&+1 & 9 its application luxury has a place4 ,we may declaim aga9/ ! morality ( ?is1 b 9 a ,/ate all tal5ts1 natural incl9ations & cu/oms mu/ h free scope & be br\ght into ex]cise1 & e individual may take :at "p he w1 only he mu/ 9 ! ma9 make = ! univ]sal4 ,?us ! *ief po9t is to place no great] value on su* matt]s ?an :at is dem&$1 or g5]ally1 to place no importance ei!r on possess+ or disp5s+ ) !m4 ,( ,diog5es we h only anecdotes to relate4 ,9 a voyage to g9a he fell into ! h&s ( sea-robb]s1 & 0 to be sold z a slave 9 ,crete4 ,be+ ask$ :at he und]/ood1 he repli$1 8,to comm& m510 & told ! h]ald to call out1 8,:o w buy a rul]80 ,a c]ta9 ,x5iades ( ,cor9? b\ght him1 & he in/ruct$ 8 sons4 ,!re are v _m /ories told ( 8 resid5ce 9 ,a!ns4 ,!re he pres5t$ a contra/ 9 8 rud5ess & disda9fulness to ,ari/ippus' fawn+ philosophy4 ,ari/ippus set no value on 8 enjoym5ts any m ?an on 8 wants1 b ,diog5es did s on 8 pov]ty4 ,diog5es 0 once wa%+ 8 gre5s :5 ,ari/ippus pass$ by1 & he call$ out1 8,if y knew h[ to wa% y\r gre5s y\rself1 y w\ld n run aft] k+s40 ,ari/ippus repli$ v aptly1 8,if y knew h[ to associate ) m51 y w\ld n wa% gre5s40 ,9 ,plato's h\se he once walk$ on ! beautiful c>pets ) muddy feet1 say+1 8,i tread on ! pride ( ,plato40 8,yes1 b ) ano!r pride10 repli$ ,plato1 z po9t$ly4 ,:5 ,diog5es /ood wet ?r\gh ) ra91 & ! by/&]s piti$ him1 ,plato said1 8,if y wi% to compassionate him1 j g away4 ,8 vanity is 9 %[+ himself (f & excit+ surprise2 x is :at made him act 9 ?is way1 & ! reason w\ld n exi/ if he 7 left alone40 ,once :5 he got a ?ra%+1 z anecdotes (t5 tell1 he laid a l>ge pla/] on 8 w\nds1 & wrote on x ! names ( ^? :o _h /ruck him 9 ord] t !y might be blam$ ( all4 ,:5 y\?s /&+ by him said1 8,we are afraid t y w bite u10 he repli$1 8,don't m9d1 a dog nev] eats turnips40 ,at a fea/ a gue/ ?rew bones to him l a dog1 & he w5t up to him & behav$ to him l a dog4 ,he gave a good answ] to a tyrant :o ask$ him f :at metal /atues %\ld be ca/3 8,f ! metal f :i* ! /atues ( ,h>modius & ,ari/ogiton 7 ca/40 ,he tri$ to eat raw meat1 :i* did n1 h[ev]1 agree ) him2 he c\ld n dige/ x1 & di$ at a v great age1 z he liv$--9 ! /reets4#agb c4 ,,lat] ,,cynics4 ,anti/h5es & ,diog5es1 z already m5tion$1 7 m5 ( great culture4 ,! succe$+ ,cynics are n any ! less conspicu\s by _! exce$+ %amelessness1 b !y 71 g5]ally speak+1 no?+ m ?an sw9i% begg>s1 :o f\nd _! satisfaction 9 ! insol5ce :i* !y %[$ to o!rs4 ,!y are wor?y ( no fur!r consid]ation 9 ,philosophy1 & !y des]ve 9 its full ! "n ( dogs1 :i* 0 e>ly giv5 to !m2 = ! dog is a %ameless animal4 ,crates1 ( ,!bes1 & ,hipp>*ia1 a ,cynic1 celebrat$ _! nuptials 9 ! public m>ket4#agc ,?is indep5d5ce ( :i* ! ,cynics boa/$1 is really subjection1 = :ile e o!r sph]e ( active life conta9s ! affirmative elem5t ( free intellig5ce1 ?is means ! d5y+ oneself ! sph]e 9 :i* ! elem5t ( fre$om c be enjoy$4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,zur ,philosophie und ,ges*i*te4 ,pt4 ,v4 pp4 #ahd--ahf4 7,edition ( #ahbh1 9 #ab vols47 #b ,s4 ,m>he9eke3 8,lehrbu* des ,*ri/li*5 ,glaub5s und ,leb5s40 ,b]l91 #ahbc4 #acc1 #acd4 #c 8,me9ung i/ me940 #d ,cf4 ,hegels ,w]ke1 vol4 ,,vi4 #ac1 pp4 #ba1 #bb4 #e ,flatt3 ,de ,!ismo ,?aleti ,milesio abjudic&o4 ,tub4 #aghe4 #d4 #f ,grundzge des geg5wrtig5 ,zeitalt]s1 pp4 #baa1 #bab2 cf4 ,anweisung zum ,selig5 ,leb51 pp4 #agh1 #cdh4 #g ,san*unia?onis ,fragm4 ed4 ,ri*4 ,cumb]l&1 ,lond4 #agbj1 #h2 ,g]man by ,j4 ,p4 ,kassel1 ,magdeburg1 #agee1 #h1 pp4 #a-d4 #h ,t is to say 9 ! ,lectures prec$+ ^!1 deliv]$ 9 ! ,w9t] ,session #ahbe--ahbf4 #i ,confucius1 ,s9>um philosophus1 s4 sci5tia ,s95sis1 lat9e exposita /udio et op]a ,prosp]i ,juonetta1 ,h]dtri*1 ,r\gemont1 ,c\plet1 ,,pp4 ,s4 ,j41 ,p>is1 #afhg1 fol4 #aj ,mmoires conc]nant les ,*9ois 7,p>is1 #aggf1 sqq471 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #a-cfa4 ,antiquit des ,*9ois1 p> le ,pre ,amiot1 pp4 #bj1 #ed1 c4 #aa ,die ,philosophie im ,=tgang d] ,weltges*i*te1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #aeg4 #ab ,cf4 ,w9dis*mann1 ibid41 p4 #abe4 #ac ,mmoire sur la vie et les op9ions de ,lao-,tseu1 p> ,abel ,rmusat 7,p>is1 #ahbc71 p4 #ah sqq42 ,extrait d'une lettre de ,mr4 ,amiot1 #af ,octobre1 #aghg1 de ,pek+ 7,mmoires conc]nant les ,*9ois1 ,t4 xv471 p4 #bjh1 sqq4 #ad ,dr4 ,legge /ates 9 8,! ,religions ( ,*9a0 t ,to 0 n ! "n ( a p]son1 b ( a concept or idea4 ,( ! ,engli% t]ms mo/ suitable = x1 he sugge/s ! ,way 9 ! s5se ( ,me?od4--,translator's note4 #ae ,abel ,rmusat1 l4c4 p4 #ca1 seq42 ,lettre sur les c>actres des ,*9ois 7,mmoires conc]nant les ,*9ois1 ,tome #a7 p4 #bii1 seq4 #af ,rmusat ?\ght t he discov]$ 9 ^! ?ree syllables ! ^w ,jehovah4--,translator's note4 #ag ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,asiatic ,society ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 ,vol4 ,i41 ,"p ,i4 ,london1 #ahbd1 pp4 #ai-dc4 7,,ii41 on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,h9dus1 ,"p ,i41 by ,h5ry ,?omas ,colebrooke1 read ,june #ba1 #ahbc74 #ah ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,vol4 i41 ,"p ,i41 pp4 #ib--aah4 7,,vii4 ,essay on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,h9dus1 ,"p ,,ii41 by ,h5ry ,?omas ,colebrooke47 #ai ,bruck]1 ,hi/4 ,phil4 ,t4 ,i4 p4 #dfj2 ,plut>*1 ,de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #c4 #bj ,h]od4 ,,ii4 #bj2 ,s5ec4 ,qu/4 natur4 ,,iv4 #b2 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,i4 #cg4 #ba ,diog4 ,la]t4 #a4 #cd1 et ,m5ag4 ad4 h4 #a4 #bb ,cf4 ,ritt]3 ,ges*i*te d] ,ionis*5 ,philosophie1 p4 #ae4 #bc ,plut>*1 ,de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #c2 ,cic]o1 ,de ,natura ,deorum1 ,i4 #aj4 ,ari/ot4 ,phys4 ,,iii4 #d4 #bd ,cf4 ,ari/ot4 ,phys4 ,i4 #d4 #be ,simplicius ad ,ari/4 ,phys4 7,i4 #b71 p4 #e1 #f4 #bf ,/obi ,eclog4 ,physic4 c4 #aa41 p4 #bid1 ed4 ,he]54 #bg ,simplicius ad ,phys4 ,ari/4 p4 #f1 b4 #bh ,cf4 ,plut>* ,qu/4 convival4 ,,viii4 #h4 #bi ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,i4 #aai2 ,m5agius ad h4 #a4 #cj ,9 irrisione g5tilium1 c4 #ab 7citante ,fabricio ad ,sext4 ,emp4 ,hyp4 ,pyrrh4 ,,iii4 #d1 #cj74 #ca ,cf4 ,porphyr4 ,de vita ,py?ag41 #ad1 #ae2 et ,ritt]hus1 ad4 h4 ,i4 #cb ,cf4 ,porphyr4 ,de vita ,py?4 #f1 ,iambli*4 ,de vita ,py?4 ,,xxix4 #aeh4 #cc ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,i4 #ab2 ,,viii4 #h2 ,iambli*4 ,,viii4 #dd2 ,,xii4 #eh4 #cd ,porphyr4 ,de vita ,py?4 #be1 #ba1 #bb2 ,iambli*4 ,de vita ,py?4 #cf2 ,,vii4 #cc1 #cd2 ,,xxxii4 #bbj-bbb4 #ce ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #aa1 ,porphyr41 #ah-bj2 ,iambli*4 ,,ii4 #i1 #aj1 ,,xxiv4 #ajh1 #aji2 ,m5ag4 et ,casaub4 ad ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #ai4 #cf ,porphyr4 #cg2 ,iambli*4 ,,xvii4 #ga-gd2 ,,xviii4 #hj-hb2 ,,xxviii4 #aej2 ,,xx4 #id1 #ie2 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #aj4 #cg ,iambli*4 ,,xxi4 #ajj2 ,,xxix4 #afe2 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #bb2 ,porphyr4 #dj4 #ch ,porphyr4 #cb-cd2 ,iambli*4 ,,xxix4 #afc1 #afd2 ,,xx4 #if2 ,,xxi4 #ig2 ,,xxiv4 #ajg2 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #ai1 #ba1 #ci4 #ci ,diog4 ,la]t41 ,,viii4 #ci1 #dj2 ,iambli*4 ,,xxxv4 #bdh-bfd2 ,porphyrius1 #ed-ei2 ,anonym4 ,de vita ,py?4 7apud ,photium71 #b4 #dj ,cf4 ,platon4 ,timum1 p4 #bj1 ,/eph4 7p4 #h1 ed4 ,bekk474 #da ,sext4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #ah1 #aeb2 adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #bej1 #bea4 #db ,ma!m4 c4 #e1 p4 #cj1 ed4 ,bullialdi3 cf4 ,ari/ox54 ap4 ,/ob4 ,ecl4 ,phys4 #b1 p4 #af4 #dc ,gnomicorum poet>um op]a3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,py?agoreorum aureum c>m51 ed4 ,gl&orf ,fragm4 ,i4 v4 #de-dh2 ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,iv4 #b1 et ,fabric4 ad h4 #a4 #dd ,burney po9ts out ! fallacy ( ?is /atem5t 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,music4 ,translator's note4 #de ,sext4 ,empiricus ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #ah1 #aee2 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,iv4 #f1 #g2 ,,vii4 #ie-ig2 ,x4 #bhc4 #df ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,viii4 #d1 #e1 #ad2 ,porphyrius1 #bf1 #bg2 ,iambli*us1 c4 ,,xiv4 #fc4 7,hom]'s ,iliad ,,xvi4 v4 #hjf-hjh2 ,,xvii4 v4 #de1 seq474 #dg ,gnomicorum pot>um op]a1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,py?4 aureum c>m51 ed4 ,gl&orf4 ,fragm4 ,i4 v4 #a-d4 #dh ,sext4 ,empir4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,i4 #cc1 #bbe2 ,simpl4 ad ,phys4 ,ari/4 pp4 #e1 #f2 ,plut4 de plac4 philos4 ,,ii4 #d4 #di ,t ,x5ophanes is "h meant is %[n f ! titles ( ! collect$ ,beck] manuscripts1 z also f comp>+ ?is passage ) ! v]ses rema9+ to u1 :i* are by ,x5ophanes1 ?\gh !y 7 e>li] ascrib$ to ,z5o2 ?is 0 done by ,hegel :5 he did n1 z 9 _m lectures1 take ! ,eleatic passages toge!r4 ,! editor f\nd a ju/ification 9 ?is = plac+ ! passage 9 its prop] place4 ,note by editor4 #ej ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #dg-eb2 #aaj1 #aaa2 ,,viii4 #cbf2 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,,ii4 #d1 #ah4 #ea ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,x4 #cac1 #cad2 ,simplic4 9 ,phys4 ,ari/41 p4 #da4 #eb ,platon4 ,!aet4 p4 #ahc4 ,/eph4 7p4 #bfc1 ed4 ,bekk472 ,sophi/1 p4 #bag 7p4 #abg74 #ec ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #bc2 et ,casaubonus ad4 h4 #a4 #ed ,plut>*1 ,de plac4 phil4 ,,ii4 #g2 ,euseb4 ,,xv4 #ch2 ,/ob4 ,ecl4 ,phys4 c4 #bc1 p4 #dhb-dhd2 ,simplicius 9 ,ari/4 ,phys4 p4 #i a1 #g b2 ,ari/4 ,met4 ,i4 #d2 ,br&is ,comm5t4 ,eleat4 p4 #afb4 #ee ,de ,s5su1 p4 #a1 ed4 ,/eph4 #aeeg 7citante ,flleborn1 p4 #ib74 #ef ,?is obscure clause has be5 diff]5tly int]pret$4 ,dr4 ,hut*ison ,/irl+1 9 8 annotations on ,s*wegl]'s 8,hi/ory ( ,philosophy10 says3 8,zell] accepts 7& ,hegel1 by quot+ & translat+ ! :ole passage1 already c\nt5anc$ him 9 advance7 ! equival5t ( ,!ophra/us = 1 namely1 & int]prets ! clause itself ?us3--#8,! prepond]at+ elem5t ( ! two is ?\ght occasions & det]m9es ! ideas2' t is z is ! prepond]at+ elem5t 7! w>m or ! cold7 s is ! /ate ( m9d4 ,9 %ort1 ! m is ! ?\ght is ! l+ui/ic equival5t ( ! "t = accord+ to ! m is ! ?\ght40 ,translator's note4 #eg ,z a matt] ( fact1 s9ce a comp>ison ( ?is reason+ ) ! fragm5ts ( ,melissus :i* ,simplicius 79 ,ari/4 ,physica & ,de ,clo7 has reta9$1 places ?is conjecture beyond d\bt1 ! editor is con/ra9$ to place x "h1 al?\gh ,hegel1 :5 he dealt ) ! ,eleatics sep>ately1 put x "u ! head+ ( ,x5ophanes4 ,note by ,editor4 #eh ,cf4 ,plat4 ,p>m5id4 pp4 #abf1 #abg1 ,/eph4 7pp4 #c--e ,bekk474 #ei ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #bf1 #bg1 et ,m5ag4 ad h4 #a4 ,val]4 ,max4 ,,iii4 #c ext4 #b1 #c4 #fj ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,vi4 #ci1 ,sext4 ,empir4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,,iii4 #h1 #ff4 #fa ,plat4 ,cratyl4 p4 #djb1 ,/eph4 7p4 #db1 ,bekk472 ,ari/ot4 ,met4 ,i4 #f1 ,,xiii4 #d4 #fb ,johannes ,philoponus ad ,ari/ot4 de ,anima 7,i4 #b7 fol4 #d a4 #fc ,clem5s ,alex43 ,/romata ,v4 #ad1 p4 #gab1 ed4 ,pott4 7cit4 ,/eph4 ,pos4 phil4 p4 #aca74 #fd ,cf4 ,/obaei ,ecl4 ,phys4 #bb1 p4 #ded4 #fe ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ix4 #g2 ,simplic4 ad ,ari/4 ,phys4 p4 #f2 ,/ob4 ,eclog4 ,phys4 c4 #c1 p4 #eh-fj4 #ff ,plut>*4 de plac4 phil4 ,i4 #bh4 #fg ,h]aclides2 ,allegori ,hom]ic1 pp4 #ddb1 #ddc1 ed4 ,gale4 #fh ,9 writ+ ( !m ,hegel v seldom sep>ates ^! two philosoph]s1 ?\gh he does s 9 ! ,j5a edition4 #fi ,see ,hegel's 8,w]ke10 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p #aha1 et seq4 #gj ,ib4 p4 #aab4 #ga ,plut>*1 de plac4 phil4 ,i41 #bf2 ,/obi ,ecl4 ,phys4 #bj1 p4 #cid4 7,t5nemann1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bgh47 #gb ,emp$ocles ,agrig5t9us4 ,de vita et philosophia ejus exposuit1 c>m9um reliquias ex antiquis scriptoribus collegit1 rec5suit1 illu/ravit1 prfationem et indices adjecit ,magi/] ,frid4 ,guil4 ,/urz1 ,lipsi1 #ahje4 #gc ,emp$oclis et ,p>m5idis fragm5ta1 c41 re/ituta et illu/rata ab ,amadeo ,peyron4 #gd ,cf4 ,plat4 ,p>m5id4 p4 #abg 7p4 #d74 #ge ,metaph4 ,i4 #c & #h2 ,de g5]4 et corrupt4 ,i4 #a4 #gf ,adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #abj2 ,,ix4 #aj2 ,x4 #cag4 #gg ,ari/4 ,de anim4 ,i4 #b2 ,fabricius ad ,sext4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ib1 p4 #chi1 n4 ,t2 ,sextus adv4 ,ma?4 ,i4 #cjc2 ,,vii4 #aba4 #gh ,hegel c]ta9ly us$ 9 8 lectures1 to foll[ ! usual ord]1 & treat ,emp$ocles be=e ! ,atomi/s4 ,b s9ce1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 treatm5t ( !m1 he always connect$ ! ,atomi/s ) ! ,eleatics & ,h]aclitus1 & took ,emp$ocles1 9 s f> z he anticipat$ design1 z ! =]unn] ( ,anaxagoras1 ! pres5t transposition is suffici5tly ju/ifi$4 ,if we fur!r consid] t ,emp$ocles sway$ to & fro betwe5 ! ,"o ( ,h]aclitus & ! ,_m ( ,leucippus1 )\t1 l !m1 adh]+ to ei!r ( ^! "o-sid$ det]m9ations1 x is cle> t bo? mom5ts are assumptions ?r\gh ^: v>iations he op5$ a way = ! ,anaxagorean conception ( end1 :i*1 by compreh5d+ !m1 is ! ess5tial unity f :i* proce$s ! manifold ( ph5om5a1 z f _! imman5t s\rce4--,note by ,editor4 #gi ,anaxagor ,clazom5ii fragm5ta1 qu sup]sunt omnia1 edita ab ,e4 ,s*auba*1 ,lipsi1 #ahbg4 #hj ,pl94 ,hi/4 ,nat4 ,,vii4 #ec2 ,bruck]1 ,t4 ,i4 pp4 #dic1 #did1 n4 #ha ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii4 #af2 ,plut>* 9 ,lys&ro1 #ab4 #hb ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii41 #ab-ad2 ,plut>*1 9 ,p]icle1 c4 #cb4 #hc ,cf4 ,ari/ot4 ,phys4 ,,viii4 #e2 ,met4 ,,xii4 #aj4 #hd ,cf4 ,sext4 ,empiric4 ,hypotyp ,pyrrh4 ,,iii4 #d1 #cc4 #he ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii4 #f2 ,sext4 ,emp4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #f2 ,ari/4 ,phys4 ,,viii4 #a4 #hf ,platonis ,protagoras1 pp4 #caj-cad1 ,/eph4 7pp4 #aea-aei1 ,bekk474 #hg ,plat4 ,protag41 pp4 #cad-cag 7pp4 #aei-afd74 #hh ,plat4 ,protag4 pp4 #cah-cbj 7pp4 #aff-agj74 #hi ,plat4 ,protag4 pp4 #cbj-cbc 7pp4 #agj-agf74 #ij ,ibid4 pp4 #cbc1 #cbd 7pp4 #agf-agh74 #ia ,plat4 ,protag4 pp4 #cbd-cbh 7pp4 #agh-ahd47 #ib ,plat4 ,m5o41 p4 #ia 7p4 #cga74 #ic ,plat4 ,gorg4 pp4 #deb et #deg 7pp4 #ae et #bd74 #id ,plat4 ,eu?ydem4 pp4 #bhc1 #bhd 7pp4 #daf-dah74 #ie ,ibid4 p4 #bih 7p4 #ddf74 #if ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,,ii4 c4 #a1 #ba seq4 #ig ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ix4 #ej4 #ih ,ibid4 #ed4 #ii ,plat4 ,protag4 p4 #cch f94 7p4 #bjd74 #ajj ,plut>* 9 ,p]icle1 c4 #cf4 #aja ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ix4 #ea1 #eb2 #ee1 #ef 7,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,ix4 #ef74 #ajb ,plat4 ,!tet4 p4 #aeb 7p4 #aie72 ,sext4 ,emp4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,i1 c4 #cb1 #baf4 #ajc ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #chh1 #fj2 ,plat4 ,!tet4 p4 #aeb4 7p4 #aie-aig74 #ajd ,plat4 ,!tet4 p4 #aed 7p4 #bja74 #aje ,plat4 ,!t4 pp4 #aec1 #aed 7pp4 #aii1 #bjj72 pp4 #aef1 #aeg 7pp4 #bjd-bjf72 pp4 #aeh-afj 7pp4 #bjh-bac74 #ajf ,sext4 ,empir4 ,pyrrh4 ,hyp4 ,i4 c4 #cb1 #bag-bai4 #ajg ,diodorus ,siculus3 ,,xii4 p4 #ajf 7ed4 ,wessel+74 #ajh ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #ff4 #aji ,ibid4 #fg4 #aaj ,ari/otel4 de ,x5ophane1 ,z5one et ,gorgia1 c4 #e4 #aaa ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #fh-gj4 #aab ,ibid4 #ga4 #aac ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #gc1 #gd4 #aad ,ibid4 #ge1 #gf4 #aae ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #gg-hj4 #aaf ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #hc1 #hd4 #aag ,! di/9ction betwe5 ^! two words is a v important "o4 ,s*wegl]1 9 expla9+ ,hegel's position 9 8 8,hi/ory ( ,philosophy10 /ates t ,hegel ass]ts t ,socrates set ,moralitt1 ! subjective morality ( individual consci5ce1 9 ! place ( ,sittli*keit1 8! spontane\s1 natural1 half-unconsci\s 7almo/ in/9ctive7 virtue t re/s 9 ob$i5ce to e/abli%$ cu/om 7use & wont1 natural objective law1 t is at bottom1 accord+ to ,hegel1 rational1 ?\gh n yet subjectively cle>$1 p]haps1 into its rational pr9ciples740 ,z ,dr4 ,/irl+ says 9 8 ,annotations to ! same "w 7p4 #cid71 8,!re is a p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,/ate :5 p live 9 tradition2 t is a p]iod ( unreflect$ ,sittli*keit1 or natural obs]vance4 ,!n !re comes a "t :5 ! obs]vances are que/ion$1 & :5 ! "r or tru? !y involve is reflect$ into ! subject4 ,?is is a p]iod ( ,aufklrung1 & = ,sittli*keit !re is sub/itut$ ,moralitt1 subjective morality3 ! subject w approve n\ght b :at he f9ds inw>dly true to himself1 to 8 consci5ce40--,,translator',s ,,note4 #aah ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii1 #dd 7cf4 ,m5ag4 ad h4 #a72 #ah-bj1 #bb4 #aai ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii4 #bb1 #bc2 ,plat4 ,apol4 ,socr4 p4 #bh 7p4 #aac74 #abj ,diog4 ,la]t4 ,,ii4 #bd2 ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #ah2 ,plat4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 p4 #cb 7pp4 #abj-abb72 ,epi/4 ,,vii4 pp4 #cbd1 #cbe 7p4 #dbi74 #aba ,plat4 ,convivium1 pp4 #bab1 #agf1 #bac1 #bad1 #bbc 7pp4 #ddg1 #cgf-cgh1 #ddi1 #dej1 #dfh1 #dfi74 #abb ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #aj4 #abc ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #aa-af2 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,i4 #f4 #abd ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 ,,xiii4 #d #abe ,f ! ,lectures ( ! w9t] #ahbe-ahbf4--7,,note ,,by ,,editor47 #abf ,platonis ,!tetus1 p4 #baj 7p4 #cbb74 #abg ,plat4 ,protag4 p4 #cdi 7pp4 #bbd1 #bbe72 pp4 #cfj1 #cfa 7pp4 #bde-bdg74 #abh ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,,iv4 c4 #b1 #aa-ag4 #abi ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,,iv4 c4 #a1 #a2 c4 #b1 #dj4 #acj ,cf4 ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #b1 #ab-af1 sqq4 #aca ,h]odot4 ,,ix4 #cc1 seq4 #acb ,x5oph4 ,apologia ,socrat4 #aj2 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #a ,plat4 ,apologia ,socrat4 p4 #bd 7p4 #ajd74 #acc ,apologia ,socrat4 #aa--ac2 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #b--f2 #ai4 #acd ,plat4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 p4 #bf 7#ajh1 #aji74 #ace ,apologia ,socrat4 #ad 7cf4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #a1 #ag74 #acf ,plato4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 p4 #ba 7p4 #ig74 #acg ,x5oph4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 #ad4 #ach ,x5oph4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 #af--ai2 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #b1 #a--h4 #aci ,x5oph4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 #bj2 cf4 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #b1 #di seq4 #adj ,x5oph4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 #bj1 #ba2 ,memorab4 ,i4 c4 #b1 #ea--ee2 ,plat4 ,apol4 ,socrat4 pp4 #bd--bf 7pp4 #ajc--ajg74 #ada ,mei] und ,s*mann3 ,d] ,attis*e ,process1 pp4 #agc-agg4 #adb ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajf4 #adc ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #bd4 #add ,cic]4 ,acad4 ,qu/4 ,,ii4 #db4 #ade ,m5ag4 ad ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajf2 ,aul4 ,gellius3 ,noct4 ,attic1 ,,vi4 #aj4 #adf ,plut>*4 de frat]no amore1 p4 #dhi1 ,d4 7ed4 ,xyl472 ,/obi ,s]mones3 ,,lxxxiv4 #ae 7,t4 ,,iii4 p4 #afj1 ed4 ,gais=d72 ,bruck]4 ,hi/4 ,crit4 ,philos4 ,t4 ,i4 p4 #faa4 #adg ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajf4 #adh ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajh4 #adi ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #aji4 #aej ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #aaa1 #aab4 #aea ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajh2 ,cic]o1 ,acad4 ,qu/4 ,,iv4 #bi2 ,de div9at4 ,,ii4 #d4 #aeb ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vii4 #aif4 #aec ,a!nu ,,ix4 p4 #dja 7ed4 ,casaubon1 #aeig72 ,suidas1 s4 v4 1 ,t4 ,,iii4 p4 #fjj2 ,m5ag4 ad ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajh4 #aed ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ace4 #aee ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajh2 ,bruck]i ,hi/4 ,crit4 ,phil4 ,t4 ,i4 p4 #fac4 #aef ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ajh2 ,cic]4 ,acad4 ,qu/4 ,,iv4 #bi2 ,bruck4 ,hi/4 ,crit4 ,philos4 ,t4 ,i4 p4 #fad1 n4 s4 #aeg ,ari/oteles3 ,de ,soph4 ,el5*4 c4 #ad2 ,buhle ad h4 #a4 argum5tum1 p4 #eab4 #aeh ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #aac1 #aae1 #aai4 #aei ,plut>*1 adv]s4 ,colot54 c4 #bb1 #bc1 pp4 #aaai1 #aabj1 ed4 ,xyl4 pp4 #agd-agf1 ,vol4 ,,xiv4 ed4 ,hutt54 #afj ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #fe2 ,t5nemann1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ajc3 ,bruck4 ,hi/4 ,crit4 ,philos4 ,t4 ,i4 p4 #ehd1 seq4 #afa ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ff1 #fg1 #gb1 #gg 7,horat4 ,s]m4 ,,ii4 #c1 v4 #aja71 #gi-ha4 #afb ,sext4 ,empir4 adv4 ,ma?4 ,,vii4 #aia1 #aii1 #bjj4 #afc ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ig1 #ih 7#aja1 #ajb74 #afd ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #ic-ie4 #afe ,cic4 ,tusc4 ,que/4 ,i4 #cd2 ,val4 ,max4 ,,viii4 #i4 #aff ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,ii4 #if1 #ig4 #afg ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #ac1 #a1 #b1 #ae-ah4 #afh ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #aa1 #ab 7#ajd74 #afi ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #ac1 #f1 #bb1 #cg2 ,t5nemann1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #hi4 #agj ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #h2 ,,ii4 #cf4 #aga ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #gd1 #fa1 #cg1 #aje1 #bb4 #agb ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #bi1 #cj 7#gd72 ,,ii4 #fh2 ,,vi4 #bf1 #da1 #cc1 #de1 #df1 #ej1 #gf1 #gg 7#cd74 #agc ,diog4 ,lart4 ,,vi4 #he1 #if1 #ig4 ,,transcrib]',s ,,note3 --,obvi\s pr9t & punctuation errors 7 correct$4