,illustration3 7#a47 ,,goat4 ,illustration3 7#b47 ,,seal 7,,bold ,,grain74 ,illustration3 7#c47 ,,seal 7,,fine ,,grain74 ,,leather ,,for ,,libraries4 ,,by ,e4 ,,wyndham ,,hulme1 ,j4 ,,gordon ,,parker1 ,a4 ,,seymour-,,jones1 ,,cyril ,,davenport1 ,,and ,f4 ,j4 ,,williamson ,,london3 ,published for the ,sound ,leather ,committee of the ,library ,association by ,,the ,,library ,,supply ,co41 ,bridge ,house1 #aha1 ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,e4,c4 #aije4 ,,library ,,association4 ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,sound ,,leather ,,committee4 ,,cyril ,,davenport1 ,british ,museum ,library4 ,j4 ,p4 ,,edmond1 ,signet ,library1 ,edinburgh4 ,,dr4 ,j4 ,,gordon ,,parker1 ,london ,leather ,industries ,laboratory1 ,bermondsey4 ,e4 ,,wyndham ,,hulme1 ,patent ,office ,library4 7,hon4 ,secretary47 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,page ,history of ,sumach ,tanning in ,england1 ,degradation of the ,manufacture of ,leather1 and ,history of the ,reform ,movement4 ,by ,e4 ,,wyndham ,,hulme #e ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,causes of ,decay in ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,by ,j4 ,,gordon ,,parker #ae ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,provenance1 ,characteristics1 and ,values of ,modern ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,by ,a4 ,,seymour-,,jones #bi ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,repairing and ,binding of ,books for ,public ,libraries4 ,by ,,cyril ,,davenport #ci ,,chapter ,v4 ,specification for the ,fittings of a ,small ,bindery4 ,by ,f4 ,j4 ,,williamson #ea ,,index #ee ,the ,bancroft ,library ,university of ,california ,berkeley ,,the ,,roger ,,levenson ,,memorial ,,fund ,,chapter ,i4 ,history of ,sumach ,tanning in ,england1 ,degradation of the ,manufacture of ,leather1 and ,history of the ,reform ,movement4 ,,by ,e4 ,,wyndham ,,hulme4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,the section of the leather trade to which this ,handbook relates is that concerned in the manufacture of light leathers tanned with a pale tannage preparatory to being dyed4 ,bark and most other vegetable tanning substances leave a colour on the skin which cannot be removed without detriment to the durability of the leather2 the retention of the colour1 however1 detracts from the purity of the final colour imparted by the dye4 ,the reputation in the past of the sumach-tanned ,spanish leather was founded upon this peculiar property of sumach of leaving the skin white1 and on this point the wisdom of the ancients has been justified by the results of an exhaustive series of experiments conducted by the ,society of ,arts' ,committee1 which have given to sumach the first place in the list of tannages for light leathers4 ,the date of the introduction of sumach tanning into ,england may1 with some show of probability1 be assigned to the year #aefe1 when a seven years' monopoly patent was granted to two strangers1 ,roger ,heuxtenbury and ,bartholomew ,verberick1 for the manufacture of ,spanish or beyond sea leather1 on the condition that the patentees should employ one native apprentice for every foreigner in their service4 ,this stipulation indicates that the industry was a new one4 ,following the custom of the times1 the supervision of the industry was entrusted to the ,wardens of the ,company of ,leathersellers in ,london4 ,additional evidence of the use of sumach at this period is afforded by another patent to a ,spanish ,jew1 ,roderigo ,lopez1 one of ,elizabeth's physicians4 ,by way of settling her doctor's bills the ,queen granted to ,lopez1 in #aehd1 an exclusive licence to import sumach and aniseed for ten years4 ,besides attending the ,queen in his professional capacity1 ,lopez was called upon to act as interpreter to the ,portuguese pretender1 ,don ,antonio1 on his visit to this island4 ,as the result of some misunderstanding with ,antonio1 ,lopez was induced to join a conspiracy nominally aimed against the life of ,antonio1 but actually directed against the ,queen1 and in #aeid ,lopez expiated his crimes at ,tyburn4 ,those who are curious in such matters will be interested to trace in the ,merchant of ,venice the re-appearance of our sumach merchant as ,shylock1 while the name of ,antonio is boldly retained by ,shakespeare for his hero 7,cf4 ,s4 ,lee1 ,the ,original of ,shylock1 in the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 #ahhj74 ,after the arrest of ,lopez1 his grant was continued to ,r4 ,alexander and ,r4 ,mompesson 7,patent ,roll1 #cf ,eliz41 p4 #aa74 ,in the ,charter of the ,leathersellers' ,company1 dated #afjd1 ,spanish leather and other leathers dressed or wrought in sumach or bark are mentioned4 ,in #affj the duty granted upon imported sumach was fixed at #acs4 #d;d4 per cwt4 of #aab lbs41 and on dried myrobalans at #as4 #c;d4 per lb41 thus disproving the statement of ,prof4 ,thorold ,rogers in his ,history of ,prices 7,vol4 #e1 p4 #dad71 that oak bark was the only tanning material used in ,england at this period4 ,the earliest description known to the writer of the process of sumaching by sewing up the skins into bottles and allowing the fluid extract to penetrate the fibre by pressure1 is to be found in #aged in the ,dictionary of ,arts and ,science 7,vol4 #c1 article ,morocco74 ,the first step in the degradation of the manufacture of light leathers1 though it at first affected the heavy leathers only1 was the introduction of the use of sulphuric acid in #agfh by ,dr4 ,mc,bride of ,dublin 7,phil4 ,trans41 #aggh74 ,by substituting a vitriolic liquor for the vegetable acids obtained by fermenting bran1 rye1 or other cereals1 ,dr4 ,mc,bride claimed three advantages3 7#a7 ,absolute control over the degree of acidity of the liquor1 whereas organic souring was troublesome and uncertain2 7#b7 that the skins were plumped better by the acid1 and that the danger of injury to skins 7by bacterial action7 was avoided2 7#c7 that the process of tanning was materially shortened4 ,at all events1 the ,doctor succeeded in convincing first the ,dublin tanners1 and shortly afterwards their ,bermondsey rivals1 of the superiority of his methods1 which1 as already stated1 were intended for heavy leathers only 7,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #agig1 article ,tanning74 ,having once established its footing in the tanyard the use of sulphuric acid was soon further extended4 ,with the introduction of aniline dyestuffs about #ahgj sulphuric acid came into universal use as a means of clearing the skin before entering the dyebath4 ,the effect of the introduction of the coal-tar colours was to revolutionise the dyeing of leather4 ,under the old rgime of the vegetable dyestuffs the few standard shades of red1 blue1 olive1 yellow1 and black were obtained on moroccos mordanted with alum1 while bark-tanned calf and sheep skins were1 as a rule1 left in their natural browns and ornamented by sprinkling or marbling4 ,the wide range of colours offered by the new dyestuffs fascinated the public1 which accepted the new leathers without question as to their durability4 ,librarians began to insist upon accuracy and uniformity of shade1 regardless of the methods by which these results were obtained4 ,yet1 apart from the question of durability1 it is clear that brilliancy of colour has been purchased at too high a price4 ,under the old system of dyeing a thin superficial layer of colour was laid over the natural white of the skin1 thereby obtaining a variety and depth of colour which is in striking contrast to the dead uniformity of the colours of modern acid-bitten leathers4 ,hence the reform of the manufacture of the light leathers is supported by sthetic as well as by practical considerations4 ,passing from the domain of chemistry to that of mechanics1 the ,committee of the ,society of ,arts has emphasized the need of a return to sounder and less ruinous methods of dealing with leather2 but their recommendations are so clearly set out in their ,report that it is proposed here to touch upon one point only1 viz41 the artificial graining of leather4 ,the ,committee remark that1 whereas many examples of sound sheepskin1 dating from the #aeth century to the early part of the #aith century1 had been brought to their notice1 since about #ahfj sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found4 ,now1 the decoration of leather by the impression of patterns by mechanical pressure had long been known1 the lozenge pattern of early russia leather having been effected in the #ahth century by means of engraved steel cylinders4 ,but in #ahea it occurred to an ingenious mechanic that1 by means of the electroplate process1 an exact reproduction of the grain of the higher-priced skins might be communicated to sheepskin or other inferior leather whereby the selling value of the latter would be considerably enhanced 7,cf4 ,bernard's ,patent ,specification #ac1hjh of #ahea1 and a modification of the same process in ,no4 #b1cia of #ahee74 ,from this date1 therefore1 sheepskin disappears from view only to reappear as imitation morocco1 pigskin1 or other higher-priced leather4 ,so perfectly does the counterfeit skin imitate the original on the bound volume that the two can only be distinguished with certainty by microscopic examination4 ,librarians1 therefore1 must bear in mind that a familiarity with the natural characteristics of the ordinary binding leathers is no safe guide to the character of the leather of a binding4 ,the utmost that can be said is that the leather is either genuine or else a remarkably good counterfeit1 a conclusion which1 it is hardly necessary to say1 is not one of great value in practice4 ,as might have been supposed1 the rapid decay of leather bindings in the #aith century1 resulting from a combination of the above malpractices1 with the attendant evils of heavy outlay upon rebinding1 cropped margins1 and ill-matched sets upon the shelves1 from time to time attracted the attention of booklovers and bookbinders2 but their efforts to determine the causes of the deterioration and to find a remedy have until recently met with very little success4 ,in #ahdb the subject was investigated by ,professors ,faraday1 ,brande1 and others on behalf of the ,athenum ,club4 ,this committee is largely responsible for the sulphur in gas theory--a theory which was never wholly true1 even at a period when the percentage of sulphur in coal gas was much higher than at present 7,cf4 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 #ahej-ei1 p4 #bae71 and which now has ceased to have any practical bearing upon the matter4 ,it should be noted that1 in #ahea1 ,crace ,calvert1 the well-known ,manchester chemist1 came to a different conclusion4 ,after pointing out that decay in leather was observable in libraries1 such as the ,chetham ,library1 in which gas had never been used1 he stated that the presence of sulphuric acid in leather bindings was attributable to one or more of three causes3 7a7 to the pollution of the atmosphere by consumption of coal in the ,manchester factories2 7b7 to the action of gas fumes in unventilated rooms2 7c7 to the use of sulphuric acid by the tanners2 and he further expressed his opinion that the seat of the disease would be found in irregularities in the processes of tanning--in other words1 that the disease was aggravated rather than originated by these first two causes 7,cf4 ,trans4 ,society of ,arts1 ,vol4 #ea1 pp4 #abj-bb74 ,calvert's views1 however1 met with very little support4 ,in #ahgg1 at the ,conference of ,librarians in ,london1 a proposal was made that a committee of librarians and chemists should deal with the matter1 but no effect was given to the proposal4 ,ten years later a series of experiments on the action of gas fumes and heat was undertaken on behalf of the ,birmingham ,library by ,mr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,woodward 7,library ,chronicle1 #ahhg1 pp4 #be-bi74 ,strips of leather exposed for #a1jjj hours to the action of gas fumes1 at temperatures of #acj and #adj ,fahrenheit1 showed a mean absorption of sulphuric acid of #agh per cent41 accompanied by a marked reduction in their stretching capacity and breaking strain4 ,the experiments on the action of heat alone were regarded as inconclusive4 ,mr4 ,woodward suggested that the ,library ,association should undertake the testing of leathers1 and that librarians should thereafter employ only leather of a given standard2 but once more nothing was done4 ,in the meantime the reputation of leather as a binding material continued to dwindle2 one leather after another was tried1 found wanting1 and excluded from library practice1 while various leather substitutes--buckram1 art linen1 and imitation leathers1 gradually took its place4 ,it is due to the efforts of ,dr4 ,parker and ,prof4 ,procter between #ahih and #aijj that the real facts of the case have been brought to light4 ,in the latter years an agitation in favour of standard leather was set on foot by ,lord ,cobham1 ,mr4 ,cockerell1 ,mr4 ,davenport1 and others1 which resulted in the appointment by the ,society of ,arts of a ,committee on ,leathers for ,bookbinding1 the cost of which was met by a grant from the ,leathersellers' ,company4 ,upon the publication of the first report of the above ,committee in #aija the subject was taken up by the ,council of the ,library ,association1 and after several papers had been read at the monthly meetings in ,london and elsewhere1 a ,committee was appointed to ascertain how far ,members of the ,association were prepared to accept a common standard for binding leathers4 ,for this purpose in ,march #aijd1 close upon #a1jjj circulars were addressed to the libraries of the ,united ,kingdom asking for a statement of their views upon the following proposals1 amongst others1 viz43 7a7 that the ,council should appoint an official analyst2 7b7 that they should publish a handbook giving to members of the ,association such information as would enable them to secure sound leather at a reasonable price4 ,the circular meeting with a favourable reception1 the ,council invited ,dr4 ,parker to draw up a scale of fees for the analysis of leathers1 and the scale having been duly approved1 ,dr4 ,parker was at once appointed analyst to the ,association4 ,since the appointment of the ,committee abundant evidence has been forthcoming that at last the reform of light leathers for bookbinding and upholstery is now in sight4 ,the efforts of the ,committee have been warmly seconded by the ,press4 ,in the recently concluded ,government binding contracts a clause has been inserted enabling any department to obtain standard leather and rendering the contractor liable to heavy penalties for infringement of the conditions of this clause2 yet the price paid for bindings in this leather is only fractionally increased4 ,from the outset the ,committee have been assured of the support of the leading firms of leather manufacturers1 who have recognised that1 if leather is to regain the ground which has been lost1 it must be by the adoption of a common standard of manufacture and by the introduction of honest trade descriptions in the retail trade4 ,hence where the provenance of the leather is declared and the method of its manufacture supported by a written guarantee from the leather manufacturer1 the need for periodical analysis of samples is less urgent4 ,but where the bookbinder is unwilling or unable to state the provenance of his leathers recourse to chemical analysis is the only safeguard4 ,the librarian on his side will materially assist the binder by limiting his demand to leathers of a few standard shades and by abstaining from insisting upon accurate matching to pattern4 ,if the piecing1 panelling and lettering of serials is kept uniform1 a want of uniformity in the shade of leather is not of much practical moment4 ,in the meantime the librarian should keep a vigilant watch for the following symptoms of deterioration3-- 7a7 ,general shabbiness and tenderness of leather1 especially at parts where the leather is strained over the cords on the back or edges of the boards4 ,probable cause3 ,sulphuric acid4 7b7 ,red rot in morocco4 ,on friction the leather turns to a red powder4 ,probable cause3 ,a ,persian or ,east ,indian half-bred sheepskin has been supplied in place of goat4 7c7 ,withering of pigskin accompanied by discoloration4 ,probable cause3 ,over pulling down of the skin in the puering process4 ,if the pigskin has been dyed in a bright shade1 acid also is present4 7d7 ,deterioration and discoloration of smooth and light-coloured calfskins1 especially law calf4 ,probable cause3 ,use of oxalic acid by the bookbinder to remove grease marks1 c4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,causes of ,decay in ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,,by ,j4 ,,gordon ,,parker4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,why do modern leather bindings decay8 ,is it possible to obtain a leather for bookbinding purposes as good and as durable as the leather produced from the #afth to #ahth century8 ,these are the two problems which the ,committee on ,bookbinding ,leather appointed by the ,society of ,arts set themselves to investigate4 ,fortunately we are able to solve both problems4 ,in the olden days all skins were tanned with a liquor made from either oak bark or sumach1 and in some cases a mixture of the two4 ,the skins used by the tanner were usually obtained direct from the butchers4 ,after soaking and cleansing they were then limed for a period sufficiently long to loosen the hair4 ,after the removal of the hair and superfluous flesh and fat1 the skins were washed in several changes of fresh soft water to remove the excess of lime1 the process being assisted by working the skins over on a beam with a blunt knife4 ,when in suitable condition they were brought into sour1 old tan liquors4 ,there was no hurry1 the skins being slowly tanned in weak infusions1 and when the process was complete1 the leather was simply washed free from superfluous tan1 dyed with wood or other vegetable dyes1 rinsed free from excess of dye-stuff1 and dried out4 ,the leather was afterwards softened by stretching1 and polished or glazed by brushing the skin over with oil1 soap1 beeswax1 or a solution of some moss4 ,such leather lacked the high finish1 the regular colour1 the bright shades of modern leather1 but it lasted fifty or one hundred years with hard wear1 and1 under favourable conditions1 appears to be almost imperishable4 ,the finish1 or general appearance1 of leather continued to improve up to about #ahej1 but after that date some of the bindings examined showed signs of rapid deterioration in quality4 ,this deterioration increased on bindings subsequent to #ahgj1 and probably #ge per cent4 of the leather used for bookbinding during the last twenty years either has already decayed or will do so within a comparatively short time4 ,now to deal with the answer to the first question1 ,why do modern leather bindings decay8 ,the chief causes are as follows3-- #a4 ,the introduction of tanning materials other than oak and sumach1 stronger in tanning1 and more rapid in their action4 ,many of these tanning materials are unstable1 and the leather produced disintegrates on exposure to light and air4 #b4 ,the use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported from abroad4 ,goat1 calf1 and sheep skins are imported into this country from all over the world2 some are simply dried in the sun1 some salted1 whilst others are cured with various ingredients4 #c4 ,the use of infusions of acids and other bleaching agents to produce bright and even shades of colour4 #d4 ,the use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing4 #e4 ,the shaving and splitting of skin for producing an even substance4 #f4 ,printing and embossing grains upon leather1 together with other methods of finishing now in common use4 #g4 ,the stripping1 scouring1 souring1 and re-tanning of ,east ,india leathers 7,persians74 #h4 ,the removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin4 ,these eight causes1 although by no means exhaustive1 are1 however1 the chief factors in the deterioration of modern leather2 and in as few words as possible ,i will explain the reason of their introduction and effect4 ,as the industry advanced there were found in different parts of the world tanning materials other than oak and sumach1 some of which were two1 three1 or five times as rich in tannin as oak1 thus making infusions of greater strength1 and consequently of quicker action1 with the result that leather which formerly required from three to six months to tan was turned out in almost as many days1 or1 at the most1 in as many weeks4 ,it was not realised1 however1 that these different tanning materials contained tannins of different qualities1 capable of producing quite a different leather to that produced by means of oak or sumach4 ,the experts who spent months testing and investigating this question came to the unanimous conclusion that the speed of tannage or the strength of the tanning liquor had very little to do with the wearing qualities of the leather produced1 but found that some of these new materials contained tannins of a different chemical nature from that of sumach1 and that they produced leather of an unstable character1 some of the leathers undergoing change in a few hours on exposure to strong light and air4 ,on the other hand1 some of the new tanning materials produced permanent leathers practically equal to sumach4 ,those tanning materials1 therefore1 which contained tannins of the catechol series1 including the tannins of hemlock1 larch1 quebracho1 mangrove1 gambier1 and turwar1 were condemned1 as all these materials produce a leather which on exposure to light and air turns first a red shade of colour and afterwards develops what is now well known by bookbinders and librarians as the red decay1 where the leather crumbles off on application of friction4 ,on the other hand1 tanning materials of the pyrogallol class1 such as sumach1 galls1 divi-divi1 myrobalans1 oak1 and chesnut1 produce a leather which is practically unaffected by light or air4 ,further1 it was found in every case where authentic bindings dating from the #acth century onwards were examined the tanning material used was one of this pyrogallol series4 ,on the other hand1 leathers which showed the red decay were in every case found either to have been tanned with tanning materials of the catechol series1 or were rotted with acid4 ,the second cause of trouble is the manufacture of leather from skins from distant lands which have been improperly or insufficiently preserved for export4 ,it often happens that the fibres have partly perished before the tanner receives the skins1 the resulting leather is therefore poor1 spongy1 and partially perished1 making thin leather1 which sometimes1 on account of its thinness1 will cut up apparently economically for the binder1 but not economically for the librarian or the owner of books1 as the leather cannot possibly be as good or have as long life as leather manufactured from a sound skin4 ,bright even shades and light fancy colours previous to the introduction of acid bleaches were manufactured from sumach-tanned skins only1 sumach alone producing a leather of a light cream colour1 and therefore capable of taking practically any shade of dye4 ,most other tanning materials produced dark foundations1 on which it was practically impossible to dye any but a dark shade4 ,gradually1 however1 manufacturers found leather tanned with materials cheaper than sumach could be scoured and bleached with acids1 then re-tanned with sumach1 thus producing a light1 even-coloured leather1 which with the dye produced light shades4 ,the cheapest1 and at the same time the most effective1 acid for this purpose was vitriol or sulphuric acid4 ,this1 in common with other mineral acids1 combines with the leather fibre1 upon which it exercises a most disastrous and disintegrating action1 and to the use of this acid1 either as a bleaching or clearing agent in the tanning process1 or in subsequent use in developing the colour in the dye-bath1 may be ascribed the cause of decay of over #ij per cent4 of modern bookbinding and upholstering leather4 ,it is impossible to remove these acids from leather by any subsequent amount of washing1 or without the addition of some other chemical to expel them4 ,recently the writer treated some leather with sulphuric acid1 and after cutting the leather up into small pieces1 washed the same in running water for three weeks2 at the end of that period the sulphuric acid was still tightly fixed in the fibres of the leather4 ,the introduction of aniline dyes instead of the older process of wood dyes made a great change in the production of bookbinding leather4 ,hundreds of new shades of colour were produced1 and the process of leather dyeing was simplified and cheapened4 ,but1 unfortunately1 in the use of a certain class of these dye-stuffs the full depth of shade could not at that date be produced upon the leather except in the presence of an acid4 ,here1 again1 therefore1 sulphuric acid was introduced into the leather during the process of manufacture1 thus increasing the proportion of leather which contained this disintegrating material4 ,it has frequently been stated by leather dyers and others that a certain quantity of sulphuric acid must be used with acid dye-stuffs1 otherwise the full depth of shade cannot be produced1 and they claim that without its use it is impossible to produce certain brilliant shades of colour4 ,these statements have been proved to be devoid of foundation4 ,there are several substitutes for sulphuric acid which are harmless in their nature4 ,among these ,i may mention formic1 acetic and lactic acids4 ,these are organic acids which have no harmful action on the leather2 they are easily washed out1 and even if any trace of these acids be left in the skin1 they will evaporate4 ,formic acid has even been proved to be cheaper than sulphuric1 and1 moreover1 is capable of developing equal shades in all cases1 and deeper and more brilliant shades of colour with some dyes4 ,for the present1 however1 bookbinders1 and especially librarians1 are advised not to insist upon brilliant shades of colour4 ,the introduction of the splitting machine and the introduction of a machine for shaving leather has undoubtedly tended to produce a large quantity of thin leather1 but it is impossible either to shave or to split a skin without cutting the network of fibres1 and the strength of the leather cannot but be materially decreased4 ,leather is made up of a complex system of fibres interweaving and intertwining in every possible direction1 and even the small amount of paring carried out by the bookbinder himself considerably impairs the strength and life of the binding4 ,how much more1 therefore1 does the splitting and shaving that the tanner carries out in order to bring the skin to an even substance destroy the strength of the product4 ,sufficient has been written on the printing of morocco1 seal1 and pig grains upon skins of an inferior class1 but it cannot be too strongly pointed out to librarians that the strength of embossed leather must be impaired when it is realised how the embossing and printing is carried out4 ,the skins to be embossed are coated over in the wet state with a mixture of dye1 size1 and other materials1 and are then passed between two hot electrotype rollers4 ,this embosses or prints upon the skin the required grain2 at the same time it glues the fibres of the leather together1 preventing the free run which good skins should possess1 and the heat dries up the leather1 reducing its strength very considerably4 ,i now come to the stripping1 scouring1 souring1 and re-tanning of leather4 ,it is difficult to decide whether more damage is done in this process or in the use of mineral acids in the dye-bath2 but it is certain that any leather which is stripped of its natural tanning by use of alkalies or bleached by an acid has lost at least #ij per cent4 of its wearing and lasting properties4 ,thousands of dozens of skins in the rough tanned condition reach the ,english market from ,india1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 and other parts4 ,these are tanned with quebracho1 mimosa1 or some similar tanning material1 whereas the ,indian skins are nearly all tanned with turwar bark and are of a reddish-fawn shade of colour4 ,these are purchased by the leather finishers1 and are manufactured in ,england4 ,in order to get rid of the reddish colour they are first soaked in water and afterwards drummed in a weak solution of washing soda1 borax1 or some similar alkali4 ,this removes the uncombined tan from the skin1 as well as taking out the natural grease4 ,the skins emerge from the drum a dark mahogany colour2 they are then washed in water and afterwards soured in a sulphuric acid bath4 ,this bleaches the skin to a light bright shade4 ,the finisher then1 in order to put back tannin into the skin of a light colour1 re-tans them in sumach or a mixture of sumach and oak4 ,they are now known as re-tanned skins2 and after drying1 are dyed and finished in the ordinary manner4 ,the sheep and goat skins are sold as roans or moroccos1 as the case may be1 and1 as a rule1 no indication is given that these are re-tanned skins4 ,the re-tanned ,indian skins1 however1 generally leave the factory as persian roans or persian morocco1 but as the skins pass from the manufacturer to the merchant1 from the merchant to the small dealer1 the word persian is generally omitted1 and they reach the bookbinder as moroccos or roans1 as the case may be4 ,now this is the most important point for the binder4 ,i would go so far as to say that it should almost be a punishable offence to use either persians or re-tanned skins for bookbinding purposes1 as such leather cannot possibly last ten years if exposed to light and air4 ,not only has the scouring and alkali a perishing effect upon the leather1 but it is afterwards made worse by the treatment with acid1 a bleach1 and the further addition of acid to the dye-bath2 added to which the alkaline treatment removes the natural grease or nourishment of the skin1 and it is well known to those engaged in the leather trade that the strength and life of a leather is at least doubled by a proper nourishment of the leather with a suitable fat4 ,therefore1 if the whole of the natural fat is removed1 the leather rapidly dries1 it loses its elasticity and spring1 the grain cracks1 and after keeping in a dry library for some time the backs break right off the books4 ,i have dealt with the eight chief causes of premature decay1 but before passing to the other part of this paper ,i must also deal with the weaknesses of the bookbinder as well as those of the leather manufacturer1 and1 for reasons stated above1 absolutely condemn the undue paring of leather1 the bleaching of leather by means of oxalic acid1 and the use of patent finishes and glares1 the composition of which is in most cases a mystery1 many of them containing acids1 others containing drying agents which have almost as injurious an action upon leather as the vitriol used by the tanner4 ,to revert to my original thesis1 it is not only possible to obtain a leather as good as any leather manufactured from the #afth to #ahth century1 but it is even possible to get a better leather4 ,librarians1 in drawing up their binding specifications have only to do what the ,controller of ,h4,m4's ,stationery ,office is doing for the libraries under his charge1 viz41 to provide under suitable penalties that leathers supplied by the contractor shall be equal to samples shown on pattern cards prior to tendering for the contract1 and in addition to insist that such leathers shall conform to certain conditions laid down in the ,report of the ,society of ,arts' ,committee on ,bookbinding1 which may be summarised as follows3-- #a4 ,the binder undertakes not to use stripped and re-tanned leather1 whether persians 7,east ,indian skins7 or from elsewhere1 or to use leather embossed or grained artificially to resemble morocco1 pigskin1 c4 #b4 ,he guarantees 7or undertakes to produce the guarantee of the firm supplying the leather7 that all skins supplied 7#a7 are genuine as described2 7#b7 are tanned with pure sumach or galls1 or in the case of calf or sheep with oak bark1 or mixtures of oak bark and sumach2 7#c7 that no mineral acid has been used either in the process of tanning1 bleaching1 or dyeing1 and that the leather is free from acid or other injurious ingredient2 7#d7 that he will use no acid to clear the leather in the process of binding4 ,before drafting his binding specification the librarian would do well to consult the excellent ,note on ,bookbinding by ,mr4 ,douglas ,cockerell1 published by ,w4 ,h4 ,smith and ,son1 at the price of #a;d4 ,special attention is drawn to the difference of the cost in binding according to ,specification ,i4 and ,,ii4 of the ,society of ,arts' ,committee reproduced on pp4 #bj-bb of this pamphlet1 and to ,mr4 ,cockerell's remarks on pages #i1 etc4 ,the above stipulations should not make any substantial difference in price per volume to those libraries which already have been using high-class leather tanned in sumach1 but librarians who have hitherto been content with persians1 re-tanned ,australians1 and other cheap classes of leather must expect to pay a higher price for leather1 properly tanned and guaranteed to last4 ,several large firms of high reputation1 who are now catering for the bookbinding trade1 have already turned out thousands of skins of a satisfactory nature4 ,these firms are not only anxious to fall in with the requirements of the ,society of ,arts' ,report1 but are desirous of removing the distrust which at present exists with regard to leather1 and to reinstate this article as being the standard and natural covering for books4 ,for permanent wear1 whether for books or other purposes1 leather1 when properly prepared1 is without a rival both for appearance and durability4 ,it is only for the cheaper class of work that leather substitutes are formidable as rivals4 ,with regard to strengths of various leathers1 it is somewhat difficult to lay down a hard-and-fast rule1 but in general terms it may be stated that the strongest leather made is pigskin4 ,the fibres are tough1 somewhat coarse1 but of great strength4 ,the only danger is in the paring down of the skin previous to use in the binding1 and therefore1 by reason of its thickness1 it is well to only use pigskin for the binding of large1 heavy volumes where a thick leather can be used without detriment to the appearance of the book4 ,seal probably comes next in strength4 ,it is tougher than goat skin1 and1 by reason of the quantity of natural grease which these skins contain1 will in most cases remain pliable and wear longer than the average morocco4 ,seal is closely followed by goat skin4 ,a special feature of goat is the hard grain which it possesses4 ,this is specially to be recommended where much frictional wear is given to the book4 ,sheep and calf may be put on about the same footing4 ,both are extremely pliable1 but ,i think one may safely state that books bound in sheepskin leather1 if that leather be from the cross breed1 ,welsh1 or other mountain sheep1 will probably outlast calf skin4 ,there is no doubt that calf has got into disrepute largely on account of the destructive processes used in the finishing and production of the soft1 smooth-grained calf1 which has of late years become so popular4 ,binders must understand that the velvety finish can only be obtained by an undue pulling down of the skin previous to the tanning process or an undue paring on the part of the binder4 ,both ,russia leather and vellum1 as binding materials1 have done good service in the past1 but have lost their old reputation for durability4 ,for the present1 librarians are recommended to use these skins as little as possible4 ,a few words suffice to deal with skiver bindings4 ,these are the thin grain of sheep and sometimes calf1 and are at their best about equal in strength to thin notepaper1 their whole texture and fibrous structure having been split off and their nature destroyed4 ,it must be understood that the deterioration of leather is not only caused by faulty manufacture or improper treatment in the dye-house or finishing shop4 ,good bindings of sound leather are frequently destroyed by the neglect of certain elementary precautions on the part of the librarian4 ,the subject is too large to deal with fully in these pages1 but librarians would do well to study carefully the detailed report of the ,society of ,arts' ,committee4 ,but the following elementary rules should be observed3--,books should not be exposed to gas fumes1 or to the direct rays of the sun2 the temperature of the library should not exceed #gj ,f41 the upper strata should be well ventilated1 and a thermometer should be hung on the same level as the top shelves in order to advise the librarian whether the temperature is being kept within reasonable limits4 ,freedom from damp is1 of course1 an essential condition of library architecture4 ,the question of leather preservative compositions is dealt with in another chapter1 but too much cannot be said against the use of various decoctions which are sold to librarians for coating and preserving leather bindings4 ,many of these contain turpentine1 which has a drying1 detrimental effect4 ,various other emulsions are on the market1 but although these give the leather a soft1 pleasant feel when applied1 this soon dries up1 the leather becoming hard and liable to crack4 ,there may be some suitable ingredients for applying to leather bindings1 but ,i am of the opinion that if a library is not allowed to get too hot1 and a plentiful supply of pure1 dry air is always present1 sound leather should require no further preservative4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,provenance1 ,characteristics1 and ,values of ,modern ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,,by ,a4 ,,seymour-,,jones4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,to correctly locate the sources of skin supply suitable for bookbinding is not easy1 in consequence of original breeds having been transplanted to equally suitable climes over the seas4 ,in many cases purity of breed has been maintained1 while in the majority1 deterioration has set in1 due to desire for heavier beasts3 therefore the purposes of this chapter will be best met if original breeds are described and their general habitat located4 ,the animals which furnish skins suitable in quality and quantity to meet the increasing demands of to-day are3 sheep1 goat1 calf1 seal1 and pig or hog4 ,other animals may produce skins good for bookbinding1 but a description of the foregoing will afford ample illustration4 ,the sheepskin takes first place in regard to quantity4 ,probably more than two-thirds of modern commercial bindings are represented by this much-abused skin1 which is frequently so skilfully manipulated as to deceive even an expert1 that it is not what it is represented to be4 ,after the pelt has been split or cut in twain--the grain part after tanning being termed a skiver1 and the flesh after dressing designated chamois--the former is so manipulated with dyes1 finishes1 and embossing1 that surface or grain detection is extremely difficult1 say1 between a true morocco or embossed skiver4 ,much of this so-called misrepresentation has been created by the public1 who order their books to be covered in leather1 which they are pleased to think is morocco1 or pig or seal1 when reflection should tell them that it cannot be genuine at the price they have paid1 often for book and binding complete4 ,this faking is very largely accomplished upon sheepskin1 because it readily lends itself to such alterations both by nature and price2 but when such leathers are employed they should be correctly described by the binder4 ,sheepskins have a large place in the commercial bookbinderies and affections of the public at large1 and there is no reason why they should not only hold their ground1 but succeed in displacing the cloth imitations of leather2 and1 provided the skins are selected from suitable breeds1 they should find a place in the binding of certain classes of books intended for permanent reference in libraries4 ,the sheep as a family are divided into two classes3 the ,upland and ,lowland breeds4 ,the ,upland class inhabit the mountain ranges1 and while possessing a short firm wool1 have a mass of close thick hair underneath4 ,their habits and life make the character of meat and skin approach a goat nearer than any other animal4 ,the parent stock are the argali or wild sheep of the ,himalaya1 and the ,musmon of the ,andes and ,sierra ,nevadas4 ,fuller particulars will be found in the ,royal ,natural ,history1 by ,richard ,lydekker1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,vol4 #b1 pp4 #bab to #bcd4 ,the ,upland sheep of to-day vary in purity or closeness to the parent stock according to the source of supply4 ,in certain ,mongolian1 ,arabian and ,welsh sheep it is not easy to discriminate between them and a true goat1 after the wool has been removed4 ,it is the skins of such sheep that are suitable for binding books in libraries where price and hard wear are a consideration4 ,sheep-grazing countries having high altitudes would be probable sources of supply of such skins4 ,great ,britain1 through ,wales1 ,cumberland1 ,westmorland1 and the ,highlands of ,scotland provides many millions of skins a year to the cotton spinning trade1 for covering drawing rollers1 an operation calling for a hard-wearing grained skin4 ,in practice it has been found that sheepskins yield the most lasting results when tanned slowly in oak-bark liquors2 the product is a tighter and more solid skin than when tanned in sumach1 though sumach may be used in given cases1 or a combination of both4 ,commercially valued1 the upland sheepskins sell at prices varying from #b-a_/b;d4 to #i;d4 per square foot1 when finished according to the ,society of ,arts' ,bookbinding ,committee's ,report4 ,the ,lowland breed1 commonly known as domestic sheep 7,ovis aries7 are found wherever there are grazing lands4 ,in sheep grazing1 the graziers' object varies4 ,it may be the wool or the flesh4 ,if the former1 the skin is usually unfavourable for binding purposes1 while if the latter1 a large portion find their way to the sheepskin splitters1 who by machinery of considerable delicacy split the skins into what are known in the trade as grains and fleshes4 ,the grains alone interest us1 being subsequently tanned into skivers4 ,this class of leather has its use in low-price trade bindings of flexible character1 and as such competes and compares in price and durability successfully with any imitations4 ,to make skivers suitable in wearing qualities it is advisable to take the plain dyed class1 reasonably stout1 tanned in sumach1 and dyed without mineral acid1 dried out with a little stretch left in1 and if they are required as tough as it is possible to obtain a grain1 a little nourishing material may be used to advantage4 ,by following these lines it will reduce the risk of imitations4 ,though paste grain1 long grain1 and glazed skivers will still find a market among binders1 they must not be classed among the ,imitations4 ,skivers are sold from about #a;d4 to #e;d4 per square foot4 ,before proceeding further it may be well to point out that the skins from old or very young animals should be avoided1 although old animals are a rarity4 ,exceptionally large skins in their class should be viewed with suspicion1 likewise very small ones4 ,the former may indicate weakness1 and the latter want of maturity4 ,this must in practice have a general application4 ,the goat 7,genus ,capra7 finds most favour as furnishing a suitable skin among binders4 ,this animal1 in the proper sense of the word goat exclusive1 belongs to the ,old ,world1 being confined to the area north of the southern flanks of the ,himalaya1 though one species is found in ,egypt and another in ,abyssinia1 but quite unknown in the remainder of ,africa4 ,in ,america the term goat is applied to our ruminant4 ,while being essentially a mountain animal1 goat breeding has become a business to-day throughout the world1 which has been laid under contribution to supply the enormous demand which has been created during the past twenty years by the chrome glac kid manufacturers1 one maker alone requiring #e1jjj dozen skins per diem to keep his factory running full4 ,the skins generally employed for book purposes are the ,european and ,northern ,african supplies1 though many other sources are equally suitable4 ,goat skins1 on account of their firm nature are best tanned in pure sumach 7,sicilian74 ,time has conclusively proved this point4 ,in the ,rylands ,library in ,manchester 7,eng47 are two heavy volumes bound in plain undyed sumach-tanned goat-skins which were bound in ,spain in the #afth century1 and are to-day in a perfect state of preservation4 ,the ,niger skins 7mixed goat and sheep7 which have found favour among certain bookbinders are produced from a breed of ,egyptian goats1 tanned and prepared by ,nigerian natives with a species of nut-galls which gives them that peculiar close1 tight feel1 and when such firmness is required in ,european stock it may be equally effectively produced with oak bark4 ,the large proportion of so-called moroccos offered to-day are made from skins tanned in ,east ,india with a catechol tannin4 ,it is unfortunate that this tannage has failed to withstand the tests supplied by the ,scientific ,committee appointed by the ,society of ,arts on ,bookbinding ,leathers1 because it excludes from the ,binding ,trade a very useful and cheap supply of pretty looking and feeling skin ready to hand for finishing in moroccos4 ,while condemned for permanent library work--that is1 guaranteed leathers--the writer sees no reason why such leathers may not safely be used for ,lending ,library work1 where the life of a binding is not expected to run more than ten years1 provided the surplus tan is washed out and replaced by some nourishing material 7fat71 and in all processes inorganic acids and alkalis are avoided4 ,goat-skins differ from other animals mainly in the pronounced grain formations1 while the texture of the skin is closer and firmer than a sheep1 the grain is harder1 more scale like1 the papill between which the hair-holes are situate are most marked1 and it is their formation which produces during the operation of boarding the grained morocco with its beautiful nodules4 ,if these nodules or grains are bold and large it indicates a thick skin originally4 ,such grains cannot be expected upon a thin skin--it implies either over-reduction 7shaving7 in substance or embossing4 ,thin skins will produce a small shortlike grain4 ,if the grain is fine on a large skin it may have been reduced too much in substance1 and thereby loses most of its muscular structure and strength4 ,it is necessary when buying moroccos1 which are not only expensive but are expected to yield longevity and be hard wearing1 to obtain a manufacturer's guarantee that the skins are genuine goat 7,genus ,capra7 and not mountain sheep 7,argali7 or bastards1 and that they have been prepared in accordance with the ,society of ,arts' ,report on ,bookbinding4 ,in value the moroccos vary considerably in price1 according to substance1 size1 quality1 and character4 ,the skins are generally bought in the dry pelt state with hair on at per lb41 the large1 plump1 well-flayed skins commanding higher prices than less favoured ones4 ,in this state it is difficult to detect grain faults1 consequently to the manufacturer it is somewhat of a speculation1 and unless he is well informed in his trade he stands to lose heavily4 ,generally speaking the prime clear grains go into bright colours at higher prices than defective grains1 which can be hidden by darker colour with the aid of a suitable finish4 ,for example1 the colour of the ,niger skins previously referred to is an excellent one for hiding grain defects4 ,the amount of absolutely perfect skins is small1 but the remainder are good skins in their class for half-bound work4 ,the perfect skins will realise up to #bs4 #f;d4 per square foot1 and according to quality and colour the balance will range down to #h;d4 per square foot4 ,calf skins have long been favoured for bookbinding1 but through much variety of tannages and faulty selection of skins have been brought somewhat into disrepute for permanent work1 but if prepared by slow tanning in oak bark or sumach there is no reason why they should not be reinstated4 ,undoubtedly the calf is favoured by ,nature with the finest and silkiest grains of all animals1 and though too tender for rough usage1 is nevertheless1 if suitably nourished1 capable of standing greater wear than it is credited with4 ,calf skins for bookbinding are the product of the domestic ox 7,bos taurus71 and as this useful animal is bred the world over1 we are not wanting in supplies1 nor is one land more favoured than another4 ,if the principle is accepted that small books require small thin skins1 as the books increase in size so should the skins and substance1 a great difficulty will be overcome1 because in buying calf one of the fatal mistakes made is the stipulation that large skins must be thin4 ,if this is insisted upon they must be split or shaved of all their muscular tissue till merely the grain or skiver is left4 ,a reasonable amount of shaving is permissible1 but splitting is disastrous4 ,calf skins are invariably free from grain faults1 so that for delicate shades of colour they are particularly suitable4 ,the grain does not lend itself to any very definite formation in boarding 7graining71 therefore calf by preference should be left smooth4 ,in the raw state they are purchased by the pound1 and such cost being a governing factor in selling1 the price when finished may vary from #h;d4 to #as4 #h;d4 per square foot4 ,the skins of seal 7family ,phocid7 are most useful for bookbinding1 possessing special features1 viz43 evenness of quality throughout1 there being no flanky or abdominal parts1 extremely durable and producing pretty grains either coarse or fine1 dependent upon the substance and character of the skins4 ,the sources of supply are ,russia1 ,norway1 ,spitzbergen1 ,greenland1 ,labrador1 and ,newfoundland1 the largest supply coming from the latter place4 ,isolated supplies have been shipped from the ,falkland ,islands and ,antarctic4 ,these are the true or earless seals 7family ,phocid71 commonly called hair seals in contradistinction to the fur or eared seal 7family ,otarid7 which inhabit the ,pacifics4 ,as a leather for bookwork when tanned with a pyrogallol tannage it is soft and kind to the touch1 having few equals and no superiors4 ,it is essentially a hard-wearing leather and in this respect only equalled by certain classes of goat-skins and pig or hog skins4 ,the grained skins exhibit a grain which sparkles in a manner which is peculiarly characteristic and absent in other grained leathers4 ,the value of seal-skins1 finished1 ranges from #aj;d4 to #bs4 per square foot4 ,the former are useful for half-bound books4 ,finally1 pig or hog skins have played an important part in ancient bindings of all sizes1 and proved their great value as a hard wearing cover by coming down to us in a remarkable state of preservation1 even on very heavy tomes4 ,but1 regretfully1 some discredit has been cast upon this splendid skin1 partly due to ignorance in manufacture1 also to the very clever imitations4 ,it is1 perhaps1 one of the easiest skins to reproduce in its grain features and solid character1 though the imitations are easily detected by immersing a piece of the suspected leather in water until saturated1 then pulling it out with the hands to stretch when the grain1 which is produced by embossing1 will disappear1 while the true hog grain will remain showing clear hair holes through from grain to flesh4 ,a hog-skin may be said to be practically fibreless1 approaching nearer to a piece of tough gristle than anything else4 ,in the raw state the skins are shipped from southern ,europe1 ,danubian and ,balkan ,states1 ,china and the ,east generally1 while ,north ,america has an almost unlimited supply1 but ,scotland produces the finest and most esteemed4 ,in size they vary considerably1 like all skin supplies1 but a most useful skin for binders' use will contain about #aa to #ab square feet4 ,slow oak-bark tanning is most suitable for this class of skin4 ,sumach may with advantage be employed after tanning to prepare them for the dressing or finishing process1 but no mechanical or chemical means should be employed to overcome a too gristly nature1 otherwise its unique capacity to withstand the act of attrition is proportionately decreased1 or if some similar means are adopted to attain evenness of shade in dyeing1 the same result may be expected3 therefore1 so far as it is practicable1 this skin should be used in its natural state1 if full durability is required4 ,pigskins containing #aa to #ab square feet may be purchased1 according to their quality and degree of manufacture1 from #h;d4 to #as4 #d;d4 per square foot4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,repairing and ,binding of ,books for ,public ,libraries4 ,,by ,,cyril ,,davenport4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,what with bad paper and bad leather1 the librarian of the present is confronted with two serious problems4 ,in spite of the ,society of ,arts' adverse criticism in #ahih1 much paper is still made of mechanical wood pulp1 and more badly overloaded with clay1 in both cases causing much anxiety and expenditure to the librarian who attempts to cope successfully with the defect4 ,the soft1 spongy leaves1 like blotting-paper1 that are chiefly composed of wood pulp1 can best be dealt with in the very expensive way of inlaying each page in a surround of sound1 true paper4 ,but there is another expedient1 which ,i have not tried1 which may to some extent be useful2 it is to enclose each leaf within a network of fine open silk net1 made on purpose4 ,in either case re-sewing and re-binding is necessary4 ,with regard to the clay-laden paper on which many books are printed1 the case is equally serious and equally costly4 ,fine monotone illustrations produced by the half-tone method1 and colour illustrations produced by the three-colour process1 are now always made on this sort of paper1 which has a beautifully fine and even surface4 ,the paper1 however1 will not allow any stitching to keep it in place1 so it rapidly falls out4 ,then it has either to be inlaid in a sound paper surround or else entirely mounted on a sound piece of paper or jaconet2 and if there are many plates this involves re-binding and an ugly thickening of the book4 ,there is1 however1 a new method1 which may prove of real value3 the actual print is made on a very thin paper1 which is at once laid down on a sound sheet4 ,all these operations are expensive as at present provided for in most libraries4 ,they require great care and skill1 and take a long time2 and it may safely be said that any trustworthy binder entrusted with such work1 which is quite out of the ordinary schedule1 is fully justified in charging highly for it4 ,the necessary materials are1 however1 quite simple1 so that if there should be a skilled binder on the staff1 all such work can practically be done and counted at the cost of time-work only--an immense saving4 ,there are numerous other small accidents which befall books in all public libraries about which the same things may be said--accidental ink-spots1 leaves crushed from a fall1 torn places1 cut places1 damp or wet marks found out in time2 all these are expensive to send out and cheap to do on the premises4 ,besides this1 in many cases such as ink-stains or wet an immediate treatment is often quite successful1 whereas a delayed treatment can rarely be so4 ,all this comes under the category of small repairs2 but there are other matters which rank a little higher in the bookbinding world which can also be easily and effectively done by a resident binder with few appliances4 ,in all libraries there are a number of pamphlets and thin books which come under the usual binder's schedule at a fair price1 but which1 if dealt with by the stabbed method on the premises1 will be equally strong at about one-third the cost4 ,an ordinary octavo periodical1 measuring #aj by #g inches1 and #a-a_/d inches thick1 can1 with the help of a cheap stabbing machine1 be strongly and effectively bound for about #aj;d41 with boards1 cloth back1 paper sides1 and lettered in hand type on a paper label4 ,i showed a specimen to the ,library ,association on ,dec4 #ah1 #aijb1 when ,i read a paper on the subject1 and it was much approved4 ,i do not advise the stabbing for a book of value1 but it does admirably for unimportant books1 and is quick and easy to do4 ,it might be worth pointing out that in binding in this way a collection of pamphlets of the same size1 the collection can easily be taken to pieces for insertion of a new piece1 if required1 without further injury to the pamphlets already stabbed4 ,next to this comes binding proper1 books sewn with sewn-in bands or flexible1 then properly forwarded and finished4 ,this is all skilled work1 and if any library is able to afford it there is no question but that a large saving would be effected1 both in money and in efficiency1 if it would set up a small bindery of its own4 ,i think1 however1 that it would not be wise to set up such a bindery unless some member of the superior staff has gone through the binding shops and is able to bind a book properly himself4 ,n4,b4--,in ,london the practical knowledge is very difficult to obtain1 as the ,technical ,education ,board of the ,london ,county ,council does not admit amateurs4 ,without this knowledge it is impossible to know whether a book is truly or fraudulently bound4 ,a very common fault is that binders will not draw the ends of the bands of a book properly in to the boards4 ,they cut off the ends of the bands or scrape them so thin that they are of no strength--this is done so that the joint should look quite flat4 ,the result is that when the cloth1 buckram1 or leather with which the back is covered1 gives way1 off come the boards2 the book is then sent to a binder1 who sticks a new strip of leather along the back1 and letters it1 and charges the same as for re-binding1 the operation is done by one's own binder with own leather1 costing about a few pence only4 ,in a properly forwarded book with the bands properly drawn in1 the boards are very securely fastened and may well remain so for hundreds of years1 irrespective of whatever substance is used to cover the back4 ,if the sewing of an old book is still sound1 but the ends of the bands are broken off1 new bands can be added by means of tape glued over the old ones and then fastened on to the boards and properly covered with a new bit of leather4 ,sometimes when they are sound1 the remaining ends of old bands will bear a new bit sewn on to them4 ,in all repairs care should be taken to match any old leather that can be retained as nearly as possible4 ,the proper sewing and forwarding of the book is the integral part of the binding1 the outer covering is of little real use except for the protection of the threads which in the case of a flexible sewn book would soon wear through if not enclosed4 ,the outer covering of a book1 however1 has great decorative possibilities and has been for centuries a much valued field for designers1 jewellers1 enamellers1 goldsmiths1 and workers in blind and gold tooling4 ,much fine decorative work done on modern calf and bright coloured leathers will probably perish in a very few years4 ,the question1 therefore1 of quality and soundness of the leather used for covering the proper sewing of a book is of much importance4 ,there is strong need for sound leather1 which is difficult to get1 and ordinary persons1 even bookbinders and librarians themselves1 cannot by a simple inspection discriminate between new good leather and new bad leather because there is no apparent difference4 ,we are in the hands of our leather merchants1 and although several firms are now willing to sell leathers under guarantee of freedom from sulphuric acid1 all are not yet so inclined4 ,i should advise all librarians who do their own binding to accept no leather without a written guarantee of freedom from sulphuric acid1 and even then ,i should send a cutting to ,dr4 ,parker for examination4 ,with regard to the trade aspect of employing a binder directly to work on a time agreement1 ,i am authoritatively informed that1 provided the workman is paid the full trade union wage1 and properly located1 there is no objection to his employment in this manner4 ,on the other hand1 as ,i have hinted before1 ,i think that such a workman requires some skilled supervision1 so here1 again1 ,i would urge that in every library one of the superior staff should be a competent binder himself4 ,given such a skilled supervisor and a small body of skilled binders under his authority1 there is no doubt whatever that much money would be saved in the administration of any library1 and a multitude of invaluable small repairs would be possible1 which under ordinary conditions must be left alone to accumulate and get worse and worse4 ,i am pleased to say that there are already valuable corroborations of this view in actual working1 and ,i am permitted to cite the case of the ,hull ,public ,library1 whose report on the binding for #aija is before me4 ,during this year ,i find that the work done comprised-- #c1jbd volumes bound 7all sizes1 average #as4 #f-a_/e;d4 per volume74 #bdg volumes re-sewn 7with new sides to #aac volumes74 #cjf-a_/b dozen volumes lettered and #aad-a_/b dozen volumes alterations in numbers4 #df reading cases made4 ,repairs1 maps and sundries4 ,the cost of the above work was-- s4 d4 ,,wages #baj #d #d ,,materials-- s4 d4 ,millboards #be #h #d ,cloth #aa #b #d ,tapes #c #c #j ,paste and glue #c #af #f ,calico #g #aj #b ,gold leaf #d #i #c ,leathers #da #h #f ,thread #e #b #a ,gas1 carriage1 c4 #i #h #f ,end papers #g #h #f ---------- #aah #ag #b ------------ #cbi #a #f ,the mere enumeration of these materials shows the immense value of the system1 enabling the administration to accomplish numbers of small repairs1 each of which would have cost very much more if they had been done by an outside bookbinder4 ,the report for #aijb is similar1 but the sum spent is #cif #as4 #aa;d41 and the work done was-- #c1gef volumes bound 7all sizes7 average #as4 #g-a_/c;d4 per volume4 #f1ija volumes lettered and #a1jih volumes alterations in numbers4 ,maps mounted and repairs4 ,in #aijc we find an expenditure of #cig #gs4 #d;d41 and work done-- #c1dfe volumes bound1 all sizes 7#as4 #h-a_/g;d4 per vol474 #fcc re-cased4 #a1fig repaired and glued up4 #c1bda numbered1 and #bbd volumes numbers altered4 #gg reading cases made4 #ej boxes for application forms made4 #ehi sheets of ordnance maps mounted and repaired4 ,the increased cost in binding is principally owing to extra labour incurred in preparing the books for sewing1 necessary in consequence of the poor quality of paper on which books are now printed1 and the method of sewing adopted by publishers4 ,here we begin to find the result of the bad paper of to-day1 and we must also note the warning to publishers contained in the last paragraph4 ,i can thoroughly endorse it1 and ,i know that nine out of ten new books are so badly put together that it takes a long time and much trouble to pull them to pieces before they can be properly sewn4 ,for #aijd there is an expenditure of #daf #afs4 #f;d41 and the work done--#d1ceb volumes bound 7average cost #as4 #h-a_/b;d4 per vol471 and various items of mounting ordnance maps1 always a very expensive operation1 re-sewing1 lettering1 and miscellaneous repairs1 all very necessary and1 if sent out1 very costly4 ,it will be noted that the cost of binding per volume is steadily increasing1 and this not because the work is better done1 but because of the bad quality of the paper and sewing as sent out by publishers4 ,books are sent out fastened by little wire clips1 which rust1 and have to be very carefully extracted before a book can be properly sewn4 ,these little clips are abominations1 and the process of removing them1 however carefully done1 is likely to cause damage which must be repaired in its turn4 ,then machine sewing has not yet reached its final stage2 there is a difficulty about the return of one of the threads1 and it is clumsily brought back by tearing through the upper and lower extremities of each section4 ,this damage is glued up and hidden by a head-band stuck on1 but when the book is pulled so that it may be properly sewn1 the torn parts have to be laboriously mended4 ,my thanks are due to ,mr4 ,william ,f4 ,lawton1 the librarian of the ,hull ,public ,libraries1 who has most courteously given me the particulars ,i asked him for2 and he tells me further that his books are all half-bound1 mostly in sealskin--a very valuable leather2 also that he is getting a far better binding both as regards the quality of the materials used and the highest average he mentions1 #as4 #h-a_/b;d4 per volume for a satisfactory binding must be something of a revelation to most librarians1 whose average1 even if they employ the cheapest binder in their neighbourhood1 must be very much higher than this1 and in all likelihood the work and materials not in any way near the same standard of excellence4 ,there is another point about an old library which is of much importance1 and for which the services of a regular working binder are invaluable4 ,this is the periodical cleaning and polishing of books4 ,it is no use to try to clean old books with water2 it will do more harm than good4 ,but until some competent chemist chooses to suggest a proper dressing1 it will be found that a good furniture polish is excellent for the purpose4 ,among the several skilled members employed in my library1 one of the best is always cleaning and polishing old books2 in fact1 old leather really requires some sort of feeding to keep it in sound condition1 and the state of perfect repair in which numbers of #aeth century books and books of about that date still are is a remarkable testimony to the excellence of old systems of preparing leather and its permanence if carefully kept4 ,calf1 vellum1 and goat-skin all last splendidly1 but all do better if kept in the dark and under glass2 and it must never be forgotten that damp is one of the worst enemies of both paper and leather4 ,bookcases should never touch an outer wall1 but a ventilation space should always be left between the wall and the back of the bookcase4 ,this should even be done when the bookcase abuts on an inner wall4 ,bookshelves should never be cleaned or washed with water--only use furniture polish2 and vellum books should be kept with their backs inwards1 the title1 if necessary1 being written on the fore-edge4 ,old vellum books were usually kept so in olden times1 as light makes vellum brittle like egg-shell4 ,books should be close enough on a shelf to support each other2 they should not be allowed to flop about2 if they are there will be a tendency to fall away from the upper bands1 especially in the case of large books4 ,a simple angle iron1 the lower wing being inserted under the last few books on a shelf not full1 will enable the books to be kept always at the proper lateral pressure4 ,big books1 such as newspapers1 should have a strong handle loop of leather bound in1 coming out about the middle of the back4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,specification for the ,fittings of a ,small ,bindery4 ,,by ,f4 ,j4 ,,williamson4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,the following practical hints may be found useful when repairs are required to books in libraries4 ,it is1 however1 necessary that the librarian or his assistants should gain some technical knowledge of bookbinding1 as this will enable them to execute small repairs1 which1 if promptly done1 will probably prevent the expense of rebinding4 ,the repairing room or small bindery should be not less than #ab feet square1 and should have a good natural light4 ,the plant required will be as follows3-- ,approximate ,cost4 ------------ s4 d4 ,one cutting press1 plough1 pin and two knives #a #ab #j ,one close tub and cover #a #ae #j ,one stabbing machine #a #h #j ,one sewing press and keys #j #aj #j ,one pair of millboard shears #j #ah #f ,one pair of shears #j #b #f ,one paring knife #j #j #g ,one cutting-out knife #j #j #g ,one backing hammer #j #b #f ,one knocking-down iron #j #c #f ,two bone folders 7thin and thick7 #j #j #aj ,one paste tub #j #c #j ,one glue pot #j #c #j ,two paste brushes 7small and large7 #j #e #j ,two glue brushes 7small and large7 #j #e #j ,two pairs of backing boards 7octavo and folio7 #j #b #j ,a,two pairs of pressing boards 7quarto and folio7 #j #g #j ,one iron nipping press1 #ah by #ab #e #e #j or ,one wooden nipping press1 #ah by #ab #a #ae #j ,one ragstone #j #j #e ,one sandstone #j #j #c ,one steel straight-edge #j #b #j ,one square #j #b #j ,one wooden trindle #j #j #f ,a ,a few stout millboards of the same size as the wooden pressing boards will be required for placing between the books when more than one book is pressed at a time1 the wooden pressing boards being used for the top and bottom books4 ,these can be made by pasting together two tenpenny millboards2 line each side with stout smooth paper1 trim the edges of the boards1 so that they are square4 ,to repair torn leaves4--,paste the edges of the parts torn very neatly1 using a little paste1 place a piece of tissue paper under the torn part1 carefully join the parts1 and place another piece of tissue paper over the joint2 then place a piece of paper each side of the leaf1 and put a weight upon it until the part is dry1 then take away the loose tissue paper4 ,to insert a loose leaf4--,flatten the back edge of the leaf1 then place a strip of paper about #a_/h inch from the edge1 and paste that part very neatly1 insert it in the book1 placing it as close to the back as possible1 close the book1 and place a weight upon it for about three hours4 ,to replace books in their covers4--,if the cover of a book is sound1 the book can be inserted again in the following manner3--,if it is necessary1 re-sew the book on tapes1 put new end papers made with a strip of wide linen in the fold1 sew these on the book and trim them1 paste the tapes on the end papers1 knock up the edges of the book as evenly as possible 7as they will not be cut7 and glue the back1 using the glue sparingly1 and place a thin piece of linen round the back extending about #a inch on each end paper2 put the book under a weight until the glue is almost dry1 then round it and afterwards back it slightly2 place the book again under a weight until the glue is quite dry1 glue the back again1 and place the book squarely in the old cover2 place a piece of paper round the back of the cover1 and rub it down with the bone folder until the back of the cover sticks well to the book4 ,after about three hours the glue will be dry1 and the book can then be pasted down2 open the covers and paste the end paper facing the board1 using the brush from the centre to the edges2 close the covers and put the book in the nipping press--the pressing boards should be placed carefully against the grooves and not upon them2 leave the book in the press for about twelve hours4 ,when a book does not require re-sewing1 new end papers should be made as stated and sewn on the book if it has been sewn on tapes2 if the book has not been sewn on tapes1 the end papers should be edged on in the same manner as the loose leaf1 and in these instances the linen should be placed in the fold of the end papers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,old books which have been bound in leather generally require repairs to the corners and the back1 these being the parts which first show signs of decay4 ,carefully cut away the ragged edges of the old leather along the joints at the back and also the corners2 strip the leather off the back and soak it off if necessary1 so that the back is quite clean2 also take away the old leather from the corners1 lift up the edges of the leather along the joints and also at the corners about #a inch1 turn the leather back1 and place a thin piece of wooden trindle under the fold1 and pare the edges of the leather neatly2 if the millboard at the corners is broken1 open the edges and rub in some glue1 press the edges together1 and1 when nearly dry1 hammer them flat on the knocking-down iron1 obtain some leather to match the old binding1 put a new back1 also corners where necessary1 on the book1 paring the edges of the leather neatly2 after these are quite dry1 the edges of the old leather should be pasted down to overlap the new leather2 wash any smears of paste away1 and press the book lightly in the nipping press2 new end papers should be edged in as in the case of the loose leaf3 trim them to the size of the book and then paste them down1 but with the boards open until they are quite dry2 place either a tin or a glazed cardboard inside the covers1 and keep the book pressed in the nipping press for about six hours4 ,,index4 ,acetic ,acid4 ,see ,acids1 organic4 ,acids1 mineral1 #bj1 #ba ---- ---- ,see also ,sulphuric acid4 ---- organic2 sulphuric acid substituted for1 #h1 #i ----1 ---- ,use of1 advocated1 #ba ,aniline dyes4 ,see ,leather1 dyeing4 ,athenum ,club ,committee on leather decay1 #aa ,binderies1 private2 fitting and administration1 #da-ed ,binding contracts1 #ac1 #bd1 #be ,binding specifications1 model1 #be ,bookbinding1 education in1 want of provision for1 #dc ,bookbinding in ,public ,libraries4 ,see ,binderies1 private4 ,bookbinding leathers4 ,see ,leather2 and under names of skins1 e4g41 ,goatskin1 c4 ,book cleaning and polishing4 ,see ,leather preservative compositions4 ,books2 replacing within covers1 #dc1 #eb1 #ec ,book-sewing2 stabbing process for pamphlets1 #db1 #dc ---- ---- ,modern methods1 #dc1 #dd ,calvert1 ,c41 on decay of leather1 #aa ,catechol tannins condemned4 ,see ,tannins4 ,calfskin1 #bf1 #cf ,cockerell1 ,d43 ,note on ,bookbinding1 #be ,damp1 influence upon leather1 #bg1 #dh ,davenport1 ,c43 ,repairing and ,binding of ,books for ,public ,libraries4 ,chap4 ,,iv41 #da-dh ,decay of leather4 ,see ,leather1 decay4 ,dyeing leather4 ,see ,leather1 dyeing4 ,formic acid4 ,see ,acids1 organic4 ,gas fumes2 influence upon leather1 #aa1 #ab ,goatskin1 #bf1 #cd-cf ,graining1 artificial1 of leather4 ,see ,leather1 artificial graining4 ,heat2 action upon leather1 #aa1 #ab1 #bg ,hogskin4 ,see ,pigskin4 ,hull ,public ,library2 ,reports on private bindery1 #de-dg ,hulme1 ,e4 ,w43 ,history of ,sumach ,tanning1 c4 ,chap4 ,i41 #g-ad ,jones1 ,a4 ,s43 ,provenance1 c41 of ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,chap4 ,,iii41 #ca-ch ,lactic acid4 ,see ,acids1 organic4 ,lawton1 ,w4 ,f4 ,see ,hull ,public ,library4 ,leather1 artificial graining of1 #aj1 #bb1 #ca ---- bindings2 conditions for preserving1 #bg ----1 decay of2 history1 #aj-ab ----1 ---- symptoms1 #ac1 #ad ----1 ---- reasons1 #ah-bd ---- dyeing2 old and new systems compared1 #i1 #bj1 #ba ---- early manufacture1 #ag ---- finishes1 #bd ---- preservative compositions1 #bg1 #dg1 #dh ,leathers1 retanned2 process described and condemned1 #bb-bd ----1 ---- conditionally recommended1 #cd1 #ce ---- split1 #bb1 #bf1 #cc ,leathersellers' ,company2 supervision of sumach tanning in #aefe1 #g ---- ---- ,grant to ,society of ,arts' ,committee1 #ab ,light1 influence upon leather1 #bg1 #dh ,lopez1 ,r41 original of ,shylock1 #g1 #h ,mc,bride1 ,dr41 introduces use of sulphuric acid in #agfh1 #h1 #i ,morocco grain1 #ce ---- ---- artificial4 ,see ,leather1 artificial graining of4 ,moroccos4 ,see ,goatskin2 ,niger skin2 ,leathers1 retanned4 ,myrobalans1 duty on1 in #affj1 #h ,niger skin1 #cd ,oxalic acid1 use of1 by binders1 #ad1 #bd ,paper1 clay-loaded1 mounting1 #da1 #db ,parker1 ,j4 ,g43 ,causes of ,leather ,decay4 ,chap4 ,,ii41 #ag-bg ----1 ---- appointed ,analyst to the ,l4,a41 #ab1 #ac ,persians4 ,see ,leathers1 retanned4 ,pigskin1 characteristics1 c41 #bf1 #cg1 #ch ---- decay1 #ad ,pyrogallol tannins4 ,see ,tannins4 ,russia leather1 #bf ,sealskin1 #bf1 #cg ,sheepskin1 #bf1 #ca-cc ,shylock1 original of1 #h ,skivers4 ,see ,leathers1 split4 ,society of ,arts' ,committee on ,leathers1 appointment1 #ab ---- ---- ---- ,recommendations1 passim4 ,sound ,leather ,committee2 appointment1 #ab ,spanish leather1 sumach-tanned1 #g ,stationery ,office4 ,see ,binding contracts4 ,sulphuric acid1 first used in #agfh1 #h1 #i ---- ---- ,see also ,acids1 mineral4 ,sumach tanning1 history1 #g1 #h ,tannins2 pyrogallols distinguished from catechols1 #ai1 #bj ,vellum1 #bf1 #dh ,williamson1 ,f4 ,j43 ,specification for the ,fittings of a ,small ,bindery4 ,chap4 ,v41 #ea-ed ,woodward1 ,c4 ,t43 ,experiments on action of gas fumes and heat1 #aa ,,advertisements4 ,,index ,,to ,,advertisements4 ,bookbinders3 ,banting1 ,george ,f41 x ,birdsall ,son1 xi ,bookbinders' ,co-operative ,society1 ,ltd41 xii ,chappell1 ,r4 ,d41 ,co41 xii ,eyre ,spottiswoode1 xiii ,gray1 ,john ,p41 ,son1 xiv ,mudie ,co41 x ,riley1 ,b41 ,co41 ,ltd41 ix ,smith1 ,w4 ,h41 ,son1 xii ,leather ,analysis1 ii ,leather ,importers3 ,gray1 ,john ,p41 ,son1 xiv ,leather ,manufacturers3 ,bevingtons ,sons1 iii ,deed1 ,john ,s41 ,sons1 ,ltd41 v ,garnar1 ,james1 ,sons1 vii ,gibbs1 ,geo41 ,son1 vii ,gryffe ,tannery ,co41 ix ,meredith-,jones1 ,j41 ,sons1 ,ltd41 vi ,muir1 ,john1 ,son1 iv ,richardson1 ,edward ,james1 v ,leather 7,bookbinding7 ,merchants3 ,eyre ,spottiswoode1 xiii ,leather ,trades ,review1 viii ,sumac ,importers3 ,tiger ,sumac ,co41 x ,when corresponding with ,advertisers1 please mention ,,leather ,,for ,,libraries4 ,leather ,analysis4 ,under an arrangement entered into between the ,council of the ,library ,association and ,dr4 ,j4 ,gordon ,parker1 their ,official ,examiner of ,leather1 the following ,scale of ,fees has been agreed upon3-- ,special ,fee ,usual ,fee4 to ,members4 -------- ----------- s4 d4 s4 d4 ,test for ,presence of ,injurious ,acids #j #aj #f #j #e #j ,quantitative ,estimation of ,acids #a #a #j #j #g #f ,nature of ,tannage1 if ,pure ,sumach #j #aj #f #j #e #j ,full ,microscopic ,examination #a #a #j #j #e #j ,full ,examination and ,report on ,sample of ,leather #b #b #j #a #j #j ,samples of ,leather1 not less than six square inches1 may now be sent to ,dr4 ,j4 ,,gordon ,,parker1 ,herold's ,institute1 ,drummond ,road1 ,bermondsey4 ,correspondence on above may be addressed to the ,hon4 ,sec41 ,sound ,leather ,committee of the ,library ,association1 ,whitcomb ,house1 ,whitcomb ,street1 ,w4,c4 ,,bevingtons ,,sons1 ,,neckinger ,,mills1 ,bermondsey1 ,london1 ,s4,e4 ,manufacturers of-- ,illustration ,seal ,leather for ,books1 ,calf leather for ,books1 ,goat leather for ,books1 ---- and ---- ,sheep ,leather for ,books4 ,guaranteed ,sumach-,tanned and free from ,mineral ,acids4 -- ,,every ,,skin ,,stamped4 -- ,see ,samples of our ,goat1 ,seal1 and ,calf 7#a-d7 on ,end ,covers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pigskin ,,for ,,book ,,binding4 ,,muir',s ,illustration3 ,,pigskin ,,beith4,n4,b4 ,we first introduced this material to the notice of ,bookbinders some #be years ago4 ,since then it has steadily increased in popularity1 as its durability and utility have been demonstrated by this test of a quarter of a century4 ,,wherever ,,hard ,,wear ,,is ,,wanted ,,pigskin ,,is ,,the ,,right ,,thing ,,in ,,the ,,right ,,place4 ,it is not a fibrous substance as other leather is1 but naturally of a compact1 gristly character4 ,when skilfully tanned and treated for the purpose1 it unquestionably is the best of bookbinding leather4 ,see ,sample of our ,pigskin on ,end ,cover4 ,available in all colours and substances4 ,please write for full particulars4 ,,john ,,muir ,,son1 ,,tanners ,,and ,,curriers1 ,,beith1 ,,scotland4 7,established a ,century ago47 ,offices3 #c1 ,,arundel ,,street1 ,,strand1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 ,telephone3 #dffi ,,gerrard4 ,pigskin ,tyre ,factory for ,vehicles and ,motors3 #ahc1 ,,bow ,,road1 ,,london1 ,e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,john ,s4 ,,deed ,,sons1 ,ltd4 ,manufacturers of ,best ,quality ,sumach-,tanned ,,moroccos ,,and ,,calf ,and other ,classes of ,bookbinding ,leathers4 ,factories ,eagle ,leather ,works1 ,mitcham and ,carshalton1 ,surrey4 ,middlesex - - ,arthur ,street1 ,london1 ,w4,c4 ,all ,communications to be addressed to ,central ,works and ,offices #ia1 ,,new ,,oxford ,,st41 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fine ,,leathers ,,for ,,bookbinding4 ,illustration ,speciality 444 ,,seals4 ,,cape ,,goats4 ,,coloured ,,calf4 ,illustration ,makers also of ,best ,flexible ,skin ,glue and 44 ,roller ,compo4 44 ,,edward ,,james ,,richardson ,,elswick ,,leather ,,works1 ,,newcastle-,,on-,,tyne4 99 99 99 99 99 ,j4 ,,meredith-,,jones ,,sons1 ,ltd41 ,,cambrian ,,leather ,,works1 ,,wrexham4 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,bookbinders' ,leathers4 ,guaranteed to be dressed on the lines recommended by the ,society of ,arts ,report1 and free from ,mineral ,acids4 ,,speciality3 ,,welsh ,,sheep4 ,see ,sample of our ,sheepskin on ,end ,cover4 ,patterns and ,prices on application4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,effective ,,binding6 ,,skivers4 ,sumach-,tanned ,split ,sheep and ,lamb ,skins4 ,,specially ,,adapted ,,for ,,pocket ,,editions ,,and ,,small ,,volumes4 ,,only ,,english ,,and ,,scotch ,,skins ,,used4 ,,james ,,garnar ,,sons1 ,the ,grange1 ,,bermondsey1 ,,london1 ,s4,e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,geo4 ,,gibbs ,,son1 #bi1 ,,st4 ,,bride ,,street1 ,,london4 ,,factories3-- ,,mitcham ,,common1 ,,surrey1 ,,and ,,long ,,lane1 ,,bermondsey4 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,every ,,description ,,of ,,coloured ,,hides1 ,,calf1 ,,morocco1 ,,roan1 ,,pigskin1 and ,,skiver ,,leathers4 ,,also ,,white ,,and ,,coloured ,,vellums1 ,,forels ,,and ,,parchments ,,for ,,bookbinders4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,journal ,,in ,,every ,,sense ,,of ,,the ,,term4 ,,the ,,champion ,,and ,,supporter ,,of ,,the ,,true ,,interests ,,of ,,the ,,leather ,,trade4 ,,the ,,leather ,,trades' ,,review4 ,,the ,,organ ,,of ,,the ,,hide1 ,,tanning1 ,,leather ,,and ,,kindred ,,trades4 ,a ,,practical ,,and ,,thoroughly ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,paper1 ,,and ,,indispensarle ,,to ,,all ,,leather ,,men1 ,,both ,,employers ,,and ,,employ,s4 ,,every ,,issue ,,well ,,worth ,a ,,whole ,,year',s ,,subscription4 ,,unequalled ,,as ,,an ,,advertising ,,medium4 ,,world-,,wide ,,circulation4 ,,technical ,,and ,,scientific ,,articles ,,by ,,the ,,leading ,,experts ,,in ,,all ,,the ,,branches ,,of ,,the ,,leather ,,industry4 ,,latest ,,and ,,most ,,reliable ,,news4 ,,annual ,,subscription3 ,,ten ,,shillings 7#eb ,,weekly ,,numbers ,,post ,,free74 ,,office3 #bd1 ,,mark ,,lane1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pig ,,skins ,,in ,,the ,,crust ,,for ,,bookbinding ,,leather ,,manufacturers ,warranted ,free of ,mineral ,acid4 ,,gryffe ,,tannery ,,company1 ,,bridge ,,of ,,weir1 ,near ,,glasgow1 ,,scotland4 ,telegrams3 ,,gryffe1 ,bridge of ,weir4 ,national ,telephone3 ,no4 #h1 ,bridge of ,weir4 99 99 99 99 99 ,b4 ,,riley ,co41 ,ltd41 ,,library ,,bookbinders and ,,specialists4 ,best ,work1 ,best ,materials1 and ,promptness1 with ,lowest ,prices4 ,,pigskins ,,and ,,moroccos ,guaranteed free from ,injurious ,acid4 ,,patent ,,sewing ,,and ,,flexibility4 ,catalogues1 ,price ,lists1 and ,quotations by return post4 ,,note ,,address3-- ,works3 ,,westgate1 ,,huddersfield4 ,london ,office3 #cgf1 ,,strand1 ,w4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,messrs4 ,,mudie ,co4 ,undertake all ,classes of ,binding for either ,,public or ,,private ,,libraries4444 ,,the ,,best ,,work and ,,best ,,materials only4 ,no ,imitation ,leathers used4444 ,,charges ,,for ,,large ,,or ,,small ,,quantities ,,on ,,application4 ,address ,,manager1 ,,bookbinding ,,department1 ,,mudie',s ,,library1 ,,new ,,oxford ,,street1 ,,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,important ,,to ,,librarians4 ,,george ,f4 ,,banting1 ,danemere ,works1 ,danemere ,street1 ,putney 7,hitherto trading as ,j4 ,,banting ,,son1 ,,chelsea71 ,specialist in ,public ,library ,bookbinding4 ,the only binder in ,london who has made a speciality of ,public ,library ,bookbinding4 ,testimonials from ,customers for ,continuous ,work for #ah years4 ,,books ,,bound ,,in ,,sound ,,leather ,,as ,,per ,,society ,,of ,,arts ,,recommendation4 ,a ,trial ,order will prove that ,books ,bound by me are ,bound once for ,all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,telegrams and ,cables3 ,,cleaning1 ,,eccles4 ,code3 ,a4,b4,c41 #eth ,ed4 ,stores3 ,,london4 ,,liverpool4 ,,the ,,tiger ,,sumac ,,company4 ,,tiger ,,registered ,,brand4 ,,thomas ,,atkin1 ,proprietor4 ,,eccles1 ,,england4 ,purity and #bf per cent4 minimum ,tannin guaranteed by ,i4,a4,l4,t4,c4 ,analysis4 ,analyst1 ,dr4 ,,andrew ,,turnbull1 #c1 ,lord ,street1 ,liverpool1 whose determination in every case must be final4 ,average ,test of all our ,shipments from ,september #a1 #aijd1 to ,july #ca1 #aije1 #big1 or #ad per cent4 beyond our guarantee4 ,free copy of ,analysis given with orders for #aj ,tons and upwards4 ,shipments made c4i4f4 from ,palermo to any port in the world4 ,,stocks ,,kept ,,in ,,liverpool ,,and ,,london ,,for ,,the ,,home ,,trade4 ,a ,,special ,,sumac ,,for ,,the ,,finest ,,leathers4 ,agents--,messrs4 ,,poppleton1 ,,gibbs ,co41 #d-e1 ,leather ,market1 ,london1 ,s4,e4 ,sole ,agents for ,australia and ,new ,zealand--,messrs4 ,,james ,,hardie ,co41 ,melbourne4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,birdsall ,,son ,,northampton1 ,high-,class1 ,general1 and ,miscellaneous ,,bookbinders4 ,,an ,,old-,,established ,,business with a lengthened reputation1 and in the hands of the proprietors' family for the past #aac years4 ,the buildings now cover #bj1jjj square feet of ground4 ,,the ,,thoroughness of the old handicraftsman1 with the skill of modern expert workmanship4 ,,sound ,,and ,,durable ,,english ,,leather free from destructive acids4 ,,reliures ,,de ,,luxe and ,,art ,,bindings of the highest quality1 either to original designs1 or as reproductions of early styles4 ,,private ,,and ,,public ,,library ,,bindings of every description4 ,patentees of ,bibliofortis ,bindings for books subject to exceptional wear4 ,,special ,,bindings in general conformity with the specifications of the ,society of ,arts4 ,,repairing1 ,,remounting1 and ,,restoring of ,old ,bindings4 ,washing and ,repairing of ,old ,books4 ,imperfect ,leaves made up in facsimile1 c41 c4 ,,two ,,fireproof ,,strong ,,rooms for the better security of valuable books4 ,,the ,,personal ,,attention of the four ,messrs4 ,birdsall is given to the intricate and often difficult detail of this business4 ,their efforts are seconded by a large and expert managing staff1 so that an exceptional amount of experienced supervision is available1 and a high standard of efficiency is thereby maintained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,messrs4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,smith ,,son ,,execute ,,orders ,,for ,,all ,,styles ,,of ,,bookbinding ,,in ,,their ,,own ,,workshops ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,douglas ,,cockerell ,,they ,,are ,,making ,a ,,speciality ,,of ,,carrying ,,out ,,exactly ,,the ,,recommendations ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,arts ,,on ,,leather ,,for ,,bookbinding ,,books ,,for ,,binding ,,may ,,be ,,handed ,,in ,,at ,,any ,,of ,w4 ,h4 ,,smith ,,son',s ,,bookstalls ,,or ,,branches ,,or ,,sent ,,direct ,,to ,,their ,,binding ,,department ,,pamphlet ,,price ,,list ,,sent ,,on ,,application ,,goldsmith ,,st4 ,,drury ,,lane ,,london1 ,w4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,bookbinders' ,co-operative ,society1 ,ltd41 7,with ,co-partnership of the ,workers47 #ag1 ,,bury ,,street4 ,,bloomsbury1 ,w4,c4 ,established #ahhe4 ,the above ,society is noted for sound1 reliable work1 and binds for many public institutions1 and also has an extensive private connection4 ,special ,terms quoted for ,school and ,college ,libraries4 ,,niger ,,morocco ,,bindings ,a ,,speciality4 ,books ,bound in accordance with ,society of ,arts recommendations4 ,all work entrusted to us is under the supervision of ,mr4 ,j4 ,,watson1 ,manager4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,flexo ,,bookbinding ensures ,,strength1 ,,durability1 and ,,flexibility3 ,three important requisites4 ,,portfolios of every description made at the shortest notice4 ,,mss4 carefully ,bound4 ,,old ,,and ,,rare ,,books ,restored1 ,washed1 and ,cleaned without use of ,acids4 ,r4 ,d4 ,,chappell ,co41 ,general ,library ,bookbinders1 #be1 ,,st4 ,,john',s ,,square1 ,,london1 ,e4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,eyre ,spottiswoode's ,,pure ,,sumach ,,tanned ,,leather4 ,supplied in a variety of colours4 ,not only free from acid1 but strengthened and enriched by a process which fully satisfies the conditions prescribed by the ,committee of the ,society of ,arts4 ,analysed by ,gordon ,parker1 and certified to be pure ,sumach tanned and free from acid4 ,facsimile of ,illustration ,stamped on every skin ,guarantee supplied4 ,binding3 undertaken in this ,special ,leather 7as used for the ,british ,museum7 at a nominal increase on the rates charged for ordinary leather4 ,,eyre ,,spottiswoode1 ,east ,harding ,street1 ,e4,c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration ,established #ahdg4 ,established #ahdg4 ,special ,appointment4 ,illustration ,best ,appointed ,bindery in ,east ,anglia ,,special ,,attention ,,to ,,library ,,books ,john ,p4 ,gray ,son1 ,artistic ,general ,,bookbinders1 ,nat4 ,tel43 #jbfb4 #aj1 ,green ,street1 ,cambridge4 ,,niger ,,morocco1 ,being importers of this excellent ,leather1 direct from ,kano1 ,northern ,nigeria1 we are in a position to supply the trade and public in general with good skins at reasonable prices4 ,,early ,,parish ,,registers ,,skilfully ,,restored1 ,c4 ,illustration ,john ,p4 ,gray ,son's reputation is a guarantee for the best ,workmanship and ,materials at ,moderate ,prices4 ,illustration3 7#d47 ,,calf4 ,illustration3 7#e47 ,,sheep 7,,roller ,,basil74 ,illustration3 7#f47 ,,pig4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,in the text version1 text in italics and underlined text has been transcribed using the underline symbol4 ,text in bold has been transcribed with equals symbols4 ,there is some inconsistent hyphenation4 ,this has been left as printed4 p4#aj4 since about #ahfj skeepskin changed to sheepskin4 p4#dc4 books sewn with sawn-in bands changed to sewn-in4 ,index4 ,sulphuric acid #h1f ,there is no marked p4#f4 ,it is most likely that the reference is to p4#i and this has been corrected4